BIO-AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA 92521
A NATURAL HISTORY OF THE
BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
A TEXT-BOOK FOR STUDENTS AND COLLECTORS
J. W. TUTT, F.E.S.,
Author of " The British Noctuse and their Varieties," " Monograph of the
British Pterophorina," "British Butterflies," "British Moths," etc.
VOL. I.
LONDON :
SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & Co., Paternoster Square, E.G.
BEBLIN :
FBIEDLANDER & SOHN, 11, Carlstrasse, N.W.
JANUARY, 1899.
AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY
UMVLRSITY OF CALIFORNIA
^,-ronc DPQPARCH CENTER AND
PREFACE.
In submitting this volume to the entomological public, the author
rusts that the method of treatment will commend itself. The recent
•ork that has been accomplished in the classification of the Lepidoptera
• Chapman, Dyar, Packard and others, has rendered a radical re-
angement necessary. In commencing with the more generalised,
proceeding to the more specialised, superfamilies, the author con-
rs that he has adopted a logical course that will meet with the
•oval of those best qualified to judge in this matter. It has been
idered better to complete thoroughly a few superfamilies rather
to attempt to deal with a large number superficially, and it is
that the separate treatment of the main points in the life-history
species dealt with, will be of advantage to the various classes of
logists — synonymists, systematists, biologists, and those that
ae subject under its geographical, or any one of its philosophical
arge part of a work of this description is necessarily more or less
.pilation, and the author wishes here to express his obligation to
3 authors to whose works he is indebted for information, as well as
ae very great number of entomologists (rather more than 200 in
.nber) to whom he is indebted for local lists, and to those who have
-•plied him with other items of interest that have added to the
Jness and completeness of the volume. These have always been
hedged, he believes, in the body of the work. There are many,
-, who have done much more than this. To Messrs. J. H.
W. F. Kirby, L. B. Prout and Lord Walsingham, for their
dealing with matters of " synonymy," to Messrs. A. Bacot,
3. Fletcher, Drs. T. A. Chapman and J. H. Wood, for the vast
.t of information relating to the " life-histories " of the insects
bed, to Mr. G. C. Bignell for notes on the "parasites" affecting
, to Mr. F. Lemann for copious translations from German works,
.. Oberthiir for the gift and loan of many rare Anthrocerids, and
fr. C. Fenn for the generous use of his voluminous note-books, the
jhor tenders his sincerest and grateful thanks.
Although essentially a work on British Lepidoptera, it is trusted
b it will have an interest for other than purely British lepidopterists.
3 chapters on each superfamily cover the whole fauna included in the1
^erfamily, and should, therefore, be of use generally to students of
uese superfamilies. The " distribution " of each species, too, outside
the British Isles, is considered separately from the recorded localities
within the limits of our own country, and should be useful to students
of geographical distribution in all parts of the world.
The author is fully aware that in a book containing so much detail,
there must necessarily be many sins of commission and omission. He
can onfy hope that these are not serious, and assure his readers that he
has taken the greatest care to eliminate them.
The trouble to which the author has been put, and the hours of
comparatively waste time that he has spent, in compiling the lists of
localities, synonymic tables, distribution, etc., and in unearthing records
of the rarer varieties and aberrations, owing to the incomplete and
imperfect indexes of entomological magazines in general and works on
Lepidoptera in particular, have led him to index every reference to super-
families, families, genera, species, varieties, etc., mentioned in the book.
It is trusted that this will be found of great time-saving value to all
who have need to refer to the volume.
The publication of a purely technical book of this description
would be practically impossible but for the generosity of a section of
the entomological public who take an author on trust, as it were, and
practically guarantee him against any serious financial loss. . To the
following ladies and gentlemen, therefore, who have in reality brought
about the publication of this volume, the author tenders his heartiest
thanks, and trusts that it will meet with their full approval and
approbation.
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Nonpareil Entomological Society.
CONTENTS.
PART I.
CHAP. PAGE.
I. THE OPJGIN OF THE LEPIDOPTEBA ... ... ... 1
II. THE OVUM OR EGG ... ... ... ... 6
III. EMBRYOLOGY OF A LEPIDOPTEROUS INSECT ... ... 16
IV. PARTHENOGENESIS OR AGAMOGENESIS IN LEPIDOPTERA ... 23
V. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTEROUS LARVA ... 80
VI. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTEROUS LARVA ... 51
VII. VARIATION OF THE IMAGINES OF LEPIDOPTERA ... ... GO
VIII. PROTECTIVE COLORATION AND DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF
LEPIDOPTEROUS LARVAE ... ... ... ... 76
IX. CLASSIFICATION OF LEPIDOPTERA 102-112
PART II.
THE SPHINGO-MICROPTERYGID STIRPS ... ... ... 113
THE MICROPTERYGIDES ... ... ... ... 129
THE NEPTICULIDES ... ... ... ... 162
THE COCHLIDIDES (OR EUCLEIDEs) ... ... ... 860
THE ANTHROCERIDES ... ... ... ... 888
INDEX .. 547-560
BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
CHAPTER I-
THE ORIGIN OF THE LEPIDOPTERA.
FOE many years entomologists have attempted to work out the line
of descent by which the Lepidoptera have been evolved. McLachlan,
in 1865, and Speyer, in 1870, pointed out certain broad affinities
between the Trichoptera (caddis-flies) and some families of the Lepi-
doptera. Packard, in 1863, had also suggested a relationship between
the two orders. The co-ordinal value of the two orders, however,
was maintained by all these writers, and it was not until 1896 that
Sharp, commenting on the pupa of a species of Microptery.c (probably
aemipurpurella), stated that he "considered the pupa to be that of a
Trichopterous insect," and that Micropteryx should be referred to that
order, and that, if this course were not adopted, he felt clear that
Trichoptera could not be maintained distinct as an order from Lepi-
doptera. Chapman had previously described0 at length the pupal
jaws of Micropteryx, and pointed out that they exhibited characters
quite unique among the Lepidoptera.
There is, however, a group of Lepidoptera, in some respects, pro-
bably, more generalised than the MICROPTERYGIDES. These are the
ERIOCEPHALIDES — comprising the British species, calthella, seppella,
aruncella, thunberyella and viansuetella. Walterf discovered that the
imagines of K. calthella had maxillae constructed on the type of those
of biting or mandibulate insects. Chapman has described! the way
in which the jaws are used in eating the pollen. The generalised
mouth-parts of Eriocephala consist of maxillary lobes, mandibles, etc.,
but not only do they diner from all other Lepidoptera in this par-
ticular, but the thorax and abdomen of the imago are also more
generalised. Both the MICROPTERYGIDES and the ERIOCEPHALIDES have
the fore- and hind- wings united by a jugum, and, in this respect, as
well as in the highly generalised condition of the neuration, they
resemble "the Trichoptera.
Another super-family with Trichopterygid affinities is the HEPIA-
LIDES. Speyer, in a very interesting paper§, refers to the similarity of
* Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1893, p. 263. f Jenaische Zcitschrijt, 1885.
• \ Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1894, p. 338. § Stett. Ent. Zeitung, 1870.
2 BRITISH LEP1DOPTEKA.
the neuration of the Hcpialiilae and Coanidae, and remarks that they
resemhle the Trichoptera no less than the Micropterygidae, though the
JJcpiulidae exhihit other close analogies with the Trichoptera. lie
also adds that the middle cell of the wing in the Phniijanciilai' is not
fundamentally different from that of the He-pialidac, tVm///r/<> and
Micropteryyidae, whilst the hind-wings of the Pxyckidae exhibit similar
characters.
This brief summary indicates the directions in which it has been
suggested that the Lepidoptera are allied to the Trichoptera. The
nature of the alliance has been variously discussed, but the general
conclusions reached fall into one of two lines : — (1) That the Lepi-
doptera have descended by way of the MICROPTERYGIDES, HEPIALII>KS,
and PSYCHIDES directly from the Trichoptera. (2) That the Trich-
optera and Lepidoptera have developed from a common ancestor.
To discuss this matter satisfactorily we must first consider the
similarities between Lopidoptera and Trichoptera. The resemblance
between their lame is very strong, their external structure being almost
the same, the principal difference being that the lepidopterous larva
possesses abdominal prolegs. These, however, are absent in Micropterygid
larvae, as well as in other lepidopterous larvae whose habit it is to mine
into their food-plants.
The similarity of the pupa of Micropteryv to that of the Trichoptera
has been already noticed. The abdominal segments of both are more
or less freely movable upon each other. They form the " Pupfe Liberia "
of Packard, whilst those generalised lepidopterous pupae, which have a
considerable number of free (movable) abdominal segments, the " Pupa1
Incompletae" of Chapman, are much nearer to the ancestral forms
than the " Pupae Obtectse," which represent the more specialised forms.
The lepidopterous pupa has been looked upon as presenting a sub-
imaginal condition of a type midway between the ametabolous and
metabolous orders of insects. This has been suggested by the con-
dition of the pupal wing-cases, which are similar to those of metabolous
nymphs, such as Dermaptera, Tertnitidae, Pnoi-iilac and Hemiptera.
Spiiler has shown that the neuration of the lepidopterous pupa is
almost identical with that of the Blattidae and Fulyoridae. Packard
says that the " wings of the lepidopterous pupa may be said to be in
the nymph stage of the ametabolous insects mentioned, since they are
direct outgrowths from the tergites of the segments from which they
arise." He further says that " if the wing-cases of any lepidopterous
pupa, together with the meso- and meta-thorax are, before the larval skin
is moulted, removed and spread out," it will be seen that " they bear,
as Hpiiler shows, a striking resemblance to those of a beetle, I'l'i-nn-n,
1'mn-itit, or any hemipterous insect." He further points out that the
pupal neuration, as well as the appendages — maxillre, labium and
legs — are ancestral and phylogenetic, showing considerable differences
when compared "with the corresponding structures in The more
specialised imago.
The importance o^tN^pupa, as bearing on the origin of the Lepi-
doptera, is also very evident when the more generalised forms of tho
lepidopterous pupa are compared with the more generalised forms of
the dipterous pupa, as exhibited by the Bibinniilae, 'l'ipuli<l<ie, etc.
Packard asserts that the close resemblance between the orthorhaphous
dipterous pupa and Tineid pupa, affords strong evidence that the two
ORIGIN OF LEPIDOPTEBA. d
orders are not only very closely allied, but even -that they may have
originated from a common ancestry, the loss of thoracic, and of
abdominal, limbs, and the reduction of the head and its appendages in
dipterous larvae, as well as the reduction of the hind- wings, being due
to modification from disuse. In the dipterous pupa, as exemplified
by Cidex, the hind pair of wings is nearly as well-developed as are
those -of lepidopterous pupae.
There appear to be many Neuropteroid characters in the imagines
of the more generalised Lepidoptera, and these have been, of course,
those from which the phylogeny of the order has been principally
studied. There are the square head, the small eyes, the vestigial
mandibles ; the retention of the maxillary palpi, and of the lacinia
and galea (or rather the homologues of these in the form of the
maxillary lobes) in the EIUOCEPHALIDES ; the large meta-thorax with
separate scuta, the exserted large male genital armature of the
MICROPTERYGIDES and the PSYCHIDES ; the Trichopterigiform neuration of
Hepialids and Eriocephalids, etc. As we pass from the more genera-
lised to the more specialised forms of Lepidoptera, these characters
become exceedingly modified, and are often entirely lost.
We have before pointed out that Speyer was one of the first to show
the resemblance of the Hepialid, Cossid, Micropterygid and Psychid
neuration to that of the Trichoptera. He also pointed out the fact
that there were certain Lepidoptera — Heterogenea, Adela, Microptery.v —
whose pupae possessed free limbs, and also that certain species of both
orders spin a cocoon. Speyer, however, was inclined not to consider
the Lepidoptera as descending directly from the Trichoptera, but that
both had a common origin, the latter being the first to appear, and
that the common ancestor probably had an aquatic larva. He further
noticed that their mouth-parts were, in reality, very similar. The
close relationship between the Trichoptera and Lepidoptera was also
shown by Miiller, who claimed that there was the closest affinity
between the Phryyaneidae and the Lepidoptera, and that both had
proceeded from a common stock. Packard, however, shows0 that
there is considerable difference between the mouth-parts of the two
orders, and concludes that, with respect to the structure of the
maxillae, the Lepidoptera are nearer the ametabolous mandibulate
insects than the Trichoptera.
The same author also compares the neuration of the ERIOCEPHALIDES
and the MICROPTERYGIDES with that of Amphientomum, a generalised
Psocid, and he considers it " not impossible that these insects, with
their reduced pro- thorax and concentrated or fused meso- and meta-'
thorax, together with their maxillary fork, may have had some
extinct allies, which were related to the remote ametabolous ancestors
of the Lepidoptera."
Hermann Miiller has also suggested a close relationship between
the Tipulariae, the Lepidoptera, and the Phryyaneidae, and compares
the similar neuration of Limbnobia and Ctenopliora with that of the
Phrygaaeids, and states that "it is far easier iff deduce morphologi-
cally the proboscis of the Tipulae from the buccal organs of the
Phryyaneidae than from those of any other order of insects."
Chapman's studies of the pupa have led him to make some im-
* Bombycine Moths of America, 1895, p. 55.
BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
portant statements0 on the probable origin of the Lepidoptera. He
considers that the history of the evolution of the lepidopterous pupa
has been largely an attempt to solve the question as to how to escape
from the pupa without the aid of imaginal jaws. Without going into
the question of how the quiescent pupa of bees or beetles was derived
from the active larva-like pupa (if the term, indeed, is at all applicable),
such as those of bugs and crickets, he shows that " the great mass of
Coleoptera and Hymenoptera have a pupa of very uniform type, help-
less from its quiescence, and hence resorting for protection to some
cocoon or other cavity ; " these pupae have (as a rule) a very delicate
cutaneous structure, and possess no hard chitinous parts. There are
many exceptions in these two orders in which the pupa is exposed,
and consequently of harder external texture.
So far, then, there is considerable similarity in the needs of
many of the pupaa of Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, and
the necessity of special modification to allow the imagines in all to
escape from the cocoon is evident. In the Hymenoptera and Coleop-
tera this is effected by the imaginal jaws, for the imago becomes per-
fect within the cocoon, and it not only throws off the pupal skin
within the cocoon, but remains there till its appendages have become
fully expanded, and more or less completely hardened. In some
instances — the Cynipidae — the jaws are required for no other purpose.
Chapman states that one or two of the Neuropterid families appear,
in this particular, to have followed out precisely the same lines as the
Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, whilst others, having developed a quies-
cent pupa of delicate structure, have retained well-developed mandibles,
by means of which the pupa escapes from the cocoon immediately
previous to the emergence of the imago. This peculiar structure
associates, of course, the Neuropterous insects possessing it, the
Phryyancidac, and the MICROPTERYGIDES. Although the connection
between the two latter is evident, yet Chapman points out that there
are objections to Sharp's proposal to class the Micropterygids with the
Phryganeids, the most important of which is, that the former have
lost the imaginal jaws, and possess a distinctly lepidopterous haus-
tellum. The phytophagous habit, too, although strong in the
Phryganeids, is absolute in the Micropterygids, so that the affinities of
the latter are rather with the Lepidoptera than the Trichoptera.
The Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, however, as a rule, require
imaginal jaws for the purpose of obtaining food. This is not so in the
Lepidoptera, nor in the other highly specialised order, the Diptera.
Having no special use for imaginal jaws, these orders have not
retained them simply to escape from the cocoon, but have met the
difficulty of escape from the cocoon, without the aid of imaginal jaws,
by various modifications. Up to a point their solutions were very
similar, although in the most specialised Diptera one or two remark-
able advances have been made', of which there is no trace in the
Lepidoptera. Taken as a whole, then, there is much similarity
between the lepidopterous and dipterous pupre. Chapman states that
he sees every reason to believe that the Diptera also originated from a
Neuropterous base with the Lepidoptera.
As throwing further light on the affinities which exist between the
Lepidoptera and Trichoptera, Kellogg records that the mode of tying
* Trans. Ent. Soc. Land., 1896, pp. 5(57-509!
ORIGIN OF LEPtDOPTERA. 5
the fore- and hind-wings together by a juguni, such as exists in the
Hepialids and Micropterygids, is the same as obtains in many of the
Trichoptera. He further found, in a study of the scales of the Lepi-
doptera,0 that, in addition to the ordinary specialised lepidopterous
scales, there was, on the wings of the MICROPTERYGIDES and HEPIALIDES,
a covering of very fine hairs, differing radically from the scales in size,
arrangement, and mode of attachment to the membrane, and he con-
siders that these hairs are practically identical with the clothing of the
wings of the Trichoptera, only that they are in a more generalised
state. On the other hand, he finds on the wings of the Trichoptera,
in addition to the fixed unstriated hairs, a sparse covering of specialised
hairs, striated, set in sockets, and easily rubbed off, which he looks
upon as the lepidopterous scale in a generalised state. He concludes
that the stem-form of the Lepidoptera possessed a wing-clothing very
much like that now exhibited by the Trichoptera.
In another paperf , Kellogg shows that the mouth-parts of the Trich-
optera bear considerable affinity with those of Lepidoptera. He says
that "the maxillae and labium in general characters are similar in the
two groups," whilst " the matter of the mandibles is of special interest.
In certain species of Micropteryx (i.e., in the Eriocephalids) they are
present as functional organs, although the tendency towards their
reduction is fully displayed within the limits of the genus. In
Trichoptera, functional mandibles have not yet been found, although
the distinct rudiments of mandibles are present. Manifestly now, as
the tendency of specialisation in both groups is towards a reduction to
complete atrophy of the mandibles, the JUGATE cannot be looked
upon as in any way lineal descendants of the Trichoptera. The
affinity of the two groups must be of the character of two dichoto-
mously divided lines of descent, diverging from a racial type, which
possessed conditions of mouth-parts, wing-neuration, wing-clothing
and thoracic structure, of a character suggested by the present con-
ditions of the organs presented by the generalised members of the
two groups."
Still another paper! by this author throws considerable light on
the subject under discussion. By the comparison of the lepidopterous
neuration, as exhibited in Micropteryx and Hepialus, with that of the
Trichoptera as exhibited by Neuronia, as also with that of Panorpa,
he shows that the similarity of the neuration is very considerable,
and states that, on the fore- wings of all, " the simple unbranched
subcostal (nervure), the five-branched radius, the persisting stem of
media coalescing at its base with cubitus, the three branches of media,
and the reduced anal field, are common characters. In the hind-wings,
the general character of the neurational uniformity is only varied by
differences which, in themselves, are additional evidences of a com-
munity of plan." It is impossible here to discuss this particular
phase any further, and we can only state the author's conclusion, that
the Xrichopterous and Lepidopterous wings "may have had a
generalised prototype very like the Mecopterous wing."
Meyrick also refers to the close similarity existing between the
* The Taxonomic value of the scales in the LepidopteYa, pp. 45-89.
t"The mouth-parts of Lepidoptera," American Naturalist, 1895, p. 54t6etseq.
t "The affinities of the lepidopteroua wing," American Naturalist, 1896, p. 709
et seq.
0 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
neuration of Palaeomicra, a New Zealand genus of the ERIOCEPHALIDES,
and that of Ehyacopldla, a genus of Trichoptera. The only important
difference is, that in Ehyacophila there is an additional nervure arising
out of 4 (lower median, Meyr.) in the fore-wings, although it is interest-
ing to observe that this very nervure has disappeared in the hind-wings.
Nothing at all approaching this form of neuration is known in any
other order of insects, and Meyrick considers that it is highly impro-
bable that so complex a type could have originated twice independently.
It may be observed from the above summary of the latest facts at
our disposal on this subject, that the opinion is pretty generally held that
the Lepidoptera and Trichoptera originated from a common neurop-
terous stock. It is not probable that either originated directly from
the other, but it is very possible that they branched quite indepen-
dently, and so represent two distinct lines of descent, originating from
a common ancestral base. There is also considerable probability that
the Diptera originated from the same source, as this order shows
considerable affinity with the Lepidoptera.
CHAPTER n.
THE OVUM OR EGG.
IT would appear that there is a tendency for the eggs of all organised
beings to assume a more or less ovoid or spherical form. Among the
eggs of Lepidoptera this general tendency is well maintained, and we
find them roughly divisible into two forms : (1) Ovoid, longer than
high, with the long axis horizontal, a shorter axis vertical. (2) Up-
right, more or less spherical, Avith the horizontal axes practically
equal, the vertical axis equal, longer, or shorter than the horizontal.
The primeval lepidopterous egg was probably ovoid, colourless and
transparent, with no sculpturing on its cell wall. This form of egg is
practically that which is laid by the Micropterygids, Adelids, and other
Lepidoptera that cut out a pocket in a leaf and deposit their eggs in
the soft cellular tissue of the leaf. This form of egg would, if laid in
an exposed situation, soon undergo modifications in many directions,
arising from the need of protection and concealment, and it is possible
that, under these conditions, one may find isolated examples of almost
any form in any of the families, although the simplest form of egg
must generally be found in the lower families, and no highly-developed
structure can occur, except among the species of those families that
have undergone a large amount of specialisation and elaboration.
The egg of a lepidopterous insect consists of an outside shell, en-
closing protoplasm, which is, at first, homogeneous. The shell,
which forms a thin pellicle, is usually divisible into a base, walls,
and apex. At that pole of the egg, usually termed the apex, there
is, as a rule, a microscopic depression, from the base of which
minute canals lead into the egg, and carry the spermatozoa for the
purpose of fertilisation. This is called the micropyle. It will be
at once observed that this definition, so far as relates to the micro-
THE
pyle being placed at the apex of the egg, is quite conventional, for,
although the micropyle is actually at the apex in sphertcal, or, as
they are usually termed, " upright," eggs ; on the other hand, it is at
one extremity of the long (horizontal) axis in ovoid, or, as they are
usually termed, " flat," eggs. Since the " upright " egg has more
probably been evolved from the " flat " form, than vice versa, it
follows that, when we use the term " base " in the two forms of egg
for that side by which the egg is usually attached to the surface of the
food-plant, or other object on which it may be deposited, by the
parent, the sides are not homologous in the two structures. In general,
we speak of the side opposite the micropyle as the base. It follows,
therefore, that we speak of a Noctuid egg as being laid on its base,
and, to get rid of the anomaly, we speak of a Geometrid or Lasio-
campid egg as being laid on its long side, whereas, as we have already
suggested, the older form of egg is probably that which is laid on its
long side, which should then, in reality, be called the base.
The greater number, by far, of the families which used to be
included under the title of Micro-Lepidoptera have " flat " eggs ; such
are the Micropterygids, Tineids, Pterophorids, Gracillariids, Gele-
chiids, Pyralids, etc. With this group the higher Geometrids and
Brephids, which also have flat eggs, may be considered. Another
important group with flat eggs, consists of the Zygsenids, Lasiocam-
pids, Saturniids and Sphingids. The Lepidoptera with upright eggs
are the Cossids, Cymbids (Chloephorids),Notodonts, Noctuids, Liparids,
Arctiids, Hesperids and Papilionids. There are, undoubtedly, a few of
the so-called Micro-Lepidoptera with upright eggs, e.g., Chrysocorys
festaliella, but very little is known of the eggs of these moths.
The base of a lepidopterous egg, then, as hitherto used by ento-
mological authors, is a doubtful quantity. It has been considered by
some as that side by which it is attached to its food-plant ; it has been
considered by others as that side opposite the micropyle. We use it
in the latter sense, as tending to preserve correctly the homologies of
the egg structures.
The side by which an egg is attached to any object is usually flat
and devoid of characteristic markings, but the walls are generally
sculptured in some form or other, although they are, in a few cases,
quite smooth. The flat eggs are, as a rule, ornamented only with
rough pittings, worked up in some cases into a roughly polygonal
reticulation ; they rarely have longitudinal ribs, although certain
Geometrids — Gnophids and Acidaliids — exhibit this style of orna-»
mentation. The eggs of Geometrids offer many remarkable modifica-
tions in their sculpture, from the almost smooth egg of Tephrosia,
to the marvellous polygonal reticulation (with a white knob at each
angular point) presented by Flurranthis plumistraria and Hemerophila
abruptaria. The Zygaenid egg is characterised by its bright yellow
colour, with one pole quite transparent ; the Lasiocampid egg by its
tiny raised points at the angulations of the finest conceivable reticula-
tion, and by its opalescent markings. The Sphingid egg is almost devoid
of markings, the micropyle often being practically indistinguishable.
In the upright eggs, however, the ornamentation becomes much
more complex. The pitting takes the form, generally, of hexagonal
cells, and longitudinal ribs stand out from the surface of the egg, and
run from the base to the apex of the egg, the ribs being generally lost
8 BRITISH iEPIDOPTERA.
on the edge or rim of the micropylar depression. In the Noctuids
this hexagonal cell structure, which is separated by the longitudinal
ribs, is entirely lost, and there is a series of transverse ribs running
parallel to the base, dividing the depressions between the longitudinal
ribs into a series of ladder-like spaces. This is also a common form of
sculpture in the Pierid and Nymphalid eggs.
The micropyle is usually placed at the base of a slight depression situ-
ated at the summit of an upright egg (i.e., at the extremity of its vertical
axis), and at one of the ends of the long (horizontal) axis of a flat egg.
It consists of a number of delicate microscopic canals, which vary in
number, but there are rarely less than four or more than six. They
radiate from a minute depression, surrounded by a rosette or circle of
cells of the greatest delicacy. In some eggs, even when viewed under
a powerful lens, no alteration in the ordinary outline of the egg is
caused by the micropylar depression ; in others, however, where it is
more depressed it is readily distinguished. In some eggs, again, there
is a considerable micropylar basin, the micropyle proper being situated
at the base of this.
The upright egg, as we have seen, exhibits what is probably the
most specialised type, and we find the eggs of some Noctuids and
Papilionids very highly specialised. The Noctuid egg is usually of a
hemispherical shape, somewhat flattened at the base, but those of the
Xanthids have raised ribs rising above the central point, or apex,
and curving down thereto; they are, therefore, not unlike, in a general
way, the egg of a Vanessid. The egg of Plnjtometra riridaria (aenaa)
is cut up by two sets of oblique lines into diamond shaped spaces, at
each point of which there is a large red-brown spine, standing perpen-
dicularly to the surface of the egg. But the eggs of certain Papilionids
are, probably, the most specialised. Among these, the Vanessid egg
is ol a barrel-shape, with eight or ten highly developed longitudinal
ribs. The nine-pin shaped eggs of the Pierids may have as many as
thirty or forty longitudinal ribs, whilst the tiarate eggs of the
Lycaenids have a most complicated ornamentation, owing to the
prominence of the longitudinal ribs, and the depth of the transverse
pitting. The egg of PolyommatiiK corydon, with its dahlia-like appear-
ance, must be seen under a microscope to be appreciated, whilst those
of P. ic'anis and Plebeiu* aef/on are equally complicated and beautiful.
The egg of Tliecla w- album has a series of layers of prominent white
pointed cells forming a saucer-like base, which holds a flat, truncated
cone of a dark reddish colour, with a conspicuous, circular, micropylar
basin at the summit. The egg of Limenitis sibylla is covered with
fine transparent hairs, resembling spun glass. In cross-section, too,
the Lycfenid egg gives a polyhedral or hexahedral appearance, and
not the more or less circular one common to butterflies.
There are other peculiarities that may now be briefly noticed. The
typical Geometrid egg is usually oval or ovoid in form, with a de-
pression on the upper face, but in Ennomos, it assumes the appearance
of a rather square-based parallelepiped, and a somewhat similar shape
is seen in the egg of Crocallis elinyuaria. BnphotSSDiA T/iyatira, which
have been placed by various systematists among the Noctuids, have
eggs of Geometrid appearance. The eggs of Tortricids and Cochlio-
podids have the appearance of flat scales, and so have those of many
Pyralids.
THE OVUM OR EGG.
We have seen that certain families are characterised by their
species possessing a flat egg, and that others are characterised by their
species possessing an upright egg. The Lasiocampids have a flat egg,
yet the eggs of Erioy aster lanestris and Clisiocampa neustria and C,
<-«xtrcnnis have the appearance of upright eggs, so far as their position
with regard to the twig on which they are laid is concerned. This,
however, is not really so, for the eggs are laid upon their long sides,
on each other. A case of precisely opposite character occurs among
the Noctuids, the eggs of Lcucania littoralia being laid on their sides
upon (or against) each other, although theoretically, no doubt, they
may be assumed to be laid uprightly upon the edge of the fold of
the leaf, in which they are placed.
There is considerable difference in the thickness of the eggshell of
various lepidopterous eggs. In many species, it is so thin that the
development of the embryo can be distinctly traced through it. The
eggs of Tortricids and Pyralids are specially remarkable for the thinness
of their shells ; but, even in the same super-family, there is consider-
able difference. Among the Papilionids, the shells of Vanessa io, of
Pararye and of Nemeobim, are very delicate ; those of the Lycaenids
and Pamphilids are particularly tough and opaque. The eggshells of
Lcucania littoralis among the Noctuids, of CalUnwrpha liera and
Kntlii'iiwnia russula among the Arctiids, of all the species of the
Zygaenids, are all exceedingly delicate.
When the egg is first laid, the outer pellicle is soft and yielding,
and, if it be disturbed ever so slightly, an impression is made in its
external appearance. In some cases, the egg, when first laid, is ex-
ceedingly soft, and looks as if it were almost fluid. Such eggs, laid on
glass, apply themselves to it, and have a very regular and almost
perfectly circular or oval outline ; but if laid on a leaf or other irregular
surface, they apply themselves to its irregularities, and become them-
selves irregular, both in relation to the surface to which they are
applied, and also as regards their disturbed outlines. Chapman refers
to the evident irregularity observable in eggs laid by Seopula decrepi-
talis on a Teucrium leaf. The base of the eggs of Colias sometimes
spread considerably ; the eggs of Gonepteryx rhamni are often flatter
on one side than the other. Eggs of Pieris and Euchloe also show a
basal flattening that would probably not occur if they were quite free.
The egg of Calliycnia miniata, which has a very Pierid appearance,
varies much in shape, some eggs being much stumpier than others.
The variation in the shape of the eggs of Tephrosia bistortata and T.
crepuscularia (buuidularia), even when laid quite free, is considerable;1
whilst the eggs of these species, as well as those of Anchocelis litura,
A. pistacinat Orrhodia raccinii, 0. lit/via, Dicycla oo, and others,
pushed into crannies of bark, may sometimes become so altered by
the process, that the typical shape and ribbing are entirely lost. This
is the case also with the eggs of Leucania littoralis, which are laid, as
before noticed, in the folded edge of a leaf. In eggs of this descrip-
tion, it-need hardly be said, the change in shape has no injurious
effect on the development of the embryo.
There is, sometimes, considerable difference in the size of eggs,
even when laid by the same moth. Harwood has noticed differences
in the size of the eggs among the Notodonts, and is inclined to
associate the difference in size with a difference iu sex, assuming that
10 BKITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
the larger eggs produce females, the smaller, males. Hellins observes
that of about twenty-three eggs laid by a female Smerinthm populi, the
last laid eggs were only two-thirds of the size of those first laid. Chapman
has recorded that there is considerable variation in the size of eggs laid
by the various species of Acronyctid moths. In Triaena tridens there are,
apparently, at least two races which lay differently sized and differently
ribbed eggs, whilst the eggs of Pharetra euphorbiae var. myricae also
vary very much in size.
The eggs of Lepidoptera do not vary much in colour when first
laid. They are usually -whitish, pale yellow, or pale greenish in tint,
but, after they are laid, they change colour very quickly, and the
colour then probably becomes of that hue which will most exactly
harmonise with the surroundings among which the egg is usually laid.
The eggs of Theda w -album are laid above, or directly below,
an aborted leaf-bud, and harmonise so exactly with the colour of the
bark of the elm-twig on which they are placed, that only an entomolo-
gist could possibly detect them. They appear to be placed always on
the old, and not on the growing twigs, and thus everything tends to
aid in their protection.
The first colour-change of the lepidopterous egg usually takes
place within a few hours (12-72) of an egg being laid. After this first
colour-change, many eggs undergo a whole series of complicated colour-
changes, due to the development of the embryo within, the changes being
easily followed through the transparent egg-shell. Kobson says that the
change of colour of the newly-laid Hepialid egg, from white to black, is a
change in the colour of the shell only, and this is so, for the egg-shell
remains black after the young larva has left the egg. Many eggs,
however, like those of the Hepialids, change colour but once (directly
after being laid). The egg of Euchloe cardamines is yellow when laid,
becomes deep orange in about twenty- four hours, and, with the excep-
tion of a slight change just before hatching, remains of this tint. The
egg of Kndromis rersicolor is pale green when laid, rapidly becomes
yellow, then changes to orange, and finally to purple. Jordan records
an opaque white egg of Centra vinula, instead of the usual chocolate-
coloured egg. Hellins observes that eggs of the same species vary
in colour, and do not always go through the same changes of colour
when approaching maturity. He instances Onjijia antiqua, Centra
vinula, Hepiahis sylvinus, and Cheimatobia bntmata. The changes
which Chapman has chronicled0 as taking place in the Acronyctid
eggs while maturing, are exceedingly interesting. These changes may
vary according to temperature, the colouring of Pharetra ruinicifi,
which is assumed in two days in warm weather, taking a week in cool
weather. The egg of Leucania littoralis is at first pale yellow, then it
becomes orange, then mottled with reddish, and at last slightly
purplish, at which stage the' shell itself is seen to be perfectly trans-
parent, and the embryo may be observed within the egg-shell. The
egg of Acontia luctuosa is pale yellow, then whitish Avith a row of red-
brown spots just above its equator. The egg of Phytometra rirMuria
is pearly white, then it develops two bright claret-coloured rings, one
of which surrounds the micropylar area and the other the shoulder of
the egg ; after this the red areas become enlarged, and tend to join.
Many eggs exhibit a similar wide series of colour-changes during
the development of the embryo.
* Entom. Record, etc., v., pp. 140-146.
THE OVUM OR EGG. 11
It will be at once manifest, if an egg be kept under observation
under the microscope, that most of the colour-changes taking place
within the egg are very closely connected with the developmental pro-
gress made by the embryo. The first change, which occurs very soon
after the egg is laid, probably represents the transition of the egg-
contents from their primal homogeneous condition, to that which is
reached when the blastoderm layer is developed, and which is accom-
panied by the separation of the contents from the egg-wall. There is,
at this stage, sometimes, a distinct change of tint, at others, the whole
surface becomes completely covered with black dots.
The second change appears to take place with the formation of the
germinal band, and appears to be intensified as the growth of the
embryo continues. This probably accounts for the general darkness
of the colour assumed at this stage ; dark brown, red, purple and leaden
are tints frequently met with, and these sometimes last for a con-
siderable length of time.
The third change of colour usually exhibits an intensified form of
that occurring in the previous stage, except that the apex, and fre-
quently the base of some eggs, becomes pale again. Sometimes,
at this stage, the egg-shell is quite transparent, and the movements of
the embryo are readily observable. This is particularly the case in
many eggs just previous to the escape of the larva.
Eggs also vary in their ornamentation. We have already suggested
that the primitive lepidopterous egg was smooth, and, at the present
time, with the exception of minute pitting and faint polygonal reticu-
lation, the majority of flat eggs are comparatively smooth. The Geo-
metrid egg appears to be more generally highly ornamented than that of
any other flat-egged family, except, perhaps, those of the Crambids.
There is, however, a very considerable amount of variation in the
detail of the ornamentation, even in this group, e.ij., the egg of
Hemeropldla abruptaria is covered with a network of hexagonal cells,
with a glistening white knob or button at each angular point, but here
and there heptagonal and pentagonal cells exist side by side, where one
of the knobs has migrated to an adjacent cell ; this is a common form
of variation in this type of ornamentation. In the groups with longi-
tudinal ribs, the number of these often varies ; thus, in the egg of
Catocalafra.rini the number varies from 22-27, in Polyponia eijea there
may be 9 or 10, in Leucuphasia sinapis 11 or 12. Chapman says that, as
a rule, the egg of Evgonia. polychloros has eight ribs, but that sometimes
there are only seven, also that Polyyonia c-album may have ten or eleven
ribs, and Edwards gives the same numbers for the allied P. inter royationis.
Chapman finds that in Pharetra (Acronycta) auricoma the number of ribs
varies from 57 to 60, in P. alborenosa from 41 to 45, in Triaena tridcns the
average number is 38, but that sometimes there are as many as 44,
whilst one batch of eggs of this species had from 49 to 52 ribs. In
T. psi the number is rarely fewer than 45, and some specimens have
as many as 54 ; in Acronicta hporina the number varies from 41 to
68, whilst in Apatela aceris the number may extend from 50 to 75. It
appears to be, indeed, a very general form of variation in almost all
eggs with a moderate number of longitudinal ribs.
The variability in the number of ribs is almost equalled by that of
their arrangement. The egg of Cirrhoedia xerauipelina has 24 or 25
longitudinal ribs. Normally, these ribs should be alternately long
12 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEEA.
and short, the former running from the base to the summit, the latter
stopping short at about one-fourth the distance from the top. Really
the arrangement is rather irregular ; in one egg examined there were
two short ribs between two successive long ones, whilst in another case
the short one was missing. In the egg of Tiliacea (Xantlda) auraijo
there are 15 ribs running from base to apex, each alternate one failing
before reaching the summit ; but there is considerable variation in
their arrangement, one, two, and even three of the shorter ones being
sometimes obsolete in one egg. Theoretically, the 27 longitudinal ribs
of Dasycampa rubiginea should be alternately long and short, but
frequently two short ones are adjacent, more rarely two long ones.
The manner in which the longitudinal ribs unite just before reaching
the micropylar area is also very variable.
The number of eggs laid by various species differs greatly, and,
among different individuals of the same species, there is considerable
variation. Hellins records 1,200 as the number laid by a female 2V/'-
pliaena jimbria ; Biding gives 700-800 as the number laid by T. pnmnba ;
Hollis says that Spilosoma lubricipeda lays from 400 to 500 ; Nicholson
gives above a thousand as the number laid by three Peridroma saucia;
Zeuzera pyrina is reported to lay between 1,000 and 1,100 ; a female
Daxychira pudibunda laid 274 eggs ; whilst Epunda lichenea is accredited
with laying above 200. There is no doubt that the average number
laid by many species is a very high one.
The eggs are laid in a variety of ways and positions. The
Hepialids drop their ova among the herbage loosely, the tiny eggs
quickly finding their way to the roots of the plants on which the
larvic feed. Lasiocampa quercit-s does the same, and so does one of the
most highly specialised of our British butterflies, Melanargia (jalatea.
A large number of moths lay their eggs solitarily on, or near, the
food-plant of the larva), whilst others lay them side by side in clusters.
The Zygaenids often heap their eggs in two or three layers. Clisio-
cainpa (Malacosoma) neustna, C. castrensis, Eriogatter lane.itris, and
Anisoptery.v aescularia lay their eggs in rings around the twigs
of their respective food-plants, forming a kind of necklace around
the stem. The Amphidasyds '(A. betidaria and A. strataria), and
the Tephrosiids (T. bistortata and T. crepmcularia), like Zeuzera
pyrina, are provided with long ovipositors, to enable them to
lay their eggs deep in the crevices of the bark of the trees on
which their larvae feed. The egg of TrocliUium bcmbccij'orinc is laid on
the underside of the leaf of an osier, although the larva is a borer, and
feeds on the solid wood. The female Leucama littoralis folds over the
edge of a grass leaf, and lays her eggs in a string within the fold. The
Geometrid moth, lodis rernaria, lays its eggs one upon the other in
rouleaux, seven or eight in each row, and resembling a slender twig or
tendril of Clematis, on which plant the eggs are laid. Polyyonia
c- album and P. interrogations have a precisely similar habit. The
eggs of the Pyralids usually partially overlap, and the same imbricate
arrangement is found in certain Geometrids, e.g., Ennomos querdnaria,
and certain Noctuids, e.g., Mellinia circellaris (ferruginea), the
Acronyctid tribe, Vwdnidi, etc. This method, of course, depends
largely upon the flatness of the egg. The Micropterygids and Adelids
are provided with a most complex cutting apparatus, with which they
cut out pockets in a leaf, and then insert an egg (or eggs) within the
THE OVUM OR EGG. 13
pocket, in the soft cellular tissue of the leaf. Sufficient examples have
been given to illustrate the almost endless variety that exists in the
egg-laying habit among Lepidoptera.
The eggs of Lepidoptera are usually laid upon or near the food-
plant of the larva, but this is not always the case. Triphacna pronuba
frequently chooses a piece of wire (in a fence), or cord hanging loosely
in a garden, for the purpose. Riding reports batches of eggs of this
species in two successive years (1895, 1896), on the meshes of a lawn
tennis net. Ckrytophannu phlaeaa and Polyommatiis icarus frequently
deposit eggs on objects adjacent to the food-plant, so also, more rarely,
do Pararye eyeria, P. nreyaera and Pieris napi. Many ground feeding
Noctuids lay on the stems of dead plants, leaves of trees, etc., and so
also do Arctia caia, Spilosoma menthastri, and many other Arctiids.
Riding records the finding of eggs of Macrothylacia (Lasiocampa)
rubi on the trunk of a pine, at a height of nearly six feet from the
ground, whilst a couple of the linear leaves of a Weymouth pine were
girdled by 70 or 80 rows (10 eggs in each) of the eggs of a Noctuid
moth, which turned out to be those of Tiipliaena pronuba. Acidalia
perochraria appears to follow the habit of the Hepialids, Melanaryia
yalatea, Pararye achine, etc., and to sprinkle her eggs on the ground.
In the case of eggs laid naturally upon the leaves of deciduous
trees or annual herbaceous plants, the egg-stage is usually a short one.
On the other hand, when the eggs are laid upon the stems, leaf-
buds, etc., of plants, the egg-stage may last a considerable time. The
former is the method usually adopted by Geonaetrids, Noctuids,
Sphingids and their close allies, although the Xanthids, Catocalids,
Ennomids, etc., will occur to the mind at once as exceptions. It is
remarkable that those eggs laid on leaves, and on grass stems are, as
a rule, of a white, yellow, or greenish hue, whilst those on the twigs of
bushes and trees are of a dirty white or grey, and frequently assume
a purplish or red-brown tint, e.y., Theda w-albuin, Ennomos autumnaria,
Enilramis versicolor, Tiliacea aurayo, Cirrhoedia jcerampelina, DicJumia
aprilina, etc., and it will be found, as a general rule, that those species
which hybernate in the egg-state, have eggs, which rapidly change to
some dark hue that corresponds well with the colour of the stem or
twig on which the egg is frequently deposited. Those that are
scattered on the ground are usually of a dirt-colour, or have a pearly
appearance ; in fact, with a few apparent exceptions, the colour of
lepidopterous eggs rapidly becomes such as to make them difficult of
detection by the various predaceous creatures that prey upon them.
The peculiar resemblance of a rouleau of the eggs of lodis vernaria
to a broken tendril of Clematis mtalba, the plant on which the eggs
are laid, has already been noticed. The easy way in which Tephrosia
bistortata, Bistonhirtaria. Amplddasys xtrataria (prodromaria), Orrhodia
vaccinii, Dicycla oo, and their allies, pack their eggs deep into the bark
crannies out of sight, attracts attention at once, because of the protection
afforded. Anitoptetyx aescularia, Krioyaster lancstrift, Porthesia similis,
P^chrysovrhoea and Porthetria dispar cover their eggs thickly with silky
hairs from the extremity of the abdomen. Leucoma salicis covers its
eggs with a substance that has a salivary-looking appearance, but
which is quite solidified, and various other devices have been developed
by individual species for the protection of their eggs, and, as a rule,
it appears probable that less destruction takes place in this, than in
14 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEEA.
the early larval stage of lepidopterous insects. It may be that
natural selection protects -one species more perfectly in one stage,
another species in another stage, but, so far, young larvae appear to be
the particular form against which destructive agencies are most active.
However well eggs may be protected, it is evident that consider-
able destruction does take place in. this stage, and it must be admitted,
especially in the case of eggs laid in large batches, that if an attack
thereon be made by some voracious entomophagous enemy, the de-
struction is absolutely complete. Scudder records that ants destroyed
the eggs of a Pyrameis car did, that he had enclosed on a thistle.
Spiders, ants and mites, are great offenders in this direction, but
probably their combined destructive efforts fall much below those of
the true egg parasites— minute Hymenoptera of the genera Trichu-
!/raiii»ia and Telenomm — which lay their eggs in the ova of lepidopterous
insects, and whose larvae find sufficient nourishment therein to enable
them to reach the imaginal condition. Nicholson mentions the rearing
of 30 Telcnomusi phalaenarum from some eight eggs of Macrothylacie
( Lasiocaiui>a) rubi ; Bacot records the destruction of a whole batch of
Arctia caia eggs by the same species, whilst Bignell states that he
bred 2,100 imagines, of the same parasite, from 200 eggs of M. rubi,
an average of more than ten to each egg ; Dimmock mentions the
breeding of 30 hymenopterous parasites from a single egg of Snicrintltm
t'i-<-<t<T<itm. Numbers of parallel cases have been recorded in the
various entomological magazines.
The duration of the egg-stage varies greatly in different species.
Buckell, Fenn and Prout have given0 comprehensive lists of the
duration of the egg-state in a great number of Geometrid species.
The shortest periods recorded are two days, in the case of Addalia
ririjularia, four days for Timandra amataria and other species. On
the other hand, many species, that hatch the same year, pass a much
longer period in the egg-state, e.y,, Selenia tetralunaria, 23 days;
Auiphidu xi/x fitrataria, 30 days ; Boannia abu'taria, 19 days; 7>. i/ein-
iiiaria, 20 days; Hijbemia h-ucuphaearia, 38 days ; Lan-ntia cantata, 24
days, etc. In some species the length of time varies in different years,
probably depending on meteorological conditions. Thus, JJiaton hirtaria
may take from 17 to 37 days ; Hemerophila abniptaria, from 14 to 26
days; Selenia lunaria took 7 days in 1865, 12 days in 1861, and 15
days in 1886 — all of the first brood. Selenia hi lunaria has the
following record :— 1880, first brood, 16 days; 1883, first brood, 28
days, second brood, 16 days; 1890 and 1891, second brood, 15 days.
But different broods of the same species may vary in the same year ;
thus, in 1865, one batch of Camptoyrammti flnriata took 5 days, another
10 days, and a third 21 days.
Of those species which pass the winter in the egg stage, the time
is so great that the combined larval, pupal, and imaginal periods are
comparatively very short. Thus the egg stage of Kpione apiciaria
lasts as long as 9f months ; of Ennomos aiitumnaria, 7f to 10 months ;
of Hhin'ra pennaria, 5 months; of Opnrabia jilii/raiiniiaria, 4f months ;
of ('idaria testata, 8 months ; of Clicaias xpa rtiata, 4£ months. The
egg stage of Theela n- -album and Zepliymx //w/vm- lasts from July to
early May; of Theda j/riini, from June until late April; of Plebeius
acijon, from July to April ; of Trichiura crataciji, from September to
* Entom. Record, etc., iii., pp. 175-176 ; iv., p. 255 ; iv., p. 2\)2.
THE OVUM OR EGG. 15
April ; of the Catocalids, from July and August to April, and so on.
The condition of the egg during the hybernating period is very
interesting. In some species, such as Aryynnis adippe, Pampldla
comma, Parnasxiux apolln, etc., the fully formed caterpillar remains
coiled up within the shell all the winter ; in others, the eggs appear to
remain until spring, almost in the same condition, so far as the con-
tents are concerned, as that in which they were laid. Buckler records
that eggs of Sombyx mori, Trichiura crataeiji, Ennotnos (alniaria) tiliaria,
E. quercinaria, Cheimatobia brumata, C. boreata, Scotosia vetulata,
Ptilopkora plumiyera and Polio, chi, have been examined from time to
time until the middle of January, and nothing but the faintest traces
of the future larvae have been detected by a microscopic examination of
their still fluid contents. In the case of Tiliacea (Xanthia) aurai/o,
however, an egg was found to contain a partially developed larva on
January 14th. It occasionally happens, as in the case of Polio,
.rantJioiiiista var. nii/rocincta, that part of a batch of eggs, which
should normally hybernate during the winter, hatches in the autumn,
and the larvae attempt to feed up, whilst the remainder of the
batch goes over normally. It is recorded, also, that in a batch
of Oryyia antiqua eggs, the hatching takes place most irregularly, a
few larvae appearing at a time, and the emergence of the whole brood
thus spread over a long period. This happens also in Epione apiciaria,
Laiiocampa tnfolii, Catocalia species, etc.
The influence that temperature has on the hatching period, and on
the vitality of lepidopterous eggs, has been well shown by Merriiield.
lie has recorded that eggs of Selenia bilnnaria, and those of Selenia
tetralwiaria, were quite uninjured by exposure to a temperature of
from 80° F. to 90° F., their development, on the contrary, being
greatly accelerated. Spring-laid eggs of 8. bilunaria began to have
their vitality affected after being " iced " (at a temperature of 32° F.,
when they were in the central red stage), for 28 days, and none
hatched after 60 days' icing. The result was even worse with spring-
laid eggs of 8 den i a tetralwiaria, none of which survived 42 days'
icing, and some summer-laid eggs of the same species, exposed to the
same conditions, fared no better. In all the experiments, up to 60
days' exposure, nearly all the eggs, after being removed from the ice,
matured so far as to admit of the formation of the young larva, which
could be seen through the transparent shell. The failure was a failure
to hatch.
Standfuss has recorded that eggs of Arctia fasciata, Dasychim
alictix, Odoneatis (Lasiocampa) pruni and Dendrolinnia pini, which were
exposed to a temperature of 30° C. (93° F.), during the process of
laying by the female, and up to the time of hatching, produced larvae
in two-thirds or less of the normal time, and there emerged as perfect
insects in the same year, i.e., without hibernation of the larva, in the
case of A. fam-iata, 71 per cent.; of D. abietis, 90 per cent. ; of (.).
jn-uni, 100 per cent. ; and of D.pini, 81 percent. The larvae and pupae
of the broods were kept, as far as possible, at a mean temperature of
25° C. The eggs of the same females as those used in the above experi-
ment, which had already been laid at a normal temperature (22° C.),
and were left in this until hatched, afterwards remaining in the same
mean temperature of 25° C., as the other larvae and pupae, produced a
considerably smaller number of perfect insects, without hibernation of
16 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
the larvae, viz., A. fasciata, 23 per cent. ; D. abietis, 12 per cent. ;
0. pnmi, 64 per cent. ; D. pini, 28 per cent.
It has been suggested that the sex of the imagines reared from eggs
can be determined by the conditions in regard to abundance of food,
or the reverse, under which the larvae are reared ; that, under a
specially nutritious diet, lepidopterous larvae tend to produce female
imagines, whilst a starvation diet tends to the production of males.
This, of course, assumes a neutral condition as regards sex in the
newly-hatched larva, but the experiments that are supposed to have
proved this simply show that male larvae will stand more starving than
those of females, or, in other words, that the minimum food which
will allow male larvae to just pupate, is, in the same species, often
insufficient to allow the process in female larvae, which die under
such extreme treatment. The sexual organs of newly-hatched larvae
are moderately well-developed.
Another theory which has been assumed, viz., that eggs laid suc-
cessively by the same female are of opposite sex, has been entirely
disproved, and experiment has shown that the relative proportion of the
sexes is subject to immense fluctuation on the separate dates on
which eggs are laid. As regards eggs laid on any one day, the
sexes generally succeed each other in little groups of irregular size.
Ifc is further recorded that the pupae obtained from different batches of
Vani'xxa io had a large proportion of a certain sex, some batches pro-
ducing almost entirely males, others consisting almost entirely of
females.
The eggs of Lepidoptera are developed in the ovaries of the parent,
whence they pass down the oviduct into the vagina. In connection
with the vagina are one or more pouches called receptacula seminis,
in which the spermatozoa are stored after copulation. As the egg
passes along the vagina to the ovipositor, the spermatozoa, or sperm-
cells, are released from the receptacula, and certain of them enter the
egg through the micropylar tubes, one of which fertilises the egg.
Fertilisation, then, takes place at the time that the egg is being laid,
by the spermatozoa entering the micropylar pores at the time that the
egg passes the pouches. It is sometimes noticed that the latest-laid
eggs of a moth are infertile, a result probably due to the supply of
spermatozoa being exhausted before all the eggs are laid. It is well-
known that many Lepidoptera pair more than once. Anticlca ber-
bcrata, Tei>lironia l>istortata, and various Zygronid species have been
observed to do so repeatedly. No doubt, the habit is of common
occurrence.
CHAPTEE III.
EMBRYOLOGY OF A LEPIDOPTEROUS INSECT.
IT may be well now to briefly consider the changes that take place
in the fertilised ovum or egg, and that have, as their result, the pro-
duction of an individual resembling its parents. These changes are
of the utmost importance, and the embryological studies made by
various entomologists have done much to throw light upon the wider
biological problems which embryology presents.
EMBRYOLOGY OF A LEPIDOPTEROUS INSECT. 17
It is well known that all animals during their embryonic life
undergo a series of remarkable changes, both in form and structure.
The earliest embryonic appearance of widely different animals is such
that it is difficult to say even to what class the embryo belongs, but
as development proceeds, the characteristic features of the class are
developed. When we come to consider the embryonic conditions of
genera and species we find that the similarity of their early stages is
much more pronounced, the likeness extending even to small matters
of detail.
It is possible to limit the study of the embryology of insects to the
changes that take place within the egg, but it is well known that the
larvre and pupte of lepidoptera are essentially embryonic conditions,
leading up to the production of the imagines. At the same time,
their independent life, their competition in the struggle for existence,
and the different conditions of their environment, have led to the
formation of habits, and given rise to peculiar characters, which more
or less obliterate, as it were, their true embryonic characters. It is
necessary, therefore, in dealing with these stages (larval and pupal) to
bear in mind two points : — (1) Whether the similarities which one
sees are phylogenetic, that is, whether they are due to the transitory
re-appearance of the characters of a bygone epoch in the ancestral
history, or, (2) Whether they are oecological in their origin, and due
to a similar relationship of the animals to their organic and inorganic
environment. The characters manifested in the egg-state must almost
of necessity belong to the first division ; those in the active larval
(considered as an embryonic) condition may belong to the first or
second.
It will be seen, then, that such phylogenetic conditions as the
embryological stages of insects offer, indicate the lines of descent
through which the species have passed. The complete study of em-
bryology must, in time, give us much more correct notions of actual
relationships than any other line of enquiry ; for it is highly probable
that the embryonic stages show us, more or less completely, the lines
through which the ancestral form has been developed, to produce the
present condition of its offspring. It is to embryology, therefore, that
we must look to furnish the clues to the true relationships which exist
between animals, and a true genealogical classification can only be
formulated by the aid of the knowledge which it contributes. We
aim at obtaining a " natural " system of classification of insects, i.e.,
an indication of the line of descent of the various species we study, and
their connection with each other, and, hence, for this purpose, the
structure of the embryo is often of more importance than that of the
adult. Darwin says : — "In two or more groups of animals, however
much they may differ from each other in structure and habits in their
adult condition, if they pass through closely similar embryonic stages,
we may feel assured that all are descended from one parent form, and
are, therefore, closely related. Thus, community in embryonic
structure reveals community of descent ; but dissimilarity in embryonic
development does not prove discommunity of descent, for, in one of
two groups, the developmental stages may have been suppressed, or
may have been so greatly modified through adaptation to new habits of
life, as to be no longer recognisable. Even in groups in which the
adults have been modified to an extreme degree, community of origin is
18 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
often revealed by the structure of the larvae As the embryo
often shows us, more or less plainly, the structure of the less modified
and ancient progenitor of the group, we can see why ancient and
extinct forms so often resemble, in their adult state, the embryos of
existing species of the same classes Embryology rises greatly in
interest, when we look at the embryo as a picture, more or less
obscured, of the progenitor, either in its adult or larval state, of all
the members of the same great class."
We may now look briefly at the embryonic life of a lepidopterous
insect from the time of the fertilisation of the ovum, until the larva
hatches from the egg. This can only be done by the aid of a micro-
scope. A very simple instrument with two lenses, a f and £, is
sufficient for ordinary purposes, although, of course, many other
accessories are exceedingly useful.
To get eggs for this purpose, take an ordinary glass tube and
enclose a few females of some common Tortricid moth. These moths will
usually lay their eggs on the glass, and their eggshells are so trans-
parent that the changes may be readily observed. Among the butter-
flies, eggs of Pararge inegaera and Nemeobitis lucina are not at all unsuit-
able for observation.
It is sometimes inconvenient to study the embryological changes
which go on in an egg under a microscope, at the time that they
actually occur. Two very good methods have been described in detail,
by which the eggs may be killed and preserved for future observation.
One of these is the distribution of the eggs in phials, one phial to be
filled with carbolic acid, an egg put in, and the phial stoppered on
each day, until the final one contains the newly-hatched larva. The
other is to kill by heating in water at 80° C., then puncture the eggs
with a fine needle, and stain with " Grenachar's borax carmine " or
" Czochar's cochineal."
It is an established fact of science, that every living being is
evolved from a single unicellular germ. The egg in insects is not the
earliest condition of the creature, because the primitive ovule can be
traced back to the ovariole, or even to the primitive ovary, before the
ovariole is developed. There is no need here to enter into the
development of an ovum from the primitive ovary, as it is fully de-
scribed elsewhere.0 Suffice it to say, that the ovum at last is formed
in the egg-chamber, and consists of a mass of yelk surrounded and
embedded in protoplasm, and containing the female pronucleus, whilst
at the time that the egg is laid, the main mass of it is made up of
yelk-spherules. These spherules become granular, and the granules
gradually replace the spherules, and are themselves again changed
into yelk-cells, the probability being that they are thus changed in
order to form suitable nourishment for the young embryo. At this
time, the newly-formed blastoderm-cells begin to pass towards the
circumference, leaving the degenerated yelk-cells in the centre. In
addition to these yelk-spherules, the egg contains a homogeneous fluid,
which has the ordinary composition of protoplasm, and consists
essentially of the chemical elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitro-
gen, sulphur, phosphorus, lime, soda, potash, and other substances in
minute proportions. The great characteristic of this protoplasmic
* Entom. Record, vol. v., p. 212.
EMBRYOLOGY OF A LEPIDOPTEROUS INSECT. 19
fluid is its vitality, its ability to break up and sub-divide, to develop
cellular structure, and to build up tissue from the cells produced by
cell-division. After fertilisation, the protoplasmic fluid inside the
ovum remains in a homogeneous condition for a certain time ; this
varies for different species, but is comparatively constant in the same
species. The first change that the protoplasm undergoes is that of
the ordinary yelk segmentation, but, once this is set up, development
continues generally with more or less rapidity. The segmentation
starts at a point on the surface of the yelk called the " first segmenta-
tion nucleus," and this nucleus undergoes cell-division in such a
manner, as to form a superficial blastodermic layer. Side by side with
this process of segmentation, the yelk separates from the outside cell-
wall, and appears to become enveloped in a sac. The blastoderm layer
(or layer of segmentation cells) has an elongated ventral plate formed
in it, and in this the development of the embryo commences. This
ventral plate broadens anteriorly, but the posterior part is divided
transversely into segments. This development is at once followed up
by the formation of a longitudinal depression, the outer sac gradually
enclosing this depression on either side, until, at last, the opposite
sides of the epiblast, or outside layer of cells undergoing segmentation,
unite over the depression, leaving it as a longitudinal tube. This
becomes detached as a solid cellular mass, which splits into two
longitudinal (mesoblastic) bands. At this period it would appear that
the amnion is formed.
Of this, Osborne says : " After the yelk has become surrounded by
the growth of cells called the blastoderm, and, after the germinal stripe,
or foundation of the embryo, has been differentiated along one side of
this blastoderm, a double fold of the latter grows up all round the cir-
cumference of the germinal stripe, and finally closes in over it, the
edges of the fold fixing together, and the two layers (of blastoderm) of
which it is composed, at the same time separating from one another.
The inner of these, continuous with the embryo itself, and lying im-
mediately over it, is the amnion ; the outer, continuous with the
blastoderm surrounding the yelk, is the serous membrane. Two sacs
are thus formed, the one within the other, and between them lies the
yelk. In the lepidopterous egg, the yelk next finds its way into the
space between the amnion and the serous membrane, flowing over the
former and depressing it and the embryo beneath it, till both are
completely submerged in yelk, and consequently hidden from view."
After this the mesoblastic bands become divided into somites, and
the first traces of the abdominal segments may be noticed, followed
by the appearance of the three thoracic segments. The somites coalesce,
and the common body-cavity thus enclosed, is called the coelom. The
three thoracic segments bear legs. The head, which appears to be formed
of four segments, and the eye-spots, of which there are two clusters
(each made up of six ocelli), placed one on either side of the second
segment of the head, reckoning from the front, are then developed,
followed in" turn by the ventral prolegs. The inner part of the hypo-
blast is absorbed to form the alimentary canal. The cells, now con-
tained between the outside wall of the egg and the newly-formed
alimentary canal, divide up into clusters, which are gradually differ-
entiated into the various internal organs. The first of these to be
formed is the dorsal vessel, which is so called because it is placed in
20 BRITISH LEPIDOPTKRA.
the dorsal part of the larva ; this corresponds with the heart of the
higher animals. The other organs gradually undergo differentiation,
and the mouth organs also become developed. At this period of
development faint pulsations of the dorsal vessel are discernible.
The separation of the alimentary canal into an oesophagus, a widened
sac or stomach, and another contracted tube or intestine is clearly
discernible, whilst the outer proteid part of the egg-contents is
probably absorbed by cutaneous endosmosis. The tracheae are developed
from the spiracles inwards, but do not become visible until injected
with air.
Such are the broad outlines of the larval development within the
egg. From a tiny mass of protoplasm in the yelk of the egg, we get
a larva produced such as we know it when newly-hatched. The egg-
shell of most of our larger species is too opaque to allow these changes
to be seen, but they can be readily observed, as we have already stated,
in the eggs of Tortricids or Pyralids, owing to the thinness of the
walls of the eggs in these groups.
During the first stages of embryonic development, the ventral side
of the embryo is external, or lies along the inner concave side of the egg,
development commencing (as is usual in the Articulata and Vertebrata)
on the ventral side of the insect. As development proceeds, the embryo
changes its position, on account of the turning of the anal segment
and its gradual upward movement, and that of the growing segments
behind it, along the venter. In this manner the ventral part of the
embryo gets turned towards the centre of the egg, whilst the dorsal
part is turned towards the outside.
Our observations of these movements were made on the embryo of
Peronca (Tortrix) fernujana. We found that when the embryo' begins
to show traces of segmentation, the thoracic segments are seen to develop
three pairs of jointed buds or legs. At this time the embryo occupies
a somewhat curved position, with the head slightly bent round
towards the anal extremity, but with the legs outside, i.e., the larva is
bent back on itself so as to form a curve agreeing roughly with the
curvature of the shell, with what afterwards becomes the ventral sur-
face of the larva outside, and the dorsum towards the centre. The
embryo then gradually changes its position, the anal segment curling
round and being pushed by the growth of the preceding abdominal
segments, slowly up the ventral surface of the larva; whilst the
dorsum gets pushed out, as it were, towards the centre of the egg.
During this process the embryo becomes shaped something like the
letter §» the movement continuing until a complete reversal of the
embryo has been effected. The next stage is that in which the head
and anus are in contact, each half running almost parallel, and this
again is followed by an almost circular position, in which the dorsal
area is now outside, and the ventral surface (with the legs) on the inside.
The head, during all this time, scarcely changes its position. Very
little further change in position takes place, the embryo, by this time,
occupying all the available space in the egg.
With regard to the change in position that the embryo undergoes
in the egg, Chapman says that at the time that the ventral surface is
towards the margin of the egg, the dorsal surface, or rather dorsal
aspect, is still applied to the yelk-sac. At this time the dorsal sur-
face is still broken by the umbilical opening, but, when the latter closes,
EMBRYOLOGY OP A LEPIDOPTEROUS INSECT. 21
the young larva is truly a larva, possessing no organic connection with
the other egg structures, and may no longer be regarded as an appen-
dage to the yelk-sac. The first use it makes of this liberty is to
assume the S or pot-hook shape, continuing until at length its
position is reversed, the dorsum being along the circumference of the
egg and the venter being central. The head and tail sometimes
merely meet (in the flattest eggs), sometimes slightly overlap, whilst
in the dome-shaped eggs, the head so overlaps as to take, very often,
a central position in the vertex of the egg, forming a dark spot there,
as in Acronycta, Callimorpha, Hesperids, and many others. The essen-
tial importance of this observation is that it shows that the em-
bryonic position of the nervous system is the same in insects as in
vertebrates, and since it must, therefore, be identical also in the
mature animal, it follows that the venter of insects corresponds, ana-
tomically, with the dorsum of vertebrates and vice versa. Another
important point with regard to this movement is, that whilst the larva
is still truly an embryo, i.e., attached to the yelk and egg-structures,
it has the venter outwards, but when the embryo becomes free, it
moves as it likes, although this particular movement goes on so slowly,
and without any apparent voluntary or even muscular effort, that it
appears to be due to the mere force of the growth and development of
the larva.
During all this time, the disappearance of yelk has been taking
place, but just when the embryo has attained its full growth, voluntary
efforts to swallow are apparent, and the remainder of the yelk dis-
appears. The remaining fluid is either absorbed by the larva through
the skin, or evaporates through the shell ; the tracheae become visible
by becoming filled with air, and the larva usually begins soon after-
wards to commence eating its way through the shell.
It would appear from Jeffrey's observations0 that the tracheae come
rather suddenly into view, at the time that they are first distended
with air. He states that " the filling of the tracheae commenced in
the posterior segments, a sort of cloud gathering at the band where it
is close to the head and in a line with the eye." He says : " I saw an
apparently dark flood start from this spot, and, creeping along with a
spasmodic effort, filling the branches, in its course, till it reached the
head, and the whole of the tracheae became conspicuously visible on
that side of the body."
The same observer describes how the dorsal vessel (heart) became
visible in an embryonic Botijs hyalinalis, on the tenth day after incu-
bation. The pulsations were at first (8 a.m.) very faint and feeble,
taking place somewhat irregularly at long intervals of 20 and even
30 seconds ; but, after a few hours, they became more distinct,
with shorter intervals between each beat, and became still more ac-
celerated by the evening of the same day. Two days afterwards, a
beautifully clear view of the heart and its action was obtained, the
pulsations being timed at 40 per minute, increasing to 60 a few
minutes before the larva escaped from the egg.
The important part played by the blood-tissue in larval nutrition,
together with the supposition, entertained for many years by certain
eminent naturalists, that circulation of the blood did not take place in
* Ent. Mo. May., vols. xxii. and xxiii.
22 URITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
insects, has led to considerable discussion. The origin of the "blood-
tissue " was worked out at length by Graber,° who concludes that the
whole of the structures forming this " tissue," viz., oenocytes (certain
cell-masses), fac-body and blood-corpuscles, are ectodermic structures.
He further finds that the oenocytes are metamorphosed into the fat-
body, and that the blood corpuscles arise from the fat-body, and,
probably, also directly from the oenocytes. Wheeler, f however, looks
upon the fat-body as a thickened part of the inner coelomic wall,
due to an accumulation of fat-vacuoles in the cytoplasm of the
mesoderm-cells." He further concludes that the fat-body is not derived
from the oenocytes, is of mesodermal, not ectodermal, origin, and
concludes that there is no evidence for the origin of the blood from
the oenocytes. Wheeler also remarks that — " Few insects appear to
be better adapted for tracing out the origin of the oenocytes than
the Lepidoptera. This is especially true of the larger Bombycid moths.
That the segmental cell-clusters arise by delamination from the ecto-
derm was conclusively made out in the embryos of Platytamia cecropia
and Telea polyphemus. Each cluster is several cell-layers in thickness,
and lies just behind, and a little ventral to, an abdominal stigma.
The succulent cells constituting the cluster are at first polygonal
from mutual pressure, but, as the time for hatching approaches, they
become rounder and more loosely united. I have not traced them
through the larval stages, and merely record these fragmentary obser-
vations because they completely confirm Tichomiroff 's and Graber's
observation on the origin of the oenocytes from the ectoderm."
The study of the lepidopterous embryo has given us many other
interesting morphological particulars. Kowalewski found ten ab-
dominal somites in the embryo of Swerinthus populi, all bearing pro-
legs ; whilst Tichomiroff detected eleven abdominal somites in the
embryo of Bombyx mori, all provided with prolegs except the first.
Graber also found the abdomen of the lepidopterous embryo to consist
of eleven true segments, and observed that the abdominal segments of
Eutnchd (Gastropacha) quercifolia were at first devoid of appendages,
and that, when they did appear, they developed only on those seg-
ments on which they persist in the adult.
The mode in which the earliest development of the generative
organs in the embryo of insects takes place is very obscure, but it
would appear that the primitive ovaries are composed of a mass of
cells, produced by an infolding of the ectoderm. Some writers,
however, consider them to be derived from the mesoderm, whilst
others trace their origin back to certain so-called pole cells, which
originate even before the blastoderm is formed. However this may be,
it would appear that they are, in that early stage, quite indistinguish-
able from the other blastoderm cells. As development proceeds, the
great mass of cells become differentiated into various structures, which
subserve a special purpose, or perform a certain function. Certain
cells in the ovary, however, retain their primitive condition, and, with
it, the power, under suitable conditions, of forming another in-
dividual of the same species. On this subject, Woodworth writes :
" About the time of the completion of the blastoderm, the already
* " Ueber die embryonale Anlage des Blut- und Fett-gewebes der Insekten,"
BioL Centralbl., Bd. ii., Nos. 7-8, pp., 212-224.
f Psyche, vol. vi., p. 255 et. seq.
EMBRYOLOGY OF A LEPIDOPTEROtS INSECT. ao
differentiated ventral plate infolds at a point on the median line
about two-thirds from the upper end, and forms a very narrow
pocket. The cells composing it look like the rest of the cells of
the ventral plate at this time; they are almost round, and have
a lining on one side, made of the grey matter which originally
bordered the whole egg, but which became a part of the blastoderm
cells. The pocket remains open but a short time, but there is a long
depression at the upper end of the bunch of cells. The mass of cells
is soon cut off from the ventral plate, and they are then free in the
body cavity, but remain in contact with the ventral plate at the point
where they were produced. Later stages show that these cells produce
the generative organs. The generative organs thus appear to be pro-
duced by an infolding of the ectoderm, or possibly of the blastoderm,
before the ectoderm is produced, but from a portion which is later to
become ectoderm. The general idea has been that the generative
organs in insects are produced from the mesoderm, although Metsch-
nikow, as early as 1866, showed for certain insects a different origin."
Those further interested in the details of this subject would do
well to refer to the writer's chapter on the " Embryology of a lepidop-
terous insect," Ent. Record, vol. v., 1895.
CHAPTEE IV.
PARTHENOGENESIS OR AGAMOGENESIS IN LEPIDOPTERA.
IT is generally necessary, among the Lepidoptera, that the two
generative elements should unite before the fertilisation of the ovum
can take place, and, since these elements are always developed in
different individuals, it follows that copulation between the sexes is
necessary for fertilisation, and for the subsequent production of young.
It appears, however, that under certain conditions copulation is not
necessary to ensure the production of young, since, occasionally, eggs
will produce larvae without the union of the sexes, and larvae thus pro-
duced have been recorded as developing in the ordinary course into
fully matured and fertile imagines.
It is a well-known fact that, under ordinary circumstances, the
eggs of almost all lepidopterous insects undergo certain changes after
being laid. Some of these are common both to fertilised and unfertilised
eggs, and since they must be looked upon as the outward sign of a
change that is taking place within the egg, it is probable that the first
changes which take place in the egg, i.e., the very first stages of
embryonic growth, are independent of fertilisation. The changes
which take place in the unfertilised eggs of some species are much
greater than those which take place in others, and there are, aa
previously stated, cases on record in which development has proceeded
so far, that the growth of the embryo has been completed, and a larva
has hatched from the unfertilised egg.
We see, then, that, under special conditions, nature produces
progeny from virgin females without the intervention of the male,
The production of such progeny among bees has long been known.
24 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
Virgil refers to it in the Georyics, and the old authors termed the
phenomenon, " Lucina sine concubitu." It is now known as " aga-
mogenesis " or "parthenogenesis." It must be confessed that
scientific experiments, conducted with sufficient care, relating to this
subject, have been rarely performed, and that the evidence rests largely
on chance observations. Still, there can be no doubt that some of
the experiments, at least, have been sufficiently accurate to necessitate
a scientific explanation of the phenomenon.
It would be out of place here to discuss the general question of
reproduction in the lower Invertebrates, a brief summary of which may
be found, Entom. Record., v., pp. 219 ct seq. It need only be mentioned
that fission or cleavage, gemmation or budding, and encystation are
the more general means by which it is effected. In the Hydrozoa,
reproduction is carried on all the summer by gemmation, but in the
autumn, sperm cells and germ cells are produced in the same individual,
the former fertilising the latter, which then become ova, in which stage
these creatures pass the winter. This method of sexual reproduction
(i.e., with both sexes in the same individual) is very common in the
lower animals, but among the higher invertebrates the sexes are
usually differentiated in separate individuals, and, as a rule, coition is
necessary for reproduction. This is the ordinary condition among
insects.
Among the Crustacea such species as Polyphemus oculus, Apiis can-
criformis and Limnadia yiyas consist, Newman says, almost entirely of
female individuals, the presence of a male being the exception.
Daphnia has males as well as females, but, according to Lubbock, the
females appear equally prolific in the absence of the males. Newman
also states that in some Arachnids the fertility of the female is not
dependent on coition with the male. He instances Epeira diadem a,
which he states invariably produced fertile eggs without union with
a male.
Among insects, the agamic reproduction of Aphides has long been
well understood. This, however, is rather different from the partheno-
genetic phenomenon presented by Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, etc. In
the former, viviparous young are produced by the females ; in the
latter, eggs are laid, and produce larvas in due course, without the
usual intervention of the spermatozoa.
Most of the records of the occurrence of parthenogenesis in Lepi-
doptera are, from a scientific point of view, most unsatisfactory, and
based on chance observation, rather than on specially devised experi-
ments. This is, perhaps, due to the fact that those entomologists who
inbreed insects in the largest numbers, do so in order to obtain fine
specimens for collections, and, as a matter of course, pair the females
with males in order to ensure the due fertilisation of the eggs. It
must also be borne in mind that, so far as our observations have gone,
those species that show a parthenogenetic tendency, only lay a very few
eggs in an occasional batch, that will produce parthenogenetic young.
A very large number of female motbs, therefore, would have to be
sacrificed in order to obtain a very small number of parthenogenetically
fertile eggs. This does not apply, however, to the Psychids, where
parthenogenesis, in some species, appears to be the rule rather than
the exception.
This has been clearly shown by Jourdan in the case of Bombyx
PARTHEXOGENESIS OR AGAMOGENBISIS IN LEPIDOPTERA. 25
mori fComptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de V Academic des
Sciences, Paris, liii., 1861, pp. 1093-1096), where he remarks that it
has long been customary, in the silk-producing countries of France, to
regenerate a worn-out race by using "la graine vierge," i.e., eggs pro-
duced from females that have not been paired with males. He details
certain experiments made in 1851, which show the proportion of
female moths that give fertile eggs parthenogenetically. From these
experiments we learn that he had 300 yellow Milanese cocoons of a
form of B. mori, that gives only one generation per year. The results
work out as follows : — June, 1851 — 300 cocoons selected, each cocoon
placed in a small cardboard box covered with gauze, so as to com-
pletely imprison the moth on emergence. The 300 cocoons produced
147 females and 151 males. The boxes containing males were re-
moved and the females carefully preserved without being uncovered.
Of the 147 females, six gave fertile eggs. Two gave 7 eggs each, two
others 4 eggs each, one gave 5 eggs, and one 2 eggs. These 29 eggs,
preserved in their respective boxes without being uncovered, to render
error impossible, hatched May, 1852. Many other eggs, it is men-
tioned, passed from the pale yellow (colour when newly-laid) to the
slaty-grey hue, which replaces the former after some days in fertile
eggs. The summarised results of this experiment worked out at : —
147 females, laid about 58,000 eggs, of which 29 produced larvae, i.e.,
about 1 : 2,000.
Another experiment was made by Jourdan, in July, 1851, on white
cocoons from South China, of a form of B. mori, giving five or six
successive generations in one year. Fifty cocoons were separately
isolated, as in the last experiment. From these emerged 23 females
and 26 males. Seventeen of these females gave completely fertile
eggs. One gave 113, and the least productive 12. The total number
of eggs laid was 9,000, of which 520 produced larvae. This gives a
proportion of 1 : 17. They hatched seventeen days after being laid.
Although these experiments proved conclusively that some virgin
females of B. mori could reproduce their kind without copulation, it was
evident from the results, that the parthenogenetic reproductive power
was exceedingly feeble. Of the two different races experimented upon,
that with five or six successive generations per year was much more
productive, parthenogenetically, than that with a single generation.
One of the earliest essays on this subject was that of Von Siebold
(translated by Dallas), entitled: On a true parthenogenesis in moths and
bees. Siebold was led into his enquiries by some observations made
on the reproduction of a species of Psychid moth, which, he noticed,,
propagated without copulation. He followed this up with observations
on bees and B. mori, and found that the phenomenon of reproduction
by virgin females was not at all uncommon. For this, he adopted the
term "parthenogenesis," which had previously been applied by Owen to
the phenomenon now known as " alternation of generations."
According to Siebold, we learn that the oldest communication
relative,to reproduction by female insects, sine concubitu, was made by
Albrecht of Hildesheim, who (in 1701) relates that he found a brown
pupa in a cocoon on a black-currant bush, and preserved it to see what
moth would emerge from it. At the end of July, a moth of yellowish-
white colour was disclosed, and in a few days laid a great number of
eggs, and then died. In April of the following year, Albrecht was
26 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEBA.
astonished to find young black caterpillars in the box, instead of the
eggs. His communication to the Leopoldine Academy of Naturalists
shows that he was satisfied that copulation had not taken place. In
1772, Bernoulli recorded that Baster had obtained fertile eggs from an
isolated female of Gastropacha qiierdfolia, that had been bred from a
caterpillar ; and further, that a caterpillar of Episema (Diloba) caendeo-
cephala, having changed to a pupa, the latter was left in a closed box,
and that, about fifteen days after, he was surprised, on opening the
box, to find, besides the enclosed moth, a family of young caterpillars,
which had already devoured the pupa-case of their mother, and a
portion of their own egg-shells. Denis and Schiffermuller pointed
out, in 1776 (Syst. Verz. der Schmett. der Wiener Gey end, etc., p. 293)
that these cases were possibly errors of observation ; whilst Von
Scheven considered that the larv® were probably from eggs laid by
another female moth, previously confined in the same box.
Siebold, being very dissatisfied with what was known about the
subject, turned his attention to the " case-bearers," Solenobia lichendla
and S. triquetrella, and during the years 1850-1852 (the date of
Jourdan's experiments on B. mori) he collected several hundred cases.
None but females emerged from these cases, and they commenced almost
immediately to lay eggs. They " possessed such a violent impulse to
lay their eggs, that, when I removed them from their cases
they let their eggs fall openly. If I had wondered at the zeal for
oviposition in these husbandless Solenobia, how was I astonished when
all the eggs of these females, of whose virgin state I was most positively
convinced, gave birth to young caterpillars, which looked about with
the greatest assiduity in search of materials for the manufacture of
little cases ! " Parthenogenetic reproduction in Solenobia lichenella
had also been observed by Wocke and Keutti. For many years the
female of Apterona crenulella (Psyche helir] only was known,0 and
Siebold, to make sure that none of the " wingless and footless moths "
were males, dissected many. He satisfied himself that all were females,
and their unfertilised eggs were found to develop larvae in the same
year.
In 1795, Constans de Castellet, general inspector of the silk
industry in Sardinia, had reported to Reaumur that he had reared
caterpillars from unfertilised eggs of Bombyx mori. " Ex nihilo nihil
fit," was Reaumur's sceptical reply. Herold, in 1838, reported that
amongst the unfertilised eggs of B. mori, some here and there passed
wholly or partially through the same changes as fertilised eggs,
although they failed to hatch, and he distinguishes (Dis. de anim. vert,
caren. in ovo formatione, Fasc. ii., 1838, Tab. 7, fig. 31) between the fffitus
developed from fecundated, and that developed from unfecundated eggs,
the former escaping as a larva, whilst the latter perishes in the egg-
shell. He distinguished readily, also, various degrees of the faculty
of development of unfertilised eggs, which manifested themselves by
infinite differences in the disposition, number, form, and strength of
the coloured portions of the egg. Herold was able to extract a fo3tus
from one of these unfertilised eggs in the middle of winter. According
* The male of Apterona crenulella (Psyche helix) was re-discovered by Clauss.
He described and figured the larval case of the male, the difference between the
pupae of the sexes, and the male imago in Zeits. Weiss. Zool., xvii., p. 470. Until
then it does not seem to have been noticed since the time of Reaumur.
PARTHENOGENESIS OK AGAMOGENESIS IN LEPIDOPTERA. 27
to Herold, embryos were not developed in all the unfertilised eggs
examined, nor did he know of any case in which such embryos emerged
from the egg. As far back as 1669, it may be mentioned that Malpighi
was well acquainted (Marc. Malp. Diss. de Bombyce, Lond., p. 82) with
these differences. He also then knew that the eggs of Lepidoptera
were not fertilised at the time of copulation, but that each one was
afterwards fertilised separately.
Siebold quotes, on the authority of Filippi, that Curtis had received
an isolated chrysalis of Telea polyphemm from America, from which a
female emerged, all of whose eggs developed, adding that he believed
a similar occurrence sometimes took place in B. mori. Filippi
relates that, in 1850, he observed the phenomenon in that variety of
the latter species known as trerotini, which has three broods in a year.
He also states that Griseri had also observed that many eggs of virgin
females of B. mori developed. Siebold observes that various silkworm
breeders in Breslau and Munich gave him similar information, and
that he himself noticed exactly the same well-known change of colour,
which took place in the fertilised eggs of this species, occurring in a
large number of unfertilised eggs, although many stopped at various
stages, only becoming reddish or violet, whilst only a very few went
through the entire series of colour-change to slaty-grey. Siebold ob-
tained no larvae from them, but, in 1854, he received unfertilised eggs
from Schmid, which produced larvas. He tells us that he expected to
breed only males, due to his having read Lacordaire's account of
Carlier's observations, that " he obtained, without copulation, three
generations of Porthetria (Liparis) dispar, of which the last gave only
males, which naturally brought the experiment to an end." Siebold,
however, bred both males and females, which copulated freely, and
appeared to have the ordinary amount of vitality. Kipp had pre-
viously recorded the rearing of both males and females from some
unfecundated eggs of Smerinthus populi.
A brief summary of what has been observed in this country (with
a few incidental outside observations) may now be useful. Newman
in 1856, gave a list of Lepidoptera in which the phenomenon of par-
thenogenesis had been noticed up to that date. These were : — Sphinx
ligustri, Smerinthus populi, S. ocellatus, Porthetria dispar, Psilura
monacha, Diloba caeruleocephala, Telea polyphemus, Saturnia pyri, S.
pavonia, Orgyia gonostif/ma, 0. antiqua, Bombyx mori, Lasiocampa
querciis, Arctia caia, A. villica, A. casta, Dendrolimus pini, Cosmotriche
(Odonestis) potatoria, Eutricha (Gastropacha) quercifolia, Sterrhopterix
hirsutella (Psyche Jusca), Apterona crenulella (Psyche helLv), Canephorfi
unicolor (Psyche graminella), Fumea casta (Psyche nitidella), Solenobia
triquetrella, S. clathrella, S. lichenella.
The observations on which this list were based are sometimes of a
very unsatisfactory nature, but others are more convincing, e.g.,
Tardy's experiments with L. querciis, in which three generations of
perfectly vigorous and full-sized moths were reared without a single
^coition- having taken place. Mory of Basle (Ent. Eec., vi., p. 209)
recently obtained larvse from unfertilised eggs of this species. A note
in the Ent. Weekly Int., iii., pp. 175-176, states that parthenogenetic
females of Solenobia inconspicuella had been bred, whilst in the Ent.
Rec., vi., p. 89, Freer records the rearing of Talaeporia pseudobombycetta
parthenogenetically. Douglas (Substitute, p. 78) states that he has bred
28 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Fume a nitiddla from what he believed to be unfertilised eggs ; the
evidence, however, is here very unsatisfactory. Newman (Entom., ii.,
p. 28) records larvae from unfecundated eggs laid by a female Phiyalia
pedaria. These in due time became pupae, but no imagines were
reared. Eaton (Entom., iii., p. 104) records an instance in which
parthenogenetic progeny of Oiyyia antiqna were reared to the third
generation. The details are : — First generation. — From a pupa found
at Venn Hall, Sherborne, Dorset, in the autumn of 1864, a female
imago emerged, which laid eggs. Second generation. — Of the above-
mentioned eggs, ten hatched in the spring of 1865, but of these larvae,
one only, the largest from the first, came to maturity ; this produced
a female which laid eggs. Third generation. — Five larvae from these
eggs attained the pupal state of development, and one of them pro-
duced a female imago by the middle of October. Mo further details
are given.
It may now be well to summarise some of the records under the
various families to which the species belong : — SOLENOBIIDES. — Solenobia
inconspicuella, vide Ent. Rec., vol. vi., p. 5, where it is stated that par-
thenogenesis in this species is well known. S. clathrella, mentioned
by Newman in Phys. Characters in Classif., 1856. S. lichendla, Wocke
anu Reutti (teste Siebold). S. triquetrella, Siebold's experiments on
this species, and S. lichenella, have already been detailed, see Ent. liec.,
v., pp. 292-3. Talaepona pseudobombycdla, Freer, Ent. Rec., vi.,
p. 89, very many parthenogenetic larvae obtained. PSYCHIDES. — Apte-
rona crenulclla (Psyche helLv), was experimented upon by Siebold,
and dissections of the parthenogenetic females were made. At this
time, the male of this species was unknown. Canephora vnicolor
(Psyche yramindla) and SterrhopterLv hirsutella (P. fusca) are both
mentioned in Newman's list. Fumea casta (nitidella) rests as a par-
thenogenetic species, on Douglas' unsatisfactory evidence. NOTODON-
TIDES. — Diloba caeruleocephala, Bernoulli, 1772, records the hatching of
unfertilised eggs. Notodonta du-taroidi's. There is a record made by
Alderson, as to the probability of this species being parthenogenetic,
Entom. Bee., vol. i., p. 96. Cerura vinula. Alderson notices unfertilised
eggs of this species hatching, Ent. Rec., i., p. 95. LIPARIDES. —
Porthetria dispar, Carlier (teste Lacordaire), records three generations
without copulation having taken place. Pearce, Ent., xii., p. 229,
obtained larvae May 6th, 1879, from unfertilised eggs. Weijenbergh,
Archives Neerlandaises, v., 1870, pp. 258-264, records that fertile eggs
of autumn, 1866, hatched April, 1867, and produced imagines, August,
1867 ; from these, without fecundation, eggs hatched April, 1868, and
imagines appeared August, 1868 ; from these, again, without fecundation,
eggs hatched in April, 1869, imagines in August, 1869 ; from these,
without fecundation, eggs did not hatch in spring of 1870, but dried up.
Ladia coenosa. Brown, Entom., v.,p. 395, an isolated female emerged,
laid more than 60 eggs, which duly hatched and were sent to Hellins.
Oryyia antiqiia. Eaton, Entom., iii, p. 104, data already given.
O. ijonoKtiijma and Psilura vionacha. Mentioned by Newman, Essay
I'liyx. Charac., etc. ARCTIIDES. — Arctia caia, A. villica and A. casta,
are mentioned by Newman in his Essay Phys. Charac. Spiloxoma
mendica. Bowell, Ent. Ptec., i., p. 174, obtained a batch of ova from
female just out of pupa case, of which 15 hatched. NOCTUIDES. —
Anarta myrtilli. Watson, Entom., xv., pp. 261-2, records putting a
PARTHENOGENESIS OR AGA3IOGENESIS IN LEPIDOPTERA. 29
pupa in a closed box, that the latter was opened some time after,
and contained a female imago and many young larvae, dead. LASIO-
CAMPIDES. — Lasiocampa quercm. — Tardy (teste Newman) bred three
parthenogenetic broods of perfectly vigorous and full-sized moths.
Mory of Basle, Soc. Ent., April 1st, 1895, also records many
larvae from unfertilised eggs. L. trifolii is recorded by Bouskell,
Trans. Leices. Lit. Soc., iv., p. 422, as laying a few unfertilised eggs in
1896, which hatched in the following spring, and shortly afterwards
died. Eutricha (Gastropacha) quercifolia. Baster (teste Bernoulli) ob-
tained fertile eggs from an isolated bred female, Cosmotriche (Odonestis)
potatoria and Dendrolimus pint, are both mentioned by Newman in his
Essay Phys. Charac. BOMBYCIDES. — Bomby.v mori. Many cases have
already been dealt with at length. SATURNIIDES. — Saturnia pavonia.
Noticed by Newman, Essay Phys. Charac. ; also by Bouskell, Trans.
Leic. Lit. Soc., iv., p. 422, who mentions that a female laid six eggs in
her cocoon, she being unable to get out ; these all hatched. S. pyri is
mentioned by Newman, Essay Phys. Charac. TeJea polyphemus.
Curtis (teste Filippi) obtained fertile eggs from a moth that emerged
from a single cocoon in his possession, and that had come from
America. SPHINGIDES. — Smerinthus ocellatm. Newman, Essay. Phys.
Charac. Class. ; Brown, Entow.., v., p. 395 ; Headly, Trans. Leices.
Lit. Soc., iv., p. 421, the latter mentions that of the eggs laid, 75 per
cent, hatched. S. populi. Kipp (teste Siebold) reared both sexes from
unfecundated eggs ; Newman, Essay Phys. Charac. Class. ; Bouskell,
Trans. Leices. Lit. Soc., iv., p. 421, mentions twenty out of seventy
eggs hatching. S. tiliae. Brown, Ent., v., p. 395, no data.
Acherontia atropus. Geddes and Thompson, Evolution of Sex, no data
given. Sphin.f lit/ustri. Newman, Essay Phys. Charac. in Classif. ;
Nix, Entom., iv., p. 323, all eggs hatched in this brood. Clogg,
Entom., v., pp. 356-7, fifty eggs hatched out of the brood. GEOMETRIDES.
— Phigalia pedaria. Newman, Entom., ii., p. 28, records the laying of
many eggs by three unfertilised females at end of February, 1864, and
states that, on April 17th, the cage was swarming with newly-hatched
larvae. He failed, however, to get imagines.
Although it may safely be assumed that parthenogenesis does occur
in Lepidoptera, yet, as we have just said, it must be confessed that
the material based on true scientific experiment is not large, and that
many careful observations based on the most exact experiments are
required. The elucidation of the peculiar phenomena presented, is
worth all the patience with which the entomologist must attack this
subject, and he would have the reward of knowing that he had helped
to make clearer one of the greatest mysteries of insect life.
The phenomenon of parthenogenesis appears to me to be explicable
only by supposing that the potency of the male element is handed
down generation after generation, and that former fertilisations affect
the embryo, independently of the actual union which fertilises the
ovum. The male element must be looked upon as possessing, not
only a great and direct influence on the development of the eggs im-
mediately fertilised by it, but also on the eggs of successive issues not
directly fecundated. That this is probably so, is shown by the fact
that the unfertilised egg often undergoes varying conditions of deve-
lopment, short of the actual development of a perfect embryo. This
was foreshadowed in our notes on " the ovum," where the variation
30 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
and change of the colour of the egg are dealt with. In cases of par-
thenogenesis, the influence must be powerful enough to cause full
development, not only for one generation, but for one or more genera-
tions beyond the one normally reached, and in this way may be
explained the phenomenon that some species, which usually do not
multiply without sexual intercourse, occasionally produce partheno-
genetic young, even in cases like Sphinx liyiistri, Bombyx ntori, etc.,
where it could scarcely be expected. It is remarkable that, in most
orders of insects, the parthenogenetic progeny is usually male, but, in
the Psychidae among Lepidoptera, helotoky, or the production of
parthenogenetic females, alone takes place.
I may mention, in conclusion, that the great difference that exists
between parthenogenesis (1) in the Psychids, where it appears to
be, in some species, the rule rather than the exception, as it is in some
Cynipids and in bees (as regards male eggs), and (2) in all other Lepi-
doptera, where it is a rare and occasional phenomenon, is somewhat
striking and important. This difference, no doubt, is only one of
degree, but so great a degree as to be parallel to a difference in kind.
It is quite possible, too, by means of the Psychids, to ally the partheno-
genesis that takes place in Lepidoptera with that known to occur in
the Cynipidae, and the phenomena might perhaps be brought into
connection with a more primitive method of reproduction, e.g., gem-
mation. I am quite clear that the modus operandi of parthenogenesis
in Lepidoptera is still as obscure as ever, and that the explanation I
have offered does not help matters much. It, however, is the only
logical explanation that has occurred to me, and must be taken for, and
only for, what it is worth.
CHAPTER V.
THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTEROU S LARVA.
AT the time that the lepidopterous larva escapes from the egg, it
possesses true insect characters. Its body is composed of a series of
segments, containing the muscular, digestive, circulatory, respiratory,
and nervous systems. It breathes by means of tracheae, a series of
fine tubes composed of an elastic membrane, and kept open by a
spiral structure, which passes throughout their whole length. The
four segments of the head are now welded into an almost inseparable
whole, and, although the first three body-segments are assigned to the
thorax, there is no well-marked separation between the thoracic and
abdominal regions. The .skin of the newly-hatched larva is very soft,
but it quickly becomes harder, owing to the solidification of the horny
substance called chitin in the outer cuticle. Usually larvae have a
somewhat colourless skin when just out of the egg ; but the harden-
ing of the cuticle is frequently accompanied by the production of a
difference in colour, and by the development of the distinct markings
which are characteristic of the larval cuticle, so that an almost
colourless larva may, within an hour of hatching, become almost
black. This hardening does not affect the sutures, and the interseg-
THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTEROUS LARVA. 31
mental membranes allow the segments to move freely upon each
other. The body segments are usually sub-divided into subsidiary
rings or sub-segments, which also move more or less freely upon each
other. The sub-segments are divided again into still smaller solid
portions, which have a certain amount of freedom, and are technically
called sclerites.
A general description of a typical caterpillar or larva now becomes
necessary. We find that the caterpillars of Lepidoptera are usually
long and cylindrical, being, however, somewhat flattened on the
ventral surface. They may be considered as being composed of a head,
thorax and abdomen, as in the imago or perfect insect, although the
distinction between thorax and abdomen is not, as previously noted,
distinctly marked. The cylindrical shape of the larva depends upon
the fact that the larval skin contains fluid under considerable pressure.
The head is a somewhat horny, compact, oval case, and is furnished
with a number of appendages about the oral opening. It is made up
of four (or more) segments, which, however, are not distinguishable
after hatching. On each side of the head are, usually, six simple ocelli,
arranged in lunular form on the cheeks. The mouth consists of a
labrum, mandibles, maxillae (with maxillary palpi) and labium (with
labial palpi).
The thorax is composed of three segments (those following the
head), which are known as the pro-thorax, meso-thorax, and meta-
thorax (or post-thorax) respectively. In all larvae which burrow under-
ground or feed internally, and in many others, which do not, the dorsum
of the pro-thorax is protected with a hard, corneous plate, often, indeed,
extending to the meso-thorax and meta-thorax. Each of the three
thoracic segments bears on the ventral surface a pair of more or less
horny legs (the true legs), which have five joints and terminate in a
single claw.
The abdomen consists of the last ten segments of the caterpillar's
body. They are very similar, in general appearance, to the thoracic
segments, but the tubercles, or little chitinous hair-bearing knobs
which they carry, are usually somewhat differently arranged, and they
never give rise to true legs. Some of the abdominal segments, however,
bear on their ventral surface a pair of stout fleshy protuberances, called
pro-legs or claspers ; these prolegs are really extensions of the integu-
ment, and have, on their free surface, a number of hooks. The number
and development of the prolegs, and the arrangement of their terminal
hooks vary considerably, different patterns distinguishing the several
families, and even genera. Very little use is made of the true legs ,
for purposes of progression, this being accomplished almost entirely
by means of the prolegs. The terminal segment of the abdomen is
known as the anal segment. On either side of the first thoracic,
and of the first eight abdominal segments, is $, tiny opening called a
spiracle. The spiracles are round, oval, or longitudinal in shape, and
are the channels through which respiration is carried on. Regularly
pjaced on certain parts of the body are to be found little chitinous,
hair-bearing knobs (sometimes modified into fleshy elevations), which
we have already said are called tubercles. These may give rise to
single hairs, but sometimes to exceedingly close and dense fascicles.
These tubercles are often strikingly modified at each successive ecdysis
or change of skin.
32 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
The lepidopterous larva, by its active, independent existence, under-
goes special modification and development, in order to protect itself
from its various enemies. Hence the larvae of different species assume,
by modification, a manifold variety of shapes, and of arrangement of
the various external structures — hairs, tubercles, etc. As the most
specialised larvae present, therefore, such wide divergences from the
original type from which they have sprung, it becomes necessary for
us often to homologise the complex structures which they now bear
with the simple structures from which they originated, and to do this
a comparison must be instituted with those larvas which, from the
exigencies of their environment, are but little changed from the more
ancestral larvae. The newly-hatched larvae of many species, which
are very specialised in their adult stages, have the specialised structures
in a very simple condition, both as to form, structure and arrange-
ment ; whilst many boring and case-bearing larvae are still more
simple in the structure and arrangement of the tubercles, hairs and pro-
legs, which are especially prone to be changed by external conditions.
Larvae which show this simple arrangement of tubercles, hairs and
prolegs, are often spoken of as generalised, in contradistinction to those
in which the structures are complicated, and which are termed
specialised, larvae. It must not be forgotten, however, that the most
generalised of all lepidopterous larvae must be far in advance of the
larvae of those insects (Orthoptera, etc.), with incomplete metamor-
phoses. There can be little doubt that insects belonging to these
orders, in which the metamorphoses are carried on within the very
narrowest limits, and in which the various stages present but little
change, inter sey are much more ancestral than the insects belonging
to those orders in which the metamorphoses are distinct, and in which
the various stages bear but little resemblance to each other.
The Lepidoptera which have the most generalised form of larvae
are the Eriocephalids, Micropterygids, Adelids, Tineids, Sesiids,
Psychids, Hepialids, Zeuzerids and the Tortricids. A comparison of
these with each other, and with larvae belonging to more specialised
super-families, soon gives us a clue as to the lines on which modifica-
tion has proceeded in the higher groups.
Having glanced at the general structure of a lepidopterous larva,
we may deal with a few of the organs in more detail.
The head of a caterpillar is divided into two lateral halves by a
suture, which divides, however, in the centre of the face, and leaves
between its forked branches a triangular space. This frontal triangle
is termed the clypeus, and is very often distinctly and characteristically
marked. Just within, and parallel to the central facial suture, is a
deeply-grooved furrow, which is the reverse of a ridge that faces in-
ternally, and to which the muscles of the head are attached. The true
sutural line is but little developed in newly-hatched larvae. Just
below the clypeus is a short inconspicuous piece of chitin, welded to the
clypeus. This is very distinct in some butterfly larvae (<?.//., the Papi-
lionids), and is known as the epistoma. To its lower edge, the usually
bi-lobed labrum or lip is attached by a fleshy hinge, enabling it to move
freely backwards and forwards upon the mandibles. These latter are
arranged on either side of the mouth ; each consists of a stout,
swollen, short, horny, plate, which is broader at the base, and becomes
somewhat pointed at the apex, which varies considerably in different
THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTEROUS LARVA. 33
species. In some, the apex is chisel-like ; in others, serrated ; in yet
others, pointed. Below and behind the mandibles or upper jaws are
found the fleshy bases of the maxillae or lower jaws, each of which
bears a short fleshy joint, to which the maxillary palpi are attached.
The inner palpus consists usually of only one or two joints, and is in-
conspicuous ; the outer is more conspicuous, and consists of three joints,
of which the two outer are somewhat horny and minute. The under
surface of the head, lying between the basal portion of the maxillae, is
occupied by the labium or lower lip. The labium bears, near its tip, on
each side, a pair of minute two-jointed palpi, which, from their
position, are termed the labial palpi ; their basal part is long, and the
upper very minute. The apex of the labium is strangely developed
into a small horny tube, from a hole in the tip of which the fluid which
is secreted, and which ultimately forms silk, is passed, the tube itself
being known as the spinneret. In the caterpillar, the antennas are
very small and ill-developed. They consist of a pair of four-jointed
organs, one on each side of the face, placed just outside the base of
the mandibles. The basal joint of the antennae is large and fleshy,
the remainder being much more slender, and varying somewhat in
shape. The third joint usually carries a long bristle. On each cheek
are to be seen the six ocelli, placed just above the base of each antenna ;
each one looks like a smooth, hemispherical, protuberant wart, and
they vary in colour in different species. Five of them form, usually,
a somewhat regular curve, and are placed close together, whilst the
sixth lies a little further away, often towards the centre of the cheek.
As may be expected, the detailed characters of the head-parts vary
somewhat in the different super-families of the Lepidoptera, but the
general characters hold good.
The head, too, varies greatly as regards the clothing and secon-
dary organs that it bears. It is usually more or less tuberculated,
the tubercles bearing hairs, and there can be no doubt that an actual
ontogenetic relationship exists between these and the tubercles of the
body segments. The head segment nearest to the thorax, which forms
the summit of the head, is sometimes ornamented with long pointed
chitinous horns, spiny tubercles, ear-like processes, etc., all of which
are prolongations of the corneous head structure. These undergo as
varied and as different changes at each exuviation as do those of the
body segments, in which simple hair-bearing, warty tubercles become
developed into most complicated structures as some larvae approach
maturity.
WTe have already stated that the head is composed of at least four
segments. We are so accustomed to look for organs in all animals
having a somewhat similar function to analogous parts in our own
body, that it is easy to overlook their real morphological significance.
There can be no doubt that in insects the mouth proper is a simple
hole, and that the mandibles, maxillae, etc., are simply modified appen-
dages on the various segments of which the head is built up. We may
see how the modification has been brought about by a careful study of
the limbs of a Crustacean (e.g., a crab or lobster). The mouth-parts,
it is clear from such an examination, are undoubtedly limbs, modified
first to hold, then to break, and lastly to masticate, the prey. Ideally,
the head is made of several segments, each bearing a pair of organs —
labrum, mandibles, maxillae, labium — which are homologous with
the true legs. c
34 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Scudder draws special attention to the confusion which has arisen
among entomologists as to the application of the terms " maxillae "
and " maxillary palpi." He says that " ideally, and sometimes
actually, the maxillae of insects bear three palpi, any one of which may
become specially developed and receive the name of maxilla, while the
others are termed palpi, thus the organ called maxilla in one group is
not always strictly homologous with that which bears that name in
another group."
The segments of which the thorax and abdomen are composed are
very much like one another, especially in the earlier stages, but they
sometimes become considerably modified in size, shape and appearance,
as the caterpillar gets older. The segments, both of the thorax and
abdomen, are usually more or less distinctly subdivided transversely
into sub-segments or annulets. The first thoracic segment is some-
times considerably modified, constricted in Hesperid larvas so as tp form
a neck, swollen in the larvae of Lycaenids, Papilionids, and" many
moths, so that the head is quite retractile. In Papilionid larvae, also, it
bears on its dorsum a forked scent-gland or osmaterium, hidden in a
narrow transverse slit when not in use ; in the larvae of butterflies,
Notodonts and Noctuids, it frequently bears on its lower surface a
remarkable structure, known as the " chin-gland." This is an eversible
gland, and one modification of it is found in the syringe of the
Dicranurid larvae. This, the larva of Centra vinula uses as an offensive
weapon, ejecting formic acid from it with considerable force. .Of the
abdominal segments, the last, the anal segment, is the most modified.
The spiracles or stigmata, as we have already seen, are placed in
pairs, one spiracle on each side of the first thoracic and first eight
abdominal segments. Chapman was the first to discover that they
were, occasionally, found in lepidopterous larvae on the second and third
thoracic segments. Packard afterwards discovered the clustered
tracheal tubes, belonging to these segments, in a Sphingid larva, and
in that of Plutymmia cecrojna, but without any external sign of the
spiracles. Scudder found spiracles on the second and third thoracic
segments in the young larva of Pawiihila mandati. The cause of the
usual absence of spiracles on the meso- and meta-thorax, is probably
due to the fact that, on these segments, the future wings are, during
the larval existence, in process of development. Chapman observes
(Ent. Rec., ix., p. 219) that, although there is no larval spiracle on the
meta-thorax in Charades jasiws, yet, when the larva undergoes its final
ecdysis, and becomes a pupa, a tracheal lining is drawn out between
the 2nd and 3rd thoracic segments, where the imago has, but the larva
has not, a spiracle. Chapman states that, although the casting of a
tracheal lining from the 2nd thoracic spiracle had not been observed
by him before he saw it in this species, he had inferred that such
occurred, because he had seen it many years ago in numerous larval
moultings (first, in the large silkworm, Antlieraca i/ama-iiKii). and had
also demonstrated the existence of this spiracle in the imagines.
The spiracles are placed laterally, usually, a little below the middle
of the sides, in the centre, or a little in front of the centre, of the seg-
ments of the abdomen. The pro-thoracic spiracle is placed near the
hind margin of the pro-thorax. They are sometimes very distinct, at
other times inconspicuous, usually with thickened lips, frequently of
an oval shape and with a raised outer margin. The spiracles on the
THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTEROUS LARVA. 35
first thoracic and eighth abdominal segments are sometimes larger
than those on the other segments. This is supposed to be due to the
fact that the air- tubes from these spiracles ramify over a greater area
of the body than do those from the others.
The tubes or tracheae which branch from the spiracles, carry air
to almost all parts of the body. The tracheal tube, or atrium, which
leads into the body from each spiracle, is provided with a muscular
apparatus for excluding foreign bodies, and for the control of the
admission of air into the tracheal system. These are, as it were,
muscular valves, and Landois describes the mechanism for this pur-
pose as consisting of four principal parts — the bow, the lever, the band,
and the muscle. The contraction of the latter, acting on the lever,
causes the band and bow to meet and thus to close the passage. When
the muscle relaxes, the natural elasticity of the parts causes them to
separate again, and thus leave the tracheal tube open. The spiracle,
then, leads into the atrium, which passes, by means of a muscular
valve, into another chamber or vestibule, which, by means of another
valvular arrangement, leads into the tracheal tubes proper. Lowne con-
siders that the vestibule acts as a pump to force air into the tracheae.
The true legs of insects are prolongations of the body wall, and
consist of : — (1) The tarsus (or foot). (2) The tibia (or shank).
(3) The femur (or thigh). (4) The trochanter. (5) The coxa (or
base). The lepidopterous caterpillar has three pairs of true legs, one
pair being attached to each of the thoracic segments. They are five-
jointed, the two basal joints being, usually, larger than those which
follow ; these joints are of a fleshy structure, whilst the three beyond
are leathery or horny. The terminal joint is armed with a small,
usually curved, simple unguis or claw. Packard states that, besides
the terminal claw on the larval foot, there is apparently a second
rudimentary one at the base, which he calls a spine-like " tenant
hair," and sometimes also flattened lamellate set®. The use of the
claw and tenant-hair, as grappling organs, is quite apparent ; the use
of the set® (which may be identical with Chapman's " battledore
palpus ") is not known.
The prolegs are also extensions of the integument, and consist,
usually, of two large, stout, fleshy joints, which are generally retrac-
tile within each other and the body-wall. The character of the pro-
legs is very important, and the arrangement of the hooks which termi-
nate them has recently been shown to have a distinct bearing on the
relationships of the various super-families of the Lepidoptera, and to
give important clues to their lines of evolution. In butterfly larvae
there is usually to be found on the inner side of the tip of the prolegs
a pair of thickened pads, which move laterally. These usually bear
a row of minute, but in some instances, very powerful hooks.
The prolegs are found in most lepidopterous larvae on the third,
fourth, fifth, sixth and terminal abdominal segments, the last or anal,
pair, passing both downward and backward, and being, sometimes,
more plentifully supplied with little hooks than the other prolegs.
These hooks are embedded in the skin, and are arranged usually in
three rows, of which, however, sometimes only one and sometimes
two are developed. The hooks can be apparently extended at will, and
the tip of the foot, between the pads, may be so inflated in some
butterfly larvae as to bring the rows of hooks outside, and then the
86 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
pads can be opened and shut, so that the larva can cling with great
tenacity to anything upon which it is resting. Among the moths the
arrangement of these hooks appears to follow well-defined, general
rules.
Chapman has discovered that the prolegs of the ordinary external-
feeding larvas of the LEPIDOPTERA- HETEROCERA are essentially of two
types, which he calls respectively the "Macro," and the Pyraloid or
" Micro " type. The former has a series of hooks on the inner side of
the ventral prolegs only, and this appears to be characteristic of
exposed-feeding larvae (Sphingids, Bombycids, Nolids, Noctuids and
Geometrids). The Anthrocerids (Zygaenids), although classed as
INCOMPLETE, have prolegs of the " Macro " type. The latter (Micro
type) has a complete circle of hooks to the ventral prolegs, and appears
to be characteristic of concealed-feeders (Pyralids, Phycids, Crambids,
Gelechiids, Plutellids, and (Ecophorids). The most remarkable pro-
legs are those of the ERIOCEPHALIDES. In the larvae of these moths,
eight of the abdominal segments bear a pair of minute jointed legs
of the same type as the thoracic.
Chapman thinks that he finds some suggestion of the probable
development of prolegs and their hooks in the Adelids — Neiiiatois
fasciellus and Adela rujimitrella. In the larvae of these species there
are "series of chitinous points beautifully arranged in rows, like the
teeth of a shark, the larger in front, those in each row alternating
with those in the next rows, and gradually getting smaller, till they
merge in the fifth or sixth row, in the ordinary integumental points.
In the ordinary position of each proleg there are two sets of points
facing each other along a transverse line. In Incurvaria wuxcaldla ,
the prolegs have two rows of hooks facing each other in this way along
a transverse line. In /. (Lampronia) capitdla, the young larva has no
hooks, but the full-grown larva has hooks placed in a circle, yet with
gaps showing that they are still an anterior and posterior set. In
the Tortricids, the row of hooks is usually double ; that is, there are
longer and shorter hooks, but they are always in one perfect row ; but,
in other families, we find that traces of the multiple row of N«niatt>ix
persists. This is the case in Hepialus. In the Sesiids, again, the
circle of hooks is flattened antero-posteriorly, and is weak or wanting at
the outer and inner ends, showing a relationship to Incurvaria. The
anal prolegs very rarely have more than the anterior half developed.
In Hepialus the circle is fairly complete. The Crambids have hooks of
alternate size, like the Tortricids. Crambus often has three sizes of
hooks alternated in one row." Attention is also drawn to the fact
that the larvae of the Hesperids show, in their three rows of hooks, a
persistence of Adelid (or, at least, very low) structure, whilst the adult
larvae of the true butterflies have the same structure as the true
" Macros."
The same observer finally concludes that " the proleg seems to
reach its full development with a complete circle of booklets. A higher
development of the insect is not only accompanied by a fuller deve-
lopment of the inner half of this circle, but also by tbe degeneration
and disappearance of the outer half. This may often be followed out
in ' Macros,' usually among the butterflies, where the young larva has
' Pyraloid ' prolegs, which often suddenly (at one moult), or more
gradually (in two or three), assume, in the full-grown larva, the
tHE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF fHE LEflDOPTEROtfS LARVA. 37
unilateral ' Macro ' type " (Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1893). Prout
has noticed that, in the Georaetrid genus Oporabia, the newly-hatched
larva has a complete circle of hooks.
We have already mentioned that the segments which usually bear
the prolegs are the third, fourth, fifth, sixth and tenth abdominal.
The Geometrids, however, usually have them only on the sixth and
tenth abdominal segments. In the early stages of many Noctuid
larvae, we find, however, only the merest traces of prolegs on the third
and fourth abdominal segments ; these, however, usually develop com-
pletely at the later ecdyses. The peculiar method of progression,
characteristic of Geometrid larvae, is due entirely to the absence of the
prolegs on the third, fourth and fifth abdominal segments, and those
Noctuid larvae which do not develop prolegs on the third and fourth
abdominal segments, until late in life, resemble the Geometrid larvae
in their mode of progression, whilst a whole group of Noctuid moths,
which never do develop them, retain the looping habit throughout, and
have been called, on this account, by some entomologists, HEMI-
GEOMETERS.
In some Geometrid larvae, prolegs appear on other than the abdo-
minal segments normally carrying them. The larva of Himera pennaria
obtains a pair of ill-developed ones, on the fifth abdominal segment, at
the first moult ; these persist after the second and third moults and
disappear with the fourth moult. In larvae of Anisopteryx aescularia,
prolegs are developed on the same segment, but these continue through-
out the whole larval existence.
The larva of an American moth, Layoa crispata, described as being
like a hairy Limacodid (Heterogenea) larva, with the head retracted, the
body short, and the legs so rudimentary as to impart a gliding motion
to the caterpillar when it moves, has seven pairs of short abdominal
prolegs, the second and seventh abdominal segments each bearing a
pair of rudimentary prolegs, in addition to those which normally carry
them. Burmeister found exactly similar prolegs on the second and
seventh abdominal segments of Chrytopyga undulata. According to
•the figures of Kowalewski and Tichomiroff, the embryonic larvae of
Sphinx and Boinbyx mori have, at first, a pair of prolegs on each abdo-
minal segment, but half of these are absorbed again before the larva
hatches.
Some very peculiar methods of progression are to be noticed among
the larvae of certain species of lepidoptera, none, however, is more peculiar
than that of the Cochliopodids, of which our two British species, Hetero- )
genea cruciata (asella) and Apoda avellana (testudo) are very fair
representatives. Resting on the upper surface of the leaves of their
food-plants, with the body inflated to form a dome-like structure,
they look very little like lepidopterous larvae, and bear, in fact, a
strong resemblance to the pupaa of ladybirds (Coccinellidae). The
almost evanescent character of the prolegs makes progression on the
smooth upper surface of a leaf difficult, and Poulton has suggested
that the remarkable undulatory movement by which the Cochliopodid
larvae now progress was due originally to the larvae first walking " with
adhesive claspers," that these gradually became shorter and broader,
thus yielding increased support by extending the area by means of which
they adhered. Finally the claspers, he considers, would be altogether
lost, and the whole of the ventral surface, from which they formerly
38 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
projected, would take part in locomotion. The modification of the
prolegs and the method of progression, is, without doubt, designed to
enable the larva to move freely over the smooth upper surface of
leaves, which it could not well do under ordinary conditions. The
sticky condition of the abdominal surface supports this view, but there
can be no doubt that they spin some small quantity of silk on which
they walk, as do so many other lepidopterous larvae.
Besides the tubercles, which have fairly fixed positions on the seg-
ments, the skin has, scattered more or less regularly over the body,
little elevations, resembling, somewhat, a fine pile or covering of minute
hairs. This pile is a very common feature in butterfly larvae, is sup-
ported by very minute papillae, and is generally distributed with con-
siderable regularity, usually in a transverse, though sometimes in a
longitudinal, direction. It is, however, occasionally scattered irregularly
all over the body. When it is arranged transversely, it is usually some-
what closely related to the subsegmental divisions into which the seg-
ments are divided. Bacot says that this pile, which appears something
like a clothing of short pointed spines, is very common in lepidopterous
larvae in their first skin, and, in some, is so fine that a one-fourth lens
(or even higher power) is required to detect it. The minute spines or
hairs are often only visible at a certain angle, or when the edge of the
dorsum is silhouetted against a bright background. In some larvae
this coat is lost at the first, or at a subsequent, moult ; in others, it
persists throughout the whole larval existence, becoming just a trifle
coarser at each moult. The larvae of D icy da oo, Dianthoccia curpo-
phat/a, and Taeniocampa pulverulenta fcruda), among many others,
illustrate this phase of its development. Bacot is of opinion that
primitive and secondary hairs are of different origin, the former arising
from the primitive setae or tubercles, the latter from the minute hairs
forming the pile just described. He is also of opinion that the bifid
shagreen hairs of Smerinthus, the dense clothing of short secondary
hairs in some Lasiocampids, the short pyramidal granulations of cer-
tain Liparids, and the highly specialised secondary hairs of some
butterfly larvae, are evolved from the minute hairs, which in their
simplest condition, form the pile above described.
That this pile is found rather generally among larvae is proved by
the following, very incomplete, list furnished by Bacot. ZYG^SNIDES : —
Adscita statices and Anthrocera trifolii (both in first skin). LASIOCAM-
PIDES : Trichiura crataegi. BOMBYCIDES : Boinbyx mori (very fine).
GEOMETKIDES: Phorodesma smaragdaria (first stage, skin granular later).
PLATYPTERYGIDES : Drepana cultraria. NOTODONTIDES : Leiocanipa
(Pheosia) tremula(dictaea), black in first skin, no trace in second, except
on horn, Diloba caeruleocephala (in first stage), Odontosia caniiclita
(faint traces in third skin), Phalera bucephala (in first and second
skins, (?) developed into secondary hairs later on). LIPARIDES : Dasy-
cltira fascelina(in first skin), Demas coryli (strong in first, small in
second to fourth skins), Orgyia antiqua (distinct but fine), Leucoma
salicis&Q(iPsiliiramonacha(in first and second skins), Portliesia similis.
ARCTIIDES: Spilosoma lubricipeda (first to third skins, small), S.fuligi-
nosa (first and (?) third skins), Arctia villica (first to fourth skins),
Callimorpha dominula (strongly developed), Euthemonia nissula (first to
fifth skins), Kuclielia jacobaeae (first skin). N GLIDES : Nola cuculla-
tella (in later stages rather granules than prickles). NOCTUIDES ;
THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE of THE LEPIDOPTEROUS LARVA. 59
Acronicta leporina (slightly in first skin), Cuspidia megacephala (in
fourth skin, very noticeable and long, almost secondary hairs),
1'haretra euphorbiae var. myricae (first to third skins), Pachnobia leitco-
ijrapha (weak in first skin, no trace after), Triphaena pronuba, T. comes,
T. Jimbria, T. iantkina (just traceable in first skin, then absent),
reridroma saticia and Ayrotis puta (first skin, very small), Dianthoecia
carpophaga (to full-grown, very long), Taeniocampa miniosa (large and
distinct in first skin, only traces after), T. yracilis (very fine, black, in
first skin, no trace after), T . puherulenta (strongly marked throughout) ,
Calocampa exoleta (in first, no trace in fourth, skin), Aporophyla
aiifitralis (absent, or exceedingly fine in first skin), Calymnia affinis
(strong in first, small in third, skin, no trace later), Polia chi (slight
traces in first skin), Dicycla oo (strongly marked throughout), Plusia
feMucae (present in third skin). PAPILIONIDES : Zepliyrusquerciis (strong
when, and not until, full-fed), Aylais urticae (strong, in early stages).
Since the observations, on which this list is compiled, were made off-
hand, and when studying other characters presented by the larvae, it
can be readily understood how common an occurrence is the presence
of this pile in lepidopterous larvae.
Bacot says : Most of the Noctuids lose the character very early, yet
in some it persists strongly throughout the larval life. Dianthoecia
carpopliaija exhibits it from the youngest to adult stage, yet adult
D. cucubali shows no trace of it. T. pulvendenta retains, but T. miniosa
soon loses, it.
Scudder believes that " the use of this clothing is tolerably clear,
since this pile must prevent the too rapid evaporation of the heat from
the surface of the body, for, although caterpillars are classed among
the cold-blooded animals, they, nevertheless, have an internal heat
above that of the surrounding atmosphere, which originates from the
activities of the organs and the respiratory functions, and which they
would lose more rapidly but for this investing pile."
On the dorsum of the thoracic (and more rarely the abdominal)
segments of the larva, a hard chitinous shield is found. This is par-
ticularly noticeable in all wood-boring larvae, such as those of the
Cossids, Hepialids and Sesiids, as well as in Crambids, Tortricids, and
many Noctuids and Tineids. It is, however, more general and most
marked on the pro-thorax, and hence it is often spoken of as the pro-
thoracic shield. Since this structure is equally well-developed in the
larvae of the Cerambycidae and other Coleopterous larvae which also
bore into hard substances, it appears probable that this hard chitinous
plate serves to protect the head, and parts of the body underlying the>
shield, from injury. Its appearance, too, in larvae belonging not only
to different families of the Lepidoptera, but also, to different orders,
suggests that it has been developed in response to the external stimulus
supplied by continual friction, an excess of chitin having been deposited
(or developed) by the hypodermal cells of the tergal arch of the pro-
thoracic segment. It is not unusual to find the shield, in some
form of decadence, in larvae which now feed fully exposed, especially
in certain Noctuids, and occasionally the shield is present in the first
larval stage, but lost in the later ones. These occurrences generally take
place in larvae some of whose allies have, or had, boring habits. The
value of this shield to boring larvae for leverage purposes must also be
very great, since it gives a solid fulcrum for the head. The excessive
40 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEBA.
development of the dorsum of the pro-thorax in the larva of Cemra ap*
pears to have no phylogenetic significance, nor any close connection
with the chitinous pro-thoracic shields of boring larvae. It is certainly
smooth and shining, but appears to have been modified independently,
for protective purposes, in this particular genus. Still, its probable use
for the moulding of its hard cocoon must not be altogether overlooked.
The anal segment has caused much discussion as to its structure
and homologies, especially with regard to the suranal plate, the
infra-anal lobe, the paranal lobes and the paranal tubercles. The
supra-anal, or "suranal," plate of Packard, is the "podex" of
Kirby and Spence, and both in its shape and ornamentation would
appear, especially in Bombycid and Geometrid larvre, to afford specific
characters. It varies much, also, among the Notodonts and Satur-
niids, and is especially well-developed in those larvae which constantly
use the anal legs for grasping, while the front part of the body is more
or less raised. It appears to be correlated with enlarged anal pro-
legs. According to Packard, this plate, morphologically, appears to
" represent the dorsal arch of the tenth or last abdominal segment of
the body, and is the ' anal operculum ' or ' lamina supra-analis ' of
different authors. This suranal plate is, in the Platyptericidae re-
markably elongated, forming an approach to a flagellum-like terrify-
ing appendage, and, in the larva of Aylia tau, forms a long, promi-
nent, sharp spine. Its shape, also, in Centra caterpillars, is rather
unusual, being long and narrow. In the Ceratocampidae, especially
in Anisota, Dryocampa, Fades and Citherunia, this plate is very large,
the surface and edges being rough and tuberculated, while it seems to
attain its maximum in Sphingicampa, being triangular, and ending in
a bifid point " (Bombycine Moths, p. 25).
The " paranal lobes " are the " homologues of the two anal valves
observed in the cockroach, and occur in all, or nearly all, insects,"
according to the same author. They are the " valvulfe " of Bur-
meister, and the " podical plates " of Huxley. They are fleshy and
papilliform in Geometrid larvae, and appear as if projecting backward
from the base of the anal legs. In the larvae of the Dicranurids they
are similar, and each ends in a seta.
The "paranal forks" or "paranal tubercles" are two bristles
arising from the end of .a papilla, directed backward. They are found
in the larvae of most arboreal caterpillars, being especially well-
developed in those of Notodonts and many Geometrids, whilst they
are wanting in the larvae of Noctuids, Sphingids, Bhopalocera (?), and
some Geometrids- and INCOMPLETE (Micro-lepidoptera). In the
American Choerodes, they are very large ; so also are they in the larva
of our common Uropteryx sambucaria, where they become papilliform
and setiferous. Their use was discovered by Hellins. In his description
of the larva of Cerura bifida, he writes of them : — " At the tip of the
anal flap are two sharp points, and another pair underneath, which
are used to throw the pellets of frass to a distance." Packard has
seen the frass pellets held by the two spines of the paranal tubercles
in Centra borealis, whilst Dyar says that he has seen the caterpillars
throw their pellets, with the aid of these spines, away from them, so as
to strike against the side of a tumbler in which they were confined.
The "infra-anal lobe" is described by Packard as a "thick conical
fleshy lobe or flap, ending often in a hard chitinous point, and situated
THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEPlDOPTEROUS LARVA. 41
directly below the vent. In appearance, it is somewhat like the egg-
guide of the Acrydii, though the latter is thin and flat." Its use is,
evidently, to aid in tossing the pellets of excrement away, so that they
may not come in contact with the body.
Packard, in an article describing the larvae of certain species of Cerura,
gave it as his opinion, that the "stemapoda" or filamentous anal pro-
cesses of these caterpillars were homologous with the anal prolegs of
other Notodonts, and, to show this, figures the anal prolegs of Dasy-
lophia angirina in its first larval stage. He points out, in his comparison,
that it is intermediate in form between the normal anal proleg and
the stemapod, and remarks that it "has no crochets, but the planta,
of which the flagellum of Cerura seems to be the homologue, is re-
tracted, and the retractor muscles, one of which is divided, are much
as in the filamental legs of Cerura. It, however, is not the general
opinion of British entomologists that the stemapoda are modified anal
prolegs. Hellins regarded them as " dorsal appendages, somewhat
after the fashion of the anal spines of the larvae of the Satyridae"
Packard discusses this view, and concludes : — " After repeated com-
parisons of the filamental anal legs of Cerura with those of Macruro-
campa marthesia, and comparing these with the greatly elongated anal
legs of young Heterocampa unicolor, as figured by Popenoe, and taking
into account the structures and homologies of the supra-anal and
paranal flaps, one can scarcely doubt that those of Cerura are modified
anal legs." There appears to be no doubt whatever that Packard is
quite right, and that the view hitherto held by British entomologists,
is a wrong one.
The ancestral lepidopterous larvae probably lived, at first, on
grasses and low growing plants, and the arboreal habit was possibly
assumed at a comparatively late period of larval evolution. This
view is fully borne out by the geological evidence, for it is generally
considered that flowering plants and trees were probably developed in
the Cretaceous or Tertiary periods, and that our present race of lepi-
dopterous insects became evolved side by side with the great changes
that then took place in the flora of the world.
Many of the most highly developed groups of Lepidoptera — most
of the Noctuids, Arctiids, Pierids, Satyrids, etc. — feed, even now,
almost exclusively upon low plants, and we find that, amongst larvae
with this particular habit, the caterpillar is usually devoid of spines,
and smooth or covered with a short, dense, velvety pile, whilst the
markings consist chiefly of longitudinal lines of various shades of
green, grey, etc., running from the head to the anus, dorsally, '
laterally, and ventrally. There are, of course, many very hairy and
spiny larvae that feed on low plants, but these live usually a more or
less exposed life — neither hiding under leaves (like the Satyrids) nor
stones (Noctuids and Crambids) by day — and the great development of
hairs, pencils, spines and bristles, appears to be due often to the cater-
pillars having changed their mode of life from a concealed to an
exposed Condition, the change having frequently been accompanied by
a move from a herbaceous to an arboreal feeding ground.
Just as the caterpillars of grass-feeding larvae are green or grey in
colour, and are chiefly ornamented with longitudinal lines of various
shades, so the larvae of arboreal caterpillars — Catocalids, Geometrids,
etc. — have their bodies usually of a grey or ash colour, ornamented
42 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
with dorsal and lateral humps, so that they may assimilate more
readily with the colour of the bark of the tree upon which they rest,
and to small twigs bearing leaf-buds, etc. But such larva as are
particularly protected in this manner do not lead such exposed lives as
do those which, by the modification of the tubercles and setae of the
more generalised larv®, have developed conspicuous spines, pencils of
hairs, etc., or those which, by the development of bright warning
colours, ocellated spots, etc., present an inedible, or even dangerous
appearance to the avian, and numberless other, enemies which surround
them on every side.
Those larvae which live upon trees, and trust for their escape to
their resemblance to pieces of stick, etc., are sometimes remarkably
tuberculated. This is particularly noticeable in the Geometrids and
Notodonts. On the other hand, those larvae which are arboreal, but
which trust for their concealment to leafy abodes which they make and
in which they dwell — such as the Tortricids, Pyralids, etc. — have
retained, in many ways, much more generalised forms of larvae, both
as regards colour, markings and tubercles. The adaptation of exposed
larvae to their surroundings is also very remarkably illustrated in the
case of many "plume " larvae. No better illustration is needed than the
similarity of the dermal clothing of the larva of Aciptilia galacto-
dactyla to the woolly covering of the underside of the leaves of burdock
(Arctium lappa), whilst Miss Murtfeldt quotes a parallel case among
the American " plumes," stating (Psyclw, iii., p. 390) that " there is a
very close imitation in the dermal clothing of the larvae of Leioptilus
sericidactylus to that of the young leaves of Vernonia, on which the
spring and early summer broods feed."
The inedible nature of hairs needs no demonstration. That many
birds are able to eat hairy larvae is no detraction from the general
principle. The fact that some birds do eat hairy larvae leaves un-
answered the fact that there are numbers of birds that cannot ; and,
undoubtedly, many small insectivorous birds that would eat a Tortricid
larva with gusto, and make no objection to its simple setiferous hairs,
would object to a larva of Arctia caia, or that of Acronicta leponna.
We may take it for granted that the ultimate use of spines and
hairs is for protection, and further, that they have been stimulated in
their development by natural selection, indicating to insectivorous birds
that the bristly armature is inedible ; yet it seems that we have hardly
reached the bottom of the question, if we look upon the special develop-
ment of the setae and spines as due to protective needs, arising
either from the attacks of birds or parasitic insects, but that we yet
require some explanation of the initial cause of the development of
such spines and specially developed hair structures.
Fritz Miiller, in 1864, maintained that the so called metamorphoses
of insects, in which these animals quit the eggs as grubs or cater-
pillars, and afterwards become quiescent pupae, incapable of feeding,
was not inherited from the primitive ancestor of all insects, but was
acquired at a later period. Brauer, in 1869, divided0 the larvae of
insects into two groups, the " campodea " form and " raupen " form.
In 1871, Packardf adopted these views, and gave the name of " eruci-
* " Betrachtungen iiber die Verwandlung der Inseckten, etc.," Verh. K. K. Zool.
bot. Get. Wien, 1869.
f American Naturalist, September, 1871.
THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTEROUS LARVA. 43
form larvae" to the cylindrical larvae of certain Coleoptera (weevils, etc.),
as well as to those of Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera, con-
sidering that the larvae of all these were the result of adaptation, and
were " derivatives of the primary ' campodea ' type of larva."
Lubbock practically adopted0 Brauer's views in 1873. In 1895,
Packard consideredf that, " while the origin of the eruciform
larvae of the Cerambycidae. Curctdionidae, Scolytidae, and other
wood-boring and seed-inhabiting and burrowing coleopterous larvae in
general, is plainly attributable to adaptation to changed modes of life,
as contrasted with the habits of roving, carnivorous campodeiform
larvae, it is not so easy to account for the origin of the higher rneta-
bolous orders of Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera, whose larvae
are all more or less eruciform." He supposes them all to have arisen
independently from groups belonging to the Neuroptera (in the modern
sense), or to some allied but extinct group.
In 1895, we suggested! that the earliest forms of lepidopterous
larvae were hidden, and probably internal feeders. This view is not
shared by Packard, who suggests that the earliest type was " allied to
some Tineoid which lived, not only on land, but on low herbage, not
being a miner or sack-bearer." This conclusion is arrived at by his
consideration of the remarkable changes in form of certain Tineoid
mining larvae, described and figured by Chambers|j and Dimmock.§
These larvae were those of the Lithocolletids, Gracilariids, etc., and
we quite agree that these apodous forms of mining larvae are the
result of adaptation to their habits. Our own idea of the ancestral
form was, and is, one more closely resembling those of Hepialus,
Cossus or Zetizera, but the point matters little. What most authorities
are agreed upon is — that by the time the ancestral larva was essen-
tially lepidopterous, it was provided with prolegs that bore terminal
crochets or hooks, and with simple fleshy warts or tubercles bearing
simple hairs. The various forms in which the crochets are now
arranged on the prolegs, and the many modifications which one finds
in the arrangement and character of the piliferous tubercles, must be
looked upon as more recent developments.
Meldola first suggested^]" that the green colour of many cater-
pillars was due to the presence of chlorophyll in their tissues, and the
matter was carried much further by Poulton0 in his experiments on
the larvae of certain species of the genus Smerinthus. Packard thinks
that the cuticle was at first colourless or horn-coloured, and suggests
that " after habitually feeding in the direct sunlight on green leaves,
the chlorophyll thus introduced into the digestive system, and into»
the blood and the hypodermal tissues, would cause the cuticle to
become green," whilst, afterwards, " by further adaptation and by
heredity, this colour would become the hue common to caterpillars."
In view of Poulton's more recent experimentsf it would not do to
labour this point too much, and we are inclined to agree with him,
that the effect is rather " phytoscopic " than "phytophagic," inas-
much as the colour of the surface of the leaf, rather than its substance,
* Origin and Metamorphosis of Insects, 1873. f Bombycine Moths of America, 1895.
J Entom. Record, etc., vii., p. 6.
|| American Naturalist, iii., 255-262 ; Psyche, ii., 81, 137, 227, etc.
§ Psyche, iii., pp. 99-103. 1!" Proc. Zool. Soc. of London, 1873, p. 159.
* Proc. Eoy. Soc. Lond., 1885, p. 269. f Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1892, pp. 294 et seq.
44 BRITISH LEPIDOtTERA.
acts as the stimulus, and this view has been materially strengthened
by his experiments on larvae, such as Rumia luteolata, etc., which show
so much initial variation in nature, that some are green and some
brown. His observations on larvae of this species, as well as on those of
Ennouws quercinaria (anyularia), Selenia lunaria, Crocallis elinyuaria,
Pkiyalia pedaria, and, above all, Amphidasys betularia, show conclu-
sively that the colour of some larvae is much affected by the surround-
ing environment, and hence, as a general conclusion, we must assume,
as far as our knowledge at present goes, that the general green colour of
those larvae which essentially live among green leaves, is due rather to
the influence of the particular environment surrounding them than
to any direct action of the chlorophyll, which is consumed with their
food. Commenting0 on these experiments, Poulton says : — " Of the
colour changes we must distinguish two main kinds : (a) Changes in
the colour of the true animal pigments, leading to various shades of
brown, grey, etc. (6) The change to a green colour modified from
plant pigment, in the food. When such a change of colour is possible,
the true pigments are always superficial to the green, and cannot be
retained without concealing the latter, the degree of concealment
depending on the amount and distribution of pigment. Thus, in
Amphidasys betularia, the true pigments are chiefly placed in the
epidermic cells, the green in the subjacent fat, whilst in many others,
the former are in the superficial layer of the cuticle, the latter in the
blood, or sometimes in the lower layers of the cuticle. But the appear-
ance of the green is not merely the removal of a screen, although this
must occur ; in some cases, at any rate, it also means the formation of
the green colouring matter itself."
Probably the first attempt at ornamentation in the lepidopterous
larva consisted of longitudinal lines. These usually consist of (1) The
dorsal or medio-dorsal line (a line running down the centre of the
dorsurn, throughout its whole length). (2) Sub-dorsal lines (one on
either side of the medio-dorsal line). (8) Supra-spiracular lines (one
on either side: above the spiracles). (4) Sub-spiracular lines (one on
either side below the spiracles). Sometimes there is a spiracular line
running along and including the spiracles. The medio-dorsal line (as
such) is probably, occasionally, due to the alimentary canal showing
through the skin. It is certainly so in many transparent-skinned larvae
(Ephestia kukniella, etc.), and it is just possible that, whatever form its
modifications may now take, it originated in this manner. Weismann
has concluded, from his studies of the Sphingids, that the sub-dorsal line
arose before the spiracular, and Packard f shows how, after the sub-dorsal
and spiracular lines are formed, others are rapidly introduced — and
some may as rapidly vanish, as necessary features of certain stages —
which, when they become useless, are discarded.
Weismann, in his Studies in the Tlwory of Descent, has shown that
the primitive markings of caterpillars were lines and longitudinal bands.
He further shows that larval spots are formed by interruptions, " the
serial atrophy," of the lines or bands. Packard says : The lines, bars,
stripes, spots, and other colorational markings of caterpillars, by which
they mimic the colours and shadows of leaves, stems, etc., have
evidently been, in the first place, induced by the nature of the food
* Tram. Ent. Hoc. Loud., 1892, pp. 458*459. Boinbycine Moths of America, p. 15.
THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTEROUS LARVA. 45
(chlorophyll), by the effects produced by light and shade, by adaptation
to the form of the edge of the leaf (as in the serrated back of certain
Notodonts), by adaptation to the colours of different leaves and to the
stems, since shades of greens, yellows, reds, and browns, are almost as
common in the cuticle of caterpillars, as on the surface or cuticle of
the leaves and their stems, or in the bark of the twigs and branches.
He also adds that probably many have observed that the peculiar brown
spots and patches of certain Notodonts do not appear until late in larval
life, and also late in the summer, or early in the autumn, contem-
poraneously with the appearance of dead and sere blotches in the leaves
themselves. This phase of the subject will be dealt with at length in
a later chapter.
Tactile hairs, defensive setfe, locomotive setae, and spines of various
kinds, occur in worms ; these, too, often arise from fleshy warts or
tubercles. It is, therefore, not at all unlikely that the ancestral lepi-
dopterous larva was provided with piliferous warts, and that many of
the specialised spines, etc., now found in lepidopterous larvae, are
modifications of these ancestral simple structures.
It may be safely assumed that spines, hair-tufts, etc., serve to pro-
tect the organism fi-om external attack, probably also to strengthen
the shell or skin. That even the most complex spines are modifica-
tions of the tubercular structure is evident if one examines the cast
skin of a Vanessid larva when it has just been thrown off, and the
pupal state assumed. Packard, in a long argument.*3 suggests that
" it is not improbable that tubercles, humps, or spines, may have in
the first place been developed in a few generations, as the result of
some change in the environment during the critical time attending or
following the close of the Palaeozoic, or the early part of the Mesozoic
age, the time when deciduous trees and flowers probably began to
appear." The same author refers to Darwin's significant remarkf
that " organic beings, when subjected during several generations to
any change whatever in their conditions, tend to vary," further, that
" variations of all kinds and degrees are directly or indirectly caused
by the conditions of life to which each being and, more especially, its
ancestors have been exposed" (p. 241) and again, that " changes of
any kind in the conditions of life, even extremely slight changes, often
suffice to cause variability. Excess of nutriment is, perhaps, the most
efficient single exciting cause."
Referring to the geological fact, that in the Cretaceous period, the
forests consisted of oaks, maples, willows, beech, poplar, etc., Packard
assumes that, in all probability, the low-feeding caterpillars of that
time began to desert the herbaceous plants to feed on trees, and that
they then experienced sufficient change to induce considerable variation,
and that, to a great extent, tree-feeding necessitated isolation. He
thinks, moreover, that the change from herbaceous to arboreal feeding,
not only affected the shape of the body, causing it to become thick and
fleshy, but also led to a hypertrophy of the piliferous warts, common
to all lepidopterous larvae. We deal with this at length, not because
we are inclined to agree with its assumptions, but because no other
explanation of the actual origin of the cause of the modification has
been offered.
* Bombycine Moths of America, pp. 16 etseq.
t Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, 2nd Edition, 1888,
46 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
We find, in definite positions on the larval cuticle, small buttons
of chitinous material called tubercles. These usually bear a structure,
formerly termed a " hair," but to which the term " seta " is now
usually applied, since the seta is not morphologically equivalent or
homologous with the hairs of mammals. These setae arise through
a modification and hypertrophy of the nuclei of certain cells of the
cuticle. According to Dyar, the " primitive form of tubercle consists
of a little chitinous button on the skin, bearing a single long hair. It
is found in the less specialised groups of Lepidoptera, and exclusively
in the JUGATE and the Psychids. When this form is present, there
are, in general, no other hairs on the body."
It would appear that in the phytophagous Hymenoptera (Tenthred-
inidae), there are well-developed setiferous tubercles, apparently more
generalised than those found in any Lepidoptera, but in the Lepidop-
tera there appear to be, according to Dyar, two types of arrangement.
(1) By far the more generalised, consists, on the abdominal segments,
of five tubercles above the spiracle on each side, three in a transverse
row about the middle of the segment and two behind, whilst below the
spiracle are two oblique rows, containing respectively two and four
tubercles. This type is found in Hepialus. (2) The second type con-
sists of two dissimilar lines of modification of the first type, of which
the fundamental arrangement consists of three tubercles on each side
above the spiracle ; three more on each side, below or behind the
spiracle and above the base of the leg ; and three (or four) on the
base of the leg on the outside, and one on the inside near the mid-
ventral line.
As Dyar has made himself quite an authority on these setiferous
tubercles, it may be well to glance at his nomenclature. Commencing
from the dorsum, he calls the tubercles above the spiracles i, ii, iii,°
the three below, iv, v, and vif ; the group on the outside of the leg is
known as vii, and the single one on the inside of the leg as viii.
Tubercles vii and viii, Dyar says, are present also on the legless
abdominal segments (1, 2, 7, 8 and 9), in a position corresponding to
those on the segments bearing prolegs. On the last two abdominal
segments (9 and 10) the number of tubercles is always less than the
fundamental number, even in generalised larvfe. This is evidently
due to the fact that these segments have been partly aborted, being
without spiracles. The reduction of the ninth abdominal segment
has taken place on the anterior portion, whilst the tenth abdominal
has lost the lateral part (Classification of Lep. Larvae, pp. 196-7). Dyar's
conclusions as to the relationship which the lepidopterous super-
families bear to each other are based on (1) The position of the
tubercles with regard to the sub-segments into which the abdominal
segments are divided. (2) The tendency for tubercles iv and v (the
post-spiracular and sub-spiracular tubercles) to coalesce or separate.
As to their position, Dyar says that in the JUGATE (Hepialids) the
three tubercles of the middle sub-segment are all present, and the
upper and lower of the posterior sub-segment. In the Psychids, the
three tubercles are retained on the middle sub-segment, but both are
* i i= anterior trapezoidal, ii := posterior trapezoidal, iii = supra-spiracular.
•f This is a secondary tubercle, absent usually in the newly hatched (gene-
ralised) larva of the higher families. Hence its importance is less valuable than
Dyar afterwards insists, when discussing the Psychids and MICBO-FBENAT^E.
THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTEROUS LARVA. 47
lost on the posterior one ; the sub-stigmatal tubercles are retained
and approximated, the anterior one of the four on the base of the
leg seems to have been moved up, forming tubercle vi, which is
thus anterior ( = pre-spiracular). This explanation accounts for the
possible formation of the pre-spiracular tubercle as such, for it will be
observed that, whereas tubercle v of Dyar is the typical sub-spiracular
tubercle of the more specialised families, tubercles iv and vi, typically
originating below the spiracle, according to Dyar, become respectively
the post-spiracular and pre-spiracular in special instances. In all
the other families of the Lepidoptera, Dyar states that the middle
tubercle of the three on the middle sub-segment is lost, but the upper
on the posterior sub -segment is retained ; the two (iv and v) below
the spiracle are also retained, as in the Psychids, but they are either
approximated (sometimes even united to form a compound sub-
spiracular tubercle, as is Margarodia), or separated so as to form two
distinct tubercles, viz., the sub-spiracular and post-spiracular, whilst
of the four tubercles at the base of the leg, the posterior one (not the
anterior one, as is the case in the Psychids) is moved up to form
tubercle vi.
The tendency for tubercles iv and v to coalesce so as to form a
compound sub-spiracular tubercle, appears to be characteristic of the
larvae which comprise, in its broad lines, Comstock's MICROFRENAT.E or
GENERALISED FRENAT^E, whilst the tendency for tubercles iv and v to
separate and form post-spiracular and sub-spiracular tubercles, re-
spectively, appears to be characteristic of his SPECIALISED FRF.NAT^:.
Dyar notes, and if it held good it would be very curious, that " it is a
striking fact that we do not find a series of intergrading forms between
the single-haired tubercle and the many-haired wart, though both may
occur in different genera of the same family," and he considers that
this is explicable on the principle of discontinuous variation, which is
insisted upon by Bateson. He says that in the lower (more generalised)
families we have the simple and primitive form of tubercle ; in the more
specialised families we find a modification, which consists in the tubercles
becoming enlarged and many-haired. In these compound tubercles each
hair arises from its own minute tubercle, and the whole are borne upon
an enlarged base or wart. Modification then takes place in the higher
groups, by a reduction in the number of tubercles, the reduction taking
place : — (a) By coalescence, (b) By unequal development and final
obliteration of particular ones. (This is discussed later in chapter.)
We have seen that in some of the more specialised larvae there is a
general tendency to the reduction of tubercles, so that some may
entirely disappear. In some cases, however, the bases of the tubercles
are developed into long fleshy processes, carrying aborted setae, as in
the case of certain larvae of the Nymphalids, Papilionids, etc. In other
cases, the setae remain as glandular hairs, in some instances secreting an
urticating (? odorous) fluid, or the hairs themselves become highly
specialised, and greatly increased in number, forming brushes, tufts,
plumes, etc., as in the larvae of Acronyctids, Liparids, Arctiids, etc.
One of the most striking modifications of the tubercles is seen in
the caudal horn of the SPHINGIDES. This is an unpaired dorsal process
on the 8th abdominal segment. A figure of the larva of Deilephila
eiifihorbiae (Weismann, Studies in tJie TJieory of Descent, PI. v., fig. 38)
in its first skin, shows that the two setae of tubercle i are borne on the
48 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
apex of the caudal horn. This would point strongly to the conclusion
that the horn represents the base of the unconsolidated pair of
tubercles i, the tubercles themselves having disappeared. This
disagrees with Poulton's view,0 for he looks upon the caudal horn as
representing the consolidated pair of tubercles i of the Saturniids.
The caudal horn of the remarkable genus of Plume moths,
does not, according to Bacot, rise from the 8th abdominal segment,
and bear the anterior trapezoidals of that segment, as in the Sphingids,
but is situated on what is either a small 9th abdominal segment, or a
large and distinct subsegment of the 8th abdominal, both the anterior
and posterior trapezoidals of the 8th segment being in front of the
horn, and in their correct position relative to the spiracle.
The production of a central row of dorsal tubercles apparently un-
paired, in certain families, is very remarkable. This is well seen in
the medio-dorsal row of spines in the adult larvae of certain Vanessids,
where, too, the real nature of the spines forming this row may be readily
learned, by comparing the adult larvae with those in their earlier stages.
They are formed by the union of tubercle i on each side, consolidating
on the central line of the dorsum. A similar arrangement also occurs
in the Saturniids.
The modifications which tubercles and setas undergo have been
tabulated by Packard. f His table reads as follows : —
A. — TUBERCLES.
a. — Simple and minute, due to a slight thickening of the hypodermis,
and a decided thickening of the overlying cuticle ; the hypodermis
contains a large unicellular gland, either for the secretion of the seta
or for the production of poison.
1.— Minute piliferous warts (most Tineid, Tortricid and Noctuid larvce).
2. — Enlarged smooth tubercles, bearing a single seta (many Geometrid and
Bombycine larvae).
3. — Enlarged spherical tubercles, bearing a number of setae, either radiated
or subverticillate (Arctians, Lithosians).
4.— High, movable, smooth tubercles, having a terrifying function (Schizura,
Xylinodes, Notodonta, Nerice).
5. — Low and broad, rudimentary, replacing the " caudal horn " (Choero-
campa, Leiocampa (Pheosia) dictaea, and L. dictaeoides).
b. — More or less spinulose or spiny (disappearing in some Sphinges
after Stage 1).
1. — Long and slender, usually situated on the top of the eighth abdominal
segment, with microscopic spinules in Stage 1. (Most Sphingidac and
SmaJ).
2. — Smooth subspherical warts (Chalcosia, East Indies) ; or elongated, but
still smooth (Attacus atlas).
3. — Subspherical or clavate spiny tubercles of many Attaci ; the spinules
usually short.
4. - Spinulated spines or elongated tubercles of Ceratocampidae and Hcmi-
liicidae (Automeris io and Hemileuca maia, etc.).
5. — Spike-like hairs or spines (Samia cynthia, Anisota, Hypsa (E. Indies),
Anagnia).
G. —Antler-like spines. Early stages of Heterocampa biundata, H. guttivitta
and H. obliqua).
* Trans. Ent. Soc. Loud., 1888, pp. 5G8-574. f Bombycine Moths of America, p. 21.
} Packard does not use Sesia in the sense usually understood in Britain, i.e., for the
true Clearwing moths, but as a synonym of Macroglotsa,
THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTEROUS LARVA. 49
B. — SET*: (HAIRS, BRISTLES, ETC.).
1. — Simple, fine, short or long, macroscopic or microscopic setae, tapering
hairs, scattered or dense, often forming pencils (many Bombyces,
Zygaenidae,* Noctuo-Bombyees, Apatelae).
2. — Glandular hairs, truncate, spindle-shaped or forked at the end, and
secreting a more or less viscid fluid [many Notodonts in Stages 1 and 2 ;
many butterfly larvae ; Pterophoridae (in last stages)].
3. — Long spindle-shaped hairs of Apatelodes (Apatela americana), and
Tinolius ebarneigiitta.
4.— Flattened, triangular hairs in the tufts, or on the sides of the body of
Gastropacha americana , or flattened, spindle-shaped scales in the
European G. qiiercifolia.
•5. — Spinulated or barbed hairs (most Glaucopides, Arctians, Lithosians,
Liparids and many Bombycids).
C. — PSEUDO-TUBERCLES.
1. — Filamental anal legs (stemapoda) of Centra and Heterocampa marthesia.
2. —The long suranal spine of Platyptericidae.
Before leaving our consideration of the hairs of larvas, it may be
well to mention the spathulate hairs of Jocheaera alni. These are
usually erect and conspicuous, but in the adult stage are spread some-
what laterally. Chapman gives them as measuring, in the 4th larval
skin : on pro-thorax, 8£ mm., on 5th abdominal, 1£ mm., on 9th
abdominal, 2| mm. ; in the 5th larval skin, on the same segments 6,
3| and 4 mm. respectively, and in the 6th larval skin (extra moulter),
7," 4, and 4^ mm. respectively. The larva of Eutricha guercifolia and
those of other species possess remarkable scale-like hairs, as mentioned
above by Packard.
The study of the newly-hatched larva is one of the most important
factors in considering the phylogeny of the lepidoptera, for it happens
that many species which have the most specialised adult larvae hatch
in a very generalised condition, and hence, comparison of the tubercles
in the newly-hatched larvae, with the more specialised structures that
replace them afterwards, gives many valuable clues to the origin of
the complicated structures of the adult. From this, it would appear,
that the more primitive arrangement of the five chief tubercles and setae
occurring on the abdominal segments, is such that the three tubercles
above the spiracle exist as the anterior trapezoidal, posterior trapezoidal,
and supra-spiracular tubercle, respectively, whilst the sub- and post-
spiracular tubercles are both placed beneath the spiracle. Dyar
remarksf : — " Curiously enough, the most generalised condition is ex-
hibited in the first stage of the butterflies (Rhopalocera). This is to be
accounted for by the fact, which was brought out by a comparison of the
first stage of such genera as Danais and Grapta, with their later stages,
rfc., that the armature of the butterfly larva is not developed mainly
from the primary tubercles, but almost entirely independent of them."
This is certainly too sweeping an assertion to comprise the facts re-
lating to the armature of the Vanessid and Argynnid larvae, and pro-
bably some others. In many cases there can be no doubt that the
armature is frequently developed from the primary tubercles, often, of
course, with certain stages of the evolution left out. In some the process
of development is comparatively simple, as may be seen, if the larva be
* As used in America, this = our Euchromiidae, which are Arctiids, not the family
British lepidopterists call Zygaenidae.
\ " Additional notes on the classification of Lepidopterous larvse," Trans. New York
Acad. Sci., xxv., p. 52.
D
50 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
examined carefully at each ecdysis. The case of Aylais urticae and
others occur to me.
The horn which characterises the Sphingid caterpillars is, as we
have seen, placed on the dorsum of the eighth abdominal segment, and
it is remarkable that when it is absent in allied forms, it is replaced by
a small, low and flattened tubercle, the segment itself being somewhat
swollen. Many Noctuid larvae — Amphipyra, Maniestra pemicariae, etc.,
have a prominent hump on this segment, so also have the larvae of
the Agaristitlae, and others. In many Notodont larvae the first ab-
dominal segment bears a conspicuous hump, sometimes forked, often
ending in a seta. It would appear, from Packard's researches, that
the three thoracic segments, and the first and eighth abdominal seg-
ments, are those most usually characterised by tall fleshy tubercles,
horns, etc. The same author shows that the first and eighth ab-
dominal segments bear no prolegs, and that, when walking, these
apodous segments are more raised than the others, and that, if it be
true, as it appears to be, that these humps do frequently rise from
the most elevated portions of the larva when crawling, then the move-
ment of these conspicuous structures might tend to be of service in
frightening away other creatures. He further suggests that the
humping or looping of these segments may have had something to do
with inducing the hypertrophy of the dermal tissues which enter
into the formation of the tubercles or horns, whilst with regard to the
mutant or movable tubercles, he suggests that the movement of these
appendages would suffice to scare off an approaching ichneumon or
Tachina.
Lame are, of course, subject to the conditions involved by the
struggle for existence, and to modification in relation to environment,
and, hence, is due the modification of the setiferous tubercles, by
which the larva is made to resemble different objects at different phases
of its existence. Everyone knows how different is the larva of Jocheaera
alni® in its third skin, in what is known as the " birds'-dropping "
stage, from the adult larva with its conspicuous bulbous-tipped
hairs. This reference to a subject already discussed in a previous
part of this chapter (p. 47) gives us a chance of explaining why
we have thrown doubt upon Dyar's statement that " we do not
find intergrading forms between the single-haired tubercle and the
many-haired wart." He probably had in mind some such change as
that occurring in the Anthrocerids, in which the simple single-haired
tubercle of the first skin becomes a many-haired wart in the second,
increasing in size at each subsequent moult. It happens, as a matter
of fact, that intergrading forms are exceedingly common in many
species of Lepidoptera, a single-haired tubercle in the first skin ac-
quiring some hairs at each subsequent moult, until it becomes a wart.
In the Acronyctid larva? there are various stages in different species,
even in the first skin, the differences extending from a one-haired
tubercle, two-haired tubercle, etc., to a many-haired wart, and such
cases are not at all uncommon. In the case of Anthrocera, it is pos-
sible that some stages in the evolution of the many-haired wart are
now missed, but, in others, the intergrading forms are, as we have
said, by no means unknown.
* Chapman, Entomologist's Record, etc., vol. U-, p. 123.
THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTEROUS LARVA. 51
The varied stages of development of the setiferous tubercles, some-
times reached in allied genera in the egg, is of the highest significance,
as is also their comparative development in the various stages of the
larvae of allied genera, as in Ornithoptera and Papilio, in Af/lia and
Citheronia; whilst Packard** states that the "tubercles of the adult
larvae of Saturnia (pavonia and pyn) are on the same plane with the
embryo, just before exclusion, of the more highly specialised forms of
the group Attacinae," and, again, " whilst the late embryos of the
Attacinae are, perhaps, paralleled by the fully-grown larva of Satumia,
the fully-grown larva of the most, or one of the most, generalised of
the Attacinae, Platysamia, is on the same plane of specialisation as
the larva of Callosamia in its third stage."
The larvae of a large number of Lepidoptera are provided with what
may be fairly termed glandular setse. They are more especially
abundant in young larvae, and occur in butterflies (Pierids and
Satyrids), Geometrids (Ortholitha cervinata), Notodonts (Datana, Dasy-
lophia), and many others. Packard describes the glandular hairs of
newly-hatched larvae of Ceratosia tricolor as " flattened at the tip,
which is slightly tridentate, with grooves passing down the shaft
from the notches between the teeth." In the Pierids they form an
open basin, fringed with cilia, supported on an exceedingly slender,
hollow pedicel, the hairs looking as if tipped with dew.
In a preceding part of this chapter (p. 40), we query the absence of
the paranal forks in the Khopalocera. This is because Chapman has
called attention to a well-known structure, called the " anal comb,"
which is possibly homologous with the paranal forks. It is found just
under the anal flap in many Tortricid, Hesperid, and Pierid larvae.
Scudder figures the anal comb in Colias (Eurymus) pMlodice, but does
not seem to mention it in the text. This should, of course, have been
mentioned directly after the paragraph referring to the " paranal
forks."
It has been repeatedly noticed that certain larvae, when confined,
have a tendency to crawl upwards, and this is more particularly the
case with some species than others. Larvae of the genus Coleophora,
Aylais urticae, Vanessa io and others, might be instanced as always
taking possession of the highest possible point of any receptacle in
which they may be placed. Poulton suggests that this is due to the
fact that the larvae in these movements are guided by an appreciation
of the force of gravitation. That it is not always in order to seek
food is evident, for the larvae will crawl over the food-plant in order
to reach the highest available point. It is very possible that these
movements are made in order to seek light, or air. At any rate,
it is not yet at all clear how far the latter causes are factors in bring-
ing about these movements, and how far the force of gravity has
effect.
Poulton further considers that the force of gravity has been
potent in bringing about the characteristic "Sphinx-like "attitude that
characterises the larvae of certain Sphingids, Aylia, etc. This atti-
tude, he says, bears a distinct relationship to the position assumed
by these larvae. The thoracic legs, in such larvae as adopt this
attitude, are not used for the support of the body, and, hence, when
* " Studies in the Transformation of Moths of the Family Saturniidee," Proc.
Amer. Acad, Arts and Sciences, 1893.
52 BRITISH LEPIDOPTKRA.
the larva is clinging as is its wont, the weight of all the parts of
the body anterior to the third abdominal segment is only indirectly
supported by means of the claspers. He further points out that
the young larvae of all species which .exhibit this habit, habitually
rest on the underside of leaves, and, therefore, have the dorsal area
pointing downwards. Under these circumstances "the organism reacts
upon the strain, and the muscular body- walls strongly contract upon
their fluid contents in such a .manner as to produce compensating
rigidity, and thus give to the body the curve which is characteristic of
the attitude. The Sphinx-like attitude is to be explained as the com-
bined effect of gravity and of muscular reaction upon the anterior un-
supported parts of the body. The muscular arrangements, which are
most favourable for counteracting these strains, are also made use of
in the older larvae for the maintenance of a feebly marked Sphinx-like
attitude, when the larva is seated on the upper side of a horizontal
twig. The attitude is most strongly marked when the larva is resting
on a vertical twig, because gravity tends to draw the anterior part of
the body backwards as well as downwards. These large larvae
habitually rest on vertical twigs, with the head uppermost, because the
twig itself is approached from its base, and gradually stripped of
leaves towards its apex. The essential dependence of the* attitude upon
gravity is well seen, when a vertical twig, with a larva upon it, is
carefully bent downwards, so that the strain is in the opposite direction,
and tends to bend the anterior part forwards instead of backwards.
Under these circumstances the larva begins to yield to the strain in a
few minutes (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1888, p. 675).
An interesting subject of enquiry is the evolution of the Geometrid
form. The fact that this form is found, in a more or less modified
condition, in certain Noctuid larvae, has suggested an alliance between
the two groups. It seems very probable, however, that this similarity
has been brought about by somewhat similar needs, the Geometrid
form being, in many respects, a very specialised one. Many Noctuid
larvae that have the full number of prolegs when adult, are more or
less Geometrid in form when young. It appears probable that this
form has been developed in order to give these larvae a greater reach
(1) to obtain their food, (2) to travel from one twig to another. The
Geometrids are essentially herbaceous and arboreal in their habits,
remaining on their food-plants the whole of the day, so also are the
Plusias and other Geometriform Noctuids. The Noctuids that have a
Geometrid form of progression when young, also, at this period of
their lives, remain on their food-plants, but when they gain the
hitherto absent prolegs, they climb down the plants and hide at the
roots, or under the ground by day, ascending the plant again to feed
by night. The comparatively low-feeding Geometrid larvae are,
as a rule, small species, and the bushy herbs on which they
feed, bear to their power of reach much the same proportion as
the larger trees bear to the reaching power of the larger larvae.
Another view of the matter suggests itself, viz., the necessity of
Geometrid larvae to travel more quickly than other tree-feeding larvae.
The Sphingids, Saturniids, Lasiocampids, Dicranurids, Catocalids, etc.,
are specially protected by spines, hairs, etc. The Geometrid larva is
naked, usually only protected by the resemblance of its colour to its
environment, and by its power to remain rigid and motionless. When
THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF TflE LEPlDOfTEROUS LARVA. 53
moving, therefore, it is helpless, and must travel from place to place
with as much speed as may be possible. Every observer knows that
the tree-feeding larvae of the other groups mentioned above are
extremely slow in their movements. It is essential, above all things,
that a tree-feeding larva should hold very firmly, and this it is enabled
to do by spinning silken threads and ladders, and by the possession of
remarkably strong and well-developed prolegs. The large Saturniids,
arboreal Sphingids, Lasiocampids, etc., cling with amazing tenacity,
but, at the same time, they walk with extreme slowness. With them, the
opening and closing of their prolegs is a remarkably complex operation,
in which a whole army of muscles is brought into play. The
Geometrid larva has to cling as tightly as these. At the same time it
has to move more rapidly, hence it has reduced its prolegs to the
smallest possible effective number, and has, especially, anal ones of the
very best kind. Thus it is able to obtain a long stretch for each step,
and is able to progress with comparative speed. The young Noctuid
larva, too, has often a considerable amount of travelling to do in
search of food (eggs being often laid away from the food-plant, etc.,
ante, p. 13), and a certain amount of looping increases its activity by
lengthening the step ; and this is, perhaps, much more important in
the young state when the larvfe have an arboreal habit. It may be,
therefore, that rapidity and facility of progression is a great part of the
object in view. An Arctiid larva, when travelling rapidly, hardly uses
the prolegs at all, but progresses by a rapid looping movement, the
ordinary progression, segment by segment, being altogether too slow
for its needs.
Every field naturalist has observed how a Geometrid larva will
maintain its hold upon a twig and eat a leaf, and, for this, reach is
also required. The difference between the way in which a tree-
feeding Geometrid larva and a Sphingid larva will attack a leaf is
remarkable. The Geometrid stretches itself out to its full length, and
eats as much as it can reach without moving, often beginning near
the tip and devouring the whole leaf. The powerful Sphingid larva
pulls the leaf towards itself, and thus does by greater strength what
the Geometrid larva does by greater reach.
The Geometrid form, therefore, appears to be correlated with habits
of (1) greater reaching or stretching power, (2) greater speed. It
does not seem to have any important phylogenetic significance.
In a previous part of this chapter, we have referred to the fact
that lepidopterous larvas have a certain number of ocelli on each cheek.
Landois considers that these do not essentially differ from compound
eyes, and states that if many of them were grouped together they
could hardly be distinguished from compound eyes. In each ocellus,
he says, the cornea is divided into three lenses, each corresponding to
three nerves, each with a separate terminal enlargement, forming the
so-called crystalline bodies. Each ocellus, therefore, might be re-
garded as Joeing, in reality, composed of three. On the other hand,
the three arches of the cornea are so closely connected together, that
they give the impression of forming a simple cornea. The three lenses
are also very closely pressed, and the three nerves unite into one.
Under these circumstances, Landois regards the ocelli of caterpillars
as a connecting link between simple and compound eyes, and proposes
for them the name of " ocelli compositi." Chapman says : That
54 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
the larval ocelli are descended from compound eyes, or are per-
sistent from the embryonic form of compound eye, is undoubted.
They often occupy a definite tract on the head, which probably repre-
sents the area of the compound eye, of which some ocelli only are
developed (MI litt.).
There has not, we believe, as yet, been any attempt to locate an
organ of hearing in the larvae of Lepidoptera, although various authors
have done so in the imago. Swinton summarises (Ent. Mo. May.,
xiv., p. 121) the various notes that have appeared on the aural apparatus
of Lepidoptera. There is direct evidence that some larvae, at least,
show considerable sensitiveness to sound waves. We have noticed
that larvae of many species — Aglais urticae. Callimorpha dominula,
Xenieophila plantaginis, and Lasiocampa querciis, among others — throw
their bodies violently from side to side, if one speaks in a loud tone,
when in their vicinity.
CHAPTER VI.
THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE LE PIDOPTE RO U S LARVA.
THE external characters of the lepidopterous larva are, owing to the
division of the body into segments, each with its own special organs
and appendages, easily described, and the position of these structures
located. The location of the internal organs is, however, more
difficult, for they are not restricted to certain segments, but run longi-
tudinally through the body, frequently extending from the thorax
forward into the head, or backward into the abdomen. It is necessary,
therefore, in dealing with the internal organs, to consider each separately,
both as regards its position and function.
The movements of the body are of the first importance, and we
find that larvae have undergone great modifications in order to
enable them to vary their movements according to their needs. Move-
ment is dependent upon the muscular system, and by the muscles,
then, the changes that take place in the external framework and
appendages are brought about. The nutrition of the various parts is
carried on by food, and to understand this we must study the digestive
system. The absorption of the digested food into the blood and its
carriage to all parts of the body necessitate a circulatory system,
whilst the oxygenation of the blood introduces us to the respiratory
system. This latter is so intimately connected with the excretion of
waste, that one is insensibly led to consider the excretory system, whilst
the organs, by which the whole of these various systems are governed,
comprise what is known as the nervous system, and this has to be
considered both in its relation to volition and sensation.
These various systems comprise, then, the different organs (and
their functions), by means of which the life of an insect is carried on,
and their external results, as exemplified by their movements, etc., are
the outward sign of their vitality. The reproductive system, which is
not, however, matured in the larval stage, must take the highest
place in relation to the continued life of the species. Closely related,
THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTEROUS LARVA. 55
too, with the digestive, is the cellular, system, by means of which the
caterpillar is able to store up large quantities of surplus material for
use in the later stages of its metamorphoses.
The voluntary muscular system of the caterpillar is that by means
of which it is enabled to move about in order to obtain its food. The
muscular fibres are usually arranged in the form of flat ribbons, or
conical bundles. The latter make up almost the whole structure of
the head, are fastened chiefly to the head walls, and end as fine
tendinous cords, attached to the various organs which the insect is
thus enabled to move. In this way, certain muscles reach down into
the mandibles, which they close when they contract ; whilst the
mandibles are opened by muscles which are attached to their outer
bases and to the head, just below the ocelli. Other fine flat retractor
muscles draw the labrum inwards, whilst extensor muscles work in
the opposite direction. A series of contiguous muscular cords, often
forming a double band of simple, longitudinal muscular fibres, runs
from one end of the body to the other, on each side, just under the
skin, between the spiracles and the ventral area of the body. Mus-
cular bands, too, run transversely and obliquely in the front of each seg-
ment, and are attached to the medio-ventral line farther back in the
segment. Above the spiracles on each side are other longitudinal
bands, made of three layers, whilst between these and the skin, at the
front of each segment, a transverse muscular belt encircles the body,
passing at the spiracular region over the longitudinal tracheal vessel,
which unites the contiguous spiracles, and straps it to the integument.
The flexor muscles of the true legs arise just beneath the longitudinal
straps, previously described as running between the spiracles and the
ventral area, and extend to the opposite wall of the segment in which
they take their rise. The muscles of the prolegs are somewhat different,
flat bands forming, as it were, a muscular coating to the walls of the
legs just beneath the skin. Usually, these pass directly down, narrow-
ing as they go ; the muscular fibres, too, appear not to cross to opposite
sides of the leg.
The involuntary muscular system is principally connected with the
digestive and the circulatory organs. The ossophagus is provided with
fine longitudinal bands of muscular fibres, and also with less well-
developed transverse encircling bands. The inner coating of the
stomach is enclosed in delicate strips of muscular fibre, crossing each
other diagonally ; besides these, longitudinal muscles run throughout
its length, and well-developed transverse muscles encircle the stomach
similarly to those found in the ossophagus. The arrangement of the
muscular tissue in the intestine, in longitudinal and transverse bands,
is very similar to that in the other parts of the alimentary canal, but,
in this, the longitudinal bands are often thick, white and glistening,
whilst near where the small intestine joins the stomach, the walls are
plentifully supplied with short -longitudinal muscles. The diagonal
bands found in the stomach have also their representatives here.
The ajimentary canal is held in its place by a series of muscular
bands attached to the body wall, one set passing round that portion of
the intestine where it is connected with the stomach, another set being
attached to, and supporting, the posterior end of the small intestine,
these muscles stretching horizontally from the middle of one side of
the 8th abdominal segment to the opposite side.
§6 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERAi,
The mouth opens into a long narrow tube (the ossophagus), into
which several long tubules pass. These represent the salivary glands
of the higher animals, and secrete a fluid, which is discharged into the
oesophagus, and which is swallowed with the food. It dissolves the
starch and cellulose of the food, and fits it to soak through the walls
of the alimentary canal, so that it., can enter the system. The oeso-
phagus is composed essentially of muscular tissue, and expands into a
crop (or food receptacle), and then into a gizzard. This is provided
with hard plates, that help to grind up the food, which, after being so
ground up, is passed through another short tubular passage into the
stomach. The walls of the stomach secrete a fluid resembling the
gastric juice of the higher animals ; this changes the insoluble proteid
of the food into a soluble peptone, which is readily absorbed by the
walls of the stomach and intestine. The stomach opens into the
intestine, the upper end of which is connected with a number of
tubular glands. These are supposed to represent the liver of the
higher animals. The intestine ends in a chamber called the " cloaca,"
in which the waste matters are collected, and from which they are
expelled through the anus.
In vertebrates, the nervous system is placed dorsally, and the
circulatory and respiratory systems ventrally, in relation to the ali-
mentary canal. These positions are exactly reversed in insects, the
nervous system being placed ventrally, the circulatory and respiratory
systems dorsally, the alimentary canal being still placed between
them. It has, however, been shown that this difference is more
apparent than real, the dorsum of the insect being really analogous with
the venter of the vertebrate, but the position of the limbs is reversed.
In the upper part of the body, and directly under the dorsal
integument, is a longitudinal organ, somewhat like a long tube, which
is known as the dorsal vessel. This corresponds with the heart of the
vertebrates, and it consists essentially of only one chamber, although
this is divided into 8 or 9 sacs, the latter, with openings along the
sides, called ostia. It is composed chiefly of muscular tissue, and is
connected with the roof of the body by short stout muscles, which
keep it in position. It opens towards the head into a kind of arterial
trunk. As the dorsal vessel contracts from behind forwards, the
blood, which consists of plasma, or fluid, and colourless corpuscles, is
driven forward into the trunk. The latter subdivides into smaller
vessels, which are soon lost, the walls gradually becoming inseparable
from those of the ordinary lacunae, or depressions found between the
tissues, and which are lined in many places with epithelium. As the
blood passes through these lacunae, it is brought into contact with
the tracheal branches and aerated. At the same time the nutritious
parts of the food, which soak through the walls of the stomach and
intestine, enter the blood in the lacunae found near these organs.
The great difference that exists between the blood of insects and
that of vertebrates, is such that one feels that it is a great mistake to
call two so dissimilar fluids, with different functions, by the same
name. The blood of insects varies with the species, sometimes even
with the various stages of the same insect. Its function is to carry
the nutritious matters to the tissues, and to feed, as it were, the
tissues it bathes. It is frequently filled with somewhat crude fatty
matters, and Graber calls it " a refined or distilled chyle."
THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OP THE LEPIDOPTEROUS LARVA. 57
Beneath the dorsal vessel, a fine membrane is stretched in such a
manner as to separate the dorsal vessel from the surrounding organs,
and, at the same time, leave a cavity around the dorsal vessel itself.
This cavity is called the pericardia! cavity or sinus. The membrane
itself is incomplete, and when certain delicate muscles connecting it
with the body-wall contract, they pull it down tightly upon the tissues
below, and this, of course, at once increases the size of the sinus.
The tissues thus pressed upon are full of chyle and blood, and the
fluid is squeezed from these structures through the incomplete mem-
brane, into the pericardial chamber, and from thence it re-enters the
dorsal vessel again. The number of contractions of the dorsal vessel
varies remarkably. They may amount to as many as a hundred per
minute ; they may cease altogether without death ensuing. It is
recorded as pulsating from 48 to 52 times per minute in the larva of
Triaena (Acromjcta) psi, and 44 times per minute in the larva of
Brotolomia meticulosa.
In spite of the fact that Swammerdam, Reaumur, Bonnet, De
Geer, and others, all speak of blood-currents, of fluids moving in the
body, of pulsations of the heart or dorsal vessel, and of circulation,
Kirby and Spence record their emphatic opinion that there is no circu-
lation in insects. The idea of circulation taking place in the lacunae
of the tissues does not appear to have suggested itself, and the early
authors appear to have thought that definite tubes with definable
parietes were necessary for circulation. Bowerbank, and others, placed
the matter beyond dispute, and it is only necessary to refer to it here,
because many entomologists still seem inclined to accept the state-
ment of Kirby and Spence.
The fat-body is a very prominent part of the structure of the lepi-
dopterous larva. It consists of fat masses of various size, loosely
connected together, and enveloping most of the organs. It varies in
colour and appearance in almost every species of insect, and appears to
consist of a reservoir of reserve material, which increases in the larval
stage, when the insect is busily engaged in feeding, and upon which
the insect can draw in the future, when it is unable for along period to
take food, e.c/., such periods as occur at each exuviation of the larval skin,
and also at the more exhausting periods of metamorphosis. It must also
be looked upon as a storehouse on which the insect can draw when in
the more quiescent pupal stage.
The respiration of the Lepidoptera has been partly dealt with in the
preceding chapter, and we have seen that air is conveyed into all parts
of the body by means of the tracheae. The tracheae are elastic tubes,
held open by an inner chitinous layer, and they are all intimately
connected. Large tubes connect the spiracles longitudinally, others
pass from one side of the body to the other, whilst a set of tracheae in
the lower part of the body is connected with another set in the
upper part by ascending tubes. These main branches give out small
branches, which fork in all directions, and hence the body is
supplied most plenteously with air. The tubes have a white
glistening appearance, and hence can be detected in a freshly killed
insect without difficulty. [In insects of strong flight, there are air-sacs
connected with the tracheae, and capable of holding sufficient air to
decrease, when distended, the specific gravity of the insect.] The finest
tracheal tubes are supposed to penetrate cells, but it is not known
Whether they terminate with open or closed extremities.
58 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEBA.
The activity of the respiratory system of the Lepidoptera may be
readily surmised from the rapidity with which they are affected by
agents, such as ammonia or chloroform, yet the exact manner in
which breathing is carried on is unknown. Rapid movements of
contraction and expansion of various parts of the body, accompanied
by the opening and shutting of the spiracles, are often observed, and
are supposed to be respiratory, but it is generally believed that, al-
though the tracheae must supply the tissues with oxygen, they
do not carry off the carbonaceous waste from the tissues. Many
consider that some of these waste matters are passed from the skin,
and this is more probable than any other explanation yet offered. It
is well-known that caterpillars, shut up and with insufficient air,
throw off waste products most freely from the skin, the process being
popularly known as " sweating." Some entomologists consider that
the skin is built up from within, and since chitin is composed largely
of carbon and nitrogen, it is possible that certain of the waste matters
may be used in the formation of chitin, and finally passed off when
the larva exuviates or casts its skin.
The Malpighian tubes, a number of coiled filaments found in the
dorsum of the larva, used to be considered analogous with the liver of
vertebrates, and were supposed to secrete a substance somewhat
analogous with bile. They are now known to be excretory organs,
and to remove various compounds from the system. It is not yet
known how the tubes are emptied, but the material contained in those
of some of the Lasiocampid and Saturniid moths, is supposed to be
mixed with the silk of the cocoon, and to be used for the purpose of
hardening the latter. It certainly seems to be so used in Malacosouia
(Clisiocawpa), Erioyaster, etc. The substance excreted is generally in
the form of oxalate of lime, or some allied compound.
Lepidoptera, in common with many other insects, have a very
complicated nervous system, which may be conveniently considered as
consisting of three divisions : (1) The cephalic system. (2) The
ventral or ganglionic chain. (3) The accessory sympathetic system.
These divisions are, of course, very intimately connected.
The cephalic system consists of two masses. One is large, and
placed above the O3sophagus, and, hence, is termed the supra-
03sophageal ganglion ; the other is smaller, and placed below the
oesophagus, and, hence, is termed the infra-oasophageal ganglion.
These are united with nerve fibres, passing round the oesophagus, and
forming what is often termed the oasophageal ring or collar. These
cephalic ganglia are often spoken of as the brain, and, in these, the
nerves which supply the eyes, antennae and tongue originate.
The ventral chain consists of a series of ganglia. These are small
masses of nerve substance, placed longitudinally along the ventral
side of the insect. They are arranged in pairs (theoretically one pair
in each segment, although often various pairs of ganglia are united),
and the ganglia are connected with the ganglia preceding and suc-
ceeding by longitudinal nerve fibres or commissures. From these
ganglia the motor nerves of the body are distributed to the muscles
in the various parts of the body. In the larva of Tischeria anyustico-
lella, the paired ganglia are very distinct in each of the thoracic seg-
ments, and in the abdominal segments 1-6. Scudder says that they
are usually found in the lepidopterous larvae as far as the 7th ab-
THE INTEENAL STRUCTURE OP THE LEPIDOPTEROUS LARVA. 59
dominal segment, in which there is a pair of ganglia, and here the
nervous cord terminates. The nerve ganglia of Tischeria are placed
very nearly to the front of each segment. [In the lepidopterous imago
the union of the ganglia in adjacent segments is sometimes very com-
plete. In different families there appear to be sometimes two, at
other times three, thoracic ganglia, but always four abdominal ganglia,
with the exception of the Hepialids, which appear only to have three.]
The sympathetic system consists of a median nerve cord, dilating
at intervals into ganglia, and placed above the ventral system, with
the commissures of which it is connected by nerve fibres. The
nerves from this system are distributed to the various organs of the
body connected with alimentation, circulation and respiration.
It must be remembered that, although apparently so different, the
development of the nervous system in the embryo is analogous with
that in vertebrates, and that, although the nervous system of insects
is apparently ventral, whilst that of vertebrates is dorsal, the ventral
part of an insect corresponds with the dorsal part of a vertebrate, i.e.,
in reality, opposite parts of the body are placed ventrally in insects and
vertebrates respectively, owing to the limbs being turned in opposite
directions in the two cases.
It used to be a generally accepted belief that the lepidopterous
larva had no sexual organs, and this, in spite of the fact that Reaumur,
a century and a half ago, stated that he had discovered eggs in the
larva of Porthetria ilixpar, and that Malpighius found them in the larva
of Bombyx mori. The reproductive organs, however, are not difficult
to observe in some larvas, and can usually be obtained by a little
careful dissection. The testes and ovaries are placed just beneath the
skin of the 5th abdominal segment. They exist in pairs, one on either
side of the dorsal vessel, just above the position of the alimentary
canal. The testes form two lobes of a not very distinctly reniform
shape, whilst the ovaries, which are only to be seen with a lens, and
then in comparatively few species, are much smaller, and consist of
tubes. The testes are generally much more readily observed than the
ovaries, being, usually, yellow or brown, and may be seen distinctly
in the larvae of those species which feed internally, or which have fairly
transparent skins. Weniger detected the blind terminations of the
ducts from the sexual organs in the larvae of Antheraea yama-mai, A.
pernyi, Actias selene and Samia cecropia, " on the underside of the last
segment that bears a spiracle " (8th abdominal). In the female of the
first of these species is a black blotch, with a yellow central spot, whilst
in the male is a similar black blotch, with a dark green central spot.
Herold represented, as long ago as 1815, the changes which the
essential reproductive glands undergo in the larva and succeeding
stages of Pieris brassicae, but up to the present time there appears to
have been no external openings, in connection with the sexual organs,
discovered in any lepidopterous larva. Certain statements which have
been made on this subject are mentioned here only in order to draw
attention to them, in the hope that they will be disproved or confirmed.
De Geer states that the brown larvae of Triphaena pronuba produce
males, and the green larvae, females. Doncaster says that the same
larval colour distinction, as to sex, holds good in the Satyrid butterflies.
He also states that the male larvae of Oryyia antiqua and 0. yonostiyma
have yellow dorsal brushes, the female larvae, brown. Suckow distin-
60 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
guishes male Dendrolimus pini larvae from female larvas : (1) By the
smaller size. (2) By the lighter, almost smoky-grey colour. (3) By
a black- brown band situated beneath the second pair of prolegs.
(This band is said to be only obscurely marked in the female).
Jackson says that the larval ovaries are situated in the 5th abdo-
minal somite, and close to the dorsal middle line. Their proximal or
attached extremities are approximated, and they diverge from one
another posteriorly. The colour gets deeper during the quiescent
period preceding pupation. Four opaque white lines, the future ovari-
oles, traverse the larval ovaries lengthwise and converge towards
their hinder extremities, from which the larval oviducts spring. The
latter are very delicate filaments, and difficult to make out.
Bessels gives the following table of species in which the larval
testes and ovaries are dissimilar in colour : —
SPECIES. OVARY. TESTIS. FAT-BODY.
Porthetria dispar ... yellow . flesh-red . white
Ccsmotriche potatoria yellow
Deilephila euphorbiae yellow
Pier is brassicae ... yellow
Cossus ligniperda ... white
yellow
reddish
violet
white
white
yellow
white
white
Jackson adds that, in these particulars, the larvffi of Sphinx liyustri
and Phalera biicephala agree with Cossus. In Pier is brassicae the fresh
fat-body posteriorly to the 6th segment is greenish or olive-yellow,
anteriorly to it opaque yellow or green on the dorsal aspect, but on the
ventral aspect white. The fat-body of the larva of Vanessa io is yellow,
and becomes orange in the pupa (Trans. Linn. Soc. Loml., Zool.,
vol. v., p. 159).
With regard to the point of development reached by the sexual
organs in the lepidopterous larva, it would appear that they have
developed as far as that reached by the adult (imago) Ephemerid (May-
flies). In the imagines of the Lepidoptera, the two oviducts unite, and
form a single tube down which the egg passes. In the adult Ephemerid,
the two oviducts remain separate. In the larva of Vanessa io, the
oviducts are separate, as in the Ephemerid imago, but by the time that
the butterfly is matured, the oviducts have united to form a quite
typical ovipositor. Such a line of evolution, however, suggests that
the oviduct of the Lepidoptera passed through a stage similar to that
which is to be observed in the Ephemera at the present time, before it
reached its present high stage of development.
CHAPTER VII.
THE VARIATION OF THE IMAGINES OF THE LEPIDOPTERA.
THE variation in the colours of insects is so patent to every observer
of these interesting creatures, that there is no need for one to attempt
to show that variation exists. Superficially examined, we find that
the individuals of a given species are very similar to each other, yet the
eye of an expert sees minute differences in these individuals, and he
knows that just as no two men or women are exactly alike, so no two
THE VARIATION OF THE IMAGINES OF THE LEPIDOPTERA. 61
insects are, in any of their stages, precisely similar. Variation is
general throughout every stage of an insect's existence, i.e., in the egg,
larval, pupal and imaginal stages.
Every living animal seems to exist for two distinct purposes — to
eat and to be eaten. Nature provides everything with a means of
offence or defence, or both. Among insects, weapons of offence are rare,
and, generally speaking, their safety lies rather in their defensive
characters. These are usually of the most inactive kind, and consist
essentially of various disguises, by means of which, when in repose,
they bear a strong resemblance to the various objects on which they
rest — the bringing into harmony, as it were, the colours of insects
with their environment, so that they may agree in tint with the object
on which they rest, or that they may bear a close resemblance in hue
and shape to some object common upon their resting-place. This
bringing into harmony presupposes the possibility of a change in the
colours of insects, in order that they may respond to the varying con-
ditions under which they may be placed, and in which they have to
live. This further presupposes a plastic condition of the colours them-
selves, otherwise they would not be able to respond to differences of
environment. These differences are so many and so varied, that we
find variation in the colours of insects occurring under a multitude of
different conditions, and to be presented in a variety of ways. In
these notes we shall confine ourselves to the brief consideration of
a few of the principal phases of variation exhibited by the imagines of
certain Lepidoptera.
The colours of the wings of butterflies and moths are due largely
to the scales found on the wing membrane, and, in a less degree, to
the colours of the wing membrane itself. The scales themselves are
hollow chitinous cells, united by a ball and socket joint to the mem-
brane of the wing. They are epithelial expansions, which, having
attained the size and shape peculiar to the species, become hardened
externally by a chitinous deposit. In the process of their develop-
ment, they go through a regular series of changes. They are at first
transparent, then they become whitish, then a secretion from the pupal
haemolymph, called " pigment factor," enters the scale, and it becomes
yellow ; lastly the pigment-factor is elaborated, and the scales assume
the coloration that they will have in the wing of the perfect insect.
These changes, of course, all take place in the pupa, before the imago
emerges, and no development takes places afterwards ; any change that
then occurs being due to exposure, the influence of light, etc. There
can be no active response, whatever, in the perfect lepidopterous insect,
to any change of environment, i.e., no change can occur in its colora-
tion once the insect has emerged from the pupal state.
Ordinary white light can be decomposed. Popularly, we say, it
can be broken up into a number of differently coloured lights — red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet, and we call these the
colours of the solar spectrum. These colours, in fact, represent the
effect produced on the optic nerve by the variable rate of vibration of
the constituent waves, of which white light is really composed. If a
substance has the power of absorbing some of the light waves, from
the white light which ordinarily falls upon it, and of reflecting others,
only the reflected portion can possibly affect the optic nerve. If the
red rays only be reflected, then the colour of the substance appears to
62 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
us to be red, if blue, then the colour appears to be blue, and so on.
Substances which are thus able to select certain light waves for
absorption, and to reflect others to our eyes, are termed pigments, and
the fact that most scales of Lepidoptera contain substances that can
do this, causes us to term the colours thus produced pigmentary
colours.
But colours are also obtained by the refraction, interference and
diffraction of white light. Scratched and striated surfaces diffract
light. Diffraction breaks up the bent part of a ray of light into its
component parts, and, dispersing the waves, gives, on the edge of
each bright space between the slits or striations, a fringe of colour.
The exposed surface of the scales of many Lepidoptera are striated,
both longitudinally and transversely, hence these produce surface
colours by diffraction. One of the best-known examples of this kind
of coloration in British insects is the purple of the male of Apatura
iris. Such colours as these are usually termed in entomological
magazines, non-pigmentary colours.
Having thus briefly stated the phenomena by means of which,
practically, all the colours of the scales of butterflies and moths
are derived, we see that the colours are due either to the selective
power of the pigment contained in the scales or membrane of the
wing, or they are due to the peculiarities of structure and form of the
scale.
We have already stated that variation is general in all insects, no
two butterflies or moths of the same species being exactly alike.
Sometimes this general variation in a particular species is so marked
and conspicuous, that the most casual observer notices the fact. Such
species are then said to be polymorphic. In a less degree, however, it
may be accepted as a general fact that all species of insects are
polymorphic.
The enemies of butterflies and moths are very numerous — insec-
tivorous birds, reptiles, mammals, other insects — and as they have
practically no weapons of offence, their safety lies in their resemblance
to their surroundings. Danger, to them, is probably more real when
they are at rest, hence, when at rest in a natural attitude, one is
at once struck by the marvellous resemblance which most butterflies
and moths bear to the surface (or to some common object on the sur-
face) on which they rest. With the initial general variation which we
have observed to occur in all insects, it is pretty certain that some
individuals will be more readily detected than others, some peculiarity
of tint, some mark or spot of colour, maybe, rendering them a little
more conspicuous. These will fall a more ready prey to the enemies
that are searching for them, and they are, as a rule, the first eaten.
Those that are best protected are most likely to be left, the laws of
heredity step in, and a larger proportion of well-protected specimens
results in the progeny. Of course, the general variation which must
exist in all broods, and between all individuals, the tendency to
atavism, and similar causes, will always result, even then, in producing
some less favoured individuals. Still the general result will be that a
well protected race, suited to the particular environment by which it
is surrounded, will be developed.
It is evident, when we consider the different habits of insects, that
the particular habit and environment of each species, will determine
THE VARIATION OF THE IMAGINES OF THE LEPIDOPTERA. DO
the main general lines on which the variation of the species will
proceed. Butterflies sit with closed wings, hence it is the undersides
of butterflies that are then exposed, and, therefore, the undersides
take such form, colour and markings, under the influence of natural
selection, as will best protect the individual, e.g., the marbled green
and white underside of Eucldoe cardamines, which rests on umbelli-
ferous flowers, the dark undersides and jagged wing margins of the
Vanessids, which hybernate in hollow trees, and exactly resemble dead
leaves, when at rest. Then there are the " reed " moths, which, be-
longing to many different super-families — NOCTUIDES, LIPARIDES, CRAM-
BIDES, TORTRICIDES, TINEIDES, ZsuzERiDEs — sit by day on the reeds,
their bodies closely appressed to the reed, their wings folded partly
round it, so that each insect represents a gentle swelling of the stem,
culminating in an apparent node on the culm, where the insect's head
is situated. The colour of all these moths is a very pale wainscot —
the tint of a dead or dying reed — with very fine longitudinal striations,
agreeing absolutely with the colours and markings of the reed stem.
Another large group of moths — chiefly GEOMETRIDES — have the habit
of resting on tree-trunks, where their general grey hue, marbled
with transverse wavy lines, gives them a very close resemblance to the
bark on which they rest. Again, in hilly and mountainous districts
particularly, a large number of species rest upon the rocks, when their
colour usually assimilates closely to that of the rocks upon which they
rest, and these, too, are generally covered with transverse wavy lines,
which cause them to be very inconspicuous so long as they remain
immovable upon their resting-places. Some moths that rest on walls,
rocks, or trees, are marked with green and yellow. Such are the
species of Folia, Bryopldla and Cleora, Larentiaflavicinctata, and others.
These, when at rest, are scarcely to be distinguished from the lichens
which grow upon the rocks on which they sit. Then there are the
green and yellow moths — the Emeralds, Thorns and Sallows — which
hide among the leaves of trees, or the lower herbage, and resemble, in
hue, dead or living leaves so exactly, that they are scarcely to be
detected, whilst those that rest among the roots of grass and low her-
bage, generally, are of various shades of grey, or buff, or brown, which
make them very inconspicuous near or upon the surface of the ground.
It is quite clear that, in all these general cases, and in many
special ones, natural selection has produced races, particularly well
suited in the case of each species to the environment in which it is
placed, also that the more conspicuous individuals become a ready prey
to enemies, whilst inconspicuous individuals are more often left to
carry on the race.
One of the most interesting special phases of variation exhibited by
British Lepidoptera is that of melanism and melanochroism, the former
term being applied to those individuals which exhibit a tendency to
develop a greater proportion of black in the ground colour than is
exhibited by the type, the latter, when the ground colour is intensified,
but not in the direction of becoming blacker. The ab. doubledayuria
(popularly known as the "Negro") of Amphidasys betularia may be
cited as an example of the melanic class. The ab. ochracea (of a deep
ochreous or buff tint) of Spilosoma menthastri, which is white in its
typical form, is a very good example of those insects which exhibit
melanochroic tendencies. These tendencies are noticed to be much
64 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
more generally developed in species that rest on fences, the trunks of
trees, the faces of rocks, or on the ground, than in other species. It
may, of course, be assumed that those usually found upon fences were
originally confined, more or less, to tree-trunks, and that the influences
acting upon one are equally potent on the other.
It has been observed that, in a great number of species of moths
that rest on fences and tree-trunks, and are more or less abundant in
the London district, the individuals are darker in colour than those of
the same species, captured a few miles outside the metropolis. This is
clearly observable in Triaena psi, Haneropkila abruptaria, Acidalia
I'irynlaria, Eupitkecia rectangulata, ^Iclanippe fluctuate, Boarmia yem-
maria, Hybernia defoliaria, H. marginaria, H. leucophaearia, Oporabia
dilutata, Diurnaca fagella, Tortrix podana, Hedya occllana and many
other species.
There can be no doubt that in the suburbs of London, fences and
tree-trunks are generously covered with soot. (Those who have green-
houses, and attempt to keep the white paint clean, will understand how
completely they are covered). The tree-trunks have become darker
during the last fifty years, and the depth of colour is gradually increas-
ing in what were then suburban districts. The pale grey and ochreous
specimens of the insects just named used to be well protected 'on their
then clean resting-places. Such specimens are now exceedingly con-
spicuous when they occur, which they only occasionally do, for the selec-
tion of the darker specimens for preservation by nature, has resulted
in the permanent darkening of the race. But it is in the manufacturing
districts — in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cheshire, Derbyshire, Notts, Staf-
fordshire, South Wales, etc. — where thick smoke is poured from number-
less chimneys, and where the fences, tree-trunks, and even the surface of
the ground are begrimed with soot, that the most marked cases of
what may be termed protective melanism occur. There we get the
"Negro" aberration (ab. doubledayana) of Amphidasys betularia, the
ab. niijra of Tephrosia creptuctdaria (biundularia), the ab. fmcata of
Hybernia marginaria, the ab. obscura of Epunda riminalis, the ab. niijra
of Boarmia repandata, whilst many other species give absolutely black
aberrations, which are rarely observed elsewhere. These black aberra-
tions, it is well-known, have practically come into existence during the
last half-century, and their range is rapidly extending. So completely,
too, are many of these dark aberrations supplanting the type that, in
some localities, the pale typical forms are almost unknown. These
moths are nearly all essentially grey — that is, black and white — in their
typical forms. The gradual darkening of the tree-trunks, etc., by the
deposition of soot, has resulted in the better protection of the darker
specimens, and hence their better preservation, and, as we have just
hinted, the trunks and fences have become so blackened that, in some
districts, the absolutely black specimens comprise the best protected
form of the species.
Parallel, if not absolutely identical, with this form of melanism is
that exhibited by those species that rest on rocks. Certain Alpine
species exhibit this form of melanism in a most marked manner, both
in the mountains of Europe and N. America. Certain species that
rest on peat are black, wherever they may be found, and however
different may be the meteorological conditions of the various districts
they inhabit. On the peat bogs in the New Forest, Gnopkos obscwata
THE VARIATION OF THE IMAGINES OF THE LEPIDOPTEEA. 65
is black, so also is it on the dark rocks of Perthshire ; in Sussex,
on the chalk, it is white, and the response of this moth, in ground
colour, to the colour of the rocks on which it rests, is very remarkable.
The black specimens found on peat in the New Forest, and on the
dark rocks of Perthshire, have a similar melanic appearance, the
colour evidently having been induced under such entirely different
environments, by a similar process of selection. But it is in the wet,
mountainous, and western districts of the British Islands, where the
rocks are blackened with moisture, and, even in summer, do not lose
one lot of wet until they have received another, that we find the most
striking cases of melanism. Thus, on the coasts of Scotland, the
Isle of Man and Ireland, we find black races of Af/rotis lucemea, an
insect that is quite pale on the chalk rocks of the Isle of Wight. In
the Isle of Man the dark ab. manani of Dianthoecia caesia, quite unlike
the mottled Continental type, occurs. The aberrations nigra and in-
fuscata of Xijlophasia monoylypha, an insect which rests upon the ground,
are found in all districts where the rocks are naturally dark, or where
there is a heavy rainfall. On the west coast of Ireland, melanic
forms of Camptoyramma bilineata are found resting on the rocks, and
contrasting greatly with the beautiful golden specimens that hide on the
undersurfaces of leaves in our gardens, whilst the aberrations suffusa,
intermedia, ochrca and obliterae of Dianthoecia conspersa are found on
our northern and western coasts, and respond so perfectly to the rocks
upon which they rest, that the professional collectors can tell almost
the exact localities in various parts of the Shetlands and Hebrides,
from which individual specimens have come. In Shetland, again,
the little whitish Emmelesia albulata of our southern pastures and
meadows, becomes of a deep unicolorous leaden colour.
In all these cases, moisture plays an important, if indirect, part.
In the first case, it brings down, in manufacturing districts, the soot
in the air, which, when evaporation takes place, is left behind and
forms a coating on the tree-trunks, fences, or rocks on which the
insects hide. In the second, it permanently dark'ens the rocks in
mountainous districts, and more or less so in the western areas, where
there is a heavy rainfall. It makes, therefore, the work of natural
selection in the direction of producing melanic aberrations exceedingly
easy. This aspect of melanism has been already worked out at con-
siderable length.0
There have been occasionally general statements made to the effect
that insects from high latitudes are usually melanic. This is so, if only
the coast districts and areas with a heavy rainfall be taken into account ;
but if the open areas of high latitudes be considered, we find that,
although there is a general suffusion of markings and a tendency to ill-
developed pigment, due probably to the extreme conditions under which
development takes place, yet, as a rule, melanism is rare. Mr. Merrifield
has, however, shown us two cases in which temperature tends to pro-
duce melanic forms. These are remarkable from the fact that the
exposure of the pupa to a low temperature in one case, Eiujonia poly-
chloros, produces a melanic form ; in the other, Chrysophanm phlaeas,
exposure of the pupa to a high temperature produces a somewhat similar
result. These, and parallel cases, are not difficult of explanation.
* Tutt, Melanism and Melanochroism in British Lepidoptera, 1891.
OD BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
The pupae are exposed to the low and high temperature respectively,
at the period when the scale-pigments are undergoing differentiation
in the scales, from the haemolymph of the pupal blood. There is a
point at which this elaboration is carried on at a normally healthy
rate. At a temperature considerably above or below this normal point,
the pigment is developed abnormally, maybe never reaches its normal
condition (chemically), or, maybe, overshoots it. In either case,
abnormal conditions are produced, and, in these two instances, the
abnormality results in a melanic appearance of the insects.
There are, of course, other forms of melanism which probably
have nothing in common with the cases already cited. One of these
is well represented by the ab. ralesina of Dnjas paphia, by the ab.
suffiisa of Aryynnis aijlaia, etc., which are probably survivals of the old
form of the Argynnid female (vide, Entom. Rec., L, pp. 29-31).
The production of albinism in Lepidoptera is not of very frequent
occurrence, still it occurs sufficiently often for the phenomenon to be
worthy of mention. It occurs in a more or less perfect manner in
species that rest on the ground, and which vary in tint according to
the colour of the soil upon which they rest. In Gnophus obm-urata,
almost purely white specimens are often found in districts where the
insects rest upon the bare chalk, and the same is true of Eubolia bi-
punctaria, which has almost similar habits. These insects are, in their
typical forms, grey, i.e., their scales are — some black, others white.
The process of natural selection has weeded out the more conspicuous
(darker) examples in these localities, until a more or less white race
has been produced. It may be urged that these are not truly albinic
specimens, but they are exactly parallel in their mode of development
with some of the melanic forms to which we have previously referred.
True albinic specimens, we take it, are such as those of Calli-
morjiha hera, Triphaena promtba, Catocala nupta, and other species
that have been recorded, in which the yellow or red pigment has failed,
and the scales have become white. In dealing with these specimens it is
evident we have a result based directly on physiological processes, for the
scales contain no pigment, the normal elaboration of the haemolymph ma-
terial having been largely or entirely suspended and the scales filled
with air. In our collection are specimens of Hemerophila abruptaria
and Hybernia aurantiaria exhibiting this phenomenon, and we believe
that the specimens of Sesia culiciformis in which the normal red (or
yellow) pigment of the abdominal belt is occasionally white, afford
a similar instance.
Not very different is the cause which gives rise to the xanthic aberra-
tions, which are often included under the same head. In a paper,
" The genetic sequence of insect colours,"0 we long since pointed out
that many instances of white coloration were due to an unstable pig-
ment in the cells, and that certain instances of black coloration were
also the result of highly differentiated pigment. These " whites " are
very rapidly changed to ochreous or buff under the influence of am-
monia, but regain their chemical equilibrium quickly on exposure to
the air. The embryonic scale is apparently filled with a secretion
from the hremolymph, which, in its first stage, becomes of a milky-
white coloration, afterwards changing rapidly to buff and ochreous-
* British Noctuae and their I'uriftics, vol. ii., pp. i.-xvi.
THE VARIATION OF THE IMAGINES OF THE LEPIDOPTERA. 67
yellow, the further coloration of the pigment giving rise to the special
coloration of the scales. Xanthic patches, sometimes extending to a
whole wing, at others to the whole insect, are exceedingly common in
Satyrid and Argynnid butterflies, and appear to be due to an arrest of
the development of the pigment in the whitish or ochreous stage.
The instances of protective resemblance already referred to, remind
us at once of the particular case which has been brought under our notice
by Wallace, Weismann, Niceville, and others, w^., that affecting the "leaf
butterflies " of the tropics. In the instances we have hitherto con-
sidered, the resemblance of the insect has been to the surface upon
which it rested, gaining its protection by its resemblance to that sur-
face as a whole. In the case of the " leaf butterflies," the resemblance
is to a special definite object, viz., the leaf of the particular tree on
which the insect rests. These butterflies are Nymphalids, and belong
to the oriental genus Kallima, the Indian species — paralekta, inachis,
and philarcJnts — being nearly four inches in expanse, while the African
species, K. rumia, is smaller. These butterflies are conspicuous objects
when flying, but when they alight upon a twig, the wings raised over
the back, and the fore-wings thrown well forward, the pattern and
colour of the undersurface are such that they make a perfect resem-
blance to a leaf. The mid-rib consists of a coloured stripe crossing
both wings, which, taking its rise at the apex of the fore-wing, is con-
tinued over the hind-wing, and terminates in a tail-like extension of
the latter, the extension just reaching the twig, and thus resembling
the petiole of a leaf.
But the similarity of colouring between some of the unprotected
Pierids and the nauseous Nymphalids, is, perhaps, more remarkable. It
is well known among entomologists that many of the latter are specially
protected from the attacks of birds, and other insect-eating animals,
by the production of various scents, which make them distasteful and
objectionable as articles of food. On the other hand, the Pierids — of
which our common white and yellow butterflies are good examples —
appear to be particularly subject to the attacks of numerous enemies.
Bates, Trimen, and other observers have noticed that in the tropics,
the Pierids, flying with the Nymphalids, frequently lose the ordinary
Pierid coloration and type of markings, and become orange-coloured,
and marked on the same general lines as the common Nymphalids.
So similar are the colour and markings in some instances, that even
specialists have been, for a time, deceived, and have failed at first to
recognise them, not only as belonging to different families, but even
as distinct species. That this similarity served the purpose of protec-
tion to the Pierid was first propounded by Bates, and it soon became
generally accepted as an explanation of the facts, that the Pierids,
owing to their similarity to the nauseous Nymphalids, were less likely
to be attacked by birds and other insectivorous animals, which had
learned by experience that insects of a certain colour were objectionable
as articles of diet.
We frequently find that when the sexes of a given species vary
much in Habit, there is considerable difference in the colour, and less
often in the markings, of the sexes. Sometimes, too, there is con-
siderable sexual diversity when the habits are very similar. Many
species have the males brilliantly coloured in comparison with the
females ; frequently the sexes are almost identical in tint, but the
68 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
instances, among insects, in which the female is more brilliantly
tinted than the male must be exceedingly rare. Scudder mentions
one South American genus where this is so ; perhaps Zephynis qwrcus,
Z. betulae and Thecla ilicis may also be cited, but the cases are com-
paratively few. Darwin considers that the excessive beauty on the
part of the males is due to sexual selection, the females having,
through a long period of time, selected the more attractive males.
He further thinks that the various forms of beauty originated as casual
variations, and that the special characters were then intensified by the
selection exercised by the female. Wallace, on the other hand, con-
siders that the sober colours of female insects are due to natural
selection, and have been the means of their preservation, since the
operation of natural selection has eliminated those individuals of the
latter sex that are most gay, and, therefore, conspicuous to their
enemies. Darwin starts from inconspicuous forms, from which he
derives the conspicuous ones, whilst Wallace starts from conspicuous
forms, and from them derives the inconspicuous ones. We have al-
ready0 shown that, among the Lepidoptera, facts distinctly bear out
Wallace's view. There is no need to give any special examples of
sexual dimorphism, for, as a matter of fact, it would be difficult to
find among our British lepidoptera many species that do not exhibit
this phenomenon to a greater or less extent.
Another marked form of variation that occurs in certain species is
that known as seasonal dimorphism. In those countries which have
a very distinct difference between the summer and winter temperatures,
certain species produce one form of the imago in the spring, after
the pupa has been exposed for some months to the climatic conditions
of winter, and another form of the imago in the early autumn, after
the pupa has been exposed for only a few weeks, or even days, to
the climatic conditions of summer. The differences between these
two broods are usually marked in two ways — (1) Size. (2) Colour.
It frequently happens that the summer or autumn-emerging brood is
the smaller, and this is undoubtedly due to the difference in the
quantity of food eaten, since the larval state of this brood lasts a much
shorter time than that of those that emerge in the spring, the larvae,
indeed, often missing a moult in order to come to maturity more
quickly. The difference in colour is probably due, in different species,
to two distinct causes : (1) The less energy at disposal for the purpose
of pigment formation in the quickly- feeding individuals. (2) The
direct influence of the temperature on the pigment during its
formation.
Standfuss asserts (Causes of Variation, etc., p. 5) that, in some ex-
periments that he made on lepidopterous larvae, the more the period
of larval feeding was shortened by the raising of the temperature, the
better marked was the reduction in size of the imago. This was the
regular, and almost invariable result. A pair of Kutricha querd folia,
of which the male measured 58 and the female 89 mm. across the
wings, produced offspring of which, after a sojourn of 70-85 days in
the larval, and 12-15 days in the pupal, condition, the males measured
only 35-37 and the females 36-39 mm. across the wings. Ai-ctia
fi, male 46 mm., female 48 mm. across the wings (from pupae
British Xoctuae, etc., vol. Hi., pp. xvii. ct seq.
THE VARIATION OF THE IMAGINES OF THE LEPIDOPTERA. 69
collected in the open air), produced three females, measuring 36-39 mm.,
after a larval stage of 68-87, and a pupal of 15-20 days. Callimorpka
dominula var. romanovitf , of 59 mm. and C. var. persona $ of 55 mm.,
gave rise, after 65-71 days of larval feeding and 14-19 days in the
pupal stage, to a form measuring only 35-38 mm. across the wings, in
more than a dozen examples.
Although in the following experiments no hybernation of the larvae
occurred, yet, in contrast to the instances just given, individuals of
A. fasciata were reared from eggs of the same pair as above, after
142-163 days of larval, and 25-31 days of pupal, existence, which
measured 55-57 mm. in expanse ; and eggs of Dendrolimus pini (male
59 mm. and female 74 mm.), yielded descendants expanding 65-68
mm. in the male, and 84-86 mm. in the female, after 150-172 days of
larval feeding and 25-37 days in the pupal condition.
In tropical countries where there is less marked difference in the
temperature at various seasons, but where there is a marked difference
in the rainfall, i.e., in countries where the seasons are known as
" wet " and " dry," we get what are known as " dry seasonal forms "
and " wet seasonal forms," i.e., that a larva that feeds up during the
wet season produces an imago different from that produced from a
larva of the same species that has fed up during the dry season. The
difference sometimes occurs in the shape of the wing, sometimes it is
a difference of colour, more often of ocellation. So marked are the
differences, that the forms have, in almost all instances, been described
as distinct species, but Doherty0 succeeded, in the early part of the
dry season, in the Island of Sumbawa, in breeding both Melanitis
leda and M. ismene, from the eggs of M. leda, the two having been
previously considered to be distinct species. This was done by separat-
ing a batch of larvae of M. leda, and rearing one part under natural
conditions, which produced, in due course, the dry season form, ismene,
the other part being reared in a box, in which a wet sponge was kept,
in order to retain a damp atmosphere. The imagines produced from
the larvae reared under the latter conditions were the wet season form,
M. leda. De Niceville, Marshall, and others, have also reared the one
form of various species from eggs laid by another.
It has been clearly shown that temperature and moisture are two
important factors in bringing about changes in the appearance of
insects, i.e., they act in such a manner as to exert a marked influence
in producing variation. Our climate, of course, is not suitable for
the production of " dry" and '• wet " seasonal forms, as it does not
afford the necessary conditions. It does, however, afford the condi-
tions (although in a much less marked degree, than some parts of
Continental Europe) for the production of " spring " and " summer "
seasonal forms. Yet, since the action of moisture is so distinctly the
predominant feature in bringing about the phenomena of " dry "
and " wet " seasonal dimorphism, it must be conceded that moisture
is an effective external factor in influencing the larval life in such a
manner as to leave a marked impress on the resulting imago, and, in
a moist climate like ours, there can be no doubt whatever that
moisture is an effective external factor in determining variation, and
that its general effect may be considerable, especially in those species
* Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. Iviii., pt. ii., No. 1, 1889.
tO BKITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
which are not particularly affected by differences of temperature. On
the other hand, temperature, possibly, has some effect as a factor in
determining general variation in tropical countries, where it is, how-
ever, overshadowed by moisture. There are, probably, many other
external factors besides "moisture and drought," and " high and low
temperatures," which react on insects in such a manner as to deter-
mine variation, but these are the factors which have, at present, been
most studied.
It may now be understood how a species, which exists under two
very different environments, may produce two very different-looking
imagines, so different, indeed, that their specific identity may be
doubted. In the European fauna, this is well illustrated by species that
exist both at the sea-level and also on mountains at a high elevation.
The specimens of Melitaea aiirinia from the plains are large, brightly
coloured and am pie- winged. Those from the mountains are small,
ill-pigmented and narrow-winged, and are known as var. nieropc.
That the factor that determines this change of size is food, we think very
possible ; that moisture and temperature have also something to do with
the matter, is exceedingly probable. In this manner we get " lowland "
and "alpine" forms of the same species; "northern" and "southern"
forms similarly occur when a species is spread over several degrees of
latitude; "eastern" and "western" forms, when specimens of a
species caught in Western Europe are compared with specimens of the
same species taken in Japan, and so on, differing often in size, shape
or colour, or even all combined, and such races — known as geographical
races — are often so distinct, that an expert can often tell at a glance
the exact area or district from which the specimens have come.
The differences that mark these various races have an important
bearing on the question of the origin of species. We believe that these
differences are often correlated with variations that exist in the
organism itself ; sometimes, indeed, that they are the manifestations of
such variation, and, if the conditions which are thus set up, and in-
sisted upon by the environment year after year, be intensified, as, by
the localisation and isolation of these races, they must be, the differ-
ences may often become permanent and acquire specific value.
Differences in habitat — altitude for example — often permanently alter
the time of appearance of the insect in the imaginal state, and thus
the life-cycle is modified, the particular form is isolated, and its special
features become, as it were, more and more fixed.
Thus far we have dealt only with the external manifestations of
variation, as they are presented to our observation. Dixey has shown0
us by what sequence of modifications the patterns of the winga of the
Nymphalid butterflies have been formed from a more primitive type.
He has also shownf us how the mimicking Pierids have attained the
markings by means of which they so closely resemble the nauseous
Nymphalids they mimic ; but he has given us no clue as to the phy-
siological processes underlying these changes.
Starting from the basis that every portion of an insect's wing has
in it, from the germ, endless possibilities in the direction of variation,
Weismann argues that utility determines the particular form of variation
which will be acquired by the individual. We have already criticised, J
* Trans. Ent. Soc. Land., 1890, pp. 89 et seq. f Ibid, 1894, pp. 249 et seq.
J Entom. Record, etc., vol. viii., pp. 1 et seq.
THE VARIATION OP THE IMAGINES OF THE LEPIDOPTERA. 71
at length, the details of this theory as to the origin of the protective
coloration of the leaf-butterflies of the genus Kallima. We consider
that the response to environment, as exemplified by the form, colour,
shape, etc., of insects, is the outward expression of certain variable
factors, which, arising within the organism, are directed as to what
exact lines they shall ultimately take by the external conditions of life,
i.e., by utility. Weismann asserts that selection and utility originate
the colour-patterns, which is true so far, and only so far, that actual
colour-patterns do not exist until natural selection forms them out of
the crude material at its disposal. It appears to us that there are two
processes of selection engaged, before the ultimate production of any
colour-pattern — (1) Selection (internal) among the biophors them-
selves, and dependent on the vital processes. (2) Natural selection
(external), by means of which the variously coloured scales are formed
into a pattern useful to the insect. The scale determinants, it seems,
are subject to the same physiological laws as those of other organs.
They are guided in the course of their development by various con-
siderations, and whilst their general characters are due to internal
forces, the special peculiarities of their arrangement are determined
by natural selection ; the particular variable factors which are useful
for the preservation of the species being chosen for the purpose of
building up the required patterns.
The fundamental difference (apart from detail) between the old
conception of selection, and that more recently propounded by Weis-
mann, is that by Darwin, variations were considered to be fortuitous,
and that selection had to wait for one of these chance occasions to
occur, whilst Weismann considers that every portion of the organism
contains within itself, from the first, an indefinite number of varia-
tions, some of which are almost sure to be in the direction required.
Selection chooses those required, and, by the process of intra-selec-
tion, compels them, as it were, to overcome their competitors, and
utilises them to produce those results which shall be of service to the
organism.
At present, however, we have not got to the all-important factor
in the study of variation, -viz., what are the physiological factors that
decide which of Weismann's theoretical " determinants " shall be
developed, and which be extinguished. Weismann tells us that, even
in the germ, every part of an insect — a wing or a scale — however
large or small, is composed of theoretical molecules called " determi-
nants." These, by intra-selection, i.e., by the competition of the
molecules themselves, become non-existent as one absorbs the other,
the predominant " determinant " finally deciding the nature and
character of the part. He, therefore, considers that the particular form
of the part, say a scale, is determined at a comparatively early stage of
the insect's existence, i.e., once the predominance of a particular
" determinant " is assured.
Although the assumption of " determinants " enables us to explain
certain phenomena, it does not bring us any nearer to the actual physio-
logical activities which result in variation, nor does it explain to us how
certain external factors result in variation. To say that a scale of an
insect originally has in it the potentialities of becoming white,
yellow or red, and that when the scale finally emerges red, to explain
it by saying that the red " determinant " was successful over the white
72 BRITISH LEPlDOPTERA.
and yellow " determinants," does not help us much, and we un-
hesitatingly affirm that whether the scale is finally red, yellow or
white, depends primarily on the conditions under which the organism
carries on its existence.
Let us hark back a little. The wing of a butterfly is present in the
embryo caterpillar before it hatches from the egg. The wing develops
with the caterpillar, and with the pupa, and only ceases to develop
with the stretching of the wing following the emergence of the perfect
insect. Supposing the animal to have been supplied with a sufficient
quantity of suitable nutritious food until the moment of pupation, to
have been kept under the most perfect conditions of health throughout
its larval and pupal existence, as a result we shall have an imago
normal and perfectly typical in size, shape, colour and markings.
On the other hand, let the food supply be short and innutritious, or
the conditions under which it is reared unhealthy, or let the pupa
undergo its final metamorphosis under adverse conditions, and we shall
get a specimen small in size, stunted, crippled, maybe failing more
or less in colour and modified in markings. Everyone who has bred
insects in large numbers knows that these results are certain. These
facts are only mentioned to show that these aberrations are outward
manifestations of the vital activities of the insect.
Let us go a little more minutely into the subject. When the
pupa of an insect is formed, the tissues (except those connected
with the reproductive system) undergo histolysis. They are reduced
and changed in character, and, from -the material resulting in the de-
gradation of the tissues as it were, new tissues are built up by the
process of histogenesis. Among others, the scales are formed from epi-
thelial cells, and they are filled with a secretion from the haemolymph,
known as "pigment-factor," containing the chemical constituents for
pigmentation. The pigmentary matter is deposited on the inside of
the scales, the hsemolymph secretion is withdrawn from the scales, and
air takes its place.
The pigment in the scales of insects is of an excretory nature, i.e.,
it is a product derived from the pnpal blood, and, in a pupa, the larva
of which has been reared under typically healthy conditions as to food
and environment, this material will be normal ; but if the pupa be
weak, due to the unhealthy conditions of food and environment to
which the larva has been subjected, will not the material from which
the pigment is elaborated suffer with the other tissues, and will not
this weakness tend to result in a departure from the normal, i.e.,
produce an aberration ?
If it be granted that these conditions are a possible cause of
variation, it may readily be surmised that less pronounced changes in
the life of a species may produce a less pronounced change in the
general appearance, colour, and markings of the individual. It may
be that the changes are severe enough to influence, but yet not severe
enough to seriously affect, its health. If the change be permanent,
then the outward manifestations of the changed vital processes will
be exhibited permanently — possibly in the colour and markings. In
this manner the differences existing between local races of the same
insect living under different environmental conditions may possibly
be explained. The predisposing factor to the change may have been
food, moisture, heat, cold, or one of many other things, but the factor
THE VARIATION OF THK IMAGINES OF THE LEPIDOPTERA. 73
acting on the organism has brought about the result we see. If the
result produced by these internal activities be such as to cause positive
injury to the race, by rendering the individuals conspicuous, more
palatable, etc., then natural selection will direct the variations that
exist in the newly-formed race, into such lines, as will necessarily be of
advantage to it.
But it may happen that a larva may exist under very distinctly
favourable conditions until pupation takes place, and that, then, the
pupa may be subjected to unusual conditions. We have already seen
that the pupal period is that in which the wing-scales are entirely
formed, and their contained pigment entirely elaborated. It is well-
known that the pigmentary material goes through a regular (and for
each species, fixed) genetic sequence before the mature colour is reached.
It is evident, therefore, that changes of colour, due either to modification
of scale-structure, or pigment, will be more readily effected in this stage
than any other. The most powerful factor in bringing about a direct
change has, thus far, been temperature. By exposing pupae to tem-
peratures to which they are not normally subjected, Merrifield has
produced definite changes in the colours of certain species. These
changes have been particularly marked in those species which have
normally two seasonal — spring and summer — forms, varying in colour.
Other species have, however, responded to the stimulus somewhat
readily. No general results, however, have yet been deduced. In
some instances (Kutjonia polycldoros), as we have already seen, a low
temperature produces a darkening of the normal colour ; in others
(Chrysoplianw phlaeas), a high temperature produces a similar effect.
What is the nature of the difference in the pigment-factor of the scales
of these two insects that makes them thus respond in such similar ways
to different stimuli ?
It is well-known that, within the area of distribution of a species,
there is a certain part in which the environment is more perfectly
fitted than in the remainder, by food supply, climatic conditions, etc.,
for the development of the species in its most vigorous form. Outside
this limited area the species exists under less completely favourable
conditions ; the food-supply may partially fail, the climatic conditions,
or other external factors of environment, may be less suitable, and, as a
result, the insect produced may be less vigorous, less highly developed,
either as regards size or colour, and may altogether show considerable
difference from individuals developed under the most favourable
conditions.
The darkness (or brightness) of Chrysopkanus phlaeas seems to be
due to climatic (temperature) conditions. It is well known that, as
regards acclimatisation, some species succeed better in cold and
others in hot, some in wet and others in dry, seasons. Whether this
be due to the fact that some insects have spread to us from more
northern, others from more southern latitudes, or to other causes, it
is rendered highly probable that the same amount of heat may act
prejudicially on one insect and advantageously on another. In the
latter case, increased heat may be expected to produce effects that
show an increase of vitality, whilst in the former, cold will produce
the same result. A great excess of either heat or cold would, of course,
be injurious to any species. To an insect that exists in Britain, at a
mean temperature, say of 54°, but prefers 60°, any decrease of tempe-
rature will be injurious, whilst increased temperature will affect it
74 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
beneficially, until it reaches 60°, and probably will not affect it preju-
dicially until it exceeds 66°.
It is a fact that the largest, most vigorous, and most brightly coloured
specimens of Ckrysopkanut phlaeas are obtained in the temperate parts
of the Palaearctic area, and that, as we pass south, the insect becomes
less brilliant, darker, and often smaller. This tends to show that it
is one of those species that prefer-an environment more like that of
our temperate climes, and that a higher temperature affects it more or
less prejudicially. The most easily-marked evidence of this prejudicial
action appears to be seen in the scaling, for, even in Britain, a very
hot summer, like that of 1893, always produces a fair proportion of
dark specimens, even in those localities where, in cooler seasons, the
colour is most brilliant. This is sufficient to prove that the range of
variation in the determinants of the scales is such as may enable
the insect to be either black or of a bright ruddy golden colour, and
the external stimulus which brings one or other of these extreme con-
ditions to the fore, appears to be that of temperature.
If we apply the simplest elementary laws of vital force to our con-
sideration of the development of the pupa, we find that the following
facts hold good : — (1) The pupa, when first formed, has a certain
amount of inherent vital force, by means of which, both the process
of histolysis, and that of histogenesis, are carried on in it. (2) That
pupa which has the nearest approach to the normal amount of vital
force will undergo the most perfect histolysis and histogenesis, and
will produce an imago most nearly conforming to the natural type,
that is, to the form produced under the most healthy and satisfactory
conditions. Conversely, the pupa whose amount of vital force is
removed from the normal (whether by excess or defect) is the one in
which histolysis and histogenesis will be least perfect, and the imago
produced therefrom will be farthest removed from the normal type.
(3) That individual which has been best fed, and which has enjoyed
the most perfect health in the larval stage, will enter pupal life under
the most satisfactory conditions, and will (the pupal conditions being
equally satisfactory) emerge therefrom as the best specialised product,
while the converse of this must also be true.
Another important point appears also to depend on an elementary
principle. The vital force of the pupa is converted into energy ; the
energy at the disposal of the pupa is most probably directed, first, to
the building up of the vital and reproductive organs, afterwards to the
secondary organs or tissues, or such as are not necessary to life. There-
fore, any excess of energy in a pupa will be expended, as a rule, on
secondary structures rather than on vital ones, and so we find that a
weak or diseased pupa fails first in regard to non-vital tissues, such
as pigment, scales, wing membrane, etc.
It would appear therefore that, as a general rule, pigment, scales,
etc., are well- or ill-developed in proportion to the amount of material
and energy available for the purpose. As a result, such insects as
pass through their metamorphoses at the normal temperature, pro-
duce the form which is normal for the district ; that is, they undergo
the normal processes of histolysis and histogenesis, and, in a state of
health, have at their disposal the energy requisite to give them the
normal wing-expanse, scaling and colour. If an increase or decrease
of temperature lowers the vitality of the pupa, it lessens the available
THE VARIATION OF THE IMAGINES OF THE LEPIDOPTERA. 75
energy. The insect, therefore, does not develop under such favour-
able conditions ; it needs what energy it possesses to build up its vital
organs, and so fails in perfectly building up the secondary tissues.
This failure is in direct proportion to the degree in which the vitality
is lessened. If the temperature during the period of active develop-
ment be below a certain degree, the vital force ceases to act at all, and
death results. Heat, greater than that to which the insect is normally
subjected, instead of reducing the vitality to the lowest ebb at which life
can be sustained, affects the histolysis and histogenesis, usually, in a di-
rectly opposite manner. Under its influence the vital processes are carried
on at express speed, Energy is expended at the fastest rate possible,
and the tissues are developed without having sufficient time to mature,
as they would under normal conditions (we may here suppose these
to be those that are most beneficial to the species) ; the surplus
material is rapidly utilised, with the result that as marked an abnor-
mality is produced under the one condition as under the other,
although in an opposite direction. It is conceivable that to insects
which normally mature at a low temperature, a moderately high
temperature might be fatal, and that the pupal tissues would not form
at all. It is clear, however, that all changes in the environment of
the pupa must necessarily produce some effect on its development.. If
the change be sufficiently extreme, then the effect is death ; anything
short of such an extreme will produce an effect proportioned to its magni-
tude. If a pupa be thoroughly acclimatised to a given range of
temperature, then excessive heat or cold must be injurious.
The fact that an increased temperature produces dark specimens of
Chrysophamts phlaean, must be looked upon as simply a fortuitous
circumstance, inasmuch as it appears to be largely due to the dark
ground coloration of the scales, for, as we have seen, Ewjonia poly-
chloros becomes darker by the subjection of its pupa to a low tem-
perature. Probably the physiological result is much the same in both
cases ; heat in the case of C. phlaeas, cold in the case of E. polychloros,
being detrimental to the development of the most highly specialised
individuals of these species.
We consider, therefore, that within the limits of existence, the
possibilities of the germ are such, that the determinants of the scales
(under the influence of intra-selection), present a range of variation
within the extreme limits possible to the species, and that external
influences determine, through their action on the organism, which of
the three before-mentioned factors shall come to the fore in the final
production of the scales.
There can be no doubt that it is in this direction that experiment
and observation are particularly wanted, if we are to obtain any real,
as apart from a theoretical, knowledge of the factors underlying variation.
These problems relate rather to vital activities, and to physiological
phenomena, than to anatomical structures, or the external guiding
influence exerted by natural selection, and it is on these lines, it
appears, that the laws governing variation will finally have to be
worked out.
76 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE PROTECTIVE COLORATION AND DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF
LEPIDOPTEROUS LARVJE.
We have already, incidentally, referred to the fact that the exposed
life led by many lepidopterous larvae, renders them very liable to be
attacked by ichneumons, and to be preyed upon by various mammals,
birds, reptiles, and carnivorous insects. We have also shown that they
have undergone considerable modification, both for the purposes of con-
cealment and defence. For the former, we have seen (ante, p. 43) that
larval colours are often modified, probably by phytoscopic influences, and
that natural selection has produced specialised patterns, by means of
which the larvae are suitably coloured to escape detection in the
environment in which they are placed. For the purpose of protection,
we have noticed how the simple hairs of the generalised setae (ante, p. 45),
and the fine clothing of the skin (ante, p. 38), may be respectively modi-
fied into dense hairy fascicles and a thick clothing of hair, which render
the larvae quite inedible to many entomophagous animals. We know,
also, that the tubercles themselves may be modified into chitinous,
prickly spines (as in the Vanessid, Saturniid, and many otherwise
widely different, larvae), which serve as a defence for the caterpillars
against many of their enemies.
It may be here remarked that, since the larva leads an independent
and entirely different mode of existence from that of the pupa and
imago, it often happens that for the successful continuation of a species,
a high degree of specialisation is necessary in the larval stage, and
that the necessary modification has taken place without a corresponding
specialisation of the other stages — egg, pupa, or imago. Conversely,
it is conceivable that a highly specialised condition may be necessary
in either of these stages, whilst the larva remains in a more generalised
condition. It is, however, our intention to exclude the consideration
of these latter contingencies at present, and to confine ourselves to
those specialisations, defensive and offensive, which larvaa have de-
veloped for the purpose of protection.
We may premise, then, by stating that larva? are protected in a
variety of ways. They have, in many cases, adopted various habits
of concealment when not feeding. Hesperid and Tortricid larvae twist
up leaves, Crambid larvae make silken galleries ; many gregarious
larvae (such as those of Eriogeuter, Malacosoma, Cnethocampa, etc.)
spin silken webs, and these live therein — whilst others (as ]>n>/>ana,
Pyrameis, etc.) spin leaves together, and dwell in the tent thus formed ;
others, again, feed only by night, some drop to the ground, and
others throw themselves about violently, when disturbed. We have
already noticed (ante, pp. 43-44) by what processes they have become
specialised in colour, so as to resemble the leaves among which they
rest. One of the most general forms of ornamentation of grass-
feeding larvae, is a series of longitudinal lines. These produce an
effect resembling the lines of light and shade resulting from the
illumination of a grass leaf, and due to the parallel venation of the
leaf. Similarly, other larvae are specialised in colour to resemble the
PROTECTIVE COLOKATION AND DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF LABV.3E. 77
twigs and other objects upon which they normally rest. We have
already seen (ante, p. 42) that the specialisation of hairs and spines makes
them unsuitable for the food of insectivorous birds. Other lines of
specialisation by means of which they are protected are by eversible
glands (sometimes taking the form of flagella), acid excretions,
obnoxious odours, dangerous-looking spines, and horns, and spots ;
even remarkable attitudes help to swell the sum total of the defensive
possibilities of larvae.
That larvae are protected by having a habitation into which to
retire, and that they thus gain an advantage in the struggle for
existence, appears certain. Niceville mentions (Butterflies of Sumatra,
p. 394) that the larva of a large Skipper butterfly (Hidari irava)
and that of a Nymphalid butterfly (Amatkusia phidippiis) live, at
the same time, on the leaves of Cucos nucifera. He says that,
owing to their general abundance, the two species often have a severe
struggle to live together, in which the more robust Hesperid, which
secures a shelter for itself by spinning the leaves together, is generally
victorious.
The various means by which larvae are protected, owing to their
similarity to some part of their food-plant, or by their resemblance to
some object common upon it, is well-known. Some larvae resemble
structures on the leaves ; thus, whilst the larva of Apoda avellana
assimilates to the surface of an oak leaf, that of Heterof/enea cruciata
has been compared with a gall. Packard also says that the larva of
Lithacoiles faaciola and those of Packardia are entirely green, oval in
form, and might easily be mistaken for a fold or bend in a leaf.
The greater part of the Geometrid larvae resemble twigs, whilst
arboreal Noctuid larvae are either coloured so as to suit their envi-
ronment, or otherwise resemble some portion of the tree sufficiently
well to escape detection, whilst ground-feeding larvae resemble, in tint,
the ground on or under which they rest by day.
Elliott says that the larvae of the American Heteroyenea flexuosa and
H. testacea&re wonderfully similar to the red dipterous or aphidid galls on
oak and other leaves. Packard, too, notes the resemblance between
these larvae and the small reddish-green galls, which appear late in
summer on the leaves at the time when the larvae themselves become fully
grown. He then adds : These forms being thus protected from observa-
tion and harm, do not need the armature of the larvae of the other group
(of this superfamily), and the tubercles and spines have disappeared
through simple disuse ; while being without poison-bearing spines,
they have also lost by disuse the bright colours and conspicuous spots
of the armed genera. On the other hand, the larvae of Odoneta,
Entpretia, Em-lea, and allied forms, with their remarkably bright
colours and markings, and poison-bearing (? urticating) tubercles, feed
conspicuously, the warning colours and showy ornamentation repelling
the attacks of birds. We are inclined to the belief that the armed
slug-worms were the earlier, from the probability that, in the Coleop-
tera, the earliest and most generalised groups were the Sta/thylinidae
and the "carnivorous Cai-abidae, and their allies; while the later, most
extremely modified forms were the weevils and Scolytitlae, in which the
larvae are footless. In the Diptera, also, it is not improbable that those
families with the most perfectly developed larvae, such as the Culicidae
and Tipulidae, were the earliest and most generalised types, while the
78 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Muscidae, with their apodous maggots, present the extreme of modifica-
tion though not of specialisation, and so with other apodous insects
and apodous Arthropods in general (Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., xxxi., pp.
84-85).
The resemblance of many lepidopterous larvae to a bird's dropping
is well known, and the same form of resemblance is often adopted by
many lepidopterous imagines (Ant'tthesia salicana, Cilix ylaucata, etc,).
So marked is this resemblance when the larva of Jocheaera alni is in
its fourth skin, that it is commonly known as the " bird's dropping "
stage. The young larva of Papilio machaon is similarly protected, and
Niceville says that " the young larvae of P. polytes, like those of
P. memnon, P. helenus and P. nephelits, have a strong superficial
resemblance to a bird's dropping, which doubtless greatly protects
them."
When we see a Geometrid larva stiff and rigid on a twig, we are at
once attracted by the peculiar structure which enables it to maintain
its shape, simply by the pressure of the body-walls on the contained
fluids. We also observe how liable such a structure is to danger, and
thus, while we note how suited the lepidopterous larva is to exert a
great motive force at any movable point of its body-surface by means
of its fluid contents, we recognise also that its liability to injury must
necessitate some very successful expedients for its protection, if it is to
fight its way through the hosts of enemies which surround it. When
we examine a number of larvas, we find how rarely they are provided
with offensive structures, and, as a rule, lepidopterous larvae rely on
a purely passive defence, the most common of which is their resem-
blance to some part of their food-plant, such resemblance being their
sole protection, and ensuring their escape.
We will now examine a few of the special cases in which larvas
resemble their food-plant so closely that they can only with difficulty
be detected when at rest, and, for this purpose, almost any Geometrid,
and numberless other, larvae offer excellent illustrations. The young
larvae of lodis vemaria hatches in July or August, is green in colour,
rests on the stems of the food-plant (Clematis), stretching straight up,
holding on merely by the hind claspers. It has a bifurcate hump on
the pro-thorax, standing forward over the head, and its resemblance
to a broken leaf-stalk, or tendril, is most remarkable. It is a hyber-
nating larva, and in the late autumn, when the leaves and stems of the
Clematis turn brown, the larva moults, turns brown with them, and exactly
assimilates in colour with the stems of the plant. This brown hue it
retains until the spring, and then, when it commences to feed, the brown
skin is discarded with the first moult, and it becomes green again like the
growing plant, retaining the' green colour until pupation takes place.
(The pupa, in a cocoon among the leaves, is also green, and the moth
is green). If disturbed, the larva drops by a thread, remaining quite
rigid, and looks just like a tiny piece of stick.
Somewhat similar to the changes occurring in the larva of 7. ver-
naria are those of Geometra papilionaria. In this species, the young
larva, which rests chiefly on the branches of alder and birch, is of a
pale-brown colour, with, according to Poulton, some power of colour
adjustment to the twigs of its food-plant. The larva? remain brown
during the winter, but, in spring, moulting produces dimorphism in
them, some individuals becoming green, whilst others retain their
PROTECTIVE COLORATION AND DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF LARV^. 79
brown hue. The larva also becomes stout, and comparatively short,
and its resemblance at this stage to the catkins of the birch is very
striking, the green larvae resembling the younger, the brown larvae the
older, catkins. Harwood says that the brown larvae mature later, and
that the larvae found on hazel are somewhat different in appearance
from those found on birch.
Equally peculiar as to the change of colour, only in this case the
change accompanies a change of habit, is that of the larva of Emme-
lesia nnifasciata, which feeds within the seed-pods of Bartsia odontites
when young and the pods are green, and is itself, at that stage, of a
green tint, corresponding with that of the seed-pods. It, however,
changes its habit by feeding outside, when almost mature, and con-
temporaneously with its last change of skin, it changes its tint and
ornamentation.
Miss Gould says that the resemblance of the larva of Eumia luteolata,
in shape as well, as in colour, is extremely protective, the angular
attitude of the larva at rest, rendering it almost indistinguishable from
the twig. In the case of larvae with green surroundings, this likeness
is greatly heightened by the touches of red, which exactly match the
thorns and one side of the stem of the young hawthorn shoot.
Poulton also, referring to this species, says that the resemblance of the
larva to a twig of its food-plant is most striking, for the dorsal tubercles
which are to be found near the middle of the larva represent very
faithfully a superficially similar structure upon many side twigs of
the food-plant, and, he further notices, that not only do these pro-
jections occur towards the middle of the length of the twigs, but they
are situated on the angle of a slight bend, a character which is also
produced in the larval form. He further points out that the different
forms of tha larvae are coloured in almost the same manner as the
varying tints of the hawthorn twigs. He considers that the remarkable
specialisation of the form and colours of certain larvae to a special
food-plant, gives a strong clue to the ancestral food-plant of a species,
whose larva now feeds on more than one plant.
Barrett notes the resemblance that the larva of Eupitliecia extemaria
bears to its food-plant, Artemisia marithna, and says : The stems and
leaf-stalks of the plant are furrowed and clothed with white down, in
such a manner that all appear striped, with alternate green and dull
white, and this larva is similarly ornamented with longitudinal stripes
of the same colours and of the same width ; the young flower-buds of
the plant are tipped with brown, and the front of the head of the larva
is coloured in the same manner ; the segments of the leaves are some-
what tumid at the tips, and the anal legs or claspers of the larva are
swollen or rounded into precisely the same shape. This last adaptation
would appear superfluous, if it were not for a curious trick which the
larva has, at times, of raising its posterior end stiffly out while holding
on by its thoracic legs — thus apparently standing on its head.
The special resemblance that the full-grown larva of Hybocampa
mil/iameri bears to a curled oak-leaf, partly eaten and abandoned by a
Tortrix (mridana /) larva has been well described (Entom., xxiii.,p. 92)
by Chapman. He says : By chance 1 one day brought in with the
food for some larvae of this species, so exact a resemblance of the full-
grown larva, that there could not be any doubt as to the meaning of
all its curious outlines and markings. This was a curled oak-leaf,
80 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
eaten and abandoned by a Tortriv (viridana ?} larva. This particular
leaf was, in detail, exactly imitated by the larva of //. wilhaweri.
There was a curled portion of leaf with the outline of the body of the
larva, the netted green texture of the leaf like the small markings on
the surface of the larva, whilst a brown decayed mark or two were
similar to those found on it ; the extremity was eaten off on lines
partly following a rib, so as to imitate the truncate aspect the larva
has, however viewed ; whilst the secondary ribs of the leaf, being
eaten between, projected laterally from the roll, just like the dorsal
spines of the larva, and in about the same size and order ; the tall one
on the 5th segment, the dwindling ones on the 6th-10th, and the taller
bifid one on the 12th, this one resembling points from both edges of
the leaf. Most curious, perhaps, of all, the little backward projecting
points at the tips of the spines (or humps), apparently so super-
fluously complicated in the larva, were exactly represented in the leaf ;
the Tortriv larva, in eating the substance of the leaf between the
secondary ribs, had eaten these down to some extent also, but stuck
fast just at a tertiary branch, the small remaining portion of which
precisely represented the backward process of the larval spine. I
never met with another rolled leaf that happened, in exact number,
size and position, to represent all the processes of the larva as this one
did, but almost any rolled and abandoned leaf bore a very close
resemblance to the larva.
The resemblance of the larva of Smerinthtts oceHatw to a willow or
curled apple leaf, is most remarkable, and the larvae of both our other
British Smerinthid species similarly resemble the curled leaves of their
respective food-plants. The lateral stripes give an idea of light and
shadow on the supposed leaf, and the similarity to a willow leaf is often
increased in the case of certain larvae of S. ocellatus, in which extra
red lateral spots resemble very closely the little red galls on the willow
leaves. In America, it has been found that the red blotches on the
larvae of S. mi/ops are not at all uniform in number, and are much
more frequently found on examples of the late brood, although some
of them are entirely green. These red spots correspond exactly in
colour with similar spots found on the leaves of the wild cherry (the
food-plant of the species) at that seasen. Poulton has given (Tram.
Knt. Soc. Land., 1887) a detailed 'account of the remarkable manner
in which the larva of Deilepldla hippophavs is specialised in regard to
its colour and markings, so as to resemble even in minute detail the
peculiarities of its food-plant, tJippophaei rhannwides, and he states
that not only are the colours of the leaves faithfully carried out, but
the characteristic orange berries are represented by an orange spot at
the base of the caudal horn upon each side.
Holland notes that he picked up a full-fed larva of Sfauroptu fayi
on the path of a beech wood, which very closely resembled a curled -
up beech leaf, like those beside it on the path. Poulton says, that
when at rest and undisturbed, the larva is difficult to detect, and is
protected by its resemblance to a withered beech leaf irregularly curled
up, the body, which is often held asymmetrically, representing the leaf,
being of about the appropriate diameter, colour and length, whilst the
two caudal processes, modified from the last pair of prolegs and always
applied together when at rest, represent the leaf-stalk. The second
and third pairs of thoracic legs, folded in the middle of their length,
PROTECTIVE COLORATION AND DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF LARV.E. 81
hang down, and resemble a bunch of the stipules of the foliage leaves
of the beech.
Among American larvae we find many illustrations of this nature.
Packard says that the larvae of the Sckizurae exactly imitate a portion
of the fresh, green, serrated edge of a leaf, including a sere-brown
withered spot, the angular serrate outline of the back corres-
ponding with the serrate outline of the edge of the leaf ; and, as the
leaves only become spotted with sere-brown markings by the end of
the summer, so the single-brooded caterpillars do not, in the northern
States, develop so as to exhibit their protective coloration until late in
the summer, i.e., by the middle and end of August. The larva of
Schizura leptinoides is of the same shape and colour as a sere-brown,
more or less twisted portion, of a serrated leaf, such as that of beech,
hornbeam, and similar trees. The larva of S. unicornis is pale, with
much glaucous colour about the back, and with certain shades of
purple-brown, flesh-brown, olive, and pale green, that make it very
similar to the tints found on the withering leaves and canes of the
blackberry bushes. Miss Payne writes (Amer. Entom., ii., p. 341) :
I think this caterpillar furnishes a wonderful instance of mimicry.
The green segments just behind the head resemble a small portion of
the green leaf, and the other parts admirably counterfeit the brown
and russet tints of the dead leaf, whilst the form of the animal in its
various postures aids the deception, by its resemblance to a leaf partly
living and partly dead, the green mostly eaten, and the brown torn.
Eiley writes : The mimicry of the larva, when on the blackberry,
either stem or leaf, is perfect, and the imitative resemblance of the
moth when at rest, to the bark of a tree, is still more striking.
Hudson records (Entom., xxiii., p. 55) that while gathering some
small branches from a birch-tree, on the table-land of Mount Arthur
(New Zealand), he discovered a beautifully variegated larva imitating
exactly the delicate hues of the lichen-covered twigs. After feeding
for a few days, it pupated, and, on June 7th, the imago emerged as a
very grey form of Dedana roccoae. He states that he had often before
seen the larva of this species around Wellington, where, however, it
does not in the least resemble the curious caterpillar found on the
table-land. A very similar instance is to be found in the larva of our
British species, Cleora lichenaria. So variable is this larva, that it
exhibits some peculiarity in almost every locality in which it occurs,
the peculiar tint, etc., causing it to closely resemble the particular
lichens on which it is feeding. Many years ago, Moller noticed a
general tendency for the larva of Amphidasys betularia to be yellowish-
green when living on the birch, ashy-grey when on oak, yellowish-
brown when on elm, yellowish-green, clouded with rust colour, when
on willow or poplar. This general tendency in nature has been found
by Poulton to be paralleled in confinement, under varying conditions of
environment, and the great amount of colour-variation artificially
obtained by this experimenter, shows how valuable all such colours
may be under certain possible natural surroundings, or on certain
plants th5t the species is known to affect. Thus, Poulton correlates
the whitish larvae of this species with trees and shrubs having white
pubescent or glaucous shoots. The green larvae he connects with rose,
the green shoots of sallow, broom, and Kibes americana. The brown
forms are associated with cherry, oak and birch, whilst Sidgwick has
82 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEBA.
noticed a difference between the dark larvae beaten from oak and
birch corresponding with the difference between the twigs on which
the larvae rest in the two cases. Wilson beat a larva of this species
from a lichen-covered food-plant, that so exactly resembled the lichen,
that he thought the larva must be that of another species, until the
moth appeared.
The longitudinal lines of the larva of Panolis piniperda make it
almost invisible when hiding among the needles of the Scotch fir.
The larva of Anarta myrtilli, with its intricate crossing and recrossing
of lines, is scarcely discernible when resting on a heather twig. The
larva of Anticlea cucullata (sinuata) is scarcely to be detected on the seed-
heads of Galium veruin, nor that of Cidaria sayittata on those of Tka-
lictnim Jlavum, so close is their resemblance to their respective food-
plants, when at rest. Even the large hairy larva of Eutricha qut'iri folia,
when motionless on its food-plants — sallow, hawthorn, blackthorn
and buckthorn — is so difficult to detect, that the usual way of finding
it, on Wicken Fen, where the species is abundant, is to run the hand
down the stems to feel for it.
Besides instances, such as those just quoted, of special protective
resemblance between a larva and its own particular food-plant, a
general protective resemblance, due to a general harmony between the
object and its surroundings, is often to be observed. It seems almost
impossible to understand how there can be a general harmony between
some large and apparently conspicuous larvae and their food-plants,
when one considers them apart from each other, but when one sees
for the first time, the larva of Deilepliila enjiJiorbiae or J'apilio machaon
on its food-plant in a state of nature and surrounded by those plants
that make up its natural environment, one is no longer struck with
the difficulty often experienced in a first search for the larva, and
recognises that, in the blending of the various tints of the plants
around it, the fitness of the colours of the caterpillar, for its effectual
concealment, is very evident. In such cases as these, the larva does
not resemble any one particular piece of the food-plant, but the general
character of the larva mimics or resembles the general environment,
whilst special parts of the larva represent special objects in the en-
vironment.
One of the best examples of this general protective mimicry is
afforded by the larva of Charaj-es jasiw. This larva rests on the upper
surface of a leaf of Arbutus unedo (or on a bunch of leaves fastened
together with silk), basking in the sun by day, and always fully exposed.
One might suppose from this, that the larva would be very conspicuous,
yet, on the contrary, it is difficult to detect. Chapman says (tint.
Record, ix., p. 193) : The larva at rest, seen from whatever direction,
exactly imitates some aspect of leaves or buds under the different
effects of light and shade, and it is thus possible for an untrained eye,
in many instances, to look at it, and for it, for some time before seeing
it. The yellow lateral line resembles the mid-rib of the leaf seen from
above or below, according to light ; the colour and apparent texture of
the skin are the same as those of many leaves. The extraordinary
head, with its coloured jaws and spines, suggests in many aspects, the
little group of buds at the extremity of the branches. One has often
to look a second time at certain leaves and branches, as well as at the
buds, to be sure that they are parts of the tree, and not a larva. The
PROTECTIVE COLORATION AND DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF LARVAE. 88
curiously coloured circles on the back of the abdominal segments 3
and 5, which are more brilliant with their blue and yellow than any-
thing on an Arbutus leaf, nevertheless produce exactly the effect of
certain little rings of fungus or decay, that are very common on the
leaves.
In the mimicry of larvae, then, it is to be noticed that many of
them do not so often exactly imitate the thing mimicked, as some
particular aspect of it under certain illuminations, and so, in <?. jasius,
the larva is not at all like a leaf, but many leaves on a tree will look
exactly like some particular larva does as it rests amongst them. In
the same way, the head does not resemble the buds at all closely, yet,
Chapman says, he has fancied he saw a larval head, when, after all,
it was only a group of buds.
Perhaps the most typical instance of this indirect mimicry is
exhibited by the larva of Acronicta leporina, which, seated beneath an
alder leaf, looks exactly as if a spot of sunshine were falling upon the
upper side of the leaf. This larva, considered away from its food-
plant, is very conspicuous. It is dimorphic in its coloration, one
form of the larva beipg green with white hairs (attached more par-
ticularly to alder), the second yellow, with distinct chocolate dorsal
and lateral bands, olive-brown beneath, with yellow hairs (attached
more particularly to birch). Chapman has observed that the white-
haired form sits somewhat curled round, near the middle of the
underside of an alder leaf. Looking down from above it is absolutely
hidden, looking up from beneath it ought to be very evident, but
this is far from being the case. Chapman says that he has several
times missed a larva till he has looked three or four times, and has
also fancied he saw a larva where none has been. In looking up from
below through the foliage of an alder tree, most of the lower leaves
are in the shade of the upper ones, but here and there a gleam of light
falls through upon a portion of a leaf, and gives it quite a different tone
and appearance as seen from beneath. A larva of A. leporina, seated
beneath an unilluminated leaf, precisely resembles one of these patches.
Poulton considers that the yellow larva on birch is protected by its
resemblance to a cocoon, but Chapman points out that cocoons are not
very common objects on birch leaves, although, as he shows, the deserted
domiciles of larvae, such as Asphalia jlavicomis, etc., are so, and the
resemblance of the larva to these is heightened by the black tufts that
often persist in the yellow form, and which resemble bits of frassand dark
chips that are frequently entangled in such vacated lodgings. At any
rate, A. leporina presents a marked instance of a dimorphic larva, each
form being suited to different circumstances, and almost certainly for
purposes of concealment. Freer has pointed out that on Cannock
Chase, where both forms occur, the green one being confined to alder,
the yellow form is the later one, and, occurring principally on birch,
is of the same tint as the dying birch leaves.
Dyar, commenting on the mimicry exhibited by the larvae of the
American Acronyctids, says (Trans. New York Acad. <Sci.,xiv., p. 58) :
The larvae of the genus Acronycta (in its wider sense) are wonderfully
varied in appearance, and I believe that this diversity is due to
mimicry of all sorts of objects, from that of resemblance to the foliage
(i/rixi'a, tritona, etc.) to warning colours (oblinata), and mimicry of
special objects, such as a spider's nest (culpina), or of some other
84 BEITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
specially-defended larva, <?.//., A. radcliffei which mimics Datana, and
A. luteicoma which probably mimics Notolophns (Oryyia).
Probably the majority of lepidopterous larvae are more or less pro-
tected by their general resemblance to their environment, even when
the protection is enhanced by the more or less exact resemblance of
a particular species- to some special .object.
In the preceding paragraphs we have once or twice incidentally re-
ferred to the fact that a peculiarity of larval shape, of movement, or of
resting position, may constitute an efficient aid to the protection
afforded by some particular shade or shades of colour. Poulton (Trans.
Ent. Soc. Lond., 1885) discusses the protective value of the peculiar
attitudes assumed by the larva of Selenia bilunaria (illunaria), and the
peculiar rhythmical lateral movements which are observable in this
and other Geometrid larvae. Even the readiness of certain larvae to
drop to the ground when disturbed, and to remain there for a con-
siderable time motionless and rigid, is highly protective, and amongst
loose pieces of stick, pine-needles, or tall grass, a successful search is
almost out of the question. Poulton further observes (Ibid., 1887,
p. 291) that the young brown larvae of Selenia lunaria twist themselves
into an irregular spiral when seated on the leaves of their food-plant,
and that this attitude is sometimes assumed by the mature
larva when resting in such a position. Somewhat similar habits
have been noticed in the larvae of Zonosoma pendularia, Z. an-
nulata (omicronaria), Z. orbicularia, Aspilates ochrearia, and'/J.
yilvaria. The young larvae of Rumia hiteolata have the same habit,
generally sitting on the edge of a leaf, close to the place from which a
piece has been eaten. In this position, the larva suggests most
strongly the appearance of a small part of the leaf which has been
injured, and then curled up and turned brown, but still remains ad-
herent by one end to the uninjured part of the leaf. Miss Gould has
noticed that the brown larvae of this species have a habit of hanging
by a thread, twisting round rapidly whenever disturbed, and mentions
their similarity to bits of dead stick or pieces of leaf that one frequently
sees spinning in this manner.
In most cases in which larvae resemble twigs when at rest, the
larva spins a slight silken pad or a few strands of silk on the branch at
that point where it takes up a resting position. This, of course,
gives it a better hold, and, in the case of Geometrid larvfc, allows
them, after having obtained a firm grip by means of their prolegs,
to extend the body rigidly from the twig. The larva of A. letnlaria
and other species often, however, extend themselves obliquely between
two twigs, holding one by its prolegs, the other by its true legs.
Such a larva presents the appearance of a twig passing obliquely
between two others. Sometimes larvae of this description are sup-
ported by holding with their thoracic legs, a leaf upon, or an advanced
part of, the same stem as that to which they are clinging by their prolegs.
In this manner they are still more effectually concealed.
The resemblance of such larvae as are effectively protected when
resting on twigs, to the twigs upon which they rest, is sometimes
greatly increased by the development of small, fleshy tubercles, or
lateral hairs, along those edges of the body which are in contact with the
twig, and which help to break the otherwise sharp distinction between
the larval form and the twig. Meldola has pointed out developments
PROTECTIVE COLORATION AND DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF L&KVM. 85
of this description in the larvae of Eutricha quercifolia and Poecilocampa
populi, which enable them to rest more securely on branches and
twigs without throwing a sharp shadow. Poulton shows that in
Geometric! larvae such protection as is afforded by growths of this kind,
necessitates their development only at those parts between the two
posterior pairs of prolegs, where the lasva is in contact with the twig,
because, the -bark of a twig and its branch being continuous, anything
that suggested a deep furrow between them would destroy the pro-
tective resemblance. On these parts of the Geometrid larvae, therefore,
we find such minute fleshy outgrowths frequently developed. In the
larva of K. luteolata, the fleshy processes exactly correspond with that
part of the body which would otherwise come as a dark shadow in the
deep cleft between itself and the branch. The processes appear to
soften the contact between the larva and its food-plant, not only by
partially filling up the cleft, but also by neutralising the shadow in the
groove which remains. These lateral growths are very noticeable in
the larvte of Catocalids, Lasiocampids, etc., and are also well developed
in the larvae of Metrocampa manjaritaria and Aventia flexula.
It is difficult to deal with the broad question of the influence that food
has on the colours of larvae, but some short account appears to become
absolutely necessary at this stage of our enquiry. In the first place,
it appears advisable to point out that, in the larval stage of insects,
it is of the utmost importance that the storage of reserve material on
which the organism can draw, to enable it to undergo its later trans-
formations, should be effectually carried out. We find in lepidopterous
larvae that this need completely overwhelms the necessity of perfect
assimilation, and, hence, material assimilated in a more or less un-
altered condition, may frequently carry with it the cruder constituents
of which the food is made up. In this way only is it possible to
imagine a slightly modified form of chlorophyll becoming transferred
to the animal tissues, and hence affecting directly the colour of the
larva.
McLachlan noticed, in 1874, that flower-feeding lame often assume
(in the same species) the colour of their food. Meldola considered
that this might be due to the colouring matter of the food being assimi-
lated in an unaltered state (E. M. M., xi., p. 162). Later, Meldola
pointed out that it was probable that the food-plants directly influenced
the variation found in the ground-colour of the larva of Smerinthiis
ocellatus, and Poulton described at length experiments made upon this
species, by feeding the larvae ab ovo on various food-plants. In these
experiments, apple (cultivated and crab) gave whitish-green larvae ;
Salix cinerea and S. rubra, larvae inclining to the yellowish form ;
<S. viniinalis, intermediate forms. In the field, although this general
tendency is observable, there are many striking exceptions, and the
latter, probably, may be explained by supposing that they are due to
hereditary influences, and that such larvae are not, therefore, able to
take full advantage of their food as a means of protection. Poulton
further notices the darker coloration of larvae of Sphinx liyustri, when fed
on ash: or lilac, compared with that of those fed on privet. The former
are greyish-green and the purple stripes duller. In 1885, Poulton
gave (Proc. Roy, Soc. Land., p. 269) a number of details relative to
the way in which altered plant pigments are utilised in larval colora-
tion. He considered that the green ground colour of many lepidop-
86 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEEA.
terous larvffl was due to green pigments dissolved in the blood, whilst,
in the case of certain Sphingid larvae, he believed that the pigments
passed from the blood into the hypodermic cells, and so coloured the
larvae, whilst later experiments (2'rans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1886, p. 169)
led him to suppose that the colour of the larva of S. ocellatm was
essentially due to the segregation of the pigment in these cells, the
blood itself being comparatively free- from the pigmentary matter. He
further states that before pupation the pigments are withdrawn from
the cells, and are dissolved in the pupal blood. Poulton concludes
that the larva of S. ocellatus maintains a colour-relation with the food-
plant on which it is hatched, adjustable within the limits of a single
life, and that the predominant colour of the food-plant itself is the
stimulus which calls up a corresponding larval colour, and, further,
that natural selection has finally produced a resemblance — either
general or special — to something which is common to all the food-plants
of the larva, or to some one or more of them, the larva being less
protected upon the remainder ; but, in this case, the same gradual
process has finally given the larva a power which (relatively) imme-
diate in its action, enables the organism itself to answer with corre-
sponding colours the differences which obtain between its various food-
plants (Proc. Eon. Soc. Lond., 1886, p. 172).
A larva of Cossus lir/nipo-da, exhibited at a meeting of the Ent.
Soc. of London, some years ago, had lost its ordinary colour, and
had become pink, and then white, from having been deprived
of its natural food, and confined for eighteen months to a diet of pink
paper, with which the cardboard box in which it was kept was lined, and,
subsequently, to the cardboard itself. It was suggested that food assimi-
lated in a more or less unaltered condition, had probably influenced the
colour of this particular larva. At the same time, the later (white)
coloration may have been due to an etiolated appearance caused by
starvation. It appears certain that in nature this mode of assimila-
tion of food must be considered as the basis of any direct influence that
may be exerted by the coloration of the food on the coloration of the
larva, and this is borne out by the yellow coloration of larvae of certain
Eupithecia species (absynthiata, etc.), found feeding upon ragwort flowers,
and similar instances. As a rule, however, the colouring matter of
flowers and leaves cannot be so directly used, and only some modifica-
tion of the colouring matter at the most, can, in very many instances, be
elaborated into the colouring matter of the larva, for the physiological
processes demand the digestion, as well as the assimilation, of all
material that enters the larval blood, and one would surmise that it is
only after entering the blood that it can be elaborated into new colouring
pigments by the larva. That it is usually not a mere matter of the
transference of plant pigment to the larva is certain. It is probable
that in such dimorphic larvae as those presented by species like
Hadena oleracca, Mamestra persicariae, Geometra papilionaria, and
others, in which two forms appear on the same plant under identical
conditions, the difference is essentially a difference of epidermal struc-
ture, the green colouring pigment being in the subjacent fat cells (or
rather in the blood bathing these cells), in each form of these species,
but screened off, as it were, in the darker forms, by a modification of
the integument itself. Such appear to be the more prominent facts and
suggestions relating to phytophagic coloration.
PROTECTIVE COLORATION AND DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF LARV.E. 87
Poulton, however, has more recently carried out elaborate experi-
ments on various species, which tend to show that the response of
larvae to their environment is due, in some instances, to phytoscopic
rather than to phytophagic causes, and that it is the colour of the
surface of the leaf, rather than its substance, that acts as the stimulus
in producing the different colours of larvas under varying conditions of
environment. As a case of extreme specialisation in larval coloration,
we would instance Abraxas gromulariata. The typical form of larva of
this species must be well-known, but examples may be obtained in
London gardens, and probably elsewhere, in which the colour is almost,
in others, absolutely, black, and yet there is no corresponding difference
in the colour of the imagines, the difference in colour being purely
adaptive to the needs of concealment in the larva. The lame of the
Catocalids (and the allied genera, Homoptera and Pkeocampa), the tree-
feeding Notodonts and Geometrids, and many Lasiocampids, are
spotted and mottled with various tints of brown, grey, and ash, so
that their solours assimilate with the colours of the bark of the trees
on which they rest. Such larvae are also frequently provided with
dorsal and lateral humps and warts, so that they also resemble the
shape of the twigs (with their knots and leaf-buds), and thus make the
resemblance more complete. We have already mentioned that the
larvae of Amphidatys betularia are very variable — whitish grey, different
forms with varying shades of brown, to quite brown, whilst others take
another direction, and are of a distinct green hue.
The experiments carried out by Poulton to demonstrate the
response of larval colours to the environment are detailed at
length (Trans. Ent. Soc. LontL, 1892). His experiments, based on
the subjection of the larvas throughout their existence to varied
conditions of environment, tend to show that whilst some larvas
are affected by the conditions of their environment, and effectively
respond thereto, others are quite obdurate and remain constant, whatever
the conditions of their environment may be. Poulton's conclusions
work oat as follows : (1) Kegularly dimorphic forms, with inter-
mediate varieties rare or wanting, are never, so far as our present
knowledge extends, susceptible to surrounding colours, while variable
species tend to be so. In this respect, Geometra papillonaria is very
interesting, being susceptible when young, but not later, when it is
dimorphic. (2) The larvae of Noctuids are far less sensitive to change
than those of the Geometrids. The most susceptible of the former,
the Catocalids, are arboreal, and specialised for concealment among
twigs and on bark. In the Catocalids there is sometimes a most
extraordinary fluctuation in the amount of susceptibility within the
limits of the same genus. (3) Only among the Geometrids were
green larvae produced by the experiments. Out of eleven species
operated upon, all but one showed some sensitiveness to colour sur-
roundings. (4) There is no evidence to show that the colour acquired
by a larva can be transmitted to its progeny ; the susceptibility is
simply an adaptation to the differing environments in which the larvae
find themselves.
Concerning the time necessary for the colour change to appear,
Poulton gives the following : —
88 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
1. Some effect was produced in 8 days in young larvae of Geomctra papilionaria.
2. Some effect was produced in 8 days in young larvas of Catocala electa.
3. Much effect was produced in 12 days in young larvae of Crocallis eliiifinaria.
4. Much effect was produced (about) 14 days in young larvae of TMelanippe montanata,
5. Much effect was produced in 11 days in young larvae of Catocala elocata.
6. Much effect was produced in 13 (or less) in young larvae of Hemerophila abniptariit.
7. Much effect was produced in 17 days in young larvae of Rumia luteolatn.
8. Much effect was produced in 8 days in, .young larvas of Amphidasys betidaria.
He then summarises the main facts relating to his observations as
follows : — (1) When carefully watched for, the changes are sometimes
seen to occur quite suddenly (C. elimjuaria and R. luteolata). (2) The
effects cannot be reversed by reversing the surroundings for a short time
(C. dinijuaria, H. abruptaria, A, betidaria). (3) When the conditions
are uniform the environment does not necessarily destroy individual
variability, but the most powerful forms of environment, when applied
to highly sensitive species, very nearly do away with it. If, however,
the environment be mixed, there does not appear to be any instinctive
knowledge leading the larvas to rest only on appropria;e objects.
Thus, if they have become green, and are beyond the power of change,
they will nevertheless rest on brown twigs in preference to green leaves.
The habit of these Geometrids is to rest upon twigs under any circum-
stance, and this is probably the reason why a small proportion of twigs
will produce a great effect. (4) Contact, or at least the closest
proximity, is required to effect the change. (5) Although larvae of
A. betidaria are so much more susceptible to brown surroundings when
these are mixed with green, there were no exceptions among 105 larvae
which, in 1889, became green among leaves and shoots. In the case
of larvae of Ji. luteolata and A. betidaria, there is direct evidence of the
power being efficient in concealing the wild larvae. (6) The larvae
are, probably, chiefly sensitive at the time when they quit the leaves,
and first begin to rest on the twigs. (7) Darkness does not produce
so great an effect as black surroundings in a strong light (A. betidaria,
R. luteolata, C. elinguaria). (8) Overcrowding tends to produce dark
larvae (A. betidaria, R. luteolata). (9) As might be expected, the
effects produced on the larvae do not influence the colour of the moths.
There can be no doubt that these changes in the larval coloration
are such as would effectively bring about the concealment of the larvae.
In the majority of the larvae experimented upon, the only possible
change appears to be from dark brown to light brown, or to greenish-
brown. Larvas of the latter colour are, however, much less con-
spicuous on leaves than the darker forms, although they are not nearly
so well protected on the dark twigs. Poulton thinks that when the
larvae of any one of these species hatch upon a part of a tree where
there is a great abundance of young green shoots, their susceptibility
would certainly lead them in the direction of concealment. It by no
means follows that the power is useless in certain species, because it
leads to more perfect results in others. Concerning the latter, no one
who has once seen the larvae of A. betularia a,ud R. luteolata upon their
food-plants in the field, can have doubt about the meaning of the
changes in colour which they undergo.
Eleven larvae of Rumia luteolata placed in green surroundings, on
July 7th, 1890, by Miss Gould, produced 1 brilliant green, 2 lighter
green, 6 duller shades of green (whilst two disappeared). Eleven other
larva) from same batch, among dark-coloured surroundings, produced 3
PROTECTIVE COLORATION AND DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF LARV.E. 89
dark brown, 3 brown, 2 greenish-brown, 2 green (one larva disappeared).
Larvae of Catocala nupta also responded very readily to differences of
environment, the change consisting of the normal colour becoming
lighter or darker, and the markings varying in intensity, although the
difference between the most extreme forms from light and dark sur-
roundings, respectively, was very great. C.fraxini also responded readily,
5 lame, in dark-coloured surroundings, becoming brownish-grey in
colour, 5 others, in green surroundings, becoming bluish-green. Poulton
extended the results obtained by Miss Gould in Catocala, by showing
that C. sponsa, C. electa and C. elocata were also susceptible to colour
influences in their environment. One cannot help remarking here
that the number of larvae experimented upon, although affirming the
principle, is quite insufficient to base any sweeping generalisations
upon. Poulton has further shown that larvae of AmpMdasys betularia,
Sdenia lunaria, Puiinia luteolata, Melanippe montanata, Crocallis eliny-
uaria and Hemerophila abruptaria, are highly sensitive, and that larvae
of Ennomos quercinaria (anyularia), in addition, are greatly influenced
by actual darkness. This latter result, Poulton states, is exceptional,
for larvae brought up in total darkness are usually lighter than those
reared among an abundance of dark twigs in strong light.
The structural cause of the variation in the colours of Amphidasys
betularia was investigated by Poulton. He found that the colour of
the larva was in the skin, or just below it. In all the larvae experi-
mented upon, he found that the colour of the fat just below the skin
was green, in some brown larvae it was a bright green, as in the green
ones. This green fat was found to contain green colouring matter
(probably some derivation of chlorophyll) in the oil globules within the
cells. When the epidermis is comparatively clear, the green colouring
matter shows through, but when the epidermis contains a dark pig-
ment, the skin is interposed like a screen outside the green fat, and the
larva takes on the appearance or tint of the darkened epidermis. In
green larvae the epidermal layer, covering the green fat, contains a
substance of a light yellow transparent colour, that appears greenish-
yellow under the microscope, the cuticle itself being colourless, except
for certain small brown spots. The darker larvae obtain their colour
from a dark pigment contained in the epidermal cells, which thus con-
ceal the subjacent green fat, so that, if we accept Poulton's explanation,
it would seem that the reflection of the light from the surrounding
objects has to produce such nervous action as results in an actual
physiological change in the deposition of pigmentary matter in the
epidermis. Poulton suggests that some quality of the light brings
about the change, but of the actual mechanism that produces this
result, we know absolutely nothing.
Packard says that it is possible that the close resemblance of the
warts, projections and spines of certain arboreal caterpillars, which
so closely mimic the spines, leaf scars, and projections of the branches
or twigs of plants, has been brought about in a way analogous with the
production of spots and lines on the body of caterpillars. Darwinians,
he says, attribute this to the action of " protective mimicry," but
this expression rather states the result of a series of causes. The
effect of dark and light shades, and the light and shade, in producing
the stripes and bars of caterpillars, is comparatively direct and mani-
fest ; but how can thorns and other projections, on trees and shrubs,
90 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
affect caterpillars directly ? Given the origin by hypertrophy of warts
and spines, it is then easy to see that by natural selection caterpillars
may have finally become adapted so as to mimic similar vegetable
growths. Our object is to endeavour to explain the causes of the
primary growth and development of such projections, i.e., to lay the
foundation for the action of natural selection (Bombycine Moths of
America, p. 20).
With regard to the origin of the humps, by means of which many
tree-feeding Geometrid and Notodont larvaB resemble portions of their
food-plants, Packard further says : The change was probably not
necessarily due to the stimulus of the visits and attacks of parasitic
insects .... The cause was probably more pervasive, and a result
of a change of environment. He considers that they are mere adaptive
characters, and may have originated with comparative suddenness, and,
in certain families, e.y., the Notodonts, were due to the change from
feeding on low plants to an arboreal mode of life. That these had
any sudden origin, we do not for a moment believe, and Packard's
suggestion that there is a very sudden change in most larvae from a
generalised condition in their first and second skins, to a specialised
one in the third, is only true so far as there is often a marked change
at this stage, but usually the change is a much more gradual one,
and only finally culminates in producing the maximum of dense
fascicles and hairs towards the end of the caterpillar's existence.
One of the most remarkable modes of protection adopted by a
lepidopterous larva is that of Phorodesma smaraydaria. This larva
covers itself with pieces of its food, the particles being bitten off,
apparently so that it may the more completely resemble its food-plant.
These particles adhere to the skin of the larva by means of a sticky
substance, which was generally supposed to come from the mouth, or
spinneret, but which White states is excreted by certain glands developed
irregularly upon various segments of the body. He says : " These glands
are seen, by means of a good lens, to be prominent elongate processes, of
an almost pure white colour, each bearing, at the top, a single, rather
long, stiff hair, which doubtless serves to spike the fleshy substance of
the Artemisia The gummy exudation is exceedingly
tenacious The skin is much wrinkled in the sub-
spiracular region, forming an irregular and somewhat flattened fringe
upon the sides of the anterior segments, adding greatly to the general
protective resemblance of the larva to its food -plant " (Proc. Ent. Soc.
LoiuL, 1888, pp. xx-xxi). The larva of the allied P. pustulata is well-
known to have a similar habit.
Apart from the different forms of protective coloration, which larva)
assume, and which have been already considered, there are many larvje
provided with various conspicuous marks of bright and startling
colours, which are supposed to have a terrifying effect on any enemy
to whom they are suddenly exposed. Other larvse, again, take up
various positions which have been interpreted as being likely to inspire
fear in their enemies. Then we find that certain larvee are provided
with tubercles which they can move, and the movement of these has
also been considered as being of value to their possessor, in aiding in its
protection. Others, again, are supposed to be highly coloured as a
warning that they are inedible. We can only deal with one or two
typical examples to illustrate each of these specialised characters.
PROTECTIVE COLORATION AND DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF LARV.E. 91
Poulton describes certain terrifying marks as existing upon the 1st
abdominal segment of At/lia tan, and placed above the white spiracular
line. It consists of a white area, enclosing a dark reddish patch,
usually slightly invaginated, and, therefore, hidden during rest behind
the lobed upper margin of the sub-spiracular line. When the larva is
irritated, increased contraction of the body walls produces greater
pressure upon the fluid contents of the body, and unfolds the shallow
pouch-like invagination behind the lobes, thus exposing a greater
surface of the white area, and rendering the dark centre visible.
Weisniann has shown that the origin of the terrifying marks in the
larvae of Choerncampa elpenor and C. porcellus is very similar, the
differences largely following from the arrangement by which the eye-
like marks are concealed in the former species, except when they are
actually needed. In the larva of Stauropus fayi, Miiller discovered, on
the 1st and 2nd abdominal segments, below, and rather behind, the
spiracles, a shallow pouch-like involution of an intensely black colour,
each black area being entirely concealed by a triangular flap, growing
from the lower margin of the area, and directed upwards. When the
larva is irritated, the flap is depressed, the pouch-like structure is
partly everted, and the black patches become visible. Miiller thinks
that the patches are intended to imitate ichneumon stings ; Poulton,
that they may represent a clot of blood derived from a wound inflicted
by a parasitic enemy. It is suggested by both observers that the exposure
of these tends to show that the larva is already occupied by a parasite.
Among the American lepidopterous larvae, the brightly hued cater-
pillar of tiymmerista alUfrons is provided with a showy, coral-red hump,
and Avith bright black and red bands on a shining glistening skin,
which Packard considers may be interpreted as danger signals to
birds, to whom the caterpillar is distasteful. The same observer calls
attention to the great dorsal spines, which run entirely along the body
of the larva of Schizwa concinna, as well as the large lateral spines,
which bear some resemblance to elongated hobnails. These probably
render the creature very distasteful and repulsive to birds, and less
open to attack from parasitic insects. Packard says that we have in
the larva of this species a system of conspicuous markings and
noticeable appendages, which all result in giving warning to birds that
it is inedible .... In the larvae of other Hchizurae, we have a mix-
ture of two properties ; they are, as we have shown, disguised to re-
semble a part of a brown-spotted green leaf, and they also bear a
movable, deterrent spine on the back. In Symmerista, the larva is so
gaily coloured as to at once indicate to birds that it is distasteful, but
here are no deterrent spines or bristles. Edwards notices that he once
observed the gregarious Iarva3 of Symmerista alUfrons feeding on dwarf
willow, where their brilliant colours gave to the plant, at a little dis-
tance, the appearance of a raceme of showy flowers. Packard thinks
that the habit of feeding exposed, and living gregariously up to the
time of pupation, proves the almost complete immunity enjoyed by
this caterpillar from the attacks of birds.
Aiv observation, very similar to that just 'recorded as made by
Edwards, is noticed by Niceville, who says (Butterflies of Sumatra,
p. 401) that on one occasion, when Martin was collecting the larvag of
Cethosia logani on a passion-flower with red fruit, the latter noticed
the protective position assumed by some of the caterpillars, which, in
92 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
eating a twig, had surrounded it entirely, so that this little congerie of
larvae, even at a short distance, looked like one of the fruits.
The resemblance that the larvae of S. albifronn and C. lor/ani bear
respectively to a raceme of flowers and a bunch of fruit is paralleled by
the almost exact similarity that the gregarious larvae of End row is
•vt-rsicolora have, when young, to a bunch of birch catkins. It is the
habit of the latter in the first two'"skins, to congregate at the end of
the twigs of the birch, their heads raised and pointed towards the ex-
tremity of the twig. In this position, their resemblance to the young
birch catkins is unmistakeable, for their dark coloration, coupled with
the rough surface of the skin and the raised position of the anterior
part of their bodies, makes them most difficult to distinguish, unless
specially looked for.
We have already drawn attention to the fact that an undisturbed larva
of Stauropm faiji bears a great resemblance to a beech-leaf. Mrs. Bazett
has pointed out (Ent. Eec., ii., p. 210) the great resemblance that the
newly-hatched larva bears to an ant. Miiller first drew attention
(Kosmos, 1879, p. 114) to the fact, that an irritated adult larva of the
same species assumes a spider-like attitude for the purpose of alarming its
enemies. Poulton says that, when excited, the anterior, unlengthened
legs are held apart, and certainly suggest the jaws of a spider-like
animal, whilst the posterior abdominal segments are turned so far
over the head that the two caudal appendages project over it, and, by
divergence, occupy the appropriate position for a pair of antennae,
which, indeed, they suggest most strongly. The four elongated legs
are extended widely and quiver in the most terrific manner, whilst the
ventral surface of the larva, which becomes dorsal in the terrifying
attitude, is coloured so as to resemble the abdomen of a spider-like
creature. Poulton states that the result is to produce not exactly any
particular spider, but only an ideal monster which embodies all the
most alarming points in a spider's organisation.
The strange superficial resemblance that certain of the Choaro-
campid larvae bear to reptiles has been repeatedly noticed. A larva
of a species of Choerocampa, from New Granada, is recorded (Knt.
Mo. Mag., vi., p. 172) as being remarkable for the extraordinary
form of the head, which resembles that of one of the venomous snakes
of that country.
Packard writes of the terrifying appearances observed in the larvae of
Centra and Staiiropus, as follows : — The Centra larva varies in the direc-
tion of the enlargement of the prothoracic segment, to form a sort of hood
to admit the head, serving to make a visage calculated to frighten away
any assailant. It is the puff-adder among the Bombycine0 caterpil-
lars, as the larva of Choerocampa is among those of the Sphiugids.
The stemapoda, which seemed to have proved very useful in Macruro-
cawpa, were retained in Centra, being apparently too useful to be lost.
While the Centra caterpillars assume a defensive and offensive atti-
tude, in order to frighten away other animals, they do not mimic the
appearance of other animals ; but in the singular caterpillar of Stau-
ropus there is such a mimicry, the thoracic legs being much longer
than in any other known lepidopterous larvae and the stemapoda being
* We consider Cerura to be a Notodont genus, and do not look upon the latter
as Bombycid in the true sense of the term.
PROTECTIVE COLORATION AND DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OP LARVAE. 93
thickened and shortened, so that when the creature throws itself into
a sprawling grotesque attitude, with its tail up in the air, as remarked
by Hermann Miiller, it resembles a great spider. At the same time,
the style of coloration is changed ; it has not the green and red tints
of Centra, but is tinted light and dark horn-brown, like the bodies of
many large spiders. In the case, then, of Stauropus, variation has gone
on in a novel and determinate direction, the process of natural selec-
tion ending in a result not to be observed in the case of any other
lepidopterous larvae, the initial cause of variation being apparently the
result of protection, due to a resemblance to members of another class
of arthropods (Bombycine Motlts of America, p. 81).
It has been pretty clearly proved by recent experiments, that bright
colours are readily distinguished by insects, and that the recognition of
these, and of moving bodies, are the main features of insect vision.
The value of mutant or moving tubercles, therefore, as a means of pro-
tection, is evident, and an ichneumon, or carnivorous beetle, or bug,
may be frightened away if startled by a moving tubercle like those
found on many lame.
We have previously referred to the protective structures of the
larvae of the Schizurae. That of S. leptinoides has, on the 1st abdominal
segment, a high dorsal tubercle, that is both mutant and slightly re-
tractile, being invaginated when the larva is irritated. Packard says :
The movable, terrifying tubercle of the 1st abdominal segment of the
larvae of the Schizurae becomes developed shortly before the creatures
are half-grown. He connects the development of these tubercles with
the larvae changing their hitherto concealed habit, to a more exposed
position when feeding. The swollen, coral-red, dorsal hump on the
1st abdominal segment of the larva of S. concinna, to which we have
already referred, can also be moved by the larva so as to terrify its
enemies.
The presence of moving tubercles is not particularly well illustrated
among the larvae of our British lepidoptera, and those of Apatura iris
are, perhaps, the best known. They are very prominently developed
in the larva of Anoxia arcldppus, which keeps the anterior flexible fila-
ments constantly in motion backwards and forwards when eating, and
moves them still more rapidly when alarmed.
Packard has pointed out that the large larval spines of some of the
Saturniids are movable in the early larval stages. These spines are
marvellously developed in some Saturniid larvae. In that of Cithcnmia
rei/alis, for example, there are, on each segment, six well-developed
spines, and an additional large median spine on the 8th and 9th
abdominal segments. The two large median spines, on the two hinder
thoracic segments, are each about 20 mm. in length. The larger
spines all end in a swollen, triangular, two-horned, flattened bulb,
these appendages being deterrent, and for offensive use in the early, as
well as the later, stages of larval life. Packard further states that the
four pairs of pro thoracic horns (or spines) in SpMngicampa are not
held spread out as in Citheronia reyalis.. but those of each pair are con-
stantly held close to each other. The horns and the six silvery,
opalescent, shining tubercles (on the 5th to 10th abdominal segments)
probably become terrifying by the movements of the larva. The
latter are turned on, and throw their light out suddenly, like flashes,
and may thus have a deterrent efl'ect on their enemies. It is possible
94 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
that the formidable spines of the grown-up caterpillar save it not
infrequently from being swallowed by birds, though the younger larvae
appear to rely rather on their movement for scaring their enemies.
Closely allied to the mutant structures just described, so far as their
protective value is concerned, are the eversible glands found in various
caterpillars. One of the most general of these is the chin-gland. This
is a swollen vesicle situated on the ventral side of the prothorax, just in
advance of the first pair of legs. It is very generally developed in
Noctuid, Notodontid and butterfly larvae, and appears to be the remnant
of an everted gland, and is probably homologous with the active
weapon of offence found in the same position in the larva of Centra
rinula which has the power to eject from it, with considerable
force, a quantity of formic acid. The chin-gland is found in almost
all butterfly larvfe which do not possess osmateria. It is, usually,
bladder-like and vesicular, is extensible, and can be protruded and with-
drawn, and has been by some authors considered to have some con-
nection with the osmateria of Papilionid larvae. That the osmateria
and chin-gland at one time had a somewhat similar function, is very
probable, though it is difficult to explain why the latter should have
degenerated so completely in some species. When withdrawn, the
chin-gland presents only a transverse slit, similar to that left when
the osmateria of the Papilionid lavvre are withdrawn. The chin-gland
has been long known to entomologists, certainly as far back as Bonnet's
time, a century and a half ago.
It may be well to examine, somewhat in detail, the chin-gland of
Centra vinula. This, like that of the allied species, C. furcula, consists
of four lateral processes, two on each side, and a central sac, in which
the irritant secretion is stored. The sacs can be readily pressed out in an
almost full-fed larva. Poulton considers that the gland could originally
have been everted voluntarily, but that the power has been lost since it
has acquired the ability of secreting an irritant fluid. The fluid
ejected by the larva of C. vinula has been chemically analysed, and has
been found to consist of formic acid. It affects litmus paper strongly,
and causes effervescence when it comes in contact with bicarbonate of
soda. Crystals of formate of lead, obtained by collecting the secretion
of the larva on 283 occasions, were exhibited at a meeting of the Ento-
mological Society of London. The secretion had been mixed with
distilled water, in which oxide of lead was suspended. The latter
dissolved, and the acid of the secretion being in excess, the normal
formate was produced (Trans. Rnt. Soc. Land., 1887, p. xxxvi). It
has also been recorded that the larva of Stauropm faiji ejects an acid
fluid in a somewhat similar manner to that ejected by C. vinula, and
that on one occasion it caused considerable pain, owing to the liquid
being squirted in the eye (Kntom. Record, iv., p. 82).
The osmateria of the Papilionid and Parnassid larvae are found on
the dorsal surface of the prothorax. Each consists of a bifurcate sac,
which, ordinarily concealed within a cavity of the prothorax, and
closed normally by a transverse slit, is suddenly thrust out when the
larva is disturbed. As observed in the larva of Papilio macliaon, it
consists of two fleshy protuberances branching from a common stalk,
is of an orange colour, eversible, gives out a strongly-scented odour
(and a drop of clear liquid, according to Poulton) every time it is
protruded. It is, in other species, usually brightly coloured, and
PROTECTIVE COLORATION AND DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF LARV^. 95
exhales a distinct odour, the latter differing entirely, according to the
species, scarcely perceptible, according to Scudder, in Laertias, and
varying through all degrees of offensiveness, to a truly sickening stench
in Iphiclide*. The organ itself is really a development of the integu-
ment, with glandular cells at its base, their secretion being probably
discharged through the cuticular pores, the odorous secretion accumu-
lating in the invaginating horns, and being freed by their exsertion.
When it is withdrawn, the osmaterium lies with one of its horns on
either side of the body, extending backward to the 1st abdominal seg-
ment, according to Klemensiewicz, but to the 3rd, according to
Studer, both of whom studied the organ in the larva of the same
species, Papilio machaon. Both of these authorities agree that a
delicate muscle is attached to the tip of each horn, which has its in-
sertion, according to Studer, on the dorsal, but according to Klemen-
siewicz, on the ventral, side of the body. It is by this muscle that
the osmateria are withdrawn, and this explains, not only why one
branch may move quite independently of the other, but also why the
imagination begins at the tip. The osmaterium is probably protruded
by the muscular contraction of the walls of the body, forcing the
contained fluids into the tube, and thus pressing out the reversed
osmaterium.
Probably the most frequently studied of the eversible glands of
larvre are the well-known flagella of Centra vinula. These flagella
are very long, and can be thrown out and withdrawn by the larva with
great rapidity. In the process of evagination, the filament, which lies
in a receptacle, unrolls from the base, so that the apex is the last part
to appear. When invagination takes place, the apex first disappears fol-
lowed by the remainder. When the flagellum is half its original
length, the apex, which is passing in, is on a level with the base of the
structure when it is fully evaginated, the remainder disappearing until
the flagellum has been completely drawn inside the base. Poulton
writes : — " At the base of each flagellum there is a small transparent
area extending round the whole circumference, and through this, as
through a window, the processes of evagination and invagination can
be readily watched. When the invaginating flagellum has shortened
to half its length, the tip has, of course, been drawn inwards as far
as the transparent base, and a pink line is seen in the axis of the
latter, rapidly lengthening inwards, until the whole axis is pink. As
invagination becomes complete the pink axis disappears inwards as the
transparent part is itself invaginated. The same phenomena are also
seen in evagination in the reverse order. The protrusion and with-
drawal of the claspers (prolegs) seem to be essentially due to the same,
process" (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1885, p. 322). When, by any
means, the rim of the receptacle (base of flagellum when everted) is
injured, the flagellum often becomes permanently introverted, and it
can then be seen within the receptacle. It can also be everted by
forcing blood into it. The arrangement of the nerves and muscles
relating to these organs is figured by Poulton (IbiiL, 1887, pi. x.,
fig. 9). f The power of contraction in the retractor muscles of the
flagella is enormous.
Speaking of the manner in which the anal prolegs have been modi-
fied into stemapoda, with their attendant flagella in allied genera,
Packard says : The hypertrophy of the anal legs once initiated became
96 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
accelerated, until, in the larva of Macrurncampa, it culminated in a
pair of anal filaments, with their evertible flagella as fully finished as
in Centra, the larva using these in the same manner as deterrent
structures (Bombycine Moths, etc., p. 31).
The larva of Pirachola isocrates, the well-known Pomegranate
butterfly, is said by Pargiter to have two white spots near the anal
end, in each of which is a smalKhorn-like process, which the larva
continually protrudes and retracts. This observer, however, confused
these eversible structures with the honey-gland on the dorsum of the
7th abdominal segment of certain species, and which is so attrac-
tive to ants. Niceville gives (Ihitta. of India, vol. iii.) an excellent
account of two tubercles with protruding flagella, found one on each
side of the 8th abdominal segment of Curetis thetis. These are
described as two diverging, cylindrical, rigid pillars, arising from the
sub-dorsal region, and of a pale green colour. When the insect is
touched or alarmed, a deep maroon tentacle, as long as the rigid pillar,
bearing on its end long particoloured hairs (the basal third black, and
upper two-thirds white) is everted. The maroon tentacle, with its
long hairs spread out like a circular fan or rosette, is whirled round
with great rapidity in a plane parallel to its body, its use being, almost
certainly, to frighten away its enemies. Similar eversible glands are
described by Hagen as occurring in the larvae of Plebeius an/us and
Pclyommatnu corydon. He writes : " You find on the penultimate seg-
ment, outside and behind the stigmata, two large white spots, each of
which evaginates a white membranous tube, just like the finger of a
glove, the tip of which is not entirely drawn out." Exactly what
measure of protection is afforded by these flagella is not known. They
are by no means generally present among Lycaenid larvae, closely
allied species often differing in this respect. Many authors (including
Dimmock and Scudder) incline to the opinion that they are of the
nature of osmateria, and diffuse odours, but the supposition is alto-
gether without support, so far, that at present, no such odours have
been detected.
On the dorsum of the 6th and 7th abdominal segments of many
Liparid larva?, are to be found (after the first moult) a pair of ever-
sible glands. In the larvae of Uasychira pndibunda and D. fascclhia,
however, only one gland is present, viz., that situated in the medio-
dorsal line of the 7th abdominal segment, which becomes everted
when the larva rolls up on being disturbed. Poulton states that the
larval surface, close to the lips of the aperture, seems to be extremely
sensitive to tactile impressions. He also describes (Tranx. I-'.nt.
Soc. Lond., 1886) two medio-dorsal, orange-coloured glands situated
towards the anterior margins of the 6th and 7th abdominal segments
in Porthcsia similis (auriflna) capable of secreting a pale transparent
fluid, which Swinton believed was poisonous, but which Poulton finds
to be odoriferous. Bacot says that the eversible glands are very
active in the larva of this species, and are far more frequently
seen in operation than in other Liparid larvae. All the British
species of the Liparids appear to possess these glands except Dcumx,
although, as we have seen, Daxychira only possesses one of them.
Bacot points out that, in addition to these, the larvae of Puilnni
wonaclia and Port/u'tria lUajxn- have a small yellow gland on the first
four abdominal segments, placed one on each side of the medic-dorsal
PROTECTIVE COLORATION AND DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF LARVffi. 97
band ; he has, however, not observed any movement in these. He
also notices that the larva of Leucoma solids has, similarly, a pair
of small, round, flask-shaped glands, placed close together near the
centre of the 1st and 2nd abdominal segments, and which, in later
stages, exude a drop of clear, viscous-looking fluid.
It would appear that these glands are pretty generally distributed
among the Liparid moths. Poulton says that in the larvae of certain
Indian Liparids they are usually present. He found two glands on
Li/iiKDitria concolor, which he considers closely allied to L. (Psilura)
monacJta. They were also found in Chaerotricha plana, Charnidas ex-
clamationis, Artaxa vitellina, A. scintillans, A. f/uttata and in Dasycliira
(lalberyiae, although he failed to detect them in a few Indian larvae
belonging to this genus. He says that the character is probably almost
co-extensive with the family, and that the single gland of our two
British species of Dasychim helps to unite these in a single genus.
All these eversible glands are " pleurecbolic " and " acrernbolic," like the
flagella of Ccrura i-inula, and all must possess an axial retractor muscle.
Patton writes (Can. Entom., xxiii., pp. 42-43) that he found some
Limacodid larvae on liquid-ambar, which, when disturbed, had the
power of emitting drops of clear liquid from pores along the edges of
the back, the fluid having an odour similar to that of crushed liquid-
ambar leaves. The pores from which this fluid is secreted are sixteen
in number, situated along the edges of the back, their location being
indicated by darker green spots just below the edge. The odour is
probably protective.
In the same way, the remarkable, tubular, fluid-bearing hairs,
previously referred to (ante, p. 51), as being common in many larvae, are
supposed by Scudder to have a protective value. He writes : They
are usually arranged in longitudinal rows, and their use is wholly un-
known. They are a universal characteristic of all butterfly caterpillars
in their earliest stage, excepting, probably, the larger part of the highest
family, but are common in the later stages of some of the lower families.
They are papilla-mounted bristles, each furnished with a trumpet-
mouthed tip, and are the ducts leading from glands at their base, secreting
a transparent fluid, which, after secretion, is borne in a little globule in
the mouth of the trumpet, and sometimes kept in its place by a few
microscopic bristles which surround its rim. It probably has a pro-
tective function, and is odoriferous, the secretion increasing when the
larvae are disturbed.
Chapman notes that the larva of Jocheaera alni gives off an odour
that closely resembles coal-gas. We believe nothing is known as to
where the odour is produced, nor of the glands that set it free.
We have already described certain eversible glands with flagella-
like structures on the 8th abdominal segment of certain butterfly larvae.
Another gland found on the dorsurn of the 7th abdominal segment is im-
portant as secreting a sweet fluid, which is much sought after by ants,
and in return for which the larvae are protected by the ants from pre-
daceous enemies. Scudder says that all Lycaenid larvae have the
slit ODr the 7th segment, though all do not possess the gland.
In those larvae that do possess it, a vesicular gland of some-
what tubular shape is thrust frequently through a transverse slit
on the dorsum of this segment. Esper was the first to notice the
relation of the larva and the attendant ants. Freyer figures the
U8 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
glands as two white dots in Plebeius argus, but does not describe them.
The glands are stated to be present in the larva of the European
species, Thestor ballus. Anderson says (Victorian Butts., pp. 101-102)
that the larvse of the genus Ogyris are greatly attractive to ants, which
tend them with great care, never leaving them. He further notes
that the pupae of this species are often found in ants' nests, the larvae
having pupated there, that the attended larvae are rarely attacked by
parasites, but that Ogyris olane, a non-attended species, suffers
severely from the attacks of parasitical diptera. Scudder has described
the attendance of the ants on Cyanirls psettdargiolus in detail. Perhaps
the most remarkable thing that strikes one is that this American
species is so close to the European C. argiolus that it might be regarded
only as a form of that species, yet the larva of the latter has never
been described as protected, or possessed of any traces of the associated
structures. The European P. art/us, too, belonging to quite a different
section of the Lycaenids, has structures almost identical with those of
C. pseudargiolus, and is protected by ants in precisely the same way ;
yet P. aegon, in many respects indistinguishable from P. argus, has
no such habit, although it has apparently some traces of the structures.
The actual gland from which the honey is obtained is situated on
the dorsum of the larva, and looks like a transverse dorsal lino on
the 7th abdominal segment. The larvae of P. argus and others
attended by the ants, may easily be detected, owing to there being
around them constantly a group of ten or twenty ants. Edwards has
detailed how he saw the ants drive off an Anomalun, that would other-
wise have attacked a larva of C. pmtdargioliu, so that there can be no
doubt that the ants protect the larvas, and in return utilise the sweet
secretion exuded from this dorsal gland.
Eversible glands of an offensive nature are said to be present
in some Eucleid larvse. Of these, the so-called "stinging spines" of
Doratifera vulnerans are the best known. This species is described as
possessing the power to evert eight little tufts of stinging spines,
which are concealed when the larva is not irritated. Dyar says that
these eversible spines (horns) are hypertrophied warts on joints 4, 5,
11, 12 (? 1st, 2nd, 8th and 9th abdominal segments), whilst in /). Icn-ini
and D. caxta, the two front ones only are present. These retractile
organs consist of a short fleshy shaft with numerous spines, which
bend inward over the back, the spines becoming converged, and the
whole concealed by a triangular fold of skin.
Some species appear to have more than one mode of protection against
their enemies. The accumulative protection afforded to the larva of
Baxilarchia artkcmis, by its colours, tubercles, habits, etc., is narrated at
length by Scudder. He says : " Dark and light green and cream colour
strive for the mastery, and leave it streaked and blotched, so that it bears
no inconsiderable resemblance, in colour at least, to the droppings of
some birds, a circumstance which, doubtless, serves it as some sort of
protection. Its body is humped, and the bosses bear tubercles, which
give it a somewhat repulsive aspect, especially a pair a little behind
the head, which are raised aloft, and thickly studded with promi-
nences, the effect of which is heightened by the creature's habit of
arching this part of the body, bending its head to the ground and
raising aloft its hinder part, also studded with roughened processes.
Altogether, it is a rather hideous beast. Then, too, if disturbed, it
PROTECTIVE COLORATION AND DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF LARVJE. 99
raises the front half of its body from the ground and uses it as a kind
of whip-lash, throwing it from one side to the other with great
violence. When it walks, it moves with a slow and cautious tread,
its head trembling as if it had the palsy. All this is doubtless to
inspire fear in such enemies as might be tempted to attack it."
The excretions of larvae are of considerable importance in forming
a means of defence. It is a very prevalent practice, amongst some
larvae, to eject from the mouth a fluid, usually, but nofc necessarily,
of a bright green colour, as soon as they are touched. This fluid is
secreted most freely among the Vanessids, Tortricids, Lasiocampids
and Geometrids, and its wide-spread occurrence points to it as an
effective weapon for their protection.
Many Sphingid (and other) larvae — Smeiinthw populi, Macroglossa
stellatarum, etc. — have a habit, when quite full-grown, of " licking "
themselves on the dorsum, and, whilst so doing, they spread a fluid
over the surface of the back. It has been observed that the "licked"
portions of the body are those that change colour, and the fluid may
have some action on the chitin, that brings about this change. If so,
it is a very useful means of protection, for, at this time, the usually
green Sphingid larvae leave the green leaves of their food-plant, and
crawl for a considerable distance over the surface of the ground (where
their normally green colour would be exceedingly conspicuous) to find
a suitable place for pupation. It has been suggested, however, that
the fluid is used as a protection against ichneumons, the larvae being,
just previous to pupation, in a most helpless condition.
So far as our observations go, this fluid appears to be of the same
nature as that used by various larvae (Eriogaster lanestris, etc.), for the
coloration of their cocoons. The fluid comes from the alimentary
canal, and appears to contain a modified form of chlorophyll. The
fact that those portions of the body on which the fluid is rubbed,
turn red, or purple, or brown, suggests that the change may be due to
the oxidation of the chlorophyll-extract present in the fluid.
The inedible nature of hairs has been already remarked upon.
The spinose character of certain larval hairs is very marked, the main
shaft often bristling with numberless, minute, lateral points. These
hairs are very general in many families, the Anthrocerids, Liparids,
Arctiids, etc. Such hairs must produce great irritation if they enter
the epithelial lining of the alimentary canal of an entomophagous bird or
mammal. The effect of the urticating hairs of certain Liparid and
Lasiocampid moths is within the knowledge of every entomologist.
Many larvae, notably those of the Liparids, have tussocks, or tufts
of these fine, spinose hairs, often so dense that the combined effects
of these, hairs, if inadvertently swallowed, might be very serious. The
easy manner in which they can be pulled out also aids in disseminating
them if they once enter the mouth. When irritated, tussock-bearing
larvae usually bend themselves so as to throw up prominently these
bristling tufts, and a hasty enemy finds its mouth filled with loose
hairs instead of the tasty morsel it had expected. Insect-eating
animals must undoubtedly learn, by experience, what is edible and
what is not, and a first attempt at a hairy larva is likely to be a last
with any tender-mouthed creature. Dozens of observers have noticed
the fact that various insect-eating birds and mammals have refused
hairy and spiny larvae, even when hungry.
100 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Some Liparid larvre, when alarmed, not only elevate their bristly
tussocks, but also, at the same time, expose a series of intensely black
intersegmental rings which, not at all conspicuous when the larva is
in repose, become so when it is disturbed. These help to make the
tussocks still more conspicuous. If such larvae are much disturbed
or attacked, they roll into a complete ring, the projecting tussocks
standing out as a bristly armature all round the body, and expose to
the full the black intersegmental membranes. Poulton's observations
on the larvre of On/ijia antiqua and Dasychira pudibnncla, when attacked
by hungry lizards, led him to believe that their tussocks would pre-
serve the larvre, except in the case of a very hungry enemy.
The urticating hairs of Lanioc.mnpa quercm form the short dorsal
fur of the larva, and are used to mix with the silk of the cocoon,
masses of them often lying loose in the outer web by which the cocoon
is attached to the twigs, etc., among which it is spun. They also
stand out directly from the cocoon proper, and hence careless hand-
ling of the cocoon is almost sure to result in breaking off some of the
fine points in the skin. The urticating hairs of Macrotkylacia rubi
appear to be very similar to, if not identical with, those of L. quercitft.
So far as our experience goes, urtication is purely the result of
the mechanical action of the hairs, but Swinton says that they are not
merely mechanical, and that the hairs are poisoned by a caustic liquid
issuing from the scarlet tubercles on the hinder segments of Porthexia
siwilis. This liquid has, however, been shown by Poulton to be odorous.
Bacot says that the urticating hairs of Porthexia similis and P. chrysor-
rlioea are much smaller than those of L. qwrciis, about one-third to
one-fourth of the length, and are much more complicated in struc-
ture, being spinose, and with the base divided into three prongs. In
PortJtesia, they appear to be developed only on the tubercles, but in
the Lasiocampids, the dorsal and sub-dorsal areas of the larva; are
coated with them. He also agrees that their action is simply
mechanical.
As it is not our intention to refer to the defensive properties of
hairs at greater length, we would call attention to the fact that all
spines or prickles serve to protect the organism from external attack.
They do not, of course, prevent many larva) being eaten, but they
prevent many animals preying upon them that might otherwise do so.
They are, therefore, to be considered as adaptive structures, and have
been developed from more simple, previously existent, structures, in
response to necessities, most probably arising from the attacks of
entomophagous animals. The changes that have occurred, therefore,
in the simple setiferous tubercles, or hairs, or in the minute body
hairs or pile, by means of which they have been respectively changed
into defensive spines, or fascicles, or into a dense hairy coat for pro-
tective purposes, form a very interesting and instructive line of study.
Before concluding this chapter, it may be well to call attention to
an act of strict commensalism occurring among caterpillars. The
occurrence is recorded by Fritz Miiller, as taking place in South
America, between a large spiny caterpillar, which was almost inva-
riably found to be accompanied by a small hairy caterpillar, so small
as to rest securely in a transverse position across the back of its good-
natured host, well concealed among its spines, and it is stated that
the skin of the host was hardened at the place where the smaller larva
PROTECTIVE COLORATION AND DEFENSIVE STRUCTURES OF LARVAE. 101
rested. One is puzzled to know exactly what advantage this com-
panionship would be to either larva, except that the spines of the
larger caterpillar might prove a sufficient protection to the smaller, as
Avell as to itself.
On the other side of the question, viz., that in which the lepidop-
terous larva is the attacker, and not the attacked, we learn from Nice-
ville that the Indian Spalijis is very like the American Feniseca, since
the lame of both are carnivorous, associating with and feeding upon
the " mealy bug " of the planters, a species of Daetylopivi.
Besides the protection offered, by the various means already de-
tailed, to larvas against their enemies, some remarkable instances of
protection against abnormal meteorological conditions are recorded.
One of these is recounted at length by Niceville (Butts, of Sumatra,
p. 538), and refers to the larva of a Hesperid, Erinota thrax,
which is covered with a white waxy powder, and lives in a shelter
made of a portion of one of the enormous leaves of Musa, which it
cuts into in order to obtain a suitable segment for its shelter. The
pupa is covered with the same white powder as is the larva, and is
quite hidden from view in its dining-room. This powder is of the
greatest service to the animal as, in consequence of the heavy showers
of rain in the tropics, much water often collects in the rolled-up leaf,
and the pupa, if not so protected, would soon be drowned and rot. As
it is, the powder keeps the pupa dry until the water has drained away
or dried up. The downy larva of the allied Gangara thyrsis is similarly
covered with a white waxy powder. There is no doubt that the wax
with which these larvje (that live in closed habitations) are covered,
is of the same value as that with which the pupa of Parnassim a polio
and others are coated, viz., to protect the larva (and pupa) from damp.
We have previously referred to the passive defence offered by all
lepidopterous larvas, and the reason of this is not far to seek. The
peculiar form and character of these larvae lend themselves very readily
to injury. The larva cannot reply to its enemies in any way in which
the combat would resolve into a question of mere physical strength. A
small injury is almost as dangerous to it as a great one, and the loss
of blood resulting from a slight wound usually proves fatal. It is
probably owing to this that the various means of protection found in
lame are almost always of a passive kind. Such means of defence as
they have are almost entirely such as tend to prevent them from being
seen or touched, rarely such as are of any real service when they are
actually attacked. In some larvae there may be various modes, or
changes in the mode, of defence, but the object is always to leave the
larva untouched, a touch being practically fatal to it. The larva of
Xtauropwfatji, at rest, resembles a beech leaf. If disturbed, it adopts
a terrifying attitude, but if this be of no avail, the larva possesses no
other means of protection. The larvae of Geometrid moths resemble
pieces of stick ; when disturbed, many fall to the ground, but if
followed up here their means of defence are exhausted. The larva of
Cltoerocampa elpenor is protected by its similarity to its food-plant ; if
disturbed, it takes on a terrifying attitude, but again, if this fail, it
has no further means of protection. Warning colours, and unpleasant
or pungent secretions, are of no use against foes that once attack the
larva, for the slightest injury would p
found the prey inedible after capture. It
CITl'S RESEARCH CENTER Af
102 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEEA.
that the very perfect resemblance which larvae bear to their surroundings,
so perfect as often to render them practically invisible, as well as the
development of long tussocks of dense hair, that is so loose that it is shed
without injury to the larva almost as soon as touched, and also the for-
mation of huge spiny structures, have all been brought about in preference
to offensive structures, because the exceeding delicacy of structure
of the larva would prevent it taking any active part in any physical
attempt to combat the attacks of its enemies. Such offensive mea-
sures as are occasionally adopted, e.g., the syringe of Centra, are so
very exceptional, that they can almost be neglected from the considera-
tion of the general question. The development of mutant tubercles
and flagella are probably meant only to startle ichneumons that
injure and attack the larvae in quite another way, whilst protective
coloration, and, indeed, all forms of passive defence, alone are used
against their physically stronger foes.
There can be, we think, little doubt that all the purely defensive
structures of insects — hairs, flagella, glands, etc., have been developed
in response to the increasing attacks of enemies. That we know very
little about the subject is very evident, and workers have here an un-
limited field for observation. Almost every specialised larva responds
in some particular way to its environment, and here the field natura-
list has the whole domain to himself. Each peculiar structure has
its own particular use, and it is only by observing closely the habits of
the animal in nature, that the use can be learned. It requires great
skill, power of observation, and unbounded patience, but it is a work
that will repay the labourer with interest, for all the care he may
bestow upon it.
CHAPTEE IX.
CLASSIFICATION OF LEPIDOPTERA.
PROBABLY nothing relating to the Lepidoptera has undergone such a
complete revolution during the last decade as our notions of the
classification of the order, and, to a great extent, our views are
governed by the observations of a few workers, of whom Chapman,
Comstock, Dyar and Packard are the chief. In a paper "On the
Classification of Lepidoptera "° we ventured the opinion that " no
scheme based on a single set of characters belonging to only one stage
of an insect's existence could possibly be even approximately perfect.
It is possible to conceive that, especially in those orders in which the
methods of life differ so greatly in the various stages, and different
means of defence and protection are thus rendered necessary, an insect
may be very greatly modified in one particular stage, without any
corresponding modification in the other stages being at all necessary.
It may happen to be of advantage for the larva to be of a generalised
type, and for the imago to be much more specialised, or vice versa. If
• Tram. Ent. Soc. London, 1895, pp. 343 et seq.
CLASSIFICATION OF LEPIDOPTEBA. 103
this be granted, it follows that no scheme of classification that is not
founded upon a consideration of the structural details and peculiarities
of the insects in all their stages can be considered as really sound, or
as founded upon a natural basis. It is also evident that the results
of the various systems — whether based on oval, larval, pupal or
imaginal characters — must be compared, and the sum total of evidence
brought together, if a satisfactory result is to be obtained." It is on
these lines that we have attempted to base the system of classification
adopted in this work.
In the determination of the relationships existing not only between
the stirpes themselves, but between the superfamilies of each stirps,
considerable literature has had to be digested, and the results compared
with our own knowledge of the living insects. The points to which
attention has been directed and the literature that we have found most
useful for our purpose are as follows : — I. THE EGG. — By far the best
(we may say the only) work on the characters presented by the lepi-
dopterous egg, is Chapman's paper, " The phytogeny and evolution
of the Lepidoptera from a pupal and oval standpoint."1 Since the
publication of this paper, we have examined the eggs of some three or
four hundred species of Lepidoptera, belonging to different families,
and find his conclusions corroborated. II. THE LABVA. — Here we
are chiefly indebted to (1) Dyar's " Classification of lepidopterous
larvae,"2 "Additional notes on the classification of lepidopterous
larvae,"3 " A combination of two classifications of Lepidoptera,"* and
" Relationship of Pyralidae and Pterophoridae from the larvae."5
"Larvae of the Higher Bombyces."6 (2) Chapman's "Observa-
tions on larval prolegs,"7 "Notes on Micro-Lepidoptera, whose
larvae are external feeders."8 (3) Packard's " Study of the trans-
formations and anatomy of Lagoa crispata, etc.,"9 " Life-history
of certain moths of the family Cochliopodidae,"10 " Life-histories of
certain moths of the families Ceratocampidae, Hemileucidae, etc.,"11 and
many other papers. (4) Poulton's " On the ontogeny of Sphinx convol-
vuli and Aglia tau,"12 and various less important papers by other
authors. III. THE PUPA. — Chapman and Packard alone here give
real help. (1) Chapman's papers are, " On a lepidopterous pupa with
functionally active mandibles, ' ' x 3 " Notes on pupae, etc. , " x * "On Alucita
he.mdactyla, chiefly in relation to the structure of the pupa,"15 "On
some neglected points in the Heterocerous pupa,"16 as well as " The
phylogeny and evolution of the Lepidoptera from a pupal and oval
standpoint," to which we have already referred. (2) Packard's
"New classification of the Lepidoptera."17 IV. THE IMAGO. — We
1. Trans. Ent. Soc. Land., 1896, pp. 567 et seq.
2 Ann. New York Acad. Sci,, viii., pp. 194 et seq.
3. Trans. Neiv York Acad. Sci., xiv., pp. 49 et seq.
4. Journal New York Ent. Soc., 1895, pp. 17 et seq.
5. Entom. News, Feb., 1895.
6. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., xxvii., pp. 127 et seq.
1. Trans. Ent. Soc. Land., 1893, pp. 97 et seq.
8. Ibid., 1894, pp. 335 et seq.
9. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., xxxii., pp, 275 et seq.
10. Ibid., xxxi., pp, 83 et seq.
11. Ibid., pp. 139 et seq.
12. Tram. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1888, pp. 515 et seq. 13. Ibid., 1893, pp. 255 et seq.
14. Ibid., 1896, pp. 129 et seq. 15. Entomologist's Record, etc., vii.,No. 11, 1896*
16. Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1893. 17. Bombycin* Moths of America, 1895.
104 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
have had access to all the leading papers on this subject, Corn-
stock, Hampson, Kellogg, etc.
The conclusions to which we have come concerning the characters
considered by various authors as important may be briefly stated as
follows: (1) Thejiujum. — As Chapman has already pointed out, this
is " the remnant of a wing-lobe, well developed in many Neuroptera,
and appears to have no such function as is attributed to it (i.e., of com-
bining the wings in flight)." The hindwing of Micropteryx (Eriocrania)
has " also an external lobe or ' jugum ' " (Packard). The classificatory
value of the jugum, by which Comstock separates the whole order Lepi-
doptera into JUGATE and FRENAT^E, therefore, is such as to shut off the
two or three most generalised superfamilies, such separation giving us
no clue whatever to the more specialised superfamilies that have risen
from the stirps, of which these are now the lowest representatives.
(2) Tlie frenulum. — Chapman has pointed out that one of the super-
families (MicROPTERYGiDEs)0 placed with the JUGATE, has also distinct
traces of a commencing frenulum in the development of some strong
hairs ; whilst Kellogg findsf in the Trichopterygid genus llallesux,
"the beginning of the frenate method of wing-tying," there being
" present, on the base of the costal margin of the hind-wing, two long,
strong hairs, the very counterpart of the generalised frenulum (i.e.,
frenulum in which the hairs are not united into one single strong
spine) of the lepidopterous wing." That the frenulum had its origin
much lower than is usually assumed, ?.//., in Trichoptera, and, there-
fore, probably in Lepidoptera, before they were differentiated as such,
leads us to suppose that, possibly in the earlier Lepidoptera (now ex-
tinct), many frenate and jugate families, otherwise closely related, ran
on side by side. Of the latter, only the Micropterygids, Eriocraniids,
and Hepialids are left, and these, although retaining this primitive
trait, have become greatly modified in other directions. It seems some-
what forced to attempt to derive the FRENATE directly from the existing
JUGATE, now that Kellogg has shown that the frenulum in a
generalised form also exists in Trichoptera. That it has always been
a very variable and plastic structure, is evident from its present erratic
occurrence and absence in allied species. So uncertain is its occurrence
that, in order to carry out Cornstock's division of the Lepidoptera (ex-
cept JUGATE) into GENERALISED-FRENAT^: and SPECIALISED-FRENAT^E,
other characters (chiefly from neuration) have to be called in. (3) Neu-
ration.— It is now generally accepted that the most generalised super-
families exhibit the most complicated system of neuration, and that
the more reduced in number the nervures become, the more specialised
is the family, superfamily, etc. This, with certain limitations (unneces-
* During the progress of this work through the press, a change in the usual
nomenclature of this group has been made. The genus Micropteryx, Hb., is now
said to be synonymous with Eriocephala, Curt., and therefore the superfamily
MICBOPTERYGIDES of this chapter = the superfamily ERIOCEPHALIDES of Chapter I. of
this book. It has also been pointed out that Eriocrania, Zell., is the only name avail-
able for the genus that has been until now called Microptcnjx. The superfamily name
EKIOCBANIIDES will, therefore = the MICROPTERYGIDES of Chapter I. of this work.
Micropteryx and the MICROPTEBYGIDES will, in the following part of this work, refer
to the " calthella group," i.e., to the imaginal pollen-eaters and larval moss-feeders ;
whilst Eriocrania and the EIUOCRANHDEB will refer to the "-purpurdla group," with
leaf -mining larvte and pupce with active jaws.
t American Naturalist, 1895, p. 715.
CLASSIFICATION OF LEPIDOPTERA. 105
sary to enter in to here), we consider to be generally true. Theneuration of
the Micropterygids (Eriocephalids), Eriocraniids and Hepialids is,
perhaps, more generalised than that of any other Lepidoptera. Broadly,
on these lines, the neuration allows us to separate. the more generalised
from the more specialised superfamilies. When, however, one comes to
detail, i.e., to the consideration of the characters arising from the
modification of the neuration, we find the characters to be so variousl}
interpreted and applied by different authors, that, standing alone, the
neurational characters appear to be of very little value, witness
Hampson's groupings,0 by which — on the character that the " Fore-
wing has nervure 5, arising from the middle of the disco-cellulars or
nearer 6 than 4, the nervures not arising at even distances around the
cell " — the Cymatoplioridae, Notodontidae, Geometridae, Uraniidae,
Bombycidae, Ceratocampidae, Saturniidae, Sphinyidae, Dioptidae, Epip-
lemidae, Epicopeidae, Eupterotidae, Brahmaeidae and Ehopalocera,\ all
find themselves in one group. (4) Movable incisions of pupa. — Chap-
man's pupal characters of movable segments, divide off sharply, and
with definiteness, the generalised, from the specialised, superfamilies,
the INCOMPLETE representing the former, the OBTECTJE, the latter, but
it is only in the details, such as those of the dorsal head-piece, the
maxillary palpi, etc., that we get any clue to the real relationships of
the superfamilies to one another, although the amount of incomplete-
ness of the pupa (i.e., the actual number of movable segments) affords,
in a comparative sense, valuable aid. (5) Hooks on proleys. — The
arrangement of the hooks on the larval prolegs is largely associated
with a concealed or exposed habit of life, yet, with scarcely an exception,
the character is sound in separating the generalised from the specialised
superfamilies, and it is remarkable that even when a species belonging
to one of the specialised superfamilies, reverts to a concealed mode of
life, the prolegs do not revert to the generalised, but maintain the
specialised, proleg structure. (6) Larval tubercles. — The arrangement
of the tubercles is remarkable from the fact that, more than any other
larval structure, they have undergone modification for protective pur-
poses. In concealed-feeding larvae, the tubercles have usually remained
simple, the setae often being suppressed until they form mere points on
the' chitinous button of the tubercle. On the other hand, in exposed-
feeding larvae, they vary from entire absence (where their presence
would interfere with the protective coloration adopted by the larva), to
raised warts bearing many setae, or they may form a prolonged spiny
base bearing several setiferous branches, or develop fascicles of urti-
cating spines, or hairs may arise from the normal base. In spite of
this, however, two characters remain fairly constant : (1) Tubercles j
and ii tend to form (by union or by the atrophy of i or ii) a single sub-
dorsal wart, or, on the other hand, tend to become arranged as anterior
and posterior trapezoidals. (2) Tubercles iv and v both remain as
sub-spiracular tubercles, or, on the other hand, v remains as a sub-
* Annals and Magazine of Nat. History, Oct., 1894, pp. 254 et seq.
t This must be really a very specialised character, for, sifting the families here
mentioned, one obtains the Cymatophoridae and Geometridae, the most specialised
of the Geometro-Eriocraniid stirps ; the Bombycidae, Ceratocampidae, Eupterotidae,
Saturniidae and Sphiiiyidae, the most specialised of the Sphingo-Micropterygid
stirps ; and the Notodontidae and Rhopalocera, specialised families of the Noctuo-
Hepialid stirps.
106 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
spiracular, and iv becomes a post-spiracular tubercle. We do not think
the pre-spiracular tubercle (which is more or less adventitious) of
much value in classification, but the two above characters appear to
be so.
Now it is evident from the above brief summary, that the structure
of the larval prolegs, the characters offered by the movable pupal seg-
ments, the broad characters of neuration, and of the jugum, only help
us to separate, as it were, the generalised from the more specialised
super-families. These characters still leave them unsorted, and give
us no clue to their relationship to each other.
We are not alone in our objection to the division of the Lepidop-
tera into the two sub-orders, JUGATE and FRENAT/E, as proposed by
Comstock. Packard considers that the characters used are too slight,
and do not agree with the more fundamental pupal characters, or with
important imaginal features. He says : " The jugum is of slight, if of
any, functional value, and, in Micropteryx (i.e., Eriocrania),&s in Trich-
optera, occurs both in the hind- and front-wings, a point apparently over-
looked by Comstock. The Hepialids are much less generalised forms
than the Eriocephalids (i.e., Micropterygids), or even the Mieropterygids
(i.e., Eriocraniids) ; the pupae of both these groups have free limbs and
abdominal segments, belonging to what Speyer calls a group of
' Pupa libera.' The Hepialidae, also, possess neither maxillary
palpi nor vestigial mandibles ; they are borers in the larval state,
and the pupa has not free limbs, but is a ' Pupa incompleta.'
They are scarcely ancestral, though very primitive, forms, but have
already become modified, having no traces of mandibles and no maxillae,
and, in the American species, the labial palpi have already begun to
degenerate. We, therefore, scarcely see good reason for placing the
family at the very foot of the order, below Microptery.r (i.e., Eriocrania),
but should regard the family as a side branch of the Palaso-lepidoptera,
which, very soon after the appearance of the order, became somewhat
specialised. Comstock's FRENAT^E comprise a heterogeneous collec-
tion of families, some of which have no frenulum at all, and, when the
frenulum is present, they offer secondary sexual characters. The ab-
sence or presence of a frenulum is hardly, then, a sufficiently funda-
mental character to be used in establishing a great primary division.
Besides this, there is a rather close alliance between the Hepialidae
and Cossidae, the latter having a rudimentary frenulum. Chapman
remarks, that while Cossus and Hepialus are quite distinct in pupal
characters, there appear to exist in Australia many forms uniting
them with Zeiizera into one family. The neuration is also quite similar,
and while the two families of Cossidae and Hepialidae are, in some most
important respects, quite far apart, one being, so to speak, Tineid, and
the other Tortricid, in structure, yet it would, we think, be a forced and
unsound taxonomy to assign them to different sub-orders " (Bombycine
Moths of America, p. 57).
We have the same objection to Packard's own primary sub-division
of the Lepidoptera into two sub-orders : I. The LEPIDOPTERA-LACINIATA
or PROTO-LEPIDOPTERA [comprising only the Micropterygids (i.e., Erio-
cephalids)] . II. The LEPIDOPTERA-HAUSTELLATA sub-divided into :
1. Palaeo-lepidoptera [comprising only the Eriocraniids (i.e., Microptery-
gids)] . 2. Neolepidoptera (comprising the whole of the Incompletae
and Obtectae). Such a sub-division, in spite of the elaborate
CLASSIFICATION OF LEPIDOPTERA. 107
diagrammatic table0 that supplements it, gives us but little practical
help in our knowledge of the broad lines of evolution along which
the Lepidoptera have travelled. Unfortunately we are not able
to follow the table, even in its broadest lines, for reasons that are
self-evident, <?.//., the derivation of Pyralids from Pterophorids, and
the latter from Alucitids, which Chapman has shown f to be impossible ;
the derivation of Lasiocampids from Lithosiids, and Notodonts from
Lasiocampids, which the eggs show to be equally impossible, and so on.
It is quite evident that the evolution of the many specialised super-
families has taken place from the generalised, and that the former are
the most recent evolutionary products of certain stems of which the
generalised are the older offshoots. What is needed, then, is some
character (or characters) that will not slice off horizontally, as it were,
all the branches of the genealogical tree, leaving (1) the upper super-
families, composed of the DETECTS or SPECIALISED-FRENAT^E, and (2) the
lower, comprising the INCOMPLETE or GENERALISED-FRENA™, but one
which will give us clues as to the development of the branches themselves
vertically, and separate into their own particular branch the specialised
and generalised superfamilies belonging thereto. In this way alone can
we get a true conception of the genealogical relationship of the various
families to each other.
It might have been supposed that Dyar's studies of the larval tubercles
would have led him to have constructed a tree satisfying the necessary
conditions, but it has not done so. One of his latest J (if not the latest)
pronouncements on the subject, satisfactory as it is in many ways,
leaves us much as we were. It works out as follows : —
I. — Tubercles iv and v approximate or consolidated.
1. — Tubercles i and ii remote MICROLEPIDOPTERA.
2. — Tubercles i and ii consolidated ANTHROCEKINA.
3. — Tubercles i and ii remote, ii disappearing at
the first moult BOMBYCINA.
II, — Tubercles iv and v remote.
1. — Tubercle iv behind the spiracle, v below it .. NOCTUINA
2. — Tubercle iv below, v in front of the spiracle SPHINGINA.
3. — Tubercles iv and v in line, except in some
Nymphalidae, where secondary armour is
developed KHOPALOCEKA.
From this Dyar gets the following groups : —
I. — The MICEOLEPIDOPTERA, including the Psychidae, Cossidae, Pyralidae,
Tortricidae, Sesiidae, Tineidae and Lacosomidae.
II. — The ANTHEOCEKINA, including the Pteroplioridae, Anthroceridae, Pyro-
morphidae, Megalopyyidae and Eucleidae.
III. — The BOMBYCINA, including the Citheroniidae, Hemileucidae, Saturniidae,
and Bombycidae.
IV.— The NOCTUINA, including the Notodontidae, Thyatiridae, Geometridae,
Drepanidae, Agaristidae, Noctuidae, Cymbidae, Lithosiidae, Pericopidae,
Arctiidae, Euchromiidae, Lymantriidae, and perhaps also the Thyri-
didae, Dio2>tidae and Lasiocampidae.
V. — The SPHINGINA, including the Sphingidae.
VI.— The EHOPALOCEBA, including the families usually associated under this
term.
* American Naturalist, 1895, p. 803.
t Trans. Ent. Soc. Land., 1896, pp. 129 et seq. and Entom. Record, vol. vii.,
pp., 268 et seq.
t " Relationship of Pyralidffi and Pterophoridaa from the larvae," Ent. Neivst
Feb., 1895.
108 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
There was sufficient material here for the basis on which to con-
struct the broad lines of a natural genealogical tree, if used in con-
junction with the tables given us by Chapman0 and Hampsonf. But
the desiderated clue as to the actual details of such was not obtained
until the publication of Chapman's valuable paper, " The phylogeny
and evolution of the Lepidoptera from a pupal and oval standpoint."
In this we had a factor that could- -be applied in the way desired, and
that showed us, not which were specialised and which generalised
superfamilies, but which of the specialised and which generalised
superfamilies of the various stirpes were related to each other.
This paper showed that the form of egg found in each different
super-family is very constant, and that thereappears to be no rapid tran-
sition from one form to the other among the Lepidoptera. There are,
broadly, among the higher Obtect families, two forms of egg, the flat
and the upright egg, the former being divisible into the Geometrid
and the Bombycid. The Geometrid egg is generally marked by a greater
roughness and by coarser ribbing or network; the Bombycid is
smoother and more polished, although there are many striking excep-
tions to this otherwise pretty general rule. Chapman is inclined to
derive these two forms of flat eggs from distinct origins, very low down
in the evolutionary scale, but thinks it probable that the various forms
of the upright egg (Noctuid, Papilionid, etc.) had a common origin,
though very low down. He is supported in this conclusion by the pre-
sence of the chin-gland (ante, p. 94), which is found only in Papilionids,
Noctuids, Notodonts and other superfamilies with upright eggs, but
nowhere among those with flat eggs, and we may accept Chapman's
conclusion that, however widely the butterflies are separated from the
Noctuids, and the evidence of the Hesperid pupa shows that the
butterfly stirps separated from the Noctuid stirps a very considerable
way below any Noctua-like form usually placed with the Macros,
the evidence of the egg and the presence of the larval chin-gland,
suffice to show that they jointly separated from the Geometrids and
Bombycids still lower down. The evidence of the egg, too, shows
that the Noctuids and Papilionids were not derived, as Meyrick
suggests, from any Pyralid form, as the Pyralids are, in some respects,
of a higher type than the Hesperids, and yet the former still belong
very markedly to one of the flat-egged stirpes. No very clear indica-
tion has yet been obtained to show where the upright egg branched
from the flat egg. The most probable point is between the Cossids
and Zeuzerids. These superfamilies are, in many respects, somewhat
closely allied. The former has an upright, the latter a flat, egg, and
Chapman considers that we have here, probably, the point where the
two forms are still unfixed and capable of easy variation. The alli-
ance (by pupa) of Castnia with Cossus, would perhaps point to this
also as being somewhat near the origin of the butterfly stirps.
Accepting the principles here laid down, there can be no doubt
that the flat egg is the ancestral form, and the upright egg a more
specialised structure. Examination of a large number of eggs of
species belonging to several superfamilies, shows that the upright
eggs which characterise the Notodonts, Noctuids, Lithosiids, Euchro-
* Trans. Ent. Soc. Land., 1893, pp. 118-119.
f Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 1894, pp. 258-259.
CLASSIFICATION OF LEPIDOPTEBA. 109
miicls, Lymantriids and Papilionids, are modifications of one and the
same structure.
If now we turn back to Dyar's group IV, the NOCTUINA (ante, p. 107),
and take the superfamilies with upright eggs therefrom, we have left
a series of families of which the Tlu/atiriilae (Cyniatophoridae), C-eoinct-
ridae and Drepanidae are the most important. These show also a
close alliance, not only inter se, but also with the Pyralids and
Crambids, since they possess essentially the same type of egg.
Here, then, is clearly a dichotomous division in Dyar's NOCTUINA,
one branch showing relationship with his MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA through
the Cossids, the other through the Pyralids. Below these super-
families (Cossids and Pyralids), however, the egg proves of very little
value, but other characters of the larva, pupa, and imaginal neuration
show that these MICRO-I.EPIDOPTERA belong to one or other of the
main stirpes above indicated. Dyar's NOCTUINA (specialised), and
MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA (generalised), therefore, divide into the two
following groups : —
I. The NOCTUO-HEPIAUD STIRPS. — HEPIALIDES, ZEUZERIDES, TORTRICIDES,
COSSIDES (generalised superfamilies), leading up to : (1) NOTODONTIDES, NOCTUIDES,
NYCTEOLIDES, ARCTIIDES (with the Lithosiids), LYMAXTRIIDES. (2) CASTNIIDES,
HESPERIIDES, PAPILIOXIDES (the specialised superfamilies).
II. The GEOMETRO-ERIOCRANIID STIRPS. — ERIOCRANIIDES, ADELIDES, TINEIDES,
etc. (generalised superfamilies), leading up to BREPHIDES, CYMATOPHORIDES
(TIIYATIUIDES),DREPAXULIDES (PLATYPTERYQiDEs),and GEOMETRIDES (the specialised
superfamilies).
This arrangement practically absorbs three of Dyar's main divisions,
leaving only the ANTHROCERINA, BOMBYCINA and SPHINGINA. It is very
evident here, from an examination of the eggs, that these all belong to
one stirps, and that Dyar has rightly diagnosed and divided these, his
ANTHROCERINA representing the generalised, and his BOMBYCINA and
SPHINGINA two specialised, branches of the same stirps. The latter
works out thus : —
III. — The SPIIINGO-MlCROPTERYGID STIRPS. — MlCROPTERTGIDES, NEPTICULIDES,
EUCLEIDES, MEGALOPYGIDES, HETEROGYNIDES, ANTHROCERIDES, PSYCHIDES, PTERO-
PHORIDES (the generalised superfamilies), leading up to the LASIOCAMPIDES,
EUPTEROTIDES, E.NDROMIDES, BoMBYCIDES, SATURNHDES and SPHINGIDES (the
specialised superfamilies).
We are inclined to attach but little importance to the pre-spiracular
tubercle of the Sphingids ; the whole of the other essential characters,
both of egg and larva, showing considerable affinity with the Endro-
mids and Saturniids.
One of the most puzzling points in the taxonomy of the Lepidoptera
is the affinity of the Pterophorids. The imagines of this superfamily
have, in common with the Orneodids (Alucitids), " plumed " wings,
and therefore our more superficial investigators place them somewhere
near each other. Of their utter want of relationship Chapman speaks
with no uncertain sound. He says0 : Epermenia and Omeodea are
typical members of the Pyraloid-Micropterygid (i.e., Pyraloid-Erio-
craniid) series ; Pterophorus is not a member of this series, etc. Again,
he notesf : There is no relationship between the pupa of Orneodes and
that of Pteroplwrus. The latter has not followed the line towards the
Macros that has been taken by the PYRALIDES, but has struck out an en-
tirely separate line of its own, and still retains nearly all the features of
a Micro pupa. The only point that interests us here, in connection with
* Trans. Ent. Soc. Land., 189(5, p. 145. f Ent. Record, vol. vii., No. 11, 18%.
110 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Orneodes, is that the one Micro character which Orneodcs has preserved
and exaggerated (the large cephalic dorsal plate) happens, in Pterophortu,
to have taken precisely the contrary direction. In Pterophonta it hardly
exists, and is difficult to see ; yet it does exist, and that so effectually that,
as in nearly all Micros, it carries the eye-cover with it on dehiscence. Dyar
is quite clear as to the larva, and associates the Pterophorids with the
Anthrocerids, and as we have examined many of the larvae of this super-
family, we can the more readily acquiesce in his claim for this alliance.
The smooth Pterophorid egg, too, supports very strongly the suggested
alliance with the Anthrocerids. Yet there are strange peculiarities about
the Pterophorids as a member of this stirps, not the least of which is the
development of a cremaster, by which it attaches itself after the fashion
of Hijpcrcallia, Zonosoma, and the Papilionid pup£e. By the develop-
ment of this cremastral attachment, the Pterophorid pupa has lost the
character of motility, practically universal among the superfamilies
with Incomplete pupre. On this account, Chapman considers that
the Pterophorids are one of the highest of the superfamilies in
the INCOMPLETE. On the other hand, the abdominal prolegs of the
Anthrocerid larva are so completely of the typical Macro form, i.e.,
have hooks only on the inner side of the foot, that this character places
the latter super-family also high among the INCOMPLETE. There is
difficulty in detecting the eye-collar (which is remarkably well-developed
in the lowest superfamilies of the Sphingo-Micropterygid stirps) in
the Pterophorid,and, to a less extent, in the Anthrocerid, pupa, another
character that places them moderately high in their stirps.
Chapman considers that, besides the Micropterygids and Erio-
craniids, the Hepialids, Nepticulids, and possibly, even the Psychids,
have been derived directly from the Palrco-lepidoptera, without any
intermediate forms that we now possess to indicate the special lines
they took, and that the lines of their evolution, therefore, diverged
from this low point.
With regard to our distribution of the MICROPTERYGIDES, ERIO-
CRANIIDES and HEPIALIDES, as the bases of the Sphingo-Micropterygid,
Geometro-Eriocraniid and Noctuo-Hepialid stirpes respectively, we
may at once state that each of these might equally well be put at the
bottom of any stirps. The Micropterygids are, presumably, the lowest
form we have, and, therefore, might be placed as a base for all the
stirpes. This superfamily and the Nepticulids, however, show more
interesting parallels with the generalised superfamilies (Eucleids, etc.)
of the Sphingo-Micropterygid stirps, than with those of any other, and
hence are best treated here. Chapman has shown0 clearly that the
Eriocraniids have no very close alliance with the Micropterygids, but
he also pointsf out that they show distinct relationship with the
Adelids (by way of Incurraria), and through them with the Tineids,
Pyraloids and Pyralids. He further points out that the Hepialids, whilst
preserving many Tineid characters, show distinct alliance with the
Cossids, and that the latter have all the essential characters of the
Tortricid, as distinguished from the Tineid, stirps. We have, there-
fore, selected those of these superfamilies nearest to the lower forms
of each of our three stirpes, and propose to bring them into exami-
nation with the stirps to which they have been respectively attached.
* Trant, Ent. Soc. Lond., 1894, pp. 336 et seq. f IMd., 1896, p. 132.
CLASSIFICATION OF LEPIDOPTERA. Ill
The Micropterygids and Nepticulids, therefore, will be considered
in connection with the Sphingo-Micropterygid group, although, as we
have just shown, they might almost as well have been treated with all
the lower superfamilies together. It is, however, necessary to break
down the idea that there is a great hiatus between the lower (Incom-
plete) forms, and the higher (Obtect) forms on the same stirps, or a
similar hiatus between the smaller species and the larger. For the same
reason, although we place the Eriocraniids at the base of the Geometro-
Eriocraniid stirps, they might equally well be placed almost at the
bottom of all Lepidoptera. The Hepialids, owing to their relationship
with the Zeuzerids and Cossids, are placed at the bottom of the Noctuo-
Hepialid stirps.
There are one or two points in which we think the sum total of
characters shows that Dyar and Hampson have erred in their group-
ings. Thus the PSYCHIDES belong rather to the Sphingo-Micropterygid
than to the Geometro-Eriocraniid stirps. The LASIOCAMPIDES most dis-
tinctly belong to Dyar's BOMBYCINA, i.e., to our Sphingo-Micropterygid
stirps, whilst the NOTODONTIDES as certainly belong to the Noctuo-
Hepialid stirps. We have already shown that Dyar's NOCTUINA is
heterogeneous on the egg characters, and the two main branches
included must be differentiated on other larval characters than those
already used, so as to separate the true Noctuids from the Geometrids.
We observe0 that Hampson finds neurational characters to make this
separation.
We are totally unable to accept the conclusions reached in Dyar's
" Synopsis of the Families of Bombycides " (Proc. Bos. Soc. of Nat.
History, vol. xxvii., pp. 129-130) as being of any real classificatory
value. In this we find the Notodontidae, Pseudoipsidae, Noctuidae,
AfHttclidae, Arctiidae, Pericopidae, Nolidae, Litlto.nidae, Euchromiidae,
Ltjinantriidae. (of the Noctuo-Hepialid stirps), Brephidae, Geowetridae,
T/tyatiridac&nd Drepanidae (of the Geometro-Eriocraniid stirps), united
with the Bombyddae, Eupterotidae and Lasiocampidae (of the Sphingo-
Micropterygid stirps), to make up the " Higher Bombyces." To
explain away the position of the Eupterotids, in which Dyar recognises
that tubercles iv and v do not satisfy his definition of the group, we
learn that " warts iv andv are degenerate, and have come to assume a
generalised position, probably secondarily " (p. 128). Concerning
the Bombycidac, Dyar states, what is a fact, that " the warts are
small and degenerate, but they are true warts of the typical Lasio-
campid pattern" (p. 140). Kegarding the warts of the Lasiocampids,
we read that "on the abdominal segments (of Tolype velleda), v is
smaller than iv, and all except i and vi are greatly reduced. These,
two warts alone persist in the adult " (p. 144). The reduction of iv
is quite characteristic of the higher branches of the Lasiocampids,
Bombycids, Eupterotids, etc., and entirely different from the well-
defined post-spiracular iv of the Noctuids, Arctiids, etc.
In its broadest lines, then, our scheme of classification assumes
three main general evolutionary branches, along which the various
superfamilies of Lepidoptera have developed, two of these being flat-
'egged and one an upright-egged stirps. These, with the main super-
families included in each, have already been given (ante, p. 109), so
that there is no need to repeat them.
* Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Oct., 1894, p. 259,
112 BRITISH LBPIDOPTEEA.
That the details of such an arrangement as this will be modified by
further observation is highly probable, but that this will form a sound
basis for future work we feel convinced. We shall find, for example,
in future schemes, no derivation of generalised from specialised super-
families, nor a flat-egged family from an upright-egged one, the
former giving rise again to another upright-egged family, as repeatedly
occurs in the work of Packard, Dyar and Meyrick. As an illustration of
this point we may give the following : Packard derives Lithosiidae (an
Arctiid form, with upright egg and Arctiid larva) from Tineina (with
flat egg), and then derives the Geometridae (another flat-egged group)
from the Lithosiidae. In his work0 the following series occurs :
Tineina (flat egg), Notodontidae (upright egg), Ceratocampidae (flat
egg), etc., i.e., a reversion from the " upright " to the " flat " egg form
in every alternate stage of the evolution. Dyar, too, obtains the
following series in one of his phylogenetic trees : Notodonts (upright
egg), Eupterotids (flat egg), Lymantriids (upright), Bombycids and
Lasiocampid (flat eggs), an impossible combination.
The diagram (Plate I) which we have added to illustrate this chapter
will show roughly our views as to the evolution of the three main stirpes
at their base, and the details of the evolution of the Sphingo-Microp-
terygid stirps.
* American Naturalist, 1895, p. 803.
A60ISTIDES
COCHUDIOB
MfGALOPYC'IDES
PLATE I.
PHYLOGENETIC TREE ILLUSTEATING THE DEVELOPMENT OF LEPIDOPTEBA FKOJI
A HYPOTHETICAL BASE.
THE SPHINGO-MICROPTERYGID STIEPS.
114 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEBA.
Stirps I : SPHINGO-MICROPTERYGIDES.
THE Sphingo-Micropterygid (or as we have sometimes termed it,
the Sphingo-Bombycid) stirps is so-called from two of the most
characteristic superfamilies it contains, the SPHINGIDES and the
MicnopTERYGiDEs(Eriocephalids),the former, one of the most specialised,
the latter, one of the most generalised, of the superfamilies, not only
of the stirps, but of all Lepidoptera'.
Although our knowledge is at present very incomplete, there
appears to be good ground for including on the same evolutionary line
with these superfamilies, several others of considerable size and im-
portance. These are all more or less characterised by the following
structural peculiarities : —
(1) The possession of a flat egg (i.e., with the long micropylar axis horizontal,
and with a short vertical axis).
(2) The maintenance of tubercles iv and v, as sub-spiracular tubercles (except
in Sphingids, where v becomes pre-spiracular*) ; a tendency for iv and v to
become united into a single sub-spiracular wart ; a tendency for i to form a
many-haired dorsal wart, and to form, with iii and iv -f v, on either side, a
transverse row of warts on each segment ; ii tends very strongly (in some families)
to become atrophied.
The Micropterygids (i.e., the Eriocephalids of Chapman) are so
remarkable, that they have been separated by Packard into a sub-order
equal in value to all other Lepidoptera combined, and thus we get : —
Sub-order I : LEPIDOPTERA-LACINIATA— including only the MICROPTERY-
GIDES.
Sub-order II : LEPIDOPTERA-HAUSTELLATA :-
1. PAL^O-LEPIDOPTERA (Pupse-liberae) including only ERIOCRANIIDES.
2. NEO-LEPIDOPTERA (PuptB-incompletse, and Pupae-obtectae) in-
cluding all other Lepidoptera.
This, however, represents only the separation of what we may call
the stranded remnants of the ancestral lepidopterous fauna, and since
Chapman remarks! that "the Zyyaenidae (Anthroceridae), Lhnacodidae
(Eucleidae) t and Micropterygidae (Eriocephalidae) form a group which,
though the last member is as low as the lowest Tineina and the first
as high as the butterflies or Noctuids, has, nevertheless, been evolved
on its own lines, from a common source, as a separate branch of
Heterocera," we feel quite justified, in spite of the vast gulf that
separates them, in retaining these as superfamilies of this stirps, for there
are, of course, almost inconceivable breaks between the superfamilies,
even of the same stirps, represented (1) in time, by icons of years,
and (2) in evolutionary development, by the extinction of thousands of
connecting groups, which once surrounded the existent groups, and of
which we have now no trace, and can only vaguely surmise either
their character or relationships.
Roughly, then, and bearing in mind what has just been said, we
may divide the superfamilies of this stirpsj into two groups according
to the amount of specialisation they have undergone. We should
then get : —
* In Agdistis iv becomes post-spiracular, and v sub-spiracular, thus differing
from any other Plume larvae known to us.
f Trans. Ent. Soc. Land., 1894, pp. 335 ct seq.
\ We are well aware that many other exotic superfamilies may belong to this
stirps, but having no special knowledge of the early stages of the species of such
superfamilies, they have been excluded.
THE SPHINGO-MICROPTERYGIDES. 115
I. GENERALISED SPHINGO - MICROPTERYGIDES.— MICROPTERYGIDES.
NEPTICULIDES, EUCLEIDES, MEGALOPYGIDES, HETEROGYNIDES, ANTHROCERIDES,
PSYCHIDES and PTEROPHOHIDES.
II. SPECIALISED SPHINGO - MICROPTERYGIDES. — LASIOCAMPIDES,
EUPTEROTIDES, ENDROMIDES, BoMBYCIDES, SATURNIIDES and SPHINGIDES.
Some of these superfamilies are well-defined, but others have not
yet been very clearly separated (by our authorities) from the super-
families of the other stirpes that have undergone parallel development in
the imaginal condition. The most important fact to bear in mind when
considering the affinities of the generalised groups, is that the species of
some of the superfamilies are more specialised (or at least more modified)
in one stage than in the others, thus the Eucleids have a somewhat
specialised larva, and yet the pupa is among the most generalised (with
that of the Nepticulids) of all Lepidoptera, and we have just seen that
the more or less generalised ANTHEOCERIDES are considered, by Chapman,
to be, in some respects, as high as Papiiionids or Noctuids. The MEGALOPY-
GIDES are mainly separated from the EUCLEIDES, owing to the presence of
seven pairs of abdominal prolegs (on the 2nd-7th and 10th abdominal
segments). The EUPTEROTIDES may be Lasiocampids, in the broadest
sense, but are here restricted to the " processionary " moths, Cnetho-
campa and its allies. The BOJIBYCIDES, similarly, are restricted to the
group of which Bombyx mori is the type, and do not include the
ENDROMIDES, as suggested by Kirby, nor do they include the Notodonts,
Noctuids, and other superfamilies belonging to a quite distinct stirps,
as recently insisted upon by Dyar and Grote. There is a tendency to
split the PSYCHIDES into Tineid and Bombycid portions, but at present
we have no information supporting this view.
With regard to the larvae of this stirps, it may be worth while to
recall attention here to a character that appears to be of some structural
importance. In almost all larvae belonging to the generalised super-
families of the Lepidoptera, tubercles iv and v are normally placed below
the spiracles, i.e., both are sub-spiracular. In this stirps, the larvae of the
generalised superfamilies follow the usual formula in this respect, but
there is a strong general tendency for tubercles iv and v to approximate,
and (especially after the first moult) to form a many-haired wart, a
character that is carried on also to many of the specialised super-
families. Nor, in those superfamilies (LASIOCAMPIDES, etc.), in which
there is a distinct tendency to the obliteration of the warts, owing to
the development of a hairy coat from the ordinary pile of the body,
does iv move up to form a distinctly post-spiracular tubercle, a line of
evolution very, general in the Noctuo-Hepialid stirps, and probably also
in the Geometro-Eriocraniid. On the other hand, this movement is said
to take place in Agdistis, at present classified with the PTEROPHORIDES.
The diagramatic representation (PI. I) will illustrate roughly what
we consider the probable lines of development taken by this stirps, and
its connection with the other stirpes. It will be noticed that we have
attempted to avoid the method of deriving one superfamily from an
existent superfamily. The main line, we consider, carries on many of
the ancestral features of egg, larva, pupa and imago, some, maybe,
not much modified, whilst others are exceedingly modified. Many
characters have, of course, been entirely lost. From this main stem,
each branch has carried on certain broad characters, which have
become modified into those more special characters which mark the
superfamily. The break between the generalised and specialised
116 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
superfamilies of the stirps is a very great one, and the reason thereof
is not difficult to understand : (1) Larvae are specialised for protec-
tive and defensive purposes in such a manner as to obscure the
primary structural characters. (2) The obtect pupa (which charac-
terises the specialised superfamilies, not only of this but also of each
of the other stirpes) is very similar throughout all the Lepidoptera,
the ancestral traces have largely disappeared and structural characters
are very uniform. (3) In the imago, the neuration is largely modified
by the peculiar structure and particular flying habits of each super-
family. In all stages, of course, secondary characters are at the
mercy of the environment.
The relationship of the Micropterygids (Eriocephalids) to this
stirps is worked0 out at length by Chapman. He bases his conclu-
sions on the pupal structure, the slug-like form and habit of external
feeding of the larva, the homology existing between the extra abdo-
minal prolegs and those of the Megalopygids, and between the latter
and the abdominal suckers of the Eucleids ; the parallelism between the
disposition and structure of the spines of the newly-hatched Eucleid
larva, Apoda ardlana (testudo), with the similar arrangement in the
larva of the Micropterygids. With regard to this latter point, Chapman
says : The spines of the newly-hatched larva of Apoda avdlana
(testudo) are parallel in disposition and structure with nothing known,
except the similar arrangements in Microptery.c (Erioce/ihala).
The relationship of the Nepticulids with the Eucleids is also dealtf
with at length by Chapman. He finds the eggs very similar, an
agreement in the apodous condition of their larvae (although it must
not be forgotten that the former is a miner), and a similarity
amounting almost to identity in the pupae, both superfamilies pre-
senting the incomplete pupa in its most extreme form, the segments
and appendages being quite free in both of them. This latter
factor appears to suggest that our treatment of MICROPTERYGIDES, as a
superfamily of this stirps, is preferable to that of Packard, whose
definition of " Pupae-liberae " is evidently applicable to other pupae,
besides those of the Micropterygids.
The generalised superfamilies of this stirps (excluding the Nepti-
culids) form Dyar's ANTHROCERINA, which he characterises! from the
larval characters as follows :
Tubercles with single seta, or converted into warts, or absent ; i and ii, ns well
as iv and v, approximate or consolidated. Includes the families, Pterophoridae .
Anthroceridae (and Pyromorphidac), Merialopygidae and Eucleidae.
I. — Body cylindrical, prolegs normal, setae single or con-
verted into warts Pteroplioridac.
II. — Body more or less flattened ventrally.
1. — Tubercles converted into warts; iv and v distinct. §
a. — Prolegs normal ; warts reduced ... Anthroceridae.
b. — Two additional pairs of prolegs without hooks ;
warts hairy Megalopygidac.
2. — Tubercles converted into spinous processes or
absent ; iv and v aborted ; abdominal prolegs re-
placed by sticky ventral surface ... ... ... Euclcldnr.
* Trans. Ent. Hoc. Land., 1894, pp, 335 et seq.
f Trans. Ent. Soc. Land., 1893, pp. 115 et seq.
\ Additional notes on the Classification of Lcpidopterous Larvae," Trans. New
York Acad. Kci., vol. xiv., 1895, p. 54.
§ We would here observe that after the first skin iv and v are as much con-
solidated as i and ii in Anthroccra.
THE SPHINGO-HICROPTERYGIDES. 117
We are unable to accept Dyar's distinction of " Body cylindrical "
for the I'terophoridae and " Body more or less flattened ventrally " for
the Anthroccridae, as being of real value, for such larvae as those of
Aciptiliayalactodactyla, A.spilodactyla, etc., are most distinctly flattened
ventrally. There is also considerable variation in the character of the
Pterophorid prolegs, and also in the character of their warts. Our
own summary of these related generalised superfamilies based on
Dyar's lines would rather be : —
I. — Body cylindrical ; case-bearers ; third pair of true legs
enlarged ; tubercles with simple seta, and very small ;
tubercles i, ii and iii, often in an almost direct line above
spiracle; iv and v approximate ... ... ... ... PSYCHIDES.
II. — Body more or less flattened ventrally ; prolegs, variable ;
tubercles, rarely with single seta, former usually con-
verted into warts ; iv and v usually approximate (except
? Agdistis).
1. — With tubercles i and ii more or less separated ;
tubercles with simple seta, or changed into warts ;
prolegs, variable (from few hooks to almost full
circle)... PTEKOPHORIDES.
2. — With highly specialised prolegs.
a. — Tubercles forming many-haired warts ; i
and ii united into large wart, also iv and v. ANTHROCERIDES.
b. — Tubercles simple, with single seta ... HETEHOGYNIDES.
3.— With prolegs modified.
a. — Seven pairs of abnormal prolegs, 5 pairs
normal, with usual hooks, those on ab-
dominal segments 2 and 7 without hooks ;
warts hairy MEGALOPYGIDES.
b. — Prolegs forming sticky sucking-discs on
abdominal segments 2 — 7 ; tubercles con-
verted into spinous processes, or absent ;
iv and v aborted EUCLEIDES.
In many respects the HETEROGYNIDES, a superfamily not included
in this tabulation by Dyar, shows very strong Anthrocerid affinities.
It has a somewhat Anthrocerid-looking egg, but the eggs are laid
within the pupa-case (a common Psychid habit). The wingless female,
by a vermiform movement, re-enters the pupa-case after fertilisation ;
the apterous condition of the female is another Psychid affinity ; but
the larva and pupa are distinctly Anthrocerid, although the tubercles
bear a single seta, and tubercles iv and v are distinct, and not warted
as in Anthrocera • ; the male is very like a Procrid, with some suspicion
of a Psychid ; the soft, fluffy, silken cocoon being quite sui generis,
yet approaching Antlirocera. Dyar suggests0 for Heterogyna an
affinity with COSSINA (Adelids, Psychids, Cossids, Pyralids, Tortricids,
Sesiids, Tineids, Orneodids and Lacosomids), but this must not be
taken too seriously, for, later in the same paper (p. 25), the author
defines the COSSINA in terms so general, that it absorbs the ANTHRO-
CERINA (Eucleids, Megalopygids, Anthrocerids and Pterophorids), and
the term (COSSINA) becomes merely a name, in which the generalised
families of all the different stirpes are included. Chapman says that,
among the Anthrocerids, he has failed to detect any structures in the
young larvae examined at all parallel with the spines of Apoda
acdlana, and must still rely on the structure of the egg, the form and
* " Combination of two classifications of Lepidoptera," Journal New York Ent.
Soc., 1895, p, 20.
118 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
habit of the larva, and the very primitive form of the pupa for its
alliance with this section (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lund., 1894, p. 348).
The Psychids have been spoken of recently by authors as if they were
Tineids of the very lowest type. This is not so. They form a generalised
superfainily, but not only is the larva of a rather high type (for a
generalised group), the pupa also has advanced much more than has
that of Anthrocera since they separated from the main stem. Although
we consider that the common features of the Anthrocerids and Psychids
were not derived the one from the other, but were obtained from a
common ancestor remote from both, yet, taking into account the
respective specialisation of the two superfamilies, it is evident that
such points of resemblance as exist in Heterogynids and Psychids
have been derived by the latter from the former, rather than vice versa.
The Pterophorids, as Chapman has proved0, have no alliance
structurally with the Orneodids (Alucitids) and Pyralids, with which
they have been associated, and Dyar and others have shown their
alliance with the Anthrocerid stirps. Their larvae exhibit a very wide
range of variation, some possessing quite simple tubercles, with a single
seta, and having tubercles, i, ii and iii, arranged above each other, and
above the spiracle, almost exactly as in certain Psychids. Others have
the tubercles converted into many-haired warts, very similar to those
of Anthrocerid larvae ; in many, i and ii are united into a large many-
haired wart, iii forming a second, and iv and v a third, similar wart,
thus forming on each segment a ring of prominent hairy warts, so
characteristic of this stirps. One genus, Aydistis, has tubercles bearing
a simple seta on all the abdominal segments except the 9th, on which
there is a caudal horn, reminding one of the Sphingids. This genus, too,
is said to have iv and v developed as post- and sub-spiracular tubercles
respectively, a most aberrant condition, if true, for this stirps. That
the Pterophorids thus show, inter se, a wide range of larval characters is
evident. Some of these characters, too, are largely correlated with the
habits and mode of life of the larvae, those with simple tubercles being
borers. The near approach of the larvae which bear many-haired warts,
in their habits and structure, to those of the Anthrocerids is very
marked. It must be admitted, in spite of this, that the affinities of
the Pterophorids are more puzzling than those of any other of the
generalised superfamilies of the stirps. The pupal attachment by a
cremaster, in this group, is also remarkable.
The difficulty of placing the Pterophorids at all satisfactorily is,
perhaps, sufficient warrant for following Chapman and Dyar in this
respect. The former concludes that they might be placed with his
Micros whose larvae are exposed feeders. He saysf : Dyar places these
with the Anthrocerids and Limacodids, and, both in structure and habits,
the larva falls into that division as readily as into any other ; at any
rate, it is almost certainly not a member of the Adelid series. Further,
Chapman states that there is extreme divergence between the pupa of
Pterophorids and that of Pyralids, the latter having a pupa that is a
true Macro in dehiscence, with the 4th and 7th abdominal segments
fixed in both sexes and possessing no Micro characters, except a dorsal
headpiece (a character that goes very high up), maxillary palpi, and,
* Trans. Ent. Soc. Land., 1896, pp. 129 et seq.
t " Notes on Pupae," etc., Trans. Ent. Soc. Land., 1896, pp. 136-137.
THE SPHINOO-MICROPTERYGIDES. 119
in some families, appendages that project beyond the 4th abdominal
segment. The Pterophorid pupa is a true Micro in dehiscence, has
the 4th abdominal segment free in both sexes (and the 7th also in the
male), the dorsal headpiece is evanescent, and it has lost the maxillary
palpi. As Chapman concludes that " it is impossible for one of these
forms to be derived from the other," we consider ourselves quite
justified in following Dyar, and linking the Pterophorids with the
lower superfamilies of the stirps under consideration.
Having briefly discussed the general relationship of the lower
superfamilies of this stirps to each other, it may now be of advantage to
examine, in more detail, the characters offered by the egg, larva and
pupa.
The Sphingo-Micropterygid stirps, we have already stated, is
characterised by the possession of a flat egg, i.e., an egg with the
micropyle at the end of the long, horizontal axis. The egg has three
axes of different lengths, of which the micropylar is the longest, and
the vertical the shortest. The surface is generally smooth, the
sculpturing very slight and shallow, the shell thin, the texture tending
to be delicate, and it has both ends of pretty equal size, not being
more narrowed towards the micropylar than it is at the opposite end.
The Anthrocerid, Pterophorid, and Sphingid eggs, are, however,
much more delicate than those of the Lasiocampid and allied branches
of the stirps. Although the Eucleid egg is hardly typical for this
group, being soft, scale-like, and somewhat flattened, and, in these
respects, resembling closely the Tortricid egg, Chapman says that " the
type of egg described above, as characteristic of the Sphingo-
Micropterygid stirps, is so similar to that obtaining in the Anthrocerids
(Zygaenids) and Megalopygids (Cochliopodids), that the assumption
may be made that the stirps originated in these families."
The egg of the Meijalopytjiilae (teste Packard) does not appear to us to
be so different from what one might have supposed to belong to the most
generalised form of this stirps. As represented by Latfoa crispata, the
micropylar length : the other horizontal diameter : : 3| : 1, the height
is, however, reduced to the least possible dimensions. Still, it is
essentially a flat egg in all its characters, with three unequal axes ;
of which the one representing the thickness is the least. We have,
elsewhere, remarked on its similarity-to the Anthrocerid egg, and on
its being covered with silky hairs, as in some Lasiocampids — Tnchiura
crataei/i, Eriogaster lanestris, etc.
, There is no typical larva for this stirps, that of every superfamily
having been specialised (or modified) in its own particular direction.
The Micropterygid larva (like the egg) is quite sui yeneris, but exhibits,
as already detailed, some remarkable parallels with that of the
Eucleids. The Nepticulid larva, feeding on the parenchyma of the
leaves, is a mining whitish-coloured grub, with nine pairs of hookless
discs on the abdominal segments. The Eucleid (Cochliopodid) larva
has been specialised in many ways, the most remarkable of which is,
however, in the substitution of crawling discs for prolegs. The
Anthrocerid and some Pterophorid larvfe have been specialised in the
union of tubercles i + ii and iv-fv into large hair-bearing warts similar
to iii, so that there are three large warts on either side of each segment.
The Atfilistis larva is further specialised by the development of a
caudal horn on abdominal segment 9 (not 8, as in the Sphingids),
120 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
The Lasiocampid larva, in many ways generalised, is specialised in
the direction of a thick hairy coat developed from the secondary or
skin (not tubercular) hairs, whilst the normal tubercles have become
much atrophied or flattened, although their position is similar to that
found in the more generalised superfamilies. The Bombycid and Eupte-
rotid larvre show affinities tending to lessen the distance between the
Lasiocampids and Sphingids, the former inclining to the Sphingids,
the latter to the Lasiocampids. The Endromid larva is remarkable
for its general Lasiocampid structure (warts, etc.) in the 1st skin,
and general Sphingid appearance in the later skins, whilst the
Sphingids and Saturniids present to us some of the most highly
specialised of lepidopterous larvae ; the former with its bright,
oblique, lateral stripes, and prominent caudal horn, the latter, with
its remarkable spines and hairs presenting to us larval types that
have lost almost all traces of the general characters that distin-
guish the least modified superfamilies. Chapman states that larvre
have not yet been found, that present characters to bridge over the dis-
tance between the Cochliopodids and Lasiocampids, but Packard hints
that the Megalopygid larva (Lirjoa) is connected with the Saturniids.
The observations, however, made by Chapman on the spines of the larva
of Apoda and Eadca, as well as on those of Sphingids and Saturniids,
tend to show that all are branches of the same stirps. The observa-
tions of Poulton and Weismann on the larvre of A<jlia and other
Saturniids, and the comparison of these with the Sphingid larvae, leave
little room for doubt that these superfamilies are somewhat closely
related. Packard's studies also indicate that simila.r relationships
exist, and he also is able to show considerable agreement between
the larvae of the Ceratocampids and the Sphingids.
It may now be advisable to consider the larvae of some of the super-
families at greater length. In the larvre of the generalised members
of this stirps, specialisation (following the living of an exposed life)
takes place in different ways : (1) By the conversion of a simple
tubercle into a raised wart, the latter bearing many setae, resulting in
a hairy armature. (2) The reduction of the normal tubercles and
specialisation of colour for protective purposes. As to the reduction
of the tubercles, Dyar says0 : " This condition is to be seen in the
Pterophorids, where tubercle i has disappeared. Then there is
the reduction and disappearance of the subventral tubercles, leaving but
two above the spiracle and one below. This is probably in adaptation
to the form of the larva which is now becoming flattened with shortening
of the prolegs. The Pyromorphids and Megalopygids are in this
condition. Following this, the sub-stigmatal tubercles iv and v dis-
appear, and the flattening of the ventral region reaches its extreme. The
hairs of the tubercles have also been gradually converted into stinging
(? urticating) spines. In the Megalopygids, they are only partially con-
verted ; but in the Eucleids, the conversion is complete, and we have,
finally, the highest type of the Micro-lepidoptera (generalised), and,
perhaps, the most highly modified of all Lepidoptera. It is interesting
to note that the Eucleid moths are much more generalised than those
of several of the families which precede them, while the larvre 'are so
highly specialised. This illustrates the principle that specialisation in
* " Classification of Lepidopterous Larvse," Ann. New York Acad. Sci., viii., p. 20C.
THE SPHINGO-MICROPTERYGIDES. 121
the larva may be accompanied by a generalisation of the moth." It is
notorious, Dyar adds, that the Eucleid larvae live for an unusually
long period.
The Megalopygid larva has the arrangement of the tubercles the
same as in the Pyromorphid (i.e., Anthrocerid). It also has two
additional pairs of prolegs, viz., those on the 2nd and 7th abdominal
segments (paralleled only perhaps by traces of extra pairs in L'xdno-
pliorus brachydactylus on the 1st and 2nd abdominal segments).
These two additional pairs were carefully figured and described
(Siiri)ianixeln' Vlimlers, I., pi. xiv., and explanation) by Sepp. With
Packard's conclusion " that this larva represents, as no other known
caterpillar the polypodous ancestor of all Lepidoptera," we are quite
unable to agree, since, in our opinion, the abdominal prolegs are quite
secondary structures. The condition of the rudimentary prolegs on
the 2nd and 7th abdominal segments shows, we think, the manner in
which the sucking discs of the Eucleid larva? have been developed, and
how the latter have obtained their peculiar mode of progression.
As we have already pointed out, the range of larval characters in
the Pterophorids is a wide one, and shows how modification may be
brought about in an otherwise closely related superfaniily. In the
miners, the tubercles bear single seta?, and are degenerate. In others,
the tubercles are modified into warts that are largely characteristic of
the generalised superfamilies of this stirps. In Af/ilistis, the dorsal
tubercles of the 9th abdominal segment are modified into a caudal
horn. Dyar, speaking of the relationship of the Anthrocerid and
Pterophorid larva?, says° : "The Anthrocerid larva, A.JUipendtdae,h&8
the tubercles converted into warts, but the warts are greatly reduced,
being represented by tufts of short hairs. Tubercle if is absent, iv
and v are consolidated, and vii is very distinct on the base of the leg."
Here, Dyar says, we have direct evidence of the continuity of this
series of families with the ancestors of the Pterophorids and their
allies. Further, Dyar states that the Pyromorphids (Anthrocerids)
show essentially the same structure as the Megalopygid and Eucleid
larva?, but there are no urticating spines, and the prolegs are normal.
There are two distinct lines in which specialisation of the tubercles
of the larva? of this stirps, produces a very similar result, although the
essential characters of the development are very different. Thus
specialisation here takes place in the reduction of the number of
tubercles, and this may occur : (1) By the union of two or more
primitive tubercles, as in the union of iv and v to form a single sub-
spiracular wart in the Anthrocerids. (2) By actual disappearance of
the tubercles as in some Eucleids, Bonibycids, Saturniids, etc.| It is
quite clear that it is possible, therefore, to have a similar general result
arrived at by two entirely different processes of evolution, and to have
*" Classification of Lepidopterous Larvae," Ann. New York Acad. Sci., viii., p. 211.
t On the contrary, tubercle i is coalesced with ii, forming a large dorsal wart, in
which there is a distinct trace of the two separate portions of which it is formed.
See our description of this and the allied larvae, later in this book.
I There is a tendency, in Lasiocampid, Bombycid, and Saturniid larvae,
very slight in some species, but very strong in others, for tubercle i to become
greatly enlarged and specialised, and for ii to become atrophied. In the early
stages of Saturnia pavonia and Bombyx man, ii exists as a minute tubercle with
(or without) a single seta, whilst i is large and many-haired. At a subsequent
moult ii is lost by atrophy, it does not merge into i.
122 BBITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
two superficially similar types having no real phylogenetic relationship.
It is, therefore, important to compare the results obtained from the
imago, pupa and egg with those obtained from the larva, otherwise,
one may readily fall into error. Thus the actual relationships and
position of the generalised members of this stirps, the Anthrocerids
(including the Pyromorphids), the Eucleids and the Megalopygids,
are very doubtful if the characters oi the larvae alone be considered.
We have already dealt with the relationships exhibited by the
generalised superfauiilies of this group, and we have already pointed
out, that one of the most important larval characters in them is the
union of tubercles iv and v into a large sub-spiracular, many-haired
wart, after the first larval stage. Dyar notices that this generalised
character is also found in otherwise highly specialised Saturniids, and
is strongly suggestive of the alliance of the Saturniids with this group.
The Lasiocampid and Bombycid larvae also show many characters that
ally them with the more generalised superfamilies of the stirps,
although in the former the development of a hairy coat has led to the
obliteration of the tubercles,, iv being, indeed, almost obsolete. There
seems to be but little difference between the urticating spines of the
hairy Eucleids and those of the Lasiocampids, Packard stating that
those of Etnpretia stimulea are only loosely attached, as is the case
with those of Lasiocampa quercii-t and Macrot/n/lacia nibi, and we look
upon the Lasiocampids as the most nearly allied of the specialised
families of this stirps, to the generalised Eucleids and Megalopygids.
The break between the Lasiocampids and Megalopygids is, how-
ever, a very wide one. On the other hand, we understand that
the Megalopygid egg is very like the Anthrocerid (not so scale-like as
the Eucleid) egg ; but, in spite of this, the Megalopygids are still
closer to the Eucleids than to the Anthrocerids, the generalised pupae
and the neuration being very similar, and so far as the larvas are con-
cerned we are inclined to look upon the creeping discs of the Eucleid
larva as exhibiting a specialised form derived from the extra pro-
legged Megalopygid larva, for, in the latter, the abdominal segments
2 and 7 bear extra prolegs without hooks, and are not very dissimilar
from what might be assumed as a first stage in the development of
the Eucleid suckers. At any rate, so close is the alliance, and so far
back in the evolutionary period are the Eucleids, that at the time of
their origin there must have' been great plasticity as to prolegs, and
the specialisation is not difficult to understand. The entire absence of
armature in the highest Eucleid larvae tends to show that the Eucleid
larva is essentially a specialised form of the hairy Megalopygid. It is,
therefore, from an ancestor resembling the former rather than the
latter, that we are inclined to derive the Lasiocampids, and we find
that the latter have retained certain generalised characters exhibited
by the former, of which the habit of covering the eggs with silken
hairs, the possession of specialised, urticating, larval hairs, the
peculiar •' eggar " cocoon, with its separately formed lid, the thin
transparent pupal integument, and the pectinated antennae of the
imago are still common to both.0 For these reasons we are inclined
* Some of these peculiarities are, we know, to be found in species belonging to
other stirpes, and it is quite possible that some of them, at least, were derived from
an ancestor even older than the Megalopygid, from which both the Megalopygidb
and the Liparids obtained their special peculiarities in this direction.
THE SPHINGO-MICROPTEEYGIDES. 123
to look upon the Lasiocampid ancestor as resembling the pro-legged
Megalopygid, rather than, in this particular, the more specialised
Eucleid stock.
We have already referred to Dyar's statement that the Saturniid
larva, by the union of tubercles iv and v into a sub-spiracular wart,
resembles the generalised members of this stirps. Packard says that
the larva of the Megalopygid, Lai/oa crispata, is, in some respects, inter-
mediate between the Saturniidae (especially the higher Attacinae) and
the Cochliopodidae (Phicleidae). The characters of the clypeus, the
setiferous tubercles, the distinct separation of the segments from each
other (i.e., the well-marked segmental incisions) are the points,
Packard says, in which the larva of Laaoa approach the Attacinae,
(Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., xxxii., p. 292). He further states (Ibid., 1898,
p. 83) that the shape of the young larvae of Adoneta and Empretia, with
their large tubercles bearing three radiating setae or bristles, is such as
to remind one of the larvae of the Saturniidae, and to suggest one of two
alternatives : (1) The Cochliopodids (Megalopygids and Eucleids) have
originated from the Saturniids, or from forms allied to them.
(2) Both the Saturniids and Cochliopodids have descended from a
common stem form. The first alternative of deriving a generalised
from a specialised superfamily is out of the question. With the second,
of course, we agree, since we are treating them as members of the
same stirps.
Packard further draws attention to the fact that in some of the
Saturniids the setae are modified into urticating spines, as in the
Eucleids. This similarity, Dyar considers,0 does not imply relationship
since there is here only a similarity of function, whilst the structure
of the bases of the tubercles is essentially different. It is somewhat
remarkable also that in the Anthrocerids and Saturniids there is a
tendency for the tubercles to be arranged in a single transverse line on
each segment. In Anthrocerid larvae, tubercles i and ii coalesce ; in
those of the Saturniids, Dyar says that ii disappears after the first
moult, both developments (very different in actual value) ending in the
same result, the production of a single wart in the place of i and ii.
In both superfamilies iv and v are consolidated into a single wart.
Another superfamily that has been placed in this stirps is the
LACOSOMIDES. It Avas grouped by Comstock with the SATURNIIDES, but
Dyar says that it belongs to the generalised Frenatae, and remarksf
that the Lacosomid larvae have retained a generalised condition on
account of their secluded life .... and present a case the converse of
that of the Eucleids, where specialisation has taken place in the larva
and where the generalised adult gives the best indication of the
relationship of these curious insects. He states^ later, that the Laco-
somids are in the same line of descent with the Saturniids. This super-
family, therefore, probably belongs to the stirps under consideration.
The EUPTEROTIDES, which Hampson first separated from the Noto-
donts, are very closely allied to the Lasiocampids. Their larvae show
the generalised condition of tubercles iv and v, both being sub-spiracular
and ill-developed. They show no tendency to the conversien of iv
* "Classification of certain Lepidopterous LarvfE," Ann. New. York. Acad.
Set., viii., p. 201.
t " Classification of Lepidopterous Larvas," Ann. New York Acad. Sci., viii., p. 202.
J "Classification of Lepidopterous Larvae," Trans. New York Acad. Sci., xiv., p. 51.
12-i BRITISH LEPIDOPTEUA.
into a posfc-spiracular wart, a characteristic feature of the stirps to
which the Noctuids and Notodonts belong. The other characters of
this stirps, riz., the approximation of tubercles iv and v, and of i and
ii, are, in those larvte that have these tubercles best developed, well
exhibited. The Lasiocampid larva agrees with the Eupterotid in the
above characters, tubercle iv, too, being, in both, larger than v,
although the absorption of the warts has gone on farther in the latter
than in the former. The gregarious habits of our European species,
Cnetkocanipa processioned, C. pityocampa, etc., are very similar to those
presented by Enof/aster and Clisiocampa. The egg and pupa also
suggest this as their correct position.
It is now generally conceded that the Endromid larva shows traces
of Lasiocampid, Saturniid and Sphingid relationship, and this is borne
out by the characters of the egg, pupa and imago. Kirby unites
the Endromids with the BOMBYCIDES, and simply gives Endromis
generic value in the latter super-family. The Endromid and Sphingid
larvae tend to specialisation0 of the tubercles by atrophy, as in the Lasio-
campids. The newly-hatched larvae of some species of the latter,
show that the usual tubercles (many-haired warts) are present, even when
they are not traceable in the later skins. This atrophy of the tubercles
is accompanied by a specialisation (1) in the development of secondary
hairs in the Lasiocampids, (2) in the development of protective colora-
tion in the Endromids and Sphingids. The general texture and aspect
of the larva and pupa of Endromis are Citheroniid; a pupa of Endromis
verricolor is not at all unlike that of Cithcronia •iinitcrialia, or of some
of the African species that pupate underground. It is difficult, how-
ever, once full obtect rank has been attained, to find good struc-
tural characters for differentiation, the latter are so very uniform.
The larva of Endromii is, in some respects, more generalised than that
of most of the Saturniids, and whilst Poulton claims that the Sphingids
have been derived from the Saturniids, through the Ccratocamjiidiu-,
Packard believes that they came from a form more nearly resembling
the Endromid larva. Packard is inclined to think that all the Bomby-
cids, except the Arctians and Lithosians (which most certainly are not
Bombycids, and do not belong to the same stirps as the latter) may
have been evolved before the Sphingids appeared. This would make
the latter the most recently evolved superfamily of this stirps, and as
Packard says that the characters of the head, antennae, thorax, and
neuration separate widely the Sphingids and Oeratocampidae (< 'itln-ro-
H//Vrtf), it is practically certain that the origin of the former from
Ceratocampid ancestors must have been remote, and that numbers of
forms that originally connected them must now be extinct. Poulton
claimsf that by means of various tropical larva?, intermediate in
some characters between the Ceratocampid and Smeriuthid larvae,
the Sphingids are to be derived from the Ceratocampids. He
attempts to show that certain Sphingid larvae, Cerutomia quadricomis
from N. America, and Lophostctkus dumolinii from Africa, combine the
* In the Sphingid larvae, the tubercles are single-haired and small, and
gradually become atrophied (or may be traceable) until the last stage. In Endromil
the tubercles are many-haired warts, as in the Lasiocampids, and they are lost
(except the lateral thoracic tubercles) at the first moult, and are replaced by shagreen
tubercles.
f Trans. Ent. Soc. Land., 1888, pp. 568 et seq.
THE SPHINGO-MICROPTERYGIDES. 125
Saturniid and Smerinthid characters. Even Packard recognises ° in his
account of the larva of Sphinyicampa bicolor, the probable soundness of
Poulton's views, for he says of the larva of this species : "It is the
most Sphinx-like of any Ceratocampid (or other Bombycid) larva I
know, resembling Sphingid caterpillars in the following characters : —
1. — The shape of the head and its markings.
2. — The four thoracic horns like those of Ceratomia, perhaps a case of
reversion in the latter.
3.— The caudal horn.
4. — The large, square, heavy anal legs.
5. — The skin granulated with small white tubercles.
One can, when we take into account the larvae alone, well imagine
that the Sphingids are, as claimed by Poulton, descended from the
Ceratocampidae, though these may be only adaptive characters, and not
applicable to the imagines, which differ in neuration, in the tongue,
and in the proportion of the head-pieces." The characters furnished
by the eggs and pupae strongly support those obtained from the larva,
and the modification of the tongue, so strongly developed in some
Sphingids (e.g., Sphinx), varies much within the superfamily itself,
e.g., compare Smerinthus populi with Sphinx convolvuli. The evolution
of the tongue in Sphinx, and the higher Sphingid genera, is, neverthe-
less, very difficult of explanation in a stirps in which all (?) the super-
families are characterised by weak or aborted tongues, and where this
feature is even carried into the superfamily SPHINGIDES itself. Even
the Anthrocerids, although flower-suckers, have a very poor proboscis.
In discussing the evolution of the various superfamilies, it is com-
mon to find authors attempting to trace the origin of a superfamily
from an existent genus of another superfamily. This method of at-
tempting to derive directly one superfamily from any existent form,
appears to us to be a great mistake, for, as a rule, all that can be said
is that two superfamilies (and the same reasoning is applicable to
families, subfamilies, tribes and genera) have certain characters in
common, and, therefore, both were derived from an ancestor presenting
these common features. On this ground it is possible to assert that
Endromids, Saturniids and Sphingids, were derived from a common
ancestor far back in the history of the evolution of the race. Since
the Endromid larva is the most generalised of these at the present time,
it is possible to assume that the ancestor possessed more of the present
Endromid characters than it did of those characters now possessed by the
others, but considering that the existent Endromids and Saturniids are all
highly specialised forms, and that both superfamilies have been subjected
during recent geological times to similar influences to those that have
accompanied the specialisation of the Sphingids, it appears to us to be
going too far, to derive the Sphingids either through Ceratocampa,
Endromis, or any other existent genus. The most that can be done
is to derive it from Ceratocampid-like or Endromid-like (with a large
margin for the " like ") ancestors.
The Sphingids form a very large superfamily, the more specialised
forms, with their peculiar swift, powerful flight, being eminently fitted
for successful competition in the struggle for existence, and also to ob-
tain an almost cosmopolitan range in their distribution.
* " Life Histories of certain Moths of the families Ceratocampidae, Hemileu-
cidae, etc.," Proc. Amcr. Phil. Soc., 1893, p. 156.
126 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
It may be well here to mention that, in our opinion, no more un-
satisfactory suggestion for the origin of the Bombycid (Lasiocampid
and Saturniid) stirps has been brought forward, than that propounded0
by Packard, who attempts to derive it from the Lithosiids. The
latter- form a highly specialised Arctiid group, differing from what
Packard terms the Bombycids in egg, larval, pupal and imaginal
characters as widely as can be. We. have shown that the tendency
of this stirps is for the larval tubercle i to be enlarged, and tubercle ii to
become atrophied. In the Liparids, Lithosiids and Arctiids, on the
other hand, tubercle ii tends to be enlarged, whilst i becomes
atrophied, <•.//., the larvae of Lithosia coinplana, Callimorpha Jiera, etc.
Before leaving our consideration of the larvae of this stirps, it may
be well to recall attention to the fact that, in this stirps, there are traces
of extra prolegs on the abdominal segments. We have already referred
to those in Lai/oa crispata, Cluysopygaundulata, and other Megalopygids,
also to those of the Pterophorid, Pselnophorus bracJtydactylus. It is
remarkable that Kowalewski found ten pairs of abdominal prolegs in
the embryo of S}>/iin.c, one half of which disappeared before hatching,
thus leaving the normal number. Tichomiroff found prolegs developed
in the embryo of Boiubyx mori on the abdominal segments 2-10, but
those on segments 2, 7, 8 and 9 were absorbed again in a later
embryonic stage, and Graber notices that on all the abdominal
segments, except the 9th and 10th, of the early embryos of the same
species, faintly marked knob-like elevations are to be seen, which may
be considered as the first indications of rudimentary appendages. The
same author considers that in B. mori " the stage of pantopody has
only a very ephemeral duration." What value these ephemeral
structures have in Bombycid and Sphingid embryos, and what meaning
is to be attached to them is not quite clear. We only draw attention
to the fact that they appear in the embryos of two specialised super-
families, where probably homologous structures still occur normally in
the larvae of one of the most generalised superfamilies of the same
stirps. It may be noticed here that the mining larvae of the Nepticulids
have nine pairs of abdominal prolegs that bear no terminal crochets or
hooks.
The sluggish habits of the larvae of many of the superfamilies in-
cluded in this stirps, are probably due to their large size, to the
highly developed condition of the prolegs, and to the complex mecha-
nism by means of which walking is accomplished. Anyone who has
watched a Saturniid or Sphingid larva walk knows that it cannot
hurry. It is probably on account of this slow method of movement
that the various larvae are so remarkably protected by spines or hairs,
some of which are of a most complex character. We are inclined to
connect these sluggish habits with an arboreal (i.e., as opposed to a
ground-feeding) habitat, and have already shown how the larvae of
the large Geometrid superfamily have met the difficulty by protective
coloration and a decrease in the number of prolegs, which gives
them greater speed and lessens the necessity of other special defensive
structures, and yet have maintained their arboreal environment.
Packard also connects these sluggish habits with an arboreal condi-
tion of life, and asserts that such larvae are surrounded by a purer air,
* Bombycine Moths of America, pp. 32 and 83.
THE SPHINGO-MICROPTERYGIDES. 127
freer circulation, and more equable temperature, this combination of
favourable circumstances causing them to eat more. He says : " The
fat, overgrown slugworms (Eucleids) may be compared with the over-
fed, high-bred pig, which eats voraciously, has little need of rooting,
and takes but little exercise. Where, as among cave animals, there
is a deficiency of food, we have a constant tendency to slimness, to
an attenuation of the body. This is seen in the blind cave Arthro-
pods compared with their allies which live under normal
conditions."
The generalised superfamilies of the stirps present us with a free,
or with an incomplete, pupa, i.e., Pupa-libera and Pupa-incompleta
of the earlier authors. Pupae of the former kind occur in the Microp-
terygids (?), Nepticulids, Eucleids and Megalopygids, of the latter,
in the Anthrocerids, Psychids and Pterophorids, whilst the remaining
superfamilies have obtect pupae, i.e., the Pupa-obtectaof the early authors.
These two divisions, therefore, fall into Chapman's two sections,
INCOMPLETE and DETECTS respectively. The free pupa of the Microptery-
gids (?), Nepticulids, and Eucleids, probably represents one of the most
generalised of all existing forms of lepidopterous pupae, having all
the abdominal incisions movable, and the appendages free, i.e., not
soldered. Those of the Anthrocerids, Psychids and Pterophorids, are
but little more specialised. They have traces of the "eye-collar"
(maxillary palpi), a character almost entirely confined to the most
primitive pupal forms, and well-developed in the Nepticulids and
Eucleids. In the Anthrocerid pupa the free abdominal segments are
3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 in the male, and 3, 4, 5 and 6 in the female. The
Psychid and Pterophorid pupae are more specialised, having only 4, 5,
6 and 7 free in the male, and 4, 5 and 6 in the female. That of
the latter is remarkable also from the fact that it has a well-developed
cremaster. It has not, however, a silken central body girth.
When obtect rank is reached there are few structural characters
that can be used for differentiation, owing to their uniformity, but it
may be noticed that the Lasiocampid pupa has the dorsal head-piece,
a character that suggests this as the lowest of the obtect superfamilies of
the stirps. The delicate pupal integument is probably another vestigial
character. Strangely the obtect pupa of the Endromids has retained
the remarkable Micro character of pupal locomotion. This is a
peculiar habit exhibited by the pupae of the more generalised Eucleids,
Anthrocerids, etc., by means of which they leave (more or less com-
pletely) the cocoon before the emergence of the imago. The same
phenomenon is exhibited by certain Sphingid (Ckoerocampa) pupre,
whilst that of Macrothylacia rubi travels to and fro in its long cocoon
in order to take advantage of the heat of the sun.
As might be expected, the diverse habits of the imagines of the
various species comprised in the superfamilies of which this stirps is
composed, have resulted in a marvellous difference in the imaginal
forms, some of which are extremely specialised, each in its own par-
ticular direction. Without going into detail, we have the heavy-bodied
Eucleid^, Lasiocampids, Endromids and Saturniids, the males with
strongly pectinated antennae, dashing about with exceeding swiftness
in the hottest sunshine, the females lethargic by day, and flying heavily
by night when ovipositing. There are the microscopic sun-loving
Nepticulids, and the dusk-loving Pterophorids. The Anthrocerids
128 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
(both sexes) boom along heavily only in the hottest sunshine, and are
entirely inactive by night ; on the other hand, the Sphingids fly
swiftly by night, many of the species migrating vast distances, whilst
by day they rest on posts, tree-trunks, and similar objects, to which
the colour of their roof-shaped wings assimilates.
The shapes of the wings of the various superfamilies follow, to
some extent, the habits of the insects. Thus, the Sphingids have long
pointed wings that carry them swiftly forward in their long flights ;
the females of the Eucleids, Lasiocampids, Bombycids, Saturniids, etc.,
have large wings that enable them to carry their huge egg-laden bodies
when ovipositing. No one has yet told us the special value of the peculiar
shape of the wings of the plume moths, but the resemblance of some
to tiny pieces of dried grass and stick is remarkable, when they have
their wings folded up and are at rest, but these will be dealt with at
length when we consider the superfamilies individually.
The variability of the habits of the imagines of the different super-
families of this group is, perhaps, less remarkable than the difference
between the habits of the sexes of the same species. Thus in the
Eucleids, Lasiocampids, Bombycids, Endromids and Saturniids, as we
have said, the male flies swiftly in the hottest sunshine, whilst the female
is comparatively sluggish and rarely seen. In the late afternoon or
evening the males of almost all these species "assemble" freely to
the females (a habit also indulged in during the daytime by the An-
throcerids), the female flying much later for the purpose of oviposition.
The huge abdomina of the females of these moths explain the differ-
ence, for, in spite of the increase of wing area in this sex,*in these
superfamilies, the weight of the body prevents the species flying very
fast, or to any very great distance. Packard associates this sluggish-
ness with the habit of the females laying their eggs near their cocoons.
He says : " When the ancestors of the moths belonging to the Bombycid
stirps, became arboreal feeders, the species tended to become segre-
gated. For example, the females of the Attaci and their allies, as
well as the Cochliopodids may, at first, have had larger wings and
smaller bodies, or been more active during flight than their descend-
ants. Their present, heavy, thick bodies and sluggish habits are
evidently secondary and adaptive, and these features were perhaps
induced by the habit of the females ovipositing directly upon leaving
their cocoons, and cocoon-spinning moths are, perhaps, more slug-
gish and heavy-bodied than those which enter the earth to transform,
as witness the Ceratocampidae, compared with the cocoon-spinning
J>< nnly j- mori and the Attaci. Spinning their cocoons among the
leaves at a period of the earth's history when there was no alterna-
tion of winter and summer, and probably only times of drought (as in
the dry season of the Tropics at the present time), the females may have
gradually formed the habit of depositing their eggs immediately after
exclusion, and on the leaves of the trees forming their larval abode.
The females thus scarcely used their wings (as in Callosamia pro-
methca), the males with their larger wings, lighter bodies, broadly
pectinated antennae, and consequently far keener sense of smell could
fly to a greater or less distance in search of their mates " (Bombycine
MotJis of America, p. 19). Among our British species the general
principle involved in the above may be largely true, but as a matter of
detail, it is open to criticism, for although the females may not
THE SPHINGO-MICROPTERYGIDES. 129
wander far to lay their eggs, yet they do wander, and the females of
Endromift rersicolor, Saturnia pavonia, Eutricha quercifolia, Lasiocampa
qitercits, Cosmotriche potatoria, etc., do not lay all their eggs at one
time, nor in one place. Most of these pair where they emerge, lay a
batch of eggs near this spot, and then fly a short distance (and pro-
bably pair again) before laying another batch. Still, there is, owing
to the sluggish habits of the female, a tendency to segregation in all
these species.
With regard to the relative age of the various superfamilies
belonging to this stirps, Packard says that he has always regarded the
Bombycids (the superfamily of silkworm moths) as a very ancient one,
which has lost many forms by geological extinction. This accounts
for the many gaps between the genera. Both the larvae and imagines
differ structurally inter se, much more than do those of the Geometrid
and Noctuid moths, and the number of species is less.
The completeness of the two latter superfamilies suggests that their
species have been, to a great extent, developed since, or contempo-
raneously with, the early Tertiary period. On the other hand, Packard
supposes that the Bombycids0 originated previous to Tertiary, and
probably in Cretaceous, times, and he suggests that the plasticity of the
Bombycid larval forms, especially in the more generalised families, is
due to the great changes in their environment during the Cretaceous
and Tertiary periods. In like manner, Packard says, the great gaps in
the genera of our existing Bombycids are probably due to geological
extinction, and also to the great plasticity or marked difference in the
larvse, as compared with the homogeneousness of the imagines, these
being due to the widespread changes in the environment which took place
during the late Mesozoic arid Tertiary periods, and which reacted on
the insects in their early rather than their later stages. Packard
further says : " Were fossil Bombycids ever to be found in Europe, we
should expect to discover among them representatives of the Cochlio-
podidae, of the Attacine families (Saturniidae and Ceratocampidae), now
characteristic of North and South America, or of the tropical regions
of Asia, and perhaps of Africa." He bases this view on the theory that
these groups have, to a great extent, become extinct in Europe, but
still remain characteristic of the American fauna. He says : " Where
a family or subfamily is equally developed both in the Old and New
Worlds, we are inclined to suppose that it has been a recently evolved
group. It is well known that America has lagged behind Europe,
geologically speaking, although America is the older continent as such ;
the process of specialisation, and then of extinction, has gone on more
rapidly in the Old World, or at least the western portion of it " (Bomby-
cine Moths of America, p. 82).
Superfamily I : MICROPTEBYGIDES.
In Hiibner's Verzeichniss, etc. (1826), the genus Micropterix (Microp-
tery.v) was founded to receive three species, mucidella, Hb., podevinella,
Hb. ( = anincella, Scop.), and pusilella, Hb. ( = calt/iella, Linn.) The
first species being an Elackista, it leaves anincclla and calthella as repre-
sentatives of Micropteryv, Hb. In 1839, Curtis separated (Brit. Ent.,
xvi.) the British Micropterygid and Eriocraniid species from Lampronia
* This terra is used by Packard to include the Saturniids and Lasiocampids,
as well as the Bombycids proper.
I
130 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
under the name of Eriocephala, and cited " calthdla " as the type. This,
of course, made Eriocephala, Curfc.=Jfwrropteri#, Hb. for Stephens (1835)
had constituted calthdla tpye of Micropteryx. The name Eriocephala was
maintained in 1850 by Stainton, in his paper0 entitled " A monograph
of the British species of the genus Micropteryx of Zeller," the species
then included in the genus Eriocephala being the six now known as
British, viz., calthella, aruncella, scppella, aureatella (alliondla},
thunbergella (rubrifasciella) , and mansuetella. Stainton, however, de-
scribes (p. 27) seppella as aruncella, correcting this error, and adding
the true aruncella in a " Supplemental note " (p. 39). He also included
Phylloporia bistriyella (Tinea subammanella) in the genus.
Stainton's diagnoses (corrected) of the species of this genus read
as follows : —
I. Head ferruginous.
1. — Calthella. — Anterior wings golden-green, with the base entirely purple.
2. — Seppella. — ? Anterior wings golden-green, with the base purple on the
costa. <? Anterior wings golden-green, with two silvery fasciae
and a small silver costal spot towards apex.
3. — Aruncella. — ? Anterior wings golden-brown, with the costa at the base
purple. <? Anterior wings golden-brown, with a faint silvery
spot near base, and one slender silvery fascia.
4. — Aureatella. — Anterior wings purple, with two golden fasciae, and a golden
spot towards the apex, reaching neither margin.
5. — Thunbergella. — Anterior wings greenish-golden, with a reddish spot on
the costa at the base, a reddish fascia before the middle, and
another bifurcate one beyond the middle.
II. Head blue-black.
6. — Mansuetella. — Anterior wings greenish-golden, with three very indistinct
reddish fasciae.
Zeller, in 1851, maintained the original use of the generic name
Microptt>)'y.r, and included (Linn. Entomclogiea, v., pp. 322-3) in this
genus — calthella, aruncella, eximidla, myrtetella, paykulldla, alliondla,
subammanella, rubrifasciella, ayladla, and mansuetella ; whilst he placed
the " purpurella group" in the newly-created subgenus Eriocrania,
evidently on the ground that Hiibner's Micropteryx and Curtis'
Eriocephala are identical, as indeed they are. This division is main-
tained by Snellen in De Vlinders tan Nederland, 1882, pp. 1065 et set],
Kirby properly sinks (Lloyd's Nat. Hint., Lep., v., p. 815) Erioce-
phala, Curt., as a synonym of Micropteryx, Hb., but says that the type
of the latter is aureatella, a species not included in Hiibner's genus.
Following Stephens, it is evident that " calthella" should be the type
of Micropteryx and " purpurella " of Eriocrania, Zell. It is quite clear,
therefore, that Meyrick's use of the name Eriocephala for the former
group, and Micropteryx for the latter, is erroneous. In this work then
we shall use the name MICROPTERYGIDES to include calthdla, seppella,
aruncella, aureatella, mansuetella and thunbergella. We shall also use
the name ERIOCRANIIDES for purpurella, subpurpurella, semipurpurdla ,
ftparrmanella, unimaculdla, salojnella, sanrjii, etc.
Our knowledge of the MICROPTERYGIDES is derived almost entirely
from Walter and Chapman, the former of whom first made known the
remarkable structure of the headparts of the imago, whilst the latter
worked out their life-history, and has told us all that is yet known of
their early stages. To Packard is due, in large measure, the assertion
of the great value of the facts that Walter and Chapman made known.
* Tram. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1850, pp. 26 et seq.
THE MTCROPTERYGIDES. 181
So marvellous were the facts brought0 to our notice by Chapman, and
so far-reaching were the suggestions made as to the relationships of the
insects, that it seems difficult even now for us to recognise that insects so
different in size, shape, and general appearance, should be related, to the
exclusion of others, to families with which one could not suppose they
bore any relationship. The presence of characters common to the Microp-
terygids, Eucleids and Anthrocerids, and absent (so far as is known)
in all other Lepidoptera, bespeaks an affinity, in spite of the number-
less links that have been extinguished in the course of their evolution.
The MICROPTERYGIDES, then, form a superfamily containing some of
the most ancestral of all Lepidoptera. The species have no near
relatives, although the ERIOCRANIIDES and HEPIALIDES have been
united with them, but the alliance has little more in it than the fact
that these three superfamilies are amongst the, if not the, most
ancestral of all Lepidoptera, and have had no real connection since a
geological time which is almost inconceivable. Through all these ages
they have retained certain ancestral characters, and whilst thousands
of other forms have come, given rise to new forms, and then dis-
appeared, leaving us only here and there a group that has been able to
withstand the climatic and other changes of so vast a geological period,
these have gone on, modified, of course, to a great extent, but retaining
many of the features that distinguished them, probably as far back as
the Carboniferous or Silurian periods. It is possibly this cause that has
made the vast gap between the generalised and specialised families of
each stirps, for there can be no doubt that many of the latter (e.g., the
Geometrids, Noctuids, etc.), have been evolved in recent times,
probably in the Tertiary, certainly one would suppose not before the
Cretaceous, period. When, therefore, one wonders at the inclusion
of the MICROPTERYGIDES in a stirps of which the highest superfamilies are
the Saturniids and the Sphingids, it must not be forgotten that the
former are just a little branch of a stem that has divided endlessly,
and given rise to a multiplicity of forms under an almost inconceivable
variety of conditions, whilst all this time this little superfamily itself
has been the sport of the same varying conditions, and yet has retained
those characters which enable us to judge of its antiquity.
It is not easy at once to uproot one's cherished associations so as
to separate the Micropterygids (Eriocephalids) from the Eriocraniids,
with which superficially they appear to have so much in common,
especially in size, colour, and neuration ; but Chapman's comparison
of the two superfamilies (Trans. Ent. Soc. Land., 1894, p. 336), shows
us that Mey rick's attempt (Handbook, etc., pp. 802-805) to keep them
as genera of the same family is not at all in accordance with the facts
at our disposal. There seems, therefore, not only a necessity to place
them in different superfamilies, but practically on different stirpes in
the classification we have adopted in this work. So far as we at pre-
sent know, the Palaearctic species belonging to the superfamily
MICROPTERYGIDES are not only referable to the same family, but also
to the same genus Micropteryx, Hb. ( = Eriocephala, Curt.). The charac-
ters of the genus Microptenjx are givenf by Chapman as follows : —
* " Micro-Lepidoptera whose larvne are external feeders," Trans. Ent. Soc.
Lond., 1894. pp. 335 et seq.
t " Some notes on Micro-Lepidoptera," etc., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1894,
p. 336. Revised tn lift., May 5th, 1898.
132 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
OVUM : Spherical, or where ovoid the ends are alike ; opaque ; covered with a
snow-like coating ; laid externally (not in the substance of leaves).
LARVA : Short, square, and angular, with ten rows of globular appendages,
and eight pairs of abdominal legs of special structure ; an anal sucker ; two setse on
last segment (possibly cerci) ; long antennae ; feeding exposed (i.e., not under a web)
on moss.
PCPA: (Probably not unlike a Nepticitln, and in a cocoon above ground. Only
the head and antenna-piece seen).
IMAGO: Six-jointed maxillary palpi, used as feeding-hands; well-developed,
serviceable jaws ; ovipositor simple, tubular, of three pieces ; last abdominal seg-
ment the seventh.
Packard also summarises0 the characters of the MICROPTERYGIDES,
which, as we have already stated, he erects into a suborder, called
LEPIDOPTERA-LACINIATA or PROTO-LEPIDOPTERA, equal in value to the
whole of the rest of Lepidoptera, called LEPIDOPTERA-HAUSTELLATA, as
follows : —
I. IMAGO : Maxilla, with a well-developed lacinia and galea, arising, as in mandi-
bulate insects, from a definite stipes and cardo ; the galeae not elongated, nor united
and differentiated into a haustellum, each being separate from its fellow. The
maxillary palpi enormous, six-jointed ; mandibles large, scarcely vestigial, with a
broad-toothed cutting edge, and with three apparently functional hinge processes
at the base, as usual in mandibulate insects. Hypopharynx well developed, some-
what as in Diptera and Hymenoptera. The second maxillae divided into a mala
exterior and mala interior, recalling those of mandibulate insects ; palpi three-
jointed. Thorax with prothorax very much reduced ; metathorax very large, with
the two halves of the scutum widely separate. Neuration highly generalised ;
both fore- and hind-wings with tbe internal lobe or jugum, as in Trichoptera ;
nervures as in Micropteryx (i.e., Eriocrania, Zell.), and showing no notable dis-
tinction compared with those of that genus ; scales generalised ; fine scattered setae
present on costal edge and on the nervures ; abdomen elongated, with the male
genital armature neuropteroid, exserted ; the dorsal, lateral and sternal appendages
very large.
II. PUPA : Libera (?).
III. LARVA: Highly modified in form, compared with that of Micropteryx (i.e.,
Eriocrania, Zell.), with large four-jointed antennae and very large three-jointed
maxillary palpi ; no spinneret (?) ; no abdominal prolegs, their place supplied
by a pair of tubercles ending in a curved spine on abdominal segments 1 — 8; a
sternal sucker at the end of the body.
IV. EGG : Spherical.
Meyrick diagnoses the imago of Micro]tten/.v (ErincejJiala) as follows :
Mandibles developed. No tongue. Labial palpi obsolete. Posterior
tibiae with spurs placed in groups of bristles. Fore-wings : nervure 7 to
costa, 11 connected by bar with 12, 12 giving rise to an additional
nervure (13) about middle. Hind-wings as fore-wings, but 18 usually
absent (Handbook, etc., p. 805).
The taxonomic importance of this group is so great that it must
be our excuse if we enter somewhat in detail into the characters which
it presents. We have already said that for our knowledge of the egg,
larval and pupal states, we are indebted entirely to Chapman, whilst
we owe our knowledge of the imaginal mouth-parts (which has given
so much material for study) mainly to Walter, Chapman having
worked out some few details in this direction independently.
With regard to the bearings of the discoveries of these observers on
the taxonomy of the Lepidoptera, Packard says : " The presence of two
maxillary lobes, homologous with the galea' and lacinia of the
Mecoptera (Panorpidae) and Neuroptera (Corydahts, Mynneleoti) as
well as the lower orders, Dermaptera, Orthoptera, Coleoptera, etc., in
what in other important respects also is the " lowest " or most
* Bombycine Moths of America, p. 61,
THE MICROPTERYGIDES. 138
primitive genus of Lepidoptera, the lacinia being a rudimental,
scarcely functional, haustellum or tongue, and not merely a vestigial
structure, is of great significance from a phylogenetic point of view,
besides affording a basis for a division of the Lepidoptera into two
grand divisions or suborders, for which we would propose the name
LEPIDOPTERA - LACINIATA and LEPIDOPTERA - HAUSTELLATA " (Bombycine
Moths of America, p. 58).
The imaginal mouthparts are perhaps the most unusual struc-
tures presented by these remarkable insects, and show most strikingly
Mecopterid and Neuropterid affinities. It will be well, therefore,
to examine these in detail. After stating that the mouth-parts of
the lower Micropterygina (i.e., the Micropterygids) exhibit several
most primitive characteristics, Walter0 shows that the maxilhe are
Constructed on the type of those of biting or mandibulate insects, i.e.,
with an inner lobe (galea) and an outer lobe (lacinia) besides the palpi.
He writes of the first pair of maxilla? as follows : "In the first pair of
maxillae of Mtcropteryx calthella, aruncella, andersckella, and aureatdla,
cardo and stipes are present as two clearly separate pieces. The
former in M. calthella and M . aruncella, in comparison with the latter,
is larger than in M. anderschella and M. aureatella. In the last two
species, the cardo is still tolerably broad, but reduced. The stipes
is considerably longer than the cardo in the last two species,
whilst it is of the same thickness. From the stipes arises the large
G-jointed palpus maxillaris, folded two or three times, and con-
cealing the entire front of the head, and all the mouth-parts. At its
base, and this is unique among all the Lepidoptera, two entirely separate
maxillary lobes arise from the stipes. The external represents the most
primitive rudiment (anlage) of a lepidopterous tongue."
With regard to this first pair of maxillae, Packard writes : " It is
evident from Walter's figures and description, that this structure is not
a case of reduction by disuse, but that it represents the primitive con-
dition of this lobe, the galea of the maxilla, and this is confirmed by the
presence of the lacinia, a lobe of the maxilla not known to exist in any
other adult lepidopterous insect, it being the two galeae, which become
elongated, united, and highly specialised, to form the so-called tongue,
haustellum, or glossa of all Lepidoptera above the Micropteryyidae (Erio-
cepkalidae) , which we may therefore regard as the types of the LEPIDOPTERA -
LACINIATA. Another most important feature correlated with this, and
not known to exist in LEPIDOPTERA-HAUSTELLATA, is the presence of two
lobes of the second maxillae, besides the three-jointed labial palpi, and
which correspond to the ' mala exterior ' and the ' mala interior ' of
the second maxillae of Dermaptera, Orthoptera, Platyptera, Perlidae,
Termitidae, and Odonata, and also, as Walter states, to the ligula and
paraglossre of Hymenoptera. In this respect the laciniate Lepidoptera
are more generalised insects than the Trichoptera or Mecoptera "
(American Naturalist, 1895, p. 637).
Walter describes the second pair of maxilla?, each of which con-
sists of two lobes, the outer and inner mala as follows : " Within and
-at the base of the labial palpi is a pair of chitinous leaves provided
with stiff bristles, being the external second lobes of the underlip,
formed by the consolidation of the second pair of maxilla), and which
* Jenaisch. Zeitsch.f. Naturwiss., v., 18 (1884) ; Ibid, v. (1885), pp. 751-807.
134 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
reach, when extended, to about the second third of the length of the
second palpal joint. Its inner edge is directly connected with the
inner lobe (inala interna). The latter are coalesced into a short, wide
tube, which, by the greater size of the hinder wall, opens exter-
nally on the point, also appearing as if at the same time cut off
obliquely from within outward. The outer exterior edge of the tube
forms a strongly chitinous semicircle, which, becoming thinner, finally
passes into the delicate membranous hinder wall. Anteriorly a deli-
cate membrane also appears to cover the chitinous portion. We have
here in opposition to the weak, naked underlip, represented by a
triangular chitinous plate in other Lepidoptera, a true ligula formed
by the coalescence of the inner lobes of the second maxilla? into a tube,
as in many Hymenoptera, and with free external lobes which corre-
spond to the paraglossas of Hymenoptera."
With regard to a paired structure which he considers to be the
hypopharynx, Walter states : "A portion of the inner surface of the
tube-like ligula is covered by a furrow-like band which, close to the
inner side, is coalesced with it, and, in position, shape, as well as its
appendages or teeth on the edge, may be regarded as nothing else
than the hypopharynx." He then continues : " In the Microptery-
gids (Eriocephalids) the furrow is here coalesced within with the inner
side of the labium, and though I see in the entire structure of the
head the inner edge of the ligula tube extended under the epipharynx
as far as the mandible, I must also accept the fact that here also the
hypopharynx extends to the mouth-opening, as in all other sucking
insects with a well-developed underlip, viz., the Diptera and Hyme-
noptera."
Walter further shows that the mandibles also exist in the form of
true gnawing jaws, like those of the biting insects. They possess
powerful chitinous teeth on the opposed cutting edge, twelve to fifteen
on each mandible and also the typical articulating hook-like processes
by which they are joined to the gena, and fit in corresponding cavities
in the latter. In Eriocrania, and other of the more generalised moths,
the mandibles in a very reduced form have survived as functionless
vestiges of the condition in Micropteryx (Eriocephala).
Kellogg, in a paper0 that would have been much more useful than
it is, had it not been for the mixing up of the Micropterygid (Erio-
cephalid) and Eriocraniid species in his examination, states that in
M. anderschella, it appears to him to be the outer lobes of the maxillae
which seem to be free, while the inner ones go to form the very
rudimentary proboscis referred to by Walter. However, he is not at
all satisfied (nor clear) on the matter, and prefers to leave it open.
As to the use to which the remarkable mouth structures of the
imagines may be put, Chapman says that they use their great claw-like
maxillary palpi with sharp knife points to scrape and tear at both the
pollen of the stamens and the surface of the petals, in the latter case,
perhaps, collecting fallen pollen. They certainly do something very
like eating as regards this pollen, and digest and use it, as would
appear from two circumstances : firstly, that very slender moths get
very fat, and lay many eggs, and, secondly, their dejecta are
very abundant. Moths will live in confinement for three weeks if
* " The mouth-parta of the Lepidoptera," American Naturalist, 1895, pp. 546 et seq.
THE MlCROPTERYGIDfcS. 135
fed in this way, and kept damp enough. The imagines pair readily,
and apparently do so more than once.
Packard finds other primitive characters in the head and trunk.
He says : " The head is of moderate size, as well as the body, with
small compound eyes, and with two ocelli. The occipital region is
well developed, as is the epicranium ; the clypeus and labrum are of
moderate size. The generalised nature of the thorax is especially
noteworthy. The prothorax is seen to be very much reduced, the two
tergites being separate and minute, not readily seen from above. The
rest of the thorax is very long, exhibiting but little concentration. The
mesothorax is but slightly larger than the metathorax. The meso-
scutum is very short ; the scutellum rather triangular than scutellate.
The metathorax is but little shorter and smaller than the mesothorax,
and remarkable for the widely separated halves of the scutum, a
neuropterous character (compare Ascalaphus and Corydalm), in which
it differs from Micropteryx (i.e. , Enocrania) . The shape of the scutellum
is that of a low flattened triangle. As regards the abdomen, attention
should be called to the disparity in size and shape between the sexes ;
also to the male genital armature, which is very large, and completely
exserted, and reminds us of that of Corydalus, in which, however, the
lateral claspers are much reduced ; and also of that of certain
Trichoptera (Sencostoma, Tinodes, Stenophylax, Hydropsyche, etc.). The
neu ration of both pairs of wings is much as in Micropteryx (i.e., Erio-
crania] " [Bombycine Moths, etc. p. 59] .
Kellogg has shown0 that in the Micropterygids (mansuetella, thun-
bcrtjclla, seppella and anderschella), there are, in common with the
Eriocraniids (unimaculella, sparnnaiiella,fastuosella, semipurpurella),a,nd.
Hepialids (sylvinus, gracilis, humuli, argentata, hecta, purpurascens, etc.),
besides the specialised lepidopterous scales arranged in regular rows
or tiers over the membrane, a covering of very fine hairs, differing
radically from the true scales, in size, arrangement, and mode of
attachment to the membrane. These minute hairs have not yet been
discovered in any superfamily other than the three referred to the
JUGATE. This clothing of the wings is considered to be essentially
that of the Trichoptera, only in a more specialised condition. He also
statesf that the well-known scale-hairs of the Trichoptera are
simply the true lepidopterous scale in a generalised condition, and that
there are many instances among the caddis-flies (Setodes,Mystacides, etc.),
of the presence of well-developed scales.
Chapman states that the Micropterygid (Eriocephalid) larva is the
only other " Micro " larva (not mining or feeding internally or under
a web) having a similar form to the larvae of Anthrocerids and Eucleids
(Limacodids). He further considers that the suckers on the first
eight abdominal segments of the Eucleid larva, are probably homo-
logous with prolegs, and also with the eight pairs of abdominal legs
of Micropteryx (Eriocephala). Chapman also says that the long spines
(described later) which develop rapidly in the larva of Apoda avellana
at the,period of hatching, correspond in position with no larval processes
known, except those of Micropteryx. In the former, the dorsal series
on one side, though consisting of one spine on each segment, has
* " Classification of the Lepidoptera," American Naturalist, 1895, pp. 250 et seq. .
t "Affinities of the Lepidopterous wing," American Naturalist, 1895, pp.709 et seq.
136 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
them placed as though they were the double rows of Microptt>r;/.r,
with alternate spines omitted, i.e., the inner spine is wanting on the
first abdominal segment, the outer one on the second, and so on
alternately ; laterally the spines appear to belong to the lower row of
the lateral series of Micropteryx, but the upper row is represented on
the thorax by two spines. A further point of resemblance in these
spines to those of Micropteryx is in their peculiar spiculate apex,
which reminds one much of the peculiar stellate spiculae of the knobs
of Micropteryx.
With regard to the structure of the larva, Dyar° says : " The setae
are highly modified, and their arrangement has been much specialised,
as shown by the fact that the last two thoracic segments are like those
of the abdomen. This is the case in no generalised type, and has only
been so perfectly attained in some of the highest lines of development
in the Frenatae The curious abdominal legs are unique in
the Lepidoptera. Probably they have been derived secondarily, and
have no homologues elsewhere." This, as will be seen from the
preceding paragraph, is not Chapman's opinion, since he homologises
the abdominal legs of Micropteryx (Eriocephala) with the suckers of the
Eucleid larva.
Chapman considers that the two long setae on the 10th abdominal
segment of the larva are homologous with cerci rather than with any
ordinary tubercles or processes of lepidopterous larvse, and, comparing
these larvae with those of Panorpa, he points out that, in the disposition
of the tubercles and of the abdominal prolegs, the resemblance between
them is very close. The idea that the bristles on the last abdominal
segment are cerci, requires fuller investigation. It seems impossible to
correlate them with any of the ordinary appendages of lepidopterous
larvae, since they are only bristle-like appendages, and are quite
different from the ball appendages of the Eriocephalid larva that pro-
bably represent the usual tubercles in other lepidopterous larvae. It
is to be remembered that, though called bristles, they are of very large
size (for bristles) in comparison with the larva itself, and their struc-
ture hasnot yet been investigated (Chapman, in lift., March 25th, 1898).
The Micropterygid egg is very remarkable. Those of M. calthclla
and M. seppella are spherical, but eggs of M. ainwanella, Hb. (= an<lt'r-
whella, H.-S. nee Hb.), obtained by Chapman, whilst we were at Cannes
in April last (1898), were obviously rather oval than spherical. The
size of a batch of eggs laid by a single moth exceeds in volume that of
the moth itself. This is due not so much to the size of each indi-
vidual egg as to the fact that the marvellous mealy or snowy appearance
of the egg-shell is developed after the egg is laid, and swells the latter
out to a much larger size than when it is first deposited. There can
be no doubt that the tiny points which give the egg this mealy appear-
ance prevent, as it were, close contact between the egg and the
object (moss ?), often very damp, upon which it is laid. The eggs are
laid in little masses, sometimes one heap contains from 70 to 80 ova.
Meyrick says that the Micropterygids (Eriocephalids) consist of
about a score of species, inhabiting especially S. Europe, Asia Minor,
Syria, and North Africa. The imagines frequent blossoms (Carex, etc.),
* "Classification of the Lepidoptera on Larval characters," American
Naturalist, 1895, pp. 1066 et seq.
THE MICROPTERYGIDES. 137
feeding on pollen. He further says that the New Zealand genus
Palaeomicra is the most ancient known. It differs from Micropt&ryxin
still retaining the following ancestral characters, viz., the trifurcation of
nervure 16 (in one species), the sub-basal bar between the parting nervure
and upper cell-margin, the additional nervure rising out of 11, and (in
one species) a second additional nervure rising out of 12, near base, etc.
Walsingham writes : "A re-examination of my North American
Micropteryx pardella and M. auriwinella shows them to belong to a new
genus (which I have described in MS. as Epimartyria), resembling
Eriocrania in general appearance, but having the jaw structure,
without tongue, of a true Micropteryx, and with very peculiar antenme.
Epimartyria, therefore, is the American representative of Micropteryx
(Eriocephala, Crt.) with developed mandibles. There is no evidence,
however, that the true genus Micropteryx (Eriocephala) occurs in the
United States, although Eriocrania undoubtedly does so " (in litt.,
April 30th, 1898).
Frey makes (Ent. Annual, 1858, p. 142) a remarkable statement as
to the probable food-plants of the Micropterygids (and Eriocraniids).
He says : " The family of the Micropteryyidae, containing the single
genus Mieropteryx, has only eight species which occur in Switzerland.
The half of these, i.e., four, have been noticed on the higher Alps, viz.,
caltliella, aruncella, allionella, and anderackeUa, often at considerable
elevations. Certainly the larvte live not only in the wood of trees, but
also on low bushes and hard-stemmed plants." The larvas of Erio-
crania, of course, are now well known to mine in leaves (principally
birch) and since it has been proved that the Micropterygids are moss-
feeders, one wonders why Frey made the statement that the larv.'e live
" in the wood of trees." The four species mentioned by Frey as
occurring " on the higher Alps " are all Micropterygids, not Eriocraniids.
The imagines fly in the sunshine chiefly in May and June, in Britain,
and frequent flowers. Micropteryx (Eriocephala) calthella is sometimes
to be seen in hundreds in the morning sun, in the flowers of Caltha,
Ranunculus, etc., revelling in the pollen in early May, or even late in
April. M. seppella is reputed to prefer the flowers of Veronica, whilst
M. thunberr/ella is usually associated with a preference for pine cones.
M. mansuetella, M. aureatella and 31. thunben/ella, all appear in May
and June, the latest British species probably being M. seppella, which is
often taken during the first fortnight of July. There is no doubt that
the fondness shown by the imagines of the various species for special
flowers, is due, not so much to the fact that this is the favourite food
of the species, as to its being the prominent available plant, of their
habitat. They go to the flowers to obtain the pollen for food, and the
continuous references of certain species to certain flowers, e.y., M.
caltliella to Caltha and Ranunculus, 31. aruncella to Spiraea, M. seppella
to Veronica, etc., simply points out perhaps the most conspicuous plant
which provides the required staminal food at the time of their
occurrence. When Caltha, for example, grows in shady swamps,
M. calthella is found in the flowers, but if it grows in open swamps
and bogB there are often no M. calthella to go to it. Gardner finds both
M. seppella and M. calthella in abundance, in the flowers of liosa
tpinorissima, on the sandhills near Hartlepool, the insects evidently
availing themselves of the most readily obtainable flowers to satisfy
their own wants.
138
BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Family : MICROPTERYGIDJE.
So little is known of this family that its sub-divisions, even
genetically, are not at all well-defined. Nothing whatever has been
recorded, of the early stages of either the American or New Zealand
species. The genus Kpimartyria, Wlsm., is, so far as is at present known,
confined to the United States. The genera Mncsarchaea , Meyr., and
Palaeomicra, Meyr., have, until now, only been found in New Zealand.
The genus Micropteryx, Hb., is confined to the Palaearctic area.
Whether these genera belong to the same family or not, we are not in
a position to say. The following is a complete list of the known
species belonging to the superfamily MICROPTERYGIDES. For this, we
are indebted to Lord Walsingham and Mr. J. H. Durrant.
Superfamily : Micropterygides.
Family : MICROPTERYGID.E.
Subfamily : MICROPTERYGINJE.
Genus; Palaeomicra, Meyr.
chalcophanes, Meyr.
chrysargyra, Meyr.
zonodoxa, Meyr.
doroxena, Meyr.
Genus : Mnesarchsea, Meyr.
paracosma, Meyr.
loxoscia, Meyr. ,
hemadelpha, Meyr.
Genus : Epimartyria, Wlsm.
pardella, Wlsm.
auricrinella, Wlsm.
Genus : Micropteryx, Hb.
calthella, Linn.
amasiella, Staud.
auropulverella, Evers.
aruncella, Scop.
? seppella, Fab.
? eximiella, Zell.
? atricapilla, Wk.
berytella, de Joann.
maschukella, Alph.
aglaella, Dup.
mansuetella, Zell.
algeriella, Rag.
myrtetella, Zell.
elegans, Sta.
imperfectella, St(aud.
paykullella,, Fab.
rablensis, Zell.
? rothenbachii, Frey
ammanella, Hb.
aureatella, Scop,
completella, Staud.
wockei, Staud.
thunbergella, Fab.
Genus : MICROPTERYX, Hb.
SYNONYMY. — Genus : Micropterix (rect. Micropteryx), Hb., " Verz. bek.
Schmett.," 426 (1826) [including : (1) Mucidella, Hb. 435 (? Elachixta). (2) Arum-Mi,
Scop. [= podevinella, Hb.. 342 (Z.)]. (3) Calthella, L. [= punlettu, Hb., 341
(Zk.)J. Stephs., "111. Brit. Ent. Haust.," iv. (361), 423 (1835); Zell., "Linn.
Ent.," v., pp. 322 et seq. (1851) ; Frey, " Die Tineen," etc., p. 46 (in part) ; Sta.,
" Man.," ii., pp. 302 et seq. (in part) ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," (1871) p. 340,
in part; Snellen, " Vlinders," etc., p. 1065; Kirby, "Handbook," etc., v., 315.
Eriocephala, Curt., "Brit. Ent.." exp. PI. 751 (1839); Stainton, "Monograph,
Tr. Ent. Soc. Lon.," p. 27(1850) ; Heinernann and Wocke, " Schmett Deutsch.,"
ii., p. 772 (1876) ; Chapman, "Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.," 1894, pp. 339 et. seq.;
Meyr., " Handbook," etc., p. 805 (1895).
Kirby specifies (Handbook, etc., v., 315) aureatella-, Sc., as the type. This
species was not included by Hiibner in the genus.
MICROPTERYX CALTHELLA, Linn.
SYNONYMY. — Genus : Micropteryx, . Hb. (Type, M. calthella). Species :
Calthella, Linn., " Fauna Suec.,"No. 1,432, p. 367 (1761) , "Sys. Nat.," xii., p. 895
(1767) ; Fab., " Sys. Ent.," 663, 47(1775) ; Schiff., " Sys. Verz.," 144 ; Schrank, " Fn.
Boica," ii.. 2, 124; Haw., " Lep. Brit.," iv. (a ? and y <f), p. 573 ; Tr., " Eur.
Schmett.," ix., 2, 117 ; Dup.. " Hist. Nat.," xi.. p. 401, PI. 302, fig. 6; Stphs.,
"111.," iv., 361 ; Curt., "Brit. Ent.," xvi.,pl 751 ; Wood, " Index Ent.," no. 1599 ;
Zell., "Isis" (1839) p. 185; "Linn. Ent.." v., p. 323; Zett.. " Ins. Lapp., "p. 1008 ;
Evers., " FaunaLep. Volg.-Ural.," 587, 2 ; Tgstr., " Bidr.," 115 ; Sta., " Tr. Ent. Soc.
Lond.," 1850, p. 28, PI. iii., figs. 1-4 ;" Ins. Brit.," 42; H.-Sch.," Sys. Bear.," v.,p.
391 ; Frey, " Uie Tineen," etc., p. 48 ; Sta., " Man.," ii., p. 302 ; Stdgr and Wocke,
" Cat.." p. 340 ; Heinemann and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," ii., p. 772 ; Herklots,
" Bouwstoffen Fauna Ned.," etc., iii., p. 216, no. 35 ; Snellen, " Vlinders," etc., ii.. p.
1065 ; Meyrick, •• Handbook." etc., p. 806 : Tutt, " Brit. Moths," p. 356. Sulaitdla,
MICROPTERYX CALTHELLA. 139
Bent., "Zoologist," iii., 1086 (1845). Pitsilella, Hb., 341 (1816); (Zell.. "Isis,"
1839, p. 185). ? Isobasella, Stdgr., " Bed. Ent. Zeits.," 1870, p. 289 ; Hein. and
Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," ii., p. 772 (1876). Urticaella, Costa (1836).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Phalaena Tinea calthella. Atra, alls
superioribus totis aureis, capite ferrugineo. Minuta. Antennae vix
corporis Iongitudina3. Alae superiores cerfco situ totae aureae appa-
rent : alias atrae. Differt a Ph. frischella antennis basi minime
auritis, capite ferrugineo ; corpore quadruple minore. Habitat in
floribus Calthae frequens (Linne, Faitna Suecicae, ed. ii., No. 1432
p. 367). To this he adds : " Habitat in Calthapalustris floribus " (Sys.,
Nat., xiith ed., p. 895).
IMAGO. — Fore-wings, 7-9mm. ; unicolorous greenish-golden (and
usually with the base from the costa to the inner margin purple).
Hind-wings bronzy-grey, the apical area tinted with purplish.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The head of the male is yellowish, of the
female, ferruginous. The male is much smaller than the female.
VARIATION. — Zeller describes (Linn. Ent., v., p. 323) two forms of
the species : —
a. — Capillis ferrugineis, alls anterioribus virescenti-aureis (post mortem sul-
catis), basi purpurea.
b. — Al. ant. basi vix purpurea, ? .
It is quite clear that var. /;. is, if both forms be referable to M.
calthella, the Linnean type, the latter of which has the fore-wings
uniformly golden, and not purple at the base. The common form
(ab. a) might, unless this be a purely sexual difference, be called ab.
purpumscens. Atmore says that at King's Lynn some specimens have
a purplish- brown tint towards the apex of the wings. Zeller's
var. b., which we have suggested, may be the Linnean type; appears
to be the form described by Staudinger, as M. isobasella [Bed. Ent.
Zeit., xiv., p. 289 (1870) ; Hein., ii., p. 772 (1876)] . This is directly
referred to by Snellen as calthella var. isobasella \_Vlind., ii., p. 1065
(1882)] , but if it be really this species, then M. isobasella, Stdgr. is a
synonym of calthella, Linn., and the purple-based form (erroneously con-
sidered by Staudinger as the type) will be called ab. purpurasccns, n. ab.
Considering the uncertainty existing as to the specific distinctness of
isobasella, it may be well to quote the description of Staudinger, who
writes as follows : " 69. Micropteryx isobasella, n. sp. (? caWiella\&r. b,
Zell., Linn. Ent., v., p. 823). I took a pair of this insect last year on
July 8th, on flowering bushes, in the evening, at Macugnaga, among
numbers of M. aruncella, which was there common. The two speci-
mens, nearly 10 mm. in expanse, are accordingly but little larger than
calthella, and perhaps only a local form thereof. Since they have
entirely unicolorous, shining green fore-wings, without the trace of a
violet base, they agree in so far with the var. b described by Zeller
(I. c.). On the other hand, their hind-wings are very strongly violet-
coloured, much more strongly than any German calthella. Moreover,
the fringes of the fore-wings at their base, especially in the female,
have a very beautiful violet-purple gloss which does not occur in
calthella. The rust-yellow hairs of the head, length of antennae and
the thorax are as in calthella, but the small shoulder covers (epaulettes)
are scarcely tinged with violet. Whether we have to do here with a
species or a local form of calthella, can only be established by a large
number of examples from various localities" [Berl. Ent. Zeit., xiv.,
289 (1870)] . Durrant inclines to the opinion that isobasella is distinct.
140 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
COMPARISON OF M. CALTHELLA WITH J M. SEPPELLA. — The absence
of the silvery fasciae that characterise the male of M. seppella, makes
the female very similar to M. caltlidla. Bentley who first discovered
the similarity in Britain, unfortunately re-named M. calthella, calling
it sulcatella, and applied the name calthella to $ M. seppella. Although
there is a form of M . calthella without the purple base it rarely occurs in
this country (and we believe is equally rare in Germany), and hence,
perhaps, arises Stainton's distinction that the purple at the base of the
wing extends to the inner margin in M. calthella, whereas in M.
seppella, it never reaches it. The former also is said to have (when dead)
a more sulcated appearance.
EGG-LAYING. — The ovipositor is quite short, simple and tubular,
the egg is large and spherical, laid among moss. Chapman says that the
female, when laying, creeps down among the moss to a depth of an
inch or more, and seems anxious to get to the bottom and lay her eggs
on the bottom of the jar, sand or earth. If the stratum be too deep
for this, she will lay them on a spray of the moss, always in little
groups, rarely as few as two or three, usually six to ten, and even
more, as many as twenty-five having been counted. The female will
often remain and die beside her last batch of eggs.
OVUM. — The ova are spherical, O4Gmm. in diameter, almost white.
They have a snowy, mealy look, owing to the provision of a close
coating of minute rods standing vertically on the surface of the egg,
and often tipped with a small bulb (of fluid ?) ; whether these are
appressed to the surface of the egg when laid, or whether they after-
wards develop in some other way, I do not know, but I think the
latter. Their function would appear to be to protect the egg from too
close contact with the possibly very wet surface on which it lies
(Chapman).
HABITS OF LARVA. — Chapman says° that about the middle of
August, 1892, he found several larvae about 1'5 mm. in length, and
though so much larger than when newly hatched, were otherwise
precisely the same in all respects. They were kept very wet, the moss
(llijpnum praelwKjum) dripping, and the sand below under water, and
the result was decidedly satisfactory, as, at the end of September, the
moss was still growing, and the larvae usually to be seen. On
October 21st, there Avere three larvae in the jar, the two largest
measuring, with the head retracted, 3-5 mm. in length, and,
therefore, probably full-grown. About this time several were
found in another jar in which moss was growing, but which had
been kept much too dry ; these were only about 1-5 mm. long,
and another larva was found in another jar. At this time,
Chapman saw one of the larger larvae actually eating the delicate stem
of growing moss, of which a considerable piece of one side had dis-
appeared. The larvse seemed to be constantly on the move, at
times not to be seen, and when seen, always in a fresh place ; they
walk slowly but steadily, using the abdominal appendages as legs, and
often raising the fore part of the body and stretching about as if in
search of something. Judged by the sizes of their heads, there were at
least three stages of the larva on October 21st, which, with the newly-
hatched one, made four stages observed, although, no doubt, there
* Traits. Ent. Soc. Loud., 1894, pp. 339 et seq.
MICROPTERYX CALTHELLA. 141
would be one or two intermediate stages between the young larva and
the smallest seen at this date. The intestinal contents, so far as they
are visible through the larva, were, in one instance, green, in two
others, brownish. Occasionally, a good end view of the larva is seen,
and than its angularity (on cross-section) is very evident, the spaces
between the double rows of processes being hollow, and the processes
placed on the angles of a flat, raised surface. The long antennae,
Chapman says, have an elegant curvature, and are placed on the head
so as to look, as it moves from side to side, ridiculously like the horns
on a Hereford ox — the proportionate length of horn to head being not
very different in the two cases. In 1898, Chapman obtained a large
number of eggs and young larvae, and early in November discovered
two full-grown larvae. The remainder seem to have perished.
LARVA. — The young larva is altogether unlike our ideas of a
lepidopterous insect. It is very delicate, and shrivels rapidly by
desiccation when removed from its natural habitat in damp moss.
The peculiarities of its form and structure may be stated to be its
angular outline, the possession of a number of remarkable appendages
to each segment, of eight pairs of abdominal legs of unusual structure,
and of an oval sucker ; that the antennae are remarkably long for a
lepidopterous larva, and that the head is retractile, so far, that it may
occupy the interior of the mesothoracic segment. The larva does not
appear to alter these characters during its growth to maturity. The
antennrc of the adult larva are not, perhaps, proportionately so long,
and the abdominal legs have shorter and thicker bases.
The larva is thick and short and fairly cylindrical, apart from its
angular section, and tapers very little, terminating rather abruptly at
either end, especially when sulky and with retracted head. The
angular outline is due to ten (not eight as first described) rows of
peculiar appendages, so disposed as to form two subdorsal rows and
two lateral rows on either side, each double row arising from the
angles of a raised ridge, and the intervening spaces being rather
hollowed. Another row low down on either side homologises with
the row of prolegs on its own side, thus making, with the prolegs, 12
rows of appendages arranged in pairs. The general surface is raised
in ridges, or rather marked by sulci that are chiefly transverse in
direction, but communicate with each other to form a network, and,
in places, make a beautiful resetted pattern. The general result
is a division of each segment into five subsegments, the balls or
appendages are on the third of these. The fourth and fifth, in the
centre of the dorsum and again in the centre of the space between the
subdorsal and lateral pairs of ridges, are united into one by a circular area,
in the centre of which is a dot or spot. This description applies to the'
mesothorax, metathorax, and the first to seventh abdominal segments.
The prothorax has two transverse rows of ball appendages, with six in
the first row and four in the second. On the 8th abdominal segment,
the appendages are similarly in two rows, but deficient in number,
there being only eight altogether ; whilst on the 9th abdominal seg-
ment there are only six. These appendages on the 8th and 9th
abdominal segments are longer, larger and more club-shaped, and
project backwards from their points of attachment ; those on the
other segments are shorter and more rounded, and are directed forward ;
those on the prothorax are, however, similarly a little larger and
142 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
longer than the others. These appendages arise from special ball-like
points, encircled by a special area, and are globular in form, or, in
some cases, nearly pyriform, with a definite neck or stalk ; they are
dotted as though with spiculae in a rectangular pattern, and appear to
have some internal ribbing or skeleton (which remains stiff in a mounted
specimen, whilst the surface loses its plumpness and shrivels). There
are eight pairs of abdominal legs one pair on each of the first eight
abdominal segments, arranged so as to suggest that this double row
is a modification of the double rows of appendages on the upper sur-
face. These legs are, however, of a very different structure from the
balls of the upper surface, and also from the true legs on the thoracic
segments. They consist of a large s.tein or shaft with, both towards
the base and apex, some doubtful spicular projections ; this shaft is
apparently cylindrical, and contains a body which is either a vessel or
tube, or a tendon to the terminal claw. The shaft arises from a
conical base to which it is not distinctly jointed, but is rather con-
tinuous with it. The terminal piece is a very distinct and separate
structure, in general outline much like the terminal joint or claw of
a thoracic leg, but with the sharp apex rounded off, the convexity is
directed forwards (not inwards). It is of homogeneous, semi-trans-
parent texture, but marked by oblique lines, which suggest, whether
correctly or not I cannot say, that the surface between them is raised
in rounded ridges, which pass round the anterior and posterior edges
and make it look like a conventional cornucopia. (In preserved
specimens the shafts of these legs seem laterally compressed). Another
structure is a sucker on the undersurface of the 9th and 10th
abdominal segments, or possibly only on the 10th, the 9th being very
narrow in front of it ; its form is trefoil with one leaf forwards. This
sucker, on a lepidopterous larva, is, of course, very unusual, and is a
further point of relationship to the Limacodids. The 10th abdominal
segment carries dorsally two hairs. The true legs besides the base,
which is a little full and raised, consist of three joints, and much
resemble the thoracic legs of an ordinary lepidopterous larva. The
first large joint has two spurs on its inner margin, about the middle,
and two or three hairs on the same zone, laterally and dorsally ; the
second more slender joint is rather longer, and narrows about the
middle, where there is a spur or bristle on its inner margin ; on the
outer side at its extremity, is an indication of a bristle or two, but
no definite appendage. The last joint is again rather shorter, and
terminates in a sharp point. The head is rather longer than broad,
and narrows a little forwards ; there are two strong mandibles, with
four brown teeth. The antenn® are very long, about equal in length
to the transverse diameter of the head ; there are two short, thick
basal segments, as to the first of which I am not very sure, whether it
is a true segment or a basal projection ; there are two long segments
about equal in length, and a nearly as long terminal joint, which is
little more than a seta in thickness. Two pairs of palpi are also visible
— two and three-jointed — apparently similar to those usual in lepi-
dopterous larvae. There is also a central point (spinneret?) [Chapman] .
COCOON. — The cocoon is described by Chapman as being fairly
tough, composed of yellowish silk, and with scraps of moss coating it,
ovoid, 3 mm. long, and 1-5 mm. broad.
PUPA. — The only recorded observation on the pupa of this super-
MICROPTERYX CALTHELLA. 143
family was made by Chapman, who found an imago of M. calthella
with a portion of the headpiece of the pupa attached to an antenna.
This showed the pupa to be of the " Incomplete " or " Micro " type,
•i.e., it consisted of the covering of the antennae, head, and head-
appendages in one piece. This observation renders tolerably certain
what was antecedently probable, that the pupa is of " Micro " type,
with the third and following abdominal segments free.
FOOD-PLANT. — Probably various species of Hypnum, the larvae fed on
//. praelontfuni, tamariscinum and swartzii.
HABITAT. — Often to he found in abundance in various species of
buttercups (Caltha, etc.) in openings in woods, fields near woods, and
similar places. We have seen as many as a dozen in a single flower
of Ranvncvltu bulbosm and II. acris, in the rides of Chattenden Woods,
all very busily engaged eating the pollen. It is commonest on the
flowers of buttercups and carices, but also in and about many other
flowers, e.g., Scilla nutans, Veronica cJiamaedrys, Lysimackia nemorum,
etc. Linne mentions it as common in the flowers of Caltha palustris,
and Zeller states that although it is to be found sitting in com-
pany in the flowers of the latter plant, he finds it more common
in those of Eanunculus repens and E. acris on the borders of woods.
Inchbald has found it commonly in the blossoms of Galium verum, and
South on the flowers of Eanunculus bulbosus, growing by roadsides
near water. Barrett says that where there are no flowers of Caltha
palustris, or buttercup, the species frequents those of Cardamine pra-
tensis, and even those of stitchwort and spurge. He states that he
has also seen it commonly running over hazel leaves in the copses.
Fletcher says that at Worthing it is very common on small carices.
Zetterstedt notices that he has often captured them in copula, in the
flowers of Caltha palustris. Bower has found them on flowers
of Mercurialis perennis, and buttercup, as well as flying in the
afternoon sun. Corbett says that in various parts of Yorkshire the
species frequents the grassy sides of the rides of woods, where it
swarms on flowers of Eanunculus bulbosiis. He states that he has
never seen it on Caltha, the flowering time of the latter being usually
over before M. calthella is out. He has counted as many as 30 moths
on one flower of E. bulbosus and they are frequently found in copula on
the flowers. At Wareham, it is especially abundant in the blossoms of
Caltha in swampy places in May (Cambridge). In the King's Lynn,
district it is common ; it was exceedingly abundant in 1884 and
1890, in flowers of a Carex. It is also attached to Caltha palustris,
and species of Eanunculus, especially repens ; it is sometimes common
on the male flowers of Mercurialis perennis, and more than once noticed
commonly on flowers of Sambucus nii/er and Endymion nutans (Atmore).
In the Reading district it prefers damp places, and the imago is found
on the blossoms of Caltha (Hamrn). In the Carlisle district it is found
on the " mosses " (Wilkinson). In flowers of Eanunculus, Mercurialis,
and Carex, near Manchester (Chappell). In the Forest of Soignies to the
south of Brussels, sitting on the flowers of buttercups and Carex
(Stainton).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Zeller says that it appears at the end of
April in Sicily and in Germany (Glogau) in May ; Zetterstedt gives it
as appearing in southern Lapland, from June 10th-27th, whilst in
the northern part of Lapland (Stensele and Brattiksfjell) he has
144 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
captured it from July lst-8th. Evcrsmann gives July and Angus!
for the Ural district (a record that Zeller considers to be erroneous).
In the southern counties of England, it is usually out in early May—
Stainton bred a specimen on April 13th, 1855, in a tin in which were
only a piece of decayed wood, a plant of Dactijlia, and a plant of
Carcx. Actual dates of the occurrence of the species are as follows : —
May 22nd, 1890. at Calcot (Robertson) ; May 19th. 1888 and April 29th. 1893.
at Chattenden (Tutt) ; May 18th-31st, 18(56, at Haslemere. and May, 1800, at
Powerscourt (Barrett) ; May 21st. 1893. nr. Southend (Whittle) ; June 2nd, 1887, at
West Wickham ; June 4th, 1887, at Eltham ; May 28th, 1890. at High Force ; June
1st, 1891, May 17th, 1892, at Bexley ; June 5th, 1891. at Greenhithe ; July 2'Jth,
1892, at Sanderstead (Bower). The time of appearance varies according to the
season from the middle of May to middla of June in Yorkshire, taken May 4th,
1890; June 12th, 1891 ; May 19th, 1893. at Wheatley Wood, and May 20th, 1897,
at Cusworth (Corbett) ; May 12th-15th, 1881 ; May 13th-18th. 1882 ; May 10th-
16th, 1883 ; May 6th-21st, 1884 ; May 10th-16th, 1885 ; May 12th-16th, 1886 ;
May 9th-20th, 1887 ; May 14th-20th, 1888 ; May 13th-23rd, 1889 ; May 12th-18th,
1890; May 16th-26th, 1891; May 15th-24th, 1892; May 12th-23rd. 1893; May
13th-26th, 1894; May 14th-26th, 1895; May l'2th-24th, 1896; May 16th-18th,
1897, at King's Lynn (E. A. Atmore) : May 5th, 1890. at Bloxworth (Cambridge) ;
June 27th, 1895, at Corstorphine Hill ; and July 5th, 1895, at Ormiston, E. Lothian
(Evans) ; May 16th, 1876, at Preston and June 16th, 1877, at Windermere
(Threlfall) ; May 22nd, 1888, May 12th, 1890, June 2nd, 1891, at Merton (Durrant).
LOCALITIES.— ABERDEEN : near Ben-na-chie (Reid). BERKS : Calcot
(Robertson), Reading (Hamm), Tilehurst and Pangbourne (Holland). CAMBRIDGE :
Cambridge (Stainton), Wicken Fen (Farren). CARMARTHEN : Llangennech
! Richardson). CHESHIRE : Brom borough Wood (Ellis), Dunham Park and Knutsford
Chappell), Patrick Wood, near Bromborough and New Brighton (Gregson).
CUMBERLAND : Lake District {Stainton), Carlisle (Wilkinson), Hayton Moss
(Routledge). DERBY : Burton-on-Trent (Harris), llepton (Spilsbury). DEVON : North
Devon (South). DORSET : Purbeck, Portland (Richardson). Bloxworth (Cambridge).
DORHAM : Darlington (Stainton), High Force (Bower), Hesleden Dene (Gardner).
EDINBURGH : Corstorphine Hill (Evans). ESSEX : near Southend (Whittle).
GLOUCESTER: near Bristol (Mason). HADDINGTON: Ormiston (Evans). HANTS:
Pamber Forest (Holland), northern part of county included in Reading district
(Hamm). HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood), Leominster (Hutchinson), Hereford
(Chapman). KENT: Alkham and Tenterden (Stainton), Cuxton and Chattenden
(Tutt), West Wickham, Eltham,Bexley and Greenhithe (Bower), Pembury (Stainton).
LANCASHIRE : Manchester (Chappell), Childwall (Gregson), Grange and Preston
(Threlfall), Otterspool, near Liverpool (Ellis), Withington (Chappell), Warrington
( Cooke). LEICESTER; Market Harboro' (Matthews). MIDDLESEX; Kingsbury (Stain-
ton). NORFOLK : King's Lynn, Merton and Norwich (Atmore). NORTHUMBERLAND:
Newcastle (Stainton), Morpeth and Old Park, Netherwitton (Finlay). OXON : Part of
county within Reading district (Hamm), Warren (Holland). SOMERSET: Castle
Ciiry (Macmillan), Portishead (Mason). SUFFOLK; Blaxhall (Harker). SURREY:
Haslemere (Barrett), Sanderstead (Bower). SUSSEX: Lewes (Stainton), Worthing
(Fletcher), Hastings and St. Leonards (Bloomfield), Abbotts Wood, Chailey and
Tilgate Forest (Vine). WESTMORLAND : Windermere (Threlfall). WICKLOW :
Powerscourt (Barrett), Wicklow Mountains (Birchall). YORKSHIRE : Scarborough
(Stainton), Doncaster (Warren), Huddersfield (Inchbald), Mickley, near Ripon
(Porritt), Richmond (Sang), Wheatley Wood and Cusworth (Corbett). Bingley
(Butterfield). ORKNEY ISLANDS : (McArthur).
DISTRIBUTION'. — Linne gives Sweden. Zeller says (Linn. Ent.,
v., p. 324) : Caltltella occurs everywhere in Europe — in Italy and
Sicily, at Syracuse (var. b) ; in Tuscany, near Pisa (Mann) ; in France
(Duponchel) ; in England (Stainton) ; Sweden, as far as Lapland
(Zetterstedt) ; in Finland (Tengstrom) ; in Volga District, Kasan (Evers-
mann) ; Silesia, at Ratisbon (Zeller) ; Higher Swiss Alps (Frey).
Staudinger and Wocke give : Central and Northern Europe (except
Polar regions) ; Dalmatia ; Central and Northern Italy ; Sicily and
Corsica. Meyrick writes : Britain, extending to Sutherland ; North
and East Ireland (very common) ; Europe (except the south-west).
MICKOPTERYX CALTHELLA. 145
stainton mentions : Belgium, in the Forest of Soignies to the south of
Brussels. Snellen gives Holland — at Arnhem, Rotterdam, Maastricht,
ir. Breda, etc. Frey mentions Ziirich, Lausanne, and the Swiss Alps.
Of its occurrence in the Higher Alps, he says : "Da M. calthella weit
nordwarts verbreitet ist, so erscheint sie demgemass auch auf den
Alpen ; wenigstens trafen wir sie Anfang August auf den Glarnerbergen,
z. B. Miihlebachalp, in ungefahrer Hohe von 5000', ebenso im
Engadin bei Samaden " (Die Tineen, etc., p. 48). Schiffermiiller gives
Austria ; Schrank — Bavaria ; Turati — Lombardy ; Mann — Corsica,
Sicily, Croatia (Fiume), and Eoumania (Dobrudscha) ; B.-Haas — Den-
mark ; Sand — France (Indre) ; Walsingham found the insect at
Rome, April 10th-25th, 1893 ; Wallengren gives Southern Norway,
Denmark and Sweden (Scania, Blekingra, Smolandia, Bahusia,
Vestrogothia, Ostrogothia and Lapponia) ; Nolcken notes Russia
(Kokeuhausen, Groesen, Cremon, Oesel Island, Riga and St. Peters-
burg). It is also recorded from almost all the German provinces,
Sorhagen gives Grunewald, Finkenkrug, Havelland, Hamburg, etc.
M. ARUNCELLA, Scop, and M. SEPPELLA, Fab.
Considerable doubt exists as to whether we have under the names
of M. aruncella and M. seppella, two, or one, species. Stainton, after
having compared aruncella, sent to him by Zeller, with British seppella,
says (" Monograph," etc., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1850, p. 40) : " The
best character by which to distinguish the male of aruncella, from the
male of seppella, is the position and form of the fascia ; it is more slender,
straighter, and placed nearer the base than in seppella. The entire
absence of the silvery spot on the costa towards the apex, would
appear at first sight to be a more decided character, but it is often no
easy matter to see this spot in set specimens of seppella, and the latter
is sometimes without it. I, last week (June 1850), took a specimen of
scppdla, entirely destitute of this spot, and which I was, therefore,
inclined to take for aruncella. The anterior wings of seppella $ are
narrower and greener than those of aruncella $ . I am not at present
aware of any character by which to separate the females of the two
species." If we refer to the original descriptions, we find that the species
(described independently) were not founded on the characters here
pointed out by Stainton, but on the number of the pale fascia
crossing the fore-wings, Scopoli's M. aruncella having but one fascia,
the M. seppella of Fabricius, two. The latter described M. seppella
from a British specimen, which he saw in the possession of Mr.
Yeats, so that we know that M. seppella is a British species.
Zeller seems to have been the first entomologist who refused to
see in M. seppella, Fab., a species distinct from M. aruncella, Scop.,
and Snellen also united the insects, treating M. aruncella as the
type and M. seppella as an aberration. Meyrick has since followed these
authors. Referring the matter to Lord Walsingham, who has a long
continental series (including Zeller's), he writes : " I am able to find
but one species under the two names, teppella, Fab. and aruncella,
Scop. They vary in the direction of the central fascia, in the pre-
sence or absence of a costal spot, and in the degree of development
or distinctness of the basal streak or fascia. There is no specimen
in the somewhat extensive series that I have examined which can be
said to have no markings beyond one fascia. If such a species exists
j
146 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
it was evidently unknown to Zeller, and I am not disposed to accept
Scopoli's precise language as proving the existence of such a species,
therefore, I should write aruncella, Scopoli = seppella, Fab. An
examination of the genitalia supports the view that British M. arun-
cella and British M. seppella are the same species, and I am unable to
find any evidence to the contrary among the continental forms " (in
litt., April 3rd, 1898). We have since examined Constant's collec-
tion and are quite unable to separate his M. aruncella from " Burgundy,
Wiirtemburg and Prussia," from his J/. seppella, also from "Burgundy,"
and we are inclined to think not only that all so-called British M. arun-
cella are but forms of M. seppella, but that the Carniolian M. aruncella
is identical with the British M. seppvlla. We have, however, nothing
but negative proof that the unifasciate M. aruncella is the same as the
bifasciate M. seppella.
Another doubtful point connected with these species relates to the
possibility of eximiella, Zell., being synonymous with seppella, Fab.
Stainton, in 1850, by comparison of actual specimens, states (Monograph,
etc., pp. 39-40) that his aruncella of p. 29 ( = seppella) is the eximiella of
Zeller (Stctt. Ent. Zeit., 1850, p. 62). Zeller, in 1851, refers (Linn.
Entom., v., p. 327) Stainton's seppella of the Monoyraph, pp. 39-40, to his
aruncella, allowing eximiella to rank as a distinct species. The original
specimens of the latter were taken in Italy by Mann, and are now in Lord
Walsingham's possession. The latter writes : " Zeller seems to have been
inclined to sink it, but Mann's specimens, on which it was founded, have
a very distinct spot beyond the fasciae, which are themselves remark-
ably evident ; moreover, the spot seems to be invariably oblique and
inverted. I have a male from Rome possessing the same characters, also
three males which I collected in Corfu in 1872, and I think that it will
be found that the southern form is worthy to retain the special name
eximiella, Zell. Zeller had placed his eximiella with a block of speci-
mens consisting entirely of M. seppella, sent by Stainton, in close
juxtaposition with aruncella, and he labelled one of Stainton's specimens
' seppella = eximiella.' I am, therefore, unable to account for his having
referred seppella, Stn., to aruncella (Linn. Entom., v., p. 327), unless
it can be interpreted as an admission that he was unable to separate
the species, which is more than probable " (in Hit., April 3rd, 1898).
Snellen works out the species (or forms) as follows : —
1. Anmcella, Scop. = the type form.
var. i. — Seppella, Fab. — With the addition of a silver spot towards
the apex.
var. ii. — Eximiella, Zell. — With the central line curved, and the
spot at the base decidedly lengthened.
It has been considered advisable, after having reviewed the main
evidence relative to M. aruncella and M. seppella being the same species, to
work out their synonymy, etc., separately, so that further workers may
not be confused by our adopting the simple expedient of lumping them.
MICROPTERYX ARUNCELLA, ScOp.
SYNONYMY. — Species : Aruncella, Scop , "Ent. Carn.," No. G60, p. 254 (1703) ;
Zell., "Isis," 1839. 185; " Linn. Ent.," v., p. 325; Sta., " Mon., Trans. Ent. Soc.
Lond.," 1850, 39 (nee p. 29 and PI. iii., figs. 5 <? — 6 ? ); " Ins. Brit.." 43 ; " Man.,"
ii., p. 302 ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bear.," v., p. 391, no. 2; Frey, "Die Tineen," etc., 48;
Stdgr. and Wocke, " Cat.," p 340; Heinemann and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.."
p. 772 ; Snellen, " Vlinders," etc., p. 1006; Herklots, " Bouwstoffen Fauna Ned.,"
etc., iii.. p. 216; Meyrick, "Handbook," etc., 806. Concinnella t , Stephs.,
"Illus.,"iv., p. 361.
MICEOPTEBYX ARUNCELLA. 147
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Long. lin. 1£. Alae anticae auratae, cum
intermixto violaceo-rubro colore ; fronte aureis pilis pubescente.
Antennae nigricantes. Mas fascia pallida linear! ; fasmina absque
alarum fascia. Copiosa in paniculis Acteae, Arunci (Scopoli, Ent.
Carniolica, No. 660, p. 254).
IMAGO. — Fore-wings 6£-8 mm. ; golden-brown, with the costa at the
base purple ; in the <? a straight, slender, silvery fascia in the centre of
the wing and a ' small silvery spot near the base. Posterior wings
grey, the apical portion tinted with purple.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The anterior wings of the female are golden-
brown in colour, with the costa, at the base, purple, and entirely
destitute of the silvery markings of the male.
NOTES ON SO-CALLED BRITISH M. ARUNCELLA. — We have already
pointed out (ante, p. 145) that Stainton, on comparing Continental
specimens of M. aruncella from Zeller, found them to differ from his
own British series of M. seppella. We are not disposed to think that
these differences are of specific value, more especially as Stainton refers
specimens captured at Darenth Wood, Sydenham and Penge, to M.
aruncella. Our opinion that the British specimens passing as 3/.
aruncella are co- specific with M. seppella receives confirmation from
various lepidopterists. Meyrick says : " The variety of the male with
a posterior costal mark, has long been regarded as a distinct species
under the name of M. seppella, but the two forms are connected by
gradual transitions" (Handbook, etc., p. 806). Atmore writes : "I
have long regarded M. seppella, and the so-called British M. aruncella,
as one species. The specimens appear to occur in forms which are
difficult to refer to either the one or the other " (in litt.). Bankes says :
" The specimens standing in my collection under the name M. aruncella
were taken in company with typical j\L seppella, and are, I have no
doubt only forms of that species, differing from the type in the
absence of the silvery spot near the apex, and, in some cases, in the
silvery fascia near the base being reduced to a spot or inconspicuous,
but the median fascia is quite as oblique as in any M. seppella." On
the other side, Hamm says : " M . seppella is fairly abundant in the
Beading district (parts of the counties of Berks, Hants and Oxon), but
M. aruncella only occurs very sparingly, not more than two or three in
a season. These, however, are taken in a similar manner, and at
about the same time of year as the commoner species " (in litt.). As
Zeller, throughout his writings, unites M. aruncella and M. seppella,
and gives characters common to both, his descriptions do not help us
much. He diagnoses (Linn. Entom., v., p. 325) two forms, of which
the first may be M. aruncella, and the second, M. seppella (unless,
indeed, the reference to the transverse spot before, and the straight
striga beyond, the middle, makes both referable to the latter), as
follows : —
a. — Capillis ferrugineis ; alls ant. virescenti-aureis basi ad costam purpurea :
<? (post-mortem sulcato), macula transversal! ante, striga recta post medium
argenteis. J unicoloribus.
b. — 3 , gutta costali ante apicem argentea.
None of these notes help much the question of whether we have
two distinct species, the unifasciate aruncella, Scop., and the bifasciate
ftcjipdla, Fab. They do show pretty clearly that so-called British
M. aruncella are co-specific with M. seppella, Meyrick, after sinking
148 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
M. seppdla as synonymous with M. amncella, describes only the latter
form with the straight median fascia, so that anyone taking the
common form — seppdla — with the oblique (or slightly curved) median
fascia would be puzzled where to place it.
VARIATION. — Frey refers [Lep. der Schweiz, 426 (1880)], to a form
that he calls M. aruncella, Sc. var. at r leap ilia, Wocke, as coming
from the Stelvio. Stainton calls attention to the fact that the reddish
hairs on the head of the male are very easily rubbed off in all the
allied species. Durrant believes atricapilla to be a distinct species.
He writes: " The specimens from Wocke in the Zeller collection are
certainly not worn, and the head is as black as that of M. mansuetdla.
These specimens were taken July 14th-15th, 1875. Zeller put the
specimens at the end of his series of M. calthella, in line by themselves,
before his var. b " (in litt., May 21st, 1898).
HABITAT. — Barrett says that at Haslemere he has found M. arun-
cclla in marshy places, in the early part of July, running over the
leaves of PlpUobium anffiutifolwan, and also in hedges among beech
bushes. Scopoli found imagines on the flowers of Actaea and Spiraea
antncus ; Schmidt, on the blossoms of Helianthemiun alpinuni ; Schliiger,
on flowers of Acer campestre; Zeller also gives Spiraea anincns, and adds
the blossoms of Pyrola minor and Plantayo media, as being attractive
to this species. Frey connects it with Scabioaa. South records it as
being obtained in North Devon by sweeping mixed herbage, whilst in
Stainton's collection at the British Museum, are 4 specimens labelled
as having been taken at " light."
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Stainton gives June for England, and
Schmidt mentions August for the Alps ; Schliiger gives the end of May
and beginning of June at Jena, and Treitschke, June for Vienna.
Zeller gives the commencement of July at Reinerz, Barrett giving the
same time at Haslemere, and Wheeler records it as occurring at
Rannoch in July, 1876. Common on July 8th, 1870, at Macugnaga,
a village at the head of the Val d'Anzasca, at the east base of Monte
Rosa (Staudinger). Frey says that in the Swiss Alps the species occurs
in July and August. This would appear to be rather later in its
appearance than most of the other species of this group.
LOCALITIES. — The reputed British localities for M. amncella are as
follows : —
BERKS: Wokingham (Hamm). CHESHIRE: Dunham Park and Knutsford
(Chappell). DEVON: North Devon (South). GLOUCESTER : Bristol (Stainton).
HANTS: Basingstoke (Hamm). KENT : Tenterden and Pembury (Stainton), Darenth
Wood (Stephens), between Sydenham and Penge (ante 1850, Thomson). LANCA-
SHIRE : Manchester (Stainton). NORFOLK: Brooke Woods (Barrett). PERTH:
Kannoch (Wheeler). SFRREY : Haslemere (Barrett). WILTS: Marlborough (Meyrick).
DISTRIBUTION. — Wocke separates M. arnnrella from M.seppella, and
gives : South-west Russia and Central Europe. Staudinger found
it abundant at Macugnaga (on the east base of Monte Rosa). Scopoli
recorded the original specimens from Krain (Carniola), whilst Frey and
Schmidt both record it from the Swiss Alps. Treitschke gives
Vienna, and Fischer von Roslerstainm , Bohemia, whilst Schliiger
mentions Jena, and Standfuss the Silesian mountains (<'.//., the
Probsthainer summit). Zeller notices it as occurring at Reinerz, near
Glogau and Schalten ; Snellen gives Holland, near Rotterdam. Frey
also records it from Ziirich and Lausanne. Of its occurrence in the
Swiss Alps, Frey writes : " Ich traf sie auf deu Glarner Alpen in Hoheu
MICROPTERYX ARtfNCELLA. 149
iiber 5,000' (Bergli- und Miihlebachalp), in noch bedeutenderer
Elevation auf denjenigen des Engadin, so Alp Murailg und der
Celeriner Alp bei Samaden bis gegen 7,000' " (Die Tineen, etc., pp. 48-
49). Constant possesses it from Burgundy, Wiirtemburg and Prussia.
It has also been recorded from Anhalt, Frankfort, Galicia, Nassau,
Croatia, Tyrol, Carinthia, Hamburg and Brandenburg ; Liguria, Pied-
mont and Lombardy ; Saone-et-Loire, Indre ; Eiga, St. Petersburg ;
Scania, Bahusia, Ostrogotbia ; Attica.
MICROPTERYX SEPPELLA, Fab. (? var. praec. sp.).
SYNONYMY.— Species : Seppella., Fab., " Gen. Ins.," p. 296 (1777) ; " Ent. Syst.,"
3, 2, p. 320, No. 144 ; Haw., " Lep. Brit.," $ , p. 573 ; Stphs., " Illus.," iv., p. 362 ;
Wood, " Index," 1601 ; Stainton, " Mon.," p. 39; "Ins. Brit.," p. 43; "Man.,"
ii., p. 303 ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bear.," v., p. 391 ; Stdgr. and Wocke, "Cat.," p. 340.
Pwh'riiietta, Tr.. " Die Schmett.." ix., 2, 119* ; Dup., "Hist. Nat.," xi., pi. 302,
fig. 5, p. 31)9 ; ? Hb.. " Samm. Eur.," 342. ? Eximiella, Zell., " Stett. Ent. Zeit.,"
1850, p. 62 ; " Linn. Ent.," v., p. 328. Aruncella. Sta., " Cat. Tin.," p. 9 ; " Trans.
Ent. Soc. Lond.," 1850, pp. 29-30, PI. iii., fig. 5, (corrected) Ibid., p. 39; Snellen,
" Vlinders,'1 etc., p, 1066 (in part); Meyrick. " Handbook," etc., p. 806 (in part).
Calthellti, Haw., "Lep. Brit.," iv. (8. ? = seppella), p. 573; ? , Bentley, "Zool.,"
vol. iii., 1086.
ORIGINAL, DESCRIPTION. — Tinea alis auratis : strigis duabus argenteis.
Minuta. Corpus nigrum antennis brevibus. Alse anticsB aurataa,
nitidae strigis duabus rectis argenteis. Posticse auro nitidae. Habitat
in Anglia, Dom. Yeats (Fabricius, Genera Insectorum, p. 296).
[Tbere can be no doubt about tbis species being British, and until
it has been proved that the British bifasciate seppella = the Carniolian
unifasciate amncella, the species should stand] .
IMAGO. — Fore-wings 7-8 mm. ; shiny, golden green, with the base of
the costa purple ; in the $ with two, pale, silvery fasciae, one in the
middle of the wing, the other nearer the base, there is also a pale
silvery spot towards the apex, and not far from the costa. Hind-
wings grey, with the apical half tinged with purplish.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The anterior wings of the female are golden-
brown, the costa at the base purplish, and with none of the pale
markings that distinguish the male. The female much resembles
J/. calthella, but, independently of the wings not being sulcate, as in
the latter, the base of the anterior wings is never purple to the inner
margin as in that species, but only a little way from the costa.
COMPARISON OF $ M. SEPPELLA WITH $ M. ARUNCELLA. — Stainton,
who received specimens from Zeller, which the latter considered to be
J/. amncella (vide, Monoi/rapk, etc., p. 40), says that the anterior wings
of M. Keppella $ are narrower and greener than those of J/. amncella
$ . This is a structural character, apart from the fact that M.
amncella is an unifasciate, and M. Keppella a bifasciate, species.
VARIATION. — There is some variation in the basal fascia" and outer
costal spot. Richardson says : " The costal mark near the apex of the
fore-wing is distinctly traceable in all my male specimens, though it
varies somewhat in intensity " (in litt.). By Stainton, the basal fascia is-
described as a transverse silvery spot which reaches neither margin.
He also states that it is often no easy matter to see the silvery spot on
the costa towards the apex in some specimens, and he took a specimen
entirely destitute of it. Bankes says : " Forms of that species (seppella)
'Stainton says: " Poderinclla, Tr., which Zeller gives as a synonym of
aruncdla is most certainly seppella . "
150 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
differ from the type in the absence of the silvery spot near the apex,
and, in some cases, in the silvery fascia near the base being reduced
to a spot or inconspicuous " (inlitt.).
a. ? var. eximiella, Zell. — We have already pointed out that there is some
doubt as to whether Zeller 's eximiella is not a southern form of this species. It
was described in a " List of the Tuscan Lepidoptera observed by Herr J. Mann "
[Stett. Ent. Zeit., xi., p. 62 (1850)] as follows : " Micr. eximiella, Roll. nov. sp.— Am
24 April bei Montenero, wo sie in den Mittagstunden im Sonnenschein um
Myrthenstraiichern schwarmte. Microptenjx eximiella : capillis ferrugineis ; alis
ant. viridi-aureis, strigis duabus maculaque costse postica niveis (mas). Size of
Micr. aruncella, to which the species stands nearest, but the wings are still narrower.
Head hairy, rust-coloured. Antennae brown, finely serrated. Thorax shining gold
colour. Abdomen brown. Legs glossy, brqwnish-yellow. Fore-wings greenish-gold,
glossy .violet at the base, very narrowly reddish on the costa, more coppery at the apex.
At the beginning of the second fifth is a thin, snow-white, almost perpendicular
transverse line ; in the middle of the wing, one similarly formed, only somewhat
convex externally ; in the middle, between it and the apex, a snow-white spot,
broadened and rounded below, hangs on the costa. One example (var. b : puncto
costali niveo ante maculam posticam) has, immediately before this, a little snow-white
marginal dot. The apex is more " wrinkled " than the rest of the surface. Fringes ex-
teriorly grey. The grey-fringed hind- wings are "furrowed," and of a somewhat shining
light copper-colour. The whole underside is like the upperside of the hind-wings,
but brighter on the fore-wings ; here the central line shows through very obscurely.
The ? , probably, as in aruncella, very differently marked, is unknown tome." This
description agrees very well with our British M. seppella, and the similarity is further
accentuated in the Linn. Ent., v., p. 328, where Zeller says that M. eximidla
is of the size of M. aruncella, but differs from the latter (1) in the extension of the
basal transverse spot into a transverse line, (2) in the external convex curve of the
central line, (3) in the lengthening of the costal spot, which is broadened and
rounded off below, and (4) by the somewhat more extended fore-wings." Lord
Walsingham's remarks on the specimens have already been quoted (ante, p. 140).
In note 3 (I.e., p. 327), Zeller draws attention to the fact that Stephens mentions
the occurrence of the costal spot in concinnella, and suggests that both Stainton's
aruncella and seppella, and Stephens' concinnella and seppella, are but one species.
Stainton states most distinctly (Monograph, etc., p. 40) that he received from
Zeller " specimens of seppella as eximiella " and this may be taken by many ento-
mologists as conclusive evidence of their specific identity, although there appears
to be no evidence to show that the eximiella received by Stainton from Zeller were
any of the original specimens taken by Mann at Montenero.
OVTJM. — The ovum is spherical, 0-41 mm. in diameter, i.e., slightly
smaller than that of 31. calthella, and distinctly yellow ; otherwise it
is much like that of the latter species (Chapman).
HABITAT. — This species is found in a variety of situations — downs,
woods, etc. — but appears to be especially partial in the imago state to
the flowers of Veronica chamaedrys. Bower has found it flying in
the morning sun, at rest on grass blooms and those of Veronica, and
also obtained specimens by beating in various parts of Kent and
Surrey. Atmore has observed it on flowers of Veronica chain aednjs,
from which it is readily swept ; it flies only in sunshine. Richardson
says that it is common at Portland among mixed herbage. At
Wareham, Cambridge says that it is abundant in all kinds of situa-
tions, and to be obtained by sweeping. Corbett says that M. scjipella
seems to prefer drier places than those inhabited by M. calthella. It
frequents flowers of V. chamaedrys, Mercurialis perennis, Galium
saxatile, Nepeta glechoma, etc. The imagines are not so conspicuous
as those of >/. calthella, due, perhaps, to the fact that the flowers they
frequent are smaller and more numerous, so that one single flower
does not harbour so many moths ; the moths are generally taken by
sweeping, and occur at about the same time as M. calthella. Stainton
says that it is a common species, that he found it in abundance in
MICROPTERYX SEPPELLA. 151
a wood near Ambleside, and in a lane near Coniston, in June, 1846,
and on a grassy bank, near Carron, in 1874, when several pairs were
captured in copula. Haram takes it commonly in damp places through-
out the Beading district, comprising parts of the counties of Berks,
Hants, and Oxon, by brushing lightly amcfag the long grass. South
found it in North Devon, resting in flowers of V. chamaedrys, on sunny
banks, often several females in a flower, the male very rarely met
with.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — This species is on the wing throughout June.
In the Eeading district, June 6th is a fair average date (Hamm).
The following are recorded dates : —
July 6th, 1858, at Flamborough Head (Horton) ; June 2nd, 1850, at West
Wickham; June 4th, 1849, at Carron ; June 5th, 1850, at Sanderstead ; June
llth, 1850, at Sanderstead ; June 23rd, 1853, at Lewisham ; July 7th- 10th, 1879, at
the Bridge of Allan (Stainton) ; June 13th, 1887, June 16th, 1891, May 25th, 1893,
June 6th, 1895, at Greenhithe ; June 18th, 1892, at Eltham ; June 24th, 1892, at
Sanderstead ; June 19th, 1893, at Chattenden ; June 28th, 1894, near Farningham ;
June 18th, 1895, at Bexley (Bower) ; May 27th. 1890, at Ashtead (Cansdale) ;
Jane 19th, 1853, at Castle Eden Dene (Sang) ; occurs rather later in the year
than E. calthella, sometimes at end of May, but generally during June, and
even as late as beginning of July, common June 28th, 1S97 (Atmore) ; June 29th-
July 8th, 1887, July 10th, 1888, at Portland, and July 7th-9th, 1891, in Bloxworth
Woods (Kichardson) ; June 4th, 1893, at Chippenham Fen ; June 21st, 1893,
roadsides near Cambridge (Farren) ; June 9th-14th, 1881, June 16th-30th, 1882,
June 7th-18th, 1883, June 15th-24th, 1884, June 6th-26th, 1885, June 15th-28th,
1887. June 16th-July 2nd, 1888, June 12th-24th, 1889, June 13th-26th. 1890,
June 15th-30th, 1891, June 13th-28th, 1892, June llth-25th, 1893, June 14th-29th,
1894, June 16th-27th, 1895, June 12th-27th, 1896, June 15th-28th, 1897, at King's
Lynn (E. A. Atmore); June 12th, 1889, near Doncaster; June 22nd, 1893, at
Wheatley Woods (Corbett) ; June 16th, 1877, at Windermere (Threlfall) ; May 30th,
1883, two specimens, ex larra, g and ? , then supposed to have been bred from
Carex, emerged at Merton (Walsingham) ; March 25th, 1888, at Merton (Durrant).
LOCALITIES.— ABERDEEN : Pitcaple (Eeid). BERKS : Reading (Hamm),
Bulmershe (Holland). CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge and Chippenham Fen (Farren).
CHESHIRE: Birkenhead (Stainton), Bidston and Tranmere (Brockholes), New
Brighton (Gregson), Knutsford (Chappell). CUMBERLAND : Lake District (Stainton).
DERBY : Henhurst (Brown). DEVON: Chudleigh (Stainton), North Devon (South).
DORSET; Portland, Bloxworth (Kichardson), Purbeck (Bankes), Wareham (Cam-
bridge). DURHAM ; Darlington (Stainton), Castle Eden Dene (Sang), Hesleden Dene
(Gardner). EDINBURGH: Edinburgh district, abundant (Evans). GLOUCESTER : Bristol
(Stainton), Leigh Woods (Mason). HANTS: Brockenhurst (Farren), north part of
county (Hamm). HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood),Leominster(Hutchinson). KENT:
Lewisham and West Wickham (Stainton), Greenhithe, Eltham, Chattenden, near
Farningham and Bexley (Bower). LANCASHIRE : Manchester and Coniston
(Stainton), Grange and Preston (Threlfall). LEICESTER: Market Harboro'
(Matthews). NORFOLK : King's Lynn (Atmore), Merton (Walsingham), Norwich
(Barrett). NORTHUMBERLAND: Newcastle (Stainton). OXON: Hardwick (Holland),
part of county in Heading district (Hamm). SOMERSET: Castle Cary (Macmillan),
Clevedon (Mason). STIRLINGSHIRE: Carron and Bridge of Allan (Stainton).
SUFFOLK: Tuddenham (Warren). SURREY: Coombe Wood (Curtis), Haslemere
(Barrett), Ashtead (Cansdale), Sanderstead (Bower). SUSSEX: Common in the
county (Fletcher), Lewes (Stainton), Cissbury and Clapham Woods (Fletcher),
Hastings and St. Leonards (Bloomfield), Abbotts Wood, Chailey, Brighton Downs
(Vine). WESTMORLAND: Ambleside (Stainton), Windermere (Threlfall). WICKLOW:
Wicklow (Birchall). WILTS: Marlborough (Meyrick). YORKSHIRE: York and
Scarborough (Stainton), Flamborough Head (Horton), Huddersfield (Porritt),
Wheatley Wood and Sprotboro1 Woods, near Doncaster (Corbett).
DISTRIBUTION. — M. seppella is generally distributed in England, and
extends into Scotland as far north as Aberdeenshire. It is of general occur-
rence in Ireland (Birchall) . It is so mixed up with M. aruncella on the con-
tinent that its range is practically unknown. Staudinger and Wocke give ;
152 BRITISH LEPlDOPTERA.
England, France and Italy. Stainton's collection contains specimens
labelled " N. Germany," and others from Glogau, in Silesia. Stainton
records it from the Forest of Soignies, nr. -Brussels. Constant has
specimens from Burgundy. Mann notices it from Sicily ; Curo from
Tuscany. It is also recorded from France : Saone-et-Loire, Indre ;
Germany : Brandenburg, at Havelland and Pomerania.
MICROPTERYX MANSUETELLA, Zell.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Mantuetella, Zell., " Bericht des Schles. Tausch.-Vereins,*
v., p. 16 (1844) ; "Linn. Ent.," v., p. 337 (1851); Sta., " Monog.," p. 33, fig. 6
(1850) ; "Ins. Brit.," p. 43; " Man.," ii., p. 303 ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bear.," v.. jr.
391 (1856) ; De Graaf, " Tijds. v. Ent.." 1870, p. 220 ; Stdgr. and Wocke
"Cat.," p. 340 (1871); Wocke, in Hein., "Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 775 (1876);
Snellen, " Vlinders," etc., p. 1067; Meyrick, "Handbook," etc., p. 806. Ammi-
nella, Wood (necRb.), " Index," p. 231, no. 1602, pi. 50 (1839) (name preoccupied).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Aehnlichund so gross wie calthella, schwars-
kopfig, mit verloschenen hellen Binden auf der Vorderfliigeln, bei
Glogau in einen Erlenbruche zu gleicher Zeit mit calthdla auf Bliithen
von Sorbus auciipariae in Menge, seltener an Spiraea ulmaria u.
Kietgrasbliithen (Zeller, Bericht des Schles. Tausch.-Vereins, v., p. 16).
In 1851, Zeller gives the following diagnosis : " Capillis atris ; alis
anterioribus nitidis aureo-purpureis, fasciis duabus, altera prope basin,
altera media, obsolete aureis " (Linn. Ent., v., p. 337). To which,
after a reference to his former note in the Schles. Schmett., he
adds Stainton's diagnosis : " Capillis atris ; alis anticis aureo-viridibus,
macula basale ad costam, fascia ante medium, apiceque, rufescentibus,
obsoletis " (Monograph, p. 83, fig. 6). [One might suppose from these
descriptions that Zeller and Stainton were describing two different
species, but whilst one has taken the golden-purple tint as the ground--
colour, the other has taken the golden-green, and described the purple
markings as reddish. Their insects are identical.]
IMAGO. — Head black (that of other species reddish or yellowish).
Fore-wings 8-9 mm. ; shiny, light golden green, with the base, a trans-
verse fascia before the middle, and the apex of the wing, purplish.
Hind-wings dark grey, apex purplish ; cilia ashy.
COMPARISON BETWEEN M. MANSUETELLA AND M. THUNBERGELLA. —
Stainton writes : M. mansuetella is readily distinguished from every
other known British species of the genus by its deep black head ; but,
independently of this character, it may be recognised by being of the
size of M. calt/iella, with the markings on the anterior wings some-
what resembling those of M. thunbenjella, only more indistinct.
HABITAT. — Healy, early in May, 1861, observed the imagines of
this species in numbers flying over and settling upon plants of
Mcrciirialis perennis, and although driven away by his hand, they
quickly returned. Barrett records it as swarming in a damp place by
the railway embankment at Haslemere, on the blossoms of Luzula
pilosa, in company with M. calthella, and writes : " At a short distance
from Haslemere, there is a swampy copse, consisting principally of
alder, sallow and birch bushes, with plenty of bramble, rushes, and
high tussocks of sedge, and cut up in every direction with drains.
Here, on May 18th, 1866, I found M. mansuetella and M. alliomlla
pretty commonly, with M. calthella in abundance, all flitting among
and settling upon the rushes and culms of sedge, keeping generally in
the shadow of the high bushes, not in the sunshine. At the end of the
MlCROPTERYX SIANSUETELLA. 5$
month, these species were found settling upon the sedge blossoms,
where they were joined by M. thunberyella." Hoclgkinson notices it as
occurring about streams, and in swampy places, at Windermere ;
whilst Threlfall says that in the latter district it is local, but very
abundant where it occurs. Near Grantham it is particularly attached
to flowers of Mercurialit percnnin, and to those of Care.v in woods, and
flies in sunshine (W. A. Atmore). Abundant in blossoms of king's-cup
( Caltha faltutrit] in May, and may be obtained by sweeping other herbage,
but always in swampy places, about Bloxworth (Cambridge). teller
writes : " I discovered this species in a boggy alder swamp in the woods,
near Glogau, among low bushes, settling on the Carex blooms in
company with Ji. calthclla. After that I found it on the flowers of the
Surbu* bushes, whether growing in the open or surrounded by other
trees. The insects seek their favourite flowers, often 10 or 12 feet
above the ground, from which it' is difficult to dislodge them. If
disturbed, they conceal themselves among the blossoms, or creep under
the leaves. On some of the umbels a large number were found, and
when the bushes were shaken, some were afterwards discovered resting
on the grass below." Bankes says that it is found commonly in some
wet and mossy spots in woods and coppices near Bloxworth.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Gregson obtained this species, by sweeping,
at Windermere, towards the end of May, 1870. Healy obtained it in
early May, 1861. Eaton captured it on June llth, 1880, in Portugal,
by the streamlet near Cea. Stainton gives the end of May and June
as its time of appearance. Other recorded dates are : —
May 18th-31st, 1866, at Haslemere (Barrett) ; June loth, 1857, at West Wick-
ham (Stainton) ; May 28th, 1887, near Grantham (W. A. Atmore) ; May 5th, 1890,
May lst-18th, 1892, very abundant at Bloxworth (Cambridge) ; May 22nd, 1896, at
Aberfoyle (Evans) ; June 6th, 1876, June 16th, 1877, May 29th, 1878, at Winder-
mere (Threlfall) ; May 22nd-25th, 1888, June 2nd, 1891, May 2-th, 1898, abundant,
at Merton (Durrani) ; May 22nd. 1850 and May 20th-25th, 1851, at Glogau (Zeller,
tcste Durrant) .
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge Fens (Warren). CUMBERLAND : Lake
District (Stainton). DORSET: Bloxworth, very abundant (Cambridge), Glanvilles
Wootton (Bankes). GLOUCESTER: (Stainton). HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood).
KENT : Pembury and West Wickham (Stainton). LANCASHIRE : Manchester
(Stainton). LINCOLNSHIRE : Grantham (W. A. Atmore). NORFOLK: Norwich
(Barrett), Merton, Eanworth (Atmore). PERTHSHIRE: Aberfoyle (Evans). SUFFOLK;
Stowmarket (Stainton). SURREY; Haslemere (Barrett). SUSSEX: Abbotts Wood (Vine).
WESTMORLAND: Braithwaite, Windermere (Gregson). YORKSHIRE: York (Stainton).
DISTRIBUTION. — Zeller gives Glogau and the Silesian mountains (near
Warmbrunn). Snellen records it from Holland, near Arnhern ;
Stainton received specimens from Staudinger labelled " N. Germany,"
and Constant has others from Bavaria ; Staudinger and Wocke give
Silesia. Meyrick writes: England (local), Germany. Eaton adds:
Portugal (testa Stainton, E.M.M., xvii., 246). Other records are
Germany : Wiirteiiiburg (Hoffmann), Landsberg, Friedland, Stettin,
Hanover (Sorhagen), Prussia (Krause) ; Austria (Schleicher) ; South
Norway (Wallengren).
MICROPTERYX THUNBERGELLA, Fab.
SYNONYMY. — Species : Tunbergella (rect. Thunbergella), Fab., "Mant.," ii.,
No. 131, p. 253 (1787) ; Sta., " Ins. Brit.," 44 (1854) ; " Man.," ii., p. 303 ;
H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 392 (1856) ; Frey, " Die Tineen," etc., 49 ; Stdgr.
and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 341 ; Wocke, in Hein., " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 776 ; Snellen
" Vlinders," etc., p. 1067 ; Meyrick, " Handbook, etc.," p. 806. Rulirifasdella,
Haw., "Lep. Brit.," no. 41, 572 (1828) ; Sta., " Monog.," p. 32, tig. U (1850);
154 SfclTlSH LEt>IDOt>TERA.
Zell.,"Linn. Ent.," v., p. 334 (1851). Anderschella, Hb.. " Samm.," pi. 51, 352
(1816) Tr., "DieSchmett.." ix.. 2, 126 (1833); Dup.," Hist. Nat.," xi.. p. 403
(1838); Zell., "Isis." 183'J, p. 185. Hcllu-u,dla, Stphs., " 111.," iv., 360 (1835) ;
Wood, " Index," p. 231, no. 1597. Depictclla, H -Sch,, " Schmett. Eur. Micr.,"
pi. i., fig. 7 (1851). Paykullelki, Thnb., " Diss. Ac. Upsal.," iii., 101 (1794).
ORIGINAL DESCBIPTION. — Tinea alls auratis, maculis fasciaque
media purpureis. Parva. Corpus nigrum. Antennae breves nigra\
Alae anticre aurere, uitidas. Maculse duae purpurese ante medium ad
marginem crassiorem. In medio fascia lata purpurea ad marginem
crassiorem bifida, versus apicem denique adhuc macula purpurea.
Alae posticae auratfe, immaculatfe. Habitat Kilije (Kiel), Dom.
Daldorf (Fabricius, Mantissa Insectoruin, No. 131, p. 253).
IMAGO. — Fore- wings 8-9 mm. ; shiny, light golden-green, with red
costal spot near the base, an oblique fascia before the middle, another
beyond the middle forked on the»costa and joined to a costal spot
towards apex (the latter spot is sometimes absent). Hind- wings pale
grey, with a purplish tint towards apex.
VARIATION. — Zeller describes (Linn. Ent., v., p. 334) two forms
of this species as follows : —
1. — Capillis ferrugineis ; alls ant. saturate 'aureis nitidis, huraero, macula
transversa costse prope basim maculaque maxima postica costam ter tangente
purpureis = rubrifasciellti, Haw. Haworth's original description reads as follows :
" Tinea rubrlfasciella (The red-barred Gold), alls aureis fasciis quatuor rubro-
purpureis. Expansio alarum 4 lin. Ahe anticaj saturate aurea metallic® fasciis
quatuor tequidistantibus rubro-purpureis ; prima basi : secunda, aliquantulam
arcuata ante, tertia pone medium et ad costam bifida ; quarta limbi postici, juncta
ad tertiam juxta marginem tenuiorem. Cilia fusca. Posticae fusco-cupreee,
prsecipue pone medium. Plabitat in Cantio, at valde infrequens " [Lep. Brit., No.
41., p. 572(1828)].
2. —Macula postica in duas soluta. priore costam bis tangente.
Treitschke describes his anile -rschella, also considered a form of this
species, as : —
3. — Alis anticis purpureis, maculis saepius confluentibus aureis = ander-
schella, Tr.
One form given by Zeller as a var. of 3/. aurcatella is referred
here. This is :
/. — Ut a (=allionella, F.), sed macula postica ad marginem posticum usque
producta ^ paykullella, Thunberg, described as " Alis purpureis, fasciis 3 aureis "
(Diss., iii., p. 101).
HABITAT. — The habitats of this species vary exceedingly. In some
places it abounds on the chalk-hills, as at Cuxton in Kent, in others
it is equally abundant in fenny districts. In Bohemia it occurs on the
sand-hills, and in Livonia, in the bushy districts on chalk-hills. Farren
says that in Chippenham Fen, in 1891, the species was to be found
swarming about the bird-cherry and fir cones. (It was so abundant
that he boxed fifteen specimens in one large chip-box, off a single
cone.) He states that it is more abundant on a close, warm day, soon
after noon ; the firs on which this species was found were growing on the
outside of a belt of trees in the Fen, the bird-cherry among the less
thick parts of the ordinary fen growth. Hodgkinson reports it as
swarming under the shade of a yew-tree, at Grange, in 1873 ; whilst,
at the same place, Shuttleworth records it as flying in the partial
shade afforded by beech and fir trees in 1882. Bower has found it flying
in the afternoon sun, and has taken it by beating and searching
fences and tree-trunks in various localities in Kent and Surrey. At
Grantham, Atmore has obtained it by beating hawthorn, the moth
MICROPTERYX THUNBERGELLA. 155
resting on the blossoms and flying by day. Kichardson says that the
insect is common in many places on the downs near Worthing,
flitting about near the ground. Cambridge notes it at Wareham, as
being abundant on oak trees and underwood in May ; and Butterfield
as being common in Scotch fir woods at Wilsden. Holland notes
that the species flies around birch, nut, and other trees, yet it appears
to be always beneath or near oaks, and a sweep of the net will some-
times result in the capture of a score. Yet it can have no real con-
nection with the oak, except for food or shelter. Farren notices it
as resting on trunks of firs and oaks at Brockenhurst. South observes
that in North Devon, on May 26th, 1882, he brushed the low branch
of an oak-tree, in a small oak copse, and from it came quite a cloud
of J/. thtmbergella. The insect, however, was on this day confined to
the foliage of the tree first .shaken, although at the end of the month,
single specimens were beaten out of various trees and the undergrowth.
Barrett says that at Haslemere it visits the sedge-blossoms with M.
calthella, Mm mansuetella and M. allionclla. Vine beats it out of furze
bushes (Ulex europaeus) about the second week of May, near Brighton,
and Durrani sweeps it from young birch trees (? feeding on catkins),
at Merton.
TIME OF APPEARANCE.— Usually this species is to be found in May
and early June, and Madam Lienig gives the first days of May as the
time of its appearance in Livonia. Other recorded dates are as follows : —
May 28th, 1850, at West Wickham ; May llth, 1852, at Dartford Heath
(Stainton) ; May 20th, 1886, at Witherslack ; May 31st, 1873, at Grani;e-over-
Sands (Hodgkinson) ; May 13th, 1882, at Grange (Shuttleworth) ; June 15th, 1887,
at Dartford Heath ; May 16th, 1888, at Headley Lane ; May 24th, 1888, June 5th,
1891, Greenhithe ; May 28th, 1891, June 5th, 1894, April 30th and May 27th,
1897, at Bexley ; June 14th, 1892, at Addington Park ; April 18th, 1893 and
May 10th, 1895, at Box Hill (Bower) ; June 4th, 1887, at Cuxton (Tutt) ; June 26th,
1853, June 8th, 1856, June 6th, 1857, June 7th, 1873, June 2nd, 1875, at
Richmond, Yorks. (Sang) ; in May, at Granthani (W. A. Atmore) ; end of May and
beginning of June, at Chippenham Fen (Farren) ; May 23rd, 1887, May 16th, 1889,
near Arundel, (Fletcher) ; May 26th. 1882, in North Devon (South) ; end of May,
1866, at Haslemere (Barrett) ; May 25th, 1874 and May 26th, 1877, at Witherslack ;
May 14th, 1875, at Grange, and May 29th, 1878, at Windermere (Threlfall) ; May
20th, 1891, at Chingford, beaten from oak (Prout) ; May 26th, 1891, at Merton
(Durrant) ; May lst-3rd, 1898, at Oxton (Studd).
LOCALITIES. — ABERDEEN : Pitcaple district (Reid). BERKS : Reading
(Hamm) ; Sulham, Tilehurst, Padworth and Aldermaston (Holland). CAMBRIDGE ;
Chippenham Fen (Farren). CUMBERLAND : Lake District (Stainton). DERBY :
Henhurst (Brown). DEVON : North Devon (South). DORSET : Kimpton (Curtis),
Wareham (Cambridge), Bloxworth, Glanvilles Wootton and Purbeck (Bankes).
DURHAM; Darlington (Stainton). ESSEX: Chingford (Prout). GLOUCESTER :
Bristol (Stainton). HANTS': New Forest (Fletcher), Pamber Forest (Holland),
Brockenhurst (Farren). HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood). KENT: Cuxton (Tutt),
West Wickham (Stainton), Dartford Heath, Greenhithe and Bexley (Bower).
LANCASHIRE : Manchester (Stainton), Croxteth Wood (Gregson), Grange
(Threlfall). LEICESTER: Market Harborough (Matthews). LINCOLNSHIRE: Gran-
tham (W. A. Atmore) . NORFOLK: Merton (Walsingham). NORTHUMBERLAND: New-
castle (Stainton). SOMERSET: Castle Gary (Macmillan), Brislington (Sircom),
Clevedon district, abundant (Mason). SUFFOLK: Tuddenham (Warren). SURREY:
Haslemere (Barrett), Headley Lane, Addington Park and Bax Hill (Bower).
SUSSEX: Thinly but widely distributed in the county (Fletcher), Lewes (Stainton),
Goring Woods, Sompting (Fletcher), downs near Worthing (Richardson), Hastings
and St. Leonards (Bloomfield), Moules Combe, near Brighton (Vine). WESTMOR-
LAND : Windermere and Witherslack (Threlfall). YORK: Richmond (Sang), York
(Prest), Scarborough (Stainton), Huddersfield 'Jnchbald), Sedbergh (Warren).
DISTRIBUTION. — Occurs in England and Scotland ; in Austria and in
156 fefclTiStf LEPIDOPTERA.
Bohemia (Treitscbke) ; near Lauban, in Silesia (Wiesehiitter) ; Livonia,
in the Duna district (Lienig), Kiel (Fabricius) ; Forest of Soignies,
Belgium (Stainton). Staudinger and Wocke give : Livonia, Galicia,
Germany, Switzerland and England. Constant adds : Burgundy.
Meyrick writes : England (in woods, common) ; Central Europe.
The following is a more complete list : Austria : Bohemia (Treitschke),
Vienna (H.-Schaffer), E. Galicia. Belgium : Soignies (Stainton).
Denmark (B.-Haas). France : Saone-et-Loire (Constant), Cher and
Indre (Sand). Germany : Landsberg, Brandenburg, Stettin, Hamburg
(Sorhagen), Wiirtemberg (Hoffmann), Riesengebirge (Zeller), Strelitz,
Ratisbon (H.-Schaffer), Nassau (Rossler), Thuringia (Knapp). Russia :
Livonia, Duna dist. (Lienig), Bielsteinshof (Nolcken). Sweden :
Vestrogothia (Thunberg), Scania, Bahusia (Wallengren). Switzerland :
nr. Zurich (Frey), Lausanne (Laharpe), nr. Schiipfen (Rothenbach).
M1CBOPTERYX AUREATELLA, Scop.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Aitreatella, Scop., " Ent. Cam.," pp. 254-255, no. 662
(1763); Goze, "Beitr.," iii. (4), 149, no. 192 (1783); Stdgr. and Wocke, "Cat.,"
p. 108 (1861) ; Const., " Cat. Lep.," p. 311, no. 1128 (18(56) ; Stdgr. and Wocke,
"Cat.," p. 340 (1871); Nik., •« Lp. Fn. Estl.," etc., pp. 495-7, no. 426 (1871) ;
B -Haas, " N.H. Tdsk.," x., 47 (1875); Wallengren. " Bih. Svensk. Vet.," etc.. iii..
82, no. 430 (1875) ; Hein. and Wk., " Schmett. Deutsch.," 774, no. 6 (1876) ; Zell.,
•' Stett. Ent. Zeit ," xxxix., pp. 161-2 (1878); Sand. "Cat. Lep. France," p. 203,
no. 3099 (1879) ; Snellen, •• Vlinders," etc., p. 1064 (1882) ; Curo, " Nat. Sic.," i..
p. 89 (1882) ; Wallengren, " Ent. Tids.," 1883. 214 ; Sorhgn., " Kleinschm. M.
Brandenbg.," p. 314 (1886); Meyr., "Handbook," etc. p. 806. Allionella, Fab.,
" Ent. Syst.," hi., pt. 2, p. 321, no. 148 (1794) ; Zell., "Isis," 1839, 185; Lienig.
"Isis," 1846, p. 274; Tgstrom., "Not. Sallsk. Fn.," etc., i., 115 (1847); Sta..
•• Cat. Br. Tin.," p. 9 (1849); " Tr. Ent. Soc. Lond.," 1850, p. 31. pi. iii., fig. 7 ;
Zell., " Stett. Ent Zeit.," xi., p. 63 (18oO) ; " Lin. Ent." (rars. a and b only), v., pp.
3;iO-l (1851) ; H.-Sch., " Schmett. Eur. Microp.," pi. i., fig. 6 (1851) ; Ghil., " Fn.
Ent. Ital.," 78 (1852) ; Sta., •• Ins. Br.," pp. 43-4 (1854) ; H.-Sch.," Schmett. Eur.,"
v., p. 392 (1856) ; Frey, " Die Tineen," etc., pp. 411-50 (1856) ; Sta , " Ent. Ann.."
1857, 123; "Man.," ii.. p. 303 (18o9) ; Frey, "Ent Ann.," 1858, 142; Eosslr.,
" Jahrbuch Nassau," etc., xix.-xx., no. 1324 (1866) ; Sta., " Tin. S. Eur.," 56, no.
27, 91, 284 (1869); Sta., "Ent. Ann.," 1874,6 ; Frey, "Lep. Schweiz," 427 (1880) ;
Porritt, "List Yorks. Lep.," p. 137 (1883); Walter, "Jena Zts.," xviii., pp. 751-
807 (1885). Amoeiiella, Stphs., "Cat. Br. Ins.," ii., p. *27, no. 7582 (1829).
A)iiiii(indla, Curt . "Guide," 188, no. 1037, 19 (1831); Stphs., "Ill.,"iv., p. 362
(1835); Zett., "Ins. Lapp.," p. 1008, no. 10 (1840); Koch, "Isis," 1848,950;
Hdnrch., " Lp. Eur. Cat.," p. 80, no. 139 (1851) ; Westwood and Humph., " Br.
Moths " (2 Ed.), ii., p. 254 (1854). Tricinctella, Costa, " Fauna Napoli," p. 11, pi. ii.,
fig. 2 (1834). Paijkullelld, Werneburg, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xx., p. 67 (1859).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Long. lin. 2£. Alfe anticse rubro-aurata) ;
fascia maculisque aureis. Macula aurea in limbo et alia ad basim,
fascia intermedia. Caput rufis pilis pubescens. Oculi fusci. In
sylvestris locis (Scopoli, Ent. Camiolica, pp. 254-255).
IMAGO. — Fore-wings 8-11 mm. ; purple, with a pale golden fascia near
the base, another in the middle, and a pale golden costal spot near the
apex. Hind-wings pale ashy, with a purple tinge towards the apex.
VARIATION. — This species, so far as may be judged from purely
British specimens, would be considered a constant species with two
golden fasciae, one basal, the other central, and a costal spot towards
the apex. Continental specimens, however, are referred to this species,
which frequently have an extra golden spot within the normal costal
apical one, sometimes small, at other times much larger. There is also
some slight difference in the direction of the central fascia, which is
straighter in our British examples. Our own experience of the latter form
was obtained at Cannes, on April 19th, 1898, when Dr. Chapman
MICROPTERYX AUREATELLA. 157
.collected a long series. Examination of these, both alive and dead,
tended to make us suppose that they represented a species distinct
from the British examples. Lord Walsingham, however, refers them
to M. aureatdla, and writes : " I have examined very long series of this
species, ranging from Cannes through Switzerland and the Tyrol to
North England. Although at first sight the British specimens appear
to be distinguishable, I find variations, especially among the Bergiin
examples, which seem to me to connect the two forms. Many of the
foreign ones possess a strong golden-green suffusion about the termen
(not on the dorsum), and the extra spot is usually (not always) present.
Some British examples possess this extra spot, and some foreign
specimens are without the terminal gloss. I am driven to the same
conclusion as Snellen, that M. aureatella, which certainly occurs
at Cannes (as entirely distinct from J/. ammandla and J/. aijlaelhi)
is inseparable from our British specimens known as allionella, Fab."
He also adds : " A/, ainmandla, Hb. ( = an(lersclidla, H.-S. in error), is
easily distinguished from J/. aureatdla, Scop., by the golden-green
gloss on the dorsum from the base to the fascia, whilst M. ayladla,
Dup., is a much smaller species." Meyrick notes (Ent. Mo. Ma;/.,
vol. xxvii., p. 58) that this species is variable in Algeria, but it is possible
that Meyrick is here referring toM. alyeriella, Rag. Zeller gives (Linn.
Ent., v., p. 330) a table of six different forms which he refers to this
species, of which, however, <l and e are referred by Wocke to
M. andersc/idla = ammandla, Hb. (teste Walsingham), and a, b, c to M.
aureatella, but Durrant says that the type of var. c (in Lord Walsing-
ham's collection) is a $ of M. ammandla. Zeller's diagnoses of the
forms a and b read as follows : —
a. — Capillis ferrugineis, alls ant. violaceo-purpureis nitidis, fasciis duabus
(nltera basim versus, altera media) maculaque magna posticte costae adhterente
aureis distinctissimis=«Hio»pZfa, Fab. (Ent. Si/*., 3, 2, p. 321) ; ZeU. (Linn. Ent.,
v., p. 330) ; amnunielln, Hb., 358; Koch. (Iain, 1848, 950).
b. — Macula postica costam non attingente = Adelu ainiiianella, Tr. (Die Schmett.,
ix., pt. 2, p. 125; ; Zett. (Ins. Lapp., 1008, 10); Lampronia ammanella (St., III.,
iv., p. 301), etc.
Lord Walsingham, who has Zeller's insects, writes : " Zeller's
type of allionella (a) stands in a block of 13 specimens. Of these, 9
are British aureatdla received from Stainton. Specimen 10 from
Tiedemann, specimen 11 from Livonia and 12 from Lauban (Wiesen-
biitter) are also the same species. Of these, the British and the
Lauban specimens are marked var. b. Therefore, allionella, a, b,
Zeller, agree with our British species which we call aureatdla. The
vars. c, d, e, of allionella, Zeller, are unquestionably the same species
that you met with at Cannes, and that I have determined as amman-
dla, Hb. (= anderschella, H.-S.). Zeller's allionella, var. /, was
founded on Thunberg's description of paykdlella, which we refer to
M. thunbenjdla ; var. /'. must consequently follow its type" [in lift.,
May 24th, 1898] .
Frey gives four forms of the species. They are as follows :
1. — Capillis ferrugineis ; alis anter. nitidis, violaceo-purpureis, fascia fere recta
prope basim. fascia vix curvata in medio maculaque costas magna post medium
aureis, ciliis marginis postici volaceo-purpureis, 5J — 5'" = allionella, Fab.
2. — Fascia media apicem versus incurvata = var. a.
3. — Macula costam non attingente = var. b.
4. — Puncto aureo costali inter fasciam mediant maculamque costalem.
In order to keep as clear as possible the fact that there appear to be
158 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
two fairly distinct forms included under this name, we would use two
names for these. There can be no doubt, from Scopoli's description,
that his name is applicable to our (more or less moorland or heath)
British form. This appears to be the form generally found in
northern Europe. The second is, as a rule, larger than the first form.
It has sometimes, in addition to the outer costal spot, another smaller
spot just within it, often in contact with it. It is the form generally
obtained in South France, Italy, Switzerland, and parts of Germany.
This latter form, we suspect, from the Fabrician statement, " macu-
lisque ejusdem coloris versum apicem," to be allionella, Fab. The
Fabrician type, too, came from Italy. We thus have two chief forms : —
1. Anterior wings purple, with two golden fascite, one towards the base, the
other towards the centre, and a costal spot of the same colour towards the apex =
aureatella, Scop.
2. As 1, but sometimes with an extra costal spot or point just within the first
costal spot = allionella. Fab. The diagnosis of the latter reads : " Alee anticse
cupro-auratae, nitidse fasciis duabus, altera baseos, altera in medio flavissimis maeu-
lisque ejusdem coloris versum apicem. Habitat in Italia, Dr. Allioni " [Fabricius,
Ent. Syst., iii. (2), 321, no. 148 (1794)].
EGG-LAYING. — At the end of March, 1897, Chapman met with this
species near Cannes, and imprisoned several of the females with damp
moss, and succeeded in obtaining eggs in the same way as had been
done in the case of M. calthella.
OVUM°. — The eggs are a little larger than those of M. calthella,
they are similarly clothed, with the snowy exudation forming white
filaments.
LARVA. — The young larva does not differ to any appreciable extent
from that of M. calthella. It is somewhat larger, and less delicate in
consequence, and is also, perhaps, whiter in colour. The larva)
appeared to eat a little moss, as evidenced by the coloration of their
intestinal contents, but owing to Dr. Chapman travelling at the time,
they all died off. The following is a description of the newly-hatched
larva : It is about *95 mm. in length, and of the same truncate angular
outline as that of M. calthella. The antennas are similarly very
long, and the true legs, and 8 pairs of false legs, have the same
structure and relative size as in M. calthella. On the first seven
abdominal segments there are 10 rows of ball appendages. These
occur in double rows, a double row on each side of the dorsum, and a
double row on each lateral region, and a double row again on each
side below this, such that the upper one is a ball like the others, the
lower is one of the false feet, i.e., if the false feet are taken to be repre-
sentative of the balls there would be 12 rows, 10 rows of balls and
two rows of feet, only that the two rows of feet do not form a double
row of themselves, but appear to be the lower members of the double
row of which the lower row of ball appendages is the other. The
reason for taking the appendages thus in double rows is that there is
a greater distance from one double row to the next than between the
two rows of which it consists. The 1st thoracic segment has two
rows transversely, 4 in the first and 3 in the second on either side.
The second and third thoracic have the two upper pairs of rows on
either side as in the following segments, but, on each, the lower row,
* The notes on the early stages of this species were made by Dr. Chapman
from specimens taken at Cannes, April, 1897. These belonged to the form 2,
sometimes with an extra spot between the central fascia and the ordinary costal
spot towards the apex = allionella, Fab,
MICROPTERYX AUREATELLA. 159
just above the feet, has two, one in front of the other. The 8th
abdominal segment has one appendage in this row, but above this has
two transverse rows of two on either side ; the 9th segment has three
on either side, and the 10th segment carries the two setae, which
appear to be rather homologous with cerci, than with any ordinary
tubercles or processes of lepidopterous larvas. It appears also to have
a similar sucker to that of M. calthella, but I did not happen to see
it obviously used in the living larva (Chapman, in litt., 25/3/98).
HABITAT. — This appears to be somewhat of a moorland species,
although also recorded from wooded districts, and Barrett notes it
as occurring in a swampy copse near Haslemere, on sedge-blossoms.
Edleston reports (Ent. Ann., 1855, 1st Ed., p. 52) having seen
many hundreds of specimens, invariably among V actinium myr-
tillux, flying over and settling on the plants. Madam Lienig
records it as occurring in small woods in Livonia, flying in sunny
places over I", myrtillw gregariously at the end of May. Meyrick says
that it is abundant on the hills at Philippeville and liongie, resting on
flowers in the sun. (Probably this record refers to M. algerieUa, Rag.)
Wilkinson says that at Scarborough it loves to fly about the flowering
spikes of wood-sedge (Carex sylvaticd) in the sun. Frey gives the
species as being found on the highest Alps, and Zeller says that it
occurs in the Silesian mountains, near their summits, in wooded
thickets, but is rare. Among grasses and sedges at Wilsden (Butter-
field) ; abounds in woods near Huddersfield among bilberry (Porritt) ;
in moist woods and meadows at Carlisle (Wilkinson) ; among bilberry,
but settling on leaves of nut in the early morning sunshine, in North
Devon (South) ; flying among the heather at Witherslack (Shuttle-
worth) ; flies over the moors at Witherslack, but occurs also in damp
woods at Windermere (Threlfall) ; beaten out of small birch trees in
damp spots in Tilgate Forest (Vine) ; on flowers on mountain-ash at
Airthrey (Stainton).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Stainton gives May and June for Britain ;
Zeller, at the end of May and beginning of June in the Silesian
Mountains ; Zetterstedt says that the species is not rare from July
3rd-22nd in Bjoerkvik in Lapland ; Tengstrom gives June and com-
mencement of July for Finland ; whilst Madam Lienig gives the end
of May for its appearance in Livonia. In Algeria at Philippeville,
etc., it occurs in April (Meyrick). Other recorded dates are : —
June 3rd, 1849, at Airthvey (Stainton) ; June 9th, 1886, at Chislehurst (Bower) ;
June 2Cth, 1853, June 17th, 1860, June 15th, 1872, June 13th, 1873, May 26th.
1874, June 2nd, 1875, at Richmond, Yorks, June 21st, 1877, June 7th, 1878, at
Wolsingham (Sang, teste Gardner) ; May 30th, 1895, at West Wemyss, June 7th,
1895, at New Park, May 26th, 1895, at Aberfoyle (Evans) ; May 18th-31st, 1866, near
Haslemere (Barrett); May 20th, 1866, at Witherslack (Hodgkinson) ; May 13th,
1882. at the same locality (Shuttleworth) ; May 25th, 1874, May 14th, 1875. at
Witherslack. June 16th, 1877, Majc 29th. 1878. at Windermere (Threlfall) ; May
10th, 1895, in Tilgate Forest (Vine).
LOCALITIES. — ABERDEEN : Aberdeen (Horned BERKS : Burghfield (Holland).
CHESHIRE: Knutsforu (Chappell). CUMBERLAND: Lake District (Stainton), Carlisle
(Wilkinson). Hayton Moss (Houtledge). DERBY: Burton (Brown), Seal Wood
(Harris). DEVON: North Devon (South). DUBLIN: Lough Bray (Birchall).
DURHAM: Darlington (Stainton), Wolsingham (Sang). EDINBURGH: New Park
(Evans). FERMANAGH: Enniskillen (Partridge). FIFE: West Wemyss (Evans).
GLOUCESTER: Bristol (Stainton), Stapleton, near Bristol (Mason). HERTS:
(Stephens). HANTS : Pamber Forest (Holland). HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood).
KENT : Chislehurst (Bower), Pembury (Stainton). KERRY : Blackstones (Birchall),
160 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
Killarney (Barrett). LANCASHIRE : Manchester (Stainton), Chat Moss (Chappe ,
Grange (Threlfall). NORTHUMBERLAND : Newcastle (Stainton). PERTH : Aberfo.
(Evans), Pitlochry (Beaumont). SOMERSET: Clevedon (Masons STAFFORDSHIR
Cannock Chase (Barrett). STIRLINGSHIRE : Torwood, Airthrey (Stainton). SURREY •
Haslemere (Barrett). West Wickham Wood (Douglas), Scale, nr. Farnham (Digby).
SUSSEX : Tilgate Forest (Vine), Ore (Bloomfield). WARWICK: Near Birmingham
(Stainton). WESTMORLAND: Windermere and Witherslack (Threlfall) . WICKLOW :
In the Wicklow Mts. (Barrett). YORKSHIRE : York (Stainton), Scarborough
(Wilkinson), Huddersfield (Porritt), Richmond (Sang), Wilsden (Butterrield).
DISTRIBUTION. — Widely distributed throughout the whole of the
British Islands — England, Scotland and Ireland. It is also recorded
from many countries on the Continent — from Finmark to the Medi-
terranean, and from Ireland to Russia, It is recorded from : Denmark
(B.-Haas). France: Chateaudun (H.-Schaffer), Saone-et-Loire (Con-
stant), Cher (Sand), Savoy (Ghiliani) , Cannes (Walsingham). German}
and Austria: Carniola (Scopoli), Vienna, Croatia and Fiume (Mann).
Dalmatia ( Stainton), Pomerania (Hering),Kiel(H.-Schafter), Branden-
burg and Hamburg (Sorhagen), Thuringia (Knapp), Oberharz (Hoff-
mann), Riesengebirge (Zeller), Frankfort (Koch), Krain, near Laibach
(Schmid), Bohemia (Fischer von Roslerstamm), Harz (Heinemann),
Bergiin, Beneschau, and the Silesian Mountains (Zeller), Saxony, near
Schandau (Tischer), Alsace (Peyerimhoff). Lapland : Stensele, Lycksele,
Wilhelmina, Lapponia Umensis, Bjoerkvik Nordlandiae, Dalecarlia
(Zetterstedt). Norway: Ostrolandia,Finmarken(Wallengren). Sweden:
Smolandia, Ostrogothia, Vermlandia, etc. (Wallengren). Finland
(Tengstrom). Switzerland : Schiipfen, Swiss Alps, Briischalp in Waggi-
thai (Frey). Between Friitigen and Kandersteg (Jordan). Russia :
Livonia (Lienig), Helsingfors, Sodra Karelen, Abo, Uleiiborg (Teng-
strom), Riga, Tursa Moor (Nolcken),Bundelwald,Kokenhausen (Lienig),
St. Petersburg (Erschoff). Italy : Piedmont (Fabricius), Tuscany
(Mann), Liguria (Ghiliani). Naxos (Mann). Meyrick also records the
species as occurring at Phillipeville and Bougie, in Algeria, but one
suspects the species was really M. alyeriella, Rag. Specimens in
Constant's collection came from the Pyrenees and Burgundy.
NOTES ON GENERA OF EXOTIC MlCROPTERYGIDES.
In order to complete the descriptive portion of this superfamily, it
may be well to quote Meyrick's descriptions of the Australian genera,
Palaeomicra and MneKarcltea, and to give Walsingham's diagnosis of
the American genus Kjn'tnartyriat These are as follows : —
Palaeomicra. — Imago : Head with long rough hairs ; ocelli present ; tongue
obsolete. Antennas 4 — §, in male filiform, pubescent, basal joint small, concealed.
Labial palpi extremely short, rudimentary. Maxillary palpi long, folded, loosely
scaled. Abdomen in male with rounded terminal plate above, valves large.
Middle tibia; without spurs ; posterior tibiae somewhat rough beneath. Fore-wings
with vein 1 a with long basal furcation, lower fork sometimes (chaleophaiut)
again basally furcate, 1 J> well-defined, connected with lower margin of cell by a
bar near base, 2 and 3 from point of angle, transverse vein sometimes (chalcophmies)
obsolete between 3 and 4, forked parting-vein well-defined, rising out of lower
margin of cell near base, sometimes (chalcophanes) connected with upper margin of
a bar near base, terminating in 4 and 5, between which the tranverse vein is absent,
7 and 8 stalked, 7 to hind margin, secondary cell well-defined, 9 and 10 out of its
upper margin, 11 from i of cell, giving rise to an additional vein and connected
with 12 by a bar above (chryg(injyru) or below (dialcopliancx) connected with
upper margin of cell at base, giving rise to an additional vein above in middle, and
sometimes (clialcophanex) a second near base. Hind-wings rather narrower than
fore-wings ; ovate-lanceolate, cilia f , neuration identical with that of fore-wings,
except as follows : 1 I rising out of upper fork of 1 a, not connected with cell, 2
GENERA OF EXOTIC MICROPTERYGIDES. 161
J1 .nd 3 remote, transverse vein between 3 and 4 well-defined, the four main veins
lot connected at base of wing, 11 from middle of cell, 11 and 12 without additional
jranches" [Trans. New Zealand Inst., xviii., pp. 180-181 (1886)].
Comparing this genus with the typical genus Micropteryx, Meyrick
says it " differs by the stalking of veins 7 and 8 in both wings, and the
additional branch of 11 in fore-wings." He further adds [2V. New
Zeal. Inst., xx. (1888), p. 91] that " in P. doroxena veins 7 and 8 of both
wings are separate and the generic definition should be
widened to include this case. The genus remains distinct from
Micropteryx by the presence of the additional branch of vein 11 of the
fore-wings."
MNESARCHAEA. — Imago : Head loosely haired, somewhat rough ; tongue obsolete,
ocelli present. Antennae if, stout, filiform, in male simple, basal joint moderate, with-
out pecten. Labial palpi moderately long, straight, porrected, clothed with long loose
scales, forming a dilated terminal brush. Abdomen, in male, with uncus and valves
well developed, and two long linear internal processes. Posterior tibise thinly clothed
with long bristles, middle and posterior tarsi with whorls of projecting bristles at
apex of four basal joints. Fore-wings with vein 1 simple, 2 almost from angle of
cell, 6 out of stalk of 7 and 8 near base, 7 and 8 stalked, 7 to hind margin, 11
absent. Hind- wings £ of fore-wings, lanceolate, cilia rather over 1; neuration
'exactly as in fore-wings, except that vein 6 is separate from 7 [Trans. New. Zeal.
Inst.. xviii., p. 180 (1886;].
To this diagnosis Meyrick adds (Ibid., xx. (1888), p. 90) : " In M.
lo.i-oacia and M. hemadelpha, the tongue is well- developed, and vein
6 of the fore-wings is separate ; in all other respects the structure is
identical with that of M. paracosma. The antennae in all the species
are clothed with loose hair-scales, arranged in whorls at the joints ;
the spurs of the middle tibiae are well developed."
The comparison of the neuration of Palaeomicra with that of
certain Trichopterygids led to a most interesting statement by Meyrick,
who writes : " The nearest of these (Trichopterygids) to Palaeomicra is
Il/n/acopfiila (Rhyacophittdtu) ; Cyrnus and Holocentropus (Hydropsy -
chidae) also approximate closely, and Diplectrona and Hydropsyche in
the same family, less nearly ; Calamoceras (Leptoceridae) is rather
more remote. In the fore-wings of Rhyacophila the only important
difference is the existence of an additional vein rising out of 4 ; but in
the hind-wings one observes, with interest, that this very difference has
disappeared, this additional vein being absent ; throughout these
genera it seems that, in the tendency to a progressive simplification of
structure, the hind-wings took the lead, with the result that in the
finally established lepidopterous type the hind-wings have permanently
four veins less than the fore-wings. lihyacophila shows no other
essential difference from Palaeomicra ; the other points of difference
consist in the position (whether above or below the furcations)
of the transverse bars, or their partial obsolescence. Palaeomicra
chalcnphanes is especially interesting, as being at present the only
Lepidopteron known which shows the basal trifurcation of vein 1 a of
the fore-wings, common to all the above-mentioned genera of Trich-
optera ; and the same species possesses the second (basal) branch of
vein 12 of the fore-wings, which is shown in Rhyacophila, but not in
any of the others mentioned, except Hydroptyche, which does not,
however, show the other or median branch. I may add that this
basal branch is, perhaps, rather to be regarded as a transverse bar
connecting vein 12 with the costa, than as a true branch. It appears
to me that the type of neuration of the Trichoptera consists of five
K
162 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
simple veins, variously fused towards the inner margin ; and seven
apically furcate veins, variously fused towafds the base, and connected
by a series of transverse bars."
The genus Epimartyria is intermediate between Palaeomicra,
Meyr. and Micropteryx, Hb. It appears to be more archaic, in some
respects, than Microptery.t; and more closely allied to Palaeomicra. It
is diagnosed by Walsingham as follows : —
EPIMARTYRIA. — Imago : Antennae (f ) moniliform, each bead with a fringe of
long hairs from the circle of its widest diameter, projecting forward as far as the
middle of the bead above it. Mandibles developed. Haustellum absent. Labial
palpi (? absent). Maxillary palpi strongly developed, 5-jointed, scaled, hairy on the
basal joints, curved inward. Maxillae distinct. Ocelli present. Head and face
very rough. Fore-wings with the costa somewhat excavate at the base, thence
slightly arched, apex rounded ; somewhat widened across the middle. Neuration :
1ft furcate at base, connected by a bar with Ic, which has a small fork at the extreme
base ; vein 2 out of 3 immediately beyond angle of lower cell, 2 + 3 (cubital) con-
tinued to near the base, but becoming furcate before the bar from Ib to Ic ; the
lower limb of the fork is almost obsolete, and goes to Ic ; the upper is distinct and
goes to the median (4 + 5 + 6) ; 4 furcate, one limb going to cubital before origin
of 2, the other limb to median at about ^, at which point 5 is bent down to unite
with it ; 5 and 6 separate and almost parallel ; 6 furcate at base connecting median
with radial ; 7 and 8 stalked (7 to slightly above apex) and continued through cell
to about midway between 11 and 10 ; the transverse veins joining 10 to 9, 9 to
7 + 8. and 7 + 8 to 6 are weak, and that between 9 and 10 is furcate, enclosing a
small cell between its limbs on vein 10 ; 11 and 12 connected by a transverse bar,
before which vein 12 throws out a branch to the costa ; costa chitinised at base,
outwardly sharply defined by a short humeral vein ; jugum developed ; anal
margin of the wing chitinised. Hind-wings as broad as the fore-wings, apex
rounded ; with flat scales. Neuration as in the fore-wings, but Ib not furcate at
base, Ic not connected with cubital, and cubital not connected with median towards
base ; transverse vein between 9 and 10 not furcate, 11 absent. Abdomen : genital
armature, consisting of four lateral plates and strong bifid uncus, the lower plates
with a tooth at their apex. Legs with hind tibiae not hairy above, median spurs
moderate, apical very small ; middle legs without spurs (Entom. Record, etc.,
pp. 161-162, July, 1898).
The beads of the antennae have longer stalks, and thus are more
distinctly separated than those of Microptcryx (calthella) ; moreover,
in M. calthella they are shaped like a small conical bullet with the
base outwards, whereas, in E. pardella, they are more spherical, and
are vase-shaped, with the mouth straight, and wider than the stem,
the middle portion bulged, and almost flanged. No such structure is
observable in the normally cylindrical and closely compressed joints of
Eriocrania, Z.
ERRATUM. — p. 160, line 5 from bottom, read " or below (chalcophanes) the
additional vein, 12 sometimes (chalcophanes) connected with upper margin," etc.
Superfamily II : NEPTICULIDES.
This superfamily includes the smallest known of all Lepidoptera,
the imagines averaging from 3-8 mm. only in wing expanse. The
rough head and face, and folded palpi are very characteristic of the
Nepticulid species, whilst the antennae are short, and not unlike those
of the Micropterygids. The anterior wings are short and broad, and
the scales comparatively large for the size of the moths. The eggs
are laid on a leaf or leafstalk, the young larvae, on hatching, imme-
diately boring into the leaf-substance directly beneath the egg. The larva
lives in the parenchyma, between the upper cuticle and the median
vascular structure of the leaf, and makes a mine, the character
of which is generally very marked for each individual species. Whether
the egg be laid on the upper or underside of the leaf, the larva makes
its way (with a very few exceptions) to the upperside, and confines its
THE NEPTICDLIDES. 163
operations almost entirely to that portion. The larva is without any
true chitinous legs, certain of the thoracic and abdominal segments
bearing membranous prolongations, analogous in structure with the
prolegs of other lepidopterous lame, but having no terminal crochets
or hooks. De Geer says that there are 9 pairs (Wood allows but
8) of these modified legs of which the third pair is very ill -developed.
The larva usually quits its mine in order to spin its cocoon, but those of
some species, such as N. iceaceri, N. septembrella, N. agriinoniai', etc., make
their cocoons in the mine itself. The cocoons vary much in size, shape
and colour, and the pupa, in common with those of most INCOMPLET/E,
usually protrudes its head and anterior segments before the emergence of
the imago. The pupa itself is a " Pupa libera," with the segments un-
fixed, and the appendages unsoldered to the rest of the pupal structure.
The minute imagines fly freely in the sun, each species having its own
particular time of activity ,, after which they rest in the crannies of the
tree-irunks or branches, or sun themselves upon the leaves. In windy
weather, they seek the shelter of fences, etc., near their haunts, and we
have seen the crannies on the trunks of the oak trees in Chattenden
woods, swarming with incredible numbers of N. subbimacidella (and
smaller numbers of other species) on such days. It is a remarkable
fact that, when the leaves containing the mines of these insects fall
to the ground in autumn, the part of the leaf containing the mine
resists decay long after the rest of the leaf has become withered, the
part containing a larva remaining green after the other parts have
changed colour.
In 1771, De Geer wrote an excellent detailed description of the life
history of N. anomalella. In 1793, Fabricius described and named a
species of the genus, N. aurella. Hiibner figured and named two species,
but at present they have not been recognised. Haworth, in 1828,
gave good descriptions of 10 species, one of which is the Fabrician
X. aurdla, and diagnosed many others, which he treated, however,
as aberrations of the species he named. Zeller, in the his of 1839,
diagnosed 8 species, of which 5 were identical with those described
by Haworth, whilst in 1848, in the Linnaea Entomoloyica, vol. iii., the
same author established 13 species, of which 3 were new. In 1851,
Stainton published his Systematic Catalogue of the Tineidae, and this
contained 18 species of the genus. This was followed (1855) by the
Natural History of the Tineina, vol. i., in which 33 species were
enumerated. In the same year, Herrich-Schaffer in his tiystematische
Bearbeituny der Schtiiett.ron Europa was able to describe 48, whilst Frey,
in the Linnaea Entomoloijica, vol. xi. (1857), monographed 58 species.
In 1862, Stainton published the Natural History of the Tineina,
vol. vii., in which the total number of species is placed at 74 certain,
4 others doubtful, and mines of two unknown species from South
America. By 1871, Staudinger and Wocke in their Catalog, etc.,
were able to list 111 species then known to inhabit the Palsearctic
area. Since then, several other species have been added, of which 6
are British. To Wood's papers on this superfamily (Ent. Mo. Mag.,
xxix., pp. 197 et seq.) we are greatly indebted for much practical
information concerning the habits of some of the more obscure species.
It is a speaking monument to Stainton and his colleagues, that the
life-histories of the species comprised in this large superfamily are,
perhaps, better known in England and Germany than those of
164 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
any other group of equal size, included in the so-called Micro-
Lepidoptera.
Besides the large genus Nepticula, at least two other genera belong
to this superfamily, viz., Tnfurcula and Scoliaula (lioliemannia).
When more is known of the early stages of other genera, probably also
these, too, will have to be admitted.
The impedimenta required for collecting the mines of these species
consist only of a small pocket lens, and a few tin boxes in which to
carry the leaves containing the mines when found. The specimens in
collections are almost all bred from mines thus obtained. The species
are mostly double- or continuously-brooded, and the mines may, there-
fore, be collected in the summer month's, although autumn is the time
of year usually occupied with this pursuit. The whole existence of
one of these mining larvre is almost always spent within the confines
of a single leaf, and hence the area of study is, so to speak, circum-
scribed within these narrow limits. There are various means
of determining, in the larval state, all our British species. The points
which aid in this determination are : (1) The food-plant. (2) The
position of the egg. (3) The form of the mine. (4) The arrangement
of the frass. (5) The structural characters of the larva.
The food-plants of almost all our British species are well-known.
The Uosaceae, Salicineae and the Ciqndiferae supply, between them, the
food-plants of about five-sixths of the British species. The birch supports
at least 8 (? 9) species, the oak 5, hawthorn 6, and apple 5, 5 feed on rose,
6 on brambles, at least 3 (? 4) on the willows, and 4 on pear. The
Vacciniaccae support 2 species, the Urticaceae (elms) 3, whilst 6
other natural orders (including the Leyuminosae and Labiatac] contain
but one species of plant each, which is known to be acceptable to the
Nepticulid larvae, and each of these is tenanted by only a single species ;
the single Hypericwn species, however, is not so particular in its choice of
a single species for food-plant. The total number of the British species
(including doubtful ones) obtained from the lioaaceae and CupnUferae
amounts to 58, whilst only 20 are obtained from plants of all other
natural orders. Many species are confined to a single food-plant, but
others are not so limited. Both the nut species, N. flodactella and N.
microtheriella, are also found on Carpinus betulus. N. aeneofasciella feeds
on Potentilla tormentiUa and Agriwonia eupatoria ; N. oxyacanthella
occurs on apple and pear, as well as on mountain-ash, Cotoneaster ajfinis
and hawthorn ; N. atricollis on apple and hawthorn, as well as on pear;
N. angulifa&ciella on Poterium sanyuisorba as well as rose ; whilst
Wood gives the palm, in this respect, to N. aurella, which, he says,
feeds on bramble, strawberry, agrimony and Spiraea. He also considers
that N. gei, from Cfeum, is only a form of this species.
Whether the palm should net be given to N. oxyacanthella is doubtful.
Fletcher says that he has never found N. aurella in the leaves of any-
thing but evergreen bramble (Rubtis fruticosus), and he suspects that
the larvae on strawberry, agrimony, Spiraea and Geum are N. gei,
which he has found in leaves of all these plants. As to N. aurella and X.
gei being different species, Fletcher writes : " N. aurella and N. gei are
very much alike, still I can always breed them pure. The mines are
somewhat different, and the larvre occur at different seasons." He also
notes : " N. xplendidissimdla is quite distinct ; the mine is more distorted,
tends to be more in the outer angle of the leaf, and has a less tendency to
THE
165
run along a vein of the leaf than that of IV. yei. The larva feeds in dew-
berry and Rubus corylifoliits, is local, and is fond of leaves in cover of
woods, etc., in Sussex and Lincolnshire, also among rough grass on
sandhills at Mablethorpe. I have bred it freely from Rubus
chamnetnorus, from Scotland, but from no other plants. The moth is
much smaller than either IV. aurella or N. gei (the comparison is made
on 60 specimens, picked from a very much larger number of all three
species). IV. splendidissimella has conspicuously black head, contrast-
ing sharply with the colour of the eyecaps, and always suggests
strongly to me that it wears ' gig-lamps ' " (in litt., May 18th, 1898).
The following list of the British species of the genus Nepticula,
arranged according to the natural orders on which the larvae feed,
will help to illustrate the large number of species that feed on plants
of the natural orders, Rosaceae, Cupuliferae and Salicineae. The species
(which are not arranged with any view to relationship, and often have
other food-plants besides those mentioned) are as follows : —
1. Feeding on ROSACE.E
: FOODPLANT.
FOODPLANT.
N. anomalella, Goze
11. canina, etc.
N. splendidissimella, II. csosius, R.
N. fletcheri, n. sp.
llosa arvensis
H.-Sch. corylifolius, etc.
N. angulifasciella, Sta.
11. canina
? N. tengstromi, Nolck. Rubus chamoe-
? N. hodgkinsoni, Sta.
Rosa ? sp.
morus
N. centifoliella, Zell.
It. rubiginosa,
N. arcuatella, H.-Sch. Fragaria vesca
? subsp. mi-
and ? Poten-
crantha
tilla f ragarias-
N. pygmteella, Haw.
CratiEgus oxya-
trum
cantha
? N. dulcella, Hein. F. vesca
N. ignobilella, Sta.
C. oxyacantha
N. serella, Sta. Potentilla tor-
N. atricollis, Sta.
C. oxyacantha,
mentilla
Pyrus malus,
N. agrimoniffi, Frey Agrimonia eu-
P. communis
patoria
N. gratiosella, Sta.
C. oxyacantha
N. teneofasciella, H.- A. eupatoria
N. regiella, H.-Sch.
C. oxyacantha
Sch. and Potentilla
N. oxyacanthella. Sta.
C. oxyacantha,
tormentilla
P. malus, P.
N. fragariella, Heyd. Fragaria vesca,
communis, P.
Agrimonia eu-
aucuparia and
patoria
Cotoneaster
? N. gei, Wocke Geum urbanum,
atfinis
Rubus coryli-
N. pomella, Vaugh.
Pyrus malus
folius
N. desperatella, Frey
P. m(alus
2. Feeding on CUPULIFKKJE :
N. malella, Sta.
P. malus
N. atricapitella, Haw. Quercus robur
N. pulverosella, Sta.
P. malus
N. ruficapitella, Haw. Q. robur
N. pyri, Glitz
N. minusculella,H.-Sch
P. communis
P. communis
N. basiguttella. Hein. Q. robur
N. subbimaculella.Haw. Q. robur
N. aucupariffi, Frey
P. aucuparia
N. quinquella, Beddell Q. robur
N. nylandriella, Teng.
P. aucuparia
N. castanella, Edles. Castanea sativa
N. sorbi, Sta.
P. aucuparia
N. turicella, H.-Sch. Fagus sylvatica
N. torminalis, Wood
P. torminalis
(=tityrella,coll.Ang.)
N. prunetorura, Sta.
Prunus spinosa
N. basalella, H.-Sch. F. sylvatica
N. plagicolella, Sta.
P. communis,
(= fulgens,coll.Ang.)
myrobalana,
N. floslactella, Haw. Carpinus betu-
sinensis
lus and Cory-
N. filipendulsj, Wocke
Spiraea nlipen-
lus avelliina
dula
N. microtheriella, Sta. C. betulus and
N. poterii, Sta.
Poterium san-
C. avellana
guisorba
N. alnetella, Sta. Alnus glutinosa
N. rubivora, Wocke
Rubus csBsius
N. glutinosae, Sta. A. glutinosa
N. aurella. Fab.
11. fruticosus
N. betulicola, Sta. Betula alba, ? B.
N. auromarginella,
11. fruticosus
nana
llich.
N. woolhopiella, Wood B. alba
166
BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
FOODPLANT.
N. argentipedella, Zell. B. alba
N. confusella, Walsm. B. alba
and Wood
N. continuella, Sta. B. alba
N. luteella, Sta. B. alba
N. lapponica, Wocke B. alba
N. distinguenda, Hein. B. alba
? N. bistriinaculella, B. alba
Heyd.
3. Feeding on SALICINE^E :
N. argyropeza, Zell. Populus tremula
(apicella, Sta.)
N. subapicella, Sta. ignota
(argyopeza, Sta.)
N. assimilella, Zell.
N. trimaculella, Haw.
N. intimella, Zell.
N. vimineticola, Frey
N. salicis, Sta.
? N. diversa, Glitz
P. tremula
P. nigra
Salix russelliana
S. alba
S. caprea, S.
aurita and S.
cinerea
S. caprea
4. Feeding on UBTICACE.E :
N. ulmivora, Fologne Ulmus carnpes-
tris
N. viscerella, Sta. U. campestris
N. marginicolella, Sta. U. campestris
FOODPLANT.
5. Feeding on SAPINDACE.E :
N. sericopeza, Zell. Acer campestris
6. Feeding on TILIACE.& :
N. tiliffi, Frey Tilia parvifolia
7. Feeding on RHAMNEJE :
N. catharticella, Sta. Khamnus cath-
articus
8. Feeding on VACCINIACE.E :
N. weaver!, Sta. Vacciniumvitis-
idsea
N. myrtillella, Sta. V. myrtillus
'•9. Feeding on HYPERICINEJE :
N. septembrella, Sta. Hypericum
quadrangu-
lum, H. per-
foratum
10. Feeding on POLYGONACE*: :
N. acetosse. Sta. Eumex
acetosella
11. Feeding on LABIATE :
N. headleyella, Sta. Prunella vul-
garis
12. Feeding on LEGUMINOS.E :
N. cryptella, Sta. Lotus cornicu-
latus
The Palfearctic species of the genus, not yet discovered in Britain,
are as follows : —
N. samiatella, H.-Sch.
Quercus robur
N. mespilicola, Frey
Sorbus aria,
N. uniformis, Hein.
Salix caprea
Amelanchier
N. nitidella, Hein.
Crataegus oxya-
vulgaris
cantha
N. dewitziella, Sorhgn.
Salix caprea
N. paradoxa, Frey
C. oxyacantha
N. strigilella, Thbg.
ignota
N. subnitidella, Zell.
ignota
N. gilvella, Rossi.
ignota
N. rhamnella, H.-Sch.
Rhamnus cath-
N. lemniscella, Zell.
Ulmus
articus
N. ilicella, Wlsm.
Quercus ilex
N. lonicerarum, Frey
Lonicera capri-
N. trifolii, Sorhgn.
Trifolium
folium
N. nobilella. Wocke
ignota
N. tristis, Wocke
Betula nana
N. angustella, Hein.
? Tormentilla
N. sanguisorbee, Wock
3 Sanguisorba
and Wocke
or Fragaria
officinalis
N. suberoidella, Wlsm.
Quercus ilex
N. stettinensis, Hein.
Pyrus commu-
N. rubescens, Hein.
Alnus glutinosa
nis
N. lediella, Schleich
Ledum palustre
N. pyricola, Wocke
Pyrus commu-
N. inaequalis, Hein.
Fragaria vesca
nis
N. occultella, Hein.
Tormentilla
N. ilicivora, Peyr.
Quercus ilex
erecta, Poten-
N. aceris, Frey
Acer campestris
tilla anserina
N. latifasciella,H.-Sch
ignota
N. potentillce, Glitz
T.erecta.Poten-
N. pretiosa, Hein.
Geum urbanum
tilla anserina
N. bollii, Frey
Kubus fruticosus
N. hiibnerella, Zell.
ignota
N. tormentillella,
Tormentilla
N. dimidiatella, H.-Sch.
ignota
H.-Sch.
erecta
N. geminella, Frey
Poterium san-
N. dryadella. Hoff.
Dryasoctopetala
guisorba
N. nitens, Fologne
Agrimonia eu-
N. diffinis, Wocke
Sanguisorba
patoria
omcinalis
N. comari, Wocke
Comarum |pa-
N. ulmariffl, Wocke
Spiraea ulmaria
lustre
N. zelleriella, Snellen
? Salix fusca
N. penicillata, Wocke
ignota
N. latifoliella, Mill.
Phillyrea lati-
N. speciosa, Frey
Acer pseudo-
folia
platanus
N. hemargyrella, Zell.
F. sylvatica
N. flexuosella, Fologne
ignota
THE NEPTICULIDES.
167
FOODPLANT.
FOODPLANT.
N. freyella, Heyd.
Convolvulus se-
N. cistivora, Peyr.
Cistus monspe-
pium, C. arven-
liensis, C.
sis
salvisefolius
N. schleichiella, Frey
Sanguisorba
N. albifasciella, Hein.
Quercus
officinalis
N. promissa, Stdgr.
Pistacia lentis-
N. aterrima, Wocke
Cratsegus oxya-
cus, Ehus
cantha
cotinus
N. obliquella, Hein.
? Salix '
N. turbidella, H.-Sch.
Populus nigra,
N. suberivora, Sta.
Quercus suber
P. alba
N. suberis, Sta.
Quercus suber
N. hannoverella, Glitz
Populus pyra-
N. carpinella, Heyd.
Carpinus betu-
midalis
lus
N. simplicella, Hein.
ignota
N. fagella. H.-Sch.
?Fagus sylvatica
N. euphorbiella, Sta.
Euphorbia den-
N. helianthemella,
Helianthemum
droides
H.-Sch.
vulgare
N. alpinella, H.-Sch.
ignota
N. decentella, H.-Sch.
Acer pseudo-
N. aureocaputella, Mill
ignota
platanus
N. argyrostigma, Frey
ignota
N. rubiella, Rag. (m.s.)
Kubus
N. wockeella, Hein.
Salix alba
The above forms a moderately complete list of the known Nepticulid
species inhabiting the Palsearctic area, with the food-plants of the
larvae. The superfamily has, however, been so little worked outside
Europe, that a list, sent to me by Mr. Durrani, appears to be worth
reproducing, as it will serve to show not only how cosmopolitan is its
range, but what a possibility of discovery there is for any one who will
work at the group systematically in those countries from which species
have been recorded. This list reads as follows : —
From NOBTH AMERICA :
Nepticula amelanchierella, Clem.
N. anguinella, Clem.
N. apicialbella, Chamb.
N. badiocapitella, Chamb.
N. belfrageella, Chamb.
N. bifasciella, Chamb,
N. bosqueella, Chamb.
N. castanenefoliella, Chamb.
N. carysefoliella, Clem.
N. cillicefuscella, Chamb.
N. clemensella, Chamb.
N. corylifoliella, Clem.
N. cratsegifoliella. Clem.
N. dallasiana, F. and B.
N. fuscocapitella, Chamb.
N. fuscotibiseella, Clem.
N. grandisella, Chamb.
N. juglandifoliella, Chamb.
N. latifasciella, Chamb.
N. maculosella, Chamb.
N. maximella, Chamb.
N. minimella, Chamb.
N. nigriverticella, Chamb.
N. ochrefasciella, Chamb.
N. ostryaefoliella, Clem.
N. platanella, Clem.
N. platea, Clem.
Neptieula populetorum, F. and B.
N. prunifoliella, Clem.
N. pteliacella, Chamb.
N. quercicastanella, Chamb.
N. quercipulchella, Chamb.
N. resplendensella, Chamb.
N. rostefoliella, Clem.
N. rubifoliella, Clem.
N. saginella, Clem.
N. serotinseella, Chamb.
N. thoracealbella, Chamb.
N. unifasciella, Chamb.
N. villosella, Clem.
N. virginiella, Clem.
From SOUTH AMEBICA :
Nepticula molybditis, Zell.
(Colombia).
N. johannis, Zell.
(Bogota)
From CHINA:
Nepticula mandarinella, Wlsm.
(Chang-hai). M.S.
From NEW ZEALAND :
Nepticula tricentra, Meyr.
N. ogygia, Meyr.
N. propaloea, Meyr.
Currant further writes : " I have seen a species of Nepticula from
St. Thomas (Danish West Indies), and Lord Walsingham has un-
described species (more than one) from Australia." Hering, quoting
a letter from Hedemann, also notes (Stett. Ent. Zeit.} the occurrence of
two unnamed species of the genus in the West Indies.
168 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
The Nepticulid egg is rather large for the size of the moth, of the
" flat " type, ovate in character, roundish-oval in outline, some-
what domed above and flattened beneath, and, in spite of its gene-
ralised nature, not unlike that characterising certain superfamilies
belonging to the Sphingo-Micropterygid stirps. Chapman states that
it is not unlike that of Heterorfenea cruciata (asellus). The larva does
not, as is usual with lepidopterous larvae, eat its way out of the
micropylar end, or the upper side of the shell, but bores directly
through the base into the leaf below on which the egg is laid. As a
result of this the empty egg-shell is usually of a black or brown
colour, due to the presence of frass which the larva deposits in it as it
bores its way into the leaf.
The position in which the egg is laid is usually very constant for
each species. Of 41 species, observed by Wood, 37 exhibited habitually
some preference as to the position selected. Sometimes this is merely
the selection of one side of a leaf in preference to the other, at other
times this preference extends to a particular part of the leaf such as
the extreme edge, the shelter of a projecting rib, or other position.
The egg of N. intimella is placed on the petiole of a leaf of
SalLc ruxselliana or on the upper surface of the midrib of .S'. caprca
for the larva burrows at first into the stalk or midrib, and only, in the
latter part of its life, mines the lamina of the leaf. The egg of N. ar<fi/ropeza
(apicelld) is placed on the petiole of an aspen leaf, the larva passing
its first stages within the stalk. X. regiella and N. if/nobilella blotch
hawthorn leaves, the mines of both beginning as galleries, which run
along the margin before proceeding towards the centre of the leaf.
The eggs of both species are laid on the underside of the lobes, that
of N. rei/iella immediately under the edge, whilst that of X. if/nobilella
is placed well away from it, often quite in the middle of the leaf.
Wood says that there is good reason for this extra precision on the
part of N. reffiella, for its gallery being short and coarse, if it did not
start true from the first, all its gyrations might fail to carry it to its
proper situation, whilst the gallery of .TV. if/nobilella, being long and
slender, is sure, sooner or later, to reach the edge, and give the larva
the necessary knowledge of its whereabouts. In some cases there
appears to be no very special reason for this fixed habit, yet variation
in this respect scarcely ever occurs, and the position of the egg appears
to be quite as reliable a character for the recognition of the species as
many others on which the naturalist has to depend, e.g., the first part
of the mine of N. aeneofasciella is a very long and slender gallery, just
like the mine of N.frayariella (or N. gei) ; the larvae, too, are very similar.
At this early stage, therefore, a mine of the latter species in a leaf of
agrimony (and such an occurrence often happens) could not well be
distinguished from that of the former, if it were not for the fact that
the egg of X. aeneofascidla is always laid on the underside, and that
of N. <jei on the upperside, of a leaf. AT. pygmaeella and N. gratioxella
both frequently lay on the narrow leafy frill that edges the 'stalk of a
hawthorn leaf ; both mines keep along the edge of the leaf, and are so
very much alike that nothing but the position of the egg can determine
the species forming the mine, the egg of N. pygmaeella being laid on
the upper, and that of X. gratiosella on the lower, surface of the frill.
One of the four exceptions referred to by Wood as varying in the
position in which the egg is laid is iV. salicis, which, he says, lays its egg
THE NEfTICULfDES. 169
on the upper surface of the smooth-leaved S. alba, and on the under-
surface of the rough-leaved S. cinerea and S. caprea, the reason sug-
gested by Wood being that, on the latter plants, although the leaves
are clothed below with a woolly covering, the hairs stand on end, and
the moth is able to push her ovipositor between and reach a firm base ;
whereas, in the former, the covering is not only extremely dense, but
is also brushed close down upon the surface, so that the upper side,
where the hairs are not so thick, is selected instead. It has been sug-
gested to us by Fletcher, that the species on SalLr alba is N. mmineti-
cola, which not only differs in its mode of egg-laying, but also in its
cocoon, etc., from AT. salicis, which is the species found on SalLv
cinerea and S. caprea.
The adult larva is flattened, with a very small pointed head,
notched deeply behind. The head is almost buried in the tumid and
projecting prothorax, which is wide, but less so than the mesothorax.
The width of the latter is maintained somewhat uniformly to the 7th
abdominal segment, the hinder ones diminishing rapidly, the 9th and
10th abdominal segments being very small and somewhat telescoped.
The legs, as already noticed, are remarkable, having the usual proleg
structure, but being without booklets. They are also much more
prominently developed in some species than others. Wood says that
there are no legs on the prothorax, large ones on the meso- and
inetathorax, none on the 1st, but present on the 2nd to the 7th
abdominal segments — eight pairs in all. De Geer states that " the
larva (of N. anomalella) has eighteen legs, all similar in form, all mem-
branous, fleshy and destitute of hooks, without any ordinary true legs.
The legs are all similar to those of the larvae of sawflies, pyramidal
or conical in shape. A pair is placed on each of the nine segments
which follow the first, the first, eleventh and twelfth body segments
being devoid of legs." De Geer further states that the larvae can
walk on all kinds of surfaces, the whole body and legs being covered
with a sticky or viscous matter which retains them on the objects
upon which they walk. Some larvae (e.;/., that of N. septembrella)
appear to have no legs. The segments of the larva are distinctly
separated by a deep incision, with a round (rather than oval) section,
whilst the meso- and metathoracic segments are somewhat square in
outline. The transparency of the dermis and the tissues generally,
allow some of the internal organs to come into view.
The most important larval characters that have been used for the
discrimination of the various species are as follows : (1) The general
colour of the body. (2) The colour of the head. (3) The markings
on the prothorax. (4) The medio-ventral chain of marks extending
down the abdomen. (5) The colour of the intestinal canal. (61 A
pair of dark lines on the dorsum of the 7th, 8th and 9th abdominal
segments.
The larval ground-colour varies, according to the species, from
greenish-white to bluish-green, the intermediate tints of some shade
of yellow and green being the most common. There is occasionally
some fading of tint as a larva reaches maturity (and this probably
explains apparent discrepancies in different descriptions of larvae of the
same species). The head varies from pale grey to black, pale brown
or an amber tint, being, perhaps, the most common, but the ground-
colour of the larvae of the same species varies but little, hence it becomes
170 BRITISH LEMDOPTERA.
a useful character in their determination. The mouth-parts are
almost always reddish.
The markings of the larva are important, because on these the
differentiation of allied larvae often has to be made. Of these the
following are the chief : (1) A square-shaped spot usually present on the
underside of the prothorax. (2) A pair of superficial skin marks on
the dorsurn of the prothoracic segment (these appear to be the
remnants of a prothoracic plate). (3) A pair of deep-seated, pear-
shaped, elongate, dark prothoracic marks in line, or nearly so, with the
posterior lobes of the head, lying just beyond the tips of the latter.
These are the cephalic ganglia, they are of firm texture, and can
readily be dissected out. Their conspicuousness depends, apparently,
less on their black or brown colour, than upon the contrast that the
latter bears to the colour of the head. When the ganglia and the head
are of the same colour, the former appear to be (when the head is
retracted) simply elongations of the head lobes. (4) A series of
ventral markings consisting of a chain of narrow, spindle-shaped or
linear marks, down the middle line of the abdomen. This is the
deep-seated ventral nerve cord. (5) A series of large, conspicuous,
square-shaped, surface spots, covering a large portion of the ventral
area, found, however, in but few species, of which the " anyulifasciella
group " offers the best example. These spots usually disappear (except
on the venter of the prothorax) with the last larval moult, and thus
allow the nerve-cord to come into view.
The ventral nerve-chain is known by the linear character of the
ganglia, the three thoracic ganglia being wider or more oval than the
eight abdominal ones. The eleven ganglia can generally be counted
(by the aid of a good lens) and the bands connecting them in some
species, double in the abdominal, as well as in the thoracic, region ;
in the green-coloured larvae, however, the ganglia and bands are
practically invisible. Wood has observed that when the cephalic gan-
glia are noticeable on the dorsum of the prothorax, no trace of the
ventral ganglia is to be found, in some larvfe, on the venter. This
want of agreement in the colour of the supra- and infra- aesophageal
parts of the nervous system was found to be connected with the
position of the larva in the mine. Probably one-third of the Nepti-
culid larvae mine, venter uppermost, and when this is the case, the
ventral cord is coloured and visible, whilst, when the dorsum is upper-
most, the cephalic ganglia have the colour intensified. Wood con-
siders that light, being the most general and potent factor in the
production of pigmentation, has, by pouring through the transparent
tissues upon the nerve ganglia, in the course of generations, exagge-
rated and intensified their colour, so that when the head is uppermost,
the light falls upon the cephalic ganglia and, in the course of ages,
has blackened them, whilst the ventral cord, protected by the con-
tents of the intestinal canal, retains its primitive colouring. On the
other hand, when the position of the larva is reversed, the cephalic
ganglia remain unchanged, and the ventral cord is darkened. The
rule, however, is not invariable, many larvae showing both the cephalic
ganglia and ventral cord, but even then the darker is always the one
more exposed to the light. The high colouring of the nerve centres
in so many of the yellow larvsB, and its remarkable absence in the
bright green ones, is explained by Wood as being due to the green
UtiM NEPTlCtiLIDfcS. 171
larvae rejecting the actinic or chemical rays, whilst they are the ones
retained by the yellow larvae, so that the light is largely robbed of its
power to produce pigmentation in the former class, but remains
unaffected, as regards this property, in the latter class.
The intestinal canal is usually of some shade of red, yellow or green.
Frequently the front is of a different colour from that of the hinder part.
In some of the birch-feeders it is of a vivid green. The colour, of
course, does not rest in the intestinal canal itself, but in the contained
food altered by the secretions used in digestion. In cases where the
larvae (e.y., N. pyri and N. o.ryacanthella) eat the same food, the
difference in the colour of the intestinal contents (red and yellow
respectively) must be due to the difference of the secretions.
The pair of brown or black lines found on the dorsum of the hinder
segments are supposed to be renal organs. They are situated, one on
each side of the intestinal canal, and are best seen from the ventral
surface. Each is seen, under a microscope, to be resolved into a long,
wavy, or tortuous tube, bent upon itself in such a way that the two
ends lie close together at the anal extremity. They are best seen in
such larvae as those of N. distinyuenda, etc., which show an excess of
pigmentation. Many of the Nepticulids are said to be double-brooded,
but we have a strong suspicion that some of these species produce a
succession of broods under favourable conditions.
Our knowledge of the hybernation of many species is still in a very
unsatisfactory state. Some species, certainly, like the Eucleids, pass
the winter as larvae in the cocoon, pupating in the spring. Many other
species, e.g., N. minusculella, N. atricollis, N. decentella, N. sericopeza,
also hybernate in the larval stage, but appear to leave their
hybernacula to spin their cocoons in the spring. Many failures to
breed species having this habit, may be due to the fact that the vessels
in which their mines are kept are not tightly closed in the spring, and
that the larvae wander away to pupate, rather than to the usual
explanation that the larvae or pupae have dried up. The larvae of
both N. decentella and N. sericopeza appear to spin temporary autumnal
cocoons for hybernation, which they leave in spring in order to find a
fresh situation for pupation — the former in the crevices of the bark,
the latter on the newly-growing leaves and keys.
Although many species are more or less double-brooded, and others,
for a few months, even continuously-brooded, yet others are, in this
country, unfailingly single-brooded, e.g., N. iceaveri, N. agrimoniae,
N. rubivora and A7, anyuli/ascidla.
Nor is the continuous -brooded habit of some species at all
remarkable if the shortness of their larval life be taken into
account. Of this Heinemann writes (Wien. Ent. Monats., 1862,
p. 237) : " The duration of the larval stage of some species is extremely
short, especially in the summer brood, yet possibly the different species
vary much in this respect. In the summer brood of N. malella,
Buchheister noticed that on a young apple tree frequented by these
larvae, after he had very carefully removed from individual twigs every
mined leaf, in thirty-six hours he already found empty mines, and I
have noticed similar occurrences with N. playicolella. On the other
hand, of the autumnal brood of N. playicolella, I have had larvae still in
the mine for five or six days after the last moult, and the same has
happened with larvae of N. splendidissimella, N. nibivora, N. anguli'
feKfTISH LEPIDOP*ERA.
, X. ru/icapitella, and others. The larvae of X aceris must
have a very short duration of life, even in autumn, for, although
the mines are not scarce on some maple trees and maple bushes on
our promenades here, neither in summer nor autumn have I yet
succeeded in finding a mine still tenanted, although I have searched
the said trees and hushes almost daily."
Warren mentions a disease to which Nepticulid larvae are sometimes
subject. He writes : " This disease would seem to commence with a
discoloration of the dorsal vessel alone, the larva ceases to feed, and
dies in situ, after which the whole body becomes dark. This mortality
is not attributable to the attacks of.ichneumons, but is possibly owing
to premature wet and cold weather in the autumn ; the larvae try to
feed up too fast, and pay the penalty." Durrant, on the other hand,
associates this, or a similar disease, with exposure to excessive heat,
which also appears to be disastrous.
The nature of the mine offers excellent characters for the
differentiation of many species, and Wood has made himself so dis-
tinctly the authority on this part of the subject in Britain, that we
have drawn largely on his papers,0 not only for the detailed descrip-
tions that follow, but for much of the information that may be found
scattered throughout the preceding and succeeding paragraphs.
The mines of some species are not difficult of detection, but a
certain amount of training is necessary to find those of others, c.//.,
Stainton writes (Zooloi/ist, 1853, p. 3955) as follows: "About the
middle of October last (1852), I paid a visit one morning to a bush of
lUiaiimitfi catharticus, on which I expected to find the autumnal brood
of the larvae of X. catharticella. To my surprise, on carefully ex-
amining the bush, I could not find a single larva ; however, I was so
satisfied that they must be there, that I continued to look, and as my
eyes gradually became more accustomed to the indications of those
objects for which I was searching, I found that, so far from there
being no larvae before me, they were really there in hundreds."
The position of the mine is of comparatively little importance,
although even this is diagnostic of certain species. Thus, a mine at the
foot of an aspen leaf is that of X. arifyroyeza (ajncella) ; the small blotch
projecting from the side of the midrib into the lamina of a willow-leaf
betokens X. intiwdla, whilst X. aubbiniarulella is almost invariably
found in one of the angles of the midrib of an oak-leaf. The mines of
X. i-ctjiella and X. ignobilella are found on the margins of a hawthorn
leaf, and a mine towards the centre is always suspicious. Xr. turicrlla
(tityrella, coll.) usually keeps to the narrow space marked off by two
adjacent veins of a leaf, and so, can generally be distinguished at once
from X. basalella (fuli/ens, coll.), which occupies more than one inter-
space. Mines are always placed on the upper side of a leaf, even when the
eggs are laid below, the newly-hatched larva boring at once towards the
upper surface, as if to get to the brighter and sunnier side.
The characters of the mine ate of much more importance than its
position in the determination of species. The mine may be a gallery
(X. nlnetella), a blotch (X. aiyentijwlella), or a compound of the two (X.
auyulifasciella). But the blotches are really of a composite nature
starting first as a gallery of varying size, sometimes long and hair-like, at
* Entom. Mo. Mag., vol. xxix., pp. 197 et se<j.
THE NEPTICULIDES. 173
others short and twisting, and hidden away in a corner of the blotch,
as happens in Ar. ii-ool/tnjiiflla. Wood writes (Ent. Mo. May., xxix.,
p. 269) : " It would appear that the gallery was the primitive form, and
that the blotch came as an after-development, a view that is strength-
ened by other considerations as well. The so-called vermiform mines,
which form blotch-like patches on the leaves, are galleries, folded back
upon themselves over and over again in a series of coils. They owe
their form to the circumstance that • the larva confines its operations
to the narrow space bounded by two parallel ribs, for as soon as it is
brought up by the rib on one side, it turns sharply round until brought
up again by the rib on the other side, and so on, backwards and for-
wards in this zigzag fashion. Usually strips of tissue are left between
the coils, but occasionally the latter inter-communicate freely, and
the mine might very well pass for a blotch, were it not that the broad
and winding frass- track still remained to indicate its true nature.
That some blotches may have originated from these vermiform mines
seems likely enough, though probably most of them are merely the
natural development of that tendency which some galleries have to
widen rapidly and out of all proportion to the growth of the larva, so
that it is sometimes hard to decide whether they shall be called
galleries or blotches." The mine of N. argentipedalla is in the form
of a more or less circular blotch in which no sign of a gallery can be
detected.
The galleries are sub-divided by Wood into (1) wide and (2) narrow,
the latter being by far the more numerous. The course of the gallery
is of importance, whether straight (usually running by the side of a
leaf vein) or curved and twisting, and the same may be said of the
commencement of the gallery, for, in this, useful distinctions are also to
be found. In some mines, this is straight and fine, in others short and
coarse ; some pass directly from the site of the egg, others form little
bunches of convolutions, but Wood considers that the arrangement of
the frass* in the mine is, if anything, more valuable than any of the
other characters for the ready determination of the species.
In a wide gallery, in which the parenchyma has been well removed,
the larva packs its frass behind it in a narrow continuous track down
the middle of the mine, whilst in a narrow mine, the larva is obliged to
turn its body first in one direction and then in another, in order to find
a vacant space in which to deposit the frass, and so the latter is scat-
tered irregularly through the mine. In a very narrow or very
shallow mine the frass pellets are packed with the greatest precision
in slightly curved rows across the mine. From the resemblance of
the superimposed rows of pellets when thus arranged, to the coils
of a spring, Wood terms this the " coil arrangement." Classifying
these then, we get three forms of arrangement : (1) Collected into a
* With regard to this Wood says: "The various forms of fruss arrangement
are of especial interest as illustrating the effect of physical conditions on the habits
of an insect, for there can scarcely be a doubt that the various forms that the
arrangement of the frass takes, are governed in the main by the transverse capacity
of the mine, as this is determined partly by the breadth of the mine, and partly by
the extent to which the parenchyma is removed {Ent. Mo. Mag., xxix., p. 270).
174 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
larvae, however, use more than one method of disposing of their frass,
depositing it in one part of the mine in one way, in another part in a
different manner, the change in method usually indicating a larval
moult. The larva of X. anomalella does so.
It has been stated that the division of the various forms of mine
into gallery and blotch, is more or less artificial, and that there are no
sharp boundaries between the various forms which frequently pass by
easy gradations into each other ; yet they are sufficiently constant
for the species to be assumed with almost absolute certainty, if
sufficient allowance be made for the nature of the* leaf, in those species
which have more than one food-plant, or the manner in which the leaves
differ as to the quality, texture or thickness of the parenchyma. When
this is so, there is almost always some variation in the normal position,
shape, or other character, of the mine. Some species have dimorphic
mines, the difference between the two forms of mine being dependent upon
the difference existing between the leaves of the respective food-plants on
which the larvae may happen to find themselves feeding, and Wood
says that one species, X. mlicin, makes mines of three different forms,
its mine being condensed into a vermiform gallery in Sali.v aurita,
fairly straight in S. cajirea, whilst in S. alba and S. rmselliana the
mine becomes a blotch, the difference depending entirely on the
character of the leaf in which the mine is made. There is some
probability, as before suggested, that the mine in leaves of S. alba
is that of N. vimineticola.
It would appear that in many species when the egg is laid on the
margin of a leaf (instead of more towards the centre) the normal
shape and character of the mine are altered, the mine in such cases
being spread out along the margin, and hence, it often happens that
two species, evidently closely allied in the larval and imaginal states,
will make very different-looking mines. It is clear that this is due to
the position in which the egg is laid, and hence a difference in the
shape of the mine need not betoken a want of affinity.
Although Herrich-Schiiffer (Correspondenzblatt, ii., p. 174) was the
first to notice the moulting of the Nepticulid larva, Heinemann first
described the abnormal method in which the moulting was carried
out. He states that the larva is inactive for a time just before a moult
is to take place. The skin then cracks at the head, and the larva
proceeds to eat its way forward, because it can only, by eating a path
before it, obtain space to draw itself from its old skin. This, in the
confined space of the mine, gets drawn forward for a slight distance,
and is eventually lost to sight in the excremental track. He observed
the moulting in several species, and had remarked that it generally
took place at some part of the mine where the latter changed its
character, either from a slender gallery to a blotch, or from a spiral
mine to an irregular one, or from a very narrow gallery to a broader
one. Healy observed a larva of Ar. aurella resting in the centre of its
mine on January 18th, 1868, " apparently in a sickly state. On the
following morning the skin split at the first segment, and the darkest
blotch at the back of the head had receded to the second segment.
On the 20th the old skin had shrunk to the fifth segment, and at this
date the whole of the first four segments had quite a transparent
appearance, being devoid of all markings whatever, and contrasting
strangely with the remainder of the body of the larva ; the larva lay quite
THE NEPTICULIDES. 175
motionless in the mine. On the 21st the mouth had regained its
former brownish colour, and the larva now moved its head about in
a languid manner in search of food, of which it partook sparingly.
On the 22nd the darkish blotch had reappeared on the back of the
head of the larva, the old skin in the meanwhile having shrunk still lower
down ; the anterior portion of the body had now become much stouter,
and had a more healthy and fresher appearance ; the larva now com-
menced feeding with great eagerness ; at this period the dorsal vessel,
which had lately become more distinct at the fore and after part of
the larva's body, was quite hidden in the centre. On the 23rd the
whole of the dorsal vessel was distinctly visible, the anterior portion
being of a much brighter green than the posterior."
Heinemann states that whilst observing the larvre of N. splendidis-
simella, N. anyulifasciella, X. rubivora and N. ? trimaculella, in the
act of moulting, he was much astonished at the appearance of an
extraordinary series of regular oblique, quadrangular, dark, dorsal
spots, which gave the larva an appearance as if it were decayed and
spotted. These spots appeared at the moult and disappeared at its
completion. He says : "As the larva gradually crept out of its old
skin these spots remained in their place, and the pale green or pale
yellow larva, which had assumed a fresh colour, no longer showed
any trace of them. More frequently the spots moved, as well as the
old head, a short distance forward with the larva, but the row did not
always remain complete, and no longer so decidedly along the back
of the larva ; but as the latter, in eating, turned to the side, and
so took up a curved position, the green dorsal line in N. anr/ulifasciella
and N. rubii-om was perceptibly on the side of the row of spots.
Later these spots became lost in the excrement track. Hence it
appears that the larva assumes these spots during the moulting, that
these are on the old skin, which it is on the point of casting off, and
that in the narrow mine of the larva the old skin is drawn forward for
a short distance." Itis very doubtful whether Heinemann's statement
that the spots of these larvae appeared at this moult is correct. It is well
known that the larvas of the members of the anijulifasciella group have
these dark ventral markings previous to the last moult, and that they are
then lost. Wood says: — " The large square-shaped spots are surface
markings, though, to be strictly accurate, they are rather transversely
oblong, with the corners rounded, than square-shaped. Their size
and deep black colour make them extremely conspicuous, but, curious
to say, they disappear with the last moult from all the segments save the
profhorax Both in their general appearance and in the circum-
stance of being limited to the middle life of the larva (I should add
that they are not present from the first), they remind one of the
ventral spots in some of the Micropterygids. Comparatively few
species, however, seem to possess them. The only ones I know of are
the members of the angultfasciella group, subbimaculella, aryentipeddla,
and, I think, quinquella " (Ent. Mo. May., xxx., p. 44). This would
suggest that Heinemann, though correctly observing the disappear-
ance of the marks, was in error in supposing them to have become
visible only at the commencement of moulting.
The moulting of the Nepticulid larva was worked out at length
by Wood, chiefly by observation of the caterpillar of N. angulifasciella.
By a combination of different expedients narrated (Ent. Mo. Mag.,
176 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
xxix., p. 271) at length, it was found that the larvae of many species
moulted three times, and Wood concludes that three is the usual if not
the invariable number of moults in Nepticulid larvae.
With regard to the segmentation of the mine corresponding roughly
with the moults of the larva, as pointed out by Heinemann, Wood tells
us decidedly that the relative width of the different parts helps
but little, as the mines widen so gradually that there is no marked
increase at the moulting points. The frass, however, in the early
part of the mine (corresponding with the first two skins of the
larva), looks as if it had been deposited in a soft condition, and had
run together into a homogeneous thread. In the second part (corres-
ponding with the third larval skin) the frass is usually more or
less grained, whilst in the third (final) part (corresponding with the
fourth larval skin), the frass is arranged in one of the three character-
istic methods described above. A change in the colour of the frass
sometimes marks the occurrence of a larval moult. The evidence
seems to point out that those larvae that make blotches, do so directly
after the last larval moult, the gallery portion belonging to the first three
skins.
Before leaving the mines of the Nepticulids, there is one character
that must not be overlooked. Von Heyden, at Mainz, in 1843, made
some observations on the genus Nepticula and (as quoted by Zeller,
Linn. Entomoloyica, iii., p. 302) stated that " in some species of the
genus, e.g., N. cuntoriella (subbimaculella), the larva, when the leaves
decay in autumn, is sometimes not fully grown, and requires further
food, which it obtains in this singular way, that the cellular
substance around the abode of the larva remains green and fresh, long
after the other parts of the already fallen leaf have become dead and
brown." Stainton, in the Natural History of the Tineina, vol. i.,
p. 268, quotes this, and states that he made the same observation
quite independently. Wood was the first observer who attempted to
give an explanation of this remarkable and striking prevention of the
desiccation of the leaj tissue, in which the mine happens to be situated.
He says : " It is a most curious and striking phenomenon. The leaf
shall have put on its red or yellow autumnal tint, it shall even have
dropped from the tree, have died and turned brown, but the area in
which the larva is feeding will remain alive and green, not merely for
days but for weeks provided it be not exposed to excessive dryness."
He states that the fall of the leaf is associated with an acid condition
of the sap, and that the changes in the leaf bring about the acidity of
the sap. The phenomenon then is due to a property of the leaf tissue
itself. Increased irritation, he argues, stimulates an increased flow of
sap to the part, and further that a free supply of sap is conducive to the
longevity of leaves ; but the length of time that the vitality is retained
makes this explanation insufficient, and Wood writes : " Looking at
one of these green patches, with its margins fading gradually into the
surrounding brown area, it is almost impossible to escape the convic-
tion that it is produced by some substance that we may call a poison,
or better still, looking at its effects, a preservative, which, taken up by
the sap, is carried to the cells, and being appropriated in its progress
gets more 'diluted and attenuated the further it travels. What this
substance may be, whether a secretion specially provided for the
purpose, and poured out from the mouth of the larva, or possibly
THE NEPTICULIDES. 177
some excretory substance present in the frass, I am quite unable to
say. At any rate the whole virtue of the operation seems to be
exercised whilst the larva is still young, and, once accomplished, the
life or death of the creature is of little or no consequence." He
considers that in the very earliest stage the larva " catches and im-
pregnates the sap in its passage out of the vascular bundles." He
points out that even if the larvas of X. subbini-acidella, N. apicclla, or
X. intimella die in their mines in an early stage, the part of the leaf
in which they commenced to form their mines is still preserved, and
he says : " the only plausible explanation I can see is that some
substance is produced which, being absorbed by the vascular bundles
among which the larva is burrowing, gets distributed to the parts
of the leaf they supply, where it is taken up and appropriated by the
cells."
The phenomenon is noticeable also in the mines of the Lithocolletids.
In those of the Nepticulids the patch fades insensibly into the
surrounding area, in the Lithocolletids it occupies exactly the area
of the mine itself. The virtue of the preservation, Wood says, " lies
in the first stage of the work, viz., in the separation of the cuticle, for the
larva, having effected this, may come to grief, and yet the patch it has
so cunningly marked out for its future use will remain green and fresh,
as if nothing were amiss, whilst the rest of the leaf may have long
since gone through the whole series of autumnal changes." Restates
that although the Nepticulid larva does not eat down the veinlets to
the same level as the parenchyma, it does nibble them, and thus gains
access to the vascular bundles, and so to the general current of the
circulation. In this way, by the assumption of some product of the
larva as the real efficient cause, and mechanical irritation but a
subsidiary one, Wood allies the process with that of gall formation,
especially as seen in the Cynipitiae, in which the poison is provided by
the larva and not by the parent insect at the time of oviposition.
The Nepticulid pupa has the " eye-collar ' ' exceedingly well-developed.
By examination of the pupae of this superfamily, Chapman was able to
prove that this (eye-collar) was the case of the maxillary palpus, and
that its appearance of coming not from the mouth, but from under the
antennre, and, passing inwards, is in agreement with the actual fact.
The palpus 5 (or 6 ?) jointed, on leaving the maxilla passes backwards
in the angle between the head and the prothorax, until it is situated
deeply beneath the antenna, then it turns forwards to the antenna,
and only reaches the surface by emerging from beneath the antenna,
and, turning inwards, forms the "eye-collar," which contains only
its terminal joints, the others being concealed deeply. The parts of
the Nepticulid pupa separate readily on slight violence, so much so
that it is not easy to be sure whether the first free segment is the
second abdominal or the third, but Chapman believes it to be the latter.
When the imago is matured, and ready for emergence, the pupa
forces its anterior segments out of the cocoon. It is remarkable that
the newly-emerged imagines do not, as do most newly-emerged
Lepidoptera, stand so that the expanding wings may hang downwards,
but remain on a horizontal surface, the wings gradually stretching
until the full si/.e is attained, when they are thrown perpendicularly
over the back.
As the chief imaginal features, Heincmann discusses (1) the colour
178 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEBA.
of the cilia, (2) the length of the antennae, (3) the cervical tuft on the
middle of the prothorax, (4) the colour of the middle pair of tibiae,
(5) the neuration.
With regard to the colour of the cilia, Heinemann asserts that on
this character the imagines may be divided into two great sections :
(1) The base of the cilia of the anterior wings clothed with broad
scales, which are pale at their bases and dark at their apices, so that
the cilia appear to be more or less pale with dark spots. These spots
generally arrange themselves so as to form several dark lines intersect-
ing the cilia entirely or partially, especially at the anal angle ; the
outer line is always the most distinctly and decidedly expressed, and
often it is the only one in which 'the spots unite to form a distinct
line. In some few species, e.g., X. salicis, X. floslactella, X. i-imineti-
cola, this line is not generally distinct, but the dark ends of the scales
project irregularly in the cilia ; but in all cases the latter, beyond such
a line or beyond the dark scales, decidedly and abruptly defined, are
paler, generally whitish. (2) Although scales project from the base
of the cilia, they are narrow, very little paler at the base than at the
apex, and, therefore, do not form so sharp and conspicuous a line as
in most of the species in the preceding section ; and, although, in
these, the tips of the cilia are paler, sometimes even whitish, the
colour only becomes gradually lighter, and certainly more from the
pale lustre of the tips of the cilia, whilst the latter in certain directions
are always distinctly grey. This divisional line in the cilia is termed by
Heinemann " the cilial line." On this character Herrich-Schiif lei-
separated X. turicella from A", basalella (tittjrella}, X. Kalicin from X.
floslactella, and X. arcuatella from X.fayi.
As to the characters furnished by the length of the antenna?,
it is necessary to premise that usually the antenna? are longer in the
male than in the female, and therefore it is necessary to compare
males with males and females with females. Heinemann says that
"in a great number of species the antenna of the males reach above
two-thirds- or even three-fourths of the length of the anterior wings,
in which case the antennae of the females have rather more than half
the length of the wings ; in other species the antenna of the males
hardly reach beyorfd the middle of the costa, and the antenna? of the
females are considerably less than half as long as the wings. Some
few species stand midway between these sections."
Of the cervical tuft, Heinemann writes : " Sometimes this is white,
and then forms, with the eye-caps, when the insect is sitting with its
antennas set back, a distinct white collar ; in .the red and yellow-
headed species the cervical tuft is often of the same colour as the
frontal tuft, but paler, and frequently it is quite concolorous with
the thorax."
According to the same observer the middle tibiaa are generally
markedly paler than the posterior tibiae. Often they are quite white,
whereas in other species they are nearly as dark as the posterior
tibiae, <?.//., A'. ]>l(t;/icol<'lla is readily separated from its nearest allies
by its dark middle tibiae. But since the colouring of the tibia? varies
considerably with the direction of the light falling upon them, they
rarely afford, except in a few striking instances, a certain character.
Herrich-Schaffer noticed that there were two forms of neuration
in the Nepticulids, one more complicated, the other simpler ; whilst
THE NEPTICULIDES. 179
Heinemann showed that there was a third or intermediate form, and
that one of the forms noticed by Herrich-Schiifl'er could easily be derived
from the other. He says : "In the more complicated form, the sub-
costal and sub-dorsal nervures are present ; both are forked between one-
third and one-fourth of the length of the wing and the anterior branch
of the sub-dorsal nervure, and the posterior branch of the sub-costal
nervure, as it turns first towards the inner margin and then towards the
costa, runs into the last-named after first emitting a branch to the inner
margin, and then parallel to this a branch to the apex, or to the
costa just before the apex. .By the intersection of the branches of
the two main nervures, a short middle cell is formed, included by the
two main nervures, and their converging branches to the spot where
the latter meet. The anterior branch of the sub- costal nervure runs
in a straight direction to about the middle of the costa ; the posterior
branch of the sub-dorsal nervure first runs obliquely towards the
inner margin, curves beyond the middle of the wing towards the apex,
and terminates quite close to the branch of the sub-costal nervure,
which runs to the inner margin, or even unites with it. The dorsal
nervure runs obliquely towards the inner margin ; is then curved
forwards, and beyond is parallel to the inner margin ; beyond the
middle of the wing it approaches the posterior branch of the sub-
dorsal nervure, and often runs into it quite in the same way as the
latter runs into the posterior branch of the sub-dorsal nervure. This
form of neuration has been observed in N. anyulifasciella, X. agrimoniae,
N. argentipedella,' A7, aryyropeza, N. tnrbidella, N. subbimaculella and
X. simplicella.
" In N. tityrella (basalella) and A", iveaveri, the neuration differs, in that
the posterior branch of the sub-dorsal nervure is wanting, and this, there-
fore, runs quite simple from the base to the costa, intersecting the
posterior branch of the sub-costal nervure soon after the forking of
the latter, and hence the dorsal nervure remains separate and further
removed from the branches of the two main nervures, and terminates
in or near the inner margin at about three-fourths of the " length of
the wing. In AT. tiliae, N. anonialella, N, regiella, N. gratiosella, N.
aplendidinsiDtella , X. playicolella, N. b'etulicola, N.jtialella and X. sep-
tembrella, the sub-dorsal nervure is entirely wanting. The latter is
very fine and short in AT. ruficapitella, Xr. salicis and X. myrtillella, and
terminates before it reaches the posterior branch of the sub-costal
nervure, so that in these species the cell is wanting.
" Sometimes the sub-costal nervure forks again soon after the first
furcation, emitting a second branch to the costa, which corresponds
with the anterior branch of the sub-dorsal nervure in the more com-
plicated form, from the place where it intersects the posterior branch
of the sub-costal nervure and then proceeds to the costa. In other
words, in the more simple form the sub-dorsal nervure and its pos-
terior branch is entirely wanting, and the anterior branch is want-
ing from the point of intersection of the two intersecting branches
of the two nervures. Lastly, in the more simple form there is
also wanting one of the last three branches of the sub-costal
nervure which terminate near the apex of the wing ; the latter is
consequently represented as a nervure, which runs first parallel to
the costa, then turns sharply towards the inner margin, and at the
same time sends two parallel branches to the costa, and lastly is
180 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
again forked before the apex of the wing, emitting two branches
towards it. In all the three forms the costal nervure is very short
and fine, and terminates on the costa near the base, often hardly
distinct ; the dorsal nervure is not furcate towards the base, and is
not double. What Herrich-Schaffer calls " Rippe Ib," and Zeller
and Frey call the fine upper nervure of the fork, is the delicate fold
of the wing, which approaches the dorsal nervure in the middle
and usually unites with it, although sometimes it remains perceptibly
distinct.
" The posterior wings have only one median nervure, which forks,
sooner or later, and runs with the two forks to the margins or towards
the apex of the wing, besides this there are one costal and two dorsal
nervures" (Heinemann, Ent. Annual, 1863, pp. 47-49).
With regard to the affinities of the Nepticulids, little is known,
Chapman considers them to have originated from the more primitive
Lepidoptera, but with none of the landmarks now left to show the line
of their evolution. He has pointed out, however, several remarkable
parallels between them and the Eucleids (Limacodids), which are here
quoted. Chapman writes : " In many respects Limacodet and Xrjitimla
seem extremely different, and apart from the matter of size, the larva
of the former is an external feeder. The neuration of the imagines of
the latter is crippled by the minute size of the moths, so as to render
them very different, though probably not essentially so in this respect.
It is, therefore, somewhat surprising to find a resemblance that is
almost identity in the pupa. In both, the pupal skin is very delicate ;
the free abdominal segments begin at the first ; the appendages are
easily separated, as they might be in a bee or beetle pupa ; the dorsal
spines are arranged in several rows of small equal points towards the
dorsal margin of the segment. The maxillary palpus is strongly
developed, and, on dehiscence, remains attached to the head coverings.
It is, indeed^ larger proportionally in these genera (Ajxxhi and
Hetfrnyenea), where it is obsolete in the imago, than in Nepticvbt, or
others where it persists in the imago. The pupa emerges from the
cocoon in much the same manner, and leaves a very delicate pupa-case,
in which, after the manner of the Incomjdetae, the covered parts are
nearly as strong as the exposed. The Eucleid larva passes the winter
in a passive state in the cocoon, changing in spring ; whilst its apod
character might be explained by its very recent descent from a footless
mining larva. The urticating properties of sundry exotic species of
the group, may, perhaps, be allied in nature to the excretion discharged
by some of these miners (especially Nepticvla), of some poison that
retards the autumnal decay of the leaf they inhabit. Xi-ptintla and
Limacodex present us, indeed, with the Incomplete pupa in an extreme
form ; the empty pupa-skin has every segment and each appendage quite
free from the others. The dorsal armature consists, in Cochliopods, of
a number of rows of very fine spines, all belonging to one series. In
the species of Nepticula examined there are no spines to the hind margin,
but the anterior set forms, in some species, a single row of largish spines,
in others two and three rows ; in the latter instances the spines are
much smaller. There is, therefore, a variability in the armature that
might easily extend to include the Cochliopod form. Xejitimla, how-
ever, has one character, that I have not met with elsewhere, riz., the
antenna-cases on dehiscence divide into the cover of the first joint
THE NEPTICULIDES. 181
and that of the remainder, each separate from the head, yet still held
together sufficiently to keep their places fairly. The egg of Hetcro-
tjcnca awlla is a flat, colourless, transparent speck, much like that of
Nepticula, but not resembling that of any true Bombycid species "
(Chapman, Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1893, pp. 115 et seq.).
Meyrick writes: "Nepticula is a very large genus, quite cosmo-
politan, but probably attaining its greatest development in Europe.
Owing to their small size, and the similarity of appearance, the species
present considerable difficulty, and have been so much neglected that
their distribution is hardly known except in England and Germany,
and even there very imperfectly. Most of the species can seldom be
obtained except by rearing the larvae, but some fly freely in the sun-
shine. Imago with fore-wings lanceolate. Larva without developed
legs or prolegs, but with pairs of rudimentary ventral processes on
3, 4, and 6 — 11, or rarely wholly apodal. Pupa in a firm cocoon
usually outside the mine" (Handbook, etc., p. 711).
As a matter of fact, with the exception of Fernald, there is scarcely
a really good micro-lepidopterist in North America at the present
time, yet, there is a by no means small list of American Nepticulids,
and one would suspect that if properly worked, the Nearctic would be
fully as productive in species belonging to this superfamily as the
Palaearctic region.
There is no doubt that the NEPTICULIDES are a very ancient super-
family. The larval habit of mining in leaves has resulted in the
traces of the work of a larva being discovered in a leaf found in brown
coal of Lower Miocene age. This mine was described under the
name of Nepticvlafoutti*, in Meyer and Dunker's Palaeontographica, x.
(1861-3), and mentioned by Goss, Proc. Geol. Association, v., No. 6,
p. 57 (1877). That the group is much older than this there cannot be
the least doubt. One would suppose that it existed throughout the
Mesozoic period, and probably far back into Palaeozoic times.
As to the ease with which these charming atoms can be collected,
Wood tells us that he has captured, near Tarrington, on a bit of
rough, hilly country, on the limestone, barely three miles across in any
direction more than fifty species. It is of very little use attempting
to collect many of these species in the imaginal state, in fact, some
species, common enough as larvae, are never seen in the perfect con-
dition at all. When the leaves containing the mines are picked, they
must be put at once into tins, and not allowed to become too dry.
On arrival home the mines should be sorted carefully, each kind of
mine being separated from those of a different species ; the leaves of
each separate batch should then be loosely but carefully rolled up in
some soft paper, and placed into a tin or glass jar. The larvae feed up
so rapidly that at the end of a week, at most, they will have left the
leaves and spun their cocoons, generally in little clusters on the paper.
They can then be removed to little glass tubes, or to flower-pots with
a glass cover, and labelled with the name of the plant, and a note as
to the manner of mining. Many larvae of those species that feed up
in the autumn do not pupate until the spring, and since some leave
their cocoons at this time, and seek a fresh place in which to pupate,
care must be taken that they do not then escape. Like almost all
species of Lepidoptera that hybernate as larvae in their cocoons,
Eucleids, etc., the Nepticulids can be bred throughout the winter by
182 BRITISH LEPlDOPTEKA.
bringing the cocoons into a warm room. Owing to the fact that their
larvae may be collected in late autumn, when other entomological
field-work is almost over, and that they can he then forced to emerge
in the winter at will, many entomologists have occupied themselves
with these charming little atoms, for they can set them uninterruptedly
throughout the winter, when there are practically no other insects to
set. Some few species, however, are often abundant enough in the
imago state, <-.//., JY. subbimaculdla, X. quinqudla, etc., resting in the
crannies of oak trunks. Ar. intimella is to be obtained by sweeping
the ends of the sallow branches ; X. pyyinaeeUa flies freely from
5-6 a.m., and X. yratiosella on a sunny afternoon. The species,
however, are, as a rule, much better bred.
Frey says that although 46 species of the genus X'epticida, and 2 of
Trifumda occurred in Switzerland in 1858, only 2 species of the
former genus, and 1 of the latter, occur in the Alps from 5,000-7,000 ft.
altitude. The two Xepticulae were X. siyteinbrella, found on one of the
Glarus Alps, in 1857, at an elevation of 5,400 ft., and the blotch
mine of a species on mountain-ash (Fi/nt* aucuparia), which also occurs
at Ziirich. Bremi-Wolff found, years before, a species of Trifumda
abundantly on the Righi (Ent. Ann., 1858, p. 146). Of the distri-
bution of the Nepticulid species at considerable altitudes, Heinemann
observes that on the Upper Harz, at 2,800 feet above the sea, he found,
in June, mines of X u-eaveri on V actinium vitis-idaea, and in July
he found mines of an unknown species on Pi/ru* aucuparia (the
imagines, which had red heads, and a silvery fascia across the fore-
wings, died in the pupa-case, and so failed to emerge). In the
same place he met with some specimens of a third species amongst
Vaccinium myrtiUtu and V. ulif/ino.ium, but only caught one specimen,
in bad condition. This proved not to be X. myrtillella, but bore con-
siderable resemblance to N. lapponica.
Family : NEPTICULID^.
In spite of the great amount of information that has accumulated
relating to the life-histories of these moths, and the number of students
who have from time to time been engaged in unravelling their habits,
little enough is known of many essential points in their structure.
Even the variation of the neuration indicated by Heinemann has
never yet been worked out by those versed in this particular branch
of study, and no grouping on the lines indicated has yet, we believe,
been attempted. The result is, that the superfamily at present con-
tains only one recognised family, and the latter three genera, all so
nearly allied as to be united into a single tribe. True, Staudinger and
Wocke include [Catalog, etc. (1871), p. 335] the genus Opostena in
this family, but of this remarkable genus that exhibits the extreme
of neurational specialisation, inasmuch as there are only three un-
branched nervures to the fore-wings, so little is known that it is
difficult to say with any precision to what superfamily it does belong.
The only three genera represented certainly in the Palrcarctic area are
Ntptt&lla, Trifumda and Scoliaula (Bohemannia).
The number of Pahearctic species enumerated in Staudinger and
Wocke 's Catalog, etc. (1871), pp. 335-340, is as follows : — Xepticula,
111 species; Trifurcula, 5 species; Scvliaida, I species. This list
was almost entirely confined to species found in Britain, Germany and
THE NEPTICULIDES, 183
Switzerland, and as the number of workers in other countries has
not increased to any great extent, a list compiled at the present time
consists of but little more than the additions made since 1871 by the
British and German lepidopterists, united to Wocke's list of that
date — an approximate list of this kind has been compiled, ante,
pp. 166-167. At the present time the number of British species
may be put down at — Nepticula 78 (including five or six species
doubtful), Trifurcida 3 (one of the species, sqiiamatella, included in
Wocke's Catalog, etc., having since been united with immundella)
Scoliaula (Bohemannia) 1 species.
We have, in the genus Nepticula, a certain number of British
species whose right to specific claim is doubtful. Of these the
best known are Nepticula atricapitella and N. ruficapitella, which
are sometimes considered but one species. Stainton says (Nat.
[list. Tin., i., p. 276) that they pair true, and should be con-
sidered as really distinct, also that the larva of N. atricapitella,
like the moth, has a black head, and can by this be dis-
tinguished from that of N. ruficapitella. On the other hand, in the
MS. Catalogue of Stainton's British collection (by Harnpson), we
observe that specimens of N. atricapitella are recorded as being bred from
" pale-headed " larvae, and many specimens of both N. atricapitella and
N. ruficapitella are recorded as bred from " dark" larvas and "pale "
larvae, apparently indiscriminately. Sorhagen writes ["Die Klein-
sfhmett. der Mark Bradenbwy" (1886), p. 302] that " Dr. Hinneberg, on
April 28th, 1885, observed, at Potsdam, N. ruficapitella, in copula, with
N. atricapitella, whereby, probably, all doubt as to their identity is
removed." The second pair of doubtful species comprises iV. aryyropeza,
Sta. and N. apicella, Sta., which are said to = respectively the N.
subapicella, Sta. and N. aryyropeza, Zell. The N. aryyropeza of Zeller
(= N. apicella, Sta.), is the P. tremula species, which is certainly
British, but is N. subapicella ( = JV. argyropeza, Sta.) a distinct species
from it ? Other doubtful species include N. obliquella (diversa), so called
British specimens of which may be AT. solids or N. vimineticola, making
elongate mines in large leaves of S. caprea ; also N. dulcella, British speci-
mens of which may constitute a small form of N.frayariella. N. filipen-
dulae, Fletcher says, " may be N.poterii feeding in Spiraea Jilipendulae.
X. poterii is very local, its food-plant very abundant. N. Jilipendulae
is widely distributed on the Sussex downs, though its food-plant is less
abundant, and I have never yet found the two Nepticulids on the same
ground, though the food-plants are fairly mixed." On the other
hand, Fletcher writes : "I am not at all sure that we may not have
two species included in N. anomalella, alluded to by Stainton (Nat.
Hist. Tin., i., p. 58), vis., a larger one — the imago, with bright yelloiv
face and head, the larva feeding in hedgerows on Rosacanina and R. rubi-
f/inosa, and in gardens on several species of rose. I have bred it pure
in large numbers from rose " Rampant," which is I think a var. of Rosa
sempervirens. The larva of the other, smaller form, the imayo icith
black hairs on head, feeds in Rosa arvensis, in woods, chiefly under shade
of trees. I have met this form in Sussex and Lincolnshire." Again,
N. hodykinsoni has not yet been very definitely distinguished from N.
centifoliclla, and one would like more light on the former species.
N. tenystormi claims its place as British on a single specimen bred
from Scotch larvae. N. castanella is only known as British from
184 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
specimens captured by Edleston, in the " fifties," at Bowdon, and
although Wocke records the species from South France, Italy and the
Tyrol, we cannot trace the records on which the statement is based.
^V. yei, Wocke, was sunk by Wocke himself as being identical with A*.
fraijaridla, but the mine in Ge-um is broader than that in Frayaria, and
although this does not count for much, in such a difficult group, the
point is worth more definite attention than has as yet been given to it,
and one would like to see the life-histories of the insects from the two
food-plants, set out in two parallel columns. We have two beech-
feeding Nepticulids in Britain, but the species we call tityrella is most
probably the turicella of the Continental entomologists, whilst our
fuli/i'iis ( = l>f(K(ilella) appears to be not anly their tittjrdla, but actually the
tityrella of Stainton, so that fulyenx, Sta. = tityrella, Sta., and the tittjrdla
of British cabinets = turicella, H.-Sch. X. bistrimantlella is probably
British, specimens referable to this species having been bred, we believe,
by Vine, from larvae taken in birch in the Brighton district. X. tonnen-
tillella has been introduced and re-introduced as British, but the species
has probably not yet been taken in Britain. There are other insects
whose right to a position on the British list is as yet more or less
doubtful, but each will be dealt with separately and the arguments for
or against the claims of each will be given when each of these species
is considered. A lew alterations in the list already compiled (ante, pp.
165-167) may be necessary as the details relating to each species are
further elucidated.
Subfam. : NEPTICULINJE.
Tribe : NEPTICULIDI.
Genus : NEPTICULA, Heyd.
SYNONYMY. — Genus : Ne2)ticula, Heyden, " Bericht der Versammlung der
Naturforscher zu Mainz (1843), p. 208; Zell.. " Linn. Ent.," iii., p. 301 (1848) ;
Sta., " Cat. Brit. Tin.," p. 28 (1849) ; " Ins. Brit. Tin.," p. 295 (1854) ; " Nat. Hist.
Tin.." i., p. 34 (1855) ; Frey, "Die Tineen und Pterophoren der Schweiz," p. 368
(1856) ; Heinemann, " Wiener Ent. Monatschrift," 1862, p. 237 ; Staudinger and
Wocke, " Catalog," etp., p. 335 (1871) ; Nolcken, " Lep. Fn. Estland." etc., p. 752 ;
Heinemann and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," ii., p. 727 (1877); Snellen, "De
Vlinders van Nederland," ii., p. 978 (1882); Sorhagen, "Die Kleinschmett.
Brandenburg," p. 301 (1886) ; Meyrick, " Handbook," etc., 710 (1895). Micrasetiti
(in part) Stephens, " Illustrations," etc., iv. (1835), p. 268 [Westwood cited T.
stipelki, Hb., 138, as type of Microsetia, in the Syn. Gen. Dr. In*., p. 112 (1840)] ;
Kirby, " Handbook Order Lepidop.," v., p. 313. Lyonetia (in part), Zeller, " Isis,"
1839, p. 215.
Heyden cites the following species under Xepticnla : aurella, Fab.,
aryentipedella, Zell.. centifoliella, Hgn., scricopeza, Zell., cursoriella, H.
[N. aurella may be cited as the type] .
Zeller's diagnosis of the genus (Linn. Phit., iii., p. 802) is as
follows :— «
" Caput lanatum, etiam in epistomio. Antennas breves crassas, conchula
modica instructaa. Palpi breves, penduli. Alaa anteriores grosse squamatse ; vena
subcostali furcata, rarno inferiore cum mediana per venulam cohaerente ; vena
mediana postice in tres ramos divisa, subdorsali in basi furcata : posteriores
ovato-lanceolatse, vena media longissime furcata. Larva pedibus veris 4, spuriis
12, praedita (Heyden)."
The main characters of the genus would appear to be as follows :
IMAGO. — Head hairy ; tongue rudimentary; antennas with basal joint enlarged
to form an eye-cap ; maxillary palpi rather long, folded ; labial palpi short,
slightly porrected ; fore-wings rather broad, short and coarse scales ; hind-wings
lanceolate ; (neuration variable, vide, ante, pp. 178-180).
pUPA. — Libera, with segments and appendages free, i.e., not soldered ; maxillary
THE NEPTICULIDES. 185
palpus exceedingly well developed ; pupa in cocoon ; partly protrudes from cocoon
before emergence of imago.
LARVA. — Head small ; pro-thorax tumid; no true legs, but 9 (8?) pairs of
membranous prolegs without booklets (some species without prolegs) ; dermis
transparent ; segmental incisions well defined ; mines in leaves, and lives on the
parenchyma.
OVUM. — Large for size of moth ; flat and scale-like ; roundish-oval in outline ;
micropyle at one end.
GROUP I. — Cilia of the anterior wings with no dark divisional line,
but cilia becoming gradually paler towards their tips. Anterior wings
with no distinct fascia.
NEPTICULA ATRICAPITELLA, Haworth.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Atricujntella, Haw., " Lep. Brit.," pp. 585-586 (1828);
Stphs., "Illus.,"iv., p. 269 (1835); Sta., "Sys. Cat.," p. 28 (1849); "Ins. Brit.,"
p. 297 (1854); "Nat. Hist. Tin.," i., p. 8 (1855); "Manual," ii., p. 431 (1859);
H.-Schk'ffer, " Sys. Bear.," v., p. 347, fig. 1086 (1855) ; Frey, " Die Tineen," etc., p.
370(1856) ; "Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 368 (1857) ; Heinemann, " Wein. Ent. Monats.,"
pp. 241, 246, 256(1862) ; Hum. and Sta., " Zool.," xxi., pp. 8356-8357 (1863) ; Staud.
and Wocke, "Cat.," p. 335 (1871); Nolcken, "Lep. Fauna Estland," p. 754
.," p. 372 (1875) ; Help, and Wo
'Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 731 (1877); Sand, "Cat. Lep..Auv.," p. 200 (1879);
(1871) ; Milliere, " Cat. Lep. Alp.-Mar.," p. 372 (1875) ; Hein. and Wocke,
Snellen, " Vlinders," etc , ii , p. 981 (1882); Peyer., "Cat. Lep. Als.," 2nd Ed.,
p. 163 (1882); Curo, "Atti della Soc. Mat. Modena," xvi. (1883); Sorhagen,
"Die Kleinschmett. Mark Brandenburg," p. 302 (1886); Meyrick, " Handbook,"
etc., p. 714(1895). ? SamMtella, Zell., " Isis," 1839, p. 215; "Linn. Ent.,"
iii., p 303 (teste Snellen).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — " Tinea (The black-headed Pygmy) alis
auratis costa liuiboque postico purpurascentibus, capite atro. Expansio
alarum 2f lin. Pnecedenti (riolacella) simillima, sed dignoscitur
primo intuitu capite aterrimo nee ferrugineo, lamella alba ad antennas
instructo. Ala? anticte auratae margine postico late purpurascente.
Costa etiam certo situ late purpurascit. Habitat prope Londinum infre-
quens " (Haworth, Lepidoptera Britannica, pt. iv., pp. 585-586).
IMAGO. — Head black. Anterior wings 5-6 mm. in expanse ; shining
dark greenish-bronze in colour, the tip of the scales tinged with violet,
especially at apex, and along the costa ; cilia blue-black, apical half
from apex to anal angle pale greyish, at inner margin blackish-grey.
Posterior wings blackish-violet, slightly bronzy, cilia similarly
coloured, but with grey tips.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The blue-black cilia extend in the female
almost to the base of the wing without perceptibly decreasing in length,
and in set specimens they distinctly lie over the posterior wings. The
anal tuft is greyish in the male, and rusty-yellowish in the female
(Heinemann).
OVUM. — The egg (or rather the empty shell is what one finds and
sees) is laid on the underside of an oak-leaf, just within the margin ;
in a bright light it looks like a globule of quicksilver. It is bright and
polished, and no marking or sculpturing can be detected and dis-
tinguished from the network afforded by the frass with which the
shell is packed. It is margined by a border of the gum with which
it is attached to the leaf. It is dome-shaped, but apparently rather
longer in one diameter than the other, riz,, length '26mm., width
•23mm. ; the height appears to be -luim., but this is, of course, rather
guesswork, as the lower surface is absent, and one assumes it is level
with the free border, but very probably it bulges in some irregularity
of the leaf (Chapman, in litt.).
186 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
MINE. — The larva makes very slender galleries in oak-leaves, as
yet not separated from those of A", rvftoapiteUa, Heinemanu says
that he has " hred large numbers of N. atricai>itella and X. samiatella,
H.-Sch., from the larva, but without being able to find any difference
between the mines or larvae, or between those of these species and X.
nifirapitella. The excremental track is very variable— sometimes like a
thin line, sometimes it almost fills the entire mine, but generally it is
midway between the two extremes." He further adds that he " attempted
to separate the mines by the form of the excremental track : this was, how-
ever, not entirely practicable, owing to the very imperceptible gradations,
and eventually all three species came from the same mines." Snellen
says: " The mine is long, begins as a fine gallery, which widens
slowly and regularly until its termination. The excrement lies as an
almost uninterrupted, black central thread." Sorhagen writes: "The
mine is placed sometimes at the margin, sometimes in the middle of the
leaf. It is very long and tortuous, commences very finely and widens
gradually, until at its termination the width is considerable. The
frass-line is blackish, and varies much, sometimes occupying only the
central line of the mine, at other times entirely filling it."
LARVA. — The larva is yellowish in colour, and so similar to that of
X. ruficapitella, that there is great difficulty in determining them.
Stainton remarks that " the larva of ^Y. atricapitclla, though resembling
in habit that of XT. ruftcapitclla, has, like the imago, a black head "
(Xat. Hist. Tin., i., p. 24). Yet, from the catalogue of his collection at
the British Museum (South Kensington), one finds that he bred the
species, some from larvae with dark brown, others with pale, heads.
COCOON. — The cocoon is said to be like that of X. ruficapitella, and
Hind states that it is " reddish " in colour. Snellen says that it is of
a clear, light red-brown when first made, becoming darker later. Its
form is almost regularly oval.
FOOD-PLANTS. — Quercus pedunculate (Frey) ; Q. ro&urand Q. sessili-
jlora (Stainton) ; Q. pubescent (Milliere).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double-, or partially double-
brooded, appearing in May, and again in August, from larvae found
in September-October, and July respectively. Stainton captured
imagines on May 16th, 1852, May 30th, 1876, June 5th, 1877, at
Lewisham, on May 20th-21st, 1851, June 2nd, 1852, and May 12th,
1852, at Beckenhani, and on July 29th, 1851, on Artemisia vul</arix,
on Dartford Heath. He bred the species on April 5th, 1853 ; April
20th, 1855 (from pale-headed larva), on April 26th, 1853 (from
dark-? headed larva), on March llth, 1854 (from brown-headed larva),
on April 8th, 1854, and May 5th, 1855.
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE ; Cambridge (Warren). DORSET : Weymouth
(Richardson), I. of Purbeck, (Bankes), Bloxworth (Cambridge), Glanvilles Wootton
(Dale). DURHAM : Darlington (Stainton). GLOUCESTERSHIRE: Bristol (Stainton).
HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood). KENT: Lewisham and Beckenhani (Stainton),
Eltham (Bower), "West Wickham (Bankes). Chattenden (Tutt). LANCASHIRE :
Manchester (Stainton). LINCOLN: nr. Alford (Fletcher;. NORFOLK: Norwich
(Barrett), King's Lynn (Atmore). SUFFOLK : Tuddenham (Warren). SURREY :
Haslemere (Barrett). SUSSEX : Lewes (Sfainton), Goring Woods, generally abundant
in oak woods in the county (Fletcher). YORKSHIRE : Doncaster district, generally
distributed and common (Corbett), Scarborough (Stainton), York (Hind), Hodders-
field (Inchbald), Richmond (Sang). SCOTLAND : To the Clyde (Meyrick).
DISTRIBUTION. — Austria : Eeichstadt and Vienna (Mann). France :
Nohaut, Indre (Sand), Cannes (Milliere). Germany : widely dis-
NBPTICULA ATRICAPITELLA. 187
tributed and common (Heineniann and Wocke) ; Frankfort-on-Main
(Heyden), nr. Glogau (Zeller), Potsdam, Berlin, Friedland, Hamburg,
Stettin, etc. (Sorhagen), Brunswick (Heinemann), Pomerania (Hering),
Alsace (Peyerimhoff). Italy : Tuscany (Mann), Trieste, ? Nizzardo
(Curo). Netherlands : widely distributed and not rare (Snellen).
Russia : Picbtendahl (Nolcken). Switzerland : nr. Bremgarten (Boll),
nr. Ziirich (Frey).
NEPTICULA RUFICAPITELLA, Haworth (? var. prsec. sp.).
SYNONYMY.— Species : Ruficapitella, Haw., " Lep. Brit.," pt. iv., p. 586 (1828) ;
Stphs., "111.," iv., p. 269 (1835); Wood, " Index," etc., 1363 (1839); Sta., " Sys.
Cat.," p. 28 (1849) ; "Ins. Brit.," p. 297 (1854); "Nat. Hist. Tin.," i., p. 272, pi.
vii., fig. 2 (1855); "Man.," ii., p. 431 (1859) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bear.," v.. p. 348
(1855) ; Frey, " Die Tineen." etc., p. 371 (1856) ; " Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 370 (1857) ;
Stand, and Wocke, "Cat." etc., p. 335(1871); Nolcken, " Lep. Fn. Est.,:' p. 755
(1871) ; Wallgrn., " Bihang Vet.-Ak. Handl.," Hi., p. 80 (1875) ; Mill., " Cat. Lep.
Alp.-Mar.." p. 372 (1875) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.." p. 730 (1877) ;
Sand. " Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 200 (1879) ; Wallgrn.. " Ent. Tids.," i., p. 125 (1881) ;
Snellen, " Vlinders," etc., ii., p. 981 (1882) ; Peyer., "Cat. Lep. Als.," 2nd Ed.,
p. 163 (1882) ; Curo, " Atti della Soc. Nat. Modena," xvi. (1883). ? Samiatella ? ,
Zell., "Isis,"1839,p. 215; Linn. Ent., iii.,p. 303, in part (tote Frey). Atricapitella ,
Sorhagen, "Die Kleinschmett. Brandenburg," etc., p. 302. in part (1886); Meyr.,
" Handbook," etc., p. 714, in part (1895). Lainprotornella, Heyd. (teste Frey).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Tinea (The red-headed Pygmy) alis anticis
auratis, limbo postico purpurascente ; capite rufescente. Expansio
alarum 2f .'" Prsecedenti (atricapitella) vix difi'ert nisi in capite rufo
seu ferrugineo nee aterrimo, et costa absque purpureo. Habitat prope
Londtnum (Haworth, Lepidoptera Britannica, pt. iv., p. 586).
IMAGO. — Head ferruginous. Anterior wings 5-6 mm. ; rather pale
bronzy in colour, with the apex violet, the cilia greyish. Posterior
wings pale grey with still paler cilia.
COMPARISON OF N. RUFICAPITELLA WITH N. ATRICAPITELLA, ETC. — The
bronzy basal half of the anterior wings does not allow of its being
confused with either N. pygmaeetta, X. o.ryacantliella or N. viscerella.
N. anomalella has the basal half of the wing of a paler bronze, and the
apex of the wing is more abruptly violet, besides being a smaller insect.
.V. rnjicapitdla comes nearest to X. atricapitella, from which, however, it
can be at once distinguished by the colour of the head, which, in A", rn/i-
capitella, is reddish-yellow, whereas in X. atricapitella it is black.
In the latter species, the ground colour of the anterior wings is a
little darker than in the former, and the wings being rather broader and
shorter, give AT. atricapitella a more thick-set appearance (Stainton).
Sorhagen states that X. atricapitella is the $ and .V. ruficapitella is
the $ of the same species, and mentions that Hinneberg found the
two forms in cop. at Potsdam, on April 28th, 1885. Stainton states that
" the capture of several pairs of ^T. atricapitella, in copula, shows that the
species are really distinct." Bankes thinks that AT. ruficapitella and XT.
atricapitella are probably one and the same species. He adds : "In
some species of Xepticula the colour of the head is very inconstant, but
the difference is not sexual ; whilst in others the difference in the
colour of the head is sexual " (in litt.).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the underside of an oak-leaf, close
to a rib.
MINE. — The mine is at first exceedingly slender, but gradually
becomes broader, until at its termination it has reached a considerable
width. It is irregular, long, wavy, and of a pale greenish-white
188 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEHA.
colour. In the fir^t part of the mine, the excrement runs through as
a very fine continuous liua, hardly pale margined at the sides. In the
next portion, the excremental line is broader, and often interrupted,
but still always forms a dense mass, and on each side a faint narrow
light space is perceptible ; in the last portion, the mine expands, and
the excrement is thinner, more scattered, but still only occupies the
centre of the mine, leaving a considerable space on each side. Frey
describes the mine as " Massig geschliingelt, ziemlich unregelmassig
gestaltet, liegt bald am Bande, bald in der Mitte des Blattes. Sie beginnt
sehr fein mit einigen starken Windungen und wird dann nach unten
bis li'" breit. Der Koth liegt in zusammenhiingender Reihe als
braunschwarzer Streifen. Unterw-arts bleiben die Seitentheile des
Ganges leer, welche an der frischen Mine weissgriin, spater gelblich
braun erscheinen " (Die Tineen, etc., p. 371).
LARVA. — Length 2 lines ; rich yellow in colour, shining, dorsal
vessel reddish ; the head and the two posterior lobes, which show
through the upper surface of the second segment, pale reddish-brown
(Stainton). It is this larva that is referred to by Stainton (ZooL,
1853, p. 3959) as the " dark-coloured larva of the oak."
COCOON. — The cocoon is rather flattened, oblong-oval, and dull
reddish-orange in colour. One end is rather broader than the other,
and from this the pupa protrudes its anterior segments before the
emergence of the imago (Stainton). Frey writes : " Der Cocou ist
ein unregelmiissiges Oval von einer ziemlichen Abflachung und hoch
rothbraun, vielleicht etwas weniger dunkel als derjenige der vorhergc-
henden Art (atricapitella)."
FOOD-PLAXTS.— Quercus robur and Q. pediinculatu. (J. Niili-r
(Milliere).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double- (or partially double-)
brooded, the imagines appearing in May, and again in August, the
former brood being by far the more abundant. The larvte of these
broods may be found in October-November, and July respectively.
Frey gives it as distinctly double-brooded in Switzerland. Renter
captured it on May 13th, 1886, on the I. of Aland. Stainton's
specimens were bred as follows : February 27th, 1852 ; April 1st, 18th,
27th (from dark larva), May 1st (from pale larva), July 28th (from
large larva), August llth, 16th, 1853; March 29th, April 21st, 1854;
May 2nd, 8th, 1855 ; April 4th, 1859, all from lieckenham and
Lewisham ; imagines captured May 16th, 1852, at Lewisham, and
May 17tb-20th, 1851, and June 2nd, 1852, at Beckenham. Atmore
notes the species, May 15th, 1898, at King's Lynn.
LOCALITIES. — BERKS : Heading (Hanim). CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge (Warren).
CHESHIRE: Bowdon (Edleston), Bromborough to Eastham (Gregson). DERBY:
Burton (Sang). DORSET: Weymouth (Richardson), Bloxworth (Cambridge), Glan-
villes Wootton (Dale). DURHAM: Darlington (Stainton). GLOUCESTER: Bristol
(Stainton). HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood). KENT: Lewisham and Beckenham
(Stainton), Eltham (Bower), West Wickham (Bankes), Chattenden (Tutt). LANCA-
SHIRE : Manchester (Stainton), Preston (Threlfall). LINCOLN : woods nr. Alford
(Fletcher). NORFOLK: Norwich (Barrett), King's Lynn,comrnon (Atrnore). NORTH-
UMBERLAND ; Newcastle (Stainton). SUFFOLK: Tuddenham (Warren). Sri:i;i.v :
Haslernere (Barrett). SUSSEX : Lewes (Stainton), Goring Woods, etc., nlmndantin
oak woods throughout Sussex (Fletcher), Guestling (Bloonifield). WESTMORLAND :
Windermcre (Hodgkinson). YORKSHIRE: Scarborough (Stainton), York (Hind),
llichmond (Sang) ; generally distributed and common (Porritt) ; generally dis-
tributed in Doncaster district, and common (Corbett) .
NEPTICULA RUFICAPITELLA. 189
DISTRIBUTION. — Austria: (Frey). France: Cannes (Milliere),
Nohaut, Indre (Sand). Germany : generally distributed and com-
mon (Wocke), Alsace (Peyerimhoff), Silesia, Frankfort-on-the-Main
(Heyden), Warmbrunn and Glogau (Zeller), Potsdam (Hinneberg),
equally distributed with X. atricapitella, of which it is the $
(Sorhagen). Italy : Tuscany (Frey), ? Livorno and Montenero (Curo,
who refers to specimens taken by Mann on " elm "). Netherlands :
same distribution as X. atricapitella (Snellen). Russia : I. of Aland
(Router), Pichtendahl (Nolcken). Scandinavia : Scania (Wallengren).
Switzerland : Bremgarten (Boll), nr. Ziirich, much more common than
.Y. iitrieapitellci (Frey).
NEPTICULA POMELLA, Vaughan.
SYNONYitv.— Species : Pomella, Vav%han, "Ent. Weekly Intell.," v., pp. 43-44
(1858); Sta., " Man.," ii., p. 431 (1859) ; "Nat. Hist. Tin.," vii., p. 140(1802); Hein.,
" Wien. Monats.," 18C2, p. 253 ; Hnm. and Sta., " Zool.." xxi., pp. 8353-8354 (1803) ;
Nolck., " Lep. Fn. Est.," p. 752 (1871) , Staud. and Wocke. " Cat.," p. 335 (1871) :
Herklots, " Bouwstoffen," etc., iii., p. 400 ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.,"
p. 729 (1877) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auvergne," p. 200 (1879) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep.
Alsace," 2nd Ed., p. 103 (1882); Snellen, "De Vlinders." etc., p. 978 (1882);
Meyr., " Handbook " etc., p. 714 (189o). Pyrinuieella, Frey, " Die Tineen," etc..
pp. 371-372 (1850) ; Linn. Ent.. xi., p. 371, in part (1857).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — The imago expands about three lines,
and is of the unicolorous group ; the anterior wings cinereous, glossy,
and with a purple hue, brightest towards the apex ; the posterior
wings of an uniform paler colour ; head rufous with whitish eyecaps.
In the perfect state it is closely allied to AT. i>y<juiaeella (Vaughan,
Entomologist's Weekly Intelligencer, vol. v., pp. 48-44).
IMAGO. — Head ochreous. The anterior wings 6-7 mm. in expanse;
glossy, unicolorous grey, tinged with purple, especially towards the apex ;
the apical cilia dark grey, those at the anal angle rather paler. Posterior
wings and the cilia dark grey. [The imago is closely allied to that of
.V. pygmaeella, but the anterior wings are broader and more purple] .
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The antennae of the male are perceptibly
longer than those of the female (Heinemann).
COMPARISON OF N. POMELLA WITH ITS ALLIES. — N. pygmaeeUa has
more finely scaled, .and more shiny anterior wings than X. pomella, is of
an ashy-grey colour, towards the tip rather of a bluish-violet, and the
cervical tuft is whitish. Of the remaining red-headed unicolorous
Nepticulids, A*, oscyacanthella, N. detperatetta and X. auevparitu are
much smaller, and have shorter antennns. X. cuyacaiitiiellti comes
nearest in colour, but the colour of the anterior wings is much
brighter blue, especially towards the apex ; the cilia are greyish black ;
the very small, often scarcely perceptible, cervical tuft is whitish
instead of yellow, and the middle tibise are only a little paler. AT.
tlesperati'lla has no pale cervical tuft ; the anterior wings are much
smoother, with finer scales, as though polished, coppery-brown, or
brownish, or greenish-bronze, entirely without violet or blue. In
X. aUcupariae, the large cervical tuft is whitish ; the anterior wings
are smoother and more finely scaled, olivaceous, only with a violet
gloss towards the tip. Ar. ntficapitella and X. cn-neella have also the
cervical tuft more whitish, and the ground colour of the anterior
wings greener. In the last-named species, the violet tint is wanting,
or, at least, much fainter ; in A", rvjicajritella it is much brighter at
the apex of the wing " (Heinemann).
190 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is deposited on the underside of an apple-
leaf.
MINE.— As soon as the larva is hatched, it mines into the upper
layer of the leaf, usually towards the base, forming a slender gallery,
which turns pink, and betrays the presence of a larva before it is
visible to the naked eye. The gallery is frequently near a vein of the
leaf. As the mine becomes wider it changes to an orange-colour,
with an irregular track of brownish excrement. It is never very
conspicuous from above, but quite invisible on the underside. In the
last portion of the mine, the larva doubles back on its previous course,
and forms a blotch. The mines are usually more abundant on the
lower branches of an apple tree, a 'single leaf sometimes having as
many as a dozen larvae in it. Frey writes : " Die Mine im Apfelblatt
ist leicht zu erkennen und mit keiner einer anderen hier wohnenden
Art zu verwechseln. Sie nimmt als ein ungewohnlich kurzer, feiner
Gang meistens mehr in der Mitte des Blattes ihren Ursprung und
erweitert sich dann plotzlich zu einem unregelmassig rundlichen
Fleck von gelbbrauner Farbe. Die braunen Kothmassen bilden eine
etwas breitere Linie " (Linn. Ent., xi., p. 372). Nolcken writes:
" Two mines from Heinemann are rust-yellow, in the older parts rust-
brown and mostly bounded by the leaf-ribs. At first the mine follows
a stronger rib or is tortuous (the windings lying close together, and
occupying a small space in the angle of two ribs) ; the frass line is
bounded (but not sharply) with pale, often interrupted, narrow margins,
and is, in the latter part of the mine, always more broken and
irregular, dividing into little heaps of grains towards the end. Here
it is probably 2-5 mm. broad, but since it is very much twisted in a
short space, it frequently crosses and absorbs an earlier portion of the
mine. The larva, too, shows a tendency when feeding to eat the
parenchyma for a considerable distance on either side of its head, and
this widening of the mine allows the excrement pellets to be arranged
in longer curves than can occur in a narrow and more direct mine.
The mine occasionally takes on the blotch or blister form, owing to the
walls between neighbouring windings being eaten away, but this is by
no means uniformly the case."
LARVA. — The larva is orange coloured, with the dorsal vessel
slightly darker, the skin shiny, the head pale chestnut (Vaughan). It
mines with the dorsum uppermost.
Cocoox. — The cocoons average 2-9 mm. long and 2-1 mm. wide.
They are considerably broader at one end than the other, and more
flattened at the wide end (giving the idea of the shape of a mussel-
shell to the naked eye). The colour varies from orange-brown to
deep red-brown. The projecting rim at the wider end is more orange-
brown than the raised portion, and is characterised by a number of
projecting points, by which the cocoon has evidently been fastened to
some object, as silken threads extend therefrom. The surface of the
cocoon is covered with minute pits, and its upper surface is domed (not
flattened) ; a little white flossy silk is scattered over the surface.
[Described June 14th, 1898, under a two-thirds lens, from cocoons
sent by Dr. Wood.] Vaughan writes : " The full-fed larva leaves the
leaf in which it has fed, by the upper side, and spins its cocoon in a
cranny, or on the surface of the ground. The cocoon itself varies in
colour, from dark chestnut-brown to bright orange : it is broader at
NEPTICULA POMELLA. 191
one end ('mussel-shaped'), and has a brightly coloured rim around
the upper edge, which gives it a striking appearance. The pupa pro-
trudes itself on the emergence of the imago." Frey notes : " The
cocoon is elongated, rounded, and pale reddish-brown in colour."
Heinemann describes it as " oval, rather flat, and of a reddish-
brown colour."
FOOD-PLANT. — Pyms main*.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double-brooded, the imago
appearing in May and August, from larvae that feed up in October-
November, and July respectively. The July lame appear to be scarcer
than those of the October-November brood (Vaughan). Hind says that
at York, mines are common from October to December, and that the
imagines emerge in June or commencement of July, flying at sunrise ;
the species there appears to be single-brooded. Vaughan bred
imagines between April 6th-8th, 1859. Fletcher says that in Sussex
" the species is distinctly double-brooded, the summer brood is rarer
and the specimens smaller than the autumnal brood " (in I'M.}.
LOCALITIES.— CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge (Farven). DOBSET: Pur beck, Wey-
mouth (Bankes), Glanvilles Wootton (Dale), Bloxworth (Cambridge). ESSEX :
Wanstead (Elisha). GLOUCESTER: Bristol (Vaughan). HEREFORD: Tarrington
(Wood). KENT : Lewisham (Stainton). LANCASHIRE : Preston and Grange
(Threlfall). SUSSEX : Bersted Mundham, Bognor, Worthing, Chichester, abundant
in leaves of garden apple (Fletcher), Guestling (Bloomfield). YORKSHIRE:
Eichmond (Sang), Scarborough, on crab apple (Wilkinson), York (Hind).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Nohaut, Indre (Sand). Germany : Alsace
(Peyerimhoff) , Brunswick, Hanover, Frankfort-on-the-Main (Heine-
mann), Brandenburg, Potsdam, Friedland, Hamburg, nr. Stettin,
Liegnitz (Sorhagen). Netherlands : not common, Friesland, Arnhem,
Gelderland, Rotterdam (Snellen). Russia : Maandja (Nolcken),
South-west Russia, St. Petersburg (Wocke) . Switzerland : nr. Zurich
(Frey).
NEPTICULA PYGJLEELLA, HaWOl'th.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Pygmaeella, Haw., " Lep. Brit.," pt. iv., p. 586 (1828) ;
Sta., " Ins. Brit.," p. 298 (1854) ; " Nat. Hist. Tin.," i., p. 148, pi. v., fig. 1 (1855) ;
" Man.," ii., p. 431 (1859) ; ? H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 348* (1855) ; Stand, and
Wocke, " Cat.," etc., p. 335 (1871); Nolcken, "Lep. Fn. Est.." p. 755 (1871);
Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 729 (1877) ; Sand, "Cat. Lep. Auv.,"
p. 200(1879); Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Als.," 2nd Ed., p. 103 (1882) ; .Snellen. "Vlin-
ders," etc., ii., p. 978 (1882) ; Sorhagen, " Die Kleinschmett. Brandenburg,"
p. 344 (1886) ; Meyrick, " Handbook," etc., p. 714 (1895). Perpygmaeella, Dbdy.,
" List.," 1866, p. 36 ; Porritt, " List York. Lep.," p. 170.
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION.— Tinea (The least Pygmy") alis antice
pallide auratis, capite rufescente. Expansio alarum lf-2J- lin. Pro-
culdubio minima omnium Lepidopterorum quro unquam vidi. Pre-
cedent! (ruficapitella) -forte indistincta at duplo minor, minus aurata,
margine ipso postico solum obsolete purpurascente. Caput rufura seu
ferrugineum. (3. Capite albido, forte mere ab aetate, at alis magis
auratis quam in a. Habitat apud Chelseiam. Imago Septis vix
infrequens (Haworth, Lepuloptera Britannic a, pt. iv., p. 586).
IMAGO. — Head ferruginous. Anterior wings 4-5 mm. in expanse ;
pale ashy-grey in colour, with a very slight violet tinge towards the
apex ; cilia paler grey. Posterior wings and cilia grey.
. * Heinemann writes : "I suspect that Herrich-Sehaffer's N. pygmiieella
belongs to N. aenedla. It is certainly not Stainton's species, since that has pale
ashy-grey anterior wings,"
192 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
COMPARISON OF N. PYGM^ELLA WITH ITS ALLIES. — JY. pi/t/macella
belongs to that section of the genus in which the anterior wings are
unicolorous. and the pale ashy-grey colour of the anterior wings
sufficiently distinguishes it from the more bronzy N. ruficajiitellfi . X.
atricajritella, X. anomalella, and the olive-coloured N. vitcerMa. From
A", jndverosi'lla, to which it bears considerable resemblance, it is dis-
tinguished by the less coarsely scaled appearance of the anterior wings
(Stainton).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the upper surface of a hawthorn
leaf, either against the midrib or on the frill that edges the leaf-stalk,
but, in either case, invariably on the upper surface (Wood). Stainton
says on the " underside," close to the' midrib, or one of the lateral ribs.
MINE. — The larva makes a small blotch in leaves of hawthorn.
When the egg is laid against the midrib (and this is its most usual
position) the young larva commences its mine parallel with, and close
to, a rib, till it meets a transverse rib. the course of which it follows
for a short distance, and then returns on its path, making a closely
contorted mine, forming in the whole a blotch. The excrement of the
first portion of the mine is yellowish-brown ; it does not form a very
slender line, nor is it placed in little arcs of circles, but it forms a
moderately broad line. When the larva becomes more nearly full-
grown, the excrement becomes darker, and ultimately blackish-brown.
The larva comes out of the leaf to pupate (Stainton) . When the egg is
laid on the frill of the leaf-stalk, the newly-hatched larva mines until
it reaches the blade of the leaf ; the mine then runs along the edge of
it, as does the mine of X. yratimella, the mines of the two insects
being then so similar that they can be differentiated only by the
position of the egg (Wood).
COMPARISON OF THE MINE OF N. PYGM.EELLA AND N. IGNOBFLELLA. —
In the mine of X. pi/ffinaeclla, which is generally close to the mid-rib,
the excrement never forms a very slender line, and is at first yellowish-
brown ; in the mine of X. itjnobildla, which is frequently placed near
the edge of the leaf, the excrement at first forms a very slender line
(which is afterwards frequently included within the blotch-like mine),
and the excrement is always black (Stainton).
LARVA. — Length 2 lines. Pale amber yellow, the dorsal vessel a
little darker, and anteriorly rather greenish; the head is pale brown,
the mouth and two lines receding from it darker (Stainton). It mines
with the dorsum uppermost.
COCOON. — The cocoon is somewhat of the shape of a mussel-shell,
of a dull pink colour. The anterior segments of the pupa are pushed
out of the broader end of the cocoon before the emergence of the
imago.
FOOD-PLANT. — Crataeyw o.rijacanthn. Stainton gives " apple " also,
evidently an error.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The insect is double-brooded, the imagines
(which fly along hawthorn hedges in the early morning) appearing in
May and August, from larvte feeding in October and July respectively.
Stainton gives August 16th, 1851, imagines flying along hawthorn
hedges at G a.m. Bower found lamo abundantly at Mottingham, on
October 4th, 1892. Stainton bred imagines of the first brood on
January llth, 1853 ; April 8th and May 13th, 1853 ; May 25th, 1H53 ;
March 24th, April 1st and 8th, 1854 ; March 30th, 1855 ; March 25th-
NEPTICULA PYGBLEELLA. 193
28fch, 1855. He also captured imagines at Lewisham, on May 15th,
1849 ; June 4th, 1851 ; May 9th, 1851. Specimens of the second
brood were bred on August 1st, 1854, and captured between 6 and 7
a.m., flying in the sunshine, on August 19th, 1851 ; Evans records it
as occurring on May 23rd, 1895,' at Kirknewton.
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge (Farren), Newmarket (Warren).
CHESHIRE: Bowdon (Edleston). DERBY : Burton (Sang). DORSET: Wey mouth, Port-
land, common (Richardson), Isle of Purbeck (Bankes). DURHAM: Darlington (Stain-
ton). GLOUCESTER: Bristol (Vaughan). HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood). KENT:
Lewisham (Stainton), Mottingham (Bower). LANCASHIRE: Manchester (Stainton),
Grange ;Hodgkinson), Liverpool dist. (Gregson). Preston (Threlfall). LINCOLN : nr.
Louth (Fletcher). MIDLOTHIAN: Kirknewton (Evans). NORFOLK: King's Lynn
(Atmore), Norwich (Barrett). NORTHUMBERLAND: Newcastle-on-Tyne (Stainton).
SUSSEX: Lewes (Stainton), abundant on hawthorn throughout county, Arundel
Park, Worthing, etc. (Fletcher), Guestling (Bloomfield). WESTMORLAND : Wither-
slack (Threlfall). YORKSHIRE: York (Hind), Scarborough (Stainton), Doncaster
(Warren), Harrogate and Richmond ^ang), Sheffield (Doncaster).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Nohaut, Indre (Sand). Germany : Alsace
(Peyerimhoff), Brunswick (Sorhagen). Holland: not rare, and found
as larvaa in autumn in many places (Snellen). Switzerland : ? nr.
Zurich (Frey).
NEPTICULA VISCERELLA, Stainton.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Viscerella, Sta., " Zool.." 1853, 3958; "Ins. Brit.," p.
298(1854); "Nat. Hist. Tin.," i., 126, pi. iii., fig. 1(1855); " Man.," ii., p. 431(1859);
H.-Sch., " Sys. Bear.," v., p. 349 (1855); Frey, "Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 374 (1857);
Staud. and Wocke, "Cat.," p. 336 (1871) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.,"
p. 733 (1877) ; Sand, "Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 200 (1879); Peyer., "Cat. Lep. Als.,"
2nd Ed., p. 165 (1882) ; Meyr., "Handbook," etc., p. 715 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — The notice in which this species was first
named reads as follows : " On elm, two larvae were distinguished, one
yellow and the other green. The imago of the green one is not closely
allied to any previously known species ; from the gut-like appearance
of its mine, Mr. Douglas has proposed for it the name of N. viscerella "
(Stainton, Zoologist, 1853, p. 3958). The earliest description of the
species is as follows : " N. viscerella (Dougl.), Sta., Zool., 1853, p.
3958. Alis anticis olivaceis, postice sattu-atioribus ; capillis luteis,
fusco-mixtis. Exp. al. 2^ lin. Head and face yellowish, intermixed
with fuscous. Antennae fuscous, basal joint whitish. Anterior wings
rather of an olive tint, posteriorly darker, with whitish cilia. Posterior
wings whitish-grey, with whitish-grey cilia. Appears in May (?), but
not hitherto met with in the perfect state. The bright green larva
mines the leaves of the elm in autumn, making the convolutions of
its narrow mine so close together that they form brown blotches ; it
is excessively abundant in many localities ( Stain ton, Insecta Britannica,
pp. 298-299).
IMAGO. — Head yellowish-fuscous. Anterior wings 5-6 mm. in
expanse ; olive in colour, darker towards the apex ; cilia whitish.
Posterior wings and cilia whitish-grey.
EGG- LAYING. — The egg is laid on the upper surface of an elm-leaf.
MINE. — The larva, on commencing its mine, deposits its excre-
ment in a slender, dark brown line. The mine, from its commence-
ment to its termination, is continuously contorted, not spirally, but
backwards and forwards — each fresh turn fitting closely to the side of
the last turn, so that no unmined portion of the leaf remains within the
boundaries of the mine ; after the first third of its length, the excrement
is deposited in little rows of brown grains, filling up the whole width of
M
194 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
the mine, until the larva is nearly full grown, when, sometimes, they
merely form an irregular row along the centre of the mine. When the
larva is full-fed, it leaves the mine to spin its cocoon (Stainton). Frey
writes : — " Die Mine ist ungemein stark gewunden, und die einzelnen
Windungen legen sich mit ihren Riindern dicht an einander, so dass kein
Blattgriin zwischen diesen iibrig bleibt. Es entsteht ein ahnliches
Bild, wie es die Darme bei einer geoffneten Leibeshohle darbieten,
welches auch unserem Thiere den Namen in ganz passender Weise
verschafft hat. Die Kothmassen bilden anfanglich eine feine dun-
kelbraune Linie, dann breite Querreihen, welche die ganze Mine
erfiillen. Gegen den Ausgang hin wird die Gruppirung der Excre-
mente rnanchmal unregelmassig " (Lihn. Ent., xi., p. 375).
LARVA. — Length 2 lines ; green, with the dorsal vessel darker ;
head green, with the mouth, and two slender lines receding from it,
reddish (Stainton). It mines with the venter uppermost.
COCOON. — The cocoons average 2-75 mm. long and 2 mm. wide.
They are of a pale yellow-brown colour, ovate in outline, the empty
pupa-skin projecting from the rather broader end. There is no strongly
marked rim, the raised central part sloping up almost from the outer
margin, and after forming somewhat of a dome, becoming considerably
flattened on the top. The cocoon proper shows a slightly roughened,
woven surface, with a few loose, flossy, white silken fibres attached to
its outer surface. [Described under a two-thirds lens, June 14th, 1898,
from cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.] Stainton says : " The cocoon is
oblong, oval, dull, dark, greenish-brown. In this the larva remains for a
considerable period (perhaps in a natural state until the following
spring) before changing to a pupa. The anterior segments of the latter
are protruded from the cocoon before the emergence of the imago."
PUPA. — The empty pupal skin protrudes from the cocoon to about
the 3rd or 4th abdominal segment ; the antennae, legs, etc., are
only partly withdrawn. The former show the segmentation very dis-
tinctly. The pupal skin is quite transparent and exceedingly delicate,
the 1st abdominal segment appears to be darkened dorsally with
blackish-grey pigment.
FOOD-PLANT. — Ulmus campestris.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The insect is single-brooded, appearing in
nature at the end of May and in June, from larvae occurring in
September- October. Stainton bred specimens on the following dates :
December 7th, 16th and 26th, 1852, January 17th, June 6th, 1853,
April 9th, 15th, 18th, 19th, 27th, 30th, May 1st, 20th, June 2nd, 3rd,
1854. Sang took larvae on September 18th, 1873, at Richmond, and
September 24th, 1874, at Woodside ; Bower found mines on October
3rd, 1892, and September 26th, 1895, at Lewisham.
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge (Farrenj. CHESHIRE : Bowdon
(Edleston). DEVON: Dawlish (Stainton). DORSET: Purbeck (Bankes), Weyraouth
(ilichardson). DURHAM: Darlington (Stainton). ESSEX: Wickham Bishops
(Cansdale). GLOUCESTER: Bristol (Stainton). HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood).
KENT : Lewisham (Bower), Norwood, West Wickham (Stainton), Woodside
(Sang). SUFFOLK : Tuddenham (Warren). SUSSEX : common in hedgerows at
Goring, Arundel, Worthing, Eastbourne and Bramber (Fletcher). YORKSHIRE :
Richmond (Sang).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Nohaut, Indre (Sand). Germany : Alsace
(Peyerimhoff), Central and Western Germany (Wocke), Frankfort-on-
the-Main (Heinemann), Pomerania (Hering).
NEPTICULA AUCUPARI^E. 195
NEPTICULA AUCUPARI^E,
SYNONYMY. — Species: Aucupariae, Frey, " Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 370 (1857);
Hein., " Wien. Ent. Monats.," vi..pp. 241. 247 (1862) ; Staud. andWocke, " Cat.,"
p. 336 (1871) ; Nolcken, " Lep. Fn. Est.," p. 761 (1871) ; Snellen, "Tids. v. Ent.,"
., p. 34 (1873); Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 735 (1877); Sand,
p.
book." etc.. p. 715 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Capillis ochreis, antennarum conchula
dilute flavida ; alls anterioribus fusco-asneis, subnitidis, apicem versus
saturate violaceis, ciliis griseis. 5 2^'". Es ist allerdings ein Wagniss,
in einer so schvvierigen Abtheilung der Nepticulen, wie es gerade die
uns jetzt beschaftigende ist, nach einem Exemplare eine neue Art
aufzustellen. Indessen glaube ich hier meiner Sache sicher zu sein.
Bei uns in Ziirich sind ira September und noch in den ersten Oktober-
tagen die Blatter der Sorbus-Gestriiuche, wie sie hier und da in den
Bergwiildern vorkommen, mit zahlreichen Gangen einer griinen
Nepticularaupe minirt, deren Erziehung aber verzweifelt schwierig ist,
wie ich denn aus ganzen Schaaren der Larve zur Zeit nur ein einziges
weibliches Stiick erhalten konnte. Gesicht und Schopf heller als bei
N. viscerMa, licht ochergelb. Die ziemlich ansehnlichen Augendeckel
erscheinen ebenfalls lichter gelb, mehr gegen das Weissliche ziehend ;
die Fiihlergeisel ist schwiirzlich. Die Taster weisslich. Das
Riickenschild ist tief olivenbraun, erzartig erglanzend. Leib
schwiirzlich, Beine braungrau, die Hintertarsen etwas lichter. Dieselbe
Grundfarbe, wie der Riickenschild, zeigen die etwas breiten Vorder-
fliigel, welche sich durch ihren Glanz leicht von denjenigen der
N. I'iscerella unterscheiden lassen und auch eine viel feinere Beschup-
pung besitzen. Gegen ihr letztes Viertheil ergliinzen die Vorderfliigel
sehr lebhaft violett. Die Franzen stark hellgrau, doch etwas weniger
hell als bei N. viscerella ; auch hier sind sie am Afterwinkel viel
dunkler. Hinterfliigel und ihre Franzen miissig dunkelgrau
Bisher nur von Ziirich, wo ich das Exemplar im Februar, 1856, im
geheizten Zimmer erhielt (Frey, Linnaea Entomoloqica, xi., pp.
376-377).
IMAGO. — Head yellowish. Anterior wings 4-5 mm. in expanse ;
bronzy or olive-brown in colour, tinged with violet towards the apex ;
cilia grey. Posterior wings and the cilia pale grey.
COMPARISON OF N. AUCUPARI^E WITH N. VISCERELLA. — The head and
face are paler in N. aucupariae than in N. viscerella, being of a light
ochreous yellow tint ; the rather conspicuous eye-caps also appear
lighter yellow, approaching rather to whitish ; base of antennre
blackish ; palpi whitish. Thorax deep olive-brown, with metallic
lustre. Abdomen blackish ; legs grey-brown ; hinder tarsi slightly
lighter. The fore-wings, which are rather broad, have the same
ground-colour as the thorax, and may easily be distinguished from
N. riscerella by their lustre, possessing, as they do, a much finer
scaling. Towards the apex they shine with a very bright purple gloss
(Frey).
COMPARISON OF N. AUCUPARLE WITH N. NYLANDRIELLA, ETC. — Warren
pointed out (Ent. Mo. Ma;/., xxii., pp. 132-133) that this species and
N. nylandriella were mixed in collections, the larger specimens with
purplish apex being referable to N. aucupariae, Frey, the smaller and
196 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
unicolorous ones agreeing with N. nylandriella, Teng. Stainton says
that N. aiicupariae can be distinguished from N. minusculclla by its
yellow head.
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the underside of a leaf, and is
difficult to find (Nolcken).
MINE. — The mine of this species is very different from that of X.
sorbi, which latter, commencing with a slender gallery, terminates in
a complete blotch ; the mine of N. aiicupariae bears much resem-
blance to that of N. viscerella, but often runs along the margin of the
mountain-ash leaf, going in and out of the serrations (Stainton). A
mine, supposed to be of this species, taken at West Wickham, followed
the serrations of the leaf, with the excrement not forming so dark nor
so continuous a track as in N. oxyacanthella. Nolcken says : " The
mine is at its commencement exceedingly fine, and only very slowly
increases in width. It is, however, exceedingly long, and more or
less tortuous in character. The character of the frass line varies.
In the first part of the mine it forms a slender line that appears to
fill up the greater part of the mine, showing, however, very fine
margins, that are only a little lighter than the rest of the surface of
the leaf. Later, the frass is more distinctly grained, and forms tiny
transverse arcs, which, however, sometimes run into one another. At
times the frass entirely tills up the mine with scattered grains, at
other times the pellets occupy the middle of the mine, frequently
forming a narrow stripe (generally at the end of the mine), leaving
a free margin of varying width, sometimes only on one side. Frey
writes : " Die Mine beginnt massig fein mit dunkelbrauner Kothlinie,
wird dann ungefahr ebenso breit als bei N. rixcerella und zeigt die
Excremente in denselben, den Rand des Ganges erreichenden Quer-
reihen. Sie ist fur die Grosse des Falters sehr lang und liluft meistens
den zackigen Rand des Blattes entlang. Die Ausgangsoffnung ist
kaum verbreitert."
LARVA. — Frey writes : " Die Raupe, 2'" messend, ist grasgriin und
an diejenige der vorigen Art (X. riscerella) erinnernd. Ebenso ist die
Mine nicht unahnlich und oft sehr stark gewunden." Nolcken also
states that " the larva is of a distinct, grass-green colour, with only
slightly darker dorsal vessel, pale brownish head, with the sutures
and mouth-parts darker."
COMPARISON OF THE MINE AND LARVA OF N. AUCUPARLE WITH THOSE OF
N. SORBI. — Like that of X. auciipariae, the mine of XT. sorbi also begins
as a very fine and tortuous gallery, but it has a stronger and more
conspicuous black frass-line, and enlarges suddenly into a large brown
blotch with light, rust-yellow markings ; its larva is also almost
colourless, pale greenish. The latter is accordingly easily to be
separated from the larva of A7, aiicupariae t which is more intensely
grass-green, with scarcely darker dorsal vessel and very pale brownish
head, of which only the mouth-parts and sutures are darker brown.
The somewhat flat, oval cocoons are brown, more or less yellowish
(Nolcken).
COCOON. — The cocoon is nearly round, flattened and smooth, deep
reddish-brown in colour (Frey).
FOOD-PLANT. — Pi/rm a wiiparia.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species appears to be single-brooded
(Sorhagen makes it double-brooded, flying in May and August),
NEPTICULA AUCUPARl^:. 197
the imago appearing in May and June. Wilkinson bred it on May
23rd, 1862, at Scarborough, and Griffith captured imagines on Betty
Hill, Sutherlandshire, on June 3rd, 1885. The larva was common
in the leaves of mountain-ash from September Ist-October 12th,
1891, at Richmond, Yorkshire (Bower). It also occurs in these
months in Switzerland, although the first specimen of the species
observed emerged in Frey's room, in February, 1856. Sang
found mines on September 1st, 1856, at Harrogate ; October 7th,
1857, and September 29th, 1871, October 9th, 1873, September 28th,
1878, at Barnard Castle ; September 12th, 1873, at Stanhope ;
October 2nd, 1878, October 7th, 1879, at Richmond, Yorks.
LOCALITIES. — CHESHIRE: Bowdon (Edleston). DURHAM: Barnard Castle.
Stanhope, High Force (Bower). HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood). LANCASHIRE:
Preston and Grange (Threlfall). LEICESTER: Market Harborough (Matthews),
Whitwick (Sang). NORFOLK : King's Lynn, rather common (Atmore). SUTHERLAND :
Betty Hill (Griffith). WESTMORLAND : Witherslack and Windermere (Hodgkinson).
YORKSHIRE: Richmond (Bower), Ingleborough (Bankes), Doncaster (Corbett),
Scarborough (Wilkinson), Harrogate (Sang).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Nohaut, Indre (Sand). Germany : San-
dsee, Alt Damm, Friedland(Hering), Alsace (Peyerimhoft), Brunswick,
Silesia (Heinemann), Brandenburg, Hanover (Sorhagen). Nether-
lands : Friesland (Snellen). Russia : Livonia (Sorhagen), Pich-
tendahl (Nolcken). Switzerland : Ziirich (Frey).
NEPTICULA MINUSCULELLA, Herrich-Schaffer.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Minusculella, H.-Sch., " Sys. Bear.," v., p. 348 (1855);
Frey, " Die Tineen," etc., p. 373 (185G) ; "Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 377 ; Sta., " Nat.
Hist. Tin.," vii., p. 162, pi. viii., fig. 1 (1862) , "Ent. Ann.," 1870, p. 159; Staud.
and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 336 (1871) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch," p. 735
(1877); Sand. "Cat. Lep. Auvergne." p. 200(1879); Peyer.. " Cat. Lep. Alsace,"
2nd Ed., ii., pp. 165-166 (1882); Snellen, " Vlinders," etc., ii., pp. !)79 (1882) ;
Sorhagen, "Die Kleinschmett. Brandenburg," p. 303 (1886); Meyrick, "Hand-
book." etc., p. 715 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — N. minusculella . Magnit. 4 ; cilia non
squamiformia ; capilla foeminae olivaceo-fusci, lateribus sordide lutei.
Vierte Grosse, Franzen ohne Auszeichnung, die Kopfhaare des Weib-
chens in der Mitte olivenbraun, ausserden schmutzig lehmfarben.
Eine der kleinsten Tineinen, in den Farben der vorigen gleich, aber
die Schuppen der Vorderfliigel viel grober, daher weniger gliinzend,
gegen die Spitze kaum kupferig. Die Franzen nicht weisser, Fiihler
schwarz, Augendeckel und Nackenschopfe weiss. Kopfhaare schwarz,
beim Weibe mit olivengriinlichem Lehmgelb unten und seitlich stark
gemischt, in der Mitte mehr olivenbraun als schwarz. Im Mai und
Juni an Birnbaumen, funf Exemplare. Von H. Dr Wocke, in Breslau.
(Herrich-Schaffer, Sys. Bear, der Schmett. von Europa, v. (1855),
p. 348).
IMAGO. — Head black ; anterior wings 4-5 mm. in expanse, rather
narrow ; shiny, pale bronzy-green, with a faint purple tinge at apex;
cilia scarcely paler than the ground-colour of the wings. Posterior
wings and cilia dark grey.
COMPARISON OF N. MINUSCULELLA WITH N. AUCUPARI^:, N. ATRICA-
PITELLA, ETC, — This species is readily distinguished by its small size
and pale green colour from all its congeners except N. aitcupariae,
but that species has a yellow head ; in N. minusculella, the head seems
to be always black. It may be also readily distinguished from N.
atricapitella by its much smaller size, narrower anterior wings, and
198 URITISH
their paler green colour (Stainton). Frey writes : " In dem schwarzen
Schopfe stimmt X. ininmcnlella unter sammtlichen vorangegangenen
Arten allein mit N. atricapitella. Ihre bedeutende Kleinheit und die
hellere briiunlichere Fliigelfarbe werden jede Verwechslung unmoglich
machen. Ebenso ist es miturlich unmoglich, eine der bisherigen
rothkopfigen Species fiir N. minmcuJella zu nehmen. Dagegen konnten
unter den folgenden Nepticulen, N. anomalella (in schwarzkopfigen
Exemplaren) und AT. tiliae zu einer Verwechslung Veranlassung geben.
Von beiden aber trennt sie ihre viel mehr in das Braunliche ziehende
Fliigelfarbe, ferner ihre entweder gar nicht oder kaum wahrnehmbar,
hochstens iiusserst leicht, violett tingirte Fliigelspitze. Auch ist die
Befranzung des mimiscult'lla-VorderQugels dunkler " (Linn. Ent.,
xi., pp. 377-378).
VARIATION. — Martini and Hering suggest that stettinensis, Hein.,
is only a variety of N. minusculella, H.-Sch. The original description
of the latter is as follows : —
" Ne2)ticitla stettinensis, n. sp. (?). — Capillis atris, penicillis et antennarum
conchula albis ; alls anterioribus nitidis, aeneo-plumbeis, apice violaceis, ciliis alisque
posterioribus griseis. Long. 3 lin. In den weisen Nackenschopfen mit samiatelln iiber-
einstimmend und auch im Uebrigen dieser Art sehr iihnlich. Kleiner, die Kopfhaarc
auch im Gesicht rein schwarz, wahrend sie bei samiatella iiber dem Munde mehr
oder weniger rostgelb sind, die Vorderfliigel sehr glanzend, bleigrau, schwach
violettblau, die Franzen au der Spitze hellgrau. Die Hinterfliigel reiner hellgrau
(bei samiatella rnehr braunlich). Auch die Unterseite der Flu'gel ist reiner
und heller grau als bei der letzteren Art. Gleichfalls der tiliella iihnlich.
von dieser durch kleinere Augendeckel, breitere Vorderfliigel. die weniger erzgriin
und vorder Spitze nich lichter sind, unterschieden. Dr. Schleich erzog ein ? aus
Bliittern des wilden Apfelbaumes " [Heinemann, Berlin Ent. Zeits., xv., p. 210
(1871)].
EGG-LAYING. — Wood says : — " The egg is always laid on the under-
side of a leaf." Stainton says : " The egg is laid on the upper sur-
face of the leaf of the pear, close to the footstalk." Probably this
refers to X. pyri.
MINE. — The larva commences by making a long and very slender
gallery, in the centre of which is a track of black excrement ; when
this mine is nearly an inch in length it becomes considerably broader,
and then the line of excrement occupies only a small portion of the
mine ; the gallery is slightly contorted, but not very much so ; when
the larva is full fed it leaves by the upper surface of the leaf
(Stainton). Wood writes : " The mine forms a wide gallery with the
frass collected into the middle. It lies on the underside of the leaf,
and is small and cramped. When a larva happens to be in a leaf
rather thicker than usual, it contracts to some extent the width of its
gallery, signs of imperfect coiling may appear, and the mine becomes
somewhat similar to that of X. pyri." Frey writes: "Die Mine
beginnt mit einem ziemlich feinen, schlanken Gang, in welchem der
schwarzliche Koth die Mitte einninimt. Dann vergrossert sich jener
zu einer stark gewundenen unregelmiissigen weiteren Gallerie, worin
die ziemlich breit gewordene Kothlinie jedoch die braunen Bander
nicht erreicht. Nur gegen den Ausgang des Ganges bin nehmen die
Excremente wieder die Form eines feineren Streifens an. Indem die
ganze Mine ungewohnlich dunkel ist, kann sie bei anfiinglichem
Suchen leichter iibersehen werden als andere."
LARVA. — Length 2 lines ; green, with the dorsal vessel darker, and
sometimes with a reddish tinge ; head pale green, with the mouth
NEPT1CULA MINUSCULELLA. 199
and two lines receding from it, reddish (Stainton). The larva has
a pale head, has no trace of the cephalic ganglia, and a tinge of blue
in its green ground-colour (Wood) . Warren records that the larvae
go through the winter, and that some he had in the autumn of 1882
did not make their cocoons until the middle of April, 1883. He con-
siders that they hybernate on the ground. Fletcher adds : " The pear
species occurring here (Worthing) agrees in its life-history with
Warren's experience of 1882-1888. My larvae came out of their
mines and forthwith spun their cocoons, and so, I infer, did the larvae
described by Stainton, Nat. Hist. Tin., vii., p. 164 " (in litt., June
12th, 1898).
COCOON. — When the cocoon is freshly spun, in March or the
middle of April, it is of a bright yellow colour (Warren). Stainton
says : " The cocoon is small and greenish-brown in colour." This
probably is so after the cocoon has been exposed to the weather for a
time.
FOOD-PLANT. — Pyrus communis, prefers wild to cultivated forms.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Stainton says that the species is double-
brooded, the imagines appearing in May and July, from larvae that
have fed up in August and June respectively. Wood adds that larvae
are found feeding in July, and again in September. Boyd bred speci-
mens on February 22nd, 1869, from larvae collected in pear leaves, at
Cheshunt, in August, 1868. There are specimens in Stainton's
collection, bred by Boyd, Feb. 18th and March 3rd, 1868 (? 1869).
Hodgkinson bred imagines on April 17th, 1888, from mines found in
October, 1887 ; some others also emerged on April 6th, 1889, from
the same mines. Peyerimhoff says that there are three broods in
Alsace, viz., June, August and October, the imagines from the latter
emerging in April. Frey writes : " Die kleine griine Larve kommt in
doppelter Generation vor, einer sommerlichen, von welcher die Kaupen
in der zweiten Junihalfte erwachsen sind, und einer sehr bald nachfol-
genden herbstlichen, welche sich schon von Mitte bis Ende August
zur Verpuppung anschickt." Frey further adds, that he has found
the summer generation at the beginning of July, and taken the ima-
gines of the first brood in copula at the end of May. Fletcher notes
the occurrence of larvae at Worthing, July 1st, 1898, the greater part
of the mines being, however, empty on that date.
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE: Cambridge (Warren). DEVON: Exeter (Parfitt).
HEREFOBD: Tarrington and Woolhope (Wood). HERTS: Cheshunt (Boyd).
LANCASHIRE: Preston (Threlfall), Ashton (Hodgkinson). SUSSEX: Worthing and
Bognor, in pear leaves, in gardens (Fletcher).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Nohaut (Sand). Germany : Hanover,
? Brandenburg (Sorhagen), Frankfort-on-the-Main (Heinemann),
Alsace (Peyerimhoff), Breslau in Silesia (Wocke), Eatisbon in
Bavaria (Stainton). Netherlands : Eotterdam, South Holland, Leeu-
warden, Friesland, not common (Snellen). Switzerland : near Zurich
(Frey).
NEPTICULA PYRI, Glitz.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Pyri, Glitz, " Jahresbericht der naturhistorichen Gesell.
zu Hannover,, xiv., p. 42 (1865) ; Frey, " Schweiz. Ent. Gesell.," 1870, p. 289 :
~eit.,"18^
Stett. Ent. Zeit.," 1871, p. 123 ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 336 (1871) ; Sand,
" Cat. Lep. Auvergne," p. 200 (1879) ; Sorhagen, "Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.,"
p. 303 (1886) ; Wood, " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxvi., p. 88 (1890) and vol. xxx., pp. 46 and
94 (1894) ; Hering, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," Hi., p. 219 (1891) ; " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," liv.,
p. 116 (1893) ; Meyr., " Handbook," etc., p. 716 (1895).
200 BRITISH LEPlDOPTERA.
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — We have been quite unable to get the
original description by Glitz. There appears to be no copy of the
Jahresbericlit dcr naturlt, Gesell. zu Hannover in the London libraries,
and a reference in Sorhagen's Die Rleinschmett. tier Mark Brandenburg,
p. 303, where he writes : " Beschr. Glitz, 1. c. 47, \m& Jahresbericht, etc.,
1865, 42," suggests an earlier note. To what the " I. c." refers, how-
ever, we are utterly unable to say. Frey, who describes the species
in 1870, calls it " 2V. pi/ri, Glitz, in litt." His description reads as
follows: — " TV. pyri, Glitz, in litt. — Der N. minusculdla, H.-S.,
verwandt, aber grosser, kraftiger gebaut, mit breiteren Fliigeln und
anders gefiirbtem Schopf. Grosse der IV. catliarticella, Sta., oder
N. tiliae, Frey. Scheitelhaare hoch orangeroth, Augendeekel gelblich-
weiss ; die ziemlich kurze Fiihlergeisel schwarzlich grau ; Taster
hellgrau ; Brust oberwiirts tiefdunkel bronzebraun, Leib schwarzlich,
Beine grau, Hintertarsen ganz hellgrau, fast grauweiss. Die iiber
den grosseren Theil ihrer Fliiche massig ergliinzenden Vorderfliigel
besitzen als Grundfarbe ein dunkles bronzeartiges Braun. Meistens
pflegt die Wurzel dunkler als das mehr messingartig schimmernde
Mittelfeld auszufallen ; doch kann das Colorit des Vorderfliigels bis
zum Spitzentheile hin gleichartig sich zeigen. Bei gewissen Beleuch-
tungen erhalt man einen bliiulichen Glanz der Schtippchen. Ganz
dunkelbraunschwarzundmitsehrlebhaft blaugliinzenderBeschuppung
erscheint aber der Spitzentheil des Vorderfliigels. Die Franzen
hellgrau, gegen den Afterwinkel hin dunkler. Hinterfliigel und
Franzen dunkelgrau" (Frey, Schweiz. Ent. Gesellschaft, 1870, p. 289).
IMAGO. — Head reddish. Anterior wings 4-5 mm. ; inner two-thirds
fuscous, with a golden-brown gloss, the outer third purple, the junction
of the two being sharply denned and concave in outline, owing to the
purple extending along both margins, especially the costal one ; cilia
dark grey, deeper at the anal angle. Posterior wings and cilia dark grey.
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the upperside of a leaf of pear,
nine times out of ten (Wood).
MINE. — The mine is narrow, small and cramped, and placed either
on the upper or underside of a pear leaf, with a very decided preference
for the former (Wood thinks that it is due to the fouling of the upper-
surface with honey-dew, that sometimes drives it to the lower surface).
The convolutions show a general tendency to keep close together, but
occasionally they run together so as to form a blotch, and then the
frass, which is generally coiled with regularity, tends to become rather
slovenly arranged.
LARVA. — The larva is bluish-green in colour ; the head very pale ;
the hind portion of the abdominal canal red ; the cephalic ganglia
and ventral cord invisible ; legs well developed. The larva mines
with its dorsum upwards. Both the larva and the mine are with difficulty
to be distinguished from those of N. (wyacanthella. The red intestinal
canal of A7, pyri, however, forms a good distinction between it and the
larva of AT. o.vyacanthella, which has a yellow intestinal canal.
Sorhagen describes the larva as follows: "Die Baupe 9-10 und
seltener 7 ( Juli) in den Bliittern des wilden und cultivirten Birnbaums,
in jenem hiiufiger. Gangmine schwach gewunden, anfangs sehrfein,
in den 2 letzten Drittheilen breiter, mit der Kothlinie in der Mitte."
COMPARISON OF THE MINES OF N. PYRI AND N. MINUSCULELLA. — It is
not always .easy to. discriminate between the mines of N. pyri and N.
NEPTlCULA PYK1. 201
minmculella. If the mines are typical no difficulty arises, but
occasionally the convolutions in X. pyri, which always show a tendency
to keep close together, will so run into each other as almost to form a
blotch, and at the same time the coiling of the frass gets rather
slovenly. On the other hand, when X. ininuficulella happens to be in
an over-thick leaf, and in consequence contracts to some extent the
width of its gallery, signs of imperfect coiling may show themselves,
probably an ancestral habit, indicating that the insect has only
recently parted company from the species that use narrow galleries,
and the coil arrangement. Under these circumstances, each mine
encroaches somewhat on the character of the other, and their dis-
tinction becomes not as clear as could be wished. It is, therefore,
rather tantalising that we should be in sight, though not quite in
possession of, a very simple character, that would solve the matter at
once. I mean the position of the egg ; for did N. pjri always lay on
the upperside of the leaf, as X. minusculella does on the underside,
nothing more would be wanted, but since it does not do so, it is only
in a limited number of cases, that is, where the egg is found above,
that any conclusion from its position can be safely drawn (Wood).
COCOON. — The cocoon examined measures 2-2 mm. in length, and
1-9 mm. at its widest part. It is dark red-brown in colour, with a purplish
hue, and a number of darker reticulations. It is of the shape that has been
described as something like a "mussel-shell" (but which appears in this
instance more of the shape of a plum-stone), somewhat flattened at the
broader end, yet without forming a distinct flange or rim. The narrow end
is much thicker, and more rounded, whilst along this and one of the long
sides the dome-shaped top rises from the edge without the flattening
of the two opposite sides. The cocoon examined has no flossy silk
hanging about it, except along the outer rim, where some fibres show
that it has been attached by the outer edge. [Described under a
two-thirds lens on June 20th, 1898, from a cocoon sent by Dr. Wood.]
Wood notes the cocoon as being " very like that of N. oj-yacanthella,
but smaller and darker. It is also placed in similar situations."
FOOD-PLANT. — Pyrus communis.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double-brooded, the imagines
first appearing at the end of May and commencement of June, and
afterwards in August, from larvae found feeding in September-October
and July respectively. Mines collected at the end of September, 1888,
produced imagines early in June, 1889 (Wood). Frey writes: —
" Herr Glitz in Hannover, bekanntlich einer unserer ausgezeichnetsten
Forscher,iiberschicktemirvor einigen Jahren inehrereExemplare dieser
neuen, von Birnbiiumen erzogenen Art. Ich fand dann bei Zurich in
der ersten Octoberhalfte zahlreich an wildern Birnen unter jiingeren
Nadelbiiumen die der von X. minusculella gleichende Mine mit einem
ganz ahnlichen dunkelgriinen Raupchen und erzog einige den Glitz -
'schen identische Exemplare. Ob die Generation eine doppelte ist
vermag ich noch nicht anzugeben " (Stett. Ent. Zeit., 1871, pp. '
123-124).
LOCALITIES. — HEREFORD : Tarrington, where the species is limited to those
orchards which are situated on the limestone, or on the brashy cornstones of the
Old Red Sandstone (Wood).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Nohaut (Sand). Gre
at Konigsthor, Alt Damm, Friedland (Henng
Tl IPAI FYPCDlMCMT OT
202 SBlTlSEt LEPlDOPfERA.
NEPTICULA OXYACANTHELLA, Stainton.
SYNONYMY.— Species : OryacantlielUi, Sta.. "Ins. Brit.." p. 298 (1854) ; "Nat
Hist. Tin.," i., p. 200, pi. v.. fig. 2 (1855) ; " Man.," ii., p. 431 (1859) ; H.-Sch.
"Sys. Bear.," v., p. 349 (18-55) ; Frey, "DieTineen," etc., p. 372(1856); "Linn
Ent.," xi., p. 373 (1857) ; Nolcken, " Lep. Fn. Estland." etc.. p. 762 (1871) ;
Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 336 (1871) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auvergne, ' p. 200 (1879)
Snellen. " De Vlinders," etc., p. 977 (1882) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Alsace," 2nd Ed.
ii.. p. 166 (1882); Sorhagen, "Die Kleinschmett. Brand.," p. 303 (1886);
Meyrick. " Handbook," etc., p. 716 (1895). Oxyacanthaecolella, Dbdy., " List," p. 36
(1859) ; Porritt, " List Yorks. Lep.," p. 170 (1886).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — N.u.vyacanthclla, n. sp. Alis anticis fuscis
purpureo-tinctis, postice purpureis ; capillis luteis. Exp. al. 2^ lin.
Head and face deep yellow. Palpi. vwhitish. Antennre dark fuscous,
with the basal joint whitish. Anterior wings fuscous, tinged with
purple, beyond the middle almost entirely purple. Posterior wings
pale grey, with pale grey cilia. Appears in May, but not hitherto
observed in the perfect state. The bright green larva is very common
in hawthorn leaves in autumn, making long galleries ; it mines also,
I believe, in the leaves of wild apple (Stainton, Insccta Britannica,
p. 298).
IMAGO. — Head deep yellow. Anterior wings 5-6 mm. ; fuscous
tinged with purple, almost entirely purple beyond the middle of the
wings ; cilia purplish-grey. Posterior wings and their cilia pale grey.
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the underside of a leaf of haw-
thorn, frequently close to the midrib, and, as a rule, not very far from
the petiole.
MINE. — The bright green larva of N. oxyacanthdla makes a
narrow gallery with the frass arranged in coils ; the gallery usually
lying on the underside of a leaf, and being long and boldly marked.
Wood says : " The larva of this species coils its frass, whether the
food-plant be hawthorn, pear or apple. It is noticeable, however,
that, shortly before its termination, the gallery widens somewhat, and
concurrently with the change, the coiling abruptly stops, and the
frass is collected into a narrow central thread, showing that the larva
is ready enough, when circumstances allow it, to adopt the easier and
simpler method of disposal. One occasionally finds in the half-
starved leaves on the butts of old hawthorn hedges, mines rather wider
than usual, and with the frass running in this thread-like manner
through their whole length, which makes them look very different
from ordinary N. oxyacanthella. There is little doubt that such mines
belong to this species, and I would ascribe their peculiarity to the
thin and flimsy nature of the leaves." Stainton writes : " As soon as
the larva is hatched it commences a very slender mine, which is filled
with black-brown excrement ; the larva frequently goes part of the
way down the leaf -stalk, and then, turning round, returns into the
leaf, when the mine becomes broader and the excrement paler,
appearing merely brownish, with the grains placed in little arcs of
circles not entirely filling up the mine, but leaving a very narrow
margin on either side. The mine is not closely contorted, and
ordinarily has not more than two or three turns, though in a very
small leaf it necessarily assumes rather a different appearance." Frey
writes : " Die Mine ist ein langer, mehr gestreckter und nur ein paar
Mai umgebogener Gang, welcher sich nur sehr allmahlig nach unten
erweitert. Er wird fast ganz von der braunschwarzen, breiten, zusam-
NEPTICTOA OXYACANTHELLA. 203
menhangenden Kothreihe erftillt, die nur gegen den Ausgang der
Mine bin verfeinerfc aufhort. An der Ausgangsofmung ist der Quer-
durchmesser des Ganges etwa 1 '"."
LARVA. — Length 2 lines ; bright green, the dorsal vessel darker,
head green, with a faint brownish tinge, the mouth, and two lines
receding from it, light brown (Stainton). The head of the larva is
dark (usually dark grey or black), and is always conspicuous in the
mine. The ground-colour of the larva is green, of a rather less bluish
tint than that of the larva of X. yratiosella, and the cephalic ganglia
are just visible behind the head (of these there is no trace in the larva
of N. gratioRella). The intestinal canal is yellowish, and by this the
larva can at once be separated from that of N. pijri. Frey writes :
"Die Raupe ist, etwa 2'" messend, lebhaft grasgriin mit dunkel
hindurchschimmerndem Darmkanale. Der Kopf zeigt sich braunlich,
die Mundtheile braun." The larva mines with its dorsurn uppermost
in the mine.
COMPARISON OF THE MINES AND LARVA OF N. OXYACANTHELLA WITH
THOSE OF N. PYRI AND N. MiNuscuLELLA. — These three species make
gallery mines in the pear. X. oxyacemtltetla and X. pyri make narrow
galleries with the coil arrangement, X. minusctdella a wide gallery
with the frass collected into the middle. All have bright green larvae ;
AT. o.ri/acantkella and X. minitxcidella lie on the underside, N. pyi'i
on either the upper or underside, but with a very decided pre-
ference for the former, and I am inclined to think that it is the foul-
ing of the upper surface with honey-dew that generally drives it to
the lower one. XT. oxyacantlu'lla can be recognised by its long and
bold mine, by the dark head of the larva with the cephalic ganglia just
visible behind, and by the yellowish intestinal canal — the characters,
in fact, that distinguish it when feeding in hawthorn leaves. The
mines of the other two are small and cramped ; the larva) have pale
heads, and no trace of the cephalic ganglia, a tinge of blue in their
ground colour, and the hinder part of the intestinal canal in
N. pyri red. Seldom can any hesitation be felt in distinguishing
X. o.ryacanthella from XT. pyri, and still less from X. minusadclla
(Wood).
COCOON. — -The cocoon is oval, dull greenish-brown, inclining to
yellowish-brown at the wider end, through which the pupa protrudes
its anterior segments previously to the emergence of the imago
(Stainton). Hind calls the colour of the cocoon " purplish-brown."
It is usually spun on the surface of the ground, and is smooth and
dark brown in colour (Wood). Frey writes : " Der Cocon ist braun,
ziemlich regelmassig und langlich rund."
FOOD-PLANTS. — Crataeyw oxyacantlta, Pyms mains, P. communis, P.
aucuparia and Cotoneaster affinis (Fletcher).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The imago appears in May and August,
from larvae collected in September-October and July respectively. The
insect is distinctly stated by Wood to be single-brooded, the larva to be
found only in September and October at Hereford, the imago
appearing in June. Bower records mines found October 3rd, 1891, at
Lewisham, on hawthorn, and on October 3rd, 1892, at Mottingham,
on apple. Stainton took the imago at Dartford Heath, on June 22nd,
1852, and from pupae kept in confinement bred imagines on June 23rd,
1852, March 12th, 23rd, May 3rd, 5th, 1853, April 6th and 9th, and
204
BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
May 15th, 1854. Nolcken found larvae September 22nd- October 10th,
1865, at Pichtendahl, and Fologue records full-fed larvre on June 7th,
1860, at Brussels.
LOCALITIES. — BERKS : Beading (Hamm). CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge ( Warren V
CHESHIRE : Birkenhead (Stainton), Bowdon (Edleston). Tranmere (Broekholes).
DERBY: Burton (Sang). DORSET: Purbeck (Bankes), Bloxworth (Cambridge),
Glanvilles Wootton (Dale), Weymouth (Richardson). DUBLIN : Howth and
Coolock (Birchall). DURHAM : Darlington (Stainton). GLOUCESTER : Bristol
(Stainton). HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood). KENT : Lewisham and Dartford
Heath (Stainton), Charlton (Douglas), Mottingham (Bower). LANCASHIRE ;
Manchester (Stainton), Grange (Hodgkinson), Preston (Threlfall). LINCOLN:
Louth, Alford (Fletcher). NORFOLK: Merton (Barrett), King's Lynn (Atmore).
BENFREW : Kenfrew (Scott). SUFFOLK: T-uddenham (Warren). SUSSEX: common
in the county (Fletcher). WESTMORLAND : Witherslack (Threlfall). YORK-
SHIRE : Don caster (Warren), Bichrnond (Sang), Scarborough (Stainton), York
(Hind).
DISTUIBUTION. — Belgium : nr. Brussels (Fologne). France : Nohaut,
Indre (Sand). Germany : Frankfort-on-the-Main (Miihlig), Hamburg
(Sorhagen), Alsace (Peyerimhoff). Netherlands : generally distributed
and not rare (Snellen). Switzerland : Ziirich (Frey).
NEPTICULA ANOMALELLA, G6ze, AND NEPTICULA FLETCHERI, n. Sp.
Under the name N. anomalella, Goze, there appear to have been
for about a hundred and fifty years two distinct species united. These
may, for convenience, be called the " red-headed " species = anoma-
lella, Goze, and the " black-headed " species, for which we propose
the name Jletcheri, in compliment to Mr. W. H. B. Fletcher, who has
at last separated the two forms. He writes of these : (1) The " red-
headed " form occurs everywhere, it seems, in wild roses, Uosa canina
and R. mbu/inona, in hedgerows, and in sundry species of garden roses,
e.y., I have met with it in II. indica var. nit/osa rarely, in li. seinper-
cirena in swarms, and in the ordinary " H. P." and "tea" roses.
(2) The " black-headed " form is very common, but not so ubiquitous
as the previous form. I find it here and in Lincolnshire, in /(W
urroisis. It is a much more covert-loving species than the other (li.
an-en.tix, has, of course, the same habit). Comparing the two forms
he notes : (1) The frass seems to be more diffusively disposed in the
mine of the " black-headed" form ; in the "red-headed" form it looks to
the naked eye like the line drawn with a ruling-pen. (2) The
difference in the colosr of the head of the imagines is not sexual.
I have a long, carefully sexed series (50-60 specimens) of each.
(3) The " black- headed " form is decidedly the smaller. (4) I
can breed the "red-headed" form pure in any quantity, and I think
I can also breed the "black-headed" form quite pure (in litt.).
In the Zoologist, vol. xi., p. 3959 (1853), Stainton writes that " from
the mode of mining and the colour of the cocoons, there is little doubt
that two species feed on the rose, one of which has always been
confounded with JV. ruiicapitdla (see Lewis in Ent. Mat/., i., 422), but
of which one sex has the tuft of the head black, was observed by
De Geer, and Goze has given to his insect the name of X. anoutalclla.
The other species, which I have not bred, may be the Continental oY.
centtfoliella." Here Stainton possibly, unknowingly, mixes three species,
two of which he considers as sexes of one species (the one that has
been mixed with A', nijimjiitclla, and which Goze has called anoma-
lella). We fipd, further, that in the Imecta Britannica, p. 297, Stainton
NEPTICULA ANOMALELLA AND NEPTICULA FLETCHERI. 205
refers Lewis' " red-headed," rose-feeding rufica)>itella to anomaldla,
Goze, and his own description of the imago, on the same page,
includes the two species under discussion, for he says : " Head and
face bright yellow, sometimes black." He adds that it is abundant
in gardens and hedges, the situation of the " red-headed " rather than
the " black-headed " form. There can be no doubt that in the Nat.
Hist. Tin., i., p. 54, it was the former rather than the latter that he
was describing. His note that, "if we examine our rose bushes
in the months of July or October, we can hardly fail to observe, on
some of them, that many of the leaves are marked with pale serpentine
tracks, down the centre of each of which is a black line," can only
possibly refer to X. anomalella. The " reddish-brown " mine after-
wards mentioned must also belong to this species. At this time, too,
Stainton was not at all clear that the "red" and "black" heads
indicated the different sexes of the same species, for he says (Xat.
Hist. Tin., i., p. 58) : " The head and face are bright yellow, in some
specimens they are black, but whether this colour of the head always
indicates the sex seems doubtful." He further says that " Goze
refers to De Geer's figures and descriptions, and also to his own, in
the Naturforseker ; all these represent distinctly a gallery miner of the
rose, of which the larva is yellow ; hence with our present knowledge
of the transformations of the genus, little doubt can attach that the
present is the species intended " (Ibid., p. 64). De Geer evidently had
but one form before him, the " red-headed " one. In the first volume
of the Meuioires, p. 446 (translated by Stainton, Nat. Hist. Tin., i.,
p. 66), we read that "in autumn, in the months of September and
October, we find on the rose-trees (both on the wild sorts and those
grown in gardens), leaves which are marked with brown streaks, wavy
and, as it were, entwined in one another." The character " brown
streaks" only refers to the mines of the "red-headed" form. Further
on (Ibid., p. 76) we read, " These paths, hollowed in the leaf, are of
dingy brown, from their origin to nearly the half of their length ; this
colour is produced by the excrement inclosed therein, which occupies
the whole of the interior portion ; but the other half or rather more
is not entirely filled with excrement ; we see only all along the
middle, a continuous brown streak, composed of a succession of brown
excrement, which leaves on each side of the gallery an empty space,
which appears whitish, because it is the colour of the epidermis of the
leaf, etc." This description again can only apply to the mine of the
" red-headed " form, for in no part of the mine of the " black-headed "
form does the frass produce anything approaching a "streak." Only one
doubtful point occurs in this description, and that is quite at the end,
where De Geer says, " in the last fourth we no longer see the excre-
ment in zigzag, it is in the form of little blackish grains placed
in rows along the gallery," a character which is, perhaps, more
characteristic of the " black-headed " form. Still, on the whole, there
can be no question that the description of the mine was taken
from that made by the "red-headed" form. De Geer says, "the
cocoons are oval and white, in some the white inclines to yellow."
Fletcher sends us one perfectly white cocoon on the underside
of a rose-leaf containing several mines of the "red-headed"
form. It is a most unusual colour, probably due to the same
disturbing influences as is the variation in the colour of the cocoons
ZOO BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
of Saturnia paconia, Eriogtuter lanestris, etc. So far as the state-
ment and the single cocoon on the leaf are in actual agreement,
the evidence supports the view of its being the " red-headed " species.
De Geer describes the imago as " being of grey colour and shining,
the wings furnished with a broad fringe of hairs, the antennae fili-
form, and the legs long." This is of no service whatever to us. In
1774, Goze copied (Xaturforscher, iv., pp. 1-16) De Geer's observations,
but added nothing new. In 1781 Goze again described (Ibid., xv., pp.
37-48, pi. ii., figs. 1-2,8-12) the species in more detail. On p. 46 we read:
" Kopf, a, ganz buschicht, voll kleiner keulenformiger Haare," etc.
The fore-wings are described as " braun mattgoldgelb." The colour of
the head is not mentioned, but the fl very bushy " or " fuzzy " applies
much better to the " red-headed " than to the black-headed form.
His larvae, too, were found on garden roses as well as Rosa canina.
Altogether one cannot doubt that Goze and De Geer had the same
species under their notice when describing, viz., the one so common in
gardens and hedges, and which De Geer's description satisfies us, was
the " red-headed," and not the " black-headed " species. In 1783,
Goze [Ent. Betjtr. (L.S.N., xii.), iii. (4), 168-9, No. 290J gave the
name Phalaena Tinea anomalella to the species which he had described
in the Natwforscher, xv., omitting reference to Xaturf., iv.,but citing
De Geer. In none of the authors, to which we have access, is there a
description of a mine like those sent to us by Fletcher, as those of
the "black-headed" species in Rosa arventtis. In none is a point
made of the " black " head, almost all mention the head as " red,"
and add " or black " in brackets, as if obtained incidentally, pro-
bably in the case of Frey, Sorhagen, and others, direct from Stainton.
The note (already quoted) of the latter on this point shows his doubt,
and his series includes individuals captured wild. The differentiation
of the " black-headed " form from the " red-headed" has never yet
been worked out, and hence the geographical distribution of the
former is practically unknown, both in this country and abroad.
Snellen, however, writes [Vlinden Xed. Micro., 982 (1882)] that " the
headhairs of X. anomalclla are bright rust-yellow, brown, or black,
without signifying a sexual difference." This confirms Fletcher as to
the sexes being $ and J black, and $ and ? red. Bower also
states that he has bred only the " red-headed" form from 7?. canina and
different varieties of garden rose.
NEPTICULA ANOMALELLA, G6Z6.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Anomalella, Goze, "Beitr.," iii., 4, p. 168, no. 280
(1783) ; Sta., " Ins. Brit.," p. 297 (1854) ; " Nat. Hist. Tin.," i., p. 54, pi. i., fig. 2
(1855); "Man.,"ii., p. 432 (1859); H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.." v., p. 349 (1855) ;
Frey, "Die Tineen." etc., p. 375 (1856) ; " Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 379 (1857) ; Stand,
and Wocke. " Cat.," p. 336 (1871); Nolcken, " Lep. Fn. Est.," p. 759 (1871);
Wallngrn., " Bihang Vet.-Ak. Handl.." iii., p. 80 (1875; ; " Ent. Tids.," ii., p. 126
(1881) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 733 (1877) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep.
Auv.," p. 200 (1879) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Als.," 2nd Ed., ii.,p. 165 (1882); Snellen,
•• De Vlinders," etc., ii., p. 982 (1882); Mill., "Nat. Sic.," v., p. 204 (1886);
Sorhagen, "Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.." p. 302 (1886); Wlsm., "Ent. Mo.
Mag.," xxvii., p. 152 (1891) ; Meyrick, " Handbook," etc., p. 715 (1895). Grisea-
rosfn. Retz., "Gen. et Spec. Ins.," 55, 170 (1783). Rosella. Schrank, " Fn.
Boica," ii., p. 139, no. 1890 (1802). Rnjicapitella, Lewis, "Ent. Mag.," i., p. 422.
Anomala, Curo, " Atti della Soc. Nat. Modena," xvi. (1883).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — 290. Anomalella, der Hautfuss (De Geer,
NEPTICULA ANOMALELLA. 207
Ins., Tom. ii., pfc. i, p. 495, no. 7). Phalene a antennes filiformes, a
trompe, a ailes etroites elevees grises, d'une chenille mineuse du
Rosier. Phalene-teiijne mineme ijrise du Rosier (De Geer, Tom. i., t. 30,
f. 20 ; t. 81, f. 13, 14, 16). La chenille une mineuse jaune a dix-
huifc pattes membraneuses et point de pattes ecailleuses, qui mine les
feuilles du Rosier en galleries (De Geer, Uebersetzuny, i., 3 Quart.,
p. 41, t. 30, fig. 20 ; t. 31, figs. 18, 14, 16. II. Th., I. B., p. 366,
no. 7, die graue Rosenblattminirmotte. Xaturforscher, 15tes St.,
p. 21, t. 2, figs. 1-12, die wahre, aber unendlich kleine Phalane
der Degeerischen Raupe mit 18 hautigen Wulstfiissen) [Goze, Ent.
Beytriiye, etc., vol. iii., pt. 4 (1783), pp. 168-169] . As the name
is practically given by Goze to De Geer's insect, and the latter is
without doubt (as proved by the description of the mine) the " red-
headed " species, we would restrict the name to that species. At the
same time, it is necessary to give Goze's own description of the species
that he referred to De Geer's insect. He writes of larvae found
in the middle of June, 1779 : " Das Raupchen ist hoch orangegelb,
ohnegefahr zwo Linien lang, und nach Proportion dicke, mit achtzehn
hiiutigen Wulstfiissen versehen Am Kopfe obenauf zween
hornartige Striche : eigentlich ein kleines herzformiges hornartiges
Pliittchen Man kann die Nahrung in dem lilngs durch-
laufenden Kanal noch ganz griin heruntergehen und sich fortschieben
sehen. Die Exkremente sind anfiinglich ein graulicher flussiger
Brey, wenn das Raupchen noch sehr klein, und nicht lange aus dem
Ey gekrochen ist ; werden aber mit der Zeit runde schwarze kugeln, die
nicht wie bey andern, als kleine Wiirstchen, zusammenhangen. Wenn
das Raupchen bald auskriechen will, wird es unruhig, frisst nicht mehr
der Liinge nach ; sondern links und rechts um sich, und liegt oft krumm*
zusammen, wodurch seiner Wohnung ziemlich erweitert wird." . . .
On the 23rd June, 1779. ..." in ein flachrundliches fahlgelblicb.es
Gehiiuse, Fig. 1, eingesponnen. Dies die natiirliche Grosse, etwan eine
Linie im Durchmesser; Fig. 2, durch No. 6, Tub. A° meines Kompositi
vergrossert. Das Gehause selbst war unten flach, mit weisslicher
Seide angeklebt : oben konvex mit scharfen Seitenriinden. In der
Mitte der konvexen Flache eine runder Spiegelfleck, durch welchen
das krumm zusammenliegende Raupchen durchschimmerte." Having
described the Ichneumon, Goze writes thus of the Neptinda : " Das
aus dem flachrunden Gespinnst, Fig. 1, 2, ausgekommene Insekt, Fig. 8,
in natiirlicher Grosse, kaum eine Linie lang, und mit geschlossenen
Fliigeln, kaum eine halbe breit ; Fig. 9, durch No. 4, Tub. A,
vergrossert ; ist eine wahre Phalane, von ausserordentlicher Struktur
des Korpers, und seiner Theile. Der Kopf, a, ganz buschicht, voll
kleiner keulenformiger Haare, wodurch die Augen ganz verdeckt sind.
Die Fiihlhorner, b c, besonders gestaltet : an jedem ein und zwanzig
stumpfkegelformige, fast ovalrundlichte Gelenke ; bey einigen, d e f,
scharfspitzige Ecken. Die Fiisse, deren nur drey vorstanden, y h i,
auch von eigener Beschaffenheit, alle iiberaus haaricht ; das Fussblatt
ander Vorderfiissen, k I, zehngliedricht, und die Glieder fast eben so,
als an den Fiihlhornern. Der Schenkel, und das Fussblatt der
Mittelfiisse, m n, wieder anders ; der erstere an der einen Seite
haaricht ; und das letztere schlichtweg. Kralen hab'ich nicht
* " Tub. A," etc., refers to the power of the compound microscope used.
208 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
entdecken konnen. Die Fliigel sehr haaricht ; die obern, o \>, braun
mattgoldgelb, mit vielen Schuppen, sehr schmalen Federchen, und
feinen Haaren bedeckt. Die Unterfliigel, deren einer, q, etwas
vorstehet, wie eine Vogelfeder. An den Randen herum, r, .s, lauter
solche Haarformige, langstielichte, oben keulenformige, und gespaltene,
dicke beysammen gepflanzte Federn als Fig. 10. Wegen seiner
Kleinbeit konnt'ich ihn ohne Verletzung nicht genauer behandeln.
Mir war am meisten an dem Beweise gelegen, dass es erstlich eine,
aus einem Minirraupchen mit achtzehn hiiutigen Wulstfiissen, ganz
ungezweifelt gewiss ausgekommene Phiilane war ; zweytens, dass sie
in Farben und Bildung der Glieder von andem Minirraupenmotten
ganz abwich. Und diesen Beweis hat mir die Natur, die Erfahrung,
und der Augenschein gegeben " (Goze. Xaturfm-xclu-i; xv., 1781, pp.
40-46).
IMAGO. — Head bright orange-yellow, the long hairs covering the
base of antennas, which appears to be black. Anterior wings 5 mm. ;
bronzy, tinged with purple on costa at base ; apex purplish-red ; cilia
dark grey at their bases, paler towards the tips. Posterior wings and
cilia dark grey.
COMPARISON OP N. ANOMALELLA WITH N. FLETCHERI. — Compared
with .Y. jh'tcheri, the fore-wings appear to be broader in .V. anomaldla,
the purple colour at the apex redder and extending over a greater
area, being produced markedly in some specimens for a short distance
along the costa towards the base. There is also in N. anomalella a
tendency to the development of a patch of pale cilia quite at the apex
of the fore-wings. The posterior wings and their cilia appear also to
be more uniformly dark grey. Besides these characters, the red-headed
fN. anotnalella is a distinctly larger insect than the black-headed A".
ftetclieri,
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the under-surface of a rose-leaf,
close to the midrib, or (almost as frequently) against one of the large
lateral veins of the leaf. It forms a complete oval in outline, has a
perfectly transparent shell, with no trace of sculpturing ; one end of
the shell is, however, almost always yellowish in hue, the remainder
of the shell colourless. There is only a slight trace of iridescence,
even with a good light. In some instances the shell is packed almost
full of black frass, in other cases it is practically empty.
MINE. — The mine is at first very fine, and discolours the leaf so
that the track is greenish, reddish or brownish at the sides (in dried
leaves, probably due to difference in the colour of the chlorophyll),
with the black frass scattered along the central part of the gallery.
The frass, however, soon becomes exceedingly dense, filling the whole
of the space mined, and causing the mine to appear as a wavy black
line, with a fine red (or brown) margin on either side. This first part
of the mine is about an inch in length, and contains about three or
four wavy curves in its course. The second part of the mine is much
wider, and altogether is perhaps an inch and a half in length ; the
larva now clears out a large part of the parenchyma on either side,
leaving a pale (greenish) margin on each side of the frass-line, the margin
gradually increasing in width as the larva progresses ; this paler area is
again bounded on either side with a narrow reddish (or brownish)
margin, whilst the frass still forms a dense central wavy line. At the
termination of the mine the larva clears out an area about a quarter of
NEPTICULA ANOMALELLA. 209
an inch long by an eighth of an inch in width, the larva finally
escaping by the upper side. [The above description was made from
mines of the red-headed species in leaves of Rosa sempervirejis] . The
mine in Rosa canina is identical with the above, except that the red or
brownish margin of the gallery in R. semperoirens is dark-green with a
brownish tinge. Stainton writes : " The larva, as soon as hatched,
bores into the leaf, and commences its irregular wavy gallery, the first
portion of which is indicated by the very slender line of excrement
being reddish-brown ; before it has proceeded, however, above a
quarter of an inch, its excrement becomes black, and can be distinctly
traced as having been deposited in little arcs of circles — at first filling
up the whole width of the mine, but afterwards, as from the growth
of the larva the mine becomes wider, only occupying the central
portion of it. When full-fed, the larva splits the upper skin of the
leaf, and creeps out ; and if it be the summer brood, the larva proceeds
to the footstalk to spin its cocoon." De Geer writes : " The gallery
does not proceed in a straight line, but makes very irregular curves.
The larva mines sometimes on one side, sometimes on the other, often
passing across the gallery already mined. At its origin the gallery is
not thicker than a hair, but it afterwards increases in width con-
tinuously to the end where it is widest. It is of a dingy brown
colour for nearly the first half of its length, the colour produced by the
excrement which occupies the whole of the interior portion ; the
remaining portion is not entirely filled, but forms along the centre of
the mine a continuous brown streak, and leaving on each side an
empty space, which appears whitish, because it is the colour of the
epidermis of the leaf. In the first part of the gallery the excrement
forms a continuous thread ; in the middle division the pellets are
arranged in curves zigzagging from one side to the other ; in the last
division the blackish grains are placed in rows along the gallery."
LARVA. — The larvae are not more than two lines in length. They
are of a yellow tint, inclining to orange, but the head is brown. The
body is divided into twelve segments, and diminishes in width pos-
teriorly ; it is furnished with some very fine hairs. The transparency
of the skin allows of some of the internal organs being seen. The
head is furnished with two flat and slender mandibles, and is conse-
quently well suited for gnawing and detaching the pulp of the leaf
without injuring the upper cuticle ; these teeth are much advanced in
front of the head, and form a point. Beneath the head is a little
spinneret, like a prolonged teat, very similar to that of other cater-
pillars. The legs are eighteen in number, placed in two rows in
pairs. They are similar to the membranous legs of the larvaB of
saw-flies, pyramidal or conical in shape, without booklets, and are
placed on the nine segments following the first (De Geer). Stainton's
description of the larva is as follows : " Length 2 lines. Amber-
yellow, shining, transparent ; the dorsal vessel darker yellow ; head
small, piceous, lighter at the sides, leaving the centre as a dark
quadrate patch ; the prothorax anteriorly piceous, interrupted in the
centre by a broad yellow line, and rounded posteriorly, this colouring
being evidently the hinder portion of the head showing through."
Wood says that the prothoracic markings are the equivalents of the two
halves of a pro-thoracic plate. They are black in colour, and of
unusual size, so that they project well beyond the head. The alimen-
N
210 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
tary canal is characterised by its being of a green tint in front and
yellow behind.
COCOON. — The cocoons average 3 mm. long and 2-2 mm. wide.
They are roughly oval in outline, and neither end is markedly wider than
the other. Each is regularly domed from the edge to the centre,
composed of a rather dark brown-coloured silk, becoming more yellow
round the outer rim ; the surface is comparatively smooth and rather
shiny, there being very little loose silk noticeable, except along the
somewhat crenate margin, by which the cocoon is generally attached
to the under surface of a leaf. [Described under a two-thirds lens,
on June 21st, from cocoons sent by Mr. W. H. B. Fletcher.] One
cocoon of this species, placed on the -underside of a leaflet of /i. semper-
t'ireiift, in which are the mines sent by Mr. Fletcher for description,
is of a pure white colour. It is placed partly under the slightly
curled margin of the leaf, and has a projecting pupa-case. There
is a considerable amount of loose flossy silk and a rather broad white
flange running around the outer edge. Other cocoons are testaceous,
and others, again, orange-brown in colour, mostly spun on
the under-side of a leaf, in the angle between the mid-rib and
a lateral vein. De Geer states that he examined the branches
and stems of the rose-trees, in the leaves of which he observed
empty galleries, in order to find the ordinary and natural retreats
of these insects. He found several enclosed in cocoons, which were
generally placed in some cavity or fissure in the bark of the branches.
He often found them " in the angle formed by two branches, or in the
angle formed by a large thorn with the branch from which it sprung.
The caterpillars choose such places because they find it easier there to
fix all round their body the threads which form the cocoon ; a level
surface would not have been so suitable." De Geer further describes
the cocoons as " oval and white. In some, the white inclines to yellow.
Although their sides are thin, they are close and very strong, so that
one can hardly tear them without hurting the insect they contain."
Lewis describes the upper part of the cocoon as " con vex -and generally
circular ; the under part oblong, shaped to hold the pupa, and much
smaller than the upper, which projects considerably beyond it on all
sides." Stainton writes : '• When full-fed, the larva splits the upper
skin of the leaf and creeps out ; and if it be the summer brood,
the larva proceeds to the foot-stalk of the leaf, and there spins
its orange cocoon, which is rather of a peculiar structure, for the
side of it exposed to the weather is found to have a sort of
outer covering, which projects beyond the limits of the actual cocoon,
serving, we may suppose, as a protection from wet. If the larva be
of the autumnal brood, it very rarely seeks the foot-stalk of the leaf,
but attaches itself to the main stem of the rose-bush, beneath the
shelter of some branch or thorn (or else it probably seeks shelter on
the ground among leaves). After completing its cocoon it assumes
the pupal state, in which it remains for a fortnight or three weeks in
summer, and for six or seven months in winter, at the end of which
time the pupa protrudes its head from one end of the cocoon, and the
imago emerges."
PUPA. — The pupa is of a bright yellow-orange colour, in which the
parts of the future animal are more marked than in ordinary
" chrysalides," yet less so than in " nymphs." The form of the pupa
NEPTICULA ANOMALELLA. 211
is oval ; the abdomen, which terminates in a truncated cone, is
divided into segments ; the wing-cases extend nearly to the end of the
abdomen, and are of considerable breadth. The antennae and legs are
placed in regular order between the wings (De Geer).
FOOD-PLANTS. — Rosa canina, R. ntbiyinosa, many species of garden
rose, etc. Wood states that he has also bred it from R. arvensis.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double-brooded, the imagines
appearing in May and August, from larvae that have fed up in
October-November, and July respectively. Bower records the mines
as being obtained on October 3rd, 1892, at Lewisham. Stainton
bred the species on August 24th-25th, 1853, from mines obtained at
Dawlish ; on May 6th, 1852, April 24th and May 17th, 1853, from
larvae obtained at Lewisham ; on March 17th, May 4th and 13th, 1853,
from larvae obtained at Beckenham. Imagines were captured on
June 1st, 1876, at Lewisham, and May 20th, 1851, at Beckenham.
Evans records imagines on May 23rd, 1895, at Kirknewton, and June
3rd, 1895, at Greenbank ; Walsingham, on April 20th, 1890, at
Cannes, and in Corsica, June 12th, 1898, whilst Reuter notes it in the
I. of Aland, on May 13th, 1886.
LOCALITIES. — The following localities refer indiscriminately to N.
anomalella and N. fletcheri, the species not having been previously
diagnosed separately. If a separation can be made before the com-
pletion of this volume, it shall be added in an appendix.
CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge (Warren) . CHESHIRE: Bowdon (Edleston). DERBY:
Burton (Sang). DEVON: Dawlish (Stainton). DORSET: Isle of Purbeck, Corfe
Castle (Bankes), Weymouth (Richardson) , Glanvilles Wootton (Dale), Bloxworth
(Cambridge), Portland,* one only, bred (Bankes). DUBLIN: Howth (Birchall).
DURHAM : Darlington (Sang). FLINT : Northop nr. Mold (Bankes). GLOUCESTER :
Bristol (Stainton). HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood). KENT : Tenterden, Becken-
ham (Stainton), Lewisham and Lee (Bower). LANCASHIRE: Manchester (Stainton),
Grange (Hodgkinson), Fleetwood, Preston (Threlfall), Liverpool district (Gregson).
LINCOLNSHIRE: Alford (Fletcher). MIDLOTHIAN: Kirknewton, Greenbank (Evans).
NORFOLK: Myntlyn, nr. Lynn (Barrett), Merton (Walsingham), King's Lynn
(Atmore). NORTHUMBERLAND : Newcastle (Stainton). SUFFOLK : Great Glenham
(Bloomfield), Lowestoft (Boyd). SUSSEX: generally abundant in the county
(Fletcher), Worthing (Bankes), Guestling (Bloomfield). YORK: Scarborough
(Wilkinson), Eichmond (Sang), York (Hind), Doncaster (Warren).
DISTRIBUTION. — Austria: Hraszt nr. Fiume (Mann), Carniola
(Wocke). France : Nohaut, Indre (Sand), Cannes, Corsica (Walsing-
ham). Germany : generally distributed and common (Heinemann and
Wocke), Berlin, Potsdam, etc. (Sorhagen), Alsace (Peyerimhoff). Italy :
Goriziana and Istria (Curo). Netherlands : Friesland, Leeuwarden
Arnhem, Breda, Dongen, Oudenbosch, South Holland (Snellen).
Russia : Pichtendahl (Nolcken), Aland (Reuter). Scandinavia :
Sweden (De Geer). Switzerland : nr. Zurich (Frey).
NEPTICULA FLETCHERI, n. Sp.
IMAGO. — Head blackish ; eyecaps whitish-yellow ; base of antennas
whitish. Anterior wings 4 mm. ; bronzy, dark grey along the inner
* With regard to this, .Richardson writes : " N. anomalella was recorded by
mistake in Lep. Dorset, 1st Edition, p. 56, but omitted in 2nd Edition. One was
bred August 20th, 1891, by E. R. Bankes. The larva, mine and cocoon cannot be
separated from those of N. centifoliella, though the imago is quite different, and
with this one exception, nothing but N. centifoliella has been bred from larvse
collected at Portland. Mr. Bankes, however, feels certain that no accidental
mistake has occurred in the case of his specimen, which was bred with numerous
N. centifoliella from wild rose, doubtless wild sweetbriar (Rosa rnbiginosa), but
possibly another kind growing near it. Probably N. anomalella occurs as elsewhere
on-cultivated roses " (List of Portland Lepidoptera, 1896, p. 190).
212 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
margin ; apex strongly purple ; cilia unicolorous dark grey. Posterior
wings pale grey, rather darker towards apex ; cilia dark grey.
EGG.— The egg is placed by the side of the midrib beneath a leaf. It
forms a perfect oval in outline, and is almost of the same shape and pro-
portion (length, breadth, thickness) as a hen's egg, the shell transparent,
slightly iridescent, and packed inside with a ring of black frass. Under
a two-thirds lens the surface of the shell appears to be quite smooth.
MINK. — The mine in Rosa arrensis commences as a faint thread, so
nearly of the same colour as the leaf as to be almost indistinguishable.
In the first part of the mine the frass forms a pretty continuous thread
along the centre of the mine, but after the mine is about half an inch
long the larva moults, and the minute frass pellets are distributed
over the whole width of the mine, which is in this portion particularly
inconspicuous ; this portion of the mine is possibly an inch in length.
The larva evidently moults again, and immediately the gallery widens
considerably ; the frass is arranged in regular lines following the
direction of the mine, and a broad whitish-green edge is left on either
side of the frass-track. This portion of the track, including the
windings, is at least two to two and a-half inches in length. The
full-fed larva leaves the mine by the upper side of the leaf. [Described
from mines sent by Mr. W. H. B. Fletcher, June 21st, 1898.]
COMPARISON OF MINES OF N. FLETCHERI WITH N. ANOMALELLA. —
We are indebted to Mr. Fletcher for mines of the " red-headed " form, in
leaves of -Rosa sempervirens var. , for mines of the same form in leaves of
Rosa canina, and for mines of the " black-headed " form in leaves of
Rosa arvensis. We may say at once that the mines in R. aenipcn-ircns
and R. canina are identical in every respect, long sweeping mines with
broad curves, and with the frass exceedingly densely packed in the
centre of the gallery throughout the whole length of the mine, the frass
brownish at first, but afterwards black. The mine in the leaf of
Rosa arrensis differs greatly, not only in the appearance of the pale
(almost whitish) track itself, but in the inconspicuousness of the early
part of the mine, in its sharply defined boundary against the
parenchyma in the later portion ; its more sudden widening in the
middle part of its course, and in the enormous difference in the
disposition of the frass. Instead of the dense black line which
characterises the mines in R. sempercirens and 7?. canina, the mine in
R. arvensis shows no trace of frass to the naked eye, only a rather
darker green shade, where one knows the frass should be. Under a two-
thirds lens the minute black frass pellets form a distinct central broken
line ; in the second part they are brownish and scattered over the whole
width of the mine ; in the third part the mine suddenly widens, and the
pellets, although still scattered and separate, form a distinct central
path, a character that is now maintained to the end, for, instead of
the thick central black line of the mine of the " red-headed " form, the
individual pellets are here scattered separately over the central part of
the gallery, it being a rare occurrence for even two frass pellets to
touch each other, and their regularity in lines following the direction
of the gallery is sometimes remarkable.
COCOON. — The cocoons examined average 2-2 mm. in length and
1-9 mm. in width. They vary much in shape, according to the
position in which they have been spun up. Some, constructed in the
narrow hollow of a contracted stipule at the base of the petiole, form
NEPTICULA FLETCHEKI. 213
a long oval 2-5 mm. long and only 1-4 mm. wide, whilst those spun up
on the level surface of a piece of paper form an oval approaching the
circular. They are all, however, decidedly smaller than the cocoons
sent by Fletcher as those of the " red-headed " species (anomalella).
The cocoon is dark brown in colour, paler on the bulging rim, which
is somewhat thinned out before it gives rise to the dome-like arch,
which is strongly developed, shiny, of a somewhat felted appearance,
plentifully supplied with loose silken ends, which are, however, much
more abundant on the outer rim. In those that are spun up in a
narrow cranny the cocoon is of considerable depth ; there is no paler
rim, and the upper surface is very plentifully supplied with loose
silken fibres. The empty pupa-case projects from the somewhat
broader end beneath the rim, which here forms a sort of flange. The
pupal skin is transparent, not so delicate-looking as that of some
species, and rather grey in tint. [Described June 21st under a two-
thirds lens, from cocoons sent by Mr. W. H. B. Fletcher.]
FOOD-PLANT. — Rosa arvemis (Fletcher). Corbett records it as
abundant in E. arvensis, at Doncaster, the species in R. canina not
occurring. Bankes states that he also breeds it from garden rose.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The insect is double-brooded, the imagines
appearing in May and August, from larvae that have fed up in October-
November and July respectively.
LOCALITIES. — Probably widely distributed all over the British Islands.
DOKSET: Corfe Castle (Bankes). FLINT: Northop, nr. Mold (Bankes). HANTS:
New Forest (Fletcher). LINCOLNSHIRE : Woods nr. Alford (Fletcher). SUSSEX :
Slindon, Clapham, Porham, Balcombe (Fletcher). YORKSHIRE : Doncaster
(Corbett).
NEPTICULA DESPERATELLA, Frey.°
SYNONOMY.— Species : Desperatella, Frey, " Die Tineen," etc., p. 374 (1856) ;
"Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 384 (1857) ; Nolcken, "Lep.Fn. Estl.," p. 765 (1871) ; Staud.
and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 336 (1871) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auvergne," p. 200 (1879) ;
Peyer., "Cat. Lep. Alsace," 2nd Ed., ii., p. 166 (1882); Sorhagen, " Die Klein-
schmett. Brandbg.," p. 303 and p. 344 (1886) ; Wood, " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxiii., pp.
188-189 (1887) ; Meyr., " Handbook," etc., p. 716 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — N. desperatella, n. sp. Capillis runs,
antennarum conchula albo-flavido ; alis anter. cupreis, valde nitidis,
apice saturate cupreo, ciliis fuscis 2| — 2'" . Der vorigen Art (minuscu-
lella), ebenso den beiden folgenden Spezies (anomalella and tiliae) nahe
verwandt ; durch die lebhaft rothen Scheitelhaare aber von N. minus-
culella auf den ersten Blick zu unterscheiden. Eigenthiiinlich ist das
stark glanzende Kupferbraun der etwas breiten Vorderfliigel, welches in
dieser Weise bei keiner anderen mir bekannten Spezies vorkommt.
Gesicht und Schopf lebhaft ockerroth. Die massig grossen Augen-
deckel sind weisslichgelb (bei manchen Stiicken gelb). Die Fuhler-
geisel schwiirzlich. Riickenschild kupferig, Hinterleib grauschwarz ;
Beine ebenso, nur die Fussspitze des letzten Paares etwas lichter.
Die Vorderfliigel haben, uugewohnlicher Weise stark gliinzend,
eine lebhafte Kupferfarbe (viel mehr gegen das Bothliche ziehend als'
bei .y. minusculella). Gegen die Spitze werden sie dunkler, aber ohne
jeden violetten Anflug. Die Franzen dunkel braun. Hinterfliigel
und ihre Franzen dunkler grau als bei voriger Art (Frey, Die Tineen
und Pterophoren der Schweiz, etc., p. 374).
* In the Corre$pondenzblatt, 1860, p. 59, Herrich-Schaffer writes : " N. incog ni'
tella, spiiter von Frey als desperatella beschreiben."
214 BRITISH LEPIPOPTERA.
IMAGO. — Head reddish. The anterior wings 4-5 ram. ; unicolorous
bronzy ; the apex deep coppery ; cilia fuscous. The hindwings and
cilia dark grey.
EGG-LAYING. — The eggs are laid on the underside of a leaf (Nolcken).
MINE. — The mine is at first a slender line, running usually along
the edge of a leaf, for some distance ; it then widens into a broad,
twisting gallery, in which the windings coalesce, and form a sort of
false blotch. The larva prefers tiny leaves on small inconspicuous
shoots growing close to the ground (Wood). Frey's description of the
mine reads as follows : " Die Mine beginnt als ein sehr diinner,
stark geschliingelter Gang mit feiner, die Bander nicht erreichender
Kothlinie. Er verbreitert sich alkniilig, immer starke Windungen
machend, um zuletzteinen ziemlichen Querdurchmesser anzunehmen.
Auch hier bleibt die Kothmasse ein sehr feiner Streifen, so dass der
grossere Theil des Ganges leer und braunlich erscheint. Die Mine ist
am meisten an diejenige von N. tiliae erinnernd, und leicht von dem
kiirzeren, mit breiterer Kothreihe versehenen Gange der AT. minnsru-
lella zu unterscheiden " (Die Tineen, etc., p. 374). Nolcken writes:
" Die Mine, oft zahlreich in einem Blatte, ist in ihrem ersten liingeren
Theil fein, wenig gewunden, mit helleren und dunkleren Stellen (da
anfanglich nicht alles Chlorophyll vollstandig weggefressen wird) und
lang gedehnt, dann wachst sie rasch in die Breite und die Windungen
liegen ohne Zwischenwande so dicht an einander, dass eine grosse
Makel entsteht, in welcher aber der Kothstreif den Gang der
Windungen zeigt. Dieser, am unterseitigen Ei als feine Linie mit
etwa gleich breiten hellen Kandern beginnend, erscheint von der
Stelle an, wo die Mine sich rascher erweitert, mehr korniger, in wech-
selnder Breite mit zerrissenen Randern, ofter in einzelne Kornchen,
Hiiufchen und Streifen zerfallend ; immer aber bleibt er schmal ira
Verhaltniss zur Minenbreite und ist von einem verschwommenen
braunlich rothen Scheine beiderseits breit eingefasst, welcher Schein
sich ofter auch Uber die Grenze der Mine auf die benachbarten Blatt-
theile in verschiedener Ausdehnung verbreitet. Ausgangsklappe
oberseitig. Diese Minen finden sich immer nur an einzelnen
Baumchen jedesmal zahlreich, wahrend sie vielen anderen in nachster
Niihe fehlen."
LABVA. — Frey writes : " Die Larve ist ziemlich lebhaftgriin colorirt
und hat etwa 2'" Korperlange. Ihr Kopf ist nicht dunkler als der
Leib." Wood writes : " The larva lies in the mine with the back up.
The colour is bluish-green, or almost greenish-blue. The alimentary
canal red. The head very pale grey, with the mouth-parts red. The
cephalic ganglia and nerve chain invisible. A pair of amber-coloured
markings sometimes visible on the back of the 1st thoracic segment "
(in litt., May 16th, 1898). Nolcken says that the larv® "waren
vorn lebhaft grim mit dunkler griinem Darin, der in der Endhiilfte in
rothlich Braun iibergeht, welches sich auch dem ganzen Leibe, aber
heller und verwaschen, mittheilt, so dass nur dessen Seiten griin
bleiben ; der kleine Kopf ist fast wasserhell braunlich mit dunkleren
Nahten und Gebiss."
COCOON. — The cocoons (4) average 2-1 mm. in length, and 1-7 mm.
in width. The cocoon varies slightly in shape, from an almost
complete oval to an oblong oval ; there is a considerable lateral
flange, from which rises a regular dome-shaped structure, which
NEPTlCULA DESPERATELLA. 2l5
reaches its greatest height towards what is the slightly broader end of
the cocoon. The cocoon proper is comparatively smooth, of a bright
orange-red colour, which is quite brilliantly orange in some parts,
and in some lights. Th,e surface of the cocoon is finely reticulated
with dark red. The cocoon proper is invested in a loose, flossy
coating of orange coloured silk, which, along the flange, forms what
can best be described as a belt of gold. The inside of the cocoon ap-
pears to be smooth and exceedingly shiny. [Described June 16th,
1898, under a two-thirds lens, from cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.] The
empty pupa-case is left projecting from what is, perhaps, the rather
broader end of the cocoon. It is quite transparent, exceedingly thin,
with a faint grey-green tint, and a few greyish markings on the
thoracic segments. Frey writes : " Der Cocon istlanglich rund, glatt,
ziemlich abgeplattet und von 'einer lebhaft braunrothen Farbe."
Nolcken says : " Die flach eiformigen, sehr dunkelbraunen Cocons
waren theils an den Sand des Behalters, theils an Blatter angesponnen."
FOOD-PLANT. — Wild apple (Pyrus malm}. The larva is generally
found on the smallest (and youngest) wild apple bushes, often in
prodigious numbers ; all the leaves appearing brown from the mines
of these larvae, of which Frey has found more than a dozen in one
leaf. He adds, that though he bred the insect freely he never saw
a single imago at large.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is single-brooded, the larvae
appearing from the end of August to the beginning of October, and
producing moths during the first fortnight of June. Nolcken found
larvae on October 3rd, 1865, and August 26th, 1866, at Pichtendahl.
LOCALITIES. — HEREFORD: Tarrington, local, apparently confined to one
wood, and refusing to attack the wild apple in adjoining hedges (Wood). LANCA-
SHIRE : Grange (Threlfall). NORFOLK: King's Lynn, extremely local (Atmore).
WESTMORLAND : Windermere (Hodgkinson).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Nohaut (Sand). Germany : Alsace (Pey-
erimhoff), Breslau, Hanover, ? Hamburg (Sorhagen). Russia : Pich-
tendahl (Nolcken). Switzerland : near Ziirich (Frey).
NEPTICULA TILI#:, Frey.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Tiliae, Frey, " Die Tineen," etc., p. 375 (1856) ; " Linn,
Ent.," xi., p. 381 (1857) ; Sta., " Ent. Ann.," 1860, p. 136 ; " Nat. Hist. Tin.," vii.,
p. 168, pi. viii., fig. 2 (1862) ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 335 (1871) ; Hein.,
" Wien. Monats.," vii., pp. 241 and 246 (1862) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett.
Deutsch.," p. 734 (1877) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 200 (1879) ; Peyer.,
" Cat. Lep. Als.," 2nd Ed., p. 165 (1882) ; Sorhagen, •• Die Kleinschmett. Branden-
burg," p. 303 (1886) ; Meyrick, " Handbook," etc., p. 715 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — A7. tiliae,n.sp. Capillis atris, antennarum
conchula ($ magna) flavido-alba ; alis anter. saturate fusco-seneis,
apice violaceo-purpureo, ciliis fusco-griseis 2^-2'" . Der vorigen Art,
namentlich dunklen, schwarzkopfigen Exemplaren der N, anomaleHa,
so nahe verwandt, dasswohl nur durch die Erziehung vollige Sicherheit
zu gewinnen ist. Als Merkmale gelten die beim Miinnchen sehri
ansehnlichen, heller gelblichweissen Augendeckel, welche grosser sind
als bei N. anowalella, so dass dadurch der sctnvarze Schopf schmaler
erscheint, wahrend die des weiblichen Thieres beider Arten sich gleich
verhalten ; ferner die etwas dunklere Bronzefarbe der Vorderfliigel,
an welchen ich bei meinen sieben Stiicken «keine Aufhellung nach der
Mittte bin zu bemerken verinag. Das beste Merkmal bildet aber die
216 BKITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Fliigelspitze, welche bei unserer Spezies niemals rein violetfc, sondern
vielmehr purpurgliinzend erscheint ; bisweilen fast rein purpurfarben.
Die Franzen grau, wie bei vorhergehender Spezies " (Frey, Die Tincen
und Pterophoren der Sckweiz, pp. 875-376).
IMAGO. — Head black. Anterior wings 4-5 mm. in expanse ; dull
bronzy in colour, with the apex of a rather dull purple hue, which
shades gradually into the greyish-purple cilia. Posterior wings and
cilia pale grey.
COMPARISON OF N. TILLE WITH ITS ALLIES. — X. tiliae belongs to
the unicolorous section of the genus, and from its black head, can only
be confounded with N. atricapitella, N. minusculella, X. lonicerantm,
and the black-headed specimens of A*, anomalella. From N. atricapi-
tella it may be most easily separated by its much smaller size, and by
the less glossy anterior wings. From N. minusculdla it may be dis-
tinguished by the anterior wings being broader and of a duller colour.
N. tiliae very closely resembles AT. lonicerantm, but the anterior wings
are scarcely so dull as in the last-named species. From N. aiwmalclla,
X. tiliae is best distinguished by the purple apex of the anterior wings
shading gradually paler into the cilia ; in X. anomalella the purple
apex is quite sharply defined against the grey cilia. Besides, X. ano-
malella has the wings more glossy, and generally with a faint indica-
tion of a pale fascia beyond the middle (Stainton).
EGO-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the undersurface of a leaf of the
lime tree, against a rib.
MINE. — The mine is contorted and slender, and does not occupy
at its commencement the whole thickness of the parenchyma ; the
excrement forms a slender, blackish line for a considerable distance,
and sometimes for the whole length of the mine, but not infrequently,
in the second half of the mine, it occupies nearly the whole width of
it, being deposited in a series of curves (much as in the mines of
X. viscerella). Sometimes the mine is entirely of the latter form, and
then it is generally much contorted. In some mines the excrement
retains its linear form throughout, so that one would almost feel
inclined to assume that we had here two distinct species, but some
mines are decidedly half of one form and half of the other (Stainton).
Previously these two forms of mine had been . noticed as probably
belonging to two different species of Xepticula (Ent. Ann., 1859, p. 163).
Hodgkinson reports as many as eight larvae in a single leaf, near
Stoneyhurst. Frey writes : " Die Mine hat ein ganz eigenthiimliches
Ansehen. Sie ist sehr stark gekriimmt, indem die Windungen unregel-
massig und ganz dicht an einander gedriingt verlaufen. Der Anfang
derselben ist sehr fein und von der zarten braunenKothlinieganz erfiillt.
Weiter abwiirts wird der Gang breiter und, indem dieKothlinieeinfach
bleibt, erscheinen die Bander jenes leer und weiss. Erst gegen das
untere Ende liegen die Kothmassen wie bei X. anomalella. Es
kommen zuweilen 8-4 Gange in einem grosseren Blatte vor " (Linn.
Ent., xi., p. 882).
LARVA. — Length 2 lines. Pale amber-yellow, with the dorsal
vessel rather dark green ; head pale brown, with two dark brown
lobes showing through the skin of the second segment (Stainton).
Frey writes : " Die blasser gelbe, gegen 2'" grosse Raupe minirt im
September und Anfang Oktober die Blatter von Lindenbiischen
(jTiYm i/rantli flora) in unseren Gebirgswiildern ; namentlich an etwas
NEPTICULA TILIS:. 217
beschattefcen Stellen " (Die Tineen, etc., p. 376). It mines with the
dorsum uppermost.
COCOON. — The cocoons (4) examined average 2 mm. in length and
1'75 mm. in width, and are spun on the under surface of the leaves
of their food-plant. The cocoon is roughly oval in outline, but with
one end (from which the empty pupa-case projects) much wider than
the other. The broad end is considerably flattened in some of the
examples, less so in others, the domed portion rising up very consider-
ably centrally, and forming somewhat of a point at the apex. The
cocoon is somewhat roughened and wrinkled, and a number of fine
silken ends, of the same pale yellowish colour as the cocoon itself,
project from all over its surface. The marginal rim is somewhat
crenate, and there are here more loose silken fibres than elsewhere,
this being the portion of the cocoon which is directly attached to the
outlying ribs, although considerably above the surface of the leaf.
The projecting pupa-case is absolutely colourless, transparent, and very
delicate, the surface finely pitted, and beautifully iridescent. [De-
scribed June 28th, 1898, under a two-thirds lens, from cocoons sent by
Mr. W. H. B. Fletcher.] Wood notes the cocoon as pale ochreous-
yellow in colour. Ten cocoons sent by this observer averaged 2-2 mm.
in length, and 1-6 mm. in width, and showed considerable minor
variation in shape, although they were more distinctly equal at the
ends than the cocoons previously described. They are of a bright
yellow-ochreous colour, somewhat brighter in hue than those sent by
Fletcher, a number of rather darker reticulations extending over the
surface of the well-developed dome. Frey describes the cocoon as " stark
abgeflacht, unregelmassig langlich rund, von hellem Colorit, hellgelb
oder ockerfarben."
FOOD-PLANT. — Tilia ymndiflora (Frey), but Tilia parvifolia is pro-
bably its food-plant in Britain.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species appears to be single-brooded,
the imagines appearing in May and June from larvae collected the
previous September-October. Vaughan found mines near Bristol,
September 14th, 1859. Frey bred imagines in March in his room,
from mines found the previous September.
LOCALITIES. — GLOUCESTERSHIRE : Bristol, Leigh Woods (Vaughan). HEBE-
FORD: Dowards, Woolhope (Wood). LANCASHIRE: Grange, Preston, between
Ashton and Stoneyhurst (Hodgkinson). WESTMORLAND: Arnside (Hodgkinson).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Nohaut, Indre (Sand). Germany : gene-
rally distributed (Heinemann and Wocke), Ratisbon (Stainton),
Frankfort-on-the-Main (Frey), Friedland, Stettin (Sorhagen), Fai-
sanderie, nr. Saverne in Alsace (Peyerimhoff). ? Russia : Pichtendahl
(Nolcken). Switzerland : Zurich (Frey).
NEPTICULA BASIGUTTELLA, Heinemann.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Ba$ignttella,Hein., " Wien. Monats.." 1862, p. 258 ; Hein.
and Sta., " Zool.," 1863, p. 8358 ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," etc., p. 335 (1871) ; .
Nolcken, " Lep. Fn. Est.," p. 756 (1871) ; Hein. and Wocke," Schmett. Deutsch.,"
p. 732 (1877) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 206 (1879) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Als.," ii..
2nd Ed., p. 164 (1882).; Sorhagen, "Die Kleinschmett. Brandenburg," p. 344
(1886) ; Meyr.. " Handbook," etc., p. 715 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — 6. N. basimittclla. Capillis atris, pencillis
et antennarum conchula albidis, thorace atro ; alis anterioribus sub-
nitidis, violaceo-aeneis, basi flavidis, apice violaceo-purpureis, ciliis
218 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
fusco-griseis, 2i-2|'" . Diese Art ist der N. tiliae sehr ahnlich, aber
grosser und plumper, und unterscheidet sich von ihr und den iibrigen
schwarzkopfigen Nepticuien ohne Binde durch den lichten Basalfleck
der Vorderflugel und den schwarzen Thorax, von den meisten derselben
auch durch das rostgelbe Untergesicht und durch die viel hellere
silbergraue Farbe der Beine und des Bauches. Der Scheitelzopf ist
schwarz, das Untergesicht rostgelb behaart oder doch von einer
rostgelben Linie der Lange nach getheilt ; die Augendeckel sind in
beiden Geschlechtern gross und wie die Nackenschopfe und Taster
weiss oder gelblichweiss, die Fiihler gliinzend silbergrau, dicht dunkel
geringelt, bei dem Manne bis f des Vorderrandes der Vorderfliigel
reichenden Thorax mit den Schulterdecken ist bis auf die lichtere
Stelle des Schildchens tief schwarz, was besonders bei den noch nicht
aufgespiessten Thierchen auffiilt, der Hinterleib schwarzlich grau, bei
dem $ mit rostgelber Spitze, die Hinterseite des Korpers und die
Beine sind licht silbergrau, letztere aussen etwas dunkler. Die
Vorderflugel haben im Grunde eine sehr lichte, fast weissliche,
glanzende Erzfarbe, die aber durch die mehr oder weniger breit
bniunlich violetten Spitzen der Schuppen verdunkelt und getriibt ist.
Die reinste und lichteste Stelle ist die Basis, an welcher die lichte
Grundfarbe ein kleines, nicht scharf begrenztes gelblich weisses
Fleckchen bildet ; gleich dahinten sind die Schuppen am gleichmiissig-
sten verdunkelt in der Fliigelmitte werden sie allmalig wieder lichter,
besonders am Innenrande, wo wieder eine unbestimmte von dunklen
Schuppen freie belle Stelle vor dem Innenwinkel sich findet, die
bisweilen fast bindenartig bis zum Vorderrande sich erstreckt.' Die
Spitze des Fliigels ist dunkel violettblau. Die Fliiche des Fliigels
ist gliinzend und ziemlich glatt, doch nicht so geglattet wie bei
A7, tiliae. Uebrigens variiren die Vorderflugel nicht unerheblich,
je nachdem die lichte Grundfarbe oder die dunklen Schuppen
vorherrschen, immer ist aber der helle Fleck an der Wurzel
deutlich und sticht gegen die dunkle Stelle dahinten, sowie gegen den
schwarzen Thorax lebhaft ab. Die Wurzel der Fransen ist bis an den
Innenwinkel wie die Fliigelspitze dunkel violettblau, ihre Spitze
dunkelgrau, am Innenwinkel und Innenrande sind die ganzen Fransen
lichtgrau, eine Theilungslinie ist nicht vorhanden. Die Hinterfliigel
ohne Auszeichnung, hellgrau mit wenig dunkleren Fransen (Heine-
mann, Wien. Ent. Monats., vi., 1862, pp. 258-259).
IMAGO. — Head black above, face dull yellowish. Anterior wings
5-6 mm. ; pale (almost whitish) shining bronze, with a purplish tinge ;
basal spot and anal angle paler ; apex dark purplish ; cilia dark
purplish with dark grey tips, at the anal angle and inner margin the
cilia pale grey. The posterior wings pale grey, cilia a trifle darker.
VARIATION. — The fore-wings vary not inconsiderably, according as
the light ground-colour or the dark scales predominate, but the pale
spot at the base is always distinct, and strongly contrasts with the dark
parts beyond, as also with the black thorax (Heinemann).
COMPARISON OF N. BASIGUTTELLA WITH N. TILI^E. — N. basiyuttella
is very like N. tiliae, but larger and stouter. It is distinguished from
that and from the other black-headed Nepticulids that have no fasciae
by the pale basal spot of the anterior wings and the black thorax ;
from most of them also by the rusty yellow lower part of the face,
and by the much paler silvery-grey colour of the legs and belly. The
NEPTICULA BASIGUTTELLA. 219
disc of the wing is strong and rather smooth, but not so glossy as in
X. tiliae (Heinemann).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is always laid on the upperside of an oak-
leaf, by the side of a large vein, or in the angle between two
veins. Nolcken says he has never found an egg on the surface of the
leaf away from a rib. He further writes : " The egg is not pushed
under the epidermis, but glued upon the outside of the leaf. It forms
an elliptical, more or less pearly, shining pustula, thickly covered with
a white shiny gum, by which it is fastened to the leaf."
MINE. — The mine is almost of the colour of the oak leaf in which
it is placed, and hence is difficult of detection. In the mine the frass
is coiled, the pellets being arranged in superimposed, slightly curved,
rows, which run across the mine with the nicest precision. Heinemann
writes : " The mine forms a long, rather tortuous gallery of nearly
uniform width, entirely filled up with dark green excrement."
Nolcken describes the mine as being " very long, gradually increasing
in width, with many convolutions, and extending over a large part of
a leaf, the flap from which the larvae finally escapes being on the
upperside, and resembling a horse-shoe in shape. The mine cannot
be seen from the underside of the leaf, and in its early stages is with
difficulty detected on the upperside, since the excrement is then
greenish, and only becomes blacker later in the insect's life. In dried
leaves, the commencement of the mine, seen from above, appears to be
of a pale, dirty, yellowish-green colour, without a distinct frass-line.
This latter becomes suddenly visible, probably after a moult. Held
against the light, the whole of the mine appears, from its commence-
ment onwards, to be entirely filled up with green, and later, with darker
green (almost blackish-green) frass, so that only a very narrow, pale
margin exists on either side of the frass-line, until towards the end of
the mine, when the margins become broader and more distinct. In the
first part of the mine the frass-line exists as a somewhat interrupted,
fine, uniformly coloured dark thread. It then presents the appearance of
lighter and darker spots, usually with the darker frass lying along the
margins. Owing to the movement of the larva in its gallery whilst
eating, the frass is deposited transversely, sometimes irregularly, but
at others forming a series of zigzag lines, where the frass is deposited
in a series of short curves. It would appear as though the climatic
conditions (whether wet or dry at the time of its formation) influence
the character of the frass-line."
COMPARISON OF THE MINE AND LARVA OF N. BASIGUTTELLA WITH THOSE
OF THE ALLIED SPECIES. — The mines of uY. samiatella, X. mjicajntella
and X. atricapitella differ in the following characters from that of
Ar. basiyuttella. Their mines are broader, the frass-line usually runs
as a narrow, strikingly blackish thread along their middle, leaving
very wide, conspicuous, whitish margins on either side, the margins
being double the width of the thread. In many mines (often only in
places) the frass-line becomes granular, consisting of scattered pellets,
and broader than usual, but even then paler areas and the light
margins remain, and are much broader than in the mine of X. basi-
ffiittella, whilst the whole of the leaf cuticle affected by the mine is
more strikingly coloured, whitish or brownish. In addition; X. basi-
guttella has a green larva, whilst those of the other named species are
yellow, with a reddish-brown intestinal canal. X. subbimaculella (ac-
220 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
cording to Stain ton), which also has a greenish larva, appears very late,
forms at first a slender mine, with a thick frass-line, but is soon
changed to a somewhat long blotch, in which the excrement lies about
in a rather scattered and irregular manner (Nolcken).
LAEVA. — The larva is green, and may be found in oak-leaves
in July, and again in September and October (Heinemann).
COCOON* — The cocoons average 2'1 mm. long, and 1/75 mm. wide.
They are of a bright reddish-brown (almost orange-brown) colour,
almost oval in outline, one end being rather narrowed. There is a
distinct outer rim projecting all round the edge, whilst the central
portion is considerably raised. The cocoon proper forms a closely
woven structure, with a moderately smooth surface ; investing this
there is a very slight loose web of white flossy silk. The superficial
resemblance (except for its smoothness) to a peach-stone is marked.
[Described under a two-thirds lens on June 14th, 1898, from cocoons
sent by Dr. Wood.]
FOOD-PLANTS. — Qitercus robur and Q. pedunculata.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Bred June 7th-16th, 1879, from mines
collected at Madingley and Sandy, in November, 1878, the latter date
being late, and many mines untenanted (Warren). The same
observer bred many specimens between May 23rd and 29th, 1882.
Stainton found larvae abundant on September 26th, 1865, at Wilhelms-
bad, and Nolcken, from August until the commencement of October, at
Pichtendahl. Sorhagen reports it as double-brooded in Silesia, the
imagines appearing in May and late July, from larva? that feed up in
October and early July respectively.
LOCALITIES. — BEDS: Sandy (Warren). CAMBRIDGE: Madingley (Warren),
Cambridge (Farren). HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood). KENT : West Wickham
Wood (Sang). LINCOLNSHIRE : nr. Alford (Fletcher). SUFFOLK : Tuddenham
(Warren).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Mont Dore (Sand). Germany: northern
and western Germany (Wocke), Brunswick, Hanover and Silesia
(Heinemann), Wilhelmsbad, nr. Frankfort-on-the-Main (Stainton),
Hamburg (Sorhagen), Alt Damm, Friedland, etc. (Hering), Alsace
(Peyerimhoff). Russia : Pichtendahl (Nolcken). Switzerland : Zurich
(Frey).
NEPTICULA NYLANDRIELLA, TengstrOlll.
SYNONYMY. — Species: Nylandriella,Tengstr., " Bidrag," etc., p. 152 (1847);
H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 359 (1855), fig. 927 (1854) ; Frey, " Linn. Ent.." xi., p.
445 (1857) ; Hein., " Wien. Monats.," 1862. p. 259 ; Hein. and Sta., " Zool.," 1863,
p. 8359 ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 336 (1871) ; Wallengren, " Bihang Vet.-Ak.
Hancll.," Hi., p. 80 (1875); "Ent. Tids.," ii., p. 126(1881); Sorhagen. "Die
Klein schmett. Brandbg.," p. 344 (1886) ; Griffith, " Ent. Mo. Mag.." xxii., p. 65
(1885) ; Warren, " Ibid.," p. 131 (1885) : Meyrick, " Handbook," etc.. 716 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION.— Xepticula nylamiriclla, Zell. (in litt.).
Minima tota aeneo-cinerea nitida, capillis lutescentibus. Long, alae
ant. vix If mm. Simillima precedent! (concolordla), at duplo minor.
Allman vid Helsingfors i borjan af Juni pa Hiigg och Bjork. (Teng-
strom, Bidrag till Finland* Fjanl- Fauna, p. 152).
NOTES ON ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION, ETC. — Frey remarks that the figure
in H.-Schaffer represents an insect entirely leaden-coloured, with
ochreous-yellow head, and asks : " May it not be a much wasted
specimen?" Warren, commenting on the above, writes (E.M.M.,
xxii., p. 132), that the preceding species referred to by Tengstrom is
NEPTICULA NYLANDRIELLA. 221
Bucculatrix concolorella, treated as a distinct species by Staudinger and
Wocke (Cat., p. 334, no. 2956), but which he (Warren) considers
identical with B. crixtatella, Zell. He adds that the resemblance that
Ar. nylaii'iriella bears to very small B. cristatella is very striking, and
that Herrich-Schiiffer's figure represents the species admirably. There
is not a trace of purple towards the apex, and the insects he has
examined are certainly not wasted.
IMAGO. — Head yellowish, frontal tuft of $ brown, of 9 pale
ochreous. Anterior wings narrow, very smooth, extremely shiny, pale
silvery-grey, with a faint yellowish tinge ; apex scarcely darker, with a
faint violet gloss ; cilia whitish-grey, rather darker towards their base.
Posterior wings and cilia pale grey.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The frontal tuft of the male is brown, that
of the female pale ochreous-yellow. The cervical tuft of the male is
more whitish, that of the female pale yellow.
MINE. — Gangmine geschlangelt (Sorhagen).
FOOD-PLANT. — Pyntx aueuparia (Wocke).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The original specimens on which the species
was named were captured near Helsingfors, in June. Imagines were
captured by Griffith, on June 6th, 1885, on the trunks of mountain-ash
trees, in a wood on Betty Hill, in Sutherland. Sorhagen gives the
larvaa as occurring in August- October, the imagines in May and June.
LOCALITIES. — LANCASHIRE : Preston (Threlfall). SUTHERLAND : Betty Hill
(Griffith).
DISTRIBUTION. — Germany : Hanover, Breslau (Sorhagen), Bruns-
wick, on beech trunks (Heinemann). Russia : Helsingfors (Tengstrom).
Sweden : (Wocke).
GROUP II. — Cilia of the anterior wings with no dark divisional
line, but cilia becoming gradually paler towards their tips. Anterior
wings with a pale metallic transverse fascia ; basal area smooth and
metallic, fascia with a more or less defined margin towards base.
NEPTICULA REGIELLA, Herrich-Schaffer.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Regiella, H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 351 (1855) ; Frey.,
" Die Tineen," etc., p. 391 (185C) ; "Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 434 (1857) ; Sta., "Ent.
Ann.," 1857, p. Ill ; "Man.," ii., p. 437 (1859); "Nat. His. Tin.," vii., p. 150
(1862); Staud. and Wocke, "Cat.," p. 336 (1871); Nolcken, " Lep. Faun. Est.,"
p. 766 (1871) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auv.." p. 200 (1879) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Als.,"
2nd Ed., ii., p. 166 (1882); Sorhagen, "Die Kleinschmett. Brandenbg.," p. 308
(1886) : Bering, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," Hi., p. 220 (1891) ; Meyr., •• Handbook," etc.,
p. 716 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Refiiella, Frey. — Magnit. 3; alis ant.
aeneoviolaceis, fascia pone medium lata, suborbiculari, limbum versus
aureo-cincta, alis p. nigris. Fliigel deutlich breiter als bei maiyini-
colella, die hintern dunkler blauschwarz, die vorderen kupferbronze,
ohne Violett, das Silberband starker gelblich, wurzelwarts unbestimrat
begrenzt, in gewisser Richtung einen runden Fleck vorstellend, also
am Vorder- und Innenrand schmaler, saumwarts fein golden begrenzt ;
die Endhiilfte der Franzen deutlich lichter grau Keine lichten Nacken-
schopfe. Augendeckel klein. Von Weissdorn (Herrich-Sch after,
Sys. Bear, der Schmett. von Europa, v., p. 851).
IMAGO. — Head reddish-yellow. Anterior wings 4-5 mm.; pale
golden-brown tinged with purple ; a broad dull golden fascia beyond
the middle ; immediately beyond the fascia are some coppery scales.
222 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEEA.
in the deep purple portion of the wing ; cilia greyish, whitish at the
tips. Posterior wings grey, with paler cilia. [This species may be
distinguished from all its near allies by the indistinctly marginal
brassy fascia on the pale golden-brown anterior wings (Stainton).]
EGG-LAYING. — The eggs are laid immediately under the edge of the
lobes of a hawthorn leaf (Wood). Nolcken notes the egg as being
probably laid on both the upper- and under-side of a leaf, so that
there is perhaps some variation in this respect.
MINE. — The mine runs at first along the margin of the leaf,
ensuring by this means the subsequent advance of the blotch inwards,
i.e., from the margin towards the centre. Its gallery is short and
coarse, but it scarcely ever reaches to any great distance from the
edge of the leaf. The gallery terminates in a blotch, the frass being
brown in the gallery and black in the blotch (Wood). Frey writes :
" Ein prachtvolles Insekt, dessen Larve in iihnlicher, wohl nur
kleinerer Mine als AT. yratiosella an Crataeyus o&yactmthtt lebt und
gleich dieser Art gelb gefiirbt ist " (Die Tineen, etc., p. 392). Nolcken
says: " The mine commences with several fine convolutions, placed
closely together, then for a distance the curves are extended and spread
quite apart from each other. The mine then becomes broad some-
what abruptly, and remains so for the remainder of its length (about
one-third of the total distance). Up to this point the mine is com-
pletely filled with frass, somewhat variable in its arrangement, but
forming generally a pale or dark-brown band ; the frass is rarely
granulated, although it exhibits, in some places, a tendency in this
direction. Until now the gallery has shown no paler margins, but in
the much broader final third, which has somewhat irregular boundaries,
unless margined by a leaf-vein, narrow pale margins appear, and soon
become very broad, owing to the frass remaining as a narrow central
stripe, no wider than in the early part of the mine, in some cases even
not being continuous ; the frass, too, becomes more granulated. The
larva escapes from the upper side of the leaf."
LARVA. — The larva is of a yellow ground-colour. Its head is pale
brown, with the cephalic ganglia dark brown, and, consequently far
more conspicuous than the head ; a pair of brilliant orange spots are
frequently present on the front edge of the pro-thorax (Wood).
Nolcken writes : " The larva is yellow, the head very pale brown, the
mouth-parts and sutures darker ; the intestinal canal yellow, tinged
with faint reddish."
COMPARISON OF THE MINE AND LARVA OF N. REGIELLA WITH THOSE or
N. IGNOBILELLA. — The larvae of these species occur together at about
the saine time, and are double-brooded. The small blotches they
make at the tips of the lobes, with their yellow or yellowish larvas, are
certainly provokingly similar, unless attention be paid to one or more
of the following points, when their discrimination becomes easy :
(1) Both species lay the egg on the underside of a leaf, that of N.
reyiella is laid quite on the edge, that of N. iynobilella well away from
it. As a consequence, the whole course of the primary galleries of the
former runs along the edge, whereas the gallery of the latter wanders
at first about the area of the lobe, before it reaches and follows the
edge, and though this wandering portion is afterwards absorbed by the
blotch, the fine frass-track remains undisturbed, and an evidence of its
former existence. (2) X, reyiella deposits brown frass in its gallery,
NEPTICULA REGIELLA. 228
and black in the blotch, whereas the dejecta of A', it/nobilella are black
in both gallery and blotch. (8) The head of the larva of X. reyiella is
pale brown, with the cephalic ganglia dark brown, and far more con-
spicuous than the head ; on the other hand, the head of the larva of
X. iynobilella is blackish, overpowering the ganglia, which are of a
paler colour (Wood).
COCOON. — The cocoons examined (6) average 2-2 mm. in length
and 1-6 mm. in width. In outline, the cocoon is ovate, the upper
surface rising gradually from the edges to form a well-marked dome,
the apex of which is rather nearer the broader end, and slightly
flattened. The cocoon is of a red-brown tint, bright, and approach-
ing plum colour. What appears to the naked eye to be a broad
lateral flange, is a surrounding belt of yellow ochreous flossy silk,
similar scattered threads being seen .over the remainder of the surface.
In some, this forms a coating sufficiently dense to hide the bright red-
brown cocoon beneath, and one would surmise that, when freshly
spun, the cocoon is surrounded by this loose silken covering. The
older cocoons fade considerably, and to a great extent lose the bright
red colour of the newer ones. [Described, June 16th, 1898, from
cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.] The cocoon is spun on the surface of the
ground.
FOOD-PLANT. — Crataegus osyacantha.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double -brooded (Wood).
Stainton found imagines on June 23rd, 1852, on Dartford Heath
fence, and it was bred by Edleston in June, 1856, from mines collected
in September, 1855. Walsingham records imagines at Darenth Wood,
May 9th, 1868. Frey records imagines, in copula, found nr. Ziirich on
August 13th, 1855. Sang collected mines on October 2nd, 1878, at
Darlington. Nolcken found larvae on September 8th and the following
days, at Pichtendahl.
LOCALITIES. — CHESHIRE: Bowdon (Edleston). DORSET: Bloxworth (Cam-
bridge). DURHAM: Darlington (Sang). HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood). KENT:
Dartford Heath (Stainton), Darenth Wood (Walsingham). LANCASHIRE : Man-
chester (Edleston). Preston (Hodgkinson). SUSSEX: Arundel Park (Fletcher).
YORKS: Scarborough (Wilson), York (Porritt, List).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Nohaut, Indre (Sand). Germany : Fried-
land, Brunswick, Hanover, Silesia (Sorhagen), Alsace (Peyerimhoff),
Alt Damm (Hering). Russia: Pichtendahl (Nolcken). Switzerland:
Ziirich (Frey).
NEPTICULA TORMINALIS, Wood.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Torminalis, Wood, "Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxvi., pp. 209-210
(1890) ; Meyrick, " Handbook." etc., p. 716 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Al. exp. 2£ lin. Inner half of forewing
pale golden-brown, followed by a broad, straight, brassy fascia, ill-
defined on its inner edge ; apex of wing purple. Head black, with
white eye-caps. Antennae half as long as fore-wings, just reaching,
when the insect is at rest, to the commencement of the fasciae (Wood,
Ent. Monthly Magazine, xxvi., p. 209).
IMAGO. — Head black. Anterior wings 5-6 mm. ; golden-brown
from base to fascia; latter broad, straight and brassy ; apex of wing
purple ; cilia fuscous. Posterior wings concolorous, fuscous.
COMPARISON OF N. TORMINALIS WITH N. REGIELLA. — X. tonninalis
is very like X. retfiella, so much so, indeed, that it has been necessary to
use almost the very terms in which the latter has been described in the
224 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Manual. It is, however, a trifle larger, and the tone of the colouring
is not quite so deep ; but the character that serves at once to dis-
tinguish it is the black head, that of N. reijiella being red. The larva,
mine, and food-plant are also quite different, and it is, besides, a single-
brooded species, the mines occurring in July (Wood).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the under-side of a leaf of Pynis
torminalis, in an interspace between the ribs.
MINE. — The mine begins as a fine, straight gallery, then becomes
wide and twisting, almost widening into a blotch before its termination ;
the frass collected into a narrow central line.
LARVA. — Pale yellowish. Head blackish, sockets in which the
posterior lobes work, black, appearing as a pair of black spots behind
the head ; a row of linear brown marks down the middle of the
ventral surface, not noticeable when In the mine.
COCOON. — The cocoon is spun on the surface of dead leaves, etc.,
lying on the ground. The shape of the cocoon reminds one of an
almond, and the resemblance is somewhat increased, when the cocoon
is examined under a two-thirds lens, by the loose, flossy, silken
covering by which the cocoon proper is surrounded. The end of the
cocoon from which the pupa emerges is much broader than its nadir.
In colour it is of a rather bright orange-brown tint, with a considerable
range of variation, some being more inclined to brown, others to
orange. The main structure is fairly closely woven, and moderately
smooth, but with a loose, flossy, silken outer covering enveloping it.
This loose silk is particularly abundant on the upper surface, where it
sometimes forms a conspicuous bunch. The empty pupa-case projects
from the cocoon to about the 4th or 5th abdominal segment.
[Described June 9th, under a two-thirds lens, from cocoons sent by
Dr. Wood.]
PUPA. — The chitin of the pupa-case is exceedingly delicate and
fragile, transparent, slightly amber in tint, but colourless on the raised
portions of the appendages and segments.
FOOD-PLANT. — Pynis torminalis.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is single-brooded, the imagines
appearing in May and the beginning of June, from larvae collected
the previous July.
LOCALITIES. — HEREFORD : Tarrington, confined to a small corner of one
wood, where it is fairly common, nearly every bush of its food-plant having a few
tenanted leaves, with occasionally two or even three mines in a leaf (Wood).
NEPTICULA ^NEOFASCIELLA, Herrich-Schaffer.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Aeneofasciella, H.-Sch., •' Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 353 (1855) ;
Hein., " Wien Ent. Monats.," 1862, p. 262; Nolcken, " Lep. Fn. Est," p. 767
(1871) ; Staud. and Wocke. " Cat.," p. 336 (1871) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 200
(1879); Peyer.. "Cat. Lep. Alsace," 2nd Ed., ii., p. 166 (1882) ; Sorhagen. " Die
Kleinschmett. Brandenbg.," p. 308 (1886) ; Bering, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.." lii., p. 220
(1891); Meyrick, " Handbook," etc., p. 717 (1895). Aeneofasdata, Frey. "Die
Tineen." etc., p. 376 (1856) ; " Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 388 (1857) ; Heyden, " Stett.
Ent. Zeit.," 1861, p. 39; Sta., "Nat. Hist. Tin.," vii., p. 148 (1862).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION.— 1110. Aeneofasciella (-ata), Frey.— Nur
1 miinnliches, mir unbekannt. Wie eine ansehnliche anomaldla, also
zvveiter Grosse. Deckel gross, Fiihler schwarz. Vorderfliigel kupfer-
braun, an der Wurzel messinggelb ; Spitze etwas violett, Franzen
dunkelgrau, Binde blaulich silberfarben, wie eine frische polirte
Stahlklinge, gerade, vertikal, breit (Herrich-Schjiffer, Sys. Bear, der
NEPTICULA ^NEOFASCIELLA. 225
Schmetti run Enrojia, v., p. 853). Frey's diagnosis of N. aenenfasciata
reads as follows : " Capillis atris, antennarum conchnla alba ; alis anter.
dilute cupreo-reneis, nitidis, ad basim orichalceo-squamatis, fascia pone
medium obsoleta, recta, lata, cteruleo-renea, ciliis saturate griseis.
2.^'"" (Die Tinet'n, etc., p. 376). Heinemann, after redescribing the
species, writes: "This species, which we at first took for new, since
it did not agree with Frey's description, is, according to a written
communication of the latter, the correct N. aeneofasciella, since his
description was made from a pale captured specimen."
IMAGO. — Head velvety black. Anterior wings long, 5-6 mm. in
expanse ; the ground-colour golden-bronzy, the base purplish ; a broad,
vertical, silvery fascia beyond the middle, edged internally with a
vertical fascia of a more violet-blue than the ground-colour ; apex of
the wing purple ; the cilia purple at their bases, golden-brown in the
middle, blackieh-grey at their tips. The posterior wings and the cilia
are also pale blackish-grey.
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is almost always placed on the underside
of a leaf of Ai/riinonia eupatoria or Potentitta tormentilla (Wood).
MINE. — The first part of the mine forms an exceedingly slender
and voluminous gallery, and, in this stage, is very like the mine of
X. aurella. After the last moult it alters its practice, and then
excavates a blotch. Heinemann says that the larva makes a strongly
contorted mine, with a slender excremental track, that can hardly be
distinguished from that of AT. agrimoniae. Fletcher observes that in
small leaves of Aijrimnnia, and in those of Potentilla reptans and P.
tonncntilla, the mine becomes a large blotch, occupying the whole, or
nearly the whole of a leaflet. Nolcken writes : " The first part of the
mine forms a narrow, slender, very slightly tortuous gallery, with a
fine blackish frass-line, bordered on either side with pale margins.
The last part of the mine is formed very similarly to that of the pre-
ceding species (X. nyiella), but the frass is more distinctly granular,
and tends to separate into distinct grains or heaps thereof. As a
rule, the frass is so placed as to indicate the course of the gallery, but
in other mines a somewhat long, round blotch is formed, the frass
being heaped up at the base, where the widened gallery or blotch
originates from the slender gallery which forms the first part of the
mine. The blackish spot formed by this heaping of the frass appears
darker at the centre, owing to the greater massing of the frass pellets
there."
LARVA. — The larva is yellowish in colour (Frey), very similar to
that of .Y. aurella (Wood). Heyden describes it as follows : " Raupe
glanzend, glatt, durchscheinend, einfarbig gelblichweiss. Kopf gliin-
zend, gelb, mit gelblichbraunem Mund und nach vorn geschlossener
]iogenlinie auf der Stirne " (Stett. Knt. Zeit., xxii., p. 39).
COCOON. — The larva deserts the leaf in which it has fed up in
order to pupate (that of Y. (ii/ninitnuie, which also feeds in leaves of
A. eupatoria, spins its cocoon in the mine), and finally makes its
cocoon on the surface of the ground. The cocoon is oval in outline,
rather flat, and composed of silk of a reddish -brown colour (Heyden).
Heinemann calls the cocoon almost circular, and says that it is
yellowish -brown in colour.
FOOD-PLANTS. — At/rimonia eupatoria, Pontentilla tormentilla, P. rep-
tann, and rarely on P, awerina (Fletcher). Torment ilia erecta (Wocke).
Q
226 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — This species is only recorded as being
single-brooded, but the experience of Threlfall (rule below) goes to show
that it is double-brooded. Frey obtained imagines in May, 1858, from
larvae found on October 25th, 1857, and Heyden, in the beginning of
May, 1859, from larvre found in the middle of October, 1858. Hodgkin-
son bred imagines on April 15th, 1877, from larvas found the preceding
autumn at Witherslack. Threlfall found larvae at Grange on October
5th, 1878, and bred the imagines freely from May 5th-12th, 1879.
From larvae obtained July 21st, 1877, at Witherslack, he also bred
imagines plentifully on August 17th of the same year. Fletcher
discovered mines, at Abbott's Wood, on November llth, 1888.
Cambridge gathered larvae in their mines as late as November,
1889. Sang's dates are October 17th, 1871, October 24th, 1873,
July 16th and September 30th, '1874, September 24th, 1880, at
Darlington ; October 18th, 1878, at Castle Eden (teste Gardner).
Nolcken records finding young larvre on September 22nd, 1865, at
Pichtendahl. He captured imagines on May 9th, 1866, at Sail, and
on May 18th, at Pichtendahl.
LOCALITIES. — DEVON: Paign ton (Bankes). DORSET: Bloxworth (Cambridge),
I. of Purbeck (Bankes), Glanvilles Wootton (Dale). DURHAM : Darlington, Castle
Eden (Sang). HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood). KENT: Folkestone (Webb).
LANCASHIRE: Grange and Lytham (Threlfall). SUSSEX: widely distributed, but
not abundant, Cissbury, Worthing, Arundel, Hailsham (Fletcher). WESTMORLAND :
Windermere (Hodgkinson), Witherslack (Threlfall).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Creuse, Auvergne ; Nohaut, Indre (Sand).
Germany : Offenbach (Heyden), Frankfort-on-the-Main (Schmid),
Wolfenbuttel (Heinemann), Friedland (Stange), Saverne, Alsace
(Peyerimhoff). Russia : Sail, Pichtendahl (Nolcken). Switzerland :
Zurich (Frey).
NEPTICULA TORMENTILLELLA, Herrich-Schilffer [? sp: Brit.]
SYNONYMY. — Species: Tormentillella, H.-Sch., " Correspondenzblatt.," 1860,
p. 60; "Neue Schmett.," p. 167; Staud. and Wocke, "Cat.," p. 336 (1871).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Xefitinda tonuentillella, H.-Sch. — Raupein
den Blattern von Torment-ilia erecta unter jungem Nadelholz.
Schmetterling an denselben Stellen Ende Mai ziemlich hiiufig.
Scheitel schwarz, an den Seiten olivenbraun, keine Nackenschopfe,
Fiihler schwarz, iiber halbe Fliigelliinge ; Vorderfliigel bis zur Mitte
metallisch olivengriin, dann ein olivenbraunes Hand, so breit als das
vertikale silberne, etwas stahlblau gliinzende bei -f , dann cine kleine
Spitze olivenbraun, von den dunkelgrauen, am Ende allmiihlig lich-
teren Franzen nicht scharf geschieden. Beine schwarzbraun. Der
miinnliche After stumpf zweispitzig, jederseits mit kleinem schwarzen
Pinsel. Der maryinicolella am niichsten ; diese ist aber plumper
nicht olivengriin, sondern olivengold mit viel Purpurkupfer. Die
Binde ist viel schriiger, der After des Mannes ganz gelb, mit 2 grossen
gelben Pinseln, der Spitze des Weibes schwarz (Herrich-Schaner,
Correspondcnzblatt fiir Sammler von Insecten, etc., 1860, p. 60).
REFERENCES TO N. TORMENTILLELLA AS A BRITISH SPECIES. — This
species appears to have been introduced and re-introduced into the
British list without any real reason. The references are as follows :
(1) Stainton notes (Ent. Weekly Int., viii., p. 168) that Herrich-SchJiner
had described N. tonuentillella and other new species. He adds : " X.
tormentttleUa is a widely distributed species, as we have found it at
NEPTICULA TORMENTILLELLA. 227
West Wickham, Bideford and Dunkeld." (2) Sfcainton gives (Knt.
Weekly Int., viii., p. 176) a translation of Herrich-SchJiffer's
description. (3) Stainton writes (Ent. Weekly Int., ix., p. 22»: " X.
tiinnentillella in the leaves of Potentilla tonnentilla. This occurs at
West Wickham, and probably in other localities near London."
(4) Stainton states (Ent. Ann., 1861, pp. 91-92) that he was about to
announce the occurrence of X. tonnentillella in England, as he had
" bred a Xepticula from larvae found in leaves of P. tonnentilla, on
Birnam Hill, Dunkeld, in September, 1859," that he had assumed this
to be the X. tonnentillella, H.-Sch., but that it was totally different.
He adds : " Herrich-Schiiffer's insect has the anterior wings metallic-
greenish at the base, the fascia silvery, slender and slightly curved ;
my specimen has the base of the anterior wings brownish, the fascia
is pale golden, rather broad, and nearly straight. It would be unsafe
to found a species on this single specimen, but it is not improbable
that more than one species may feed upon Potentilla tormentilla"
(5) Sang describes (E.M.M., xxii., p. 138) the mine of a Xepticnla
obtained near Newcastle-on-Tyne, in 1885, on P. tonnentilla.
After noting the similarity of the larva to that of X. poterii, he says :
" Mr. Warren tells me that he bred JY. aeneofasciata, last year, from a
mine on the same plant, but this certainly is not that species. Mr.
Stainton also found a mined leaf in Scotland, some years ago, from
which he bred an imago, which he cannot refer to any species with
which he is acquainted. Should this not be X. tonnentillae (sic), a
Continental species, it will most likely prove to be new to science."
(6) Bankes, under the title of " Xepticula tonnentillella in Yorkshire
and Westmorland," writes (E.M.M., xxiv., p. 160) : " It seems now
to be generally accepted, as a fact, that the Xepticula referred to by
the late Mr. John Sang, in the Ent. Mo. May., xxii., p. 138, is
identical with the Continental AT. tonnentillella," etc. He then goes
on to describe the mine and larva of a Xepticula, found by him in York-
shire and Westmorland, on P. tormentilla. (7) Threlfall says (Ibid.,
pp. 186-187) that he has bred the Xepticula, feeding on Potentilla
tonnentilla, from larvae found on the moors of Westmorland, that
these were not X. tonnentillella, but were identical with the specimen
bred many years before by Stainton from larvae found near Dunkeld,
and suggested that the species wanted a name. (8) Stainton named
(Ibid., p. 260) the species noticed by Threlfall, serella, and stated that
he had had the Dunkeld specimen, Sang's Newcastle specimens, and
Threlfall's specimens, before him at the same time, and found them
identical. (9) Bankes states: (Ibid., xxvii., p. 196) that his note
in vol. xxiv., p. 160, should refer entirely to X. serella. (10) Hodg-
kinson wrote (Ent., xxii., p. 219) that from mines obtained in
Tormentilla ojficinalis, at Windermere the previous October, he
was " breeding a very distinct-looking Xepticula. The larvae
were of a deep yellow colour ; the mines were conspicuous, and
there were several on a plant. The sexes of the moth are of the same
type, but the female is much larger than the male. This species
should be the JV. tonnentillella which was expunged from our lists in
favour of X. serella. The specimens are as large again as those of
X. serella. I may add that the species, which I will call X. tormentillella,
is exceedingly local, although the food-plant is plentiful enough in
some of the woods." (11) Bankes writes (in litt., June 28th, 1898),
228 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
that he has compared Ilodgkiuson's specimens with the Conti-
nental series of Frey, etc., and finds them to be X. aeneofaxciella and Ar.
serella.
We may. therefore, safely conclude that X. tontientillella has no
locus standi in the British fauna.
NEPTICULA AURELLA,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Aurella. Fab., " Sys. Ent.," p. G66, no. 65 (1775) ; " Ent.
Sys.," iii., 2. 329, no. 180; Ooze, "Ent. Beitr.," iii., 4, 152, 211 (1783) ; Gmelin,
" Sys. Nat.," i.. 5, 2605, 1269 (1788) ; Villers, "Ent. Faun. Suec.," ii., 503. 975
(1789); Turton, "Sys. of Nature," iii.. 2, 378; Haw., " Lep. Brit.," p. 584
(1828) ; Stephs., "Illus.," iv., 268 (1835) ; Zell.. " Linn. Ent.," iii.. p. 306, in part
(1848); Sta., "Cat. Lep. Tin.," p 28 (1849); "Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.," v., p.
129 (1847) ; " Ins. Brit.," p. 305 (1854) ; " Nat. Hist. Tin.," i.. p. 34, pi. i., fig. 1
(1855); "Man.." ii., p. 438(1859); H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearh.," v., p. 350 (1855);
Frey, " Linn. Ent.," xi.. p. 441 (1857) : Werneburg, i., p. 567 (1864) ; Healy. " Ent.,
Mo. Mag.," iii.. pp. 7 et seq. (186(5); Staud. and Wocke, "Cat.," p. 337 (1871);
Mill., "Cat. Lep. Alp. Mar.," p. 374 (1875); Heinemann and Wocke, " Schmett.
Deutsch.," p. 742 (1877); Sand, "Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 201 (1879); Snellen,
" Vlinders," p. 983 (1882) ; Peyer., "Cat. Lep. Als.." ii., 2nd Ed., p. IBS (1882);
Hering. " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," Hi., p. 220 (1891) ; Meyrick, " Handbook," etc., p. 717
(1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Tinea aurdla, alis auratis, postice atris ;
fascia argentea. Minima facile omnium. Caput album, fronte ferru-
ginea. Antennae breves, nigne. Alae auratae, nitidissimre, postice
atne, qui colores striga argentea vivacissima distinguuntur [Fabricius,
Systewatica Knto»iolo;/ica, p. G66, no. 65 (1775)] .
SYNONYMIC NOTES. — Werneburg, Heinemann, Wocke, Sorhagen,
and others do not accept the Fabrician description of X. aurdla as
applying to this species. Werneburg (Ueitri'njf znr St-hniett., i., p. 567)
argues at length against the possibility of aun-lla, Fab., being aunila,
Sta., and determines it for .V. jdai/icolella, Sta. His arguments
against its being aurdla, Sta., are : (1) The latter is too large.
Fabricius would not have called it " minima facile omnium." (2i Au-
rdla, Sta., lives on llubus, hence Fabricius would hardly have found
it among fruit trees. (3) Aurdla, Sta., appears to be very rare in
Germany. None of these arguments is particularly strong. Of them
we would say : (1) Aurella was the only Nepticulid described by
Fabricius, and would be the smallest moth known to him. (2) The
imagines of this species occur on the trunks of various kinds of
trees growing near brambles. (8) Although rare, the species
is taken in Germany. Stainton, whilst accepting the Fabrician
description, as applying to the present species, says (Xat. Hixt. Tin.,
i., p. 46) : " There is nothing in the Fabrician description to apply
it in preference to any of the allied species. It is true the wings are
not ' black ' posteriorly, it is true the fascia had better be described as
pale golden ; but none of the species with silvery fascine have the
'wings golden.' The ' head white, in front ferruginous.' evidently
alludes to the whitish eye-caps at the base of the, antennae on each
side of the reddish tuft of the head. The ' occurs among orchard
trees,' might, certainly, if interpreted too rigidly, restrict us to an
apple or plum-feeding species ; but the allusion is, no doubt, to the
perfect insect having been taken on the trunk of some orchard tree,
which is not an improbable locality for a bramble-feeding species."
It appears necessary, however, since so many authorities refuse to
accept the Fabrician description, as applicable to this species, to give
NEPTtCULA AUBELLA. 220
Stainton's description, to which these entomologists refer as the
earliest with which this species can be with certainty connected. This
reads as follows: " AureUa, Fab., Haw., St. ? Anrella, Zell., 306.
WibnercUa, Hbn., 236; Zell. (/«*, 1839).— Basal half of the anterior
wings golden, apical half violet ; in this is a very shiny silvery fascia
placed rather obliquely and slightly concave towards the base ; head
ferruginous" (Catalogue Lcp. Tin., p. 337).
IMAGO. — Head ferruginous. Anterior wings 6-7 mm. ; golden
brown in colour, tinged with purple beyond the middle ; apex of the
wing deep violet ; just beyond the middle is a nearly straight, oblique,
pale golden fascia. Posterior wings and cilia dark grey.
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the under (rarely on the upper)
surface of a bramble leaf (Stainton). The egg is always laid upon
the upper side of a leaf (Wood).
MINE. — The mine consists of an irregular, not contorted, wavy
gallery of moderate width. It is at first greenish-white in colour,
with a line of black excrement along the centre.
LARVA. — Length 2 lines ; clear amber-yellow, shining and trans-
parent ; the head a little darker, the mouth and two slender lines
receding from it reddish-brown ; the dorsal vessel shows through the
skin, and is dark greenish-brown in colour (Stainton). When the
larva is quite full-fed, the dorsal vessel loses its green appearance,
but the organ can be traced by its faint brownish outlines. The full-
fed larva is almost exactly four lines in length, and rather more than
half a line in width (Healy). The larva mines with the dorsal surface
uppermost (Wood).
MOULTING OF THE LARVA OF N. AURELLA. — For our knowledge of
the facts connected with this portion of the life-history of N. aurella
we are indebted to Healy, who writes : "I noticed that it was rarely
that any two larvae agreed in their markings during the period of
moulting, and in some few instances the differences were very great.
One particular larva was collected in the last week of January, 1863.
The day after I had it in my possession it left off feeding, and
remained perfectly quiescent in its mine, when all the colour and
markings on the head disappeared, and on the anterior portion of the
body of the larva were two reddish-brown lines, at an angle of about
60°, and ending with a dull red blotch, the head and all the parts of
the body situate between the two angular lines having a semi-trans-
parent appearance ; the remainder of the body was dull yellow, the dorsal
vessel being invisible. In this position the larva remained for the
space of ten days. At the end of the first week in February, the
mouth of the larva became brown, and on the back of the second
segment there appeared a square, dull reddish patch. The next day
the back of this segment became desorated with two faint brown
triangular spots, margined with darker ; these two triangular spots
were followed by a couple of longitudinal lines, having a dull reddish
blotch at their bases (the dull red blotch at the ends of the two reddish-
brown lines had then disappeared). Two days later a pair of reddish-
brown spots became visible on the back of the second segment, and
were immediately followed by a small reddish blotch. On February
10th the entire surface of the mouth turned dark brown, and all the
various spots and markings on the anterior portion of the body of the
larva became merged in one general dull blotch. The larva then
230 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA,
recommenced feeding, but at first very slowly, and appeared to be in
a very weak and languid state. As the food passed into the stomach,
the anterior portion of the dorsal vessel (which before the Iarv7a began
feeding was invisible) became tinged with green, and after a short
interval its posterior portion assumed a darker tinge. As soon as the
larva had refreshed itself with a little food, it rested for a time,
and during this interval threw off the old covering of its head. (On one
occasion, as soon as a larva began feeding, after moulting, I watched
it narrowly from the instant it swallowed the first mouthful of
food to the moment it ejected the first pellet of " frass," and found
that it occupied precisely half-an-hour, thereby implying that it
requires that amount of time, after deglutition, for the food to be
digested, the nutritious properties extracted, and the coarse indigestible
portion finally ejected as frass.) AfteV this partial moult, the larva,
as if trying to make up for lost time, fed with remarkable rapidity,
its jaws being in constant motion, and as it ate its way forwards, the
anterior portion of its body became stouter. By this time the larva
had fed for a space of six hours, and had so far extended its mine as to
enable it to withdraw half of its body from its old skin ; the frass
then gradually began to accumulate in the partially thrown -off skin,
the latter serving as a receptacle in which the " frass" was deposited,
and as the larva moved the extremity of its body about within the
walls of its old skin, the frass was distinctly observable as it fell pellet by
pellet. The frass did not flow in a continuous line to the extremity of
the body of the larva, but appeared in pellets at the base of the ante-
penultimate segment ; each pellet then slid gradually down till it
arrived near the centre of the penultimate segment, when it seemed
to be taken in charge by the branched portions of two darkish
coloured muscles, and conducted to the point where the remaining
portions of the muscles lay parallel with each other down the posterior
portion of the penultimate and the anterior portion of the anal
segments ; these muscles then immediately expanded, and received
the pellet of " frass," and guided it to their extremities, and then
deposited it near the middle of the anal segment, out of which it
gradually slid, and became intermixed with the other pellets of frass
in the mine. At the expiration of twelve hours, the larva succeeded
in entirely escaping from its old integument ; the frass, instead of
forming a continuous line down the centre of the mine as it had done
before the larva moulted, then assumed a scattered appearance ; this
change in its arrangement arising from the larva jerking its posterior
segments about each time it deposited a pellet of frass " (Kntnw. Mo.
Mag., iii., p. 28).
COCOON. — The cocoons vary much in size, from 2 mm. to 4 mm. in
length, and from 1*5 mm. to 2*5 mm. in width. The cocoon is
roughly oval in outline, but varies much in actual shape, some having
the two opposite ends almost equal, others with one end much wider
than the other. The colour, too, is variable, dull-brownish with a
faint greenish tinge is the most common tint, but some cocoons are quite
green, whilst others incline to yellow-ochreous. The rim is some-
what thinned off, but does not form a flattened flange, the strongly
domed part of the cocoon rising gradually from the margin to the highest
point, which is almost central. The edge of the rim is crenate, and has
a considerable quantity of loose flossy silk around it. The raised part of
NEPTICULA AURELLA. 231
the cocoon is moderately smooth, and only very faintly reticulated with
fine lines of a tint just darker than the cocoon itself. [Described
July 5th, 1898, under a two-thirds lens from cocoons sent by Mr. W.
H. B. Fletcher.] When the larva is full-fed, it gnaws a hole, exactly
of the same shape and form as the front and sides of the head of the
larva, and gradually draws its body from the mine. It then seeks a
suitable place in which to make its cocoon ; this is sometimes spun on
a leaf or twig, sometimes on a dead leaf on the ground, and larvae
have been known to penetrate the sand in a breeding-cage to the depth
of an inch or more, and there spin their cocoons. When it has selected
a suitable position, it commences carpeting with silk the part of the
leaf or twig on which it is resting, and thus forms the floor of its
cocoon. This being done, the larva, keeping its body in an apparently
cramped position, gradually throws a number of silken filaments over
its body, fastening them to the sides of the floor of the cocoon, thus
giving a convex form to the structure. This forms the framework
of the cocoon, but by continuous spinning it is entirely completed in
about nine hours (Healy) . The cocoon is of an irregular shape, rather
flat, with scalloped edges, and varies in colour from pale dirty-green
to pale brown. The pupal state lasts about three weeks (Stainton).
The cocoon is whitish-green, with a flat angulated margin (Hind).
QUIESCENT PERIOD PRECEDING PUPATION. — The body of the larva is
curled round in the newly-formed cocoon, and occupies nearly the
whole of its interior. A fortnight later its body is much shrunk, so
that it lies in the centre of the cocoon with much room to spare. At
this time, the larva is only 2'" long and 1'" wide at its stoutest part,
having lost just half its length by the peculiar shrinking process it
undergoes ; its body is also of a paler yellow than when it constructs
its cocoon. The larva is now quite motionless, but, a day or two
afterwards, the head becomes slightly swollen, and gradually the four
anterior segments assume the same swollen appearance ; the posterior
segments also become slightly swollen, but not nearly so much so as
the four anterior segments. The anterior segments continue to swell
until they commence to crack, and the skin slowly contracting, the
pupal state is assumed. The larval skin is ultimately collected in a
little heap at the posterior end of the pupa (Healy).
PUPA. — The newly formed pupa presents a very pretty appearance,
the head, thorax and wing-cases being enclosed, as it were, in a covering
resembling very thin white glass, the abdomen being of a pale sulphur-
yellow ; the pupa is then exceedingly tender, and can only be touched
with the greatest caution. About three-parts down the dorsal surface
of the abdomen a pale brown patch is observable, and on the back of
the head are two parallel chains of dusky -coloured dots ; after two
days the eyes become pale brown, and the two parallel chains of dusky
spots disappear, their place being occupied by a pale reddish patch,
and three little dark spots visible near the base of the thorax. The
colour of the abdomen gradually deepens to orange-yellow ; the next
day the spots near the base of the thorax disappear, and also the
brown patch on the abdomen. The pupa, which has hitherto remained
inactive, now wriggles its abdomen about, and its surface becomes
much firmer. About a week later, the brown abdominal patch
reappears and shows through the ventral surface, whilst two short
projections, which proved to be the ends of the wing-cases, and which
232 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
had been previously notice:! gradually retiring over the sides of the
pupa, are to be observed at the posterior end of the abdomen ; the
eyes then turn quite black, and the ventral surface of the pupa is
partially slit open, whilst down the centre of the crack several dusky
spots become dimly traceable. The next day a rather thick streak
appears down the centre of the thorax, and two days later this streak
is crowned by a little circular dusky spot ; the brown patch on the
dorsal surface of the abdomen shrinks lower down, and the feet of the
future imago slowly begin to separate themselves from the pupa ; the
following day the dusky streak which had appeared three days pre-
viously, down the centre of the thorax, becomes reduced to a mere
line, and instead of the little dmsky spot, the position of the latter is
occupied by two short parallel lines, whilst a small cluster of three
dusky spots also appears on the centre of the abdomen. Later, the
thorax becomes free of all markings, and the abdominal markings
alsQ practically disappear. After seven days a dark spot becomes
observable on each side of the base of the thorax ; these spots gradually
enlarge, and finally become blended into one dark-coloured blotch,
which slowly spreads over the thorax, head and wing casts, turning
them shining black, after which the deep colour spreads to the abdo-
men, although the latter only becomes slightly discoloured in com-
parison with the head, thorax and wing-cases, on which the usual
markings of the imago gradually make their appearance. The pupa,
whose changes in appearance have been thus detailed, produced an
imago the next day, April 3rd, 1866 (Healy).
PARASITES. — Healy states that the larva of .V. aurclla is subject to
the attack of a Hymenopterous parasite, and notes that the parasitic
larva emerging at the back of the head of the Nepticulid larva, applies
its mouth to the hole through which it emerged, and proceeds to absorb
the juices of its victim, till there is nothing left of the unfortunate
Nepticulid larva but the dry empty skin. The parasitic larva is then
full-fed, fat and plump, there being just sufficient nourishment in the
body of one larva of X. aurella to supply it with the proper amount of
food.
FOOD-PLANT. — Chiefly (if not entirely) in evergreen bramble, l!nbn>>
J'l-uticonus. [Before X. frayariella, X. ijci and the allied species were
separated from N. aurella, many other food-plants were recorded, /-.//.,
Stainton gives : Rubus fruticosus, IL idaeus, Oewn urbanuin, Fra<jaria
vesca and Ayrimonia eupatoria. Wood still allows as many (or rather
more) food-plants, not acknowledging the specific distinctness of X.
frayanella and X. yei ; he gives : bramble, strawberry, agrimony,
Spiraea ulmaria, ? raspberry, ? dewberry, / (jreum.]
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is continuously brooded whilst
the temperature is suitable for its proper growth and emergence.
Jordan found a newly-emerged imago on February 3rd, 1890, on a
bramble leaf at Teignmouth. Farren says : "Larvae may be found at
all times in the neighbourhood of Cambridge, and the moths bred
accordingly." Corbett says : " Full mines may be obtained at
Doncaster, from October to February," and Atmore has found larvae
in their mines at King's Lynn, " in November, December and
January." Stainton found larvae at Lewisham, on April 4th, 1852,
and he further reports " an undoubted Ar. aurella bred from Ayriinnnia
eupatoria, on March 4th, 1861, from a larva received from Healy, on
XEi'TICULA AUKELLA. 233
October 21st, 1860." Stainton also found larva? at Monte Maris, nr.
Eome, on March 14th, 1866. Threlfall records imagines on June 9th,
at Witherslack, and Durrant on July 16th, 1896, at Barcote. The
following list, however, of specimens captured at large by Stainton,
shows its continuous broodedness : April 4th, 1848, at Lewisham ;
May 26th, 1848, May 21st, 1850, at Lewisham; May 17th-18th, 1851,
at Beckenham ; June 9th, 1848, at Beckenham ; June 20th, 1849, at
Lewisham ; June 24th, 1671, at West Wickham ; July 21st, 1849, at
Lewisham ; July 25th, 1849, at Mickleham ; August 25th, 1851, at
Lewisham. Bred specimens are recorded as follows : February 22nd,
1853, April 17th-20th, 1853, April 30th, 1855, May 5th-llth, 1852,
May 7th, 1853, September 21st, 1853, November 16th, 1851 (from
larva full-fed October 19th, 1851, that formed a white cocoon) ;
December 2nd, 1862, December 7th, 1852, all from Lewisham larvte.
LOCALITIES. — ABERDEEN : rather scarce (Reid). BERKSHIRE : Barcote
(Dai-rant), Beading (Hanun). CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge, common (Farren).
CHESHIRE : Birkeuhead (Stainton) ; abundant everywhere (Ellis). DERBY: Burton
(Sang). DEVON: Dawlish (Stainton), Teignmouth (Jordan). DORSET: Bloxworth
(Cambridge), Purbeck (Bankes), Glanvilles Wootton (Dale), Portland, Weymouth
(Richardson). DURHAM : Darlington (Stainton). FERMANAGH: Enniskillen (Part-
ridge). GLOUCESTER: Bristol (Vaughan). HERTS: Cheshunt (Boyd). HEREFORD:
Tiirrington (Wood), Leominster (Hutchinson). KENT: Lewisham, Tenterden and
West Wickham (Stainton). LANCASHIRE : Manchester (Stainton), Southport
(Hodgkinson), abundant everywhere (Ellis). LEICESTER : Market Harborough
(Matthews). NORFOLK : Norwich, Merton, probably everywhere in county (Barrett),
King's Lynn (Atmore). NORTHUMBERLAND : Newcastle (Stainton). SOMERSET :
Castle Gary (Macmillan). SUFFOLK: Leiston (Walsingham). SURREY: Mickleham
(Stainton), Haslemere (Barrett). SUSSEX: generally distributed and common in
Sussex, Worthing, Bognor, etc. (Fletcher), Guestling (Bloomfield), Lewes (Stainton).
WESTMORLAND: Witherslack (Threlfall). WORCESTER : Worcester (J. E. Fletcher).
YORKSHIRE: York, plentiful (Hind), Doncaster, abundant (Corbett), Scarborough
(Stainton), Harrogate and Richmond ^Sang), Huddersfield (Inchbald), Sheffield
(Doncaster).
DISTRIBUTION. — Generally distributed in the British Islands, but
not so general on the continent of Europe. Meyrick Avrites : "Central
Europe and N. Africa." France : Mentone (Stainton), Nohaut, Indre
(Sand), Alpes-Maritimes (Milliere). Germany: Bonn (Frey), Sandsee
(Hering). Italy : Central Italy (Wocke), Leghorn and Montenero
(Mann), Monte Maris, nr. Eome, nr. Florence (Stainton). Nether-
lands : "Friesland (Snellen). Frey writes : " I have only seen a single
Continental specimen of N. aurdla, which was taken near Bonn. It
does not occur at Zurich."
NEPTICULA FRAGAKIELLA, Hein. and N. GEI, Wocke.
Wocke described (Catalog, etc., p. 336, no. 3005) a species under
the name of X. ijei. This, in his continuation of Heinemann's
Schtnett. Deittoch., p. 740, he sinks as synonymous with N. frayariella,
Heyd., stating that he no longer finds differences between the speci-
mens bred from Fragaria and (reum rivale. He says that the specimens
vary in glossiness, in the colouring of the basal part of the fore- wings, the
colour of the head, and in the width of the dark purple-brown band
preceding the metallic band. The variation in the mines, he considers,
may be explained by the differences in the food-plant. He then states
that he believes X nitens, Fologne, the larva of which feeds on
AyriHwnia, to be referable to the same species. Eppelsheim was in-
clined (Stett. Ent. Zeit., li., pp. 229-235) to separate them on the
following grounds : —
234 fcRiTlSH LEPiDOPTfciiA.
(1) The basal area of fore-wings greenish-brassy in N.fragarlclla, deep golden-
brown in N. gel.
(2) The colour of the metallic band slightly golden in N. fragariella, silvery
in N. gei.
(3) Head hairs in N. fragariella, <? dark, ? reddish ; in N. gei sometimes
blackish, sometimes red.
(4) The colour of the cocoon of N. frayariella light red, of N. yei dirty-
greenish or yellowish-grey.
(5) The gallery of the mine whitish, with sharply denned, continuous frass-
line, and wide margins in N. frayariella ; the gallery not so pale, the frass more
scattered, the mines with less defined margins in the mine of N. yei.
(6) The imago of N. yei is larger, the largest examples measuring G mm. ; the
largest N. fragariella , 5 mm.
In spite of these differences, Eppelsheim was unable to satisfy
himself that they were absolutely fixed, except in the matter of the
cocoons and the greater average size -of N. yei, and he was, therefore,
inclined to agree with Wocke's conclusions, and unite them as the
same species. He, however, stated that he considered the G-cnm
feeder should retain its name, and later (Stett. Ent. Zeit., lii., p. 351)
he described a new aberration as N. yei ab. winicolorella. Durrant says
that " English N. fragariella (from Sang) appear to have the white cilia
more developed (i.e., carried round to the costal cilia), while the colour
seems to stop short before (or about) the apex in Continental N. yei.
English N. frayariella are smaller than Continental N. yei."
We do not think the last has yet been written of this puzzling
group, and hence keep the species separate, only noting here that
Wocke and Eppelsheim write — yeit Wk. = frayariclla, Hein., and that
Wood writes — yei, Wk. = frayariella, Hein. = aurella, Fab.
NEPTICULA FRAGARIELLA, Heinemann.
SYNONYMY. — Species: Fragariella, Hein., " VVien. Monats.," 1862, p. 263
(pubd. Aug., 1862); Heyd., " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," 1862, p. 365 (pubd. Oct., 18G2) ;
Hein. and Sta., " Zool.," 1863, p. 8363 ; Sta., " Ent. Ann.," 1868, p. 45 ; Stand, and
Wocke, " Cat.," etc., p. 336 (1871) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," pp. 739-
740 (1877) ; Sorhagen, " Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 344 (1886) ; Hering, " Stett.
Ent. Zeit.," Hi., p. 220 (1891); Meyr., "Handbook," etc., p. 717(1895;. ? Gei(teste
Wocke and Eppelsheim).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. ° — Nepticvla frayariella, Heyd. — Capillis
fuscis, antennarum conchula argentea ; alis anterioribus basi late
viridi-aeneis, ante et post fasciam latam dilute auream purpureo-
fusck, ciliis fuscis, apice griseis. Exp. al. 2-2^ lin. Von Heyden
in litt. Die Kopfhaare braun, in der Mitte schwilrzlich, an den Seiten
und vorn in Grau iibergehend, die Augendeckel klein, bei dem Manne
etwas grosser, griinlich weiss mit Metallglanz, die Fiihler in beiden
Geschlechtern von mehr als halber Fliigellange, schwiirzlich, die
Palpen weiss. Lichte Nackenschopfe sehe ich nicht. Der ganze
Korper griinlich erzfarben, gliinzend, auch die Beine, doch sind diese
dunkler, der After bei dem Manne mit zwei kleinen, hellgrauen
Pinseln. Die Vorderfliigel sind schmal und gestreckt, ziemlich
gleichbreit, bis etwas iiber das Wurzeldrittel hinaus griinlich messing-
farben, stark gliinzend, der iibrige Theil bis zur Spitze hat eine ziein-
* There is some difficulty in settling which is the original description of this
species. Heyden published a description in the Stettin. Ent. Zeitting, 1862,
p. 365, in the part dated July — Sept., hence probably not actually published until
October, 1862. Heinemann, in the Wien. Monatx., August, 18H2, p. 263, calls it
frni/in'iclla, Heyd., but distinctly cites it as " Heyden in litt." There is, we think,
no doubt that Heinemann's was the first description published. We, however, give
both descriptions.
NEPTiCULA FRAGARIELLA. 235
lich hellbraune, efcwas auf Purpur oder Veilbraun, seltener auf
Veilblau ziehende Fiirbung, welche vor der Metallbinde als eine ebenso
breite, wurzelwiirts besfcimmt, doch nicht scbarf begrenzte Binde
erscheinfc. Die Metallbinde steht vertical bei f , isfc ziemlich breit,
licht golden und stark gliinzend. Die Fransen haben an der
Wurzel braune, etwas violette Schuppen, die aber nicht besthnmt
begrenzt sind, an der Spitze sind sie, sowie die Hinterfliigel
und deren Fransen hellgrau. Auf der Unterseite sind alle
Fliigel hell briiunlich grau (Heinemann, Wien. I'lnt. Monatx., p. 263).
Heyden's description reads as follows : " Capillis nigro-fuscis ; con-
chula flavescens ; alis anterioribus elongatis, angustis, nitidis,
nigris, basin versus cupreis, fascia post medium aureo-argentea,
nitidissima; tarsis griseis. Varietas : Capillis anticis rufis.° Exp.
al. 2^-2f" . Schopf des Schadels schmal, ziemlich glatt, schwarz-
braun. Palpen lang behaart, braungelb, an den Seiten schwarz.
Augendeckel gross, gelblich. Fiihler schwarz mit etwas hellerer
Spitze. Flugel lang, schmal, fein beschuppt, gliinzend, schwarz mit
etwas Kupferglanz ; Basis bis zu ^ der Fliigelliinge lebhaft kupfer-
rothlich und etwas schwarzem Unterrand ; hinter der Mitte in der
schawarzen Grundfarbe eine stark gliinzende, goldsilberne Querbinde,
die wegen der geringen Breite der Fliigel fast so breit als lang ist und
daher einen fast viereckigen oder bin ten etwas verschmiilerten Fleck
bildet. Der schwarze Kaum vor der Binde ist fast so breit als diese.
Franzen breit grau. Hinterfliigel mit ihren Franzen grau. Halsschild
kupferroth. Hinterleib schwarz mit metallischer Beimischung und
rothlichen Haaren an der Spitze. Tarsen grau behaart. Die Farbung
des Kopfes ist in beiden Geschlechtern gleich ; doch habe ich unter
den andern ein kleines weibliches Exemplar gezogen, bei welchem
die vorderen Haare des Schopfes fuchsroth sind. Es zeichnet
sich diese Art von alien mir bekannten durch die auffallend langen
und schmalen Vorderfliigel aus " (Heyden, Stett. Ent. £eit.t xxiii.,
pp. 365-366).
IMAGO. — Head brown, but blackish in the middle of the frontal
tuft, and grey at the sides and in front. Anterior wings 5 mm.,
narrow, elongate, nearly uniform in width ; basal third bronzy-green,
the remaining area pale brown, with purple tinge ; transverse metallic
fascia two-thirds from the base, rather broad, pale golden, shiny,
edged internally by an almost equally broad, purplish transverse
fascia ; cilia brownish-purple with pale grey tips. Posterior wings
and cilia pale grey (Heinemann). Compare with note on p. 236.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — Heinemann says that the male has two
small pale grey anal tufts that are wanting in the female.
COMPARISON OF N. FRAGARIELLA AND N. SPLENDIDISSIMELLA. — X.
fratjariella bears, perhaps, some resemblance to X. splendidusimella,
but can easily be distinguished from it. The latter has the frontal
tuft deep black, the eye-caps larger, and the colour of the broader
anterior wings beyond the brassy basal portion is quite different,
being golden-brown with a strong violet tint, often almost entirely deep
violet-blue, and not distinctly margined towards the pale base, but
shading gradually into it ; besides, the metallic fascia is nearer the
base on the costa, and perceptibly oblique (Heinemann).
* Probably there is considerable variation in the colour of the head of this
species, those we have examined, however, have had "red " heads.
230 BRITISH LEPlDOPTERA.
COMPARISON OF SUPPOSED BRITISH NEPTICULA FRAGARIELLA WITH N.
DULCELLA AND N. GEL — The few British specimens that we have seen
bred from Fragaria ivwti, and that we take to be N. fratfaridla, have
scarcely exceeded 4 mm. in wing expanse, have distinct reddish-
ochreous (almost yellow-ochreous) heads ; the base of the fore-wings
brassy-green, the transverse fascia rather silvery than pale golden, the
latter running through a purple-brown area that occupies the outer
tworthirds of the fore-wings. Wood's JY. dulcella are rather less in
size, barely 4 mm., the head reddish-ochreous (almost yellow-ochreous) ;
the base of the fore-wings brassy, the transverse fascia silvery, but
more concave on inner margin, the purple-brown area even more ex-
tended than in N.frayariella. The imagines bred from (jreuni urbanum,
average G mm. The males have, usually, golden-yellow heads and whitish
antennal bases, the females deep ferruginous or orange-fuscous heads ;
the basal area of the fore-wings is bronzy-purplish (not greenish), the
fascia distinctly pale golden, the outer two-thirds bright dark purplish
and not purplish-brown, the dark area within the transverse band
narrower. The imagines from llubna cori/lifoliun are somewhat similar to
those from Cr<' «;//., but the males have the base of antenme yellowish, the
base of the fore-wings bronzy-purple, the transverse band rather
broader and more oblique, and the apex brighter and more violet,
perhaps blue-black is a better term.
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the upper side of a leaf of
Fragaria cexca or Agrintonia eitjiaturia, usually by the side of one of
the lateral ribs.
MINE. — The mine is very long and twisted many times. It
commences very finely, and then for a considerable distance retains
the same width ; it is yellowish-grey in colour, with a darker, central,
excremental track. Sometimes, two or three larva; mine in the same
leaf, the mines forming a dense tangle (Heyden). Heinemann
describes the mine as long, narrow and tortuous, with a rather slender
excremental line. According to Eppelsheim, there are considerable
differences in the mines of X.fragariella in Fragaria, some showing
the characteristic sharply defined frass-line only in the first and last
parts of their course, the frass being much more loosely deposited in
the middle part. He further notes that the mines in Agriwunia
eiipatwia resemble much more closely the mines of X. frayariella in
Fragaria, than those of X. gel in Geuni, probably because the Agri-
inonia is more closely allied to Fragaria than Geum. Our own notes,
from a long series of mines kindly sent by Mr. W. H. B. Fletcher, are
as follows : The mine is rery much finer than that of X gei, shorter,
and with more small convolutions. The total length of the longer
mines does not exceed three inches, not more than half the length of
an average mine of X. gel, and it is not above half the width of the
latter, and the blistered appearance of the leaf above a mine of X. gd
is practically absent in the mine of X. fragaridla. The frass forms an
exceedingly slender continuous thread through the centre of the mine,
from its commencement to its end, in some, however, with a slight
tendency to the separation of the pellets in the middle part of the mine.
This mode of disposal of the frass leaves a very clear margin on either
side, causing what appears to be a fine, white, convoluted path on the
upper side of a leaf, but quite invisible on the lower side, unless held
against the light. In some of the mines, in leaves of Ayrimonia
NEPTICULA FRAGARIELLA. 237
eupatoria, the frass-track is markedly continuous ; on the other hand,
one example shows a considerable spreading of the frass pellets
throughout its course. We quite agree with Eppelsheim that the
mines in Frayaria and Atfriiuonia are very similar.
LARVA. — The larva is shining, unicolorous, brownish-yellow, with
the head and prothorax more shining and rather darker ; on the head
are to be seen (as in the allied species) two diverging darker lines ;
the mouth is also darker (Heyden). Heinemann notes the larva as " pale
amber-yellow, with the head brownish."
COCOON. — The cocoons (2) average 2-5 mm. long and 2 mm. wide.
They are of an orange-yellow colour, rather paler, perhaps, than those
of X. thdcdla ; the surface is moderately sinooth, an I is covered with a
fine branching reticulation, red-brown in colour. The outline of the
cocoon is an almost regular oval, with scarcely a shade of difference
in the two ends. There appears to be no lateral flange, but a series
of silken threads branch off all round the edge, evidently for the
attachment of the cocoon. The pupa-skin is perfectly transparent,
quite glossy, or watery-looking, on the thoracic and abdominal
segments, wings greyer. There is a distinct stellate structure (a
series of depressions internally) on the centre of the mesothorax.
[Described June loth, 1898, under a two thirds lens, from cocoons
sent by Dr. Wood.] Heinemann describes the cocoon as " rather
broad, flat, and of a brownish-yellow colour."
FOOD-PLANTS. — Frayaria rexca, AfffiwotlM eiipatttria.
TIME OF APPEARANCE.- Heyden found lame at the end of October,
on the hiil-slopes of the Bergstrasse, at Jugenheim. The imagines
commenced to emerge (in a warm room) as early as the end of March.
Heinemann says that the larva feeds in July, and again at the end of
September and beginning of October. Bower found the imagines
flying in the morning sun, on March 29th, 1894, at Chislehurst.
LOCALITIES. — The species is probably generally distributed over a
large part of the country, but much confused with X. aun'lla. The
only recorded localities are : —
DURHAM : Darlington (Sang teste Durrant). HEREFORD : Tarrington in Fragaria
(Wood). Sussex: Balcombe in Agrimonia, Arundel in FraflarM (Fletcher).
DISTRIBUTION. — Germany : Jugenheim, Frankfort - on - the - Main,
Black Forest (Heyden) ; Wolfenbuttel (Heinemann), Alt Damm,
Friedland (Hering).
NEPTICULA DULCELLA, Heinemann (? sp. Brit.).
SYNONYMY.— Species: Dulcella, Hein., "Wien. Monats.," 1862. p. 267; Hein.
and Sta., Zoologist, IMS, pp. 8367-8 ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.." p. 337 (1871) ;
Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 740 (1877) ; Hutchinson, " List of Heref.
Lepidop.," p. 16 (? 1893).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Nepttculd dtdceUa. Capillis ferrugineis,
antennarum conch ula luteo-alba ; alis anterioribus dimidio basali
olivaceo-aeneis, subnitidis, postice atro-purpureis, fascia post medium
recta, argentea nitidissima, ciliis apice griseis. Kxp. al. 2J lin.
(Heinemann, Wien. Monats., 1862, p. 267). To this Ileinemann adds
the following remarks : " Very like X. cnntimiella. I can only find a
difference in the paler colour of the anterior wings, and in the
narrower dark fascia which precedes the silvery fascia being more
obsolete towards the base. The anterior wings are pale olive-bronze
from the base, rather glossy ; they become gradually darker towards
238 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
the silvery fascia, and before it become for an undecided extent dark
brown, with faint purple-violet gloss ; this is also the colour of the
space between the fascia and the apex. The protruding scales in the
cilia are dark violet ; they lie in two rather regular rows, of which
the outer one is the paler ; the tips of the cilia are grey. The
posterior wings are rather paler than in A". continuella. I have a pair
bred from mines in strawberry leaves, which I could not distinguish
from the mines of X.J'raijariella. The male I sent to Frey, who referred
it to X.frayariella, remarking that the sexes of that species differ con-
siderably. I have myself received X. frcHjarieUa from Heyden. It is
the species already described (p. 263), and of which Buckheister and I
have bred both sexes of quite similar specimens ; likewise of N.
ilidcella, I have bred both sexes, which also agreed precisely, only that
the male, as far as I remember, had more the colour of .V. manjini-
colella, J . Moreover, all the specimens of X. frafiariella appeared in
the warm room, in January, whereas those of X. dulcella do not
appear till March, simultaneously with JY. antjulifasciella ; hence, I
believe, I most decidedly recognise in this a new species."
N. DULCELLA AS A BRITISH SPECIES. — This species is found in
Hutchinson's " List of Herefordshire Lepidoptera," for the micros
mentioned in which, Dr. Wood is mainly responsible. He states that the
insect here referred to, X. dulcella, has been bred at different times
from wild strawberry (Fragaria vesca), and was referred to this species by
Bankes. Cocoons that Dr. Wood sends us are somewhat similar to,
but much smaller than, those of X. frayaridla. Fletcher has bred
specimens from wild strawberry that he says "may be referable to
this species," but which he has " so far been inclined to consider as a
small form of X.f rat/a ri<>lla, considering that X dulcella, in Britain
at least, is a doubtful species." Meyrick writes : " British records of
Ar. dulcella, Hein., seem to have been erroneously founded on
specimens of this species (X, fngarittta)" Unfortunately, Meyrick's
remarks about other rare or little- known species, makes one inclined
to reject this statement, unaccompanied as it is by any indication of
the evidence on which the opinion is based. Wood writes : " The
cocoons of X. frayariella in your hands were found when collecting
the larvae of Xr. dulcella from wild strawberry, and were separated
from them by the character of the mine. X. dulcdla had a narrow
frass-track and very slender mine ; X. Jra(jaridlat a broad frass-track
and coarser mine " (in litt., June 28th, 1898). In the " Stainton "
British collection at South Kensington are specimens bred by
Threlfall from strawberry, at Preston.
MINE. — Like that of X. fraya riclla (Heinemann). Wood states that
the mine is finer and the frass-track narrower, and writes : " The mines
of the insect which I refer to N. dulcella, are very long and slender,
with the frass collected into a central thread of less than half the
diameter of the mine " (in litt.).
LARVA. — The larva is pale yellow, with the head scarcely, if at all,
darker (Wood).
COCOON. — The cocoons (3) average 2-1 mm. in length, and 1-9 mm.
in width, so that they form an oval that approaches to the circular in out-
line. In colour they incline to orange-yellow (deeper in tint and much
smaller than two cocoons of X.frayariella, that are by their side), with a
few fine reticulations of a darker tint. The surface is smooth, and the
NEPTICULA DULCELLA. 289
texture so delicate, that the cocoons have collapsed, even one from which
the pupa is still projecting. There are only a few loose strands of flossy
silk attached to the outer edge. [Described June 15th, 1898, under a
two-thirds lens, from cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.] Wood says : " The
chief peculiarity in the cocoons of AT. diilcclla seems to me to be their
rounded form, the outline being almost circular."
PUPA. — The pupa-skin projects for some distance from the cocoon ;
it is perfectly transparent, with some grey linear markings along the
edges of the thoracic segments. The thoracic segments seem dis-
proportionately large for the size of the pupa, the raesothorax
especially so.
FOOD-PLANT. — Frayaria I'esca (Heinemann*.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Imagines, in confinement, appeared in
March, from mines of the preceding autumn (Heinemann).
LOCALITIES.— HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood). LANCASHIRE: Preston
(Threlfall teste Stainton). ? SUSSEX: Worthing (Fletcher).
DISTRIBUTION. — Brunswick ( Heinemann i.
NEPTICULA GEI, Wocke (? var. N. fragariella).
SYNONYMY. - Species : Gri, Wocke, "Cat.," p. 336(1871); Eppelshm., " Stett.
Ent. Zeit .," li., pp. 229-235 (1890). ? Fragariella (teste, Wocke and Eppelsheim).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Fragariellae similis. Alis ant. dimidia
parte basali nitidissimis aureis, ceterum fuscis parum violaceo suffusis,
fascia pariun obliqua postmedium argentea vel pallida aurea nitidissima,
capillis ferrugineis, conchulis parvis flavescentibus. Exp. al. ant.
4f mm. Larva bis quotannis in foliis Gei ricalis" (Wocke, Catalog t
etc., p. 336).
IMAGO. — Head variable, orange in $ , orange-fuscous in 5 ; base of
antennae whitish, apex of antennae ringed with white. Anterior wings
6 mm. ; basal third brilliant bronzy-purplish, especially on costa ; outer
two-thirds violet-purple ; a bright metallic golden band, widest along
inner margin, passes through purple area ; extreme apex somewhat
bluish ; cilia dark grey, blackish at apex. Posterior wings pale grey,
shiny ; cilia at base of inner margin, pale grey, on upper margin and
round the apex darker. Thorax bronzy-purple ; abdomen bronzy-green.
[Described June 20th, 1898, from imagines bred from Sussex larvae,
feeding in (remit.]
VARIATION. — Ab. semicolorella, Epp., Stett. Ent. Zeit., Hi., p. 351. — Alis ant.
in primis § rufo-aureis, in ultimis g violaceis, fascia argentea deticiente, conchulis
minimis nigris. This aberration is so striking, that it deserves a distinct name.
The pale silvery-golden band is entirely wanting, and there is no indication even
of it, its place being occupied by the same colour as the outer part of the wing,
so that the basal two-fifths is unicolorous reddish-golden, the outer three-fifths
unicolorous dark violet-purple, the insect, therefore, having an altogether unfamiliar
appearance, and one would probably have described it as a distinct species had it
been caught. The eye-caps are exceedingly small, and black in colour ; the head-
hairs also black. There appear to be no other differences from typical N. gei.
Two exactly similar females of this form were bred in February of this year, with
a number of normally coloured and marked N. gei, from the autumn mines of
Geiini urbaitum, so that its specific identity is placed beyond doubt.
EGG. — The egg appears to be usually laid on the upperside, but
sometimes also on the underside, of a leaf of Geum ttrbannm. It is'of
the usual oval shape for this genus, length : breadth : : about 3 : 2,
and about 1-6 mm. in length. The shell is quite transparent, slightly
iridescent, and almost filled with the black frass of the young larva.
There appears to be no definite choice exercised as to the position of
240 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
the egg, which is placed sometimes on the surface quite in the centre of
the leaf and away from any of the larger veins, at other times against
one, whilst on other occasion* it is placed quite on the margin.
MINE. — The mine, which looks like a tine, whitish, wavy, much
twisted line on the upper side of a leaf of (reuin urbanuni, gradually
broadening as it advances, is quite invisible on the underside. It
measures probably, with the various convolutions, from 5 to 6 inches,
often doubles back on itself, and crosses and re-crosses the earlier part of
its path. It begins as a fine, slender, hair-like line, but at its termination
a good mine is 2 mm. wide. There are no sudden expansions of
the mine, at points corresponding with a larval moult, as one finds nor-
mally in certain species, and there is only one very distinct change
in the arrangement of the frass, The mine itself gradually and
regularly broadens with the growth of the larva, and the frass forms
a slender broken line, running through the centre of the gallery, with
a distinct margin on either side of the frass-line, the margin very
broad in comparison with the width of the frass-line, until almost
one-third of the gallery has been formed, when, although its regularity
is maintained, the frass resolves itself into distinct pellets, arranged
in a most orderly manner, and the distinct margin is maintained
until the termination of the mine. The quantity of frass is very
small, compared with that in the mines of some species, and
considering the size of the mine. Under a lens the upper epidermal
surface is seen to be raised or blistered, and the edge of the
mine tinged with reddish, the presence of the larva having evidently
discoloured the chlorophyll on the edge of the mine. Eppelsheim
notes that in some mines of X. ;/ei, the frass is more densely grouped
and the margins more free in some than in others. Certain mines in
leaves of lliibn* cnrylifuliux referred by Fletcher to this species, exhibit
considerable difference from the mines of X. fid. They have a strong
tendency to run by the side of a rib as long as possible, and to go from
one rib to another ; they also are, as a rule, broader, and the frass in
the first part forms a continuous fine line, which alters, evidently
after a larval moult, into a much more diffuse arrangement of the
frass pellets, which are very regularly arranged individually, and form a
very broad band along the centre of the gallery ; in the last three
quarters of an inch of the mine the frass is scattered somewhat
irregularly. These differences may readily be seen with the naked
eye ; nor is there in any degree so clear a margin on either side of the
frass-line in the mines in the leaves of Creuin, as in the mines in the
leaves of llubu*.
LENGTH OF LARVAL LIFE. — Eppelsheim notes that on Nov. 6th,
1888, he found a large radical leaf of Geitm containing 14 mines, of
which 11 were still occupied by feeding larvse on the 21st, and the
last two did not leave their mines till the 29th, so that these occupied
at least 28 days in coming to maturity. On Dec. 1st, 1888, he
obtained G other mines containing feeding larvae, of which the latest
vacated its mine on the 15th. On Oct. 26th, 1889, a leaf containing
3 larvro was found ; one of these vacated its mine next day ; the
others were, however, very young. One of these remained motionless,
in its mine, and without feeding; until Nov. 3rd. It then fed until
Nov. 10th, when it stopped again until Nov. 19th, on which date it
commenced again to feed. Probably these cessations marked the
NEPTICULA GEI. 241
moultings of the larva. The larvae of AT. rjei leave the mine as soon
as full fed, unless the leaves have been wetted, when they remain for
a time ; direct exposure to sun or cold, however, at once causes the larva
to quit the leaf. With regard to the long moulting period, it would appear
that the necessity to moult comes on suddenly, larvas having been
noticed to perform the operation when the body was bent sharply in
an angle of the mine. The late appearance of the larva of N. f/ei,
and the possible ill-effects of early frost, led Eppelsheim to experiment
as to the possibility of its going over the winter in that stage, and to
feed up in spring, as does the allied AT. pretiosa. Accordingly, he
obtained two larvae of the latter from Hoffmann, early in April, 1889,
and found both larvaa and mine similar to those of N. yei, and was
surprised when from these there emerged, on May 19th, a N. gei, and
on May 22nd, a N. pretiosa. Stainton bred specimens from Geum
iirbanum, on July 26th, 1852, from Lewisham, and on July 28th-29th,
1854, from Mickleham.
COCOON. — The cocoons examined average 3 mm. in length, and 2-1
mm. in width. Each is roughly oval in outline, slightly thinned out on
the margin, and rather wider at one end than the other. It is domed
centrally, the highest point rather towards the wider end, from which
the empty pupa-case projects. The colour of the silk is greenish-ochreous
(with a distinct greenish tinge to the naked eye), and somewhat
reticulated with darker markings. The surface is comparatively
smooth, but there are some strands of flossy silk scattered over the
surface, and a more plentiful supply on the outer edge. The empty
pupa-case is somewhat transparent, less delicate, however, than that
of many species, and with sundry delicate greenish-grey patches
scattered over the thoracic segments. [[Described under a two-thirds
lens, June 21st, 1898, from cocoons sent by Mr. W. H. B. Fletcher.]
All the cocoons are spun up in a depression on the underside of a
leaf of the food-plant.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double-brooded, imagines
appearing in May- June and August, from larvae found in October-
November and July respectively. Fletcher says : " AT. tjci is certainly
double-brooded, probably as far north as Alford in Lincolnshire, the
larva? being taken during the whole of October there." Eppelsheim notes
the species as double-brooded at Heidesheim Park, Grunstadt; larvae
being obtainable throughout October and until the middle of November ;
the imagines appearing in May.
FOOD-PLANTS. — Geumurlanum preferring radical leaves (Eppelsheim).
Geum rivalis (Wocke). Geum urbamtm and brambles, preferring
deciduous forms, as Rubus corylifolius and E. caesius (Fletcher). Larvae
common on bramble at Portland (Richardson).
LOCALITIES. — DORSET: Portland and Weymouth (Richardson), Purbeck
(Bankes), Blox worth (Cambridge). DURHAM: Hartlepool (Bower). KENT : Chisle-
hurst (Bower). LINCOLN: nr. Alford (Fletcher). SUSSEX: Bramber, Arundel,
Polegate, Worthing (Fletcher). WESTMORLAND : ? Witherslack, on dewberry
(Hodgkinson).
DISTRIBUTION. — Northern and eastern Germany (Wocke).
NOTES ON N. FRAGARIELLA AND N. GEI.
It is evident from the foregoing descriptions, etc., that the
insects known as AT. frayariella and N. gei must be carefully reared
in numbers before the difficulties surrounding Miern can be cleared
242 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
up. The characters of the two insects are certainly mixed up
in the most marvellous manner in the references in the preceding sec-
tions, yet the British examples examined appear distinct enough as
imagines, as well as in their mines and cocoons. Long series of speci-
mens from Fragaria, Agrimonia, Geum, Rubus corylifolius and 72. caesiiis,
should be bred quite separately, and compared critically in every
stage ; only then can we pretend to know anything about them.
Roughly, the comparison of bred British specimens, from Fragaria
and Geum respectively, give distinct characters, but these distinc-
tions are often quite at variance with the observations recorded
by Continental authors, e.g., our experience agrees absolutely with
that of Eppelsheim, recorded ante, p. 234, so far as relates to nos. 1,
4, 5 and 6 ; the characters, however, are reversed in no. 2, and do not
agree in the first part of no. 3. Thus : —
X. fraganella (bred by Wood) has very bright orange head in both
sexes, anal segment with greyish tufts, fore-wings 4 mm. in expanse,
basal area of fore-wings bright brassy, quter two-thirds of fore-wings
purple-brown, the transverse fascia distinctly silvery. Cocoon bright
yellow-ochreous.
N. gei (bred by Fletcher) has bright golden head in $ , orange-
fuscous (sometimes of a very dark tint) in $ , anal segment with
yellowish tufts, fore-wings 6 mm. in expanse, basal area of fore-wings
golden- or bronzy-purple, outer two-thirds dark purple (almost blue-
black), the transverse fascia distinctly golden. Cocoon greenish-drab.
NEPTICULA AUROMAKGINELLA, Richardson.
SYNONOMY. — Species: Auromarginella, Rich., "Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxvi., pp. 30-31
(1890) ; " Proc. Dors. N. H. Soc.," xi., p. 74, fig. 10 (1891) ; Meyr., " Handbook,"
etc., p. 717 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Exp. al. 2J-2f lines. Fore-wings greenish-
bronze, becoming darker and more violet on the basal side of a some-
what broad, nearly straight, pale golden fascia, which crosses the
wing a little beyond the middle ; on the extreme hind margin is a
similar narrower, crescent-shaped, pale golden fascia ; the space be-
tween the fasciae is dark violet, the whole of the wing being beautifully
metallic. Hind-wings and fringes grey, with a bronzy gloss. Head
ferruginous ; eye-caps cream-coloured or pale ochreous ; thorax like
the basal half of the fore-wing ; antennae, body and legs darker, the
legs with light rings (Richardson, Ent. Mo. May., vol. xxvi., p. 31).
IMAGO. — Head ferruginous. Anterior wings 5-G mm. ; greenish-
bronze, tinged with violet basally ; a broad, nearly straight, pale
golden fascia beyond the middle ; a second, narrow pale golden fascia
on the hind margin. Posterior wings and fringes bronzy-grey.
COMPARISON OF N. AUROMARGINELLA WITH N. AURELLA. — The imagines
of N. auromarginella , though somewhat resembling those of N. aurella,
have, besides the usual golden fascia, a second one of the same colour,
situated on the hind-margin of the fore-wing. They are also
smaller, and their basal portion is not brown, as in N. aurella, but
rather bronze-green (Richardson). The Nepticula from the bramble,
with a gold line on the hind-margin, is quite new to me. I have seen
many N. aurella, both British and German, but I never saw anything
like these (Stainton).
LARVA. — Not differentiated from that of X. aurdla, or other bramble
NEPTICULA AUROMARGINELLA. 248
FOOD-PLANT. — Rubus fruticosus.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Larvae collected on October 22nd, 1888,
produced imagines from November 24th-December 19th, 1888, others
emerged February 12th, 1889, and seven during May, 1889.
LOCALITIES. — DORSET: nr. Weymouth (Eichardson).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Vannes (Rubus excl. July 2nd, de Joannis,
teste Walsingham).
NEPTICULA SPLENDIDISSIMELLA, Herrich-Schaffer.
SYNONYMY. — Species : Splendidissimella, H.-Sch., " Sys. Bear.," v., p. 353
(1855) ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 336 (1871) ; Nolcken, "Lep. Fauna Est.,"
p. 769 (1871); "Sand, "Cat. Lep. Auvergne," p. 200 (1879); Snellen, "De
Vlinders," etc., p. 984 (1882) ; Sorhagen, "Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 308
(1886) ; Hering, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.,"lii., p. 220 (1891) ; Walsm., "Ent. Mo. Mag.,"
xxvii., p. 152 (1891) ; Meyrick, "Handbook," etc., p. 717 (1895). Splendidissima,
Frey, " Die Tineen," etc., p. 393 (1856) ; " Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 439 (1857).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Nepticula splendldissimella, Frey. — Mas
purpureo-fuscus, foemina olivaceo-senea. Mittelgross, die Vorderfliigel
am Wurzelsechstheil licht messinggelb, ausserdem beim Manne pur-
purbraun, bein Weibe olivengriinlich, die Binde hinter der Mitte,
ziemlich breit und vertikal, silbern, beim Manne etwas goldig. Um
Rubus caesius und IL idaeus (Herrich-Schaffer, Sys. Bearbeituny
der Schmett. von Europa, p. 353). As Herrich-Schaffer possibly
named the species from specimens sent to him by Frey, and,
in fact, adopted the MS. name of the latter, it may be well
to add Frey's diagnosis. This reads as follows : " N. splendidis-
sima. Capillis atris, antennarum conchula alba ; alis anter. niti-
dissimis, violaceo-cupreis, ad basim squamis orichalceis tectis,
fascia pone medium recta, $ dilute aurea, latiuscula ( $? argentea,
tenui) apice violaceo-tincto, ciliis saturate griseis. 2f-2^'"." He also
adds : " Die Grosse des Miinnchens ist die einer ansehnlicheren
N. anomalella, des Weibchens einer massigen rujicapitclla ; die Fliigel
nicht schmal. Gesicht und der breite Schopf tief sammetschwarz ;
Augendeckel gross, glanzend und weiss ; Fiihler schwarz. Palpen
heller grau. Eiicken und Schulterdecken schwarzlich, mit einzelnen
gliinzenden Messingschiippchen untermischt und darum fiir das
unbewaffnete Auge bronzeartig glanzend. Hinterleib schwiirzlich,
Beine schwarzlich grau. Die Vorderflugel haben sehr starken Glanz,
beim Manne lebhafter als beim Weibe ; ihr Kolorit ist eine tiefe, ins
Violette schimmernde Kupferfarbe. Die Fliigelwurzel oder — richtiger
gesagt — fast die Innenhalfte des Fliigels bis in die Nahe der Binde,
ist durch reichlich aufgelagerte helle Schiippchen lebhaft messing-
gliinzend ; ja sie kann bei einzelnen Stiicken ganz messingartig
erscheinen. Die Binde, entweder blass golden ($ ) oder silbern ( ? ),
ist sehr stark glanzend. Sie steht ziemlich senkrecht ; ist beim 5
milssig schmal, beim $ ansehnlich breiter. Nach innen ist sie
schiirfer abgesetzt als auswiirts, wo sie mehr in die Fliigelspitze
verliiuft. Diese selbst ist sehr dunkel violett und lebhaft glanzend ;
die Franzen tief grau. Ebenso verhalten sich die Hinterfliigel und deren
Franzen" (Die Tineen, etc., pp. 393-394). Fletcher writes : "Frey's
short Latin diagnosis is very good. The words ' ad basim squamis
orichalceis tectis,' hit off the distinction which separates this species
from all other species of Nepticula. The black head, of course, also
divides it from N. aurella, which is a larger insect " (in lift.).
244 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
IMAGO. — Head black. Anterior wings 4-5 mm. ; shiny, purplish-
coppery in tint, covered with brassy scales at the base ; straight pale
golden fascia beyond the middle of the wing ; apex tinged with violet ;
cilia dark grey. Posterior wings and cilia also dark grey.
COMPARISON OF N. SPLENDIDISSIMELLA WITH N. GEI AND N. AURELLA.
— I would suggest that X. *i>lt>ndidissimella may be known from its
allies by the brassy base to the forewings, as well as by the colour of the
head ; N. anrella, by the head being of the same colour in both sexes ;
N. gei, by the head being darker in the female than in the male ;
possibly, too, the latter has narrower fore- wings than X. anrella
(Fletcher).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg appears to be laid on the under-surface of a
leaf, well away from the margin, butvnot necessarily near a rib. The
egg is oval in outline, the shell perfectly transparent, and packed
almost full of black frass.
MINE. — The first part of the mine (about one-half of an inch in
length) is little twisted, exceedingly fine, and practically invisible to
the naked eye ; in this the frass forms a broken central thread, with a
distinct margin on either side. The second part of the mine widens
considerably at its commencement (probably after a larval moult), and
continues to do so gradually until its termination ; it is about one inch
long, and rather more tortuous than the first part. In this part of the
mine, also, the frass is spread more than in the first part, but is still broken ,
and there is a much wider margin on either side. The third part of
the mine is simply an extension of the second part, usually about three
quarters of an inch long, and gradually widening, until, at its ter-
mination, it ends in a largish blotch, about 7 mm. by 5 mm. In the
third part of the mine the frass is again more collected centrally, still,
however, forming a broken line. In the final blotch it is arranged
around the lower margin, the remaining area being free. The
boundaries of the mine are sometimes much governed by the veins
of the leaf, the mines often remaining for a considerable distance quite
straight by the side of one. The larva escapes from the leaf by an
aperture made in the lower epidermis. The foregoing description was
made from mines in leaves of liufnut chanuuntonu, from Rannoch.
Others, in leaves of Rubus ? sp., from Mablethorpe, are very con-
spicuous, each usually commencing on or near the margin of the
leaf, and being much influenced in its direction by the ribs of the leaf, the
frass much broken into granules in the second and third parts of the
mine, and the margin of the mine marked by a distinct change in the
chlorophyll, which becomes red in contact with the mine ; the egg is,
however, still laid upon the undersurface of a leaf. [We are indebted
to Mr. Fletcher for the mines described.] Frey writes : " Die Mine
ist sehr lang und stark geschlangelt. Sie beginnt iiberaus fein mit
ganz schlanker Kothlinie, so dass die Sander frei bleiben, erweitert
sich dann betriichtlicher, eine einfache feine Kothreihe in der Mitte
fiihrend. Ungewohnlich breit erscheint sie spiiter, nachdem die
Raupe sie verlassen hat, an dem Blatt der Brombeere als ganz weisser
Gang. Ich habe sie noch Anfangs November einzeln bewohnt
gefunden " (Die Tineen, etc., p. 394). Threlfall notes it as " a more
slender and tortuous mine than that of N. anrella." Nolcken writes :
" The mines from which I breed X. splen<lidis»imdla (named by
Stainton, etc.), are different from that in bramble-leaves, as described
NEPTICULA SPLENDIDISSIMELLA. 245
by Frey. The examination of a large number of mines shows that each
is unusually long, spread over a considerable distance without any
closely compressed windings, very narrow, only just wide enough for
the body of the larva to pass through. This necessitates also the
formation of a fine central frass-line throughout the whole course of
the mine. Sometimes this shows a granulated condition, at others
the frass forms a continuous thin black thread, dependent on the con-
sistency of the excrement, which is sometimes sufficiently fluid to
spread to the margins of the gallery."
LARVA. — Frey describes the larva as being " about 2'" in length,
bright yellow, with dark intestinal canal showing through the skin,
and pale brown head."
COCOON. — Frey also describes the cocoon as somewhat flattened and
shiny, rounded in outline and greenish.
FOOD-PLANTS. — Most plentiful on Rubus caesius, but occurring
sparingly on R. fniticosus, R. idaem and Rubus corylifolim (Frey).
R. chamaemorm (Bankes). Hodgkinson reports the breeding of a
Xepticula, ? tplgndiditsimMa, in April, 1887, from dewberry (Rubus
caesius), from larvae obtained at Southport, October, 1886, and says :
" My experience of N. splendiilisaimella coincides with that of the late
John Sang, viz., that it is strictly a raspberry feeder, and single-
brooded."
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is probably double-brooded as
far north as Lincolnshire. There are specimens in Stainton's collec-
tion, taken April 2nd, 1857, on palings, at West Wickham, and others
bred by Healy, January 29th, 1861. Fletcher never remembers
having taken the larvae before October, and then often late in the
month. Richardson bred a specimen on March 13th, 1896, from a
larva collected at Portland, in September, 1895. Threlfall found
larvae on July 21st, 1876, at Grange. Sang found mines at Dar-
lington on October 13th, 1878. Sand notes it as a mountain species
in Auvergne, appearing in July, the larvae feeding on raspberry and
brambles. Walsingham notes larvae in March, 1890, from which
imagines appeared the next month at Beaulieu. Threlfall bred it in
June, 1880, from larvae obtained on September 30th, 1879, at Lythain.
LOCALITIES. — ABERDEEN: Braemar (Salvage teste Mason). DERBY: Bepton
(Mason), Burton (Sang). DORSET: Portland (Richardson). DURHAM : Darlington
(Sang). KENT: (Meyrick). LANCASHIRE: Lytham, Arnside and Grange (Threlfall),
Southport (Hodgkinson). LINCOLNSHIRE: Sandhills nr. Mablethorpe. nr. Alford
(Fletcher). PERTHSHIRE : Bannoch (Bankes). SUSSEX : Goring, Arundel and
Polegate (Fletcher). WESTMORLAND : Windermere, Witherslack (Hodgkinson).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Nohaut, Indre, Mont Dore, Auvergne
(Sand), Beaulieu (Walsingham). Germany: Frankfort-on-the-Main
(Frey), nr. Heidelberg (Heyden), Berlin, Jungfernheide, Friedland,
Hamburg, Halle (Sorhagen), Brunswick (Heinemann), Sandsee, Alt
Damm (Hering). Switzerland : nr. Zurich (Frey). Russia : Pich-
tendahl (Nolcken). Netherlands : Friesland and Drenthe, and in most
of the other provinces (Snellen).
NEPTICULA SERELLA, Stainton.
SYNONYM*.— Species : Serella, Sta.. " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxiv., p. 260 (1888).
Tormentilltlla, Bankes (nee H.-S.), "Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxiv., p. 160 (1887). Fili-
jteiidulae (in part), Meyrick, " Handbook," etc., p. 718 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Exp. al. 2 lines. Head dull dark ferru-
246
BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
ginous, with a still darker central spot. Anterior wings with the
basal portion of an uniform glossy golden-brown ; beyond the middle
is a nearly straight, moderately broad, pale golden fascia ; the apical
portion of the wing very dark purple, almost black, with the cilia
(which have no dividing line) slightly paler (Stain ton, Ent. Mo. May.,
xxiv., p. 260).
IMAGO. — Head dull ferruginous. Anterior wings 4 mm. ; golden-
brown in colour ; a nearly straight transverse pale golden fascia
beyond the centre ; apex dark purplish ; cilia dark grey. Posterior
wings and cilia grey.
COMPARISON OF N. SERELLA WITH N. TORMENTILLELLA. — The Conti-
nental N. tonnentillflla, of which I have several bred specimens, has
narrower anterior wings, with the basal portion bronzy-green, and a
purple band before the metallic fascia, which is rather silvery than
pale golden, the apical portion of the wing purple, but not nearly as
dark as in N. serella ; head black (Stainton).
MINE. — The larva apparently begins to feed at the base of a leaflet,
and gradually works right round it until the whole leaflet is completely
hollowed out and transparent, and the wanderings of the larva can
only be traced by the lines of dark frass which mark its course (Bankes).
Threlfall notes the mine as being " clear and white."
LARVA. — The larva is of a deep clear yellow, with the posterior
portion of the dorsal vessel showing through as a darker line, and the
head shining brown (Bankes). Sang says that the larva is much like
that of N. poterii.
COCOON. — The cocoons (8) measured average 2-5 mm. in length,
and 1-75 mm. in width, each forms a long oval in outline, with one
end considerably narrower than the other. In colour, they are, to the
naked eye, what Sang calls very pale " drab." Under the lens they
are pale yellow-ochreous, one with, the others without, a denned rim,
the arched portion of the cocoon rising directly from the edge to the
apex, which is very considerably raised above the general level. The
cocoon proper is rather rough, flossy silken ends sticking out all over
the surface, but much more abundantly round the somewhat crenate
rim. There is a very faint reddish reticulation traceable on the domed
portion, the lines exceedingly fine and faint in hue. [Described
July 5th, 1898, under a two-thirds lens, from cocoons sent by Mr.
W. H. B. Fletcher, from Potentilla, as probably of this species.]
FOOD-PLANT. — Potentilla torwentilla, growing on moors (Bankes).
TIME OP APPEARANCE. — Stainton found mines at Dunkeld, on
September llth, 1859, and bred an imago in July, 1860. Threlfall
bred imagines in May, 1887, from larvte obtained October 3rd, 1886,
at Meathop, nr. Grange.
LOCALITIES. — ? DEVON : between Barnstaple and Bideford (Stainton). ?KENT :
West Wickham (Stainton). LANCASHIRE : on mosses, Meathop, nr. Grange (Threl-
fall). NORFOLK : King's Lynn (Atmore). NORTHUMBERLAND : Newcastle-on-Tyne
(Sang). PERTHSHIRE : Birnham Hill, nr. Dunkeld (Stainton). ? SUSSEX : nr.
Hayward's Heath (Fletcher). WESTMORLAND : moors (Bankes). YORKSHIRE : moors
of West Biding (Bankes).
DISTRIBUTION. — ? Germany : Ratisbon (Hoffmann).
NEPTICULA TENGSTROMI,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Tengstriimi, Nolck., "Lep. Fauna von Estland," ii.,
no. 879, p. 776 (1871) ; Stdgr. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 338 (1871) ; Erschoff,
" Trudy Boss. Ent. Soc.," xii., p. 22 (1881).
NEPTICULA TENGSTROMI. 247
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Nepticula tengstromi, n. sp. Kopfhaar
rostbraunlich gelb, im Gesicht (und beim 5 ) gelblicher, Nackenschopfe
schwiirzlich braun ; Fiihler briiunlich, gelblich schimmernd ; Augen-
deckel klein, weisslich, kaum gelblich schimmernd ; Vorderfliigel
blass, etwas griinlich gelb messinggliinzend mit schwach purpur-
braunlichem Schimmer (beim $ starker), die Spitze purpurbraun
(beim $ violettblau gemischt) ; die sehr breite verticale Binde sehr
weit nach aussen geriickt, weisslich gelb, stark metallglanzend.
Leib, Beine und Unterseite ganz ohne gelblichen Schimmer, nur mit
braungrau weisslichem. Fliigellange 2-2-2 mm. 6 $ $ , 2 $ ? .
Kaupe in Rubus chamaemorus, blass gelb, ihr Kopf fast wasserhell,
blass braunlich mit dunkler braunen Nahten und Gebiss, Keulenflecke
klein, grau ; Bauch mit mandelforrnigen, nach hinten kleineren,
braunlich grauen Kautenflecken. Ei ober- oder unterseitig ; Mine erst
fadenformig in gedehnten Windungen, dann plotzlich grosse, von
kleinen, nach aussen convexen Kreisbogen begrenzte Makel ; Klappe
oberseitig ; Koth zuerst als feiner, oft unterbrochener Faden, hierauf
in Kliimpchen und dann, beim Eintritt in die Makel, in Korner
zerfallend, die zuerst in der Gangrichtung, dann zerstreut liegen
(Nolcken, Lep. Fauna von Estland, pp. 776-777).
IMAGO. — Head yellowish. Anterior wings 5 mm. ; pale greenish-
yellow, with a faint purplish-brown gloss ; the apex purplish-brown ;
a broad vertical transverse pale golden band beyond the middle.
Posterior wings and fringes very pale brownish-grey, with a whitish
silky gloss.
N. TENGSTROMI AS A BRITISH SPECIES. — There is only one British
specimen extant of this species. The specimen was bred by Sang,
from liubus chamaemorus, who, it is believed, received the mines from
Carrington, whilst the latter was collecting in Scotland. The speci-
men is now in the collection of Dr. Mason, of Burton-on-Trent, who
writes : " I have been comparing my specimen of N. tenystrb'mi with
Continental specimens of that species, and with Nolcken's description.
As far as I can make out, it is that species. It is, however, a male,
and the male is much less characteristic than the female " (in litt.,
June 6th, 1898). Carrington writes: "I have delayed answering
your enquiry about Nepticula tengstrbmi until I could refer to my notes
taken during my visits to Scotland, in 1874 and 1875. I do not find
any special notice that would help me to exactly remember the circum-
stance. I well recollect gathering leaves of Rubits chamaemorus with
Nepticula mines in them, and sending them to several lepidopterists to
rear the moths ; probably Mr. Sang was among the recipients. Most
of the mined leaves were gathered on hills south of Loch Bannoch,
though I may have sent some from Brasmar, but the latter locality is
least likely" (in litt., June 2nd, 1898). Meyrick writes (Handbook,
etc., p. 718) : " Supposed British specimens of N. tenf/strdmi, Nolck.,
would seem to have been dwarfed examples of N. aurella." We have
no suspicion upon what data this remark is based, nor have we ever
heard of any " supposed British specimens " other than the one in
Dr. Mason's collection. [Threlfall has since informed us that he bred
specimens of a Nepticulid in April, 1881, from larvae collected at
Braemar, August 15th, 1880, but he is very doubtful whether they are
referable to this species.]
COMPARISON OF N. TENGSTROMI WITH ALLIED SPECIES. — This species
248 BRITISH LEP1DOPTEKA.
belongs to Heinemann's group 7, and comes nearest to Ar. playicolelUt,
X. iynobilella, X. distinyuenda and ^NT. ylntinoxae, but differs from them
in its narrow band. It appears to come nearest to X. potrrii in its
band, but the latter appears to be a somewhat smaller insect, the band
more golden and situated not quite so far beyond the middle. In X.
poterii, too, the basal part of the fore-wings, as far as the band, is much
darker, with a purple-violet gloss, and the apex decidedly bluish, a
character which does not occur at all in the $ X. teiujstrdini, and in the
$ only slightly (Nolcken).
EGG-LAYING. — The eggs are laid on either the upper- or underside
of a leaf of liubns chamaemonu (Nolcken).
LARVA. — The larva is pale-yellow in colour ; the head almost as
transparent as water, pale brownish, with darker brown sutures and
mouth-parts; the venter marked w'ith a series of almond-shaped,
brownish-grey lozenges, smaller posteriorly (Nolcken).
MINE. — The mine is at first fine, thread-like and much contorted,
then suddenly changes into a large blotch, bounded by small, exteriorly
convex, arcs of a circle ; the frass at first forms a fine, often inter-
rupted line, it is then arranged in little heaps, finally, on entering the
blotch, separating into grains, which at first lie in the direction of
the mine, but afterwards become scattered ; the larva escapes at the
upper surface of the leaf (Nolcken).
COCOON. — \Vhen fresh spun this is of a leather-yellow colour, a tint
that is maintained afterwards (Nolcken).
FOOD-PLANT. — Rubus clunnaemonu (Wocke).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Nolcken found larvae on August 27th,
1867, on Tursa Moor, where, with numerous larvae of X. rubivora,
they live on liubm chamaemorm, often both species in one leaf, although
X. tenyttroini is much rarer than XT. rubivora. In 1866, the larvae had all
left the mines by September 7th, and in 1867, by September 5th, so
that evidently the middle of August is the proper time for the larvae.
[Threlfall has specimens bred in April, 1881, from larvae sent from
Braemar, on August 15th, 1880, which he doubtfully refers to this
species.]
LOCALITIES. — ? PERTHSHIRE : Hills south of Loch llannoch (Carrington).
DISTRIBUTION. — ? Norway : Bossekop (Wocke) ; Russia : St.
Petersburg (Erschoffi, Livonia, Tursa Moor (Nolcken).
NEPTICULA POTERII, Stainton.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Poterii, Sta., " Ent. Weekly Int.," ii., p. 116 (July llth,
1857) ; " Ent. Ann.," 1858 (pubd. December 19th, 1857. teste, " Ent. W. Int.," iii.,
p. 95), p. 96; " Man.." ii., p. 435 (1859) ; "Nat. Hist. Tin.," vii., p. 242, pi. xi.,
fig. 3 (1862); H.-Schaffer, " Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 350 (1855); Rein., " Wien. Ent.
Monats.," vi., p. 304 (1862) ; Hein. and Sta., " Zool.," 1863, p. 8371 ; Frey, " Linn.
Ent.,"xi., p. 414 (1857); Staud. and Wocke, "Cat.," p.. 337 (1871); Meyrick,
"Handbook," etc., p. 718 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Nepticula poterii. — Having bred the
Nepticula from Poterium sanyuisorba, I find it is a new species, with
brownish anterior wings (violet at the tip), with a broad pale fascia;
it is somewhat intermediate between N. plagicolella and X. micro-
theridla. I propose for it the above name (Stainton, Ent. Weekly
Intelligencer, vol. ii., p. 116). This was followed up by a more
technical diagnosis and description, as follows : " Alis anticis fusco-
aureis, fascia latiuscula recta dilute aurea apicem purpureum versus ;
capillis ferrugineis. Exp. al. 21in. Head ferruginous. Antennae
NEPTICULA POTERII. 249
dark fuscous. Abdomen and legs grey. Anterior wings pale
golden-brown, with a rather broad, straight, pale golden fascia
beyond the middle ; apical portion of the wing violet, with violet-
grey cilia. Posterior wings pale grey, with pale grey cilia (Stainton,
Entomologist'* Annual, 1858, p. 96).
IMAGO. — Head ferruginous. Anterior wings 4 mm. in expanse;
pale golden brown in colour ; a rather broad straight pale golden
fascia beyond the middle ; apical portion of the wing violet ; cilia
violet-grey. Posterior wings and cilia pale grey.
COMPARISON OF N. POTERII WITH N. MICROTHERIELLA AND N. PLAGI-
COLELLA.— The species appears to be about intermediate between N.
microt/teriella and X. plaijicolclla. It is of about the form and size of
the former, thus smaller and with narrower wings than X. playicolella ,
but the fascia is broader and more shining than in N. niicrotheriella,
though less brilliant than in N. playicolella. The fascia in N. poterii
is almost further from the base on the costa than on the inner margin ;
in the other two species the fascia has a tendency in the other direc-
tion (Stainton). From X. betulicola it may be readily distinguished
by the position of the fascia, which is placed much nearer the apex in
JV. betulicola than in N. poterii. The fascia in N. poterii is inter-
mediate in brilliancy between the fascia in N. playicolella and that in
N. microt/icriella, being less brilliant than the former, yet not so dull as
in the latter. In N. poterii the fascia is almost straight, having, if
anything, a tendency to slope towards the base on the inner margin ;
in N. plaijicolella and X, microtlieriella the inclination of the fascia is
in the converse direction. N. poterii has the anterior wings narrower
than X. plai/icolelld, in that respect closely resembling X. microtlieriella.
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the upperside of a leaflet of
Poteriumsanyuisorba, in the example sent us for examination by Fletcher.
It is placed at some distance from the margin of the leaf, is very con-
spicuous and silvery looking. The young larva, on hatching, at once
strikes out for the margin, which it follows.
MINE. — The first part of the mine is exceedingly slender, the excre-
ment dense and practically filling it. It Avinds in and out of the
serrations of the leaf, and then turns back on its course, passing back
parallel' with its first direction, and still leaving a dense blackish
frass-line. It then mines towards the centre of the leaf, leaving a
wide margin on either side of the frass-track, which is spread very
diffusively over the centre of the mine. The small leaf at last is
converted almost entirely into a blotch, but the nature and direction
of the gallery is readily followed, owing to the regularity of the frass-
track, and the remnants of uneaten parenchyma that here and there
edge the mine. Stainton writes : " The mine commences as a very
slender gallery, passing in and out the serrations of the leaf, and
nearly filled with dark grey excrement. After passing nearly round
the edge of a leaf, the larva mines towards the centre, eating out the
central portion of the leaf, so that the mine then appears almost a
blotch."
LARVA. — Length, li lines. Dark amber in colour, with the dorsal
vessel brownish. The head brownish-amber, the mouth and sides of
the head a little darker (Stainton).
COCOON. — The cocoon is spun on the ground, and is of a brownish-
ochreous colour.
250 BRITISH LEP1DOPTERA.
FOOD-PLANT. — Poterium sangulsorba.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species appears to be double- brooded.
Stainton observed that early June lame produced imagines in late
June and early July. One date given by Stainton for the larva is
June 12th, 1857, at Mickleham ; he bred imagines from June 25th-
July 1st, 1857, from the Mickleham larvae.
LOCALITIES. — DORSET : Portland, common locally (Richardson). LANCASHIRE :
Arnside (Threlfall), Grange and Preston (Hodgkinson). SURREY : Mickleham
(Stainton). SUSSEX: Worthing Downs, very local (Fletcher). WESTMORLAND:
(Hodgkinson) .
DISTRIBUTION. — The species is unknown on the Continent.
NEPTICULA FILIPENDUL/E,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Filipendiilae, .Staud. and Wocke, "Catalog.," p. 338
(1871); Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. De'utsch.," p. 749 (1877); Sorhagen, " Die
Kleinschmett. Brandg.," p. 346 (1886) ; Fletcher, " Trans, Chich. and West Sussex
Nat. Hist. Soc.," 1886, no. 5; Bankes, " Entom.," xxvii., p. 345; Ibid., xxix., p.
187 ; Meyrick, " Handbook," p. 718, in part (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Prascedenti0 (N. geminella) valde affinis.
Alis ant. aureo-brunneis versus apicem vix violaceo infusis, fascia post
medium recta argentea nitida, capillis ferrugineis, conchulis flaves-
centibus. Exp. alar. 3^-3f mm.— Larva succinea, capite fuscescenti,
in foliolis Spireae filipendidae marginem sequens vitam degit (Wocke,
Cataloij tier Lep. des Eur. Faunenyebiets, p. 338).
IMAGO. — Head dull ochreous. Anterior wings 4 mm. ; purplish-
bronzy at base ; a broad, shining, silvery (or pale-golden) transverse
fascia considerably beyond the centre ; apex purple ; cilia blackish grey,
with paler tips. Posterior wings grey (sparsely covered with purple
and bronzy scales in bright light) ; apex darker ; cilia concolorous
with the wings. [The colour of the transverse band is distinctly
silvery in two of the specimens examined, pale golden in the others.]
COMPARISON OF NEPTICULA FILIPENDULA; WITH N. POTERII. — Seen
in series, N.filipendulae appears to have a brighter fascia than X.
poterii, and when examined with a strong lens, the former is seen to
have the ground colour darker, thus making a greater contrast with
the fascia (Fletcher).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the upperside of a leaflet,
generally on the margin.
MINE. — The first part of the mine is very slender, and runs in and
out the serrations of the leaflet, keeping close to the outer edge. In
this part of the mine, the black frass occupies almost the whole of the
gallery. The mine in its second part gets somewhat suddenly larger,
the frass occupying the central area, sometimes forming a dense
central thread, at others, being more diffusively spread, and a wide pale
margin edging each side. The last part of the mine is similar to the
second, except that it is still wider, and terminates in a small blotch,
extending as far as the larva can reach, and without any frass in it.
In the last part of the mine (excluding the blotch) the frass pellets are
much more diffusively spread in the central line. When a leaflet is
small the larva often doubles back upon its previous course, the greater
* It is doubtful whether Wocke's reference to the "preceding species" is not
intended to refer to N. poterii. He marks N. gemindla (the species preceding N.
fifywndulae in his Catalog., etc.) ,&s one of the species that he has not seen, and he
could hardly describe a new species by means of its resemblance to another
species which he had not seen.
NEPTICULA FILlPENDULffi. 251
part of the leaf being as it were occupied with a blotch, although even
then the frass-line shows the course of the larva. The most regular
blotches are found in the three terminal leaflets in which the paren-
chyma is continuous at the base. The mines are very conspicuous
from the upper, almost invisible from the underside, until held against
the light. Fletcher says : "The larva mines the leaves of the Spiraea,
just as that of N. poterii mines those of Poterium." Sorhagen writes :
" Gangmine am Blattrande entlang."
COCOON. — The cocoons (three dozen or more) average from 2-3 mm.
in length, and 1-5-2 mm. in width. In outline the cocoon forms
a rough oval, tending, however, to many irregular forms, owing
to a very wide flange that runs round the middle line of the cocoon.
This gives the cocoon a very flattened appearance, although in reality
it is Avell arched centrally, both above and below the rim. The cocoons
are dull brownish in colour, some, however, with a distinct greenish
tinge. The surface of the upper part is much smoother than the
lower, the former with a very strong system of reticulations, red-brown
in colour, distributed over it. At the edge of the rim are a number of
loose; flossy silken fibres, somewhat paler in appearance than the
body of the cocoon. Many of the cocoons are spun on the upper
surface of a leaf of the food-plant, others among moss, etc. [De-
scribed July 5th, 1898, under a two-thirds lens, from cocoons sent by
Mr. W. H. B. Fletcher.] The cocoon is very similar to that of the
aurella group, but with a still wider and more conspicuous lateral
flange.
FOOD-PLANT. — Spiraea filipendula.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The insect is, no doubt, double-brooded.
The larva feeds in October, and probably in July (Fletcher). Sorhagen
says that the larva is to be obtained in July and October. Stainton
has imagines bred in May, 1884, from larvae obtained on Worthing
Downs the preceding September.
LOCALITIES. — SUSSEX : Steyning Downs, Brighton Downs, Eastbourne,
Worthing, not uncommon (Fletcher).
DISTRIBUTION. — Germany: Silesia (Wocke), Breslau (Sorhagen).
NEPTICULA ACETOS^E, Stainton.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Acetosae (Shield, " Zool.," 1853, p. 4153), Sta., " Ins.
Brit.," p. 303 (1854) ; " Nat. Hist. Tin.," L, p. 228 ; pi. vi., fig. 2 (1855) ; " Ent.
Ann.," 1855, 1st Ed., p. 59; " Man.," ii., p. 436 (1859); "Nat. Hist. Tin.," vol.
vii., p. 150(1802); Frey. "Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 422 (1857); Staud. and Wocke,
"Cat.," p. 337(1871); Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch., p. 750 (1877);
Sorhagen, •• Die Kleinschmett.Brandbg.," p. 345 (1886) ; Hering, " Stett.Ent. Zeit.,"
lii., p. 220 (1891) ; Meyrick, " Handbook." etc., p. 718 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. ° — The first notice of this species by name
reads as follows : Nepticula acetosae (Stainton), n. sp., larvae in the leaves
of Piumex acetosella ; July, October and November (Shield, Zoolo-
f/ist, 1853, p. 4153). Mr. Shield appears to have bred a single
imago in August, 1853, from the July, 1858, larvae. This is the
specimen described in Insecta Britannica, where Stainton writes :
" Acetosae (Sta.), Shield, Zool., 1853, p. 4153. Alis anticis nitidis
fuscis, pone medium violaceo-tinctis, fascia fere recta pone
* The absolutely first note referring to this species appears to be by Stainton,
and is without a name. He writes ; " Other Nepticulids mine in numerous con-
centric circles, as the species in Hypericum, and that which Mr. Shield discovered
last autumn in the sorrel [Zoologist, xi., p. 3954 (1858)].
202 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
medium nitida alba ; capillis fuscis. Exp. al. 2 lin. Head fuscous.
Antennae fuscous, basal joint whitish. Anterior wings shining
fuscous, with a faint violet tinge beyond the middle ; beyond
the middle is a nearly straight, shining whitish fascia ; cilia fuscous.
Posterior wings pale grey, with pale grey cilia. Appears in May and
August. The larva mines the leaves of the sorrel in autumn, and in
July ; the mine is very peculiar ; it makes a series of concentric circles
till, as though the centrifugal force at length became too great, it flies
off at a tangent into an irregular tortuous gallery. It has only
hitherto been met with by Mr. Shield, near Dublin, in some sorrel
plants growing among furze bushes, consequently in sheltered
situations. Mr. Shield has only succeeded in rearing a single specimen,
which .... he has placed in my collection. As it is extremely
hazardous to describe Nepticulae from single specimens, the above
description of the perfect insect must be looked upon as an approxi-
mation only ; from the habit of the larva, no doubt can attach to its
being a distinct species (Imecta Britannica, p. 303). In 1855, Stainton
writes : " Being better acquainted with the species, I give an improved
description." This reads as follows : " Head fuscous, sometimes with
a few ochreous hairs. Antennze dark fuscous, basal joint whitish.
Anterior wings rather dull bronzy-fuscous bayond the middle, with a
dull violet fascia, followed by a rather curved silvery-white fascia,
which is slightly concave towards the base ; the apex of the wing and
cilia are dull violet-fuscous. Posterior wings pale grey, with pale grey
cilia " (Ent. Ann., 1855, 1st Ed., p. 55).
IMAGO. — Head fuscous. Anterior wings 3-4 mm. (the smallest
British moth) ; dull bronzy-fuscous, with a dull violet fascia beyond the
middle, followed by a nearly straight silvery-white fascia, cilia fuscous.
Posterior wings and cilia pale grey.
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the underside of a leaf of liumex
acetosella.
MINE. — The larva, as soon as it hatches, passes from the under to
the upper side of the leaf, on which the egg was laid, mining a minute
ring around the point of entrance. It then makes a gallery, consist-
ing of a series of circles, each successive one being made larger. The
three inner circles become bright red in colour, and in this part of the
mine it is difficult to trace the thread of excrement. The outer rings
(usually three or four) are whitish, and in these a central line of black
excrement is clearly discernible. The larva then changes the circular
plan of the gallery, mining irregularly about the leaf, which it finally
quits for pupation. Sang says that the mines are difficult to find,
and (especially when small] very difficult to distinguish from the
ordinary spots and discolorations, always present on the leaves.
LARVA.— The full-fed larva is 2 lines in length ; pale amber-yellow
in colour, shining and transparent ; the dorsal vessel greenish ; the
head pale amber, faintly tinged with brown, and with two darker
lines receding from the mouth ; anal segment pale greenish (Stainton).
COCOON. — The cocoons examined (a dozen or more) measure from
about 1-25 to 1-75 mm. in length, and -6 to '75 mm. in width. Each is a
rough oval in outline, rather wider at one end than at its nadir. There is
an ill-developed ring surrounding the cocoon medially, but nowhere
developing into a marked flange. It is very thin, and collapses
readily, composed of white silk, that turns yellowish with age. The
NEPTICULA ACETOS-33. 258
cocoon is moderately smooth, but with a considerable quantity of loose
fibres, attaching it to the moss among which the examples examined are
spun. [Described July 5th, 1898, under a two thirds lens, from
cocoons sent by Mr. W. H. B. Fletcher.] The full-fed larva descends
to the ground to form its cocoon, which is very small, composed of
whitish silk, and somewhat oval in shape, (Stainton).
FOOD-PLANT. — liuiim.f acetoxdld. [It has also been recorded from
dock, Rniue.K acetosa, by Wing.] A single sorrel leaf is sometimes
mined by a dozen or more lame.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Generally recorded as double-brooded, the
imagines appearing in May and August, from larva? fed in September-
November and July respectively. Sang says that the second brood is
always much more abundant than the first. Shield records that the
mines of the latter brood are sometimes to be found in thousands at
Howth. They were found very abundantly there on July 20th, 1856.
Bankes notes that the species appears to have a succession of broods,
and to be always impatient to reach the perfect state, a proportion of
the larvae collected in September producing moths the same year if
kept indoors, though in a cool place. Bower found mines at Portland
on September 1st, 1892. Walsingham reports larvno as specially
abundant at Morton, in August, 1894. The dates of the bred specimens
in Stainton's collection are as follows : July 28th. 80th, 81st, August
6th, 10th, 1854, August 6th, 1855, and August 2nd, 1856, from nr.
Dublin ; October 4th, 1854, from the Isle of Wight.
LOCALITIES. — DORSET : Purbeck (Digby), Portland (Bower). DUBLIN : Howth
(Shield). ISLE OF WIGHT: between Niton and Blackgang (Wing). NORFOLK:
Merton, abundant (Walsingham). SUSSEX : Downs (chalk) near Worthing and
Brighton, sandy lanes near Pulborough— local, but abundant where occurring
(Fletcher).
DISTRIBUTION. — Austria: Vienna (Herrich-Schail'er). France : Jura
(Frey). Germany: Silesia (Wocke), Frankfort-on-the-Main (Heyden),
Friedland (Hering), Breslau, Aachen (Sorhngen). Switzerland:
Zurich (Frey).
NEPTICULA GRATIOSELLA, Zeller.
SYNONYMY. — Species : Gratioxella, Zeller (Fischer von Koslerstamm in litt.),
"Linn. Entom.," Hi., pp. 310-11 (1848) ; Sta., "Cat., p. 2!) (1849) ; "Ins. Brit.,"
p. 305 (1854); "Man.," ii., p. 437 (1859); H.-Sch., " Sys. Bcarb.," v., p. 352
(1855); Frey. "Die Tineen," etc., p. 390 Q85(5) ; "Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 430
(1857) ; Stand, and Wocke. " Cat.," p. 337 (1871) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 201
(1879); Peyerimhoff. "Cat. Lep. Als.." ii., 2nd Ed., p. 100 (1882); Snellen,
"De Vlinders," etc., p. 987; Curo, "Bull. Soc. Ent. Ital.." xv., p. 109(1883);
Sorhagen, "Die Kleinschmett. Brandenbg.," p. 305 (1880); Meyrick, " Hand-
book," etc., p. 718 (1895). Aurella. H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v., fig. 833.
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION.— There can be no doubt that the earliest
recognisable description of this species is one by Fischer von Bosler-
stamm, published by Zeller. It reads as follows : " Gratiosella, mihi.
Unter diesem Namen habe icb mehrere Modificationem vereinigt,
welche mir, unter der Loupe betrachtet, eins zu sein schienen. Ini
sennueringer "Waldchen nm Schlehen und Crcitaeym schwiirmend zu
Ende April gefangen. Nicht sehr selten. Kopfhaare schwarz, Fiihler
dunkelbraun : das Wurzelglied gelblichweiss beschuppt, einige dieser
Schuppen lehnen sich an die Scheitel- und Stirnhaare, die Schuppen
breit und lang Vorderfliigel glanzend, bis zur Bindc goldbraun ; die
Binde weiss metallisch ; die Spitze hinter derselben violett. Alle
Schuppen von gleicher Grosse. Die Franzen an der Spitze des Fliigels
254 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
sehr dicht schwarzbraun ; die im Hinterwinkel ziemlich lang, weisslich-
grau. Der Hinterfiiigel und ihre Franzen weisslichgrau (Von dieser a.
sind die 2 miriiberlassenen Exemplare). Diese Art mochte am bestendie
Uiil»it>ri'lla, Hbn. 236, darstellen " (Zeller, Linnaca Entomoloyica, iii.,
pp. 310-311). The Continental authorities, on the other hand, do not
accept this description, and refer to Stainton as the nomenclator of the
species. His description reads as follows : Gratiosella, Dup., Supp., 72, 4
(not 5); Mann, in lilt.; $ Aurella, Zell., 306?— Much smaller than
aurella. Head black : the fascia placed immediately before the violet apex,
and perpendicular : basal portion of the wing entirely golden. Frequents
hawthorn in April and May, flying in the sunshine like gnats"
(Stainton, Syst. Cat. of Brit. Tineidae and Pterophondac, p. 29). In
1854, Stainton diagnosed the species, and queried the reference to
Duponchel, as follows : " N. yratiosella, Sta., Cat., p. 29 (1849) ;
?Dup.- Alis anticis dilute aureo-brunneis, postice violaceis, fascia fere
recta pone medium cjerulescente-argentea ; capillis atris. Exp. al.
2 lin. Head and face black. Palpi whitish. Antennas dark fuscous ;
basal joint white, Anterior wings pale golden brown, with a nearly
straight bluish-silvery fascia beyond the middle, the apex of the wing
violet ; cilia fuscous. Posterior wings grey with paler cilia. The
larva is one of the yellowish larvaa which mine the leaves of hawthorn
in autumn " (Insecta Britanuica, p. 305).
IMAGO. — Head black. Anterior wings 4-5 mm. : pale golden brown
in colour ; an almost straight bluish-silvery fascia beyond the middle ;
tip of the wing violet ; cilia fuscous. Posterior wings grey, cilia paler.
COMPARISON OF N. GRATIOSELLA WITH N. IGNOBILELLA. — Much con-
fusion has existed between N. gratioxella and X. iynobilella, (owing
to errors in Stainton's Manual), but these were cleared up by Wood
(Ent. Mo. Ma;/., xxx., p. 47). He writes : " Threlfall suggested
that N. yratiosella and N. iynobilella were the sexes of one and the
same species, subsequently my own experience in breeding AT. iynobilella
appeared to confirm his view. From yellow larvre collected in the
autumn, and carefully separated from the only two other yellow larvae,
viz., N. rajiella and jY. pygmaeella, that could be found on the haw-
thorn (yratioxella, let it be remembered, was said to have a yellow
larva, and to feed in the autumn), I bred a long series of the perfect
insect, some with red heads and some with black, and as the former
were all males and the latter females, they could clearly be nothing
more than the sexes of one species, and N. yratiosella as a species
seemed doomed. It was not, then, till the question arose as to what
the green oxyacantlieUa-Uke larvae, feeding in July and August, could
be, and until moths were reared from them which answered accurately
to the description of N. yratiosella, that its position was restored.
The diagnosis in the Manual, ii., p. 437, is perfect, so far as the imago
goes. It is a smaller insect than N. iynobilella, with the head black
in both sexes, and a violet, rather than a purple hind margin, to the
fore-wings. On the other hand, the larva is bright green, not yellow
as there described, and instead of feeding in September and October,
as stated in the Entomologist'1 s Companion, is fed up and over by the
end of August."
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is usually laid on the undersurface of the
frill that edges the stalk of a hawthorn leaf (Wood).
MINE. — The gallery begins with a much contorted, very slender
NEPTICULA GRATIOSELLA. 255
track, with a blackish-brown line of excrement, which does not touch
the margins of the mine, and then gradually expands into a very
broad and long gallery, or an elongate, irregular blotch, which some-
times overlaps and includes the original slender tracks. The broader
part of the mine is yellowish, intersected by the rather slender wavy
line of excrement (Frey). Wood writes : " The mine of AT. ynttinxella
varies according to the position in which the egg is laid, and to some
extent also according to the size and fleshiness of the leaf. The
favourite spot for the egg is underneath the leafy frill edging the stalk.
When laid here, the mine travels at first for a short distance down
the stalk, it then turns round and proceeds in the opposite direction,
till it reaches the blade ; here it keeps accurately to the edge for some
little way, and then makes one short turn back upon itself and ends,
or, if the leaf be especially large and fleshy, the last turn is omitted.
This form \vould be quite sui yeneris, were it not occasionally mimicked
to a turn by that of X. pyytnaeella, still, as the one larva is green and
the other yellow, there is no risk of confusing the full mines ; whilst
the empty ones may be told from the position of the eggs. Sometimes,
instead of a single turn back upon itself, two or three are made if the
leaf be small and thin, yet for all that, the mine is so small that it
manages to keep within the limits of the lobe. The other position for
the egg is under one of the ribs. In this case the small twisting
gallery keeps within a narrow compass in the middle of the leaf or in
one of the lobes."
LARVA. — The head of the larva is of the palest brown, so that little
more than the mouth-parts are visible in the mine. There is no trace
of the cephalic ganglia. The ground-colour is green, inclining to
bluish-green (not " yellow," as described by Stainton in the Manual),
o.rt/acatitlu'lla-likQ. Frey noticed, in the Linn. Ent., xii., p. 430, that
this was not one of the " yellow " larvae of the hawthorn.
COMPARISON OF MINE AND LARVA OF N. GRATIOSELLA WITH THOSE
OF N. OXYACANTHELLA. — The eggs of both species are laid on the under-
side of the leaf, but whilst AT. yrationella prefers the stalk to a rib,
jV. oayaeanthMa has a greater liking for the ribs. The mines are very
similar, but that of N. yratiosella is smaller, the gyrations shorter and
keeping close together, whereas in N. oxyacantkdla the curves are
sweeping, and pass across or round the lobes from one side of the leaf
to the other, and even when the egg is laid upon the stalk, and the
mine comes out along the edge as in N. yratiosella, it turns off sooner
or later into the body of the leaf, and pursues its usual bold and
wandering course. The best distinction, however, lies in the larvre.
The head of that of A7, yratiosella is of the palest brown, so that little
more than the mouth-parts are visible in the mine ; that of X.
oi'yacant hello, is grey or black, and is always distinct and sometimes
very distinct ; X oxyacanthella also shows, but obscurely, the cephalic
ganglia, of which there is no trace in the other. I think, too, that
the ground-colour is more bluish in the larva of N. yratiosella than in
that of N. oxyacanthella. . . In Herefordshire, both species are single-
brooded. I never find the larva of N. oj-yacantlu-lla in July and
August, nor that of JY. yratiosella. in September and October, and I
have given the hawthorn hedges a good deal of attention (Wood).
The mine is recognisable from its " grey " appearance and " brown "
excrement (Threlfall).
256 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
COCOON. — The cocoons (2) examined are about 2-1 mm. in length and
1-6 mm. in width, of a dark reddish or purplish-brown colour; oval
in outline, with one end considerably wider then the other. The domed
portion of the cocoon rises directly from the edge, leaving no rim except
atone corner of the broader end, where there are slight traces of one.
The domed portion rises to a considerable height, and is somewhat
flattened at the top. The cocoon is somewhat roughened, loose silken
fibres projecting all over the surface. Pieces of earth are attached to
these loose fibres, showing the cocoon to be subterranean. [Described
July 7th, 1898, under a two-thirds lens, from cocoons sent by Dr.
Wood.] Wood notes that the cocoon is "subterranean;" Hind's
statement that the cocoon is " pinkish-white," must refer to some
other species, unless there is considerable variation, or a great change
in the colour after it is formed.
FOOD-PLANT. — Crataetftu ojeyacantka.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is said to be single-brooded,
the imagines appearing in May and June (Sand gives July for
Mont Dore, in Auvergne, and Peyerimhoff, March and April for
Alsace), the larvae being full-fed, and having vacated the leaves by the
end of August. Fologne notes the larv?e as full-fed on June 7th, 1860,
at Brussels. The imagines are common at the end of May and
beginning of June at King's Lynn (Atmore). Sang records mines at
Darlington, on August 5th, 1861, and July 15th, 1871, as well as on
September 26th, 1863, and October 12th, 1870. Stainton captured
imagines May 21st, 1849, May 20th, 1850, May 22nd, 1851, June
5th, 1877, at Lewisham, May 17th-21st, 1851, at Beckenham, July 16th,
1854, in c<>t>., August 4th, 1849, at Lewisham, and August 5th, 1849,
at Sanderstead. Stainton bred imagines on January 25th, 1 853, March
6th-13th, 1855, at Lewisham, April 9th, 1853, at Beckenham.
July 16th, 1852, Nov. llth, 1852, and August 8th-16th, 1858, at
Lewisham. These dates suggest either a very straggling single brood,
or more probably a double brood for the species. Threlfall bred
imagines from June 10th-20th, 1879, from larvie collected at Preston,
on September 28rd, 1878. Atmore captured imagines at King's Lynn,
on April 27th, 1898.
LOCALITIES. *•* — CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge, common iFarren). CHESHIRE : Bowdon
(Edleston). DERBY: Burton (Sang). DUBLIN: Killister (Birchall). DURHAM:
(Darlington (Sang). EDINBURGH : Duddington (Logan). GLOUCESTER : Bristol
(Vaughan). HADDINOTON: Luffness (Evans). HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood).
KENT: Lewisham and Beckenham (Stainton). LANARK: nr. Glasgow (King).
LANCASHIRE : Manchester (Stainton), Preston (Threlfall). MIDLOTHIAN : Green-
bank (Evans). NORFOLK : Bawsey, North Runcton (Barrett), King's Lynn (Atmore).
SURREY : Haslemere (Barrett). SUSSEX : Brighton (Vine), Arundel Park (Fletcher).
WESTMORLAND : Witherslack (Hodgkinson). YORKSHIRE: Scarborough (Wilkinson),
? York (Hind). Huddersfield (Inchbald).
DISTRIBUTION. — Belgium : nr. Brussels (Fologne). France : Mont
Dore (Sand). Germany: Frankfort-on-the-Main (Heyden), Alsace
(Peyerimhoff), Berlin, Friedland, Stettin, Hamburg (Sorhagen).
Italy : Lombardy and Piedmont, not rare (Curo). Netherlands :
common (Snellen). Switzerland : nr. Zurich (Frey).
* So much confusion has existed between this species and N. ignobilella, owing
to the mistake about the larva in Stainton's Manual, that possibly most of the
records are untrustworthy. Both species are probably widely distributed.
NEPTICULA ULMIVORA. 257
NEPTICULA ULMIVORA,
SYNONYMY. — Species: Ulmivora, Fologne, "Ent. Weekly Intell.," vol. viii.,
p. 92 (June, 1860) ; " Ann. Soc. Belg.," 1860, p. 112 ; Sta., " Ent. Weekly Intell.,"
ix., p. 13 (Oct. 1860) ; Tompkins, "Ent. Weekly Intell.," ix.,p. 187(1861) ; Hein.,
" Wien. Monats.," 1862, p. 264 ; Sta., '• Nat. Hist. Tin.." vii.. p. 150 (1862) ; " Ent.
Ann.," 1862, p. 114 ; Hein. and Sta., " Zool.," xxi., p. 8364 (1863); Staud. and
Wocke, " Cat.," p. 337 (1871) ; Nolcken, " Lep. Fauna Est.," p. 769 (1871) ; Hein.
and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 744 (1877); Snellen, " De Vlinders," etc.,
p. 986 (1882) ; Warren, " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xx., p. 188 (1884) ; Sorhagen, " Die
Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 305 (1886) ; Milliere, "Nat. Sic.," v., p. 204 (1886) ;
Meyrick, " Handbook," etc., p. 718 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — I bred, lately, from elm larvae similar to
those which I sent you last autumn, a species which I presume to be
N. ulmivora. It is very brilliant, of the size of N. marginicolella.
The basal portion of the anterior wings is bronzy till close to the
silvery fascia, but with a reddish tint, as in Boliemannia quadrimacu-
lella. The costa is slightly purplish, and the silvery fascia, placed far
beyond the middle of the wing, expands towards the inner margin ;
the apex of the wing is violet. The head is black, the antennse are
whitish at the base, then black to the middle, with the tips white.
The last character does not occur in N. marginicolella " (Fologne,
Entom. Weekly Intelligencer, vol. viii., p. 92).
IMAGO. — Head black. Anterior wings narrow, 4-5 mm. in expanse ;
bright coppery in colour, redder towards the costa, and to a slight
extent towards the silvery fascia ; beyond the latter the wing is
brownish-black ; apex purple. The fascia beyond the middle rather
oblique, broad silvery (with a slight golden tinge), and highly metallic ;
cilia near the apex, with pale grey tips, near the anal angle 'blackish.
Posterior wings and cilia pale grey.
COMPARISON OP N. ULMIVORA WITH N. GRATIOSELLA. — This species
is very like N. gratiosella, but is distinguished by the bright coppery
colour of the costa of the anterior wings, by the pale grey cilia and
hind-wings, and by the whitish-grey middle tibiffi. It may also be
further distinguished from the remaining black -headed species of the
group, by the silvery fascia not being bordered with dark towards the
base (Heinemann).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the underside of a leaf, against
the midrib or a lateral one.
MINE. — The mine is very different from that of N. viscerella. It
commences as a slender track containing a linear thread of excrement,
which does not occupy the whole width of the mine (Stainton).
Fologne writes : " The caterpillar of this species mines the leaves of
elm, like that of N. maiyinicolella, making long galleries, which are
whitish when small." Frey says it "forms circular and visceriform
tracks in leaves of Ulmus campestris."
LARVA. — The larva can always be distinguished from that of N.
viscerella by its blue-green colour (Warren). Fologne says the larva
is green, like that of N. viscerella, but that the latter is easily dis-
tinguished by the twisted gallery it makes. Fletcher, too, states that
he cannot separate the larva from that of AT. mscerella. Wood writes :
" Larva greenish-blue. Head very pale, with mouth-parts dark.
Abdominal canal dark brown, cephalic ganglia and cord invisible.
Legs unusually long. Ventral side directed upwards in mine " (in litt.).
Nolcken describes the larva as " very glossy, deep green, frequently
bluish-green in colour ; its head almost transparent, very pale brown,
Q
258 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
with darker antenna (?), sutures and mouth-parts. The legs are con-
spicuous and larger than is usual in the genus."
COMPARISON OF THE MINE OP N. ULMIVORA WITH THOSE OF N. MAR-
GINICOLELLA AND N. viscERELLA. — The occupied mine can be at once
told from that of AT. maryiniculella, since the larva of the latter is
yellow, that of ^V. idmirora green, but it is less easily told from that
of N. riscerella, which also, has a green larva. The mine of the
latter, however, is so closely wound that scarcely any uneaten leaf-
substance is left between the curves, and the mine obtains a blister-
like appearance. X. vixcerella, too, lays its egg on the upperside of
a leaf, whilst that of AT. ulmivora is laid on the underside, and
although the mine of the latter is frequently strongly twisted, yet the
curves are never so close as to leave no leaf-substance between them
(Nolcken).
COCOON. — The cocoons average 2*1 mm. in length and 1-3 mm. in
width. The basal surface is quite flattened, the upper surface domed,
springing almost directly from the edge (as there is scarcely a trace of
a defined basal rim), round which, however, bunches of silken fibres
stretch out at almost regular intervals, and have undoubtedly served
to keep the cocoon in position ; in outline the cocoon is almost a perfect
oval. It is red-brown in colour, with a somewhat smooth surface,
but rather plentifully surrounded by ochreous or whitish flossy silk
fibres, which are especially abundant on the upper surface. [Described
June 14th, 1898, under a two-thirds lens, from cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.]
FOOD -PLANT. — Ulimts campestris.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is probably double-brooded, but
is later in appearing than N. marginicolella, and, probably, X. vixce-
rella. McLachlan bred it in June, 1861, from larvae found the pre-
ceding autumn, at West Wickham. Sang notes it on June 7th,
1868, at Darlington, and Tompkins as taken on palings near Clap-
ham Common, on August 80th, 1860. Sang found larvae on October
17th, 1871, August 18th, and September 16th, 1873, September 14th,
1874, at Darlington, and September 24th, 1874, at West Wickham.
It is very uncertain in its appearance, some years appearing in great
abundance. This happened at Cambridge in the autumn of 1882.
Stainton records the capture of larvae, three being '• nude on a fence,"
on October 2nd, 1860, between Norwood Station and West Wickham
Wood. Threlfall bred imagines in May, from larvte obtained
September 30th, 1876, at Witherslack. Nolcken found mines on
September 19th, 1865, almost all unoccupied, at Umbaid, nr. Pichten-
dahl, and again from August 7th-llth, 1866, when only five out of
eleven were occupied ; on September 3rd, 1871, more were occupied,
but still so many were empty that it seemed probable from the early
maturity of the autumn larvae that there is only one brood in the year.
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge, uncertain, sometimes abundant
(Warren). DORSET: Bloxworth (Cambridge). DURHAM: Darlington (Sang).
HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood). KENT: West Wickham (McLachlan). LANCA-
SHIRE : Dutton (Hodgkinson), Grange (Threlfall). NORFOLK : K. Lynn, in elm
hedges, periodic in appearance (Atmore). SURREY : Clapham Common (Tompkins).
SUSSEX: Bramber, in elm hedges, local (Fletcher). WESTMORLAND: Witherslack
(Threlfall).
DISTRIBUTION. — Belgium : nr. Brussels (Foiogne). France : St.
Martin Lantosque (Milliere). Germany : Frankfort-on-the-Main
(Frey), Berlin, Hamburg, Brunswick, Breslau, (Sorhagen), Silesia
NEPTICULA ULMIVORA. 259
(Wocke). Netherlands : Rotterdam, Gravenhage (Snellen). Russia :
Oesel (Sorhagen), Umbaid, nr. Pichtendahl (Nolcken).
NEPTICULA PRUNETORUM,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Prunetorum.* Sta., " Ent. Ann.," 1855. 1st Ed., p. 50 ;
"Nat. Hist. Tin.," i., p. 238, pi.' vi.. fig. 3 (1855); "Man.," ii., p. 437 (1859) ;
Const., " Mem. Nat. Hist. Autun," xii., p. 354 (1866) ; Staud. and Wocke. " Cat.." p.
337 (1871) ; Hein. and Wocke. " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 745 (1877) ; Sand,
" Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 201 (1879) ; Snellen, "De Vlinders," p. 984 (1882) ; Peyer.,
" Cat. Lep. Als.," ii., 2nd Ed., p. 166 (1882) ; Sorhagen, " Die Kleinschmett.
Brandbg.," p. 305 (1886) ; Hering, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," lii.. p. 220 (1891) ;
Meyrick, " Handbook," etc., p. 719 (1895). Perpusillella, H.-Sch., " Sys. Bear.,"
v., p. 353 (1855) ; Frey, " Die Tineen," etc., p. 390 (1856); "Linn, Ent.," xi.,
p. 432 (1857).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Alls anticis dilute seneis, basim versus pur-
pureo-tinctis, fascia media nigra, fascia postica argentea ; capillis atris.
Exp. al. 2 lin. Head and face deep black. Antennae black, basal
joint white. Anterior wings with the basal half pale bronzy, at the
extreme base with a purple tinge ; in the middle is a well-defined
black fascia, followed by a straight, moderately broad silvery fascia ;
the entire apex of the wing black ; cilia blackish. Posterior wings
pale grey, with dark grey cilia (Stainton, Ent. Annual, 1855, 1st Ed.,
p. 50).
IMAGO. — Head deep black. Anterior wings 4-5 mm. in expanse ;
pale bronzy with a purple tinge at the base ; a black fascia in the
middle is followed by a straight, rather broad, silvery fascia ; apex
of the wing black ; cilia blackish. Posterior wings pale grey with
dark grey cilia.
COMPARISON OF N. PRUNETORUM WITH N. PLAGICOLELLA AND N.
ACETOS^E. — The species to which it is most nearly allied are N. plaf/i-
colella and N. acetosae ; from the former it is distinguished by the pale
bronzy basal half of the anterior wings and the black head, and from
the latter it is distinguished readily by the extreme brightness of the
anterior wings, by the silvery fascia being further from the apex,
and bordered internally by a well-defined black fascia (Stainton).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the underside of a sloe leaf,
generally close to the midrib.
MINE. — The larva commences to make a closely contorted mine,
the contortions of which are as close as in the mine of N. -cincerMa, so
that it forms a brown blotch ; when the larva is nearly full-fed, it
deviates from this peculiarity in the form of its mine, and makes an
irregular gallery ; the excrement, which is at first rather pale grey.
fills up nearly the whole width of the mine. When the larva is fuL1-
fed, it comes out at the upper side of the leaf (Stainton). Meyrick
says : " The galleries are at first spirally coiled, afterwards extending
round leaves of blackthorn and sometimes cherry." Frey writes :
" Die Mine ist ein verhaltnissmiissig langer Gang, aber mit ganz dicht
gegen einander gelagerten, spiraligen, von der Kothreihe erfiillten
Windungen, so dass sie als ein kreisrunder Fleck erscheint. Nur der
Endtheil geht in gerader Richtung davon ab" (Die Tinven, etc.,
p. 391).
LARVA. — Length 2 lines ; unicolorous dull green, the second segment
* Herrich-Schiiffer writes (Corrcspondenzblatt, 1860, p. 59) :— " N dimidiatella
ist die spiitere prunetorum, Beschreibung und Bild immerhin noch kenntlicher als
manche spatere Bescbreibung anderer,"
260 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
a little darker; head dull green, the mouth and two lines receding
from it reddish-brown (Stainton). Frey writes: "Das Biiupchen
misst unter 2'" . Es hat eine grime Korperfarbe, einen grunlich-
braunen Kopf, braunrothe Mundtheile und davon ausgehend zwei
gleichfarbige Linien iiber das Kopfchen " (Linn. Ent., xi., p. 434).
The larva mines with the dorsum uppermost (Wood).
COMPARISON OF THE LARVA AND MINE OF N. PRUNETORTJM WITH THOSE
OF N. PLAGICOLELLA. — The larva of N. plat/icolella is yellow, and
makes a clear whitish blotch preceded by a slender gallery ; that of N.
prunetonun is green, and its mine is coiled like a watch-spring, after-
wards extending round the edge of the leaf. The frass fills up the
gallery, and makes it light brown (Threlfall).
COCOON. — The cocoon is pale or dark ochreous, not flossy, of rather
irregular oval form ; the pupa protrudes its anterior segments from the
cocoon previous to the appearance of the perfect insect (Stainton).
Frey says : " Der Cocon ist blass gelbroth, ganz flach und ziemlich
eckig."
FOOD-PLANTS. — Prunus spinosa. Prunus aviuiu (Frey), P. cerasus
(Hering).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is recorded as being only single-
brooded. Imagines emerged freely from June 5th-12th, 1882, from
larvae collected September 20th, 1881, at Witherslack ; larvae obtained
in same locality September 2nd, 1886 (Threlfall). Peyerimhoff says
that in Alsace the imago appears in April, from October larvae.
LOCALITIES. — BUCKS: Loudwater (Boyd). CAMBRIDGE: Cambridge (Farren).
CHESHIRE : Bowdon (Edleston). DORSET : Portland, abundant, Weymouth
(Richardson), Bloxworth (Cambridge). HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood). LANCASHIRE:
Manchester (Stainton), Preston (Threlfall), Grange (Hodgkinson). NORFOLK :
King's Lynn (Atmore). SUSSEX : Abbott's Wood, High Down, and downs near
Worthing, common (Fletcher). WESTMORLAND : Witherslack (Threlfall).
DISTRIBUTION. — France: Nohaut ( Sand), Saone-et-Loire (Constant).
Germany : generally distributed (Heinemann and Wocke), Frankfort-
on-the-Main (Heyden), Jungfernheide, Potsdam, Friedland, Hamburg
(Sorhagen), Alsace (Peyerimhoff), Alt Damm, Nemitz, Misdroy
(Hering). Netherlands : Overijssel, Gelderland (Snellen). Switzer-
land : nr. Ziirich (Frey).
NEPTICULA MARGINICOLELLA,
SYNONYMY. — Species : MarginicoUlla, Sta., "Zool.," 1853, p. 3958 ; "Ins.
Brit.," p. 305 (1854) ; "Nat. Hist. Tin.," i., p. 134. pi. iii., fig. 2 (1855) ; " Man.,"
ii., p. 437 (1859i ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 351 (1855) ; Frey, " Die Tineen,"
etc., p. 394 (1856) ; "Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 443 (1857); Const., "Mem. His. Nat.
Autun," xii., p. 354 (I860) ; Staud. and Wocke, "Cat.," p. 337 (1871); Nolck.,
" Lep. Faun. Est.," p. 770 (1871) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.,"
p. 742 (1877); Sand, "Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 201 (1879); Bang-Haas, " N. H.
Tids.," xiii., p. 217 (1881) ; Wallgrn., " Ent. Tids.," ii., p. 128 (1881) ; Snellen,
"De Vlinders," etc., p. 985 (1882) ; Peyer., "Cat. Lep. Als.," ii., 2nd Ed., p. 163
(1882); Curo and Turati, "Bull. Soc. Ent. Ital.," xv., p. 108 (1883); Sorhagen,
" Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 304 (1886) ; Mill., " Nat. Sic.," v., p. 204 (1886) ;
Hering, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.." Iii., p. 220 (1891) ; Meyrick, "Handbook," etc., p. 718
(1895). Aurella, Haw,, " Lep. Brit.." p. 584, in part (1828) ; Zell., "Linn. Ent.,"
iii., p. 306, in part (1849).? Lemniscella, Zell., "Linn. Ent.," iii., p. 313 (teste
Stainton) (1849). Centijcliella, Sta., "Cat.." p. 29 (1849); "Trans. Ent. Soc.
Lond.," v., p. 132 (excl. Zeller's description). ? Gratiosella, Ghiliani, " Mem. de.
Reale Accad. del. Sci. di Torino," 1852, xiv.
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — The first notice of this species reads as
follows : Two larvffi were distinguished on elm, the one yellow and
the other green. The imago of the green one is not closely allied to
NEPTlCULA MARGINICOLELLA. 261
any previously known species ; from the gut-like appearance of its
mine, Mr. Douglas has proposed for it the name of N. viscerella.
The imago produced from the yellow larva is the N. centifoliella of my
Catalogue, but clearly not the Continental IV. centifoliella, which is a
rose-feeder. From the tendency of 'the larva to mine at the edge of the
leaf, going even in and out all the serratures of the leaf, I propose to
call it maryinicolella (Stainton, Zoologist, 1853, p. 8958). The earliest
description of the species under this name is as follows : " N. margini-
colella, Sta., Zool., 1853, p. 3958. Centifoliella, Sta., Cat. Aurella
var. y, Haw. ? Lemniscella, Zell. Alis anticis laete aureo-brunneis,
pone medium purpureo-tinctis, apice saturate purpureo, fascia obliqua
pone medium argenteo-alba ; capillis $ atris, ? ferrugineis. Exp.
al. 2^-3 lin. Head of the male black, of the female reddish-yellow.
Palpi whitish. Antennae fuscous ; basal joint whitish. Anterior
wings rich golden-brown, with a purple tinge beyond the middle ;
beyond the middle is a rather oblique, silvery-white fascia ; the apex
of the wing is deep purple ; cilia pale fuscous. Posterior wings grey,
with grey cilia. The yellowish larva mines in autumn and in July
the leaves of the elm, making a long, not intertwined, gallery, frequently
at the edge of the leaf, going in and out of each serrature " (Stainton,
Insecta Britannica, p. 305).
IMAGO. — Head of the male black, of the female reddish. Anterior
wings 5-6 mm. in expanse ; rich golden-brown in colour, tinged with
purple ; beyond the middle is a rather oblique silvery fascia margined
towards base with deep purple ; apex deep purple ; cilia pale fuscous.
Posterior wings blackish-grey, with grey cilia.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — Frey writes : " Im mannlichen Geschlechte,
auch wenn wir absehen von der bedeutenderen Kleinheit der Art, den
ein wenig breiteren Vorderfliigeln, leicht zu unterscheiden durch den
schwarzen Schopf, die grosseren Augendeckel und die an dem
Wurzeltheile der Hinterfliigel befindlichen, den gewohnlichen dunkel-
grauen Franzen aufgelagerten, nur halb so langen schwarzen Schup-
penhaare " (Linn. Entom., xi., pp. 443-444).
COMPARISON OF N. MARGIN ICOLELLA WITH N. AURELLA, ETC. — N,
marf/inicolella belongs to that section of the genus in which the fascia
on the anterior wings is brilliantly metallic. Among these species it
is readily distinguished from all except N. aurella, by the deep purple
colour beyond the middle of the anterior wings ; from N. aurella, the
narrower, more obliquely placed, and more silvery fascia, readily enables
us to separate it, and the black head of the male alone is sufficient
to distinguish that sex from the male N. aurella, which has, like its
consort, the head reddish-yellow (Stainton). Fletcher writes :
" Heinemann is quite correct in that N. ulmivora has not, and A7.
maryinicolella has, the purple border to the silvery fascia well developed."
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is sometimes deposited on the upper, but
more generally on the under, surface of an elm leaf.
MINE. — The mine consists of a long gallery placed under the edge
of a leaf of elm. At the commencement of its mine the larva leaves
only a single track of excrement, but, as soon as the width of the
mine will admit, the excrement is placed in a series of grains across
the mine, forming little arcs of circles ; the larva almost always goes
towards the edge of the leaf, and, when there, continues to keep close
to the margin, going in and out of each serrature of the leaf, and
262 . BRITISH LEPIDOPTEEA.
thus frequently going up one side of the leaf, round the apex and
down the other side ; the excrement is, during the first half of the
mine dark brown, but in the latter half it is nearly black. When
the larva is nearly full grown, the excrement does not fill up the
whole width of the mine (Stainton). Frey writes : '• Die Mine wird
in eigenthiimlicher Art gewohnlich (aber doch ausnahmelos*) bald
gegen den Blattrand gefiihrt, um hier jeder Kriimmung desselben zu
folgen und so zum stark gezackten Gange zu werden, welcher von
breiter, braunschwarzer Kothreihe gefiillt wird " (Die Tineen, etc.,
p. 395).
LARVA. — Length 2 lines ; pale amber-yellow ; the head pale brown,
and the hinder lobe of the head showing through the upper surface of
the prothorax as a pale brown spot* (Stainton). The larva mines
with the dorsum uppermost (Wood). Nolcken describes the larva as
" pale (whitish) yellow, with pale reddish-brown head, the intestinal
canal brownish, and faintly visible through the skin, the venter being
marked with a series of lozenge-spots."
COCOON. — The cocoons average 3-1 mm. in length and 1-9 mm. in
width. The cocoon is dark greenish-grey, sometimes tinged with
brown. It forms, roughly, an oval in outline, squared towards its
narrower end. The wider end is somewhat flattened on its margin,
forming a considerable flange, rising rather rapidly at some distance
within the border to the central domed area. The latter portion of the
cocoon is rather smooth, but the flanged portion is well-supplied with
flossy whitish silken fibres, by which thecocoon is attached to some object.
Two of the six cocoons examined have an irregular fracture (probably not
for escape of pupa) at the narrower but thicker end. The flat base sug-
gests that it is spun on a leaf, etc. [Described June 5th, 1898, under a
two-thirds lens, from cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.] Some cocoons sent by
Fletcher are almost green-black in colour, and average 3'3 mm. in length, •
and 2*1 mm. in width. Stainton observes that the larva usually leaves the
mine to spin its cocoon, and he has noticed that in those cases in
which the cocoon is formed inside the mine, the imago is never bred,
and hence he supposes that they only thus construct it when weak or
diseased. He describes the cocoon as " dark greenish-brown in colour,
the pupa protruding its anterior segments before emergence." Hind
gives the colour of the cocoon as "green." Nolcken says the fresh
cocoon is greenish -brown, with a paler greenish rim, sometimes
blackish-green, or dirty leaf-green.
FOOD-PLANT. — Ulmus campestrix.
TIME OF APPEARANCE.— The insect is double-brooded, appearing in
May and again in August ; the larvae of these broods may be found in
September, October and July respectively. The imago was takan
on May 9th, 1847, at Beckenham (Bedell), and on April 21st, 1896,
at Aberfoyle, where it was beaten out from amongst heather (Evans).
Mines were found commonly on elm at Lewisham, October 8th, 1891,
October 3rd, 1892 (Bower) ; whilst Shield obtained larvaa in elm leaves
in October, 1853, at Howth. On the other hand, at Haldon, many
larvte had left the mines on September 21st. 1865 (Jordan). Stainton
captured imagines May 17th, 1851, April 17th, 1853, at Lewisham ;
*In den grossen Blattern junger Biiume kann, wie ich mehrfach sah, die
Mine dicht an der Medianrippe beginnen, dann neben einer Seitenrippe nach dem
Aussenrand gehen und in gestrecktem Verlaufs enden, ehe sie jenen erreicht hat.
NEPTICULA M.VRGINICOLELLA. 263
May 28th, 1850, June 2nd, 1852, June 9th, 1848, in cop., at Becken-
ham. In confinement, imagines emerged April 5th-17th, 1853, March
22nd-30th, April 18th-19th, 1854, at Lewisham. Nolcken notes the
capture of larvae at Umbaid on September 3rd and 8th, 1865 ; whilst
Sorhagen gives the larvae as occurring in July, and again in September-
October, in Germany. Threlfall bred the imagines in April and
May, 1888, from larvae obtained October 1st, 1887, at Bowdon in
Cheshire.
LOCALITIES. — ABERDEEN: Pitcaple, not rare (Reid). CHESHIRE: Bowdon
(Threlfall). CAMBRIDGE: Cambridge (Farren). DERBY: Burton (Sang). DEVON:
Haldon and Coombe Lane (Jordan). DORSET : Purbeck (Bankes), Wey mouth
(Richardson). DUBLIN: Clontarf (Birchall), Howth (Shield). DURHAM: Darling-
ton (Stainton). GLOUCESTER : Bristol (Stainton). HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood).
ISLE OF WIGHT: (Stainton). KENT: West Wickham (Stainton), Beckenham
(Bedell), Lewisham (Bosver). LANCASHIRE: Preston, Grange (Threlfall), Man-
chester (Stainton). NORFOLK : North Runcton (Barrett), King's Lynn, common
(Atmore). PERTH : Aberfoyle (Evans). SURREY : Mickleham (Stainton), Hasle-
mere (Barrett). SUSSEX : Bersted, Bognor, Eastbourne, Worthing, common in
hedges of elm (Fletcher), Brighton (Elisha). WESTMORLAND : Witherslack
(Hodgkinson). YORKSHIRE: Doncaster (Corbett), Richmond (Sang), York (Hind).
DISTRIBUTION. — Austria : Vienna (Fischer von Rosslerstamm).
Denmark: Copenhagen (Bang-Haas). France: Cannes (Milliere),
Saone-et-Loire (Constant), Nohaut (Sand). Germany : generally
distributed (Heinemann and Wocke), Glogau (Zeller), Frankfort-on-
Main (Heyden), Berlin, Potsdam, Havelland, Hamburg, Halle
(Sorhagen), Alt Damm, Friedland (Hering). Italy : Piedmont (Curo),
Turin (Ghiliani), ? Leghorn and Montenero (Mann, who records
aurdla from elm). Netherlands : generally distributed (Snellen).
Russia: Umbaid, nr. Pichtendahl (Nolcken). Scandinavia: Scania
(Wallengren). Switzerland: nr. Zurich (Frey).
NEPTICULA ALNETELLA, Stainton (nee Heinemann).
:MY.— Species : Alnetella, Sta., "Ent. Ann.," 1856, pp. 43-44
ii,, p. 437 (1859) ; " Nat. Hist. Tin.," vii., p. 220, pi. x., fig. 3 (1862) ; Frey,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Alnetella, Sta., " Ent. Ann.," 1856, pp. 43-44 ; "Man.,
vii., p. 220, pi. x., fig.
•• Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 437 (1857) ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 337, in part (1871) ;
Nolcken, " Lep. Fn. Est.," p. 771 (1871); Mill., "Cat. Lep. Alp. Mar.," p. 372
(1875) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.." p. 745 (1877) ; Sand, " Cat.
Lep. Auv.," p. 201 (1879) ; Wallgrn., "Ent. Tids.," ii., p. 128 (1881) ; Bang-Haas,
" N. H. Tids.," xiii., p. 217 (1881) ; Snellen, " De Vlinders," etc., p. 989 (1882) ;
Peyer., "Cat. Lep. Alsace." 2nd Ed., ii., p. 164 (1882); Curo, "Bull. Soc. Ent.
lei "
eit.," lii.. p. 220 (1891) ; Meyrick, " Handbook," etc., p. 71
(1895) ; nee Hein., " Wien. Monats.," 1862, p. 266 [\\hich=rubescens, Hein., " Bed.
Ital.," xv., p. 109 (1883) ; Sorhagen, " Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. "305 (1886) ;
Hering, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," lii.. p. 220 (1891) ; Meyrick, " Handbook," etc., p. 719
Ent. Zeits.,"p. 214 (1871)].
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Alis anticis saturate aureo-brunneis, dorso
basim versus dilute aureo-brunneo, apice nigrescente, fascia paullo
post medium parum obliqua argentea splendidissima ; capillis ferru-
gineis. Exp. al. 2-2£ lin. Head and face reddish-yellow ; palpi
whitish ; antennae fuscous, basal joint whitish. Anterior wings deep
golden-brown, shading off to a pale golden-brown on the inner margin
near the base ; a little beyond the middle is a rather oblique silvery
fascia, extremely brilliant (more so than in N. marfjinicolella)', apical
portion of the wing dark purple, almost black ; cilia dark fuscous.
Posterior wings grey, with grey cilia (Stainton, Entomologist's Annual,
1856, p. 43).
IMAGO. — Head ferruginous. Anterior wings 4-5 mm. in expanse,
of a deep golden-brown colour, shading off into a pale golden-brown
284 . BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
on the inner margin near the base ; just beyond the middle is a rather
oblique, slender, very brilliant, silvery fascia ; tip of the wing purplish-
black ; cilia fuscous, with the extreme edge whitish. Posterior wings
and cilia grey.
COMPAKISON OF N. ALNETELLA WITH N. AURELLA AND N. MARGINI-
COLELLA. — X. alnetella may be distinguished from N. aurclla by the
absence of any indication of a purple fascia before the silvery one,
and by the paler golden colour at the base of the inner margin. These
two last characters also serve to distinguish it from X. mar;/inic<>ldla,
which is sometimes but little larger than N. alnetella, and, besides, the
fascia, in the latter, is also more oblique (Stainton).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the underside of an alder leaf,
close to one of the lateral ribs.
MINE. — The mine forms a long", slender gallery, very wavy and
irregular, the excrement forming a central blackish line, and is similar
in character throughout, except that it gradually becomes broader as
the larva increases in size.
LARVA. — The full-grown larva resembles somewhat that of X.
microtJteriella. Its length is nearly 2 lines; colour pale amber-yellow,
with the dorsal vessel green, anteriorly whitish ; the head pale brown,
with the mouth and two slender lines receding from it dark brown ;
the supposed renal organs showing as two brown serpentine viscera.
Nolcken writes : " Die Eaupe ist hellgelb, der Kopf sehr blass braunlich,
Keulenflecke klein, grau, undeutlich, meist unter den Riindern des
Kopfes verborgen ; sie verliisst die Mine durch die untere Blattseite."
COCOON. — The cocoons (3) average 2-5 mm. in length and 1-8 mm.
in width. They are roughly almond-shaped one end being consider-
ably narrower, the other wider and rounded on the margin. The
raised surface rises regularly from the edge of the cocoon, and becomes
highest at the narrow end. The pupa emerges from the broader end.
The colour of the cocoon is dark red-brown, the surface rough, with
the ends of silken fibres projecting roughly and irregularly all over
the surface. The empty pupa-case is exceedingly transparent (more
transparent than is usual, even in this group), the skin looking just
like a delicate film and showing slight iridescence. [Described June
15th, 1898, under a two- thirds lens, from cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.]
Stainton says : " The cocoon resembles that of X. salicis, and is
spun up on the surface of the ground." Nolcken notes: " Cocon
heller oder dunkler braunlich ochergelb, ziemlich flach birnformig,
manchmal elliptisch."
FOOD-PLANT. — Alnus glutinosa.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Probably double-brooded. The imagines
appear in May and early June from mines of the preceding September-
October. Imagines are also to be obtained in July, probably from
June larvae. Bower captured imagines on July 18th, 1892, by
sweeping alder trees at Eltham ; whilst Stainton bred imagines April
29th, 1855, from Beckenham larvae, May 6th, 1855, from Darlington
larvae, June 24th and July 7th, 1858, from Beckenham, June 8rd-
6th, 1857, from Beigate larvae. Threlfall bred imagines in June, from
larvae obtained at Windermere, Sept. 20th, 1880. Stainton found
mines on October 15th-22nd, 1854, at Beckenham ; Law, on October
18th, 1854, at Darlington ; Bower, on October 19th, 1892, October
6th, 1894, September llth, 1895, October 21st, 1897, at Eltham ;
NEPTICULA ALNEfELLA. 265
Sang, on October 12th, 1856, October 7th, 1857, October 15th, 1861,
and September 29th, 1871, at Barnard Castle, September 12th, 1873,
and October 14th, 1874, at Stanhope, October 14th, 1878, at
Wolsingham.
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE : Chippenham (Farren). CHESHIRE : Bowdon
(Edlestonj. DORSET: Bloxworth (Cambridge), Purbeck (Bankes), Weymouth
(llichardson). DURHAM: Darlington (Law), Barnard Castle, Stanhope, Wol-
singham (Sang). ESSEX : Brentwood (Elisha). GLOUCESTER : Bristol (Stainton).
HEREFORD: Tarvington (Wood). KENT: Beckenham (Douglas), Eltham (Bower),
Lewisham (Stainton). LANCASHIRE : nr. Manchester (Chappell), Preston (Threlfall),
Grange (Hodgkinson). NORFOLK: Merton (Barrett), King's Lynn, common
(Atmore). SOMERSET: Clevedon (Masori). SURREY: Eeigate Heath (Stainton).
SUSSEX: Tilgate Forest (Fletcher), Guestling (Bloomfieldl. WESTMORLAND:
Windermere (Hodgkinson). YORK: Scarborough (Wilkinson), York (Stainton),
Harro^ate (Sang).
DISTRIBUTION. — Denmark (Bang-Haas). France : Cannes, plaine
de la Eoubine, bords de la Saigne, du Var, etc. (Milliere), Nohaut,
Indre (Sand). Germany : Ratisbon (Hoffmann), Brandenburg, Ham-
burg, Silesia, Saxony, Hanover (Sorhagen), Bavaria (Wocke), Alsace
(Peyerimhoffi, Alt Damm, Giiterbahnhof (Hering). Italy : ?Nizzardo,
?Liguria (Curo and Turati). Netherlands: various localities in S.
Holland and Friesland (Snellen). Russia : Pichtendahl (Nolcken).
Scandinavia : Scania (Wallengren). Switzerland : Zurich (Frey).
£
NEPTICULA CONTINUELLA, Stainton.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Continuella, Sta., " Ent. Annual," 1856, p. 42 ; "Man.."
ii., p. 457 (1859); Frey, "Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 436 (1857); Hein., "Men.
Monats.," 1862, p. 301 ; Hein. and Sta., " Zool.," xxi., p. 8368 (1863) ; Staud. and
Wocke, "Cat.," p. 337 (1871) ; Nolcken, " Lep. Fn. Est.," p. 772 (1871); Hein.
and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 746 (1877); Wallgrn., "Ent. Tids.,"ii.,p. 128
(1881); Snellen, " De Vlinders," p. 990 (1882); Sorhagen, "Die Kleinschmett.
Brandbg.," p. 345 (1886) ; Meyr., "Handbook," etc.. p. 719 (1895J.
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Alis anticis, basim versus, obscure aeneo-
griseis, apice saturate purpureo-fusco, fascia media saturate purpurea,
fascia pone medium tenui, recta, argentea ; capillis ferrugineis. Exp.
al. 2£ lin. Head and face reddish-yellow ; palpi whitish ; antennae
fuscous, basal joint whitish. Anterior wings dull bronzy-grey at the
base, shading gradually into a dark purple fascia in the middle ; be»
yond the middle is a straight, shining, rather slender, silvery fascia ;
the apical portion of the wing is dark purplish-fuscous ; cilia fuscous.
Posterior wings grey, with grey cilia (Stainton, Ent. Annual, 1856,
pp. 42-43).
IMAGO. — Head rusty or yellowish. Anterior wings 5-6 mm. ; dull
bronzy-grey at the base, darkening into blackish -purple (not glossy)
transverse bands before and beyond the vertical silvery transverse
fascia ; the latter just beyond the middle very glossy, and rather
narrow ; blackish-purple scales project at base of cilia, between these
the cilia are fuscous, the tips paler grey. Posterior wings and cilia
dark grey.
COMPARISON OF N. CONTINUELLA WITH N. AURELLA. — This species
can be readily distinguished from N. aurella by the basal portion of
the wing, being dull bronzy-grey, instead of rich golden -brown ; thet
fascia, too, is more perpendicularly placed, more slender and more
silvery (Stainton).
MINE. — The mine curls and .twists about in the vicinity of the
site of the egg, forming little bunches of convolutions in the coils of
which islets of leafy tissue are caught, and these, being cut off from
266 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
the general circulation in the leaf, quickly die, so that the mine seems
to start from a brown dead patch in the leaf. The mine is irregular
in shape, long, greenish in colour, and stuffed as full of coiled frass as is
possible, and one is struck not only with the remarkable regularity of
the " coils " of frass, but is convinced that by no other means could
the frass have been successfully packed away. The mine presents a
very perfect example of those with a small transverse capacity and
coiled frass, the want of width being the result of the very partial
manner in which the parenchyma is removed. The mine is much
larger than that of AT. (Uxtint/uenda ; it is filled with greenish frass, and
begins invariably from a brown bunch of convolutions of some size
placed at an angle of the midrib ; whereas, the other starts from a
point, without any series of twists aqd turns or sign of discoloration,
and contains brown frass. The mine is very difficult to see, owing to
its retaining so nearly the colour of the leaf (Wood). Heinemann says :
"The mine is long, narrow and tortuous, entirely filled up with dark
green excrement." Theegg is laid on the undersurface near a rib (Wood).
LARVA. — The larva of X. continudla presents a well-marked
example of borrowed colouring, for so deep and pure a green does it
look in the mine, that it is hard to believe that it is in reality a rich
yellow. It mines with the back up, but exhibits neither the cephalic
ganglia nor ventral cord. It is yellow in colour, though, in xitn, it
looks green in consequence of the light reflected from the floor of the
mine. The body has no visible markings. The head is pale brown.
COMPARISON OF THE MINES AND LARVAE OF N. CONTINUELLA AND N.
LUTEELLA. — Like the mine of AT. dixtimjuenda, that of X. continudla
is a very perfect example of those mines, which have a small transverse
capacity and coiled frass, the want of capacity in the former depending on
the extreme narrowness of the mine, and in the latter upon the very
partial manner in which the parenchyma is removed. They can,
however, be readily distinguished from each other. A", continudla
makes a much larger mine, which is filled with greenish frass, and
begins invariably from a brown bunch of convolutions of some size,
placed at an angle of the midrib, whereas, the other starts from a
point without any series of twists and turns or signs of discoloration,
and contains brown frass. Utterly unlike in their mines, in their
larvae, XT. continuella and X. luteella are-closely related. J3oth larvae
are yellow, with pale brown heads, and no trace of either cephalic
ganglia or ventral cord. The larva of X. luteella may be known out
of the mine by the urinary tubes, but they are not dark enough to be
seen when the creature is in the mine. The larva of N. continudla,
yellow though it be. looks in situ green, and a very decided green,
too, in consequence of the light reflected from the floor of its mine.
Both species are double-brooded (Wood).
COCOON. — The cocoons (4) divide into two sets. Two of them are
3 mm. long and 2 mm. wide, and dark red-brown in colour ; two
others 2-25 mm. long and 1-5 mm. wide, and pale greyish-brown in
colour. In outline they are not unlike an almond, but a slight
concavity on one side suggests the familiar " mussel " shape of so
many of the cocoons of this group. There is no distinct lateral flange,
the upper dome-shaped surface rising direct from the edge to the
central point. One of the ends is distinctly broader than the other,
the pupa emerging from the former. The surface of the cocoon is
NEPTICULA CONTINUELLA. 267
somewhat roughened, and there is a branching reticulation of a very
dark red-brown colour running irregularly over it. The free lateral
edges are provided with a quantity of loose fibrous silk, some of it of
the same dark colour as that of the cocoon, the remainder considerably
paler. The projecting pupa-case is transparent, with a number of small
oblong grey spots on the dorsum of the thoracic segments, and a
number of imaginal scales adherent around the lines of dehiscence.
[Described June 15th, 1898, under a two-thirds lens, from
cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.] The smaller cocoons are not unlike the
larger (which are those described above) in shape, although in size
and colour they are so different. Wood says : " The cocoon varies from
dark brown, or blackish-brown, to olive in colour." The cocoon
is oval, flat, of a yellowish-brown or pale olive-green (Heinemann).
FOOD-PLANT. — Betula alba. This species almost restricts itself to
the downy variety of the birch, selecting the leaves at the ends of the
uppermost shoots (Wood).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is stated to be double-brooded
(Threlfall says that it is single-brooded). Stain ton bred an imago on
June 26th, 1855, from a larva taken in September, 1854, and the
following year he bred the species on August 2nd, in both instances
from Lewisham. Heinemann gives the end of September and com-
mencement of October for larvse. Sang obtained mines at Witherslack
on August 12th, 1880, and Threlfall bred imagines from June 2nd-
20th, 1879, from larva obtained July 15th and August 15th-30th, 1878,
at Witherslack.
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE: (Meyrick). DORSET: Purbeck and Bloxworth
(Bankes). KENT : Lewisham (Stainton). LANCASHIRE : Manchester (Stainton),
Preston (Hodgkinson). HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood). NORFOLK: K. Lynn,
uncertain in appearance (Atmore). WESTMORLAND: Witherslack (Sang)..
DISTRIBUTION. — Germany : Frankfort-on-the-Main (Schmid), Bruns-
wick (Heinemann), Silesia (Wocke), Hanover, Breslau (Sorhagen).
Netherlands : Friesland, North Brabant (Snellen). Russia : Pich-
tendahl (Nolcken). Scandinavia : Scania (Wallengren).
NEPTICULA CENTIFOLIELLA, Zeller.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Centifoliella, Zell., " Linn. Ent.," iii., p. 315 (1848) ;
H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 351, fig. 827 (1855) ; Frey, "Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 419
(1857); Sta., " Nat. Hist- Tin.," vii.. p. 204, pi. x., fig. 1 (1862); Staud. and
Wocke. " Cat.," p. 337 (1871) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 747
(1877) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 201 (1879) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Als.," ii., 2nd
Ed., p. 164 (1882); Sorhagen, "Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 305 (1886);
Meyrick, "Handbook," etc., p. 719 (1895); nee Sta., "Cat.," p. 29 (1849).
Hodgkinsoni, Sta., " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxi., p. 103 [part referring to specimens from
Worthing (1884)].
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Centifoliella, Heyden. Alis anterioribus
violascenti-fuscis nitidulis, fascia postica argyrea ; capillis $ nigris,
9 ferrugineis ; ° conchula antennarum pallida parva. Diese sehr
kleine Art unterscheidet sich von lemniscella dadurch, dass die Vorder-
fliigel von der Basis aus braunlich sind mit etwas violettlichem Glanze,
* It is open to question how far this distinction is really sexual. Fletcher
says, he " makes out both 'dark' and 'light' heads in both sexes among the
imagines bred by Richardson, from larvae feeding in sweetbriar at Portland. Of
Sussex individuals bred from Rosa var. micrantha and R. xpinosissima, all have the
heads black or very dark fuscous ; none has the head of the same colour as that of
N. turicella, which some of both sexes from Portland have. N. Centifoliella and N.
hodgkinsoni, of course, may be mixed."
268 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
der sich hinter der Binde nur wenig erhoht, von der folgenden
grossern durch den viel lebhaftcren Glanz der Binde, die auch bei ihr
weiter gegen die Spitze geriickt isfc. Grosse der allerkleinsten aurella
(Vorderfliigel wenig iiber eine Linie). Kopf hinten gelbschuppig ;
der Schopf beim Mannchen schwarz, beira Weibchen rostgelb. Augen-
deckel der braunen, gelblich schimmernden Fiihler hellgelblich, wenig
iiber die Haare hervorstehend. Beine braunlich, weiss schimraernd.
Vorderfliigel grossschuppig, braun (beim Weibchen heller), violettlich
gliinzend (weniger beim Weibchen) ; gegen die Spitze nur wenig
lebhafter als gegen die Basis am Vorderrande. Die Binde steht wie
bei aurella, ist silberglanzend, ohne den hohen Glanz der genannten
Art. Franzen um die Spitze mit grauen Enden, am Innenrande
iiberall grau. Hinterfliigel grau, baarschuppig. Unterseite braun-
grau, sehr schwach violettglanzend (Zeller, Linnaea Entomologica,
iii. (1848), pp. 315-316).
IMAGO. — Head ferruginous, tinged with fuscous. Anterior wings
5 mm. in expanse ; brown in colour, with a very faint purple
tinge, the apex purplish-brown ; beyond the middle is a slightly
oblique, rather broad fascia, of a yellowish-white or pale golden tint ;
cilia greyish. Posterior wings and cilia grey.
COMPARISON OF N. CENTIFOLIELLA WITH N. PLAGICOLELLA, ETC. — This
insect is readily distinguished from the two other rose-feeding Xepti-
culae, anomalella and anyulifasciella, but bears considerable resemblance
to the sloe-feeding X.playicolella and the hawthorn-feeding X.ir/nobilella.
From the former it is distinguished by the browner (less golden-
brown) base of the anterior wings, and by the fascia being less shining ;
from the latter, in which the basal half of the anterior wings is rather
of a pale golden-brown, the different colour of that portion of the
wing is a sufficient distinction, and, besides, the fascia is more oblique
in N. centifoliella than in N. iijnobilella. The position of the fascia
serves also to distinguish it from X. betulicola, for in .Y. centifoliella
it is only a little beyond the middle, whilst in X. betulicola it is con-
siderably beyond the middle, just before the violet apex (Stainton).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is generally deposited on the underside of a
rose-leaf, though sometimes on the upper side.
MINE. — The larva makes a slender sinuous gallery, which from its
commencement is not entirely filled up with the black excrement, but
has a narrow, empty border on each side of the track. In the latter
half of the mine the excrement is brownish (Stainton). Sorhagen
describes the mine as " slender, slightly sinuous, almost parallel with
the margin of the leaf ; the excremental line, black (for some distance
brownish), slender, placed in the centre of the gallery."
LARVA. — Length 2 lines. Pale amber, darker towards the anal
end ; dorsal vessel dark green ; head brown with two dark brown
lobes receding into the prothorax (Stainton). Hodgkinson says that
" the full-.fed larva is dark brick-red " (Entow., xvii., p. 166).
COCOON. — The cocoon is spun on the ground, and is of a brownish
colour (Stainton). Cocoons of the summer brood may be found like
those of X. anomalella at the base of a leaf of the food-plant (Fletcher).
FOOD'PLANTS. — Rosa rubti/inosa and li. micrantha. This has long
been recognised as the "sweet-briar " species. Fletcher (at Worthing),
and Digby (at Purbeck), however, have bred it from It. sjiinosissiina.
Stainton gives : llosa centifolia.
NEPTICULA CENTIFOLIELLA. Hot)
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double-brooded, the imagines
appearing in April-May, and again at the end of July, from larvaa
that feed up in October, and at the end of June. Mann says that it
flies at Brussa in May ; Hodgkinson records breeding imagines early
in May, 1884, from mines obtained the previous October, at Leyland.
Imagines on April 23rd, 1866, and June 7th, 1869, at Cheshunt
(Boyd). Threlfall bred imagines on April 12th, 1881, from larvae
obtained at Ashton Park, from September 18th-0ctober 14th, 1880.
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE: Cambridge (Farren). DORSET: Portland (Richard-
son), Bloxworth (Cambridge), Purbeck (Digby). HERTS: Cheshunt (Boyd).
LANCASHIRE : Ashton Park, nr. Preston (Threlfall), Leyland (Hodgkinson).
SUSSEX : downs nr. Worthing and Seaford (Fletcher).
DISTRIBUTION. — Mann records the species from Brussa, in Asia
Minor. The European localities are — Austria : Vienna (Herrich-
Schafter). France : Nohaut (Sand). Germany : generally distributed,
Stettin, Hamburg, etc. (Sorhagen), Frankfort-on-the-Main (Heyden),
Berlin (Bouche), Batisbon (Hoffmann), Breslau (Heinemann and
Wocke), Alsace (Peyerimhoff).
NEPTICULA HODGKINSONI, Stainton (? var. praec. sp.).
SYNONYMY.— Species : Hodgkinsotii, Sta., " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxi., p. 103 (1884) ;
Meyr., "Handbook," etc., pp. 719-720.
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Exp. alar. 2^-3 lines. Tuft of the head
black. Anterior wings, with the entire basal portion, rich golden-
brown (with no tinge of purple before the fascia) ; the fascia placed
beyond the middle, nearly perpendicular, bright pale golden ; beyond
the fascia the apical portion is deep purple with the cilia grey. There
are two specimens exactly alike, which both appear to be males. The
third specimen is a female, and has the basal portion of the anterior
wings paler, more bronzy ; the fascia has more of a silvery lustre,
and is rather obliquely placed (Stainton, Ent. Mo. Ma;/., xxi., p. 103).
NOTE ON NEPTICULA HODGKINSONI AND N. CENTIFOLIELLA. — X. centi-
foliella and N. hodykinsoni are another pair of more or less doubtful
species. Fletcher writes, in answer to a query of ours : " The mine
in Rosa spinosissima (E.M.M., xxi., p. 108), I now refer to N. centi-
folidla. It is the same species as I bred from the small flowered
sweet-briar (R. rubiyinosa subsp. micrantha), nr. Worthing, and from
K. npinoxissima, nr. Seaford. I am not, however, fully convinced that
JV. hodykimoni is distinct from this species. The Portland species
from " sweet-briar " has been identified as N. centifolieHa. Many
of the latter have the head briyht "ferruginous," some black (Nat.
Hist. T/H., vii., p. 208). Most of my examples from Sussex have heads
" black," rarely "blackish-fuscous."
LARVA.— Yellow (Threlfall).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Bred in June, 1884, from larvae found
mining in the leaves of roses the previous autumn. Threlfall bred
imagines on May 20th, 1881, from larvre taken at Preston, August
20th, 1880.
FOOD-PLANT. — Bred from ordinary-sized rose leaves, thus not to be
mistaken for the leaves of E. spinosissima, which, moreover, does,
not grow at Leyland (Stainton).
LOCALITIES. — LANCASHIRE : Leyland, nr. Preston (Hodgkinson).
NEPTICULA BETULICOLA, Stainton.
SYNONYMY. — Species: Bctulicola, Sta., " Ent. Ann.," 1856, p. 42 ; " Man.," ii.,
p. 430 (1859) ; Frey, •• Die Tineen," etc., p. 387 (1856) ; " Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 424 (1857);
270 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Hein.. " Wien. Monats.." 1862, p. 303 ; Hein. and Sta., " Zool.," 1863, p. 83G9 ;
Nolck., "Lep. Fn. Estland," p. 773 (1871); Staud. and Wocke, "Cat.," p. 337
(1871) ; Hein. and Wocke, •• Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 748 (1877) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep.
Auv.,"p. 201 (1879); Wallgrn., ' Ent. Tids.," ii., p. 127 (1881); Bang-Haas,
" N. H. Tids.," xiii., p. 217 (1881) ; Peyer., » Cat. Lep. Als.," 2nd Ed., ii., p. 104
(1882) ; Snellen, " De Vlinders," etc., p. 991 (1882) ; Sorhagen, " Die Kleinschmett.
Brandbg.," p 306 (1886) ; Hering, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," lii., p. 220 (1891) ; Meyr.,
" Handbook," etc.. p. 720 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Alls anticis fusco-aeneis, apice purpureo-
tincto, fascia postica argenteo albida ; capillis luteis, f usco-mixtis.
Exp. al. 2 lin. Head and face yellowish, slightly mixed with fuscous ;
antennae fuscous, basal joint whitish. Anterior wings bronzy-brown,
considerably beyond the middle is a silvery-whitish fascia, of variable
breadth, placed nearly perpendicularly ; the apical portion of the wing
is purplish-brown ; cilia fuscous. .^ Posterior wings grey, with grey
cilia (Stainton, Ent. Annual, 1856,'p. 42).
IMAGO. — Head ochreous. Anterior wings 5 mm. ; bronzy-brown,
the tip purplish-brown ; considerably beyond the middle of the wing
a whitish fascia, nearly straight ; cilia purple-grey tipped with whitish
grey, at the anal angle darker. Posterior wings and cilia grey.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The males are rather smaller and browner ;
frequently the fascia does not extend quite to the costa, and the head
is fuscous, with white eye-caps. The females are purplish from the
base to the fascia, which extends quite to the costa, and the head is
yellow. The insect varies in intensity of colour with the temperature
and climatic conditions of the season. Some years ago, in a hot
summer, I bred some as brilliant as N. alnctdla (Threlfall). In the
male, the frontal tuft is pale luteous-yellow, sometimes almost dirty-
white, the small cervical tuft still paler, the eye-caps small and silvery-
white ; in the female, the frontal tuft is bright ochreous-yellow, the
cervical tuft luteous, the larger eye-caps are pale yellow with a
silvery gloss (Heinemann).
VARIATION. — The moths that I bred in September, 1894, from larvre
feeding in leaves of Betula nana, and sent to me from Rannoch, by
Salvage, may be this species, but they are smaller, have black heads in
both sexes, and the fascia is distinctly more silvery and less golden, and
the apical cilia have more whitish scales, especially near the costa, than
those bred from B. alba, and obtained in Tilgate Forest and Abbott's
Wood. I am by no means convinced that the northern insect is
identical with our southern N. betulicola (Fletcher).
COMPARISON OF N. BETULICOLA WITH N. MICROTHERIKLLA, N. PLAGI-
COLELLA, ETC. — The fascia of N. betulicola is more posteriorly placed
than in .V. Hiirnttheriella, in the latter, too, the fascia is not shining ;
in N. betulicola it is perceptibly silvery (Stainton). This species is
most nearly allied to N. jilar/icolella, and is sometimes very difficult to
distinguish from it, but the latter has the frontal tuft much brighter
ferruginous, and the antennae are longer, reaching in the female to
the middle of the anterior wings, and in the male perceptibly beyond
the middle ; besides, in N. playicolella, the ground colour of the
anterior wings is more bronzy, paler and more glossy, and not so
inclined to black-grey ; before the fascia there is a more decided
violet tinge ; the base, on the other hand, is always rather paler, dull
bronze-colour; the fascia is, just beyond the middle of the wing,
rarely as narrow as in N, betulicola, and has a more decided metallic
NEPTICULA BETULICOLA, 271
lustre ; the cilia are decidedly of a darker grey ; moreover, in
A", jilaiiiculella the middle tibiae are not paler than the other legs.
.V. microtkeridla may be distinguished by the narrower anterior wings,
suffused with violet, and before the tip almost of a pure blue, by the
narrow, rather oblique fascia, and by the darker grey cilia. N. Inteella
has the disc of the anterior wings less smooth and dull, the fascia
is not placed so posteriorly, and perceptibly expands on the inner
margin, inclining to yellowish with very slight glossiness (Heinemann).
MINE. — The mine is small, narrow and coarse at the commence-
ment, generally much contorted and several are often crowded together
in a leaf. The black frass is deposited in the gallery without any
order, and is deposited differently in different mines ; usually it does
not much more than half fill the gallery, sometimes it almost does so,
the mine at the same time often being narrower and shorter than usual,
and coming very near the mine of AT. lutedla. The irregularity
appears to depend on the nature of the leaves, for it will be found
that the latter are appreciably thinner, and their network of veinlets
more open where the gallery is only half filled, than where it is more
completely filled (Wood). Threlfall says that " the mine is filled with
brown excrement," but Douglas remarks that the mine is filled with
brown excrement in the latter half of the mine only, the excrement
being greenish-grey in the central portion. Heinemann notes that
the mine is rather broad, tortuous, with a loose excremental track in
the middle. Frey writes : " Die Mine ist eiu massig langer und gewun-
dener schmaler Gang, welcher von der breiten, braunlichen Kothlinie
ganzlich erfiillt ist (Die Tineen, etc., p. 387).
LARVA. — The larva is bright yellow in colour, with a brown head,
and distinctly green dorsal vessel. It mines with the venter up, and
thus shows distinctly the ventral cord which forms a chain of
inconspicuous, linear markings. There is a superficial skin mark on
the venter of the prothorax, this spot and the ventral cord being
brown in colour, not black as in the larva of N. diititufvenda, Frey
says : " The larva is 2 lines in length. It is very dirty yellow in
colour, with a darker alimentary canal showing through. It has a
light brown head."
COCOON. — The cocoons (4) average 2-25 mm. in length and 1*75 mm.
in width. There appears to be some variation in shape, one of the
cocoons being somewhat of the typical " mussel " shape, the others
rather oblong-oval in outline, one particularly so. There is a some-
what flattened flange at the wider end, from which the dome-shaped
portion rises gradually, at the other end more rapidly. The raised
portion is red-brown in colour, the flange ochreous. The surface is
somewhat smooth on the raised portion, rougher, and covered with
loose, flossy pale silk along the flanged edge. [Described June 15th,
1898, under a two-thirds lens, from cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.]
Wood says: " The cocoon is usually spun up on the surface of the
ground, and is brownish-ochreous in colour." Frey describes it as :
" Liinglich rund, ockerfarben, ziemlich flach und glatt." Heinemann
notes it as being " yellowish-brown, flat, generally rather broader afc
one end." Cocoons received from Fletcher, made by larvae that had
fed on B. nana, are somewhat yellower and brighter in colour than
those received from Wood, but otherwise, in form, structure, and general
appearance, they appear to be identical.
272 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
FOOD-PLANTS. — Birch (Betula alba) and probably B. nana. This
species much prefers little seedling plants, and is often very scarce on
the taller trees, whilst abundant at the ground level (Wood). Heine-
111 aim has counted as many as twenty-five larvae in a single leaf of B. alba.
Threlfall notes that this species affects " low birches on mosses."
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double-brooded, appearing in
May and August, from larvae that have fed up the previous September-
October and July respectively. Mines were found commonly on
Oct. llth, 1892, at Darenth, and Oct. 13th, 1893, at Chislehurst
(Bower). Larvae were found at Witherslack on August 5th, 1877,
and produced imagines in May, 1878 ; other larvae from Oct. 1st-
20th, 1878, at Grange, and again on July 6th, 1879, at Witherslack, the
latter produced imagines August 15tji (Threlfall). We have imagines
bred by Threlfall, from larvae obtained'at the same place Sept. 2nd, 1886.
Mines were obtained by Sang on Oct. 7th, 1857, at Barnard Castle ;
Oct. 8th, 1874, Aug. 17th, 1877, Oct. 29th, 1879, at High Force ;
July 13th, 1878, Aug. 22nd, 1880, at Witherslack ; Oct. 14th, 1878,
at Wolsingham (teste Gardner). Frey writes : " Die Spuren der
Sommerbrut fand ich im letzten Sommer am 18th August bei Brem-
garten in den verlassenen Miuen. Die zweite Generation findet sich
hier bei Zurich zu Ende September und in der ersten Oktoberhiilfte,
weniger an kleinen Biischen als jiingeren Baumen. Im Herbste
1855 war die Mine selten, im folgenden Jahre ziemlich haufig und an
unseren benachbarten Bergen bis etwa 1000 Fuss iiber die Thal-
sohle zu verfolgen." Stainton bred imagines from May lst-17tb, 1870,
from Perth larvse.
LOCALITIES. — CHESHIRE : Bowdon (Edleston). DORSET : Purbeck and Blox-
worth (Bankes). DURHAM: Barnard Castle, High Force, Wolsingham (Sang).
HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood). KENT: West Wickham (Stainton), Darenth
and Chislehurst (Bower). LANCASHIRE : Manchester (Stainton), Grange and Preston
(Threlfall). LEICESTER : Market Harborough (Matthews), Whitwick (Sang).
NORFOLK: King's Lynn (Atmore). PERTHSHIRE: Moncrieffe Hill (Moncrieffe).
Kannoch [I refer a Nep. locally abundant on Betula nana to this species (Fletcher) ].
Ben Chearan and Strathglass on 7?. nana (White teste Stainton). SURREY :
Headley Lane (Douglas), Mickleham (Stainton). SUSSEX: Abbott's Wood and
Tilgate Forest (Fletcher). WESTMORLAND: Witherslack (Sang). YORKS: Richmond
(Sang), Sheffield (Doncaster).
DISTRIBUTION. — Denmark : North-east Zealand (Bang-Haas).
France : Sommerere, Sologne-du-Cher (Sand). Germany : generally
distributed in N. Germany (Heinemann and Wocke), Alt Damm,
Friedland (Hering), Brunswick and Hanover (Heinemann), Jungfern-
heide, Hamburg (Sorhagen), Saverne (Peyerimhoff). Netherlands :
various localities in Gelderland and N.Brabant (Snellen). Russia:
Pichtendahl, Tursa Moor (Nolcken), Aland (Reuter). Scandinavia :
Scania (Wallengren). Switzerland : Bremgarten, nr. Zurich (Frey).
NEPT1CULA PLAGICOLELLA,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Plaglcolella, Sta., "Ins. Brit.." pp. 303-304 (1854);
"Nat. Hist. Tin.," L, p. ICO, pi. iv., fig. 1 (1855); "Man.," ii., p. 437 (1859);
H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 350 (1855) ; Frey, " Die Tineen," etc., p. 387 (1856) ;
"Linn. Ent.." xi.. p. 426 (1857); Staud. and Wocke, "Cat.," p. 337 (1871);
Nolck., "Lep. Fn. Estl., p. 775 (1871); Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.,"
p 750(1877); Sand, "Cat. Lep. Auvergne," p. 201 (1879); Erschoil. "Trudy
Kuss. Ent. Soc.," xii., p. 221 (1881) ; Wallgrn., "Ent. Tids.," ii., p. 127 (1881) ;
Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Alsace," 2nd Ed., ii., p. 104 (1882) ; Snellen, " De Vlinders,"
p. 990(1882); Sorhagen, " Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 306 (1886); Hering,
" Stett. Ent, Zeit.," lii., p. 220 (1891) ; Meyrick, " Handbook," etc., p. 720 (1895).
NEPTICULA PLAGICOLELLA. 278
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Nepticida playicolella, n. sp. Alls anticis
nitidis fuscis, postice purpureo-tinctis, fascia fere recta pone medium
nitida, albida, parum argentea ; capillis ferrugineis. Exp. al. 2 lin.
Head and face reddish-yellow. Palpi whitish. Antennae fuscous,
basal joint whitish. Anterior wings shining fuscous, with a purple
tinge, which begins before the middle of the wing ; beyond the middle
is a nearly straight, shining, whitish, rather silvery fascia ; cilia
fuscous. Posterior wings pale grey, with pale grey cilia. Appears in
May and August, but I believe not hitherto met with in the perfect
state. The larva mines in the leaves of sloe in autumn and July,
making large whitish blotches ; in some places it is exceedingly
plentiful ; the cocoon is rather flat (Stainton, Insecta Britannica,
pp. 303-304).
IMAGO. — Head reddish. Anterior wings 4-5 mm. ; shining fuscous,
with a purple tinge nearly from the base ; beyond the middle is a
nearly straight, shining, rather silvery, transverse fascia ; cilia dark
blackish-grey. Posterior wings and cilia pale grey.
COMPARISON OF N. PLAGICOLELLA WITH N. BETULICOLA, ETC. —
This species is nearer to N. betulicola than to any other of the species
already dealt with. In the latter the head-hairs are paler, the cilia of
the fore-wings lighter and purer grey, the transverse band less shining
and placed beyond the centre, at least two-thirds of the length of the
wing from the base, whilst in N. betulicola the transverse band is
nearer the centre of the wing. Its resemblance also to N. microtheri-
ella may lead to confusion, but this species is smaller, the head-hairs
are not reddish, but ochreous ; the fore-wings and the band, too, are
loss shining, the latter is silvery and placed more obliquely. It also
resembles N. centifoliella ; the head of the rose-miner, however, is
lighter, more yellowish, and it is somewhat broader-winged, whilst the
colour of the fore-wings is less dark, and the band less shining, in those
specimens which most resemble N. playicolella in breadth and form of
wing. The transverse band of N. centifoliella, too, is probably placed
somewhat further beyond the middle of the wing than in Ar. playicolella,
and, lastly, the fringes are brown-black, darker than in AT. plat/icolella,
yet, it must be confessed that the separation of the two species does
not appear to me to be easy (Frey). Stainton notes that A', plat/icoldla
" belongs to that section of the genus in which there is a single brilliantly
metallic fascia on the anterior wings ; the whitish silvery colour and
the nearly straight direction of the fascia, at once separate it from
most of the allied species, and the reddish-yellow colour of the head
distinguishes it easily from the fuscous-headed N, acetnsae, and the
black-headed Ar. pnmetorwn."
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the upper side of a sloe leaf.
MINE. — When newly-hatched, the larva commences a long and
extremely slender mine, which, being filled with blackish excrement,
appears almost as a crooked black line ; but, after continuing in this
linear track for some distance, the larva mines a complete blotch of an
irregular oval figure, and of a pale greenish-white colour ; in the
central portion of this blotch the black excrement forms a little heap ;'
' not unfrequently two larvae, mining in the same leaf, will meet at the
blotched portion of the mine, and have a larger blotch in common.
The larva leaves its mine to spin its cocoon (Stainton). Frey writes :
" Die Mine, in welcher zuweilen zwei Baupchen angetroffen werden,
274 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
beginnt als ein sehr feiner, von der braunschwarzen Kothreihe ganz
erfiillter Gang, welcher dann plotzlich in einen unbestimmt rundlichen,
oft stark ausgebuchteten, griinlich weissen Fleck iibergeht, worin die
Excremente einen unregelmiissigen Haufen bilden." Sorhagen writes :
" Die Fleckenmine entwickelt sich plotzlich aus einer f einen langen
Gangmine, die mit schwarzem Kothe ganz gefiillt ist, wiihrend sie
selbst griinlich weiss ist und den Koth in einera Haufen in der Mitte
hat. Oft bilden 2 Raupen eine gemeinschaftliche gi-ossere Blatter mit
2 Kothhaufchen."
LARVA. — Length 2 lines. Pale amber, shining, transparent, dorsal
vessel slightly greener ; head small, reddish -brown, working up under
the prothorax, through the upper surface of which the posterior part
can be distinctly seen (Stainton). Frey writes : " Die Larve in den
beiden Generationen, der sommerlichen (bei uns schon in der zweiten
Junihalfte) und der herbstlichen, bis tief in den Oktober hinein an
Schlehen (Prua/tu spinosa) und auch an Zwetschenbaumen (Pntmu
domestica). Sie ist blassgelb mit dunkler durchschimmerndem Darm-
kanale und einem rothlich-braunen Kopfchen."
COMPARISON OF THE LARVA AND MINE OF N. PLAGICOLELLA WITH
THOSE OF N. PRUNETORUM. — The larva of N. playleoldla is yellow, and
makes a clear whitish blotch, preceded by a slender gallery. The
larva of N. prunetorum is green, and its mine is coiled like a watch-
spring, afterwards extending round the edge of the leaf ; the " frass "
fills up the gallery, and makes it light brown (Threlfall).
COCOON. — The cocoons (7) average 3mm. in length and 1-75 mm.
in width, forming a long oblong-oval. There is a wide flange round
three sides of the cocoon, one of the long sides being, however, almost
devoid of it. This side rises almost directly to the highest point of the
domed surface which surmounts the flange, the elevation being more
gradual on the other sides. The domed area is comparatively smooth,
with a few fine, slender, irregular reticulations, rather darker than the
ground-colour ; the latter is ochreous-brown, inclining to yellowish.
There is a considerable amount of loose flossy silk of the same colour
as the silk of the cocoon scattered over the flange, a similar, but much
thinner, .coating covering the domed surface. [Described June IGth,
1898, under a two-thirds lens, from cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.]
Stainton describes the cocoon as " brown, rather flat, especially at the
edges, and in shape not far from circular ; the pupa protrudes its
anterior segments through the end of the cocoon previous to the
escape of the imago." Frey writes : " Der lebhaft rothbraune Cocon
ist glatt, rundlich und sehr stark abgeflacht."
FOOD-PLANTS. — Prunus xpinosa and P. donu-xtica. Fletcher adds :
Abundant in sloe, in garden plums, in Prunus myrobaloHa, P. fKvaricata
var. pitxardii and P. japonica (rine&rit),
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — There are two broods, the imagines appear-
ing in May, June and August, the larvfc of these feeding respectively
in September-October, and July-August. Stainton bred imagines,
from Lewisham, on July 12th-29th, 1852, from larvro found at the
end of June, 1852; July 28th- August 21st, 1858; April 10th-30th, 1854;
May 2nd-llth, 1855 ; also from larvae taken at Cheshunt, April 30th,
1854 ; imagines were caught at Dartford, June 22nd, 1852, and at
Lewisham, flying along hedges, from 5.80 a.m. to 6.30 a.m., on May
16th, 1852. Mines were found in sloe, on October 5th, 1891, at
NEPTICULA PLAGICOLELLA. 275
Darenth, October 25th, 1892, at Eltham, October 2nd, 1892, at
Lewisham, and in plum (as well as sloe), on September 26th, 1895, at
Lewisham (Bower). Jordan notes the conspicuous blotches made by
the larva of this species on the sloe, at Haldon, on September 21st,
1865. Threlfall bred it from May 24th-30th, 1879, from larvae obtained
at Grange on October 5th, 1878. Nolcken found imagines on June
24th, 1862, at Pichtendahl (Fletcher).
LOCALITIES. — BOCKS : Loudwater (Boyd). CAMBRIDGE : Cherryhinton (Farren).
CHESHIRE: Bowdon (Edleston). DERBY: Henhurst (Sang). DEVON: Haldon
(Jordan), Dawlish (Stainton). DORSET: Portland and Weymouth (Richardson),
Purbeck (Bankes). DUBLIN : Artone, Dunnycarney (Birchall). DURHAM : Dar-
lington (Sang). HERTS: Cheshunt (Boyd). HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood).
KENT : Lewisham, Dartford Heath (Stainton), Darenth and Eltham (Bower).
LANCASHIRE: Manchester (Stainton), Preston and Grange (Threlfall). NORFOLK:
common and widely distributed in West Norfolk, King's Lynn, etc. (Atmore).
SUFFOLK: Eendham (Bloomfield), Lowestoft (Boyd). SUSSEX: Worthing, abun-
dant (Fletcher), Guestling (Bloomfield). WESTMORLAND : Witherslack (Threlfall).
YORKSHIRE : Scarborough and Richmond (Sang), Doncaster (Warren).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Nohaut, Indre (Sand). Germany : gener-
ally distributed (Heinemann and Wocke), Potsdam, Havelland, Fried-
land, Hamburg (Sorhagen), Frankfort-on-Main (Schmid), Brunswick
(Heinemaim), Alsace (Peyerimhoff) , Alt Damm, Jubo (Hering).
Netherlands : Groningen, Drenthe, Gelderland, N. Brabant (Snellen).
Kussia : Finland (Wocke), St. Petersburg (Erschoff), Pichtendahl
(Nolcken). Scandinavia : Scania (Wallengren). Switzerland : Zurich,
Baden, Bremgarten (Frey).
NEPTICULA MICROTHEEIELLA,
SYNONYMY.— Species: Microtheriella, Sta., " Ins. Brit.," p. 302 (1854); "Nat.
Hist. Tin.," i., p. 118, pi. ii., fig. 3 (1855) ; " Man.," ii., p. 435 (1859) ; H.-Sch..
" Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 350 (1855) ; Frey, " Die Tineen," etc., p. 386 (185G) ;
" Linn. Ent.." xi.. p. 419 (1857) ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.." p. 337 (1871) ; Nolck..
" Lep. Fn. Est.," p. 772 (1871) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett, Deutsch ." p. 747
(1877) ; Sand, "Cat. Lep. Auvergne," p. 201 (1879); Bang-Haas. " N. H. Tids.,"
xiii., p. 217 (1881) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Alsace," 2nd Ed., ii., p. 164 (1882) ; Snellen.
" De Vlinders," p. 992(1882); Sorhagen, " Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 305
(1886); Meyr., "Handbook," etc., p. 720 (1895); Kirby, "Handbook." etc.,
vol. v., p. 314 (1897).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Nepticula microtlieriella, Wing, n. sp. Alis
anticis fuscis, paullulum purpureo-tinctis, praecipue apicem versus,
fascia tenui, subobliqua pone medium albida ; capillis luteis, fusco-
mixtis. Exp. al. If lin. Head and face yellowish, slightly mixed
with fuscous. Palpi whitish. Antennae fuscous, basal joint whitish.
Anterior wings fuscous, slightly tinged with purple, especially towards
the apex ; beyond the middle is a slightly oblique, rather slender,
whitish fascia ; cilia fuscous. Posterior wings grey, with paler cilia.
The smallest known lepidopterous insect. Appears in May and
August, but rarely met with in the perfect state ; the small yellowish -
green larva makes extremely narrow tortuous galleries in the leaves
of the nut and hornbeam, occurring in autumn and July. It is some-
times so abundant that upwards of thirty may be found in a single
leaf. The rather firm cocoon is of a pale buff colour (Stainton,
Insccta Britannica, p. 802).
IMAGO. — Head ochreous. Anterior wings 3-4 mm. ; fuscous slightly
tinged with purple, especially towards the tip ; beyond the middle is
a slightly oblique, rather slender, whitish, transverse fascia ; cilia
blackish-grey. Posterior wings grey with paler cilia,
276 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
COMPARISON OF N. MICROTIIERIELLA WITH THE ALLIED SPECIES. —
N. microtlwriella belongs to that section of the genus in which there
is a single distinct pale fascia on each of the anterior wings, but the
fascia is not brilliantly metallic ; indeed, in this species, the fascia is
less shining than in any of the allied species, and it may by this
character alone be readily distinguished from N. it/nobilella, N. i>la;/i-
colella, N. tityrella and AT. nialella, in all of which the fascia is
perceptibly shining. From N. arf/entipedella and N. acetnxae it can be
distinguished by the more yellowish colour of the fascia, which is
more obliquely placed than in N, acetosae ; at the same time,
the size alone of N. aryentiptddU would sufficiently distinguish it
from AT. microtheriella, which is certainly the smallest lepidopterous
insect at present known (Stainton). -Fletcher notes that imagines of
X. potent and X. ftlipendulae are quite as small as those of X. micro-
theriella, whilst those of .Y. acetosae are much smaller. In a very
long series, Fletcher says that he has not a single X. acetosae as large
as his smallest specimen of X. microtheriella.
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is deposited on the underside of a leaf of
nut or hornbeam, generally close to a rib, and almost entirely con-
cealed by the projection of the rib, and the short hairs to be found on
the back of the nut-leaf. It is rather more conspicuous when laid on
a leaf of hornbeam.
MINE. — The larva commences its extremely narrow mine, proceeding
in a straight line close along a rib, and then turning off at a sharp
angle, when it meets another rib ; at times it crosses from one rib to
another, its path then being irregular and sinuous ; the excrement
forms a slender black line, which gradually becomes thicker, and
manifestly formed of individual grains ; it is occasionally interrupted
for short distances, but never loses its linear appearance ; the mine
appears on either side as a slender whitish-green streak. The larva
leaves the mine to pupate (Stainton). Frey writes : " Die Mine ist
ein sehr diinner, ausserordentlich langer Gang, in welchem eine sehr
feine Kothlinie die Seitenriinder nicht erreicht. In dem Haselblatte
verliiuft sie in unregelmassigen Windungen, oft mit einer zweiten und
dritten Mine sich kreuzend. In Hainbuchenbliittern dagegen liiuft
sie in starken, winkligen Biegungen, z. B. eine Strecke dem Rando
entlang, dann dicht neben einer Seitenrippe bin bis zur Mittelrippe,
von welcher sie sich dann plotzlich umbiegcnd wieder cntfernen kann "
(Die Tineen, etc., p. 886).
LARVA. — Length 1£ lines ; very pale amber, with the dorsal vessel
dark green, giving, at first sight, the larva a greenish appearance, the
7th and 8th abdominal segments reddish ; head pale reddish-brown,
the hinder part showing through the prothorax (Stainton). The larva
mines with the venter uppermost.
COMPARISON OF THE LARVAE OF N. MICROTHERIELLA AND N. FLOS-
LACTELLA. — Sie ist als Raupe und nach der Mine nicht ganz leicht von
X. floxlactella zu trennen, mit der sie bei uns gloichzeitig in den
Blattern von Corylvt avellana lebt, an deren Unterseite die Eier
beider Arten gelegt werden. Die Raupen beider sind blass gelb, aber
in veranderlichen Niiancen, mit griinem Darm, welcher dem giinzon
Leibo mehr oder weniger einen griinlichen Schein giebt ; im Allge-
moinon ist X. microtheriella als Raupe die blasser gefiirbte, namcntlich
ist ihr braunlicher Kopf, der manchmal fast farblos wasserhell sein
NEPTICULA MICROTHERIELLA, 277
kann, immer viel heller als bei N. Jlmlactella, deren Kopf besonders
nach hinten ziemlich intensiv braun gefarbt 1st (Nolcken).
COCOON. — The cocoons (8) average 2-1 mm. in length and 1-6 mm.
in width. There is some variation in shape, but most of the examples
examined form a rough oval in outline, narrowed towards one end.
This variation is possibly due to an exceedingly thick coating of loose
flossy silk, in which the cocoon proper is enveloped, being unequally
distributed over it. The broad part of the cocoon appears to be
flanged, although this is to a certain extent hidden by the flossiness
of the outer coat. This end, too, is thinner, but gradually rises to meet
the more swollen portion of the cocoon at the narrower end. The inner
cocoon is closely woven and apparently tough. There is much varia-
tion in the colour ; the normal tint is yellow-brown, but some of the
cocoons have a strong suspicion of bright orange, whilst one or two
of them are inclined to be greyish. [Described June 16th, 1898,
under a two-thirds lens from cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.] Stainton
describes the cocoon as being " of a pale buff colour, rather egg-shaped,
the whole of it firmly woven, with no flossy exterior, and considerably
smaller than that of N. floslactella." Frey writes : " Der Cocon oval,
klein, platt, ist von Hainbuchenraupen weisslich gelb, von Hasel-
riiupchen dunkel ockerfarben."
FOOD-PLANTS. — Corylus avellana and Carpinu* betulus.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double-brooded, the imagines
appearing in May and August, from larvae to be obtained in October
and July respectively. Stainton bred imagines on February lst-2nd,
March 25th, April 14th-22nd and August 2nd-6th, 1858 ; April 25th,
1854 ; April 3rd-4th and November 2nd, 1855, and April 28th, 1858.
He captured imagines on palings at Beckenham, on June 17th, 1851,
and at Lewisham, May 8th, 1848. The larvae are sometimes so
exceedingly abundant in October that a single nut-leaf has been known
to contain thirty mines. Machin records the larva in the middle of
September, at Plumstead ; Bower, on October llth, 1892, at Darenth.
Nolcken records the larvae from August 24th to September 27th; at
Rotsikiill and Pichtendahl. Threlfall bred imagines on May 16th.
1878, from larvae obtained at Grange, October 6th, 1877. We observed
full-fed larvae near Chatham on July 9th, 1898.
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge (Farren). CHESHIRE : Bowdon (Edles-
ton). DERBY: Burton (Sang). DORSET: Purbeck (Bankes), Glanvilles Wootton
(Dale), Bloxworth (Cambridge), Weymouth (Eichardson). DURHAM: Darlington
(Stainton). GLOUCESTER : Bristol (Stainton). HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood),
KENT : Lewisham, Beckenham (Stainton), Chatham (Tutt), Darenth (Bower),
Plumstead (Machin). LANCASHIRE : Manchester^Stainton), Grange (Hodgkinson).
NORFOLK: Horstead (Barrett), King's Lynn (Atmore). NORTHUMBERLAND:
Newcastle (Stainton). SOMERSET: Clevedon (Mason). SUFFOLK: Great Glenham
(Bloomfield). SURREY: Croydon (Elisha). SUSSEX: common in the county
(Fletcher), Guestling (Bloomfield). YORKS : Doncaster (Corbett), Harrogate and
Eichmond (Sang), Scarborough (Stainton), Sheffield (Doncaster), York (Wilson).
DISTRIBUTION. — Denmark : North Zealand (Bang-Haas). France :
Sommerere, Sologne-du-Cher (Sand). Germany : generally distri-
buted (Heinemann and Wocke), Frankfort-on-the-Main (Schmid),
Berlin, Friedland, Hamburg, Stettin (Sorhagen), Alsace (Peyerim-
hoff). Netherlands : S. Holland, Friesland, Drenthe, Overijssel,
Gelderland, N. Brabant (Snellen). Russia : I. of Aland (Reuter),
Rotsikiill, Pichtendahl (Nolcken). Switzerland : nr. Ziirich (Frey),
Bremgarten (Boll).
278 BKITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
NEPTICULA IGNOBILELLA,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Ignobilella, Sta., "Cat. Brit. Tin.," p. 29 (1849) ; "Ins.
Brijt.," p. 302 (1854); •• Nat. Hist. Tin.," i., p. 246, pi. vii.. fig. 1 (1855) ; " Man.,"
ii., p. 434 (1859); H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 350 (1855); Frey, "Linn.
Ent.," xi., p. 414 (1857) ; Constant, " Mem. Nat. Hist. Autun," xii., p. 354 (1866);
Sand, "Cat. Lep. Auvergne," p. 201 (1879); Wallgrn , "Ent. Tids.," ii., p. 127
(1881) ; Snellen. " De Vlinders,"etc., p. 988 (1882) ; Wood. " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxx.,
p. 47 (1894) ; Meyr., " Handbook." etc., p. 721 (1895). I<jnobiUella. Staud.
and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 337 (1871) ; Sorhagen, "Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.,"
p. 345(1886).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Nepticula itjnobilella, Sta. ? Posticetta,
Haw., St. Much less brilliant than N. aurella. Basal portion of the
wing brownish ; apex violet ; fascia placed as in aurella, whitish, not
silvery ; head of the $ black ; of the-, $? ferruginous (Stainton, Sys.
Cat. Brit. Tin. and Pterophoridae, p. 29). This was extended0 by
Stainton, in the Insecta Britannica, pp. 302-303, where he writes as
follows: " X. yjnobilella, Sta., Cat., p. 29 (1849); ? aurella var. /3,
Haw. ; ? posticella, St. Alis anticis dilute aureo-brunneis, apicern
versus purpureo-tinctis, fascia recta pone medium, parum nitida, luteo-
albida ; capillis ferrugineis. Exp. al. 2|-lin. Head and face reddish -
yellow. Palpi whitish. Antennas fuscous, basal joint whitish. Anterior
wings pale golden-brown ; beyond the middle is a straight, yellowish-
white, slightly shining fascia ; the apex of the wing has a purplish
tinge ; cilia fuscous. Posterior wings pale grey, with pale grey cilia.
Appears in May and August, but not frequently met with. The
yellowish larva mines in hawthorn leaves in autumn and July, but has
not at present been distinguished from the larvae of N. pynmaeella and
N. yratiosella."
IMAGO. — Head reddish. Anterior wings 5 mm. ; pale golden-
brown ; a straight yellowish-white, slightly shining, transverse fascia
beyond the middle ; the apex of the wing tinged with purplish ; cilia
fuscous. Posterior wings and cilia pale grey.
COMPARISON OF N. IGNOBILELLA WITH ITS ALLIES. — N. v/nobilella
belongs to that section of the genus in which the dark anterior wings
have a single shining pale fascia. In this section it may be distinguished
by the anterior wings from the base to the fascia being entirely of a
pale golden-brown, resembling Ar. aurella in colour, only paler, and
without the purple tinge beyond the middle, which we notice in X.
aurella, X. playicolella, etc. The straightness of the fascia distinguishes
it readily from A", tityrella, and the greater breadth and glossiness of
the anterior wings separate it from N. microtlu>riella (Stainton).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the under (Stainton adds " rarely
on the upper ") surface of a hawthorn leaf, well away from the edge,
and often quite in the middle of the leaf.
MINE. — The mine forms a pale blotch near the edge of a hawthorn
leaf, and in the mine is a slender irregular track of black excrement.
The larva commences to mine in a very slender gallery towards the
edge of the leaf, frequently keeping close to the edge for some time.
In this first portion of its mine the excrement forms a black line of
* Stainton writes : " An indifferent description of this species, which was not
then distinguished from some of its allies, occurs in Stainton's Cat. of Brit.
Tineidae, p. 29, but the only definite description yet extant is that in the Insecta
Britannica, etc., p. 302, where the name is restricted to the species " (Nat. Hist.
Tin., i., p. 252).
NEPTICULA IGNOBILELLA. 279
gradually increasing thickness, occupying half of the width of the
mine ; but the larva now ceases to mine in a slender gallery, but
forms a large irregular blotch, along the centre of which the excre-
ment is rather irregularly placed ; the larva thus mines from the edge
towards the mid-rib of the leaf, whereas the larva of N. pyymaeella is
at the same age proceeding in an exactly opposite direction, viz.,
moving away from the midrib. These two larvaa have a considerable
resemblance, but the mines may be at once distinguished by the
colour of the excrement. When the larva is full-fed, it leaves the
mine by passing through the upper cuticle of the leaf (Stainton).
Wood writes: "The gallery is fairly long and slender, and rarely
occurs in the body of the leaf ; it wanders at first about the area
of a lobe before it reaches and follows the edge, and though this
wandering portion is afterwards absorbed by the blotch with which
the mine finishes, the fine frass-track remains undisturbed as evidence
of its former existence ; the frass of A7, ifjnobilella is black, both in
the gallery and blotch."
COMPARISON OF THE MINE OF N. IGNOBILELLA WITH THAT OF N.
KEGIELLA. — The blotch-miners, N. reyiella and N. ignobilella occur
together at about the same time, and are double-brooded, feeding in
the summer, and again late in the autumn. The small blotches that
they make at the tips of the lobes, with their yellow or yellowish
larvae, are certainly most provokingly similar, unless attention be paid
to one or more of the following points, when their discrimination
becomes as easy and pleasant as it before seemed impracticable. In
both the egg is laid on the underside, in N. reyiella quite on
the edge, in N. it/nobilella well away from it. As a consequence,
the whole course of the primary gallery of the former runs
along the edge, whereas the gallery of the latter wanders at first
about the area of the lobe before it reaches and follows the edge,
and though this wandering portion is afterwards absorbed by the
blotch, the fine frass-track remains undisturbed and is evidence
of its former existence. Next, N. reyiella deposits brown frass in its
gallery and black in the blotch, whereas the dejecta in N. ignobilella
are black in both gallery and blotch. Lastly, the head of the larva
of N. reyiella is pale brown, with the cephalic ganglia dark brown,
and consequently far more conspicuous than the head ; on the other
hand, the head of N, it/nobilella is blackish, overpowering the ganglia,
which are of a paler colour. I should add that a pair of brilliant
orange spots are frequently present on the front edge of the 2nd seg-
ment in A7, reyiella. I was inclined at one time to think that they
might be a sexual distinction, but careful breeding lent no support
to the idea. Thus, these species are distinguished by four distinct
characters, gathered from egg, mine, frass (colour) and larva. All
four are practically of much the same value, for all four are equally
constant and equally accessible to observation (Wood).
LARVA. — Length 2 lines ; pale greenish-yellow-grey, with the
dorsal vessel slightly darker ; the head is pale brown, the two posterior
lobes showing through the upper surface of the second segment
(Stainton). Wood, however, notes that "the larva is yellow or
yellowish in colour, its head is 'blackish,' and overpowers the ganglia,
which are of a paler colour." Stainton's description suggests the
larva of X. reyiella.
280 BRITISH LrEPIDOPTERA.
COCOON. — The cocoon is somewhat mussel-shaped, of a dull, dark
red colour, and rather flat — it is only slightly flossy ; the pupa pro-
trudes its anterior segments from the broad end of the cocoon previous
to the appearance of the imago (Stainton).
FOOD-PLANTS. — Cnxtaefftu o.ryacantha. Sorhagen adds : Hippophaipt
r/uiui noidi'x.
TIMK OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double-brooded, the imagines
appearing in May-June and July-August, the larva? of these broods
feeding in August- October, and July respectively. Stainton bred
imagines on July 13th-16th, 1852, November llth, 1852, August
24th, 1854 (from larvae collected August 8th, 1854), and July (5th,
1863. He also captured imagines resting on oak-trunks, on June 24th,
1851. Threlfall bred (in house) imagines from March 27th to April
3rd, 1878. from larvae obtained October 14th, 1877, at Preston.
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge (Farren). CHESHIRE : Bowdon (Edles-
ton). DERBY: Burton (Sang). DORSET: Purbeck (Bankes) , Portland, Weymouth
(ilichardson), Glanvilles Wootton (Dale). DUBLIN: Dublin (Shield). Coolock,
Howth (Birchall). EDINBURGH: Cramond (Logan). GLOUCESTER: Bristol (Stainton).
HEREFORD : Woolhope (Wood) . ISLE OF WIGHT : (Wing). KENT : Lewisham
(Stainton), Beckenham (Elisha). LANCASHIRE: Manchester (Stainton), Preston
(Threlfall). NORFOLK: Norwich (Barrett). SURREY: Micklehaiu (Stainton).
WESTMORLAND: Witherslack (Hodgkinson). YORK: Scarborough (Wilkinson),
Doncaster (Warren), York (Hind).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Saone-et-Loire (Constant), St. Florent,
Cher (Sand). Germany: Hanover (Sorhagen). Netherlands: common
(Snellen). Scandinavia: Scania (Wallengren).
NEPTICULA DISTINGUENDA, Heinemann.
SYNONYMY. — Species: Distinflwncla, Hein., "Wien. Monats.," 1862, p. 305;
Hein. and Sta., "Zool.," xxi., pp. 8371-2 (1863); Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett.
Deutsch.," p. 751 (1877) ; Sorhagen, " Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 346 (1886) ;
Hering, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," lii., p. 220 (1891); Wood, " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxx., p.
96 (1894) ; Meyr., "Handbook," etc., pp. 720-721 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION.— Capillis ochraceis, antennis maris longior-
ibus, conchula flavida ; alis anterioribus angustis, olivaceo-fuscis,
apice vix violaceis sub-opacis, fascia postica subrecta, albida, sub-
nitida, ciliis apice griseis. $ 2£ L, $ \\ L. Obgleich ich nur ein
Parchen von dieser Art besitze, so trage ich doch kein Bedenken, sic
als neu zu beschreiben, da sie von alien andern Arten sich bestimmt
unterscheidet. Sie ist sowohl der betulicola als auch der ylutino.w
uahe verwandt, grosser als erstere. Die Kopfhaare, Augendeckel uiid
Nackenschopfe, auch die Beine sind wie bei betulicola, aber die
schwarzlichen Fiihler sind bei den Mannern liinger, indem sie merklich
iiber die Mitte des Vorderfliigels bis an die Binde reichen, dagegen
sind dieselben kiirzer als bei ylutinosae, wo sie vollkommen f der
Vorderfliigellange haben und noch bis hinter die Binde reichen. Der
Hinterleib ist schwarzlich. Die Vorderfliigel sind gestreckt, schmiiler
und nicht so abgerundet, wie bei betulicola, mehr von der Form bei
ylutinosae, mit denen sie auch in dem schwachen Glanze tiberinstimmeu.
Die Flache ist nicht so glatt, die einzelnen Schuppen sind vielmehr
deutlich unter der Loupe zu erkenuen ; ihre Basis ist olivenerzfarbig,
ihre Spitzen dunkelbraun mit ganz schwachem blaulichen Anfluge,
und lassen dem unbewaffneten Auge die Flache einfiirbig olivenbraun
erscheinen. Die Binde scheint nicht ganz so weit nach aussen
geriickt, wie bei betulicola und steht vertical ; sie ist gleichfalls
ziemlich schmal, gleichbreit, etwas in's Gelbliche ziehend, aber
NEPTICULA DISTINGUENDA. 281
inerklich schwiicher glanzend. Hinter ihr 1st die Fliiche dunkler,
mit sehr schwachem violetfcblauen Anfluge, der auch die Wurzel
der Fransen bedeckt, withrend die Spitze derselben zieralich
duukelgrau ist. Die Hinterfliigel init den Fransen grau, schvvach
in's Braunliche ziehend. Bei dem viel kleineren Weibe, welches ich
hieher ziehe, sind die Fiihler kurz, die Vorderfliigel ein wenig mehr
erzfarben, die Binde ist etwas breiter und desshalb der Wurzel naher
scheinend Ich habe beide Geschlechter einmal aus Birken-
blattern zu gleicher Zeit gezogen, bevor ich betulicola und lutcdla
kaunte, und Raupe und Mine derzeit nicht genauer beobachtet. Im
vergangenen Herbste fand ich in einem Birkenblatte eine einzelne
Raupe, die von den Raupen deriibrigen Birken-Nepticulen verschieden
scheint, bis jetzt aber keinen Falter gegeben hat. Diese kann zu
dixtin<iiu'nda gehoren. Sie ist wachsgelb, die Mine gewunden, ganz
von dunklem Kothe ausgefiillt (Heinernann, Wien. Ent, MonatsckHft,
vi. (18G2), pp. 305-306).
IMAGO. — Head ochreous. Anterior wings 4-5 mm., narrow ; olive-
fuscous, the apical portion of the wing darker, slightly purplish ;
fascia just beyond middle of wing, vertical, rather narrow, whitish-
yellow, slightly glossy ; cilia very dark grey with paler apices. Poste-
rior wings and their cilia brownish-grey.
COMPAEISON OF N. DISTINGUENDA WITH N. BETULICOLA, N. GLUTI-
NOS.E, ETC. — JY. distinyuenda is closely allied to N. betulicola and also
to N. ylutinosae ; it is larger than the former. The frontal tuft, eye-
caps, cervical tuft, and the legs are as in N. betulicola, but the
blackish antennae are longer in the male, since they reach perceptibly
beyond the middle of the anterior wings to the fascia, but yet they
are shorter than in .V. ylutinosae, in which species they have full two-
thirds of the length of the anterior wings, and reach to beyond the
fascia. The abdomen is blackish. The anterior wings are elongate,
narrower, and not so rounded as in AT. betulicola, more of the form of
those of AT. ylutinosae, which they also resemble in their slight glossi-
ness. The surface is not so smooth ; indeed, the individual scales
may be distinctly perceived with a lens ; their bases are olive-bronze,
their tips dark brown, with quite a faint bluish tinge, and to the
naked eye the surface appears of an unicolorous olive-brown. The
fascia does not appear to be quite so posteriorly placed as in N. betuli-
cola, and is vertical. It is at the same time rather narrow, of uniform
width, inclining to yellowish, but perceptibly less glossy. Beyond it
the surface is darker, with a very faint violet-blue tint, which also
prevails at the base of the cilia, whereas their tips are rather dark
grey. The posterior wings and their cilia grey, slightly inclining to
brownish. JY. distinyuenda is further distinguished from N. ylutinosae
and N. microtheriella by the ground-colour not being so blue, especi-
ally at the tip of the wing, and by the paler, more brownish, colour of
the posterior wings and their cilia. From the former it also differs
by the broader and more glossy fascia, from the latter by the longer
antennae of the male and by the rather duller fascia being throughout
of uniform. width. JY. luteella has the antennae and anterior wings
shorter, the tip of the latter of a bright violet-blue ; the fascia is
nearer the base, close beyond the middle, more inclining to luteous,
and ill-defined, especially towards the costa, and not metallic. N.
turicclla has the ground-colour of the anterior wings more of an olive-
ZO2 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
grey, with a dull white, distinctly oblique, fascia, edged with dark
towards the base, and posteriorly rather concave ; it has also paler
cilia and shorter whitish antennae. There are specimens of N. malella
in which the anterior wings are of the same colour as in Ar. dixtin-
Uiienda, but that species is readily distinguished by the more brilliant
fascia being placed nearer the base, and by the distinct cilial line
(Heinemann).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid anywhere on the undersurface of a
leaf (Wood).
MINE. — The mine, although small and narrow, begins coarsely ; it
is brown, generally much contorted, several mines being often crowded
together in a leaf. The gallery is filled with brown frass, very neatly
coiled, and is most constant and true. to type (Wood).
LARVA. — The larva is yellow in colour; the head is dark-brown ; a
black, square-shaped surface spot is present on the underside of the
prothorax ; the ventral cord is black and very distinct, forming a chain
of black linear markings down the centre ; the urinary cords form a
pair of black lines on the dorsum of the hinder segments, and are also
plainly visible. The larva mines with the venter up, and shows the
dark ventral cord.
COMPARISON OF THE MINES AND LARV^: OF N. DISTINGUENDA AND
N. BETULICOLA. — The mines are small and narrow, especially that of
N. distinyuenda, are generally much contorted, several often crowded
together in a leaf, and begin coarsely, very differently from the slender
and delicate commencement adopted by N. lapjioHica and X. confusella.
Here the resemblance between them ends. .V. distinyuenda fills its
gallery with brown frass, very neatly coiled, and is always most
constant and true to type. N. betulicola deposits its black frass
without any order, and is distinctly irregular in its practice ; usually
it does not much more than half fill its gallery, but not unfrequently
it very nearly does so, the mine at the same time being narrowed and
shorter than usual, and coming extremely near the mine of .V. luUrlla.
The irregularity, there can be little doubt, is dependent on the nature
of the leaves, for it will be found that the latter are appreciably
thinner, and their network of veinlets more open where the gallery is
only half tilled, than where it is more completely so. Larvae : In AT.
distimjuenda the head is dark brown, a black, square-shaped spot
(skin mark) is present on the underside of segment 2 ; the ventral cord
is black and very distinct, and the urinary tubes are also plainly
visible. The larva of X. betulicola differs in the ventral cord and spot
on segment 2, being brown instead of black, and in wanting altogether
the urinary tubes (Wood).
COCOON. — The cocoons (2) average 2-2 mm. in length, and T75 mm.
in width. To the naked eye they are of a pale flesh colour, and most
resemble, of the great number of cocoons observed, those of X. luteella.
The flesh colour is quite maintained under the lens. In shape the
cocoon is inclined to the normal " mussel "-like structure, but is much
more triangular, the apex being quite pointed, one side being almost
straight, the opposite side and base being slightly convex. There is
no flattened lateral flange, the raised portion rising directly from the
edge. The surface is uniformly rough, and covered with loose flossy
silken ends. [Described June 15th, 1898, under a two-thirds lens,
from cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.] Wood says that " the cocoon is
spun above the ground, and is buff in colour."
NEPTICULA DISTINGUENDA. 283
FOOD-PLANT. — Betula alba. Hering gives " Salix caprea" surely
an error.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double-brooded, appearing in
May and August, from larvae that feed up in September- October and
July respectively.
LOCALITIES. — HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood). SUSSEX: Local (Meyrick)
(probably an error).
DISTRIBUTION. — Germany : Brunswick (Heinemann), Hanover
(Sorhagen), Alt Damm (Hering).
NEPTICULA GLUTINOS.E, Stainton.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Glutinosae, Sta., " Ent. Ann.," 1858, pp. 96-97 ; " Man.,"
ii., p. 436 (1859) ; Hein., " Wien. Monats.," 1862, p. 306 ; Hein. and Sta., " Zool.,"
xxi., pp. 8373-8374 (1863); Staud. and Wocke. " Cat.," p. 338 (1871); Nolck.,
" Lep. Fn. Bat.," p. 775 (1871) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 751
(1877); Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auvergne," p. 201(1879) ; Snellen, " De Vlinders," etc.,
p. 994(1882); Sorhagen, " Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 346 (1886); Hering,
" Stett. Ent. Zeit.," lii.. p. 200 (1891) ; Meyr., " Handbook," etc., p. 721 (1895).
Glutinosetta, Dbldy., " List.," p. 36.
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Alis anticis purpureo-fuscis, fascia subob-
liqua albida pone medium, apice violaceo ; capillis ferrugineis. Exp. al.
2^ lin. Head ferruginous. Antennae dark fuscous. Abdomen and
legs grey. Anterior wings purple-brown, with a yellowish-white,
rather oblique, fascia beyond the middle ; apical portion violet ; cilia
grey. Posterior wings pale grey, with pale grey cilia (Stainton,
Ent. Annual, 1858, pp. 96-97).
IMAGO. — Head ochreous. Anterior wings 4-5 mm. ; dull silky
olivaceous with a purplish tint ; apex violet ; beyond the middle is a
narrow, rather dull, yellowish-white, somewha.t oblique, transverse
fascia ; cilia grey. Posterior wings and cilia pale blackish-grey.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The blackish antennae in the male reach
beyond the fascia, in the female beyond the middle of the costa.
In the females the surface is often uniformly suffused with blue up
to the fascia, either in such a way that the ground colour still
remains distinctly visible, or so that the entire surface is dark blue,
indeed, even blue-black, but without this colouring being very bright
(Heinemann).
COMPARISON OF N. GLUTINOS^E WITH N. ALNETELLA, N. MICRO-
THERIELLA, ETC. — The imago of N. glutinosae is distinguished from
that of AT. alnetella by its larger size, by the purple-brown, not golden-
brown, basal portion of the anterior wings, and by the fascia hardly
shining at all. The latter presents a great contrast to the extreme
brilliancy of the fascia of N. alnetella. In N. glutinosae the fascia is
nearly as dull as in N. microtheriella (Stainton). The points of
difference between N. glutinosae and N. microtheriella consist in the
rather larger size, the less smooth surface of the anterior wings, and
their being tinged more with violet, and not with so pure a blue ;
also by the very narrow fascia, not so purely silvery, and less shining,
and finally by the longer antennae. Those specimens of N. glutinosae
which have little of the violet tinge, are still more closely allied with
N. turicella, but the latter has the frontal tuft paler, the antennas white
or silvery grey to the tips ; the surface of the anterior wings is rather
smoother, their tip is not so blue, more of a violet-brown, the fascia
is whitish, with a faint silky lustre ; it is placed rather obliquely, and
generally expands on the inner margin towards the base, or this
284 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
expansion is at least indicated from the fascia near the inner margin
being rather broken towards the base ; the dark margin on the basal
side of it is more pronounced. Besides, the legs in .V. turic-dla are
paler, especially the anterior legs and femora are whitish-grey, whereas
in X. ylutinvsae these are blackish (Heinemann).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the underside of an alder leaf
(Nolcken).
MINE. — The mine is serpentine, with a loose excremental track in
the middle (Heinemann). In August, 1881, I obtained reddish mines
tenanted by reddish larva in alder leaves (on bushes, in a swamp at
Witherslack) ; these produced, in late June, 1882, imagines of X.
fjlutinosae (Threlfall). Die schmale Mine verliiuft in weitgedehnten,
manchmal einer Blattrippe folgenden Windungen ; die feine, an
ihrem Ende kaum breitere Kothlinie bildet einen schwiirzlichen,
stellenweise in Korner zerfallenden, selten unterbrochenen Faden mit
allmalig breiter werdenden hellen Handera, deren Begrenzung aus
sehr flachen kleinen Bogentheilen besteht, welche erst nahe dem
Minenende grosser und mehr convex werden (Nolcken).
LARVA. — The larva is yellow (" wax-yellow," Heinemann) in colour;
it has a distinct grey mark on the venter of the prothorax, which
enables one to distinguish it from that of Ar. alnetella before the mines
have acquired their distinctive characters. Nolcken writes : " Die
Kaupe ist gelb mit grvinlichem Darm und intensiv braunem, nach
hinten stark verdunkeltem Kopfe und einem grossen viereckigen,
dunkelbraunen Kehlfleck. An diesem ware sie leicht zu erkennen uud
von X. alnetella zu trennen, derselbe scheint aber nicht bei alien
Exeniplaren gleich dunkel zu sein, da es mir (wie bei X. alnetella
gesagt) nicht immer gelungen war, die Eaupen beider Arten in den
Minen richtig abzusondern. Die letzteren kann ich jetzt nicht ver-
gleichen, da ich von X. alnetella keine sicher zu ihr gehorigen habe."
The larva mines with the venter uppermost.
COCOON. — The cocoons (8) average 3 mm. in length (one reaches
3*5 nirn.) and 2 mm. in width. They vary in outline from almost
circular to a form that is perhaps best described as kite-shaped (under
the lens one reminds one much of a scallop shell). They are all of a
dark red-brown colour, with no definite flanged rim, although the
very gradual rise on the outer margin towards the higher central
part gives one that impression under the naked eye. The surface is
rough, with a thick coating of scattered silken ends, but no outer
silken covering enveloping the inner cocoon. One is attached by
many silken threads to a scrap of wood. [Described June 17th,
1898, under a two-thirds lens, from pup«3 sent by Dr. Wood.] Heine-
mann says : " The cocoon is of a broad oval form, rather arched and
with flat margins ; its colour is rusty brown." Nolcken writes :
" Gestalt und Farbe des Cocons ist bei dieser, so wie bei den meisten
anderen Arten sehr veranderlich, meist heller oder dunkler braunlich
in sehr verschiedenen Abstufungen zum Gelben, Rothlichen oder
Griinlichen ; fast alle farben sich iiber Winter rostbraun, und da sie
in den meisten Fallen nichts Charakteristisches, das Erkennen einer
Art Erleichterndes bieteu, so werde ich sie nur dann erwahneu, wenn
mir das der Fall zu sein scheint."
FOOD-PLANT. — Alnus ylutinosa.
TIME o* APPEARANCE.— The species is double-brooded, the imagines
NEPTICULA GLUTINOS^E. 285
appearing in May and August, from larva) found the preceding
September and July respectively. Heinemann says the larvw
feed in July, and again in September-October. Bower obtained
mines on October Gth, 1894, and October 21st, 1897, at Eltham ;
Sang, on October 14th, 1874, at Stanhope, and October 14th, 1878, at
Wolsingham. Warren bred imagines on May 23rd, 1884, from larvae
obtained at Chippenham. Nolcken found larvrc between September
10th and 24th, at Pichtendahl. Sorhagen notes that there are often
8 or 10 mines in one leaf. Threlfall bred imagines from May 25th to
June 3rd, 1881, from larvre taken at Witherslack, September 20th,
1880.
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE : Chippenham (Farren). DOKSET : Bloxworth
(Cambridge). DURHAM ; Darlington, Wolsingham and Stanhope (Sang). HERE-
FORD : Tarrington (Wood). KENT : Eltham (Bower). LANCASHIUK : Preston
(Threlfall). NORFOLK: Bewsey (Barrett), K. Lynn (Atmore). SUFFOLK: Brandon
(Warren). WESTMORLAND: Windermere (Hodginson), Witherslack (Threlfall).
YORKS: Scarborough (Wilkinson), York (Inchbald), Harrogate (Sang).
DISTRIBUTION.— France : Nohaut, Indre (Sand). Germany: Bruns-
wick, Wolfenbuttel (Heinemann), Hanover and Saxony (Heinemann
and Wocke), Breslau (Sorhagan), Alt Damm, Friedland (Hering).
Netherlands : Friesland, N. Brabant (Snellen). Russia : Pichtendahl
(Nolcken), Livonia (Sorhagen).
GROUP III. — Cilia of the anterior wings with no dark divisional
line, but cilia becoming gradually paler towards their tips. Anterior
wings with a pale but not metallic transverse fascia ; basal area of the
anterior wings somewhat dull.
NEPTICULA LUTEELLA, Stain ton,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Luteella, Sta , " Ent. Ann.," 1857, pp. 110-111;
" Man.," ii., p. 434 (1859) ; Hein., " Wien. Monats.," 18(52, p. 308 ; Hein. and Sta.,
" Zool.," xxi.. p. 8375 (1803) ; Stand, and Wocke. " Cat.," p. 338 (1871) ; Nolcken,
" Lep. Fn. Estl.," p. 779 (1871) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 752
(1877) ; Wallgrn., •• Ent. Tids.," ii., p. 129 (1881) ; Sorhagen, " Die Kleinschmett.
Brandbg.," p. 30G (1880); Hering. " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," lii., p. 220 (1891); Meyr.,
"Handbook," etc., p. 721 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Alis anticis saturate olivaceis, postice
violaceis, fascia pone medium recta flavida, costam saepe non attin-
gonte ; capillis flavidis, brunneo-mixtis. Exp. al. 2^ lin. Head and
face yellowish, more or less mixed with brown ; palpi whitish ;
antennas fuscous, basal joint whitish. Anterior wings dark olive to
beyond the middle ; considerably beyond the middle is a nearly
straight pale yellowish fascia, broadest on the inner margin, and often
not reaching to the costa ; the apical portion of the wing is violet,
the apical cilia pale yellowish ; posterior wings grey, with paler cilia.
By the dull yellow non-metallic fascia on the olive-coloured wings,
this may be immediately distinguished from every other known species
(Stainton, Ent. Annual, 1857, pp. 110-111).
IMAGO. — Head yellowish. Anterior wings 4-5 mm. ; dark olivaceous
in colour to beyond the centre ; some distance beyond middle is a
nearly straight, ill-defined, pale yellowish fascia, often not reaching
the costa ; outer area tinged slightly with violet ; cilia fuscous,
with paler tips. Posterior wings and cilia pale grey.
COMPARISON OF N. LUTEELLA WITH N. GLUTINOS.E AND N. TURI-
CELLA. — N. hitedla differs from N. ylutinosae, as also from N. turicella,
286 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEBA.
by the shorter antennae and wings ; the larger and whiter eye-caps, the
forms of the fascia, partly also by the want of the dark bordering of
the fascia towards the base. Besides, N. alutinomc has more blue on
the disc, especially beyond the fascia, and the fascia is narrow, more
defined, and not expanded on the inner margin, whilst before the
fascia the anterior wings are irrorated with dark violet (Heinemann).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the underside of a leaf of birch
(Nolcken).
MINE. — Heinemann describes the mine as being " long, slightly
tortuous, generally abruptly angulated, and with a slender excremental
line/' Wood says that the mine is small, nearly filled with irregularly
arranged frass, and is similar to that of N. betulicola, but, in a general
way, the gallery is almost completely filled with frass in the mine of
N. luteella, and about half-filled in that of N. betulicola. Wood
writes : " In the typical mine of X. luteella, the frass is distributed
without any attempt at order, and fills the narrow gallery to about
three-fourths of its width, but not unfrequently late in the autumn,
when the leaves have lost much of their nutritive qualities and the
indigestible cellulose has increased, the frass becomes so bulky that
it now almost fills the mine, and is, at the same time, deposited coil
fashion, though in a slovenly tentative sort of way, as if the larva were
unused to the practice."
COMPARISON OF MINES OF N. LUTEELLA AND N. BETULICOLA. — It is a
difficult matter to distinguish between the mines of N. luteella and
N. betulicola. The relative breadth of the frass-track (about half-
filling the mine in N. betulicola, and almost completely so in luteella)
ought to serve to differentiate them nicely, but then, under certain
conditions, each varies so in the direction of the other, that it would
bo rash sometimes to say to which of them a mine belonged. There
are other small points of difference, but I need not particularise them,
since they, too, are liable to variation, and it is not after all a very
important matter to distinguish the empty mines, so long as we can
recognise the full ones. Besides varying in the direction of N. betuli-
cola, X. luteella also occasionally mimics the mine of X. (linthii/uoiila
by a rough attempt at coiling, but so clumsy is the counterfeit that it
ought never to deceive the collector (Wood).
LARVA. — Heinemann describes the larva as "pale green, with
darker dorsal line, and feeds in July and October, in birch leaves."
Wood observes that " the larva mines with the back up, but shows
neither cephalic ganglia nor ventral cord. It is yellow in colour with
a pale brown head, and no other visible markings, although, out of
the mine, the larva shows the urinary ducts, which are not
dark enough to be seen when it is in the mine." Nolcken writes :
" Die Raupe war blass honiggelb mit blass braunen Kopfe, Darm kaum
in der Hinterhalfte stellenweise durchscheinend, schmutzig dunkel-
griinlich braun, Keulenflecke fast nicht sichtbar." Nolcken further
draws attention to the colour that Heinemann gives to the larva of
this species.
COCOON. — The cocoons (4) average 2-5 mm. long, and 1-5 mm.
wide. In colour they most resemble that of the cocoons of X.
(listhif/uenda, being of a pale flesh-colour when fresh, but becoming
darker, duller, and more ochreous when they have been exposed to the
weather. The cocoon is roughly ovate in outline, with no lateral
NEPTICULA LUTEELLA. 287
flange, but somewhat egg-shaped, although rather flattened, one end
(from which the empty pupa-case projects) being rather broader than
its nadir. The shape of the cocoon is largely lost by its being
enveloped in a plentiful covering of long, loose flossy silken fibres.
The projecting pupal skin is quite transparent, without markings,
except on the mesothorax, which is shaded with dark grey. [Described
under a two-thirds lens, on June 17th, 1898, from cocoons sent by
Dr. Wood.] Wood says that the cocoon is " white or pale buff" in
colour, so that it would appear that some are even paler in colour than
those described. Heinemann calls it "small, flat and buff-coloured."
FOOD-PLANT. — Betula alba, preferring small bushes (Stainton).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double- brooded, the imago
appearing in May and August, from larvae found in September and
July respectively. Stainton bred imagines on June 2nd, 1850, and
May 27th-30th, 1858, from West Wickham larvae. He captured
others on May 16th, 1848, at Lewisharn, June 22nd-23rd, on Dartford
Heath, and May 7th and July 7th, 1852, on oak-trunks at West
Wickham. Mines with larvae were found on October 24th, 1873, at
Darlington, October 2nd, 1878, at Richmond, Yorkshire, October
14th, 1878, at Wolsingham (Sang) ; larvae also were found very
plentifully on one small birch-tree on the hillside above the Bridge of
Allan, on August 12th, 1858 (Stainton). Nolcken found imagines on
June 10th, 1862, at Eotsikiill, and larvre, September 3rd and 8th,
1866, at Pichtendahl. Threlfall bred imagines June lst-6th, 1879,
from larvae obtained at Witherslack, October 5th, 1878.
LOCALITIES. — ABERDEEN : generally distributed, Pitcaple, etc. (Reid).
CHESHIRE : Bowdon (Edleston). DORSET: Purbeck, Wareham (Bankes). DURHAM:
Darlington, Wolsingham (Sang). GLOUCESTER: Bristol (Boyd). HEREFORD:
Tarrington (Wood). KENT : Dartford Heath, West Wickham, Lewisham (Stain-
ton). LANCASHIRE : Manchester (Edleston;, Grange (Threlfall). LEICESTER : Whit-
wick (Sang). SOMERSET : Clevedon (Mason). STIRLING : Bridge of Allan (Stainton).
SUFFOLK: Brandon (Warren). SURREY: Mickleham (Stainton). SUSSEX:
Abbott's Wood, Tilgate Forest (Fletcher). WESTMORLAND: Witherslack (Threl-
fall). YORK : Scarborough (Wilkinson), Richmond and Harrogate (Sang), Sheffield
(Doncaster), York (Hind), Doncaster (Warren).
DISTRIBUTION. — Germany : north Germany (Wocke), Brunswick,
Wolfenbiittel, Hanover (Heinemann), Potsdam, Breslau (Sorhagen),
Pomerania (Hering). Russia: Pichtendahl, Rotsikiill (Nolcken),
Livland (Sorhagen), I. of Aland (Reuter). Scandinavia : Scania
(Wallengren).
NEPTICULA SORBI, Stain ton.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Sorbi, Sta., " Ent. Ann.," 1861, p. 91 ; Staud. and Wocke,
"Cat.," p. 338 (1871) ; Nolcken, " Lep. Fn. Estl.," p. 779 (1871) ; Hein. and Wocke,
" Schmett. Deutsch.." p. 754 (1876) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auvergne," p. 201 (1879) ;
Wallgrn., " Ent. Tids.," ii., p. 128 (1881) ; Sorhagen, " Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p.
307 (1886) ; Hering, «• Stett. Ent. Zeit.," lii., p. 220 (1891) ; Meyr., " Handbook,"
etc., p. 721 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION.— I propose this name for the blotch-making
Xcjiticida of the mountain-ash (Sorbus amuparia), which has been
bred rather freely by Mr. Wilkinson of Scarborough. The larva
cannot be at all confounded with the larva of X. aucupariae,
since that makes a distinct regular gallery, whilst the mine of
X. sorbi forms a very decided blotch of irregular form. The
perfect insects differ vastly, X. aucupariae being an unicolorous, and
X, sorbi a fasciated species. X. 'sorbi has the most resemblance to
288 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
X. flodactella and to Ar. xalicix, but the fascia is broader, perfectly
straight, and not so yellowish ; the anterior wings are also rather
more elongate, and the basal portion is of an uniform dull grey. In
the Nat. Hint, of the Tineina, vol. i., p. 108, in the description of
X. Jloslactclla,- the present species is thus alluded to: " A probable
third species in this section differs by the anterior wings being longer,
and the pale fascia more nearly perpendicular." It is satisfactory to
find that a species thus dimly indicated by the imago obtains such
decided corroboration by the discovery of the larva (Stainton, Ent.
Annual, 1861, p. 91).
IMAGO. — Head ochreous. Anterior wings 6-7 mm. ; basal area
dull grey ; a broad, straight, pale yellowish, transverse fascia beyond
the middle ; apical area greyish-fuscous. Posterior wings and cilia
grey.
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the underside of a leaf of Pi/nix
aucuparia, sometimes near, at other times well away from a rib.
MINE. — The mine blisters very much the upper side of the leaf,
and is thus conspicuous, although it is practically invisible on the
undersurface. It forms at first a very slender gallery about half an
inch in length, with but few windings, the rather pale frass occupying
most of the mine, although there is a slender margin on either side.
The mine then forms a large blotch from 10-15 mm. in length, and
from 8-12 mm. in width, in which the frass appears in some cases to
show the path of the larva, in other cases to be widely scattered,
probably due to the larva crossing and recrossing its earlier paths
when in the mine. The blotch often absorbs the first or gallery part
of the mine, and in some cases two and three larvae finish up by
forming a common blotch, in one case four larva) have blotched the
whole of one side of a leaflet. A single leaflet may contain as many
as seven mines. Nolcken notes that the first part of the mine con-
sists of a very slender gallery extended in gentle curves, the frass-line
forming at first a rather strong, often interrupted, thread, which soon
becomes granular, and broader, but never wholly fills the mine,
appearing very faint, though edged by pale borders. The second
portion of the mine suddenly widens into a large brownish blotch,
varying in shape, the outline, however, always consisting of sections
of a circle convex exteriorly. The exit is on the upper side of the
leaf. Sorhagen describes it as " fine at first, following the margin of
the leaf, then, broadening, it ends in a large round blotch with the
frass in the centre."
LARVA. — The full-fed larva is from 4-5 mm. long. The body is of
a pale greenish colour, almost transparent, rather more distinctly
coloured on the dorsum than the venter. The head is pale brown,
retractile within the prothorax, which is much smaller than the meso-
and meta-thorax. The thoracic segments glassy or watery-looking,
scarcely tinged with green. The prolegs specially well developed on
abdominal segments 1-5. The scattered hairs transparent, glass-like.
There is a distinct medio-dorsal series of purplish linear spots beneath
the skin of the pro-, meso- and meta-thorax. A medio-ventral series of
seven narrow diamond-shaped spots run the length of the first seven
abdominal segments, the spots themselves placed at the front part of
each segment, and each successive pair joined by their back and front
parts respectively by a slender purplish medio-ventral line, which
NEPTICULA SORBI. "My
disappears at the incisions, the latter being more deeply tinted with green
than the rest of the body. The 8th abdominal segment, which is
considerably swollen, presents a pair of these spots, one on either
side of the median line. These spots are not surface spots, for the shiny
surface of the transparent integument is seen to be quite distinct some
distance above them, and one looks through the skin at the spots.
The anal flap projects considerably beyond the preceding abdominal
segments, which are cut off sharply ventrally. [Described under a
two-thirds lens on June 21st, 1898, from a larva sent by Mr. A. F.
Griffith, from North Uist.] Nolcken notes the full-grown larva as
" transparent, glassy, very pale green, frequently almost colourless ;
the head pale brownish-yellow."
COCOON. — The cocoons (7) examined average 3 mm. long and
2'1 mm. wide, and are spun on upper side of a leaf of Pi/ run aucuparia.
The cocoons are roughly oval in outline, but some have one end so
much wider than the other, and the narrow end so pointed, as to be
almost pear-shaped. The broader end is considerably flattened, and
has a slightly turned-up edge. The arched portion rises rapidly from
one of the long sides and the narrow end, less rapidly from the other
long side and the broader end, and reaches a considerable height at the
apex, which is towards the long side, from which the ascent is most
rapid. The cocoon is bright deep brown in colour, with a consider-
able quantity of loose flossy silk especially around the rim. [Described
July 20th, under a two-thirds lens, from cocoons sent by Mr. W. H. B.
Fletcher.]
FOOD-PLANT. — Pyrus aucuparia.
TIME OF APPEAKANCE. — The species is single-brooded. Nolcken
found larvae from June 20th to the beginning of July, but although
the cocoons were kept in a warm room no emergences took place until
late spring of the following year. Bower found larvae on June 10th,
28th, and July 18th, 1892, at Richmond, Yorkshire. Sang found them
in the same locality on July 13th, 1862, June 10th, 1874, June 27th,
1874 (tcxte Gardner). Griffith sent mines containing many full-fed
larvae from North Uist on June 18th, 1898 ; whilst Jobson captured
imagines at Torwood on May 31st, 1851. Hering strangely gives the
commencement of September as the time for the larva in Pomerania,
a date that suggests either a double-brood or an error on the part of
the observer. Threlfall obtained imagines on May 14th, 1875, from
larva? obtained July-August, 1874, at Witherslack. He also captured
imagines on the wing May 14th, 1875, at Witherslack.
LOCALITIES. — DURHAM (Sang). HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood). INVER-
NESS: North Uist (Griffith). LANCASHIRE: Preston, Longridge (Threlfall). NOR-
FOLK: K. Lynn (Atmore). STIRLING: Torwood (Jobson). SUSSEX: Guestling
(Bloomfield). WESTMORLAND : Windermere (Hodgkinson), Witherslack (Threlfall).
YORKS : Richmond (Bower), Scarborough (Wilkinson).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Mont Dore, Auvergne(Sand). Germany :
Silesian and Hercynian mountains (Wocke), Friedland and Bruns-
wick (Sorhagen), Hartz and Sudeten mountains (Heinemann),
Alt Damm, Sandsee (Hering). Russia: Finland (Wocke), Pichten-
dahl (Nolcken). Scandinavia: Blekinge (Wallengren).
NEPTICULA ARGENTIPEDELLA, Zeller.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Argentipedella, Zell., "Isis," 1839, p. 215; "Linn.
Ent.," iii., p. 310 (1848) ; Tengs., " Bidrag till Finl.," 1847, p. 152 ; Sta., " Sys.
290 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Cat. Tin.," p. 29 (1849) ; "Ins. Brit.," p. 303 (1854) ; " Man.," ii.. p. 435 (1859) ;
" Nat. Hist. Tin.," vii., p. 212, pi. x., fig. 2 (18G2) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.,"
fig. 834 (1853), v., p. 353 (1855) ; Frey, " Die Tineen," etc., p. 386 (1856) ; " Linn.
Ent.," xi., p. 421 (1857) ; Heyden, «• Stett. Ent. Zeit.," 1861, p. 41 ; Staud. and Wocke,
"Cat.." p 338 (1871); Nolck., " Lep. Fri. Estl.," p. 780 (1871); Hein. and
Wocke, "Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 754 (1877); Sand, "Cat. Lep. Auvergne," p. 201
(1879) ; Erschoff, " Trudy Kuss. Ent. Hoc.," xii., p. 221 (1881) ; Bang-Haas, " N. H.
Tids.," xiii., p. 217 (1881) ; Wallgrn., " Ent. Tids.," ii.. pp. 128-9 (1881); Peyer.,
"Cat. Lep. Alsace," 2nd Ed., ii., p. 164 (1882) ; Snellen, " De Vlinders," p. 996
(1882) ; Sorhagen, " Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 307 (1886) ; Bering, " Stett.
Ent. Zeit.," lii., p. 221 (1891) ; Meyr., " Handbook," etc., p. 731 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — 7. Aryenlipedella, Z. (inuc'uh'lla, Tr. ?).
Grosse der vorigen (X. lemnucttteh ; die Vorderfliigel zugerundet, etwas
gliinzend, braun, nach hinten violett ; eine schrage, weissliche Binde
hinter der Mitte ; die Kopfhaare schwarz oder rostgelb; die Augen-
deckel weisslich. 5 Ex. bei Glogau und am Spitzberge im Mai und
Juni in Gebiisch (Zeller, 7*w, 1839, p. 215). This was followed (Linn.
Ent., iii., p. 316) by the following diagnosis : " Alis anterioribus
fuscis, violaceo-nitidulis, fascia paulo post medium alba ; capillis $
nigris, $ ferrugineis ; conchula antennarum exalbida majore."
IMAGO. — Head dark fuscous (female reddish). Anterior wings
6-7 mm. ; black, with a violet gloss towards the apex ; a rather broad,
oblique, dull whitish transverse fascia, somewhat attenuated or
interrupted in the centre ; cilia grey, with tips whitish. Posterior
wings grey, with paler cilia.
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the undersurface of a birch leaf,
and very frequently near one of the lateral ribs.
MINE. — S tain ton says : "The mine is irregular in form, but the
commencement is always of a peculiar dark-brown colour and remains
conspicuous, the remainder of the blotch being of a pale greenish-
brown. The excrement is scattered irregularly in the mine, and does
not form a definite track." Heyden writes: "The larva makes a
more or less rounded black-brown blotch, with paler edges. The
central portion, filled up with the excrement of the larva, serves for
its abode, and the pale margins are the places where it feeds on the
parenchyma. Sometimes a number of these blotch-mines may be
found in one leaf. I have often found the mines in countless num-
bers." Wood notes : " The blotch made by this species is peculiar,
inasmuch as it exhibits no sign of having originated from a
gallery like the blotches made by other species. It is more or less
circular in shape, with a central black spot, under which the larva
lies curled up a large part of its time, only coming out to eat at
intervals, and is, in consequence, a long time feeding up, in all which
particulars the habits are rather those of a Tixcliena than of a Xcfiticitlfi."
LARVA. — Length 2^ lines. Pale greenish in colour, the dorsal
vessel bright green. The head and prothorax light brown, the mouth
and two lines receding from it reddish-brown. There is a medio-
ventral row of dark reddish oblong spots (Stainton). The larva
appears to be a very sluggish feeder ; it is seldom to be seen feeding
and usually lies hidden beneath the dark central portion of the mine.
It mines with the venter uppermost (Wood). Heyden describes the
larva as follows: " Raupe gliinzend, glatt, weisslichgriin, mit einer
Liingsreihe schwarzer Fleckchen auf der Bauchseite. Kopf honiggelb
mit etwas dunkleren Rilndern. Nackenschild mit zweilappigem
braunem Fleck." [Also described in comparison with JV. u-oul-
la, vide, p. 292.]
NEPTICULA ABGENTIPEDELLA. 291
COCOON. — Stainton says that the cocoon is dark green in colour,
and spun on the surface of the ground. Heyden says : " The larva
quits its mine when full-fed, and spins its cocoon in some convenient
spot ; sometimes many cocoons may be found close together. The
cocoon is oval, slightly arched, scalloped, and pale brown in colour."
FOOD-PLANT. — Betula alba.
TIME OF APPEABANCE. — The species seems to be single-brooded,
appearing in May and June, from larvae feeding the previous
September-November. Mann's record of finding larvas in May, 1853,
on sloe bushes, at the Pulverthurm, can be entirely disregarded.
Nolcken found imagines in abundance on warm, calm days, at
Pichtendahl, from May 19th-June 24th, and remarks that the larvae
prefer the leaves of the highest branches. Evans reports the imagines
as abundant on June 10th, 1895, at Boghall, and June 20th, 1895,
near Kirknewton, flying among grass. Stainton bred the perfect
insect on May 28th, 1856, June 9th, 1857, and Atmore says that
it usually occurs at King's Lynn, late in May. Bower obtained
lamp on September 25th, 1891, in Teesdale, October llth, 1891, at
Chislehurst, October llth, 1892, at Darenth, October 25th, 1892, at
Eltham, and October 5th, 1893, at Bexley. Stainton captured
imagines on May 25th, 1856, and June 2nd, 1857, at West Wickham,
May 17th, 1868, at Lewisham, and on July 15th, 1850, at Dunoon,
when imagines were beaten from a sandbank. Laing also took
imagines on June 19th, 1884, and June 17th, 1885, near Shinfall.
Threlfall bred imagines in May, from larvae found in September ; he
also captured imagines on May 14th, 1875, on the wing, at Wither-
slack. Atmore captured imagines on May 30th, 1898, at King's Lynn,
and Zeller records imagines at Glogau, May 17th-25th.
LOCALITIES. — ARGYLLSHIRE : Dunoon (Stainton). CAMBRIDGE: Chippenham
(Fan-en). CHESHIRE : Bowdon (Edleston). DERBY: Burton (Sang). DORSET:
Purbeck (Bankes), Glanvilles Wootton and Knighton Heath (Dale), Bloxworth
(Cambridge). DUBLIN: Howth (Birchall). DURHAM: Teesdale (Bower), Darling-
ton (Sang). EDINBURGH: Havelrig Bog (Logan). GLOUCESTER : Bristol (Stain-
ton). HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood), Leominster (Hutchinson). KENT : Dartford
Heath, West Wickham (Stainton), Chislehurst, Darenth, Eltham and Bexley
(Bower). LANARK : Cadder Wilderness, Langside (King). LANCASHIRE: Manchester
(Stainton), Grange (Threlfall), Preston (Hodgkinson). LEICESTER: Whitwick
(Sang). MIDLOTHIAN: Boghall, Kirknewton (Evans). MORAY: Forres (Salvage
tciste Fletcher). NORFOLK : King's Lynn (Atmore), Myntlyn, Bawsey (Barrett).
STIRLING : Milngavie (King). SUFFOLK: Leiston (Walsingham). SURREY: Mickle-
ham (Stainton), Haslemere (Barrett). SUSSEX: Lewes (Stainton), Abbott's Wood,
nr. Amberley (Fletcher). ? SUTHERLAND: nr. Shinfall (Laing). WESTMORLAND:
Witherslack (Hodgkinson). YORKS : Scarborough (Wilkinson), York (Stainton),
Doncaster (Corbett;, Harrogate and llichmond (Sang), Huddersfield (Inchbald).
DISTRIBUTION. — Austria : ? Tersatto, and ? the Pulverthurm (Mann),
Vienna (Metzner). Denmark : North-east Zealand (Bang-Haas).
France : Sologne, La Brande, Nohaut, Indre (Sand). Finland :
Helsingfors, Borga (Tengstrom). Germany : Generally distributed
(Hein. and Wocke), Berlin (Bouche), Havelland, Potsdam, Hamburg,
Halle (Sorhageni, Glogau and Warmbrunn (Zeller), Frankfort-on-the-
Main, Wiesbaden, Taunus Mountains (Heyden), Batisbon (Herrich-
Sch after), Freiburg (Eeutti), Brunswick (Heinemann), Saverne, Alsace
(Peyerimhoft), Liebeseele nr. Misdroy, Dunzig-Aufschuttiing, Giiter-
bahnhof, Alt Damm (Hering), Frankfort (Durrani). Netherlands :
Gravenhage, South Holland (Snellen). Russia: S. Petersburg
(Erschoffj , Pichtendahl (Nolcken), Kokenhusen (Lienig). Scandinavia :
S. and Central Sweden (Wallengren). Switzerland : Zurich (Zeller).
• BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
NEPTICULA WOOLHOPIELLA
SYNONYMY. — £
it.— Species: Woolliopiella, Sta., " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxiv., p. 02 (1887).
Argentipedella, Meyrick, " Handbook," etc., p. 721. in part (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Smaller than X. arycntipedella, with the
apical half of the wing blacker, the fascia brighter (that is, more
silvery), and rather more oblique on its inner edge ; in N. aryentijwlella,
the fascia generally expands a little towards the base on the inner
margin of the wing, which gives the inner edge of the fascia a rather
concave appearance ; in the new birch-feeder the inner edge of the
fascia has not this concave appearance, it being nearly straight,
though oblique (Stainton, Ent. ^[<>. Mayazine, xxiv., p. 62).
IMAGO. — Head dark fuscous, white eye-caps prominent. Anterior
wings 5 mm. in expanse ; blackish-fuscous ; a bright, white, oblique,
transverse fascia near the centre ; apfcx and costal fringes blackish ;
cilia uniformly blackish-grey. Posterior wings and cilia pale grey.
COMPARISON OF N. WOOLHOPIELLA AND N. ARGENTIPEDELLA. — X.
woolhopiella looks much like a small edition of X. aryentijn'iltila, but
the females have not the reddish head of that sex of the latter species.
Meyrick refers X. woo&opieUa to X. aryentipedella, but gives no reason
for doing so. He appears to be entirely wrong in this. Wood writes :
" The imagines of these species are much alike, except in the matter
of size (X. woolhopiella being a much smaller insect), but in mine,
larva and habits they are distinct enough. Both lay their eggs on
the underside of a leaf. The mine of AT. aryentipedella is more or less
circular, with a black opaque spot in the centre. That of AT. wuolhn-
piella roughly triangular, with a small knot of convolutions in one
corner, very similar to the bundle of convolutions from which the
mine of X. continuella starts. Both mines form blotches. The larva
of X1. aryentipedella lives in its mine venter up. In form it is unusu-
ally flat, legs very small, the thoracic segments large and heavy,
something after the fashion of a Microptery.r larva ; colour whitish,
head brown, intestinal canal green ; cephalic ganglia and nerve-cord
distinct brown. The larva of X. icoolhopiella is yellow. The larva
of N. woolhopiella is to be found in August and September, that of
N. aryentipedella in September and October, or as long as the leaves
hang on the trees. XT. argimtipeddla is a remarkably slow feeder. It
spends a great deal of time under the black canopy, in the middle of
its mine, doing nothing, just like a Tiseheria. Probably its shape, so
peculiar for a Nepticulid larva, is connected with its habit of moving
freely about its mine " (in litt., June 3rd, 1898).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the underside of a leaf of birch.
MINE. — The first part of the mine forms a gallery which is short
and twisting, but it becomes hidden away in a corner of the blotch
that is finally formed. The completed mine really forms a blotch,
roughly triangular in shape, and usually placed in the body of the
leaf, occasionally, however, on the edge ; in the former case it bears a
general likeness to the mine of X. subbimaculella, and in the latter to
that of X. pulrerosella in wild apple. A tiny brown spot, consisting
of a knot of convolutions occupies one corner of the blotch and indi-
cates the point from which the mine started, and this tiny knot
occupies the whole life of the larva from the time of hatching until
the assumption of the last skin (Wood).
LARVA. — Stainton describes the larva of N. woolhopiella as " very
NEPTlCULA WOOLHOPIELLA. 293
pale green," whereas it is yellow — indeed, a deep yellow — the greater
part of its life, but becoming paler when practically adult ; it borrows
something of a greenish tinge from its surroundings, though its true
colour is still yellow, as can be ascertained by removing it from the
mine. The larva of this species feeds up much more quickly than
that of X. aiyentipedi'lla, and is always to be found with its head at
the margin of the mine, either actually eating or just ready to eat.
COCOON. — The cocoon, which is spun up beneath the soil, is very
roughly oval in outline, flattened, but raised considerably in the central
area of the upper part, so that the base bends considerably beyond
the somewhat flattened dome that surmounts it. The cocoon is made
of closely woven black silk, the outside in contact with several small
pieces of earth. The inside of the cocoon is rather smooth, and very
shiny, but of the same colour and texture as the outer part. [De-
scribed under a two-thirds lens, June 7th, 1898, from cocoons sent
by Dr. Wood.] Wood supplied the larvae with earth in which to pupate.
The pot containing them was kept out of doors, and the treatment
proved most successful. Length of cocoon 2'75 mm., breadth 2 mm.
FOOD-PLANT. — Betula alba.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is single-brooded, imagines
appearing in May-June from larvae that feed up in August and
September. Threlfall bred imagines in May and June, 1888, from
larvre obtained on July 25th and in August, 1887, at Witherslack.
LOCALITIES. — HEREFORD : Woolhope (Wood). LANCASHIRE : Grange (Threl-
fall). WESTMORLAND : Arnside (Hodgkinson), Witherslack (Threlfall).
NEPTlCULA LAPPONICA,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Lapponica, Wocke. " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," 1862, p. 251;
Staud. and Wocke. " Cat.," p. 339 (1871) ; Wallgrn., " Ent. Tids.," ii., p. 130 (1881) ;
Wood. " Ent. Mo. Mag.." xxix., p. 272 (1893); Ibid., xxx., p. 95 (1894); Meyr.,
" Handbook," etc., p. 724 (1895). Laiwonicella, Porritt, " List of Yorks. Lep.," p. 170
(1886).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Capillis sordide ferrugineis, antennarum
conchula parva flavescente-albida. Alis anter. griseis obsolete rubes-
centi-violaceo-micantibus, apice leviter violaceo-tincto, fascia obliqua
postica exalbida, ciliis griseis. Exp. alar. 6-|-7 mm. Mit keiner
verwandten Art zu verwechseln, am ahnlichsten noch blassen
Exemplaren von ^Y. solids, doch durch bedeutendere Grosse, andere
Farbung der Kopfhaare etc. leicht zu unterscheiden. In der Grosse
ubertrifft sie um ein Geringesdie N. argentipedella, ihre Gestalt ist aber
weit schlanker, der Korper diinn, die Fliigel gestreckt und ziemlich
schmal. Kopfhaar schmutzig rostgelb, nach hinten meist etwas heller
als vorn. Fiihler hellgelbgrau, nach der Spitze zu am dunkelsten, an der
Basis gelblich, die Muschel klein, gelblichweiss. Biicken gelblich-
grau, griinlich oder rothlich schimmernd. Beine gelbgrau glanzend.
Hinterleib des $ einfarbig dunkel gelbgrau, der des ? heller, oben
mit eingemengten einzelnen opalisirenden Schuppen, unten seiden-
glanzend. Vorderfliigel auf gelblichem Grunde grob dunkelgelbgrau
beschuppt, von der Seite betrachtet rothlich, in der Spitze violent
schimmernd. Am Anfang des letzten Fliigeldrittels liegt eine grade,
ziemlich breite Querbinde von blassgelblicher Farbe, ihre Richtung ist
etwas schriig, indem ihr Vorderrandende mehr nach innen liegt, als
das dicht am Hinterwinkel befindliche Innenrandende, bei den meisten
Exemplaren ist diese Binde iiberall von gleicher Breite, bei einigen
294 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
aber an den Enden etwas verdickt. Die Franzen der V orderfliigel,
sowie die Hinterfliigel sincl licht gelblichgrau. Auf der Unterseite sind
die Vorderfliigel fein schuppig, gelbgrau mifc rothlichgelbem oder
violettem Schimmer, die Franzen und Hinterfliigel wie auf der
Oberseite. . . . Alsich Anfang August nach der Raupesuchte,kamich
leider zu spat, da ich an den Birkenbliittern nur bereits verlassene
Minen antraf. Diese Minen, die ich mit grosser Wahrscheinlich-
keit als hierher gehorig betrachte, sind von bedeutender Liinge,
beginnen auf der Oberseite des Blattes iiber dem unten festgeleimten
Ei in einer feinen Linie; die gewohnlich, dem Laufe einer Bippe folgend,
sich rasch verbreitert und mit einem grossen, unregelmiissig ovalen,
hellgriinen, exkrementlosen Fleck endet. Im Anfang ist die Mine
vollstandig mit Excrementen erfiillt, weiterhin bilden dieselben in der
Mitte des Ganges eine schmale braune Linie. Aehnliche Minen
bemerkte ich auch auf Birkengestriiuch in der Niihe von Fogstuen
auf dem Dovre, aber auch diese waren verlassen (Wocke, " Beise nach
Finmarken," Stett. Knt. Zeit., 1862, pp. 251-253).
IMAGO. — Head reddish. Anterior wings 6-7 mm. ; yellowish-grey,
shiny, with a reddish tinge ; apex slightly violet ; an oblique, rather
broad, yellowish-white, transverse fascia, beyond the middle : cilia
pale yellowish-grey, darker at base. Posterior wings and cilia pale
yellowish-grey.
COMPARISON OF N. LAPPONICA WITH N. SORBI. — X. lapponiea is
closely allied to N. sorbi, but has the fascia less oblique, more yellow,
and generally broader (Threlfall).
EGG-LAYING. — The eggs are laid on the upper side of a leaf (Wocke).
MINE. — The larva makes a long gallery in a birch leaf, and is
markedly angular (never contorted), going off sharply from one point
to another. The commencement of the mine is straight, and very fine.
In the first portion of the mine (corresponding to the first two skins of
the larva), the frass is of the typical concretionary character and com-
pletely fills the mine ; in the second part it is coiled, but rather
obscurely, owing to a tendency that the pellets still have to run
together ; in the third portion the frass, which has hitherto filled the
mine, is suddenly collected into the centre, leaving a wide margin on
each side, and, at the same time, the colour, which up to this point
has been green, changes to black (Wood).
LARVA. — The larva is yellow in colour, the cephalic ganglia brown
and distinct, the head black. No trace of the ventral cord is discover-
able whilst the larva remains in situ, but it becomes visible when the
larva is removed from its mine, and is faint brown in colour. The
larva mines with the back up and shows distinctly the brown cephalic
ganglia (Wood). Threlfall notes the larva as "greenish-yellow" in
colour.
COMPARISON OF THE MINES AND LARVAE OF N. LAPPONICA AND N. CONFU-
SELLA. — The mines of both are long galleries of moderate width, whose
usual course is to follow a rib for some distance, and then to turn off
at a tangent till another is reached, which,- in its turn, is pursued ;
but whether the ribs be taken as a guide or not, the mine is never con-
torted, and this holds good even with their very commencement,
which, beginning in a delicate and hairlike manner, stretches straight
away at once from the site of the egg. So far, and in a general view,
the mines are precisely alike, but in the two portions which answer to
KEPTICtfLA LAPPONICA. 295
the first three skins of the larvae, and which, from their apparent
insignificance are apt to be overlooked, most excellent and easily
appreciable characters may be gathered. In the case of N. lapponica,
the frass completely fills these two portions of the mine, while it is
coiled in the second of them, its colour in both is green, thereby
offering a striking contrast to the third or main portion of the mine,
in which the frass is black, and collected into a narrow thread. On
the other hand, the frass in X. confmella is black throughout, there is
no coiling in the middle portion, and a free margin borders its track
in all three portions, so that the character of the mine is uniform
from beginning to end The larva of jV. lapponica is yellow,
with the cephalic ganglia brown and distinct, yet at the same time less
conspicuous than the head ; that of N. confusetta is greenish- white,
the head very pale brown, the cephalic ganglia dark and distinct, and
markedly more conspicuous than the head. The larva of N. lapponica
feeds in June, that of X. confmella a little later, in July (Wood).
COCOON. — The cocoons examined (5) average about 2-4 mm. in
length and 1-5 mm. in width. They are oval in outline with one
end rather broader than its nadir, in fact, it belongs to that shaped
cocoon which we have elsewhere designated as almond-shaped. The
cocoon, however, is comparatively thick, being considerably domed
from rim to apex. It is of a deep reddish- or purplish-brown colour,
the silk matted into blackish threads on the surface, and holding
pieces of earth and sand, the loose fibres round the rim being united
into projecting cables, as it were, by which the cocoon has been attached.
The rim is not at all well developed, but is conspicuous from being
orange instead of purplish-brown in colour. The empty pupa-case
is transparent, shaded somewhat with pale grey, and projects from
beneath the rim. [Described July 12th, 1896, under a two-thirds
lens, from cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.] The cocoon varies from dark
brown to almost black, and is usually placed under the soil (Wood).
FOOD-PLANT. — Betula alba.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is undoubtedly partially double-
brooded, the second brood of imagines being a very small one. Atmore
says that it is very early on the wing, imagines having been obtained
as early as April 16th, and Wocke obtained imagines at Bossekop
(lat. 69° 30' N.) from May 28th-June 14th, 1861, flying about Betula
alba. Sang notes imagines on June 2nd, 1879, and August 23rd,
1873, at High Force ; Shuttleworth records imagines amongst
birch, at Witherslack, on May 13th, 1882, whilst Bower found
imagines on June 2nd and 3rd, 1891, at Teesdale, and Evans, June
6th, 1895, at Boghall, and June 20th, 1895, at Midcalder. Wood
records that the larva feeds in June, although occasionally a few
mines may be picked up late in autumn ; but Bower found larvae at
Teesdale, from August 17th-23rd, 1892, and Threlfall bred the
imagines from May 20th-25th, from larvae found between October 1st-
20th, 1878, at Grange ; he also notes larvae as early as July 15th,
1878, at Witherslack.
LOCALITIES. — DURHAM: High Force (Sang), Teesdale (Bower). EDINBURGH:
Boghall (Evans). HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood). LANCASHIRE : Grange,
? Preston (Threlfall). MIDLOTHIAN: Midcalder (Evans). NORFOLK : King's Lynn,
common (Atmore). SUSSEX: Brighton (Vine), Abbott's Wood (Fletcher).
WESTMORLAND: Windermere (Hodgkinson), Witherslack (Shuttleworth). YORK-
SHIRE : Scarborough (Wilkinson teste Shuttleworth).
296 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA*
DISTRIBUTION. — Russia : Alien in Lapland (Staudinger tcatc Durrani),
Finland (Staudinger and Wocke). Scandinavia : Bossekop, Finmark
(Wocke).
NEPTICULA CONFUSELLA, Walsm. and Wood.
SYNONYMY. — Confusella , Walsingham and Wood, " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxx.,
pp. 272-273 (1894) ; Meyrick, " Handbook," etc., p. 724 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Antennas in the $ long (reaching to the
fascia when laid back at rest), shorter in the J , cinereous ; eyecaps
whitish. Head amber-yellow. Thorax brownish-cinereous. Fore-
wings brownish-cinereous, with a slight purplish lustre in a strong
light, especially towards the apex ; a broad, ill-defined, whitish fascia
at two-thirds of the wing length, scarcely oblique, but slightly inclining
outwards from the costal margin to before the anal angle, somewhat
narrower in the middle than on the costal and dorsal margins ; cilia
brownish-grey, paler on their outer half, and about the anal angle.
Hind-wings greyish, cilia with a slightly browner tinge. Abdo-
men brownish-cinereous. Posterior legs pale cinereous. Exp.
alar. 4-5-6 mm. Emerges beginning of May (in confinement) " (Wal-
singham, Ent. Mo. .l/o//., xxx., pp. 272-273). A life-history by Wood
follows.
IMAGO. — Head yellowish. Anterior wings 4-5-6 mm. ; brownish-
grey, with a slight purplish tint towards the apex ; a broad, ill-defined
whitish fascia, slightly inclined outwards, beyond the middle ; cilia
brownish-grey, paler on their outer half. Posterior wings and cilia
greyish. [This and the preceding species may belong to Group V.]
COMPARISON OF N. CONFUSELLA WITH N. LAPPONICA. — The species
are very close in the imaginal state, but X confmella may be dis-
tinguished by its darker colour and more distinct fascia. The larvae
are, however, distinct enough. Thus, instead of greenish-white, the
larva of X la^wnica is yellow, with a black head and black pro-
thoracic plate, the latter much obscuring the brown cephalic ganglia.
The mine, also, of N. lajijxmica is quite distinct ; in the early part the
frass is green, coiled, and quite fills the bore ; afterwards, and con-
currently with the last moult, it gets collected into a central thread,
and changes from green to black, becoming from this point Afactimilt
of the mine of the other (Wood).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the underside of a birch leaf.
MINE. — The mine is large and angular, and consists of a long
gallery of moderate width, whose usual course is to follow a rib for some
distance, and then to turn off at a tangent till another is reached,
which in its turn is pursued ; the mine is never contorted, and even at
its very commencement the delicate hair-like gallery stretches straight
away at once from the site of the egg. The frass is black, and forms
a central thread throughout, there is no coiling in the middle portion
of the mine, and a free margin borders its track in all three portions,
so that the character of the mine is uniform from beginning to end.
LARVA. — The larva is greenish-white in colour, the head very pale
brown ; immediately behind the latter is a pair of dark conspicuous
spots (the cephalic ganglia). As it burrows in the leaves of birch with
the back uppermost, it shows distinctly the cephalic ganglia, which are
dark, and markedly more conspicuous than the head. No trace of the
ventral cord is distinguishable so long as the larva remains in Nttii.
COCOON. — The cocoons examined (6) average about 2'5 mm. in
\EPTICU"LA CONfUSELLA. 297
length and 1-6 mm. in width. They are very irregular in shape,
although some are moderately oval in outline, and domed towards a
median line that runs longitudinally along the apex. Their colour is
deep dirty-brown. There is no very clearly defined rim, although a
quantity of loose silken fibres project from its edges. The upper
surface of the cocoon is much reticulated with dark brown, and a
number of loose fibres of flossy silk project irregularly all over the
surface. [Described July 12th, 1898, under a two-thirds lens, from
cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.] The cocoon forms an imperfect oval,
being wider at the mouth than at the opposite end ; smooth and dark-
brown in colour ; placed on, or just beneath, the surface of the soil
(Wood).
FOOD-PLANT. — Birch (Betula alba).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is single-brooded, the larva
occurring at the end of June and well on into July, the imago emerging
early in the following May. The larva of this species just begins to
appear as that of .V. la/iponica is going over. Wood notes that eight
specimens emerged May lst-5th, 1894.
LOCALITIES. — DORSET : Purbeck (Bankes) . HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood).
NORFOLK: Merton (Walsingham). SUSSEX: Brighton (Vine).
NEPTICULA TUBICELLA, H.-Sch. and N. BASALELLA, H.-Sch.
We have in Britain two beech-feeding Nepticulid species, known
as Xepticula tityrella. and X. fuljenx. On the continent the same two
species are respectively known as X. turicella and XT. tityrella. X.
turiciila (our JY. tityrella) is the species with a non-metallic transverse
fascia to the fore-wings ; X. tityrella (our Xr. fulyens) is the species
with a metallic fascia. The N. tityrella of our collections is, however,
not the X". tityrella of Stainton, which is synonymous with X.fulyens,
Sta., i.e., X. tityrella, Sta. and JY. fuljen*, Sta., both refer to the
species with a metallic fascia, the species with a non-metallic fascia
(erroneously named in collections A', tityrella} never having been
described in Britain. Durrant determines X. basalella, H.-Sch., as
the oldest name for the species with a metallic fascia, so that the two
species stand as : (1) X. turicella, H.-Sch. (2) N. baxalella, H.-Sch.
There can be no doubt that AT. tityrella, Sta. = X. fulyens, Sta.,
for, besides the evidence of the description of the imagines, there is
the evidence of the mine. Wood notes (A'.A/.JA, xxix., p. 278)
that : (1) The second portion of the mine of X. fuljens, Sta., is
characterised by unmistakeable coiling. (2) The mine of X. tityrella
(coll. Brit.) has never the slightest indication of coiling in any part of
its course. Stainton notes (Nat. Hint. Tin., i., p. 148) : " The frassin
the mine of X. tityrella .... for some distance fills the whole width
of the mine, being placed in a series of little arcs of circles." There-
fore, tityrella, Sta. — fidaens, Sta., Wood = basalella, H.-Sch. (teste
Durrant). The Ar. tityrella of Wood (and our collections) is X. turi-
cdla, H.-Sch. = X. turitensis, Frey.
NEPTICULA TURICELLA, Herrich-Schitffer.
SYNONYMY.— Species: Turicella, H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 355, no. 1118
(1855) ; Hein., " Wien. Ent. Monats.," vi., p. 309 (1862) ; Hein. and Sta., " Zool.,"
xxi., p. 8375 (1863) ;_Staud. and Wocke, " Cat_," p. 338, no. 3038 (1871) ; Hein. and
"Tocke, " Sc"
Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 753 (1877) ; Sand. " Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 201 (1879) ;
Bang-Haas, " N. H. Tidsk.." p. 257 (1881) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Ais.." 2nd Ed., ii.,
p. 164(1882) ; Snellen, " De Vlinders," etc., p. 993 (1882); Sorhagen, "Die Kleiu-
298 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
schmett. Brandbg.," p. 307 (1886). lynolriUeUa, H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," pi. 104,
fig. 816 (1853). Turiceiwi*, Frey, "Die Tineen," etc., p. 391 (1856); "Linn.
Ent.," xi., p. 413 (1857). Tityrclla, Wood, " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxix., p. 273 (1893) ;
Ibid., xxx., p. 49 (1894).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Turicella ( — en-fin), Frey. It/nobiliella,
Sppl., 816. Binde zu breit, zuwenig schriig, Farbe der Wurzelhiilfte
nicht gelb genug, die Wurzelbiilfte der Franzen zu scharf abgesch-
nitten. Etwas kleiner, resp. mit kiirzeren Fliigeln als ^V. kuebnerella,
das Gelb des Kopfes matter, die Augendeckel nicht so gliinzend weiss,
daher beide nicht so von einander abstechend. Die Vorderiiiigel an
der Wurzelhiilfte bleich messinggelb, desshalb das weisse Band nicht
so deutlich, es scheint mehr gegen den Afterwinkel gerichtet. Die
Fliigelspitze erzfarbig olivenbraun, ohne Violett, die Franzen um die
Spitze herum ihrer Lange nach 'weisslich. Aus Braunschweig als
N. aryentipetlella und N. lieinarijijrella. von H. v. Heinemann ; aus der
Schweiz von H. Prof. Frey (Herrich-Schiiffer, Systematiische Bearbeitiunj
der Schmett. von Europa, v., p. 355).
[Heinemann supplements this description, from bred individuals,
as follows : " The frontal tuft pale ochreous, the cervical tuft whitish ;
the small eyecaps and antennas whitish ; the latter in $ nearly two-
thirds length of fore-wings, in $ nearly one-half. Abdomen and
hind-legs blackish-grey, middle legs and tarsi whitish ; anterior legs
pale grey. Anterior wings olivaceous inclining to grey, sometimes
nearly olive-black, not 'brownish-yellow,' as Frey says, nor 'pale
brassy-yellow,' as Herrich-Schafl'er writes ; the surface finely scaled,
not polished, and not very shiny ; the fascia not broad, rather oblique,
and perceptibly beyond the middle, its posterior edge somewhat
concave, so that on the margins it appears broader, especially on inner
margin ; its colour whitish with a dull silky gloss, bordered towards
base by a dark-brown stripe having a faint violet gloss ; the entire
tip of fore-wing, and base of cilia of the same colour. Cilia darker grey
in middle, paler grey at tips ; the posterior wings and their cilia grey."]
IMAGO. — Head ochreous. Anterior wings 5-6 mm. ; yellowish-
fuscous at the base ; a whitish somewhat oblique fascia beyond the
middle, edged internally with dark fuscous ; apex dark fuscous, tinged
with violet ; cilia greyish-white, with paler tips. Posterior wings and
cilia pale grey.
EGG-LAYING. — The egg of this species is laid on the underside of
a beech-leaf, among the tufts of hair that grow in the angles of the
midrib, and affords an excellent example of the precision that some
species display in the choice of a position for the egg (Wood).
MINE. — The mine of N. turicella is, as a rule, smaller than that of
N. basalella ; that of the former is a vermiform gallery, usually con-
fined to the space between two adjacent ribs of a leaf, and that of the
latter a more or less straight gallery, which pays little regard to
boundaries, yet, occasionally, one will adopt the pattern of the other.
The absence of the coiled frass in the middle part of the mine of N.
turicella always forms a good point of separation from that of N.
banalella, in the middle part of which the frass is coiled (Wood).
Heinemann, however, says: " The mine of Ar. turicella is like that of
X. tityrdla (basalella), but long, and its tortuosities are not so close
to one another," whilst Sorhagen states that " the mine is long,
irregularly curved, longer than that of N. tityrdla, and less twisted,"
probably following Heinemann.
NEPTICULA TURICELLA. 299
LARVA. — The head is black, especially its posterior lobes ; the
cephalic ganglia also are black, and look like a part of the head ; the
ventral nerve-cord, also, is fairly visible when the leaf is turned over
(Wood). The larva is yellow in colour (Threllall).
COCOON. — The cocoon is very pale yellowish in colour (some almost
whitish) surrounded and entirely covered by a large amount of
loose flossy silk of the same colour. It is almost a perfect oval in
outline, and although flattened, is much less so than the cocoons of
many other species. [Described June 7th, 1898, from cocoons sent by
Dr. Wood.] The cocoon is woolly, and white in colour (Wood).
Heinemann writes : " The cocoon is longish, much arched, and of an
ochreous-yellow colour." Length of cocoon 2-4 mm., width 1-4 mm.
FOOD-PLANT. — Fayux xylvatu-a.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double-brooded, the imagines
appearing in May and July-August, from larvae feeding in October and
June-July respectively. Imagines were captured at Arnhem, on May
13th, 1873, by De Rooy. From larvae obtained in October, in
Hanover, imagines were bred in May. Farren breeds the imagines
in May and June, from larvae obtained September-October, at
Cambridge. Bower captured imagines at Bexley, May 20th, 1887.
Threlfall bred imagines from April llth-20th, 1878, from larvae
captured at Grange, October 5th, 1877.
LOCALITIES. — Doubtful. — CAMBRIDGE : nr. Cambridge, on the Gogs, common
(Farren). CHESHIRE : Bowdon (Edleston). DERBY : Branstone (Sang). DORSET : Wey-
mouth (Richardson), Bloxworth (Cambridge), Purbeck (Bankes). HEREFORD :
Tarrington (-Wood). KENT : Bexley (Bower). LANCASHIRE : Grange, Preston (Threl-
fall). NORFOLK: Middleton (Barrett), King's Lynn (Atmore). SOMERSET; Clevedon
(Mason). SUFFOLK: Great Glenham (Bloomtield). SURREY : Box Hill (Stainton).
SUSSEX : common —Worthing, Brighton, Abbott's Wood (Fletcher), Guestling
(Bloomfield). WESTMORLAND: Windermere (Hodgkinson). YORKS : Doncaster,
abundant (Corbett), llichmond (Sang), Scarborough (Stainton), York (Hind).
DISTRIBUTION. — ? Denmark : North Zealand (Bang-Haas). France:
Auvergne, Creuse, Nohaut (Sand). Germany : generally distributed
(Heinemann and Wocke), Brunswick (Heinemann), Alsace (Peyerim-
hoft), Hanover (Hoffmann), Glogau (Zeller totfc Heinemann), Potsdam,
Stettin (Sorhagen). Netherlands : nowhere rare where its food-plant
occurs (Snellen), Arnhem (Rooy). Switzerland: nr. Ziirich (Frey),
Bremgarten (Boll).
GROUP IV. — Cilia of the anterior wings with a distinct or indicated
divisional line, beyond which they are abruptly paler. The anterior
wings with a distinct metallic fascia at or beyond the middle.
XEPTICULA BASALELLA, Herrich-Schaffer.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Basalella, H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," pi. cv., fig. 831, e
(1853), text. vol. v., p. 354, no. 1113 (1855) ; " Correspondenzblatt," 1860, p. 59.*
.» Hiibnerella. Hb., " Tin.." pi. xxxiv.. p. 236, c (1801) ; Zell., " Isis," 1839, p. 215
(partlm $ ) ; ? H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," pi. cv., figs. 829, 830 (1854). ? Dimidia-
tella, H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 354 (1855). Gratiosella, Zell., " Linn. Ent.,"
iii., p. 312, e (1848). Tityrella, Sta., " Ins. Brit.," p. 304 (1854) ; " Nat. Hist. Tin.,"
i., pp. 148-159, pi. iii., fig. 3 (1855); "Man.," ii., p. 436 (1859); Frey, "Die
Tineen," etc., p. 389(1856); " Linn. Ent.," xi., pp. 429-430 (1857); Staud. and
* Herrich-Schaffer here writes : " Basalella ist alter als tityrella.'' Durrani
notes : " Herrich-Schaffer's pi. cv., was issued in Heft 61 of the Sys. Bearb., etc.,
in 1853, ride, Correspondenzblatt des Zool. Ver. in Regemburg, pp. 173-176 and
204-216 (1869)."
300 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEIU.
Wocke. "Cat., "338. no. 3042 (1871;; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.."
p. 756(1877); Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auv.." p. 201 (1879;; Wallgrn., "Ent. Tidsk.,"
ii , p. 129 (1881); Snellen. " De Vlinders," etc., pp. 997-998 (1882); Sorhagen,
" Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 307(1886); Hering, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," lii.,
p. '221 (1891); Meyr., "Handbook," p. 721 (1895). Fulgent, Sta., "Ent. Mo.
Mag.," xxv., pp. 12-13 (1888) ; Wood, " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxx., p. 49(1894) ; Meyr.,
" Handbook," etc., p. 721 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Basalclla, v. Heyd., Zell., p. 312, c.
Sppl. 831. — Alls anterioribus orichalceo-fuscis, basin versus palli-
dioribus, fascia longe pone medium lata argentea, medio consti-icta,
capite- albo-luteo-pilosa, antennis subferrugineis. Grosser und mit
liingeren, schmaleren Fliigeln als die bis jetzt beschriebenen Arten,
nussbraun, fast ohne Metallglanz, die Wurzelhalfte licht bronzefarbig.
Die breite Silberbinde hinter der ftjitte, am Innenrande weiter von der
Wurzel entfernt, in der Mitte eingeschniirt, die Franzen deutlich
doppelt, ihre Wurzelhiilfte mit groben braunen Schuppen, die Hinter-
fliigel an der Wurzel ihres Vorderrandes mit einem Pinsel langer
grober schwarzer Schuppen. Der Kopf iiberall weisshaarig, die
Fiihler und Beine bleich rostbraun. Ein Exemplar in F. R. Samm-
lung aus Kiel, darunter steckt ein Zettel : liasalella, v. Heyd. Ende
August, Frankfurt-am-Main, auch von Ziirich und aus dem Breisgau
(Herrich-Schaffer, Systematise!* Bearbeituny der Schmett. nm Europa,
v., p. 354).
IMAGO. — Head pale ochreous. Anterior wings 5-6 mm. ; shiny olive-
fuscous ; a pale golden rather oblique transverse fascia beyond the
middle, its hinder edge concave ; apex reddish-fuscous ; cilia pale
grey, with large brown scales at their base. Posterior wings and cilia
pale grey. A tuft of dark scales at the base of the hind-wings.
VARIATION. — a. fulyem, Sta. — An especially brilliant form of X.
basalella described as follows : Anterior wings shining olive-green to
beyond the middle, then with a very brilliant silvery fascia, rather
obliquely placed ; sometimes the ground colour is a little darker
immediately before the fascia ; the apical portion of the wing is of a
rich chocolate-brown, in certain lights looking blacker and contrasting
strongly with the pale grey cilia ; head whitish-ochreous, darker on
the vertex. Exp. al. 2^ lin. (Stainton, Ent. Mo. May., xxv., p. 12).
COMPARISON OF N. BASALELLA WITH N. TURICELLA. — When Stainton
redescribed X. basalella as X. fulyens he wrote : " The effulgent
metallic brilliancy of the silvery fascia and the glossiness of the basal
portion of the wing would alone serve to distinguish it from the usual
beech-feeder X. tityrella (presumably X. tun-cello), a much duller and
more sober-looking insect." Stainton's diagnosis of X. tityrella now
referred to this species reads : " Alls anticis nitidis fuscis, vix olivaceo-
tinctis, postice saturatioribus, fascia subobliqua pone medium dilute
aurea, ad dorsum latiore ; capillis luteis. Exp. al. 2^ lin." (Ins. Brit.,
p. 804).
EGG-LAYING. — This species is not at all particular as to the position
in which the egg is laid, and places it on the upper and under surface
of a beech-leaf indiscriminately.
MINE. — The larva makes a long contorted mine (usually on margin
of leaf), at first very slender, with the excrement forming a black line ;
as the mine becomes broader, the excrement appears paler, yet, for
some distance, fills the whole width of the mine, being placed in a
series of little arcs of circles ; after the first third of the mine, the
NEPTICULA BASALELLA. 801
excrement, which is now greenish-grey, does not occupy the whole
width of the mine, but leaves a considerable space on either side ; in
the progress of the larva in its mine (generally towards the edge of
leaf), it crosses several of the side ribs of the leaf. When full-fed, the
larva leaves the mine to spin its cocoon (Stainton). Wood notes that
" in the first part of the mine there is the usual concretionary arrange-
ment of frass (embracing first two larval skins'), the second portion
is characterised by unmistakeable coiling; in the third part the coiling
is gone, and the frass is scattered irregularly. (The coiling in the
second portion is the best means of distinguishing the mine of this
species from that of X. turicella, which never has the slightest indica-
tion of it.)" Sorhagen notes the mine as very fine at the commence-
ment, much broader later ; the frass-line at first brownish and filling
the gallery, later greenish-grey, placed along the centre of the mine,
which now has pale margins.
LARVA. — The head is pale brown, the cephalic ganglia and ventral
cord invisible (Wood). Length 2^ lines ; pale greenish- white in
colour ; dorsal vessel greenish-brown ; head pale brownish ; mouth
and margins of head reddish-brown (Stainton).
COCOON. — The cocoons average 2mm. in length and 1-8 mm. in
width. It is of a much yellower colour than that of Ar. turicella ;
oval in outline and not very much flattened. The silk is arranged
transversely, loosely, and has a somewhat coarse appearance. The
cocoon proper is enveloped in a mass of loose flossy silk of the same
colour as the cocoon, this outer covering, however, is much less thick
than that covering the cocoon of N. turicella. Compared with the
latter the cocoon of N. baxalclla is rather less in size, more orange in
tint, made of coarser silk, and with a much thinner outer covering.
[Described June 7th, 1898, from cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.] The
cocoon is oblong-oval in shape, pale yellow in colour, and rather
flossy. The pupa protrudes its anterior segments from the cocoon before
the emergence of the imago (Stainton). Frey says that " the cocoon is
oval, very little flattened, pale ochreous-yellow in colour, and rough."
FOOD-PLANT. — Fayus sylratica.
TIME OF APPEARANCE.- — This species is double-brooded, appearing
in May and August, the larvfe of these broods feeding in October and
June- July respectively. Imagines were taken at Arnhem, by De Rooy,
on May 20th, 1873. Threlfall found larvae on October 13th, 1887, at
Ashton Park, which produced imagines the following April 10th,
onwards. Stainton found larvae at Box Hill, June 25th, 1861 ; he
bred imagines from Lewisham larvae April 14th-29th, 1853, and
March 31st, April 1st, 8th, 12th, 14th, 28th, 1855. A specimen in
the Stainton collection was bred by Threlfall, at Preston, May 3rd,
LOCALITIES. — Doubtful. — DEVON: Dawlish (Stainton). DURHAM: Darling-
ton (Stainton). EDINBURGH: Balerno (Logan). GLOUCESTER: Bristol (Stainton).
HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood). KENT : Lewisham (Stainton). LANCASHIRE : Grange,
Ashton Park, nr. Preston (Threlfall), Manchester (Stainton). NORFOLK : King's
Lynn, common (Atmore). NORTHUMBERLAND: Newcastle (Stainton). PERTH: Mon-
creiffe Hill (Moncreiffe). SURREY: Box Hill (Douglas), Mickleham (Stainton),
Haslemere (Barrett). SUSSEX : common — Abbott's Wood. Brighton, Worthing
(Fletcher). WESTMORLAND: Windermere, Witherslack (Hodgkinson).
DISTRIBUTION. — Austria : Vienna (Metzner, te*te Heinemann).
France : Crevant (Sand). Germany : generally distributed (Heine-
302 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
mann and Wocke), Kiel (Boie), Frankfort-on-the-Main (Heyden),
Freiburg (Beutti), Frankfort-on-Oder, Finkenkrug, Hamburg, Stettin
(Sorhagen), Misdroy, Alt Damm, Hohenleese (Hering). Netherlands :
Arnhem, Gravenhage (Snellen). Scandinavia : Scania (Wallengren).
Switzerland : Bremgarten (Boll), Ziirich (Frey).
NEPTICULA CASTANELLA, Stainton.
SYNONYMY. — Species: Castanella, Stainton, "Ent. Wk. Intell.," v., p. 123
(1859); "Ent. Ann.," 18(50, p. 135; Staucl. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 339 ( 1871) ;
Meyr., "Handbook," etc., p. 722 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION.— Mr. Edleston lately sent for determination
two specimens of a Xepticula, taken among Spanish chestnut, for
which he proposed the name castanella. This appears to be a distinct
species, something allied to X. titi/tvlla, but the fascia straighter and
placed nearer the hind margin " (Stainton, Ent. Weekly lutellifiettcer,
v., p. 123).
LARVA.— Yellow (Threlfall).
FOOD-PLANT. — Fat/us caxtanea (Stainton) = Castanea rewa (Wocke).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Threlfall obtained larvie October 2nd, 1880,
on Spanish chestnut, at Dunham Park, but failed to rear imagines.
LOCALITIES. — CHESHIRE: Bowdon (Edleston). LANCASHIRE : Dunham Park,
nr. Manchester (Threlfall).
DISTRIBUTION. — Staudinger and Wocke give : " Italy, Southern
France, Tyrol (southern valleys)."0
NEPTICULA MALELLA,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Malella, Sta., "Ins. Brit.," p. 304 (1854) ; "Nat Hist.
Tin.," i., p. 208, pi. v., fig. 3 (1855) ; "Man.." ii., p. 436 (1859) ; ? H.-Sch., " Sys.
Bearb.," fig. 831 (1853), v., p. 351 (1855) ; Frey, " Die Tineen." etc., p. 388 (1850) ;
"Linn. Ent," xi., p. 427 (1857); Nolck., " Lep. Fn. Estl.," p. 781 (1871);
Stand, and Wocke, "Cat.," p. 338 (1871) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.,"
p. 756 (1877) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auvergne," p. 201 (1879) ; Bang-Haas, " N. H.
Tids.," xiii.. p. 217 (1881) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Alsace," 2nd Ed., ii., p. 164
(1882) ; Snellen, " De Vlinders," p. 998 (1882); Sorhagen, "Die Kleinschmett.
Brandbg.," p. 357 (1886) ; Hering, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," lii., p. 221 (1891) ; Meyr.,
" Handbook," etc., p. 722 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Xeptinda Malella, n. sp. Alis anticis
saturate fuscis, fascia subobliqua pone medium alba, parum nitida ;
capillis ferrugineis. Exp. al. 2 lin. Head and face reddish-yellow,
slightly mixed with fuscous. Antennas fuscous, basal joint whitish.
Anterior wings dark fuscous, with a slightly oblique, almost white,
slightly shining fascia beyond the middle ; cilia fuscous. Posterior
wings pale grey, with pale grey cilia. Appears in May and August,
but not hitherto met with in the perfect state. The yellow larva
mines in autumn and July in the leaves of the wild apple, making
long galleries ; the cocoon is bright yellow (Stainton, Inxecta llritan-
nica, p. 304).
IMAGO. — Head reddish. Anterior wings 4-5 mm. ; dark fuscous ;
a slightly oblique, almost white, slightly shining fascia beyond the
middle of the wing ; cilia fuscous, pale externally. Posterior wings
and cilia pale grey.
COMPARISON OF N. MALELLA WITH ITS ALLIES. — This belongs to that
* We can trace none of these references to their source, and hence do not
know who were the collectors who presumably collected this species in southern
Europe.
NEPTICULA MALELLA. 606
section of the genus in which the dark-coloured anterior wings have a
single bright pale fascia ; in this section it is distinguished by the
anterior wings being dark fuscous, not with a purple or violet tinge, as
in X. jilatjicolella, N. acetoxae and N. prunetonnn, nor with an olive
tinge, as in .V. tityrella ; the fascia is placed rather more obliquely
than in these allied species, and is hardly silvery ; at any rate, it is
less brilliant than in A7, playicolella and N. jjninetomm (Stainton).
Frey writes : " Es ist hiernach unsere Art etwas grosser, schmal-
fliigliger, weniger glanzend, kaum violett angeflogen und rait viel
helleren Franzen versehen als die iibrigens nahe verwandte AT. plai/i-
calella. Auch der Kopf ist heller, gelblich behaart. Die Binde steht
hinter der Mitte und ist etwas schief. Sie verliiuft ganz gestreckt,
ist schmal, mattsilbern ergliinzend. Weitere Unterschiede von
AT. betidicola, X. centifoliella, etc., getraue ich mich jetzt nicht
anzugeben. Dazu ware ein viel grosseres Material erforderlich "
(Linn. Ent., xi., p. 428).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is deposited on the underside of an apple-
leaf, generally close to one of the ribs.
MINE. — The larva commences to mine in an irregular, rather
tortuous gallery ; at its origin this gallery is extremely slender, but it
gradually becomes wider, and the excrement forms a distinct black
line in the middle of it, leaving a pale space on each side of it. The
larva leaves the mine to make its cocoon (Stainton). Frey writes :
" Die Mine ist ein wenig stark gewundener Gang, welcher nach
kurzem Yerlaufe sich rasch betriichtlich breiter gestaltet und oft, bis
2"' im Quermesser haltend, aufhort. Der Koth bildet eine schlanke,
braunrothe Linie, so dass die Randtheile der Mine in sehr betriicht-
licher Breite griinlich weiss und leer erscheinen. Die Mine fiillt hier-
durch sehr leicht in das Auge." Nolcken describes the mine as
forming at first " a very slender, slightly twisting gallery, with fine
interrupted frass-line, extending near to the pale edges ; then it
suddenly becomes much broader, more winding, the frass-line less
regular, but broken into irregular heaps, or scattered indiscriminately
over the path."
LARVA. — Length 2 lines ; very pale amber, the dorsal vessel red-
dish-brown, always conspicuous, even in the leaf ; head small, pale
brown, with a darker line on each margin ; the hinder portion shows
through the upper surface of the prothorax as two brown lobes sepa-
rated by a pale line (Stainton).
COCOON. — The cocoon is oval, yellow in colour, slightly flossy.
The pupa protrudes its anterior segments before the emergence of the
imago (Stainton). Frey writes : " Der Cocon ist oval, braunlich gelb
mit etwas rauher Oberflache."
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The insect is double-brooded, appearing
in May and August, from larvae to be found in September-October
and June- July respectively. Fologne found full-fed larvae by June
7th, 1860, nr. Brussels. Sang found mines on October llth, 1857, at
Richmond, 'August 5th, 1861, October 3rd, 1868, October 12th, 1870,
July 15th, 1871, August 25th, 1873, at Darlington (texte Gardner).
Nolcken found larvae (of various sizes) abundantly at Pichtendahl, from
July 2nd-27th, and the imago June 15th, 1862. Stainton caught
imagines at Lewisham on May 21st, 1849, May 22nd, 1850, May 22nd,
1851, and bred them from the same locality on March 30th, 1854,
304 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEEA.
July 18th, 1854, April 14th, May 6th, 1855, and July 25th-30th, 1856.
Threlfall bred imagines in April, 1887, from lame obtained October
7th, 1886, at Grange.
FOOD-PLANTS. — Pt/rus inalux, wild and cultivated varieties. Sorhagen
adds : Prunut xfriuosa.
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge (Farren). CHESHIRE : Bowdon
(Edleston). DERBY: Burton (Sang). DORSET; ? Weymouth (Richardson). DUBLIN:
Dublin (Stainton). DURHAM: Darlington (Sang). ESSEX : Walthamstow (Elisha).
GLOUCESTER : Bristol (Stainton) ; HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood). KENT :
Lewisham (Stainton). LANCASHIRE : Manchester (Stainton), Grange district
(Threlfall). NORFOLK: Norwich (Barrett), King's Lynn (Atraore). SOMERSET:
nr. Bristol (Mason). WESTMORLAND: Witherslack (Hodgkinson). YORKS : Scar-
borough (Stainton), Doncaster, common (Corbett), York, very plentiful (Hind).
DISTRIBUTION. — Denmark (Bang-Haas). France : Nohaut, Indre
(Sand). Germany : Friedland, Havelland, Hamburg (Sorhagen),-
Frankfort-on-the-Main (Schmid), Alsace (Peyerimhoff), Alt Damm
(Hering). Netherlands : S. Holland. Friesland, not rare, Arnhem.
N. Brabant (Snellen). Russia: Pichtendahl (Nolcken), Aland
(Reuter). Switzerland: near Ziirich (Frey).
NEPTICULA ATRICOLLIS,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Atricolli*, Sta., "Ent. Ann.," 1857, p. 112; "Man.,"
ii., p. 435 (1859) ; " Nat. Hist. Tin.," vii., p. 228, pi. ix., fig. 1 (18(52) ; Hein., "Wien.
Ent. Monats.," 1862, p. 313 ; Hein. and Sta., " Zool.." xxi., p. 8579 (1863) ; Nolck.,
" Lep. Faun. Est.," p. 782 (1871) ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 338 (1871) ; Hein.
and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 758 (1877) ; B.-Haas, " N. H. Tidsk.." xiii.,
p. 218 (1881) ; Peyer., "Cat. Lep. Ms.," 2nd Ed., ii., p. 1«4 (1882) ; Sorh., " Die
Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 346 (1886); Meyr., "Handbook," etc., p. 722 (1895J.
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Alis anticis atris, fascia obliqua pone
medium, in medio contracta, dorsum versus latiore, lutescenti-argentea.
Exp. al. 2J-2£ lin. Head and face reddish-yellow ; palpi whitish ;
antennre fuscous, basal joint white. Anterior wings deep black ; a
little beyond the middle is a yellowish-silvery fascia, rather obliquely
placed, often attenuated in the middle, and the inner edge of the
lower half expanding more or less towards the base ; cilia of the hind
margin whitish. Posterior wings grey, with grey cilia (Staintou,
Entom. Annual, 1857, p. 112).
IMAGO. — Head ferruginous. Anterior wings 5-6 mm. in expanse ;
black in colour ; a silvery slightly oblique transverse fascia, slightly
attenuated in the centre, broadest on the inner margin, its inner edge
slightly concave and outer edge straight, placed just beyond the
middle of the wing ; cilia blackish, with the tips distinctly whitish.
Posterior wings and cilia grey.
COMPARISON OF N. ATRICOLLIS WITH N. ANGULIFASCIELLA, N.
ARCUATELLA, N. RUBivoRA, ETC. — From X. ((tHjulifascieUa and X. rubi-
rora, X. atncollift may be distinguished by the rusty yellow frontal
tuft ; from AT. arcitatclla the purer white tips of the cilia, and the
distinct cilial line, as also the darker hind tarsi, serve to distinguish
it (Heinemann). X. atricolli* belongs to that section of the genus in
which the black anterior wings have a bright silvery fascia. The
only known species with which it can be confounded are A', antjuli-
faxdi'lla and X. arcuata. From the former it may be distinguished by
its smaller size, by the narrower anterior wings, and by the silvery
fascia being less curved. From X. arcuatn it is by no means easily
distinguished. Both are of the same size, and the colour of the fascia
NEPTICULA ATRICOLLIS. 805
seems precisely similar in the two species, but in the form of the
fascia I think I can see this distinction, that in X. atncollu the curve
or angulation of its inner edge takes place near the middle of the
wing, but in N. arcuata it does not occur till the fold is reached
(Stainton).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is deposited on the undersurface of a leaf of
hawthorn, wild apple, or pear.
MINE. — The first part of the mine is extremely fine, runs along the
edge of a leaf, following the serrations, and is almost filled up with
brown excrement. The mine then becomes Avider, and finally expands
into quite a large blotch, in which the excrement occupies only a
small area, the blotch assuming a peculiar brownish-green tinge in
hawthorn-leaves. Mines found by Wood in leaves of pear were rather
different from those found on apple and hawthorn, those found on pear
being typical of the " anf/ulifaxciclla group," commencing in the body
of the leaf with a bunch of convolutions, followed by a short gallery,
and ending in a blotch. Wood notes that on apple and hawthorn the
mine is much like that of A", reyiella, commencing with a long gallery
round the margin of the leaf, from which, as from a base, the blotch
springs. Occasionally, however, the mines on apple and hawthorn do
conform to type, when the egg happens to be deposited well away
from the edge. The position of the egg, therefore, seems to determine
the character of the mine ; when it is laid upon or near the edge the
larva appears to remain there, the bunch of convolutions being un-
ravelled, as it were, and spread out along the margin.
LARVA. — Length 2 lines. Pale greenish, with a dark green dorsal
vessel; the llth and 12th segments with a reddish tinge; the head
and prothorax blackish-brown. There is a medio-ventral row of dark
spots (Stainton). The larvas of the autumn brood are supposed, by
Warren, to hybernate through the winter, and to spin their cocoons on
objects near their hybernacula in spring. Heinemann says that " the
larva is yellow, with the head and spot on prothorax blackish."
Nolcken queries the larva being "yellow," and describes it as " very
pale dirty greenish in colour, usually with dark head, which is
posteriorly black-brown. The intestinal canal is dark green, whilst
along the venter a series of almond-shaped (or lozenge) spots are
visible." Wood notes that the larva mines with the venter uppermost.
COMPARISON OF THE LARVA AND MINE OF N. ATRICOLLIS WITH
THOSE OF ITS ALLIES. — Of the larva? living on Crataegiu oxyacantha,
probably only that of ^V. iijnobilella can be confounded with that of
X. atricollis, but this has a much paler head, and its mine has, at the
commencement, pale margins on either side of the slender frass-line,
whilst the frass completely fills up this part of the mine. The mine
of X. paradoxa, Frey, from its forming a large brown spot, appears easy
to separate from those of these species (Nolcken).
COCOON. — The cocoons average about 2-1 mm. in length and
1-25 mm. in width. Each is roughly oval in outline and shape, black
in colour, and covered over with a very dense coating of loose flossy
black-brown silk. There is no rim, the cocoon being very like that
of X. rubirora, but much more woolly, and reminds one something of
an "eggar" cocoon in general form. The cocoons are spun up in
moss, some with grains of sand adherent to the outer coats. [De-
scribed July 7th, 1898, under a two-thirds lens, from cocoons sent by
306 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Mr. W. H. B. Fletcher.] Sorhagen describes the cocoon as " light
blackish-green."
FOOD-PLANTS. — Wild apple, hawthorn and pear, very rarely on the
latter.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double-brooded, the imagines
appearing in May- June and August, from larvae that have fed up the
previous October and July respectively. Stainton captured an imago
on June 17th, 1857, atLewisham, and Threlfall has bred the imagines
throughout May and June, from larvae obtained at Grange the pre-
ceding August and September. Sang obtained mines on October 5th,
1861, September 26th, 1863, September 29th, 1871, October 2nd,
1874, September 30th and October 3rd 1878, at Darlington (tf*tt
Gardner). Nolcken found larvaa on September 6th, 1866, at Umbaid.
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge (Warren). CHESHIRE : Bowdon
(Edleston). DURHAM: Darlington (Sang). KENT: Lewisham (Stainton). HERE-
FORD : Tarrington (Wood). LANCASHIRE : Manchester (Boyd), Grange (Threlfall).
NORFOLK: Norwich (Barrett). SCSSEX: Arundel Park, abundant (Fletcher).
WESTMORLAND : Witherslack (Threlfall). YORKSHIRE : Doncaster (Warren), York
(Hind).
DISTRIBUTION. — Denmark : Between Brede and Lyngby (Bang-
Haas). Germany: Brunswick and Silesia (Heinemann and Wocke),
Alsace (Peyerimhoff), Wolfenbiittel (Heinemann), Stettin, Hanover
(Sorhagen). Russia : Umbaid (Nolcken).
NEPTICULA ARCUATELLA, Herrich-Schaffer.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Araiatella, H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 354 (1855);
Hein.. " Wien. Ent. Monats.," vi., p. 315 (1862) ; Hein. and Sta., " Zool.," xxi., p.
8381 (1863); Staud. and Wocke, "Cat.," p. 338 (1871); Hein. and Wocke.
" Schmett. Deutsch., p. 759 (1877) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Als.," ii., 2nd Ed., p. 165
(1882) ; Sorhgn., " Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 346 (1886) ; Bering, " Stett. Ent.
Zeit.," lii.. p. 221 (1891); Meyr.. "Handbook," etc., p. 723 (1895). Arntntu,
Frey, "Die Tineen," etc., pp. 384-385 (1856); "Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 415 (1857);
Sta., "Ent. Ann.," 1858, p. 97; "Man.," ii., p. 434 (1859); "Nat. Hist. Tin..'
v. 1QA r>l i-r fir, !i flaK9\ • \Tr>l«lr "T.<jr> Vr, T?.ct "
vii., p. 196, pi. ix., fig. 3 (1862); Nolck., "Lep. Fn. Est.," p. 784 (1871).
Arabella, Dbldy., "List.," p. 36 (1866); Threlfall, "Ent. Mo. Mag.," xix.,
p. 113 (1882); Porritt, "List Yorks. Lep.," p. 172 (1886).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — 1114. Arcuatdla ( — ata), Frey. — Fusca,
capillis luteis, fascia alarum anter. media argentea, ante marginem inte-
riorem rectangulariter fracta. Der Kopf viel starker und dunkler gelb
behaart als bei A7, baxalella, die Vorderfliigel breiter, iiberall grob
schuppig, die dicht gestellten Schuppen schwiirzlich violett, die
silberne Binde in der Mitte, von Vorderrande aus sehr schriig, erst
kurz vor dem Innenrande fast rechtwinkelig gebrochen ; das lichte
Ende der Franzen kiirzer, die Hinterflugel deutlith breiter. Von H.
Frey aus unbeachteten Minen erzogen (Herrich-Schaffer, Syxt. Hear,
der Sflnnett. von Kurojia, vol. v., p. 354).
IMAGO. — Head reddish or ferruginous. Anterior wings 5 mm. ;
black ; a slender, central, silvery-white transverse fascia, contracted
and curved a little inwards medially ; cilia whitish- grey. Posterior
wings and cilia pale grey.
COMPARISON OF N. ARCUATELLA WITH N. ANGULIFASCIELLA AND N.
ATRICOLLIS. — X. aiifiidifaxcii'lla is a larger and blacker insect than
N. arcuatdla, with a more brilliant fascia ; the latter can, however,
be distinguished from the former, not only by its smaller size, but by
the fascia being more slender, and by its outer edge being nearly
straight (the outer edge of the fascia in X. amjulifasciella being dis-
NEPTICULA ARCUATELLA. 807
tinctly angulated). The imago of N. arcuatella is very difficult to
distinguish from that of N. atricollis. They are of about the same
size, but the latter is blacker, and the fascia is broader and more
brilliant. N. arcuatella, too, has the anterior wings a little broader,
and the curve in the fascia which, in this species, takes place on the
fold, seems in N. atricollis to occur at about the middle of the wing,
i.e., nearer the costa (Stainton). N. arcuatella may be recognised by
the tips of the cilia of the anterior wings being greyer, not so white,
and by the paler legs. The fascia has the same direction as in N.
antjuUfasciella ; but is very narrow and less conspicuous (Heinemann).
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The frontal tuft of the male is generally pale
luteous or ochreous, in the female more or less of a brownish-fuscous,
especially at the hinder part, yet some males occur with brownish and
females with yellowish frontal tuft (Heinemann).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the upper surface of a leaf of
Potentilla fraf/ariastrum or Frayaria vesca (Stainton). Nolcken calls
attention to this record, and states that he examined 4 mines, in all of
which the egg was laid on the underside of the leaf.
MINE. — The first part of the mine consists of a much contorted
gallery, in which the dark brown excrement is conspicuous ; the gallery
then becomes wider and less contorted, and at last widens out into a
small blotch, in which there is very little excrement. The blotch is
not formed until quite the end of the larval period. Heinemann
describes the mine as " long, tortuous, with a slender frass-line."
Frey notes the mine, in strawberry, as " long irregular, very much
twisted, commencing as a very narrow gallery, running in and out
along the margin of a leaf, with a very fine dark brown frass-
line ; later the mine widens gradually, and the frass becomes blackish,
but still forms a very fine stripe with distinct margins." This descrip-
tion reminds one of that of N. frayariella. Nolcken calls attention to
the discrepancies between various authors, in their descriptions of the
mine, mode of egg-laying, etc. He describes the mine in Tormentilla
(? crecta) as being without the pale margins, and the closely twisted
spot (as described by Stainton). It begins moderately twisted, with
perceptible width,, which increases very gradually. After some time
it expands into an irregular spot, which, owing to the small size of
the leaf, often includes the earlier part of the mine. The frass, which
completely fills the mine from its commencement to the blotch,
shows three different forms of arrangement that may appear in either
stage of the mine, e.g., the frass may be granular and united into little
heaps of varying size, or the granular pellets may be placed close
together and form a regular row, or the pellets may be irregularly
scattered, whilst, sometimes, band-like tracts of excrement are formed
as if the deposit had been liquid. In the latter part of the mine the
frass sometimes marks the path of the larva, at other times it is scat-
tered irregularly. Seen from above, the frass appears black, held against
the light it is somewhat transparent and greenish, composed of patches
of unequal density, the darker patches leading insensibly into the form in
which the excrement forms an opaque black band, often irregular, but
conspicuous. Nolcken compared his with mines received from Heine-
mann, and found them very similar, although the latter had not
always the tortuous beginning, were without light margins as far as
the blotch, and had the excrement more granular and not deposited in
308 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
a liquid form (a difference which Nolcken considers may have been
engendered by a difference in the meteorological conditions at the time
the mines were formed). He concludes that his mines and those of
Heinemann belonged to the same species.
LARVA. — Length 2 lines. Pale whitish-amber in colour, with a
green dorsal vessel ; head very pale brown, with the mouth and two
lines receding from it darker (Stainton). Frey describes it as
" yellowish-green, with a pale brownish head, and 2^ '" in length."
Nolcken says " that it is pale yellow, with a green intestinal canal,
and a very pale brown head." Wood notes that it mines with the
venter uppermost.
COCOON. — The larva leaves the leaf to spin its cocoon, the latter
being oval, and blackish in colour (Stainton). Nolcken calls it
" blackish -brown."
FOOD-PLANTS. — Fra</aria vatea and Potentilla fragariattrwn (Frey),
Tormentilla (.' erecta) (Nolcken).
TIME OF APPEARANCE.— The species is double-brooded, according to
Frey, appearing in May and again in July, from larvae that feed up in
August-September and in June respectively. Sang found mines on
October 3rd-llth, 1863, September 2nd, 1865, and August 10th,
1873, at Darlington. Threlfall notes plenty of larvae in wild straw-
berry on July 21st, 1876, at Grange, and he also bred imagines in
May, 1887, from larvae obtained at Grange, September 30th, 1886.
Frey says there is a sparse summer brood of larvae, and a more
abundant one in September and October. Nolcken found larvae from
September 2nd-0ctober 3rd, at Pichtendahl, where Tormentdlu grows
plentifully under shady bushes, in colonies varying much in age. He
noticed also some mines empty at the commencement of September,
which he considers may have been those of a summer brood.
LOCALITIES. — DURHAM: Darlington (Sang). HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood).
KENT: West Wickham (Stainton). LANCASHIRE: Manchester (Boyd), Grange
(Threlfall). SUSSKX : Clapham Woods, Worthing (Fletcher). WESTMORLAND:
Witherslack (Threlfall). YORKS : Scarborough (Wilkinson), Richmond (Sang).
DISTRIBUTION. — Germany : Brunswick, Wolfenbiittel (Heinemann),
Silesia (Heinemann and Wocke), Ratisbon (Stainton), Frankfort-on-
the-Main (Heyden), Freiburg (Reutti), Alsace, Soultzmatt, Equisheim
(Peyerimhoff), Friedland (Hering). Russia : Pichtendahl (Nolcken).
Switzerland : Zurich (Frey).
NEPTICULA ANGULIFASCIELLA,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Angulifatciella, Sta., " Cat.," p. 29 (1849); "Ins. Brit.,"
p. 304(1854); "Nat. Hist. Tin.," i., p. 88, pi. i., fig. 3 (1855); "Man.," ii., p.
435 (1859) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb., ' v., p. 350 (1855) ; Frey, " Linn. Ent.," xi., p.
417 (1857) ; Hein., " Wien. Ent. Monats.," vi., p. 314 (1862) ; Hein. and Sta.," Zool.,"
xxi., pp. 8380-8381 (1863) ; Staud. and Wocke. " Cat.." p. 338 (1871) ; Hein. and
Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 758 (1877) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auv.," pp. 201-202
(1879) ; Bang-Haas. " N. H. Tidsk.," xiii., p. 218 (1881) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Als.,"
2nd Ed., ii.. p. 165 (1882) ; Sorhagen. " Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 308 (1886) ;
Walsm., "Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxvii.. p. 152 (1891) ; Hering, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," Hi., p.
405 (1891) ; Meyrick, " Handbook," etc., p. 722 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Nejiticula am/idifascit'lla, n. sp. ? Ar<jy-
ropeza, Z. var. a, 320. Smaller than aryentijtedetla. Anterior wings
black, with two nearly opposite trigonal silvery spots a little beyond
the middle of the wing, sometimes united and forming an angulated
fascia; head ferruginous (Stainton, Si/s. Cat. of tlte JJrit. Tin. and
NEPT4CULA ANGULIFASCIELLA. 303
Pterophoridae, p. 29) . This description is extended by Stainton (Insccta
Jlritdunica, p. 304) as follows : " Alis anticis nigris, maculis duabus
oppositis in medio argenteo-albis, in fasciam angulatara confluentibus ;
capillis luteis. Exp. al. 2£ lin. Head and face deep luteous. Palpi
whitish. Antennas dark fuscous, basal joint whitish. Anterior wings
black, with a silvery-white spot on the costa about the middle, and a
similar silvery-white spot on the middle of the inner margin ; these
spots frequently unite to form a slender angulated fascia ; cilia
whitish. Posterior wings grey, with paler cilia."
IMAGO. — Head yellowish. Anterior wings 5-6 mm. ; black in
colour ; two opposite silvery- white spots in the centre, which fre-
quently unite to form a transverse fascia ; faint blue-grey tinge towards
apex ; cilia with two dark divisional lines beyond these white. Posterior
wings grey, cilia pale grey.
COMPARISON OF N. ANGULIFASCIELLA WITH ITS ALLIES. — In Ar. anf/idi-
J'asciella the cilia have two dark divisional lines that are placed more
obliquely than in N. ayrimonidla and N. atricollis, moreover, the
frontal tuft is yellower than in those species. N. anyulifasciella is
distinguished from N. rubivora by the yellow frontal tuft, and from N.
arcuatdla by the whiter tips of the cilia of the anterior wings and the
darker cilial line (Heinemann). N. anyidifascidla belongs to that
section of the genus in which a single brilliantly metallic fascia
adorns the anterior wings — this fascia, being silvery-white, at once
distinguishes the species from X. aurella ; to N. aryentipedella and N.
maldla it is more closely allied, but in these the fascia is straight,
whereas in X. angtdifeucittta it is angulated, and sometimes divided
into opposite spots ; the darker ground colour of the anterior wings
also distinguishes it from X. maldla and the larger X. aryentipcdella
(Stainton).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is deposited on the under surface (rarely on
the upper surface) of a rose leaf, near the midrib.
MINE. — The mine is a compound of the gallery and blotch form,
starting first as a gallery, which comprises the greater part of the
structure. It commences as an extremely contorted gallery, the
numerous turns of which are so close together that they almost form
a blotch ; the second part of the mine is broader, less tortuous, and in
this the excrement is placed rather irregularly ; the increasing width
of the mine makes it assume, in its final portion, the form of a blotch.
The formation of this blotch portion does not commence with the
third larval moult, but is delayed until almost the end of the larval
period. As soon as the larva commences to burrow, it stains the leaf,
and the little purple spots in the rose-leaves show at once where the
larva has begun to mine. The larvre are sometimes very gregarious,
a single wild-rose bush sometimes having almost every leaf occupied
with larvae. Heinemann says : " The mine is very tortuous, with a
slender excremental line, but generally ends in a large blotch."
LARVA. — The full-grown larva is about 2 lines in length. It is of
a pale greenish-white colour, with the exception of the three terminal
segments, which are pale amber ; the dorsal vessel is green ; the head
and prothorax brown (Stainton). The larva is greenish-white, with
green dorsal line and brownish head. It occurs in the leaves of wild
roses growing in shady borders of woods (Heiuemann). Larva
whitish, with dark green dorsal vessel (Walsmghani).
310 BRITISH LEPIDOPTKKA.
COCOON. — Hind says that it is " nearly black." Stainton gives
its colour as dark green, oval in shape. The larva remains in the
cocoon for some time before assuming the pupal state. Frey writes :
" Der Cocon ist dunkel griinlich-braun, ziemlich rundlich und massig
flach." Sorhagen describes the cocoon as " dark green."
FOOD-PLANTS. — Rosa canina and Poterinm sanynisorba. Abundant
at Doncaster in E. canina, but not in 7?. arvensis (Corbett). Rosa
sempei-i-irens ( Walsingham) .
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Although this species appears to be single-
brooded, the imagines are to be fonnd from the end of May until July.
These appear to come entirely from larvae that feed up the previous
September-November. Stainton writes : " By keeping the collected
larvae out of doors all the winter of J. 854 -185 5, I succeeded in rearing
a fine series of the perfect insects, which made their appearance from
July 18th-28th, 1855, a sufficient proof that the insect is only single-
brooded." In 1856, he had imagines emerge from July 17th-28th,
whilst in 1851 he found imagines on June 22nd, 1851, on palings at
Beckenham. Threlfall bred imagines from June 15th-30th, 1879,
from green larvae found at Windermere, October 17th, 1878. Peyerim-
hoff makes the species single-brooded at Alsace, the imagines appear-
ing in June, from October larvae. Sang found mines at Darlington
on October 6th, 1878. Walsingham, however, found larvae at Cannes
and Valescure from February 27th to March 7th, 1890, and bred
the imagines from these on June 13th of the same year. Perhaps, so
far south, a second brood occurs. Jordan records that in October, 1865,
there were no Nepticulid larvae in the rose-bushes in a garden at
Teignmouth. On November 10th he returned for one day only, and the
same rose-bushes were now literally swarming with the larvae of N.
anfjulifasciella. Some of the mines were already empty, and in
others there were full-fed larvae, often several in one leaf.
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge (Farren). CHESHIRE : Bowdon (Edles-
ton). DERBY: Burton-on-Trent (Sang). DEVON : Teignmouth (Jordan). DORSET:
Portland, Weymouth (Richardson), Glanvilles Wootton (Dale). DURHAM :
Darlington (Sang). GLOUCESTER: Bristol (Stainton). HEREFORD: Tarrington
(Wood). KENT : Lewisham and Beckenham (Stainton). LANCASHIRE : nr. Man-
chester (Stainton), Preston and Grange (Threlfall). NORFOLK : Myntlyn, Bawsey
(Barrett), King's Lynn (Atmore). RENFREW: Bishopton, nr. Paisley (King).
SUFFOLK: Hacheston (Harker). SUSSEX: Worthing, Arundel, Horsham, Sompting,
abundant in Rosa canina (Fletcher), Guestling (Bloomh'eld). WESTMORLAND :
Windermere (Threlfall), Witherslack (Hodgkinson). YORKSHIRE : Scarborough
(Wilkinson), Doncaster (Corbett), Richmond (Sang), York (Hind).
DISTRIBUTION. — Belgium : nr. Brussels (Fologne). Denmark :
generally distributed in north-east Zealand (Bang-Haas). France :
Nohaut, Indre (Sand), Cannes, Valescure (Walsingham). Germany:
widely distributed, Brunswick, etc. (Heinemann), Berlin (Bouche),
Hamburg (Sorhagen), Frankfort-on-the-Main (Heyden), Alsace
(Peyerimhoft). Breslau (Zeller), Alt Damm, Friedland (Hering).
Switzerland : Bremi, nr. Ziirich (Frey) .
NEPTICULA RUBIVORA,
SYNONYMY. — Species: Rubivora, Wocke, " Jahres-Bericht der Schles. Gesell.
fur vaterl. Kultur," vol. xxxviii., p. 132 (1800) ; Hein., " Wien. Ent. Monats.," vi., p.
315 (1862) ; Hein. and Sta., " Zool.," xxi., p. 8381 (1863) ; Staud. and Wocke," Cat.,"
p. 338 (1871) ; Nolck., " Lep. Fn. Estl.," p. 783 (1871) ; Frey, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.,"
1871, p. 125 ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 759 (1877) ; Sand. " Cat.
Lep. Auv.," p. 202 (1879) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Als.," 2nd Ed., ii., p. 165 (1882) ;
N-tPTlCULA RUBIVOIU. 311
Sorhgn., " Die Kleinschraett. Brandbg.," p. 346 (1886) ; Walsm., "Ent. Mo. Mag.,"
xxvii., p. 152 (1891); Meyr.. " Handbook.," etc., p. 722 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Nepticvla rubivora, n. sp. Alls ant. gros-
siuscule squamatis nigris, fascia media argentea nitidissima parum
obliqua, capillis nigris, conehulis flavescentibus. Expans. alar. c. 4
millim. Hat einige Aehnlichkeit mit X. anyulij'asciella und N. af/ri-
monidla, von denen sie sich aber leicht durch den tief schwarzen Kopf
uuterscheiden liisst. Von den iibrigen auf Itubus lebenden Arten
trennt sie sich durcb die rein silberne Binde und die grobschuppigen,
weder violett noch goldig tingirten Vorderfliigel. Grosse etwasunter N.
ani/ulifasciella, rnein grosstes ? misst von einer Fliigelspitze zur
anderen etwas iiber, das kleinste J wenig unter 4 mm. Der Korper ist
im Verhaltniss zur Lange der Fliigel sehr robust gebaut. Kopfhaare
schwarz, Gesicht blassgelblich, Fiihler hellgelblichgrau, nach der
Spitze zu gebriiunt, Muschel auf der Oberseite glanzend weisslich,
unterseits hellgelb. Biicken schwarz, Beiue braungrau mit hell-
gelben Tarsen. Die Vorderfliigel sind ziemlich grobschuppig, tief-
schwarz, gegen die Fliigelspitze mit einigen eingestreuten weiss-
lichen Schiippchen. Der Saum ist durch cine Bogenlinie schwar-
zer Schuppen begrenzt ; Franzen weisslich. In der Mitte der
Vorderfliigel liegt die meist etwas nach aussen convexe Silber-
binde, die ein wenig schief gerichtet ist, indem sie am Vorderrande
etwas weiter nach innen endet als am Innenrande. Hinterfliigel
dunkelgrau mit gleichen Franzen. Unterseite der Vorderfliigel
schwarzlich mit hellgrauen Franzen. Hinterfliigel wenig heller als
auf der Oberseite. Die Eaupe bewohnt die Blatter von Rubw caesius
an feuchten schattigen Platzen in der Nabe der Oderufer bei Breslau.
Ihre Mine ist unregelmassig und so vielfach verschlungen, dass ihre
Kichtung oft gar nicht deutlich zu erkennen ist und sie einen grossen
schmutziggelblichen Fleck darstellt, in dem einzelne Inselchen des
unversehrten Blattgriins stehen. Die Farbe der Baupe ist hellgrau-
griin ; der Kopf blassbraun. Die Erscheinungszeit der Baupe, von
der ich nur eine Generation beobachtete, ist eine sehr spate, von Ende
September bis Ende October. Das Cocon ist dunkelbraun, von ovaler
Form und wenig gewolbt. Den Falter babe ich noch nicht im Freien
gefunden, im warmen Zimmer, in das ich die Puppen Anfang Februar
brachte, kamen mir die Schmetterlinge erst gegen Ende April aus
(Wocke, Jahres-JJericht der Schlesisclien Gesellscha/t fur vaterlandische
Kultur, xxxviii., pp. 132-133).
IMAGO. — Head black Anterior wings 5 mm., narrow, with large
scales ; black in colour ; the somewhat oblique transverse silvery
median fascia bent on the fold ; the cilia blackish with white tips.
Posterior wings and cilia dark grey.
COMPARISON OF N. RUBIVORA WITH ITS ALLIES. — N. rubivora has
some similarity with N. angulifasciella and N. agrimoniella, from
which, however, it is easily distinguished by the deep black head.
From the rest of the species living on Rubus, it is separated by the
clean silver band, and the coarsely-scaled forewings being neither
tinged with violet nor golden (Wocke). All the specimens of X.
rubivora very closely resemble N. anyidi/asciella, yet X. rubirora is
easily distinguished by the black frontal tuft. It is also smaller, and
the anterior wings appear rather narrower, and of a more uniform
width, and their colour a deeper black. The antennae are short ; the
eye- caps small and pure white (Heineniann).
312 BKITISII LEPIDOPTERA.
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the underside of a leaf (Nolcken).
MINE. — The mine is irregular, and twisted so frequently that its
direction is not always easy to follow. It forms, at last, a large,
dirty, yellowish blotch, in which stand isolated islets of the uninjured
green of the leaf. Nolcken notes that the mines are differently coloured
in the leaves of Rubns chamaemortu and 11. seseatilit (a difference not
marked in the dried leaves). Its commencement is broader than that
of the mines of most species, forms first some closely compressed
windings, then stretches itself in curves for a short distance, and only
gradually increases in width, until it suddenly enlarges into a large
blotch, bounded by convex lines or the vein of a leaf. From the
commencement to the blotch, the granular frass lies in small patches
(with scattered pellets between), which stretch from side to side, so
that there are pale patches, but no p'ale margins. In the blotch the
frass at first shows the track of the larva, but is afterwards scattered
irregularly. Sometimes the blotch takes in the whole of the earlier
part of the mine, although even then its direction can be traced. The
larva quits the leaf by the upper side. Heiuemann notes that both
the larva and mine are like those of X. aiujnlifaxcidla.
LARVA. — Wocke describes the larva as " light greyish-green, its
head pale brown." Nolcken says that " the larva is very pale
greenish, almost transparent, with light-green alimentary canal just
as clear ; the head pale yellowish -brown, with the sutures and mouth-
parts darker ; antennae scarcely visible but faintly shaded with grey ;
the ventral surface with lozenge-shaped spots, which, however, are
rounded off, and are united like a string of pearls."
COCOON. — The cocoons examined (17 in number) average 2 mm.
in length and 1-25 mm. in width. The cocoon is almost ovate in shape,
much deeper than the ordinary Nepticulid cocoon, exceedingly irregular,
and without any rim in those examined. The cocoons are spun up
among moss and sand, many pieces of the latter being attached to the
outside. The colour of the cocoons is black, generally smooth, but
with a number of loose black-brown fibres scattered here and there,
probably at the points of attachment where the coccon has been
fastened to pieces of moss. [Described July 7th, under a two-thirds
lens, from cocoons sent by Mr. W. H. B. Fletcher.] Wocke describes
the cocoon as being " dark-brown in colour, of oval form and
little vaulted." Nolcken says that " the freshly-made cocoons are
blackish violet-grey, often with a paler greenish margin."
FOOD-PLANTS. — liubus caesius, preferring plants growing in damp,
shady places (Wocke), R. sexatilis and R. chainaemorus (Nolcken),
R. caesius and R. chainaemorus (Sorhagen), R. fruticosus (Walsingham).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is probably double-brooded in
the south, single-brooded in the central and north, of Europe.
Walsingham obtained larvae from March 29th-April 3rd, 1888, at
Cannes, which produced imagines June lst-17th, 1888, whilst others,
obtained in March, 1889, emerged from May 27th-June 12th, 1889.
Peyerimhoff notes it as single-brooded in Alsace, the October larvae
producing imagines in June, whilst Sand also says that in Auvergne,
October larvae produce imagines in June. Wocke notes only one
brood at Breslau, the larvae appearing from the end of September
until the end of October, and producing in a warm room (into which
the cocoons were brought at the commencement of February) imagines
S'EPTICULA UUBlVORA. 81 &
towards the end of April. Nolcken says that he has no doubt there is
a summer brood, but has never obtained it. On the other hand, the
autumn larvaa, from which the spring imagines come, are exceedingly
abundant, 30 mines sometimes occurring in a leaf. They always
appear in little colonies, and seem to dislike very shady spots.
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE : very abundant in 1883 (Warren). ESSEX : very
abundant in 1883 (Warren). LINCOLNSHIRE : Lincolnshire coast (Fletcher).
SUSSEX : Arundel, Amberley, locally abundant (Fletcher).
DISTRIBUTION. — Belgium : Brussels (Stainton). France : Nohaut,
Indre (Sand), Cannes (Walsingham). Germany: generally dis-
tributed (Heinemann and Wocke), banks of Oder, at Breslau (Wocke),
Brunswick, Wolfenbiittel (Heinemann), Stettin, Hanover. Leignitz
(Sorhagen), Alsace, Colmar, Neuland, etc. (Peyerimhoff). Russia :
Oesel (Sorhagen), Tursa Moor, very abundant (Nolcken), Russian
Baltic Islands (Nolcken texte Frey). Switzerland : nr. Zurich (Frey).
NEPTICULA AGRIMONY, Frey.
SYNONYMY.— Species: Agrimoniae, Frey, " Ent. W. Int.," iv., pp. 43-44 (1858);
Heyd., " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," 1861, p. 41 ; Sta., " Ent. Ann.," 1868, p 47 ; Ibid..
1874, p. 46 ; Fletcher, •• Ent. Mo. Mag.," xviii., p. 211 (1882). Agrimoniella, H.-Sch.,
" Corresp.," etc.. 1860, p. 60; Sta., "Ent. W. Int.," viii., p. 176 (1860) ; Hein.,
" Wien. Monats.," 1862, p. 312; Sta., " Nat. Hist. Tin.," vii., p. 148(1862); Sta. and
Hein., " Zool.," 1863, pp. 8378-8379 ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 338 (1871) ;
Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 787 (1877); Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auv.,"
p. 201 (1879); Sorhagen, " Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 346 (1886); Hering.
" Stett. Ent. Zeit.," lii.. p. 221 (1891) ; Meyr., " Handbook," etc., p. 722 (1895J.
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — The larvae collected by Herr Hoffmann, at
Ratisbon, on Ayrimonia enpatoria, changed to pupae inside the mines
(see, Ent. W. Intell., in., p. 59), and from these I have now bred eight
specimens of a new and totally distinct species, which comes next to
^V. coii/nlifascit'lla, but is rather larger and more beautiful, the head of
a darker red, and the fascia more shining. For this species I propose
the name of AT. a//rimoniae (Frey, Ent. Weekly Intell iyencer, vol. iv., pp.
43-44).
IMAGO. — Head of $ rusty yellowish, of $ , dark brown. Anterior
wings 5 mm. ; coarsely scaled, black or blackish-grey in colour, with
a central silvery or slightly golden transverse fascia, sometimes angu-
lated centrally, at other times broken into two opposite equal-sized
spots ; the cilial line forms a curve round apex, and runs to anal
angle, the cilia grey with black tips. Posterior wings and cilia pale
grey.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The male has the anterior wings more grey
than black, and the female has a more decided golden lustre to the
otherwise silvery transverse fascia. The frontal tuft in the male is
generally rusty yellow, at the neck brownish, whilst in the female
this is generally dark brown, yet males do occur with brown, and
females with ferruginous, heads (Heinemann). •
COMPARISON OF N. AGRIMONY WITH ITS ALLIES. — Frey notes X
agriinoniae as being larger, more beautiful, the head darker red,
and the fascia more shining than in X. angulijasciella. Herrich-Schafier
notes that X. ayrimoniae differs from iSr. arcuatella and N. anyuli-
fasciella by the silvery fascia being quite vertical and parallel to the
margin. From X. freyella it is distinguished by its larger size, the
head being less black, and the base of the anterior wings less glossy.
Heinemann observes that the anterior wings of X. aypimoniae are of
yii BRITISH
unusual breadth beyond the middle, and the cilia very long, so that
the distance from the costa to the anal angle is greater than is usual
in other species of this group. He also says that the male may be
distinguished from the other allied species independently of the form
of the wings, by the paler greyer colour of the anterior wings, and
from X. arcuata, which is also grey, by the darker hind tarsi ; the
female may be generally recognised by the brown frontal tuft ; besides,
in the other species, the fascia runs rather obliquely from the costa
to beyond the middle, is generally refracted below the middle,
and is further from the base to the inner margin than on the
costa. From X. atricollis, which sometimes has the fascia of almost
the same form, the longer antennae serve to distinguish it. Fletcher con-
siders that JY. agrimoniae appears to connect X. ar//>/rope:a (apicellaj to
the group to which X. anyulifasdella belongs, the male resembling the
former, the smaller darker female with its brighter fascia resembling
the latter.
MINE. — The mine forms a long, tortuous, rather broad, brown
gallery, which often expands into a blotch that sometimes fills an
entire leaflet (Heyden). Heinemann notes it as long and tortuous,
with a slender excreuiental track. Fletcher mentions that from 20-40
mines may often be found in a single leaf of Ayrinwnia eni>atoria,
preference being shown for the radical and lower cauline leaves of
those plants well sheltered by brambles.
LARVA. — The larva is greenish -yellow, with brownish head and
brownish spots on prothorax. Heyden notes : " Raupe weniger nieder-
gedriickt, glatt, glanzend, griinlichgelb. Kopf briiunlichgelb mit
braunen Flecken und dunkelm Mund. Nackenschild mit zwei brauneu
Flecken."
COCOON. — The cocoon is placed inside the mine, generally in one of
the serrations of the leaf. Its colour appears to vary, as Frey calls it
" blackish," Herrich-Schiiffer " a beautiful violet," Heinemann
" violet-coloured," whilst Heyden notes the cocoon as a " flat, oval,
yellowish-white or brownish structure."
FOOD-PLANT. — Ayrimonia eupatoria.
TIME or APPEARANCE. — The species appears to be single-brooded.
Larvae and cocoons were first discovered by Hoffmann, at Ratisbon,
in the middle of October, 1857. Some of these sent to Frey pro-
duced imagines in April, 1858. Larvse were also very abundant from
the middle of September until the end of October, 1858, in shady
woods, near Frankfort-on-the-Main and Offenbach, and these pro-
duced imagines at the end of May (Heyden). It was added to the
British list by Fletcher, who found larvae in October-November, 1879,
in Sussex, and bred imagines from these in the following spring.
Herrich-Schaffer says that the imago appears in the spring, a week
or two later than that of X. aeneofasciella.
LOCALITIES. — SUSSEX : Abbott's Wood (Fletcher).
DISTRIBUTION.— France : Nohaut, Indre (Sand). Germany: Ratis-
bon (Hoffmann), Frankfort-on-the-Main and Offenbach (Heyden),
Wolfenbiittel (Heinemann), Brunswick and Silesia (Heinemann and
Wocke), Alt Damm (Hering).
GROUP V. — Cilia of the anterior wings with a distinct or indicated
divisional line, beyond which they are pale. Anterior wings with a
NEPTlCULA MYRTILLELLA. S15
distinct non-metallic pale transverse fascia sometimes interrupted at or
beyond the middle.
NEPTICULA MYRTILLELLA, StailltoU.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Mtjrtillelki, Sta., "Ent. Weekly Intell.,"ii.,p. 44 (1857) ;
"Ent. Ann.," 1858, p. 95; "Man.," ii., p. 434 (1859); "Nat. Hist. Tin.,"
vii.. p. 236, pi. xi., fig. 2 (1862) ; Hein.," Wien. Ent. Monats.," vi., p. 317 (1862;; Hein.
and Sta., " Zool.," xxi., p. 8383 (1863) ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 338 (1871) ;
Nolck., " Lep. Fn. Estl.," p. 786 (1871) ; Frey, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," 1871, p. 126 ;
Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 760 (1877) ; B.-Haas, "N. H. Tids.,"
xiii., p. 218 (1881); Wallgrn., "Ent. Tids.," ii., p. 129 (1881); Sorhagen, •• Die
Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 308 (1886) ; Bering, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," lii., p. 221
(1891) ; Meyr., " Handbook," etc., p. 723 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Xepticula myi'tillella. Professor Frey has
succeeded in rearing the Xcpticnla from the Vacciniuni myrtillim, and
has placed it in his collection with the above name. The insect has
some affinity with AT. salicis, but the fascia is more distinct, and
broader, and placed nearer towards the apex of the wing (Stainton,
Entom. Weekly Intelligencer, ii., p. 44, May 9th, 1857). Later he
diagnosed the species as follows : " Alis anticis saturate fuscis, fascia
obliqua, tenui albida pone medium ; capillis ferrugineis. Exp.
al. 2£ lin. Head ferruginous. Antennae dark fuscous. Abdomen
and legs grey. Anterior wings dark fuscous, with an oblique, rather
slender whitish fascia beyond the middle, cilia whitish. Posterior
wings pale grey, with pale grey cilia" (Ent. Annual, 1858, p. 95).
IMAGO. — Head ferruginous. Anterior wings 4-5 mm. ; dark fuscous,
tinged with bluish ; a rather slender, whitish, transverse fascia,
nearly uniform in width beyond the middle ; cilia dark grey, paler
beyond the cilial line. Posterior wings and cilia pale grey.
COMPARISON OF N. MYRTILLELLA AND N. FLOSLACTELLA. — X. myrtill-
ella is very closely allied to N. salicis aud its allies, and can scarcely
be distinguished by constant characters. On the whole it is smaller
than N . salicis (I have specimens only one line and a half in expanse),
the anterior wings have the same ground colour, and blue gloss, but
are not so inclined to yellowish as is X. salicis, the individual scales
not having their bases yellowish as in that species, but are more
uniformly dark. The fascia is not composed of two opposite spots,
but is narrow, of nearly uniform width, less oblique, purer white (less
yellow) with a faint silky lustre. The dark scales at base of cilia lie
more regularly than in X. salicis and N. floslactella, and form by their
ends a regular more strongly curved divisional line, whereas in N.
salicis the scales are more irregularly placed, are rather abruptly
truncate posteriorly, and some project into the outer half of the cilia.
Beyond this line, the cilia are of a purer paler grey, without the
yellowish colouring round the apex of the wing, as in N. salicis ; at
the anal angle and at the inner margin they are grey. The frontal tuft
is bright rusty yellow ; in N. salicis it is more of a brownish-ochreous,
otherwise, in both species, the eye-caps and cervical tuft are yellowish-
white ; the longer antenna are blackish, the legs grey ; the hinder
tibias spotted with pale in the middle and at the end ; the posterior
tarsi are pale grey. Since, moreover, N. salicis and N. myrtillella
both vary to some extent in the above-given distinctive characters,
the certain recognition of specimens which have not been bred is
extremely difficult ; indeed, I must admit that, although I have bred
great numbers of both species, yet I should have referred individual
316 l3KlTlSH LEPlbOPTERA.
specimens of one species to the other, had I not been guided by the
information furnished by the larvre (Heinemann). Stainton says:
" X. iiiijrtilldla is most nearly related so X. xalicis, but the fascia is
more slender and brighter than in that species." Heinemann refers
N.fmjella, H.-Sch. (= X.fayi, Frey) also to this species (riile., Zool.t
xxi., p. 8384), but Frey supposed his X. fni/i might be a small summer
brood of X. carpinella (Lej). (far Schweiz, p. 425).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the underside of a leaf of
Vacfiniuin, either on, or very close to, the midrib (Stainton); some-
times on the margin of a leaf (Nolcken).
MINE. — The mine is at first much contorted, and of a reddish
tinge, the excrement forming a rather broad, irregularly waved black
line; when the larva is about hal^-grown, the mine becomes more
blotched, the excrement only occupying a small area. Some mines
are said to run along the edge of a leaf, going in and out the serra-
tions (Stainton). Heinemann says " the mine is serpentine, unless
the confined space compels a blotch-like formation." Nolcken notes
the mine as being " sometimes pluced near the margin, the larva
extending its mine therefrom until it occupies the entire half of a leaf ;
in other cases the mine is commenced near the midrib, and spreads
to the margin. The first part of the mine is narrow (scarcely wider
than the body of the larva), then it increases from five to ten times its
original Avidth, the windings still, however, remaining close together ;
finally the larva eats away the partitions between the convolutions,
and converts the gallery into a large irregular blotch. The frass is
arranged in little heaps, forming a broken line, in the first part of the
mine ; in the second part the heaps are larger, but the frass always
occupies comparatively little space, the greater part of the gallery
being represented by the pale excavated portions of the mine."
LARVA. — Length 2 lines. Amber-yellow in colour ; head pale
brown, the mouth and two receding hinder lobes darker brown
(Stainton). Nolcken describes it as "paler or darker yellow, with
transparent, pale-brownish head, the mouth and sutures darker brown ;
the yellowish-grey (or brownish) dorsal vessel indistinctly seen on
back ; a series of brown lozenge-spots on venter, the hinder ones
longer and more sharply pointed." Wood notes it as mining with
the dorsum uppermost.
COCOON. — The cocoons (7) average 3mm. in length, and 1-8 mm.
in width, forming, roughly, a long oval in outline, and with but little
diflerence in the size of the ends. The cocoons are spun on the upper
side of a Vacciniuni leaf, and have accommodated themselves to the
surface, sometimes showing a rather broad flange where there has been
a fold in the leaf. The upper portion is well arched, the apex being
almost central, but the cocoons appear to be thin, and to collapse
irregularly in some places. They are uniformly yellow-ochreous in
colour, inclining to orange, the main structure moderately smooth, but
with a considerable amount of adherent pale, flossy, silken fibres all
over it, although these are more abundant round the rim than else-
where. The empty pupa-case projects below the rim ; it is absolutely
transparent and colourless, without any trace of shading, and extremely
delicate. [Described under a two-thirds lens, June 28th, 1898, from
cocoons sent by Mr. W. H. B. Fletcher.] Heinemann notes it as
" broad and flat, rather long, and brown." Nolcken says " it is gene-
rally brownish-yellow, but both the colour and shape are very variable,"
NEPTICULA MYRTILLELLA. 817
FOOD-PLANTS. — Vaccinium ntyrtillut and V. uliijinoaum. [Hodgkin-
son makes (/•-'. 3/_V., xix., p. 44) the astounding statement that larvae
of this species were "mining leaves of Poli/podium as well as those of
~
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is said to be double-brooded,
the imagines appearing in May-June and August-September from
larvre to be found in October-November and July-August respectively.
Mines were first found by Schmid in October, 1856, near Frankfort-
on-the-Main. Nolcken found larvre from the commencement to the
20th of September, and the larvfe had all spun up by the commence-
ment of October. He thinks these were probably the progeny of an
earlier brood. Stainton found larvre on the hillside above the Bridge
of Allan, on August 12th, 1858, and in 1859 gave the species as double-
brooded in the Manual. It was bred by Krey in April, 1857, but
Evans took imagines at Newpark on June 7th, 1895, Hodgkinson
on June 9th, 1870, at Witherslack, whilst Barrett met with imagines
throughout June, 1886, at Cannock Chase. Cook met with larvie in
abundance on July 80th, 1857, at Scarborough, and Edleston in
October, 1856. Heinemann says the larvse feed in July and at the end
of September, so that the indication is that the July- August larvfe pro-
duce imagines in August-September. Sorhagen also gives larvse in
July and again in September-October. Sang obtained mines on
August 4th, 1878, at Scarborough, September 10th, and September
18th, 1873, at .Richmond. Bower records larvre as being common
on September 28rd, 1891, in Teesdale. Threlfall bred imagines in May,
1887, from larvie obtained September 7th, 1886, at Stalybridge.
LOCALITIES. — CHESHIRE: generally distributed on moors, Bowdon. etc.
(Edleston), Stalybridge (Threlfall). DURHAM : Teesdale (Bower). HEREFORD :
Tarrington (Wood). LANCASHIRE: \videlydistributed on moors, nr. Manchester.
etc. (Edleston). MIDLOTHIAN : Newpark (Evans). PERTHSHIRE : Rannoch (Fletcher),
Dunkeld (Stainton). STAFFORDSHIRE: Cannock Chase (Barrett). STIRLINGSHIRE:
hill above Bridge of Allan (Stainton). WESTMORLAND: Windermere, Witherslack
(Hodgkinson). YORKSHIRE: Scarborough (Wilkinson), Blubberhouses (Walsing-
ham), Richmond (Sang), Sheflield (Doncaster) , north Yorkshire in Teesdale district
(Bankes).
DISTRIBUTION. — Denmark: north-east Zealand (Bang-Haas).
Germany : widely distributed (Heinemann and Wocke), Franl(fort-on-
the-Main (Schmid), Brunswick (Heinemann), Glogau (Zeller),
Havelland, nr. Berlin, Hamburg, Hanover (Sorhagen), Alt Damm,
Warnow, nr. Misdroy, Liebeseele (Hering). Russia: Pichtendahl, etc.
(Nolcken). Scandinavia: Scania (Wallengren). Switzerland: nr.
Zurich (Frey).
NEPTICULA SALICIS, Stainton.
SYNONYMY.*— Species: Salicia, Sta., " Ins. Brit.," p. 302 (1849); "Nat. Hist.
Tin.," i., p. 98, pi. ii., fig. i. (1855) ; "Man.." ii., p. 434 (18591 ; H.-Sch., " Sys.
Bearb.," v., p. 354 (1855) ; Frey, " Die Tineen," etc., p 381 (1856) ; " Linn. Ent.,"
xi., p. 408 (1857); Stand, and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 338 (1871) ; Nolck., " Lep. Fn.
Estl.," p. 787(1871); Mill., "Cat. Lep. Alp.-Mar.," p. 373 (1875); Hein. and
Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 761 (1877); Sand, "Cat. Lep Auv.," p. 202
(1879) ; Bang-Haas, " N. H.Tids.," p. 218 (1881) ; Wallgrn., " Ent. Tids.." ii., p. 129 •
* We give the following synon j my for what it is worth : Salicis, Sta. =
dii-ema, Glitz, teste, Hering, "Stett. Ent. Zeit.," Hi., 221, no. 3061 (1891)..
ObliqnMa. Hein. = diversa. Glitz, teste, Glitz, " Stett. Ent. Zeit., ' xlviii., p. 277
(1887). Salicit, Sta. =obliquella, Hein. = diversa, Glitz = vimineticola, Frev,
tefte, Hering, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," liv., p. 117, no. 70 (1893).
318 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
(1881) ; Snellen, " De Vlinders," p. 999 (1882) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Als.," 2nd Ed.,
ii., p. 165 (1882); Sorhagen, " Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 308 (1886) ; Meyr..
•• Handbook." etc., p. 723 (1895J. Salidcorella, Dbdy., "Cat.," p. 36 (1866);
Porritt, "List. Yorks. Lepidop.," p. 171 (1886).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Ntpticitla salicia, n. sp. Alls anticis f uscis,
dilute lufceo parum irroratis, postice saturatioribus et violaceo-tinctis,
maculis duabus dilute luteis pone medium, fasciam obsoletam obliquam
formantibus ; capillis ferrugineis. Exp. al. 2*-3 lin. Head and face
reddish-yellow. Palpi whitish. Antennae fuscous, basal joint whitish.
Anterior wings fuscous, slightly irrorated with pale luteous, posteriorly
darker, and with a faint violet tinge ; beyond the middle are two ill-
defined, pale luteous spots, forming an indistinct oblique fascia ; the
costal spot is anterior to the dorsal spot ; cilia pale luteous. Posterior
wings pale grey, with pale grey cilia. Appears in May and August.
The yellowish larva makes small tortuous mines, resembling blotches,
in the leaves of sallows, in autumn and in July (Stainton, Insecta
Britannica, p. 302).
IMAGO. — Head reddish-yellow. Anterior wings 5-6 mm. ; fuscous
with a yellowish tinge ; apical portion darker, tinged with violet ; an
oblique, pale yellowish fascia (sometimes divided into two opposite
spots) beyond the centre ; cilia pale yellowish. Posterior wings and
cilia pale grey.
COMPARISON OF N. SALICIS WITH ITS ALLIES. — JV. salicis belongs
to that section of the genus in which the anterior wings bear a
single powdery pale fascia. It resembles, in this, N. -flodactdla, but
the fascia is rather nearer the base, is more obliquely placed, and more
slender. The apex of the wing is also darker, and the basal half is
less coarsely scaled, and therefore seems smoother, and it never appears
yellowish ; besides, the legs are grey in this species, whereas in X.
jlnslactclla they are pale ochreous (Stainton).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is deposited on the undersurface of the
rough leaves of Salh- cinerea and S. caprea, near a rib, and almost
concealed in the down that covers the underside of the leaf.
MINE. — The mine commences with a short visceriform track, soon
becomes more open, and ends in a complete blotch. The excrement
in the early part of the mine is reddish-brown, in the blotch
dark grey, forming a rather broad continuous streak (Stainton).
Wood observes that the larva feeds on almost every species of Sali.i',
and the mines vary according to the physical differences between the
leaves of the various plants. In the small crumpled leaf of <S. aitrita,
the mine is condensed into a vermiform gallery ; in the large leaf of
S. cajn-ca, the gallery, almost filled with frass, is either fairly straight
(following the line of a rib), or more or less contorted, or, on the other
hand, it may dilate towards its termination into a blotch ; in the
smooth-leaved S. alba and S. russelliana, it is invariably a blotch. (The
mine in .S'. alba may possibly be that of N. riiiiincticola). Nolcken notes
a great similarity between the mines of X. solids and ^V. myrtilleUa,
On " Wollweiden " the former makes only a small blotch of pale yellowish
colour, the windings raised somewhat above the surface of the leaf, on
other species of willow (so far as can be observed from dried leaves),
the skin is not raised, and the mine is more greenish in tint. These
differences are due to the dissimilar character of the leaves. The
mode of deposition of the frass appears just as in the preceding species
(N. myrtilleUa). Sometimes the mine forms a fine thread on the
NEPTICULA SALICIS. 319
margin of the leaf ; when it originates in the centre, it has a closely
twisted commencement, which is often absorbed later by the blotch.
LARVA. — Length 2 lines; amber-coloured, shining, the dorsal
vessel a little darker ; the head brown, and two brown lobes show
through the prothorax (Stainton). Nolcken describes the larva as
being of a " faint, honey-yellow tint, with very transparent, pale
brown head, and darker mouth-parts and sutures ; the intestinal
canal greenish ; on the ventral surface a row of indistinct lozenge-
shaped spots, very small, and joined together." Wood notes that " the
prothoracic markings (the equivalents of the two halves of a pro-
thoracic plate) are blackish, and, lying more or less over the posterior
lobes^ help to give a specially dark appearance to the back part of the
head."
COCOON. — The cocoons examined (8) average 3 mm. in length, and
2 mm. in width, variable in shape, roughly oval in outline, but with
one end distinctly broader than the other, the long sides also being
slightly hollowed out in some specimens. There is no very clearly
defined rim, although the edge thins off and is distinctly crenate, the
upper portion is considerably arched, the surface rather rough and
covered with a thin coating of loose flossy silk, the colour varying
from pale straw yellow to a deep yellow inclining to orange. The
empty pupa-case projects from the wider end, and is quite transparent
and colourless, shiny and apparently very delicate. [Description made
July 20th, 1898, under a two-thirds lens, from cocoons sent by Mr.
W. H. B. Fletcher.] To the naked eye the darker cocoons are pale
brown in hue, the rim appearing yellowish on the edge. The lighter
cocoons are entirely pale yellowish. Cocoons (9) sent by Dr. Wood
also average 3 mm. in length and 2 mm. in width, and are also
variable in shape, the more regular ones forming an almost perfect
oval in outline. Stainton notes the cocoon as •' brownish-ochreous,
rather shining, somewhat mussel-shaped." Frey describes it as " dark
red-brown, somewhat flattened, smooth, forming a longish oval."
Hind says it is " rather large, brown in colour, with the broad end
yellowish."
COMPARISON OF COCOON OF N. SALICIS WITH THAT OF N. VIMINETI-
COLA. — The cocoon of AT. vimincticola is markedly smaller (and especi-
ally narrower) than that of A\ solid* ; it is much thicker at its
narrow end ; dark brown (almost mahogany-brown) in colour, whilst
that of .V. salicis is pale yellowish or orange in tint ; the cocoon of
X. riinineticola is also much more thickly covered with flossy silk than
is that of X. solids.
FOOD-PLANTS. — Salic dnerea, S. caprtw, S. anrita, f S. russclliana.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double-brooded, the imago
appearing in April-May and July-August, from larvae that feed up in
September-October and July respectively. Milliere records it as
appearing in April, at Cannes. Atmore says that it is one of the
earliest species to appear, being out at King's Lynn, usually by the
last week of April, or first week of May, and Hodgkinson records the
breeding of it on April 13th, 1887, at Preston. Reuter found it on'
May 13th, 1876, in the I. of Aland, yet Chapman, at Redhill, did not
breed the insect from mines of the previous autumn until June
7th-l2th, 1898. Frey records the second brood as being only partial
nr. Zurich, in July. Stainton captured imagines on June 5th, 1849
820 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
(between 7-8.30 p.m.), at Torwood, and June 10th, 1878, at Lewisham.
He also bred imagines on March 12th, April 16th, August 1st, 1852,
March 8th, 1853, March 14th, April 9th-20th, 1854, from Lewisham
.larvas, April 8th, 1854, from Dawlish, and June 25th, 1854, from
Box Hill. Threlfall bred imagines June 5th-6th, 1877, from mines
.obtained at Windermere on October 6th, 1876. Bower notes mines as
occurring commonly at Eltham on October 25th, 1892, and Durrant
the breeding of imagines from February 13th-April 5th, 1866, by
Schleich.
LOCALITIES. — ABERDEEN: Pitcaple and district (Reid). CAMBRIDGE: Cam-
bridge, Fulbourn, Ditton (Farren). CHESHIRE : Birkenhead (Stainton), Bowdon
(Edleston). DEVON : Dawlish (Stainton). DORSET: Portland (Richardson), Glan-
villes Wootton (Cambridge), Weymouth (Richardson), Purbeck (Bankes). DURHAM:
Darlington (Sang). ESSEX: Wickhara, Bishops (Cansdale). GLOUCESTER:
Bristol (Stainton). HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood) . KENT: Lewisham (Stainton),
Eltham (Bower), Chattenden (Tutt), Southborough (Blackburne-Maze). LANARK :
nr. Glasgow (King). LANCASHIRE: Manchester (Stainton), Chat Moss (Chappell),
Grange (Hodgkinson), Preston (Threlfall), Wirrall (Brockholes). LEICESTER : Market
Harborough (Matthews). NORFOLK: llanworth (Barrett), King's Lynn, common
(Atmore). PERTHSHIRE: Torwood (Stainton). SOMERSET: Clevedon (Mason).
SURREY: Box Hill (Stainton), Redhill (Chapman), Haslemere (Barrett). SUSSEX :
common in the county, e.g., Goring Woods, etc. (Fletcher), Guestling (Bloomfield).
WESTMORLAND: Windermere (Threlfall). YORKSHIRE: Scarborough (Stainton),
Doncaster (Warren), Richmond and Harrogate (Sang), York (Hind).
DISTRIBUTION. — Denmark ; several localities in north-east Zealand
(Bang-Haas). France : Cannes (Milliere), Nohaut, Indre (Sand).
Germany : generally distributed (Heinemann and Wocke), Alsace
(Peyerimhoff), Berlin, Friedland, Stettin, Hamburg (Sorhagen),
Frankfort-on-the-Main (Heyden). Netherlands: Friedland, N. Brabant,
S. Holland (Snellen). Russia : Pichtendahl (Nolcken), Porgas nr.
Abo, Aland (Renter). Scandinavia: Scania (Wallengren). Switzer-
land : nr. Ziirich (Frey).
NEPTICULA VIMINETICOLA, Frey.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Vimineticola, Frey, " Die Tineen," etc., p. 3S2 (185G) ;
"Linn.EmV'xi.,p. 409 (1857); Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 339 (1871) ; Hein.
and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 761 (1877) ; Snellen, " De Vlinders," etc., p.
1001 (1882). Salicix, Meyr., " Handbook." etc., p. 723, in part (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Xepticttla vitnineticola, n. sp. Capillis
rufo-ochraceis, antennarum conchula flavido-alba; alls anter. gross-
iuscule squamatis, fuscis, dimidio basali sqnamis luteis crebro con-
sperso, fascia obliqua lutea obsoletissima pone medium, apice fusco,
ciliis dilute luteis ; tarsis posticis cinereis. 2f — 2^'" . Ich habe an
40 Exemplare dieser Xepticula erzogen, welch e ich als besondere
Spezies zu betrachten sehr geneigt bin, da die Differenzen gegeniiber
der an Trauer- und Wollweiden minirenden X. salicix allzugross sind,
um sie damit zu verbinden, und ich auch keine Uebergiinge erhielt.
X. I'iniineticola kommt den briiunlichen, hellen Exemplaren der X.
jloxlartdla am niichsten, ist aber etwas kurzflugliger, mit rothlicheren
Scheitelhaaren und starker gelb gefarbten Franzen versehen. Diese,
lebhafter gefitrbt als bei irgend einer anderen mir bekannten Spezies,
dienen wohl am leichtesten zur Erkennung der Art. Der Schopf und
das Gesicht lebhaft rothgelb ; Pal pen weisslich. Die Augendeckcl
gelblich weiss, ziemlich ansehnlich. Die Fiihlergeisel tief braunschwarz.
Der Riickenschild braun, mit lehmgelben Schiippchen gcmischt. Der
Hinterleib schwiirzlich ; dieBeine lichtgrau. Die Vorderilugel zeigen
NEPTIOULA VIMINETICOLA. 321
eine eigenthiimliche, iibrigens sehr grobe Beschuppung. Ihre
Grundfarbe 1st eindunkles Braun, welches aber nur an der, nicht oder
kaum violett schimmernden, Spitze rein und dunkel zu Tage tritt,
dagegen an der Wurzelhalfte durch aufgelegte lehmgelbe Schiippchen
bedeutend aufgehellt wird 1st dieser Belag sehr stark, so wird die
ganze Wurzelhalfte, geradezu lehmgelb. Die schief stehende Binde
erscheint hinter der Mitte wie bei N. salicis und ist ebenfalls schief
und schrnal. Sie ist aber stark lehmgelb, niemals weisslich, nach
aussen scharfer abgesetzt als nach innen, immer aber sehr wenig
deutlich. Ist die Wurzelhalfte sehr hell, so verfliesst sie nach
einwarts ganz mit dieser, und wir haben eine Nepticida rnit einer bis
iiber die Hiilfte gehenden, schief und scharf von der dunkeln Fliigel-
spitze abgesetzten Beschuppung. Die Franzen an der Spitze des
Fliigels grau ; dann auffalend lehmgelb, um am Afterwinkel wieder
einen grauen Ton anzunehmen. Hinterfliigel und ihre Franzen grau.
Die Raupe minirt in zwei Generationen an Salix viminalis. Sie ist
lebhaft gelb. Die Mine ist ein neben der Mittelrippe verlaufender,
schmaler Gang, sehr wenig gewunden und mit dem dunkelbraunen
Kothe in breiter, zusammenhangeuden Linie dicht erfiillt. Sie ist
darum schwer zu sehen. Der Cocon heller braun als bei N. salicis.
Bei Zurich nicht selten ; auch im Juli gefangen (Frey, Die Tineen
und Pterophoren der Schweiz, pp. 382-383).
IMAGO. — Head reddish-ochreous. Anterior wings 4-5 mm. ; fuscous,
the basal half with scattered yellowish scales ; a narrow, oblique, very
pale yellow fascia beyond the middle ; apex fuscous tinged very
slightly with violet ; cilia grey, with the outer parts yellowish. Pos-
terior wings and their cilia grey.
VARIATION. — Warren records that among a number of imagines
bred in 1883 from Salix alba, there was one very beautiful aberration
with the fore-wings white from the base to the external margin of the
pale fascia. Warren refers the species to Ar. salicis, but N. vimineticola
had not then been differentiated as British.
COMPARISON OF N. VIMINETICOLA WITH N. FLOSLACTELLA AND N. SALI-
CIS.— N. vimineticola comes nearest to pale brownish specimens of N.
JJoslactella, but is always narrower winged. The head is conspicuously
reddish, and the fore-wings have a distinct yellow fringe, of a deeper
and brighter tint than I have noticed in any other Nepticulid species,
and which is very characteristic. From N. salicis the colour of the fore.-
wings and the great indistinctness of the transverse band, distinguish
it (Frey). Besides the difference in the cocoons and the position in
which the egg is laid, N. vimineticola appears to be a shade smaller
and looks a darker insect than N. salicis, when a series is seen in a
mass (Fletcher).
EGG-LAYING. — Wood notes, in his account of the egg-laying of
N. salicis, that "if Salix alba be chosen the egg is laid on the upper
surface of the leaves ; probably this side is chosen because the covering
of the underside of the leaves is not only extremely dense, but is also
closely brushed down upon the surface, whilst on the upper side the
hairs are not so thick." Of six mines in S. alba, sent by Fletcher
as those of N. vimineticola, the egg is placed on the under side in five
instances, and on the upper side in one only. The egg is very small,
oval, and filled with black frass.
MINE, — The mine runs conspicuously, as far as the midrib, as a.
u
322 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
narrow gallery, making very small convolutions, and with the dark
brown frass forming a broad, conspicuous, dense stripe almost filling
it. The mine is on that account sure to attract attention (Frey). One
of six mines examined (from Mr. Fletcher), commences at the midrib,
has a straight and comparatively broad beginning, filled with black frass,
then makes two small sharply bent curves, in which the frass is central
and the margins pale, the gallery gradually expanding into an oval
blotch, stretching for 18 mm. along the margin of the leaf, and, with the
frass, forming a central line. Another commences on a lateral vein,
by the side of which it runs a short distance, turns back sharply on
itself almost to its point of origin, then returns again, zigzags over a
lateral vein, and at last widens similarly to the last. Four others
form irregularly oval blotches about 12 mm. x 6 mm., the frass
collected near the base in a somewha't irregular heap, due to the early
portions of the mine being bent back closely on themselves so that the
parenchyma between is all eaten ; two of these commence on the outer
margin, and are directed towards the midrib, the other two commence
near the midrib, and extend toward the outer margin.
LARVA. — Frey describes the larva as " bright yellow."
COCOON. — The cocoons (8) examined average about 2-75 mm. in
length, and 1-25 mm. in width, forming roughly a long oval in out-
line, of which one end is broader than the other, the broad end being
distinctly thinner than any other portion of the cocoon. There is no
trace of a rim (except round the front edge of the thinner end) ; the
arched portion rises abruptly from the edge of the cocoon on the other
three sides, being very thick at the narrower end. The cocoon is very
dark brown in colour, shiny, and thickly covered with loose flossy
silk, which appears rather paler than the body of the cocoon. The
pupa-case protrudes from the wider end, is colourless and transparent.
[Described July 20th, 1898, under a two-thirds lens, from cocoons
sent by Mr. W. H. B. Fletcher.] The following note by Warren
probably refers to this species. He writes : "In the month of July,
1883, while examining the leaves of Salix alba, I noticed at the
extreme tip of a leaf a brown Nepticula cocoon, and lower down, in
the same leaf, the empty mine. On further search I discovered 20 or
30 such cocoons, all but one placed at the tip of a leaf, not always
the same leaf as that in which the larva had fed up, but occasionally
on an adjacent one. The sole exception had spun up on a midrib close
to the leafstalk " (E. M. M., xx., p. 187).
FOOD-PLANTS. - Salu- alba. Salix viminalis (Frey).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double-brooded according to
Frey, occurring in May and July, from larvae found feeding in June
and August- September respectively. Edleston records having found
larvro of this species near Manchester, in osiers, in 1856. Renter found
imagines on May 13th, 1876, in the I. of Aland.
LOCALITIES. — ? CAMBRIDGE: Cambridge (Warren). ? HEREFORD: Tarrington
(Wood). LANCASHIRE: nr. Manchester (Edleston). SUSSEX: Abbott's Wood.
Adur and Arun valleys (Fletcher).
DISTRIBUTION. — Netherlands : Rotterdam, and many other places
in North and South Holland, Arnhem, Gelderland (Snellen). Russia :
I. of Aland (Reuter); Switzerland : Zurich (Frey), Turicum
(Wocke).
NEPTICULA OBLIQUELLA. 323
NEPTICULA OBLIQUELLA, Hein. ( ? var. praec. sp.)
SYNONYMY.— Species : Obliquella, Hein., " Wien. Ent. Monats.," vi., p. 316
(1862) ; Hein. andSta., " Zool.," xxi., p. 8382 (1863) ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.,"
p. 338(1871); Glitz, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xlviii., p. 277 (1887). Diversa, Glitz,
"Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xxxiii., pp. 24-25 (1872) ; Staud. and Wocke, "Cat.," p. 339
(1871) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 761 (1877); Frey, " Lep. der
Schweiz," p. 424 (1880) ; Bang-Haas, " N. H. Tidsk.," p. 218 (1881) ; Sorhagen,
" Die Kleinschmett.Brandbg.,"p. 308 (1886) ; Bering, "Stett. Ent. Zeit.," lii.,p.221
(1891); Hutchinson. "List of Heref. Lepidop.." p. 16 (? 1892). Vimineticola,
Snellen, " De Vlinders."etc., p. 1001, in part (1882). Salicis, Meyr., " Handbook,"
etc., p. 723, in part (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Nepticula obliquella. Capillis ochraceis,
antennarum conchula parva flavida ; alls anterioribus fuscis, post
medium grosse squamatis, nigris, fascia media obliqua in plica fracta
albida, vixsericeo-nitente; ciliispostlineamnigram albis. Exp.al.2Jlin.
Diese Art kommt mit denen der vorigen Abtheilung (N. arcuatella, etc.)
in der ganz eben so gestellten und geformten Binde tiberein, unter-
scheidet sich aber durch die Farbe und den mangelnden Metallglanz
derselben ; bei N. tityrella und deren Verwandten steht die Binde hinter
der Mitte und haben die Fransen keine Theilungslinie ; in der Gruppe
von N. salicis sind die Vorderflugel auch vor der Binde grobschuppiger
und die Binde steht gleichfalls weiter saumwarts. Die Kopfhaare
ockergelb, Nackenschopfe und Augendeckel etwas bleicher, die
Fiihlergeissel hellgrau, die Beine licht schwarzlich grau. Die Vorder-
fliigel sind schmal, gleichbreit, vor der Binde ziemlich feinschuppig,
graubraun, dahinter mit groben schwarzen Schuppen dicht bedeckt.
Die Binde ist schmal und zieht aus dem Vorderrande noch etwas vor
dessen Mitte schrag bis zur Falte ; hier verbindet sie sich mit einem
Fleckchen, das aus dem Innenrande hinter der Mitte gleichfalls schrag
nach aussen gerichtet ist, und bildet mit demselben einen nahezu
rechten Winkel, bisweilen ist sie statt dessen von der Falte ab
dreieckig erweitert. Von Farbe ist dieselbe weisslich, sehr wenig in's
Gelb ziehend, mit schwachem Seidenglanze. Die Fransen sind bis zur
Theilungslinie gleichmassig dunkel beschuppt, dahinter weisslich, am
Innenwinkel grau. Die Hinterflugel nebst den Fransen hell braunlich
grau. Ich fing einige Stiicke im Mai an Waldrandern (Heinemann,
Wiener Entom. Monatschrift, vi., pp. 316-317).
IMAGO. — Head ochreous. Anterior wings 5 mm. ; greyish-brown,
covered with coarse black scales beyond the fascia ; central transverse
fascia narrow, whitish-yellow, slightly lustrous, angulated centrally ;
cilia dark to the divisional line, whitish beyond. Posterior wings and
cilia pale fuscous.
DESCRIPTION OF N. DIVERSA.— Nepticula diversa. Unter N. salicis,
Sta., waren bisher 2 verschiedene Arten vereinigt, wovon die eine
(salicis") als Raupe auf Wollweiden, Salix caprea, etc., die andere
(diversa') auf schmalblattrigen glatten Weiden, Salix alba, etc., lebt.
Der Unterschied zwischen beiden Arten bestehtdarin, dass bei N. diversa
die Grundfarbe der Vorderflugel nicht violett, sondern schwarz, die
Binde schmiiler und nicht wie bei AT. salicis oft in 2 Gegenflecke aufgelost
ist, hauptsachlich aber, dass die schwarzen Schuppen auf der Wurzel
der Franzen regelmassiger als bei N. salicis liegen und mit ihrem Ende
eine gleichmassige, starker gekrummte Theilungslinie bilden, wahrend
bei N. salicis die Schuppen unregelmassiger stehen, nach aussen
ziemlich gerade abgestutzt sind und einzeln in die aussere Halfto
324 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
hinaustreten [Glitz, Stett. Ent. Zrituny, xxxiii., pp. 24-25 (1872)] .
Glitz himself afterwards referred his AT. dioersa to X. obliijudla, Hein.,
and gives the latter name priority. Martini remarks that " Ar. din-rxa-
obliquMa is an ill-defined species, and not to be separated with
certainty from N. salicis, Sta. The differences in the mines appear
to be due to the greater thickness of the leaves of Salix cinerea and
S. caprea" (Stett. Ent. Zeit., liv., p. 117).
N. OBLIQUELLA (DIVERSA) AS A BRITISH SPECIES. Of this Species,
Wood says : " N. dirersa is the one species that I take here that I
know next to nothing about. I bred a single specimen some years
ago and, if my memory serves me correctly, the mine was a wide
gallery with a narrow frass-track. It was not rare one season, rather
early in autumn, but I have been on. the look out for it since to no
purpose " (tn Mtt., June 3rd, 1898).
COMPARISON OF N. OBLIQUELLA WITH ITS ALLIES. — N. oblirjuella
agrees with the species in the preceding section (X. antpdifasciella, etc.),
in the fascia being quite similarly placed, and of similar form, but
diners in the colour of the fascia, and its want of metallic lustre. In
N. tityrella and its allies, the fascia is placed beyond the middle of the
wing, and the cilia show no divisional line. In the group containing
N. salicis, the anterior wings are also more coarsely scaled before the
fascia, which is placed more posteriorly (Heinemann). X. dlrcrxa
(nbliqnella) differs from X. salicis and X. myi'tillella, in having a less
bluish tint on the fore-wings, and in having a narrower transverse
band. From the former it differs also in the more regular arrange-
ment of the black scales along the divisional line running through the
cilia ; from Xr. tnyrtillella in having the basal area of the fore-wings,
the transverse band and the cilia, more yellowish in colour (Heinemann
and Wocke).
MINE. — The mine is placed near the mid-rib, forming a slender
slightly tortuous gallery, filled with dense brown frass, and is, on that
account, a little striking (Sorhagen).
COCOON. — Brown (Sorhagen).
FOOD-PLANTS. — Salix alba, S. rinrinalis. Smooth-leaved willows
(Heinemann and Wocke).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Sorhagen gives it as double -brooded, the
larvffi to be found in July and October in the leaves of SalLr rintinalis.
Heinemann found imagines in May, on the edges of woods near Bruns-
wick. Bering gives the larva as occurring in September in Friedland.
LOCALITY. — HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood).
DISTRIBUTION. — Denmark : Copenhagen (Bang-Haas). Germany :
generally distributed (Heinemann and Wocke) , Friedland, nr. Breslau
(Sorhagen), north-east Germany (Wocke), Alt Damm (Hering).
Switzerland : nr. Zurich (Frey).
NEPTICULA FLOSLACTELLA, HaWOrth.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Floslactella. Haw., "Lep. Brit.," p. 585 (1828); Stphs.,
" Illus.." iv., p. 268 (1835) ; Sta., " Cat. Brit. Tin.," p. 29 (1849) ; " Ins. Brit.," p.
301(1854); " Nat. Hist. Tineina," i., p. 106, pi. ii., fig. 2 (1855); "Man.," ii.,
p. 434 (1859) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 355 (1855) ; Frey, " Die Tineen,"etc.,
p. 383(1856); "Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 411; Staud. and Wocke, "Cat.," p. 339
(1871); Nolck., "Lep. Fn. Est.," p. 789 (1871); Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett.
Deutsch.," p. 762 (1877) ; Sand, "Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 202 (1879); Bang-Haas,
«' If. H. Tidsk.," p. 218 (1881) ; Wallgrn., " Ent. Tjds.," ii., p. 130 (1881) ; Peyer.,
NEPTICULA FLOSLACTELLA. 825
" Cat. Lep. Als.," 2ndEd., ii., p. 166 (1882) ; Snellen, " De Vlinders." p. 1000 (1882) ;
Sorhagen, " Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 308 (1886) ; Meyrick, "Handbook,"
etc., pp. 723-724 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Tinea ^ftoslactella (The cream Pygmy). Alls
pallide flavescentibus postiee fasciaque medio violaceo-atris. Expansio
alarum 3 lin. Species agilissima. Caput ferrugineum. Alae anticaa
pallidisime flavescentes, medio, macula maxima fasciaeformi irregular!
fere atra ; alteraque terminali subrotunda atro-violacea, a costa ad
marginem tenuiorem : ciliis albido-flavescentibus. Posticae subulate
f usco-plumbeaa sericeae utrinque ciliis plumbeis altissimis ut in affinibus.
Habitat in Com. Surrey prope Londinum. Imago sepibus sylvaticis
f. Mai (Haworth, Lepidoptera Britannica, p. 585).
IMAGO. — Head bright yellowish. Anterior wings 5-6 mm. ; fuscous
much dusted with yellowish towards the base ; beyond the middle is
a rather oblique, yellowish fascia ; the apical portion of the wing is
entirely fuscous with a faint violet tinge : cilia whitish-yellow. Pos-
terior wings and cilia pale grey.
VARIATION. — This species possesses a certain tendency to vary. Some
specimens have the fore-wings of a tolerably blackish hue ; others, owing
to the development of the yellow-brown scales, especially at the base of
the fore-wings, have a much paler and browner tint. It is remark-
able that the specimens bred from Corylus are much more yellow than
those from Carpinus, which are blacker in appearance. One might
suppose them to be different species were not the lame and mines
alike (Frey). Stainton notes that some specimens have " the anterior
wings yellowish, irrorated with a few fuscous scales towards the base
and a fuscous fascia a little before the middle. Others have the
entire basal half of the anterior wings fuscous." He further says
that " sometimes the medial dark fascia is omitted, the first two-
thirds of the wing being entirely yellowish." Haworth notes a form
as : " /3. Alae anticae absque fascia media irregulari atra."
COMPARISON OF N. FLOSLACTELLA WITH N. SALICIS. — The best dis-
tinguishing mark between N. ftoslactella and N. salicis is the much
broader, perpendicular band. The hind-legs of N. floslactella have
yellowish-grey tarsi, whilst those of JV. salicis are unicolorous grey
(Frey). N. salicis has the anterior wings more glossy and less coarsely
scaled ; the pale fascia a little nearer to the base, rather more obliquely
placed, and the apical portion of the wing is darker in N. salicis than
in N. ftoslactella (Stainton).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the underside of a leaf of nut or
hornbeam, close to a rib.
MINE.— The mine forms an irregular wavy gallery ; in the first
part the excrement forms a line occupying almost the whole width ;
then, for some distance, it forms an irregular series of blackish grains,
still occupying almost the whole width of the mine ; in the last third,
the frass forms a central row of black grains, with a considerable
whitish margin on either side. The larva leaves the mine by the
upper surface of the leaf (Stainton).
LARVA. — Length nearly two lines ; very pale amber, with the
dorsal vessel greenish ; head light brown, with the mouth and margins
darker ; the prothorax pale brownish, with the two darker hinder
lobes of the head showing through, behind which, in the centre, is a
quadrate black spot showing through (Stainton) . Frey describes the
326 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
larva as " very pale sulphur-yellow, with the dark green alimentary
canal showing through the skin ; the head shiny brown, being
especially dark towards the hinder part." The larva mines with the
dorsum uppermost (Wood).
COCOON. — The cocoons (5) examined average almost 3 mm. in length,
and 2 mm. in width. They are oval in outline, rather wider at one end
than the other, the pupa emerging from the wider end. The cocoon
is of a pale straw colour, and covered with an exceedingly thick outer
coating of loose flossy silk, reminding one (under the lens) of a cocoon
of Bombyx mori. [Described under a two-thirds lens, on July 12th,
1898, from cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.] Cocoons sent by Fletcher
were spun up on the leaves of the food-plant, probably the usual
method in nature. Stainton notes the pupa as being " of moderate size,
rather egg-shaped, whitish-yellow in Colour, the outer portion remain-
ing loose and flossy." Sorhagen adds that " the cocoons are yellowish
when spun on Corylus, whitish when on Carpinus."
PUPA. — The empty pupa-case is quite transparent, without any
darker markings, and protrudes as far as the third abdominal segment.
There is a considerable amount of iridescence on the pupal skin, and
each of the abdominal segments 2-6 presents a raised dorsal belt, along
which is a plentiful supply of brown booklets, large and well-developed
compared with the size of the pupa, by means of which undoubtedly
the pupa is able to emerge before the appearance of the imago.
FOOD-PLANTS. — Corylus avellana and Carpinus betulus. One leaf
sometimes contains as many as twelve lame (Hind).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The insect is double-brooded, the imagines
appearing in May and August, from larvse feeding in September-
October and July respectively. Peyerimhoff notes the imago in
April, in Alsace, and Sand in May, at Nohaut, from laryse found in
November. Frey notes a first brood at Zurich in May, with a second
brood, at the end of July-August. Stainton captured imagines May
21st, 1851, at Beckenham, August 2nd, 1851, July 23rd-26th, 1852,
May 17th, 1855, June 17th, 1855, May 23rd, 1881, at Lewisham.
He also bred the species on March 22nd, May 9th, August 10th, 13th,
14th, 1853, February 19th, March 30th, April 1st, 1854, March 9th,
25th, 26th and April 1st, 1855, all at Lewisham. ThrelfalL bred
imagines from April llth-30th, 1878, from larvae taken at Wither-
slack, October 6th, 1877. He also captured imagines at the same
locality on May 14th, 1878. Nolcken records mines as early as
August 3rd, in Rotsikiill, nr. Pichtendahl. Mines were common also
on nut on October 6th, 1890, at Darenth, on October 15th,. 1890, on
hornbeam, at Bexley, on October 25th, 1892, on nut, at Eltham
(Bower) .
LOCALITIES. — BERKS : Reading (Hamm). CHESHIRE : Birkenhead (Stainton), j
DERBY : Burton (Sang). DORSET : Bloxworth (Cambridge), Purbeck (Bankcs),
Weymouth (Richardson), Glanvilles Wootton (Dale). DURHAM : Darlington (Sang).
ESSEX : Epping (Stainton), Wickham Bishops (Cansdale). GLOUCESTER : Bristol
(Stainton). HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood). KENT: Tenterden, Lewisham,
Pembury (Stainton), Croydon (Elisha), Darenth, Bexley, Eltham (Bower),
Ghattenden (Tutt). LANARK: Langside, Kenmuir Bank (King). LANCASHIRE:
common everywhere in the county (Ellis), Manchester (Stainton). LEICESTER :
Market Harboro' (Matthews). LINLITHGOW : Drumshoreland (Logan). NORFOLK;
Mer ton, Horstead (Barrett) . NORTHUMBERLAND: Newcastle (Stainton). SOMERSET:
Clevedon (Mason). SURREY: Haslemere (Barrett). SUSSEX: common in the
county, Goring Woods, etc. (Fletcher), Lewes (Stainton), Guestling (Bloomfield).
NEPTICULA FLOSLACTELLA. 327
WESTMORLAND : Windermere (Hodgkinson), Witherslack (Threlfall). YORK:
Scarborough (Stainton), York (Hind), Doncaster (Corbett), Harrogate, Richmond
(Sang). SCOTLAND: common, to the Clyde (Meyrick).
DISTRIBUTION. — Denmark : not rare in north-east Zealand (Bang-
Haas). France : Nohaut, Indre (Sand). Germany : generally dis-
tributed (Heinemann and Wocke), Alsace (Peyerirnhoff), Berlin,
Friedland, Stettin, Hamburg (Sorhagen), Frankfort-on-the-Main
(Schmid). Netherlands : Gravenhage, Overijssel, N. Brabant (Snellen).
Scandinavia : Blekinge (Wallengren). Switzerland : nr. Zurich (Frey).
Group VI. — Cilia of the anterior wings with a distinct or indicated
divisional line, beyond which they are abruptly pale. The anterior
wings coarsely scaled with two whitish opposite spots (sometimes
tending to form an indistinct, non-metallic central fascia) or without
any paler markings.
NEPTICULA AKGYKOPEZA, Zeller.
SYNONYMY. — Species : Argyropeza, Zeller, " Isis.," 1839, p. 215 ; " Linn. Ent.,"
iii., p. 320 (in part) (1848) ; Tengstrom, " Bidrag Fin. Fjiir.-Fauna," p. 152 (1847) ;
Frey, "Linn. Ent.," xi., pp. 398-400 (1857) ; Sta., "Nat. Hist. Tin.," vii., p. 188
(except descr. imago) (1862); "Man.," ii., p. 433 (except descr. imago) (1859);
Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 339, no. 3076 (1871); Nolck., " Lep. Fn. Est.,"
p. 795 (1871) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 768 (1877) ; Sand,
"Cat. Lep. Auv .," p. 202 (1879); Wallgrn., "Ent. Tids.," ii., p. 131 (1881);
Erschoff, " Trudy Ituss. Ent. Soc.," xii., p. 221 (1881) ; Bang-Haas, " N. H. Tids.,"
p. 218 (1881) ; Peyer., "Cat. Lep. Als.," 2nd Ed., ii., p. 167 (1882) ; Curo, "Bull.
Soc. Ent. Ital.,"xv., p. 109 (1883) ; Fritsche (te?te Stainton), "Ent. Mo. Mag.,"
xxii., p. 237 (1886) ; Sorhagen, "Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 311 (1886) ; nee,
H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," p. H30 (1855). Apicella, Sta., " Ins. Brit.," p. 300 (1854) ;
" Man.," ii., p. 433 (1859) ; Heyd., " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xxvi., p. 381 (1865) ; Heyd.
and Sta., " Ent. Ann.," 1868, pp. 50-51 ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 339,
no. 3077 (1871) ; Frey, " Lep. der Schweiz," p. 425 (1880) ; Sang, " Ent. Mo.
Mag.," xxii., pp. 236-237 (1886); Meyr., "Handbook." etc., p. 726 (1895). [nee
Argyropeza, Heyd., " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xxii., p. 40 (1861) ; nee, Heyd. and Sta., "Ent.
Ann.," 1868, p. 50, which = N. turbiddla]. Argyropezella, Vaughan, "Ent.
Week. Int.," vol. vi., p. 14 (1859); Porritt, "List Yorks. Lep.," p. 171 (1886).
Sericopeza, Wocke, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xxvi., p. 106 (1865).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — 8. Aryyropeza, Z. (Argyropedella, in litt.). —
Grosse der vorigen (N. arfjentipedella) ; die Vorderfliigel zugerundet,
etwas glanzend, grob schwiirzlich beschuppt, nach hinten violett ; 2
weissliche Gegenflecke hinter der Mitte ; die Kopfhaare rostgelb ;
die Fiihler braunlich mit weisslichen Augendeckeln. — Bei Glogau im
May vorziiglich an Espenstammen, sehr gemein (Zeller, Isis, 1839,
p. 215). Ten years afterwards, Zeller diagnosed the species as
follows : Alis anterioribus grosse nigricanti-squamatis, postice vio-
lascenti-subm'tidulis, apice rotundato, albido-ciliato, maculis duabus
mediis oppositis albidis ; capillis ferrugineis ; conchula exalbida.
Vorderfliigel hinten auscheinend erweitert, indem auf den Franzen um
die Spitzen dunkle Schuppen strahlenformig liegen, grobschuppig, wenig
glanzend. Die Schuppen an der Basis hell, am Ende dunkelbraun,
sehr wenig violettlich schimmernd, am meisten noch um die Spitze,
wo sie gedrangter stehen. Fehlen einzelne Schuppen, so treten die
weisslichen Wurzelu der benachbarten Schuppen fleckenartig hervor.
An der Mitte des Vorderrandes und am Anfange der Innenrand-
franzen liegt je ein weisslicher, nicht scharf begrenzter Fleck, mit
den Spitzen einander zugekehrt, mit denen sie bisweilen fest ver-
bunden sind, ziemlich senkrecht unter einander. Beim Weibchen
328 • BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
sind diese Flecke kleiner, gelblicher, schiirfer. Die iiussersten um
die Spitze herum auf den Franzen liegenden Schuppen sind lang, und
ihre dunkeln Enden bilden einen dunkeln Ring um die Spitze hinter
einem lichteren Ringe. Die Franzen dahinter sind hellgrau, kaum
ein wenig gelblich schillernd. Hinterfltigel heller grau, als die
einfarbige Unterseite der Vorderfiiigel, deren Franzen so hell sind,
wie auf der Oberseite. Das Weibchen (mein einzelnes Exemplar)
ist auf den Vorderfliigeln dunkler, weniger gliinzend und die Gegen-
flecke gelblich und scharfer umgrenzt (Linnaea Entomoloyica, iii.,
pp. 320-322).
IMAGO. — Head ferruginous. Anterior wings 6-7 mm. ; scales
blackish, paler at their bases ; bluish-black towards the apex ; two
opposite whitish spots near middle .^of wing, one (small) on costa,
another (larger) on inner margin ; cilia grey, long, with silvery white
tips. Posterior wings pale grey, the cilia paler.
COMPARISON OF N. ARGYROPEZA WITH N. SUBAPICELLA. — The imago
of N. aryyropeza, Zell. (= apicella, Sta.), has the costal and dorsal spots
exactly opposite. The imago of N. subapicella, Sta. (= aryyropeza,
Sta.) has the costal spot anterior to the dorsal spot (i.e., the costal spot
is nearer to the base of the wing than in the former) (Stainton).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid upon the stalk of an aspen leaf, "about
a quarter of an inch from its junction with the leaf " (Vaughan) ; " at
the end of the leaf -stalk " (Heyden). Nolcken has found as many as
four eggs on one petiole, but never more than two mines in one leaf.
MINE. — A small swelling is formed where the young larva bores
into the petiole at the foot of an aspen leaf. The larva then mines up the
petiole to the foot of the leaf, and forms a wedge-shaped blotch at the
base of the leaf. Vaughan notes that the young larva, after pene-
trating the stem, enters the leaf at the midrib, and mines the upper
cuticle, rarely passing through a rib, but completely devouring all the
substance between the middle and one side rib, thus forming a wedge-
shaped mine with the excrement irregularly scattered. Heyden says
that the portion of the leaf-stalk mined is flattened sideways, and
tolerably thick, the mine forming an elongate black- brown blotch, that
widens anteriorly, and is sometimes five lines long, and placed between
the edge of the leaf and first lateral rib, or between the latter and the
midrib. Nolcken says that the mine is always between two ribs, and
bounded with a curve on the outer edge, the frass being arranged
irregularly, and collected in little heaps. Heyden notes that there is
often a mine on either side of the midrib. Wood says that " to see an
aspen tree with nearly every leaf of a pure yellow, save for a bold
splash of vivid green striking across from stalk to margin, is an
extraordinary sight, and one that can scarcely fail to attract attention."
Sorhagen notes that " the black frass is deposited in the mine in two
parallel streaks along each rib, the small empty space between which
looks like a continuation of the midrib."
LARVA. — Length 2£ lines. Pale amber, the dorsal vessel greenish
or brownish-green, head pale brown, darker at the side, prothorax
greyish above, posteriorly with two reddish-brown subcutaneous
patches, forming a horseshoe-like mark. On the underside of the
prothorax is a dark brown subcutaneous patch, posteriorly black ;
some wedge-shaped yellowish -brown marks are visible on the under-
side of the third, fourth, fifth and twelfth segments (Stainton),
NEPTICULA ARGYROPEZA. 329
Nolcken describes the larva as " translucent pale yellow, at times
somewhat darker-coloured, but frequently colourless ; the alimentary
canal green (when empty it is only visible as a weak brownish or
reddish shade) ; the anal flap margined by a fine dark line on either
side ; the head transparent, pale brown, with darker brown sides,
yellow-brown mouth-parts and darker sutures ; the forehead suture
anteriorly convex, thick, dark brown, as also are two divergent curved
lines concave to one another, bounding the clypeus. Generally the
younger larvae are more deeply coloured, often amber-yellow with a
greenish tinge, owing to the green intestinal canal. The anterior
segments bear, ventrally, lozenge- shaped spots, which commence in a
large brown subcutaneous throat-spot, and are more compressed on
segments nearest head ; these are very small and inconspicuous in
young larvae." Wood notes the larva as " mining with the venter
uppermost," and it has the habit, Nolcken says, of retiring into the
mined petiole to moult. The full-fed larvae remain some time in the
mine (they have been found in leaves covered with snow), and when
they do spin their cocoons they do not change to pupae until the spring.
COCOON. — The cocoons examined (9) average almost 3mm. in
length, and 2-2 mm. in width. The cocoon is almost oval in outline,
one end, however, being decidedly broader than its nadir, very distinctly
domed both above and below the rim, the latter being composed of
a mass of loose, flossy silk. The cocoon proper is closely woven, of a
dark drab (inclining to greenish or brownish in different cocoons)
colour, loosely invested in a thick covering of shining, flossy silk,
which is somewhat paler than the inner part of the cocoon. The
empty pupa-case, which projects from the broader end of the cocoon,
is quite transparent and colourless, the abdominal segments being pro-
vided dorsally with a broad belt of shiny brown hooks. [Described
from cocoons sent by Dr. Wood, July 12th, 1898.] The larva forms,
on the ground, a flat, pale brown and rather woolly cocoon, from
which the pupa protrudes just before the escape of the imago (Vaughan).
FOOD-PLANTS. — Populus trennda. Also P. alba (Sorhagen).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is single-brooded, appearing in
May and June, from larvae that feed up the previous July-November,
and do not pupate until a short time before the emergence of the
imago. Vaughan reared imagines in March-April, 1859, from larvae
found the previous October and November, at Bristol. Stainton
obtained imagines at Beckenham from May 20th-25th, 1851,
and on June 9th, 1849, at Woodhead Moors, nr. Sheffield ; whilst
Threlfall caught imagines at Witherslack on May 14th, 1875 ; he
also bred imagines from larvae obtained the previous October, from
May 12th-22nd. Mann records it at the beginning of June, 1846, at
Pratovecchio ; and Evans captured imagines at West Wemyss on
May 30th, 1895. Nolcken records larvae from September 20th,
throughout October and into November, annually, at Pichtendahl,
most easily found in the fallen leaves, the mined area remaining
green.
LOCALITIES. — DURHAM : Darlington (Sang). EDINBURGH : Ravelrig Bog
(Logan). FIFE: West Wemyss (Evans). GLOUCESTER : Bristol (Vaughan). HANTS:
New Forest (Bankes). HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood). KENT : Beckenham
(Stainton). LANCASHIRE: Grange (Hodgkinson). SUSSEX : Abbott's Wood (Fletcher).
WESTMORLAND : Witherslack (Threlfall). YOKKS : Woodhead Moors (Stainton),
Sheffield (Wilson), Scarborough (Meek).
330 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
DISTRIBUTION. — Austria : nr. Vienna (Mann) . Denmark : Lyngby,
Brede, Eudehegn (Bang-Haas). France : Solope, St. Florent,
Allogny (Sand), Marseilles (Himighoffen). Germany : generally
distributed (Heinemann and Wocke), Potsdam, Havelland, Friedland,
Stettin, Hamburg (Sorhagen), Alsace (Peyerimhoft) , Dantzig (Tiede-
mann), Glogau (Zeller). Italy : Pratovecchio, Tuscany (Mann).
Russia: Pichtendahl (Nolcken), Livland (Lienig). Scandinavia:
Uleaborg (Tengstrom), south and middle Sweden (Wallengren).
Switzerland : nr. Zurich (Frey).
NEPTICULA SUBAPICELLA, Stainton (? sp. praec.).
SYNONYMY. — Species: Subapicella, Sta., " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxii., p. 238
(1886). Aryyropeza, Sta., "Ins. Brit.," p. 300 (1854) ; " Nat. Hist. Tin.," i.. p. 12
(1855) ; " Man.," ii., p. 433 (1859) ; "Nat. Hist. Tin.," vii., p. 188 (in part), pi. ix.,
fig. 2 (1862) ; Meyrick, ".Handbook," etc., p. 726 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — In the Ent. Mo. Mar/., xxii., pp. 237-238,
the name X. subapicella is suggested by Stainton for the imago described
and figured in the Nat. Hist. Tin., vol. vii., pp. 190-191, and pi. ix.,
fig 2, under the name of N. argyropeza, the life-history really belonging
to the latter species. The description here referred to reads as follows :
" This species belongs to that section of the genus in which the
blackish anterior wings have two marginal pale spots ; in this section
it can only be confused with AT. apicdla, but N. argyropeza, (—<?«&-
apicdla) has the costal spot nearer the base of the wing than in that
species ; in N. apicdla the costal and dorsal spots are exactly opposite,
in N. argy ropeza ( — subapicella) the costal spot is decidedly anterior to
the dorsal spot. Expansion of the wings 3 lines. Head ferruginous.
Antennae dark fuscous, with ^,he basal joint whitish. Anterior wings
coarsely scaled, blackish, with a small dull whitish spot on the costa,
rather before the middle, and a larger one on the inner margin a little
beyond the middle ; cilia whitish. Posterior wings with their cilia
frey." The oldest description of this species, however, is in the
n sect a Britannica, p. 300, where Stainton writes : " Alis anticis
nigrescentibus, macula parva costae ante medium, macula dorsi post
medium majore albidis ; capillis fulvis. Exp. al. 3 lin. Head and
face deep luteous. Palpi whitish. Antennae dark fuscous, basal joint
whitish. Anterior wings blackish, with a small whitish spot on the
costa, rather before the middle, and a larger one on the inner margin
beyond the middle ; cilia whitish. Posterior wings grey, with paler
cilia."
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The imago has only been taken in May and
June, on palings at Beckenham, by Stainton. The specimens in his
collection are labelled respectively June 17th and June 22nd, 1851.
The larva is unknown.
LOCALITY. — KENT : Beckenham (Stainton).
NEPTICULA HEADLEYELLA, Stainton.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Headleyella, Sta., "Ins. Brit.," p. 300 (1854); "Nat.
Hist. Tin.," i.. p. 11 (1855) ; " Man.," ii., p. 432 (1859) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.,"
V., p. 356 (1855) ; Frey, " Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 395 (1857) ; Staud. and Wocke,
" Cat.," p. 339 (1871) ; Fletcher, " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxiii., pp. 187-8 (1887) ; Meyr.,
"Handbook," etc., p. 726 (1895). Argyrostigma, Frey, "Die Tineen," etc.. p. 379
(1856) [teste, Frey, " Lep. der Schweiz," p. 425 (1880)].
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Nepticula headleyella, n. sp. Alis anticis
griseis, grosse squamatis, maculis duabua parvis argenteo-albidis,
NEFTICULA HEADLEYELLA. 331
oppositis pone medium, costali anteriore ; capillis luteo-griseis. Exp.
al. 2 lin. Head and face luteous, mixed with grey. Palpi whitish.
Antennas grey, basal joint whitish. Anterior wings rather coarsely
scaled, dark grey, with two small whitish-silvery opposite spots beyond
the middle, that on the costa being nearer to the base ; between these
spots is a considerable breadth of the ground-colour; cilia grey.
Posterior wings grey with paler cilia (Stainton, Lisecta Britannica,
p. 300).
IMAGO. — Head yellowish-grey. Anterior wings 4-6 mm., dark
grey ; two small whitish silvery opposite spots beyond the middle ;
cilia grey with whitish tips. Posterior wings grey, cilia paler.
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the upper surface of a leaf of
Prunella vulyaris (Fletcher).
MINE. — The young larva makes a long and very narrow gallery in
the blade of the leaf, often running halfway, or even all round the
edge of it, the frass forming a continuous dark central line. After a
while, the larva bores down the petiole of the leaf and up that of
another, sometimes the opposite one, sometimes one of those at the
next node. This leaf, usually buried among long herbage, becomes
of a dull purple colour, while the larva is tunnelling up its foot-stalk,
owing probably to the interference with its sap-supplies hastening
its ripening. Arrived at the blade of this leaf, the larva makes a
wide blotch-like mine, often moving a great part, or even the whole,
of the parenchyma, unless the leaf be a very large one, when the
mine takes the form of a broad zigzag gallery. Should the second
leaf be very small, a third, or even a fourth, leaf may be mined. The
frass forms a broad, broken, dark line in the middle of the mine
(Fletcher).
LARVA. — The full-fed larva is about two lines long; head very
pale brown ; body bright yellow ; food showing through in the dorsal
region as a long, dark green blotch.
COCOON. — The cocoons examined (10) average about 2-1 mm. in
length, and 1-6 mm. in width. They vary considerably in shape, some
being almost circular in outline, others (spun up among moss) are
spindle-shaped and considerably pointed towards each end. The
normal shape appears to be somewhat pyriform, one end being much
wider than its nadir; the broad end is somewhat flattened on its
margin, the narrow end rising somewhat gradually to the upper
convex surface of the cocoon. The colour is of a deep chocolate-
brown, and the tint agrees marvellously with that of a dead Prunella
leaf, on the upper surface of which the cocoon is apparently normally
spun. The cocoon is enveloped in a moderately thick coating of loose
flossy silk, of the same dark coloration as the central structure. [De-
scribed under a two-thirds lens, September 19th, 1898, from cocoons
sent by Mr. W. H. B. Fletcher.] Fletcher writes : " The cocoon is
dark brown, mussel-shaped, slightly keeled at the larger end, and rather
flossy."
FOOD-PLANT. — Prunella vulgaris, preferring the radical leaves,
. TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The insect is double-brooded, imagines
appearing in May (end) -June and the end of August, from larvae that
feed up in September (end) -October and July- August (beginning)
respectively. Tompkins records the imago on June 8th, 1855, at
HeadleyLane; Stainton, on June 23rd, 1856, in the same locality,
oo4 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
also in the beginning of June, 1857, at Mickleham, whilst one speci-
men in Stainton's collection is noted as captured at Headley Lane,
June 30th, 1857 ; Fletcher took imagines in June, 1885, followed
by others in August of the same year ; Douglas also found imagines
in August, 1853, in Headley Lane. Mines were taken by Fletcher
in October, 1885, in Arundel Park, and by Warren in the same month
and year in Headley Lane.
LOCALITIES. — SURREY: Headley Lane (Douglas), Mickleham (Stainton).
SUSSEX: Arundel Park, not uncommon (Fletcher). WILTSHIRE (Meyrick). The
specimens recorded from " YORKSHIRE : Scarborough (Stainton) " must be referred
to N. eurema.
NEPTICULA EUREMA, n. sp., Durrant.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Eurema, n. sp. Cryptella, Sta., " Ent. Weekly Intell.," iv.,
p. 102 (1858) ; "Man.," ii., p. 432 (in part) (1859) ; " Tin. of Southern Europe,"
pp. 229 and 359 (1869) ; Mill., " Cat. Lep. Alp. Mar.," p. 373 (1875) ; Porritt, " List of
Yorks. Lep.," p. 171 (1886) ; Wlsm., " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxvii., p. 152 (1891).
IMAGO. — Head and face ochreous. Antenna? fuscous externally,
pale cinereous on their inner sides ; eye-caps whitish. Palpi whitish.
Thorax sooty. Forewings whitish, densely irrorated with sooty scales,
slightly beyond the commencement of the apical third of the costa a
fascia of the pale ground colour, variable in width and slanting
slightly outwards, runs to the dorsum. (This fascia is sometimes
divided into costal and dorsal spots by the dark scaling.) Cilia
whitish, with a few sooty scales near the termen, and with a dividing
line of sooty spots. The ? with the fascia broader and more distinct
than in the male. Exp. al. $ 6 mm., ? 5 mm. (but both sexes
often smaller). Hind-wings pale cinereous, cilia somewhat paler
and more yellowish. Abdomen dark cinereous ; anal tuft of <?
whitish. Hind-legs whitish. Type : <? and $ Mus. Wlsm. (described
from British specimens, Harper coll.). Hab. Scotland : Melvish
(Sutherland). Larva : Lotus corniculatits, excl. ix., 1886, five speci-
mens (Durrant, July 15th, 1898, inlitt.}.
VARIATION.— X. eurema is variable in size, but it is generally a
smaller and more stumpy species than X. cryptella. British speci-
mens would, as a rule, seem to be strongly fasciate in the 5 ; in the
$ the fascia is not so broad nor so distinct, and is sometimes (rarely)
broken into opposite spots (Durrant). Bankes notes the " white-
spotted or fasciated form," taken at Purbeck, as apparently larger than
the " unicolorous insect from the Sussex downs." An extensive series,
bred by Wilkinson at Scarborough, is exceedingly variable, some
specimens having only the single spot on the inner margin, others
having also a costal spot, whilst in some the two spots are united to
form a rather broad fascia (Stainton). Porritt notes that Wilkinson
mistook this " spotted " form for X. lieadleyella.
COMPARISON OF NEPTICULA EUREMA AND N. CRYPTELLA. — X. cryptella
was described from specimens without pale spots, but fine specimens
usually have a pale obscure triangular spot on the dorsuni before the
tornus. X. cryptella is, as a rule, a larger and more elongate species
than X. eurema. It seems probable that Stainton had both species
before him when writing the description in the Manual, ii., p. 432,
for he remarked " sometimes with indications of pale opposite spots
beyond the middle" (Durrant). Probably these were Wilkinson's
specimens (Intell., iv., p. 102). Durrant says that " at present he is not
NEPTICULA EUBEMA. 666
disposed to separate from X. eurema specimens bred from Dorycnium
hirsutum, by Walsingham, at Hyeres ; in these, however, the spots are
widely separated, and rarely tend to coalesce and form a fascia. It is
probable that another species is indicated by these specimens, and
the N. cryfitella, bred by Stainton and Milliere from Dorycnium, at
Cannes and Mentone, are almost certainly the same as Walsingham's
specimens from Le Tryas and Hyeres."
COCOON. — Pale greenish on Lotus ; brownish-ochreous on Dorycnium
(Durrant).
FOOD-PLANTS. — Lotus corniculatus, Dorycnium. kirsutum.
TIME OF APPEARANCE.— Double-brooded. Sang took larvae on
Lotus, on July llth, 1858, at Castle Eden, June 28th, 1862, June
14th, 1872, September 7th, 1873, at Darlington, July 15th, 1873,
September 26th, 1878, at Scarborough (teste Gardner). Hodgkinson
also notes larva? on Lotus in the last week of September, at
Scarborough. Threlfall bred imagines June 28th-July 6th, 1879,
from larvae obtained at Durham, on Lotus, September 15th, 1878, and
Walsingham bred others on September 21st, 1886, from larvae on
Lotus, obtained the previous month at Melvish, in Sutherland.
Milliere notes imagines as emerging, at Mentone, in March, and
Stainton bred specimens on March 17th, 1867, from larvae found at
Cannes, on January 31st, on Dorycnium. Walsingham obtained
imagines at Le Tryas. on April 14th, 1881, and bred others July 7th,
August 10th, 14th, 21st, 1890, from larva? found at Hyeres in
October and November, 1890, on Dorycnhtm.
LOCALITIES. — DORSET: Purbeck (Bankes). DURHAM: Castle Eden, Darling-
ton (Sang). ? LANARK : Langsicle (King). ? LANCASHIRE (Hodgkinson). SUTHER-
LAND : Melvish (Walsingham). WESTMORLAND : Arnside (Threlfall). YORKSHIRE :
Scarborough (Wilkinson).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Cannes (Stainton), Mentone (Milliere),
Hyeres, Le Tryas (Walsingham).
NEPTICULA CRYPTELLA,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Cnjptella, Sta., " Ent. Ann.," 1856. p. 41 ; " Man.,"
ii., p. 432 (1859) ; " Nat. Hist. Tin.," vii., p. 148 (1862) ; Frey, " Die Tineen," etc.,
p. 378 (1856) ; " Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 389 (1857) ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 340
(1871) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 769 (1877) ; Meyr., " Hand-
book," etc., p. 726 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Xepticula cryptella, Frey, n. sp. Alis
anticis angustulis albidis, saturate-griseo-squamatis ; capillis ochreis,
fusco-mixtis. Exp. al. 2| lin. Head and face dark ochreous, mixed
with fuscous ; palpi whitfsh ; antennas fuscous, basal joint whitish.
Anterior wings with coarse dark grey scales upon a whitish ground ;
cilia pale grey. Posterior wings pale grey, with paler cilia (Stainton,
Ent. Ann., 1856, p. 41).
[Although both Stainton and Frey published descriptions of this
species in 1856, there can be no doubt that Stainton's was the earlier,
for Frey (Die Tineen, etc., p. x) includes The Ent. Ann., for 1856, in
his list of the " Literatur," to which reference has been made. Frey's
diagnosis refers undoubtedly to Stainton's species. It reads : Capillis
rufis, antennarum conchula alba ; alis anter. grosse squamatis, nigris,
squamis multis albis intermixes, ciliis dilutissime griseis, anguli analis
saturatioribus ; tarsis posticis unicoloribus, albidis. 3-2y (Frey,
Die Tineen, etc., p. 878)]..
334
BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
IMAGO.— Head reddish-ochreous. Anterior wings 4-5 mm., pale
greyish, irrorated with coarse dark scales ; cilia very pale grey, darker
at anal angle. Posterior wings and fringes dark grey.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM.— .The fore-wings differ somewhat in shape
according to the sex. In the male the wings are rather narrow,
whilst those. of the female are distinctly broader (Frey).
COMPARISON OF N. CRYPTELLA WITH ITS ALLIES. — It cannot be
mistaken for any of the foregoing species. Only X. pyymaeella bears
any resemblance to it in wing colour, and this similarity is only super-
ficial, as the latter has much finer scales, and the head-tuft is paler
yellow (Frey). N. cryptella is most nearly allied to N. septeiubrella
and X. pulcerosella. From the former it is distinguished by the
longer and narrower anterior wings .being of a paler colour, and more
coarsely scaled, and by the absence of the conspicuous pale spot at the
anal angle. From N. pulcerosella it is distinguished by the much
narrower anterior wings, and the darker colour of the head (Stainton).
It is also closely allied to N. euphorbiella (Durrant).
COMPARISON OF NEPTICULA KUREMA AND N. CRYPTELLA. — Fletcher
writes on the possibility of two species being included in cabinets
under the name of N, cryptella as follows : "I obtain, here, on the
downs, a form which is unicolorous, or at any rate ' spotless,'
reminding one of a small Trifurcula wimumldla. I take it among
Lotus corniculatm, and found it also (May 13th, 1893) in a bog
among (I doubt not) Lotus major, but I have not been able to
find the larva. I have seen several N. cryptella sent out by Sang.
These are quite a different looking insect, with two pale opposite spots,
which sometimes form a straight fascia. I have only four of the
latter form, which I bought at the sale of the Eevd. H. Burney's
insects, and as they are 2 $ and 2 2 , the difference is not sexual.
My series of the unspotted form agrees with the description in the
Ent. Annual, 1856, p. 41, where it is compared with X. septembrella,
and the absence of a spot particularly noticed. I feel sure we have
here two species, and it would appear that both are attached to Lotus "
(in litt.,'3une 27th, 1898). Diirrant writes : " In the ' Walsingham '
(British) collection are specimens unicolorous, and with only a dorsal
spot, and these appear to be a larger and 'more elongate species than
the remaining specimens, which are generally fasciate, but very rarely
with the fascia broken into opposite spots. The unicolorous species is
the N. cryptella of Stainton, Frey and Wocke. A good name for the
fasciate species would be eurema (the unexpected). I divide the
specimens in the collection as follows : (1) N. cryptella, Sta. — About
half Lord Walsingham's British specimens (Larva : Lotus corniculatm,
teste Fletcher). (2) N. eurema, Drnt. MS.— (a) About half Lord
Walsingham's British specimens (from Harper's coll., Lot 880,
Stevens', May, 1884). (b) Fine specimens bred from Melvish, in
Sutherland, by Lord Walsingham, from Lotus comicitlatus. (c) Several
specimens from Hyeres and Le Tryas, bred from Dorycnhnn Idrsutuin,
by Lord Walsingham. The specimens bred from Dorycniuin are
variable, some with. a fascia, others with opposite spots " (in lift., June
29th, 1898). Bankes notes : (1) 34 specimens from " low undercliff,
just above level of beach, of the fasciated form, some might almost
equally well be called opposite-spotted." (2) 7 specimens from a
" damp meadow, all plain and unspotted." (.3) 4 specimens from
NEPTICULA CBYPTELLA. 885
" dry downs, all plain and unspotted." All these were from Purbeck.
He adds : "In both forms large and small examples occur."
MINE. — The mine is very curious in many ways, chiefly reminding
one, however, of that of X. sei>tembrdla. The larva commences it as
a very fine dark brown gallery, which twists a number of times in the
small leaflets ; this small gallery suddenly widens out into a large,
pale, brownish spot, often filling the whole leaf, in which the fine,
irregular windings of the gallery are partly or wholly lost. These
mines are generally found in shady grassy places in woods, rarely in
open meadows (Frey)t.
LARVA.— The larva is pale yellow-green in colour, the head light
brownish, its length over 2'" (Frey).
FOOD-PLANTS. — Lotus corniculatus, / Lotus major.
TIME OF APPEAKANCE. — The species is, according to Frey, double-
brooded, imagines appearing in May, June and August, from larvae
feeding respectively in September, October and July. The experience
in Britain suggests only a single brood, the imagines in May-June
being produced from larvte -that feed up in July- August. Thus
Stainton bred an imago May 16th, 1857, from a larva obtained at
Headley Lane, July 19th or 21st, 1856. Douglas captured imagines by
sweeping the herbage at Headley Lane, at the end of June, 1855, and
on June 23rd, 1856 ; whilst on June 10th, 1857, Stainton also obtained
imagines in the same locality. Fletcher found specimens on May
13th, 1893, near Worthing.
LOCALITIES. — DORSET : Portland, Weymouth (Richardson), Purbeck (Bankes).
HEREFORD: Woolhope (Wood). LANARK: (? N. eurema) Langside (King). LANCA-
SHIRE : (? N. eurema) Manchester (Stainton), Grange, Preston (Hodgkinson).
NORFOLK: nr. K. Lynn (Atmore). SURREY: Headley Lane (Douglas), Mickle-
ham (Stainton). SUSSEX : Arundel Park, High Down, Worthing (Fletcher).
DISTRIBUTION. — Austria: Vienna (Heinemann and Wocke). Ger-
many (Wocke). Switzerland: Zurich (Frey).
NEPTICULA PULVEROSELLA, Stainton.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Pulrerosella, Sta., " Cat.," p. 30 (1849) ; " Ins. Brit.."
p. 307 (1854) ; " Man.," ii., p. 438 (1859) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 339
(1855) ; Staud. .and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 340 (1871) ; Nolck., " Lep. Fn. Estl.," p. 797
(1871); Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. De.utsch.," p. 769 (1877); Frey, "Lep.
der Schweiz," p. 426 (1880) ; Meyr., " Handbook," etc.. p. 726 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Trifurcula pulverosella, n. sp. Not properly
belonging to this genus (Trifurcula) ; but very like the preceding
(T. •iiinnundella), only darker, and head ferruginous. Scarce. I have
taken it among grass in May (Stainton, Sys. Cat. lirit. Tin. and
Pteroplioridae, p. 30). The species was later diagnosed (Insecta
Hritaiinica, p. 307) by Stainton, as follows : " Alis anticis albis,
grosse cinereo-squamatis, capillis ferrugineis. Exp. al. 3 lin. Head
and face ferruginous. Palpi whitish. Antenna grey, basal joint
whitish. Anterior wings with coarse dark ashy-grey scales, upon a
paler ground ; cilia yellowish-white. Posterior wings pale grey, with
yellowish-white cilia. A few specimens have occurred in May and
June among wild apple bushes."
IMAGO. — Head reddish. Anterior wings 6-7 mm. ; pale greyish-
ochreous, irrorated with coarse dark scales ; cilia grey, outer half of
apical cilia paler. Posterior wings light grey ; cilia pale yellowish.
NOTE OF COMPARISON BETWEEN N. PULVEROSELLA AND N. CRYPTELLA,— -
336 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
X. ptilrcroaella is allied to N. cryptella, but is larger, and the cilia of
the anterior wings are paler (Frey).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the underside of a leaf (Nolcken).
MINE. — The mine is formed on the upperside of a leaf. It begins
as a fine gallery, which is filled with frass, and in its earliest part is
very irregular, except when it follows the margin of a leaf. The
second part forms an oval blotch, the middle of which is filled with
frass, the latter being attached to the upper surface of the leaf ; the frass
forms a large irregular spot, the particles of frass not being so thick at
the sides as in the centre. The first part of the mine is often absorbed
in the blotch, and the latter forms a large rust-red spot, the central
area being rusty-brown, the edges more washed-out and yellowish-
brown in tint. The exit is made from the lower side in the examples
before me (Nolcken). The larva makes large blotch-mines in apple-
leaves (Stainton).
LARVA. — The larva is wax-yellow in colour, more intensely tinted
towards the anus. The head is brown, with dark mouth-parts and
sutures. The intestinal canal, which can be seen on the venter, as a
somewhat broad, brownish, pale-edged longitudinal stripe, is on the
upper side pale and indistinctly visible.
COCOON. — The cocoons form a long oval in outline with a narrow
flat rim, and are red rust-brown in colour.
FOOD-PLANT. — Pynts malm, preferring wild bushes.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is single-brooded, the imagines
appearing in May- June, fromlarvyp that feed up the previous July. Bower
captured imagines May 14th, 1897, by beating apple at Eltham.
Stainton collected mines between June 20th-30th, 1851, the imagines
from which commenced to appear May 15th, 1852. He also bred many
others between April 4th-12th, 1852, from larvre found at Lewisham,
on wild apple. Nolcken found mines on July 16th, 1892, at Rotsikiill,
that produced imagines the middle of May of the following year. Sang
found mines at Darlington, on July 18th, 1874, July 14th, 1877.
Frey bred (probably in the house) imagines in March, 1858, at
Zurich, from larvae received from Stainton the previous July. Bankes
bred imagines from March 14th-23rd, 1893, from larvae received from
Epping Forest in July, 1892, the cocoons having been kept in a warm
room with a fire. The moths emerge from about 8.30-10.30 a.m.
LOCALITIES. — DORSET : Purbeck (Bankes). DURHAM : Darlington (Sang).
ESSEX: Epping Forest (Bankes). GLOUCESTER: Bristol (Stainton). KENT: Lewis-
ham (Stainton), Elthum (Bower). LANCASHIRE : Dutton (Hodgkinson), Grange
(Threlfall). SURREY : Haslemere (Barrett). SUSSEX : generally distributed
(Fletcher). YORKSHIRE : Scarborough, common (Wilkinson).
DISTRIBUTION. — Germany (Heinemann and Wocke). Russia :
Rotsikiill (Nolcken). Switzerland : nr. Zurich (Frey).
GROUP VII. — Cilia of the anterior wings with a distinct or
indicated divisional line, beyond which they are abruptly paler.
Anterior wings coarsely scaled, with only a whitish dorsal spot.
NEPTICULA SEPTEMBRELLA, Stainton.
SYNONOMY.— Species: Septembrella,Sif>,., "Cat.," p. 29 (1849); "Ins. Brit.,"
p. 299(1854); "Nat. Hist. Tin.," i., p. 1G8, pi. iv.. fig. 2 (1855); "Man.," ii.,
p. 432 (1859) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 350 (1855) ; Frey, " Die Tineen,"
etc., p. 377 (1856) ; " Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 391 (1857) ; Const.,. " Cat. Lep. Saone-et-
NEPTICULA SEPTEMBREI/LA. 837
Loire," p. 354 (1866) ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.." p 339 (1871) ; Nolck., " Lep.
Fn. Est.," p. 790 (1871); Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 763
(1877); Sand, "Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 202 (1879); Peyer., "Cat. Lep. Als.," 2nd
Ed., ii., p. 167 (1882) ; Sorhagen, " Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 309 (1886) ;
Meyr.. "Handbook," etc., p. 724 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Nepticula septembrella, n. sp. Anterior
wings blackish, with a single yellowish spot on the disk near the anal
angle ; head ferruginous ; antennae greyish. One specimen taken by Mr.
Bedell, at West Wickham, last September (Stainton, Sys. Cat. of
Brit. Tin. and Pterophoridae, p. 29). Following this, Stainton wrote
(Insecta Britannica, p. 299) an extended diagnosis as follows: " Alis
anticis nigris, macula triangulari dorsi pone medium albida, capillis
ferrugineis ; antennis fuscis ; tarsis posticis unicoloribus albidis.
Exp. al. 2 lin. Head and face reddish-yellow. Palpi whitish. An-
tennae fuscous, basal joint whitish. Hinder tarsi unicolorous whitish.
Anterior wings black, with a rather triangular whitish spot on the
inner margin beyond the middle; cilia whitish. Posterior wings
whitish-grey, with paler cilia."
IMAGO. — Head reddish-yellow. Anterior wings 4 mm. ; black ; a
somewhat triangular whitish spot on inner margin towards anal
angle ; cilia whitish* Posterior wings whitish-grey, cilia paler.
COMPARISON OF N. SEPTEMBRELLA WITH ITS ALLIES. — This species
belongs to that section of the genus in which the dark-coloured
anterior wings have a single pale spot on the inner margin, placed
not towards the middle, as in N. intimella, but towards the anal
angle, nearly as in N. catkarticella. From this last species, which it
very closely resembles, it may be distinguished by the tarsi being
unicolorous whitish, and not annulated with dark fuscous. The pale
spot of the anterior wings is also a little larger and less shining
(Stainton).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is deposited on the underside of a leaf of
Hypericttm.
MINE. — The mine commences as a long and extremely slender
gallery, in which the excrement appears at first as a reddish-brown line,
but, as it proceeds, the excrement becomes darker, till it appears nearly
black ; after going round and across the leaf two or three times, a
blotch is formed, and the excrement is then deposited in little arcs of
circles, very similarly to that of Cemiostoma scitella and C. labumella.
Finally the mined blotch occupies the entire leaf, if it be a small one,
and the narrow lines of the original gallery still being distinctly
visible, give it a singular appearance (Stainton). Wood notes that
" the mine consists, in its first portion, of a gallery, and ends in a
distinct blotch ; the latter is not commenced until some little time
after the larva has passed its third moult." Threlfall notes it as
" most intricate and blotch-like."
LARVA. — Length 2 lines ; shining, transparent, light yellow ; the
dorsal vessel showing through greenish ; head small, brown, much
concealed beneath the prothorax ; the latter dark brown anteriorly ;
the meso- and metathorax the largest ; those beyond taper gradually
to the posterior end (Stainton). Wood notes that " the larva, which
makes a hollow or balloon-like blotch, partakes much of the
ILicropteryx type, being without legs, and with deep segmental
incisions;" also that " the dark ventral spots found in the middle
life of some Nepticulid larvae, remind one of some of the ventral spots
338 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
in some of the Micropterygids (i.e., Eriocraniids). The larva mines
with the venter uppermost."
COCOON. — The full-fed larva puckers the leaf in which it has
been mining, and, in the cavity thus formed, it constructs its pale
ochreous, elliptical, flat-edged cocoon, the wider end of which is
attached to the lower cuticle of the leaf, so that when the pupa pro-
trudes its anterior segments, it likewise pushes through the skin of the
leaf, and the perfect insect makes its appearance on the same side of
the leaf as that upon which the egg was laid (Stainton).
FOOD-PLANTS. — Hypericwn pulckrum, H. perforation, H. hirsutiun
(Corbett), H. quadramjulutn (Healy), H. tomentomm (Frey.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The insect is double-brooded, the imagines
appearing in May- June and August-, from larvae that feed from Sep-
tember-March and July-August respectively. We captured imagines
on June 23rd, 1888, at Chattenden. Miller bred imagines August
3rd-5th, 1856 ; Stainton, on January 29th, March 10th, November
28th, 1852, January 5th, March 9th, 1853, March 27th-31st, April
6th, May 5th, 1854, all from West Wickham, and on May 31st,
1850, from Wanstead. From mines obtained July 24th, 1876, at
Windermere, Threlfall bred imagines on August 16th of the same
year. Atmore bred imagines from May 15th-22nd, 1898, out-of-doors,
from larvae collected the previous autumn at King's Lynn. Threlfall
records larvae at Witherslack, July 21st and during October, 1876 ;
Healy, larvae on October 7th, 1858, at Highgate Wood, October 14th,
at Bishop's Wood (when nearly every leaf of three plants contained
larvae). Douglas notes that on October 19th, 1856, in Darenth Wood,
every leaf of the plants found was tenanted with a larva, the larvae
being in all stages of growth, from just hatched to full grown.
Stainton obtained pupae in the budding leaves in February and
March, 1857, in West Wickham Wood. Sand notes that the October-
November larvae produce imagines in May, at Nohaut, whilst Peyerim-
hoff observes that October larvae produce April imagines in Alsace.
Nolcken notes that at Strandheuschlage, every leaf of some plants
contained mines on September 9th, 1865, others being quite free.
LOCALITIES. — CHESHIRE : Bowdon (Edleston). DORSET : common in woods
in county (Richardson), Bloxworth (Cambridge), Purbeck (Bankes), Glanvilles
Wootton (Dale). DUBLIN: Howth (Birchall). DURHAM: Darlington (Sang).
ESSEX: Wanstead (Stainton). GLOUCESTER: Bristol (Stainton). HANTS: New
Forest (Bankes). HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood), Leominster (Hutchinson).
KENT: Darenth (Douglas), West Wickham (Bedell), Chattenden (Tutt), Lewisham,
Beckenham (Stainton). LANCASHIRE: Manchester (Stainton), Grange, Silverdale
(Threlfall). LEICESTER: Market Harboro' (Matthews). MIDDLESEX: Bishop's
Wood, Hampstead, Highgate Wood (Healy). NORFOLK : Merton (Barrett), King's
Lynn (Atmore). SUSSEX : widely distributed in E. and W. Sussex, High Down, etc.
(Fletcher), Guestling (Bloomfield), Lewes (Stainton). WESTMORLAND: Arnside,
Windermere, Witherslack (Threlfall). YORK : Scarborough (Wilkinson), Doncaster,
very abundant (Corbett), Edlington Wood (Warren), Richmond (Sang).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Saone-et-Loire (Constant), Nohaut, Indre
(Sand). Germany : generally distributed (Heinemann and Wocke),
Finkenkrug, Potsdam, Stettin, Halle, Hamburg (Sorhagen), Alsace
(Peyerimhoff), Batisbon (Herrich - Schiiffer), Frankfort - on - Main
(Heyden), Giessen (Frey). Russia: Pichtendahl, Strandheuschlage
(Nolcken). Switzerland : Bremgarten (Boll), nr. Zurich, on the
Miirtschenalp, at 5,000ft. (Frey).
NEPTICULA CATHARTICELLA.
NEPTICULA CATHABTICELLA,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Catharticella, Sta., "Zool.," 1853, p. 3955 and p. 3958;
"Ins. Brit., "p. 299 (1854); " Nat. Hist. Tin.," i., p. 178, pi. iv., fig. 2 (1855);
" Man.." ii., p. 432 (1859) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 356 (1855) ; Frey,
" Die Tineen," etc., p. 377 (1856) ; " Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 390 (1857) ; Sta., " Tin.
of Southern Europe," pp. 228-229 (1869) ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 339
(1871); Nolck., "Lep. Fn. Est.,"p. 790 (1871); Mill., "Cat. Lep. Alp. Mar.."
p. 373 (1875) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 763 (1877) ; Sand,
Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 202 (1879) ; Wallgrn^, " Ent. Tids.." ii., pp. 130-131J1881) ;
~ lindei
Snellen, " De Vlinders," p. 1006 (1882) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Als.." 2nd Ed., ii.,
167 (1882) ; Sorhgn., " Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," pp. 309 and 356 (1886) ;
sring. "Stett. Ent. Zeit .," Hi., p. 221 (1891); Const., "Bull. Soc. His. Nat.
p. 167 (1882) ; Sorhgn., " Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," pp. 309 and 356 (1886) ;
Bering, " Stett. Ent. Zeit," lii., p. 221 (1891); Const., "Bull.
Autun," v., p. 82 (1892) ; Meyr., "Handbook," etc., p. 724 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — In the Zooloyist, xi., p. 3955, Stainton
writes : " About the middle of last October, I paid a visit one morning
to a bush of Rhamnus catharticus, on which I expected to find the
autumnal brood of the larvae of -Ar. catharticella," etc. Again, on
p. 3958, he writes : " To the species on buckthorn, closely allied to
N. septembrella, and not hitherto described, I have given the name of
AT. catharticella.'" Stainton afterwards diagnosed (Insecta Britannica,
p. 299) the species as follows : " Alis anticis nigris, dilutissime pur-
pureo-tinctis, puncto niinuto dorsi pone medium albo ; capillis ferru-
gineis ; tarsis posticis albidis, fusco-annulatis. Exp. al. 2£ lin. Head
and face reddish-yellow. Palpi whitish. Antennae fuscous, basal
joint whitish. Hinder tarsi whitish, annulated with dark fuscous.
Anterior wings black, with a very faint purple tinge, with a minute
white spot on the inner margin near the anal angle ; cilia whitish.
Posterior wings pale grey, with pale grey cilia."
IMAGO. — Head reddish. Anterior wings 5-6 mm. ; black with a
faint purple tinge ; a minute white spot on inner margin near the anal
angle ; cilia with pale grey bases, outer half white. Posterior wings
and cilia pale grey.
COMPARISON OF N. CATHARTICELLA WITH ITS ALLIES. — N. cartharticella
belongs to that section of the genus in which the dark-coloured anterior
wings have a single pale spot on the inner margin ; the position of
the spot at the anal angle, and not merely a little beyond the middle,
distinguishes it from A7, intiinella, beside the antennae being yellowish
in that species and fuscous in AT. cartharticella. From N. septembrella
it is less easy to separate it, but the pale spot is smaller, and rather
more posteriorly placed, and the hind tarsi are annulated with
dark fuscous, whereas in N. septembrella they are unicolorous whitish
(Stainton).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the underside of a leaf of Rhamnus
catharticus, generally close to the midrib.
MINE. — The mine is at first very narrow, slightly twisted, and
filled with green or greenish-grey excrement, so nearly the colour of
the leaf that it is not easily perceptible. At the end of the mine the
larva appears distinctly green, and is much more easily seen than
when in its long track. As the mine gradually becomes broader it is
generally more contorted and the excrement darker (ultimately nearly
black), and placed in regular arcs, but still occupying the whole
width of the mine. About half-an-inch from the point by which the
larva quits the leaf, the excrement becomes more scanty, and occupies
only the centre of the mine, leaving a whitish-green margin on either
side (Stainton). Frey notes it as " composed of very narrow windings,
340 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
not unlike those of AT. viscerella. The frass is collected into a broad
stripe, and only towards the end is it deposited in a line, so that a
greenish margin borders the gallery." A mine made in Rhamnux
alatemux (larva noticed below) is described as " a broad gallery, almost a
narrow blotch ; the old part of the mine brownish, the recent part pale
green ; the excrement dark brown, at first nearly occupies the whole
width of the mine, afterwards blacker, and only occupies the central
portion of it."
LARVA. — Length 2 lines ; pale greenish-amber ; head pale brown,
and two pale brown lobes, showing through the prothorax ; mouth
and two slender lines receding from it reddish-brown (Stainton).
Larvae obtained by Stainton, at Mentone, on Rhamnus alatemm, were
described as follows : " Length 2 lines,, pale amber, dorsal vessel greener;
head pale brown, with the mouth and sutures darker, and with a
short dark mark posteriorly " (Tin. of Southern Europe, pp. 228-229).
The larva mines with its dorsum uppermost (Wood).
COCOON. — The cocoon is very pale ochreous, rather flossy and
elongate, almost pointed at the narrow, and rounded at the broader
end. From the latter, the anterior segments are protruded before the
emergence of the imago (Stainton). Sorhagen says " pale yellow and
pear-shaped."
FOOD-PLANTS. — Rhamnus catharticus and R. alaternus.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Double-brooded, the imagines appearing in
May-June (March, in confinement), and July-August, from larvae
found in October and June-July respectively. Stainton obtained
mines at Lewisham on October 26th, 1851, and again in July and
October, 1852. From the latter, he bred imagines almost continuously
from February Ist-June 24th, 1853. He also bred the summer
imagines from July 9th-26th, 1863. Sorhagen notes the larvae at
Hamburg as occurring " singly " in July, " commonly " in October,
in hedges and on outskirts of woods. Threlfall obtained imagines
August 5th-15th, 1878, from larvae collected July 16th, at Withes-
slack ; and Durrant bred imagines on June 15th, 1898, from larvae
collected at Merton the preceding October. Bower notes mines on
October 5th, 1891, at Daren th, October 27th, 1897, at Lee. From
mines obtained March 14th, 1867, on R. alatemm, near Pont St.
Louis, Mentone, imagines emerged April 30th-May 10th, 1867.
De Peye also notes mines in March on the same plant at Cannes.
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge, Wicken, Cherryhinton (Farren),
Cambridge (Warren). DORSET: Bloxworth (Cambridge), Glanvilles Wootton (Dale),
Weymouth (Richardson). GLOUCESTER: Bristol (Vaughan). HEREFORD: Tarring-
ton (Wood). KENT: Lewisham (Stainton), Alkham (Beale),Lee, Darenth (Bower).
LANCASHIRE: Grange, Silverdale (Threlfall). NORFOLK: King's Lynn, Swaffham,
Croxton (Atmore), Merton (Durrant). SURREY: Sanderstead (Bower). SUSSEX:
Arundel Park, Salvington Down, nr. Worthing, common (Fletcher), ? Guestling
(Bloomfield). WESTMORLAND: Witherslack (Threlfall). YORK: (Stainton), Scar-
borough (Wilkinson).
DISTRIBUTION. — France: Cannes (Milliere), Alpes Maritimes (Con-
stant), Nohaut (Sand), Pont St. Louis, nr. Mentone, (Stainton).
Germany: generally distributed (Heinemann and Wocke), Alsace
(Peyerimhoff), Frankfort on-the-Main (Schmid), Potsdam, Berlin,
Finkenkruge, Hamburg, Hanover, Breslau (Sorhagen), Alt Damm,
nr. Stettin, Misdroy (Hering). Netherlands: North Brabant (Snellen).
Russia : Pichtendahl (Nolcken). Scandinavia ; Scania (Wallengren).
Switzerland : 2iirich (Frey),
NEPTICULA INTIMELLA. 341
NEPTICULA INTIMELLA,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Intimella, Zell., " Linn. Ent.," iii., p. 323 (1848) ; Sta..
"Ins. Brit.," p. 299 -(1854) ; " Man.," ii., p. 432 (1859) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.,"
v., p. 356 (1855) ; Frey, "Linn. Ent.,"xi., p. 393 (1857) ; Nolck., "Lep. Fn. Est.,"
p. 792 (1871) ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 339 (1871) ; Hein. and Wocke.
" Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 7H4 (1877) ; Sorhagen, "Ent. Nach.," xi., p. 280 (1885) ;
"Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.." p. 309 (1886); Meyr., "Handbook," p. 724 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Xepticula intiinella t n. sp. Alls anteriori-
bus violaceo-fuscis, macula dorsi medii argentea, ciliis externe canis ;
capillis ferrugineis ; antennis cum conchula exalbidis. Ein einzelnes
Weibchen, in der Grosse einer kleinen AT. argyropeza und dem Weibchen
derselben sehr gleichend. Grundfarbe der Vorderfliigel dunkel violett-
braun, auf den Franzen an der Spitze mit dem dunkeln Schuppen-
ringe eingefasst. Die specifischen Unterschiede scheinen folgende zu
sein : Der Vorderrandfleck fehlt auf den Vorderfliigeln wie jeder
andere Fleck ; nur der Innenrandfleck ist vorhanden fast dreieckig,
auf dem Rande ruhend an der gewohnlicben Stelle, aber silber-
weissglanzend. Gegen den dichten, lebhaft rostgelben Haarschopf auf
dem Kopfe stechen die grossen, gelblichweissen, glanzenden Augen-
deckel sehr ab. Wahrend bei N. aryyropeza ? nur das Wurzelglied der
Fiihler gelblichweiss ist, sind hier die ganzen Fiihler ganz einfarbig
blassgelb. An den Beinen sehe ich keine Verschiedenheit. Dieses
einzelne Exemplar fing ich bei Glogau ; doch weiss ich nichts Naheres
dariiber (Zeller, Linnaea Entonwloyica, iii., p. 323).
IMAGO.— Head reddish-ochreous. Fore- wings 5-6 mm. ; blackish-
fuscous ; a shiny yellowish spot on the inner margin just beyond the
middle of the wing ; cilia fuscous. Posterior wings and cilia grey.
COMPARISON OF NEPTICULA INTIMELLA WITH ITS ALLIES. — The yel-
lowish eye-caps and the slightly yellowish hind tarsi distinguish N.
intiinella from X. septeinbrella and N. catharticella. The scaling of the
wings also is finer than in N. septembrella, and the fringes are consider-
ably darker than in X. catharticella. Finally the spot is placed much
nearer to the base of the wing, before the centre of the costa, and
is distinctly yellowish, which Herrich-Schiiffer, incorrectly, denies
(Frey).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the stalk of Salix russelliana, or
on the upper surface of the midrib of S. caprea (Wood).
MINE. — The young larva burrows into the stalk or midrib of its
food-plant, and, in the latter part of its life extends its mine into the
blade ; forming a small blotch projecting from the side of the midrib.
Wood observes that the presence of a larva in the leaves of Saliv
russelliana is shown by one lateral half of the leaf being yellow or
brown, whilst the other remains green. Sorhagen describes the mine
as "mixed," running at first in the midrib, then expanding laterally
into a brown blotch, which widens gradually. In the blotch-part of
the mine the frass lies towards the outside, in two parallel lines,
between which the larva rests when not eating. When disturbed it
retires into that part of the mine situated in the rib.
LARVA. — The larva is pale yellowish in colour, transparent,
posteriorly attenuated, with vivid green intestinal canal from seg-
ments 4-10. Head small, light brownish in colour (Sorhagen).
COCOON. — The cocoons (4) examined average 2-8 mm. in length
and 2-1 mm. in width. They are oval (almost oblong-oval) in shape,
with a distinct lateral rim projecting all round the edge. The colour
842 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
of the cocoons is of a dull brown, the rim much paler. From the
inner edge of the rim the cocoon is regularly arched to the central
point, and somewhat plentifully covered with flossy silk, of a paler
brown colour than the body of the cocoon, although the cocoons look
quite smooth to the naked eye. The rim is also plentifully supplied
with loose flossy silk. [Described July 13th, 1898, under a two-thirds
lens, from cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.]
FOOD-PLANTS. — Sali.c russelliana and S. caprea (Wood), S. fraijilis
(Heinemann and Wocke). [Cambridge records (Ent., xxvi., p. 89)
the species from " birch " an evident error.]
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is single-brooded, appearing
in June, from larvse that feed up in August-November. Hodgkinson
records sweeping imagines from sallow, at Witherslack, June 9th, 1870.
Threlfall bred specimens June 20thv, 1880, from larvae obtained the
preceding September and October, at Windermere. In Stainton's
collection are specimens captured on Dartford Heath, June 23rd, 1852,
and others bred by Threlfall, at Preston, May 18th, 1888. Cans-
dale obtained larvae in October, 1876, at Witham, that produced
imagines the following June. Wocke notes the imago as appearing
at the end of June, in Silesia, from October-November larvae, and
Nolcken records mines on September 24th, 1864, at Pichtendahl.
LOCALITIES. — BERKS: Heading (Hamm). DERBY : Burton (Sang). DORSET:
Purbeck (Bankes), Bloxworth (Cambridge). ESSEX: Witham (Cansdale). GLOU-
CESTER : Bristol (Sircom). HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood). KENT : Dartford
Heath (Stainton). LANCASHIRE : Grange, Preston (Hodgkinson). SOMERSET :
Brislington (Sircom). SURREY: Haslemere (Barrett). SUSSEX : Abbott's Wood, rare
(Fletcher). WESTMORLAND : Windermere (Threlfall), Witherslack (Hodgkinson).
DISTRIBUTION. — Germany : Glogau (Zeller), Frankfort-on-Main
(Heyden), Friedland, nr. Hamburg (Sorhagen), Silesia (Wocke),
freslau (Durrant). Russia : nr. Pichtendahl (Nolcken), Porgas nr.
bo (Beuter). Switzerland : nr. Zurich (Frey).
GROUP VIII. — Cilia of the anterior wings with a distinct or indi-
cated divisional line, beyond which they are abruptly paler. The
anterior wings coarsely scaled, usually with a whitish costal spot, or a
whitish fascia, and with one or more other whitish spots.
NEPTICULA QUINQUELLA, Bedell.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Quinqitella, Bedell, " Zool.," 1848, p. 1986 (with figure) ;
Sta., "Ins. Brit.," p. 301 (1854) ; " Man.," ii.t p. 433 (1859) ; Frey, " Linn. Ent.,"
xi., p. 407 (1857) ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 339 (1871); Meyr., "Ent. Mo.
Mag.," xiv., p. Ill (1877) ; " Handbook," etc., p. 725 (1895) ; Warren, " Ent. Mo.
Mag.," xx., p. 188 (1884).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Microsetia quinqudla. Expansion of wings
2-2£ lines ; anterior wings deep black, with the base and three spots
silvery-white ; one placed towards the posterior angle of the inner
margin ; another on the costa near the base, and a third, somewhat
central, near the apex ; cilia silvery ; posterior wings and cilia dusky,
head black. It bears some resemblance to M. subbimaculella. I
found this beautiful and very distinct species in considerable plenty
on the trunks of oaks in the heath-field at West Wickham, on the 30th
of June last (1847) (Bedell, Zoologist, vi., p. 1986).
IMAGO. — Head dark fuscous. Anterior wings 5-6 ram. ; dark
bronzy-fuscous ; transverse silvery spot on costa before middle of
wing ; a triangular silvery spot on inner margin beyond the middle ;
NEPTICULA QUINQUELLA. 343
a small round silvery-white spot between latter and apex ; cilia silvery-
grey. Posterior wings dark grey with paler cilia.
MINE. — The larva mines the leaves of oak, preferring low bushes
to trees. The mine is very narrow, and excessively contorted, as
though rolled into a ball, thus occupying a very confined space
(Meyrick) .
LARVA. — The greenish larva of N. quinquella may be distinguished
from the other oak-feeding larvae with great ease, by the character of
the dorsal vessel ; this is very distinct, forming a row of conspicuous
dark spots down the back, which are easily perceptible through the
leaf, when held up to light (Meyrick).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species appears to be single-brooded,
the imagines appearing from May-July, from larvae that feed up in
October-November. Imagines were taken on oak-trunks, at West
Wickham, June 80th, 1847 (Bedell) ; in profusion, on Bishop's Fence,
Addington, June 28th, 1859 (Stainton), whilst in Stainton's collec-
tion are specimens labelled as taken June 9th, 1848, on palings, at
Beckenham, and on July 7th, 1852, at West Wickham, on oak-trunks.
Commence to emerge in the middle of June, and continue to do so
throughout July at Cambridge (Meyrick). Meyrick found larvae,
mostly young, on November 6th, 1876, at Cambridge (when the mines
of the other three oak-feeding species were almost all empty). A
week later they were in extraordinary profusion, the oakbushes (that
stand pretty thickly in their locality) having every leaf holding literally
from twenty to thirty larvae. Many held from 50 to 100, and in one
large leaf Meyrick counted 123. The effect upon the appearance of
the bushes was very conspicuous, barely a vestige of green remaining,
although, at that season, a casual observer would doubtless have set
it down as the result of natural decay. Warren says that from
1877-79 the mines were equally abundant in the neighbourhood of
Cambridge, after which the species seemed to disappear, only particular
trees produced them, and then only in small numbers. Later they
became abundant again. Farren found them in the greatest profusion
in 1892, " the larvae being full-fed at the beginning of October. In
one plantation, about a mile from Cambridge, every oak-leaf seemed
to have many mines. One leaf contained 72. The imagines emerged
in May, 1893, and, on a bright day, the trunks of the oak trees were
crowded with the moths. There were literally millions."
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge (Meyrick), Madingley, nr. Cambridge
(Warren). ESSEX: Wickham Bishops (Cansdale). KENT: West Wickham (Bedell),
Beckenham (Stainton). SUFFOLK: Flixton (Cruttwell). SURREY: Addington
(Stainton).
NEPTICULA SERICOPEZA, Zeller.
SYNONYMY. — Species : Sericopeza, Zell., " Isis," 1839, p. 215 ; " Linn. Ent.," Hi.,
p. 325, fig. 48 (1848) ; Sta., "Ins. Brit,," p. 301 (1854) ; " Man.," ii., p. 433 (1859) ;
"Ent. Ann.," 1864, p. 170; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," figs. 841-2 (1853) ; v., p. 358
(1855) ; Frey, " Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 402 (1857) ; Const., " Cat. Lep. Saone-et-Loire."
p. 354 (1866) ; Frey, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," 1871, p. 125 ; VVocke, " Ibid.," pp. 428-
430; Nolcken, " Lep. Fn. Est.," p. ?92 (1871) ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat., "p. 339
(1871) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 764 (1877) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep.
Auv.," p. 202 (1879) ; Warren, " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xviii., pp. 142-143 (1881) ;
Wallgrn., "Ent. Tids.," ii., p. 130 (1881) ; Curo, "Bull. Soc. Ent. Ital.," xv., p. 109
(1883) ; Warren, " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xx., pp. 186-187 (1884) ; Sorhagen, " Die
Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 310 (1886) ; Meyrick, " Handbook," etc.,p 725 (1895).
? Louisclla, Sircom (teste Stainton). Acerella, Sta., " Ent. Annual," 1864, p. 171.
844 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
? Decentella, H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 358 (1855) [= ? 2nd gen., tcste, Frey,
" Lep. der Sch.," p. 425 (1880)].
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Sericopeza, Z. Grosse der Ojwxt. xjxu-ti-
foliella, also grosser als die 4 vorigen Arten (N. 1iemargyrdla,aryyropezat
argentipedella, leutniscella) ; die Vorderfliigel zugerundet, etwas gliin-
zend, grob schwarzbeschuppt mit violetter Spitze ; eine Binde vor und
2Gegenlieckebinterder Mittegelblichweiss ; die Kopfhaare schwarz oder
rostgelb ; die Augendeckel gelblich. Viele Exemplare ira Tbiergarten
bei Berlin an Baumstiimmen im Mai gefangen (Zeller, his, 1839, p.
215). Zeller afterwards diagnosed (Linn. {'Int., iii., p. 325) the
species as follows : " Alis anterioribus fuscis, basi, fascia curva media
niaculisque duabus oppositis posticis pallidis ; capillis ferrugineis,
concbula albida, antennis fuscescentibus."
IMAGO. — Head reddish-orange. Anterior wings G-8 mm. ; blackish ;
an oblique whitish fascia before the middle ; two opposite yellowish-
white spots beyond the middle ; cilia very pale yellowish-grey. Posterior
wings pale grey, with paler cilia.
VARIATION. — Frey considers that N. decentella, H.-Sch., may be a
small summer generation of this species. Herrich-Schaffer's diagnosis
reads as follows: — " N. decentella, m. Suppl., 815. (^ericnpc-a, Sta.,
eher hieher.) Capillis nigerrimis, thorace omnino fiavido." Herrich-
Schaffer then gives a detailed description in German, and notes the
species as coming from Frankfort-on-the-Main (Miihlig) and England,
in June.
EGG-LAYING. — The eggs are laid on the keys. Warren watched a
female ovipositing in the middle of September, 1881, on the keys that
were then green.
MINE. — The mine usually commences near the middle of the wing
of a fruit, and passes towards the stalk, winding much before the
cavity containing the fruit is reached. It is most conspicuous between
the two fruit wings. When the larva has reached the space containing
the seed, it lives here for a time without mining, and a large heap of
excrement is collected therein. The terminal part of the mine forms
a comparatively large empty space, where, the larva emerges from the
key (Woeke). Goureau notes that the larva feeds in the seeds of
Acer platai widen, and causes the samaras or keys to fall before the
seeds are perfectly ripe, owing to the flow of sap being checked. The
affected portion of the keys becomes blackish.
LARVA. — When full-grown, 4 mm. long ; pale amber-yellow in
colour, transparent and slightly glossy ; the alimentary canal slightly
green ; the head of the same pale yellow tint as the body, with two
very fine brown lines converging to the front and with very fine brown
dusting, the mouth brown ; the posterior part of the body slightly
darker (Wocke).
COCOON. — When fresh the cocoon is very bright yellow and very
neatly spun, but when discoloured it becomes dirty- white or pinkish.
In April, the hybernated larvre spin their cocoons on the tree-trunks
(Wocke). On June 13th, 1859, Goureau detected a nearly circular
cocoon on a fallen key of Acer platanoides, and from other keys (that
had fallen before the seeds were perfectly ripe) collected, four or five
larvae emerged, and spun flat white or whitish-rosy cocoons on the keys.
In May, 1883, Warren found freshly-spun cocoons, both on the new,
half-developed keys, and on the fresh young leaves of Acer campestris,
NEPTICULA SERICOPEZA. 345
near Cambridge ; they were all at, or near, the extremity of the lower
boughs of a tree which grew on a hedgebank, the lower branches of
the tree spreading far across a considerable ditch, and then over the
pathway alongside of it. At the end ot August, 1881, Warren found
a number of cocoons on the keys (often unmined) and leaves of maple,
also some on the leaves of an elder bush growing beneath the maple.
The cocoons found on the leaves were on the upper surface, and, when
on the keys, generally at the extreme tip. Warren considered there
must have been some hundreds of cocoons on the one tree from which
these were gathered, as he collected about six score within reach of his
stick. In no instance did he find the cocoon attached to the mined
key, as described by Stainton. It is unknown how, or where, the
winter larvae hybernate, but Warren says there can be no doubt that the
April and May larvae have hybernated and not fed up quickly in the
early spring.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double- or probably con-
tinuously-brooded, the imagines appearing in April-May from hyber-
nated larvae, again in June-July from larvae that feed up in May-
June, and yet again August (end)-September from larvae feeding up
in August (early). Mann records imagines at the beginning of May,
1846, at Salviano, in Tuscany, on maples. He also obtained others
in May, at Brussa, in Asia Minor. Goureau bred imagines June
28th- July 1st, 1859, from larvae obtained June 13th, 1859, at Santigny.
Stainton took imagines, on the Dartford Heath fence, on June 22nd,
1852, and again on June 28th, 1863, at Lewisham. Warren bred
imagines in June from cocoons spun by hybernated larvae the last
week of May, 1883, .and the same observer had previously bred
imagines throughout September, 1881, from cocoons collected at the
end of August at Cambridge. In the second week of September,
1881, Warren discovered a female busy ovipositing, and hence sur-
mised that there might be a succession of broods all the summer.
Threlfall has specimens bred August 20th from larvae obtained August
7th, at Cambridge. Sorhagen gives the imago as appearing in April
(end)-May, and again in June (end)-July, at Hamburg, the former
from hybernated larvae, the latter from larvaa that mine in the fruits
of Acer annpestris at the end of May. Nolcken found imagines May
25th-28th, 1850, at Riga, on the linen material of a tent in his garden,
placed under some old trees of Acer caiupestris. Wocke discovered
full-fed larvae in April, hanging from the twigs by silken threads or
spinning cocoons on trunks of trees. These produced imagines
in about fourteen days, imagines of the next brood appearing
from the commencement to the end of June, the pupal life of this brood
being shorter than that of the former brood. He adds that the larvae
of the summer brood can be found when the ripe and unripe maple
keys are falling in numbers. Frey records imagines at Ziirich in
May, 1867, and later in the year cocoons on the same tree-trunks.
The first generation mined the fruit which the larvae leave near the stalk
at the end of May. The larvae of the second brood hybernate from
autumn to end of April, when they pupate (Sorhagen .
FOOD-PLANTS. — Acer platanoides (Goureau), Acer campestre (Wocke),
Acer pseudo-platanus (Frey).
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE: nr. Cambridge (Warren). 'GLOUCESTER: Bristol
(Sircom). KENT: Dartford Heath, Lewisham (Stainton). SUSSEX: Arundel Park
(Fletcher).
346 BRITISH LEPlDOPTERA.
DISTRIBUTION. — Asia Minor : Brussa (Mann). Austria : Vienna
(Mann). France : Santigny (Goureau), Saone-et-Loire (Constant),
Nohaut, Indre (Sand). Germany: generally distributed (Heinemann
and Wocke), Berlin (Zeller), Frankfort-on-Main (Wocke), Potsdam,
Eberswalde, Hamburg, etc. (Sorhagen). Italy : Tuscany (Mann),
Piedmont (Curo), Dogliani, Sardinia (Ghiliani). Russia : Riga
(Nolcken). Scandinavia: Upland (Wallengren) Akarshus, 59°55' N.
lat. (Reuter). Switzerland : nr. Zurich (Frey).
NEPTICULA WEAVERI, Stainton.
SYNONYMY. — Species: Weaveri, Sta., " Ent. Ann.," 1855, p. 49, pi. i., fig. 5;
" Nat. Hist. Tin.," i., p. 10 (1855), vii., p. 182. pi. ix., fig. 1 (1862) ; " Man.," ii.,
pp. 432-3 (1859) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v.. p. 356 (1855) ; Frey, "Die Tineen,"
etc., p. 377 (1856) ; " Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 390 (1857) ; Hein., •• Wien. Ent. Monats.,"
vi.. p. 319 (1862) ; Hein. and Sta., " Zool.,h xxi., p. 8384 (1863); Nolck.. "Lep.
Fn. Est.," p. 791 (1871) ; Staud. and Wocke, "Cat.," p. 339 (1871); Hein. and
Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 764 (1877); Sand, "Cat. Lep. Auv.," p 202
(1879) ; Wallgrn.. " Ent. Tids.," ii., p. 131 (1881) ; Snellen, " De Vlinders," etc.,
p. 1005 (1882) ; Sorhgn., " Die Kleinschuiett. Brandbg.," p. 347 (1886) ; Meyrick,
" Handbook," etc.. p. 725 (1895). Weaterelln, Dbldy., " List," p. 36 (1866) ;
Porritt, " List. Yorks. Lep.," p. 171 (1886).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Nepticula weaveri, Douglas, n. sp. (see
frontispiece, fig. 5). Alis anticis saturate purpureo-nigris, fascia
obliqua abbreviata ante medium, macula parva anali luteo-albis. Exp.
al. 3£ lin. Head and face ferruginous. Antennae fuscous, the basal
joint yellowish. Anterior wings dark purplish-black ; on the costa,
before the middle, is an oblique broad pale yellowish spot reaching to
the fold ; on the inner margin, at the anal angle, is a smaller
yellowish-white spot ; cilia whitish. Posterior wings grey, with pale
grey cilia. The larva was found by Weaver, in Perthshire, last May
(1854), mining in the leaves of Vaccinium vitis-idaea, and puckering
them, having a similar habit to .V. septembrella, and forming its cocoon
within the leaf It is a large, conspicuous species, and may be
readily known by the abbreviated, broad, oblique whitish fascia from
the costa before the middle, and the small whitish spot at the angle of
the dark purplish anterior wings [Stainton, Ent. Annual, 1855, p. 49
(1st Ed.), pp". 71-72 (2nd Ed.)].
IMAGO. — Head ferruginous. Anterior wings 6-8 mm.; coarsely
scaled ; blackish ; a conspicuous oblique silvery-white spot on the
costa before the middle ; a roundish spot of a similar colour at the
anal angle ; cilia pale grey. Posterior wings grey with paler cilia.
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the underside of a leaf, generally
towards the centre, but not necessarily near a rib. It forms a long
oval in outline, and those on the old mines examined are full of black
frass.
MINE. — The mine commences as a slender gallery, which, as in
that of >Y. septembrella, is carried backwards and forwards two or three
times across the leaf before it expands into a blotch, the excrement
forming a central blackish line ; eventually the larva eats out much
of the internal substance of the leaf, which then puckers, and assumes
an inflated appearance. Nolcken notes that " as soon as the brown
swollen blotch is completed the leaf falls off, the life of the leaf being
no longer necessary to the larva. The frass is collected into a large
heap at the end of the brown blotch."
LARVA. — Length 2£ lines. Pale amber, the dorsal vessel slightly
NEPTICULA WEAVBRI. . 347
darker ; head pale brown, with two pale brown lobes showing through
the skin of the second segment (Stainton). Threlfall notes the larva
as "green."
COCOON. — The cocoon is spun inside a bladdery cavity between the
upper and under epidermis of a leaf. These cavities measure about
11 mm. by 9 mm. The cavity is lined with fine, flossy, whitish silk,
and the cocoon proper is loosely suspended in the centre by -silken
fibres. The cocoon itself forms a long oval, about 4 mm. long, and
2 mm. wide, the two ends also being almost equal. It varies in colour
from a bright orange to a pale sulphur-yellow, the latter form
reminding one much of the cocoon of Glisiocampa neustria, both in
texture and tint. The surface has a very fine flossy exterior, made,
however, of such short silken fibres that it looks comparatively smooth,
except for the suspending silken web. [Described September 10th,
1898, under a two-thirds lens, from cocoons sent by Mr. W. H. B.
Fletcher, obtained at Rannoch.] Stainton notes the cocoon as " long
and pale ochreous ; " Nolcken observes that the suspensory web is
double, and the cocoon placed between. He also adds that " this silk
lining, and not the eating out of the leaf-substance, is evidently the
cause of the swelling of the blotch." Heinemann notes that the imago
makes its escape " through a slight silken tube, which leads from the
cocoon to the skin of the leaf."
FOOD-PLANT. — Yacdnium vitu-idaea. Gregson observes that the
leaf containing a full-fed larva often falls to the ground.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Possibly double-brooded, since Threlfall
has obtained imagines in April from larvae collected in August, and
others July 15th-20th, 1879, from larvae collected May 3rd of the
same year, at Stalybridge. Sand also notes October larvae on Mont
Dore, but states that the imagines did not appear till the following
June. Heinemann notes that in the Upper Hartz larvae and pupae
may be found until the middle of June, whilst in the lower country
they occur in May. Edleston obtained larvae in May, 1857, that
produced imagines June 21st-August 24th, 1857. Batty sent us
larvae in May, 1888, from nr. Sheffield, that produced imagines
June 24th-30th. In the Stainton collection are imagines captured
July 18th and 27th, 1864, at Huddersfield. Weaver found larvae in
May, 1854, at Eannoch. Gregson records larvae on April 16th, 1856,
at the Brushes, nr. Manchester, and at Chorley on April 21st, 1856.
Zeller found larvae at Meseritz on April 7th, 1861 ; and Bower notes
them on May 16th, 1889, June 26th, 1891, June 8th, 1892, at
Sheffield, and May 18th, 1891. Nolcken records larvae about the
middle of May, at Pichtendahl.
LOCALITIES. — ABERDEEN- : Braemar, rare (Reid). CHESHIRE : Bowdon (Edles-
ton). HEREFORD : Black Mountains (Wood). LANCASHIRE : the Brushes, nr.
Manchester, Chorley (Gregson), Button (Hodgkinson), Stalybridge (Chappell).
PEMBROKE : (Meyrick). PERTHSHIRE: llannoch (Weaver). YORKSHIRE: Sheffield
(Batty), Scarborough, common (Wilkinson), Huddersfield (Stainton).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Gravenoire, Mont Dore (Sand). Germany :
Upper Harz, Brunswick, Hanover (Heinemann), Glogau, Meseritz
(Zeller), Breslau, Dresden (Stainton) ; distributed in N. Germany,
Stettin, etc. (Sorhagen). Netherlands : Gelderland (Snellen).
Russia : Pichtendahl (Nolcken), Finland (Wocke), Russian Carelia
(Reuter). Scandinavia : Scania and Smaland (Wallengren).
348 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
GROUP IX. — Cilia of the anterior wings with a distinct or indicated
divisional line, beyond which they are abruptly paler. Anterior wings
coarsely scaled ; with whitish markings in the basal half.
NEPTICULA TRIMACULELLA, HaW'Orth.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Trimaculella, Haw., " Lep. Brit.," p. 583 (1828); Sta.,
" Cat. Tin.." p. 29 (1849); "Ins. Brit.," p. 301 (1854); "Nat. Hist. Tin.," i.,
p. 216, pi. vi., fig. 1 (1855) ; " Man.," ii., p. 433 (1859) ; Frey, "Die Tineen," etc.,
p. 381 (1856); "Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 404 (1857); Staucl. and Wocke, "Cat.,"
p. 339 (1871); Nolck., "Lep. Fn. Est.," p. 792 (1871); Hein. and Wocke,
•' Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 766 (1877) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 202 (1879) ; Bang-
Haas, "N. H. Tids.," p. 218 (1881); Peyer., "< at. Lep. Als.," ii., 2nd Ed., p. 167
(1882) ; Snellen, " De Vlinders," etc., p. 1004 (1882) ; Sorhagen, " Die Kleinschmett.
Brandbg.," p. 310 (1886) ; Meyr., " Handbook," etc., p. 725 (1895). Rufella, Zell.,
"Isis,"1839; "Linn. Ent.," iii., 328 (18*48); Sta. and Zell., " Trans. Ent. Soc.
Lond.," v., 137 (1848) ; H.-Sch., "Sys. Bear.," v., p. 358 (1855) (nee. Scopoli).
? Populella, H.-Sch., " Sys. Bear.," v., p. 357 (1855).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Tinea tnniaculella (The cream-spotted
Sable). Alis atris stria lata basi, maculisque duabus posticis flavi-
cantibus. E xpansio alarum 2f lin. Praecedentibus (T. $equelld) minor.
Alae anticse atrae, stria latissima emarginata, a basi fere ad medium lutes-
cente ; maculisque duabus posticis oppositis marginalibus fere con-
fluentibus flavescentibus. Habitat forte in Populo. Imago i. Jul.
Populi Truncis, at rarissime. Exemplarium unicum quod cepi
sedentem solum vidi (Haworth, Lepidoptera Britannica, p. 583).
IMAGO. — Head ochreous. Anterior wings 5-6 mm. ; dark fuscous ;
a broad, whitish, basal, longitudinal streak extending to centre of
wing ; two triangular, opposite yellowish-white spots (sometimes
united) beyond the middle ; cilia pale yellowish-grey. Posterior wings
pale grey with paler cilia.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The abdomen of the male is reddish-orange
in colour, of the female grey. The legs of the male tinged with
orange, of the female whitish-grey (Stainton).
VARIATION. — The species varies considerably in the size of the
yellowish-white spots. One of these is referred to by Frey, under the
name of pojtndMa. Nolcken notes the imagines from Pyha as having
less sharply defined markings than examples received from Germany.
a. ab. populclla, Frey. — The basal spot very large, extending almost across
the wing from one margin to the other, and being united with the dorsal marginal
spot.
COMPARISON OF N. TRIMACULELLA WITH ITS ALLIES. — X. trimaculdla
is the only species in which the dark anterior wings have two oppo-
site pale spots and a broad basal streak. N. ftubbitnaculella. has the
basal mark on the inner margin, forming a rather triangular spot
there, whereas in X. trimaculdla the basal mark is not connected
with the inner margin, and, though broad, is best described as a basal
streak (Stainton). This species is, in the male, owing to its red
abdomen, and yellowish legs and hind- wings, quite safe from con-
fusion with its allies, as AT. subniti-della, the only species with similar
hind-wings, has fore-wings without any markings. The female also
cannot be confused, since X. argyropeza, X. sericojteza and X. decentella
have entirely different markings. From X. subbiwaciilella, X. trima-
cidella differs in having a paler, more yellowish head, by the brown-
black (not pure black) fore-wings, by the much larger basal streak (in
X. mibbiiiiaciildla this is placed on the dorsal margin), and by the
NEPTICULA TRIMACULELLA. 349
opposite spots being larger and broader, and placed directly above and
below each other (Frey).
EGG-LAYING. — The egg is laid on the upperside of a poplar or
aspen leaf (Stainton). Nolcken, however, notes it as being laid on
either the upper- or underside, usually singly, but frequently several
on a leaf.
MINE. — The larva makes a long, narrow gallery for some distance
close to one of the ribs ; it then diverges and makes a broader mine,
sometimes having the appearance of a blotch. The first third of the
mine is completely filled with dark grey excrement ; but as the mine
is made wider the excrement is placed irregularly along the middle
(Stainton). Frey notes it as " running in irregular curves, and with a
pale green colour in the broadened part." Nolcken adds that " the
frass in the first part of the mine appears to be deposited in a fluid
state, resembling much a very narrow, oft interrupted thread, the
frass becoming more solid and granular towards the end of the mine.
The frass-line is bounded by pale, but not conspicuous, margins,
which are of the same green colour as the leaf. The mine is only
very occasionally twisted sufficiently to assume a blotch-like form."
The mines are not always on the same side of the leaf, and Nolcken
notes that four eggs laid on the underside of one leaf produced one
" upperside " and three " underside " mines.
LARVA. — Length 2 lines ; very pale yellowish-green, with greener
dorsal vessel ; the head pale brown, the two posterior lobes showing
through the upper surface of the second segment ; the mouth and two
lines receding from it reddish-brown (Stainton). The larva mines
with the dorsum uppermost (Wood).
COCOON. — The cocoons (4) examined average 2-8 mm. in length,
and 2 mm. in width. They are somewhat irregular in shape, of an
oblong-oval outline, thinned off somewhat at the rim, and not much
domed above, the material tending to collapse irregularly after the
emergence of the imago. The cocoon varies from bright orange-
brown to red-brown in colour, and is somewhat plentifully covered
with loose, flossy, silken fibres, some of which is quite white in colour.
The empty pupa-case projects from what is the slightly broader end.
The dorsum is transparent and colourless, but the venter is of a some-
what dark greenish-grey tint. [Described July 13th, 1898, under a
two-thirds lens, from cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.] Stainton describes
the cocoon as " oval, rather flat, and brown in colour," Frey adds that
it is " smooth."
FOOD-PLANTS. — Populustremvla (Wing), P. pyramidalis and P.niyra
(Frey), P. canadensis (Heyden).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is double-brooded, the imagines
appearing in May and August, from larvae feeding in October and
July respectively. Sang has obtained mines on June 23rd, 1874,
October 19th, 1863, Octobor 17th, 1873, at Darlington. Bower
notes mines as common on October 7th, 1891, at Lee, and October
21st, 1897, at Eltham, but Nolcken gives larvae as occurring on
August 18th, 1868, at Pyha, from which he bred imagines the follow-
ing spring. Threlfall bred imagines in April, 1878, from larvae
obtained at Leyland, October 14th, 1877. Stainton notes imagines
as bred on April 4th, 1855, May 3rd, 5th, 7th and 10th, 1864, June
16th, 1872, and August 3rd, 4th and 26th, 1855, at Lewisham.
350 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
LOCALITIES. — CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge (Farren). CHESHIRE : Bowdon (Edles-
ton). DERBY : Burton (Sang). DORSET : Purbeck (Bankes), Weymouth (Richardson).
DURHAM : Darlington (Sang). GLOUCESTER : Bristol (Stainton). HEREFORD :
Tarrington (Wood). KENT: Lewisham (Stainton), Lee, Eltham (Bower). LANCA-
SHIRE : Manchester (Stainton), Leyland (Threlfall). SUFFOLK: Brandon (Warren).
SURREY : Sanderstead (Elisha). SUSSEX : Bersted, Bognor, Worthing, common
(Fletcher). YORKSHIRE : York (Stainton), Balby, nr. Doncaster (Warren), Scar-
borough (Wilkinson), Doncaster (Corbett).
DISTRIBUTION. — Austria : Vienna (Metzner). Denmark : Copen-
hagen (Bang-Haas). France: Nohaut (Sand). Germany: generally
distributed (Heinemann and Wocke), Potsdam, Hamburg, Hanover,
Breslau (Sorhagen), Bohemia (F.-von-Roslerstanim), Frankfort-on-
Main (Heyden), Glogau (Zeller), Alsace (Peyerinihoff) , Eeichstadt
(Stainton). Netherlands : not rare, and generally distributed (Snellen).
Russia: Riga, Pyha (Nolcken). Switzerland: nr. Zurich (Frey).
NEPTICULA ASSIMILELLA,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Assimilella, Zell.. " Linn. Ent.," iii., p. 327 (1848) ; Sta.,
" Nat. Hist. Tin.," i., p. 12 (1855) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," fig. 840 (1854), v., p. 355
(1855) ; Frey, " Die Tineen," etc., p. 380 (1856) ; " Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 40G (1857) ;
Nolck., "Lep. Fn. Estl.," p. 794 (1871); Staud. and Wocke. "Cat.," p. 339
(1871) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 767 (1877) ; Bang-Haas,
" N. H«. Tids.," p. 218 (1881) ; Snellen, " De Vlinders," etc., p. 1003 (1882) ; Peyer.,
"Cat. Lep. Als.," ii., 2nd Ed., p. 167 (1882); Fletcher, " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxii.,
p. 113 (1885); Sorhagen, " Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 312 (1886); Meyr.,
"Handbook," etc., p. 725 (1895). Nigricornella, Mann (teste Frey).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Assimilella, Mtzn., n. sp. Alis anterio-
ribus fuscis, basi, macula disci prope earn maculisque duabus posticis
oppositis exalbidis ; capillis ferrugineis ; conchula albida ; antennis
fucescentibus (specim. 2, mus. Mtzn.). Lyon. niyricornella, Mann
in lilt. Nur in der Grosse des Weibchens der X. an/yropeza ; von diesem
unterschieden durch die weiter nach hinten geriickten gelblichweissen
Flecke der Vorderfliigel und durch das Vorhandensein eines grossen
hellen Fleckes im Mittelraum nahe der Basis. Sericopeza ist
bedeutend grosser und hat statt dieses Fleckes eine Binde. Rufdla $
hat die ganze Basis in einem sehr grossen Fleck gelblich. Riicken-
schild braun mit hellgelben Hinterriindern der Schulterdecken. Kopf
wiebei der vorigen (X. cursoriella), aber die Augendeckel nur so gross,
wie bei jV. aiyyropeza ; die Fiihler glanzend briiunlichgrau, gelblich
schimmernd (also ist der Name ttigricortutta mit Recht veriindert
worden). Beine gelblichgrau, glanzend. Hinterleib grau mit weiss-
lichem Bauche. Vorderfliigel 1^'" lang, schwarzbraun, grobschuppig,
hinten erweitert ; auf den hellgrauen Franzen rundet sich die dunkle
Grundfarbe der Fliigelflache zwar hinten ab, jedoch nicht in einer
verdunkelten Linie. Basis gelblich. Nicht weit davon liegt im
Mittelraume ein ziemlich grosser, gelblicher, schlecht begrenzter Fleck,
der vom Vorderrande fast so weit entferntbleibt, wie von Innenrande ;
einzelne gelbliche Schiippchen scheinen ihn mit der Basis verbinden zu
wollen. Hinter der Mitte liegt ein gelblichweisses, einwarts zugespitztes
Vorderrandfleckchen, dem ein grosseres, mehr auswiirts liegendes, seine
Spitze zugewendet. Franzen weissgrau. Hinterfliigel hellgrau auf
beiden Seiten. Die Unterseite der Vorderfliigel braungrau; die
Franzen am hellsten an der Fliigelspitze und am Innenwinkel. Ein
schon erhaltenes Weibchen und ein Exemplar, dem die Hinterflugel
und der Hinterleib fehlen, so dass ich in ihm nur ein Weibchen ver-
muthen kann, erhielt icb von Herrn Metzner zur Bescbreibung ;
NEPTICULA ASSIMILELLA. 351
beide sind von Wien [Zeller, Linnaea Entomologica, vol. iii. (1848),
pp. 827-328] .
IMAGO. — Head ferruginous. Anterior wings 4-5 mm. ; fuscous in
colour, the base whitish ; a whitish spot on the disc, and two opposite
whitish spots towards outer margin ; cilia very pale grey, with whitish
tips. Posterior wings and cilia grey.
COMPARISON OF N. ASSIMILELLA WITH ITS ALLIES. — Although this
species exhibits some variation in the size and distinctness of the
whitish spots, it is not difficult to distinguish the different forms from
the allied species, only two of which, X. trimaculella and Ar. subbi-
maculella, are likely to be confused with it. From the former the
male may be separated by the dark colour of the body, legs and hind-
wings. Besides this, the head-hairs in N. assimilella are red, in
X. trimaculella ochreous-yellow, the eyecaps purer white, and the
epaulettes of the blackish dorsal-plate bordered with white, whilst the
latter, in X. trimaculella, remain pale. In N. trimaculella, also, the
longitudinal basal streak extends to the base of the wing, whilst in
X. assimilella the spot is much smaller, rounder, and separated from
the base by a portion of the black wing. In N. assimilella the opposite
spots are placed somewhat obliquely, and the fringes lack the yellowish
tinge which occurs in X. trimaculella (Frey).
EGG-LAYING. — Judging by my series, the egg is laid generally on
the uppersicle of the leaf, close to the midrib, more rarely to one of
the lateral ribs (Fletcher). Always laid on the upperside (Nolcken).
MINE. — The mine is irregular, but often strongly twisted, fine at
its commencement, and filled with a dark frass-line ; then it becomes
considerably broader, at the termination, being often 2'" in breadth ;
the frass in this last portion forming a somewhat fine and broken
thread. Nolcken has recorded as many as 15 mines in one leaf, and
says that the mine is characterised by the chalky-white, closely-
twisted spot at the commencement of the mine. The latter widens
rapidly, and becomes blotch-like, the windings lying close to one
another, and without any partitions of the leaf-substance between. It
is at first greenish-coloured, but then becomes more or less brownish-
yellow. In no other species has such an inconspicuous frass-line been
noticed, nor one of such small bulk. The frass-line commences as an
exceedingly fine broken thread, with comparatively broad pale margins,
which gradually increase still more. In the second portion it becomes
more granular, but remains broken, and consists of little heaps, that
approximately indicate the path of the larva,, and which, in the strongly
marked windings of the now broad mine, is somewhat difficult to trace.
Frequently the frass lies about irregularly, and without arrangement,
but always sparingly. The exit is always on the upper surface of the
leaf.
LARVA. — The larva is yellow in colour ; head pale brown ; the
cephalic ganglia brown, rather darker than head ; ventral chain
invisible ; abdominal canal green in front, yellow behind. Mines
with the dorsum uppermost (Wood). Frey says that the larva is very
similar to that of X. trimaculella. Nolcken describes the larva as
lighter or darker wax-yellow, with reddish yellow-brown intestinal
canal showing through the skin, the head brown.
COCOON. — The cocoons (4) examined vary in shape and colour, one
is dark brown, the others purplish-black ; the dark brown one forms a
352 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
long oval, the others a round oval, two of which measure 2-75 mm.
in length and 2-2 mm. in width, whilst the third is 2-1 mm. long
and 1-75 mm. wide. The cocoons are lightly covered with loose
flossy silk, which is especially abundant about the ill-defined rim.
The upper part is regularly domed, but reaches to no great height, the
apex of the raised portion being towards the wider end. The empty
pupa-case protrudes from the broader end, is transparent and colour-
less, with the exception of some irregular grey patches (? scales) on
the venter of the thoracic area. [Described, July 13th, 1898, under a
two-thirds lens, from cocoons sent by Dr. Wood.] The cocoon is
oval, reddish-brown in colour, somewhat flattened and shiny (Frey).
Nolcken states that from about 50 cocoons, varying in colour between
brownish-yellow and brown, he bred, only one imago, probably because
they were kept too wet.
FOOD-PLANT. — Populus tremula.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species is probably single brooded.
Fletcher, who added this species to the British list, found mines in
September, 1884, from which he bred imagines in June, 1885. Frey
found imagines in July and commencement of August, and larvae in
September and early October. Nolcken found larva? at Pichtendahl
from August 10th until the end of the month.
LOCALITIES. — HEREFORD : Tarrington (Wood). SUSSEX : Abbott's Wood
(Fletcher).
DISTRIBUTION. — Austria: nr. Vienna (Metzner). Denmark: Brede
(Bang-Haas). Germany : generally distributed (Heinemann and
Wocke), Alsace, Saverne (Peyerimhoff), Ratisbon (Herrich-Schaffer).
Netherlands : Wassenaar, Gravenhage (Snellen). Russia : Pichten-
dahl (Nolcken). Switzerland : nr. Zurich (Frey).
NEPTICULA SUBBIMACULELLA, HaWOrth.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Subbimaculella, Haw., " Lep. Brit.," p. 583 (1828) :
Stphs., " Illus.," iv., p. 267 (1834) ; Wood, " Index," etc., fig. 1355, p. 196 (1839) ;
Sta.. " Cat. Tin.." p. 29 (1849) ; "Ins. Brit.," p. 300 (1854); " Nat. Hist. Tin.," i.,
p. 258. pi. vii., fig. 3 (1855) ; " Man.." ii., p. 433 (1859) ; Frey, "Die Tineen," etc.,
p. 379 (1856) ; " Linn. Ent.," xi., p. 397 (11357) ; Staud. and Wocke. " Cat.." p. 339
(1871) ; Mill., " Cat. Lep. Alp. Mar.," p. 373 (1875) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett.
Deutsch.," p. 767 (1877) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auv.,"p. 202(1879) ; Wallgrn., " Ent.
Tids.." ii., p. 131 (1881) ; Peyer.. "Cat. Lep. Als.." 2nd Ed., ii., p. 167 (1882);
Snellen, " De Vlinders," etc., p. 1002 (1882) ; Curo, "Bull. Soc. Ent. Ital.," xv.,
L09 (1883); Sorhagen, "Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.,"p. 310 (1886). Cursoriella.
1., " Linn. Ent.," Hi., p. 326 (1848) ; Sta. and Zell., " Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.,"
Zell.
v., p. 135 (1848) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," fig. 844 (1853), p. 356 (1855) ; Mann,
" Wien. Ent. Monats.," 1857, pp. 173 et seq.
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Tinea suhbimaculella (The twin-spot Sable).
Alis atris maculis duabus marginalibus argenteis. Expansio alarum
2£ lin. Caput fulvum. Alaa anticae atne, ipsa basi lente albicante ;
maculis duabus oblique oppositis fere confluentibus, argenteis ; una
medio marginis tenuioris, altera magis antica costali. Posticae nigro-
plumbere. Habitat : Imago Septis (Haworth, Lep. Bntannica, p. 583).
IMAGO. — Head orange-yellow. Anterior wings 6 mm. ; black;
whitish patch at the base, extending along the inner margin ;
triangular whitish spot in middle of costa, a larger spot beyond this on
inner margin ; cilia whitish. Posterior wings pale grey, with paler
cilia.
EGG. — The egg is laid on the upperside of an oak leaf, close to the
NEPTICULA SUBBIMACULELLA. 853
midrib, or by the side of a large lateral rib. Its longest diameter is
about -28 mm., its width -24 mm., and height -1 mm. The surface is
smooth and polished (Chapman).
MINE. — The larva commences to mine a very slender gallery, keeping
close to the rib. In this mine the excrement forms a thick blackish
central line ; after a while, however, the larva mines in a blotch,
forming an oblong about half an inch long and a quarter of an inch
broad ; in this the excrement is rather loosely and irregularly placed.
When the larva is full-fed it creeps out through the upper cuticle of
the leaf, and proceeds in search of a convenient place in which to
form its cocoon (Stainton). Wood says that it is almost impossible
to overlook the green, roughly triangular patches in the brown oak-
leaves lying on the ground from September to November, in which
are the mines of this species. The patches usually extend from an
angle of the midrib for some little distance into the adjacent inter-
space, whilst at or near the apex is the larval blotch. The mine
starts from the midrib (or a lateral one) and proceeds as a fine gallery,
that keeps to the side of a rib. The peculiar influence exerted by the
larva in the preservation of that part of a leaf in Avhich a mine is
placed is active during the making of the preliminary gallery ; and
Wood records that on August 15th, 1893 (at the hottest period of a
most extraordinary summer), many brown and dead oak-leaves were
picked up, quite shrunken and dry, except for the little patches
containing the mines of this species, which were not only green but
juicy.
LARVA. — Length 2 lines ; pale green in colour, shining, dorsal
vessel reddish ; head reddish, the mouth and two lines receding from
it darker, the prothorax with two dark brown linear scales dorsally,
and with a quadrangular dark patch ventrally. It is a singular fact in
vegetable physiology, that when leaves are turning brown, the spots
tenanted by these larvae remain green much longer than the remainder
of the leaf, and this may frequently be observed in the leaves after
they have fallen (Stainton).
COCOON. — The cocoons average about 2-5 mm. long and 1-75 mm.
wide. Roughly oval in outline, with one end much wider than the
other ; a flattened rim round the broader end, the central and narrow
end rising into a flattened dome. Colour brownish, somewhat yellower
on the flattened rim. The cocoon moderately smooth, but with a
fair supply of flossy silk round the projecting edge, by which it is
fastened to either side of a leaf. [Described under a two-thirds lens,
September 9th, 1898, from cocoons sent by Mr. W. H. B. Fletcher.]
Stainton notes the cocoon as "pale whitish-ochreous in colour, rather
flat, mussel-shaped, and only slightly flossy ; the pupa protrudes its
anterior segments from the broader end before the emergence of the
imago."
FOOD-PLANTS. — Quercus robur and Q. peduncidata.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — This species appears to be only single-
brooded, the imagines appearing in May and June, from larvae that
feed up in October-November. Milliere, however, records imagines as
being on the wing during December-January, at Cannes. It was
taken by Mann, in May, 1853, at Fiuine, and Heuter captured it in the
I. of Aland, on May 13th, 1886. Bower captured imagines resting
on Rliamnus leaves, on June 1st, 1894, at Chislehurst ; we have found
w
854 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
it throughout June, during many years at Chattenden, on the oak
trunks, and Atmore notes it as one of the latest Nepticulid species to
appear at King's Lynn. Stainton captured specimens May 29th, 1848,
at Lewisham, on June 9th, 1848, at Beckenham, on June 15th, 1848,
in cop., at Penge, from June 20th-24th, 1849, at Lewisham, May 28th,
1850, June 17th-22nd, 1851, June 2nd-19th, 1852, at Beckenham,
May 3rd, 1853, June 22nd, 1877, June 4th-9th, 1878, at Lewisham.
He also bred imagines on April 15th and May 17th, 1853, from larvae
found at Lewisham. Threlfall bred imagines May 25th-June 1st,
1878, from larvae obtained at Grange, October 13th, 1877.
LOCALITIES. — BERKS : Reading (Hamm). CAMBRIDGE : Cambridge, very
common (Farren). CHESHIRE : Birkenhead (Stainton). DERBY : Burton (Sang).
DORSET : Bloxworth (Cambridge), Purbeck, Glanvilles Wootton, Weymouth
(Bankes). DURHAM: Darlington (Stainton). GLOUCESTER: Bristol (Stainton).
HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood), Hereford (Chapman), Leominster (Hutchinson).
KENT : Lewisham, Pembury (Stainton), Northfleet (Elisha), Chislehurst (Bower),
Chattenden (Tutt). LANCASHIRE : common everywhere in the county (Ellis),
Manchester (Stainton), Grange (Threlfall). LEICESTER : Market Harborough
(Matthews). NORFOLK: Merton, Norwich, common (Barrett), King's Lynn, very
abundant (Atmore). NORTHUMBERLAND: Newcastle (Stainton). SUFFOLK: Tud-
denham, swarming (Warren). SURREY: Redhill (Chapman), Haslemere (Barrett).
SUSSEX: abundant, Worthing, Abbott's Wood, etc. (Fletcher), Lewes (Stainton),
Guestling (Bloomfield). YORKSHIRE : Scarborough (Wilkinson), Askham Bog,
York (Hind), Doncaster (Corbett), Richmond (Sang), Sheffield (Doncasterj.
DISTRIBUTION. — Austria : Vienna, Fiume (Mann). France : Cannes
(Milliere), Nohant (Sand). Germany : generally distributed (Heine-
mann and Wocke), Alsace (Peyerimhoft), Frankfort-on-Main (Heyden),
Hamburg, Hanover, Misdroy (Sorhagen). Italy : Istria, ? Nizzardo,
Liguria (Curo). Netherlands: not rare (Snellen). Russia: Pargas,
nr. Abo, Aland (Reuter). Scandinavia: Scania (Wallengren). Switzer-
land : Bremgarten (Boll), Ziirich (Frey).
ERRATA AND ADDENDA. — p. 183, line 24, for "Bradenburg" read "Branden-
burg." p. 199, line 7, for " agrees " read " does not agree." p. 275, line 7, delete
" Fletcher." p. 285, line 20, for " Sorhagan " read " Sorhagen."
p. 184, line 14 : " Mr. Vine informs us that he never bred the insects here
referred to as N. bistrimaculella, but swept them from birches, many small oaks
growing in the locality, and that he has now no doubt that the specimens so
referred are N. xubbimaculella."
p. 186, last line, and throughout genus, for " Nohaut " read " Nohant."
p. 297, line 14, add : " Durrani considers the species double-brooded. He
found mines and larvae in June and again in October, 1897, at Merton."
p. 297, par. 4, add : " Durrant notes that it is difficult to distinguish worn
specimens of N. basalella and N. trtricella by relying wholly on the markings.
N. basalella, however, has an expansible tuft of dark hair-scales arising from the
base of the hind-wing, whilst N. turicella has an ovate purplish-black patch towards
the base of the fore-wings on the underside."
p. 269. par. 3, add : Spain : Barcelona dist. (Martorell).
p. 336, par. 7, add : HEREFORD : Woolhope (Wood).
Genus: TRIFURCULA, Zeller.
SYNONYMY.— Genus : Trifurcula, Zell., " Linn. Ent.," iii., p. 330 (1848) ;
" Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.," v., p. 138 (1848) ; Sta., "Cat. Brit. Tin.," etc., p. 30 (1849);
" Ins. Brit.," p, 306 (1854) ; " Man.," ii., p. 438 (1859); H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.,"
v., p. 359 (1855) ; Frey, " Die Tineen," etc., p. 395 (1856J : " Die Lep. der Schweiz,"
p. 426 (1880); Mann, " Wien. Ent. Monats.," vi., p. 407 (1862); Staud. and
Wocke, " Cat.." p. 335 (1871) ; Mill., " Cat. Lep. Alp. Mar.," p. 174 (1875) ; Hein.
and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," ii., p. 726 (1877) ; Snellen, " De Vlinders," etc.,
p. 966(1882); Sorhagen, "Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 301 (1886); Meyr.,
" Handbook," etc., p. 727 (1895). Lyonetia, Zell., " Isis," p. 214, in part (1839).
Zeller cites under this genus, the species palliddla, Zell., and
immundella, Zell., referring, however, to figs. 51, 52 (= T.palliddld)
TRIFURCULA. 855
to illustrate his diagnosis. This constitutes pallidella the type of the
genus. Zeller's diagnosis (Linn. Ent., iii., p. 330) of the genus is as
follows : —
" Caput lanatum, etiam in epistomio. Antennas breviusculae, nudse, conchula
modica instructs. Palpi breves, penduli. Alas anteriores grosse squamata, cellula
discoidali nulla ; vena subcostal! furcata, mediana arcuata in tres ramos divisa,
subdorsali simplici longa. Posteriores : vena mediana in tres ramos divisa, sub-
dorsali (?) longiuscula."
The main characters of the genus would appear to be as follows : —
IMAGO.— Head hairy ; tongue rudimentary ; antennae simple, naked, the basal
joint furnished with an eye-cap ; maxillary palpi rather long, filiform and folded ;
labial palpi short, filiform ; fore-wings lanceolate, coarsely scaled ; hind-wings
lanceolate.
PUPA. — Unknown.
LARVA. — Practically unknown. Mining leaves and twigs of leguminous
herbaceous plants (Glitz).
OVUM. — Unknown.
This small genus is unknown outside Europe and Asia Minor.
Besides the three British species, only T. serotinella, a species that has
been captured in Bavaria and Norway, and T. confertella, Fuchs
(Stett. Ent. Zeit., Ivi., pp. 47-48, 1895), from Loreley, in June, are
known to science.
TRIFURCULA IMMUNDELLA,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Immundella, Zell., " Isis," 1839, p. 215 ; " Schles.
Tausch-ber.," iv., p. 21 (1843); Ibid., vi., p. 16 (1845); "Linn. Ent.," iii., p. 332
(1848); Sta., " Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.," v., p. 139 (1848); "Ins. Brit.," p. 307
(1854); "Man.," ii., p. 438(1859); "Ent. Ann.," 1862, p. 140; "Ent. Ann.,"
1874, p. 51 ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," pi. 108, fig. 861 (1853) ; v., p. 359 (1855) ; Frey,
" Die Tineen," etc., p. 396 (1856) ; " Die Lep. der Schweiz," p. 426 (1880) ; Staud.
andWocke, " Cat.," p. 335 (1871) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.,"p. 726
(1877) ; Snellen, " De Vlinders," etc., p. 967 (1882) ; Sorhagen, " Die Kleinschmett.
Brandbg.," pp. 301 and 344 (1886) ; Meyr., " Handbook," etc., p. 727 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Lyonetiaimmundella, Zell., von L. cristatclla
dadurch verschieden, dass in die silbergraue Farbe der Vorderfliigel
grobe, braunliche Schuppen eingemischt und die Kopfhaare braunlich
sind ; die Augendeckel schmutzig gelblichweiss. 9 Ex. bei Glogau am
8ten Juni Abends an Sjwrtium scoparium gefangen (Zeller, Isis, 1839,
p. 215).
IMAGO. — Head yellowish (sometimes violet, Sta.). Anterior wings
7-8 mm., whitish, dusted with grey scales throughout; cilia whitish.
Posterior wings pale grey, cilia yellowish.
VARIATION. -a. var. squamatella, Sta., "Cat.," p. 30 (1849); "Ins. Brit.," p.
307 (1854) ; " Man.," ii., p. 438 (1859) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 360 (1855) ;
Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 335 (1871).— Head yellowish. Anterior wings 8 mm.
in expanse ; yellowish-white, dusted with coarse dark grey scales ; the costa and
inner margin less suffused ; a slender curved line along the disc, uninterruptedly
whitish ; cilia yellowish- white. Posterior wings grey, with yellowish cilia.
Stain ton, after describing this insect, notes that " T. immundella
is much less than T. squamatella ; the anterior wings darker ; head
purplish-grey ; posterior wings with grey cilia." He further remarks
(Ins. Brit., p. 307), that the few known specimens "occurred among
broom in August, in company with T. immundella, of which it is per-
haps a variety." Bankes has examined Stainton's type specimens,
and considers it " certainly only a form of T. ii>ii>iundel,la." The type
specimens were captured by Bedell and Sircom, and others by Stainton,
on August 9th and 20th, 1849, at Charlton. Sircom's specimens came
from Bristol, and Wilkinson afterwards recorded others from
856 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Scarborough. Bower has one belonging to this form from Brandon,
taken July 20th, 1878.
LARVA. — The larva burrows under the bark of broom, and is full-
fed in April, or early in May. It assumes the pupal state within its
burrow, the imago not appearing before the middle of July (Glitz).
Warren notes that " at end of May he beat out many fat, bright,
amber larvae, which were evidently full-fed, and on the point of
spinning up, and found the smaller broom leaves along the twigs eaten
out and whitened by the larvae ; one leaf is not enough for them, and
they mine from one to another beneath the cuticle of the stem " (in
litt., December 1st, 1889).
FOOD-PLANT. — Cytisus scopariiis (Glitz).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — This species appears to be double- brooded,
imagines occurring in June, and again in July-August. Stainton
captured specimens, always among broom, on July 15th, 1848, and
July 16th, 1880, at the Bridge of Allan, July 10th, 1880, at Pitlochry,
July 18th, 1848, in cop., at Torwood, July 6th-llth, 1849, at Mickle-
harn, August 9th, 1849, and August 3rd, 1850, at Charlton. Zeller
captured imagines June 8th, 1848, at Glogau, and Mann, in the
middle of June, at Pratovecchio, but Frey gives the end of July for a
single capture he made near Wiirenlos. Fletcher obtained the species
freely in broom coverts, nr. Thetford, in August, 1884, and at Burgess
Hill, on July 28th, 1894. Bower notes July 29th, 1889 (seven speci-
mens), August 5th, 1891, August 8th, 1892, and June 19th-26th, 1893
(common), also August 15th, 1895, August 4th, 1897, at Lee, among'
broom. Sang made captures at Darlington on July 5th, 1857, July
7th, 1861, July 27th, 1874, and August 8th, 1879 (teste, Gardner).
Bankes found it from August 19th-31st, 1889, at Purbeck, whilst
Evans met with it on the Braid Hills on June 30th, and again on
August 18th, 1894, at Tynefield. Warren gives it as taken abundantly
in the first half of August, by beating the lower parts of broom bushes
into an umbrella, whilst Bankes bred the insect from June 20th-24th,
1890, from moss received from Perth, in May, 1890, broom growing
where the moss was collected.
LOCALITIES. — CHESHIRE: Crewe (Thompson). DORSET: Purbeck (Bankes).
DURHAM: Darlington (Sang). EDINBURGH: Braid Hills (Evans). GLOUCESTER:
Bristol (Stainton). HEREFORD: Woolhope (Wood). KENT: Charlton. Dartford
Heath (Stainton), Lee (Bower). LOTHIAN (EAST): Tynefield (Evans). MIDDLESEX:
Hampstead Heath (Warren). NORFOLK : nr. Thetford (Fletcher). PERTH: Perth
(Bankes), Torwood, Pitlochry (Stainton). STIRLING: Airthrey, Bridge of Allan
(Stainton). SUFFOLK : Brandon (Barrett). SURREY : Mickleham (Stainton).
SUSSEX : Burgess Hill (Fletcher). YORKSHIRE : Scarborough (Wilkinson).
DISTRIBUTION. — Africa (North) (Meyrick). Austria: Bohemia, nr.
Reichstadt (Fischer- v.-R6slerstamm). Germany : Glogau (Zeller),
Hamburg, Stettin, Hanover (Sorhagen). Italy: Tuscany, Pratovecchio
in the Apennines (Mann). Netherlands : South Holland, Gelderland,
Arnhem, Groenlo, Overijssel, Raalte (Snellen). Switzerland : Wiirenlos,
nr. Zurich (Frey).
TRIFURCULA PALLIDELLA, Zeller.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Pallidella, Zell., " Linn. Ent.," iii., p. 332, figs. 51-52
(1848)' Sta. and Zell., "Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.," v., p. 138 (1848); H.-Sch.,
" Sys. Bearb.." v., p. 359 (1855); Staud. and Wocke, "Cat.," p. 335 (1871);
Krause, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xxxii., p. 304 (1871) ; Mill., "Cat. Lep. Alp. Mar.,"
p. 174 (1875) ; Hein. and Wocke, " Schmett. Deutsch.," ii., p. 72C (1877) ; Hodg.,
TRIFURCULA PALLIDfiLLA. 35?
" Ent. Mo. Mag.," xvi., p. 186 (1880) ; Sorhgn., " Die Kleinschmett. Brandbg.."
&343 (1886) ; Griffith. " Ent. Mo. Mag.." xxii.. p. 65 (1886) ; Bankes, "Ent. Mo.
ag.," xxv., p. 445 (1889) ; Meyr., " Handbook," etc., p. 727 (1895). Pallidulella,
H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," fig. 860 (1853).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Pallidella,Y.-R., nov. sp. (figs. 51-52). —
Alls anterioribus exalbiclis, obscurius grosse squamatis ; posterioribus
cinerascentibus, exalbido-ciliatis. Grosser als die folgende (T. immun-
della), wie eine Cent, spartifoliella. Der Korper bleich gelblich glanzend,
Hinterleib grau, am Rande und Bauche weisslichgelb beschuppt.
Schopf auf dem Scheitel blassrostgelb ; Fiihler hellgrau, bleichgelblich
bescbuppt uud schimmernd. Fliigel seidengliiuzend ; die vordern auf
beiden Fliichen sebr bleichgelblichweiss, auf der Oberseite mit groben,
sehr blassochergelben, gegen die Spitze reicblicheren Schuppen. Die
Fliigelspitze ist auf den Franzen von einem solcben Schuppenringe
eingefasst. Hinterfliigel durchsichtiger, sehr hellgrau mit gelblichen
Franzen (Zeller, Linnaea Entomologica, iii., p. 332).
IMAGO. — Head rough, rusty-yellowish. Anterior wings 8mm. in
expanse ; unicolorous yellowish-white in colour, irrorated with large
ochreous scales. Posterior wings pale grey, with yellowish fringes.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The females are considerably darker, both fore-
and hind- wings, than the males (Bankes).
LIFE-HISTORY. — Quite unknown, although the larva probably feeds
under the bark of the twigs of Genista tinctoria, and allied plants.
FOOD-PLANTS. — / Genista tinctoria (Stainton) , ? Genista sagittalis
(Zeller), / Genista r/ermanica (Wocke), / Cijtism (Krause).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species appears to be double-brooded,
imagines appearing May- June and August- September, although
Krause captured, besides the two regular broods, a specimen on July
3rd, 1868, at Altenburg, whilst Fletcher took one on July 3rd, 1890,
near Brighton, and Bankes two, worn, on July 3rd, 1893, at Purbeck.
Mann captured specimens on May 19th, 1846, at Pisa, in marshes,
among low bushes and grass, in May, 1851, at Brussa, in Asia Minor,
in May, 1853, at Fiume, in a little ash wood behind the Pulverthurm,
in May, 1854, in a pasture-field, at Oberfeld, in Carniola, and in May,
1858, he took two specimens in Sicily. Milliere notes it as occurring
at Cannes in April. Krause notes the species at Altenburg, in two
generations, from the commencement to the middle of June, and the
commencement of September ; it occurs here in a very confined locality,
the upper cliffs of a disused gravel-pit. He notes that Zeller and
Bossier consider the species to be confined to moist localities, but this
is dry, and covered with heather, scabious, etc., among which the moths
fly as soon as the sun goes down. Hodgkinson notes it as flying at
Dutton, at the end of August, from 7a.m.-9a.m. Fletcher obtained
it freely near Brighton, at end of August and commencement of
September, in 1890, among Genista tinctoria. Bankes took it freely
in a rough pasture, from September 5th-19th, 1889, at Purbeck, the
males flying, on calm evenings, for half-an-hour at sunset, the females
seated on the herbage, the males sometimes assembling to them when
newly emerged ; also August 28th- September 19th, 1890, September
8th-0ctober 3rd, 1891, August 17th-September 10th, 1892, August
7th-29th, 1893, August 28th- September 1st, 1894, August llth, 1898.
Dale records it from Glanvilles Wootton on September 2nd, 1888.
LOCALITIES. — DORSET: Purbeck (Bankes), Glanvilles Wootton (Dale).
HEREFORD: Woolhope (Wood). HERTS: Sandiidge, nr. St. Alban's (Griffith).
358 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA*
LANCASHIRE: Preston (Hodgkinson) . SUSSEX: nr. Brighton (Fletcher). WEST-
MORLAND (? LANCS.) : Button (Hodgkinson).
DISTRIBUTION. — Asia Minor : Brussa (Mann). Austria: nr. Vienna
(Zeller), Oberfeld in Carniola, Fiunae (Mann), Carinthian Alps, nr.
Steltzing, at 4,500 feet above the sea (Zeller) . France : Cannes,
pentes boisees et herbues des Vallergues, du Vallon des Tignes, etc.
(Milliere). Germany: Altenburg (Krause), Silesia (Wocke), Hanover
(Sorhagen), Katisbon (Herrich-Schiiffer). Italy : Tivoli, Pisa, Palla-
gutta valley in Sicily (Mann).
TRIFURCULA ATRIFONTELLA,
SYNONYMY. — Species: Atrifrontella . Sta., " Supp. Cat. Tin.," p. 11(1851);
"Ins. Brit.." p. 306 (1854) ; "Man.," ii., p. 438 (1859) ; H.-Sch., "Sys. Bearb.."
v., p. 360 (1855) ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 335 (1871); Hein. and Wocke,
" Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 726 (1877) ; Hartm.. " M. T. Miinch. Ent. Ver.," iv.,
59, no. 2973 (1880) ; Threlfall, " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xvi., p. 230 (1880) ; Sorhgn., " Die
Kleinschmett. Brandbg.," p. 344 (1886); Meyr., "Handbook," etc., p. 727 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION.— A'trifontella, n. sp. Expanse 4 lines. An-
terior wings ochreous, almost entirely suffused with coarse dark grey
scales ; head black. Two specimens in Mr. Bedell's collection
[Supplementary Catalogue of British Tineidae and Pterophoridae, p. 11).
IMAGO. — Head black. Anterior wings 8 mm. in expanse ; yellowish-
white, almost entirely suffused with dark fuscous scales, the base of
costa remaining of ground colour ; cilia greyish. Posterior wings
pale grey, with paler cilia.
LIFE-HISTORY.— Threlfall notes (K. .}[..}[., xvi., p. 230) that he bred,
in June, 1879, a specimen of this species from hawthorn leaves collected
the previous October, probably from blotch-mines, which he noticed as
differing from those of X. pygmaeella and AT. iynobilella. Sorhagen
says : " Larva in April and May, under the bark of Genista (Glitz),"
which is possibly an error, or Glitz may have made a mistake in the
identification. If Threlfall be correct, the species undoubtedly wants
removing to Xepticida, with A', jndveroaella ; if Glitz be correct, then
it is probably rightly placed here.
FOOD-PLANT. — Doubtful: .; Crataeyus o.ryacantha (Threlfall), Genista
(Glitz).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The species appears to be double-brooded,
imagines appearing in June and August. Stainton obtained an imago,
beaten from oak, on August 13th, 1851, atLewisham. Barrett records
it as occurring on oak-trunks at Haslemere, in August, 1864, and
Bower, on a fence, at Bexley, August 12th, 1892. Cambridge notes
the species as flying in a wood at Bloxworth, at the end of June, 1889,
and he captured another at the commencement of August, 1891, whilst
Threlfall reports breeding the species in June, 1879, from hawthorn.
Heinemann and Wocke note it as occurring at the end of July and in
August, at Breslau, and in Saxony.
LOCALITIES. — DORSET: Bloxworth (Cambridge). KENT: Lewisham (Stain-
ton), Bexley (Bower). LANCASHIRE: Preston (Threlfall). SURREY: Haslemere
(Barrett).
DISTRIBUTION.— Germany : Breslau and Saxony (Heinemann and
Wocke), Hanover (Sorhagen).
Genus : SCOLIAULA, Meyrick.
: Scol
ticula, Boheman, "Ent. Ant.
SYNONYMY.— Genus: Scoliaiila, Meyr., "Handbook," etc., p. 727 (1895). Nep-
," etc., p. 167 (1851) ; Sta., " Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond.,"
SCOLIAULA* 359
ser. 2, iii., p. 18 (1854). Bohemannia, " Man.." ii., p. 439 (1859) ; H.-Sch.,
"Sys. Bearb.," v., p. 353 (1855): Staud. and Wocke, "Cat.." p. 340 (1871);
Milliere. " Cat. Lep. Alp. Mar., "p. 372 (1875). Opostaja, Warren, " Ent. Mo. Mag.,"
xxv., p. 145 (1888).
The name Bolicmannia is pre-occupied in Hemiptera by Stal, 1855.
The genus Scoliaida is diagnosed (Handbook, p. 727) by Meyrick as
follows : —
Head rough. Tongue rudimentary. Antennae f, in <$ simple, basal joint
enlarged and concave beneath to form eye-cap. Labial palpi short, filiform,
rather drooping. Maxillary palpi long, filiform, folded. Posterior tibiae with
bristles above ; middle-spurs slightly above middle. Neuration of fore-wings : Ib
simple, lower margin of cell obsolete, upper margin curved downwards below
middle of disc, 2 absent, 3 absent, 4-7 appearing to rise out of 8, 9 absent. Hind-
wing.s over £, lanceolate, cilia 2i ; cell open between 2 and 6, 3-5 absent.
Of the only species known belonging to this genus, Stainton wrote
(Insecta Britannica, p. 306) : " This singular insect, taken by Boyd,
among alders in the New Forest, last summer, I cannot consider lepi-
dopterous, though so completely Nepticulid in form. Its longer
antennas, longer legs, differently-shaped broader posterior wings, and
neuration of the anterior and posterior wings, would clearly place it
in a distinct genus, if admitted as lepidopterous, but the more
polished appearance of the anterior wings and its general facies,
induce me to think it trichopterous. Many of the smaller Trichoptera
are continually being mistaken for Tineina, but, except in the present
instance, I am not aware that any difficulty has been found in ulti-
mately distinguishing them." Meyrick considers this as " closely
approaching the common ancestral form of the two preceding genera,"
and it retains considerable resemblance to a Trichopterygid ancestor,
as Stainton has pointed out.
SCOLIAULA QUADRIMACULELLA,
SYNONYMY. — Species : Quadrimaculella, Boh., "Ent. Anteckn. under en resa i
Sodra Sverige," 1851, p. 167; Sta., " Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond.," ser. 2., iii., p. 18
(1854) ; " Man.," ii., p. 439 (1859) ; Staud. and Wocke, " Cat.," p. 340 (1871) ;
Mill.. " Cat. Lep. Alp. Mar.," p. 372 (1875) ; Wallgrn., " Ent. Tids.." ii., p. 131
(1881) ; Boyd, " Ent. Mo. Mag.," xxiv., p. 187 (1888) ; Warren, " Ent. Mo. Mag.,"
xxv., p. 145 (188&) ; Meyr., " Handbook," p. 728 (1895).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Nepticula quadrimaculdla : Capillis lutes-
centibus ; antennis nigro-fuscis, apice argenteis ; alis anterioribus
cupreo-purpurascentibus, singula pone medium maculis duabus, sat
magnis, oppositis, una in margine exteriore, altera in margine interiore,
dilute flavescentibus, aureomicantibus, fimbriis longis fuscis ; alis
posterioribus nigro-fuscis. Long. al. exp. 5-7 mm. In Coryletis ad
Kullen d. 15-19 Aug. individua nonnulla legi (Boheman, Entomoloyiska
Anteckninyar under en resa i Sodra Sveriye, 1851, p. 67). A detailed
Latin description follows this diagnosis.
IMAGO. — Head reddish. Anterior wings purplish-coppery, with a
pale yellow spot on inner margin beyond the middle, another on
costa rather beyond it. Posterior wings dark fuscous.
FOOD-PLANT. — ? Flowers and flower-stalks of alder, in spring
(Warren).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The imagines fly in July and August.
Barrett found them in the fens round Norwich when sweeping alders,
in August, 1872 ; Atmore obtained specimens in July, 1882, at King's
Lynn ; Boyd, in August, 1887, flying in sun among alders, at
Lowestoft. Cambridge beat imagines from alder, from July 26th-
360 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
August 21st, 1892, at Bloxworth; and Barrett swept about a dozen
from alder on July 31st, 1869, at Eanworth. Milliere strangely
records it as occurring in May, at light, at Cannes.
LOCALITIES. — DORSET: Bloxworth (Cambridge), Glanvilles Wootton (Dale).
DURHAM: Darlington (Sang). HANTS: Lyndhurst (Boyd), New Forest (Digbyj.
HKUKFORD : Woolhope (Wood). LANCASHIRE : Preston (Threlfall). NORFOLK :
Norwich (Barrett), King's Lynn (Atmore), llanworth (Barrett). SUFFOLK: nr.
Lowestoft (Boyd). YORKS : Scarborough, common (Wilkinson), Wheatley Wood,
nr. Doncaster (Corbett).
DISTRIBUTION. — France : Cannes (Milliere). Scandinavia : South
Sweden (Boheman), Kullaberg (Wallengren).
Superfamily III : COCHLIDIDES (= EUCLEIDES).
This superfamily consists of two .well-marked families, the Eudcitlae
and Cocltlididae. In the earlier part of this volume we have called
the superfamily EUCLEIDES, but we are now authoritatively informed
that the correct name to use is COCHLIDIDES. Walsingham has
shown that the Tentamen names of Hiibner were published at
least by 1806. Cochlidion, therefore, becomes the correct generic
name for avdlana (testudo), which is stated to be the type of the
family, etc., the correct family name for the species allied to C. a edict na
being Cochlididae, and the superfamily including it, COCHLIDIDES. It
is to be hoped that no further change may be necessary before this
volume is finished. Kirby remarks that Cocklidion, Apmla and
Limacodes are co-typical and, therefore, absolutely synonymous.
The above explanation may make a note on the leading group
names advisable. In 1802 (lint. Nat., iii., p. 407), Latreille included
the group under the name Apodes. In 1806 (Tentamen) Hiibner
designated Cochlidia as a group name, but without diagnosis, and
about 1822 (Verz., pp. 397-398), he constructed the family (stirps) name
Cochliiliae, In 1829 (Intl. Metli., p. 57), Boisduval applied the term
Cocliopudi (genus : Limai-odex) to these insects, a name followed by
Herrich-Schttfter, and in 1840 (Gen. et Intl., p. 81) diagnosed the group
under the name Coclinpodrs, corrected by Agassiz (Xoin. Zool., Index,
p. 92) iii 1846 into Gochliuimdes. Stephens, in 1835 (llhw., iv.,.p. 420),
modified Hiibner's name into Cochlidae, whilst Stainton,in 1857 (Man.,
i.,p. 168), modified Boisduval's title into Cochliopodae, and Staudinger,
in 1871 (Cat., p. 62), altered it to Cochliopodidae. In 1844 (Cat., p. 84),
Duponchel, apparently utilising Latreille's name Limacode (Fain. \«t.,
p. 474), renamed the group Limacodidae, a name since adopted by Kirby.
In 1894 (Journ. New York Ent. Soc., p. 173), Neumoegen and Dyar
called the family Eudeidae, because " the generic names Liinacudr* and
Cochlidion have become synonymous." In 1895 (Handbook, p. 224)
Meyrick renamed the group Heterogeneidae, and in the same year (>S'//.s.
Nat. Hildesiae, p. 8) Grote called it Apodidae. We have now reverted
to Hiibner's name, Cochlidia, which is modified so as to meet modern
views that all family terminations should end in " idae," and super-
family terminations in "ides."
It will be understood from the above that various authors have
used the terms Cochliopodids, Limacodids, Heterogeneids, and
Eucleids in precisely the same sense, and that these names have
comprised the species included in this superfamily as a whole. To
prevent confusion, we have adhered mainly in this chapter to the term
" Eucleid " when used in this comprehensive sense, this name having
been thus applied in all the earlier chapters of this volume,
COCHLIDIDE8 (EUCLEIDEs). 361
The Cochlidids, known more generally as Cochliopodids and Lima-
codids in Europe, and Eucleids in America, are, in some respects,
among the most generalised of Lepidoptera. They are more closely
allied to the Megalopygids than to any other superfamily, and Packard
considers that they have also affinities with the Saturniids. The eggs
and pupae of the Eucleids (Cochlidids) and Megalopygids are certainly
very similar, the pupae being of a very generalised type. Their larvaa,
however, are different, and the absence of abdominal prolegs in the
former separates them very sharply from their congeners. Packard
calls the Megalopygid larva of La</oa crupata " a primitive Cochliopodid
with larval abdominal legs." The same author's suggestion of a
Saturniid alliance, seems to have been obtained chiefly from the larvae
of Adoneta and Kmpretia, whose large tubercles, bearing three radiating
set<e or bristles, remind one much of those of the Saturniids. Packard
considers that the oldest and least modified forms are the tuberculated
lame of Euclea, Atloncta and Empretia, these being " more like the
larvae of other Bombyces." On the other hand, he says, the nearly
smooth slug- worms, without hairs or tubercles when fully grown (such
as Apoda or Heteroyenea), appear to be the most aberrant, having lost
their prolegs by disuse, the thoracic ones also being greatly reduced in
size, while their sluggish disposition, their slow gliding mode of
progression, and their peculiar coloration, have produced the most
strange and bizarre type of lepidopterous larva in existence.
Chapman insists very strongly on the relationship existing between
this superfamily and the Nepticulids, which do not, superficially, bear
the slightest resemblance to each other. Apart from the matter of size,
the larvae of the Cochlidids (Limacodids) are external feeders, those of the
latter are miners. The neuration of the former is generalised, that of
the latter extremely specialised, owing to the minute size of the moths.
Chapman, however, asserts that the pupae are structurally identical.
The delicate pupal skin, the free abdominal segments, the easily
separable appendages, the arrangement of the dorsal spines in several
rows of small equal points towards the dorsal margin of each segment,
the strongly developed maxillary palpus, the mode of emergence from
the cocoon, are all points of similarity that exist in the pupae. Certain
larval and imaginal characters also show considerable resemblance in
the two groups — the modification of the prolegs, the method of larval
progression, etc., will at once occur to all lepidopterists.
iSpeyer was the first to point out an alliance between the Cochlidids
(Eucleids) and the Anthrocerids. He based this conclusion mainly
on their generalised structure, the delicate pupal integument, and
the partially loose sheath of the pupa. He considered that these
groups stood nearest to the Tineids with complete maxillary palpi,
which he believed formed the oldest branch of the lepidopterous
stem. Chapman also considers that they are somewhat closely allied,
and have been evolved from a common stem.
Packard has recently practically adopted Chapman's views as to
the inter-relationship existing between the Micropterygids, Nepticulids,
Megalopygids, Cochlidids (Eucleids), etc. After noting that Chapman
removes the Cochlidids from the Bombyces proper after a study
of their larval and pupal characters, he states that this superfamily
and the Megalopygids should be placed near the Tineoids, from which
they have, undoubtedly, descended, but he adds: •' That the line of
362 BRITISH LEPlDOPTEftA.
descent was directly from the Eriocephalidae, as Chapman suggests,
seems to us a matter of doubt, for the larvae of the Cochliopodids
present some notable differences from that of Eriocei>kala, whose
so-called ' eight pairs of abdominal legs ' appear to be merely spine-
bearing tubercles If we compare the head of the pupa of
Param and those of other genera, especially LimacoJos (Cochlidion)
and Heterof/enea, with that of Tinea, there will be observed a close
resemblance, especially in the maxillae, maxillary palpi, and labial
palpi, indicating the more or less direct descent of the family from some
Tineid form, perhaps an extinct ally of Nepticuli, since Chapman
speaks of a resemblance that is almost identity in the pupa of Xejiticuld
as compared with that of Limacode^.1' The probable alliance between
the Micropterygids and Cochlidids (Eucleids) has been previously men-
tioned (ante, pp. 135-136), as also that between the latter and the
Nepticulids (ante, p. 180).
The Cochlidid (Eucleid) egg is a flat, oval, colourless speck, very
similar to those of the Nepticulids and Megalopygids. It is exceedingly
thin, transparent, membranous, with a cell-structure forming a lozenge-
shaped network, covering the surface of the shell (easily seen if
examined in suitable light, and with moderate magnifying power). It
is quite naked, and not covered with silky hairs, as are the eggs of
Lagoa, one of the Megalopygids. It is, indeed, just what one might
have expected the generalised flat egg of this stirps to be. Chapman
says that somewhat similar eggs occur amongst certain Tineids and
Pyrales.
The larva is without abdominal prolegs, those of our British species
being provided with suckers to the first eight abdominal segments, the
first and last, however, poorly developed. Their appearance, however,
suggests that they are homologous with prolegs, and with the special
structures occupying the position of the latter in Micropterygids
(ante, p. 141). The Cochlidid (Eucleid) larva is, in a great degree, a
generalised larva, with much plasticity (variability), and a tendency to
specialisation in its remarkable armatures. The larvae of our British
species show their specialisation in their shape, mode of progression,
and colour, and not in the development of prominent spines or hairy
warts, as is the case in the larvae of certain exotic species. This
specialisation is most probably for protective purposes. The larvee
appear to be protected : (1) By the way the body is appressed to the
leaf, its expanded edges appearing to merge, owing to their closeness
and similar colour, into the surface of the leaf. (2) By their peculiar
red and brown markings on a green ground, which, added to their
humped shape, make them closely resemble the galls so frequently formed
on the surfaces of leaves. (3) By their almost imperceptible gliding
motion, which is less likely to attract attention than would the move-
ments of a more rapidly travelling larva. The specialisation of the
British species is especially notable, then, from the fact that the larvaa
have lost their armature in the adult stage, a specialisation that is
really more extreme, in a sense, than that of the possessors of the most
remarkable, abundant, and bizarre armature.
Our European species, however, give us no idea of the marvellous
modification to which the larvae are subjected in other parts of the
world. Roughly, those of the exotic species fall into two main
divisions : (1) Bearing tubercles and spines. (2) Smooth and un-
COCHLIDIDES (EUCLEHJES). 36B
armed. Some belonging to the first group have spines of a peculiarly
urticating nature. The second are not very dissimilar from those of
our European species. The newly-hatched larvae of both groups are
without abdominal prolegs, and we can readily understand that the
differences observed in the adult forms, are the result of a response to
differing stimuli and environment. Dyar says that the Eucleid larvae
have, in their most generalised forms, only two rows of tubercles
present, the subdorsal and the superstigmatal ; the substigmatal row,
present in the Merfalopyt/idae and Pyromorpkidae have here disap-
peared. The modification of the tubercles into fleshy horns, and the
setaa into urticating spines, have produced the " tuberculated or spiny "
group, whilst the reduction and disappearance of the tubercles have
produced the "smooth or unarmed" group. The "spiny" larvae
have also developed bright and warning colours, whilst the " smooth "
larvae are either green or so coloured that their hues aid effectually
in their concealment. On the other hand, Chapman has shown that
the so-called " smooth " Cochlidid larva, as represented by our Euro-
pean species, has a double dorsal row of evaginated spines, placed
alternately on successive segments .-.'., and a lateral row on either
side of the body, in the first skin (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1894,
pp. 345-347). He has also shown that, in the second skin, these spines
become pointed hairs, with an internal tubular structure (differenti-
ating them from hairs, though their terminal process may be a hair
homologous with those carried by ordinary tubercles), the dorsal ones on
abdominal segments now double, i.e., formed of two spines originating
close together * ' * * * , and thus completing the double row, of
which only the alternate members are present in the first skin. In
the third skin the bases of the spines are surrounded by minute spinules,
each with a coronet-like apex. In the fourth skin the small spines
at the base of the large central ones are less obvious, the whole skin
surface being now covered with minute spikelets, whilst there also
appear to be some minute glandular structures placed dorsally and
dorso-laterally on each segment. With the fifth skin the spines
disappear, and the larva now, in reality, becomes smooth. The
evaginated dorsal spines of H. cmciata, although arranged first alter-
nately and then in a double row, as in C. avellana (testudo), differ from
those of the latter (described above) in having two branches. These
are fully described later in our account of the species.
Packard says that the Eucleid larvae are nearly colourless when
newly hatched, and that their bodies are more cylindrical than in
the full-grown caterpillar. The larvae of the more specialised tuber-
culated and spiny genera Adoneta and Empretia (and probably Euclea)
have the tubercles already differentiated in the first stage, but the change
from the first to the second stage is very great, owing to the develop-
ment of large numbers of bristles upon the tubercles, and the gay
varied colours and markings of the body. The armature of poisonous
glandular spines and the development of bright warning colours are,
he considers, evidently characters acquired late in larval life, when
the creatures are large enough to attract notice.
The larvae of the Australian species are, however, the most remark-
able, and one of the strangest of these is that of Doratifera vulnerans,
figured by Lewin. It is described as having the power to evert eight
little tufts of stinging spines, which are concealed when the larva is not
864 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
irritated. Dyar states that this larva seems to be the most specialised
form of the " spiny " type, and that those of four other species
examined exhibited a gradation from that of D. vulnerans, with
strongly eversible spines, to the smooth form. It appears probable to
us that the Australian forms are in this group, as in others, the oldest
we have, except that the hairy forms may be earlier as being related
to the Megalopygids (Lagoa), which also may be earlier than the
Cochlidids (Eucleids). If this were so, the larva of our British species
Cochlidion (LimacodeR) avellana, with its eversible spines on hatching,
would represent in its first skin, the adult larva of Doratifera. It
would also in its third skin, with subsidiary spines, represent the
latter forms with fixed spines, and give, as the most recently evolved
form, a smooth larva. If any forms become smooth in the second
stage they would, of course, on this supposition, be older still, but
at present there appear to be no individuals known with smoother
larvae than those of our British species.
Dyar explains the structure of the Eucleid larva by reference
to the Anthrocerid type (Psyche, viii., pp. 171-174). Every British
lepidopterist will know that after the first moult the Anthrocerid
larva has, on either side of each segment, three complex warts, as
follows : (1) Subdorsal (formed from tubercles i and ii). (2) Supra-
spiracular (iii). (3) Subspiracular (iv and v). Dyar says that in the
Eucleid larva the subventral area is reduced, owing to the formation of
the creeping disc, and all the warts below the spiracular region are
obsolete. Assuming the Anthrocerid larva to have retained in this
particular the more primitive form, the extinction of the subspiracular
tubercle in the manner shown would leave the primitive Eucleid form
(as such) with three warts on each side of the thoracic, and two on
each side of the abdominal segments.
The modification of these warts into their present forms is supposed,
by Dyar, to have taken place in two ways : (1) By hypertrophy, which
has resulted in producing the spined Eucleids. (2) By atrophy, which
has resulted in the smooth forms. On these lines, Dyar subdivides
the " hypertrophied " forms into two main larval "types": (1) The
tropical hairy Eucleids (illustrated by Phobttron and Calylia), with a
combination of general characters that suggests this as the most
generalised Eucleid type. (2) The tropical spiued Eucleids (illus-
trated by Sibine, Euclea, etc.), to which many of the Indian and
South American species, figured by authors, belong. To this group
Dyar refers the Australian species, which differ from those of Asia
and America " in having the spines removed from the horns which
have not become eversible," a peculiar specialisation which leads Dyar
to consider the Australian type as the most modified of all Eucleid larvae.
The " atrophied " forms also, according to Dyar, fall into two main
divisions : (1) The tropical smooth Eucleids (illustrated by Eulima-
codi-x), which, starting with warts in the first stage, lose them by
degeneration after the first moult, their place being taken by single
setas. (2) The Palaearctic smooth Eucleids [illustrated by Cochlidion
(Ajwda), Heteroyenea and Packardia] , in which, Dyar says, the single setaa
of the first stage are retained and the warts have entirely disappeared,
leaving an almost smooth larva. To this last type, the European species
belong. Of course the spiny forms may have originated from a generalised
Anthrocerid-like larva, but, we think, there can be little doubt, after
COCHLIDIDES (EUCLEIDEs). 365
reading Chapman's observations, that the smooth forms were developed
from the spiny ones. We would also note, that from the second skin on-
wards, the larva of Cocldidion has a suhspiracular hair on each segment.
This subdivision gives us a basis for a tentative arrangement of the
superfamily, which may be stated as follows :
I. Fam. EUCLEIDJE. (1) Subfam. Phobetrinae. — Larva in first stage with alter-
nate strong and weak segments ; thoracic segments with three (i, ii, iii),
abdominal with two (i + ii, iii) tubercles bearing single setae (above each
spiracle). After first moult, strong and weak segments persistent ; the
tubercles changed to hairy (not spined) warts.
(2) Subfam. Eucleinae. — Larva in first stage not showing
strong and weak segments ; thoracic and abdominal segments with two
tubercles bearing multiple setae (above each spiracle). After first moult,
the tubercles changed to spiny warts.
II. Fam. COCHLIDID.E. (1) Subfam. Eulimacodinae. — Larva in first stage with
three warts on thoracic, and two on abdominal segments (above, each
spiracle). After first moult, the warts degenerate into single set®.
(2) Subfam. Cochlidinae. — Larva in first stage with alter-
nate strong and weak segments. Single alternate minute dorsal spines
in first stage, double dorsal row in second, third and fourth skins, lateral
row in first four skins ; entirely absent after fourth moult.
We are much in doubt whether the distinctions between the
Eidimacodinae and Cochlidinae really exist. We understand that the
basis of Dyar's conclusions as to the strong and weak segments was
founded on the alternate character of the dorsal spines. It has also been
necessary for us to modify Dyar's definition that the Cocldidinae lose all
their armature after the first moult, in accordance with Chapman's ob-
servations that they retain it in the first four skins. It is possible
that the Eulimacodinae' should be merged in the Cm-hlidiuae, there being
probably only one structural plan in the larvae of the two groups.
The urticating property of the spines or setrc of certain Eucleid
larvae is well known, but the actual mode of injury has not been
explained. Lewin states that the larva of Doratifera rulnerans darts
out its fascicles of " stings " whenever it is alarmed by the approach
of anything. The larvae of the Javan Parana media and P. lejrida have
also this urticating property developed in the highest degree, as,
indeed, have the larvae of many other species. Although spoken of as
" stings," etc., it is probable that the urtication is caused, as in other
lepidopterous larvae, by the mechanical influence of the fine barbed
setae that enter the skin. The spines, however, often appear to be
constructed like stings, i.e., they are tubular with a brittle tip.
The larva spins a cocoon which is provided with an easily detached
lid, the pupa being provided with a projecting beak, by which the lid
is probably forced off. It is not " cut " in the true sense, nor is
it prepared by the larva, but fractured somewhat irregularly. It is
quite possible that the pupa works round and round, fracturing the
lid bit by bit, but the beak has no cutting edge, and anything
there is like one is at right angles to the line of fracture of the lid.
In this particular, the lid of the Eucleid is different from that of
the Megalopygid cocoon, which Lintner has shown to be woven' (in
Lagoa crispata] by the larva, separately from the rest of the cocoon,
so that the lid, in this latter case, is not a section cut or broken from
it after its completion. Generally speaking, the cocoons are brown or
ochreous in colour, but those of Calybia slossoniae are chalky-white,
conspicuous on the green leaves of the mangrove trees, but hard to
detect on the whitish bark. The brown cocoons of CocJtlidion avellana
Sbb BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
(Apoda testudo) and Heterogenea cruciata are well protected on the dead
leaves, to which they remain attached throughout the winter.
The pupa is of a very generalised type. The abdominal segments
are all free, i.e., they are not soldered to the wings and appendages,
and appear to be capable of independent movement upon each other.
It is probable, however, that the insect rarely does move them, being
tightly packed in its cocoon. The maxillae are small, but are prolonged
outwards, and after passing through a narrow neck, terminate in a
(sometimes rather twisted) club between the eyes, antennre and legs.
This club represents the maxillary palpus or "eye-collar," which
nowhere in Macros has any such development. As has been pre-
viously noted, the pupa possesses a beak, placed between the eyes
(for rupturing the cocoon). The mesoscutellum projects backwards,
so that its sharp apex almost reaches the second abdominal segment.
The eye-flange exists in other families, but is nowhere else so well-
developed as here. It is a remarkable structure, forming, in this
superfamily, aflat flange-like margin with sharp edge, separated from
the antenna?, at the point where, in most pupa?, the eye abuts against
the antenna. In some Eucleid pupae it is marked with radiating
lines that surround the eye, without quite joining the antenna. On
the back of the abdominal segments there are transverse series of
toothed spines, which vary in number and development in the different
species. In dehiscence, the wings, maxillre, etc., adhere together and
do not break apart as do those of an obtect pupa. At the same time
they are quite free from the abdominal segments.
The imagines present great differences in their general appearance,
almost as much so as the larvae. The white Eucleids of subtropical
America, as represented by Calybia slossoniae, C. immaculata, C.
pyymaea, C. fumosa, C. jainaicensis, Leucophobetron art/entijiua, L.
an/yrorrhoea, etc., have been placed in the Liparidae by Kirby. The
Tortricid appearance of our two European species led the early authors
to place them among the TORTRICIDES. The brightly-coloured Parana
media, with its grass-green band, occupying the basal half of the
wings, and its brush-like palpi, and the rounded (ovate) anterior fore-
wings of Scopelodes unicolor, are sufficiently striking to attract attention.
Yet there can be no doubt that the great differences in colour and
wing-shape exhibited by the imagines of this superfamily are due to
protective needs, and it is remarkable how fixed is the generalised form
of the neuration, even in imagines so different in shape and general
appearance. Griffiths says that the imaginal frenulum is very normal
in the Cochliopodids, the spine being light and thin rather than
powerful. The spinulas of the female are few in number ; in Heterogenea
cruciata (asella), there are three, whilst in Apoda avellana (limacodes)
there are about twice as many. The examination of four American
species of this group, including the very singular species, P/iobetron
pithecium, shows an agreement with the British species in the develop-
ment of this structure, although Adoneta ftpimtloides has it more fully
developed than any other species examined. Bodine says that the
antennae present in some respects unusual conditions. Regarded as a
whole, they are as generalised as any of the Frenatae, but they possess
cones which show a considerable degree of development. The base is
almost entirely clothed with long, narrow scales, mingled with many
shorter and broader ones, and in Euclea qucrceti every part of the
COCHLIDIDES (EUCLEIDES). 867
surface is covered. The clavola, also, is closely covered, except on the
ventral aspect, with broader scales, which, by their loose and irregular
manner of insertion, indicate a very low degree of specialisation. In
Liwacodes y-inversa even the ventral surface of the shaft bears numerous
scales. In the pectinate forms the pectinations are heavily clothed,
even to their distal ends, where the scales from three sides unite to
form a thick tuft extending beyond the end. The pectinations are
ventral, and at or near the distal edge of the segments. Euclea querceti
is peculiar in having the pectinations of the cephalic side of the
antennae flattened, and nearly as broad as the length of the segments
of which they form a part. In the Eucleids also there is an unexpected
development of cones, which are long and slender, and are often many-
pointed at the apex, as in the Megalopygids, some species having
several to a segment. In the pectinate forms, the cones have migrated
to the apices of the pectinations, where they are protected by the thick
apical tuft already mentioned. Pits are very rare, seldom more than
one or two to a segment, and then only on a few segments. The
Eucleid antenna differs markedly from those of the Cossids and
Psychids, but is very similar to that of the Megalopygids in the
surface covering, in the character of the cones, and, where they occur,
in the pits also. Chapman informs us that the Nepticulid antenna is
entirely covered with scales. Our Cochlidids also, Cochlidion ai'dlana
and Heterotjenea asella, have the antennae similarly covered with scales,
and the same character is noticeable in Empretia stimulea.
This superfamily has a wide distribution, but it belongs essentially
to tropical and sub-tropical districts : The Philippines, Papua,
Australia (including Tasmania), East Indies, China, Ceylon, India,
Madagascar, South Africa, the Congo district, Sierra Leone, Central
America, tropical South America, and Mexico produce many species.
Species are found more sparingly in the Nearctic region (excluding
western North America), the Palaearctic region (including Europe.
Amurland, Corea, Japan and Askold). There are only two European
species, both of which are found in Britain, although other species are
found in. the eastern portion of the Palaearctic area. A complete list
of the species, and their geographical distribution, has been published
by Kirby (Synonymic Cat. of Lepidoptera Heterocera, i., pp. 525-558).
Of the two species that inhabit Britain, Heteroyenea cmciata (asella)
is most abundant in the New Forest, and is generally obtained by
searching for the larvae in the autumn. It is, however, most uncer-
tain in its appearance. The males of Cochlidion arellana (Apoda
limacodes) are often to be seen in the woods of our south and south-
eastern counties in July, careering wildly over the tree-tops, and
difficult to capture except with a long net. The female (and in dull
weather the male) is frequently beaten from the bushes, when it
drops like a lump of brownish clay to the ground, where it usually
remains for a time motionless. The larva is to be beaten from oak-
trees in September.
Family : COCHLIDIDS.
This family is here restricted to those species of this superfamily,
which have the warts, spines, and seine, found in the larvae of the other
families of this group, entirely absent in the last skin, although the
primitive setas appear to be retained in the first stage and peculiar
BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
spines are present in this and the three succeeding ones. This family
certainly includes both the European species and, according to Dyar,
certain American genera (Packardia, Tortncidia). It is totally im-
possible to give here a summary of the species under their proper sub-
family groupings, as the life-histories of comparatively few have been
worked out. The two genera that have representatives in Britain have,
if Kirby's references of the species to this genus be correct, a remark -
ible distribution.
Apoda, Haw.
avellana, Linn.
christophi, Graes.
dentatus, Oberth.
codeti, Oberth.
retractata, Walk,
apicalis, Walk,
trigona, H.-Edw.
tetraspilaris, Walk. N. America
biguttata, Pack. United States
y-inversa, Pack. Pennsylvania
parallela, H.-Edw. Florida
avenacca, Linn. Cape Colony
albiguttatus, Snell. Celebes
According to this author we have the following :
catenatus, Snell. Celebes
nubeculosa, Snell. Sumatra
dimidiatus, H.-Schiiff. Brazil
concolor, Walk. Amazons
grisea, Hamps. Nilgiris
inferna, Swinh. llangoon,
Bhamo
? convergens, Walk. Silhet
Heterogenea, Knoch
cruciata, Knoch Europe
uncula, Staud. Vladivostok
nobilis, Staud. Vladivostok
fulgens, Leech Gensan, Ningpo
obliqua, Leech Chang Yang
shurtleili, Pack. Brooklyn
Europe, Asia
Minor
Vladivostok
Askold
Algeria
Darjiling
Silhet
Arizona
Subfam. : COCHLIDIN^E.
Tribe : COCHLIDIDI.
Genus : COCHLIDION, Hiibner.
SYNONYMY.— Genus : Cochlidion, Hb., " Tentnmen " (1800). Tor<?ir, Linn.,
"Sys. Nat.," x., p. 531 (1758); Hb., " Eur. Schmett.," vii., figs. 104-5 (? 1803) ;
Bombijx, Hufn., " Bcrl. Mag.," Hi., p. 402 (1707) ; Fab., " Gen. Ins.," p. 279 (1777) ;
"Mant. Ins., "p. 121 (1787); Esp., "Die Schmett.," iii., p. 140 (1784); Bork.,
" Sys. Besch.," iii., p. 447 (1790) ; Godart, " Lep. France," iv., p. 279 (1822). Apoda,
Haw., "Lep. Brit.," p. 137 (1809) ; Kirby, " Cat. Lep. Het .," i., p. 552 (1892) ;
" Handbook," etc., iii., p. 224 (1897); Meyr., "Handbook," etc., p. 451 (1895);
Grote, " Sys. Lep. Hildesite," p. 3 (1895). Chelonias, Hb., " Verz.," pp. 397-8, in
part (? 1822). Limacode, Latr., "Fam. Nat.," p. 474 (1825). Limacudes, Bdv.,
"Ind. Meth.," p. 57 (1829); Stephs., "111. Brit. Ent.," ii., p. 85 (1829); Bdv.,
"Hist. Nat. Lep.," i., p. 119(1830); Wood, "Ind. Ent.," p. 28 (1839); Dup.,
" Cat. Meth.," p. 84 (1844) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," p. 15 (1845) ; Sta., " Man.,"
i., p. 109 (1857); Snell., " De Vlinders," etc., i., p. 120 (1807); Nolck., " Lep.
Fauna Estl.," i., p. 118 (1808) ; Newm., " Brit. Moths," p. 21 (? 1809) ; Kirby, " Eur.
Butts.," etc., p. 114 (1879) ; Frey, " Lep. der Schweiz," p. 89 (1880) ; Buckler,
" Larvae," etc., iii., pi. 53, fig. 8 (1889) ; Chapmn., " Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.." 1894,
p. 345 ; Barr., " Lep. Brit.," ii., p. 100 (1894). Heterogenea, Tr., " Die Schmett.
Eur.." viii., p. 13 (1830) ; Speyer, " Geog. Verb. Schmett.," i., p. 304 (1858) ; Stand.,
"Cat.," p. 02 (1871); Peyer., "Cat. Lep. Als.," p. 57(1880); Auriv., " Nord.
Fjarilar," p. 58 (1888); Tutt, "British Moths," p. 349 (1890). Cochlu.jtotla,
Led., "Verh. des zool.-bot. Ver. Wien., ii., p. 114 (1852); Hering, " Stett. Ent.
Zeit.," xlii., p. 153 (1881).
Hiibner's Tentamen does not give a diagnosis of the generic title
that we are informed should be adopted. The author simply notes :
" Cochlidia. (Jochlidion testudo." The earliest characterised genus
appears to be Haworth's Apoda.
The main characters of the genus are as follows : —
OVUM. — Oval in outline^ flattened at base, slightly domed above, surface of
shell reticulated.
LARVA. — Limaciform ; head retractile ; true le<*s ill-developed ; prolegs replaced
by retractile suckers ; spined in early stages, smooth in last skin.
PUPA. — Incomplete ; appendages free ; abdominal segments free ; maxillary
palpus well-developed ; strongly developed eye-flange ; beak between the eyes for
rupturing cocoon.
COCHLIDION. 869
IMAGO. — Head rough; ocelli present; tongue rudimentary ; antennas simple
in <? and ? , scaled all round shaft ; labial palpi porrected, short and pointed,
roughly scaled beneath terminal joint ; thorax, abdomen and femora hairy ;
posterior tibia; fully spurred ; fore-wings rather oblong. Neuration generalised.
COCHLIDION AVELLANA, Linne.
SYNONYMY. — Species: Avellana, Linne, " Sys. Nat.," 10th ed., i., p. 531
(1758); "Fauna Suecica," p. 344 (1761); Werneburg, "Beitrage zur Schmett.,"
i., pp. 228-9 (1864) ; Kirby, " Cat. Lep. Heterocera," i., p. 552 (1892) ; " Handbook,"
etc., iii., p. 224 (1897). Limacodes, Hufn., " Berl. Mag.," iii., p. 402 (1767) ; Kott.,
" Naturf.," ix.. p. 134 (1776) ; Esper, " Die Schmett.," iii., p. 140, pi. 26, figs. 3-9
(1784) ; De Vill., " Linn. Ent.," ii.( p. 138 (1789) ; Staud., " Cat.," p. 62 (1871) ;
Peyer., "Cat. Lep. Als.," p. 57 (1880); Auriv., " Nord. Fjiirilar," p. 58 (1888);
Meyrick, " Handbook," etc., p. 451 (1895) ; Tutt, " Brit. Moths," p. 349 (1896).
Siilphurea, Fab., " Gen. Ins.," p. 279 (1777). Bufo, Fab., " Mant. Ins.," ii.,
p. 121 (1787). Limax, Bork.. "Sys. Besch.," iii., p. 449 (1790). Testudo, Fab.,
" Mant.," ii., p. 121 (1787) ; Bork., " Sys. Besch.," etc., p. 447 (1790) ; Godt. et Dup.,
"Lep. France," iv.. p. 279, pi. 28, figs. 1-2 (1822) ; Stephs., " Illus.," ii., p. 86
(1829) ; Bdv.. "Ind. Meth.," p. 57 (1829) ; "Hist. Nat. Lep.." i., p. 119 (1836) ;
Wood, " Ind. Ent.," p. 28 (1839) ; Dup.. " Cat. Meth.," p. 85 (1844) ; H.-Sch.,
" Sys. Bearb.," ii., p. 16 (1845) ; Sta., " Man.," i., p. 169 (1857) ; Speyer, " Geog.
Verb. Schmett.," i., p. 304 (1858) ; Snell., " De Vlinders," etc., p. 120 (1867) ; Nolck.,
"Lep. Fn. EstL," i., p. 118 (1868) ; Newm., "Brit. Moths," p. 21 (? 1869); Frey,
"Lep. der Schweiz," p. 89 (1880); Hering, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xlii.. p. 153
(1881) ; Buckl., "Larvaa Brit. Lep.," iii., pi. 53, fig. 8 (1889); Chapman, "Trans.
Ent. Soc. Lond.," 1894, p. 345. Funalis, Donov., " Brit. Ins.," iii., pi. 76 (1794).
Asella, Esp., " Die Schmett.," iii., pi. 85, fig. 4, supp. p. 36 (1784). Testudinana,
Hiibn., "Eur. Schmett.," vii., figs. 164-165 (? 1803) ; " Verz.," p. 398 (? 1822) ;
Ochs. et Treits., " Schmett. Eur.," viii., p. 14 (1830).
OKIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Phalaena Tortrix avellana, alis superiori-
bus testaceis ; fasciis ferrugineis sesquitertiis (Linn6, Sys. Nat., 10th
Ed., p. 531). Linne also refers to a previous description which reads as
follows : " Phalaena seticornis spirilinguis ; alis incumbentibus flavis ;
fasciis duabus griseis obliquis ; postica interrupta. Magnitudine muscae
carnivorae ; alae deflexo-incumbentes, breves, latse ; superiores pallide
flavescentes, fasciis duabus retrorsum spectantibus, fusco-griseis,
quarum postica in medio interrupta. Pedes spinosi " [Linne, Faun.
Suec., 1st Ed., pp. 272-273 (1746)1. This description is not accom-
panied by a specific name, it may belong to this species ; Kirby has
adopted it, following Werneburg.
IMAGO. — Male dark brown, female yellow-ochreous. Anterior wings
with an oblique dark transverse line in the centre, and a second
outside this, extending directly from the costa to the anal angle.
Posterior wings brown, without markings, ochreous along the inner
margin.
VARIATION. — The sexual dimorphism of this species is very marked.
The males, as a rule, are smaller than the females, and of a deep
red- or orange-brown colour. The females are of a yellow-ochreous
tint. The individual specimens, however, exhibit considerable minor
variation. The males are sometimes much suffused with black, the
brown ground-colour showing only as scattered patches ; others have
a distinct blackish band stretching from the costa to the inner
margin ; the majority, however, have only the two normal oblique
transverse lines, and a third curved line cutting off the anal angle ;
occasionally a male is found which possesses the ochreous colour
usually indicative of the female. The brighter females are yellow-
ochreous, approaching orange, and the hind-wings almost of the
same colour as the fore- wings ; others have the fore -wings somewhat
x
370 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
greyer in tone, with the transverse lines strongly marked, and the hind-
wings dark grey. A few specimens have the transverse lines almost
obsolete, whilst others are very small, and are much below the average
size of normal individuals of this species. The principal forms are : —
1.— Orange- or red-brown, much suffused with black, <? = asclla, Esp.,
Die Schmett., p. 36, " alls fuscis."
2.— Orange- or red-brown, with distinct, blackish, transverse band, <? =
ab. bufo, Fab.. Mant., no. 118, p. 121, "fascia lata fusca."
3. — Orange- or red-brown with transverse lines, <? = avellana, Linn.
This appears to be the male form corresponding with the female form described
by Linne.
4. — Yellow-ochreous inclining to orange, with transverse lines and yellowish
hind-wings, ? = ab. sulphurea, Fab., Gen. Ins., " alis flavissimis: strigis duabus
obliquis obscurioribus."
5.— Yellow-ochreous with distinct transverse lines and greyish hind-wings,
? = ab. testudo, Fab., " alis flavis, strigis duabus obliquis obscurioribus."
6. — Ochreous tending to testaceous, strongly marked transverse lines, grey
hind-wings, ? = avellana, Linn.
7. — Two-thirds or less the size of normal specimens, in expanse of wing = ab.
minor, n. ab.
8. — Dark brown, with two transverse lines and with yellow blotches (one on
inner margin between the lines, and another on the outer line), j — ab. Umax, Bork.
OVUM. — The egg is 1-06 mm. in length, and -75 mm. in width, flat,
oval, colourless and transparent, with a lozenge-shaped reticulation
covering the shell. The reticulation can be easily seen if examined in
a suitable light, with a moderate magnifying power. The egg also
lends itself readily to observation under a microscope, owing to
its transparency, flatness, and the facility with which the moth can
be induced to lay its eggs on glass. Burrows says that the eggs are
laid naturally at the angles of the veins on the back of an oak-leaf.
They are yellowish at first, then become grey, and hatch within ten
days. Horton notes that a female lays more than two hundred eggs ;
he gives the egg as above one-twentieth of an inch in diameter, very
large for the size of the moth, colour pale yellow, with an opaline
appearance.
HABITS OF LARVA. — The larva rests on the upper surface of the
leaves of its food-plant. The body is inflated so that a somewhat
dome-like shape is produced, depressed slightly, however, at the sides.
The larva is not, at first sight, much unlike some Lycamid butterfly
caterpillars, and has a peculiar undulatory motion, due to the absence
of prolegs, which has earned for the insects the name Cochliopodids
("slug-footed"). Poulton believes that, at first, larva) of this kind
walked by means of adhesive claspers, and that these gradually
became shorter and broader, thus giving increased support by extending
the area by means of which they adhered ; gradually, he considers, the
prolegs were lost, and the whole of the ventral surface took part in
locomotion. As a matter of fact, the ventral surface is now covered with
adhesive matter, and the larva leaves a silken band when it walks on
glass ; this band becomes white and opaque, and does not much resemble
ordinary silk. Even when the larva is mature, and coiled up in its
cocoon during the winter, previous to pupation, the ventral surface is
covered with an adhesive material, so that, on touching this surface
with a knife or other smooth object, the larva may be raised from the
cocoon, the adhesive matter being quite sufficient to bear the weight of
the larva. The suckers, which replace the abdominal prolegs, also aid
greatly in progression,
COCHLIDION AVELLANA. 871
LARVA. — The neivly -hatched larva is spiny, somewhat elongated,
and not Chiton-sh&peA (Burrows) ; whitish, stout, with a small black
head (Horton). Chapman says that in it the ordinary tubercles can
be made out as very faint dots, and, in addition, there are a number
of evaginated, spurred spines, three on each side of the thoracic, and
two on the abdominal, segments, the latter arranged as a dorsal and
lateral series on either side. The dorsal series is placed alternately
on the segments .•.•.•., outer on the first abdominal, inner on the
second, and so on ; this arrangement has suggested to Chapman that
they are homologous with alternate members of the double dorsal
series of structures present in the larva of Micropteryx (ante, p. 188).
After the first moult the spines become smooth and straight. The
larva is now 1-4 mm. in length, and carries its cast skin, with some
frass, on the terminal spines (? like Adscitid lame). The two
dorsal rows of spines are now double, i.e., the alternate members,
absent in the first skin, are now developed, each spine consisting of a
pointed hair-like process, but with an internal tubular structure that
differentiates it from a real hair, although the terminal portion may
be homologous with the hairs carried by ordinary tubercles. On the
mesothorax the spines are more equally distributed ; on the metathorax
they are a little larger than on those following, but have the same dis-
tribution. This is such that the back of the larva forms a hollow groove,
bounded on each segment by a double tubercular spine rising on either
side, which are alternately (on consecutive segments), rather nearer and
further from the middle line, those on the 3rd and 5th abdominals being
notably further out. On these (3 and 5 abdls.) the outer spines are very
large and project more laterally. This double tubercle consists really of
an inner and outer process, each bearing a spine, the inner one being
rather the larger. The spines are without any evident processes or hairs,
but their terminal third (or fourth) is dark in colour, and apparently
articulated to the basal portion, which is pale and nearly colourless,
except for the articulation of the terminal portion, which looks brittle.
The whole spine looks very like a nettle sting, and seems to be
tubular. On the outer margin of these tubercles are several very
minute spinules or hairs, as well as some thicker and apparently
capitate ones in the lateral region. The true legs are minute, and the
spinneret quite distinct. After the second moult, the larva is 3 mm.
long and 2 mm. wide. The arrangement of the spines is much as in
the previous skin, but small spinules now surround the bases of the
others, and whilst the spines proper are simple, the spinules have
coroneted apices. The dorsal humps are large, and consist of an inner
and outer spine, which are simple, but on the tubercular structures at
their inner and outer bases the points that stud the general sur-
face are more crowded. The lateral humps are single, but have a
more complex structure. The pyramidal base looks three-jointed, and
carries subsidiary transparent spines with divided points, like those on
spines of the newly-hatched larva, but a little less elaborate. Some
appear to belong to each joint. The terminal spine has a jointed apex,
like the dorsal ones, and the basal portion looks as if articulated to the
tubercles, but this is possibly a deceptive appearance. In the incisions
at the bottom of the dorsal and lateral grooves are yellow islets,
probably belonging to the anterior segment, but apparently belonging
to neither, The humps and subcutaneous space look quite glassy, the
872 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
interior is green, with yellow lines beneath the dorsal humps, with
extensions inwards, giving, by various refractions, very curious and
marvellously beautiful effects. The dorsal view is an ovoid, with
a border of fifteen points on each side, very regularly spaced ; of
these, the anterior and two posterior belong to the dorsal series ;
two, three, four and five belonging to the meso- and metathoracic seg-
ments ; the ninth and tenth abdominals are without the lateral
humps. After the third moult, the arrangement of the spines is as
before, but the spinules are less distinctly developed, and the skin-
surface now becomes covered with minute spikelets. In the third and
fourth skins there also appear to be some glandular structures, which
have a dorsal and dorso-lateral position on each segment. With the
fourth moult the spines disappear. The spinneret of this larva is remark-
able until the penultimate stage. It is not a pointed organ, but is
flattened out like the tail of a fish, and the silk that the larva spins upon
which to walk is not spun in the form of a thread, but as a very long
ribbon (Chapman). The adult larva is of a bright pea-green colour, the
ventral surface closely appressed to the surface on which it rests,
the head retractile within the prothorax, and the thoracic segments
retractile within the 1st abdominal segment. When retracted the
head and thoracic segments are quite ventral, the abdominal segments
forming an oval dome. The abdomen, viewed from above, is divided
into three slightly concave areas, the dorsal, bounded on each side
by a raised, wavy, primrose-yellow, subdorsal ridge, and two lateral,
each bounded above by one of the subdorsal ridges, and below
by a similar yellow subspiracular ridge, which is in contact with
the object on which the larva is resting. The two, wavy, sub-
dorsal ridges are ornamented with crimson (" violet," Fenn) points,
placed one on either side of each segmental incision, and these ridges
are continued in front round the anterior edge of the 1st abdominal
segment, thus enclosing the dorsal area in this direction. This con-
tinuation is yellow edged with crimson. The subspiracular ridges
also unite with the dorsal ridges anteriorly on the 1st abdominal seg-
ment, and posteriorly on the anal segment. The anal flap extends
slightly beyond the ventral area of the body. The segmental incisions
form, dorsally, conspicuous curved lines of a yellowish tint. The
ventral area is glaucous green. The head is smooth, shiny, pale
green, with brown mouth-parts, shiny, black ocelli, and bears a few
pale hairs. The thoracic segments are green, and on the venter of
the prothorax, placed laterally, is a comparatively large flesh-coloured
circle, enclosing a raised, cream-coloured, bluntly conical centre (and
having the appearance of painted wood). This is, perhaps, the pro-
thoracic spiracle. The 1st abdominal segment is of a bright orange
colour edged with crimson anteriorly. The skin of the abdominal
segments dorsally is composed of a large number of transparent warts,
the transparency being best seen where they form the lateral margins
of the body. The ventral edge of the body (lower than the subspi-
racular ridge) is white when appressed to a glass slide, and closely
resembles in this respect the white suckers on the first eight abdominal
segments. Of these, the suckers on segments 4-7 are much the better
developed. These suckers are very complex, and occupy on these
segments exactly the same position as ordinary prolegs, with which,
indeed, they appear to be homologous. The abdominal spiracles arc
COCHLEDION AVELLANA. £7B
of a similar large, open, circular shape as the structure we have sup-
posed to be the prothoracic spiracle, but the rim is only of a darker
shade of green than the ground colour, and the central area is greenish-
yellow. They are placed somewhat more than halfway up the lateral
area of the larva. There is a single, pale, subspiracular hair on each
segment, and one longer hair on either side of the dorsum of the anal
flap ; several others are to be found on the posterior portion of the
anal segment. Chapman has also noted that these hairs are
present in the 2nd, 3rd and 4th skins, and we draw special attention
thereto, as Dyar suggests (ante, p. 364) the general absence of sub-
spiracular tubercles, which these undoubtedly represent. The true legs
are well-developed, transparent, green in colour, with a pale brown
hook. [Described from Westerham larva, October, 1897.]
LAKVAL SPINES. — The development of the spines of this larva is
very remarkable. At the time that the larva has completed its growth
in the eggshell, it is without any spines or processes, but at the period
of hatching certain long spines, of which there are at least four on each
abdominal segment, are rapidly developed, and are arranged as a dorsal
and lateral series on either side. The ordinary tubercles can be
detected as faint dots, but these spines are quite independent of the
ordinary tubercles, and differently placed. Chapman says that the
dorsal series on one side, although consisting of one spine only
on each segment, has them placed as though they were the double
rows of Eriocephala (i.e., Micropteryx, ante, p. 138), with alternate
spines omitted, i.e., the inner spine is wanting on the 1st abdominal
segment, the outer one on the second, and so on, alternately.
Dyar considers the alternation as a sign of weak and strong segments).
Laterally, the spines appear to belong to the lower row of the lateral
series of Eriocephala (Micropteryx), but the upper row is represented
on the thorax by two spines. With regard to the growth of these
spines, a circular mark is seen in the unhatched larva, on the site of
each spine, and is the summit of a cylindrical body deeply embedded
in the larval substance. This body is, in fact, the spine, of which the
upper third appears to be already stiff and solid, with its apex on the
surface ready to emerge, whilst the lower two-thirds form a soft in-
vaginated sheath surrounding the upper part. When half of the soft
portion of the spine has emerged, there appears upon it a spur, and,
when the emergence is completed, a distinct joint is visible at the base
of the upper portion. The soft portion appears very rapidly to become
hard. These spines are about equal in length to the diameter of the
larva, and are divisible into three portions : (1) The basal, rather thick
and smooth, and terminating at the lateral spur. (2) The middle
portion, continuous with the basal and structurally the same — only
narrower — and quite smooth. (3) The* terminal portion, separated
from the middle portion by a joint, or transverse line of union, with a
series of minute points or teeth, apparently arranged in a somewhat
spiral manner along its shaft, and terminating at the apex in a slight
enlargement, and a coronet of angular points, six to nine in number.
The lateral points are difficult to see except when taken in profile, but
are rather numerous and laterally arranged. The inner structure of
these spines has all the appearance of consisting of a separate included
tube running its whole length, and having a branch to the lateral spur.
After the first moult, these spines are replaced by straight spines,
874 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA,
with a smooth outline, and tapering continuously from base to apex.
They have, however, a joint about three-fifths of the length from the
base to the apex, looking harder, browner, and more solid, and they
seem to have a central tube. They appear to originate from deep
tissues, and the skin looks like a thick coating of glass, through which
they come. In this skin, however, the dorsal set of spines is now
double, i.e., the double row, of which the alternate members are wanting
in the first larval stage, is now complete, and they remain so even
in the adult larva, though they are now merely prominences, and not
spines. In the second and third skins, there are, especially in the
thoracic region, round the bases of these spines, very minute spinules,
apparently of a structure very similar to the last joint of the spinules in
the first stage. [Besides this excellent description, Chapman gives
first-class figures of the newly-hatched larva, spines, etc., in the Trans.
Ent. Soc. London, 1894, PL vii., figs. 14-20.]
LARVA JUST PREVIOUS TO PUPATION. — When coiled up in its cocoon,
the larva is a curious object. The dorsurn is green, with no darker
markings whatever ; there is a distinct dorsal depression, whilst the
sides appear now as subdorsal depressions, owing to the bulging out
of the ventral area. The lateral margins and anal area orange-yellow.
The thoracic segments not grooved dorsally or laterally. The skin,
under a two-thirds lens, now appears finely warted and much wrinkled
transversely. The eight abdominal spiracles are very tiny, pinkish
in colour, with a pale yellowish-white rim, the pair on the 6th
abdominal segment much larger than the others. The conspicuous
external structures surrounding them, and so prominent in the
adult larva, have entirely disappeared, leaving the spiracles them-
selves distinctly visible. The prothorax is only visible ventrally, and
the head is withdrawn into it, showing the almost transparent face in
its centre ; whilst the prothoracic spiracles show conspicuously on each
side. The venter is very transparent, its surface covered with an
adhesive substance, and the internal structures visible within.
COCOON. — The cocoon consists of a thin outer pellicle of flossy silk,
which is interwoven with the surrounding moss (in the examples
under observation). Within this is a closely woven, oval structure,
reddish-brown in colour, of a somewhat papery texture, but tough for
its thickness. It is provided with an easily separated lid. The cocoon
is covered inside with a delicate silken lining, which may be separated
from the part surrounding it, and the larva is so coiled up in it as to
occupy most of the available space. Fletcher observes that the cocoon
becomes flattened on each side when attached to others on a leaf, and
when spun upon an oak-leaf, fits so closely to it, as to take the impres-
sion of the smallest veins. The larva lies unchanged in the cocoon
all the winter, becoming a pupa in May or June. The pupal stage
lasts only about fifteen days, and the pupa escapes from the cocoon
before the emergence of the imago. Borkhausen says that he found
the cocoons of the ab. Umax under the fallen leaves in a beech wood.
PUPA. — The pupa is described by Fletcher as being short, thick and
stumpy ; broadest about the middle of the abdomen ; thorax large,
rounded, extended in front above the head ; wing-cases long, well-
marked, with the neuration plainly traceable ; leg-cases almost free,
those of the third pair extending beyond the wing-cases to the anal
extremity ; creamy-white in colour, with head and thorax tinged with
COCHLIDION AVELLANA. 375
brown ; eyes visibly blackish ; on the dorsal surface of abdominal
segments 2 to 8, is a broad, transverse, yellowish band ; the whole
surface roughened with minute spines pointing backwards, these spines
being yellow at the base, dark brown at the tip. Chapman says that
the pupa is, in structure, of the Micro type. It is very round and
squat, and superficially resembles the pupae of Lasiocampa quercus,
Erioyaster lanestris, Centra vimda, and similar pupae, whose larvae
make a cocoon of the same character as does Cochlidion avellana
(Uitudo). It has the wing- and appendage-cases not attached to the
abdominal segments. In colour, the pupa is pale brown or fawn, with
wings so transparent as to be hardly visible. The mouth-parts are
large and elaborate. The maxillae are small and short, but are
prolonged outwards, and, after passing through a narrow neck, ter-
minate in a well-developed club, between the eyes, antennas and legs.
This club represents the maxillary palpus (eye-collar), which, nowhere
in Macros, has any such development. It appears to possess a
second member (= lacinias?). The abdominal segments 1-6, 5,
and 1-7, $ are free (i.e., not soldered to the wings and appendages),
and appear to be capable of independent movement on each other.
The appendages, though fused together, are fused so slightly as to be
easily separated without injury. In the empty pupa-case, all the
segments and appendages are freely separable. The pupa possesses a
beak (for rupturing the cocoon) between the eyes ; the mesoscutellum
projects backwards from the mesothorax, so that it covers the middle
of the metathorax, whilst its sharp apex reaches to the middle of the
1st abdominal segment. The pupa also possesses what Chapman has
described as the " eye-flange." Where, in most pupae, the eye abuts
against an antenna, it is, in this species, rather separate, and a flat
flange-like margin with sharp edge and marked with radiating lines,
surrounds the eye without quite joining the antenna. On the sides
of the metathorax and first abdominal segment there are curious
brown ribs and wrinkles. The abdominal segments 2-10 have an
area across the front of the dorsum of each segment covered with
minute spines (not a single row, as is so usual). The spiracles of the
2nd and 3rd abdominal segments are covered by, but visible through,
the hind-wings. The pupal wings reach to the end of the 7th abdo-
minal segment, and the tarsi to the 8th. Borkhausen compares the
pupa (which he calls a " Pupa incomplete ") with the pupaa of some
beetles, " all the extremities being separated from the body, and the
skin soft and yellow."
DEHISCENCE. — The head, maxillae, maxillary palpi and antennae
free from thorax and abdomen ; the eye-covers also free ; in fact, all
the appendages, wings, etc., become " free," but do not separate,
i.e., the covers are complete and adhere together, as do those of a
dragonfly, but do not in any way break apart, as do those of an obtect
pupa (Chapman).
FOOD-PLANTS. — Nut, pear (Linne) ; oak, beech (Borkhausen ) ; birch
(Buckell) ; whitethorn and blackthorn (Holland) ; sycamore (Kaltenbach) ;
Arbutus unedo (Cuni y Martorell).
PARASITES. — Sphinctus serotinus, at end of September, and Pelecy-
stoma lutea, Nees, bred in the middle of July, 1887, by W. H. B.
Fletcher (Bridgman).
HABITS AND HABITAT. — This species inhabits woods in the southern
876
BRITISH LEPIDOPTERAt
and western parts of the British Islands. The male flies rapidly in the
hot sunshine, usually high up (often too high to reach) over the trees and
underwood. Bower has, however, found it flying at " sunset," both at
Lyndhurst and Chattenden. The female is usually sluggish, and drops
like a small lump of clay to the ground from the trees or bushes in
which it hides, when one is beating, but Bower has seen the female
flying in the afternoon. Horton obtained the species by kicking
against the stems of young oaks, in a part free from underwood, and
watched the moths half falling and half flying as they were disturbed
from the tree-tops ; and James has beaten the imago from hazel.
Jones, Fenn, and others, have found the insects in cop. during the
day, on grass culms. Bloomfield has caught the species by " dusking,"
and Burrows on sugared trees (not at the sugar) as late as 11 p.m.
Dillon also captured three specimens (2 2 and 1 $ ) flying at dusk,
at Clonbrock, and Lowe took specimens at Aigle, at light. Holland
has made satisfactory use of a beating-tray for their capture, as
many as seven specimens (of both sexes) having fallen victims on
June 21st, 1891, at Aldermaston, to this mode of capture.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The imagines appear during June and
July, from larvae that feed up the preceding August-October, and lie
in their cocoons all winter and pupate in May. Burrows gives Sep-
tember 14th-0ctober 9th, 1897, for full-fed larvae at Ipswich ; Cross
notes September 9th, 13th, 20th, 1897, from oak, and October 8th,
1897, from beech, in the New Forest ; October 6th, 1860, from oak, at
Lower Wick (Horton), Sept. 4th, 1897, at Westerham (Turner), etc.
Imagines have been recorded as occurring on July 1st, 1857, at Faver-
sham (Stowell), July 7th, 1856, at Shooter's Hill Woods (Crewe), June
7th, 1857, at West Wickham(Healy), June 27th, 1858, August 5th 1860,
atDarenth, June 12th, 1865, atBlean Woods, and July 14th, 1878, at
Chattenden (A. H. Jones), June 26th, 1859, at Worcester (Edmunds),
June 23rd, 1860, June 16th, 22nd, 1862, June 7th, 1865, at
Darenth, June llth, 1865, at Blean Woods, June 21st, 1875, at
Sidcup, June 20th, 1885, June 30th, 1886, June 17th, 1893, at Chat-
tenden, and bred eight from June 13th-27th, 1893, from Chattenden
(Fenn), several beaten June, I860, at Darenth (Rye), July 5th, 1863,
in cop., at Lower Wick (Horton), June 10th, 1865, at West Wickham
(Cole), June 27th, 1863, July 12th, 1869, at Guestling, by dusking
(Bloomfield), 1st week of August, 1877, in New Forest (Porritt),
June 20th-July 4th, 1875, at Lyndhurst, June 18th, 1888, June 30th,
1893, at Chattenden (Bower), July 9th, 1876, at Trench Woods
(Blatch), June 9th, 1876, at Heckfield, June 21st, 1891, at Alder-
maston, June 20th, 1892, at Padworth, June 7th, 1893, in Pamber
Forest, June 18th, 1893, at Burghfield (Holland), July 9th, 1881, at
Chattenden, June 22nd, 1883, nr. Ipswich .(Mera), July 10th, 1891,
July 8th, 1892, at Eomsey (Kaye), June 12th 1891, at Abbott's
Wood (W. E. Nicholson), June 22nd, 1892, May 31st, 1893, at Ems-
worth (Christy), June 7th, 14th, 1894, at Hailsham, beaten from
hazel (James), June 14th, 1895, in cop., at Ipswich (Baylis), June
12th, 1894, at Abbott's Wood (Lowe), July lst-4th, 1895, several in
New Forest (Bayne), June 10th, 1895, June 10th, 1896, at Bentley
Woods, nr. Ipswich (Morley), June 27th, 1897, at Tilgate (Sheldon),
June 28th-July 16th, 1897, nr. Ipswich, two on sugared trees at
11 p.m. (Burrows), August 1st, 1897, at Hazeleigh Wood, worn,
COCHLIDION AVELLANA. 377
June 28th, 1898 (Raynor), middle of June, 1869, on Parnassus, and
May 23rd, 1869, in I. of Naxos, Greece (Staudinger), June 10th-17th,
at Sologne (Sand).
LOCALITIES. — BERKS : Tilehurst, Aldermaston, Reading, Burghfield and
Padworth (Holland). ESSEX : nr. Southend (Whittle), Colchester (Harwood). Haze-
leigh Wood (Raynor), Eastwood, males sometimes common (Vaughan). GALWAY :
Clonbrock (Dillon). GLOUCESTER : Highnam (Merrin). HANTS : Denny Wood (Lockyer),
Brockenhurst (Lane), Rornsey (Kaye), Lyndhurst (Bower), Pamber, Heckfield
(Holland), New Forest (Porritt), Emsworth (Christy), Woolmer Forest (Barrett).
KENT : Birch Wood, Chislehurst, Darenth and Sydenham (Stephens), Sidcup (Fenn),
Shooter's Hill Woods (Crewe), Faversham (Stowell), Wiguiore Wood (Chancy),
Westerham (Warne), West Wickham (Healy), woods around Rochester (Tutt),
Chattenden and Blean Woods (A. H. Jones). OXFORDSHIRE. RUTLAND: on the
borders of Rutland and Leicester (Dixon). SUFFOLK : Beccles (Crowfoot), Belstead
(Lingwood), Bentley (Miller), Bentley Woods, nr. Ipswich (Morley), Euston
(Williams), Ipswich (Burrows}, Playford (Greene). SURREY: Shirley (Gregory).
SUSSEX : Tilgate (Sheldon), Goring Woods (Fletcher), Hayward's Heath, Plaskett
Wood and Battle (Jenner), Guestling (Bloomfield), Hailsham (James), Abbott's
Wood (Porritt), Brighton and Worthing (Stainton). WORCESTERSHIRE: Trench
Woods (Blatch), Lower Wick (Horton), Worcester (Edmunds). YORKSHIRE (?) :
York, larva, September, 1876, from birch (Wilson).
DISTRIBUTION. — Asia Minor : Bithynia, Pontus (Staudinger), the
Taurus (Rober). Belgium : (Fologne). Denmark : sparingly (Auri-
villius). France : Corsica (Speyer), Nice (Cur6), Alpes Maritimes
(Milliere), nr. Paris, Depts. of Maas, Meurthe, Doubs, Puy-de-D6me,
Savoy (Speyer), hills of Provence (Constant), Motte-Feuilly, forest of
Chateauroux, Sologne, St. Florent, Enval, Volvic (Sand). Germany :
Pomerania, Vogelsang, Messenthin, Grambow, Julow, Hokendorf,
Stepenitz, etc. (Hering), Thuringia, Gotha, Siebleber Holz., Berlach,
Lauchaer Holz., etc. (Knapp), Mangfall (Gumppenburg), Berlin,
Krefeld (Speyer), Strasburg, Kastenwald, Tannemvald, Hardt, Nonnen-
bruch, Langen Erlen (Peyerimhoff). Greece : Parnassus, Corfu, Naxos,
(Staudinger). Italy: Piedmont, Lombardy, Venetian Provinces, rather
common, Liguria ( Speyer) , moderately common throughout — Tuscany,
Naples, Sicily, Sardinia etc. (Curo). Netherlands : most of the
provinces (Snellen). Russia : Schleck, Groesen, Rambdau, Pichtendahl
(Nolcken), Livonia (Lienig and Speyer), Volga district, about Kasan
(Speyer), Transcaucasia-Borjom (Romanoff). Scandinavia: Gotten-
burg, (Eland, Lapland (Speyer), S. Sweden to E. and W. Gottland
absent in Norway and Finland (Reuter). Spain : Barcelona dist.
in nits., Verano (Cuni y Martorell), Province of Teruel (Zapater
and Korb). Switzerland : Basle (Peyerimhoff and Frey), Zurich
(Frey), Winterthur (Biederrnann), St. Gallen (Taschler), Aargau
(Wullsehlegel), Bremgarten (Boll), Bechburg (Stehlin), Berne (Ratzer),
nr. Schiipfen (Rothenbach) , Chur (Calflisch), Aigle (Lowe), on the
Lagern, Ziirichberg, and the Uto (Riihl).
HETEROGENEA, Enoch.
SYNONYMY. — Heterogenea, Knoch, " Beitrage Ins.," iii., p. 60 (1783) ; Stephs.,
" 111. Brit. Ent.," ii., p. 84(1829) ; Ochs. and Treits., " Schmett. Eur.," viii., p. 13
(1830) ; Boheman, " Entom. Ant.," p. 128 (1851) ; Sta. " Man.," i., p. 168 (1857) ;
Stand.," Cat.," p. 62 (1871); Auriv., " Nord. Fjiirilar,"p. 58 (1888); Kirby, "Cat. Lep.
Het.," p. 556 (1892) ; " Handbook," etc.. iii., p. 226 (1897) ; Meyr., " Handbook,"
etc., p. 450 (1895) ; Tutt, "Brit. Moths," p. 349 (1896). Bombyx, Fab., " Mant.
Ins.," ii., p. 121 (1787) ; Vill., " Entom. Linn.," 449 (1789) ; Bork., " Syst. Beschr.,"
p. 450 (1790) ; Godt., " Lepid. France," iv.. p. 282. pi. 228, fig. 3 (1822). Tortrix,
Hiibner, "Eur. Schmett.," vii.. figs. 166, 167 (? 1803). Chelonias, Hb., " Verz.."
p. 398, in part (? 1822). Heterogenia, Wood, " Ind. Ent.," p. 28 (1839). Limacode,
Ltr., "Fam. Nat.," p. 474 (1825). Limacodes, Bdv., " Ind. Meth.," p. 57, in part
378 BKITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
(1829); Dup., "Cat. Lep.,"p. 84, in part (1844); Newm., "Brit. Moths," p. 21
(? 1869) ; Nolck., " Lep. Fn. Estl.," p. 118 (1868) ; Frey, " Lep. der Schweiz,"
p. 90 (1880). Cochliopoda, Hering, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," ii., p. 153 (1881).
There is no absolute diagnosis by Knoch of Heteroyenea. It is
practically included in his account of the species, which extends to
18 pages. He explains that the insect will not conform to any of
Linne's groups, and adds :
Both larva and pupa are entirely different from any previously described
moths [the " shield-larva " of certain butterflies differing little from other larvse
except in shape] and being of entirely different structure, cannot be included in
any of Linn6's sections of Phalaena. The imago differs in the outline of the
wings from the Tortricids, but has filiform antennae like most of them, and is
therefore in some measure intermediate. The antennas do not, however, afford
a reliable character for their classification, so that, I consider, this and the allied
one (Phalaena limacodes) must form a new section. For this reason I have called
them " heterogeneous " Phalaenae.
Chapman's observations on the structure of the evaginated spines
of the larva of Heterogenea suggest this as being probably a more
generalised genus than Cocldidion.
The principal characters of the genus may be diagnosed as follows : —
OVUM. — Flat, ovoid, slightly narrowed at one end, transparent, surface reticu-
lated.
LARVA. — Limaciform ; head retractile ; true legs illdeveloped ; prolegs replaced
by retractile suckers ; very finely spined in early stages, smooth when adult.
PUPA. — Incomplete ; appendages free ; abdominal segments free ; maxillary
palpus remarkably well-developed ; well-developed eye-flange ; beak for rupturing
cocoon.
IMAGO. — Head hairy (not rough) ; ocelli present ; tongue rudimentary ; antennas
simple in both sexes, scaled all round shaft. Labial palpi ascending ; thorax, abdomen
and femora not hairy ; posterior tibiae with middle spurs absent ; fore-wings somewhat
triangular in shape. Neuration generalised (but differing from that of G. avellana).
HETEKOGENEA CRUCIATA,
SYNOMYMY. — Species: Crucia ta, Knoch, "Beitr. Ins.," iii., p. 60, pi. 3, figs.
1-10 (1783) ; Kirby, " Cat. Lep. Het.," i., p. 559 (1892) ; " Handbook," etc., p. 226
(1897). Asella (us), Schiff., " Sys. Verz.," p. 65 (1776, Cat. name) ; Fab., " Mant.,
Ins.," ii., p. 121 (1787) ; Bork., " Sys. Besch.," iii., p. 450 (1790) ; Godt. et Dup., iv.,
" Lep. France," p. 282 (1822) ; Bdv., " Ind. Meth.," p. 57 (1829) ; Stphs., " Illus.,"
ii., p. 85 (1829); Wood, "Ind. Ent.," p. 28 (1839); Dup., "Cat. Meth.," p. 84
(1844); H.-Sch., "Sys. Bearb.," ii., p. 16 (1845); Boh.. "Ent. Ant.," p. 128
(1851); Sta., "Man.." i., p. 168 (1857); Speyer, "Geog. Verb. Schmett.," i.,
p. 304(1858); Nolck., "Lep. Fauna Estl.," p. 118 (1868;; Staud. and Wocke,
"Cat.." p. 62 (1871); Newm., "Brit. Moths," p. 21 (91869); Frey. "Lep. der
Schweiz," p. 90 (1880) ; Hering. " Stett. Ent. Zeit.." xlii., p. 153 (1881); Auriv.,
"Nord. Fjiirilar," p. 58 (1888) ; Buckler, " Larvae." etc., iii.. p. 73 (1889) ; Meyrick,
" Handbook." etc., p. 451 (1895) ; Tutt, " British Moths," p. 348 (1896). Atellana,
Hub., "Eur. Schmett.," vii.. figs. 166-167 (? 1803) ; "Verz.," p. 398 (? 1822) ;
Ochs. et Treits., " Schmett. Eur.," viii., p. 18 (1830).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Phalaena Heterogenea cruciata, elinguis,
alis deflexis nigro-fuscis, finibria praeter apicem dilutioribus. Larva
ovata, hexapoda. Caput absconditum flavum. Corpus viridescens,
cruce sanguineo, macularum flavescentium ordinibus directis in inter-
stitius 5 in segmentis 6 in dorso perforatum. Pupa incompleta,
fusca, in folliculo quiescens, continet singulas insecti partes tenui
membrana inclusas. Phalaena unicolor nigro-fusca, femina interdum
fusca. Oculi nigri. Antennae filiformes. Alae tortriciformes. Tibiae
flavescentes (Knoch, Beitrtige Ins., etc., iii., p. 60). Enoch's PI. 8,
figs. 1-10, undoubtedly represent the transformations of the insect
usually called Heterogenea asella.
IMAGO. — Anterior wings triangular in shape ; shining unicolorous
HETEROGENEA CRUC1ATA. 379
dark brown in the male, yellow-brown in the female. Posterior wings
blackish.
VARIATION. — Considerable sexual dimorphism is exhibited by this
species, the males being, usually, much smaller and darker than the
females, the fore-wings of the former varying from a colour which is
distinct purplish-black, through blackish-fuscous, to brownish-fus-
cous ; the palest specimens of this latter form are slightly tinged with
ochreous, and exhibit faint traces of a transverse oblique line rather
nearer the base than the centre of the wing, and an oblique shade
(rather than line) marking off the apical area. The darkest females
are brownish-fuscous, the paler forms vary through a dull (red-) brown
and yellowish-brown to a quite pale yellow colour. The principal
forms met with are : —
1. — Blackish with purple tinge, $ = nigra, n. ab.
2.— Blackish-fuscous, <f = cruciata, Enoch, " alls nigro-fuscis " = asella, Fab.
3. — Brownish-fuscous, somewhat mottled with dark ochreous, <f and ? = ab.
typica, n. ab., much the commonest form of the species in England.
4. — Dull brown inclining to red-brown, ? = ab. intermedia, n. ab.
5. — Ochreous-yellow, ? =; ab. flavescens, n. ab.
OVUM. — The mode of ovipoaition of this species was described
by Standish, who observed that some sarsenet with which he had
confined a female moth was bespattered with a whitish and glutinous-
looking substance, resembling gum or varnish. He concluded that
the substance was composed of eggs, although he could not detect an
egg of any shape. Buckler described eggs laid on the side of a chip
box, on July 18th, 1877, as being agglomerated together, and being
" somewhat of a drop shape," but ill-defined, from their being con-
nected together in little lumps ; the colour, very pale, shining, trans-
parent and gelatinous-looking, otherwise much the colour of the chip ;
by the end of the month they began to grow yellowish, and then to
be tinged with the colour of brown sherry in parts of the little batches ;
after this, they began to hatch. Chapman states that the egg of this
species, like that of the last, is flat, ovoid, somewhat narrowed
towards one end, colourless, very transparent, with lozenge-shaped
network of cell-structure of the cell. The longest diameter is less
than '5 mm.
HABITS or LABVA. — The larva feeds on the edge of beech leaves,
and when eating the head is withdrawn into the prothorax, which also
covers that portion of the edge of the leaf that is being devoured.
Probably the most peculiar point about it, is its mode of progression.
Buckler says that the six true legs are distinctly to be seen when the
larva is in motion, but no ventral or anal prolegs are perceptible, and,
instead of them, it has, along the margin of the venter, which is
deeply depressed centrally, a soft projecting ridge of extremely flexible
skin. This serves very well the purpose of legs, owing to its
undulatory movement from behind forwards ; one wave at a time
being formed under each segment, and slowly advancing and sub-
siding in regular succession as far forwards as the first abdominal
segment. The larvae attach themselves so closely to the food-plant
that it is almost impossible to beat them. They must be searched for
in October on the beeches.
LARVA. — The neu-ly -hatched larva, according to Buckler, is a mere
speck, of a rounded ovate figure, dark brown above and pale greenish
beneath, in short, a miniature representation, apparently, in all respects,
380 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
of the mature larva. The same observer describes the full-grown
larva, when fully-stretched out, as about half-an-inch long, and a
quarter of an inch across the middle of the body, whence it tapers
towards each end, but, in repose, its length does not exceed three-
eighths of an inch, as the head and prothorax are then entirely
retracted, so that the front part of the body appears but little tapered.
The head is very small, and rather flattened (as in the larvae of the
Lycaenidae). The anal extremity is rounded, and, viewed sideways,
the back appears somewhat arched, and the ventral surface is in close
contact with the leaf on which it rests. The segments are only
marked by narrow dimpled depressions. There are also minute circular
dimples on the back, one in the centre of the front of each segment,
and two at the back in the subdorsal region. This region, being a little
raised on each side, forms a slight dorsal hollow. The head is smooth
and shining, the back and sides rather so, though the skin there is
covered with pubescence, which is, however, so fine as to be seen only
with a powerful lens. It is noticeable that the dimpled spots were for
the most part paler than the rest, and that a few short and very
minute bristles are scattered at each extremity, and at intervals along the
back. The ground-colour is of a pale yellowish-green, watery-looking
along the sides, fading into somewhat of a pale flesh tint beneath. On the
back, beginning at the front of the mesothorax, is a broad olive-brown
mark, reminding one of the dark saddle on the larva of Centra rinida.
This mark lessens a little in breadth on the 1st abdominal segment, and
then grows broader on the following one, attaining its greatest breadth
on the 3rd and 4th abdominal segments, where it reaches low down
on the sides. It begins to decrease again on the 5th abdominal,
and gradually narrows to the anal tip. The olive-brown tint is
darkest on the meso- and metathorax, and there is throughout an
outline of darker brown. This is further relieved below by a pale,
sulphur-yellow border, which enlarges to a spot on the side of the
1st abdominal segment, with smaller spots on the metathorax and
2nd abdominal. The prothorax is pale yellowish-green. The
head is also yellowish -green, with a slight tinge of brown, the mouth
edged above and on each side with dark brown. The papilhe are
yellowish-green. The dorsal vessel, dark brown in colour, can be seen
through the olive colour on the back as far as the end of the 6th
abdominal segment. The ventral surface is almost colourless, with a
clear, pellucid, jelly-like appearance. Fenn gives the measurements
of the adult larva as half an inch long by one quarter broad. He
describes it as onisciform, slightly tapering behind, and says that
the dorsal surface is raised into a ridge, with the sides slightly
indented, and the under surface much flattened. The dark dorsal
mark is described as a large diamond-shaped red marking, the lateral
angles of which reach to the spiracles, and are prolonged in front as a
broad, red-brown band towards the head, these dorsal markings
combining to form a spear-head mark with the apex or point behind,
the edges being darker red.
LARVAL SPINES. — The newly-hatched larva appears to be very
similar to that of C. avellana (testudo). The spines appear to be in
precisely the same position as in that species, i.e., a double dorsal row
with the alternate members absent, and a lateral series, with a more
complicated arrangement on the thoracic segments. Possessing a
HETEROGENEA CBUCIATA. 881
series of specimens showing the different stages iu the process of extru-
sion, it is equally clear, in fact quite certain, that the spines before
hatching are invaginated into the interior of the larva, precisely as in C.
fl»W/rtHfl,andare extruded and assume their exterior position shortly after
the larva leaves the eggshell, in the manner thus described in the case of
the latter species. There is, however, a very important difference in
the structure of the dorsal spines, ric., each one has two branches
instead of being simple. As it evaginates at first a simple straight
portion protrudes, but is seen to enclose not one but two terminal
portions, the portions that from the first appear to be stiff and har-
dened ; then the soft evaginating portion divides into an anterior
and posterior horn, separating from each other at an angle of 80°-90°,
and the hard terminal portions, at first parallel to each other, cross
one another at an angle, and finally form the extremities of these two
branches. There is in C. avellana a short process about half way up
the soft (invaginated) portion of the spine, that seems to have no use
or meaning, but is probably the representative of the second spine in
//. cntciota (asclla). The principal one of these, that is the longer and
rather thicker one, inclines slightly backwards, and is altogether of a
length about equal to f of the diameter of the larva, or about 0*13 mm.
The shorter and rather more slender one, which might be regarded as
a branch of the other, but which is more nearly equal than that
description would imply, points decidedly forwards. The larger branch
terminates in a three-spined point, and has several very minute points
on its stem ; the smaller one terminates usually in two points. The
lateral spines appear to be simple (as regards branching), and expand
terminally into a three-spiked coronet (Chapman).
VARIATION OF LARVA. — The larva varies very much. Its ground colour
is sometimes yellowish instead of green, and the cross on the back light
red, flesh-coloured, or yellow tinged with red on the edges. Occasionally
it is interrupted by the ground colour (Borkhausen).
COCOON.— In confinement the cocoon is sometimes placed on a dried
beech leaf, but is more frequently spun very tightly into the forks of
beech twigs, and Hewett states that neither he nor Tate could ever
find them in the wilds. It is about a quarter of an inch long, two lines
broad, and of a very short elliptical form. It is firm in texture, and
bears a remarkable resemblance to a gall excrescence. A few fine
threads form a kind of network around its base, and attach it to the
leaf. It is of a dark, dull brown colour, with blotches of a pale grey
or dirty white, spreading irregularly over the upper surface. Buckler
says it looks as if it bore a delicate lichenous growth. Fletcher
observes that this mottling accurately matches the beech bark. The
cocoon is lined inside with pale yellow silk. The larva remains
unchanged in the cocoon from October until the following May or
June, the pupal stage lasting only about a fortnight.
PUPA. — Structurally, the pupa is very like that of Cochlidion
ai-dlana (testudo), but the eye-collar is remarkably well-developed,
stretching right across from the antennre to the mouth-parts, and on
dehiscence it remains attached to the head coverings. Buckler de-
scribes it as a trifle less than a quarter of an inch long, and thick in
proportion, the abdomen bent under, giving the pupa a rather rounded
form ; the wings and appendage cases, not attached to the abdominal
segments beyond the second ; the abdominal segments distinct, as also
382 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
the parts of the head and thorax, whilst the wing-cases are well-
developed and projecting. The surface of the pupa is smooth, polished,
and of a transparent whity-brown colour.
DEHISCENCE. — According to Chapman, the dehiscence is identical
with that of the pupa of Cochlidion avellana (testudo).
FOOD-PLANTS. — Oak, beech and black poplar (Borkhausen), poplar
(Stainton), birch (Fletcher), hornbeam (Carpinus) (Hering), hazel and
lime (Wocke), Prunus padus (Nolcken).
PARASITES. — Sayaritis declinator, Gravenh., and Limneria unicincta
Gravenh. (Bignell).
HABITS AND HABITAT. — This species is found in beech woods in the
southern counties of England, and flies in the afternoon sunshine,
looking, it is said, very much like' a Tortricid moth, although Eedle
states that of very many caught in Epping Forest in June, 1861, only
one was flying in the sun ; the rest were beaten from beech. Batter-
shell Gill says that the male flies swiftly along the ridings of Epping,
and, in his experience, is never beaten out.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The imagines appear during June and July
from larva? that have fed up the previous July-October, remained
unchanged in their cocoons all winter, and pupated in May-June.
This species (unlike the last) is very uncertain in its appearance. It
was especially abundant in 1856 (Stainton), moderately abundant
at Lyndhurst in 1884, almost absent in 1885, 1886, 1887, a few in
1888, very rare in 1889, 1890, 1891, in great abundance (some hun-
dreds of larvae being taken) in October, 1892. The larva? are full-fed
in late September and October (September 22nd, 1892, October
26th, 1895, etc.). Imagines have been recorded as having occurred on
June 28th, 1859, in New Forest (Bryant), June 28th, 1860, in New
Forest (Farren), June 22nd, 1861, at Loughton, May 22nd-26th,
1893, bred from New Forest (Fenn), July 3rd, 1873, Crabbe wood
(G. M. A. Hewett), May 22nd-June 1st, 1876, June 3rd-18th, 1877,
bred from beech (A. H. Jones), August 14th, 1879, at Lyndhurst
(Sheldon), July 10th, 1885, June 6th, 1893, in New Forest (Lowe),
July 22nd, 1887, nr. Arundel (Fletcher), June 20th, 1890, nr. Ply-
mouth (F. Briggs), July 5th ,1892, June 14th, 1893, in New Forest
(Bankes), commenced to emerge June 9th, 1897, from pupa} from
Colchester (Biding), bred many from May 10th-31st, 1897, emerged
11 a.m. -2 30 p.m. (Tutt), Boheman notes it, June 10th. at Degeberga,
and July 29th and 31st (in cop.), at Sjobo ; June 28th, 1877,
at Wladiwostok (Christoph testc Staudingerj.
LOCALITIES. — BUCKS: around Marlow, beech woods (Bernard-Smith).
DEVON: Plymouth (Basden-Smith), Plym Valley (F. Briggs), Kimpton (Kudd).
ESSEX: Loughton (Fenn), Epping Forest (Gill, Eedle). HANTS: Lyndhurst
(Stainton), Crabbe wood (Raynor), Winchester (Hewett), Woolmer Forest
(Barrett). SURREY: Horsell (Tugwell). SUSSEX: Wakehurst, Abbott's wood (Barrett),
Worthing (Stainton), nr. Arundel (Fletcher).
DISTRIBUTION. — Amurland : Wladiwostok, Charabowska (Christoph
tcstc Staudinger). Austria : Dalmatia (Wocke and Speyer), Hungary,
Carniola, Vienna (Speyer). Belgium (Fologne). Denmark : rare
(Aurivillius). France: Corsica, rare (Cure-), nr. Paris, Depts. of
Maas and Doubs (Speyer). Germany : Leipzig, Weimar, Ratisbon
(Knapp and Speyer), Oberhessen, nr. Giessen, Nassau (Kayser),
Pomerania, nr. Vogelsang, Messenthin (Hering), Thuringia, Erfurt,
Jena (Knapp), Konigsberg, Danzig, Mecklenburg, Strelitz, Liine-
HETEBOGENEA CKUCIATA. 883
burg, Berlin, Dessau, Waldeck, Hanover, Kurhessen, Breslau,
Glogau, Wiesbaden, Heidelberg, Karlsruhe, Wiirfceraburg, Augsburg
(Speyer), Saxony (Constant). Italy : moderately common in the
northern, central and southern provinces (Curo), Turin, Naples
(Speyer). Russia: Livonia (Speyer and Wocke), Sarepta (Wocke),
Bielsteinshof (Nolcken), Kasan and Volga districts (Speyer), Trans-
caucasia-Borjom, Lagodckhi (Romanoff). Scandinavia: South Sweden
(Speyer and Reuter), Degeberga, Sjobo (Boheman). Switzerland :
Cantons Berne, Aargau, St. Gallen (Taschler), Zurich, above the
Klus, Katzentisch (Riihl).
Superfamily IV : ANTHROCERIDES.
This superfamily was included in the Sphinx-belters of Geoffrey,
and the Spkinges-Adscitae of Linne, Esper, Borkhausen, etc. Linne's
group, Adscitae included (Sys. Nat., 10th ed., p. 494) fdipcndulae, phcyea,
creusa, polymena, cassandra, pectinicornis, and statices, i.e., according to
our modern views, representatives of the Anthrocerids, Syntomids,
Euchromiids, Chalcosids and Procrids. The genus Zyyaena, Fab.,
also included not only the then known species now referred to this
superfamily, but an Arctiid section represented by phegea, and individual
members of other important and widely divergent families. Scopoli,
in 1777, diagnosed (Introd. Nat. Hist., p. 414) the Burnet moths
proper under the name Antkrocera, and Ochsenheimer, in 1808, referred
the Arctiid section represented by pJieyea to his genus Syntovtis.
Hiibner differentiated the true Burnets, and divided (Verz., pp, 116-
118) the then known European species into no less than eight genera,
whilst Boisduval, in 1829, monographed the group, calling (Mon. den
Zygaenides, pp. 26 and 107) the Anthrocerid members Zygaena, and
the Arctiid members, Syntomis. Staudinger, in 1871, placed (Cat.
pp. 44 and 50) these sections in different families, but Kir by maintained
(Cat. Lep. Het., p. 62) these two divergent elements in his Zygaenidae,
as late as 1892, calling the Anthrocerid section — Adscitinae, An thro -
cerinae, Pyromorphinae, etc., the Arctiid section Zygaeninae, etc.
The Anthrocerids (or Zygaenids, as they are more generally called)
form then a superfamily of moths, which, from the remarkable similarity
in colouring and markings of the imagines, have long been erroneously
united with an Arctiid family, the Syntomidae (and Euchromiidae). This
union has recently been shown to be entirely unwarranted, there being
no real alliance between the two groups, the Anthrocerids, in all their
stages, being exceedingly generalised moths belonging to Chapman's
Incompletae, whilst the Syntomids are highly specialised members of
the Arctiid group, and not only fall into the Ubtectae, but belong to an
entirely different stirps from that of the Anthrocerids. We are forced,
therefore, to the conclusion, that the similarity of coloration and
pattern have been evolved independently in the two groups.
It becomes, therefore, a matter of importance to know the group
to which the term Zygaena, Fabr., Syst. Ent., p. 550 (1775) is
applicable. According to Kirby, phegea must be considered the type
of Zygaena, Fabr., a mixed genus, comprising generalised (Anthro-
cerid) and specialised (Syntomid) species. This genus contains in order,
"jilipen<hdae,phcgea, ephialtes, annul ata, caffra, guinecnsis, ccrbera, thetis,
fenestrata, cassandra, eryx, melissa, polymena, lethe, fausta, infausta,
pugione, pectinicomis, pylotis, auge, capistratq, diptera, halterata, tibialis,
384 BRITISH LBPIDOPTERA.
pholits, statices, acharon, sty.r," a sufficiently heterogeneous lot of species.
According to Kirby, the term Zijf/aena goes to the Arctiid series, and
Anthrocera, Scopoli [Introd. Hist. Nat., p. 454 (1777)] becomes the
correct generic title for the Burnet moths, whilst their superfamilyname
becomes ANTHROCERIDES. There are three very well known subfamilies of
the group, the Anthrocerinae, Adscitinae (Procrinae), and the American
Pyromorphinae. Concerning the two latter, doubt has been expressed
whether they should not be united into a single subfamily, and
at most form two separate tribes of it. Packard considers the
Adscitids to be more generalised than the genus Anthrocera, and
he says that, judging from the neuration, he considers that Horrittna
has undergone little more modification than Ino. He adds : " Pyro-
morplia also seems rather more primitive than Zyyaena (i.e., Anthro-
cera), and I see no reason for regarding Pyromorpha as the type
of a distinct family."
The Anthrocerid ovum is oval, with a depression on the upper
surface. It has a very delicate, transparent shell, yellow in colour,
but remarkable for the fact that the yelk is usually collected at one
pole of the egg, leaving the other pole transparent. There is little
trace of ornamentation on the shell (the surface, however, is finely
reticulated in Achcita, Harrisonia, Aglaopc and Pyromorpha) ; and Chap-
man thinks that the whole egg looks so soft and unprotected, that it
seems more suited for an internal situation, than for the exposed
position in which it is laid.
Thp Anthrocerid larva is remarkable as being the only representative
of the Incompletae that has the Macro form of abdominal proleg, i.e.,
with terminal hooks on the inner side only. Dyar describes the larva
(under the superfamily name of ANTHROCERINA) as having " the tubercles
converted into warts, or absent ; i and ii, as well as iv and v, approxi-
mate or consolidated." This author, however, includes the Pterophorids
(Plume moths) in the superfamily.
The pupa of the Anthrocerids has the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th (and in the
male, the 7th) abdominal segments free, probably also the 1st and 2nd.
It very markedly opens the other incisions on dehiscence. The appen-
dages are only loosely attached ; the maxillary palpus (eye-collar) is
nearly or quite obsolete, but the dorsal head-piece is well-developed.
On dehiscence, the head parts are united together, and separated from
the other pupal structures, the glazed eye, however, being retained with
the head-parts, the internal pupal linings are very distinct, the pupa
also comes out some distance from the cocoon before the emergence of
the imago.
The imago is generally brilliantly coloured, but there are some
striking exceptions. The species of Anthrocera have, usually, metallic
green or blue fore-wings, with brilliant crimson spots or streaks, and
crimson hind-wings, with a dark border. The species of Adscita
(Procris) have the fore-wings generally of an uniform green colour, with
dark hind-wings. In the species of Pyromorpha the wings are usually
of a smoky-brown colour, with their bases sometimes of a reddish or
yellow hue. The fore- wings are long compared with their breadth,
and the neuration is very generalised. The antenna? of the Anthrocerids
proper, and Adscitids, show many marked differences, but those of the
Pyromorphids and Adscitids are very close together, the intense black-
ness of the former, noted by Bodine (Antennae of Lepidoptera, p. 33),
ANTHEOCERIDES. 885
is found in the latter, and even the scales on the pectinations are dark
fuscous. Griffiths says that the Anthrocerid frenulum shows some
peculiarities. The spine is not so strong as that of the Sphingids, and,
instead of passing through a regular loop, it fits into a sort of pocket
attached to the costal nervure of the forewings, the point of the spine
sometimes, but not always, just appearing through the end of the
pocket. He adds that Adscita (Proem) agrees with Anthrocera, and
the American and other foreign examples examined do not differ from
our British representatives in this respect.
Kirbysays that " the South African Anthrocerinae have been divided
into several genera, differing slightly from Anthrocera. In Arichalca,
the fore-wings are marked with red transverse bands, bordered by
black lines instead of being spotted, or longitudinally streaked. Three
species from south-eastern Africa have been referred to the latter
genus. Except the Mediterranean species of true Anthrocera, all the
African Anthrocerinae and Adscitinae appear to be found in southern
or eastern Africa, and, of the latter, only one or two species have been
recorded from tropical regions. In west Africa these subfamilies do
not appear to be found at all."
The Burnets proper are especially abundant in the Mediterranean
district, but are found practically throughout the Palaearctic region,
whilst Kirby says that one or two species touch the north-western
frontiers of India, and a few species are South African, the latter,
however, appearing not to be gregarious like the European species.
The Adscitids also are especially abundant in Europe and the Mediter-
ranean district, but they spread over the whole Palaearctic area,
extend into the East Indies, Australia and Tasmania, and reappear in
Central and South America. The Pyrornorphids appear to be con-
fined to America, extending throughout the greater part of both North
and South America. The European Aylaope in/amta, however, is
probably a Pyromorphid.
Family : ANTHKOCERHXE.
The family may be diagnosed as follows : —
OVUM. — Ovoid in form ; shell delicate, transparent ; usually pale yellow or
greenish in colour ; surface smooth or delicately reticulated.
LABVA.— Body flattened ventrally ; in 1st skin tubercles generalised; in 2nd
and subsequent skins the tubercles converted into warts, bearing many finely
spiculate hairs ; prolegs of Macro type.
PUPA.— Free abdominal segments (1, 2 ?) 3, 4, 5, 6. 7 (in male), (1, 2?), 3, 4, 5,
6 (in female) ; maxillary palpus nearly, or quite, obsolete ; dorsal head-piece well
developed ; enclosed in a cocoon.
IMAGO. — Tongue developed ; antennae more or less thickened towards apex,
or ciliated ; labial palpi ascending, the terminal joint short and pointed ; leg
spines ill-developed ; frenulum present ; neuration very generalised.
The family is represented by two subfamilies in Britain— the
Adscitinae or Forester moths, and the Anthrocerinae or Burnet moths.
We -have already noted that it is doubtful whether the American species,
usually classed as a distinct family under the name Pyromorphida'e,
really form more than a tribe of the Adscitinae, to which they appear to be
very closely allied. TheAdscitidi can generally be distinguished at once
by the unicolorous bronzy-green colour of the fore- wings, the Anthro-
ceridi by their crimson-spotted fore-wings, and crimson-coloured hind-
wings. The Adscitid larvre partially mine into their foodplant when
young, and pupate in a cocoon on (or just below) the surface of the
Y
386 BRITISH LKPinOPTKUA.
earth ; the Anthrocerid larvae are external feeders, and make a silken
boat-shaped cocoon, usually attached to a grass culm, or stone. The
antennae, too, offer another point of distinction between the imagines,
those of the Adscitids being bipectinated in the male, and serrated
in the female, whilst those of the Anthrocerids are gradually thickened
from the base almost to the apex, and form a club, which thins off into
a fine tapering apical point. There is, however, much resemblance in
the clothing of the haired surface of the antennas in Adwita, Harrim'na,
and Anthrocera. The first obtain their extra surface by pectinations,
the last by having thicker antennae, with a dense clothing of hairs.
Hampson groups (Moths of India, vol. i.) the Anthrocerids and
Adscitids into one subfamily, and ane gathers that Antlirocera is the
only genus with clubbed antennae, whilst those with pectinated antennae
are numerous.
Subfam. : ADSCITIN.E.
Tribe : ADSCITIDI.
The difficulties of discriminating between a number of closely
allied species, when the species are practically of one uniform colora-
tion, as in those forming the tribe under consideration, and the
wings show no markings whatever, are very great. Staudinger found
the neuration quite unadapted for specific characters, because the
modifications which occur in the species are quite insignificant. The
form of the wing does not furnish a good specific character, nor could
Staudinger find any specific differences in the legs and palpi. The
antennae, however, enabled him to separate the European species into
two main groups : (1) With the antennae of the male pectinated to
the tip. (2) With the last 8-10 joints forming a club. He also found
that, on the average, certain species always had a greater number of
joints than others. In spite of this, the variation in the number of
antennal joints in the same species is very considerable, and differences of
from four to six (and sometimes eight) joints are frequently found in tbo
same species. In the first group, the pectinations diminish more or
less rapidly in length, only appearing on the subterminal joints as
dentations, whilst in the second group, the pectinations of each joint
grow together in broad lamellae, which at first are always notched in
the middle, the notches gradually decreasing and disappearing on the
penultimate joint, the terminal joint forming a very flat roundish cone.
Moreover, these 8-10 terminal joints, which form the so-called ter-
minal club, are not connate, but only lie very close together. Accord-
ing to this arrangement, our British species work out as follows : —
I. — Antennae pointed ; anterior wings perceptibly broader anteriorly —
lihayades ylobulariae. II. — Antennae ending in a club — Adscita statices,
A. yeryon. Zeller also remarks on the longer, thinner and more filiform
antennae of R. i/lobulariae, and observes that they terminate in a
longer point.
Wallengren first used this character for generic subdivision, and
diagnosed (8kand, Jletarocerfjarilar, i., p. 88) the two genera, into
which he subdivided the species as follows : —
1. Tno, Leach.— Antennas extrorsum subclavatoe. Lingua cornea longior.
2. Rhagades, — Antennae obsolete fusiformes, apice acuto. Lingua mollis,
pectore brevior.
On this division, yloliilariae would fall into li/ia (jades, yeryon and
ADSCITIDI. 387
statices in Ino (i.e., Adftcita). Aurivillius appears to be the only
author who has followed this grouping.
Bowell states (Entom. Record, etc., ix., p. 27) that in Adscita (Ino)
the scales are generally small, scantily distributed, and rarely bifid,
and those of the lower wings are less highly specialised than those of
the upper. The scales of A. chloros are the simplest, those of both upper
and lower wings being plain, strap-shaped. The scales of A. tenui-
comis, A. pruni and A. chnjsocephala form a middle group, with the
scales of the lower wings simple, those of the upper bifid. A. budensis
has peculiar scales, those of the lower wings are exceedingly small,
whilst those of the upper wings have their ends decorated with a
number of small points, viz., the ends of the columns separated by the
striffi. This peculiarity is visible in the other species, though to a
much smaller extent. The scales of A. ampelophaga are the most
highly developed of those examined, those of the lower wings being
bifid, those of the upper trifid, occasionally even quadrifid. We have
previously (Brit. Noctuae, etc., ii., p. xvi.) discussed the peculiar
phenomenon observed when species of this genus are enclosed in a
damp box, the green scales becoming changed into a bronzy or red-
brown colour.
So far as our British species are concerned, the egga are so similar
that Chapinan could distinguish no difference between them, except
in size. The newly-hatched larvae, too, are practically identical.
The pupse, also, are very similar, but these similarities, and such
differences as exist, will be best obtained from the detailed accounts of
the larva and pupa of each species that follow.
It is well-known that cross-pairing occasionally occurs among the
various species of the genus Antkrocera, but Oberthiir states (L6p. des
Pyrenees, p. 81) : " Nous avons merne trouv£ une Zygaena filipendulae
solidement jointe a une Procris ! Nous aurions eu de la peine a croire
une pareille e'normite', si nous ne 1'avions nous-memes observe et si
nous n'avions tenu par les antennes la Zygaena entrainant la Procris
soudee avec elle."
Gynandromorphous examples of this tribe have been recorded by
Slater in A. geryon (right $ , left ? ), from Britain ; in A. ampelophaga
by Schultz [(1) right $ , left $ , (2) left $ , right ? ] , from Hungary ;
in A. pruni, by Schultz (right $ , left ? ), from Pesth. At least
seven gynandromorphous examples of the two latter species have been
noticed.
Genus : ADSOITA, Eetzius.
SYNONYMY.— Genus : Adscita, Betz., " Gen. et Spec. Ins.," pp. 8. 35 (1783) ;
Kirby, " Cat. Lep. Het.," p. 81 (1892) ; Handbook, etc., iii., p. 97 (1897). Sphinx,
Linn., " Sys. Nat.," 10th Ed., p. 495, in part (1758) ; " Faun. Suec.," p. 290, in
part (1761) ; Scop., " Ent. Cam.," p. 189, in part (1763) ; Hufn.. " Berl. Mag.," ii.,
p. 186 (1767) ; Denis and Schiff., " Sys. Verz.,"p. 308 (1776) ; Fuessly, " Mag. Ent.,"
i., p. 115 (1778) ; " Neues Mag.," ii., p. 210, in part (1785) ; Esp., " Die Schmett.," ii.,
p. 158. in part (1780) ; Bork., " Sys. Besch.," ii., p. 33, in part (1789) ; Hb., " Eur.
Schmett.," ii., figs. 1, et seq. (? 1797), p. 76 (? 1805). Phalaena,~Fourc., " Ent. Par.,"
ii., p. 292 (1785). Zygaena, Fab., " Sys. Ent.," p. 550, in part (1775) ; " Mant. Ins.,"
ii., p. 107, in part (1787) ; Schrank,"Faun. Boica," ii., p. 242, in part (1801) ; Haw.,
" Lep. Brit.," p. 73, in part (1803). Chrysaor, Hb., " Tent." (1806). Procris, Fab.,
" 111. Mag.." vi., p. 289 (1807) ; Latr., " Gen. Ins.," iv.. p. 213 (1809) ; Godt.,
" Lep. France." iii., p.156 (1821) ; Hb., " Verz. bek. Schmett.." p. 119 (? 1822) ; Bdv.,
" Ind. Meth.," p. 38 (1829) ; " Icones," ii., p. 78 (1834) ; " Hist. Nat. Lep.," i., p. 118
888 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
(1836) ; Dup., " Lep. France." suppl., ii., p. 92 (1835) ; " Cat. Meth.," p. 53 (1844) ;
H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," ii., p. 26 (1845) ; Sta., " Man.," i.,p. 78 (1857) ; llamb., " Cat.
Lep. And.," p. 182 (1866) ; Newm., •' Brit. Moths," p. 22 (? 1869) ; Druce, " Biol. Cent.
Amer. Lep.," i., p. 37 (1884) ; Meyr., " Proc. Linn. Soc. New S. Wales," p. 792
(1886) ; " Handbook, etc.," p. 449 (1895) ; Buckler, " Larvae," etc., ii., p. 87 (1887) ;
Auriv., " Nord. Fjiir.," p. 51 (1888). Atychia, Ochs. and Treits., " Schmett. Eur.,"
ii., p. 9 (1809) ; x., p. 100 (1834) ; Freyer, " Neuere Beitr.," i., p. 27. etc. (1833) ;
ll , " Isis," 1839, p. 274 ; Evers., "Faun. Lep. Volg.-Ural.," p.
Stett. Ent. Zeit.," vi., p. 93 (1845) ; Assmann, " Abbild. und Besch. der Schmett.
Schles.," ii.. p. 5 (1845). Ino, Leach, " Edin. Enc.," ix., p. 436 (1815) ; Stephs.,
"Illus.," i., p. 105 (18281 ; Curt., "Brit. Ent.," ix., pi. 396 (1832) ; Wood. "Ind.
Ent.," p. 11 (1839) ; Led., " Ver. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien," ii., p. 102 (1852) ; Speyer,
"Geog. Verb. Schmett ," i., p. 466 (1858) ; Hein., " Die Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 152
(185'.t) ; Stand., " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xxiii., pp. 344 et seq. (1862) ; Wallgrn.,
" Scand. Het.-Fjar.," pp 88, 108 (1863) j'Newm., " Zool.," p. 8403 (1863) ; Dbldy.,
" Ibid.," p. 8532 ; Sta. and Stand., " Ent. Ann.," p. 95 (1864) ; Snell., " De Vlinders,"
etc., p. 124 (1867); Nolck., "Lep. Fn. Estl.," i., p. 97 (1868); Staud. and Wocke,
"Cat.. "p. 44 (1871); Mill., " Cat. Lep. Alp.-Mar.." p. 124 (1872); Curo, "Bull.
Soc. Ent. Ital.," vii., p. 192 (1875) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 21 (1879) ; Peyer.,
" Cat. Lep. Als.," p. 4(3 (1880) ; Frey, " Lep. der Schweiz," p. 63 (1880) ; Hofmn.,
"Die Groas-Schmett.," etc., p. 32 (1887); "Die Kaupen," etc., p. 34 (1893):
Tutt, "Brit. Moths," p. 350 (1896). Aylaope, Dalm., "Vet. Akad. Handl.," 1816,
p. 211 ; Zett., " Ins. Lapp./' p. 920 (1840).
Until quite recently the whole of the Palsearctic Foresters have
been known under one or other of the synonymic generic titles, Procris,
Fah., or Ino, Leach. Kirby, however, in 1892, resurrected the older
name, Adsdta, Eetzius, for the whole of the Palaearctic (and some
exotic) species. The diagnosis of Retzius reads as follows : —
Adsdta. — Papillon Phalene. Ant. clavatae. Alse subdeflexas, invicem incum-
bentes (Gen. et Sp. Ins., p. 8).
Retzius cites (Ibid., p. 35) Adsdta aries (A. filipendulac] and A.
turcom (A. statices) in this genus. As filijwndulae is the type of
Scopoli's Anthroccra, it leaves statices as the type of Adsdta. Although
Retzius was the first to use Adwita in a generic sense, earlier authors
(including Linne" and Esper) had called the Adscitids and Anthrocerids
the Si>kinf/es-Ailsdtae, which is, in reality, the oldest group name of
the superfamily.
The distinctive characters of the genus as apart from Antlirocera
are : —
OVUM.— Surface of shell more distinctly covered with a fine polygonal reticu-
lation.
LAKVA.— The hairs on tubercles i, ii with a bulbous swelling near base in 1st
stage (? in later stages).
PUPA.— Flattened ventrally.
IMAGO. — Antenna pectinated, forming a pseudo-club at apex.
With the exception of certain species from South Africa (com-
prising the genera — Omn, Kirby, Cratneria, Hb.), North America,
(Tantura, Kirby), Central America (Pteudoproeru, Druce), South
America (Anatolis, Feld.), India (Delox, Swinhoe), and Australia
(Hestiochora, Meyr.), all the remaining Adscitids are included in the
genus Adsdta, Retz., by Kirby (Cat. Lep. Het., pp. 81-86). He has,
however, not adopted the genus R/iagade*, Wallgrn. Nevertheless,
it seems probable that, when some special study of the group has been
made, and some reliable characters found apart from wing colour and
shape, and when the life-histories of more species are completely known,
the genus Adxdta, Kirby, will be found to be composed of many hetero-
geneous elements. The genus, as it stands, comprises species from
almost all parts of the globe, and Kirby states that the species of one
389
or two of the allied South African genera are coloured like Anthrocera,
from which they differ, however, in the structure of their antennae.
The Adscitid larva and pupa show considerable resemblance to
those of the genus Anthrocera. The egg, however, appears to differ
essentially from that of Anthrocera, the latter being usually smooth,
whilst the surface of the Adscitid egg is distinctly reticulated ; the eggs
of some Anthrocerids, however, appear to be covered with a faint re-
ticulation, if examined with a sufficiently high power. Dyar also notes
the Pyromorphid egg (Pyrotnorpha dimidiata) as being covered with a
regular rounded reticulation, resembling a series of contiguous circles.
The larva, Newman notes, in general appearance, and some of its
characters, resembles that of Cocldidion avdlana (testudo).
The imagines of the three British Foresters bear considerable
resemblance to each other, the fore-wings of all being of a bright
bronzy-green or -blue. They all appear in the imago state in May
and June, varying slightly according to the season, each species rarely
extending over more than three weeks in the same year, A. yeryon,
generally appearing a little later than R. ylobidariae. They are
exceedingly localised, and haunt the flowers which are in blossom in
their various localities at the time of their emergence, flying only in
the bright sunshine. Although so local, they are usually exceedingly
abundant where they occur. 11. ylobidariae, so far as our present
knowledge goes, appears to be far more localised than either A. yeryon
or A. staticen, the latter being the most widely distributed species.
Nicholson says that all the three British species occur on the downs
(Cliffe Hill) near Lewes, A. statices being there by far the rarest. The
imagines all have much the same habit, the males booming along in
the sunshine like Burnet moths, whilst the females are very sluggish,
and fly but little. The female of It. ylobulariae frequently rests on the
flowers of Poteriuin ttntguiwrba, and that of A. yeryon on those of the
same plant, and Hi'eraciuni pilosella. The females of these two species
are somewhat difficult to distinguish, but the antennae of E. ylobulariae
are longer, thinner, and more pointed towards the tip than are those
of A. yeryon. On the Sussex Downs these species are very uncertain
in their appearance, both It. ylobuldriae and A. yeryon being very
abundant in some seasons, while, in others, it would be difficult to
find a specimen. Weir, speaking of the same locality, says that " all
the species may be found within the space of a rnile and a half,
occurring in their restricted haunts in great abundance, each being
confined to its own food-plant. It. ylubulariae and A. yeryon are
mixed together, and It. ylobulariae and A. statices are also mixed, but,
from the totally different positions in which Heliantheinum vulyare
and Ittuite.r acetosa grow, A. yeryon is never found mixed with A. statices."
The females are to be obtained by sweeping the grass or searching the
flowers on which they rest. Zeller says that A. statices and It. ylobu-
lariae differ in habit, for whereas the former flies freely in the
sunshine, he had, in spite of fine still weather, to start the specimens
of It. ylobulariae out, and he found that after a short flight they
settled again on the grass or Centaurea flowers. Vaughan records (Proc.
Sth. Lond. Knt. Soc., 1890, p. 39) the capture of two individuals in June,
1890, at Edlean High, Sound of Jura, which he considered to be
intermediate between A. statices and It. ylobulariae. The restriction of
the latter species in Britain, however, is suggestive that the specimens
390 URlTlSH LEPlDOPTERA.
belonged to the former species. Selys-Longchamps mentions (Ann.
Ent. Soc. Bely., xiv., p. 42) examples from Baraque-Michel similar
to A. statices, but with antenna? like A. globulariae. One species, A.
ampelophaga, that occurs in southern Europe, is said to be very de-
structive to the vine.
ADSCITA STATICES, Linne".
SYNONYMY.— Species: Statice*, Linne, "Sys. Nat.," 10th Ed., p. 495 (1758); "Fauna
Suec.," p. 290 (1761) ; Scop., " Ent. Carn.," p. 190 (1763) ; Hufn., " Berl. Mag.,'
p. 186 (1767); Fab., "Sys. Ent.," p. 5_55 (1775); Fuess., «• Mag. Ent.,"i., p. 115 (1778);
ii., p. 158, pi. xv
2a, b (1787) ; Bork., " Sys. Besch.." ii., pp. 33 and 167 (1789) ; Hb., " Eur. Schmett.,'
'Neues Mag.," ii., p. 210 (1785) ; Esp., "Die Schmett.," ii., p. 158, pi. xviii.,
ii.,pl. i.,fig. 1, ? pi. Ibis, fig. 2 (1797), p. -76 (? 1805); Haw., "Lep. Brit.," p. 73
(1803) ; Ochs. et Treits.," " Schmett. Eur.," iL, p. 11 (1808) ; Godt., " Lep. France,"
iii.,p. 158(1821) ; Stphs., " Illus. Brit. Ent.," i., p. 105 (1828) ; Freyer. " Neuere
Beit.," i., p. 118, pi. 62, fig. 1 (1833) ; Curt., " Brit. Ent.," ix., pi. 396 (1832) ; Bdv.,
" Hist. Nat. Lep.," i., p. 118 (1836) ; Wood, " Ind. Ent.," p. 11 (1839) ; Zell., " Isis,"
1839, p. 274 ; Zett., " Ins. Lapp.," p. 920 (1840) ; Dup., " Cat. Meth.," p. 53 (1844) ;
Evers., " Lep. Volg.-Ural.," p. 91 (1844) ; Assm., " Abbild. Schmett. Schles.," ii., p. 5
(1845) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," ii., p. 27 (1845) ; Nick., " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," p. 93
(1845) ; Led., " Ver. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien," ii., p. 102 (1852) ; Sta., " Man.," i., p.
78 (1857); Speyer. " Geog. Verb. Schmett.," p. 356 (1858); Hein., "Schmett.
Deutsch.,"p. 154 (1859) ; Staud., " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xxiii., p. 353 (1862) ; Newm.,
" Zool.," xxi., pp. 8607-8 (1863) ; Wallgrn., " Scand. Het.-Fjar.," p. 108
(1863); Sta. and Staud., "Ent. Ann.," 1864, p. 103; llamb., "Cat. Lep. And.,"
p. 184(1866); Snellen. "De Vlinders," etc., i., p. 125 (1867); Nolck., "Lep. Fn.
Est.," ii., p. 97 (1868); Newm., "Brit. Moths," p. 22 (?18li9); Staud., "Cat.."
p. 44 (1871) ; Mill., " Cat. Lep. Alp.-Mar.," p. 124 (1872) ; Curo, " Bull. Soc. Ent.
Ital.," vii., p. 193 (1875) ; Sand, "Cat. Lep. Auv.." p. 22 (1879) ; Kirby." Eur. Butts.."
etc.. p. 87 (1879) ; " Cat. Lep. Het.," i., p. 84 (1892) ; •• Handbook," etc., iii., p. 98
(1897) ; Frey, " Lep. der Schweiz," p. 64, in part (1880) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Als.,"
p. 46 (1880) ; Hofmn., "Die Gross-Schmett.," etc., p. 33 (1887) ; " Die Kaupen,"etc.,
p. 35 (1893) ; Buckl., " Larvse," etc.. ii., p. 87, pi. xviii., fig. 1 (1887) ; Auriv..
" Nord-Fjar.," p. 51 (1888); Kane, " Entom.," xxvi., p. 317 (1893); Barr., "Lep.
Brit.,"ii., p. 112 (1894); Meyr., "Handbook," etc., p. 449 (18<J5) ; Tutt, "Brit.
Moths," p. 351 (1896). Turcosa, lletzius, "Gen. Ins.," p. 35 (1783). Staticus,
Fourc., "Ent. Par.," ii., p. 292 (1785). Globulariae, Schrk., " Fauna Boica," ii.,
p. 242 (1801).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION.— Sphinx viridi-caerulea, alis inferioribus
fuscis (Linne, Sys. Nat., 10th Ed., p. 495).
IMAGO. — Anterior wings 21-9-29-3 mm. in expanse, bronzy- or blue-
green. Posterior wings smoky-grey. Antenme rather long, termi-
nating in a blunt club.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The male is much larger than the female,
the former averaging (in about 60 examples) 29 mm., the latter
22 mm. ; the antennte are more pectinated in the $ , the body com-
paratively slender, that of the female being stout and plump.
VARIATION. — In colour, the specimens present two very distinct
forms, the rare (in Britain) blue-green type-form described by Linne,
and the common bronzy-green form = ab. riridis, n. ab. The reddish-
bronze individuals so often seen have usually been produced by exposure
to damp, the scales exhibiting a great change in the presence of
moisture. Frey's remarks (Lep. der Scltweis, p. 64) show that he was
much mixed about the species, as he gives the food-plant (Centaurca
scabiosa) of R. ylobulariae, as that of A. statices, and refers A. chryso-
cephala (= A. genjon] to the latter species. He, however, states that
in the mountains a somewhat smaller, but otherwise typical, race of
A. statices occurs. Staudinger considers that the most southerly limit
of typical A. statices is Hungary (Buda and Mehadia), South Germany
AfcSCiTA STATICES. 39 1
and the Swiss Alpine regions. Speyer's record from Granada, he
asserts, rests on an incorrect determination. He considers the speci-
mens from Asia Minor, central and southern Italy, as not typical.
We are in great doubt as to the varietal or specific value of the
following aberrations, three of which are accepted by Staudinger as
varieties of, and one as typical, A. statices. An examination of the
specimens of heydenreichii and crassicornis in the British Museum
(amongst which are some of Zeller's and Lederer's original specimens),
leads us, from the antennal characters, to believe that they are possibly
specifically distinct from A. statices, but probably not specifically
distinct from each other, the heydenreicliii being '• blue-green," the
crassicornis " golden-green," thus agreeing with the colour definition
of the two forms. We would again point out that the " blue-green "
form of A. statices is the Linnean type. This form, as already
mentioned, is rare in the British Islands, but would appear to be the
prevalent colour of local races in the east and south of Europe.
a. var. micans, Freyer. — Of the size of A. globulariae, but the wings are nar-
rower, not so delicate, nor so truncate. The head, thorax and abdomen are steel-
blue, whilst they are green-brown in A. globulariae and A. statices. The abdomen
is much stouter than in the first-named, and more densely scaled. On the under-
side, the wings are black-grey with steel-blue iridescence, the colour in A . statices
and A. globularinc tending to be grass- or brown-green. On comparison, the difference
appears very striking. Taken in the Bavarian Alps, where it was flying in grassy
meadows, and supposed at first to be statices, but more accurate comparison
showed it to be neither statices nor globulariae (Neiiere Beitrfige, etc., i., p. 27,
pi. xiv., fig. 1). Prout notes that " Freyer's figure bears out the points that the
author mentions." Staudinger treats (Cat., p. 44) it as typical statices, whilst
Lederer considers micans = mannii, which it would therefore antedate. Herrich-
Schaffer notes var. micans from " Turkey." Milliere notes (Cat. Lep. Alp. -Mar.,
p. 124) mannii as being " rare in the Basses- Alpes in May, the larva in April, on
Cistus salvifolius, of which it eats the leaves without touching the flowers," this
probably is an error. Speyer notes it from Italy, the southern Tyrol, Botzen,
Buda, Sandwald and Aspromonte.
/3. var. mannii, Led. — Of the size and robustness of A. statices; antennae much
as- in that species, but somewhat shorter. The fore- wings rather more rounded at
the tip and anal angle ; the margin more sinuated, the colour an intense blue-
green. The hind-wings black-grey, and of a somewhat more metallic green than
in A. statices, not paler towards the base ; the fringes not darker. The underside
black-grey. Mann brought this form in quantity from Spalata, and they were all
precisely similar in shape and colour (Ver. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, 1852, p. 103).
Staudinger says (Hor. Soc. Ent. Ross., vii., p. 101) that this is decidedly a form
of A. statices, since the two run into each other completely. He records it as
being common at Karpinisi in the latter half of June, and states that some of the
small Grecian specimens are not distinguishable from German A. statices.
Staudinger gives (Cat., p. 44) the distribution as : Carniola, Dalmatia, Greece,
Central Spain. Curo records mannii from the mountain regions of Lombardy,
Tyrol, etc., also from Sicily. Reutti notes May 28th, 1882, nr. Dinglangen, in
Nassau, etc.
y. var. heydeureichii, Led. — This comes from the neighbourhood of Mehadia,
and bears much resemblance to mannii, but is rather larger and much stouter, the
antennae are thicker and longer, but otherwise similarly formed ; the dark blue-
green fore-wings are shorter and broader, the costa and inner margin of almost
equal length, the hind margin very convex, the hind-wings and underside as in
mannii. This insect varies in colour to the most beautiful shiny golden-green,
which specimens Dr. Frivaldsky sent as micans, Fir., although I do not look upon
it as the latter, for Freyer found his species on the Bavarian Alps, but Frivaldsky's
specimens came from Italy, and the East ; besides, Freyer's figure does not agree
in other details. This figure is too badly drawn to pronounce a positive opinion,
but I am inclined to suspect that it is an ordinary statices (Ver. zool.-bot. Getel.
Wien, 1852, p. 103). Staudinger, in the Stett. Ent. Zeit., xxiii., p 358, after noting
that the south Tyrolean specimens referred to heydmreichii were taken with typical
A. statices, notes that true heydeureichii is always " stouter than statices, its
392 BfclTlSH LEPlDOPTERA.
antennae longer and thicker, but, on the whole, not so much so as in var. cr
He also says (Hor. Soc.Ent.Ro/i*., vii., p. 101) that specimens were found in Attica,
on April 25th, and can only, on account of their deep blue colour, be referred here,
although the specimens are small (22-24 mm.). He also notes it as found by Erber, in
Corfu. In his Cat., p. 44, it is described as "far. major, al. ant. ceeruleis, al. post,
aterrimis," and is recorded from the " southern Alpine valleys, Hungary, south-east
Balkans, Bithynia, Armenia." Bachmetjew gives nr. Sofia, and Frey says that liey-
denreichii occurs at Siselen (tcste Ratzer), and south of Monte Rosa (teste Staudinger),
whilst Herrich-Schaffer gives Dalmatia, and Lederer mentions Mehadia, and
Carniola. Rambur says that Spanish specimens most resemble heydenreichii, sent
by Lederer to him as coming from Beyrout. Sand gives the hills of Crevant as a
locality, Gumppenburg mentions the Mangfall district, and Caradja notes Ciucorova.
d. ? var. crassicornis, Staud. — Of five specimens in Staudinger's collection, four
were obtained from Weissenborn (and were without exact locality), the fifth was
from Zeller, and labelled •• Livorno, Orient." The specimens measure, with the
exception of the very short-winged female, 30-32 mm. in wing expanse, are excep-
tionally robust, and have exceedingly thick antennae. The colour of the fore-wings
is of a very deep gold-green, the hind-wings blackish, with light green folds on the
upperside, and distinct green shading on the underside. Both Zeller and Mann, in
commenting on specimens from Messina and Palermo, mention the thick antennae,
and these might belong here ; so also might small specimens from Florence,
and others from Dalmatia. More material is required to form a satisfactory con-
clusion (Stett. Ent. Zeit., xxiii., p. 359). In his Cat., p. 44, Staudinger describes
it as " rar. crassior, anten. mult, crassioribus, al. ant. caarul.-viridibus. Sp.
Darwin. ? From southern Turkey and south-east Hungary." Kirby treats (Cat.
Lep. Het., p. 84) this as a distinct species, referring to Milliere, Ann. Soc. Ent.
France (6), v., p. 119, where it is recorded as occurring at St. Martin Lantosque, at
1,200 m.
e. var. minor, Evers. — Alae anticae viridi-aureae basi thoraceque cteruleis. In
campis Orenburgensibus (Fauna Lep. Volg.-Ural., p. 91).
f. var. uralensis, Grum-Grschimailo, " Hor. Ent. Ross.," xxvii., p. 385. —
Antennis capite corpore et alis anticis caeruleis. In montibus — ad Mijass anno 1888
collecta.
EGOS. — The eggs are laid in little masses of 20 or 30, regularly
placed and close together, side by side, sometimes, however, in rows of
four or five, arranged somewhat irregularly. They are oval in outline,
much depressed on the upper surface, bright yellow in colour, and very
delicate in appearance ; roughly furrowed or wrinkled longitudinally,
and covered over with a minute network of polygonal (? hexagonal) re-
ticulations. Horton says they are oval, rather flattened, and slightly
but irregularly ribbed longitudinally. Hellins states that each egg
is placed on its flat side, and is in form oblong and flattened, being
about '85 mm. long, -5 mm. wide, and *25 mm. deep, with the ends
rather rounded, and the upper side somewhat sunken. The shell is
wrinkled longitudinally, and rather shining ; the colour, at first, is light
yellow ; this becomes paler, and at last the head of the larva shows at
one end as a dusky spot. The larva frees itself by eating out one end,
but leaves the empty shell otherwise untouched. Eggs laid on June
9th, 1864, hatched on July 4th (Horton).
HABITS OF LARVA. — The habits of the larva of this species were
first studied by Horton, who discovered, in 1864, that the young larvae
mined in both the upper and under sides of sorrel leaves, some buried
far between the upper, and under epidermis of the leaf, others with
their tails out, and always trailing after them a thread of black
excrement. In 1865, Doubleday filled the brick pit of a hot-bed with soil,
planted it with Hume.v acetosa, and covered the soil between the plants
with moss. He placed eggs (laid by captured females) on the sorrel plants,
and soon had the satisfaction of seeing the young larvic " mining " the
leaves of the sorrel. With winter, the leaves died off, the larva? hid them-
ADSCITA STATlCES. 398
selves, and the pit was left open to the weather. In the spring of 1866
he could find no trace of them, until, on May 5th— a day of sunshine after
a night's frost — he was passing the pit at about 11 a.m. and saw about 20
larvae nearly full-fed, feeding close together and enjoying the sun.
By searching he then found a great many more. He then observed
that they ate the lower leaves of the sorrel, but was unable to find the
lame at large, although there must have been hundreds in the field
when the search was made. Hellins confirmed the statement that
the larvas, when very small, burrowed into the substance of the leaf,
although he never saw them quite hidden. He stated that they soon
made transparent blotches by eating away the under, and occasionally
the upper, epidermis of the leaf, leaving the skin on the other side
untouched and quite filmy, and they retained the habit of making
blotches until late autumn, when they hybernated, although they
often ate at this time quite through the substance of the leaf.
Moulting appears to be effected by means of an opening in the iront
of the old skin near the head.
LARVA. — Newly hatched (May 16th, 1898, parents from Auribeau,
nr. Cannes). Head black, polished, small and retractile. Body
short, slug-shaped, segments distinct, no subsegments indicated.
Tubercles single-haired, hairs very long, tapering, thorny, tubercular
bases very tall, dorsal tubercles i and ii placed trapezoidally on 2nd and
3rd thoracic and abdominal segments, and somewhat closely to-
gether, owing to narrowness of segments; hair-bases bulbed. The
supraspiracular, iii, consists of two tubercles, one of which, on the 1st
abdominal, carries two hairs, making three supraspiracular hairs on
this segment. The spiracles not distinguishable, but two subspiracular
tubercles below their normal position, and placed a short distance apart,
probably represent iv and v. The ground-colour, at first, pale yellow ;
the tubercles situated on slightly raised whitish skin areas, which have
an appearance of forming whitish bands, thus i and ii are on one band,
iii on another, and iv and v on another. The skin-surface is covered
with minute spicules. After 17 days the larva, still in first skin, presents
a dark medio-dorsal band, a subdorsal, and a faintly-marked lateral
one ; the areas between these are whitish, and raised into the cushions,
which carry the tubercles. June, 1898 : In the second skin the position
of the bands is similar, being brownish and better marked, the
tubercles, however, are now surrounded by a group of smaller ones ;
the primitive tubercles in i and ii can be distinguished by their greater
size, but they now form members of a single group. The spicules are
larger and distinct. Hairs tapering, thorny, grey or white in colour.
The head is completely retractile. The segmental incisions deeply cut.
The larva with a very Anthrocerid appearance. August llth : The larva,
in / fourth skin, slightly over one-quarter inch in length ; the medio-
dorsal line faint, white and narrow, bordered on either side by a
broad pink line, the whole making a broad pink dorsal band, with a faint
medio-dorsal line ; on either side of this band is a broad whitish sub-
dorsal band, the lateral area pink. The spiracles pale yellow, rather
raised above body surface, and forming a short, blunt tube. The
tubercles large, many-haired cushions or warts, i and ii united, iii
fairly large, circular, iv and v united, the marginal groups also united,
much smaller than preceding. Hairs stout at base, tapering to point, with
tall, swollen or bulbed bases, mostly white some black-tipped. Skin
394 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
covered with pittings, spicules disappeared, but some small black chitinous
warts scattered over surface, each .carrying from 3-5 short spikes on
their circumference. Head retractile, larva rolls up like an Anthrocerid
(Bacot). Hellins notes the neidy -hatched larva as being barely 1 mm.
in length, of a fat, stumpy, even figure. The trapezoidal dots are
placed on slanting raised tubercles, each dot bearing one long stiff
hair. The larva is yellow in colour, the small head looks as if yellow
beneath, with a glossy black tinge over it. A week later there is an
orange dorsal line, and in two weeks (after the first moult), the larva
instead of being yellow dorsally, is of a semi-translucent pale brownish
tint, with darker interrupted dorsal line, and outside the dorsal
tubercles a warm brown stripe, whilst the hairs are a little longer. In
another fortnight a second moult is passed, and, at the end of seven
weeks, the larvae are 5 mm. long, the skin set with little points, the
back pale yellow, the dorsal tubercles darker, the dorsal line dusky,
the lateral areas pale brown, with the large lateral tubercles pink.
When three and a half months old, the larvae are 7-8 mm. long, plump,
slightly fusiform, with the head small and retractile, the places of the
usual tubercular dots occupied by large tubercles set with short
bristles, the trapezoidals being united in a pair of transversely
elongated tubercles. The skin round the tubercles is set all over with
tiny branched points. The head is shining and blackish, the short
bristles are dirty-whitish, tipped with brown ; the little points on the
skin are shining black, the spiracles yellowish-brown, placed just
beneath the large lateral tubercles. Thefull-yroicn larca is described
by Barrett as being about three quarters of an inch in length.
The head is shining black, small and retractile ; the prothorax much
broader, with a dorsal corneous plate ; the body pale green, pale
yellow, pinkish, or dirty white ; the dorsal line pink, brownish or
composed of short brown dashes ; there is also a broad pink or greenish
lateral stripe, usually contrasting in colour with the upper part of the
body ; the raised spots very broad, forming flat plates, six on each
segment, each with a thin radiating fascicle of short, stiff bristle-
like hairs, tipped with brown, among which are a few longer, more
silky, whitish hairs, the raised spots themselves being pink, pinkish-
brown, or pale brown. Chapman says that the cuhdt larva is paler
dorsally, .darker laterally ; a large dorsal boss on each side carrying a
chevaux defrise of bristles, another on each side below these (supra-
spiracular), the bristles on these pale, with a clear area around each.
Below the supraspiracular tubercles are the spiracles, then a smaller
tubercle (or boss). The paler dorsal area is largely owing to the
larger clear space around the boss being free frem the minute black
points that stud the general surface. Each of these black points is
stellate. On the meso- and metathoracic segments, the supra-
spiracular is represented by two tubercles, the upper being a little the
more forward. The segments are rounded, the segmental incisions
deep.
VARIATION OF LARVA. — Hellins mentions three types of colouring
as existing among five autumn larvae. (1) With the back dirty
white ; the dorsal tubercles slightly brownish ; a dull pink dorsal
line ; the dorsal tubercles bordered on the outside with a scalloped
brown line, the large upper row of lateral tubercles rose-pink, the
two lower rows of small ones more brownish-pink. (2) With the
AbSCITA STATICES. 305
back yellow, slightly brownish dorsal tubercles ; lateral tubercles
pinkish, the lower ones brownish. (3) With the back pale yellowish,
the sides dusky, with very little tinge of pink. Five different forms of
the full-fed larva are figured (Larvae, etc., ii., pi. xviii., figs. 1-ld) by
Buckler.
COMPARISON OF LARVA OF A. STATICES WITH THAT OF A. GERYON. —
So far, I can well separate the larvae of A. staticts from those of A.
ijcrynn by their greater size, their very much brighter colouring, and
by the form of the dorsal line, which is not so decidedly a double
dark line with a pale centre (Hellins). In structure Hellins failed to
find any difference. He further adds that larvae of A. yeryon exhibit
less variation in colour than those of A. statices, and that they seem
more active than the larvae of the latter, unrolling themselves more
quickly, and walking off whilst under examination.
COCOON. — The larva of A. statices spins a thin, white, filmy, but
tough cocoon, which is attached to stems of plants close to the ground.
Chapman says that the cocoon is spun within a little loose outer silk,
white (or nearly so) in colour, that it is of a flattened ovoid shape,
with a flat, valvular opening, the edges closely drawn together at the
anterior end, and a small conical projection at the hinder end, into
which the cast larval skin is wedged ; the whole sufficiently flimsy to
allow the chrysalis within to be easily seen, but without detail.
PUPA. — Pale brown, rather transparent looking, and fairly uniform
in tint throughout, about 9 mm. in length, and 4 mm. in breadth ;
the depth from back to front is less, especially behind the wings, the
front being flattened, and more so the front of the free abdominal
segments ; it is broadest about the middle of the wings (2nd abdominal
segment). The head projects forward a little, with some trace of a
neck ; the maxillae and third pair of legs project conjointly beyond the
wings to nearly the extremity of the pupa ; the wings reach to the
5th abdominal segment. The wings and appendages are quite free
from the 4th abdominal segment, and apparently also from the first
three also, except a portion of the third ; these three segments are
closely covered by the appendages, and the first two do not appear to
•move on each other in any ordinary circumstances, and the wings,
especially, fit very closely the margins of abdominal segments 1 and 2,
and both these segments, where covered, are of very delicate cutaneous
structure ; still there appears to be no actual soldering of the ap-
pendages to these segments. The antennae, which are of the same
length as the wings, meet in the middle line, and so cover all the tarsi
of the second pair of legs, and the last joint of the tarsi of the first
pair. Between the maxillae and first pair of legs is a portion of the
first femur (or trochanter?). The spiracles are on a distinctly raised
fluted margin or flange along the abdominal segments ; this flange is,
indeed, a large element in the broad flattened character of the pupa.
In this respect, however, the pupa is not so exaggerately flattened as
the pupa of the American representatives of this group. As distin-
guished from the pupae of most groups of Lepidoptera, this pupa has
the spiracle of the first abdominal segment just visible behind the
wings, whilst the second, usually exposed, is beneath the wings, but
visible through them, owing to their transparency. Dorsally, there is
a narrow head-piece, broadest against the antennas, nearly evanescent
in the middle line. There are no obvious markings or hairs on the
396 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
thoracic or first two abdominal segments, but the abdominal segments
3-7 have each, along their dorsal margin, and terminating laterally
against the marginal flange, a row of spines. These are dark brown
in colour, almost black, are about 50 in number on each segment, and
are directed backwards from the top of a somewhat raised ridge, which
may be regarded, however, as the bases of the spines. The spines
vary a little in size, but without any very definite order, and
are rather larger midway between the dorsum and the side. On
the 8th abdominal segment is a similar row, but smaller, owing
to the smallness of the segment, and terminating at about the
same point in the segment, though the lateral flange terminates
on the previous segment ; a still.srnaller row is found on the 9th ab-
dominal segment. The remainder of the 8th, 9th and 10th abdominal
segments is smooth, except the median cicatrices on 9 and 10.
These three segments in the pupa described are fused together, the
individual being a male. It is noticeable that the bases of the
maxilke, instead of forming a nearly transverse line, extend upwards
in the middle line, so that the grooves between them and the cheeks
are in line (inwards) with the groove on the other side, between the
cheeks and clypeus, forming a St. Andrew's cross, the centre just
below the labium. Similarly the external angle extends upwards as
well as outwards, nearly reaching the antennae, and is a distinct trace
of the base of the maxillary palpi (Chapman, in lift., June 8th, 1897).
DEHISCENCE. — In dehiscence, the antenna-cases remain attached
to the head, but free throughout their length. The third pair of legs
are quite separate, and the wings are separate from the other appen-
dages, but the head, eyes and other front appendage-cases remain
soldered together. The dorsal head-piece remains attached to the
1st thoracic segment, but free from the eye-covers. The dorsal slit
extends backwards nearly to the posterior margin of the metathorax.
The appendages are now obviously free from the first abdominal
segment (Chapman).
FOOD-PLANT. — Humex acetosa. [Reputed also, by Kaltenbach, to
feed on Helianthewum vtdyare (= food-plant of A. yeryon), lluwe.i-
acetosella, Centaurea scabiosa (food-plant of //. globvlariae), Globiilaria
vulyaris. Milliere says "many low plants," and gives Oistus salri-
foliits as food of the larva of the var. micam. We found this form
near Cannes (on Milliere's own ground), in April, 1898, obtained eggs,
larvse from which fed in most approved fashion on li. acetosa. The
imago sits on Cistus flowers, and probably this misled Milliere.]
HABITS AND HABITAT. — Meadows and pastures, especially on the
outskirts, of woods, are the favourite haunts of this species. Forty
years ago it was abundant in Hammersmith marshes (Taylor). On
the Sussex Downs it is found in a sheltered valley known as Oxsteddle
Bottom, but this locality is very unlike its usual meadow haunts, and
in Guernsey it is confined to patches a few yards square on the southern
cliffs ; near Brighton it is found in Hollingbury Combe, a place over-
grown with long tangled grass, whilst about three miles from Gloucester
it occurs in a damp vale abounding in sorrel. In the New Forest it
occurs on the railway bank, and at Chingford it frequents a low-lying
damp field at the back of the " Woodman," and settles here (as else-
where) on the flowers of Lychnis Jios-cuculi. At Hemsby, near Yar-
mouth, it is found on the sand-hills, which are covered with marram
ADSCITA STATICES. 897
grass, sea-buckthorn and blackberry. At York it is found on rough
grassy fields about Strensall Common, at Bramshall, in a damp meadow
near a small stream, whilst at Hartley Wintney, also, it occurs in a
boggy meadow by the side of a river. 'A swampy meadow by a
running stream of fresh water is its haunt at Rainham (Essex), but at
Brentwood it has been found on a common occupying the highest
ground in the district, and at Kingsbury it still exists on a narrow
stretch of common land by the roadside. In Owston Woods it occurs
in the glades, and in a field outside the wood ; at Madeley, in a field of
mowing grass, near Walton's Wood, whilst at Abbott's Wood its home
is in a marshy meadow surrounded by the wood, and at Enniskillen it
haunts the grassy margin of a lake. In Roxburgshire, Elliott finds it
flying plentifully in the sunshine, on the grassy bank of a burn side.
At Loch Nell, near Oban, it is taken in an open grassy spot in a wood,
whilst the Hon. Miss E. Lawless found it very common on the Clare
coast, on the same ground as Antkroccra incr/nii-alif (miiwa). Atmore
obtains it at King's Lynn, by sweeping and searching flowers of Scaliiosa
fiuceixa and Trifoliuni prateme, whilst Borkhausen says that Linne
named the insect statices because he found the imagines common on
flowers of Statice anneria.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — In early seasons this species flies in May.
In 1893 it was recorded at Llandogo as early as April 25th, we found
it at Chattenden (Kent) on May 20th, 1893, and it was passe by May
27th, but June 3rd-10th are the average dates for this locality. In
1888, a late year, the species was out until late in July. Zeller
states that in the Glogau Stadwald, on July 31st, 1863, this species
was swarming on the flowers of Armeria vuli/aris, in the burn-
ing sunshine. In the same year Zeller had found worn specimens
towards the end of June, in the same locality, whilst in other years
he had met with specimens as late as August. The same observer
records the species at Meseritz, on May 29th, 1869. Chapman found
it at Saeterstoen. in fine condition, from June 30th-July 2nd, 1898,
and we took it ourselves between April 13th-20th, 1898, at Auribeau,
nr. Cannes. Reisen notes it at Warnicken, in July 1877, but near
Cranz,in East Prussia, on May 29th-31st, 1882, and Fuchs, as occurring
at Oberursel at the end of May, becoming abundant by June 1st.
Hofmann says it occurs throughout June and July, in the Upper
Harz, and that it flies at dusk with Hepialus huinuli. Zapater and
Korb give it as occurring in July in the Spanish province of Teruel.
Lifton writes that, on June 5th, 1896, at Upton St. Leonards, a
few specimens only were seen in the early afternoon, but about
5.20 p.m. a swarm appeared to rise from the grass, and hundreds
could have been taken. F. H. Day also notices that at Carlisle it
flies more freely either at, or shortly before, sunset. We have obtained
the following dates :— June 18th-30th, 1856, June 14th, 1859, at Hol-
lingbury Combe (Image), June 2nd-3rd, 1857, at Dorking (Trimen),
June 7th, 1857, at West Wickham (Healy), June 9th, 1857, at
Acton Fields (Bird), May, 1859, at Loch Nell, nr. Oban (Thomson),
June 14th-20th, 1859, at Shorncliffe (Rogers), June 4th, 1860, at
Maltby Wood (Batty), July 3rd, 1861, at Worcester (Edmunds), June
2nd, 1864, at Worcester (Horton), May 19th, 1868, at Cirencester
(Harmer), June 25th, 1869, at Folkestone (Ullyett), May 29th, fine,
June 8th, worn, 1874, at Guernsey (Luff), June 4th, 1883, at Mans-
39H BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
field (Wright), June 10th, 1883, at Buislip (Melvill), June 14th, 1885,
at Cork (Sandford), June 17th, 1887, at Ely (Archer), June 6th,
1888, June 4th-9th, 1889, at Hartley Wintney (Robertson), June
17th-21st, 1889, in Isle of Purbeck (Bankes), June 14th, 1883, June
12th, 1884, June 15th, 1885, June 28th, 1894, June 3rd, 1897,
June 6th, 1898, in Guernsey (Lowe), July 2nd-6th, 1885, July 5th,
1886, June 22nd, 1889, June 21st-25th, 1892, July 1st, 1891, at
Strensall Common, May 30th, 1895, at Wheatley Wood (Hewett),
June llth, 1887, June 4th-26th, 1890, July 2nd, 1892, May 22nd-
27th, 1893, at Chattenden (Tutt), June 15th, 1888, May 31st-June
13th, 1889, June 16th, 1890, at Mill Hill (James), June 22nd, 1887,
June 30th, 1891, at Cliffe Hillt June 13th, 1891, at Abbott's Wood
(W. E. Nicholson), June 20th, f885, June 12th, 1886, June 14th,
1887, June 8th-July 29th, 1889, June 20th, 1891, June 4th, 1892,
at Chattenden (Fenn), June 8th- July 9th, 1889, July 3rd, 1890,
June 22nd, 1891, May 80th, 1893, at Hayton Moss (Routledge),
June 19th, 1889, at Brentwood, June 7th, 1895, at Rainham (Bur-
rows), June 8th, 1890, at Calcot, June 18th, 1891, at Wokingham,
June 2nd, 1890, June 16th, 1891, worn, atBramhill, May 27th, 1895,
at Degmersfield Park, Odiham (Holland), June 14th-21st, 1891, June
14th, 1892, June 5th, 1896, at Upton St. Leonards, June 13th,
1897, at Painswick (Lifton), June 16th, 1891, at Bramshill (Clarke),
May until June 20th, 1891, at Willesden (Adye), June 17th, 1891,
June llth, 1892, June 9th, 1895, at Chattenden (Bristowe), June
4th, 1891, worn, June llth, 1892, at Epping, June 22nd, 1895, worn,
May 29th, 1897, at Broxbourne (Bayne), June 20th, 1891, common,
at Grassington (Rowntree), June 2nd, 1892, at Abbott's Wood (Porritt),
April 25th, 1893, at Llandogo (Nesbitt), May 19th, 1893, at Enniskillen
(Partridge), May 22nd, 1893, at Northwood (South), May 27th, 1893,
June 21st, 1894, at Chingford (Prout), May 31st, 1893, at Forest Gate
(Mera), May 28th-81st, 1893, worn, June 8th-20th, 1894, at Enniskillen
(E. W. Brown), May 13th, 1893, June 2nd, 1894, June 15th, 1895, at
Chingford (Bloomfield), May 20th, 1893, abundant, at Surbiton, June
29th, 1898, worn, June 6th, 1896, June 27th, 1897, worn, atOwston,
June 6th, 1897, abundant in New Forest (Kaye), June 16th, 1894, in
Epping Forest (C. Nicholson), June 28th, 1894, June 10th, 1896, at
Legsby, June 27th, 1894, June 15th-18th, 1895, at Linwood, June 2nd,
1896, at Langworth, June 15th, 1896, at Hatton (Raynor), June 8th-20th,
1894, June 10th, 1894, June 28th, 1896, June 27th, 1897, nr. King's
Lynn (Glenny), in early July, 1895, on path, at Forest Hill (Helps),
June 23rd, 1895, at Loughgilly, nr. Poyntzpass (Johnson), June 15th,
1895, June 20th, 1896, June 27th, 1897, at Owston Wood (Dixon), May
25th, 1896, at Mallow (Newland), June llth, 1896, nr. Strensall,
June 18th, 1897, nr. York (S. Walker), June llth, 1896, at Sandburn,
(Ash), end of May, 1896, nr. Barmouth (Blagg), June 23rd, 1896,
worn, at Mill Hill (H. Williams), June 17th, 1897, nr. Harrow
(Rothschild), June 12th, 1897, at Carlisle (F. Day), June 22nd, 1897,
at Theydon Bois (Garland), July 29th, 1890, at Dursley, worn, June
10th-24th, 1895, June 20th-29th, 1897, at Owston (Bouskell). Pritt-
witz records it as double-brooded at Brieg, in Silesia, almost certainly
an error, although others have made the same suggestion.
LOCALITIES. — ARQYLE: Loch Nell, nr. Oban (Intell., vi., 182), Edlean Righ,
Sound of Jura (Vaughan). BERKS: Wokingham, Calcot (Holland), Newbury
ADSCITA STATICES. biJ9
(Kimber), Reading (Hamm). BUCKS : (Slade), Halton (Stainton). CAMBS : Ely
(Archer), Boxworth (Thornhill). CHESHIRE : Delamere (Walker), Knutsford
(Harrison). CLARE: Coast district (Lawless). CORK: Bandon, nr. Longfield
(Kane), Cork (Sandford), Mallow (Newland), Skibbereen (Wolfe). CUMBERLAND :
Keswick (Warne), Cockermouth (Robinson), Hayton Moss, Wreay and Burgh
(Routledge), Carlisle (Day), Lake District (Stainton). DERBYSHIRE: Milton
(Garneys), Ashbourne, Burton-on-Trent and Stanton (Harris). DEVON : Exeter.
DORSET: Hod Hill, nr. Shillingstone (Fowler), Purbeck (Bankes), Dorchester
(Stainton). ? DUMFRIESSHIRE. DURHAM: Darlington (Sang), Gibside (Robson), nr.
Durham (Wood). ESSEX: Chingford (Bellamy), Theydon Bois (Garland), Epping
(Stainton), Brentwood and Rainham (Burrows), Loughton. FERMANAGH : Ennis-
killen (Partridge). GALWAY: Galway (Kane), Woodlawn (Allen), Ardorhau (Kane).
GLAMORGAN: Penllergare and Swansea (Llewelyn). GLOUCESTER: Lower Guiting
and Bristol (Stainton), nr. Gloucester (Marsden), Tewkesbury (Fox), Stonehouse
(Nash), Cheltenham (Trye), Lydney (Higgs). Cirencester (Harrison), Upton St.
Leonards, Newnham and Painswick (Lifton). HANTS: Bramshill, Odiham
(Holland), New Forest (Kaye), Basingstoke (Hamm), Ampneld (Hewett), Purbrook
(Pierce), Bramsfield (Clarke), Hartley Wintney (Robertson), Lyndhurst (Oakley).
HEREFORD: Leominster (Hutchinson). HEBTS : Knebworth (Durrani), Hertford
(Stephens), Shenley and Broxbourne (Bayne). INVERNESS : Lochaber Loch (Lennon).
KENT: West Wickharn (Simson), Chatham (Tyrer), Chattenden (Bristowe),
Folkestone (Ullyett), Tunbridge Wells (Browne), Shorncliffe (Rogers), Forest Hill
(Helps). LANCASHIRE: Crosby and Hale Marsh (Gregson), Chat Moss (Chappell),
railway bank nr. Chorley (Hodgkinson), Warrington (Cooke), Preston and
Manchester (Stainton). LEICESTER : Gumley (Matthews), Owston (Kaye), Leicester
(Stainton). LINCOLN : Pelham Woods (Boult), Hatton, Legsby, Linwood and
Langsvorth (Raynor). MERIONETH: nr. Barmouth (Blagg). MIDDLESEX: Stan-
more Common (L. Newman), Enfield and Sewardstone (Edleston), Willesden
(Wormald), Acton (Bird), Ruislip (Melvill), Kingsbury (Bond), Headstone Spinney
(Rhoades-Smith), Harrow Weald and Pinner (Brown), between Rickmansworth and
Northwood, Mill Hill (South), Old Oak Common (Godwin), Harefield (Wall).
MONAGHAN : Drumreaske and other places (Kane). ? MORAYSHIRE. MONMOUTH : Wye
Valley (Nesbitt). MONTGOMERY : Machynlleth (Alington). NORFOLK : King's
Lynn (Atmore), Hemsby, nr. Yarmouth (Pitman). NOTTS : Mansfield (Daws).
OXFORD: Oxford (Stainton). ROXBURGH (Elliott). RUTLAND: Uppingham (Bell).
SHROPSHIRE: Hampton, nr. Bridgenorth (Harrison). SLIGO: Markree Castle,
(Kane). SOMERSET: Weston-super-Mare (Head), Clevedon (Mason). STAFFORD:
Leycett Meadows, nr. Madeley (Daltry). SUFFOLK : Mildenhall, Barton Mills,
Tuddenham, Needham, Kesgrave, Leiston, Worlingham (Bloomfield), Stowmarket
(Stainton). SURREY: Reigate (De Mattos), Surbiton (Kaye), Dorking, Headley
Lane (Trimen). SUSSEX: Hollingbury Combe (Image), Bible Bottom, nr. Lewes
(Unwin), Hailsham (Fox), Long Meadow, nr. Abbott's Wocd (Porritt), Brighton
(Stainton), Tilgate Forest (Jenner). WARWICK: Knowle (Bradley), Birmingham
(Green), Farnboro (Lifton), Coombe Valley, nr. Rugby (Longstaff). WESTMEATH:
Cromlyn (Battersby), Killynon (Kane). WESTMORLAND: Orton (Routledge). WICK-
LOW : Wicklow (Bristow). WILTS: Marlborough (Maddock). WORCESTER : Wyre
Forest (Abbott), Worcester (Horton). YORKS : Grassington and Aysgarth (Rown-
tree), Barnsley, Doncaster, Leeds, Horsforth, Martin Beck, Snaith,- Wakefield and
York (Porritt), Sandburn (Ash), Redmire, Wheatley Wood and Strensall Common
(Hewett), Kilnsey Crag (Butterfield), Maltby Wood, nr. Sheffield (Batty). The
species probably occurs in suitable localities in almost all parts of the British
Islands.
DISTRIBUTION. — Asia Minor: The Taurus nits., Giilek (Rober). Persia
(North) (Meyrick). Syria: Beyrout (Lederer). Austria: very abundant
in Upper Austria (Himsl), Salzburg (Nickerl), Lower Austria, com-
mon, Buda, Mehadia, Vienna (Staudinger),Carniola(Scopoli), Patscher-
kofel, nr. Innsbruck, at 5,000 ft., Heiligenblut at 4,500 ft. (Speyer).
Belgium : Brussels (Breyer). Bulgaria : nr. Sofia (Bachmetjew). Chan-1"
nel Islands : Guernsey (Luff) . Denmark : general and common (Reuter) .
France : Fonfcainebleau (Tutt), nr. Paris, Montmorency (Godart),
Depts. of Maas, Moselle, Meurthe, Doubs, Puy-de-D6me, Savoy
(Speyer) Nohant, Sologne, St. Florent, Gueret, Clermont, Royat
(Sand), Cannes, Basses-Alpes (Milliere), Digne (Staudinger), St.
400 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEEA.
Martin Lantosquc, Burgundy (Constant), Auribeau, nr. Cannes
(Tutt). Germany: generally distributed (Kayser), Bavaria (Freyer),
Baden (Reutti), Eastern Prussia, common (Halffler), Schwarzwalde at
4,000ft. (Speyer), Brieg, Silesia, (Assmann), Tannenwald, Nonnen-
bruch, Hardt, banks of tbe Wiese, Dorneck (Peyerimboff), Oberursel
in Bbine Valley (Fuchs), Cranz, nr. Konigsberg, Warnicken (Reisen),
Upper Hartz (A. Hofmann), Thuringia (Knapp), Pomerania, Stettin
(Hering). Greece: Karpinisi, in Attica (Staudinger), Corfu (Erber).
Italy : very common in north and central, common in southern, Italy,
Italian Tyrol, mountains of Lombardy, Sicily (Curo), Piedmont, Liguria,
Tuscany, Naples (Speyer). Netherlands : in most provinces (Snellen).
Roumania (Caradja). Russia : generally distributed (Erschoff), Kasan,
Orenburg, Saratov (Eversmann), St. Petersburg, Livonia, Caucasus to
6,000 ft. (Speyer), Finland to 64° N. lat. (Renter), generally distributed
in Baltic provinces (Nolcken). Scandinavia: common in southern parts
of Sweden and Norway, extending to 62° N. lat. (Renter), as far
north as Helsingland and Oesterbotten (Aurivillius), Angermanland
(Triigardh), Helleberg (Lampa), Saeterstoen (Chapman), Dovrefjeld,
Christiania (Wallengren), Ringerige, Edsberg, Solder, Hedmarken,
etc. (Siebke), Westmannland (Fredrichs), rare in Lapland, Tornea,
Upland, Gottland, etc. (Zetterstedt). Spain: Granada (Rambur),
Province of Teruel (Zapater and Korb). Switzerland : Basle, Weissbad
(Peyerimhoffj, Zermatt, Grisons, Upper Engadine (Frey), Tarasp
(Killias), Davos (Huguenin), Bergiin (Zeller), Canton St. Gallon,
Toggenburg, Appenzell (Tiischler), Glarus (Heer), Berne, Engstlen, at
5,715 ft., Visp (Jaggi), Schaffhausen (Trapp), Zurich, Winterthur
(Biedermann), Bremgarten (Boll), Aargau, Engelberg, Aarau, Lenz-
burg (Wullschlegel), Lugano (Meyer-Diir), Visp Valley (Jordan).
ADSCITA GERYON, Hiibner.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Geryon, Hb., " Eur. Schmett.," ii., figs. 130-1 (? 1818) ;
H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," ii., p. 28 (as statices, var.) (1845) ; Led., " Ver. zool.-bot.
Ges. Wien," ii., p. 103 (1852) ; Speyer, " Geog. Verb. Schmett.," p. 358 (1858) ;
Staud., " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xxiii.. p. 354 (1862) ; " Cat.," p. 45 (1871) ; Sta. and
• Stand., " Ent. Ann.." 1864, p. 103 ; Newm., " Zool.," 1863, pp. 8403 and 8694 ; " Brit.
Moths., "p. 472 (? 1809); Sta., " Ent. Ann.," 1864, p. 122; "Ent. Ann.," 1866,
p. 19; Curo, "Bull. Soc. Ent. Ital.," vii., p. 193 (1875); Sand, "Cat. Lep.
Auv.," p. 22 (1879) ; Kirby, " Eur. Butts.," etc., p. 87 (1879); "Cat. Lep. Het.."
i., p. 85 (1892) ; " Handbook," etc., Hi., p. 99 (1897) ; Buckler, "Larvae," etc., ii.,
p. 91 (1887) ; Auriv., "Nord. Fjar.," p. 52 (1888) ; Hofmn,, " Die Gross-Schmett.,"
p. 33 (1887) ; " Die Kaupen," etc., p. 35 (1893); Barr., "Lep. Brit.," ii., p. 115
(1894) ; Meyr., " Handbook," etc., p. 449 (1895) ; Tutt, " Brit. Moths," p. 351
(1896). Statices, Ochs. et Treit., " Schmett. Eur.," iv., p. 163, in part (1816) ;
Dup.. " Cat. Meth.," p. 53, in part (1844) ; Speyer, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," 1859, p. 29 ;
Frey, " Lep. der Schweiz," p. 43, in part (1880). Chrysocephala, Nickerl, " Stett.
Ent. Zeit.," 1845, p. 93; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," ii., p. 28 (1845) ; Freyer. " Neu.
Beitriige," v., p. 126 (1845) ; Led., "Ver. zool-bot. Ges. Wien," ii., p. 102 (1852) ;
Staud., " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xxiii., p. 356 (1862) ; Zell., " Stett. Ent. Zeit.,"
xxxviii., p. 317 (1877), et Auct. 1'enuicornis, Edmunds, "Ent. Week. Intell.,"
1860, p. 196.
DESCRIPTION OF ORIGINAL, FIGURES. — Fig. 130.— $. Fore-wings
bronzy-green ; hind-wings dark grey ; thorax and abdomen green ;
antennae pectinated, blunt at tip. Fig. 131. — J . Fore-wings more
-bronzy-green than those of male, hind-wings dark grey ; thorax and
abdomen bronzy ; antenna? simple, blunt towards tip (Hiibner, Eur.
Schmett., ii., figs. 130-131).
IMAGO. — Anterior wings 18 mm, — 24 mm, in expanse ; bronzy-
ADSCITA GERYON. 401
green in colour. Posterior wings smoky-black ; all the wings short
and stumpy. The antenna} slightly thickened near the tip, more
serrated in the male than in the female. [Much smaller than its British
allies, and both sexes of almost equal size.]
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The sexes are much more nearly equal than
in our other British Adscitids. The males average from 22-24 mm.,
the females about 18-75 mm. in expanse. The smallest males are
sometimes only as large as the largest females.
GYNANDROMORPHISH. — A specimen of this species is recorded
(Slater, Entow., vol. xxix., p. 215) as being captured at Wansford,
Northants, on June 1st, 1896, that had the right side with longer
wings, and with a pectinated antenna, the left side with shorter wings,
and an almost simple antenna.
VARIATION. — The sexes of this species are very nearly equal in
size, although Fuchs mentions that he took among many typical
specimens, at Lennig, one as large as A. statices. The colour varies
from bronze-green to blue-green, the latter form being comparatively
rare. The specimens may be classified as : (1) Golden- or bronzy-
green (type). (2) Deep green (ab. riridis, n. ab.). (8) Blue-green
(ab. caerulea, n. ab.). Staudinger recognises two local forms of the
species :
a. var. chrysocephala, Nick. - Atychia thorace, abdomine, alisque anticis
coeruleo-viridibus, posticis fuscis, antennis valde pectinatis, capite auro-micante.
Half the size of A. statices. Discovered on high-lying meadows, the Pasterze
(Upper Carinthia) ; inhabits high alps in Carinthia up to 7,000 ft., common nr.
Salzburg (Stett. Ent. Zeit., 1845, p. 93).
This has always been looked upon as a mountain insect, and by many
Continental authors considered a distinct species from A. gei-yon, by
others as a mountain form of A. statices. Staudinger notes it in his
Cat. p. 45, as " var. minor ; highest Alps of Carinthia and Switzer-
land." Speyer considers it as an alpine or subalpine insect, and
gives as localities Heiligenblut, 5,500-8,000 ft. ; Andermatt, 4,500 ft. ;
Miirren, 5,000-5,500 ft. Zeller says, it appears in late June-July, and
at moderate elevations in August ; he found it abundantly at
Siala, and in the meadows between Latsch and Stulo. Frey, who
considered it as a mountain form of A. statices, says that the name was
given in error, a red-headed specimen never being seen in nature,
and notes it as occurring in the high alps of the Engadine, and at
Zermatt, at 8,000 ft. and over. Curo notes it from the Italian Alps,
and Reutti from Nassau, whilst Fedtschenko records it from Naubid, in
Central Asia, between 4,500-8,000 ft., on June 9th. The only difference
there may be between the mountain and lowland forms is the slightly
smaller size of the former, but even this is doubtful in a long series.
j3. ? var. anceps, Staud.— Of the same size as A. geryon, but its antennae
decidedly longer and somewhat stouter. The fore-wings are much more densely
scaled, very shiny, green, with golden gloss. The hind-wings less transparent,
blacker. The black inner marginal angle is also, in most examples, very strongly
developed. The two females not smaller than the males (Stett. Ent. Zeit.,
xxiii., p. 355).
Staudinger notes that he has this form only from Brussa, and is
inclined to consider it distinct from A. i/eryon. Lederer remarks that
he once received from Brussa a consignment of A. t/eryon, which
may have been the insect in question. On the other hand, other
specimens were referred by Lederer to obscura, Zell., although (teste
Staudinger) some only were dull examples, and others shiny green
z
402 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEBA.
like the anceps, described above. It may be that Lederer's obscura
were, in part, anceps, Staud.
COMPARISON OF A. GERYON AND A. STATICES. — A. yeryon is much less
than A. statices, the two sexes of the former being much more nearly of
the same size than are those of the latter. Compared with those of A.
statices, the antennae of A. yeryon are shorter and stouter in the male ;
the fore-wings green, more or less glossed with gold, rarely blue. The
hind-wings are more transparent than those of A. statices, and so
appear somewhat blacker.
EGG. — The eggs are sometimes deposited singly, but more often
in little patches of five or six, placed generally side by side in two
rows. The egg is, according to IJuckler, " just like that of A. xtatin'*,
but, perhaps, a trifle smaller ; it is also yellow in colour." Chapman
states, however, that the egg of A. yeryon is larger than those of A.
statices and R. ylobulariae. Hellins says that eggs laid between July
lst-5th began to hatch on July 15th. Horton had eggs laid on June
17th, 1864, these hatched on July 20th.
HABITS OF LARVA. — The larva hatches during July, and feeds on
rock-rose (HeliantJienntm vulyare), gnawing at first the surface of a
flower-bud or leaf. It then burrows into the leaf, and eats out a little
blotch, although the larva never seems to insert more than half of
its body into its burrow. This mining habit of the young larva was first
discovered by Horton in 1864. When about a month old the larvas
eat away patches from the underside of the leaves, leaving the upper
skin untouched. The hybernated larva may be found in May on
Helianthemiim. The full-grown larvae eat the whole substance of a
leaf, or even the tender stem of a twig, and, like A. statices, this species
feeds best in the sunshine. A larva which Hellins tried with sorrel
refused to eat. Edmunds found larvae, pupae (about 100), and imagines
on May 22nd, 1863, the larvae on Helianthe»ni)ii ; these also refused
sorrel. Horton records finding A. yeryon as larva, pupa and imago
on the same day (May 18th, 1864). The larvae are usually full-fed
in May (sometimes in April). Buckler notes them as commencing to
spin May 2nd, 1863, whilst larvae sent to him on April 19th, and May
10th, 1886, began to make their cocoons towards the end of May, although
three did not do so until June 25th. Horton could see no difference
between the eggs and young larvae of A. yeryon and A. statices, but the
larvae of the former would not eat sorrel (Rumex acetosa) nor those of
the latter, Helianthemum. Newman's statement (Zool., xxi., p. 8694),
that, not having Helianthemum, he " gave the larvae Rumex acetosella, on
which they arrived at maturity," therefore, requires confirmation,
especially as in Brit, Moths, p. 472, he contradicts this statement,
and says " that the food-plants of A. statices and A. yeryon are totally
different, that of the common Forester (A. statices) being 11. acetoxella."
Nicholson found the larva of A. yeryon in the Coombe (Lewes) on
May 13th, 1885 ; it commenced to spin on May 25th.
LARVA. — We are indebted to Chapman for our knowledge of the
structure of ihenewly-hatched larva. Each segment has trapezoidal tuber-
cles (i, ii), with hairs having globular, jointed bases. As in the larva
of n. ylobulariae, the trapezoidals on either side are conjoined, to
some extent, into one tubercle, though the hairs are distinct. The
tubercles are also, even, united somewhat by a slightly raised base,
with those of the opposite side. Although the spines representing
ADSCITA GERYON. 408
the anterior and posterior trapezoidals are close together on each
side, those of the one side are widely separated from those on the
other. There are also a supraspiracular and a subspiracular tubercle
on each segment, each with a simple spine. The dorsal hairs
of the prothoracic and mesothoracic segments are without globules,
but on the metathorax the hair in line with the supraspiracular
tubercles has a globule. There is another simple hair beneath this,
and another lower down in line with the spiracles. The prolegs
have 8-4 hooks (usual number 4). The anal plate is very finely
spinous. The hairs of the anterior trapezoidals bear 10 rings of
very fine spines, those of the posterior, 10 or 11, whilst those of the
supraspiracular tubercles have 18 similar rings of minute spines.
Hellins says that the newly-hatched larva is just over 1 mm. in length,
very stumpy, yellow, with small black head. The trapezoidals are
combined in two large transverse tubercles, each tubercular dot bear-
ing one bristle. When five weeks old the larvae are about 3 mm. long,
their tubercles set with fascicles of short bristles, the larger individuals
having an edging of dull purplish to the dirty whitish dorsal area,
whilst the skin around the tubercles is set with tiny black points.
At three months old they are 5 mm. long, very plump, the back quite
white ; the dorsal tubercles slightly brownish, a distinct double dorsal
line of a dull claret colour, the scalloped line which borders the back
deep purplish, the large lateral warts, dull claret-coloured, bordered
below with a whitish line, then comes a deeper claret line, then
another whitish line, and the two lower rows of tubercles are brownish-
pink. After hybernation the larvro grow at very different rates, some
becoming full-grown much more rapidly than others. The full-
yrown larva is about 12 mm. long, somewhat fusiform, being stoutest
at the abdominal segments 5 and 6. The head glossy-black, small,
retractile into the prothorax, which is smaller than the remaining
segments. The segmental incisions well marked. On the meso-
thorax, metathorax, and the first eight abdominal segments are eight
rows of large raised tubercles, those on the back being elongated
transversely ; all are set with fine short bristles ; the skin between is
set with tiny hard stellate dots with five or six points, but these do
not extend below the spiracles. The prothorax has a blackish dorsal
plate with a yellowish edge in front. The dorsal tubercles are
either dingy white or pale yellow, with a double dorsal line of
purplish-brown enclosing a whitish thread. The back is bordered
with a claret-coloured wavy line, below which comes a wide reddish-
brown stripe, bearing the row of large lateral tubercles of the same
colour, but narrowly outlined with pale flesh-colour. This reddish-
brown stripe extends to just below the spiracles, which are of the
same colour, round, and finely ringed with black ; next comes a stripe
of pale flesh colour, bearing a row of tubercles of the same colour,
but outlined with brown, then a stripe of brown, then the lowest row
of tubercles of paler brown. The ventral area is of a dingy flesh-
colour, the true legs with blackish rings, the prolegs yellowish ; the
bristles dirty whitish with blackish tips.
COCOON. — The cocoon is generally spun low down among moss at the
roots of the food-plant, sometimes attached to the stem of the latter. It
is a tough, webby structure (not stout or papery in texture), somewhat
fusiform in shape, about 12 mm. long, and 5 mm. at its widest part.
404 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
In colour itis of a dirty grey, with a slight yellowish tinge. Gardner says
the cocoon is white, and spun amongst rnoss at the roots of the food-plant.
Edmunds found above 100 cocoons on May 22nd, 1863, spun up
among Hypnwn triquetnun, and remarks that they were attached only to
moderately grown plants of this moss, neither the very long nor
very short moss giving any cocoons.
PUPA. — The pupa of A. geryon is described by Hellins as being
about 9 mm. long, fusiform, the head small, the abdomen plump, the
eye- and antenna-cases well-developed, the wing-cases long and free
at the edge, the tongue-case reaching nearly to the anal segment, and
free beyond the edge of the wing-cases, with one pair of legs parallel,
nearly as long, and also free ; the'« anal segment rounded. A trans-
verse row of small points on the front edge of the back of each of the
abdominal segments. The colour of a deep shining olive on the wings
and head, the abdomen being more bronzy.
PARASITES. — Apanteles fferyonis, Marshall, bred by Messrs. Hutchin-
son and J. E. Robson, Linmcria fulciventris, Gmelin, and Apanteles
nothus, Eeinhard (Bignell).
FOOD-PLANTS. — Helianthemum vulyare (Weir, Hellins), H. cliamae-
cistus (Aurivillius). [Newman gives Rum ex acetosella, but Edmunds,
Horton and Hellins deny this as a food-plant.]
HABITS AND HABITAT. — The species was introduced into the British
lists as Procris tenuicomis in 1859, by Edmunds, who took specimens
in Worcestershire, flying on limestone ridges (Intell. , vol. vii., p. 196).
Doubleday then received specimens from Brighton resembling P.
tenuicomis from Dalmatia, but Guenee referred these to the A. yen/on
of Hiibner (A. chrysocfphala of later authors). The Brighton and
Worcester specimens were considered to be identical (Intell., vol. viii.,
pp. 21-22), and the distinction of the species from A. staticc* was
determined by Edmunds and Horton, who discovered the larva on the
Malvern Hills. On the Continent it is generally considered a mountain
species, and is generally known from the higher Alps, under the name
of chrytocephala, but it also occurs at lower levels (in the Rhine Valley,
in dry places near Vienna, etc.). The fact is, the species appears
to be confined to chalk and limestone districts where its food-plant
grows, and, where suitable spots occur, the elevation matters little.
Thus it occurs at low levels in the Rhine valley as with us, but owing
to most of the entomologically best known limestone districts on
the continent being among the mountains, it has become better known
from these districts than elsewhere. In Sussex, near Lewes, A.
f/ery on frequents a dry sunny bank on the downs, facing due
south, with extensive patches of Helianthemum vulgare, on which
the larva has been found (W. E. Nicholson) ; near Winchester, on
the side of a hill, on the banks bounding a large hollow known
as the Devil's Punch Bowl (Broome). It occurs over a wide range
of the Cotswolds, being especially abundant about five miles from
Gloucester ; some years (1896) it is abundant, in others (1897) com-
paratively rare (Merrin). At Dursley, the males fly among the long
grass in hundreds, the females hide among the grass (Griffiths) ; on
the open downs of the Cotswolds (Todd) ; above Gloucester (on the
Cotswolds) it flies in a woodland glade, about 700 ft. above the sea,
on the Inferior Oolite formation, and on the hills above the Stad
Valley, in an upland ancient lane (Watkins). Along the hills lying
ADSC1TA GERYON. 405
between Painswick and Cooper's Hill, round to Birdlip, it occurs in
grassy spots, whilst the hairy larva? have been captured in numbera
at the back of the Royal William Inn, at Cranham (Merrin). In
the Derbyshire dales, it loves the slopes of the limestone valleys,
flying slowly in the sun, and settling on flowers (Sheldon). At
Witherslack it occurs on the grassy slopes of a limestone hillside ;
around Chinnor, in the glades of the beech woods ; whilst on the long
outcrop of the Carboniferous limestone, running from Llanyrnynach,
in Shropshire, through Denbighshire and Flintshire, to the Great
Orme's Head, the insect occurs in favourable places. Around Bake-
well it abounds in some of the dales. In Durham it is found on the
coast, beginning about three miles north of Hartlepool, and extending
for a considerable distance. At Castle Eden it occurs on rough grassy
cliffs, whilst at Sledmere and Richmond it is found on rough banks
near the woods. The limestone habitat extends to the Continent, for
Lederer notes it as occurring on the limestone hills between Modling
and Baden, on Centaurea and thistles. Near Lennig, in the Rhine
Valley, it occurs in a wood clearing, basking on flowers in the sun
(Fuchs). Zeller has found it in the meadows of the Ober-Albula ;
Frey, at Zerniatt, at 8,000 ft., and we have taken it on blossoms, at
considerable elevations above Courmayeur, Cogne, Le Lautaret, and
other alpine localities.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Varies according to the season, somewhat
similarly to A. statices. Robson, however, notes it as regular in its time
of appearance in Durham, and varying but little in abundance from
year to year; June, at Richmond, Yorkshire (Hewett), June and July,
on the Castle Eden coast, and July, at Sledmere (Maddison),
beginning of July, at Folkestone (Vaughan). Abroad, Fuchs notes July
19th-22nd, 1875, worn, and July 5th-17th, 1876, nr. Lennig, in the Rhine
Valley ; Zeller says from mid-May to July 1st, in the Grisons, and from
July 1st till August, in the Latscher meadows of the Ober-Albula ;
Stainton notes it on July 13th, 1865, in the Val de Fain, in the
Engadine. We took it from August 9th-13th, 1898, at Courmayeur,
and Zapater and Korb record it in July and August, in the Spanish
province of Teruel. Other dates for the imagines are : June 18th-
30th, 1856, June 14th, 1859, at Hollingbury Coombe (Image), June
19th, 1858, nr. Brighton (Beauchamp), May 22nd, 1863, larvse, pupae
and imagines on the same day, nr. Worcester (Edmunds), July 19th,
1863 (bred) (Buckler), May 18th, 1864, nr. Worcester (Horton), June
3rd, 1865, June 14th, 1867, at Witherslack (Hodgkinson), May
24th, 1866, at Malvern, May 24th, 1867, on the Cotswolds (Todd),
May, 1869, on Cotswolds, nr. Gloucester (Marsden), June 7th, 1869,
on Cotswolds (Merrin), June 16th, 1870, June 15th, 1871, nr. Lewes
(Jenner), July 19th, 1879, at Folkestone (Wellman), June 25th,
1879, at Castle Moreton (Fox), June 10th, 1879, at Barmouth
(Goss), June 5th, 1880, June 6th, 1881, May 29th, 1882, May 29th,
1883, at Pegsdon Hills, nr. Hitchin (Durrant), June 15th, 1885, at
Lathkill Dale (Sheldon), June 22nd, 27th, 29th, 1886 (bred) (Hellins),
June 14th, 1890, June 18th, 1891, May 22nd, 1893, June 3rd, 1895,
May 24th, 1896, at Aylesbury (Bayne), June 20th, 1890, at Keswick
(Barclay), June 25th, 1890, June 13th, 1897, at Painswick, May
21st, 1894, May 13th, 1896, at Harefield (Lifton), June 16th-25th,
1891, May 31st, 1893, worn, June 16th, 1896, worn, nr. Lewes
406 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA,
(W. E. Nicholson), June 6th, 1892, at Dursley (Griffiths), June 8th,
1892, May 23rd, 1893, June 12th, 1894, June 3rd, 1896, at Monsal
Dale, June 26th, 1897, at Miller's Dale (Fuller), May 24th-June
6th, 1892, May 9th-22nd, 1893, June 3rd, 1895, May 26th, 1896,
June 8th, 1897, at Dursley (Bartlett), July 2nd, 1893, July 7th, 1894,
abundant and fine, at Horden Dene (Brady), June 8th, 1895, nr.
Winchester (Brooine), May 28th, 1896, at Witherslack, end of May,
1896, at Hamps Fell (Crabtree), June 1st, 1896, at Wansford (Slater),
June 4th, 1897, on the Cotswolds (Todd), June 22nd, 1897, at Sledmere
(Walker).
LOCALITIES. — BERKS: Sandhurst (Bacon). BUCKS: Aylesbury (Bayne),
Tring (Rothschild). CUMBERLAND : Kes'wick (Barclay). DERBY : Lathkill Dale
(Sheldon), Longstone Edge, Monsal Dale, Cressbrook Dale and Miller's Dale
(Fuller), Middleton Dale (Alderson), Bakewell (Thornewill). DURHAM : Castle
Eden coast (Maddison), Durham (Knaggs), Blackballs (Merryweather), Horden
Dene (Brady), Hartlepool (Eobson). GLOUCESTER: Bristol and Dursley (Griffiths),
Stroud (Wainwright), nr. Tewkesbury (Fox), Harefield (Lifton), Broadway Beacon,
nr. Cheltenham (D'Orville), Cotswolds, nr. Gloucester (Marsden), Stad Valley, Edge
Hill and Painswick (Wat-kins), Stonehouse (Nash), Gloucester (Merrin). HANTS:
Winchester (G. M. A. Hewett). HEREFORDSHIRE: Hereford (Blathwayt). HERTS :
Pegsdon Hills, nr. Hitchin (Durrant). KENT: Folkestone (Vaughan, Ullyett
queries the species), Canterbury (Knaggs), Shorncliffe (Vaughan). LANCASHIRE:
? Manchester (Knaggs), Hamps Fell (Crabtree), Grange (Hodgkinson), Silverdale
(Melville). MERIONETH: Barmouth (Gossj. NORTHAMPTON: Wansford (Slater).
OXFORD: Chinnor (Spiller). SOMESET : Bath (Greer), Clevedon (Mason). STAFFS:
Dovedale (Bostock). SUSSEX: Lewes (Weir), the Coombe and Cliffe Hill (Nichol-
son), Hollingbury (Jenner), Brighton (Knaggs). WESTMORLAND: Witherslack
(Crabtree). WILTS: Marlborough (Maddock). WORCESTERSHIRE: Malvern (Todd),
Lower Wick (Horton), Malvern Hills, nr. Worcester (Edmunds). YORKS : Beverley,
Muker, Eichmond, Sheffield, Thorne, York and Sledmere (Porritt).
DISTRIBUTION. — Asia Minor: Brussa (Lederer). Syria (Speyer).
Turkestan (Meyrick). Central Asia : Naubid (Fedchenko). Austria :
Galicia (Garbowski), Vienna (Doubleday), chalk-hills between Mddling
and Baden (Speyer), Heiligenblut, from 5,500-8,000 ft. (Staudinger),
Salzburg Alps, from 6-7,000 ft. (Herrich-Schaffer), Hungary (Constant,
coll.). France: Autun, St. Martin Lantosque, Burgundy (Constant),
Pyrenees (Guenee), Mont Dore (Sand), Dauphiny Alps, Le Lautaret
(Tutt). Germany: south-east Germany, Silesia (Lederer), Gotha,
Laucha Wood (Knapp), Lennig, in Rhine Valley (Fuchs), Nassau,
Ueberlingen, Waldshut, Kaiserstuhl,Weinheim (Reutti). Greece : Corfu
(Erber). Italy : Alps (Curo), Lauson, Cogne Valley, Courmayeur (Tutt).
Roumania : Grumazesti (Caradja), Tultscha (Mann). Scandinavia:
Lillehammer (Champion), Blekinge (Wallengren). Spain: Pyrenees
(Staudinger), Province of Teruel (Zapater and Korb). Switzerland :
Visp Valley (Jordan), Andermatt, at 4,500 ft., Miirren, from 5,000-
5,500 ft. (Speyer), Engadine (Nicholson), Grisons, Ober-Albula (Zeller),
nr. Simplon (Jordis), Zermatt, 8,000 ft. and over (Frey).
Genus : RHAGADES, Wallengren.
SYNONYMY.— Genus : Ehagadea, Wallgrn., " Scand. Het.-Fjar.," p. 110 (1863) ;
Auriv., " Nord. Fjar.," p. 51 (1888). Sphinx, Hb., " Eur. Schmett.," p. 76 (? 1805).
Atychia, Ochs., " Schmett. Eur.," ii., p. 10 (1808). Proem, Auct. Jno, Auct.
The diagnosis of this genus by Wallengren reads (Scand. Het.
., p. 110), as follows : —
Rkagades, n. gen. — Antennas fusiformes, maris usque in apicem pectinate,
feminsa serrate, apice tenui, acuto. Palpi brevissimi, gracillimi, obtusi. Lingua
mollis, brevis, pectore multo brevior. Oculi uudi. Calcaria pedum posticorum 2,
RHAGADES. 407
Earaulus carpalis costaa median® anterioris alarum antiearum simplex ; ramulus
sesamoideus ejusdem costae adest ; ramulus glenoidalis costae medianse postioris
semper adest. Costa subcostalis alarum posticarum, radice duplici e basi oriens,
contagione cum costa mediana anteriore connexa, ut areolam subcostalem clausam
formet. Costa mediana anterior al. posticarum erga basin distincte subtilior.
Abdomen gracilior, squamatum, maris saltern plerumque ad latera pilosulus, alis
expansis nonnihil longius. Alae anteriores subrotundatae. Larva subdialis
crassa, capite minuto, pilis fasciculatis obsita, subdepressa, dorso squamulato.
Pupa cylindrico-conica, folliculata ; folliculum mernbranaceum.
The typical species of the genus, as named by Wallengren, is
li/tai/cules [inini. The following characters appear to distinguish Rha-
tjades ( tjlobulariae ) as compared with Adscita (statices and yeryon) ; un-
doubtedly, close study would result in the discovery of others :
LARVA. — The hair on tubercle i with bulbed base (on ii simple) in first skin.
IMAGO. — Antennas pectinated, with apex somewhat acute. Body more slender
than in Adscita.
BHAGADES GLOBULARI.E,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Globulariae, Hb., "Eur. Schmett.," ii., pi. i., figs 2 <? ,
3 ? , ?pl. i. bis, fig. 4 (? 1797), p. 76 (? 1805) ; Ochs., " Schmett. Eur.," ii., p. 13
(1808) ; " Godt., " Lep. France," Hi., p. 160 (1821) ; Stphs., " Illus.," i., p. 106 (1828) ;
Freyer, " Neue. Beitr.," i., p. 119, pi. 62, fig. 2 (1833) ; Evers., " Faun. Lep. Volg.-
Ural.," p. 91 (1844) ; Dup., " Cat. Meth.," p. 53 (1844) ; Weir. " Zool.." 1845, p. 1085 ;
Assmann, " Abbild. und Besch. Schmett. Schles.," p. 5 (1845) ; Zell., " Zeits. Ent.
Ver. Bres.," 1850, pp. 31-32 ; 1853, p. 83 ; Led., " Ver. zool-bot. Ges. Wien," v., p.
104 (1852) ; Sta., "Ent. Ann.," 1855, p. 27; " Man.," i., p. 178 (1857) ; Speyer.
" Geog. Verb. Schmett.," p. 359 (1858); Hein., " Die Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 154
(1859) ; Staud., " Stett. Ent. Zeit.." xxxiii.. p. 349 (1862) ; " Cat.," p. 44 (1871) ;
Sta. and Staud., "Ent. Ann.," 1864, p. 102; Sta. and Zell., "Ent. Ann.," 1864,
pp. 103-107; Knaggs, "Ent. Ann.." 1864, p. 122 ; Mill., "Cat. Lep. Alp.-Mar.,"
p. 124 (1872) ; Curo, " Bull. Soc. Ent. Ital.," vii.. p. 193 (1875) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep.
Auv.," p. 21 (1879) ; Kirby. "Eur. Butts.," etc., p. 86 (1879) ; "Cat. Lep. Het.,"
i., p. 83 (1892) ; " Handbook," etc., p. 100 (1897) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Als.," p. 46
(1880) ; Frey, " Lep. der Schweiz," p. 63 (1880) ; Buckler, " Larvae," etc., ii., p. 1
(1887); Hofmn., "Die Gross-Schmett.," etc., p. 33 (1887) ; "Die Eaupen," etc ,
p. 35 (1893) ; Auriv., "Nord. Fjar.," p. 51 (1888); Barr.. "Lep. Brit.." ii.,p. 109
(1894); Meyr., " Handbook," etc., p. 450 (1895); Tutt, "Brit. Moths," p. 351
(1896).
DESCRIPTION OF ORIGINAL FIGURES AND ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. —
Fig. 2. — $ . Fore-wings distinctly green (not blue or golden), with dark
greyish fringes ; hind- wings blackish-grey. Antennae pectinated,
pointed towards tip. Thorax and abdomen green. Fig. 8. — ? .
Much smaller than male ; base of fore- wings green, outer half bronzy ;
hind-wings blackish-grey. Antennas almost simple (Hiibner, Eur.
Schmett., pi. i., figs. 2-8). Kugelblumenschwarmer : Sphinx globulariae,
fig. 2 $ , 3 $ . Giinzlich hell, lahnglanzend, gelbgriin, nur die Unter-
fliigel oben, sammt ihren Franzen, hellgrau, unmerklich griinschil-
lernd ; unter beiderlei Fliigel grau, bios von ihrer Wurzel aus etwas
griin beschuppt. Heim. Deutschland, auf Heiden (Hiibner, Sammluny
Europ. Schmett., p. 76). [This description was probably published
much later than the figures.] Hiibner then goes on to say : " The
species is more slenderly built than S. statices, the antennae longer, apex
pointed, the wings in male broader, and in female smaller. The colour
varies slightly towards blue-green " (Ibid., p. 76).
IMAGO. — Anterior wings 20-29'5 mm. in expanse ; golden-green.
Posterior wings smoky-grey, almost blackish ; antennae weakly pecti-
nated, somewhat pointed at the tip. [The fore-wings are distinctly
broader than those of A. statices.]
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The males average from 28-29'3 mm., the
408 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
females 20-21 mm. ; the antennas of the females are more slender,
and the abdomen much stouter, than those of the males.
VARIATION. — In both sexes there is a distinct dimorphism in colour,
some males and females being of a golden-bronze (type form), others of
a bright green ( — ab. ciriilix, n. ab.) , this colour dimorphism being noted
by Staudinger, also, in var. notata. This is independent of the change
in tint observed when the specimens are looked at sideways, under
which conditions they become a much deeper, and somewhat bluish,
green. Hiibner evidently knew both forms. His colour description ' ' gelb-
griin," and his fig. 3, $ , lead us to suggest the more golden-green as the
type form, although his fig. 2 $ is the ab. riridis. We once met, at
Le Lautaret, 7,500' elevation, with a race having delicate blue fore-
wings in both sexes, with typical antennas and hind-wings, and slender
abdomen ; the males 34 mm. and the females 18 mm. in expanse. This
we would call var. caendea, n. var. The following doubtful vars. of
this species may also be noticed :
a. ? var. notata, Zell. — Alls anterioribus viridi-cceruleis, subobtusis, postice dila-
tatis, fern, breviusculis ; posterioribus fumatis, plica longitudinal! cceruleo-squamata,
antennis acutis, rnaris brevius biseriato-pectinatis, fern, longioribus filiformibus
apice attenuatis. Sicily: Syracuse. April 21st-May 6th (Zeller, Isis, 1847, p. 294).
Staudinger notes (Sti'tt. Ent. Zeit., xxiii., p. 351) that he has three of
Zeller's original specimens from Syracuse, which agree with 8 Anda-
lusian examples (from Honda, Granada, Chiclana and Malaga) , 9 from
northern Greece, and 3 from France (2 ? from Paris, and 1 from Saone-
et-Loire). This form has a decidedly finer antennal shaft, shorter pecti-
nations, which also lie close to one another. The fore-wings are more
distinctly shining, most specimens with a decided golden tint, other
specimens, however, are almost entirely without it. He further ex-
presses (Home Soc. Ent. Eons., 1870, p. 171), when discussing Greek speci-
mens taken nr. Karpinisi in middle June, great doubt as to whether notata
should be considered a distinct species or a variety of IL ylobidariae, which
undoubtedly varies much. He says : " According to the finer antennal
pectinations, it should be considered specifically distinct, but it is now
doubtful to me whether these, in all cases, give a specific character."
In the Cat., p. 44, Staudinger writes of it : " Antennis $ brevius pecti-
natis, perhaps a distinct species; from Spain, Italy, Greece, South and
Central France," and gives soror, Bambur, from Granada, and coynata,
Luc., from Algeria, as synonyms. Specimens bearing this latter name
in Constant's collection looked much like pale R. ylobulariae. Kirby
treats notata as a distinct species. If this be simply a local blue-green
race of E. ylobulariae, it can only occur as a very rare aberration in this
country. Staudinger's extension of the var. to include coynata, Luc.,
appears to go beyond Zeller's diagnosis.
/S. ? var. cognata, Lucas, " Explor. Sci. Algeria," Hi., p. 373, pi. iii., fig. 2
(1849). — Long. 30 a 33 mm. Procris alis anticis, capite, thorace abdomineque
viridi auratis, primis infra secundisque cinerescentibus atque cinerescente
fimbriatis; antennis elongatis, exilibus, viridi durato subcyaneo tinctis dentibusque
fuscis, pedibus elongatis. femoribus viridi atratis, tibiis tarsisque cinerescentibus.
The figure is pale, bright green, with pale grey hind-wings, pectin-
ated antennae with pointed apices ; it is brighter and paler than
British ylobulariae. Lucas says that it is larger than A. staticcs which
it much resembles ; the anterior wings, thorax and abdomen, golden-
green, brighter than A. statices ; the posterior wings of a paler ashy
colour ; the fringes very pale ashy colour (not golden -green, as in A.
statices). The antennas elongated, much thinner than the French
RHAGADES GLOBULARLE. 409
species, the antennal shaft light greenish-blue, with the pectinations
very dark brown, and much less serrated than in A. statices. From
the neighbourhood of Constantine, in May, etc. Staudinger queries
(Cat., p. 44) this as being identical with soror, Ranib., Cat. Lep.
And., p. 187 (1866), which came from Granada, and is diagnosed as
" viridi-aenea vel cuprea ; an tennis gracilibus, dentibus brevioribus,"
and is said to differ from R. ylobulariae in the more slender antennae, of
which the more pointed pectinations are only half as long. Staudinger
is inclined to consider it as identical with var. notata, Zeller.
7. ? var. incerta, Staud., " Stett.Ent. Zeit.," xlviii.,p. 72 (1887).— Size 20-25 mm.
The pectinations lie close together, so that they appear very thin. The antenna
of the $ are scarcely serrated (at least less so than in JR. globular iae). The fore-
wings are blunter and darker green than the very glossy tint of R. globulariae, and
similar to that of R. solana. A single female (from Margelan) is almost blue-green,
with more gloss than usual. The black-green fringes contrast moderately with the
green wings. The hind-wings are transparent-black, as in R. globulariae, and on the
underside they are sometimes (especially in the Margelan specimens) rather strongly
tinged with green. The fore-wings beneath are without any green-blue tinge. The
head, thorax, and ventral side of abdomen are of a rather glossy green tint, the
latter, above black, tinged with green.
Staudinger notes this insect in " some numbers from Margelan and
Namangan, also a single individual from the Alexander mountains,
and thinks it may be, perhaps, only a very small form of R.ylobulariae,
as it has almost the same form of antennae." But he further states
that " this much smaller incerta, in spite of its almost identical
antennal form, looks so different from R. ylobulariae (more especially
from its much blunter fore- wings), that I cannot consider it a local
form thereof, although that is possible. On the other hand, the insect
appears so similar to large R. solana, that I can only distinguish them
by the antennas, which appear much thinner in incerta, and probably
are so ; the antennas of $ solana are also more serrate than those of
incerta. As I have received both insects from Margelan and Namangan
in some numbers, and can pretty readily separate them by the antennae,
1 am inclined to think they are distinct species."
EGG. — The egg of R. globulariae is, according to Buckler, of a long-
oval shape, about -£§ " long, and -^ " wide, having at first a depression
on some part of the surface, and adhering lengthways to the substance
whereon laid, singly, or sometimes two or three together. The shell
is very finely ribbed, and of a deep yellow colour, which changes a
few hours before hatching to a dull pinkish, or to a light brownish
tint, showing a deeper brown spot at one end, and by that time the
egg has become very plump.
HABITS OF LARVA. — The young larva leaves the egg about the
middle of July. It is a small yellow mite, and is very active until
it meets a suitable spot on a leaf, when it at once begins to mine,
boring into a leaf of Centaur -ea nigra, embedding itself in the substance,
and forming a semi-transparent spot, which is afterwards enlarged
into a small blotch between the upper and under epidermis of the leaf,
excavating the leaf almost to the tip. When necessary the larva leaves
one leaf and enters another, the vacated blotches, where the parenchyma
has been eaten out, becoming somewhat conspicuous. The first moult
occupies nine days, according to Buckler, and the three succeeding
moults follow after about four days feeding and nine days of rest on each
occasion, the larva leaving its mine and spinning a silken web, on
which it rests whilst the operation is performed. When mining, the
410 BRITISH LEF1DOPTERA.
larva throws out black frass from its mine. It feeds a little aftef the
fourth moult, before hibernation, which it commences early in October,
leaving its large blister-like mine, spinning a silken mat, and passing
a few silken threads over its back to support it on the underside of a
leaf. The larva commences to feed again early in February, and it
continues to do so throughout March and April, mining into the
leaves. It moults again at the commencement of May, and again
towards the end of May, making large blotches in the Centaurea
leaves, sometimes abstracting nearly the whole of the parenchyma of
the leaf. When full-fed (about the end of May or beginning of
June), the larva is said to remain for three or four days on the
surface of the ground, which it then enters for pupation. Buckler
notes full-fed larvs from May 30th-June 2nd, 1883.
LARVA. — When the newly -hatched larva leaves the egg it is short and
stumpy, with a small, black, shiny, retractile head, the prothorax with a
glossy brownish corneous plate, having a broad, black, dotted streak,
tapering to a point at the front and a black streak on each side. The
remaining segments are greenish-drab, and covered with a short,
white pubescence. After the first moult it is of a light green colour,
and the tubercles bear stiff bristles (Buckler calls the larva " a mass
of bristly tubercles "), but it becomes somewhat buff-coloured before
moulting. After the second moult it is still greener, becoming deep
flesh-colour before moulting again. After the third moult it is
dark slaty-green, the colour matching well with that of the leaves of
the food-plant, whilst a thin, dingy, purplish-brown, longitudinal,
dorsal line, spreading a little at each segmental division, runs between
the rows of dorsal tubercles. The tubercles are covered with short
radiating bristles of a drab colour, but before it moults again it
becomes much lighter, and is of an ochreous-green hue. After its
fourth moult, when fixed for hybernation, Buckler compares the
shape of the larva with that of a small hemp-seed, and says that there
are three rows of bristly, oval tubercles on either side of the body,
running in a longitudinal direction, so that six tubercles surround
each segment, except on the venter, which is naked, whilst between
the two which occupy the back of each segment is a black arrow-head
mark. The dorsal tubercles are dark, dingy, brownish-green, with
yellowish-green outer edges, relieved by a fine blackish line beneath.
After hybernation, the larva appears almost black, but, after feeding,
it becomes greener. After the next moult the tubercles become
bluish-green, the dorsal ones being strikingly defined by a creamy-
white sub-dorsal stripe, below which is a wider stripe of dark green.
After the last moult, when the larva is fitll-yroivn, it is described
by Buckler as measuring, when stretched out, from 13-14 mm. in
length, the greatest width, across the middle of the body, 5 mm. It
tapers a little at either end, and is rounded off behind, and also in
front, when at rest, with the first two segments retracted. The head
is extremely small and flattened, the segments are plump and very
deeply divided, the prothorax is smooth and glossy, the tubercles are
slightly raised, large, occupying nearly the length of a segment,
except the lowest (placed just above the feet), which are rather
smaller ; in shape, they are roundish ovate, the dorsal pair, side by
side on each segment, are set close and obliquely together in front,
leaving between them a small arrow-head-like space behind at the
RHAGADES GLOBULARI^. 411
division. The prolegs are rather short, and placed well under the
body ; the belly is flattened and smooth. In colour the head is black,
the antennal papillae greenish-white tipped with black, the prothoracic
segment greenish, with a broad black marking or plate tapering
towards the front, the tubercles on the back are of a rather bluish-
green tint, the dorsal row of markings black, the white subdorsal marking
inclines to creamy-white, sometimes to yellowish-white, this is con-
trasted strongly below by a broadish stripe of dark green tapering
towards the head and a little also to the hinder part of the body ; on
the smooth skin, between the dorsal tubercles at the beginning of
each segment and of the white subdorsal marking, are sprinkled
some most minute black dots, only a few on the white where it is
broadest, but they are numerous on the dark green stripe following
it ; the side below is entirely green, including the tubercles, and the
whole of them are studded thickly with short and fine blackish
bristles ; the spiracles are black, true legs black, the ventral prolegs
green." We are indebted to Chapman for a more exact knowledge of the
structure of the larva. He describes the newly -hatched larva as being
rather square and truncate at either end. It has a blackish-brown
head and large prothoracic plate, then a dorsal elevation of each
segment, more pronounced on either side, consisting of two dorsal
tubercles (i and ii) conjoined in the middle line. It might, indeed, be
said that the tubercles are separate in the middle line, but the eleva-
tion hardly sinks completely ; each tubercle carries an inner and outer
hair, the latter slightly posterior, their length nearly equal to the
thickness of the larva ; the inner hair is dark, and has a remark-
able jointed bulb at the base ; the outer is transparent and simple ;
each has a series of points along it, circularly or spirally arranged, so
that it looks regularly annulated. There is a supraspiracular (iii)
tubercle with a long seta of annulated structure ; on the meso- and meta-
thorax this is double, and carries two hairs. On the abdominal
segments, tubercle iv (the subspiracular) is separated from iii by an
interval (in which is the spiracle ?) ; the hair arising from iv is not so
long as those arising from i, ii and iii. The inner dorsal spines incline
slightly backwards, the outer ones are curved ; the lateral spines are
nearly straight and directed outwards. The prolegs carry two fine
hairs with battledore tips, projecting downwards, so that they must
press on the surface upon which the larva is resting. The true legs
carry, in addition to the claw, a similar hair and a battledore -shaped
appendage of more ordinary form. The lujbernatiny larva is 3'5 mm.
long, 1-4 mm. wide, when at rest ; 5-0 mm. or more long, when
active. On each side of every segment are three great bosses of hairs,
a dorsal and two lateral, one above the other, the dorsal the largest,
but the three together practically covering nearly the whole segment.
The bases of the tubercles are composed of a clear pale skin, but the
rest of the general surface is studded with black points. The prolegs
are of flange form, and have about 13 hooks, the outer ones rather
smaller than the others.
COCOON.— The cocoon, Buckler says, could be detected by very
slight elevations on the surface of the earth, where it had been level
before the larvae buried. They were placed just below the surface of
the ground, and were of a broad-oval shape, about 9 lines by 7 or 8
412 ^ BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
lines, composed outside of grains of earth, very firmly united to a few
fibres of grass-roots. On removing the earthy particles, the inner
cocoon of opaque greenish-white soft silk is found. This is strong and
elastic, resembling that of Cosmotriche jwtatoria, very soft and closely
woven anteriorly. Zeller says the brownish -grey cocoon is placed on
the surface of the earth, well-concealed, close to the roots of plants.
Buckler's description of " greenish-white," and Zeller's of " brownish-
grey," for the silk, suggests some variation in this respect. The pupa
emerges from the cocoon, and travels to a little distance from it before
the imago appears. Buckler found the pupa-skins lying on the bare
earth, and only the old shrivelled larval skin in the otherwise empty
cocoon.
PUPA. — The pupa is about 13 mm. in length, of moderate sub-
stance throughout, with prominent thorax, the wing-covers short, but,
towards their ends, projecting a little free from the body, the long
antenna- and leg-cases are all free from the body, and seem to
be suggestive of locomotion even before the disclosure of the moth ;
the deeply-divided abdominal rings have each, on the back, near their
beginning, a transverse ridge, thickly set with hooks pointing back-
wards, the top of the abdomen rounded off in a blunt point ; the
colour of the head, thorax and wing-covers is dark olive-green, and
very glossy, the leg-cases and abdomen are of lighter shining
green, and the hooks black (Buckler). Chapman gives many further
details. He says that the pupa is straw-coloured, narrower and
straighter, but reminding one a good deal, at first sight, of Cocldidion
ai-dlana (testudo). A line down the middle of the venter would be
straight, the back is rounder, the waist is very slightly marked, flat-
tened from back to front, so that the width is nearly twice the antero-
posterior diameter. There is a slightly developed lateral flange carry-
ing the spiracles. The first two abdominal segments, and possibly the
third, are apparently fixed, but are free, so far that the appendages
are not firmly attached to them, though closely appressed. The first
abdominal spiracle is sheltered by the hind-wing, as by a flange lying
over it, but is not covered, and, having a ridge just dorsal to it, is, as
it were, in a pit, and is quite free and functionally open ; the second
only just escapes being covered by the hind- wing. There are dorsal rows
of spines along the anterior margins of the abdominal segments 2, 8, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, very close to the anterior margins, consisting of
14-18 very fine brown spinous points on either side, terminating out-
wardly at the lateral flange. The anal armature is nil, nor have any
other hairs or spines been detected. The posterior margin of each
abdominal segment, and even of the third thoracic, is a raised ridge,
and overhangs the next segment. The head very definitely extends
outside the general level, and forms a knob or boss, whether viewed
laterally or ventrajly. The eyes and eye-plates extend very low down
laterally, and the mouth -parts are placed unusually forward between
them. The legs, antennae, etc., are rounded, and stand away from
the body of the pupa. The first pair of legs and the antennae are
most prominent ; the second pair and the maxilhe dipping beneath
them, the maxillse partially, the legs entirely, the tarsi appearing again
beyond them ; the third pair of legs extend several segments beyond
the wings, the tarsi of the second pair and the antennae slightly so ;
the posterior cephalic plate is very distinct, but there is no definite
RHAGADES GLOBULARI.E. 418
trace of maxillary palpi ; a large portion of the femur (?) appears
between the maxillfe and first pair of legs.
DEHISCENCE. — The abdomen is quite free ; the antennae lifted up
from the groove and separated from the appendages, but remain
attached to the head ; the post-cephalic plate remains attached to the
prothorax, but does not carry the eyes ; the front parts (except the
antennae) remain (with the eyes) in one piece.
FOOD-PLANTS. — Centaurea nii/ra (Buckler) ; Centaurea ftcabiosa
(Kirby) ; Centaurea jacea (Zeller). [Poterium saw/uixorba (Weir),
Crlobularia vtdgaru and O. aly/nim (Milliere), and Plantaijo lanceolata
(Kaltenbach) are also reputed food-plants.]
PARASITES. — From a pupa, Buckler bred, July 9th, 1883, an un-
described species of Anomalon. The pupa- skin of the parasite was
found within that of the pupa of the moth, so that the cavity of the
pupal body had been the puparium of the parasite.
HABITS AND HABITAT. — This species occurs on sunny hill-sides in
our south-eastern English counties. It is extremely local, and was
first recorded as being captured in this country by Weir (Zoologist,
1845, p. 1085). The specimens were captured on the downs (Cliffe
Hill), near Lewes, and from this, and adjacent localities, most of our
British collections are now supplied with specimens. It frequents
here, a steep grassy slope facing south-east, in rather a windy spot. In
Kent, it occurs on the hills behind Folkestone and Shorncliffe Camp.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Unwin notes the insect as " on the wing for
only a short time, and then very sluggish ; June 14th being its usual
time of appearance, and then only for a day or two can it be taken in
fine condition." It varies, however, according to the season, as the
recorded dates show : June 15th, 1845, at Cliffe. Hill (Weir), June
18th-30th, 1856, at Hollingbury Coombe (Image), June 13th, 1858,
June 29th, 1859, June 20th, 1861, at Hollingbury Hill (A. H. Jones),
June 7th, 1858, at Hollingbury Vale (Knaggs), June 19th, 1858, nr.
Brighton (Beauchamp), June 13th-20th, 1859, on hill at back of
Shorncliffe Camp (Rogers), June 25th, 1869, at Folkestone (Ullyett),
beginning of July, 1869, at Folkestone (Vaughan), June 9th, 1870,
June 15th, 1871, nr. Lewes (Jenner), July 19th, 1879, at Folkestone
(Wellman), July 9th, 1883, bred (Buckler), June 10th-15th, 1885,
June 16th-27th, 1888, June lOth-lGth, 1891, May 31st, 1892, May
27th, 1893, abundant, June 24th, 1894, June 14th, 1896, common,
nr. Lewes (W. E. Nicholson), June 15th, 1890, nr. Brighton (Meaden),
June 10th, 1894, at Glynde (Lowe). Zeller bred it on June 28th,
1849, and notes the capture of imagines on June .23rd, 1864, at
Glogau. The statement of Prittwitz that it is double -brooded in
Silesia appears to require confirmation.
LOCALITIES. — KENT: hills near Folkestone (Vaughan), hill at back of
Shorncliffe Camp (Rogers). SUSSEX : Hollingbury Vale, Coombe, Cliffe Hill, nr.
Lewes, the Devil's Dyke, nr. Brighton, nr. Abbott's Wood (W. E. Nicholson),
Glynde (Lowe). [Probably erroneous, and want confirmation: — CUMBERLAND:
Orton Moss (Kirby). GLOUCESTER: Cheltenham (Douglas), Newnham, at light
(Bingham). KENT: nr. Gravesend (Button). MERIONETH : Dolgelly (De Mattos),
Barmouth (Pearson). SURREY: lleigate (De Mattos). WARWICK : nr. Birmingham
(Green). YORKS : Aysgarth (Rowntree).]
DISTRIBUTION. — Algeria, for var. coijnata (Lucas, texte Staudinger).
Asia Minor : Armenia (Staudinger), Giilek (Rober). Austria : Vienna
(Zeller), Bohemia, Briinn, Linz, Carniola, Botzen, Hungary (Speyer),
414 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Mehadia, Lower Hungary (Staudinger), Dalmatia (Lederer). Belgium
(Kayserj. Bulgaria : Sofia (Bachmetjew). France : Nohant, Sologne,
forests of the Cher, Murols, St. Nectaire, Auvergne (Sand), Chartres
(Godart), Basses-Alpes (Milliere), Depts. Moselle, Maas, Meurthe,
Doubs, Puy-de-D6me, Digne, Compeigne (Speyer), St. Martin Lan-
tosque (Constant), nr. Paris (Staudinger). Germany : general in
south Germany (Hofmann), Glogau, Jena (Zeller), Neuhaldensleben
(Heinemann), Tannenwald, Nonnenbruch, Grenzacher-Hornli (Peyer-
imhoff), Eastern Prussia (Halffter), Thuringia, Gotha, Erfurt (Knapp),
Ponierania, Sachsenwald, Weimar, Giessen, Frankfort-on-Main,
Wiesbaden, Bingen, Darmstadt, Stuttgart (Speyer), Eatisbon
(Herrich-Schaffer), Augsburg (Freyer), Constance, Speier, Pfalzburg,
Freiburg, Gailingen, Upper Albtnal, Karlsruhe, Durlacher Wald,
Wiirtemburg, Nassau (Reutti). Greece : Karpinisi (Staudinger).
Italy : common in northern, central and southern Italy (Curo),
Calabria (Costa), Piedmont, Florence (Lederer). Netherlands :
Luxemburg (Speyer). Eoumania: Grumazesti, Slanic (Caradja),
Cincorova (Mann), Comanesti (Leon), Turn Severin (Haberhauer) .
Russia : mths. of Danube to Dnieper, Kiev, etc., Astrakhan, Saratov,
Kasan (Erschoff), Orenburg, Lower Volga and Ural districts, nr.
Sarepta (Eversmann). Spain: Prov. of Teruel (Zapater and Korb),
Ronda, Andalusia (Speyer), Granada for var. soror (coynata, Lucas)
(Rambur). Switzerland : Basle (Peyerimhoff), Berne, Siselen, Gad-
men (Ratzer), Simplon, Zerrnatt, Valais (Jaggi), Aarau, nr. Boll,
Lucerne, common (Meyer-Dor), Aargau, Born, Engleberg, Wartburg
(Wullschlegel), nr. Aarburg (Rothenbach), Biel, Bechburg (Riggen-
bach-Stehlin), St. Blaise-Neuveville (Couleru), nr. Zurich (Huguenin),
upper part of Thalweil, 1472' (Snell) , Trofoi, 4800' (Frey), Glarus
(Speyer), Visp Valley (Jordan).
Subfam. : ANTHROCERIN.E.
Tribe : ANTHROCERIDI.
Genus : ANTHROCERA, Scopoli.
SYNONYMY.— Genus : Anthrocera, Scop., " Introd. Hist. Nat.," p. 414 (1777);
Stephs.. " 111. Brit. Ent.," i.. p. 106 (1828) ; Wood, " Ind. Ent.,"p. 11 (1839) ; West,
and Humph., " Brit. Moths," i., p. 29 (1843); Sta., "Man.," i., p. 79 (1857);
Wallgrn.. " Skand. Het.-Fjar.," p. 88 (1863); Buckler, "Larvae," etc., ii., p. 9
(1887); Auriv., " Nord. Fjaril.," p. 52 (1888); Kirby, " Cat. Lep. Het.," p. 62
(1892) ; " Handbook Lep.," iii., p. 86 (1897) ; Reuter, " Macro-Lep. Finl.," p. 21
(1893). Sphinx, Linne, " Sys. Nat.," x., p. 494 (1758); "Fauna Suec.," p. 290
(1761) ; Briin. and Pont., " Danske Atlas," i., pi. xxx. (with ref. to Briinnich, " Prod.
Ins.,;' p. 29) (1761); Denis and Schiff., " Sys. Verz. Schmett.,"p. 35 (1776) ; Miill.,
" Zool. Dan.," p. 116 (1776) ; Scheven, " Naturf.," x., p. 97 (1777) ; Fuessly, " Mag.
Ent.," i., pp. 124-125 (1778) ; "Neues Mag.," ii.. pp. 207-208 (1785) ; Esp., "Die
Schmett.," ii., p. 138 (1780) ; p. 186 (1781) ; p. 222 (1783) ; Bork., "Sys. Besch.," ii.. p.
12, in part (1789); De Vill., "Ent. Linn.," ii., p. 114 (1789) ; Hb., " Btr. Ges.
Schmett.," ii., pp. 19-20 (1790) ; " Eur. Schmett.," ii., pp. 77-83 (? 1805) ; Hoh. and
Rein., " Bot. Reisen," etc., p. 265 (1792). Zygaena, Fab.. " Sys. Ent.." p. 550 (1775);
" Illig. Mag.," vi.,p. 289 (1807); Fuessly, " Mag. Ent.," i.. pp. 113-114 (1778) ; Guv.,
"Tabl. Elem. Nat. Hist.," p. 593 (1799); Schrank. "Fauna Boica," ii., p. 237,
sect. B (1801) ; Haw., " Lep. Brit.," i.. p. 74 (1803) ; Ochs. and Treitschke,
" Schmett. Eur.," ii., p. 20 (1808) ; x., p. 103 (1834) ; Latr., " Gen. Ins.," iv., p. 212
(1809) ; Dalm., " Vet. Acad. Handl.." p. 223 (1816) ; Godt., " Lep. France," p. 125
(1821); Bdv.. " Mon. Zyg.," p. 24 (1829); " Icones." ii., p. 35 (1832) ; "Species
Gen. Lep.," i., pi. xv., fig. 7 (1837) ; Costa, " Faun. Nap. Lep.," p. 14 (1832) ;
Freyer, " Neuere Beitrage," etc., i., p. 28 (1833) ; Curt., " Brit. Ent.," xii., pi. 547
ANTHROCERA. 415
(1835) ; Dup., "Lep. France," supp., ii., p. 34 (1835) ; Zell., " Isis," p. 274 (1839) ;
p. 296(1847) ; Zett., " Ins. Lapp., "p. 919 (1840) ; Evers., "Faun. Lep. Volg.-Ural.,"
p. 93 (1844) ; DeSelys, "Mem. Soc. Liege," ii., p. (3 (1845); H.-Sch.. •• Sys. Bearb.,"
ii., p. 28 (1845) ; Assm., " Abbild. Schmett. Schles.," ii., p. 7 (1845) ; Led., •' Verb,
zool.-bot. Ges. Wien," ii., p. 93 (1852) ; Kayser, " Deutsch. Schmett.," p. 168
(1852-1859); Speyer, " Geog. Verb. Schmett.," p. 340 (1858) ; Ramb., "Cat. Lep.
And.," p. 161 (1858-1866) ; Hein., "Die Schmett.," i., p. 154 (1859) ; Lucas, " Hist.
Nat.," 2nd Ed , p. 150 (1864) ; Birch.. " E.M.M.," iii., p. 33 (1866); Snell., " De
Vlinders," p. 126 (1867) ; Nolck., " Lep. Fn. Est.," i., p. 97 (1868) ; Newm., "Brit.
Moths," p. 23 (? 1869) ; Staud.. " Hor. Soc. Boss.," vii., p. 102 (1871) ; Stand, and
Wocke, " Cat.," p. 45 (1871) ; Mill., " Cat. Lep. Alp.-Mar.," p. 125 (1872); White.
" Scot. Nat.," i., p. 175 (1872) ; Cunf y Martorell, " Cat. Met., Lep.," p. 47 (1874) ;
Curo, "Bull. Soc. Ent. Ital.," vii., p. 194 (1875); Oberth., " Etudes d'Entom.," i..
p. 33 (1876) ; viii.. p. 27 (1884) ; xii., p. 23 (1888) ; xiii., p. 19 (1890) ; Sand," Cat. Lep.
Auv.,"p. 22(1879); Frey, "Lep. der Schweiz." p. 64 (1880) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep.
Als.," p. 47 (1880) ; Schoyen, " Norg. Ark. Reg. Lep.," p. 171 (1881) ; Hofmn., " Die
Gross-Schmett..' etc., p. 33 (1887) ; "Die Kaupen," etc., p. 35 (1893) ; Hampson,
"Fauna of India."]., p. 230 (1892); Chapmn., "Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.," p. Ill
(1893) ; Ibid., pp. 344 and 349 (1894) ; Meyr., " Handbook," etc., p. 446 (1895) ; Tutt.
" Brit. Moths," p. 351 (1896). Adscita, lletz., " Gen. et Spec. Ins.," pp. 8 and 35.
in part (1783) ; Esp., 'Die Schmett.," ii.,p. 223, in part (1783). Thermophila.,Wn.,
"Verz.."p. 117 (? 1822). Hesychia, Hb., "Verz., "p. 116 (?1822). Agrumenia,
Hb., " Verz.." p. 116 (? 1822). Eutychia, Hb., " Verz.," p. 117 (? 1822). Anthil-
aria, Hb., " Verz.." p. 117 (? 1822). Aeads, Hb.. " Verz.." p. 117 (? 1822). Lycastes,
Hb., " Verz.," p. 118 (? 1822). Mesembnjnita, Hb., " Verz.," p. 118 (? 1822).
Scopoli's diagnosis of the genus reads (Introd. Hist. Nat., p. 414)
as follows : —
Antennae nigrae, subclavatee. Alee longte, maculatae. Volatus diurnus. Larva
Phalaeniformis, segnis, pilosa, capite parvo. Pupa exposita intra folliculum luci-
dum. S. Jlllpendulae, etc.
The citation of jdipeiuhdae constitutes this as the type of the genus.
The chief characters of the genus may be summarised as follows : —
OVUM. — Oval in outline, long axis horizontal ; pale yellow or pale greenish in
colour, one pole transparent ; smooth, or very faintly reticulated.
LAKVA.— Flattened ventrally ; head retractile ; in 1st stage tubercles i-ii simple,
trapezoidal in position ; iii, iv, v simple ; converted into hair-bearing warts after
first stage, i united to ii, and iv to v ; hairs spined ; prolegs well-developed, of Macro
type ; feeds exposed ; spins a fusiform or oval silken cocoon, frequently attached
to culm, plant-stem or stone.
PUPA. — Dorsal headpiece well-developed ; maxillary palpus practically obsolete,
movable abdominal segments (? 1. 2) 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 in male, (? 1, 2) 3, 4. 5, 6 in female.
IMAGO. — Tongue developed ; antennae dilated towards apex to form a club, tip
pointed ; palpi porrect ; frenulum present ; nervures 9, 10, 11 of fore-wings stalked
together. Hind-wings with all the nervures from the cell.
With the exception of Arickalca, Wallgrn., from Zambesi and
Caffraria, Arniocera, Hopff., from Mozambique, Neurosymploca, Wallgrn.,
from Caffraria, Matabeleland and the Cape, and Xutidba, Kirby, from
Natal, the Cape, Caffraria, and doubtfully from north and north-west
India, Kirby includes (Cat. Lep. Het., pp. 62-79) the whole of the
Anthrocerids, i.e., the Burnets proper, in the genus Anthrocera. There
is no doubt that when more is known of the early stages of these
insects, many well-defined genera will be found united under this
name. Hiibner divided (Verz., pp. 116-118) the European species
known to him, and now included in this genus, into no less than eight
genera, as follows : (1) Hesychia — laeta, hilaris, fausta, fawtinh.
(2) Aymmenia — phacae, onubrychis, hedysari, meliloti (= camiolica,
Auct.). (3) Eutychia — rJtadainanthiis, caj/'ra. (4) Anthilaria — spicae,
larandulae. (5) Aeacis — ephialtcs. (6) Thermophila — aeacus,peucedani,
mt'dicaijinis, charon, viciae (uielilotlti), anyelicae, lonicerae, hippocrepidis,
fiiipendulae, transalpina, cytisi, orobi, trifulii, ylycirrldzae. (7)
416 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
— sedi, anthyllidis (triptolemus), bellidis (bellis), loti (achilleae), exidans,
cynarae, sarpedon. (8) Mesembrynus — brizae, scabiosae, jnmctum, pluto,
minos, erythrus, rubicundus. We are quite prepared to believe that our
British species are members of at least four different natural genera.
Bowell has shown that the scales of A..purpurali& (minos) are more
generalised than those of the A. filipendulae-lonicerac group, and it is
well-known that A. exulans shows very marked characters in its pupa
and cocoon. If our British species were to be subdivided, we should
have the following groups : —
1. — Mesembrynus — yurpuralis (=minos, pilosellae).
2. — Ly castes — exulans.
3. — Thermophila — viciae (meliloti).
4. — Anthrocera — lonicerae, paludis (tulfolii-major), trifolii-minor, hippocrepidis,
fdipendulae.
Anthrocera is a most attractive genus of moths, and to one who
has studied the extra-British species, offers much of interest. The
species, popularly known as Burnet moths, have usually dark green
or dark purplish-blue fore-wings, with crimson spots and crimson
hind-wings. The males inclining to the purple, the females to the
greenish, hue. The interest is partially due to the generalised nature
of the genus, exhibited particularly in the pupa and in the neuration
of the imago, but still more so to the more or less undefined character
of some of the species, which, distinct enough in habits, habitat and
time of appearance, yet present many difficulties in the determination
of the imagines, which also, in some instances, hybridise very freely.
When one has a short series of any one of these species, he is quite
prepared to give a confident opinion as to that particular species. As
the number of specimens examined increases, the opinion becomes less
confident, and when the number becomes still more largely increased,
the opinion is never stated as being more than probable. Whenever
we express any opinion as to these species, we wish it to be understood
that it must generally be considered as only a probable one.
The Anthrocerid egg is ovoid, oblong, pale yellow or greenish in
colour, very shiny, with one pole transparent, generally smooth, but
rarely very faintly reticulated, the eggs of the various speices being
very similar. The egg stage rarely lasts more than fourteen or fifteen
The newly-hatched larva is very pale, and those of different species
are very similar. They all have tubercles i and ii (Dyar's nomenclature)
arranged as anterior and posterior trapezoidals on both thoracic and
abdominal segments, and each bears a single hair ; iii is placed as a
supraspiracular, iv and v being both placed as subspiraculars. After
the first moult these simple single-hair-bearing tubercles are modified,
a swollen base uniting i and ii on either side, and bearing several
single-haired warts ; iv and v are similarly united into a common
subspiracular mass, whilst iii is also of a more complex structure.
With the exception of changes in the depth of tint, the larva is
structurally identical from this time with the adult form. The species
hybernate as larvae, moderately small, usually feeding a little through
August and September, and commencing to feed again in spring.
Boisduval states that they only feed for a fortnight before becoming
torpid, but this is not so with many species — A. lonicerae reaches its
fourth skin, A. viciae (mdiloti), A.Jilipeiuhdae&ndA. carniolica,ibe third,
before hybernating. All these feed some 8-10 weeks before hyberna-
ANTHBOCERA. 417
tion. Many larvas that commence feeding in the spring eat only for a
short time, and then asstivate and hybernate again for a full year,
feeding up the next year. Boisduval says that three changes of skin
only occur in the spring. This also can only be true for a limited
number of species.
When the larvae of A. trifohi, A. filipendvlae and their allies
are ready to hybernate, they spin a silken pad, on which they moult
before hybernation. At the same time they lose their green tint and
become of a sandy hue. The larvae feed in the spring before moulting
again. The moulting of the Anthrocerid larva is peculiar. It is not
effected by creeping out of the old skin through an aperture made in
the thoracic segments or head, but the larva simply remains quite still,
whilst the skin bursts open mediodorsally the whole length of the
back.
The food-plants of the larvaa of this genus consist almost entirely
of herbaceous leguminous plants — Vicia, Coronilla, Lotus, Hippocrepis,
Medicac/o, Tn folium, Onobrychis, etc., and Boisduval asserts that they
will not touch arborescent leguminous plants. The naming of many
species by the early entomologists, after plants belonging to other
natural orders, owing to a supposed connection between the insect
and the plant, is frequently based on error, e.g., such names as ftlipen-
dulae, cynarae, achilleae, lavandidae, peucedani, brizae, etc. Yet the
larvae of some species are not altogether confined to a leguminous
diet, that of A. erythrus is stated by Milliere to feed on Thymus,
Nicholson says that A. sarpedon feeds on Eryngium, whilst A. pui-pu-
ralis (minos) and A. exulans have the reputation of feeding on quite a
number of plants other than those belonging to the Leyuminosae. We
are inclined to think that the more polyphagous species of this genus
are, as a rule, the more ancestral ones.
The full-grown larva usually forms a spindle-shaped, white or yel-
low, silken cocoon, which is fixed either to the stem of a plant or to the
ground. (The cocoon of A. nicaeae, however, is quite oval in shape,
differing very much from a typical Anthrocerid cocoon.) The pupa is
remarkable as being of a very generalised type, with the appendages
long, and free from the abdominal segments ; of the latter 3-7 are
free in the male, 3-6 in the female ; the abdominal segments 1, 2 are
also more or less free in both sexes. The pupal state usually lasts
but a short time, and, just before the emergence of the imago, the
pupa pushes itself partly out from the upper end of the cocoon,
the imago liberating itself from the protruding chrysalis. We are
not aware that any really double -brooded species of this genus
exists in a state of nature. Milliere certainly gives A. faiista,
and doubtfully A. achilleae, as being so in southern France, and
Boisduval also suggests the double-broodedness of the latter species,
but our observations on this species there are contrary to this view, and
Boisduval's own reason, founded upon a comparison of the dates of emer-
gence of the species in the neighbourhood of Paris with those in the^
higher mountains of Dauphine, is not at all convincing. Ochsenheimer
met with two newly-emerged specimens of A. trifolii in late autumn, and
Zeller found a late autumnal freshly-emerged specimen of A. Jilipen-
dnlae, the latter suggesting that these were second-brood specimens
from larvae that had not become torpid. The probability is, however,
all the other way, as we have found belated specimens of A. jilipemhdae
M
418 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
in Kent in September, when the bulk of the imagines have appeared
in late July and August, and have always supposed that such larvae have
fed up after perhaps commencing to aestivate (and hybernate) a second
time. Zeller notes also the capture of A. ochsenheimeri in Syracuse,
in April, and asserts that he took four small male specimens of the
same species on September 4th, near Talentino, and others on Sep-
tember llth, near Ancona. These he supposed represented a second
brood. Girard met with fresh specimens of A. trifolii of both sexes
at Trouville-sur-Mer (Calvados) on Sept. 29th-30th,'l880, in a locality
in which the species usually occurs in June, and surmises that the fine
weather of September had caused their development as a partial second
brood. Fletcher has found that,-«in captivity, A. tnfolii is to a very
limited extent double-brooded. From eggs obtained early in June in
the years 1892 to 1897 (both inclusive) he bred 11 specimens, all
from eggs of the years. He has further attempted to force on a
second brood, by putting the young larvae in a south window, where
they were exposed to the warmth of the sun, modified by whitened
glass, but without any result. With the exception of this evidence of
Fletcher's, that relating to second-brooded Anthrocerids is far from
satisfactory. Difference of altitude, and, above all, meteorological
conditions often affect the emergence of insects, locally. On the
other hand, many Anthrocerid species pass more than one year in the
larval stage, i.e., a large percentage of individuals of these species do so.
To such an extent is this habit developed in some species, that every
individual of some Scotch A. filipendulae, which Fletcher procured for
experimental purposes in 1896, in spite of their removal to Sussex,
after hybernating during the winter of '96-'97, hybernated a second
time during the winter of '97-'98. He has also had other Anthrocerid
larvre pass a third winter in that stage.
The close alliance that exists between many Anthrocerid species
has led to cases of cross-pairing between some of them. It has been
recorded as occurring between A. Jilipendulae $ and A. acliilleae 2 ,
eggs obtained, larv£e hatched, but failed to reach maturity (Guenee),
A. filipendulae and A. ephialtes (Treitschke) , A. lonicerae and A. Jili-
pendulae, A. Jilipendulae and A. hippocrepidis, A. Jilipendulae and
A. peucedani, A. trifolii and A. hippocrepidis (Boisduval), A. minos
and A. Jilipendulae (Villiers). Boisduval says (Icones, ii., p. 86) that
in this cross-pairing A. Jilipendulae is always one of the species,
although he had previously stated (Mono;/, des Zyyenidcs, p. 5) that
he had many times found A. trifolii paired with A. hippocrepidis
( = A. transalpine). He further remarks that he has never been able
to obtain eggs from these cross-pairings to hatch, although he believes
it probable that some eggs do so in nature. Cross-pairing has also been
recorded between A. filipendulae and A. trifolii by Weir, but Fletcher says
with regard to this : " Seeing the great difficulty of pairing A .Jilipendulae
and A. trifolii in captivity, I should want strong evidence, actual paired
specimens with history, before believing that they paired in nature, and
actually bred and labelled hybrids before believing in them at all."
Weir notes the possession of two hybrid tnfolii x fdipcndulaf taken
wild, but Fletcher has the specimens, and refers one to A. tnfolii ab.
basalis, the other to, probably, A. hippocrepidis, St. Zeller concludes
(7.S/.S, 1840, p. 137) that " the formation of Zygaenid species is not yet
at an end, because of the constant copulation of specimens of different
ANTHROCEBA. 419
species without constraint, and when in a condition of perfect liberty."
We believe he gives none of the details, however, on which he based this
conclusion. Goossens notes (Ann. Ent. Soc. Fr., (5) vi., p. 432) that
he obtained fertile eggs from a pairing of A. hippocrepidis with A.
peucedani, all the larvas dying after the second moult, the same in the
case of A. fausta with A. hippocrepidis. Rogenhofer (S. B. z.-b. Wien,
xxxviii., p. 74) notes cross-pairing between A. camiolica $ and A.
jilipendulae J , A. fendae (transalpina) $ and A. camiolica 2 , A.
jilipendulae $ and A. fendae J. He also records a pairing between
Xytjaena, (Syntomis ) pheyea $ and A. filipendulae J.
Our actual knowledge of the hybridisation of these species is almost
entirely due to Fletcher. During 1889 and 1890, Fletcher reported
breeding hybrids between A. lonicerae x A. filipendulae (hybr.
lonicerae x jilipendulae). These were intermediate in markings between
the parents, some of the males showing only a slight trace of the sixth
spot when examined with a strong lens, while some of the females
have it as well developed as it is in typical A. fdipendidae. They were
very large, one with an alar expanse of 40 mm. Two pairings of the
hybrids were obtained, but none of the eggs hatched, yet Fletcher
concludes that he is not justified in assuming that the cross between
these two species is always sterile. In 1891 and 1892, Fletcher succeeded
in rearing hybrids of both the crosses obtainable between A. lonicerae and
A. trifolii, viz., lonicerae $ x trifolii $ and trifolii £ x lonicerae ?
(= hybr. lonicerae X trifolii and hybr. trifolii x lonicerae). Unlike the
jilipendulae x lonicerae hybrids, these laid fertile eggs, and, in 1892,
specimens of the following crosses were obtained : hybrid £ x trifolii
2 ; lonicerae $ x hybrid ? ; hijbrid $ x hybrid 2 . In March, 1893,
he had hybernating larvae, with the following pedigree :
trifolii <?
lonicerae ?
(ri/oZii <r
trifolii
hybrid
I
(1890) ? lonicerae <?
lonicerae ? trifolii <?
%6nd(1891) ?
%&rid (1891) <?
hybrid (1892) larva in March.
We are informed that these experiments were not carried further, the
fertility of the hybrids being already abundantly proved. The two
species, A. lonicerae and A. trifolii, pair freely inter se. On the other
hand, only a few pairings could be obtained between A. jilipendulae and
A. lonicerae. Single couplings were also obtained between A. jilipen-
dulae and A. trifolii, and between A. filipendulae and A. hybr. lonicerae x
trifolii, but these failed to produce fertile eggs.
Among the hybrid lonicerae x trifolii there is a strong tendency to
resemble the mother, although when several of a brood are seen
together the influence of both parents is very marked. Thus, out of
several hundreds of specimens of A. lonicerae from Kent, Notts and
York, which Fletcher had bred during the last few years (1889-1895),
not one had the central pair of spots united, whilst among every brood
of the hybrids some have had them united. When A. trifolii has been
the female parent, several have had all the spots run together as in the
ab. minoides (confluens) of A. trifolii ; a more extreme form, too, occurs.
420 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
in which the red scales are spread boyond their usual limits, so as to
occupy most of the fore-wings, except the hind margin and a narrow
stripe next to the inner margin. The influence of A. lonicerae is
shown by the greater opaqueness of the fore-wings, the acuteness of
the hind-wings and by the shape of the antennae.
Fletcher has made attempts to cross A. viciae (meliloti) with A. filipen-
dulae, A. lonicerae, A. tnfolii, and with hybrids between the last two
species. As a result he obtained two pairings between A. viciae
and A . filipendulae, and one pairing between A. viciae and A. hybr.
lonicerae x tnfolii. He failed entirely to obtain a pairing between
A. viciae and A. tnfolii. The eggs resulting from the above pairings
all failed to hatch, and pairings beiween A. filipendidae and A. tnfolii
have also, so far, always resulted in infertile eggs. The fertile crosses
that Fletcher has obtained up to date are : filipendidae x lonicerae,
lonicerae x filipendidae, tnfolii X lonicerae, lonicerae x tnfolii,
filipendidae x ochsenJteimeri, ochsenheimeri x filipendidae, the first-
mentioned in each crossing being that of the male parent. Standfnss
records the rearing of hybrid filipendidae x tnfolii, a crossing with
which Fletcher failed (ante, p. 418). He further states that the progeny
were intermediate.
White figured and described (Ann. Ent. Soc. France, (5) viii., pp.
467-476, pi. xi-xii) the genital armatures of various Anthrocerid
species. For the following account of the genital male organs of
Anthrocera we are indebted to Bateson, who writes : The accessory male
organs in Anthrocera present a considerable amount of complexity, and
their anatomical relations are not very easily made out. The peculiari-
ties, however, which distinguish these parts in the different species may
for the most part be recognised without any difficulty. For systematic
purposes, the following parts are the most useful : —
1. The uncus, consisting of two processes articulating with the tegumen, or
last dorsal segment. In some species these processes are short, wide
flaps, in others they are more or less slender horns.
2. The rasps, formed by the development of patches of peculiar teeth upon the
dorsal and ventral extensions of the sheath of the penis. These rasps
are very characteristic of the genus. The dorsal rasp is in most species
made up of large and small teeth. The large teeth are set in two rows,
converging towards the apex, bounding a central area covered with very
minute teeth. In some species the two rows of large teeth meet each other
also towards the base of the rasp, across the central area of which a part
is thus enclosed as a lozenge-shaped space. Outside the large teeth are
smaller teeth, arranged in various ways. Sometimes the large teeth are
sharply differentiated from the rest, but in other species there is no clear
distinction between large and small, the one shading into the other.
The ventral rasp is usually much smaller. It consists of a simple patch
of differentiated teeth.
3. The spines on the u-all of the penis itself. When the penis is retracted, these
spines are seen through its walls lying inside it. Morphologically, they
are, of course, on the external surface of the penis.
There is a considerable range of individual variation in the first
and second characters, but the various species of Anthrocera may,
nevertheless, be immediately distinguished from each other by refer-
ence to them. In respect of the third character, the individual varia-
tion is comparatively greater, and, on this account, some species cannot
be distinguished by this character alone, though, in other species, the
structures are peculiar and quite distinctive.
The arrangements in the British species are as follows ;
ANTHROCERA. 421
I. A.purpuralis (wwas). — 1. UNCUS: Two pointed lobes longer than
in trifolii, but not produced into horns. 2. RASPS. — Dorsal rasp : Tongue-
shaped band of teeth, about twice as long as wide. Large teeth, 8-4 in
each row. The lateral rows of teeth meet, forming a bridge across
the central area. Teeth of central area, except at this bridge, are
without points, being scale-like plates of chitin. Ventral rasp : Very
wide, widening towards apex ; in width about equalling dorsal rasp.
Contains some hundreds of small teeth, those of the base many-pointed,
some being studded over with minute points. 3. WALL OF PENIS con-
tains no horn-like teeth, but near the apex (when retracted) are two
patches of small spines.
II. A. exulans. — 1. UNCUS: Strong and horn-like processes, narrow-
ing much more gradually than in filipendulae or viciae. Thickened
along median borders. 2. RASPS. — Dorsal rasp : Tongue-shaped,
elongated and narrow. Large teeth, about ten in each row. Rows
unite across central area. Ventral rasp : Elongated band of teeth,
not widening noticeably towards apex, about as long as the dorsal rasp.
3. WALL OF PENIS contains no elongated, horn-like teeth, but has a
single elongated band of small spines near the apex (when retracted).
III. A. i-iciae (meliloti). — 1. UNCUS : Two processes, wide at base,
narrowing (more gradually than in A. filipendulae) to cylindrical curving
horns. Narrow part is about ^ width at base. The whole uncus is about
f length of that in A. filipendulae. 2. RASPS. Dorsal rasp : Much
narrower than in filipendulae, being about twice as long as broad.
Large teeth, about 8 in each row. Teeth of central area for the most
part many-pointed. Ventral rasp : Tongue-shaped patch of teeth,
narrowing towards apex, containing 70-80 teeth. 3. WALL OF PENIS
contains elongated, horn-like- teeth.
IV. The following description applies both to A. lonicerae and A.
trifolii : — 1. UNCUS : Two short triangular processes, about ^ length
in filipendulae , not produced into horns. 2. RASPS. Dorsal rasp :
General appearance as in Jilipendulae, but only about as long as wide.
Large teeth, 10-12 in each row. Rows approach each other at base
very little, leaving central area wide. Teeth of central area at base
mostly 1 -pointed, but towards apex many-pointed. 8. WALL OF PENIS
contains elongated, horn-like teeth.
A. lonicerae and A. trifolii. — Between specimens referred to A.
lonicerae and A. trifolii respectively there is no visible difference as
regards the male organs. I have examined a large series of specimens
sent by various persons, especially Mr. W. H. B. Fletcher, as A. trifolii,
A. lonicerae, or as hybrids between the two, and I can find no means
of distinguishing them. There are individual differences in number
of teeth, etc., but these variations are not correlated with the external
characters supposed to distinguish A. lonicerae from A. trifolii. Having
regard to the fact that species of Antkrocera can in general be easily
distinguished by the male characters, it must, I think, be admitted
that A. lonicerae and A. trifolii are not species in the sense that the
other Anthrocerid species are.
V. A. filipendulae. — 1. UNCUS as two processes, wide at the base,
narrowing rather abruptly, and continued backwards into long slender
horns. In the cylindrical part the horn is about ^ width at base.
2. RASPS. Dorsal rasp : length about 1£ times width. Large teeth,
7-8 in each row. Rows approaching each other, but not meeting at
422 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
base. Teeth of central area mostly 1-pointed. Ventral rasp : A patch
of 30-40 large teeth and many small ones. The toothed area widens
towards the apex. 3. WALL OF PENIS contains elongated horn-like
teeth.
Pierce considers (Brit. Nat., 1889, p. 55) that the genital organs
are distinct in all our British Anthrocerid species. He says that the
essential parts of these organs consist of the following parts : (1)
Superior or outer appendages (sup. app.). (2) Inferior or inner
appendages (inf. app.). (3) Penis collar, a scaly organ, covered
with file-like teeth. (4) Penis. An examination of these organs led
Pierce to make the following table in illustration of his observa-
tions :—
A. Inf. app. produced beyond the flap.
B. Inf. app. very long and slender ; collar with large teeth = A.Jllipendulac.
BB. Inf. app. shorter, stouter than preceding ; collar small, teeth very
small = A. exulam.
BBB. Inf. app. shorter than preceding ; collar larger ; teeth much larger
than in A. exulana, not so large as in A. filipendulae = A. meliloti.
AA. Inf. app. not produced beyond the flap.
c. Inf. app. very stout, slightly curved at the tip ; collar small, with a few
small hooks drawn out = A. purpuralis (minos).
cc. Inf. app. shorter, rounder; collar broad, large hooks = A. trifolii, A.
lonicerae,
The most closely allied species of those examined, so far as relates
to the genital organs, he considers to be A. trifolii and A. lonicerae.
The hooks on A. lonicerae are, however, larger and bolder than those
of A. trifolii, and hence have a very different appearance, which,
however, is difficult to describe in words. This will, perhaps, explain
the reason why Fletcher has more readily been able to obtain pairings
between these species than any others. At the same time the facts
brought forward in this table explain the failure of this experimenter to
cross A. viciae (meliloti) with A. trifolii, and Pierce, particularly referring
to these species, states that he considers the form of the sexual organs
in A. viciae (meliloti) sufficiently specialised to prevent any successful
crossing between it and its allies (Brit. Nat., 1892, p. 80).
It may be here mentioned that male Burnets will pair with three
or four females successively, and effectually fertilise their eggs.
Gynandromorphous specimens appear to be rare in this genus.
Schultz mentions a specimen of A. romeo var. nevadensis, the left side J ,
the right $ , that is in the collection of Dr. Staudinger. He further
mentions a specimen of A. trifolii, with $ left wings of the form ab.
confluens and $ right wings of the ab. orobi, but adds nothing as to
the condition of the sexual organs.
With very few exceptions, the fore-wings of the Anthrocerids are of
a metallic green or purplish-blue colour, with bright scarlet or crimson
spots. The two main directions in which the normal red colour is
modified in these insects is in the direction of yellow and brown. In a
few species, the spots are white in certain forms only, and then only in
part, as in A. ephialtes, in which the hind- wings and basal spot of
the fore-wings are often yellow, the other spots of the fore-wings being
white. The change from red to yellow occurs in many, probably in
all Anthrocerid species. It has been noticed in Anthrocera peucedani
ab. aeacus, A. ephialtes abs. trigonellae and coronillae, A. carniolica ab.
flaveola, A.fausta ab. lugdunensis, A. filipendulae ab. flava, A. hippocre-
pidis ab. flava, A. trifolii ab. lutescens, A. lonicerae ab. citrina, A.
ANTHROCERA. 428
acldlleae ab. flava, A. purpuralis ab. lutescens, A. exulans ab. flaw, A.
transalpine ab. lutescens, A. sarpedon &b.jtava, A. lavandulue ab. lutescens.
The red colour of the Anthrocerids is readily acted on by various acids
(vide, Brit. Noct., etc., ii., p. xi) which change it to yellow, but a careful
washing with water, and even long-continued exposure to the air, will,
in some instances, restore the colour. Fletcher says that the yellow
modification of colour is more or less hereditary, but only a small pro-
portion of offspring turn out yellow when only one parent is yellow.
He has never been able to obtain a pairing between a yellow male and
yellow female. He is inclined to believe, too, that the male is more
potent in carrying on the yellow colour than the female. The attempt
to carry on a brood of more or less transparent specimens of A.filipen-
didae has always failed, the offspring being normal. This tends to
prove that the latter is simply a pathological condition induced by
reduced energy in the individuals affected.
The tendency for the red coloration to become obscurely brown is
of very much rarer occurrence. It appears rather frequently in A.
filipendulae, the form produced being known as ab. chrysantliemi,
A. hippocrepidis ab. niyricans, A. purpuralis ab. obscura, A. trifolii&b.
obscura and A. lonicerae ab. ckalybea.
The blue-green ground colour of the wings is sometimes mixed
with silvery-grey or golden-yellow scales. Both forms are not at
all infrequent in A. exulans, and the latter is well-marked in A.
achilleae ab. bitorquata. Sometimes the blue-green scaling is changed
to a pallid brownish, as in A. filipendulae ab. yrisescemi, but this
appears to be a marked pathological condition, differing somewhat
from the preceding, and almost of the same nature as the con-
ditions, which produce an odd pallid wing, whilst the others are normal,
and so on. Then again, certain species, with normally distinct spots,
may present confluent aberrations, e.g., A. evidans, A. viciae, A.
lonicerae, A. trifolii, A. filipendulae, etc. ; others with yellow rings
surrounding the red spots are so modified that the pale cincture may
be absorbed in the red, or, on the contrary, may absorb it, extreme
cases occurring in A. camiolica and its allies. The abdominal red
belt also, in those species which possess it, may vary in colour, may
exist as a double or single ring, or may be altogether suppressed. The
width of the dark marginal band of the hind-wings also varies greatly ;
in some species aberrations are found in which almost the whole of
the red colour is absorbed.
The variation that occurs in the mode of spotting of the Burnets
forms a very interesting study. The species divide up roughly into
the following groups : — (1) With six crimson spots. (2) With five
crimson spots. (3) With three longitudinal blotches. (4) With five
crimson spots, and a sixth transverse lunular spot parallel with the
hind margin. The species of the latter group are strongly inclined to
have the crimson spots outlined with cream colour. (5) With three
transverse blotches, apparently formed of 1 + 2, 3 -f- 4, 5 + 6 in A.
cuvitri and 1 + 2, 3 -f 4, 5 + outer transverse mark of group 4 in A.
olivieri. On the whole, this group seems more allied to group 4 than
to any other. Bateson observes that a similar series of grouped forms
can be arranged according to the characters exhibited by the male
genitalia, but the two series do not correspond at all closely with each
other.
424 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA,
The most extreme form of blotching is observed in A. enjthrm and
certain forms of A. pur pur alia (minos), in which the whole of the central
area of the wing is entirely red. Standfuss says that individual examples
of A. achilleae, A. brizae, A. vieiae, A. trifolii and A. lonicerae present
aberrations occasionally almost entirely red in colour. The next step is
that in which the red is broken up into three wedge-shaped blotches, as in
typic&l A. purpuralis &nd A. punctual, the formation of these exhibitingthe
origin of the spotted forms. In the least strongly blotched species of this
group, e.y., A. scabivsae and A. brizae, these wedge-shaped blotches are
reduced to lines, and often give a distinct idea of two basal, two central,
and an apical spot being united (the upper central to the apical, and the
lower central to the lower basal). Coming to the five-spotted forms, we
find certain species with the apical spot not particularly large, but oval, as
mA.lavandulae, A. lonicerae, A. tnfolii, A. vieiae (meliloti) &n&A.exulans,
whilst a second group, represented by A. achilleae, has the apical spot
very large, suggesting a double-spotted origin (or a tendency to cover
the area occupied by the two outer spots in the next group). The six-
spotted group is interesting — A. Jtippocrepidis, Stphs., and A. ochsen-
heimeri (from the Alps), having the sixth spot ill-developed in the male
(sometimes only visible beneath), but well-developed in the female,
whilst A. filipendulae, A. transalpine^ etc., have the six spots well
developed in both sexes. It must be from near the first of these latter
groups that A. peucedani obtained its variable spotting. The ochsenheimeri
group leads naturally up to the five-spotted forms — A.trifolii, A. lonicerae,
A. vieiae (meliloti), A.exulans, etc. The last group to be considered has
five red spots and an outer transverse lunular mark, and is very near
the five-spotted species, in spite of the remarkable creamy rings that
surround the red spots of such species as A. camiolica, A. occitanica and
A.fausta, for in A. camiolica ab. berolinensis the creamy rings have not
yet appeared (or have been suppressed) , and in some extreme forms of
this aberration the outer transverse band is reduced to a mere red scale
or two, and is occasionally absent altogether. In this state, it is difficult
to separate from a small A. trifolii. The blotched aberrations of the
species of this group, too, form their blotches as in confluent A.
trifolii, and not as in A. purpuralis (minos), that is, they unite in
adjacent pairs — basal with basal, central with central — and then by
transverse lines uniting them more or less centrally, and thus do not form
three wedge-shaped spots, but a real blotch. A. exulans and A. vieiae
(meliloti) blotch rarely, but when they do, the tendency is to follow
A. purpuralis (minos).
In speaking of these spots in detail, it is well to have some sort of
nomenclature. For this purpose, we use the numbers 1, 2, 8, 4, 5, 6.
1 is the upper and 2 the lower of the basal spots ; 8 and 4 are the
upper and lower of the middle pair respectively ; 5 and 6 the upper
and lower of the outside pair. In the type of A. purpuralis, I is con-
tinued along the basal half of the costa, forming a wedge-shaped spot ;
2 is joined with 4 into a second blotch, whilst 8 is joined to 5 (and
somewhat enlarged towards 6) to form a third blotch. The three
being generally separated by the green nervures that fall between them.
In the ab. pluto, the extension of the blotch 3 + 5 is not enlarged
towards 6, but is cut off sharply on the outer edge of 5 ; whilst in the
ab. polytjalae, the blotches characteristic of the typical form are not
separated by the darker nervures, but occupy the greater part of the
ANTHROCEKA. 425
area of the wing as a single red blotch. The form known as A.
e.ndans ab. jndchra is an almost parallel form to A. purpuralis ab.
polyyalae, but yet shows some traces of the yellow nervures that separate
the three blotches ; A. e.ndans ab. striata tends in the direction of joining
3 and 5 or 2 and 4 by fine red lines. In A. louicerae, there is a tendency
for 1 to form a long wedge-shaped spot along the basal half of the
costa, then for 2 and 4 to run together and make a somewhat straight
line parallel with the inner margin, as in A. purpuralis. Here the
similarity seems to end, for 4 now joins with 5, and then falls back to
include 8, so that at length 2, 3, 4 and 5 form a large roughly wedge-
shaped spot with the apex of the wedge at 2, and its base extending
along the outer edge of 5 to 4, and roughly parallel with the outer
margin of the wing. This also seems to be the line taken by A.filipen-
ilulae, but in this, after 2 and 4 have become united, 3 will join into
the blotch at 4, and also with the united 5+6, leaving a space
between 4 and 5+6. If now we examine A. trifulii, we observe that
the commonest form of blotching is that by which 1 + 2, 3 + 4, and
5 become three separate spots. Then we observe that 1 + 2 is joined
to 3 + 4 by a narrow line = ab. basalis, Selys, and in others that
3 + 4 is joined to 5 in the same manner = ab. glycirrhizae, lib.
The next step is 1 + 2 joined to 3 + 4 by a red line, and 3 + 4 joined
to 5 by another red line, so that we have two terminal and a central
blotch, borne, as it were, on a central bar = ab. minoides, Selys =
confluen*, Stdgr. The growth of this bar continues, in some instances,
until the whole central area is practically filled up. Such an aberra-
tion is figured by Christy (Entom., vol.xxix., p. 341).
With regard to this development, Speyer (Stett. Ent. Zeit., xxxviii.,
p. 40 et seq.) notices that the farthest removal from the typical spotting
occurs in those species which have lost the pairs of spots as such, and
have, in their place, three longitudinal streaks, of which two spring
from the base of the wing, whilst the third occupies the discoidal cell,
and pushes its narrow basal half between the other two. This is
caused by spot 1 lengthening towards the apex ' to a point, whilst 2
joins with 4 and 3 with 5, whilst 6, if present, is united to 5, and
forms the broad base of the central streak, extending over , branches 1
and 2 of the median vein. This extension is well shown in A. purpuralis
(minos) and A. erythrus, whilst in those species in which the three
streaks have been developed from 5 (and not 6) spots, as in A. scabiosae
and A. brizae, this widening is wanting. Speyer further remarks that
the development of the streaks from spots can be readily traced in
A. achilleae and A. cynarae, whilst the retrogression of the streaks
through partial loss of the red coloration may frequently be traced in
A. scabiosae, and A. pwpuralis.
Speyer, however, discovered a form of A. trifolii, which he named
trivittata, from the fact that its markings were characteristically like,
and similarly formed to, those of A. purpuralis, i.e., spot 1 forms a
narrow streak reaching to the middle of the costa ; the middle streak,
formed by the union of 6 to 3, is divided from the first by the black sub-
costal nervure, is rounded at the end, and of equal thickness until half-
way to the base, when it narrows to a sharp point between the stems
of the subcostal and median nervures ; the lowest streak is formed by
4 joining 2, and is broadest at the end situated in the middle of the
wing. This belongs to the small-winged form of this variable species.
426 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEEA.
An intermediate form, taken at the same place, showed that the middle
streak was formed of 8 + 5, by not being straight on its upper margin,
and by the presence of a deep indentation between the positions of 8
and 5. The median nervure, too, is dusted with red, so that the
middle streak (3 + 5) is united to the lowest one (2 + 4). This
specimen, Speyer mentions, has a very broad black border, reaching to
the base of the inner margin of the hind-wings, as well as the inner
marginal, the median, and two other nervures distinctly blackened.
These, he says, are the only specimens of this kind he had come across
in A. trifolii, although the ordinary blotched forms were commoner
with him than the spotted forms.
With regard to the normal variation of A. trifolii, Speyer's remarks
agree with the generally observed facts. Starting from the five-spotted
form, he shows that the blotching takes place as follows : (1) The union
of the basal spots, owing to the dividing nervure, becoming red.
(2) The middle pair become united (Esp., Die Schmett., pi. xxxiv.,
fig. 5). (8a) The red spreads longitudinally, the basal pair giving
out a long-pointed streak, which becomes merged into a similar
enlargement which stretches towards it from the middle pair. (36)
More rarely the upper part of the middle spot is united with 5 by a
narrow bridge, whilst the basal pair is still separate from the middle pair
(ab. glycirrhizae, Hb.). (4) Lastly, 5 joins with 3 + 4, at first by a
narrow bridge, then broadening, until at last the spots comprise a
large irregular longitudinal blotch, with two shallow broad depressions
on the inner marginal side, which indicate the original divisions of
the spots (ab. confluens, Stdgr.). The basal pair of spots sometimes
remain separate after the blotching between the other spots has com-
menced. Speyer further points out how remarkable it is that both
types of blotching that occur in the Anthrocerids should occur in this
one species: (1) The blotching due to the junction of the pairs of
spots by longitudinal streaks (ab. minoides). (2) The union of the
spots into true wedge-shaped marks (ab. trivittata).
Eef erring to the blotching of A. lonicerae, we find that Speyer has
observed a distinction in the mode of formation compared with that
in A. trifolii. He observes, that when spots 3, 4 and 5 are united in the
former species, they form a large irregular rhomboidal red blotch, whose
point (spot 5) is more extended and nearer to the apex than in A. trifolii.
Compared with A. trifolii, blotched specimens of A. lonicerae are rare.
Treitschke (Die Schmett. von Europa, x., p. 105) says that he had never
seen A. lonicerae with confluent spots. Herrich-Schiiffer (8yst.
Bearb., ii., p. 36) says : " Spots 3, 4 and 5 are never joined." Most
of the British blotched specimens of A. lonicerae are reputed to come
from the neighbourhood of Coventry. Occasional specimens have also
come from York and the neighbourhood of Strood.
The development of peculiar and striking congenital aberrations
occasionally takes place in this group. The substitution of an extra wing
in the place of the left hind leg, in a specimen of A. filipendulae, bred
from a cocoon found at Cambridge by Richardson, in 1877, is very
interesting. The specimen is a male, of the ordinary colour and
markings, the extra wing resembling an ordinary hind-wing oi this
species in shape and appearance, but is much smaller, being 3'" in
length, and 2'" in breadth, as compared with the ordinary hind-wing
in the same specimen, which is 4|'" long and 2^'" broad. The extra
ANTHROCEKA. 427
wing is much more thinly scaled than the others, is fringed, however,
at the margin, and has almost typical neuration. It has a distinct
blackish border on the posterior margin of the basal half of the wing ;
the outer half of the wing being poorly coloured and scaled. The
wing is attached to the body along the line in which the first joint of
the leg would lie if present ; the line of junction is so great (!'") that
the wing must have been quite immovable when the insect was alive ;
and, although it has one or two slight longitudinal folds, the wing is
not in any way deformed. Bateson regards the evidence that a wing
was here substituted for a leg inconclusive, as no dissection was carried
out, but Richardson considers it improbable that he accidentally broke
off a leg (as has been suggested) and states (in litt.) that there is no
trace of any leg ever having been present. Eichardson has another
specimen of A. filipendulae (from Portland) in which the middle right
leg is dwarfed to half its size, suggesting a probable tendency in the
same direction.
Rogenhofer describes and figures (S. B. z.-b. Wien, xxxii., pp. 34-
35) a five-winged specimen of A. purpuralis, captured by Bohatsch in
July, 1882, at Griifenberg. This has on the left side, between the two
normally developed wings, and directly in front of the frenulum, a
third wing, somewhat crippled at its base and about half as large as
the normal hind-wing, which it resembles in shape, although having
the colouring of the fore-wing. The red is confined to the basal half,
the outer portion of the wing being blackish. The neuration is peculiar,
the two chief nervures are swollen at the base, run apart, and form no
discoidal cell; the median sends out two branches above and two
below, and is forked just before the outer margin ; the subdorsal and
inner-marginal nervures form curves, and run into the middle of
the inner margin.
An equally strange aberration occurs in a female specimen of A.
exulans, captured by Chapman at Oberalp, in August, 1895. In this
specimen, the legs and usual wings are quite normal, and in their
usual positions, but between the left anterior wing and the meso-
thoracic leg are two additional winglets. The distance between the
wing and the leg seems to be a little greater than usual ; at a
distance below the wing of about a millimetre, and parallel to it, is
a supernumerary wing. Its length is barely a third of that of the wing
above it, but, structurally, it represents the basal half of a normal
upper wing, all the nervures being present up to nearly the end of the
discoidal cell, and the colour of the scales covering it fairly correspond.
The costa terminates in a small crumpled process, apparently repre-
senting the costal margin of the wing as far as the apex ; the rest of
the wing terminates abruptly without any definite fringe, which
one usually finds on the margin of congenitally abbreviated wings.
A second supernumerary wing arises about half a millimetre below
the first, still on the naesothorax. It is too defective and crumpled
to admit of any certain resolution of its structure, but it presents
several folds of wing structure that would, if they could be straightened
out, probably show it to be as long as the other supernumerary. It
also is clothed with some red scales.
South has described and figured (Entom, , xxvii. , p. 253) a specimen of
A. trifolii, captured in Sussex by Christy, on June 18th, 1893, which, on
the right side, has the hind-wing entirely absent, whilst on the left side a
428
BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
wing similar in shape, colour and markings to the normal fore-wing
replaces the hind-wing. The specimen, therefore, has three normal fore-
wings, judged by markings, etc., and no hind- wing. The second wing
on the left side appears, so far as can be judged from the figure, to arise
from the metathorax and not to be a second mesothoracic wing. Later,
South noted (Ibid., p. 294) that the insect had only two pairs of legs,
(the mesothoracic), evidently, from the figure, being the missing pair.
Capper has a male A. lonicerae, bred by Hewett in 1888, from a cocoon
obtained near York, with the wings on the right side nearly normal (the
hind- wing is somewhat pointed), whilst on the left side, the hind-wing
is simply a duplicate of the fore-wing, being almost of equal length, of the
same blue-green colour, with crimson spots; the apex is slightly more
rounded, and the base of the costal margin more arched than in the fore-
wing. Oberthur describes and figures (Fa nation Lep., p. 53, pl.^'ii., fig.
123) a specimen of Anthrocera occitanica, in which the right hind-wing, in
place of being normally red as the left, is spotted exactly as the fore-
wing, the contour and neuration also agreeing with the latter. This
specimen belonged to Boisduval, who, in 1853, communicated to the
Ent. Soc. de France, the fact that it was bred by Daube, from a larva
that he had captured.
Barrett (Lep., ii., p. 128) alludes to specimens of A. trifolii, found
by Christy in West Sussex, in which the wings were incomplete, as
though irregularly cut back, so that some had but half wings, and a
few were nearly apterous. Some of these specimens had the fore- and
hind-wings cut and stalked in a most curious manner. Fletcher has
had pairings of deformed males with ordinary females and the reverse,
but so far as the limited numbers bred go, the deformity was found
not to be hereditary.
Whilst considering these congenital aberrations, we may mention
the occasional occurrence of imagines that retain the larval head.
Fletcher has such a specimen of A. filipendulae, a female, bred from a
Deal pupa, in which there is no trace of the antennae of the imago.
Luff reared a specimen of A. trifolii on August llth, 1874, from a
pupa obtained at Herm, which still bore the head of the larva. Two
similar specimens of A. lonicerae are recorded by the writer as being
obtained from pupas, from Mansfield, Notts, and Staudinger notes the
capture of a similar specimen of A. exulans at Bossekop, on July llth,
1860. The latter says that in his example the moth was completely
developed except the larval head, the mandibles of which were immovable,
and the head fixed to the prothorax and only capable of being moved
with the latter. The prothorax was completely metamorphosed and
carried imaginal legs. There was no indication of an incompletely
developed imaginal head within the larval one.
Bowell has (Ent, Itec., ix., pp. 271-273) some interesting notes on
the scales of some of the species of the genus Anthrocera. He finds
that the species divide into three groups: (1) The " ephialtes group,"
comprising, among others, this species, and lavandulae. This group is
characterised by there being no difference between the scales of the
upper and lower wings. (2) The " Jilipendulae group," comprising,
among others, trifolii, lonicerae and Jilipendulae. This group is
characterised by the scales of the hind-wings being more attenuated
than those of the fore-wings. The former are generally bifid, the
latter bifid or trifid. There is, however, great variation in the scales
ANTHROCEEA. 429
of some species of this group. (3) The " minos group," in which the
scales are long ovals, more or less sparsely planted, and rarely bifid.
Whenever these scales suggest a triangular shape, the base of the
triangle is towards the base of the scale, the reverse being the case in the
other groups. A. viciae (meliloti) is said to form in the structure of its
scales a connecting link between the "fdipendulae" and "minos"
groups, with more defined affinities with the latter.
The simple scales of the " minos group " are supposed to represent
the most generalised form. The brilliant red scales are, in all cases,
rounded at the tips, and the amount of rotundity seems to determine
the brightness of the general appearance. The duller red or orange
scales are bifid or trifid. Bowell further remarks that A. filipendvlae,
A. lonicerac and A. trifolii are, in scale structure, probably the most
fixed and typical of the species of the " second " group, and that the
external resemblance of the two latter species is not maintained in the
scales.
We have already suggested the tendency of the fore- wings of the
males of most of our British species to be purple-blue in colour, and
the females green. The dark border of the hind-wings is, as a rule,
wider in the males than in the females, in the latter sex of A. ftli-
pendnlae, the border is often confined to the fringe alone. The Anthro-
cerid male is also (in some species, at least) specialised in having two
eversible feathery tufts or scent glands, immediately in front of the anal
segment, and placed just ventrally thereto.
The antennas of Anthrocera are cylindrical in so far that they have
everywhere a smooth, circular, transverse section. The segments
become larger and larger as the base is left, so that the well-known
club-shape results; there is some variation, in different species, in the
sharpness of the decline in size at the tip. Each segment is rather short
for its width, but the articulating surface does not occupy the whole of
the ends but only a central portion ; the opposed faces have neither
scales nor sensory hairs. The dorsal surface, from end to end, is covered
with scales, and the ventral with sense hairs. The only exception to this
that I have noted is that in some species the terminal segment is reddish
(free from pigment) , and without dorsal scaling. The sensory hairs form
a dense velvety coating to the under surface, and have amongst them
some larger ones on each segment. The chitinous surface itself, of the
ventral aspect, is covered with conical prominences. There are certainly
no cones (Bodine's terminology), and I think no pits. The conical
prominences noted look like short, thick hairs, about half the length of
the others, but I cannot determine that they have any articulation at
their base. They are larger and more regular than the serrated points
that cover the chitin of the pectinations of Harrisonia, but the density
of the pigmentation is greater than in that form, and makes observa-
tion even more difficult. The dorsal chitin is free from any projection,
except the scale-cups, and has no hairs, except one (or more ?) close to
the distal margin of the segment, and about the middle of the dorsum.
In Harruonia, dorsal hairs amongst the scales are more numerous
(Chapman).
The species included in this genus are day-flying insects, generally
very local, and usually abundant where they occur. They boom along
heavily in the hottest sunshine, or sit, sometimes several on a single
flower-head, sucking the nectar from the capitula of Centaurea p?
430 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Scabiosa, or swarming about the blossoms of a privet bush or Vicia. We
have repeatedly noticed the habit of " assembling " in Anthmcera hippo-
crepidis, St., A. lonicerae and A. exulans, sometimes as many as a dozen
males buzzing at one time round a newly-emerged female ; and
Oberlander records the attraction of a number of males of A. filipen-
dulae by a cocoon (with pupa), at Rouen in 1879, whilst holding it in his
hand. Curiously there is no mention of the sex of the pupa, but there is
little doubt it was a ? , and probably near the point of emergence. The
British species are but few in number, yet they are not at all well-known.
The earliest species to appear are A. hippocrepidis, St., and A. trifolii
(-minor), which fly in pastures and meadows, otkenvfittiA.statices, in late
May and early June ; A. lonicerae occurs in wood-clearings, in middle and
late June, and about the same time.4. viciae (mcliloti) appears in the rides
of the New Forest, about Stubby Coppice. A week later, A. purpnralis
abounds in its western haunts, whilst, in early July, A. filipendidae puts in
its appearance, on sea cliffs and coast sand-hills, inland chalk-hills,
moors, and waste places, almost everywhere, its flight, however, often
extending well into August. In another week or so A. e.mlann is to be
found on the alpine moors above Braemar, whilst the last fortnight
of the month usually sees A. palustris (trifolii -major) abundant in its
marshy habitat. A. fUipendidae is by far the most common and most
widely-distributed species ; A. hippocrepidis, St., is, so far as is known,
confined to our south-eastern counties ; A. trifolii is locally abundant,
and widely distributed, whilst the same may be said of A. lonicerae.
A. palustris (trifolii-major) is very local, and apparently not widely
distributed, whilst the other three species are only to be obtained in
their known special haunts, or similar ones in likely districts, A. exulans
in the Scotch Highlands, A. purpuralin on the western coasts, and A.
viciae in the New Forest. Allowance must always be made in the time
of appearance for a difference between seasons. In 1888, A. trifolii
was out in late June and early July, A, palustris (trifolii-major) in late
August, and we saw A. Jilipendulae in late September. In 1893, A.
trifolii appeared in the middle of May, A. palmtris (trifolii-major) in
mid- June, whilst A. filipendidae was out in abundance during the latter
month. Fletcher considers that, in confinement, if undisturbed, the
Anthrocerid larvae are easy to winter.
ANTHROCERA (MESEMBRYNUS) PURPURALIS, Briinnich.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Parpuralis, Briinnich, " Danske Atlas," i., pi. xxx.,
p. 68G (17(53) ; Miill., " Zool. Dan. Prod.," no. 1345, p. 116 (1776) ; Auriv.,
"Nord. Fjiir.," p. 53 (1888) ; Kirby. "Cat. Lep. Het.," p. 63 (1892); "Handbook,"
etc., p. 87 (1897). Minos, ?Den. and Schiff., " Verz. Schmett. Wien," p. 45 (1776) ;
? Schrank, " Fuessly's Neues Mag.," ii., p. 208 (1785) ; Hb., " Beitr. Gesch.
Schmett.," ii., p. 20 (1790); " Eur. Schmett.," ii., fig. 8, p. 77(1797); "Verz.,"
p. 119 (91822); Ochs., "Schmett. Eur.," ii., p. 22 (1808); Bdv., " Mon. des
Zyg.," p. 29. pi. i., fig. 7 (1829) ; " Icones," ii., pi. lii.. fig. 5, p. 41 (1834) ;
Freyer, " Neuere Beit.." vol. i., p. 156, pi. 86, fig. 1 (ante 1833) ; Dup., " Lep. Fr.,"
supp. ii.. p. 40, pi. iv.. fig. 4 (1835) ; " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," 1844, p. 85 ; Zell..
"Isis," 1840, p. 137; "Stett. Ent. Zeit," 1844, pp. 38-43; Evers., "Fauna Lep.
Volg.-Ural.," p. 93 (1844) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," ii., p. 30 (1840), vi., p. 43
(?1856); Assmn.. " Besch. Schmett. Schles.," ii., p. 7 (1845); Hering, "Stett.
!nt. Zeit.," 1846, p. 235 ; Kayser, " Deutsch. Schmett.," p. 168 (1852-9) ; Sta.,
Ent. Zeit.," 1846, p. 235 ; Kayser, " Deutsch. Schmett.," p. 168 (1852-9)
"Man.," i., p. 80(1857); "Ent. Ann.," 1862, p. 50; "Ent. Ann.," 1866, p.
20 ; Speyer, " Geog. Verb. Schmett.," i., p. 340 (1858) ; Hein., " Schmett. Deutsch.,"
i., p. 155 (1859); Newm., "Zool.," 1861, pp. 7565-6; Dbldy., "Zool.," iHljl,
p. 7715; Wallgrn., " Skand. Het.," p. 90 (1863); Lucas, "Hist. Nat.," 2nd Eel,,
p. 150 (1864) ; Nolck., "Lep. Fn. Estl.," i., p. 79 (1868) ; Newm., " Brit. Moths,"
ANTHROCERA (MESEMBRYNUs) PURPURALIS. 481
p. 23 (? 1869) ; Staud., "Hor. Soc.Ent. Ross.," vii., p. 102 (1870, pubd. 1871) ; Kirby,
'Eur. Butts.," etc., p. 88 (1879) ; Frey, "Lep. der Schweiz," p. 64 (1880) ; Oberth.,
'Lep. dos Pyr.," p. 27 (1884) ; Barr., " Lep. Brit.," ii.,p. 177 (1894) ; Tutt, " Ent.
Record," vi., pp. 270-276 (1895); "Brit. Moths.," p. 354 (1896). Pijthia, Fab.,
'Gen. Ins.," p. 275 (in part) (1777); "Mant.," ii.. p. 101 (1787); Amstein,
' Fuess. Mag. Ent.," i., p. 113, pi. i., fig. 6 ; Fuessly, " Ibid.," p. 140 (1778) ; View.,
' Tab. Verz.," i., p. 23 (1789) ; ? Freyer, " Neuere Beit.," v., p. 152, pi. 473, fig. 1
(1845). Pilosellae, Esp., " Die Schmett.," ii., p. 186, pi. xxiv., figs. 2 a i , b ? (1781) ;
pt. 2, p. 14, pi. xl., figs. 3-6, p. 32, pi. xliv., fig. 10 (1789) ; Bork., " Sys. Besch.," ii.,
pp. 25 and 164 (1789) ; " Rhein. Mag.," i., p. 307 (171)3) ; Schrk., " Fauna Boica." ii.,
1st pt., p. 240 (1801); ZelL, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xxxiii., p. 27 (1872); Staud..
" Cat.," p. 45 (1871) ; Curo, " Bull. Soc. Ital.," vii., p. 194 (1875) ; Sand, " Cat.
Lep. Auv.," p. 22 (1879) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Als.," p. 47 (1880) ; Hofmn., " Die
Gross-Schmett.," etc., p. 34 (1887) ; " Die Raupen," etc., p. 35 (1893) ; Meyr.,
"Handbook," etc., p. 448 (1895). Achilleae, Newm., " Zool.," p. 7565 (1861).
Niibi(/ena,Ne\vm., "Zool.," 1861, pp. 7676-7 ; Birch., "Ent. Mo. Mag.," iii., p.
33 (1866); Kirby, "Eur. Butts.." etc., p. 88 (1879); Buckler," Lame," etc.,
ii., p. 9 (1887).
The synonymy of this species is most complicated. Briinnich, in
1701, described this species without a name in the Prodromus Insecto-
logiae Siacllandicae, p. 29. In 1763, he figured the species in Pon-
toppidan's Danske Atlas, i., pi. xxx., naming it purpuralis, and
referred the name to the previous description, which, therefore, became
the original diagnosis of the species. The reference in Pontoppidan's
work reads : "7. Purpuralis, described in Prodromus Inn. Siaellandicae,
p. 29, no. 18 ; and, see also the present work, pi. xxx." This name,
therefore, long antedates the names of minos, pyt/da and pilosettae, the
synonymy of which we have already fully discussed at length, Ent.
lice., vi., pp. 270-276.
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — The description to which Brunnich refers
his figure of purpuralis in the Danske Atlas is as follows : " Sphinx.
Statura Sphingis filipendulae, lingua spirali, alis superioribus cyaneis,
lineis tribus rubris in singula ala, una nempe a basi alee partem
marginis exterioris facit, altera longior etiam a basi medium tenet,
tertia incipit inter has duas,paulo ante quamfinitur prima,etprogreditur
dilatata, non vero ad extremitatem alse. Alas inferiores rubraa im-
maculatfe [Briinnich, Prodromus Insectolofdae Siaellandicae, p. 29 (dated
April 23rd, MCCLXI in error for MDCCLXI).]
IMAGO. — Anterior wings bluish-green with three longitudinal crimson
dashes, one, wedge-shaped, running from the base of the wing along
the costa, the second, from the base to the centre of the wing, the
third from the centre of the wing towards the apex and outer margin.
Posterior wings crimson, with a narrow purplish hind marginal line.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The sexes are, as a rule, very similar. The
males vary in size from 23 mm. to 34 mm., the females from 25 mm. to
36 mm., in some 60 specimens examined, the average female being
larger than the male. There appears also a tendency for the female to
be more thinly scaled, and it is certain that this sex has the red much
more often continuously spread over the central area of the fore-wing
than has the male. Boisduval notices that the apex of the hind-wings
is usually dark grey in the males, but rarely so in the females. In
many males the dark grey border is twice as broad as the cilia of the
hind-wings, and is continued, though very narrowly, as far as the
third branch of the median nervure. Occasionally it is three times as
broad as the cilia, and its continuation along the hind margin is
broad in proportion. Borkhausen notices that the ground colour of
the males often has a blue tint, that of the females being light green,
432 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
VARIATION. — More perhaps has been published on the variation of
this, than any other Anthrocerid, species. It is not confined to any
particular kind of habitat, nor to one condition of environment,
except that it is rarely (if ever) found off a calcareous soil, and flourishes
in the plains of Central Europe, the \varra valleys of southern
Europe and the high Alps to 9,000 ft. It extends from Sicily
to the Arctic Circle, and from the west shores of Ireland to the
borders of China. In many places it is a roadside species, in others
it haunts grassy openings in woods, in others, exposed hillsides, and
yet again is found high on Alpine pastures. Under such varied con-
ditions it is not surprising that the species should exhibit consider-
able variation, and much difficulty -.has existed as to the determina-
tion whether certain forms were races of this, or really distinct, species.
The scales are readily removed, but the diaphanous appearance of
some individuals is not altogether due to their being somewhat worn.
There is, however, considerable variation in the size, as well as in the
intensity of the coloration of the red blotches of the fore-wings, and,
frequently, there is a tendency for the blotches to decompose into the
spots characteristic of the " spotted " groups. Zeller described (Ms,
1840, p. 137) a series of forms illustrating this phase of variation :
(a) With 1 filling up the space between the costa and subcostal nervure,
2 + 4, entirely confluent, forming a spot anteriorly rounded, and
filling up the space between median and subcostal nervures, 3 + 5 +
6 united to form a third spot, pointed towards the base and much
expanded anteriorly, (b) With the spot 2 + 4 more or less deeply
emarginate on both sides, (c) With the spot 3 + 5 slightly exca-
vated on both sides, (d) With the excavation between 2 and 4
deepened so that the spots are separate, 4 forming a small spot or
point towards the base of 2. (e) With the excavation between 8 +
5 deepened, so that they become separated. (/) Like fc, but with a
short, faint, red streak between the subdorsal nervure and inner
margin. (y) With the usually dark nervures of the type form covered
with red scales, so that the red blotches are entirely united into a
single red blotch = the passage to polyyalae, Esp. Zeller adds that
there are connecting links between these aberrations in which, on one
or both wings, spots 3 and 5, 2 and 4 are connected by a slender
thread of red. He also notes that the forms d and c do not show half
as much red on the fore-wings as the typical form a does. Nearly all
the specimens of the forms b, c, d and e have on the hinder margin
of the united last pair of spots, a deep excavation, and the margin is
not gradually lost in the ground colour. The portion which belongs
to the upper spot, 5, is always of a much deeper red. Other speci-
mens of the form b are without this emargination of the securiform
spot. On the other hand, in some examples the red scales cover the
nervures, and make the central portion of the fore-wings entirely
red, occasionally extending even to the inner margin at the base.
Freyer notes (Stett. Ent. Zeit., 1844, p. 85) that the securiform
spot varies, being broader, larger, and more lost in the ground
colour in some specimens than others. All authors are agreed that
the south European specimens are as a rule more thickly scaled than
those of more northern latitudes and high altitudes. Ilerrich-Schailer
says that the southern and Alpine examples have frequently a more
shaggy-haired abdomen, which conceals the shorter steel-blue scales.
ANTHROCERA (MESEMBRYNUs) PURPURALIS. 433
This author's fig. 14 shows a specimen in which the securiform spot
is hardly expanded behind ; fig. 13 shows a very rounded exterior edge
to the securiform spot ; fig. 15, a female in which the red is much
expanded ; fig. 16, the securiform spot is much attenuated towards
the base. He also observes that the apex of the hind-wing in the
male has sometimes a rather broad tinge of black. In his vol. vi.
(appendix to vol. ii.), p. 48, he describes a form with the costa red for
three-fourths of its length, and then united with a very large but ill-
defined spot 5. The latter is united with the enlarged, but otherwise
indistinct, spot 4, which is only united with 2 along the middle
nervure on which alone 3 is joined to 5. Treitschke describes three
forms : (1) Alarum anticarum macula exteriori interrupta. (2)
Maculis confluentibus permagnis. (3) Collari humerisque flaves-
centibus. A difference in the scaling of specimens from various
localities is possibly sometimes due to the development of the scales
under abnormal conditions, owing to the pupa being badly placed, or
it may be only a result of difference of nutrition in the larval
stage, a factor, probably, which is also frequently responsible for
the difference of size observable. The smallest specimens occur
on stony waste places, or dry, hot, rocky slopes, on which the
herbage is comparatively sparse and stunted. In the amount of
separation between the red blotches, there is also considerable
variation. Those specimens in the British Museum collection, in
which the red blotches themselves form comparatively thin streaks,
are referred to ab. interrupta, Stdgr. Nolcken remarks that the speci-
mens from the Russian Baltic provinces vary in size, shape, thickness
of antennal club, denseness of scaling, and markings. He notes that in
the most extreme aberrations the 4 red spots nearest the base are
entirely separate from one another, while 5 and 6 are confluent across
nervure 5, but this form is united with the type by many transitional
aberrations. An example of this extreme form came from Koervast
(Oesel I.) on June 24th, 1848. He further remarks that the specimens
from the Russian Baltic provinces differ from German specimens in
that the spots 5 and 6 are situated considerably further from the
outer margin, whilst the middle cell is more filled in with red scales, no
specimens like Hiibner's fig. 8, which has much more pointed antennal
clubs, being obtained. Oberthiir notes that the specimens from Cauterets
(Pyrenees) are superb, large, and brightly coloured, somewhat similar
to those found at Zermatt, whilst the form from Ariege is smaller and
more vermilion than that from Cauterets. One would expect the
French specimens from Pont-de-1'Arche (in the Dept. Eure) and
Rouen to be very similar to our British examples, and probably this is
so. Dupont notes that in them the red blotch 3+5 extends
usually towards the outer edge of the fore-wings, whilst some
examples appear to belong to the ab. interrupta, Staud. So far as
we have been able to compare them, the Welsh and Irish examples
are rather brighter than Scotch ones from Oban, for which we are
indebted to Mr. Sheldon. The Welsh specimens we have vary from
23-27 mm., the Scotch from 25-27 mm., whilst the Irish vary from
23-32 mm., more examples of the latter being examined. Boisduval
says that the Sicilian specimens are generally larger than those from
other parts of Europe, and the females more yellowish. Mathew
found the Turkish (Gallipoli) examples measuring, on an average, a,
484 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
quarter of an inch more than Irish specimens. Staudinger records
specimens from the Ala Tau, in Central Asia, of quite the ordinary
European form. We would call the aberration in which spots 3 and 5,
and 2 and 4, tend to be separated, ab. separata, n. ab.
The following appear to be the principal local races and aberrations
that have so far been described : —
1. With the three blotches narrow and ill-developed = ab. (et var.) interrupta,
Staud.
2. With the three blotches well-developed, but separated by strongly defined
nervures = purpuralis, Briin., pytliia, Fab., pilosellae, Esp., nubigena,
Newman.
3. The blotches like the type, but the specimens rather smaller = var.
graeca, Staud. (?MS. name only).
4. Also rather small, and the outer spot not dilated, but wedge-shaped — ab.
pluto, Ochs.
5. Typical, but with the ordinary red areas of a yellow tint = ab. lutesccns,
n. ab.
6. The outer spot large, reaches well towards the outer margin ; outer margin
more convex ; the antennae more attenuated from club towards base = var.
heringi, Zell.
7. With the three blotches united, but with distinct dark outer and inner
marginal areas to forewings = ab. polygalae, Esp.
8. With the fore-wings almost entirely coppery-red, no differentiation into three
spots, a narrow outer margin only = ? ab. rnbicundus, Hb.
9. Thinly scaled, the normal red coloration of a pale crimson = var. nubigena,
Led.
10. More thinly scaled than 9, red colour duller, the outer wedge-shaped spot
broadened outwardly, the two basal spots united in ? = var. diaphana,
Staud.
11. All the normally red markings suffused with blackish = ab. obscura, n. ab.
a. ab. interrupta, Staud., "Cat. Lep. Eur.," p. 45 (1871).— Macula media
latius interrupta.
The specimens in the British Museum collection bearing this name
have comparatively thin streaks, and, therefore, exhibit a prepon-
derance of the ground colour, in other words, the red streaks are
separated very markedly by unusually broad lines of the darker ground-
colour. It has been recorded from Trafoi (Staudinger), Gadmen
(Ratzer), not rare in South Sweden (Aurivillius), Freiburg and
Weinheim (Reutti), with the type nr. Pont-de-1'Arche and Rouen
(Dupont), occurs at Abersoch and in Galway (Tutt).
/3. var. graeca, Staud. (? MS. name only) ; Tutt, "Ent. Eec.," v., p. 273.— Speci-
mens occurred on the Parnassus, in the second half of June, also on the
Veluchi. Since this common species varies somewhat everywhere, both in the
larval and imaginal states, one cannot look upon the Greek specimens as distinct,
and less so since they vary inter se. I find, howeyer, that the blue-black of the
fore-wings in the Greek females, has generally a strong tendency to whitish
(Horae Soc. Ent. Ross., vii., p. 102).
Judging from the specimens in the British Museum collection,
var. graeca is small, but otherwise almost typical in appearance.
7. ab. lutescens, n. ab. — The ordinary red spots of the fore-wings, and the red
portion of the hind-wings, yellow in colour. This aberration is very rare. Allen
records a specimen from Galway (vide, Ent. Record, etc., v., p. 217).
S. ab. pluto, Ochs., " Die Schmett.," ii., p. 26 ; Bdv., " Icones," ii., p. 40, pi. lii.,
fig. 4 (1834) ; Dup., " Lep. France," p. 38, pi. iv., fig. 3 (1835).— Alis anticis cyaneis,
aut virescentibus, maculis tribus elongatis rubris posteriore cuneiform! : posticis
rubris, margine nigricante. It is to be distinguished from Z. minos by its somewhat
smaller size, the clubs of the antennae are less thickened, the wings more rounded
and broader on the outer margin. The ground colour is darker, it may even be
black- blue or green ; the red spots are finer, the third is wedge-shaped and shorter,
fading off towards the outside into the ground colour. The black border of the
hind-wings broadens at the angle. The female is greenish, and has a white-grey
ANTHBOCERA (lUESEMBRYNUS) PUEPUKALIS. 485
border to the shoulder crests. Otherwise it resembles Z. minos. It is found in
Hungary and the neighbourhood of Vienna.
Staudinger diagnoses this as " minor, macula media extremis non
dilatata, alae posteriores margine nigro (in apice) latiorg." It is given
as a " south-east European" form by Staudinger, but it certainly
exists as an aberration in other parts of Europe. It is the form in
which the outer spot is wedge-shaped, and cut off rather sharply
towards its outer edge. Keferstein considers (Stett. Ent. Zeit.,iL, p. 117)
A. pluto as a form of A. minos, and states that they occur together,
but notes that the former has a broader grey margin to the posterior
wings. Zeller, writing of one of Keferstein's specimens, and two others
received from Vienna, notes the former as having the hind-margin of
the anterior wings externally more convex than in A. minos. He
further remarks that in all, the middle spot of the fore-wings is much
farther from the hinder margin, and appears abbreviated ; the posterior
wings with a broader grey margin. The former of these characters
is striking, since the spot reaches little beyond the transverse nervure,
then suddenly expands on both sides, projects a tooth obliquely over
the third branch of the median nervure, and has its hinder margin not
hollowed. He, however, is doubtful as to the specimens being pluto,
Ochs. Ochsenheimer speaks of a less thickened antennal club, and
more rounded and broader wings. Boisduval states (Monog. des Zyg.,
p. 32) that the intermediate spot in pluto is cuneiform, and that this is
the only character which distinguishes it from minos, in which it is
securiform. He afterwards figures (Icones, pi. lii., fig. 4) an ordinary
A. purpuralis as A. pluto. Curo gives Liguria and Piedmont only for
this form in Italy. Mengelbir captured specimens in the Engadine as
high as the tree limit, near Bergell and Lake Como, which were
pale in colour, the outer spot cut off somewhat externally and smaller
than the type, and these are referred by him to var. pluto. Kirby treats
(Gat., p. 63) pluto, Ochs., as a distinct species.
e. var. heringi, Zell., " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," v., p. 42 (1844).— The middle spot of
the anterior wings expands suddenly very considerably, fills up nearly the whole
breadth of the space between the first and second branches of the median nervure, is
rounded, and reaches even further towards the hind margin than in Z. minos. The
hind margin of the anterior wings is externally convex, with the convexity most
pronounced below the middle, whereby
what back, but also the breadth of the wing appears more considerable. The
antennae (especially noticeable in the male) more attenuated from the club towards
the base, and in the female are longer and have a more slender club. The males
have a little grey at the apex of the posterior wings, the females none at all.
Larva; orange-yellow, on Thymus serpyllum, at Stettin.
Hering, as late as 1881 (Stett. Ent. Zeit., xlii., p. 133), insisted
on the distinctness of this insect from A. purpuralis. He says that
they never occur at the same time, generally in different places,
and have different larvae, the larva of heringi feeding exclusively on
Thymus serpyllum, at Damm, Tantow, Vogelsang, etc., in July, the
imago appearing in August.
f. ab. polygalae, Esp., "Die Schmett.," ii., p. 222, pi. xxxiv., contd. ix., fig. 3.
— Alis rubicundis concoloribus, limbo sinuato superiorum atro caerulescente. First '
discovered in the summer of 1780, in the neighbourhood of Brauenheim, the speci-
men figured having come from Herr Gerning. Closely related to Sphinx pilosellae,
of which it has been suggested that it is a variety, but, plentiful as is the latter in Fran-
conia, no similar specimen has been found there. In S. pilosellae the scaling is very
thin, in S. polygalae it is very thick, and on both sides of the wings the latter is
unicolorous red.
Esper's figure of polyyalae differs from Hiibner's figure of rubi-
pundus, in that the colour is crimson, not coppery, arid that there is
486 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEBA.
a broader border on the inner margin which is absent in rubicundm.
Staudinger diagnoses it as " maculis confluentibus." Lederer notes
(Yerh. zool.-bot. Yer. Wien, ii.,p. 93) that Heydenreich unites polyaalae
and rubicundus, but avers that this cannot be correct, since Esper
gives Brauenheim, nr. Frankfort, as the locality for the former,
whilst the latter -occurs only in Eomagna and Asia Minor. He con-
siders it as nearer Zeller's heringi, since it is described as of a fiery red
colour in contrast to the thin scaling of pilosellae. This is scarcely so,
and polyyalae and rubicundus both appear to represent the form in
which the normally dividing nervures have become covered with red
scales, the latter only having the red more extended than the former,
although Standfuss considers the latter a distinct species. Curo says
it occurs with the type in Sicily. The Swiss localities are the Valais
and Bechburg (Stehlin), Killias, near Tarasp (Christ), rare in South
Sweden (Aurivillius), Weinheim in Baden (Reutti). '[Vide also
Staudinger, infra, p. 487.]
77. ? var. rubicundus, Hb., " Samm. Eur. Schmett.," ii., fig. 137 (without de-
scription) (? 1818). — The fore-wings are of an uniform fiery vermilion, inclining to
coppery-red, with rather more crimson hind-wings, a narrow greenish border only
along the outer margin of both fore- and hind- wings.
Staudinger diagnoses (Cat., p. 45) this form (or species) as : " Alis
anticis totis sanguineis, margine anteriore angusto cyaneo. Central
Italy." He refers erythrus, Dup. (Lep. France, supp. ii., pi. iv., fig. 1),
to this form. Curo notes it as moderately common in the central
(Romagna), and more common in the southern (Neapolitan), provinces
of Italy, and of doubtful occurrence in Sicily. Standfuss, from speci-
mens received from Calberla, redescribes (Stett. Ent. Zeit., xlv., p. 207)
this as a good species : " Alis anticis rubris, margine costali versus
apicem margineque exteriore cyaneis ( $ colore pallidiore atque parti-
bus alarum anticarum rubris flavo marginatis) ; posticis rubris ciliis
cyaneo-griseis. Capite, thorace, ano griseo pilosis, palpis pedibusque
stramineis. Exp. alar. 30-32 mm. 6 <? , 6 $ . Patria : Italia cen-
tralis, regiones montanae 4-5,000 ft." He then adds that the species
agrees in wing-form with A. purpuralis, the red similar to very
brilliantly coloured examples of the same, the antennas similar to
those of that species, but not so strongly thickened before the tip ;
Hiibner, he asserts, figures a ? , unmistakable from the yellow tinge
into which the red shades off ; to this the erytlmus, Bdv. (Mon. Zyy.,
p. 28, pi. i., fig. 6) is to be referred. (Boisduval cites as a synonym of
his erytknis, Hiibner's, pi. xviii., fig. 8, which he contradicts later,
Icones, ii., p. 86, pi. lii., fig. 1.) Standfuss says that it appears to be
a purely mountain species, and not variable ; Calberla took the
specimens flying with A. pilosellae var. nubiyena, and a striking grey
form of A. acldlleae. Staudinger challenged (Berl. Ent. Zeits., xxxi.,
p. 32) these conclusions, stating that erythrus, Bdv. (Mon. Zyy.,
pi. i., fig. 6), appeared to him entirely different from Hiibner's fig.
137, and that the whitish colour on the thorax, etc., which Stand-
fuss relied upon as distinguishing rubicundus, was equally strongly
marked in undoubted $ pilosellae, from Amasia, and even more
strongly white-haired than the Sicilian erythrus, Hb., and the rubi-
cundus caught by Standfuss in the Abruzza. Standfuss, in reply,
figured (Ibid., xxxii., pp. 237-238) the genitalia of rubicundm, the
red form vi purpuralis (= polyyalae) and punctum, from which it would
appear that his rubicundus is perfectly distinct from purpuralis. One
ANTHROCERA (llESEMBRYNUs) PURPURAL1S. 437
would like to know though what differences exist between the genitalia of
rubicundus, Standfuss, and erythnts, Hb.
6. ab. (et var.) nubigena, Led., " Verb, zool.-bot. Ver. Wien," ii., p. 93 (1852).—
Very thinly scaled (like A. exiilanx), the red of a pale crimson,"the border of the hind-
wings rather convex.
Lederer calls this Alpine form nubigena, Mann (MS. name), and
describes it from a single male specimen from the Pasterze glacier.
This must not be confused with the Irish form, nubiyena, Birchall,
which is very near, if not identical, with the type. We have taken the
mountain form on the high Alps in many localities — Mont de la
Saxe, 7,000 ft. ; above Cogne, 6,500 ft. ; Petit St. Bernard, 5,500 ft. ;
Le Lautaret, 8,000 ft., etc., — and find the specimens large, rather
thinly scaled, and distinctly pale in colour. They differ much from the
Irish specimens, which, in good condition, appear to be identical with
the continental type, except perhaps that they are rather less in
average size. Curo records nubigena, Led., from the Italian Alps,
Jordis as occurring on the Simplon. Frey says that, " all who have
observed this species on the Alps well know that there is no sharp line
of demarcation between the type and var. nubigena, i.e., such speci-
mens as Mann obtained at Gross Glockner. I have such specimens,
captured in 1865, in the Upper Engadine, a thousand feet above
Sils-Maria, where nubigena occurs as a large, thickly-scaled and dark-
coloured insect." Staudinger records it as being found on the
pastures up to 7,000 ft. at Heiligenblut, in Carinthia ; whilst Erschoff
records this form from the defile' of Chakhisnarden, in the Pamirs, and
Fedchenko, from the Kokand district, from 4,500-7000 ft.
t. var. diaphana, Stand., " Berl. Ent. Zeit.," xxxi., p. 31 (1887).— About 80
specimens received from Manissadjian, collected at Hadjin, in central Southern Asia
Minor, in the middle of May. This var. comes very near the Alpine form, nubigena,
Led., and is somewhat smaller than typical pilosellae, and thinner scaled even than
var. nubigena. It differs especially from var. nubigena in the outer wedge-shaped
spot being more broadened outwardly, which in specimens of nubigena (from
Lederer 's collection) is less broadened externally than in A. pilosellae. The wedge
spot is the broadest in female diaphana, in which also the other two red stripes are
larger, and confluent almost as in the ab. polygalae, Esper. The red markings are
also much duller and more transparent in diaphana than in nubigena. [The var.
2)olygalae I also obtained in abundance from Manissadjian from Malatea, where it was
captured in the middle of May. In these Malatian specimens, the whole fore- wings,
with the exception of only a narrow outer, and the inner, margin, are often of a
much brighter and deeper red than that of diaphana. Such specimens much
remind one of the Italian rubicitndus, Hb., which, indeed, according to Dr. Stand-
fuss (Stett. Ent. Zeit., 1884, p. 207) is a good species. Erythrus, Bdv. (Mon. Zyg.,
pi. i., fig. 6), which Standfuss refers, without hesitation, to rubicundus, Hb., fig. 137,
chiefly on account of the white hairs on the thorax, appears to me to be quite
different from rubicundus, Hb., fig. 137, and I possess also undoubted female A.
pilosellae from Amasia, which are even more strongly white-haired than the
Sicilian erythrus, and the specimens caught by Standfuss, at Abruzza, which he
refers to rubicundus, Hb. I consider that much more material is needed before the
matter can be cleared up.]
K. ab. obscura, n. ab. — The upper, and, in a less degree, the lower, wings much
suffused with black, and but faint red markings visible. These dusky examples
were captured in Carnarvonshire, in 1891, by Blagg (Weir, Proc. Ent. Soc. Loud.,
1891, p. xxxi).
This appears to be a somewhat parallel form to A. filipendulae
ab. chrysanthemi. For the phenomenon presented by these dusky forms,
that are not strictly melanic, Weir suggested the term " phseism."
OVTJM. — The egg is distinctly oval in outline, with a small oval
depression on the upper surface, length : breadth : : 5 : 4, uniformly
pale yellow in colour, one pole not noticed to be transparent (pro-
438 BRITISH LEP1DOPTERA.
bably too old). The egg slightly shining, the surface slightly pitted,
one pole, however, being much more distinctly pitted. When laid in
heaps (attached to each other) they are very irregular in outline.
[Eggs laid August '4th, 1898, described August 8th, with a two-thirds,
used as a hand, lens.] Esper notes the eggs as " laid upon each other
in heaps ; in shape and colour not unlike those of S. filipendulae ; the
larvae hatched after 14 days, and fed for a few weeks ; they then hyber-
nated." We can confirm the statement that the eggs are laid in heaps,
two (sometimes three) layers in thickness. The empty eggshell is
quite transparent, and by far the most pitted of all the allied species,
the pittings taking the form of a very distinct polygonal reticulation.
The embryo usually escapes from the micropylar end, but occasionally
(when the micropyle is covered by an overlapping egg) from the side.
HABITS OF LARVA. — A female, received from Chapman in early
July, 1897, had laid batches of eggs on the upper leaves of trefoil, and
the young larvae from these spun considerable loose, flossy web over
the stems and leaves, and had eaten little patches out of the upper sur-
faces of the leaf, leaving, however, in many cases, the under epidermis
untouched. Buckler states that eggs of this species in his possession,
hatched on July 10th, that the young larvae fed on Thymm serpyllum,
and refused Pimpinclla saxifraga, that they grew very slowly, were
no bigger than a leaf of wild thyme, and much like it in outline, when
they settled down for hibernation in the beginning of September.
They assembled in two little groups for this purpose, spinning some
silk on the underside of the stoutest stems of their food-plant to rest
upon, and remained there until the end of February. During this
time it was difficult to distinguish them from a withered thyme-leaf,
so similar were they in colour, and furnished with little hairs of the
same length. Throughout their growth the larvae moved and fed
with most energy in the sunshine. In moulting, Buckler remarks that
the skin splits all along the back, as in A. trifolii. Dorfmeister says that
the larvae hybernate twice, and take two years to attain their full growth.
This is probably only true for a certain number.
LARVA. — Hiibnersays (Beit.,u», pt. 1, p. 21) that the larva is like
that of A. scabiosae, but is pale yellow (not golden-yellow, as in that
species), with two rows of twelve black spots in each. Borkhausen, how-
ever, states that he has found the larvae commonly, that they are
" of the size and form of the larva of S. peucedani, bluish-white or
pale yellow in colour ; the head small and black ; a row of black
dots on either side of the body, and beneath these a row of bright
yellow tubercles ; the spiracles are black ; the whole of the body covered
with white hairs." Boisduval also notes that the larva is much like
that of A. scabiosae. He describes it as pubescent, pale yellow in colour,
sometimes greenish, its head and true legs blackish, with two lateral
rows of twelve black spots on either side. Oberthiir diagnoses the larva
as green with a double dorsal row of black points, the green hue agree-
ing with Buckler's observations on larvas of the Irish form. Zeller,
Hering and Freyer all appear to be conversant with two forms (referred
to at length later) : (1) Whitish or bluish-white, with no distinct
dorsal stripe. (2). Orange:yellow, with dark dorsal stripe. The
former is supposed to produce the normal continental form, the latter
Zeller's heringi. Hering describes (Stett. Ent. Zeit., 1846, p. 235}v the
larva of the latter as " dark citron -yellow ; at the end of each segment
ANTHBOCEKA (MESEMBRYNUs) PURPURALIS. 489
are two black spots, which consequently form a double row of spots,
between which are numerous white hairs, placed on extremely fine
blackish warts. Above the legs is placed, in the middle of each seg-
ment, a small black spiracle, over and under which are white hairs, as
on the back." Milliere describes the larva in its fourth instar (i.e., in
spring, directly after its third moult, when it is very different from the
larva in its fifth instar) as being entirely of a deep green colour,
nearly black, except that the prothorax is greenish-grey, and the seg-
ments from 3-9 carry an oval spot of citron-yellow colour surmounted
by deep black. He considers the full-fed larva to be well figured by Bois-
duval, Eambur and Graslin. Buckler described the larvae directly after
they had finished hybemation as being " one-sixth of an inch in length,
in colour pinkish-brown all over, some faint traces of subdorsal rows of
black and yellow spots, the hairs arranged in little tufts. After moulting
(March 14th), the colour was of a dull, blackish, rifle-green, the upper
spots showing like black velvet, and the lower row being distinct, and
of a primrose-yellow colour ; some of the hairs were black, others
whitish. The larvae became lighter as they increased in size, and on
April 1st moulted again, corning out almost black, but becoming paler as
they grew, until they were dark olive-green. They moulted again on
April 15th, and appeared darker than before. They were full-fed about
the end of April, and were then described as being of the usual fat,
soft, Anthrocerid figure, measuring three-fourths of an inch when in
motion, but only five-eighths when at rest. The colour all over was a
rich dark olive-green ; the dorsal line was dirty whitish, showing
broadest and palest at the commencement of each segment ; on each
side of it was a row of eleven black velvety round dots placed on the
front of each segment from the third (mesothoracic) to the 13th
(9th abdominal). Below this was a row of eight yellow spots, com-
mencing on the fourth (metathoracic), and ending on the llth
(7th abdominal) segment. The spots were placed on the hinder part
of each of these segments, in such a way that the yellow spot of each
came just below the black dot of the segment behind it. The spiracles
were black, the belly rather paler than the back, the usual dots were
not visible, but each segment bore, in a transverse row, eight fascicles
of stiff white hairs, five or six in a fascicle." For a summary of the
different descriptions of the larva of this species, Buckler (Larvae
Brit. Moths, ii., p. 12) should be consulted.
VARIATION OF LARVAE. — Borkhausen is the first author who notices
the variation of this larva, and he states that he found it commonly,
bluish-white and pale yellow forms being equally abundant. Hering,
in 1843, found whitish larvae of this species feeding on Pimpinella
saxifraga, in the fortification trenches at Stettin. A month later, in a
plantation, on dry sand, he found a number of orange-yellow larvae on
Thymus serpyllum. (It was the moths from these latter that Zeller
named heringi.) Zeller himself had previously found whitish larvae
on Pimpinella, and yellow larvae on Thymus, in dry sandy places, but
he detected no difference in the resulting imagines. Freyer figured
(pi. 86) a yellow form of the larva as that of this species, and until
May 25th, 1843, had found no larvae of any other colour. On that
date he found, in a meadow near a wood, a number of the whitish
form of the larva, which is very like Hiibner's figure, and at the same
place some yellow larvae with them. They ate only Pimpinella, but
440 BRITISH LEPlDOPTfcRA.
bit thyme and other plants. The white and yellow larvae were kept
separately, and whilst the former furnished mostly males, the latter
produced mostly females. He further observes that the yellow larvae
had a dark dorsal stripe, whereas on the white or whitish-blue larvae
no dorsal stripe was perceptible. Hering, in 1846, discriminates
between these two forms, and states that the whitish larvaa found on
Pimpinella never occur later than about the middle of May, the
yellow lame (of var. herimji) are found in June.
COCOON. — Hiibner describes the cocoon as " yellowish, very shiny,"
Wilde as "convex, of a brownish-yellow colour." Borkhausen calls it
"a cylindrical, straw-yellow, parchment-like cocoon," whilst it is, ac-
cording to Boisduval, "fusiform, much elongated, of a brownish-yellow
colour, found on Trifoliummontanum," etc. Oberthiir describes the cocoon
as " oval, opaque, of a white that is slightly yellowish in colour, and
shiny. ' ' Birchall states that the cocoon is concealed near the surface of the
ground, often attached to a stone, but never elevated on the stem of a
plant like the cocoons of the other British Anthrocerids. Blagg says that
the cocoon is hidden deep down among the stems of heather and grass,
and sometimes fastened to stones. The cocoons formed by Freyer's
" yellow " larvae (referred to in the preceding paragraph) were silvery-
grey in colour, some few, however, were pale yellow. The cocoons
of the " white" larvae were also much flatter, and not so vaulted as
those of the " yellow " larvae. Buckler's larvae spun cocoons on the
glass cylinder in which they were confined, and not on their food-
plant. They were of a glistening, dirty white colour, shorter and
more truncate than the cocoons of A. trifolii. When the imago
emerges, the pupa-case is not left sticking out of the cocoon, but falls
down near it.
PUPA. — Hiibner notes the pupa as "black-brown on the wing-
sheaths, and thorax ; the remaining parts yellowish." Wilde says
" blackish-brown, abdomen yellowish." Borkhausen remarks that the
pupa " is light yellow, with light brown wing-covers," and that " the
pupal' stage lasts three weeks." Freyer says that the pupae he
examined were very soft, some yellowish-brown, some black-brown,
others altogether black. Buckler describes the pupa as brown, with
the wing-cases rather darker than the body, and observes that different
individuals varied in depth of tint. Barrett describes the pupa as rather
short, thick, with head, wing-sheaths, leg-sheaths, and back, black-
brown ; abdominal segments yellowish.
FOOD-PLANTS. — Trifolium, Veronica officinalis, Briza minor, Cyno-
surus cristatus, Genista tinctoria, Thymus serpyllum (Borkhausen), /'/»?.-
pinella saxifraga (Hering), Trifolium montanum, Lotus corniculatus,
Hippocrepis comosa, and other leguminous plants (Boisduval), Eryn-
gium campestre (Milliere). [? Poly gala vulgaris (Barrett)] .
PARASITES. — The larvae are badly infested with Gordii (Freyer).
HABITS AND HABITAT. — This species was first recorded as British by
Newman (Zoologist, 1854, p. 4180), who stated that about a dozen speci-
mens had been taken the previous summer on the west coast of Ireland,
by Milner. In June, 1854, More sent specimens for distribution
among the members of the Entomological Society of London. These
were captured at Ardrahan, and More states that " the Anthrocera is
quite plentiful about here. It appears about a fortnight earlier than
A. filipendulae. I first captured it in 1851 I believe
AKTHROCERA (aiESEMBRYXUs) PTJRPURALIS. 441
Milner's locality was in co. Clare, mine is in co. Galway, which shows
that the range of the species may be somewhat extensive in these
parts." Birchall says that " it is found on the barren terraces of lime-
stone, which form the surface of wide districts in south-western
Galway and Clare. The vegetation is merely what springs from the
cracks and fissures of the rocky pavement. Here A. purpuralis (nubi-
(jena) appears at the end of June in amazing numbers. When at
its height, the air seems as if alive with red bees. Every flower, and
almost every stem of grass, has its occupant, and dozens are on every
patch of thyme." Wright says that between Kinvara and Ardrahan
the species occurred in a large field overgrown with Arctostaphylos
ura-ui'si, Dn/as octopetala, Sesleria caerulea, Oentiana verna, and other
plants. Walker describes it as occurring in a rough heathy field, at
Glaring Park (twelve miles from Galway) ; he also notes it as
abundant in a rough heathy field in Merlin Park, in the middle of
June, 1880. On the Clare coast, at the end of June, the Hon. Miss E.
Lawless says that she could not have believed the incredible numbers
in which this species occurred. At Black Head, on the horizontal
limestone slabs at the very edge of the cliffs, where nothing grows but
a few stunted tussocks of grass and the rare Adiantum captilvs-veneri*,
Saxifrafjahypnoides and Geranium sanguine urn, A. purpuralis (nubiyena)
occurs in such countless thousands that, when she passed her net
along the edge of the cliff it came back full of them. Kane says that
the Burren district of Clare is a stony bare highland of great extent,
and over it A. purpuralis is spread, the species extending all over the
stony tracts of that northern part of co. Clare. Where co. Clare and
co. Galway join, to the south of Galway, the physical and botanical
features are so exactly similar that they form really only one district.
Oldham says that at Abersoch, in Carnarvonshire, he found A. pur-
puralis on the sunny slopes above the cliffs in hundreds, flying just
above the ground in the bright sunshine. He further writes : It was
in 1887 that I first saw this species, at Abersoch, and I have visited
the place several times since. I have seen them in hundreds, whenever
I have been there at the end of May or beginning of June. In June,
1896, 1 captured from 20 to 30 in five minutes, without a net, so sluggish
is their flight (in lilt.). Near Oban, Sheldon found it about a mile
inland, flying along the sides of a rocky valley, 300-400 ft. above
the sea-level. The species has no coast proclivity on the Conti-
nent. It is often a wayside species in the lower Alpine valleys, as at
Bourg St. Maurice. We have taken it on the exposed slopes of Mont de
la Saxe (Piedmont) in the greatest profusion, at a height of nearly
7,000 feet, and also at Le Lautaret (Dauphine), at a much higher
elevation. Frequently, as at Courmayeur, it prefers the shady recesses
on the outskirts of the pine woods. In the Austrian Tyrol (Mendel)
it affects the high alpine fields. Its marvellous abundance in the
neighbourhood of Gallipoli, Turkey, in 1878, is described by Mathew,
who found it (with A. punctum] so abundant on the flower-heads of
various kinds of thistles, that there was positively no room for any
other insects, and they would not budge an inch, although a score
of Pyrameis cardui might be fluttering around them. Finot says
that, at Fontainebleau, it affects grassy fields behind the chateau, but,
like almost all other Anthrocerids, this species has its years of plenty
and scarcity. Speyer notices that its years of abundance are very
442 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEBA.
irregular in north-west Germany. The favourite localities at Glogau
are open places among birch and fir woods, where flowers are
numerous, on loamy hillocky ground, and where A. filipendulae and A.
lonicerae soon afterwards appear. Its favourite flower is Diantkus carthu-
sianontm, on which it sleeps at night, hanging on the calyx as though
to be less easily seen. More rarely it frequents Scabiosa arvensis
(Zeller). Fortification trenches at Stettin, and a plantation on dry
sand near the town (Hering) ; on the chalkhills near Pont-de-1'Arche
(Dupont).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — On June 4th, 1849, Nolcken found, near
Riga, about 100 larvae, which pupated June 6th-20th, and emerged
July 8th-23rd. Middle of June at Merlin Park (J. J. Walker), middle
of June on Clare coast (Lawless), end of June at Galway, July 1st,
1863, ten days later than usual (Birchall), June 30th, 1880, at
Glaring Park, worn (J. J. Walker), June 8th, 1887, at Abersoch
(Samuels), second week of June, 1889, at Abersoch (Oldham), June
llth, 1893, at Abersoch (Arkle), first fortnight in June, 1896, at
Abersoch (Blagg), June 26th, 1858, at Loch Etive (Prof. W.
Thomson), July 4th, 1898, nr. Oban (Sheldon), July 10th, 1859, at
Ram Heugh, Stonehaven (R. Thomson), June 25th- July 10th, 1844
(Freyer), July 1st, 1897, above Sepey, just emerging (Lowe). It
occurs throughout July and early August at the higher elevations
in the mountains of Central Europe : July 30th and 31st, 1894,
and July 25th-August 3rd, 1898, nr. Bourg St. Maurice and on the Little
St. Bernard Pass, August lst-8th, 1894, at Courmayeur and Mont de
la Saxe, August 1st, 1896, at LeLautaret (at about 8,000 ft.), through-
out latter half of July, 1895, at Mendel Pass (Tutt). At Glogau,
the best time to obtain good specimens is the first half of July (Zeller).
Himsl says : " second half of July to the end of August for East
Prussia." Reutti notes it from May until August, in the mountains,
up to moderately high elevations in Baden, sometimes more, at other
times less, rare. Abundant on July 81st, 1898, on a hill near Pont-
de-1'Arche with A. carniolica (Dupont).
LOCALITIES. — ARGYLLSHIRE : Taynuilt (Salwey), south side of Oban, in great
abundance (Somerville), between Oban and Dunstaffnage Castle, at mouth of Loch
Etive (Prof . W. Thomson), Isle of Mull (Somerville teste Chapman). CARNARVON:
Abersoch (Samuels). CLARE: Clare coast (Milner), Burren District, Castle Taylor
(More), Black Head (Lawless). CORNWALL : Tintagel (vide, Science Gossip, xvii.,
pp.41, 65, 414). FORFAR: Ram Heugh, near Stonehaven, by the sea-side (11.
Thomson), coast of Forfar (F. B. White). GALWAY : Ardrahan (More), between
Kinvara and Ardrahan (Wright), Glaring Park, nr. Kilcornan, and Merlin Park
nr. Galway (J. J. Walker), Kilcolgan (Kane) ; Kilcornan and Oranmore (Birchall),
Salthill (Allen).
DISTRIBUTION.— Africa (north) (Meyrick). Asia : Asia Minor,
Hadjin (Manissadjian teste Staudinger), Brussa (Zeller), Tokat
(Speyer), Armenia, Central Asia, Ala Tau, Lepsa district (Staudinger),
Siberia,' Obi and Yenesei districts, Pamir, defile of Chakhisnarden
(Erschoffj, Kokand district (Fedchenko). Austria: Gross Glockner,
nr. Pasterze Glacier (Lederer),Patscherkofel, nr. Innsbruck, at 5,000ft.,
Heiligenblut to 7,000 ft. (Staudinger), Buda (Speyer), Carinthian
Alps (Chapman), Mendel Pass district (Tutt), Upper Austria (Himsl),
nr. Vienna (Dorfmeister), Bucovina, Krasna, common (Hormuzaki),
Cracow (Zebrawski), Brameralp, Styria (Zeller). Denmark : not un-
common (Aurivillius), Seeland (Boie). France: in chalky plains and
low mountains only, nr. Paris, Chartres, Besan9on, Grenoble, Hautes-
ANTtiROCERA (MESEMBRYNUs) PtfRPURALlS. 443
Pyrenees, Champagne, Basses- Alpes (Oberthiir), Dept. Eure, Pont-de-
I'Arche, Rouen (Dupont), Lardy, Pyr.-Orientales, Dept. Basses- Alpes,
Morteau, Vosges, forest of Harth (Berce), Rheims district, Mailly,
Epernay, Montfelix (Demaison), Fontainebleau (Lucas), Depts.
Meurthe, Maas, Doubs, Digne (Bellier-de-Chavignerie), Pyrenees,
nr. Gavarnie at 2,000 metres, Savoy (Speyer), Cauterets, Ax, Ariege
(Oberthiir), Bourg St. Maurice, Petit St. Bernard, Le Lautaret (Tutt),
Alpes- Marithnes, Mont Leuze (Bryat), between St. Martin and St.
Dalmas, Val du Borreon from 900-1,800 metres (Milliere), Hautes-
Alpes (Guenee), Bois de St. Florent, collines dela Creuse, Gueret, So-
logne, Murat ^Sand), nr. Hyeres (Fallou). Germany : almost every-
where (Kayser), Metz (Selys-Longchamps), Heligoland (Gatke),
Stettin;(Hering), Mangfall (Gumppenberg), Wittolsheim, Kastenwald,
Trois-Epis, Frankenbourg. Lutterbach, banks of Wiese, Dorneck
(Peyerimhoff), Silesia (Assmann),Ratisbon (Herrich-Schaffer), Brauen-
heini, nr. Frankfort-on-Main (Gerning), Prussia, Rastenburg, Marien-
werder, Stargard, nr. Dantzig, Holstein, Aachen, Brunswick, Wolfen-
biittel, Helmstadt, Baden, Waldeck, Bodethal (Speyer), Augsburg,
Glogau (Zeller). Grafenberg (Bohatsch), Saxony (Dadd), Thuringia,
Ootha, Erfurt (Knapp), Upper Hartz, Oderbriick, one specimen
only (Hoffmann), Brieg, common (Prittwitz). Greece: Crete, Canea
(Freyer), Parnassus, Veluchi (Staudinger). Italy : abundant in the
north, central and southern provinces (Curo), Sicily (Boisduval),
Courmayeur, Mont de la Saxe, Cogne (Tutt), Piedmont, Liguria,
Tuscany, Calabria (Speyer). Roumania : Costischa, Grumazesti,
Azuga, Kl. Nearntz (Caradja), Comanesti (Leon), Dobrudscha (Mann),
Turn Severin (Haberhauer). Russia : Livonia (Staudinger), pro-
vinces of Kasan, Orenburg, Saratov (Eversmann), nr. Riga, nr.
Koervast in Oesel (Nolcken), Volga provinces, Sarepta, Caucasus,
Transcaucasia, Poland to Gulf of Finland, mths. of Danube to Dnieper
(Erschoff), Lenkoran (Menetries). Scandinavia : southern Sweden,
Trolle, Ljungby, Silfakra, Esperod, Sandhammer, Srnaland, etc.
(Wallengren). Switzerland : nearly everywhere, but above 6,000
feet scarce (Frey), Oberhaslithal, Grindel Alps, Gemmi (Freyer),
Basle (Peyerimhoff), Zermatt (Oberthiir), Simplon (Jordis), Grisons,
Bergiinthal (Zeller), Upper Engadine, above Sils-Maria, Aar and
Thurgau, Schaffhausen, Zurich, Glarus, St. Gallen, Berne, Neu-
chatel, Upper and Lower Valais, Zermatt to the foot of the Stelvio
(Frey), Bechburg (Stehlin), Killias, nr. Tarasp (Christ), Gadman
(Ratzer), Trafoi (Staudinger), Visp Valley (Jordan). Turkey: Galli-
poli (Mathew), ?I. of Crete, Canea (Freyer).
ANTHROCERA (LYCASTES) ExuLANS, Hohenwarth.
STNONYMY.— Species : Exulans, Hoh., " Bot. Eeisen," etc., p. 265, pi. vi., fig. 2
(1792) ; Esp., " Die Schmett.," ii., pt. 2, pi. xli., figs. 1-2, p. 17 (1793) ; Hb., " Eur.
Schmett.," ii., figs. 12 <? ; p. 81, fig. 101 ? (? 1803) ; " Verz.," p. 118 (? 1822) ; Ochs ,
" Die Schmett. Eur.," etc., ii., p. 40 (1808) ; Dalm., " Kongl. Vet. Acad. Handl.,"
p. 223 (1816) ; Bdv., " Mon. Zyg.," p. 47, pi. iii., fig. 5 (1829) ; " Icones." ii., pp. 54-55
pi. liv., 4-5 (1834) ; Dup., " Lep. France," supp. ii., p. 57, pi. v., figs. 5, 5a, b
(1835); Freyer, " Neuere Beitriige," etc., iii., p. 134, pi. 200, fig. 2 (1838); vi.,
p. 178. pi. 590, fig. 1 (ante 1852) ; Zett., "Ins. Lapp.," p. 919 (1840) ; H.-Sch.,
" Sys. Bearb.," ii., p. 37 (1845) ; Spey., " Geog. Verb. Schmett.," i.. p. 344 (1858) ;
Hein., " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 160 (1859) ; Staud. and Wocke, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.,"
xxii., p. 359 (1861) ; " Cat.," p. 46 (1871) ; Wallgrn., " Skand. Het.," p. 96 (1863) ;
Lucas, "Hist. Nat.," 2nd Ed., p. 155 (1864) ; White, " Ent. Mo. Mag.," viii., p. 68
444 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
(1871) ; " Scot. Nat.," i., p. 175 (1872) ; Knaggs, " Ent. Ann.," 1872, p. 112 ; Mill..
" Cat. Lep. Alp.-Mar.," p. 126 (1872) ; Curo. " Bull. Ent. Soc. Ital.," vii., p. 190
(1875) ; Kirby, "Eur. Butts.," etc., p. 89 (1879) ; " Cat. Lep. Het.," p. 67 (1892) ;
"Handbook," etc., iii., p. 89 (1897); Frey, "Lep. der Schweiz," p. 66 (1880);
Schoyen, " Nord. Ark. Lep.," p. 171 (1881) ; Oberth., " Lep. des Pyr.," p. 30 (1884) ;
Hofmn., "Die Gross-Schmett.," p. 34 (1887) ; "Die llaupen," etc., p. 36 (1893);
Buckler, "Larvos," etc., ii., p. 13 (1887) ; Auriv., "Nord. Fjiir.," p. 53 (1888);
Tugwell, " Y. Nat.," xi., p. 206 (1890) ; Tutt. " Ent. llecord," etc., v., 258 (1894) ;
"Proc. Sth. Lond. Ent. Soc.," 1895, p. 94 ; " Brit. Moths," p. 354 (1896) ; Barr.,
" Lep. Brit.," ii., p. 121 (1894) ; Meyr., " Handbook," etc., p. 448 (1895). Vanadis,
Newm., " Entom.," vi., p. 22 (1872). [The synonymy is discussed Ent. Record,
etc., v., pp. 258 et seq.]
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Sphinx exulana (Der verwiesene Dem-
merungsvogel). Sphinx. Alis s^uperioribus hyalino-virescentibus,
albido-nervosis, maculis quinque rubris utrinque conspicuis ; inferi-
oribus, praeter marginem apicis hyalino-virescentem, rubris immacu-
latis. This moth has the size of S. statices or S.filipendidae. Head,
thorax, abdomen, and the whole body are above and below black, covered
thickly with similarly coloured scales. The head small, almost globular,
somewhat narrower and stumpily pointed below, and bent downwards.
The two palpi are curved upwards, round, black-haired ; the tongue
lying between them wound spirally, and glittering black-brown in colour.
The eyes beneath the antennae raised, naked and black. The antennae
moderately long, black, not transparent, thread-like, roundish, thickish
towards the end, awl-shaped at the point, in front marked with many
ring-shaped incisions. The thorax cushion-shaped, with a whitish
hairy band, interrupted in the middle. The abdomen longish, almost
uniformly thick, stumpy. The six legs whitish or light yellowish.
The .... fore-wings somewhat oval, of a watery-greenish colour,
almost semi-transparent, with four raised whitish ribs, running
longitudinally from the base to beyond the middle of the wing, and
five red spots apparent both on the upper- and undersides The
hind-wings have a watery-greenish coloured margin, with a white
outer margin, the remainder of the wing being entirely red, unspotted,
and almost semi-transparent. This moth inhabits the extreme Alpine
summits of the ice-mountains at Glockner,on the so-called Pasterze,and
lives probably on the " Eis-" or " iihrengetragenden Beifuss " (? Artemisia
(jlacialu) which are almost the only plants of this perpetual winter-
land (Hohenwarth, Botanische Reisen nach einiyen OberkarntncriKcheii
benachbarten Alpen, p. 265). This is evidently only a description of
the female.
IMAGO.— Anterior wings thinly scaled, purplish-green, green,
blackish-green, or greyish-green in colour, with five red (carmine) spots.
Posterior wings carmine, with a narrow grey-green or blackish border.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The sexual dimorphism of this species is
very striking, and has been noticed by almost all entomologists who
have studied the species. Dalman described the male without
pale collar and pale nervures as vanadis, the female as exulans.
Boisduval notes that the females are veined with white, the corselet
and epaulettes whitish, the males bluish-black, with bluish-black
thorax, but both sexes with a greyish- white collar. White, apparently
misled by certain Continental references, writes (Entom. Month.
Magazine, viii., p. 68) that " typical exulans, from the higher Alps
and Pyrenees, have the nervures sprinkled with ochreous, but in the var.
vanadis, Dalm., which is the Scandinavian form, the wings are more
ANTHEOCERA (LYCASTEs) EXULANS. 445
sparingly scaled, and the ochreous is absent." This is hardly correct, as
reference to the original type description of A. exulans will show, and
Dalman (Komjl. Vet. Acad. Handl., 1816, p. 222) distinctly describes
exulans as being "venis albidis," the Scandinavian form, in this,
agreeing with those from all other localities, the $ with, the 3- without,
pale nervures, although this pale coloration is certainly reduced to a
mimimum in a large number of examples from Bossekop that we have
examined. White then goes on to say that, "although the Scotch males
have no ochreous, the female has the nervures and collar distinctly marked
with that colour." Tugwell notes that "the Scotch females have a
yellowish-white collar, and the legs are all yellowish-white, the ridges of
the nervures are covered with pale whitish-grey scales, which, when alive
and in daylight, make them very distinctive-looking. They have a
powdered-looking appearance, as if they had been dusted with flour, ....
the' fringes are pale whitish-grey." Reid writes that " the Scotch
females, when alive and newly emerged, appear as if dusted over with a
fine whitish powder ; this appearance largely vanishes after death." We
have examined some hundreds (or thousands) of this species. Nor-
mally the male is smaller than the female, is often bluish- or purplish-
green, has the fore-wings more fully scaled, and the dark border of
the hind-wings rather broader. It usually has very slight traces of
a pale collar (sometimes moderately well-developed), the legs com-
paratively dark. The female is usually the larger, the fore-wings
more distinctly green, the nervures of the fore-wings whitish, whitish-
ochreous, or bright yellow-ochreous (sometimes the wings are beauti-
fully dusted with golden scales) ; the thorax, with a distinct pale
collar and pale epaulettes, and the legs paler, sometimes yellowish
in tint.
VARIATION. — Within certain narrow limits very variable, each district
almost producing a race with some special unimportant characters,
that give it a particular facies. These characters, however, are such
that almost any particular specimen can be exactly matched by speci-
mens from other districts, if a sufficiently large number be examined.
The variation in size of both sexes is remarkable. We have males
extending from 19mm. to 32mm. and females from 19 mm. to 36 mm.
In the Dauphine Alps, about Le Lautaret, where the insect occurs in
countless thousands, the luxuriant pastures about the Hospice produce
many exceedingly large specimens ; on the mountain slopes, 1,000 ft.
above, the specimens become much smaller, and, at last, on the bare
herbage on the skrees at the base of the highest peaks, they are quite
dwarfed, evidently owing to the larvae being very badly placed for food.
In the ground colour, the scaling shows great differences, some
examples being thickly scaled, the green colour bright, and distinctly
defined, in others, the scaling is weak, the specimens more than usually
inclined to be diaphanous, the colour indefinite, sometimes tending to
phaeism, at others to albinism, in many cases probably due to insufficient
nutrition in the larval stage. The carmine spots also vary in inten-
sity, and often tend slightly to orange (especially when the insect has
been on the wing a short time), and Oberthiir records (and
figures) an extreme aberration with clear yellow spots and yellow
hind-wings. The spots tend occasionally to form longitudinal streaks,
and then always by the union of 3 + 5 and 2 + 4, as in A. purpuralis,
but only on one occasion have we met with a specimen with the central
446 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEBA.
area of the fore- wings completely occupied with three large wedge-shaped
spots, as is usual in extreme lormaotA.purpwalit (minos). Specimens
obtained by Dr. Chapman at Bossekop give a small percentage of
examples in which spot 5 is somewhat extended outwardly. The hind-
wings are sometimes strongly suffused, in none perhaps so strongly as
in the most extreme Scotch specimens in this direction, Tugwell
noting (Youny Nat., xi., p. 206) that, in these, the margin of the hind-
wings is often a mere line, -at other times it occupies a third of the
wing. The principal forms are as follows : —
a. var. (et ab.) clara, Tutt, "Ent. Eec.," v., p. 266.— Well scaled, bright green
ground-colour, with short, broad wings, somewhat clearly defined dark margin to
hind- wings. Females almost as bright and well-scaled as the males, with pale
collar, but with no (or ill-defined) whitish markings on thorax, nor whitish
nervures. Swiss Alps, Tyrol (Falzarego Pass), Le Lautaret (rare).
ft. var. (et ab.) vanadis, Dalm., "Kongl. Vet. Acad. Hand.," 1816, p. 222 ( ?
form); Staud. and Wocke, "Cat.," p. 46(1871); Tutt., "Ent. Record," v., p.
266 (1894). — Alis anticis fusco-virescentibus subdiaphanis, maculis quinque rubris,
basali exteriori elongata, posticis rubris margine f usco-diaphano latiore ; corporc
pedibusque nigris pilosis ; antennis, brevibus clava crassa. Habitat in Lapponia.
Species ut mihi videtur distincta, apud auctores vix invenienda, magnitudine et
statura, Z. exulantis, sed collare pedibusque nigris, nee venas alarum unquam albido-
squamatas in hac specie inveni, nee macularum forma omnino eadem. The
corresponding female is described as : Z. exulans. — Alis anticis, fusco-virescentibus,
subdiaphanis, subtus concoloribus, maculis quinque rubris insequalibus (venis
albidis) ; posticis rubris margine fusco-virescenti ; antennis vix clavatis ; pedibus
luteis.
Staudinger appears only to describe (Cat., p. 46) the male form,
which is noted as "parcissime squamata, albo non mixta," although
perhaps he means this to include both sexes, for he notes (Stett. Ent.
Zeit., xxii., p. 359) the Scandinavian examples as "having the
fore-wings more transparent, of a dull blue-grey tint, rarely with a
greenish tinge, whilst the whitish or yellowish atoms, with which the
females especially are normally marked, are in these almost lacking,
so that the prothorax remains always dark ; yet it cannot be called a
striking local form." From this it might be assumed that the females
were entirely without the paler markings, which is hardly the fact,
although, in the specimens from Bossekop, the pale markings are
certainly reduced to a minimum. Our own note on this form reads
(Ent. Kec., v., p. 266) : More sparsely scaled. Dark green ground colour
(less brightly tinted than ab. clara), males usually without pale collar,
mottling on thorax, and pale nervures, and with black or blackish legs ;
females with sometimes a pale collar, and a little pale mottling on
thorax, nervures of fore-wings slightly sprinkled with pale scales, legs
pale ; the dark margin to hind-wings variable, but rather broad, and
sometimes merging indistinctly into the red, females more thinly scaled
than males. Inhabits Lapland and Finland, from the Atlantic to the
Urals (Reuter and Erschoff), mountains of Italy (Curo), nr. the Bernina
glacier, and the Heuthal (Mengelbir). Appears as an aberration with
the type and other forms, in Scotland, Cogne Valley, Grauson Valley,
Le Lautaret, Andermatt, Little St. Bernard Pass (mts. around the
Hospice).
7. var. (et ab.) subochracea, White, " Scot. Nat.," i., p. 174 ; " Ent. Mo. Mag.,"
viii., p. 68. — Wings subdiaphanous : front ones dull green with five carmine spots
of the same form and arrangement as in the type. Hind-wings dull carmine with
all the margins pale dull green. Male — tips of the fringes in all the wings greyish-
ochreous. Female— the collar (except in the centre), the legs, and the margins of
the red spots more or less ochreous ; fringes as in the male, but more ochreous,
ANTHROCEKA (LYCASTES) EXULANS. 447
This variety differs from the type by the absence of the ochreous tints (except in the
female, which is slightly marked with ochreous), and by the broader green margin
to the hind-wings of the same breadth in each sex, and from the var. vanadis, by
the presence of the ochreous tints, and the females, by the more abundant scales
on the wings. Inhabits Scotland (Braemar).
This variety was founded on at least three misconceptions. (1)
That the normally pale portions of the female wing are more ochreous
in the type. (2) That the var. vanadis is without the ordinary pale
markings of the female. (3) That the var. vanadis is a well-scaled
form. As to these points — the typical female (vide, ante p. 444) certainly
has the normally pale parts of the wing whitish or whitish-ochreous.
The female of the var. vanadis, described by Dalman as exulans (vide, ante
p. 446) also has the normal pale areas. The var. vanadis is described
(vide p. 446) as being " sub-diaphanous," the very term used by White
for subockracea. White evidently has mistaken ab. Jiavilinea for the
type. Similarly Tugwell has mistaken var. clara for the type in his
comparison (Young Nat., xi., p. 206 and Proc. Sth. Lond. Ent. Soc.t
1894, p. 93) between Swiss and Scotch examples, and the premises
being false, the conclusions are necessarily erroneous. We are unable
to distinguish clearly between this variety and var. vanadis, Dalm., and
have numerous specimens from various continental localities that
appear to be indistinguishable. A careful comparison of the follow-
ing notes with Dalman's description of vanadis will, we think, make
this clear. Eeid says that "when alive and newly-emerged, the
females appear as if dusted over with a fine white powder," and
Tugwell notices the " ridges of the nervures as covered with pale
whitish-grey scales," a sexual distinction noticed by Dalman. Tug-
well distinguishes (Ent., xxviii., p. 286) the Scotch examples (com-
pared with Oberalp forms, including ab. clara, ab. Jiavilinea, etc.) :
(1) By the less dense scaling and duller coloration. (2) By the
more carmine tone of the spots and hind-wings. (3) By the absence
of a more or less conspicuous pale collar in the males. (4) By
the darker coloration of the legs of the male. He adds that " in
the Braemar specimens the red spots are never uniform in colour,
but have a deeper tinted centre, surrounded by an ochreous ring."
These peculiarities appear to be the essential characters that Dalman
gave (ante, p. 446) for the Lapland form (vanadis $ and exulans 2 )
in 1816, and Tugwell, therefore, not only here, but even more
decidedly in the Young Nat., xi., p. 206, confirms our opinion that
Scotch specimens answer well to Dalman's description. The only
difference we notice in a very long series of Bossekop examples of
var. ranadis is the rather larger average size of the Scandinavian
examples. For the rest, all the essential points noted above as character-
istic of Scotch specimens are found here and also in very many Alpine
specimens. Whilst, however, this duller form with a minimum of pale
markings comprises the bulk of Scotch examples, it includes only a small
portion of the Alpine ones. Chapman thinks that the very finest
Braemar examples present a Psy die-like flimsiness, that is never seen
in continental examples. We have examples from Cogne, Le Lautaret,
Braemar, etc., that we should refer here.
3. ? exulans, Hohen., " Bot. Keis.," etc.— Fore-wings pale greenish, almost
semi-transparent, four raised nervures sprinkled with whitish scales, five red spots
apparent both on upper and underside ; hind-wings red, almost transparent, with
pale greenish margin bordered externally with white.
This (the type) is evidently a form closely resembling, even if not
448 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
identical with, var. van ad is, and very different from the well- scaled and
brightly-tinted var. clara, from some of the Swiss Alps, and often sup-
posed to be the typical form. The specimens from Gross Glockner
(whence came the type) in the British Museum, are hardly any brighter
than the Scotch form, and the males show, so far as can be judged
from half-a-dozen specimens, scarcely any difference from the latter
form, except that they exhibit a tendency to develop a well-marked pale
collar, a character usually absent in var. vanadis, and almost so in var.
suboc/imcea. From Gross Glockner, Grauson Valley, Andermatt, Le
Lautaret, Mont Cenis Pass, Little St. Bernard, Scotland (rare). Renter,
who distinguishes the type from var. ranadis, simply by the greater
amount of white scaling in the $ and a tendency to show a pale collar in
the $ of the former, notes the' type as occurring in Dalecarlia
(60° N. lat.) and southern Norway, the var. ranadis being confined to
the northern regions of Norway, Sweden and Finland, extending to the
coast of the Polar Sea.
e. ab. Jlavilinea, ? , Tutt, " Ent. Eec.," v., p. 267. — a. Well-scaled, very large,
the nervures sprinkled with bright orange or golden scales, strongly ochreous collar,
thorax mottled with orange scales, b. A sub-variety closely resembling the above,
slightly smaller, nervures scattered with yellow (not orange) scales, the collar and
thoracic mottling pale yellowish.
This is a most beautiful aberration, fairly abundant in many
localities. When newly emerged, its wings are covered with the
finest yellow or golden scales, and look as if they have just tumbled
out of a bag of gold-dust. Grauson Valley, Lauzon Valley, Andermatt,
Le Lautaret, etc.
f. ab. striata, Tutt, " Ent. Rec.," viii., p. 276 ; " Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond.,"
1896, p. xli. — The red spots of the fore-wings more or less confluent and united
(2 + 4, 3 + 5), so as to form longitudinal streaks. Andermatt, Le Lautaret, etc.
1). ab. pulchra, n. ab. — Alar expanse, 35 mm. Legs yellowish. Thorax covered
with ochreous scales ; ochreous collar. Abdomen green-black. Anterior wings
with bright orange-yellow costal edge, yellow subcostal nervure, dividing into ttvo
yellow branches at end of cell (one going towards apex, the other to outer margin
above anal angle), and yellow median nervure. These divide the upper and central
area of the wing into three sections, in which long red blotches are situated, as in
A. purpuralis. The first (spot 1) extends along the costa, for three-fourths
the length of the wing, the space between the costa and the subcostal nervure,
being quite filled up with red for this length. The second (2 + 4) extends
parallel to the inner margin of the wing, entirely filling the space between the sub-
costal and median nervures, leaving only a narrow band of the green ground colour
along the inner margin. The third (3 + 5) extends to within 2 mm. of the outer
margin. The red, therefore, practically fills the whole of the upper and central
area of the wing, leaving only a narrow band of greenish on the outer and inner
margins. Fringes greyish, with a dark inner line. Posterior wings entirely red,
with dark marginal line, and greyish fringes. The underside of all the wings
entirely red, except the outer margin of fore-wings.
The ab. pulchra here described is a female specimen of what would
have been an individual of the ab. jiavilinea (the collar, nervures, etc.,
being of a bright orange tint), had not a remarkable development of
the red spots into three blotches, made its markings resemble, in a
general way, those of A. purpuralis. It is of large size, 35 mm.,
with the centre of fore-wings entirely crimson, the whole of the spots
thus enlarged being united except for the fine yellow lines which
run along the subcostal and radial nervures, and thus separate the
red area into three patches, somewhat similar to those characteristic of
A. purpuralis. Le Lautaret (one specimen only).
0. ab. fiara, Oberthtir, " Variation Lepidop.," p. 43, pi. viii., fig. 141.— The
normally red spots of the fore-wings, and the red portion of the hind- wings, yellow
ANTHROCERA (LYCASTEs) EXULANS. 449
in colour (vide, Oberthiir, L6p. des Pyr&ntes, p. 32). The specimen figured by
Oberthiir was taken at Le Lautaret, by Martin.
i. sib.pallida, Tutt, "Ent. Bee.," ix., p. 13.— With the wings more or less
unpigmented, and pallid in hue ; the fore-wings whitish ; the ordinary red spots
and hind-wings very washed out in appearance, usually pale pinkish or ochreous
in tint.
This is a form produced apparently by the failure of the pigment
to develop in a normal manner, and is probably the result of want of
proper nutrition in the larval state, or to the maturing of the imago
under abnormal conditions. Often met with at high elevations in the
Dauphine Alps, Andermatt, etc.
AC. ab. minor, n. ab. — Alar expanse 19-21 mm. With the general characters of the
typical form, fairly well-developed scaling, and the sexual differences, equally
marked in this small aberration. We have at least a dozen examples of each sex,
taken on the skrees at the foot of the peaks surrounding Le Lautaret, at an eleva-
tion of from 8,000-9,000 ft.
X. ?var. exsiliens, Staud., " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xlii., p. 393.— The specimen
before me has very transparent green-black fore-wings, with five small red spots,
which are placed as the five larger ones of typical exulans. Of the two basal, the
upper is streak-like, very narrow and short, the under somewhat oval, and very
small ; of the two middle ones, the upper is only like a large dot, whilst the one
posteriorly under it appears to be almost heart-shaped, and perhaps as large as the
fifth, which is placed at the end of the cell. This latter spot is oval, somewhat
sharply defined, and also small. Beneath, the two basal spots are indicated only
by single red scales. Fringes very dark, and every trace of whitish or yellow circum-
scription of the red dots is wanting. The hind-wings very broadly margined,
extending almost to the centre, and blackish at the base, the black preponderating,
and limiting the dull red to the middle and towards the inner angle. Head and
body entirely black ; the legs, in part, somewhat yellowish-haired. Whether this
form is really distinct from A. exulans can only be made certain by the capture of
a larger number of examples. A single 3 , which Haberhauer stated that he
captured on the bare Tarbagatai mountains, in Central Asia.
This appears to have been the sole record for A. • exulans in Asia
until the last summer (1898), when, in July, Elwes captured specimens
in the Altai mts. that do not seem very unlike some European
examples.
OVUM. — Large, oval in outline, inclined to be broader at one end
than the other ; pale yellow in colour, but of a rather deeper tint at
the broader end. There is no noticeable depression on the upper sur-
face, and the shell appears to be almost smooth, somewhat wrinkled longi-
tudinally, and shiny. Under a two-thirds lens, used as a hand-glass,
neither of the poles appeared to be transparent. [Described August
7th, 1898, from egg laid by $ captured on the Petit St. Bernard.]
Buckler notes the egg as being of large size for that of the insect, of
long, cylindrical, round-ended shape, having a depression bending
inwards, rather irregularly on one side ; the shell very thin and very
slightly reticulated all over, in colour ochreous-yellow, changing to
orange-ochreous, and finally to dark greenish -slate colour, very shining
from the first to the last.
HABITS OF LARVA. — The larvae hatch in about three weeks from the
time that the eggs are laid, and they feed well on Lotus comiculatus
in confinement, although they are rather general feeders in their
alpine homes. The first moult takes place in about three weeks from
the time of hatching, but in early September, and when still very
small, they fix themselves for hibernation, and do not feed again
until well on into the spring. Buckler's observations suggest that the
larvae may at least take sometimes two years to attain their full
growth, for two small specimens, which he received in the middle of
cc
450 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEEA.
July, 1882, from Zermatt, with other full-fed examples, fed but little,
and in August laid up for hybernation, one going safely through
until April 19th, 1883, when it commenced feeding again. Baker
reports them as having a great fondness for water, but Buckler
sprinkled the food of some in his possession with disastrous results.
They feed in a state of nature in the sunshine, almost buried in the
tufts of the leaves of Silene acaidis or in the fleshy mass of Clierleria
sedoides, as well as on many other Alpine plants. Bateson says that in
climbing the Tosa Falls Valley (July 9th- 16th, 1897) he noticed that he
first passed the imagines, freshly emerging ; then he came across the
cocoons, either on stones or on twigs of the Alpine rhododendron,
then he found smaller larvae high'fer up, and at last he dug out several
that were still buried in the snow.
LABVA. — When newly-hatched the larva is " a plump sausage-shaped
little creature" (Buckler), with a black, shiny head, yellowish-olive-
green in colour, most minutely dotted with black, and having a row
of subdorsal orange blotches. The usual tubercles are black, each
bearing a long, pointed black bristle. The skin is rather pubescent.
After itsjlrst moult, the larva appears much paler coloured, of a drab
tint, and showing dark subdorsal markings, but when it is about
three weeks old the larva is dark olive-green on the back, with the
sides lighter green, and it has a subdorsal row of dark brown tuber-
cular warts, with a faint stripe of yellowish below them. It is about
two lines in length jmt before hybernation, the colour dark olive-green
with an interrupted black subdorsal stripe, below which at the end
of each segment is a transverse oval spot of orange-yellow, the surface
of the skin being much covered with little fascicles of black hairs.
After hibernation, it moults again, and is then about '6\ lines in length,
its colour on the dorsum and sides dark green, and so much covered
with black bristly hairs radiating from the warts, as to appear blackish-
green in comparison with the olive-greenish-yellow tint of the ventral
area. The dorsal marking is velvety-black. The larva reaches the
blackest star/e towards the end of June and beginning of July. It
is then " intensely and beautifully black, which gives additional
brilliancy by force of contrast to the light greenish-yellow lateral spots."
The head is black and shining, the prothorax green and smooth in
front ; the segmental divisions, when the larva is stretched out, ap-
pear greenish, but all the rest of the upper surface is thickly covered
with black hairs. Buckler describes the full-grown larva as being
from seven to eight lines in length, sometimes more, and nearly three
in breadth, of elliptical figure, but with the head small and retractile
within the 2nd segment (prothorax), and this also being in part re-
tractile, is twice as long as any of the others, and tapering in front ;
the aWl segment is slightly tapered and rounded off behind ; all the
segments are plump, and cut extremely deep ; the head is black and
glossy, with green upper lip edged with black, the antennal papilla?
whitish tipped with black ; the front, retractile, half of the second
(prothoracic) segment is green and naked, the other half and likewise
all the other segments of the body have the ground colour of the back
and sides very dark green ; along each side is a broken velvety-black
stripe interrupted at the end of each segment beyond the second (pro-
thoracic) or third (mesothoracic) segment by a bright yellow elliptical
transverse spot ; each segment bears a series of ovate tubercular emi-
ANTHEOCERA (LYCASTEs) EXULANS. 451
nences, thickly studded with short black radiating bristles, and a single
long and fine hair. These almost or quite hide the green ground of the
upper surface of the skin. The spiracles are black, the smooth naked
belly is of a green, rather less dark than that of the back ; the anterior
legs are black and shining, with light green joints on the outer side,
and light green inner surface ; the ventral and anal prolegs are of a
lighter green than that of the venter and sernitransparent.
COCOON. — The cocoons are spun on stones, stems of juniper, and,
in fact, anything that occurs in their Alpine localities. They are
sometimes so abundant that we have seen as many as five cocoons
partly covering one another on one short piece of Vaccinium. They
vary much in size, but are usually about twice as long as wide ; they
are bluntly fusiform, swelling considerably at the centre and rounded
somewhat at each end. They are of a light greyish-yellow or pearly-
grey colour, somewhat smooth and lustrous, and so thin and delicate,
that after the pupa has left the cocoon, the latter is semi-transparent.
We have found them on Empctnun, Vaccinium, juniper and grasses, also
on the bare face of a rock. They are usually, however, placed near the
ground.
PUPA. — The pupa usually only projects itself partly out of the
cocoon, although occasionally it emerges entirely before the moth
is disclosed. It varies in size, some of the male pupae being very
small, some of the female pupae very large. It is very delicate and
easily injured, and somewhat stumpier than is usual among its con-
geners. Buckler says that it is "of the usual Anthrocerid form, with
long antenna- and leg-cases, free nearly their whole length ; the short
wing-covers, with nervures in strong relief, have their margins pro-
minent from the body. The abdomen tapers just towards the rounded-
off tip, and across the back of each segment anteriorly is a narrow ridge
thickly set with most minute hooks pointed backwards. The colour
is blackish-green on the abdomen, and all the other parts black and
with rather a dull surface."
FOOD-PLANTS. — Silene acaulis, Cherleria sedoides, Tnfolium alpinum,
T. repens, T. pratense, Geum montanum, Sibbaldia (Azalea) procumbens
(flowers preferred, Frey), Alchemilla alpina, Medicayo lupulinus, Rumex
acetosa, Lotus corniculatus (Buckler), Erica, Vaccinium, Polygonwn
avicidare (White), Empetrum (Staudinger).
HABITS AND HABITAT. — A sluggish species, flying only in the sun-
shine, and then booming along bee-like from flower to flower, and at
last settling on a flower motionless for a considerable time ; in dull
weather hiding low down among the roots of the herbage in its home,
and practically undiscoverable at this time. This Alpine and Arctic
species was added to the British list by Traill and Buchanan-White,
who, on July 17th, 1871, first captured specimens in the neighbour-
hood of Braernar, at an elevation of from 2,400 ft. to 2,600 ft. White
states that the locality is an ancient shore of a glacial sea. The
insects occurred in a grassy and rushy spot, sitting on flowers of
Gnaplialium dioicum. Tugwell records it from ground in the same
district, which is not grassy, but covered with crisp heath and dwarf
Azalea a few inches high, and grey with lichens. Maddison notes
that he has found it on rough banks, at high elevations in the deer
forest at Braemar. Home says that, in this locality, it frequents what
are called the "flats," ?'.<?., the tops of a range of hills extending for
452 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
several miles, at an altitude of 2,000 ft. to 3,000 ft. They always
prefer the parts that are stony, and are rarely seen where the heather
grows freely. They are very sluggish in their habits. Reid says that the
insect is very rare on the mountain slopes where plant-life is luxuriant,
being almost confined to the lichen-covered wind-swept flats on the
mountain tops, and that, in its head-quarters, the food-plant grows in
small, dwarf, straggling patches among the stones and rocks. As we go
north the altitude at which it is found decreases, and Staudinger and
Wocke record that, at Bodo, on May 19th, 1860, the full-grown larvre
were found on the marshes, which were only a few feet above the level
of the sea, and later at Alten, where it occurred not only on the
marshes, but also in quite dry' pine-woods, and later on the high
mountains. As we go south, on the other hand, the altitude at which
it is found gradually increases, until in the central Alps it is rarely
found below 6,000 ft., and often reaches above 8,000ft., or as high as
its food-plants can find sustenance. We have ourselves rarely found it
below 6,500 ft., whilst it appears to be more abundant at 7,000 ft. Fre-
quently at these levels it is to be observed in the utmost profusion. At Le
Lautaret, in August, 1896, we saw it in countless numbers, booming
everywhere on all the mountain slopes around. In dull weather the
moths hide at the roots of the plants that clothe the mountain sides,
but the slightest gleam of sunshine is sufficient to stir them into the
greatest activity. It appears to be fairly widely distributed in the
Braemar district, and probably has a greater range in the northern
Highlands than has yet been discovered. Hohenwarth captured the
type specimens of this species on the extreme Alpine summits of the
Gross Glockner, on the so-called Pasterze, and surmised that it lived
there on the " Eis-" or " iihrengetragenden Beifuss " (Artemisia
f/lacialis ?) , which are almost the only plants of this perpetual winter
land.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Larvre found July 2nd, 1851, in the Ober-
haslisthal, pupated July 5th-8th, emerged after 20 days from July
25th-28th (Freyer) ; often observed between July 26th -August 7th, at
Bossekop and Skaadavaara (Zetterstedt), first imago on June 26th,
1860, at Bodo (Staudinger), imagines abundant at Bossekop, from
July 9th to 20th, 1898 (Chapman), July 25th to August on the
highest summits of the Dovrefjeld mountains (Boheman), August
9th, 1851, on the Gemmi (Freyer), end of June, 1817, on the summit of
the Lozere (Duponchel), July 15th, 1897, on the Gemmi, just appearing
(Lowe), July 9th-16th, 1897, in Tosa Falls Valley (Bateson), July 17th,
1871, at 2,400-2,600 ft. (White), July 17th-25th, 1871, at Braemar
(Traill), July 10th-17th, 1886, at Braemar (Tugwell), at the end
of June and during the first half of July at Braemar (Home). In early
seasons it may be out in Scotland before the end of June. In Central
Europe in the Alps, at about 6,500 feet, it appears in the middle of
July, but keeps coming out at successively , higher levels until the
middle of August. Chapman found it abundantly on August 20th,
1894, in the Grauson Valley (high above Cogne) in Piedmont, and
still later in 1895, at Oberalp (Switzerland). We found it well out
on the Mont Cenis Pass, August lst-5th, 1897, and on the Petit St.
Bernard, August 8rd-5th, 1898, at Le Lautaret and the Col du Galibier,
August lst-8th, 1896, very abundant, August 10th-15th, 1895, on the
Falzarego Pass (above Cortina), August 8th-20th, 1894, in the Cogne,
ANTHBOCERA (LYCASTEs) EXULANS. 458
Lauson and Grauson Valleys (Tutt). Elwes found this species on the
pass between Kurai in the upper Tchuja valley, and a tributary of the
Bashkaus river, above the tree limit, at a height of 7,000 feet, on
July 25th, 1898.
LOCALITIES. — ABERDEENSHIRE : Braemar, the hill-tops, at an elevation of
from 2,000-3,000ft. (White, etc.). ? ARGYLESHIRE : mountains in Glencoe district [on
July 8th, 1898, flying in sun at 3 p.m., about 1,000 ft. above sea-level, a single very
worn specimen of this species, or one not hitherto recorded as British (Sheldon)].
DISTRIBUTION. — Asia (central) : Tarbagatai mts. (Haberhauer),
Altai rats. (Elwes). Austria : Glockner (Hohenwarth), Austrian
Tyrol — Falzarego Pass, most of the high mts. around Cortina (Tutt),
Styrian Alps (Boisduval), Carinthian Alps (Hiibner), Salzburg, Heili-
genblut (Staudinger), Oetzthal, Riffelsee, Breitlehnerjoch, very common
(Escherich), Paschterkofel, nr. Innsbruck, at 6,000 ft., Sth. Tyrol, at
7,000ft. (Speyer), Bohemia — Burglitz (Heinemann). France: Savoy
Alps (Lucas), Mont Cenis Pass, Dauphine Alps — Le Lautaret, La Grave,
Col du Galibier, etc. (Tutt), Pyrenees — Valle"e d'Eyna, sommet du
Nethou, leMonne, au-dessus de Cauterets (Oberthiir), Hautes-Pyrenees
(Boisduval), Dept. of Doubs, Mont d'Or, at 1,360 metres (Bruand), nr.
Allos (Donzel), Faille-feu, 2,000m. (Bellier), Lozere (Duponchel),
Plateau du Cantal (Sand), Basses-Alpes, Larche, Barcelonnette (Berce).
Italy : Cogne, Val Grauson, Val Lauzon, Petit St. Bernard, etc. (Tutt),
Alps of Valtellina (Curo), Great St. Bernard (Jordan) . Russia : Finland
(Renter), Tundra dist. from White Sea to Ural (Erschoff). Scandi-
navia : everywhere abundant in the mountains (Aurivillius), Nor-
wegian Lapland, Finmark, Gamstenstind, Lyngen, Bossekop, Skaad-
avaara (Zetterstedt), between Lake Kilpisjaur and Tromso (Frigelius),
on the highest summits of the Dovre mts., Drivstuen, Kongswald,
Fogstuen, Tofte, Jettefjellet, etc. (Boheman), Muonioniska (Kol-
strom), Tornean Lapland (Dalman), more typical forms in Dale-
carlia (about 61° N. lat.) and in the mountains of southern Norway,
the var. ranadis, in the mountains of northern Sweden and Norway
to the coasts of the Polar Sea (Reuter), Dovrefjeld and Arctic Nor-
way, Saltdalen (Sahlberg), Porsanger, Elvenaes (Sandberg), Hammer-
fest, Rolfso, North Cape (Schneider), " Sandholm " Fjords (Schoyen),
Bodo, Alten, (Staudinger), Domaas, Jerkin in the Dovrefjeld, Snae-
hatten (one in snow) (Champion). Switzerland: from the western
boundary of Valais to beyond the eastern boundary of the Grisons, from
5,000 ft.-8,000 ft., the Stelvio, most abundant (Frey), Oberalp, Ander-
matt (Chapman), Schwarze See, nr. Zermatt (Buckler), Tosa Falls
Valley (Bateson),Glarus, Kandersteg, Schwarenbach, 6,200 ft.-6,400 ft.
(Speyer), Oberhaslisthal, 8,000ft., Grindel Alps, the Gemmi (Freyer),
Heuthal and nr. the Bernina glacier (Mengelbir), on the Tschita,
Ober-Albula nr. Hospice (Zeller), Mattmark See (Jones), Val de Fain,
7,000 ft. (Stain ton).
ANTHROCERA (THERMOPHILA) VICI^E, Schrank.
SYNONYMY.— Species : Viciae, Schrank, "Fuessly's Neues Mag.," ii., p. 208
(1785) ; " Fn. Boica," ii.. p. 238 (1801) ; Bork., " Khein. Mag.," i., p. 638 (1793) ;
111., "Mag.," ii., p. 40 (1802); Hb., " Eur. Schmett.," text. p. 80 (? 1805);
"Verz.,"p. 117 (71822) ; Werneburg, "Beitrage," etc., i., p. 501 (1864); Kirby,
"Cat. Lep. Het.," p. 67 (1892); "Handbook," etc., p. 93 (1897); nee ? Bork.,
" Sys. Besch.," ii., p. 162 (1789) ; nee Hb., " Eur. Schmett.," fig. 11 (? 1805).
Melilothi, Esp., "Die Schmett.," ii., pt. 2, p. 10. pi. xxxix., figs. 1-8 (1789).
Meliloti, Ochs., " Die Schmett. Eur.." ii., p. 43 (1808); Bdv., "Mon. des Zyg.,"
454 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
p. 51, pi. iii., fig. 5 (1829); "Icones," p. 56, ? pi. liv., fig. 6(1834); Dup.,
" Hist. Nat.," supp. ii., p. 62, pi. v., fig. 7 (1835) ; Evers., " Fauna Lep.
Volg.-Ural.," p. 96 (1844) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," ii., p. 35 (1845) ; Assmn.,
"Besch. Schmett. Schles.," ii., p. 9 (1845); Kayser, " Deutsch. Schmett.,"
p. 168 (1852-9) ; Speyer, " Geog. Verb. Schmett.," i., p. 345 (1858) ; Hein.,
" Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 161 (1859) ; Wallgrn., " Skand. Het.-Fjiir.," p. 97 (1863) ;
Nolck., " Lep. Fn. Estl.," i., p. 99 (1868) ; Stand., " Cat.," p. 46 (1871) ; Tugwell,
"Entom.," vi., p. 184; Lewis, Ibid., p. 238 (1872); Barr., " Ent. Mo. Mag.."
ix., p. Ill (1872) ; Knaggs, " Ent. Ann.," p. 40 (1873) ; Briggs, " Ent. Mo. Mag.,"
x., p. 116 (1873) ; " Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond.." pp. xiv-xv (1875) ; Curo, "Bull. Soc.
Ent. Ital.," vii., p. 196 (1875) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 22 (1879) ; Frey, " Lep.
der Schweiz." p. 67 (1880) ; Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Als.," p. 47 (1880) ; KiAy, " Eur.
Butts.." etc.. p. 90, pi. xxi.. fig. 9 (1880) ; Oberth.. " Lep. des Pyr.," p. 32 (1884) ;
Hofmn., "Die Gross-Schmett.," p. 34, in part (1887); "Die Raupen," etc.. p. 36
(1893); Gregs., " Young Nat.," viii., p. 229 (1887) ; Tugwell. Ibid., ix., pp. 53. 99.
131, 174 (1888); Briggs, Ibid., ix., pp. '82, 108, 153, 188 (1888); Auriv., " Nord.
Fjar.," p. 53 (1888); Keuter, " Macr.-Lep. Fin.," p. 20 (1893); Barr., "Lep.
Brit. Isl.," ii., p. 24, pi. lix., figs. 1 a-c (1894); Meyr., "Handbook," etc., p. 448
(1895) ; Tutt," Brit. Moths," p. 355 (1896) ; Reutti,"Lep. Bad.," 2nd Ed., p. 44 (1898).
necMeliloti, Hb., "Eur. Schmett.," fig. 58 (71805); nee Wood, "Index Entom.,"
p. 11 (1839). Lonicerae var., Esp., " Die Schmett.," ii., pt. 1, p. 195, pi. xxv., fig.
3 (1781). Loti, 7 Schiff. and Denis, " Sys. Verz.," p. 45 (Cat. name) teste
Ochsenheimer (1776); Hb.,"Eur. Schmett.," ii., fig. 82 (1803), corrected to riciae,
Ibid., text, p. 89 (71805). Buylossi, Dup., " Lep. France," supp. ii., p. 138(1835).
Ytenensis, Briggs, " Young Nat.," ix., p. 82 (1888).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — S. riciae. Griinlichtschwarz ; die Vorder-
fliigel mit fiinf rofchen Flecken ; die Hinterfliigel roth, schwarz
gesiiurut. Nigrovirescens ; alis anticis maculis rubris quinque ;
posticis rubris, nigromarginatis. Um die Halfte kleiner als die
vorige Art [A. jilipendulae (including A. lonicerae)'] [Schrank, 7''»<'.W//'.s
Neues Mag., ii., p. 208 (1785)] . [In bringing forward viciae, Schrank,
as the correct name for this species, modern authors have un-
doubtedly been guided by the fact that it was recognised by all their
early predecessors — Borkhausen, Hiibner, Illiger, Ochsenheimer,
Boisduval, etc., as applying to the same species that Esper described
under the name melilotki. In those days, however, the law of priority
had no existence, and each author chose any he pleased of existent
names, or, as in the case of Retzius, named the species anew. "\Yo
have followed Kirby, largely, however, on the evidence of Illiger, who
says in his edition of the Vienna Catalogue [Sys. Verz., pp. 36-37
(1801)] : " Schrank's description of viciae (made from the insect in
the Vienna collection) is very incomplete. As a supplement to this
diagnosis the species may be further described as half the size of
lonicerae, similar in markings and colour, but the ground colour of
the fore-wings not so distinctly steel-blue, and the red less bright,
more carmine ; the wings not so pointed, the apex more bluntly
rounded, two basal spots similar, but the central pair notably different,
3 being round in lonicerae, and divided from 4 by a nervure, whilst
3 forms a long oval or thick comma in viciae (the rounded part point-
ing to apex), and separated more widely from 4 ; spot 5 has a different
direction, lying obliquely to 4 and nearer apex. The antennae in viciae
are blunter," etc.]
IMAGO. — Anterior wings 22-32 mm., dull greenish in colour, thinly
scaled, five small reddish or carmine spots. Posterior wings red,
dark marginal border very narrow. [One of the best detailed descrip-
tions made from continental examples of our British species is that by
Boisduval, Hon. des Zyy., pp. 51-52.]
ANTHROCfcRA (iHERMOPHILA) YICI£!. 455
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The similarity of the sexes of this species
is remarkable. On the whole, the females are larger than the males,
and rather less thinly scaled, whilst Boisduval observes that the
females occasionally have the ground colour greyish-green. The
largest female in our collection is 32 mm., the largest male 29 mm.
The former vary from 26 to 32 mm., the latter from 22 to 29 mm.
On the whole, the dark hind marginal border of the hind-wings is
broader in the males than in the females, especially in the eastern
races of the insect.
COMPARISON OF A. VICIAE WITH A. TRIFOLII (-MINOR). — Some British
lepidopterists have suggested that our native A. viciae \(meliloti) is
not identical with the species known by the same name on the Conti-
nent. The specimens in the British Museum and our own collection
show that the insect we get exists unchanged in France, Germany,
Switzerland, Austria and Eussia. (The mixing up of the densely-
scaled, six-spotted, southern A. charon, Hb., with this species by some
continental authorities does not affect the question.) Nolcken notices
(Lcp. Fn. Estland, p. 99) a pair taken in cop., among the typical form,
as having a " broad margin" to the hind-wings. Briggs reports (Proc.
Ent. Soc. Lond., 1875, pp. xiv-xv), breeding A. trifolii (-minor) from eggs
laid by A. viciae, but here some error of observation appears to have oc-
curred, Fletcher having since confirmed the fact that they not only
breed true and are quite distinct in all their stages, but that the larva
of our species agrees with Esper's description of the larva of his A.
meliloti. Bateson and Pierce find the male genital organs quite
distinct. A comparison of the imagines shows that A, viciae is
a more slender and less densely clothed species, with narrower
wings, semidiaphanous, even when fine, the green ground colour
duller, the red more carmine, never showing the solid scaling and
brighter coloration, the marginal border of the hind-wings very much
narrower, and the antennae more slender than in A. trifolii. Tugwell
says that the antennae of male A. riciae (meliloti) are one-fifth shorter
than those of the smallest A, trifolii he had, the thickening of the
club less sharp, and the end or tip more blunt.
VARIATION. — There is little marked variation in the British and
Central European examples of this species. Some difference in size is
observable, and the width of the marginal border of thehind-wings varies
in both sexes. Considerable difference, too, occurs in the size of the lower
of the central pair of spots. Fletcher has bred an example (from the
New Forest) with traces of a sixth spot ; Bright has one, and Christy
four, examples from the same locality, with traces of this spot below the
apical one, and three others with a very slight redness of that part of
the wing where this occurs. Two similar specimens are in the British
Museum collection, in which the sixth spot is distinctly developed ;
these came from Stettin (Hering coll.). Esper's pi. xxxix., fig. 1, shows
a sixth spot on the underside, and Briggs states (Young Nat., ix.,
p. 189) that this peculiarity is sometimes noticeable in British speci-
mens ; Bright notices it in two examples, whilst Christy notes a
suffused redness on the underside in the position which a sixth spot
(if present) would occupy. This form showing the sixth spot we
would call ab. se.qnmctata, n. ab. Aberrations also occur in which
the spots are more or less confluent. This confluence usually takes
place between 3 and 5. Such forms have occurred occasionally near
456 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Stettin and in other localities, whilst Rye records a specimen from the
New Forest, with the red spots united as in A. purpuralis, and separated
only by the nervures. This mode of blotching, so rare in Europe,
becomes, according to Staudinger, common in the Ala Tau district,
and forms the bulk of the var. confusa, Staud., so that we have here
another illustration of a rare aberration in one locality becoming the
common form in another. Boisduval notes (Mon. des Zy/j., p. 52) that
it occasionally happens that the spots are united into an irregular
band, and King and Fletcher record specimens from the New Forest
that have the red spots of the fore-wings all united into a single long
red blotch. This extreme red form might be called ab. confluent, n. ab.
Staudinger refers to stentzii, Frr., as an aberration of this species with
a red abdominal belt, and records it from the southern Alpine valleys
and Armenia. It is remarkable that in most localities where typical
A. viciae occur, this aberration is very rarely noticed, although Christy
has two New Forest specimens with slight traces of a red abdominal
belt. Hering notes it as unknown in North Germany, and Nolcken
as unknown in the Baltic provinces of Russia. Caradja says it occurs,
however, with the type and ab. dahurica, in Roumania. A. charon, Hb.,
considered by Calberla and others to be a transalpine six-spotted form
of A. viciae, is, in our opinion, most decidedly a perfectly distinct
species, the evidence offered by Christ and Calberla being quite
insufficient to confirm their opinion with any degree of certainty.
Bright notes that he has a specimen from the New Forest with the left
hind-wing orange instead of red.
a. ab. stentzii, Freyer, " Neuere Beitrage," iii., p. 120, pi. 278, fig. 4 (1839).
? Meliloti var., H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.." ii., figs. 86-87 (1845). Cingulata, Frey,
., p. 14 (1887).— Konewka has four speci
insect in his collection, which he calls stentzii, but does not know whether they are
Mitt. Sch. Ent. Ges.," vii., p. 14 (1887).— Konewka has four specimens of an
a distinct species or an aberration of some other. Of this stentzii, I give a figure
for comparison. The difference between it and Z. dorycnii, Ochs., is so striking,
both in colour and markings, that those who have considered them identical cannot
have known the true dorycnii in nature (Freyer).
Staudinger refers (Cat., p. 46) this figure of Freyer's to A. meliloti,
with the note : " Abdom. rubro-cingulato." In our own judgment,
Freyer's figure scarcely represents a form of A. viciae. It appears to
us something like a small A. trifolii, thickly scaled, with five distinct red
spots, ground colour deep green, broad border to the hind-wings ; a red
ring round the abdomen just above the terminal segments ; the under-
side paler, and spots distinct. (The dorycnii referred to by Freyer is a
six-spotted species with distinct spots, deep green ground colour,
and broad hind margin to posterior wings.) Neither do Herrich-Schaffer's
figures, 86-87, appear to represent our insect, although referred here by
Staudinger and others. On the other hand, Speyer says the five-spotted
form with red girdle is found near Rhoden andWildungen, with the type ;
he also states that it occurs occasionally as an aberration in North
Germany. Hering, however, distinctly states that it does not occur in
Pomerania, but adds that it differs in no way from A. meliloti, except in
the possession of a red abdominal belt, and further, that Stentz himself
assured him that in his locality the insect occurred partly with and
partly without the belt, and that it could only be looked upon as an
aberration of A. meliloti. As Hering probably saw specimens of stentzii,
his judgment is valuable, since he knew more, perhaps, than any other
German lepidopterist of his time about A. viciae (meliloti). We are the
ANTHROCERA (THERMOPHILA) V1CIM. 457
more inclined to consider this as really an aberration of the true A.
viciae, as there is one of Lederer's specimens labelled stentzii, in the
British Museum, from Achalzek in Transcaucasia (and we observe
that Erschoff records it from this district), which is an undoubted red-
belted A. riciae, and Christy also has, as we have already noticed, two
New Forest specimens showing this peculiarity in a slight degree. Frey
notes this form from Bergell (Pfaffenzeller), Macugnaga, at 4,039 ft.
(Staudinger), and once near Ziirich (Snell). Caradja remarks that of 300
examples captured in Roumania, 15 are typical, six are ab. stentzii,
Freyer, the rest ab. dakurica, Bdv., and ab. dacica, Car. (annulata,
Car.). Knapp notes it from Thuringia — Gotha, etc.
/3. var. (et ab.) dahttrica, Bdv., " Icones," ii., p. 57, pi. liv., fig. 7 (1834), nee
duhiirica, Mill. — Alis anticis subelongatis, apice subrotundatis, cyaneis vel virescenti-
subcinerascentibus, maculis quinque rubris ; posticis rubris margine cyaneo.
Boisduval remarked that this was near A. meliloti, and possibly
only a local form of it, but that in this genus the species are often so
near, that when the larvae are unknown it is very difficult to decide
whether certain individuals form a variety or distinct species. He noted
it as " a quarter larger than A. meliloti, its fore-wings distinctly more
rounded at the apex, with the five spots placed almost, identically the
ground colour less transparent, the fringes blue-black ; the hind-wings
red (slightly rosy), the border blackish, broader than in A. meliloti;
the corselet and abdomen blue-black ; the antennae blackish, rather
more blunt than in A. meliloti. From Daourie, in south-eastern
Siberia." The figure certainly might represent a local form of A. viciae
(meliloti). Staudinger diagnoses (Cat., p. 46) it as " al. post, margine
latiore nigro. South-east Siberia." Calberla has seen examples from
eastern Asia, which undoubtedly represent a var. of A. meliloti, but
these he avers differed in the antennae from Boisduval's description.
Caradja records a form corresponding with the broader-margined
dahurica, from Rournania, which is fully described under his ab.
dacica = annulata (ride, infra}. Erschoff records it from the North
Amurland districts.
7. ab. dacica, Caradja, "Iris," 1893, pt. iv., p. 192. Annulata, Carad.,
" Iris," viii., p. 72 (1895). — The specimens of A. meliloti, captured in Roumania,
are chiefly ab. dahurica, and a transition form, in which the hind-wings have a
very wide black border, leaving only a small central space red in many examples. As
a rare aberration, I have captured some forms of dahurica that have a red abdo-
minal belt, and this form I name dacica. This ab. stands in the same relation to
var. dahurica as ab. stentzii does to the type form.
Later, Caradja renamed this form annulata, and said : " From ordi-
nary meliloti .... our Roumanian form differs constantly in its
smaller size (22-23 mm.), its narrower and more pointed wings, the
smaller round red spots, and somewhat thinner antennal shaft. It
forms, therefore, in many ways, a well-characterised local race, which
I consider to agree with the true var. dahurica, Bdv., since it agrees
with the figures that Boisduval (Icones, pi. liv., fig. 7) and Duponchel
(Hist. Nat., supp. ii., pi. xli, fig. 2) give of the form, and I have seen
almost identical specimens from Central Asia, after which, indeed,
Boisduval erected his var. dahurica."
d. ab. (aut var.) buglossi, Dup., " Lep. France," supp. ii., p. 138 (1835).— This
Zygaena was sent to Feisthamel by M. Escher, of Ziirich, under the name of
buglossi. Boisduval, who received it from the same person, says, in the Icones,
that it does not differ from meliloti. We consider that it approaches nearer to
dahurica, from which it is in fact only to be distinguished by the more slender
antennas, and the more rounded apex of the fore-wings.
458 BRITIS
e. var. ehnbergii, Reuter, " Forteckning ofver Macrolepidoptera," p. 22 (1893).—
Minor alls anticis maculis minoribus, posticis margine late nigris, <? . Denna
mykket egendoinliga form bar tillstindts prof. Aurivillius till paseende ochaf honom
ansetts vara en siiregen varietet af meliloti. Den synes narma sig den i sydostra
Sibirien antraffade var. dahurica, Bdv., men torde dock niippeligen vara identisk
med densamma. Varieteten ar uppkallad ef ter dess upptiickare, kand. K. J. Ehnberg.
— Kuhmois : Pasi gastgifveri (Ehbg.) i ett enda honexemplar den 21 juli, 1882,
tillsammans med hufvudformen.
Renter notes (Acta Soc. F. F. F., ix., p. 20) that previous to 1893, A.
meliloti had been confused with A. trifolii, both species having stood in
northern collections under the latter name. Aurivillius states that the
subcostal nervure of the hind- wing in A. meliloti is " a short central
piece, united with the first median nervure," but this character appears
to be very variable. Specimens sent by Reuter to Aurivillius were
returned by the latter with the remark that German and south European
A. trifolii were much larger than Finnish examples, and more like A.
lonicerae, and that A. meliloti was difficult to separate from the small
A. trifolii. Reuter, after further investigation, came to the conclusion
that both species occurred in Finland, A. meliloti being, however,
much more local than A. trifolii. The occurrence of the true A. meliloti
in Finland was first discovered by Ehnberg. It has been taken at
Fagervik, July llth, 1890, Kuhmois, July 21st, 1882.
f. var. confusa, Staud., " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xlii., p. 398 (1881).— Haberhauer
sent me in two years abont 200 specimens of this species, doubtless all from the
Ala Tau. A small number of the specimens were typical A. meliloti, with 5 isolated
red spots, but, in the greater part, the spots are confluent, often only the two
outer and upper (3 and 5), often only the two lower (2 and 4), and specimens are
by no means rare in which the spots are as confluent as those of A. purpnndi*
(pilosdlae) or A. brizae. Since the specimens with confluent spots formed by far
the great number the race may be designated as var. confusa
In occasional examples the fore-wings are almost entirely red, with dark margins.
Lederer received one similar to these last from the Altai, and we received
no female with 5 isolated red spots from the Ala Tau.
•n. (?) var. charon, Hb., " Eur. Schmett.," ii., fig. 21 (1797); H.-Sch., "Sys.
Bearb.," ii., figs. 69-70 (1845). Italica, Caradja, " Iris." viii., p. 71 (1895). Terio-
leims, Speyer, " Geog. Verb. Schmett.," i., p. 462 (1858).
(1) ab. decora, Led., "Verb, zool.-bot. Ver. Wien," ii., p. 125 (1852).
Stentzii, H.-Sch., " Sys. Bear.," ii., fig. 23 (1845). Cingulata,Fiey,
" Mitt. Sch. Ent. Ges.," vii., p. 14 (1887).
(2) var. sicula, Calberla, " Iris," viii., p. 216 (1895). Scabiosae var., Bag.,
"Nat. Sic.," vi.. p. 237 (1887).
A. charon, Hb.,"Eur. Schmett.,"p. 81.— Breitriindiger Schwiirmer. Sph., fig. 21.
Mas. Fore-wings bright, glossy blue-black, with six very unequal carmine-red
spots, the hind-wings steel-blue, only from the base outwards carmine. Pied-
montese Alps.
Christ first associated [Mitt. Sch. Ent. Ges., vi., p. 40 (1880)] A.
charon with A. viciae (meliloti). He noted that in size A. charon
averaged from 1-2 mm. less in wing expanse, was of brighter colour
(red and green), had sometimes a well-developed abdominal red belt,
had a sixth spot varying in size and development, and possessed a
distinct peculiarity in the broader black border (the red entering it
and forming a rectangular patch at the anal angle). He expressed a
suspicion, however, that charon was only a south- Alpine form of A.
meliloti, as he had seen: (1) Red-belted German meliloti from Wasseln-
heim, Alsace and Kreuznach. (2) Alpine A. meliloti with broader
margin to hind-wings and of similar form to charon. (3) Narrow-
bordered charon bred from Tyrol larvae in 1877. Frey notes [Mitt.
Sch. Ent. Ges.t vii., p. 14 (1887)] the occurrence of charon, Hb., on
the south side of the Simplon, and agrees that it may be a southern
ANTHROCERA (iHERMOPHILA) VICLE. 459
form of A. meliloti, but considers that more evidence is required.
Calberla, however, unites without hesitation, charon, Hb., fig. 21, with
meliloti, and writes (Iris, viii., pp. 213-218) : " I hold with Christ that
charon (Hb., fig. 21, H.-Sch., figs. 69-70), and its red-belted var.
stentzii, H.-Sch., fig. 28, is a southern six- (rarely five-) spotted form
of the usually five-spotted meliloti, Esper, and its red-belted var.
stentzii (Frr., pi. 278, fig. 4, meliloti var., H.-Sch., figs. 86-87). A.
charon occurs commonly in the south-eastern Alps, A. meliloti rarely ; in
the rest of Italy one only finds A. meliloti singly. Speyer knew stentzii,
H.-S., from the Tyrol and Bergell, but does not mention charon, Hb.,
although it is evident (Geog. Verb., i., pp. 346, 461, ii., p. 282) that
he included both forms under the name teriolensis as a transalpine
form of meliloti, whilst Herrich-Schaffer appears to have suspected in his
stentzii a var. of A. meliloti. Charon, Hb., and stentzii, H.-S., extend
from the Tyrol westward through the southern Alps to Cuneo, and
onwards through the mountains of Italy to Sicily. They are of a
more glossy black and brighter red, with a broader black border to the
hind- wing, which is only narrower in the middle of the outer margin
than in A. meliloti and its ab. stentzii, Freyer. Expanse 22-29 mm. as
in A. meliloti. Transitional forms occur as Christ has stated. Herrich-
Schaffer's figures refer to Piedmontese specimens (fig. 70 is very large
and narrow- winged), whilst Hiibner figures the Apennine form of upper
Italy. I possess many examples from between Bologna and Pistoja,
and have seen similar ones from the Ligurian Apennines, which agree
with Hiibner's figure and description, and differ from the south Alpine
form, in being darker, more thickly scaled, and in having more rounded
fore-wings, and broader bordered hind-wings. The expanse of my
examples is 26-27 mm., against the 28 mm. of the figured specimen.
The fore-wings of the male are deep black-blue, those of the $ green with
strong metallic gloss The fore-wings are, on the upper-side,
five- or six-spotted, on the under-side the five-spotted examples show the
sixth spot, and the red tinge of the Alpine specimens is lacking. If one
wished to separate the south-eastern Alpine form the name terio-
lensis, Speyer, would have to be used. Staudinger has sent out
the six-spotted red-belted form under the name of ab. cin-yulata, to
distinguish it from ab. stentzii, Frr., but the name cingulata would fall
betoie decora, Led. (Yerh. z.-b. Yer. Wien, 1852, p. 125), thename teriolensis
being retained for the form without a red abdominal belt. The ab.
decora, Led., is not known to me from the Apennines of southern and
central Italy. Another form of charon found in Italy is the Neapolitan,
which flies in the Apennines in this district to about 1,000m., at the
end of June and in July, and is not very different from the Alpine
form. The fore-wings are somewhat more glossy, the red more
crimson than in meliloti, spot 4 is more often quadrate, the basal spots
are more often connected. Of 12 specimens before me only one $
possesses the traces of a red belt, another J has an indistinct 6th spot.
The third form is the Sicilian, which I distinguish as var. sicula ; it
was found in a marsh in the forest of Mistretta, at above 1,000 m.
elevation, sitting on rushes projecting from water; elsewhere in
Italy charon flies on dry mountain pastures. The dull black is, in
this form, tinged with blue or green, and is darker in the $ , the red
is a light cinnabar, fading into crimson ; the greyish-black border of
the hind-wings is at the inner angle very broad. Spots 1 and 2 are
460 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
mostly connected, 1 often reaches beyond the costa until beyond 3,
5 and 6 are also always confluent, and often form only a single large
spot, as in A. acldlleae, Esp., 3 retains its longish form, and is only
separated from 4 by the nervure, 4 is very large, square, sometimes
united with 5 and 6. Of 12 examples, one shows traces of an
abdominal ring. A red suffusion unites the spots beneath. In the
tint of the red colour this var. comes very near specimens from Amasia
and Hadjin, but these have smaller, separate spots, greenish fore-
wings, stouter antennae, darker underside to fore-wings, and are larger ;
they resemble, but only in markings and the tint of red, christophi,
Staud. To var. sicula, Ragusa's scabiosae (Xat. Sic., vi., p. 237) belongs ;
he states that one specimen had 5, the remainder 6, spots, in part or
entirely connected, whilst one $ had a red belt and a very narrow border
to the hind-wings. Laharpeand others are reported to have taken charon
in Sicily. Curo gives (Bull. Ent. Soc.ltal.,vii., p. 196) indications which
suggest that his examples may refer to the forms described by me, among
which everywhere 5-spotted specimens with a narrow border to the
hind-wings occur which might be referred to meliloti ; the latter,
however, certainly only occurs in Italy as an aberration of charon."
Discussing the various forms referred by himself to this species,
Calberla avers that " the red increases by the formation of a sixth spot,
and the black marginal border of the hind- wings (with a few excep-
tions) increases in width as one goes south." The upper Italian and
Tuscan insect, he says, forms another exception, for " it is often 5-
spotted, and yet has the widest broad border ; local forms with smaller
spots also possess less red colour on the underside, and the rule applies
also generally to the individuals of particular races, as does also the rule
that with smaller spots on the fore-wings, the black border of the
hind-wings is broader. The colour and scaling vary according to the
locality. The red abdominal belt appears to be commonly developed
only in the southern Alps. The form of the antennre, and the shape of
the wings of individual races, show no constant difference, the trans-
alpine specimens contain, on the average, longer and narrower fore-
wings, and a more strongly concave margin to the hind- wings."
OVUM. — Under the microscope the egg appears of a pale yellowish
colour, tinged with green, smooth, and perfectly oval, apparently
varnished and laid in patches with the major axis of each egg parallel
to that of the others. The eggs were mottled in places with creamy-
white, and there were some black, and a few red and blue scales from
the parent adhering to the surface of the egg, the whole appearance
of the egg strongly reminding one of that of some birds, especially
that of the yellow-hammer. The eggs hatched on July 18th, 1872
(Briggs). Bacot observes that the eggs are somewhat similar to those
of A. lonicerae, but are laid differently, being less closely packed, and
only in a single plane (not upon each other, as in that species and
A. trifolii). Compared with the latter, they are larger, more rounded,
and the sculpturing less marked. Briggs also notices that the egg of
A. meliloti is larger than that of A. trifolii, and very much larger than
that of A. filipemhdae.
HABITS OF LARVA. — The larvffi hatch during July (July 18th,
Briggs), and grow very slowly. They hybernate when about three
lines in length, and are then of a semi-transparent brownish-white
colour, the markings indistinct, giving the larva "somewhat the
ANTHROCERA (iHERMOPHILA) VICIJE. 461
appearance of a maggot." After hybernation, the larvae begin to feed
in March, moulting in early April, and then quickly undergo several
moults, becoming full-fed from about the beginning to the end of
June. Some larvae, however, take two years to complete their meta-
morphoses, that is, they hybernate two winters. Briggs reports that
a brood of larvae moulted on April 5th, again on May 27th, then on
June 8th, July 9th, and July 29th, when they were about half-
an-inch long. They then ceased feeding, and proceeded to hybernate
for a second winter. This habit of going over two winters in the
larval stage is not altogether due to temperature, since Fletcher
reports that larvae remained torpid during the unusually hot summer
of 1893. The larva, even when feeding, is very sluggish, and its
growth is so slow that it is possible that two years is more frequently
taken for it to reach maturity than one. Barrett says that the full-
grown larva is fairly active in its movements when hungry, but is
usually so sluggish that another may walk over without disturbing it.
Caradja observes that the larva is only found singly in sunny places,
while, in the shade close by, he has obtained them in the greatest
abundance from different species of trefoil, in May and until June
10th.
LARVA. — The newly -hatched larva is of the shape of the adult,
although probably somewhat more slender. It bears the generalised
form of tubercles — i, ii, in the form of dorsal anterior and posterior
trapezoidals, iii as supraspiracular, iv and v as subspiracular — and
each tubercle bears a short whitish hair. After the first moult the
specialised tubercular warts appear, and the larva undergoes no great
structural change afterwards. When it hybernates (? third instar) it is
very small, about 5-7 mm. in length. At this stage the following de-
scription was made under a two-thirds lens (October 1st, 1897) : —
The head is completely retractile within the prothorax, pale brown
in colour, with dark brown markings on the cheek, the ocelli black.
Dorsal view : The ground colour whitish, somewhat transparent and
glassy-looking, is distinctly visible as a broad medio-dorsal line.
The prothorax is swollen, and composed of the united warts, that are
mostly separate on the following segments. These consist of (1) Two
dorsal warts (one on either side of the medio-dorsal line, and formed
by the junction of i and ii on each side). (2) A supraspiracular
wart (iii) on each side. (8) A subspiracular wart (consisting of
of iv and v united) on each side. (4) A marginal wart (at the
base of each proleg, and situated at the lower margin of the
lateral area). The dorsal warts are yellow in colour, and placed
at the front of each segment. Each is complex in structure,
bearing several long yellowish branched hairs with blackish bases,
each arising from a black tubercle, that forms its base. A ring of
pale hairs on the margin of each wart gives it a very radiated
appearance. The large size and yellowish colour of the dorsal
warts make them appear as two longitudinal lines, extending from the
metathorax to the anal segment. (On the prothorax and mesothorax
they are united medially.) Lateral view : There is a longitudinal
series of supraspiracular warts, very similar to the dorsal series, each
with six black tubercular points, and each of the latter giving rise to a
long branched hair. The spiracles are prominent, each forming a
hemisphere, slaty-grey in colour, with a densely black apical point
462 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
surrounded by a whitish ring. There is another series of similar sub-
spiracular warts, but these appear to bear only five black points,
whilst a series of marginal warts of almost precisely similar size
and shape is found along the base of the prolegs. The prothoracic
spiracle is very distinct, situated well back, almost in the incision
between the pro- and rnesothorax. The warts on the thoracic seg-
ments seem almost identical with those on the abdominal segments,
except that, on the prothorax and mesothorax, the dorsals unite, and
the supraspiracular wart becomes rather prespiracular in position, as
also does the latter on the rnetathorax. Ventral view : The head is
ventral ; the body surface is very pale creamy-white, the segmental
incisions glassy-white ; the true legs yellowish, with a single dark
brown terminal claw, and a few short black hairs at the joints.
The prolegs transparent, white, with an inner flange of conspi-
cuous black hooks ; the anal prolegs similar to the others, but wider.
When the larva had passed four spring moults (? seventh instar), Briggs
described it (E.M.M., x., p. 117) as having the body pale greenish-
grey, with a few short white hairs scattered over it, and irrorated with
minute black tubercles. Head black, with the transverse upper lip,
the membrane at base of antennas, and articulations of the mouth, white.
The arrangement of the ground colour is into five lines, as in A. j/alu.strix
(trifolii-major), trifolii, lonicerae and jilipendulae, but these lines are
almost obsolete, though faintly distinguishable, with an indistinct,
pale, narrow, dorsal streak down the centre of the dorsal line. The
dorsal line is broad ; on each side of it, instead of the two large
black spots on each segment, more or less distinct or confluent, as in
the other species mentioned, the anterior spot only is present in the
form of a minute black spot on the anterior portion of each seg-
ment. Below this, on each side, is a broad line of the ground colour,
with an inconspicuous chrome-yellow spot in the fold, formed by
the hind margin of each segment. The lower (spiracular) row of
black spots is entirely absent, being replaced by the ground colour.
The spiracles black, encircled with first a white, then a black narrow
ring. No dusky marks above the prolegs, nor on the underside, except
a narrow black line round the base of each true leg, and the apex of each
proleg. The adult larva is diagnosed by Esper as being pubescent, of
a glaucous-green colour, with a white line running down the back,
and a yellow spot, with a small black one above it, marking each seg-
mental incision ; head and legs brownish-black, the prolegs of the
same colour as the body. Fletcher says that Esper's description
agrees with the larva of our British insect. Barrett describes (tint.
Lep., ii., p. 124) the larva as dull pale green in colour, with abundant
minute black points ; dorsal line broadly whitish-green, shaded off on
each side ; subdorsal line whitish, interrupted on each segment by a
distinct yellow spot, immediately above and behind which is a distinct
round black dot at the incision of each segment ; spiracular line very
indistinct whitish-green ; ordinary raised spots green, bearing tufts of
short downy white hairs ; spiracles black, with white rings ; legs and
prolegs greenish with a blackish ring. Before full growth the colour
is rather darker, and the subdorsal lines are interrupted by a very
bright yellow spot on each segment. The larva is said by Hering to
be much more delicately built than the other known Anthrocerid
larvae. He notes it as light greenish -yellow in colour, with fine hairs.
ANTHROCEBA (THEEMOPHILA) VICLE. 468
COMPARISON OP THE LARVA OF A. vici^; WITH THAT OP A. TRIFOLII.
— Briggs says that the larva of A. viciac (meliloti) hybernates when
much smaller (3 lines) than that of A. trifolii (5 to 6 lines in length).
Until hybernation, there is no perceptible difference in the markings
of the two larvae, except that in the larva of A. trifolii the future
rows of spots and lateral lines are distinct, in that of A. viciae they
are nearly (and in some specimens quite) obsolete, giving the larva
somewhat the appearance of a maggot. In April, after hybernation, A.
trifolii moults and assumes the lateral lines with orange spots, and the
two dorsal and two lateral rows of large black spots that (except in
size, shape, and intensity) it. possesses in common with the larvae of A.
paltutria (trifulii-major'), Jilipendulae and lonicerae. In A. viciae the
spots and lines are so nearly obsolete that, to a casual observer, they
would appear quite so, the large spots being represented by occasional
dusky punctations.
COCOON. — The cocoon is fusiform in shape, rather broader at the
basal end, deep yellow in colour, shiny, with several strongly developed,
irregular, longitudinal ridges extending from the base to within some
little distance of the apex, the latter being comparatively smooth.
These ridges sometimes unite laterally, so as to form a somewhat
rough, irregular reticulation. The cocoon is of a thin texture, formed of
fine silken fibres closely interwoven. The inside of the cocoon appears
smooth, and is much paler than the outside. Under a lens, however,
it is seen that the cocoon is lined with a somewhat loose coating of
almost pure white silk fibres. The torn edge suggests that the yellow
colouring matter is an after addition, applied to the silk after it has been
spun, being found in isolated patches in some places. The cast larval
skin lies in the bottom of the cocoon. The cocoons described (for
which we are indebted to Mr. Head) are very uniform in size, 19 mm.
long, and 5 mm. wide at the broadest part. They are attached to
pieces of grass culm, and it is reported that the cocoons are never
placed at any great distance from the ground. Ochsenheimer notes
that "the cocoon is parchment-like, elongated, and pale yellow in
colour," whilst Esper also says that " the cocoon is elongated, and of a
very pale yellow colour," and Barrett calls it " pale yellow or whitish."
There is probably some variation, therefore, in the tint of the cocoons,
as ours are of a quite deep yellow colour. J. P. Barrett found a cocoon
attached to a grass culm, in the New Forest, in 1871.
PUPA. — The pupa is very similar to those of the other British
Anthrocerids but is rather more slender than any of those known to
us. Yentrally : The head, mouth-parts and appendages are shiny
black, with fine transverse ridges crossing the appendages. The
head prominent, slightly depressed frontally between the bases of the
antennae. The maxillae are well developed, the first pair of legs
are very long and also well developed, whilst the tibire of the second
pair only are visible. The antennae extend considerably beyond the
wings. The maxillae disappear beneath the apices of the wings
and antennae, and reappear again beyond the termination of the
latter, where also the tarsi of the third pair of legs are to be seen.
The whole of these are free from, but terminate at, the sixth abdominal
segment, in which there is a median depression in which they rest.
The abdominal incisions are well-marked, the anal segment turned back
dorsally. Laterally : The antennae prominent, extending beyond the
464 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
costal edge of the wing, the bases of the antennae also prominent, and
forming the frontal edge of the pupa ; the glazed eye smooth,
forming an inconspicuous lunule, stretching from the base of the
antenna to the base of the leg ; the skin of the wing fine and silky-
looking, the neuration very strongly defined ; the abdominal incisions
well marked, the cremaster rounded, apparently without hairs, and
ending in a line with the dorsum. Dorsally : The frontal edge of the
head prominent, black, with a distinct shallow depression between the
two bulging bases of the antennae. There is a very distinct separation
of colour between the black antennae and wing-margin and the pale
thoracic segments. The prothorax frontal, a distinct segmental por-
tion (dorsal head-piece) of the same pale colour as the dorsal area
between the front edge of the prothorax and the antennae. The meso-
thorax well-developed, swollen medially, and giving rise on either side
to the fore-wings, the base and also the inner margin of which are
somewhat prominent. The prothoracic spiracle is deeply embedded
in the base of the incision between the pro- and mesothorax. The
metathorax is very narrow medially, widening out at the sides, and
giving rise to the hind-wings, which are conspicuous below and beyond
the inner margin of the fore- wings. The abdominal segments 1-9 are
all well- developed, with a very clearly marked intersegmental membrane
between 2-3, 3-4, 4-5, 5-6 and 6-7, the front edges of segments 2, 3, 4,
5, 6 and 7 being finely toothed (or ridged) longitudinally, and giving
a suspicion of being useful in enabling the pupa to force its way out
of the cocoon. The cremaster forms a small, projecting, and practically
smooth, cushion. A pupa examined when the imago was fully formed
within gave the following details : Dorsally, the thorax and abdomen are
of a pale grey colour, as also is the abdomen ventrally. The prominent
head, the mouth-parts, wings and appendages are shining black. The
skin is exceedingly delicate and transparent, the imaginal colours and
markings showing distinctly through it. Esper describes the pupa as
being "yellowish-white, with the back and the wing-covers of a blackish-
brown colour." Barrett describes the pupa as having the " head,
sheaths of the wings, legs, and antennae glossy black ; the whole
of the abdomen and the back clear, spotless, pale yellow, the skin of
the latter portion so thin, that, after the moth has emerged, there
remains only a filmy transparent white pellicle. The contrast shown
between the colour of the head and appendages, and the abdomen, is
very remarkable."
FOOD-PLANTS. — Lotus corniculatus (Briggs), Trifolium (Kirby), Vicia,
Lathi/nis pratensis, clover (Kaltenbach).
HABITS AND HABITAT. — This species is very local and uncertain in
its appearance. Hering mentions that, in 1839, it was exceedingly
abundant nr. Damm, but that in the same locality not a larva nor imago
could be found the following summer. It was first announced as a
British species in 1872 (although Cox says specimens were captured
in 1869), when many examples were taken in Stubby Coppice, in the
New Forest. In the five following years large numbers were collected
in every stage in the restricted locality first found, and it was soon
practically exterminated there. It was re-discovered in a neigh-
bouring locality in 1888, and has since been found in other spots all
very near to each other. The insect is, however, worked so systematic-
ally by professional dealers and collectors, that in some years it is
ANTHROCEKA (iHERMOPHILA) VICIM. 465
very rare indeed. The imago flies freely in the sun, or may be found
at rest on the flowers in its habitat. Weir reports having taken it
in Sussex, twenty years before it was captured in the New Forest, but
its occurrence in this county has never been confirmed. There is no
doubt that Hodgkinson's report that : " A. meliloti was formerly
common near Manchester and on the railway bank near Scorton," is
an error. Probably both these reports refer to the small form of A.
trifolii. Barrett says that " it inhabits marshy spots " in the New
Forest. Tugwell says that the species occurs over a fairly wide
locality, viz., from the top ride (just outside Ramnor), through all the
upper rides of Park-hill enclosure, the ride on the Denny side of
Stubby Copse, Perrywood Heath, and by the rides running parallel to
the railway. Most of the ground is high, plenty of wet spots exist,
but these do not seem to be at all necessary for the welfare of the
species, the district where it occurs being well wooded, and plants
luxuriant. It is common in woods in the Eheims district (Demaison),
in an open wood near Damm, in Pomerania (Hering), in wood-
clearings at Grumazesti, and in a meadow covered with bushes and
scattered oaks at Kloster Neamtz. The males fly in the sunshine, whilst
the females sit on low plants, usually in the most shady places, under
trees and bushes, and there await the males ; in the afternoon, one
may there find them in copula, and sweep them in numbers with a
net (Caradja).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — Boisduval gives the end of June and early
July, which agrees well with the time that the species occurs in Britain,
and Caradja notes it from June 22nd to July 25th in Eoumania,
Fritsch gives June 12th-22nd, in three successive years, at Gresten,
Austria, and July 12th at Salzburg ; the last week in June, 1871 (Tug-
well), June 29th, 1871, at Stubby Coppice (J. P. Barrett), July 9th,
1873, in New Forest (Briggs), first week in July, 1874 (Fletcher),
July 6th-15th, 1874, June 20th- July 4th, 1875, nr. Brockenhurst
(Bower), July 19th, 1879, in the New Forest (Auld), July, 1888,
at Matley Bog (Nicholson), July 13th, 1890, in New Forest (Blagg),
July 20th, 1890, nr. Lyndhurst (Bobbins), June 23rd, 1895, June
25th, 1896, July llth, 1897, July 6th, 8th, 10th, 1898, in the New
Forest (Christy), July 22nd-25th, 1898, in New Forest, worn (Dadd).
LOCALITIES. — HANTS : New Forest. This is the only known British locality.
[SUSSEX : nr. Emsworth, where eggs were put down in 1896 and 1897, and imagines
found in 1898 (Christy)].
DISTRIBUTION. — Africa: Barbary (Wagner). Asia : Obi and Yenesei
districts (Erschoff), Pontus, Armenia, Altai mts. (Staudinger). Austria:
Bohemia, Vienna, nr. Klosterneuburg, Linz, Styria, Salzburg (Speyer),
Mollthal in Upper Carinthia, Carniola, Meran, Buda, Thalwaldungen,
Habandorf, Nazzaro, Bruck-on-Mur (Dorfmeister), Dalmatia, Hun-
gary (Staudinger), Gresten, Salzburg (Fritsch). Bulgaria (Staudinger).
Denmark: (Eeuter). France: Forest d'Allogny (Sand), Dept. Doubs,
nr. Pontarlier, Pagney (Bruand), Pyrenees, Cauterets, nr. the cascade
of Serizet (Oberthiir), Dept. de 1'Aube, woods of Thouan (Jourd-
heuille), Eheims dist., common, Berru, Eilly, Gerrnaine, etc. (Demai-
son), Saone-et-Loire (Constant). Germany : generally distributed
(Heinemann), Pomerania, nr. Damm (Hering), Wismar, Gesselwitz,
Frankfort-on-Oder, Taunus, Boppart (Kayser), Constance, Ueber-
lingen, Herrenwicz, Bergstrasse, Wiirtemburg, Nassau (Eeutti),
466 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Prussia, nr. Dantzig, Stargard, Willenberg, Mecklenburg, nr. Gaden-
busch, Lower Hartz, nr. Sternhanses, Auerberge, nr. Stolberg, Wai-
deck, Arolsen, Wildungen, Miilhausen, Hainiceh, Treffurth, Weimar,
Nossen, Dresden, Silesia, Lissa, Scarsine, nr. Breslau, Zusselwitz, nr.
Miinsterburg, Stolzenfels, nr. Coblenz, Trier, Wiesen, Frankfort-on-
Main,nr.Langen, Wiesbaden, Bingen, Darmstadt, nr. Arheiligen, Pfalz,
Stuttgart, Augsburg (Speyer), Alsace (Boisduval), ? Barthey, nr. Boux-
willer (Peyerimhoff), nr. Hamburg (Gethard), Liineburg, Berlin, Halle
(OchsenheimerJ, Helmsted (Schreiber), nr. Blakenburg (Heinemann),
Jena (Schlager), Thuringia, Gotha, Siebleber Holz, Berlauch, etc.
(Knapp). Italy : rather rare in northern and southern, doubtfully
from the central, provinces (Curo), Piedmont, valley of Exilles,
Calabria (Speyer), Sicily (Curo). Netherlands: Luxemburg (Speyer).
Eoumania : Grumazesti, Kloster Neamtz, Slanic, Comanesti (Caradja),
Tultscha (Mann), Turn Severin (Haberhauer). Eussia : Poland
to Gulf of Finland, Moscow dist., Caucasus, Transcaucasia (Er-
schoff), Grusia (Lederer), Finland to 60° 30' (Eeuter), Koken-
husen, Eiga, Kurtenhof, Eeval, Pichtendahl (Nolcken), Livonia,
Volga dist., on the steppes (Speyer), Baschkirise (Eversmann).
Scandinavia : Sweden and Norway to 67° 50' (Eeuter), Stock-
holm (Aurivillius), Blekinge (Wallengren), West Gothland (Bohe-
man), Olleberg (Dalman), Westmannland (Fredricksson) . Switzer-
land : nr. Zurich (Frey), Blumenstein, foot of Stockhorn (Meisner),
Basle, Dorneck (Peyerimhoff), Tarasp (Killias), S. Gallen (Taschler),
Dusnang, at 1847 ft. (Frey), Schaffhausen (Trapp), Bremgarten
(Boll), Oftringen (Wullschlegel), Liesthal, Pilatus (Christ), Valais,
Viege, Leuk (Jaggi), Saas Thai (Stehlin).
[Some of the above localities must be considered with discretion.
There is little evidence to show that the insect we call A. viciae is
known south of the Pyrenees and Alpine ranges.]
ANTHROCERA LONICER^E,
SYNONYMY. — Species : Lonicerae, Scheven, " Naturforscher," x., p. 97 (with
reference to Schaffer, " Icones," pi. xvi., figs. G-7) (1777) ; Amstein, " Fuessly's
Mag. Ent.,"i., p. 125 (1778); Fuessly, Ibid., i.. p. 140 (1778); Esp., "Die
Schmett.," ii., 1st pt., p. 183, pi. xxiv., figs, la, b (1781) ; ii., 2nd pt., p. 12,
pi. xxxix., figs. 9-14 (1789) ; Bork., " Sys. Besch.," ii., pp. 20, 161 (1789) ;
" Ithein. Mag.," i., pp. 303, 633 (1793) ; Hb., " Eur. Schmett.," ii., fig. 7(1797), p. 80
(? 1805), fig. 160 (? 1818) ; " Verz.," p. 117 (? 1822) ; Ochs., " Die Schmett.." ii.,
p. 49 (1808) ; Bdv., " Mon. des Zyg.," p. 56, pi. iii., fig. 8 (1829) ; Freyer, " Neuere
Beitriige," v., pi. 446 (1845) ; Evers., " Fauna Lep. Volg.-Ural.," p. 96 (1844) ;
Assmn., " Abbild. Schmett. Schles.," ii., p. 20 (1845) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," ii.,
p. 36(1845); Kayser, " Deutsch. Schmett.," p. 168 (1852-9); Sta., "Man.," i.
p. 81 (1857) ; Speyer, " Geog. Verb. Schmett.," i.,p. 347 (1858) ; Hein., " Schmett.
Deutsch.," i., p. 160 (1859) ; Wallgrn.
" Hist. Nat.," 2nd Ed., p. 154 (1864)
Newn., "Brit. Moths," p. 24 (? 1869) ; Briggs, "Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.," p. 4i8
(1871) ; Staud., " Cat.." p. 47 (1871) ; Frey, " Mitt. Schw. Ent. Ges.," iv., pp. 224-
225(1874); "Lep. der Schweiz," p. 68 (1880); Curo, "Bull. Soc. Ent. Ital.,"
vii., p. 197 (1875) ; Kirby, " Eur. Butts.," etc., p. 90, pi. xxi., figs, la-c (1879) ; " Cat.
Lep. Het.," p. 69 (1892) ; "Handbook," etc., pp. 91-92 (1897); Sand, "Cat. Lep.
Auv.," p. 23 (1879) ; Peyer., "Cat. Lep. Als.," p. 47 (1880) ; Oberth., "Lep. Pyr.,"
p. 31 (1884) ; Buckler, " Larvae," etc., ii., p. 18, pi. xix., fig. 3 (1887); Auriv.,
" Nord. Fjiir.," p. 53 (1888) ; Hofm., "Die Gross-Schmett.," p. 35 (1887); "Die
Raupen," etc., p. 36 (1893) ; Hewett, " Ent. Record," i., p. 59 (1890) ; Barr., " Lep.
Brit.," ii., p. 130, pi. Ixi., figs. 3 a-d (1894) ; Meyr., " Handbook," etc., p. 448 (1895) ;
Caradja, "Iris," vii., p. 73 (1895); Tutt, "Brit. Moths," p. 352 (1896); "Ent.
Bee.," ix., pp. 87, 166 (1897) ; Oberth., " Var. chez Lep.," p. 46 (1896). Fulvia,
Schmett.," i.,p. 347 (1858) ; Hein., " Schmett.
Q., " Skand. Het.-Fjiir.," p. 104 (1863); Lucas,
; Nolck., " Lep. Fn. Estl.," i., p. 99 (1808) ;
ANTHROCERA LONICER^E. 467
Amstein, " Fuess. Mag. Ent.," i., p. 114 (1778) ; Fuessly, Ibid., p. 139, pi. i., fig. I
(1778) ; Schrank, "Fuessly's Neues Mag.," ii., p. 207 (1785) ; Fab.. " Mant.," ii.,
p. 101(1787); View., "Tab. Verz.." p. 24 (1789). Graminis, De Vill., "Ent.
Linn.," ii., p. 115 (1789). Loti, Fab., " Ent. Sys.," iii., p. 387, tests Ochs. (1793) ;
Schrank, "Faun. Boica," ii., p. 240 (1801); Haw., "Lep. Brit.," p. 74 (1803);
Stephs., " Illus.," i.. p. 109 (1828).
NOTES ON ORIGINAL FIGURE. — Schaffer (Icones, pi. xvi., figs. 6-7)
figures without a name an Anthrocera, which might represent almost any
five-spotted species of the genus. Scheven refers to these figures, and
names them lonicerae ; this makes them, Kirby says, the typical figures.
Werneburg holds these to represent A. lonicerae, and Kirby adds that
" the border of the hind- wings is very narrow." All Von Scheven says of
A. lonicerae is that it differs only from A. filipendulae in having five red
spots, and that he would have considered it to be its 5 , but that he
had often found both species in cop. and that they always paired true.
Fuessly figures (May. Ent., pi. i., fig. I) under the name of fulvia, a
large form of A. lonicerae, whilst Esper figures (pi. xxiv., figs, la and
Ib), under the name of lonicerae, the two sexes of the species we know
by this name (the underside of the male with a long costal streak,
uniting the upper basal and central spots, and with the lower spots
absent on the left side).
IMAGO. — Anterior wings 24-39 mm., of a deep green or blue-green
tint, with five bright crimson-red spots. Posterior wings red with a
narrow blackish-blue margin.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The female is, as a rule, much larger than
the male, whilst the marginal border of the hind-wings is broader in
the male than in the female. The ground colour of the fore- wings is
usually purplish-green in the male, green in the female, but this colour
distinction is by no means an absolutely constant sexual difference,
since some males are as green as the females.
VARIATION. — The tendency to maintain a fixed type and the general
absence of blotching (such as occurs in A. trifolii) are, in this species,
most marked, not only in Britain but on the Continent. The authority
of Herrich- Schaffer, Ochsenheimer, Boubleday, Oberthiir and others, all
point to this fact. We have, ourselves, examined hundreds of examples
from Kent, Aix-les-Bains, Cortina, and the Mendel Pass, without meeting
with an aberration worthy of notice. There is, however, some variation
in size, the males, in Kent, measuring from 22 mm. to 37 mm., the
females from 29 mm. to 39 mm. A large race is permanent in many
localities, and has been named var. major by Frey. On the other hand,
small individuals are constantly met with, some measuring not more
than 22-25 mm. = ab. minor, n. ab. There is very little doubt that
the ab. eboracae, Prest, is a pathological result. In some examples
the red tends to be orange = ab. lutescens, Hewett, in others pink =
ab. miniata, n. ab., or yellow = ab. citrina, Speyer. Porritt notes a
specimen with the dark portion of the fore-wings of a rich blue, shot
with purple, Mason one, wholly bronze without a trace of blue, the
blue margin to the hind-wings being similarly modified, whilst we
have examples in which odd wings are pallid and practically without
pigment. Auld has recorded an example with subdiaphanous wings,
and Bromilow captured, in June, 1892 (? Alpes-Maritimes), a specimen
of this species in which the left wings are normal, both in size and
markings, but the right wings dwarfed and very misshapen, and with
an extra elongated spot on the inner margin near the base. The
468 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
ab. chalybea, Meves, is one in which the red is suffused and has become
dark brown in colour, a form exactly parallel with A. filipendidae ab.
clmjmnthemi, etc. Such variation as takes place in the spotting is
rather constant, and has been already described (ante, p. 425). The
tendency for 1 to form a long wedge-shaped streak along the
costa = ab. cuneata, n. ab. (feytiri, Frr., Neu. Beit., pi. 164, fig. 4),
has been occasionally noticed. The form in which all five spots
are united was first figured by Hiibner as achilleae, the most ex-
treme form in this direction being one recorded by Peyerimhoff as
having the fore-wings entirely red. Robson records a specimen
bred from a York pupa, intermediate between ab. achilleae and ab,
cuneata. It has the costal spot, 1, forming a long streak beyond, but
not confluent with, the upper spot of the central pair, whilst the lower
spot of the central pair (on the left wing only) is connected with the
lower basal spot by a suffused streak. The lower central spot is
similarly connected with the fifth (outer, apical) spot, also on the left
wing only. On both wings, the fifth spot is extended towards the anal
angle, considerably farther than usual. We have seen a specimen in
which the anterior wings have 2 joined to 4, and 3 only just separate
from 5, thus approaching the trivittata form of A. trifolii. Caradja notes
one from Roumania with 5 + 3 united. Aberrations with three longi-
tudinal markings (1, 2 + 4, 3 + 5) might be called ab. trii-ittata, n. ab.
Occasionally a specimen occurs with the two central spots (3, 4) united,
but the aberration is very rare in this species ; this form we call
ab. centripuncta, n. ab. We have also seen specimens with a small
supplementary sixth spot between 3 and 5 ; two such examples are
in the British Museum collection. Costa records a Neapolitan form
of the species with smaller spots than usual, and Boisduval notes
a similar race in Normandy, but his reference to the spots being
" as small or even smaller than those of A. Jilipendvlae," is rather
inexplicable, as the spots of A. filipendidae in this country are usually
of good size, quite as large as those of A. lonicerae. Klemensiewicz
notes an example of A. lonicerae that emerged with only one antenna.
Although, as we have just pointed out, A. lonicerae is characterised by
its attempt to maintain a fixed type, yet it must not be supposed that
there is an entire absence of local races. We have already referred
to the var. major, Frey, which is really only a large variety, but with
otherwise characteristic and normal facies. If, as we suspect, A. nu'di-
cat/ims is a highly differentiated southern form of this species, we
have, in its deeper coloration and more metallic appearance, an almost
parallel development with that observed in A. charon, Hb., which
Calberla unites (ante, p. 458) with A. viciae. Very similar to Frey's
var. major is the fine large form which Johnson obtained at the Mul-
linures in Armagh, although the most striking local form we have in
Britain comes from Filey, on the Yorkshire coast. In this race, the
measurements of which extend from 34£ mm. -39 mm , the fore-wings
are broader, the ground colour deeper, the red spots and hind-wings
of a richer tint, than in the type, and the hind margin to the hind-wings
is also exceptionally broad, characters rarely seen in the examples
from other British localities represented in our collection, and all re-
minding one somewhat of the southern vial imiji nix. For this race we
suggest the name latomanjinata, n. var., owing to the broad margin of
the hind- wings which characterises it.
ANTHKOCERA LONICER^i. 469
a. ab. semilutescens, Hewett, " Ent. Eecord," i., p. 60 (1890).— Base of pos-
terior wings orange. York.
0. ab. lutescens, Hewett, "Ent. Eecord.," i., p. 60 (1890). - Two posterior wings
orange.
The specimen, bred by Mr. Hewett, from which this aberration
was named, is an isolated example, in which the red pigment of the
hind-wings has largely failed. The wings are of an undefined orange-
red colour, fading to yellowish on the outer margin.
, 7. ab. citrina, Spey., " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xlviii., p. 334 (1887). Flava, Oberth.,
"Etudes d'Ent.," xxth. liv., p. 43, pi. via'., fig. 148 (1896).— Agrees exactly with
typical German A. lonicerae, except in colour. The size is the same, the apex
of the fore-wings sharply pointed, the margin oblique, the ground colour inclining
to green. The spots and hind-wings of a clear light yellow, between straw- and
citron-yellow, on the underside scarcely any paler (Speyer).
This form was first mentioned by Ochsenheimer, who writes : I
possess an aberration, which, instead of red, is of a very beautiful yellow
colour ; a similar is found in Gerning's collection (SchmeU. i~on Europa,
ii., 52). Speyer, who first described the form " with yellow spots and
hind- wings" as ab. citrina, remarks that the specimens described by
him were taken in Silesia, by Teicher, who found single examples in
different years until 1887, when he captured some 20 examples and
three transitional ones. This was the first time that the transitions
had been noticed, and they were still much rarer than the true
aberration. He further notices that the aberration was a little later
in emergence than the type form. Caradja observes that it has occurred
in Eoumania, Bellier-de-la-Chavignerie has captured it in the Cevennes,
and Killias near Tarasp.
8. ab. chalybea, Meves (? M.S.) ; Auriv., " Nordens Fjaril.," p. 53 (1888).—
Fore-wings strongly bluish, spots and hind-wings dark brown, the outer margin of
the latter bright cobalt-blue. Found on the rocky shores of Upland, by J. Meves.
e. ab. achilleae, Hb.-Gey., "Samm. Eur. Schmett.," fig. 165 (1841). Bercei, Sand,
" Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 23 (1879). Coiijluens, Selys. "Bull. Ent. Soc. Belg.," xxvi.,
p. cxiii (1882). — Hiibner's figure has no descriptive letterpress. It represents an
aberration of A. lonicerae, with spot 1 extended along the costa for some dis-
tance, 3 is joined to 4, 2 joined to 3 + 4 by a fine upper line, and a fine central
one ; 5 enlarged and joined to 3 + 4 centrally by a thick red line. The fore-
wings have the shape of undoubted A. lonicerae, and the hind- wings are quite
typical of this species.
Blotched examples, in which all five spots are united, are, in this
species, comparatively rare. Oberthiir records one in which the spots
are confluent on the left fore-wing, and separated on the right. Sand
notes bercei as a rare aberration from Nohant, in which all the spots of
the fore-wings are confluent. Oberthiir has obtained one blotched
example of this species only — from Cauterets, where the type is very
common, and Speyer one on the Rigi, among numbers of the type ; an
example with entirely red fore- wings is recorded from Soultzmatt, by
Peyerimhoff. Boisduval writes that the form with an irregular band
is very rare. British localities are York (Hewett), Chattenden (Bower),
Wyre Forest (Abbott) ; several others are in British collections labelled
" Coventry," but we know nothing of the captor of these. Selys states
that he has received from Halloy a single example, in which the basal
spots are united with the median and with the posterior by a band.
f. ab. eboracae, Prest, "Entom.," xvi., p. 273 (1883) ; "Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond.,"
1883, p. xxviii. — Not quite so robust in appearance as Zygaena lonicerae. The
anterior wings look a little more pointed than those of that species, their colour is
steel-blue, and they are more sparsely covered with scales than are those of Z. loni-
cerae ; posterior wings and spots pink, not crimson ; the border of the posterior wings
is brown, not black ; and the cilia of all the wings whitish, instead of black, as in
470 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Z. lonicerae, Z. trifolii and other species of the same genus ; antennas seem rather
finer. It is altogether a very curious-looking insect (Prest).
Prest bred a specimen during the last week of July, 1883, and the
following day captured six others on the ground from which the first
pupa had come at Sandburn, near York. He himself considered that
it might be a good local form of A. lonicerae. When on the wing it had
a washed-out appearance. Porritt, at the time, suggested that the
aberration was possibly due to a diseased condition of the larvae, and
stated that he had bred similar examples of A. filipendulae.
•q. ab. major, Frey, " Lep. der Schweiz," p. 67 (1880) ; " Mitt. Schw. Ent.
Ges.," vii., p. 15 (1887). Lonicerae, Hb.-Gey., "Eur. Schmett.," fig. 160 (1841).—
Larger, deeper blue-black in colour, brighter red ; black marginal border of hind-
wings broader. The large form usually wjrth pointed fore-wings and broad mar-
ginal border to hind-wings, has been found by Meisner in Cantons Tessin and
Wallis ; it is abundant in the Visp Valley, e.g., in 1869, near St. Nicolas. Trapp
also met with this insect in Wallis, and Eiitzer in the Baguethal there. Specimens
also from Chur were in Caflisch's collection, and at Bergiin they appear more like
normal A. lonicerae. Near Zurich, I captured a specimen with confluent spots, and
Killias found a yellow one near Tarasp (Frey).
This large form of A. lonicerae is pretty generally distributed in the
warm valleys of Piedmont, Savoy and Switzerland. We have taken
it abundantly at Aix-les-Bains, St. Michel de Maurienne, etc. It also
occurs in the Austrian Tyrol. Christ records it from Bar on Mt. Cenis,
the largest maesuring 42 mm., with large red spots and broad hind
marginal border to hind-wings (' medicayinisj . Staudinger notes that
some large and very bright-coloured specimens, which he received
from Parnassus and Veluchi, he at first referred to his var. dubia (with
certain anyelicae, stoechadis and alpine filipendulae), but afterwards
determined that they belonged here. Hiibner's (Geyer's) fig. 160
appears to be referable to this form. Caradja notes the Roumanian
specimens as large, with deep steel-blue fore-wings, the red spots often
quite small. In Britain the finest specimens approaching this form
come from the Mullinures in Armagh. Those from Filey, on the
Yorkshire coast, more closely approach medicayinis.
(?) 9. var. medicaginis, Boisduval, " Mon. des Zyg.," p. 66, in part, pi. iv., fig. 5
(1829) ; Dup., " Hist. Nat.," supp. ii., p. 74, pi. vi., fig. 6 (1835) ; Tutt, " Proc. Sth.
Lond. Ent. Soc.," 1894, pp. 107-111 ; " Ent. Record," etc.,ix., pp. 168, et seq. (1897) ;
Oberthiir, "Bull. Soc. Ent. France," 1898, p. 23. Charon, Bdv., " Icones," p. 61,
pi. liv., fig 9 (1834). Stoechadis, H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," fig. 45 (1845). l)ul,i,i,
Staud., " Cat.," p. 21, in part (1861) ; " Cat.," p. 47, in part (1871) ; Christ, " Mitt.
Sch. Ent. Ges.,"vi., p. 43. in part (1880) ; Oberth., " Lep. des Pyr.." p. 31 (1884).—
Alis anticis saturate cyaneis vel virescentibus, maculis quinque minutis sanguineis ;
posticis rubris margine latiore cy&neo = medicar/inis, Bdv., Mon. Zyg., pi. iv., fig.
5. A little larger than A. filipendulae. Habitat : the Alps of Piedmont, etc, (Bois-
duval).
Boisduval himself differentiated (Icones, p. 61) under the name of
charon (nee. Hb.), the 5-spotted insect here described, from a 6-spotted
species (? ochsenheimeri, Zell.), which two species he had united in the
Monog. des Zygtnides, p. 64. The same combination was made by
Staudinger, whose dubia (Cat., p. 47) diagnosed as : " var. major, al.
ant. macul. 5 vel. 6, al. post, latius nigris," includes both the five-
spotted charon, Bdv., and the six-spotted oclisenheimeri, Zell., his dubia
coming from the " southern Alpine valleys, Pyrenees and ? Greece."
In the Proc. Sth. Lond. Ent. Soc., 1894, pp. 107 et seq., we have
pointed out how easily such an erroneous combination may be made,
and we find that Oberthiir, who has kindly sent us the two insects
(as dubia) from the Pyrenees, also unites them under the same name
ANTHROCERA LONICER^E. 471
in the Lep des Pyrenees, p. 31. The latter is still disinclined, we
believe, to see in the five-spotted dubia of the mountains the same
species as the insect from the environs of Nice, which Boisduval,
Duponchel, and others, have figured under the name of medicctfiinis.
His paper (Bull. Ent. Soc. France, 1898, p. 22) on the Nice specimens is
the most recent authoritative essay on this species (or variety). He says :
" This is the species of which Duponchel says (Hist. Nat., supp. ii.,
p. 74) that since his journey into Italy, he has found this Zygaena
abundant in a field near Nice." He then goes on to state that he has
now before him " about 160 specimens, captured in May, around the
station at Var ; amongst them is a yellow aberration. The species
varies much ; in about 20 examples the hind-wings are widely
bordered with steel-blue, or even overrun with this colour, so that
only a little red remains at the base, and a red point beyond ; other
specimens, on the contrary, have the steel-blue border very narrow,
and differ little in appearance from A. dubia and A. lonicerae. Usually
this Nice form of medicaginis has three well-separated red spots on the
upper wings, besides the basal spots ; they are often very small, rarely
large, and generally of a bright colour. Not a single specimen of the
160 has the spots confluent. A single $ shows a fourth supplemen-
tary red spot. It also flies in June in a higher locality in the vicinity
of Turbie. I have 140 specimens from this locality, seven have four
red spots on the upper wings (besides the basal), three have the fourth
spot rudimentary, and only shown by some red scales. The hind-
wings vary in the same direction (viz., by the spread of the marginal
border) as in the Var specimens. This form of A. medicaginis occurs
also near Digne, where it flies in May and appears very rare. I have
only two examples, both of which have the lower wings largely tinted
with blue. Boisduval has figured (Mon., etc., pi. iv., fig. 5) the medi-
caginis of Nice and Italy." We have obtained the insect also in the
mountains of Piedmont, but at a higher elevation, and hence later in
the year; August lst-12th, 1894, at Courmayeur, Val Chapy, near
Cogne, etc.; August 4th-15th, 1898, at Pre St. Didier ; whilst
Chapman obtained it near Mendel Pass in the Tyrol, throughout the
early and middle part of July, 1895, where quite typical A. lonicerae
occurred abundantly about a fortnight after medicaginis was over.
Christ has the insect from the Tyrol, Macugnaga, and the southern slope
of Mt. Cenis. He notes it as " a glossy insect, the dark margin of the
hind-wing reduced to a narrow margin, the red portions of the wings
brighter, and the dark parts more metallic." This he considers as " in-
termediate between stoechadis and typical A. lonicerae," and points out
that Staudinger has wrongly referred dubia to lonicerae, which, in spite
of its close connection with A. lonicerae, is itself the centre of a circle
of small, reduced forms. He then traces a connection geographically
between dark southern and lighter central European forms : (1) Stoe-
chadis, dubia, lonicerae. (2) Seriziati, syracusia, tri/olii. These he
considers parallel series in the two species. He further agrees with
Frey (Lep. der Schweiz, p. 67), who considers "dubia to be a northern'
form of Z. stoechadis, Bkh.," but Frey, however, does not suggest for
it a relationship with the large A. lonicerae var. major. We should be
inclined to agree in maintaining this (medicaginis) as a distinct
species, and place it here only as an expression of ignorance. Certain
it is that it is not a var. of A. trifolii, as suggested by Staudinger
472 BRITISH LEPlDOPTERA.
(Cat., p. 47), and Staudinger himself acknowledges this, for he writes
(Hor. Soc. Ent. Boss., vii., p. 103) that his dubia is a mixture of
" large, brightly-coloured Alpine A. lonicerae, large, brightly-coloured
Alpine five and six-spotted A. angelicae, A. stoechadis with narrow
hind-marginal borders to hind- wings, and A. Jilipendulae of unfamiliar
aspect." Truly a strange mixture ! We examined above 100 pairs
of coupled A. medicayinis, at Pre St. Didier, in August, 1898. In
none was there the slightest trace of a sixth spot, and all were paired
true. About a mile farther up the Dora valley, A. ochtenluimeri was
moderately abundant. We examined, here, also a great number of
paired examples, and all were paired true, although A. medicayinis
occurred on this ground also. It is difficult to distinguish some males
of A. ochsenheimeri from those of A. medicayinis, owing to the small
size (sometimes almost entirely absent) of spot six in the former, but
the sixth spot is always present on the underside in A. ochsenheimeri,
and never, in our experience, in A. medicayinis. That these two
insects should exist side by side without any real modification, over a
range of alps extending from the Little St. Bernard to the Mendel Pass
(possibly beyond in both directions), says much for their distinctness,
and the fact that typical A. lonicerae (indistinguishable from British
specimens) occurs in the greatest abundance two or three weeks later
than the larger A. medicayinis, practically on the same ground, in the
Mendel Pass, is also highly suggestive that A. medicayinis is specifi-
cally distinct from A. lonicerae. Herrich-Schaffer's stoechadis appears
to represent the most extreme form of the species, so far as the de-
velopment of the hind-marginal border of the hind-wings is concerned,
the margin itself being very wide, and the dark shading extending
over two-thirds of the wing. It bears most resemblance to some ex-
amples from Nice (Le Var), sent to us by Oberthur. The following notes
on the ovum of A. medicayinis were made from eggs laid by a $ , cap-
tured at Pre St. Didier, August 7th, 1898, and examined with a hand-
lens only : Large, oval in outline, length : breadth : height : : 3 : 2 : 1£
(about), a somewhat large irregular depression on the upper surface.
Colour of an uniformly pale straw-yellow. The eggs were laid regularly,
side by side, in alternate rows, the base (end opposite micropyle) of
one egg filling up the space between the rnicropylar ends of two other
eggs in the adjacent row. Thanks to M. Oberthur, we have been able
to examine the cocoon and pupa-case of a specimen of this race (or
species) from Vernet-les-Bains. The former is 31 mm. long, 6 mm.
wide, of a full yellow colour, of the ordinary shape peculiar to the
cocoons of this group. The pupa-case is remarkable in being uniformly
of a very pale brown colour, the thoracic and abdominal segments and
the head parts being of the same tint. Structurally the pupa pre-
sents no differences from so many of its allies.
OVUM. — The eggs are laid in batches side by side, and just in contact
with each other. The egg appears uniformly bright yellow in colour to
the naked eye, but under a two-thirds lens the basal third is seen to
be quite transparent, the other two-thirds yellow. The egg is oval in
outline, length : breadth : : 3 : 2. A shallow oval depression on the
upper surface, placed almost centrally. The portion of the egg under-
lying the depression rather opaque whitish-yellow, due probably to the
reflection of light from the sloping surface of the depression. The egg-
shell itself is minutely pitted, but the pits do not appear to form any
ANTHROCERA LONiCEtuE. 473
regular pattern by which the reticulation may be characterised. The
micropylar area forms a rather projecting area at the non-transparent
pole of the egg. It is very thickly pitted, and centrally contains a
small depression which forms the micropyle proper, and which is not,
in general appearance, very different from the ordinary surface of
the egg. [Eggs received from Mr. Ovenden, on July 12th, 1897,
described under a two-thirds lens the same day.]
HABITS OF LARVA. — The newly-hatched larya usually feeds up much
more rapidly than its congeners, and, by the end of September, when
it prepares to hybernate, is already in its fourth instar, and of moderate
size, at least twice as large as the hybernating larvae of A. Jilipendulae
and A. viciae. In early spring it commences to feed again, and
whilst most of the larvae make good progress, and become full-fed
towards the end of May, others do not moult at all, but, remaining
very small, become dormant in early summer, and pass the whole
summer and another winter in this condition, feeding up in due course
the following spring. The cocoon is spun on a grass culm, flower-stalk,
twig of a tree, or similar object. We have seen them abundantly on
ash saplings at a height of from 10 to 12 feet from the ground.
LARVA. — The newly -hatched larva is of the shape of the adult, short,
stout, with the segmental incisions very marked ; it tapers rapidly at
both ends. The head is black, shiny, and appears very small,
although this is largely due to its being partly retractile within the
prothorax. The body is pale yellowish with a double row of brown
blotches, one blotch being placed on either side of the rnedio-
dorsal line on each segment. The skin itself is covered with a fine
coat of minute black spicules. The tubercles are small, in comparison
with the hairs which rise from them, but are distinct, each forming
a blunt cone, shiny, with a chitinous appearance. The tubercles each
give rise to one very large, stout, curved, thorny hair. Dorsally,
tubercles i and ii are placed as anterior and posterior trapezoidals, not
only on abdominal, but also on the 2nd and 3rd thoracic segments.
There are a supraspiracular (iii) tubercle and two subspiracular (iv and
v) tubercles, v being almost vertically below iv. The anterior trapezoi-
dals bear black hairs, the posterior white ; the supraspiracular bears
black, and both subspiraculars white, hairs. There are some secondary
hairs on the thoracic segments, inconspicuous on the prothorax,
owing to the retraction of the head. In the first instar the hooks
on the prolegs have the appearance of being on the posterior face of
the proleg, and are only 3 (?) in number. In the second instar the larva
tapers rather more from the thorax to the abdomen. It is darker as a
whole, and this darkening is due to the enlargement of the dark dorsal
blotches into broad longitudinal dorsal bands, darkest tfn the posterior
portion of each segment ; the bands are well separated by a broad medio-
dorsal stripe of the ground colour. The tubercles are very different in
their arrangement ; the trapezoidals, as such, are practically lost, the
anterior and posterior on each side being united into a large
wart, bearing about six tuberculate hairs. There is now, also,
a dark supraspiracular band on either side, and this includes the
supraspiracular tubercles, which have now become, on each seg-
ment, a complex structure bearing five tuberculate hairs, whilst
below the spiracles, tubercles iv and v are united into a common
mass, also bearing five tuberculate hairs, and, below this again the
474 BRltlSfl LEflDOflEKA.
marginal tubercles show as a smaller wart on each segment, at
the base of the proleg. A few of the dorsal hairs are black, the
others white, but all are roughened or thorny. The larva hybernates in
its fourth instar, and has ceased feeding by the end of September. The
following description was made September 30th, 1897, from a larva
already dormant. Laterally : Of a transparent whitish colour with
a faint creamy tint. A series of supraspiracular warts, consisting
of a raised white, glassy-looking base, bearing twelve or more dark-
brown points, each giving rise to a branched hair, which sparkles like
spun glass. Before and behind each of these warts is a transverse
brown patch ; these patches define the longitudinal bands, and give
the larva its colour. The prothoracic spiracle is prominent, consisting
of a black elevated tube, resembling a projecting piece of pipe set in a
shallow basin with a prominent rim. The abdominal spiracles are
similar, but larger, less distinctly projecting, that on the 8th being
very large and prominent. Each of the subspiracular warts con-
sists of a raised glassy-looking cushion, bearing fifteen dark raised
points, from each of which arises a hair, similar to those of the supra-
spiracular series. The subspiracular wart is placed in the position
of a prespiracular on the prothorax. The subspiracular series is
more or less united into a prominent lateral flange ; the marginal
series is less prominent, and placed along the edge that sepa-
rates the lateral from the ventral area, i.e., along the base of
the prolegs ; they are also smaller, and bear only about eight
points and hairs. Ventrally : The true legs are shiny, whitish-
yellow, almost transparent, with a single, pale brown, curved, ter-
minal hook. The prolegs are of the same pale colour, with an inner
flange bearing a series of short, stiff, black, curved hooks, spread out
like an open fan. Dorsally : There is a broad mediodorsal line of
the pale whitish, glassy-looking, ground colour. On either side
of this, each segment bears a long, transverse, complex, tuberculate
mass readily separable into two portions — (1) The anterior, bearing
five brown points, each with a radiating and finely branched hair.
(2j The posterior with seven similar, hair-bearing points, arranged in
a circle with one placed centrally. Each of these warts is edged
anteriorly and posteriorly with a sepia-brown patch, the anterior
patch being broader than the posterior and edged on its front outer
margin with black. The tips of many of the dorsal hairs are black,
and the dorsal hairs, as a whole, are darker than the lateral. The
segmental incisions are clearly indicated, and separate the quad-
rangular markings on successive segments. The incisions are dorsally,
if anything, paler than the rest of the ground colour. Between
the dorsal and the supraspiracular series of warts, the segmental
incisions are of a bright yellow colour, forming, on either side, a
series of eleven conspicuous yellow patches, the first being between
the pro- and mesothorax. The pro- and mesothoracic dorsal warts
are not separated from each other by the mediodorsal line, as
are those on the abdominal segments, but are united centrally
into one mass. The tenth abdominal segment has the dorsal warts
well developed, but they are united centrally. There is a suspicion
of an eleventh abdominal segment in the anal flap, which bears its
own modified tubercles, and is clearly separated from the tenth ab-
dominal. Head ; The head is entirely retractile within the prothorax,
ANTHROCERA LONICER^. 475
which extends over it as a complete hood of a whitish colour, trans-
parent and glassy-looking, with the tubercular warts united, and cover-
ing its whole area. The head itself is pale yellow, the labrum white,
the clypeus separated by a rather dark suture from the cheeks, the
maxilla? are red-brown, the other mouth-parts are pale brown or
yellowish, the antennaa prominent, pale yellow in colour, with a
whitish base ; the ocelli large and intensely black, forming a promi-
nent patch on each cheek. The fuH-t/rown larva is described by
Buckler as being nearly an inch in length, very plump, with the
segments deeply divided, the head being small and retractile, black
and shining ; the mouth ochreous-yellow margined with black ; the
palpi yellow at their bases with black tips ; the anterior legs black ;
the ventral prolegs of the ground colour of the body, a velvety bluish-
green. Longitudinally, there are subdorsal and spiracular rows of
black velvety blotches, and between them, at the end of each segment,
a transverse, pale yellow, semi-transparent, oblong mark. Laterally,
the subdorsal black blotches are seen to consist of a thick oval blotch,
followed by a thinner reniform blotch on each segment, the former
being placed on the anterior part of the segment. The spiracular
row follows a similar order, but the blotches are thinner, and more of
a curved wedge form, with a tendency to unite below. Above the
legs is a fine longitudinal interrupted black line. The warts are green,
and bear fascicles of short whitish hairs. A second form of the larva is
described by Buckler as having the green ground colour a little paler
and yellower than the previous form. The subdorsal black blotches
consist, on each segment, of a thick, irregular, oblong blotch, placed
anteriorly, followed by another, similar in shape, but rather thinner
below. The spiracular row is rather shorter, but similar, more pointed,
however, at the top, and meeting below by means of a curve from the
anterior blotch, the hinder blotch having a little tail at the bottom.
Above the feet is an interrupted black line. The true legs are black,
the ventral prolegs broadly ringed with black above, their extremities
tipped with black. Briggs emphasises (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1871,
pp. 438-439) the following characters in the larva of this species :
(1). Body with lony white hairs scattered over it, with some black
hairs mixed with the white on the back ; hairs much longer and more
dense than in the other species of Anthrocerids. (2). Below the black
dorsal spots a narrow pale longitudinal line, with a very conspicuous
bright yellow transverse spot in the fold, formed by the hind margin of
each segment. Below this line is another (spiracular) row of black
spots on each side, two on each segment, united at their lower
extremities, the posterior spot emitting a small transverse spot towards
the prolegs = the " little tail " of Buckler. (3). The subspiracular
is a narrow lateral line. Boisduval diagnoses the larva as follows :
" La taille de celle de l&filipendulae. Elle estd'un vert pomme, et elle
a, sur chaque cote du corps, deux bandes noires formees de taches
interrompues par les incisions : ces bandes s'etendent de la tete a
1'anus, et 1'inferieure est plus e"troite. On remarque sur chaque
anneau un point jaune plac£ entre les deux bandes ; le corps est
pubescent, comme dans toutes ses congeneres " (Mon. des Zygen., p. 58).
COCOON. — Attached to a grass culm, flower stalk, or twig of a tree.
It is fusiform in shape, with a narrow base, the silk not always extending
round the twig to which it is attached. The cocoons vary much in
476 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA,
length, from '75 of an inch to considerably over an inch. The cocoons
are shiny, very smooth at the bottom, ribbed somewhat centrally and
at the top. They are thin, the pupa showing faintly through, and
the silk varies in colour from a deep yellow to a pure white, nor is the
colour at all uniform in the same cocoon, some parts oftentimes being
much paler than others. Parasitised larv® usually spin the palest
cocoons. The inside of the cocoon has a thin layer of flossy white silk.
The cocoon dehisces for the emergence of the pupa at its upper end,
the opening being usually of a roughly circular form. The empty
pupa-case is left projecting from the cocoon. Boisduval says : " La
coque est allongee, en forme de bateau, et d'un jaune paille. On la
trouve sou vent attachee aux tiges-.des graminees."
PUPA. — The pupa is of a shiny black colour, with prominent head-
piece, the maxillte extending to the 6th, the third pair of legs to the end of
the 5th, abdominal segment, and free, a distinct waist at the 4th abdo-
minal segment, the cremaster turned back dorsally, the $ pupa with
abdominal segments (?l-2) 3-7 free, the female with (? 1-2) 3-6 free.
The 3rd pair of legs, which run beside and outside the maxillae,
are only just shorter than the latter, and about 2-4 mm. beyond the
wings ; the wings and appendages being quite free ; their relations
to the segments vary with the position of the pupa, but there
is a depression for their accommodation almost to the hind margin
of the 6th abdominal segment. Dorsally : the head-piece projects beyond
the prothorax, which is narrow ; the mesothorax well-developed, with
two dorsal ridges, rounded at its posterior edge, and with a distinct
shoulder at the base of the wings ; the grooving of the dorsum of the
mesothorax is very deep, and the sculpturing of the metathorax very
strong. The metathorax is narrow centrally, wider laterally ; the hind-
wings project much beyond the inner margin of the fore-wings.
The 1st and 2nd abdominal segments depressed somewhat cen-
trally, the 3rd, 4th and 5th segments also with a median, trans-
verse depression, and with a ring of black hooks running round
the anterior edge of these segments, those on the 4th, the point
of rest for the emerging pupa, being most strongly developed ;
from the 5th-7th they are little more than highly developed, short,
longitudinal ridges, on the 8th and 9th abdominal segments, they
are small black points, similar to those on the cremaster, but less
dense, and fewer in number. The cremaster turns back dorsally, has
its spines developed quite to the dorsal margin of the 10th segment,
which undoubtedly has much to do with the retention of the pupa in
position at the time of the emergence of the imago. Laterally : the
dorsal head-piece is conspicuous ; the prothoracic spiracle placed
deeply in the incision between the pro- and mesothorax, the neuration
of the fore-wings conspicuous, the hind-wing prominent beyond the
inner margin of the fore-wing ; a row of supraspiracular depressions ;
spiracles on abdominal segments 1 and 2 hidden, on 8-7 black and
inconspicuous, although surrounded by fine circular ridges, which form
a basin, as it were, around each. The anal segment is much flattened
posteriorly. Ventrally : The oral area depressed ; the maxillfe forming a
double ridge, the first two pairs of legs between the maxilla? and
antennae ; the tarsi of the second pair of legs hidden beneath the first
pair and the antenn®, the tibia only being visible ; there is also, as in
other Anthrocerid pupae, a piece between the maxilla and 1st leg,
ANTHROCEBA LONICERjE. 477
probably belonging to the 1st femur ; the glazed eye, smooth and
shiny, a broad lunule in shape ; the maxillae extend to the 6th abdominal
segment, the third pair of legs to the end of the 5th, the tips being
quite free from the abdominal segments. The maxillary palp (or its
evanescent base) is a small lateral projection of the maxilla, and is placed
beneath the upper end of the first leg. The eye-collar is not the maxil-
lary palp, but the eye-flange, as seen in Cochlidion (Limacodes). There
are two series of ventral depressions, occupying the same position as the
larval prolegs. The genital organs on abdominal segment 9 ( $ ), or 8
( ? ), distinct, the anus and cremaster are composed of shiny black chitin,
and the terminal segments are turned back dorsally. The front and sides
of the first three abdominal segments, though free from the wings and
appendages, are pale in colour and delicate in texture.
DEHISCENCE. — The pupa splits mediodorsally through the pro-
thorax and mesothorax ; the cephalothoracic portion being very
distinct and attached to the prothorax ; the head parts (carrying the
glazed eye) go with the maxillae, whilst the first and second pairs of legs
go with the wings, being attached thereto by the fine inner pupal mem-
brane. The movable incisions in the abdomen open out, those
between abdominal segments 2-3 and 3-4 to their fullest extent,
and show the incisions to be composed of a delicate whitish trans-
parent membrane, whilst the ventral membrane of the abdominal
segments themselves, although brownish-black, is also almost trans-
parent. There appears to be considerable difference in the colour of
the empty pupal skin, that of some being browner and paler, of others
much blacker. It may be that the former are usually female pupae.
FOOD-PLANTS. — Lathy rus pratemis (Doubleday, Buckler), Lotus
corniculatus (Buckler), Tri folium montanum, T. rubens, Lotus
(Kaltenbach), Hippocrepls comosa- (Boisduval), T. repens (St. John),
Vicia (Frey).
PARASITES. — Anomalon tenuitarsum, Gravenh. (Weston) and Phoro-
cera cilipeda (Bignell) have been bred from this species.
HABITS AND HABITAT. — This species is not very particular as to its
habitat, nor does it so completely eschew a marshy district as some
authors would have us believe. It abounds in a wood in north Kent,
in a rough, grassy ash plantation, spreading thence into the adjacent
rides and meadows. At Eepton Shrubs it is recorded in mowing grass
(Brown), and at Highnam, nr. Gloucester, it flies in wood ridings
(Lifton). At Mansfield, it frequents rough, uncultivated ground with
a great variety of wild plants (Daws), whilst at Portsdown Hill the
locality is dry, although on the salterns near it is found on marshy
ground (Forsyth). It is noted as occurring on the canal bank at
Cheswardine (Dal try), and at Filey it occurs on rough, grassy cliffs
(Maddison). The York locality is in rough, damp fields on the
border of Strensall Common, the fields covered with coarse grass,
thistles, etc. The insect is also found on the Common itself, and in a
lane near it (Hewett). At Flamborough, it occurs within twenty
yards of the sea (Boult) ; near Cheltenham, one locality is situated
on a dry railway bank, another among coarse' grass, and rough bushy
ground on the Cotswolds (Robertson). At the Mullinures, in Armagh,
the species abounds in a marsh (Johnson), and Bostock notes it on
damp ground, on Cannock Chase, the pupae attached to rushes ; Speyer
gives it as haunting a dry, sunny hillside at the foot of the Kigi,
478 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
whilst Borkhausen records it from the forest near Darmstadt. Double-
day notes it as abounding in moist meadows near Monk's Wood,
and Barrett that it occurs in Shropshire, in some rough fields on the
top of Wenlock Edge. It abounds on the slopes of the pine woods at
the summit of the Mendel Pass, and we have taken it on the slopes
below the glacier La Meije, opposite La Grave, in Dauphine, and on
the rocky slopes above Lac Bourget in Savoy. Above Gresy-sur-
Aix (near Aix-les-Bains) it occurs in a saintfoin meadow, and at
Courmayeur (Piedmont), in a hollow below the pine woods on Mont
Gourmet, so that its habitats are varied enough. Zeller gives as its
habitat at Glogau, open places amongst birch and fir woods, on
hillocky ground, where flowers, are numerous ; Peyerimhoff notes
it in the wood clearings, both in the mountains and plains of Alsace,
whilst Demaison says that A. lonicerae is found in the woods about
Eheims, A. trifolii being confined to a marshy habitat.
TIME OF APPEARANCE.— The time of appearance varies according to
the season, from mid-June in 1893 to late July in 1888. Maddison
notes it as appearing usually in July and August at Filey, Porritt in
July, 1870, also at Filey, Lowe in August at Dorchester, Ray nor
in August at Swanage, and Bostock in June, 1887, at the Land's End.
On July 16th, 1897, at Filey, freshly-emerged imagines were drying
their wings ; at the same time, there were numbers of pupae spun up
on the grass-stems, and a few still in the larval stage ; the pupae were
very abundant, but confined to a comparatively small area (Maddison).
Generally the larvae have all pupated in the York district by June
15th-20th, and the imagines appear on the wing from the end of the
month to the second week in July (S. Walker). The following are
actual dates of capture : June 16th, 1860, larvae only, a late year,
at Mansfield (Brameld), June 18th, 1860, at Barnstaple (Mathew),
July llth, 1860, at Maltby Wood, nr. Sheffield (Batty), July 15th-19th,
1860, bred, June 22nd-July 8th, 1884, bred, June 30th-July 3rd,
1886, July 27th-29th, 1887, bred, July 26th, 1888, common, June
22nd-30th, 1889, bred, June 27th-30th, 1890, bred, June 20th, 1891,
pupae, June 17th, 1893, very common, all at Chattenden (Fenn), June
29th, 1866, at Northleach, June 26th, 1897, on the Cotswolds, with
A. fdipcndulae (Todd), July 5th, 1875, at Stoke Bow (Holland), July
5th, 1880, worn, at Roundstone (J. J. Walker), July 7th, 1881, July
13th, 1885, July 19th, 1891, July 24th, 1892, June 30th, 1893, July
8th-15th, 1895, July 6th-7th, 1896, July 10th, 1897, at Strensall
Common (Hewett), July 4th, 1882, June 26th, 1885, June 22nd,
1886, July 16th, 1887, July 16th, 1889, July 12th, 1890, July 10th,
1891, June 24th, 1892, June 9th, 1893, June 26th, 1894, at Mans-
field (Daws), June 30th, 1886, July 20th, 1888, worn, at Favour
Royal (Kane), July llth, 1887, at Flamborough Head (Boult), July
16th, 1887, worn, at Chattenden (Mera), June 3rd, 1887, July 14th-16th,
1888, just out, June 20th, 1896, at Chattenden (Tutt), June 20th, 1889,
at Hartley Wintney, June 23rd, 1895, June llth, 1896, July 2nd, 1897,
nr. Cheltenham (Robertson), July 16th, 1891, June 23rd, 1892, at
Chattenden (Bristowe), July Slst-August 1st, 1891, at Swanage
(Raynor), July 2nd-22nd, 1892, June 80th-July 20th, 1893, June
27th-July 18th, 1896, July 7th-July 27th, 1898, at Wyre Forest
(Abbott), June 9th, 1893, at the Mullinures (Johnson), August 3rd,
1894, nr. Dorchester, in fresh condition (Lowe), June 20th- July 3rd,
ANTHROCERA LONICER^E. 479
1896, at Chattenden (James), June 27th, 1896, first imago bred from
Sandburn (Ash), June 30th, 1896, at Chattenden (Prout), July 4th,
1896, at Chattenden (Page), June 29th- July 6th, 1897, June 15th-
July 4th, 1898, at Tullylagan (Greer), July 18th, 1856, on the
south side of the Rigi (Speyer), July 24th-August 15th, 1887, in
Silesia (Teicher), August lst-5th, 1894, singly, atCourmayeur, July 28th-
August 3rd, 1895, at Mendel Pass, abundant and fresh, July 25th-26th,
1896, abundant, July 22nd-26th, 1897, rare, July 22nd-28th, 1898,
common, above Gresy-sur-Aix (Tutt), July 6th, 1886, in the Valais
(Blachier), July 3rd, 1892, at San Stefano (Knecht), June 26th,
1898, at Auswinkel, nr. Buda-Pest (Burr), July 28th, 1898, between the
Bashkaus and Tchulyshrnan rivers (Elwes). Some observations we
made on this species (also on A. filipendidae and A. carniolica) at
Gresy-sur-Aix, lead us to suppose that a very large percentage of
larvae, in a cold spring, hybernate a second year, and that only in
certain seasons suitable to the species does the greater number of larvas
feed up and emerge after the first winter.
LOCALITIES. — ARGYLL : Oban (Barrett). ARMAGH : The Mullinures (Johnson).
BEDS: (Barrett). CHESHIRE :KnutsforcT(Harrison). CORNWALL : nr. Land's End, com-
mon (Bostock). CUMBERLAND : Keswick (Greenip). DERBY : Burton-on-Trent (Stain-
ton), Derby (Pullen), Repton Shrubs (Brown). DEVON : Exeter and Teignmouth
(Stainton), Barnstaple (Mathew). DORSET : nr. Dorchester (Lowe), Blandford( Stain-
ton), Swanage (Raynor). DURHAM : Gibside (Robson). ESSEX : Saffron Walden
(Norgate). FERMANAGH : Belleisle (Kane), Enniskillen (Partridge). GAL WAY :
Roundstone (J. J. Walker). GLOUCESTER: Highnam (Lifton), Stroud and Clifton
(Griffiths), Northleach, Cotswolds (Todd), nr. Cheltenham (Robertson), Bristol
(Stainton). HANTS : Ampfield (Hewett), Winchester (Stainton), Hartley Wintney
(Robertson), Portsdown Hill and Salterns nr. Portsmouth (Forsyth). HEREFORD:
Leominster (Hutchinson), Tarrington (Wood). HUNTS : Monk's Wood and Holme
Fen (Doubleday). KENT: nr. Strood (Bower). KERRY: Ballinskelligs Bay (Kane).
LINCOLN : Grantham (?) (Goulding). MIDDLESEX: Stanmore Common (L. Newman).
MONAGHAN : nr. Favour Royal (Kane). NORFOLK : (Barrett). NORTHAMPTON : Helpston
Hill, nr. Peterborough (Morley). NORTHUMBERLAND: Shull (Backhouse), Tyne-
mouth (Robson). NOTTS: Mansfield (Daws). OXFORD: Stoke Row (Holland).
SHROPSHIRE : Wenlock Edge (Barrett). SOMERSET : Clevedon (Mason), Weston-
super-Mare (Crotch). STAFFORD : Cheswardine (Daltry), Cannock Chase (Bostock),
SUFFOLK: Tuddenham (Jenner), Foxhall Heath (Miller), Beccles (Crowfoot).
SURREY : Dorking, Ranmore Common (Baldwin), Camberlay (Watson), Croydon
(Briggsteste Barrett). SUSSEX: Brighton (Stainton), Hay ward's Heath and Cuck-
mere district (Jenner), Poynings Common (Image). TYRONE : Tullylagan (Greer).
WALES (South) : (Hudd). WARWICK : Farnboro1 (Lifton), Coventry (Nicholls).
WORCESTER: Malvern (Todd), Bockleton (Decie), Worcester (Smith). YORKS :
Askharn (Prest), Barnsley (Harrison), Boston Spa and Filey (Porritt), nr. York
(Walker), Bridlington (Boult), Pontefract (Hartley), Royston (Taylor), Sandburn
Common (Ash), Scarborough (Wilkinson), Maltby Wood (Batty), Sheffield (Don-
caster), Strensall Common (Hewett), Thomparch (Wilson), Flamborough (Boult),
Horsforth (Mansbridge).
DISTRIBUTION. — Asia : Armenia, Pontus (Staudinger), Amasia, nr.
Tokat (Speyer), Obi and Yenesei districts (Erschoff), Amurland (Brit.
Mus. Coll. teste Tutt), between the Bashkaus and Tchulyshman rivers,
at about 5,000 ft. (Elwes). Austria: Cracow (Zebrawski), Auswinkel,
nr. Buda-Pest (Burr), Briinn, Hochwald, Innsbruck, Kessen, Prague,
Eosenau, Rottalowitz, Salzburg, Vienna (Fritsch), Buda (Speyer),
Cortina, Mendel Pass, abundant (Tutt), Bucovina, generally distributed,
also on mountains, (Hormuzaki), Galicia, widely distributed (Garbowski).
Belgium (Speyer). Bulgaria : nr. Sofia, Kokaleny-Kloster (Bachmetjew).
Denmark: common (Reuter), Seeland (Boie). France : generally in
northern and southern (Lucas), also eastern and western France
480 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
(Berce), Cevennes (Bellier), nr. Paris, Larche, Cauterets, very common
(Oberthiir), nr. Gavarnie, Digne (Pierret), Depts. Meuse, Moselle,
Puy-de-D6me (Speyer), Nohanfc, Sologne, Bourges, Gueret, plaines
de la Limagne (Sand), Aix-les-Bains, Dauphine Alps, La Grave,
Aube, St. Michel de Maurienne (Tutt), Forest of Senart, Depts. of
Doubs, Saone-et-Loire, Auvergne, Normandy (Berce), nr. Eheims,
common, Billy, Germaine, Gueux, Courcy (Demaison), nr. St.
Quentin, Calvados (Dubus), Dept. du Nord (Dupont), Loire Inferieure
(Bonjour). Germany: generally distributed (Heinemann), Julow, nr.
Stettin (Hering), Soultzmatt, Kastenwald, Trois-Epis, Nonnenbruch,
Hardt, Basle, Dorneck (Peyerimhoff), Silesia (Assmann), Glogau
(Zeller), Siebenbiirgen (Speyer), Pfalz, Wiirtemberg, Nassau (Reutti),
Gotha, etc. (Knapp), Leubusch' (Prittwitz). Greece : Parnassus,
Veluchi (Kriiper texte Staudinger). Italy : not rare in north, central and
southern Italy (Curo), Naples (Costa), Courmayeur (Tutt). Roumania :
Kloster Neamtz, Grumazesti, Pleschburg, Slanic, Azuga, etc. (Caradja),
Tultscha (Mann), Turn Severin (Haberhauer). Russia: Kokenhusen,
Riga, Schleck, Mitau, Pichtendahl, Lechts, Tois (Nolcken), Finland to
62° N. lat. (Reuter), St. Petersburg,- Livonia, Volga dist. (Speyer),
Kasan, Orenburg, nr. Sergievsk, Busuluc (Eversmann), north
Russia from the White Sea to the Urals, Moscow dist., Poland,
from mouths of Danube to Dnieper, Transcaucasia (Erschoff).
Scandinavia : common everywhere up to 60° 80' (Aurivillius),
Wermdon (Meves), Christiania, Dovre, Sunddal (Siebke), Blekinge,
Gothland (Dahlbom), West Gothland (Gadamer), East Gothland
Smaland (Boheman). Spain: Granada (Rosenhauer). Switzerland:
Generally distributed (Frey), Grisons, Pensch, Bergiin (Zeller),
Simplon (Ratzer), Engadine Valleys (Mengelbir), Schafl'hausen
(Trapp), nr. Winterthiir (Biedermann), rr. Zurich (Frey), Rigi
(Huguenin), Bremgarten (Boll), Lenzburg and Jura slopes, Lucerne,
Waggis, nr. Thun, Chexbres, Vevey (Wullschlegel), Bechburg, Valais
(Riggenbach), Bern (Meisner), Gadmenthale (Ratzer), Schiipfen
(Rothenbach), Tessin, Chiasso (Knecht).
ANTHROCERA TRIFOLII, Esp., and A. PALUSTRIS, Oberth.
There are two forms or subspecies occurring in Britain under the
name of A. trifolii, one, a comparatively small insect, measuring from
23-33 mm. in wing-expanse, appearing usually in late May and June,
the other, a much larger insect, averaging 29-38 mm. in expanse, ap-
pearing generally in July and early August, although these dates are,
of course, subject to considerable variation according to the season.
Briggs first separated these forms, calling them the " early " and
" late " trifolii respectively. The former is, in Britain, especially
partial to pastures and meadows, the latter to marshy ground (often
near the sea). Each shows an exactly similar range of variation in the
spotting, extending from individuals with five separate spots, through
every intermediate condition, until the whole of the spots form a
strongly-defined longitudinal streak, occupying the greater portion of
the wing. These races we have recently separated (Entom. liecord,
ix., p. 88) as trifolii- minor and trifolii-major respectively, but there is
no doubt that Oberthiir's palustriK is the prior name for the latter form.
Another important fact is that the early A. trifolii is frequently taken
in the same meadows as A. hippocrcpidis, Stephs., the latter being
ANTHROCERA TRIFOLII AND A. PALUSTRIS. 481
passed over as early A. filipendulae, although we have already hinted
(Ent. Rec., ix., p. 88) that hippocrepidis, Stephs., is probably a modi-
fied form of A. trifolii. Briggs notes that the larva of A. palustris
(tfifolii -major} approaches more nearly to that of A. filipendulae, and
differs considerably from that of A. trifolii.
Oberthiir recognises three forms of A. trifolii in France : (1) The
southern or mountain form — very small, less bright in colour, the red
tinged with violet, less opaque, and slightly transparent, the blue
border of the hind-wings rather wider. Flies at the commence-
ment of June, at Auch (Gers), Banyuls, Le Canet, Vernet-les-Bains
and Uriage. [Oberthiir believes that it is this form that Duponchel
figures , (Hist. Nat., supp. ii., pi. viii., fig. 1). He himself figures it
in the Etudes, etc., xxth livr., pi. viii., fig. 150.] (2) The central form
— brighter in colour, the red of a purer carmine, the spots of the fore-
wings larger than in l.A Flies in July and the commencement of August
at Biarritz, Cancale, lies Chausey near Granville, Limoges, Dept.
de la Sarthe and Normandy, usually near the sea. [Oberthiir believes
this to be the form figured by Duponchel (Hist. Nat., supp. ii., pi. vi.,
fig. 7)]. (3) The Rennes form (palustris) — larger, more brightly
coloured, the spots frequently confluent, emerging in May and early
June at Rennes, in late June at the Foret de Lorges and Quiberon.
[This Oberthiir considers to be represented ,by Boisduval (Icones, pi.
liv., fig. 8)]. He figures it himself in the Etudes, etc. (xxth livr.,
pi. viii., figs. 151, 152, 153), but informs us that the colour is not bright
enough. Oberthiir refers most of the British examples in his collection
(50 altogether) to the form 2, but specimens from Tugwell's collection,
labelled " Freshwater, vii., '72," have the colour and size of palustris,
whilst specimens labelled " Hailsham, vi., '92," appear to be transi-
tions between the forms 1 and 2. Oberthiir further adds that there
are in the Dept. Ille-et-Vilaine, two forms of A. trifolii, (1) emerging
in May and June in fields near woods, nr. Rennes, (2) emerging in July
and commencement^of August on the marshes by the seaside at
Cancale, and in the lies Chausey, between Granville and Cancale.
It is somewhat remarkable that our experience in Britain coincides
only in part with that in France. Our "early" form agrees in its
small size and the early date of its appearance with Oberthiir 's form 1.
Our "late" form agrees generally with Oberthiir's form 2; but
our "late" form includes the extreme large form palustris, as
represented by the Freshwater specimens (teste Oberthiir), whereas,
in France, this same palustris, appears in May and June in
fields near woods, and although Oberthiir writes that Boisduval
had distinguished in his collection a form of trifolii as palustris,
which name he has maintained, yet Oberthiir's specimens, whilst
agreeing in every particular in size and colour, can hardly be
termed a " marsh " race. He goes on to say that, unfortunately,
Boisduval had " not distinguished by a label the particular specimen
figured in the Icones." There are, he adds, some specimens of palustris,
found in France, extremely similar to his form 2, but the greater part
of the palustris, which emerge in May and June, at Rennes, appear
to belong to a very specialised local race. This evidence would sug-
gest that Boisduval's palustris, MS., is our late " marsh " form, and
that Oberthiir has, at Rennes, an insect with all the characters of our
larger and later form, but appearing in May and June, and not occur-
ring on marshes. EE
482 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Speyer's evidence tends to show (Stett. Ent. Zeit., xxxviii., pp. 40
et seq.) that the July A. trifolii, in north-western Germany, inhabits
marshes, and also suggests that the marsh insect emerges over a long
period of time, and that a little specially advantageous or disadvan-
tageous environment might readily make it an early or late insect,
i.e., that local considerations determine whether the insect in a given
place shall be of the early or late form. Speyer captured two speci-
mens of ab. trivittata on July 7th and 10th respectively. He further
says that in his district the insect generally commences to emerge
about the middle of June, the period of emergence lasting from four
to six weeks. In a late year, 1876, he states that the first imago did not
put in an appearance until June 28th, larvae being found as late as
June 21st. One could have wished that Speyer had given some exact
dates as to the relative appearance of the " large " and " small " forms
of A. trifolii, and a detailed difference as to their habitat, for that
both forms occur, and are well known in Germany, is certain from
his remark that a specimen of ab. trioittata, described by him,
" belongs to the small- winged form of this, in other ways very variable,
species, and is somewhat under the average size."
Even in Britain there is no sharp line of demarcation in the time of
appearance (nor in the size) of what we have termed trifolii-minor and
pahistris (trifolii-major), for, in some places, the small race is regularly
later in its time of appearance than in others, e.g., the small form found
in the New Forest is regularly later than that in Kent (Canterbury,
Strood, etc.). Fletcher (including both forms in his generalisation)
says that there seems to be a constant succession of specimens
from different colonies from May until the beginning of August.
At Emsworth on the downs, and about Abbott's Wood in wet
meadows on the clay, it is out early in June ; in the New Forest
it flies early in July, at the same time as A. viciae (meliloti). Fletcher
found a colony in a heath bog not far from Worthing, fully
out on June 30th and July 1st, 1897, and bred specimens from a
score of pups up to July 18th. These last dates reach up to the
appearances that have been recorded for July and August. Oberthiir
remarks also on the variation of the time of appearance of this species,
and connects it with the various races (vule, p. 481). He observes that
in July, 1895, A. trifolii was still fresh at Biarritz more than a month
after it had gone over at Uriage and at Eennes. In August, 1883, in
the Isles of Chausey, in front of Granville (Manche), A. trifolii was
still flying, two months later than the appearance of the same species
in Ille-et-Vilaine. As bearing on this point, we suspect that the
difference in the time of appearance is due to a tendency for this insect
to become a two-year or one-year species, in some localities, according
to its environment, and the evidence seems to suggest, not only in this
species, but also in A. Jilipendulae, that a marshy habitat tends to a
later appearance, yet it is marvellous that some of the mildest parts of
the British Islands — Freshwater, Swanage, etc. — produce the latest
broods. Usually, the latest broods (presumably the larvte having
taken longer to feed) are the larger, but the Rennes form, as large as
our largest British form, appears in May and June, whilst smaller
insects occur in August, on that part of the French coast nearest the
Channel Islands. On these islands, too, there are two races, an early
form occurring in June, on the Guernsey cliifs and in Sark, and a later
ANTHKOCEEA TRIFOLII AND A. PALUSTRIS. 488
one in late July and August, in Herm. There are two explanations
as to the cause of this constant difference in the time of appearance,
as exhibited by different colonies of this species, that may be possibly
correct, (1) that the greater number of marsh A. trifolii and A. fili-
)n>nthilae take two years to complete their metamorphoses, owing pro-
bably to the lower average temperature of such districts, (2) that they
have developed a habit of feeding (and pupating) later, and so have
shortened the period of hybernation, and thus, having a longer feeding
larval period, attain a greater size, even if they only take one year.
The fact that Fletcher has been able (ante, p. 418) to obtain occasional
second-brooded specimens of the small down and meadow form of A.
trifolii, supports the view that this early race tends to feed up more
rapidly.
So far as the evidence leaves one any room for generalisation, there
appears every reason to conclude that we have, in Britain and France,
at least, two fairly well-defined and specialised subspecies, and as such
we propose to deal with them, trusting that these remarks will be the
means of drawing attention to an interesting phenomenon, and will
lead to exact observations being published of the various forms of the
species existing in different parts of its geographical area.
ANTHROCERA TRIFOLII,
SYNONYMY. — Species : Trifolii, Esp., " Die Schmett.," ii., p. 223, pi. xxxiv.,
figs. 4-5 (1783) ; Bork., " Sys. Besch.," ii., pp.26, 123, 164 (1789) ; "Ehein. Mag.,"
inn.," ii., no. 54, p.
Eur. Schmett.," fig. 79 (? 1803), p. 80 (? 1805), figs. 133, 134, 135 (? 1818) ; " Verz.,"
i., pp. 305, 635 (1793) ; De Vill., " Ent. Linn.," ii., no. 54, p. 113 (1789); Hb.,
p. 117 (? 1822) ; Ochs., " Die Schmett.," ii., p. 47 (1808) ; Stephs., " Illus.," i., p. 108
(1828) ; Bdv., " Mon. Zyg.," p. 54, pi. iii., fig. 7 (1829) ; " Icones," p. 59,
pi. liv., fig. 8 (1834); Dup., "Hist. Nat.," supp. ii.. pi. vi., fig. 7; pi.
viii., fig. 1 (1835); Selys, "Cat. Lep. Belg.," p. 23 (1837); " Mem. Soc.
Sci. Liege," ii., p. 33 (1845); "Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg.," 1872, pp. Ivii-lix ;
Ibid., 1882, p. cxiii ; Wood, " Ind. Ent.," p. 11 (1839) ; Evers., "Lep. Faun. Vol^.-
"Ural.," p. 96 (1844); H.-Sch., "Sys. Bearb.," p. 37 (1845); Assmn., " Abbild.
Besch. Schmett. Schles.," ii., p. 10 (1845) ; Kayser, " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 168
(1852-9) ; Sta., " Man.," i., p. 80 (1857) ; Bamb., " Cat. Lep. And.," p. 177, pi. i.,
figs. 5-8 (1858) ; Speyer, " Geog. Verb. Schmett.," p. 346 (1858) ; " Stett. Ent. Zeit.,"
xxxviii., pp. 40-51 (1877) ; Wallgrn., " Skand. Het.-Fjar.," p. 105 (1863); Lucas,
" Hist. Nat.," p. 155 (1864) ; Snellen, " De Vlinders," p. 127 (1867) ; Newm., " Brit.
Moths," p. 23 (1869); Staud., " Cat.," p. 47 (1871); Briggs, "Trans. Ent. Soc.
Lond.," pp. 422 et seq. (1871); "Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond.," pp. xiv-xv (1875);
Curo, " Bull. Soc. Ent. Ital.," vii., p. 197 (1875) ; Kirby, " Eur. Butts.," etc., p. 90
(1879) ; " Cat. Lep. Het.," p. 68 (1892) ; •' Handbook," etc., p. 90 (1895) ; Sand,
" Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 27 (1879) ; Frey, " Lep. der Schweiz," p. 67 (1880) ; " Mitt.
Sch. Ent. Gesell .," vii., p. 15 (1887) ; Girard, " Bull. Ent. Soc. Fr.," (5), x., p. cxv
(1880) ; Peyer.. "Cat. Lep. Als.," p. 47 (1880) ; Oberth., " Lep. des Pyr.," p. 30
(1884); "Var. chez Lep.," pp. 43-5, pi. viii., fig. 150 (1896); Hofmn., "Die
Gross-Schmett.," p. 35 (1887); "Die Kaupen," etc., p. 36 (1893); Buckler,
" Larvae," etc., ii., pp. 94-97, pi. xix., fig. 2 (1887) ; Auriv., " Nord. Fjar.," p. 53
(1888); Higgs, "Ent. Bee.," i., p. 12 (1890); Parry, "Ent. Kec.," ii., p. 108
(1891) ; Tutt, " Ent. Bee.," ii., p. 109 (1891) ; "Brit. Moths," p. 353 (1896) ; "Ent.
Bee.," ix., p. 88 (1897) ; Webb, " Ent. Bee.," ii., p. 199 (1891) ; South, " Entom.,"
xxvi., p. 215 (1893); Barr., "Lep. Brit.," ii., p. 127, pi. lix., figs, la-c (1894);
Christy, "Entom.," xxviii., p. 214 (1895) ; Meyr., " Handbook," etc., p. 448 (1895) ;
Caradja, " Iris," viii., p. 72 (in part) (1895) ; Beutti, " Lep. Bad.," 2nd Ed., p. 44
(1898). ?Pratomm. De Vill.. "Ent. Linn.." ii., p. 114 (1789). Loti, Godart,
" Hist. Nat.," iii., p. 134 (in part), pi. xxii., fig. 4 (1821) ; Wood, " Ind. Ent.," fig. 4
(1839).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Alis superioribus virescenti-cyaneis, maculis
tribus rubris longitudinaliter digestis, coadunatis. Diese Gattung der
484 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
rothfleckigten Sphinxe hat sich erst neuerlich in der Gegend von
Frankfurt am Main entdeckt. Anfangs fand sich nur ein einzelnes
Exemplar, das man fur eine seltene Ausart gehalten. Bei emsigen
Nachsuchen kamen niehrere zu Handen, man hat sie endlich auch in
Paarungen angetroffen. Vorliegende Abbildungen legen sie nach
beiden Geschlechtern vor Augen. Den sorgfaltigen Beobachtungen
des Herrn Gerning haben es meine Leser zu danken, dass diese
Entdeckungen nicht liinger verborgen geblieben. Es sind mir ver-
schiedene Exemplare davon zur Vergleichung mitgetheilt worden.
Nach der Grosse des ganzen Korpers und dem Schnitt der Fliigel, ist
nichts verilndertes von jeiiein mit dem Sphinx filipendulae hierinnen
iibereinstimmenden Arten, zu sehen. Lediglich die Zeichnung der
Oberfliigel machen den wesentftchen Unterscheid aus. Man wird hier
nur drei einzelner gerundeter Flecken, die Lange hin geordnet, gewahr.
Der mittlere ist der grosste, der an der Grundfiiiche aber kleiner. Er
ist von der sich durchziehenden Sehne kaum merklich getheilt. Ihre
Farbe fiillt ins Mengrothe, sie ist sonach weniger als an erstbeschrie-
benen Arten erhoht. An dem Weibchen sind diese Flecken durch
Zwischenriiume der Grundfarbe getrennt. Diese Abweichung isfc in
der That sehr auffalend. Ich habe von dem gemeinen Wiesenklee,
dem gewohnlichen Gelage dieser siimmtlichen Gattungen den Namen
entlehnt' (Esper, Die Schmett. in Abbildunyen, etc., p. 223). [Esper
figures several forms qf this variable species. On pi. xxxiv., fig. 4, is
the confluent form, ab. minoides, Selys, and fig. 5 is the form with 1
+ 2, 3 + 4, and 5, forming three spots. Since this is described in the
text, wo have taken the description and fig. 5 to represent the type-
form of the species.]
IMAGO. — Anterior wings 23-33 mm. ; greenish or purplish, with
five crimson spots, usually more or less confluent. Posterior wings
crimson, with a broad purplish-black hind margin.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The females are distinctly larger than the
males, the latter extending from 23 mm. -32 mm., the former from
29 mm. -33 mm. in the smaller form, whilst in the pcditstris from Rennes,
the males run from 33 mm. -37 mm., the females 36 mm. -39 mm.,
although many of our British palustris males do not exceed 29 mm., nor
the females 33 mm. The females are, as a rule, much more liable to run
into blotched aberrations than the males. The males are distinctly of
three shades of colour, (1) a distinct bluish-purple = ab. cnendca,
n. ab., a rare form, (2) a deep blue-green form = the type, (3) a bright
bronzy-green, a very rare form = ab. orichalcea, n. ab. The females
are rarely, if ever, of the purple form, and are usually of the bright
bronzy-green form, although the deep blue-green type form is not at
all rare. The extreme purple specimens are almost always males, the
extreme bronzy-green specimens, females. The antenna) are, as a
rule, finer in the females than in the males.
COMPAKISON OF A. TRIFOLII WITH A. PALUSTRIS (TRIFOLII- MAJOR) AND
A. LONICERJE. — Expanse of fore-wings averaging 23 mm. -33 mm., those
of A. palustris (British) 29 mm.-38 mm., (from Eennes) 33 mm. -39 mm.
Antennae almost as stout in former as latter ; the head much more
densely clothed with hairs ; the fore-wings usually of a darker
green, and the spots and hind-wings sometimes quite crimson ; the
marginal border to hind-wings much broader, especially in $ , and
rather uniform in width (Briggs). We are unable to detect any
AKTHROCERA TRIPOLI!. 485
marked difference in the colour of the red in the two forms, but
there is distinctly less variation of the ground colour in A. palustris
than in A. tri/olii. In the former there is also a more marked
sexual dimorphism, the $ being dark blue-green, the ? of a bright
bronzy-green, the forms rarely overlapping in the sexes. We should
agree that there is a distinct tendency for the males of A. trifolii
to have a broader hind-marginal band to the hind-wings than we
find in those of A. palustris. We have an otherwise typical female of the
latter from Upton St. Leonards, in which the marginal band is reduced
to a slender marginal line. In Britain, A. trifolii- (minor] is generally less
than A. lonicerae, the latter being, on an average, rather above the size
of A. palustris. Boisduval says that the French A. trifolii (probably the
southern form) is a quarter less than A. lonicerae, to which the species
is very similar, but with less lanceolate (more rounded at apex) fore-
wings. He remarks also on the central pair of spots being almost
always united. He further notes that near the apical spot, at its side,
there is sometimes a small red point. Duponchel simply repeats the
same characters.
VARIATION. — The races of this species have been already dealt with
and incidentally the variation in size to which it is subject. In its
spotting it is one of the most variable of the Anthrocerids, and confluent
forms are more common in this than any other of the '• spotted " species.
We have already noticed that this confluence takes place usually by
1 + 2, 3 + 4 and 5, forming three spots, and then by 1 + 2 being
joined to 3 + 4, and 3 + 4 to 5, by longitudinal streaks. This must
be looked upon as the normal line of development. A rarer form of
blotching consists of 1,2 + 4 and 3 + 5. In Britain, France and
Germany, the extremes of blotching are, on the one hand, the dis-
tinctly five-spotted form, on the other hand, the ab. minoides, Selys,
or its extreme form, as figured by Christy, in which the whole of the
area, except a narrow inner and outer marginal edge, has become red
= ab. extrema, n. ab. The other aberrations all fall between these two
extremes, and form a continuous link (with the exception of the rare
ab. tririttata, Speyer). Even in the ab. trivittata, however, Speyer
says that there is a tendency for red scales to be developed on the
otherwise dark dividing nervures. It remains, however, a remarkable
fact that we have the two most divergent types of Anthrocerid mark-
ings in the blotched forms of this species. Of 100 specimens, taken
at random in one district, Speyer found 20 per cent. = ab. orobi
(5 spots distinct, or 1 + 2, 3, 4, 5), 60 per cent. = trifolii (with
3 spots), 10 per cent. = ab. basalis + ab. ylycirrhizae (i + 2 + 3 + 4,
5, and 1 +2, 3 + 4 +5), 5 per cent. = ab. minoides (all spots united),
5 per cent, being unclassified. Occasionally one or more of the spots
is absent = ab. obsoleta, n. ab. Such a specimen (with 4 absent) is
figured by Christy (Kntom., xxix., p. 341). We have one example, taken
at Upton St. Leonards in 1888, with 3 on the left fore-wing absent on the
upper, but present as a small point on the under, side. In colour, too,
there is considerable variation, yellow, and intermediate (orange-red)
aberrations being perhaps more frequently met with in this than any
other British species. A specimen with orange spots and orange hind-
wings is noted (Knt. Record, vi., p. 135), and we have several that might
be termed dull orange-red in colour. South notices a specimen of the
ab. orobi, taken in Middlesex, in which spot 4 on (? both) the fore-wings
486 BRITISH LEPIDOt>TEfcA.
is yellowish-red, all the other spots being normal in colour, and Bond-
Smith notes a specimen from Gamlingay, in July, 1891, as having
the basal spot on the left fore-wing yellow, all the rest being typical.
In 1893, Christy obtained from Emsworth, among many yellow
specimens, several that were more or less incomplete in structure and
colour, and he further informs us that similar malformed specimens
continue to occur year by year, some without any wings and others
with curiously cropped ones. Oberthiir remarks that, in his experi-
ence, the blotching of A. trifolii has a tendency to commence from
the outer spots as frequently as from the basal ones, whilst in A. fili-
pendulae the blotching usually commences at the base and extends
thence towards the tip. Frey considers that in Switzerland and
Germany, A. trifolii is one of the most variable species ; its antennae,
he says, show transitions to the lonicerae form, and he instances var.
yracilis, Fuchs, in support of this statement. Rambur's figures (Cat.
Lep. And., pi. i., figs 5-8) of the Spanish A. trifolii are hardly recog-
nisable, but he states that the Andalusian examples appear to be near
stoechadis, although united so completely with specimens of A. trifolii
that they cannot be separated therefrom, they also come very near the
var. syracusia. He further states that he finds no specific difference be-
tween the Spanish examples and those from Paris, Touraine, Perigueux,
Tarbes, Marseilles and Perpignan. He has also reared larvae from
Touraine, Perpignan and Malaga, and finds no difference. Snellen notes
the type form (in Holland) as having the basal spots elongate, the others
round, the upper of the middle pair small, the hind-wings with a
broad, blue-black margin. He says the species varies much in the
form and size of the spots, and considers that most of the aberrations
fall into one of two forms : (1) With the upper spots of the basal and
central pairs united with the under. (2) The spots above all united
into one longitudinal stripe. His measurements (30-36 mm.) sug-
gest that the Dutch A. trifolii belongs to the palustris form. The width
of the marginal band of the hind-wings is also very variable ; in some
examples it is not much wider than in normal A. lonicerae, in others,
it forms a band extending almost to half the width of the wing, the
inner marginal nervure and the median nervure being also, sometimes,
distinctly tinged with black. Prout observes that, at Broxbourne,
examples occur with very small red spots on the fore-wings, and with
the hind-marginal band of the hind-wings much broadened.
a. ab. orobi, Hb.., " Eur. Schmett.," ii., fig. 133 (without description),
(?1818); Staud., "Cat.," p. 47(1871); Selys. "Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg.," 1872,
p. Iviii ; Ibid., 1882, p. cxiii ; Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 23 (1879) ; Frey,
"Lep. der Schweiz," p. 67 (1880).— ? . Expanse of wing 28 mm. ; anterior wings
dark purplish in colour, with the 5 normal red spots separate from each other ;
hind-wings normal.
This form has the five red spots of the anterior wings separate from
each other. [In some copies of Hiibner's work (e.g., that at the
Natural History Museum, South Kensington), a sixth supplementary
spot is figured between 8 and 5.] It appears to be very generally
distributed, although rather less common in many places than the
type (1 + 2, 3 + 4, 5). On the other hand, in Guernsey, it is the
most common form ; and it may be well to remark here that, though
very many of the A. trifolii captured there might be referred to
the small form, the ? s occasionally reach from 30-35 mm. It appears
to us that var. syracusia is simply this form developed into a local race.
ANTHROCERA TRtFOLtl. 487
The ab. orobi occurs generally in Belgium, England, France, and
Germany with the type. In Switzerland, according to Frey, it is rare.
He • only gives Trafoi (Wocke) as a locality.
/3. ab. obscura, n. ab. — A specimen from England (coll. Battershell-Gill) with
the spots and inferior wings brown, but with a tint a little paler than A. Jilipendulae
ab. chrytanthemi and A. hippocrepidis ab. nigricans. In coll. Oberthur [Oberthiir,
Var. chez Up., pp. 43-44 (1896)].
Webb records (Ent. Rec., i., p. 33) a specimen of this form as
being in the Robertson collection, Liverpool, also a second doubtful
one in Mason's collection, Burton-on-Trent.
7. ab. semilutescens, Higgs, " Ent. Record," i., p. 12. — Base of hind-wings
orange.
5. ab. intermedia, n. ab. — With the spots of the fore-wings and the hind-wings
of a dull orange colour tinged with reddish (not deep crimson, like the type). An
occasional subform of intermedia has the spots of the fore-wings normal, but the
under- wings orange-red, as in the latter form.
We do not feel at liberty to extend the unsatisfactory diagnosis of
Higgs' semilute scent, otherwise it should, perhaps, be united with this
form. Bond- Smith records specimens of intermedia, from Gamlingay,
July, 1891. Christy notes it as rare at Ernsworth ; he further notes that,
from a batch of eggs laid by an intermediate ? in 1895, he bred 200
examples, all typical red ones. In our own series are specimens from
Wye, New Forest, etc. The red tinge, in some examples, is re-
duced to a minimum, and, in one individual from Wye, the left
side has a blue-tinged fore-wing, with orange-red hind-wing, whilst
the right side has a green fore- wing and crimson hind-wing ; the left
side shows a distinct failure of development, suggesting that the blue
ground colour to the fore-wing, and the orange-red hind-wing, are
both less specialised conditions than the green and crimson. South
notes specimens with the hind- wings and spots on fore-wings, orange-
red, taken in Middlesex in 1893, and Bristowe exhibited, at the meeting
of the South London Entomological Society, October 27th, 1892,
specimens intermediate in colour between the red and yellow forms.
e. ab. lutescens, Ckll., " Entom.," xx., p. 152 (1887); Tutt, "Young Nat.." ix.,
p. 152 (1888) ; Higgs. " Ent. Bee.," i., p. 12 (1890).— Anterior wings with the
ground colour normal, but with the usual red spots and the hind-wings of a clear
yellow colour.
Cockerell, in naming this aberration, simply gives the reference
" Entom., 1878, p. 102." Turning to this, we read that Wellman
" exhibited some yellow forms of Zygaena trifolii, reared from larvae."
Bond-Smith describes certain Gamlingay specimens (probably palmtris),
caught July 16th, 1891, and bred later, as being of a " beautiful lemon-
yellow, showing no trace whatever of red." This aberration has been
recorded from Malpas, in Cheshire (Walker), Ernsworth, where 100 were
obtained in May, 1893, and 11 in 1894 (Christy), Upton St. Leonards
(Higgs), Chattenden (Tutt).
f. ab. basalix, Selys, "Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg.," 1872, p. lix ; Ibid., 1882,
p. cxiii. Trifolii, Hb., "Eur. Schmett.," fig. 134 (P1818).— The two median
spots united, and confluent with the basal only, the apical spot being separate ; this
last aberration is less common than the others (minoides, glycirrhizae, etc.).
Generally distributed with the type and other common aberrations
in Belgium, Britain, France, Germany, etc.
17. ab. glycirrhizae, Hb., " Samm. Eur.," ii., fig. 138 (? 1818) . Glycirrhiza,
Freyer. "Neu. Beit.," p. 116, pi. 164, fig. 3 (1836): Selys. "Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg.,"
1872, p. Iviii ; Ibid., 1882, p. cxiii.— The original figure represents a ? of the large
form. Anterior wings with the two basal spots united into one blotch, and 3 +
4 + 5 into another ; the spots of a dull reddish colour. The hind-wings normal,
except that the crimson is inclined to orange at the base.
488 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
This form is generally distributed in Belgium, Britain, France,
Germany, etc., and is more frequently of the normal red colour than
of the tint figured by Hiibner.
6. ab. minoides, Selys, "Cat. Lep. Belg.," p. 23 (1837) ; " Mem. Soc. Sci. Liege."
ii., p. 33 (1845); "Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg.," 1872, p. Ivii; Ibid., 1882, p. cxiii.
Trifolii, Esp., "Die Schmett.," xxxiv., fig. 4 (1783). Conjluens, Stand., "Cat.,"
p. 47 (1871) ; Sand, " Cat. Lep. Auv.," p. 22 (1879) ; Higgs, " Ent. llec.," i., p. 12
(1890). Orobi, fierce, "Faun. Ent. Fr.," ii., p. 74 (1868).— Maculis confluentibus.
In this aberration the five red spots of the fore-wings are united so as to form one
longitudinal band, as in Z. minos, but of different form. The hind-wings are, on
the other hand, margined with black, as in the ordinary specimens.
This form was re-named confluent by Staudinger, and diagnosed
(Cat., p. 47) as, "Mac. omnibus confluentibus." The oldest figure
of the form is Esper's pi. xxxiv., fig. 4, a blue-green $ , with 1 + 2 +
3 + 4 + 5 united, which ought'; perhaps, to be considered as the real
type of the species. Boisduval notes this aberration as occurring with
the type in central and southern Europe. It is found almost everywhere
with the type, in Belgium, England and Wales, France, Germany, etc.,
and occurs in Switzerland, nr. Zurich. It appears to be decidedly rarer
in the small, early form, than in the later and larger one, and also to be
much rarer in the southern forms of the species from Italy, Spain, etc.
Homeyer notes that, in 1880, he obtained some hundreds of cocoons in
the Wiese district, from which many imagines emerged, several being
confluent ; in 1881 there were none. The confluent form is very rare in
Guernsey, only four or five examples out of a very great number
examined having been observed (Lowe) ; it occurs pretty frequently,
however, on the cliffs nr. Dieppe with the type (Dupont).
t. ab. lutescens-conjluens, n. ab. — The spots on the fore-wings united into a single
band ; the band and the hind-wings yellow in colour.
K. ab. lutescens-basalis, n. ab. — Anterior wings with spots 1 + 2 joined to 3 + 4, 5
separate ; the spots and the hind-wings yellow in colour.
X. ab. lutexcens-glycirrhizae, n. ab. — Anterior wings withl + 2, and 3 + 4 + 5,
forming two blotches ; the blotches and the hind-wings yellow in colour.
p. ab. trivittata, Speyer, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xxxviii.,pp. 40 ct scq. — The anterior
wings, with the spots forming three streaks, as in A. ptitynralis, viz., 1. 2 + 4,
3 + 5. (1) The upper basal spot extended along the costa to the middle of the
costal margin. (2) 3 + 5 forming a discoidal streak, separated from 1 by the black
subcostal nervure ; this is rounded on its outer margin, is of almost uniform thick-
ness in its outer half, but finely pointed between the stems of the subcostal and
median nervures. (3)2 + 4 united to form the broadest of all the streaks, and is
wider at the middle of the wing than at the base. The posterior wings with a
rather broad black border, which is continued along the inner margin to the base.
The fore-wings are of a deep blue-black colour, the streaks of a brilliant crimson
hue, the hind- wings of a lighter red.
All the aberrations in which the spots are united so as to form three
distinct cuneate spots, more or less similar to that described, are
included under this name by Speyer. Fletcher says that ab. trivittata un-
doubtedly occurs in Britain. He has, from Christy's Emsworth colony,
the following transitional forms : (1) Seven specimens with basal spots
normal, but with 3 + 5 united. (2) One specimen of the trivittata
form on the right fore- wing, on the left fore- wing 2+4 are dilated
towards each other, but do not form a streak ; in these the united 3 +
5 are separated very narrowly from 4 by the median nervure. Some
of the ab. ylycirrldzae are evidently built up from the intermediate
trivittata (1) by the union of 3 + 5, and (2) by the junction of 4 with
8+5.
v. var. syracusia, Zell., " Isis." 1847, pp. 301-3 ; Freyer. " Neu. Beit.," vi., p. 39,
pi. 506, figs. 3-4(1847) ; Staud., " Cat.," p. 47(1871) ; Curd, "Bull. Soc.Ent.ItaL,"
ANTHROCESA TRIFOLII. 489
vii., p. 197 (1875) ; Oberth., " Etudes," i., p. 33 (1876) ; Hofmn., " Die Gross-
Schmett.," p. 35 (1887). Australis, Led., " Verb. z.-b. Ver. Wien," ii., p. 71
(1852). Trifolii, Ramb., "Cat. Lep. And.," p. 177, pi. i.. figs. 5-8 (1858).—
Alis anterioribus obtusiusculis nigro-viridibus, maculis quinque minutis puni-
ceis ; posterioribus rubris margine lato chalybeo. b. Macula tertia-punctiform.
c. Macula tertia venani subcostalem viridi-nigram excedente. d. Maculis 3
et 4 coalitis. LARVA : Pale yellow, with a black, yellow-spotted head ; 4 rows of
black spots ; above the lateral (? supraspiracular) rows the hind-margin of the
segments is lemon-yellow in colour. The two dorsal rows of spots are nearly
as broad as the segments ; they are deep black, emarginate above, with a
spot of the ground colour in the middle. In the lateral (? supra-spiracular)
rows each segment has two spots, one near the front margin, the other at
the hind margin ; the former is produced beneath into two points, which are
sometimes separated from it as a confluent spot ; the second is smaller, longish
and concave above ; in the concavity lies the lemon-yellow spot of the hind-
margin, which reaches as far as the dorsal row of black spots. The lateral ( ? sub-
spiracular) spots form a black longitudinal band. The anal plate is of a deeper
yellow than the ground colour, and has in front of the hind margin a black trans-
verse line, and in front of this, right and left, a black dot. The anal prolegs are
coloured like the anal plate, and have on the side a blackish dash, emarginate above.
There is a grey, median, longitudinal ventral band. COCOON : Somewhat slender,
almost spindle-shaped, a little shorter and thicker at the upper than at the lower
end ; straw-coloured, shiny, and with 6 to 8 irregular longitudinal ridges, of which
some extend the whole length of the cocoon, others are shorter, and join the longer
ones before reaching the end of the cocoon. Common at Syracuse. The larvae
were not rare in a meadow where Juncus acutus grew in plenty, on the culms of
which they generally make their cocoons. The insect inhabits damp meadows, the
imago sitting on thistle-flowers. The earliest emergence was observed on May 4th,
and the imagines lasted until the middle third of the month (Zeller). Sicily :
Syracuse (Zeller), Ficuzza, Caronie, Medda (Calberla). Algeria : Geryville, etc.
(Oberthiir). Spain : Catalonia, etc. (Brit. Mus. Coll., teste Tutt).
Zeller considered the insect very near A. trifolii, and states that he
brings it forward as a distinct species with but little confidence. He
is induced to do this, however, by the small size of the spots on the
fore-wing, the very broad black margin of the hind-wing, and the
striking basal spot of the same colour, which runs as a broad stripe
along the inner margin as far as the hind margin, and is accompanied
by some black scales on the adjacent part of the wing. The wings of
$i/racusia, he says, are also somewhat broader posteriorly, and more
rounded at apex. The ? has larger spots than the male. The antennae
and legs agree with those of A. trifolii. Zeller took the insect for A.
trifulii at the time, although struck by its early appearance (the latter
insect not occurring till July and August, in Silesia). The insect is
diagnosed (Cat., p. 47) by Staudinger as : " Minor, al. ant. maculis par-
vis, disjunctis, post, margine latonigro (Sicily, Ital. mer., Hisp., Mauri-
tanica)." Zapater says, common in June, in Spain, its chrysalis is found
on rushes. The specimens in the British Museum collection, some of
which are Zeller's original examples, show them to be a somewhat small
form of A. trifolii, 25-30 mm., the spots small and generally quite sepa-
rated. Other specimens are labelled from Catalonia, and these run from
24-30 mm. (The Guernsey examples appear almost inseparable from
this variety.) One small example has a very broad black margin to the
hind-wings, similar to an example Mr. Prout obtained at Brox-
bourne. Curo notices it as a very small form, with the small spots of
the anterior wings not confluent, and with a wide black margin to the
posterior wings. The main characters of the larva, as given by Zeller
(supra), are those of that of the early form of A. trifolii, and the
differences given by Speyer (Stett. Ent: Zeit., xxxviii., pp. 40 et seq.)
between the larvaB of A. syracusia aud A. trifolii are simply those
430 BRITISH LEPIDO£TERA.
existing between the larvae of the " early " and " late " forms of A.
Irifolii, the latter of which seems to have been the form Speyer
obtained (although he speaks of certain imagines he bred as belonging
to the small-winged form), so that he evidently knew and obtained
both forms. Three very fine examples sent to us by Oberthiir,
and captured by Lahaye, at Geryville, Algeria, May 10th-20th, 1886,
are of the bronzy-green form in both sexes, the fore-wings rather
narrow and the hind-wings with a very broad hind margin. They
are much more like some of the ab. orobi, that Christy obtains at
Emsworth, that Battley has sent us from Broxbourne, and Parry
from Wye, than any other trifolii we have seen. Oberthiir notes
syracmia as very common at Lambessa, and adds that it does not
vary. He states that this is the only Anthrocerid that, in his knowledge,
is found both in Algeria and Europe. All other Algerian species, he says,
appear to be confined to Africa, and are not to be found on the opposite
coast of the Mediterranean.
£. var. seriziati, Oberthiir, " Etudes d'Ent.," i., p. 33 (1876) ; iii., p. 41, pi. v.,
fig. 7 (1878) ; xiii., p. 21, pi. viii., figs. 71-73 (1890).-Eesembles much certain
varieties of A. trifolii, spoken of by Rambur (Cat. Sys. And., p. 177, pi. i., figs. 5-8),
but probably a distinct species. In any case, it is a most striking race, and should
be designated by a name. Compared with A. trifolii it is a little larger; it has
similar spots on the upper wings, which vary in size, but do not tend to be con-
'fluent. The lower wings are more rounded than in A. trifolii. Sometimes they
are red, broadly bordered with blue, more often the red is invaded by the blue,
but always leaves two red spots, one round in outline, towards the outer angle, the
other elongated, rather indefinite, and having its origin at the base of the wing.
The special character of A. seriziati is its tendency to have the inferior wings
invaded with blue. It is very common at Collo (Oberthiir).
This insect has certain close connections with A. stocdiadis (caucasia,
Bdv.) ; it should not, however, be confused with the latter, (1) because
the green areas are blue in seriziati, (2) all the vinous-red portions of
the wings in stoechadis are of a scarlet-vermilion tint in the Algerian
species. These differences are constant, and as a result the two insects
have a different aspect. It has many very striking characters which
distinguish it at once from trifolii-syracusia, trifolii-palustris and
trifolii from southern France. It appears to inhabit the littoral
region of Algeria from Bona to Collo ; the var. syracusia, on the con-
trary, is found among the low mountains of the interior, at Lambessa,
Geryville, etc. The two insects have not yet been found together
(Oberthiir). Judging from a couple of specimens M. Oberthiir has kindly
sent to us, we can only say that the insect is a most striking form,
and that, in spite of its brightly-coloured blue fore-wings and the
very broad marginal border of the hind-wings, it has a most marked
trifolii-palustris aspect.
o. var. gracilis, Fuchs, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xli., p. 118 (1880).— Smaller and
slighter than A. trifolii. The fore- wings, from base to tip, 13 mm.; dark blue-
green, with five crimson spots, the third spot small and always separated from the
fourth. Hind-wings red ; the border narrower, the black colour rather produced in
the centre and at the apex. Abdomen black. The antennte long, extending
farther than the fifth spot, with a thin knob ending in a small tapering point.
Fuchs notes that his specimens (3 $ s) were captured in July in a dry
sunny meadow near Bornich, and were at first taken for ab. orobi, but he
considered that although they might belong to a local form of A. trifolii,
their characters necessitated comparison with A. mcliloti trndA-lonicentc ;
thus yracilis is a little larger than the former, it has similar markings, and
narrow border to the hind-wings, but diifers in the shape of the wings,
AXTHROCERA TRIFOLII. 491
and in having much longer antennas with a more tapering point. The
antennas of (jracilis are identical with those of A. lonicerae ; it is at once
to be distinguished from it, however, by its smaller size, rounder apex
of fore-wings, and by the small size of the third spot. It agrees
with typical A. trifolii in wing-shape, but differs in its small size and
more slender build, in having longer antennae, and in the narrower
marginal border of hind-wings (which, however, varies in A. trifolii).
Fuchs, however, concludes by suggesting that it is an aberration of A.
trifolii, and states that the typical form of A. trifolii also occurs at
Bornich.
OVUM. — The ova are laid in groups, each egg being attached by its
long side to the object on which it is laid ; they are also slightly attached
to each other. The egg is of a bright yellow colour ; the shell shiny
(with many pieces of the dark scales of the imago attached to surface) ;
roughly cylindrical in shape, the outline being somewhat oval, with a
long oval depression on the upper side, roughly, the length : breadth :
height : : 10 : 7 : 6. The two ends vary in different eggs ; in some, the
micropylar end is broader than its nadir, in others there is practically no
difference between them. The micropylar end is, however, flattened,
and in the centre of this end is a distinct crater, somewhat shallow,
with a very simple stellate structure at the bottom of it. The egg is
finely, and very faintly, ribbed longitudinally, the space between the
ribs being reticulated irregularly. These ribs look almost like parallel
striations, and 10 were counted on the upper surface of one egg, some
of which crossed the central depression. At the micropylar end, this
irregular reticulation becomes roughly hexagonal, and the longi-
tudinal ribs" fail ; they are also absent at the opposite end, where,
however, the irregular reticulation is less distinctly, polygonal in form.
There are some depressions in the egg, caused apparently by pressure,
and the whole character of the egg suggests an exceedingly delicate
structure. [Eggs laid on June 8th, 1897, received from Mr. Christy, and
described on June 10th, under a two-thirds lens.] Hellins describes
the egg as oblong and rather flattened, rather over 1 mm. in length,
and about -7 mm. in width, the upper surface sunk, the shell thin and
rather glistening, wrinkled longitudinally, colour full yellow but
rather pale in tint.
HABITS OF LARVA. — Some larvae which hatched about the end of
June (1864), were, Hellins records, 4-5 mm. in length when hyber-
nation commenced. Another batch, in 1865, were half as long again
at this period. When preparing to hybernate they congregate in little
companies, each larva spinning for itself a silken pad, in order to ob-
tain a firm foothold. Luff informs us that on one occasion he found
young larvae of this species hybernating with the larvae of Melitaea
cina'ia, in a pear-shaped winter nest of the latter that was placed
in the centre of a tuft of grass. During the winter the larvae become
very pallid in colour, and Hellins suggests that this is for a protective
purpose, the torpid larvae closely resembling the withered stems of their
food-plant. They become active again in February, and go on feeding,
although at very different rates. Some feed up rapidly, and are full-fed
by the end of April and early May, others feed up slowly, and whilst the
others are preparing for pupation, commence to bybernate (and aestivate)
again, and feed no more until the following spring, passing another
winter in the larval state. Luff found very small larvae in Guernsey,
492 BRITISH LEtlDOPTERA.
on April 7th, 1875, and almost full-fed ones May 10th, 1874. The
cocoon of this species is very difficult to find in its native haunts, and
appears usually to be placed quite close to (or upon) the ground.
LARVA. — The hybernatiny larva of A. trifolii is a very glassy-looking
and colourless caterpillar, the skin being almost transparent, and
covered with minute pits. Dorsally : The head is invisible, being
retracted within the prothorax. The longitudinal mediodorsal band
is very glassy-looking ; on either side of this, are the subdorsal bands,
bearing on each segment the large bosses formed on each side, by the
union of the anterior and posterior trapezoidal groups. The two longitu-
dinal areas containing these cushions or warts are pale brownish. The
segmental incisions are very marked, each incision having a considerable
basin-like depression mediodorsally-,.the depression extending to the seg-
ment before and behind the incision. On the meso- and metathorax the
dorsal warts are almost united. On none of the segments (thoracic
or abdominal) are the subdorsal tubercular cushions readily divisible
into the two parts of which they are formed. Each mass bears about
ten glassy-looking, pale amber, spiculate hairs, each arising from a dark
tubercular point. There are no dark patches between the dorsal warts.
Laterally : There is a longitudinal area running between the subdorsal
and supraspiracular warts ; in this, on the hinder margin of each
segment, is an inconspicuous, transverse, yellow patch. The supraspi-
racular cushion is large and prominent. The spiracles are black-ringed
and not standing out (as in the larva of A. hippocrejridisinhybern&tmg
stage). The subspiracular and marginal tubercles also form raised
cushions with a ring of dark points bearing hairs and a larger central
one. [There are no black hairs, dorsally or laterally, on the larva in this
stage.] Yentrally : The skin is almost transparent and glassy-looking.
The head pale brown, the mouth-parts paler. The true legs and pro-
legs have the same glassy- looking appearance as the ventral surface ;
the true legs with a few short white hairs at the joints, and a single
minute terminal claw ; the prolegs with an inner flange of about
10-12 very small black hooks. On January 24th, 1897, a larva in the
stage just described moulted, and assumed at this instar the plumage
characteristic of the adult Anthrocerid. It is now of a clear white
ground colour, the opacity remarkable, considering the transparent
condition of the previous stage, the skin still pitted, and the incisions
somewhat yellowish. Dorsally : There is a broad, longitudinal,
mediodorsal band of the ground colour. The anterior and posterior
trapezoidals unite to form a large subdorsal mass or cushion on either
side of each segment ; the inner part of the mass bears eight minute
blackish tubercularpoints, each with a transparent, white, glassy-looking
spiculate hair ; the outer part also bears eight blackish points, seven ar-
anged in a circle, each bearing a black hair and one central point bearing
a much longer whitish one. Between these warts (on successive seg-
ments) is an intensely black velvety patch ; part of each patch being on
the segment anterior and part on that posterior, to the incision falling
between the warts. The prothorax has the subdorsal warts united.
The supraspiracular warts are conspicuous viewed dorsally. Laterally :
The pale longitudinal band separating the dorsal bosses from the supra-
spiracular warts is traversed by a series of transverse conspicuous
bright primrose-yellow patches. These commence on the posterior
margin of the mesothorax, and are continued on the posterior margin of
ANTHROCERA TRIFOLII. 493
each of the successive segments. Each of the supraspiracular warts
forms a large boss or cushion with from 10-13 small black points, each of
which bears usually a short, white, spiculate hair. A few of these
hairs, however, are black (mesothorax, 10 hairs, of which the five
upper are black ; metathorax 10, the upper one only black ; 1st and
2nd abdominals 10, no black ; 3rd, 4th, and 5th abdominals 13, upper
one black ; 6th abdominal 12, no black ; 7th abdominal 15, no black ;
8th abdominal 10, no black ; 9th abdominal 13, upper one black ;
anal, large lateral boss, 20 hairs, three black). The prothorax has the
subspiracular tubercle modified into a prespiracular wart or cushion ; the
meso- and metathorax have supra- and subspiracular warts. The
supraspiracular boss extends narrowly behind the spiracle, and is
united posteriorly with a somewhat similar subspiracular boss, carry-
ing eight minute dark points, each bearing a short, white, spiculate
hair, seven of which form an outer ring, enclosing one centrally. Just
above the level of the spiracles, and placed between the supraspiracular
warts, is a series of small brown patches, partly covering that portion
of the two segments between the supraspiracular warts. This gives a
distinctly dark appearance to the supraspiracular line. At the base of the
prolegs is another series of tubercular cushions, rather smaller than, but
otherwise similar to, the subspiracular warts. Each marginal wart con-
sists of eight tubercular points, bearing white hairs. There are no black
hairs below the spiracles. The spiracles consist of a black circular ring
with a distinct white central orifice. Ventrally : The skin is glassy-
looking and transparent, pale yellowish in the incisions. The legs
and prolegs are of the same pale colour, the former bearing a minute
whitish hook, the latter with an inner flange bearing about 12 small
black hooks. The head is smoky-black (a little slaty) in colour, with
a white labrum, and white ring at the base of the antennae, the ocelli
black. [We are indebted to Mr. South for the larvas from which these de-
scriptions were made on Jan. 2oth, 1897.] Hellins also has described the
larva at the commencement of the liybernatiny instar. He says that it
is then of a green tint with rows of black spots, and that this colouring
is not affected by the variation in size which was found to exist in
different years, when hybernation commenced. During the hybernating
period, however, the larvae become semi-translucent and dirty white
in colour ; their rows of spots are changed to reddish-brown, a pair
of small dots only on each segment being black, and their bristles
seem more prominent. They commence feeding again in February,
and, after their first spring moult, are of a greenish-grey colour, with a
row of pale primrose spots on each side of the dorsal rows of black
X-like spots. When full-fed the ground colour becomes much
brighter, and is then of a bluish-green or of a rich yellow-green ; but the
two dorsal rows of black spots retain their X-like character. Briggs
gives a much fuller description of the adult larva, which he describes
as having " the body with short white hairs scattered over it, and
with a very few black hairs on the back. The head and prolegs black ;
the transverse upper lip and membrane at base of antennae white. The
ground colour pale yellowish, arranged in five lines, one mediodorsal,
and two lateral on either side. On each side of the dorsal line is a
row of large black spots, two on each segment, confluent, or nearly so,
but each coming to a point on the back, which makes the dorsal line
look like a row of transverse lozenge-shaped spots on the middle of
494 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
the back of each segment, preceded and followed by semi-lozenge-
shaped spots, which unite (or nearly so) with those of the following
and preceding segments ; the anterior spot terminates lower down the
segment than the posterior. On the thoracic segments, the dorsal line
is so narrow and dusky as to be hardly perceptible. Below the dorsal
rows of black spots there is a longitudinal line of the ground colour,
with a bright yellow spot in each segmental incision, formed by the
hind margin of each segment. Below this is another row of black
spots on each side, composed of two spots on each segment, which are
confluent, or nearly so, at their lower extremities, and giving them, when
confluent, a horse-shoe appearance. In this row of black spots the
spiracles are placed. This spiracular row is followed in turn by
another longitudinal band of the ground colour, in which, on each
segment, are two subspiracular black dots, one on the anterior and
one on the posterior fold, the anterior dot being placed rather lower
than the other. The space between this band and the prolegs and
true legs is nearly filled up with blackish and dusky markings, some
segments being more suffused than others. The prolegs and ventral
area pale, with a row of dusky dots down the medioventral line."
Boisduval describes the larva as " verte ou d'un jaune verdatre plus ou
moins clair, pubescente comme ses congeneres ; elle a quatre lignes de
points noirs, dont deux dorsales et les autres laterales ; on remarque
en outre sous le ventre un petit point noir sur chaque anneau." The
X-like dorsal marks, the lateral horse-shoe-shaped spiracular spots,
the ventral " petit point noir " are all very characteristic of the larva
of this species.
COMPARISON OF A. TRIFOLII LARVA WITH THAT OF A. PALUSTRIS (TRIFOLII-
MAJOR). — The larva of A. trifolii is smaller than that of A. palustrin
(trifolii-major}. The latter has the black dorsal spots on each segment
separate, whilst the former has them united and X-shaped. The larva
of A. trifolii-major has the spiracular row of black spots such that there
are two distinct spots on each segment ; in that of A. trifolii they are
united into a spot, the form of which roughly resembles a horse-shoe
(Briggs). We can corroborate Briggs entirely as to the general constancy
of these differences, although it would appear that in some larvae of
palustris the spiracular spots attain the horse- shoe shape, and it is
possible that the intermediate races would, in their larva, show inter-
mediate characters. The comparison of the larva of A, var. nyranmia
with that of A.palustris, given under the latter species, is practically a
further differentiation of the larvae of the two forms here considered.
COMPARISON OF A. TRIFOLII LARVA WITH THAT OF A. FILIPENDULJE. —
Hellins thinks that the X-like character of the black dorsal markings
(when the segmental incisions are hidden) is the chief distinction
by which the larva of A. trifolii may be distinguished from that
of A . Jilipendulae, the dorsal rows in the latter being formed of a broad
and a narrow spot on each segment. He further states that the former
is smaller, the ground colour probably more yellow, and the black
spots in the lateral rows also smaller than in A.jllipendulae.
COCOON. — The cocoon is of the same general form as those of the
allied species, but those described, received from Mr. Christy, were
spun up on a piece of leno, and not attached to a grass-culm or stalk of
some herbaceous plant. They are smaller than those of either A. jilt /><'»-
dulae or A.palustris, averaging about five-sixths of an inch in length
ANTHROCERA TRIFOLU. 495
and a quarter of an inch in width centrally (widest part). The base,
owing to the surface on which the cocoons were spun, is broad and
flattened, otherwise the cocoon is fusiform in shape ; the ends
rounded and somewhat blunt ; the upper end rather thinner than the
rest of the cocoon. It is of very delicate structure, pale yellow,
inclining to whitish, in colour, uniformly tinted all over the surface,
although the cocoon is much more loosely spun laterally than in
front. The outer surface is shiny, as though varnished. The inner
surface is lined with some very fine, loose, flossy, white silk. Hellins
says that he had a cocoon which was quite white. The upper end
of the cocoon dehisces medially to allow of the escape of the pupa,
although there is a smaller lateral slit on either side in some cocoons.
The pupa emerges as far as the second abdominal segment before the
imago is excluded, the pupa-case remaining fixed in the cocoon in
this position after the emergence of the imago. Boisduval describes
the cocoon as " allonge, sillonne, et d'un jaune paille, avec la partie
inferieure blanchatre." The cocoon of A. trifolii (-minor) is rarely
spun on a grass-culm or stalk of a herbaceous plant, but low down,
either upon or near the ground. With regard to the formation of the
cocoon, an observer notes (Pet. Nouv. Ent., ii., p. 243) that the larva
first spins the lower part of its cocoon, in which it rests, whilst it
makes the upper part, which it completes by uniting the two parts
together, and when enclosed makes the structure more solid, the whole
operation having occupied from 2-0 p.m. -6-30 p.m. He says that the
larva covers the basal part with a golden-yellow liquid, and observed it
eject the latter as a viscid secretion from the anal orifice, turning itself
at once to spread the varnish, the lower part being first done, the upper
part afterwards. He further noticed that, after the colouring matter
had been spread, the larva arched itself in order to keep up the damp
part until it had dried, a result that happens very quickly. The larva
curled itself backwards, horseshoe fashion, to deposit the material,
three ejections being necessary to complete the whole process. Chap-
man notes that the pupa keeps its venter towards the attachment of
the cocoon. When the pupa liberates itself from the cocoon, the
latter splits dorsally for fully one- fourth of its length, and there are
two lateral slits. The two flaps so formed are forced out, but, being
very elastic, press inwards, and try to close the slits. The pupa
pushes itself out until the 4th abdominal segment is opposite the end
of the dorsal slit, and the posterior margins of the wing-cases engage
in the lateral slits, the ends of the flaps falling into the hollow on each
side of the first abdominal segments that form the waist. As the
moth emerges, the elasticity more or less closes the slits on the empty
pupa-case, pinching it up into folds.
PUPA. — The pupa is blackish-brown, shiny ; the surface finely
pitted, and with a somewhat silky appearance under a lens ; the abdo-
minal segments greenish-black, and all but the three terminal, almost
transparent ; a distinct waist at 2nd abdominal ; the 8th-10th abdom-
inal segments narrow very rapidly. Dorsal view: The dorsal head-
piece prominent ; the prothorax well-developed ; the mesothorax large,'
prominent, swollen medially, and with a distinct shoulder at the base
of the wings ; the metathorax narrow centrally, widening at sides and
carrying the hind-wings, which extend conspicuously beyond the base
of the fore-wings, the base and outer margin of the hind-wings being
496 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
exposed. The 1st abdominal segment of the same black colour as the
thoracic segments. The 2nd-7th abdominal segments very delicate,
the skin almost transparent and smooth, except for a row of very fine,
closely set, minute, black hooks on the front edge of each segment,
the membrane of the segmental incisions quite transparent. The
8th and 9th abdominal segments are much smaller but more
opaque, shining, blackish, and the hooks are better developed and
set rather further back on these segments. The cremaster is
shining, black, turned back dorsally, the tip studded with numerous
black points. The lateral longitudinal grooves on tha dorsum of
the mesothorax are very marked, and formed of semi-transparent chitin.
Some variation in the colour of the abdominal segments occurs ;
this is especially liable to be -the case in immature examples.
Ventral view : The mouth, mouth-parts and wings black, the appendages
rather less black, the abdominal segments 1-4 quite transparent, but faint
blackish in hue ; the remaining segments more opaque and blacker.
The maxillae and third pair of legs free and extending to the venter
of the 6th abdominal segment. Each abdominal segment bears ventrally
two depressions, occupying the positions of the larval prolegs ; the anal
organs sloping ventrally, rough ; the genital organs prominent on the 8th
or 9th abdominal segments (according to sex). Lateral view: The glazed
eye is a smooth shiny blackish-brown lunule, extending from the base
of antenna to the first pair of legs ; the wing-neuration is very distinct,
the spiracles small, black, and inconspicuous, placed posteriorly on the
segments ; the two depressions above each spiracle represent the
positions of the subdorsal (i and ii) and the supraspiracular (iii)
tubercles of the adult larva ; the cremaster prominent. Hellins notes
that some pupae that he measured were about 2 mm. shorter than those
of A.Jilipendulae, but that he could detect no other difference between
them. Webb states (Ent. Record, vii., p. 255) that the pupa some-
times goes over the winter, the imago emerging the next year. We
have little doubt this is an error. Apparently living pupae do go over
the winter, but such pupae always produce a parasite the next summer.
It is the pupa of the parasite, and not of the moth, we believe, that
lives through the winter.
DEHISCENCE. — The dorsal head-piece carries the antennae, glazed
eye and maxillaa ; the pro- and mesothorax split mediodorsally, to
posterior margin of mesothorax, and carry the wings, the surfaces of
both fore- and hind- wings being completely separated and free from
the abdominal segments ; the maxillae and third pair of legs retain
their position, but the first and second pairs of legs separate indepen-
dently ; the abdominal incisions 2-3, 3-4, 4-5, 5-6, 6-7, are stretched
out widely, and exhibit conspicuously the transparency of the con-
necting membrane.
FOOD-PLANTS. — Trifolium procumbens, Lotus corniculatus, llippo-
crcpis comosa (Boisduval), Lotus corniculatus (Hellins, Briggs), Poly-
ffonuin aviculare (Machin), Trifolium procumbent^ Lotus corniculatus,
'Coronillavaria (St. John). [Lafitole records (Pet. Nouv., 1876, p. 62)
a larva found feeding on oak. There is, one would suppose, some
error here.]
PARASITES. — Casinariavuhia, Holmgren, bred by Weston (Bignell),
(\ orhitfilix, Gr., and Cryptus zyyacnanun, Ratz., have also been bred
from this species.
ANTHROCERA TRIFOLH. 497
HABITAT. — The early form of this species usually prefers a moderately
dry habitat, and occurs generally in meadows, pastures, chalk downs,
hillsides, and similar places. Near Wye, and at Enasworth, it is
found on the chalk downs, at Abbott's Wood in damp meadows on the
clay. Near Strood it occurs in quite dry mowing meadows, whilst in
the New Forest it is found in the rides of some of the woods, and
Bayne has taken it both on the heaths and bogs there. It also occurs
on a heath nr. Bideford. Lifton says that it haunts grassy slopes on
the Cotswolds ; about Harrow it occurs on the hillsides, whilst at Pole-
gate it is found in a dry field among the woods, and in Lundy Island, on
waste land, somewhat high. In Guernsey, it is found on the cliffs (Lowe),
and in Pomerania in open woods (Hering). Peyerimhoff says that it
inhabits damp fields in the plains and mountains in Alsace. Boisduval
notes that he has seen this species (? palustris) in the damp fields of the
French Alps so abundantly that the branches of Hippophaes have been
covered, so to speak, with their cocoons. Oberthiir says that both A.
trifulii and A. Jilipendidae occur in Brittany, in a granite and schistose
district with little tendency to be calcareous, whilst Dupont notes it
as being found in meadows with A. statices, nr. Havre, and on the
chalk-hills (in less dry places than those affected by A. camiolica, etc.)
nr. Pont-de-1'Arche and Dieppe.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — No species is more subject to variation in its
time of appearance than this, yet, for the same place, the dates are
generally fairly constant. It appears in late May and June with
A. statice* at Basingstoke, nr. Strood, Broxbourne, Taunton, Hursley,
Emsworth, Abbott's Wood, Winchester, Bickmansworth, etc. ; middle
June in Guernsey ; late June and early July in the New Forest, and mid-
July (/ palustris) at Sandown in the Isle of Wight. In mid- July the
paliutris form is well out on the eastern coast, and emerges until August
at Swanage, Freshwater and King's Lynn. Fletcher has, in confinement,
bred a few autumnal imagines from eggs laid the preceding spring (vide,
p. 418). Lowe, on October 9th, 1894, found a freshly emerged speci-
men resting by its pupa-case, in Guernsey. This may have been a second-
brooded example, or an individual that had begun to testivate for a
second year, and was afterwards induced to feed up. This is a similar
occurrence to Girard's experience (ante, p. 418). The following are
recorded dates : June 26th, 1856, at Grimstone (Balding), June 10th,
1859, at Shorncliffe (Rogers), June 18th, 1860, at Barnstaple
(Mathew), June 16th, 1864, worn, at Barnwell Wold (Briggs), June
13th, 1870, June llth, 1871, at Battle (Jenner), June 13th, 1872,
June 24th, 1874, fine, July 12th, 1875, fine, in Guernsey, June 25th,
1874, worn, in Sark (Luff), June 9th, 1874, worn, nr. Winchester,
(Richardson), June 15th, 1882, June 9th-llth, 1883, June 13th,
1890, June 25th, 1891 almost over, May 29th-June 8th, 1892, May
18th, some worn, June 9th, 1893, May 24th-June 18th, 1894, May
27th- June 12th, 1895, May 21st- June 6th, 1896, May 29th- June
12th, 1897, June 5th-June 19th, 1898, nr. Emsworth (Christy),
May, 1883, at Cambridge (Watson), June 14th, 1883, at Ruislip
(Watts), June 16th, 1883, at Chattenden (Tutt), June 12th, 1884,
June loth, 1885, June 18th, 1886, June 18th, 1895, June 1st,
1896, June 15th, 1898, October 9th, 1894, in Guernsey (Lowe),
May 28rd, 1889, at Bramshill, June 1st, 1890, at Butterwood,
Odiham (Holland), June lst-13th, 1889, at Mill Hill, May 27th-
498 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
June 3rd, 1893, June 14th-21st, 1894, at Abbott's Wood, June
27th, 1896, worn, at Wormley West End (James), July 4th, 1889,
on rushy ground, at Matley Bog (C. Nicholson), July 26th, 1890,
at Lyndhurst (Sinies), June 9th, 1890, at Hailsham (Fox), June
28th, 1890, in the New Forest (Blagg), June 2nd, 1892, at Abbott's
Wood (Porritt), June llth, 1892, at Rickmansworth, May 22nd,
1893, at Northwood (South), July 3rd, 1892, July 1st, 1894,
July 5th, 1895, in the New Forest, June 20th, 1894, June 21st, 1895,
at Broxbourne, worn (Bayne), captured May 12th-June 17th, 1893,
bred May 20th-June 2nd, 1893, early year, June 25th, 1894, late year,
nr. Swanage (Bankes), June 5th-7th, 1898, at Abbott's Wood (Clarke),
June 30th, 1894, fine, a late year, at Wormley Common (Prout), June
5th, 1895, well out, at Ashford (C«abtree), June 5th, 1897, at Brooke, I.
of Wight (Kaye), June 19th, 1897, nr. Painswick (Lifton). Ochsen-
hehner found it fine in the commencement of June, nr. Leipzig,
noting it as being earlier than A. lonicerae; June 21st, 1891, nr.
Dieppe, on the cliffs, June 10th-15th, average time of emergence,
lasting about a month, one year as late as July 31st, on a hill nr.
Pont-de-1'Arche, June 4th, 1896, nr. Le Havre (Dupont).
LOCALITIES. — There is no possibility of separating the localities of A. trifolii
proper from the usually later- appearing A. palustris. The following approximate
list, therefore, alone can be offered : AYRSHIRE : occasionally (Dunsmore). BERKS :
Reading (Hamm). GAMES : Horningsea (Stephens). DEVON : Axminster (Bowerman)>
Barnstaple (Mathew), nr. Bideford, on heath on Abbotsham Road (Bostock), Lundy
Island (Chase teste Martineau), Dartmoor (Still). DORSET : Hambledon nr. Shilling-
stone (Fowler), Weymouth (Blackmore), Poole (Green), Portland, one specimen
(Partridge). ESSEX : Hainault (English). FLINT: Holy well (Archer). GLOUCESTER:
nr. Gloucester (Mars<~
(Hewett), Emsworth
Hursley (Mober
(Hamm), Matley Bog (C. Nicholson), Bramshill, Butterwood, Odiham (Holland),
Winchester (Richardson), Christchurch (Fowler) . HEREFORD: Tarrington (Wood),
Leominster (Hutchinson). HERTS: Broxbourne (Battley), Wormley Common
(Prout). ISLE OF WIGHT: Brooke (Kaye). KENT: Folkestone (Briggs), Shorncliffe
(Rogers), Chattenden (Tutt), Canterbury, Wye (Parry), nr. Ashford (Crabtree),
Buckland (Stonestreet). MIDDLESEX : Ruislip (Watts), Mill Hill, Rickmansworth
(South), Harefield (Wall), Kingsbury (Bond), Stanmore Common (Rhoades-
Smith), Pinner Drive, Oxhey Wood, Ruislip Wood (Melvill). NORFOLK: Horsford
nr. Norwich (Pitman), Grimstone (Balding). NORTHAMPTON : Barnwell \Vold
(Briggs). NORTHDMBRLAND : nr. Newcastle (Stephens). OXFORD : Shotover Hill
(Briggs). RUTLAND: Uppingham (Bell). SOMERSET: Taunton (Parish), Bath
(Merrin), Clevedon (Mason). STAFFORD: Cannock Chase (Freer and Bostock).
SUFFOLK : Tuddenham, Ipswich, Felixstowe, Beccles, Herringfleet (Bloomfield).
SURREY; Camberley (Watson), Haslemere (Barrett). SUSSEX : Battle (Jenner),
Hailsham (James), Abbott's Wood in the "Long Meadow" (Porritt), Polegate
(Prout), Hastings (Atkinson), Chailey, Hayward's Heath and Brighton (Jenner), nr.
Worthing (Fletcher) . WALES : North Wales (Walker). [It may be here noticed that
there is no absolutely reliable record of this species for Scotland or Ireland.
Birchall gives it as local in Galway, Kirby gives it as inhabiting the West Shannon
district (Connaught), Partridge mentions it as occurring at Enniskillen, June 2nd,
1893, and it has been recorded from Armagh, but Kane thinks with us, that all
these want confirmation, and that the specimens captured were probably A. lonicerae,
a common Irish species. A. trifolii has been recorded from Forfar, and Dunsmore
mentions that it is reported from Ayrshire, but these also want confirmation.] Luff
mentions its occurrence in Sark, Herm and Guernsey.
DISTRIBUTION. — Africa: North-west Africa (Staudinger). Asia:
Obi and Yenesei districts (Erschoff), Amasia and Tokat (Speyer),
Pontus (Staudinger), Altai mts. (Kindermann). Austria : Heiligenblut
to 4,000 ft. (Staudinger), nr. Vienna, Carniola, Buda (Speyer), Hun-
gary (Boisduval), West Galicia, Lemberg,Lanckorona,etc. (Garbowski).
ANTHROCERA TRIFOLII. 499
Belgium : common (Berce). Channel Islands: Guernsey, Herm, Sark
(Luff). Denmark : rather common (Aurivillius). France: greater part
of France, common, Compiegne, Auvergne, Gironde, Basses- Alpes, Le
Doubs, Besantjon, Pontarlier, nr. Autun (Berce), Uriage, Vernet-les-
Bains, Brittany, Ille-et-Vilaine, Rennes, Banyuls-sur-Mer (Oberthiir),
Nohant, Forets du Cher, Mont Dore, Crevant (Sand), Rheims district,
common, banks of the Vesle and Suippe, Cormontreuil, Sillery, St.
Hilaire-le-Petit (Demaison), Loire-Inferieure (Bonjour), Dept. du Nord
(Dupont), Dept. 1'Aube, Paris (Jourdheuille), Calvados, St. Quentin
(Dubus), nr. Paris, Touraine, Perigueux, Tarbes, Marseilles, Perpignay
(Rambur), Depts. of Meuse, Doubs, Puy-de-D6me, nr. Aix (Speyer),
Isere, Pyrenees-Orientales (Duponchel), Alpes-Maritimes (Milliere).
Germany : almost everywhere (Kayser), Baden, generally distributed,
also in mts., Kaiserstuhl, etc., Alsace, Pfalz, Wiirtemburg, Nassau
(Reutti), Prussia, Insterburg, Dantzig, Mannheim, Waldeck, Weimar,
Krefeld, Ratisbon (Speyer), Thuringia, Ohrdruf, Tambuch, Georgenthal,
Wanningsroda(Knapp), Silesia, Leubeusch (Prittwitz), banks of the
Wiese (Homeyer), Stettin, on the Wiese and Plone nr. Damm, nr.
Finkenwald and Tan tow, common (Hering), Hilden nr. Diisseldorf
(Kirby), Leipzig (Ochsenheimer). Italy: widely distributed and
moderately common in northern, central and southern provinces —
Tuscany, Sicily, etc. (Curo), nr. Susa, Ligurian Alps, nr. Naples (Costa),
Syracuse (Zeller), Piedmont (Boisduval). Netherlands: Overijssel —
between Raalte and Wijke, Gelderland — Groenlo, Varsseveld, Zutphen,
Arnhem, St. Michielgestel, North Brabant and Nijkerk, and ? Limburg
(Snellen), Luxemburg (Speyer). Roumania : rare, Concorova (Mann),
Turn Severin (Haberhauer). Russia : South Finland to 60° 41'
(Renter), Nylancl, Tavastland, Karelen (Lampa), Prov. Orenburg,
Saratov, Kasan, Sarepta (Eversmann), White Sea to Urals, Moscow
district, mths. of Danube to Dnieper, Volga dist., Transcaucasia
(Erschofi), Poland (teste Caradja), Siebenbiirgen (Speyer). Scandi-
navia : South Sweden, rare (Aurivillius), Blekinge (Wistrom), Upsala
(Fallander). Spain : Andalusia, Granada, Malaga (Rambur). Swit-
zerland : appears sporadically in swampy meadows in June, and
goes up mts. to 5,000 ft., St. Gallen (Taschler), Berne, Gadmen and
mts. near Bagnethal, Simplon, Val Vedro (Ratzer), Bechburg
(Stehlin), St. Blaise-Neuveville (Couleru), Lauterbrunnen (Christ),
Valais (Jaggi), ? Bremgarten (Boll), ? Canton Glarus (Heer), nr.
Zurich (Snell), Trafoi (Wocke).
ANTHROCERA TRIFOLII subsp. , FALusTRis, Oberthiir.
SYNONYMY. — Species : Palustris, Oberth., " Etudes," xxth livr., " Var. chez Lep.,"
pp. 44-46, pi. viii., figs. 151, 152, 153 (1896). Scabiosae, Haw., " Lep. Brit.," i., p. 74
(1803). Loti, Stephs., "Illus.," i., p. 109, vars. a et /3 (1829). Meliloti, Stephs ,
" Illus.," i., p. 107, teste Briggs (1829). Trifolii (the late form), Briggs, " Trans. Ent.
Soc. Lond.," 1871, pp. 417 etseq. ; Tutt,' " British Moths," p. 353, in part (189f>).
Trifolii-major, Tutt, "Ent. Bee.," ix., pp. 88, 167 et seq. (1897). Trifolii, Bdv.,
"Icones," pi. liv., fig. 8 (1834); Hein., " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 160 (1859);
Speyer, " Stett. Ent. Zeit.," xxxviii., pp. 40 et seq. (1871).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Boisduval had distinguished in his collec-
tion the Breton and Norman race of Z. trifolii under the name of Z.
palmtris, and we think that he had rightly appreciated the differences
that exist between the south and west French races of this Zyijaena.
In the west of France, Z. trifolii is of a much brighter red than in the
500 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Isere and the Pyrene'es-Orientales, where the red portions are a
little violaceous, and rather transparent ; we have figured on pi. viii.,
fig. 150, a $ from Vernet-les-Bains. This represents the southern
race of which Duponchel speaks (Hist. Nat., supp. ii., p. 71, pi. viii.,
fig. 1). It presents a confluent aberration, but , much more rarely
than in the western race, Z. pahistris (Oberthur, Etudes, etc., xxth
livr., Variation chez Lepidopteres, pp. 44-46).
IMAGO. — Fore-wings greenish or purplish-blue, with five bright
crimson spots — two basal (often confluent), two central (often con-
fluent), and one towards apex. Hind-wings crimson, with a broad
purplish hind-margin. [The females very rarely five-spotted, a very
large proportion of this sex with the spots united into a longitudinal
blotch.]
COMPARATIVE DESCRIPTION OF IMAGO WITH THOSE OF ALLIED SPECIES.
— Expanse of wing 1" 2'" to 1" 6'" . Much larger and stouter than
A. trifolii. Antennae thicker and shorter than those of A. jUipendulae
and A. lonicerae ; those of the $ thicker than those of the $ . The
fore-wings with large red spots, the central and basal pairs often
united, whilst all the spots frequently coalesce in the female (more
rarely in the male). Hind- wings with a broad black border, especially
in the male (Briggs).
VARIATION. — The general features of the variation of this form are
identical with those previously described (ante, p. 485) as characteristic
of A. trifolii. Oberthiir has diagnosed two aberrations, as yet only
known to occur in the pahistris form.
a. ab. sexmaculata, Oberthur, " Variation chez Lepidopteres," pp. 48-49,
pi. vii., figs. 151-152 (1896).— At the end of May. 1893, at Hublee, about 4 kil.
from Rennes, amongst many trifolii, besides normal examples and several con-
fluent forms, I obtained 7 specimens with 6 spots. No possibility of error could
have occurred, as A. filipendulae does not occur at Hublee. In 1894, chrysalides
were collected on the stalks of plants in this locality, 110 examples emerged, 25
confluent, 3 ? with (5 spots, the rest normal. In 1895, the species was rare, 25
examples were bred, 7 were confluent, the others normal, not a single specimen
with 6 spots.
p. ab. scxmaculata-confluens, Oberthiir, " Variation chez Lepidopteres," pi.
vii., fig. 153. — This is a confluent form of the sexmaculata aberration, i.e., it
has the special characters of the latter, but the spots are united into a single longi-
tudinal blotch.
OVUM. — The eggs are laid on their long sides, usually in small
heaps, and generally in two layers, one above the other, the micro-
pyles of the eggs, however, appearing to be always free. When laid
in a single plane the eggs are just in contact. The egg is oval in
shape, with equally rounded ends, and with a large, rather irregular,
oval depression on the long side. The shell is shiny, and distinctly
pitted, and there are many, moderately distinct, longitudinal folds
(scarcely ribs) extending from the micropylar pole to its nadir. These
cross over the shoulder of the egg, and terminate on the edge of a
slight, regularly pitted depression, forming the micropylar area, at the
base of which is a minute depressed cavity, the inicropyle proper.
There are many irregular depressions, evidently brought about by
pressure. The egg is bright yellow in colour, the yelk occupying
rather less than a half of the egg, the other portion being entirely
transparent, but after a little disturbance the yelk becomes more or less
distributed throughout the egg, which then becomes of an uniform
bright yellow colour. After the larva leaves the egg, the egg-shell is
ANTHROCEKA TRIFOLII SUBSP. tALUSTRIS. 501
quite transparent. [Eggs received from Messrs. Bacot and Clarke, on
July 17th, 1897, described the same day under a two-thirds lens.]
LARVA. — Briggs describes (Tram. EnL Soc. Lond., 1871, p. 437)
the full-fed larva of this species, as having the " body with short
white hairs scattered over it, with very few black hairs mixed with
the white on the back. The head and true legs are black ; the trans-
verse upper lip and membrane at base of antennas, white ; the ground
colour pale yellowish, arranged in five lines, one dorsal, and two .
lateral on each side. The dorsal line is broad, yellower in the fold
that is formed by the hind margin of each segment. On each side of
the dorsal line there is a row of black spots, two on each segment, of
which the anterior spot is the larger, somewhat semicircular with the
flat side turned towards the anus, the posterior spot is narrow, curved
on the anterior margin, approaching in shape to a lunule. On the
prothorax the dorsal spots are confluent, the anterior being greatly
reduced in size ; the anterior margin of this segment, also, is partially
margined with blackish, leaving the middle portion of the yellowish
ground colour. Below the dorsal spots there is a broad pale yellowish
line, with a yellow spot on the fold, formed by the hind margin of
each segment, but this spot is not very conspicuous. Below this line,
again, is another row of black spots on each side, two on each seg-
ment, of which the anterior is larger and curved backwards, and
bears the black spiracles, but very often the lower portion of the
spiracle-bearing spot is separated from the rest, and sometimes
dwindles down to a mere dot. (There is no minute black spot below the
smaller of the two lateral spots, as is often the case in the larva of A.
fdijK'ndulae.') Below this spiracular row of spots is the lower lateral line,
and between this line and the feet is a row of dusky spots bearing a pale,
transverse lunule in the lower portion of each ; this lunule is some-
times absent, or nearly so. A dusky, very narrow, streak extends along
the base of the prolegs, the latter and ventral area yellowish, with a
dusky interrupted line down the middle of the venter." On July 16th,
1897, we described a, full-fed (dead) larva found in a cocoon (from the
Norfolk coast) as follows : The head shining black, cleft at apex, several
cream-coloured marks at the base of cleft, surface sprinkled with
hairs. Body pale yellowish, with two longitudinal rows of black
spots running down either side of the mediodorsal line, another on
either side of, but separated from, these dorsal rows, by a longitudinal
line of the yellow ground-colour. The small, indistinct, black spiracles
are placed each in one of the black patches forming this row. There
is another longitudinal subspiracular row of black spots on either side,
and separated also from the spiracular row by a longitudinal band of
the ground colour. Each of these rows of black spots is very similar ;
on each segment there is a large anterior, separated from a rather
smaller posterior, black spot. The dorsal rows of black spots are
much better developed than the lateral. The skin is covered with
minute white points, bearing pale hairs. The tubercular warts bear
stellate fascicles of black and pale hairs, and the abdominal incisions
are very distinct. The warts are as follows : (1) Dorsal (i and ii
united on each side of the mediodorsal line on each segment).
(2) Supraspiracular (iii). (3) Subspiracular (iv and v united). (4)
Marginal, just above base of proleg. These are placed four on either
side of, or eight in a transverse ring around, each segment.
502 BBITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
VARIATION OF LARVA. — Speyer notes (Stett. Ent. Zeit., xxxviii., pp.
40 et seq.) that the ground-colour of the full-fed larva varies. Four
(out of seven) larvae were pale yellow, one lemon-yellow, and two
pale greenish-yellow. The principal markings are the four longi-
tudinal rows of black spots, of which only the upper pair are constant,
and these are also very variable in size and shape. Four of the larvae
examined had both upper rows composed of two spots on each seg-
ment, of which the former is the larger, and either square or round,
whereas the hind one is hollowed out on its front border, and is nearly
half-moon shaped. The other two rows are also composed of two
spots on each segment, of which the front one is generally placed
rather lower down, and is larger than the hind one. Both are of an
irregular, sometimes long, sometimes round shape. On the first two
segments the spots are smaller, narrower, and the upper pair very
often joined. Of the remaining three larvae, two have the lower rows
of spots represented by points, and the other has lost these altogether,
with the exception of a single dot on the 4th and 6th segments. In
these three larvae the spots of the upper rows are also comparatively
small, the front one is square on the middle segment, the back one is
represented by two dots, one above the other ; on the first five seg-
ments half-moon shaped. The lateral spots of the three most strongly-
marked larvae form a black longitudinal streak, or rather a row of
spots, as the streak is interrupted by the segments. Of the remainder,
two have, instead of the streak, an interrupted grey line, which is
shortened in front and behind, and the other two have lost even these
markings. In the place of the dorsal plate, two larvae have a black
spot on each side, and behind this a lateral stripe ; these larvae have also
a broken grey line, reaching from the 4th to the 9th segment, along
the middle of the venter. The remaining larvae have not these markings.
A small row of bright, yellow, lateral spots, placed between the upper
and lower rows of dorsal spots on the hind border of each segment,
is, however, quite constant.
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE LARVAE OF A. PALUSTRIS (TRIFOLII-MAJOR),
A. TRIFOLII AND A. FiLiPENDUL^E . — We have given at length two de-
scriptions of the larva of A. paluxtris, made in 1871 (Briggs) and 1897
(Tutt) respectively, and quite independently of each other, simply to
show that they are identical, and because of the important bearing
this has on what follows. In comparing our description of the larva
of A. palustris (trifolii-major) with that of Buckler's A. filipendidae
(Larvae, etc., ii., p. 98), we were astonished to find that the black
spots of the dorsal stripes are arranged almost identically with those
of the same stripes in A. filipendidae, i.e., large and small, on each seg-
ment, and not X-shaped, as in the true A. trifolii, a character which
Hellins says is the chief distinction between the larva of this species
and that of A. filipendulae, L. (Ibid., p. 96). As our larva was taken
from a cocoon that was picked from a piece of marshy ground, and all
the other cocoons produced veritable A. palustris, there could be no
mistake, and, moreover, the identity of our description with that of
Briggs leaves no room even for suspicion. We observe, too, that
Briggs has a note on this point which we unhesitatingly confirm. He
writes (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1871, p. 438) : " As the variation in the
larva of A. filipendidae tends towards confluence, the variation here is
towards obliteration, but the caterpillar is very constant, its range of
ANTHROCERA TRIFOLII StBSP. PALUSTRIS. 503
variation very small. As the limit towards magnitude of the spots in
this species is attained before the limit of A. filipendulae towards
obliteration commences, it follows, as a matter of course, that I have
never seen any tendency towards the X-like dorsal markings, or ever
seen the lateral spots united." Comparing the larva of A. palustris
with that of A. filipendulae, Briggs says: "Take a larva of A. fili-
pendidae, give it a much clearer and cleaner ground colour, diminish
its spots below the limits of the smaller spots in the larva of A. fili-
pendulae, so as to make all the pale lines broader, and you will have a
specimen of this caterpillar."
COMPARISON OF THE LARVAE OF A. TRIFOLII VAR. SYRACUSIA AND A.
TRIFOLII-PALUSTRIS. — Speyer compares these as follows : The larva of
A. var. syracusia differs chiefly from that of A. subsp. palustris in the
appearance and development of the upper row of spots. In the latter
insect each segment carries two spots on either side, whereas in the
former these are united into one large one which surrounds a patch
of the ground colour. A. var. syracusia also has the front spot
belonging to the lower rows lengthened into two points, a character
not found in A. subsp. palustris ; moreover, the latter does not have
the black streak on the prolegs, whilst the other dark markings — the
lateral streak, the longitudinal ventral line, and the markings on the
anal plate — are much weaker, or are altogether absent. One can
readily see that these differences, although so noticeable, are simply
the result of the dark markings of the larva of A. palustris being more
extended in that of A. var. syracusia, and that the latter has thus
obtained only one large spot in the upper rows, where the former has
two, the spots having joined at their extremities, so as to include a
portion of the ground colour. The darkest larvse of A. subsp. palustris
are, of course, most like those of A. var. syracusia.
COCOON. — The cocoons measured, average 28-29 mm. in length.
They are of a bright yellow colour, fusiform in shape, slightly broader
at the upper end where the cocoon is also more brightly coloured,
and attached to a grass culm or the stem of some low plant, usually
some 12 inches or more above the ground. Sometimes it is flat-
tened by being spun on the underside of a broad Iris (or other) leaf.
The inside is lined with flossy white silk ; the upper part of the
cocoon is very thin, breaking easily to allow the emergence of the
pupa, which pushes itself out of the cocoon as far as the 4th
abdominal segment, before the emergence of the imago. The empty
pupa-case remains projecting from the cocoon. Speyer notes the
cocoon as somewhat smaller, and more swollen or vaulted than that of
A. fiilipendulae, the upper half of a deep yellow colour, which shows up
conspicuously against the almost white lower half in the majority of
the cocoons, so much so that the difference is often apparent from some
distance. In some it is less distinct, and in others the difference dis-
appears altogether. Usually found on grass or Juncus stalks, or the
stems of stiff herbaceous plants. [Those of the early A. trifolii are
generally placed low down, on or near the ground, and are difficult to
find.] Oberthur observes that when the wind moves the grass culms
on which the cocoons are spun, the latter resemble very closely the
flower-heads of the grass.
PUPA. — The pupa is uniformly black, with a prominent headpiece
projecting beyond the prothorax ; the thorax and the 1st and 2nd
504 feRlTlSH LKPlDOPTERA.
abdominal segments dorsally, also the wings, maxillae, legs and
antennas, shiny black ; the remaining abdominal segments duller
blackish, but with shiny rings on the posterior portions of the seg-
ments, and a shiny cremaster. Ventral view : The mouth is ventral,
surmounted by a prominent headpiece ; the glazed eye forms a distinct
lunule, running from the base of the antenna to the base of the first
pair of legs ; the maxillae forming two slender ridges, extending to the
6th abdominal segment, passing for some distance beneath the first
pair of legs and antennae, but reappearing again at the 5th abdominal
segment. The third pair of legs terminates on either side of the tip of
the tongue. The antennae terminate above the incision, between the
4th and 5th abdominal segments. The first pair of legs conspicuous,
but the second pair almost entirely hidden ; the terminal portions of
the maxillae and third pair of legs free from the abdominal segments ;
the ventral portions of the 6th, 7th ana 8th abdominal segments ex-
hibit transverse scars in the position of the larval prolegs. The genital
organs, on the 9th abdominal segment, are not at all conspicuous ;
there are distinct divisions ventrally between abdominal segment 8,
abdominal segment 9, and the cremaster, in the $ pupa, whilst in the
? pupa, the genital organs on abdominal segment 8 cause the partial
obliteration of the division between 8 and 9. Lateral view : The antenna
, comes from the front of the head along the costa of the wing ; the
fore- wing itself shiny with distinct neuration, the hind-wing extending
for some distance beyond the inner margin of the fore-wing ; the spiracles
on the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th abdominal segments consist of a slight
oval depression, surrounded by an illdefined rim ; above the spiracles
on these segments is a deep oblique depression ; on the 8th abdominal
segment the spiracle is undeveloped ; the cremaster is rounded,
smooth and shiny ; the abdominal incisions very distinct, dull black
in colour. Dorsal view : The dorsal headpiece is prominent, extend-
ing beyond the prothorax, which is clearly defined ; the meso thorax
swollen dorsally, and extending laterally into the fore-wings ; the
central part of the metathorax narrow, wider at the sides where it
extends into the hind-wings. The 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th abdo-
minal segments moderately uniform in width, the succeeding segments
gradually decreasing in size until the cremaster is reached. Each abdo-
minal segment, after the first, consists of : (1) A dark intersegmental
membrane. (2) A black transverse ridge. (3) A thinner pale band.
(4) A line of longitudinal black ridges bearing series of prominent
rough points (by which pupal movement is effected). (5) A shiny belt,
fading back into the dark hinder part of the segment (and comprising
the greater part thereof), and further into the intersegmental membrane.
Movable incisions occur between abdominal segments 3-4, 4-5, 5-6, 6-7
in the female, also 7-8 in the male (probably also between 1-2, 2-3 in
both sexes). The cremaster rounded, with a number of short black
points. The anal segment seems to be formed by the fusion of
the 9th and 10th abdominal segments. [Description made July 13th,
1897, from pupae collected at Waxham, on the Norfolk coast, by Mr.
Bacot.] Speyer notes the pupa as black, but the back of the abdomen
of a somewhat paler colour, with green segrnental incisions.
DEHISCENCE. — In dehiscence, the pro- and mesothorax split medio-
dorsally. The head, antennas and tongue separate from the other
appendages ; the leg-cases disjointed from the base of the antennae,
and the latter from the wings.
ANTHROCERA TRIPOLII SUBSP. PALUSTRIS. 505
PARASITES. — (1) Cryptus ? zyt/aenarnm, Ratz., appears at the same
time as the imago, emerging by a round hole near the front of the cocoon.
(2) Microffonter ? sp., whose larvae bore their way out of the half- or
nearly full-grown larva of the host, and spin white silken cocoons,
usually upon the body of the dying victim. (3) Pteromalina ? sp.,
which emerged through dorsum of the pupa and cocoon on July 31st.
(4) A fat lemon-yellow coloured grub which lives in the larva and
pupa, and probably does not mature until the next year (Speyer).
Blepharidn vulijaris, Fin., a dipterous parasite, was bred from A.
palustriti, from Kennes (Oberthur tcste Austin).
FOOD-PLANTS. — The large trefoil found in marshes, and on that plant
only (Briggs), / Lotus uliyinosus (Speyer).
HABITAT. — This exceedingly local and gregarious subspecies appears
to confine itself almost entirely to a distinctly marshy habitat. It
may be a piece of real marsh, now isolated from the sea, as at Sand-
wich. It may be a swamp where a river takes its origin, and soaks
the ground around, as at Freshwater (Isle of Wight), or it may be a
marsh among the low coast sand-hills, wet enough in winter and
spring, but fairly dry in summer, as at Waxham, in Norfolk. At
Gamlingay it occurs in a disused brickfield, whilst near Ipswich it
appears on marshy land. At Barmouth it occurs along the sides of
the estuary of the Mawddach ; at Hale, on a marsh, but on the road-
side leading from there to Ditton ; in a boggy meadow (now drained)
between Carmarthen and St. dear's, and always in wet places in the
Isle of Purbeck. At Aldermaston it occurs in damp meadows between
large ponds ; near Dorchester, on a boggy common with much rush,
bracken and alder, and at Tuddenham it occurs on a bog, the cocoons
on rush, etc. In the Isle of Man it is found on the Ballaugh
Curraghs, near Sulby, and near Worthing it finds a home in a heathy
bog. At Sandown it occurs at the edge of the cliff and undercliff, on
damp reedy ground, and also in a marshy meadow a little way inland.
At Ippolytts Common, nr. Hitchin, Herts, in a small fen, the large form
occurred in thousands, and flew all over the fen in the sunshine, giving
a most distinct " pink appearance " to the landscape ; Durrant notes
that he has never elsewhere seen any species so abundant, nor produce
such an effect. At King's Lynn it is sometimes very abundant in the
corners of heaths (Atmore). In Herm it occurs on a sandy common on
the coast (Luff). On the Continent, it is found on the marshy banks of
the Weise and the Plone, nr. Damrn. Speyer says that in north-west
Germany, its localities are, without exception, wet swampy meadows,
in which it sometimes appears in immense numbers ; it was especially
common there in 1873, 1874 and 1875. Its most remarkable habitat,
however, is that near Bennes, where Oberthiir finds, in May and June,
the cocoons on stems of grass, in an avenue of chestnut trees, and in
the ridings of a wood about a league from the town. He finds it, how-
ever, in the marshes near the seaside, at Cancale, and in the Isles of
Chausey, etc., in July and August.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — It varies according to the season, but is
rarely out before the commencement of July, except in the very earliest
seasons. Its average time of emergence is, perhaps, from July 10th-
20th, but in late seasons it runs well into August. Hodges notes
that, at Freshwater, July 10th-12th may be considered the average
date of emergence, but that lame are to be found spinning up after
506 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
the first imagines have appeared, so that the insect is on the wing
for a considerable time. Briggs says : " The time of appearance varies
from the second week in June until the second week in July, accord-
ing to the season, but always (in the same year) a month after the
true A. trifolii." In Pomerania, the larva is found in the beginning
of June, the imago in July and August (Hering) ; whilst in north-
west Germany, it first appears about the middle of June, and lasts
from 4-6 weeks ; in 1876, pupje were first found on June 16th, larvae
as late as June 21st, and the first imago on June 28th (Speyer). The
most remarkable date, for undoubted specimens of this usually larger
and later insect, is the end of May and June, given by Oberthiir, for
Rennes, where it occurs in fields and the rides of woods, another
proof of the connection between an early date and a comparatively dry
habitat. Elsewhere, he says, it is generally common, and found on
marshes near the sea, sometimes in great abundance, although at Cancale
it is more rare. The following references probably refer to this insect :
June 27th, 1864, at Tilgate ; young larvae, May 17th, 1866, imagines,
July, at Stowe Wood, and July, 1871, at Wimbledon (T. Briggs),
end of June, at West Horsley Park (Stephens teste T. Briggs), June
2nd-15th, 1856, at Bisterne (Oakley), July 19th, 1858, at Stonehaven
(E. Thomson), July 6th-13th, 1864, at Freshwater, July 29th, 1889,
July 5th-9th pupre, emerged July 6th-27th 1891, at Sandwich (Fenn),
June 16th, 1869, very early year, at Cirencester (Harman), July 31st,
pupae emerged till August llth, 1874, at Herm (Luff), July 8th,
1877, at Henley, July 19th, 1889, at Butterwood, Odiham, July 4th,
1889, at Aldermaston, July 2nd, 1891, at Sulham (Holland), July
4th, 1878, at Barmouth (Sheldon), August 4th, 1880, at Oughton
Common, July 7th, pupaa and larvae, excl. July 9th-20th, pupae June
21st, excl. July 2nd-llth, 1884, at Ippolytts Common (Durrant),
imagines captured July 17th-18th, 1883, July 16th, 1887, imagines
bred July 10th, 1886, July 29th-August 3rd, 1887, nr. Studland, and
imagines bred June 29th-July 4th, 1893, from another locality nr.
Studland (Bankes), July 18th, 1884, July 7th-16th, 1887, at Sandwich
(Tutt), July 6th, 1885, at Upton St. Leonards (Higgs), July 3rd-14th,
1887, at Carmarthen, July 12th ( $ s worn) -July 25th, 1890, July
llth-28th, 1891, June 29th-July 13th, 1892, June Ist-llth, 1893,
early year, at Sketty Park, nr. Swansea (Robertson), end of July, 1887,
July 27th, 1888, between Sandown and Shanklin, July 20th-23rd,
1896, July 17th, 1897, worn, nr. Sandown (Prout), August 20th,
1890, at Alum Bay (Raynor), July 4th, 1891, at Swanage (Bris-
towe), July 12th, 1891, at Aldermaston, July 8th-16th, 1892, June
16th, 1893, early year, common, June 15th-28th (two only on 15th,
common on 28th), 1897, nr. Dorchester (J. Clarke), July 16th, 1891,
July 16th, 1893, larvae, pupae and imagines abundant, at Gamlingay
(Bond-Smith), end of July, 1892, at Porthcurnow, nr. the Land's End
(Bowles), August 5th, 1892, at Swanage (Mackonochie), August 1st-
3rd, 1892, also pupae, August 6th-13th, 1894, also pupae, at Swanage
(Fox), July6th-7th, 1893, early year, July 26th-27th, 1894, cocoons June
25th-26th, 1896, cocoons June 25th-26th, 1897, commenced to emerge
July 13th, 1897, cocoons June 25th-26th, 1898, at Waxham (Bacot),
July 10th, 1894, July 6th, 1895, pupae June 27th, 1896, pupa3 June
30th, 1897, imagines July 23rd, 1897, at Aylsham (Freeman), July
29th- August 1st, 1895, at Freshwater (Page), July 6th, 1896, at
ANTHROCEKA TKIFOLII SUBSP. PALUSTRIS. 507
Sheerness, common, worn (Bower), July 16th, 1896, in Ballaugh
Curraghs (H. S. Clarke), July 7th, 1896, very common at Freshwater
(Rothschild), June 30th- July 18th, 1897, at Amberley Bog (Fletcher),
July 27th-August 2nd, 1898, at Sandown (Dadd), August 8th-15th,
1898, at King's Lynn (Atmore), July 14th, 1898, nr. Bovey Tracey
(Hamm).
LOCALITIES. — The localities are difficult to separate from those of A. trifolii,
lepidopterists having recorded their captures under the latter name, often without
any hint as to what form reference is made. The following list is probably correct
(though necessarily incomplete). BERKS : Aldermaston (Clarke), Sulham (Holland),
Reading (Hamm). CAMBS: Gamlingay (Bond-Smith). CARMARTHEN: Carmar-
then (Robertson). CHESHIRE : Bidston Marsh (Cooke), Malpas (Walker), Oakmere
and Knutsford (Chappell). DEVON : Bovey Tracey (Hamm), Lynton Marsh
(South). DORSET: Purbeck, nr. Studland (Bankes), nr. Dorchester (Clarke),
Swanage (Fox). FORFAR : nr. Stonehaven (11. Thomson, wants confirma-
tion). GLAMORGAN: Swansea (Robertson). GLOUCESTER: Cirencester (Harman).
Upton St. Leonards (Stanger-Higgs). HANTS : Lyndhurst (Alderson), Basing-
stoke (Hamm), Bisterne (Oakley), Butterwood, Odiham (Holland). ISLE OF
MAN: nr. Sulby (Clarke). ISLE OF WIGHT: Sandown (Prout). Alum Bay
(Raynor), Shanklin undercliff (Helps), Freshwater (Hodges). KENT : nr. Eltham
(Stephens), Sandwich (Fenn), Sheerness (Bower). LANCASHIRE: Hale, Ditton
(Gregson). MERIONETH: Barmouth (Sheldon). NORFOLK: Waxham (Bacot),
Aylsham (Freeman), King's Lynn (Atmore). OXFORD: Henley (Holland), Stowe
Wood (Briggs). PEMBROKE: Lougboro' Marsh nr. Tenby (Tutt coll.). SUFFOLK:
Tuddenhani, Bury St. Edmund's (Bloomfield), nr. Ipswich (Mera). SURREY : West
Horsley Park (Stephens), Haslemere (Barrett). SUSSEX: Tilgate (Briggs), nr.
Worthing (Fletcher). WARWICKSHIRE : Warwick (Adkin). YORKS : between Bridling-
ton and Spurn (Boult), Richmond (coll. Tutt, captor unknown).
DISTRIBUTION. — The distribution of this insect on the Continent is
not known. The following references possibly belong^to this late
form : — France : Brittany, Rennes, Biarritz, Cancale, lies Chausey,
nr. Granville, Limoges, etc. (Oberthiir). Germany : North-west
Germany (Speyer), Pomerania (Hering), nr. Damm, nr. Finkenwald
and Tan tow, common (Hering). Netherlands : (see, ante, pp. 486
and 499).
ANTHROCERA FILIPENDUL.E,
SYNONYMY.— Species : Filipendulae. Linne, " Sys. Nat.," 10th Ed., no. 32,
p. 494 (1758) ; 12th Ed., no. 34, p. 805 (1766) ; " Fauna Suec.," p. 290 (1761) ; Scop.,
" Ent. Cam.," p. 189 (1763) ; Hufn., " Berl. Mag.," ii., p. 186 (1766) ; Fab., " Sys.
Ent.," no. 1, p. 550 (1775) ; " Spec. Ins.," pt. ii.,-p. 157 (1781) ; " Ent. Sys.," iii.,
pt. 1, p. 386 (1793) ; Schiff. and Den., " Sys. Verz.," p. 45 (1776) ; Mull., " Zool.
Dan.," p. 116, in part (1776) ; Amstein, "Fuess. Mag. Ent.," pp. 109, 124,299
(1778); Fuessly, " Mag. Ent.," i., p. 139, pi. i., fig. 2 (1778); Esp., " Schmett.
Eur.." ii., p. 138, pi. xvi., figs, a-e (1780), p. 233, pi. xxxvi., fig. 8 (1783) ; Scheven,
"Fuessly's Neues Mag.," i., p. 54 (1782) ; Schrank, " Fuessly's Neues Mag.," ii.,
p. 207 (in part) (1785) ; " Fauna Boica," ii., pt. 1, p. 239 (1801) ; Brahm, " Fuessly's
Neues Mag.," iii., p. 152 (1786); Bork., "Sys. Besch.," ii., pp. 12, 160 (1789);
" Rhein. Mag.." i., pp. 308, 630 (1793) ; Vieweg, " Tab. Verz.," p. 23 (1789) ; Hb.,
" Eur. Schmett.," p. 80. pi. v., fig. 31 (1797) ; " Verz.," p. 117 (? 1822) ; Haworth,
" Lep. Brit.," p. 73 (1803) ; Ochs.. " Die Schmett.," ii., p. 54 (1808) ; Godt., " Hist.
Nat.," iii., p. 127, pi. xxii., fig. 2 (1821) ; Stephs., " Illus.," i., p. 110 (1828) ; Bdv.,
" Mon. des Zyg.." p. 59, pi. iv., fig. 1 (1829); Curt., "Brit, Ent.," xii., pi. 547
(1835); Wood, "Ind. Ent.," p. 11 (1839); Zell., "Isis," 1839, p. 274; Evers.,
"Fauna Lep. Volg.-Ural.," p. 96 (1844); Assmn., " Abbild. Besch. Schmett.
Schles.," ii., p. 11 (1845) ; H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," ii., p. 42 (1845) ; Kayser,
" Deutsch. Schmett.," p. 175 (1852-9); Sta., "Man.," ii., p. 81 (1857); Speyer,
" Geog. Verb. Schmett.," p. 348 (1858) ; Hein.. " Schmett. Deutsch.," p. 163 (1859) ;
Wallgrn., " Skand. Het.," p. 101 (1863) ; Lucas, " Hist. Nat.," 2nd Ed., p. 154
(1864) ; Snellen, " De Vlinders," p. 126 (1867) ; Nolck., " Lep. Fn. Estl.," i., p. 99
(1868); Newm., "Brit. Moths," p. 24 (? 1869); Staud., " Hor. Soc. Ent. Ross.,"
vii., p. 103 (1870, pubd. 1871) ; " Cat.," p. 47 (1871) ; Briggs, " Trans. Ent. Soc.
508 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Lond.," p. 420(1871) ; Mill., " Cat. Lep. Alp.-Mar.," p. 126 (1872) ; Curo, "Bull.
Soc. Ent. Ital.," vii., p. 198 (1875) ; Frey, " Mitt. Schw. Ent. Ges.," iv., p. 225
(1874) ; " Lep. der Schweiz," p. 68 (1880) ; " Mitt. Schw. Ent. Ges.," vii., pp. 13-
17 (1884) ; Kirby, " Eur. Butts.," etc., p. 91, pi. xxi., figs. 10, a-b (1879) ; " Cat. Lep.
Het.," p. 70 (1892); "Handbook," etc., p. 94 (1897); Sand, "Cat. Lep. Auv.,"
p. 23 (1879) ; Fritsch, " Denks. Math. Nat. Cl. Akad. Wiss.,"xli., pp. 62-3 (1879) ;
Peyer., " Cat. Lep. Als.," 2nd Ed., p. 48 (1880); Schneider, " Tromso Mus.
Mitt. Sch. Ent. Ges.," vi. p. 45 (1880) ;
Selys-Long.. " C. 11. Ent. Soc. Belg ,r
Aarsheft.," iii., pp. 85-86 (1880) ; Christ, " Mitt.
Schoyen, "Norg. Ark. Lep.," p. 172 (1881); Sel
p. cxiv (1882) ; Bobs., "Young Nat.," iv., p.
p. cxiv (1HH2) ; Kobs., " Xoung JNat.," iv., p. 161 (1883); Oberth., "Lep. des
Pyr.," p. 31 (1884) ; " Var. chez Lep.," pp. 43-5 (1896); Buck., " Larvce," etc..
ii., p. 97, pi. xix., fig. 4 (1887) ; Hofmn., " Die Gross-Schmett.," p. 35 (1887) ; " Die
llaupen," etc., p. 37 (1893); Auriv., " Nord. Fjiir.," p. 53(1888); Barr., " Lep.
Brit.," ii., p. 133, pi. Ix (1894) ; Meyr., " Handbook," etc., p. 447 (1895) ; Caradja,
" Iris," viii., p. 73 (1895) ; Tutt, " Brit. Moths," p. 351 (1896) ; " Ent. Rec.," ix.,
pp.88, 103; Beutti, "Lep. Bad.," 2"hd Ed., p. 45(1898). Filipendnla, Poda,
" Mus. Grace.," p. 82 (1761). Aries, Retz., " Gen. Sp. Ins.." p. 35 (1783).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Sphinx. Alls superioribus cyaneis : punctis
sex rubris ; inferioribus rubris immaculatis (Linn6, Systema Naturae,
10th Ed., p. 494).
IMAGO. — Anterior wings 25-39 mm. in expanse ; bronzy-green
(varying in depth) in colour ; six bright crimson spots, the 6th
usually well-defined and separate from the 5th. Posterior wings
crimson, with a narrow, dark, marginal band.
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — The size variation in the two sexes is usually
well marked, the males being distinctly smaller on the average than
the females. A series of Hartlepool specimens gives the following
measurements : $ s 25 mm. -84 mm., 5 s 29'5 mm.-37'5 mm. ; from
Deal, $ s 29'5 mm. -36 mm., ?s 81-5 mm. -39 mm. ; from Sligo, <?s
33 mm. -34-5 mm., ? s 84-5 mm.-87'5 mm. ; from Dover, 27'5 mm.-
33-5 mm., $ s 33-5 mm. -38-5 mm. The sexual variation in colour in
the specimens we have is comparatively slight, all the females in our
possession being of a very distinct bronzy-green tint, the males being
of a rather deeper hue ; a specimen of blue-green colour is apparently
rare, and we have no British examples of a distinct purplish hue in a very
long series. The males of the Alpine oclisenheiweri have frequently blue-
green fore-wings, and the males of Fletcher's hybrid oc/ixenltciinai
X filipendulae are also of a blue-green tint in a large proportion of
specimens, whilst some Tyrolean examples of ochsenheimeri have quite
purplish males, and even the females incline to the same tint. Blue-
green males are not unusual in A. MppocrepidiK, St., which seems to
follow A. trifolii in its sexual variation. The males of A. filipendulat
have, usually, a broader hind-marginal band to the hind- wings than
the females.
VARIATION. — The forms of this insect that have almost attained
specific rank (having independent life-cycles and habits), such as
ochsenheimeri, Zell., and hippocrepidis, Stephs., are dealt with at length
later. Apart from these races (or sub-species), however, A.fdipendidac
presents some marked tendencies to vary, not only in the arrangement
of the normal red spots of the fore-wings, but also in their tint, the
latter peculiarity being shared with the red hind-wings. Of its general
variation in Scotland, Home notes that he obtains A. fdipendidae QJ\ the
Kincardineshire coast, and that " examples with 5 + 6 confluent are not
uncommon, and occasional individuals also have 8 + 4 united, but the
latter are rare ; in one specimen 8 + 4 + 5+6 form a single blotch.
All Kincardine examples have bluish-green fore-wings (not brassy-
ANTHBOCEKA FILIPENDUL^E. 509
green, as observable in English specimens)," but Reid writes that all
Scotch examples that he has seen "have the ground-colour of a
greenish hue, and the red has a slight tinge of yellow, the spots not
nearly so clearly defined as in most English examples, and 5 + 6
usually more or less united." Adkin records specimens from Suther-
land, 2,000ft. elevation, that are indistinguishable from Sussex
examples, even the size being well up to the average. Kane records
a small race as occurring in Monaghan in 1893, with very small red
blotches on the fore-wings, and a tendency to confluence between 1-2,
3-4 and 5-6, and one may add here that, apart from the small race
separately described as hippocrepidis, Stephs., some examplesof otherwise
typical A. fdipendulae are very small, expanding sometimes only from
25-28 mm. (= ab. minor, n. ab.) ; they are usually taken with the type,
have peculiarly narrow wings, and are undoubtedly a result of defective
nutrition in the larval stage. Caradja says that in Boumania the
specimens, generally, have the hind-wings more broadly margined
with black than those of typical examples, whilst amongst the
typical specimens a very small form with light green fore-wings
occurs on dry ground. He adds that " just such a form, but
with five spots, has been observed at Hermannstadt, in South Russia,
and the Caucasus." Nolcken observes that the specimens from
the Baltic provinces vary much in size, the colour of the fore-
wings greenish or bluish, the border of the hind-wings variable
in width. Snellen says that specimens from the coast dunes of
Holland are larger (reaching to more than 42 mm.) than those from
the inland provinces (reaching from 23-87 mm.), they also have more
glossy fore-wings, and larger spots of somewhat more fiery carmine-
red colour. Examples from the south of Limburg are peculiar in the
almost blue ground colour of the fore-wings. Wallengren notes two
aberrations as occurring in Scandinavia : (a) Anterior wings with
yellow-green ground colour. (6) The spots on the fore-wings more
or less confluent. In the southern Alps a race (or species) with spot
6 rather small and ill-developed in the male, known as ochsenheimeri,
Zell., is found, attaining a considerable size in the warm southern
valleys. This forms, in part, Staudinger's var. dubia, a 5-spotted
species (medica</inis, Bdv., ante, p. 470) being erroneously combined
therewith by this author to constitute the latter variety. Frey had
specimens from Sicily, sent under the name ochsenheimeri, which were
rather small, strikingly pale, but otherwise ordinary, A. fdipendulae.
The normal spotting in this species, consists of 6 separate red spots.
It frequently happens, however, that one or more pairs are confluent,
in some examples the outer pair (5 + 6), in others 3 + 4 orl + 2,
whilst in many examples 1 + 2, 3 + 4 and 5 + 6 are united in pairs,
so that the 6 spots form but 8 (= ab. cytisi, Hb.). The spots, how-
ever, occasionally unite longitudinally (ante, p. 425). Among these
confluent forms we find certain very distinct types, of which the
rarest is the union of 2 + 4, 8 + 5, these spots with 1 forming three
wedge-shaped blotches, similar to those existing normally in A. pur- .
puralis ; this we call ab. trii-ittata, n. ab. We have one example
with the left fore-wing of the trivittata form, the right normal. More
frequently 2 + 8 + 4 unite to form a single blotch, leaving 1, 5 and 6
separate (= ab. conjiuens, Oberth.). Bayne notes one, from Sandwich,
with 1 + 2 + 8 + 4 united, 5 and 6 being separate (= ab. bipunctata,
510 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
Selys). Sometimes 3 + 4 + 5+6 form one blotch separate from
1 and 2 (= ab. conununimacula, Selys), whilst in the most extreme
forms 1 + 2+3 + 4 + 5 + 6 form a single irregular blotch (= ab.
conjuncta, n. ab.) ; other intermediate stages also occur. Adkin
notices the capture of a specimen at Folkestone, 1892, with 6 reduced
to a mere dot ; Hawes, two examples, bred from pupae, obtained July,
1876, on the railway banks at Oakleigh Park, in both of which 3, 4 and
5 are absent, and 1 and 2 much contracted ; whilst Battley obtained
an example at Bere Eegis with 3 reduced to a dot, and 6 distinctly
bisected by a nervure. South notes an apparently apterous $ from a
pupa obtained at Folkestone, and Chapman, one from Hereford, with
the larval head (compare, ante, p. 428), the latter not having been
successfully moulted at the pupal change (tint. I\ec., iv., p. 242).
With regard to the colour variation of this species, the most extreme
form is of a clear yellow (= ab. Jiava, Robson), others are of a distinct
orange hue (ab. aurantia, n. ab.), others, again, of a red, entirely
different from the type, described as " terra-cotta," distinctly inter-
mediate between the orange and the crimson forms (= ab. intermedia,
n. ab.). Jagger records an example, from St. Ives, with one hind-
wing orange, the other red ; whilst Robson notices another with one
hind-wing yellow, the other normally tinted. A form which suggests
a pathological failure of pigment has the ordinary crimson, of a pale
pinkish hue, often with a trace of yellow in it (— ab. miniata, n. ab.).
Fish records an example from Birkenhead, in which the yellow is
tinged with pink. Turner bred pale pink forms from pupas obtained
in 1888, at Reigate, and Skinner, bred examples from Caterham larvae, in
1887, with pink instead of crimson. Webb breeds specimens, at
Dover, showing gradations of pink in the colour of the hind-wings.
Harwood obtains the most interesting examples of these intermediate
forms, at Colchester, and we are indebted to him for specimens and
information. He does not capture the purely yellow form (= stb.flara),
but obtains the orange form ( = ab. aurantia), the red form described by
various writers as " salmon-red," or "terra-cotta " red (= ab. inter-
mcilia), and the type. He also obtains the paler, pinkish form, (= ab.
miniata), which might be mistaken for a washed-out ab. intermedia^
were not the examples in fine condition ; almost every possible inter-
mediate form between yellow and crimson can possibly be obtained.
Most of the Colchester aberrations were taken in 1891 and 1892, the
aberrant specimens emerging from the pupa later than the normally
coloured ones, pink and orange forms in those years being not
uncommon ; in 1892, too, the greatest year for the aberrations, there
were many dwarfs, which were otherwise fairly typical. In 1893, the
species was almost entirely absent, in 1894 and 1895 it was rare, but
in 1896 the species (and the aberrations) appeared to be recovering
lost ground, whilst in 1897 the property changed hands, and has
since been almost ruined entomologically. In 1891, the cocoons
were found high up on the grass culms, and in exposed situations ; in
later years very few were so exposed, the majority being situated low
down among the herbage. Robson says that at Hartlepool " the yellow
form is pale honey colour, and although some of Harwood's examples
might be called Jlara, others are of a quite fiery-orange hue ; a dull pink
form also occurs at Hartlepool, which is very distinct in character."
The records of intermediate forms are rarely sufficiently definite for one
ANTHROCERA FILIPENDUL^. 511
to judge whether the true " orange " form (= ab. aurantia) is meant, or
the fiery orange-red form (= ab. intermedia). Richardson says (E.M.M.,
xxv., p. 290), that he has found the intermediate, almost orange forms,
very uncommon. Oberthiir notes that he has four examples of a
rosy-orange colour, all from England. Jagger records the capture of
an orange form in July, 1869, at St. Ives. Fish notes that the
orange-red or brick-red form varies in tint at Birkenhead, some
approaching the normal form, others being decidedly different from it.
Adkin exhibited, at the meeting of the South London Ent. Society, on
November 25th, 1892, examples showing colour gradations between
red and yellow. Hodges notes that he found in South Devon, in
August, 1898, five of the intermediate yellow form, similar to those
sent out by Harwood. One can hardly imagine the real appearance of
the insects, so badly defined (Ent., vi., p. 363) by Forbes as being
partly red and partly yellow. It may be well to notice here that
Richardson obtained, at Cambridge, a red specimen with a tendency to
yellow. The scales on this specimen were seen (under the microscope)
to be of a pale brick-dust colour, fewer than usual, especially on the hind-
wings, which, when viewed with the naked eye, appeared to be of a
paler and browner tint than those of typical specimens. The latter,
from the Cambridge chalk-pit, usually have here and there light brick-
dust coloured scales among the bright red ones, but he states that he
has not seen any yellow scales on red specimens, nor brick-dust coloured
scales on yellow ones. Tugwell had a beautiful specimen, in which the
yellow shades off through orange to the usual tint. Hodgkinson
notes examples that are more orange than yellow. The rarest colour
aberration probably is the one in which the red is changed to brown =
ab. chryfianthemi, Bork. ; forms approaching this are recorded from
Swansea (Holland) and Paris (Oberthiir). Pathological leucochroism
also occurs, a failure of pigment sometimes resulting in aberrations
similar to ab. yrisescens, Oberth. The red of the hind- wings is fre-
quently broken into by irregular patches of orange, some examples
suggesting strongly a want of vitality in the larval stage, others being
fairly normal in appearance, except for this peculiarity. The variation
in the width of the marginal border of the hind-wings has occasionally
attracted attention. Battley records, from Bere Regis, an example
in which the border was extended so as to occupy almost the
whole of the wing, whilst Cooper notes that, in North Devon, he ob-
tained examples that exhibited a considerable range of variation in
this direction.
a. ab. cytisi, Hb., " Eur. Schmett.," p. 81, fig. 26 (? 1797) ; Staud., " Cat.,"
p. 47 (1871) ; " Hor. Ent. Soc. Boss.," viii., p. 103 (1870. pubd. 1871) ; Frey, " Lep.
der Schweiz," p. 08 (1880) ; Selys, " C. R. Soc. Ent. Belg.," p. cxiii (1882) ; Lampa,
•• Ent. Tids.," vi., p. 30 (1885) ; Hoffmn., " Die Gross-Schmett.," p. 35 (1887) ; Auriv.,
" Nord. Fjar,," p. 53(1888); South, "Entom.," xxiv., p. 233 (1891); Caradja.
" Iris," viii., p. 73 (1895) ; Reutti. " Lep. Bad.," 2nd Ed., p. 45 (1898). ? Loti.
Bork., " Sys. Besch.,"ii., p. 28 (1789) ; Esp., " Die Schmett.," p. 224, pi. xxxv.,
fig. 1 (? 1789) ; Kirby, " Cat. Lep. Het.,"p. 70 (1892).— No. 17. Geisskleeschwarmer,
Sphinx cytisi. Sph. 26, mas. Glossy green-black ; the fore-wings with six carmine-
red spots united in pairs, the hind-wings, except on the outer margin, red. ,
Habitat : Bavaria, Swabia, and probably the whole of Germany. Syn : Sphinx loti,
Esp. (Hiibner).
We strongly suspect that loti, Borkhausen and Esper, is the same
insect as cytisi, Hiibner, but no certainty on the point can be estab-
lished. It is the Jilipendulae var. b of Dalman and Wallengren (in
512 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
rat
1-V.O
part), the latter diagnosing it as: "Alarum anticarum maculis aut
per paria aut omnibus confluentibus," so that he also includes the
ab. conjuncta. Staudinger diagnoses it as: "Maculis, in mac. 3
magnis confluentibus," and later notes that on the Parnassus and
Veluchi specimens occur " not rarely, in which, not only the two outer,
but also the two central, red spots are united, each pair forming a
larger roundish spot, these only differ from ramburii in the different
tint of red, which is lighter in the latter." The aberration appears to
be generally distributed with the type in Britain and on the Conti-
nent, varying in different localities in the proportion it bears to the
type, and being more abundant in some years than others. The
following continental records have been noted (among many others) :
Belgium: nearly as common as .,the type (Selys). France: Cancale
(Oberthiir), June 21st, 1898, Le Havre (Dupont), Nohant (Sand),
rather common in the Rheims dist., Berru, Sillery (Demaison).
Germany : Freiburg, Lahr, Karlsruhe, Weinheim, singly (Reutti).
Italy: with the type (Cur6). Roumania : Several at Kloster Neamtz,
Varatic, Grumazesti, Azuga (Caradja). Russia : rather common in
the Baltic provinces (Nolcken). Scandinavia : rare (Aurivillius).
Switzerland : singly at Bellinzona (Meisner), Zurich (Frey), Gad-
menthal, more abundant on the Simplon, and on the turf-moors at
Siselen (Ratzer).
/3. ab. confluens, Oberth., "Etudes," etc., livr. xx., " Var. chez Lep.," p. 45,
pi. viii., fig. 132 (1896). — This example illustrates the form in which confluence of
the spots of the fore-wings occurs, 2 + 3 + 4 being united, 1, 5, 6 being separate ;
seven analogous examples from England. The confluence of the spots of the
anterior wings commences at the base, and not at the extremity, whilst in A.
trifolii, on the contrary, the confluence usually appears to commence at the apex
rather than at the base. Confluent aberrations are much rarer in this species than
in A. trifolii (Oberthiir).
The aberrations with confluent spots are not common in the
British Islands, but are taken occasionally with the type. Fletcher
bred a long series of confluent forms during 1896 and 1897, from
parents captured at Deal, that showed a tendency in this direction.
After two years inbreeding, most of the progeny were more or less
blotched, 22 examples sent to us from this stock exhibiting the follow-
ing forms : ab. cytisi (1 + 2, 3 + 4, 5 + 6), ab. confluent (1,2 + 3 + 4,
5, 6 or 1, 2 + 3 + 4, 5 + 6), ab. procoHjteau (I, 2 + 8 + 4 + 5, 6),
and ab. qwinqHejuncta (1, 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6), being among the
progeny. Webb notes the form (confluens) as occurring at Dover. South,
one approaching this form from Folkestone with a projection from
2 towards 8 + 4. No doubt most collectors have occasionally taken
this or the allied aberrations.
7. ab. bipunctata, Selys, " C. K. Soc. Ent. Belg.," p. cxiv (1882).— The basal
and median spots united by a band. The two posterior spots well separated, as in
the type ; only one example, captured at Longchamps-sur-Geer.
It occurs occasionally in the British Islands. Briggs records it
from Folkestone.
S. ab. coiniiiunimacula, Selys, " Comptes B. Ent. Soc. Belg.," p. cxiv (1882). —
The median and posterior spots large, confluent two by two, communicating, more-
over, by a band running along the costa, and thus forming a single irregular blotch,
but this blotch remains separated from the double basal spot by a very narrow space.
This aberration is the opposite to the ab. bifi/incttita, and nearly represents that
which exists in the ab. minoides of A. trifolii. Described from two examples
( <? and ? ) captured this year at Longchamps-sur-Geer, about June 20th (Selys).
e. ab. conjunct a, n. ab. — The six red spots of the fore- wings united into one
large longitudinal blotch. Found rarely with the type.
ANTHEOCERA FILIPENDULffi. 518
Hiibner first figured (Eur. Schmett., fig. 166) the form of this
species in which 5 + 6 are joined to the central and basal spots, but
in his figure, 2 is separated from 1 by a fine green nervure, the formula
being 1 + 3 + 4 + 5+6 and 2. The figure represents a male, and
the blotch is not quite symmetrical on both sides ; 1 stretches along
the costa, joining 3 which reaches costa, 3 is joined to 4 + 6, and 5
united to 6. Hind-wings with a rather wide marginal border.
Oberthtir notes that he has taken two specimens at Cancale with the
spots confluent throughout , the whole length of the wing.
f. ab. grisescem, Oberth.," Etudes," etc., livr. xx., " Var. chez Lep.," p. 45,
pi. viii., fig. 135 (1896).— The upper wings of a pale greyish-blue, the hind-wings of a
very pale rose tint in place of the normal red colour. England (Oberthiir).
The specimen appears to be, judging from the figure, a patholo-
gical aberration, little pigmented, having lost the rich depth of tint
that characterises the type. Bouttell records the capture of a " pale
form " at Leigh, Essex, in 1890, which may belong here.
77. ab. flava, Eobson, "Young Nat.," v., p. 236 (1884); Oberth., " Var. chez
Lep.," p. 43, pi. viii., fig. 133 (1896). Cerinus, Eobs. and Gard., " List Brit. Lep.."
p. 7 (? 1885) ; South, "Entom.," xxiv., p. 233 (1891) ; Bobs., Ibid., p. 296. Lutes-
ccns, CklL, " Entorn.," xx., p. 151 (1887) ; Tutt, " Brit. Moths," p. 352 (1896) ;
Smart, " Ent. Rec.," x., p. 227 (1898). Citrinus, Webb, " Ent. Record," i., p. 33
(1890). — The hind-wings, and spots on fore-wings yellow (Robson).
Oberthiir makes (Bull. Soc. Ent. France, 1887, p. Ixxvi) some brief
remarks on certain yellow specimens of A. filipendulae, bought at the
sale of Sheppard's collection — four belonged to a small race, and were
rather specialised, their colour might be called " lutea " (? — hippo -
crepidis, Stephs.) ; three others were of a larger race, and of a clearer
yellow tint that might be termed " flava." Madingley chalk-pit was
the once famous locality for the yellow forms of this species, but
even the type is now practically extinct there, about 20 years ago
one collector took over 200 pupae in one day, 60 of which produced the
yellow form ; as the chalk-pit is quite a small one, this wholesale
collecting no doubt exterminated the species there (Farren) ; six
examples bred from cocoons collected near Cambridge, in 1876
(Bairstow). Richardson notes (E.M.M., xxv., p. 290) that he
collected about 700 pupae from a chalk-pit near Cambridge, and bred
five or six examples of the yellow aberration, the area over which the
colony was spread being confined to the old chalk-pit. He further
records the aberration as occurring on some of the downs at Win-
chester (July, 1874, etc.), and finds it very uniformly pale yellow
in colour. He notes also its occurrence at Ridgeway, and on some
hills at a short distance from Weymouth. The yellow aberration
does not appear to occur at Worthing, for Fletcher, on one evening,
•collected 1,200 cocoons, but did not breed a single yellow one.
The following records have been noticed : — Somewhat abundant
at Winchester in 1868, again in 1872, also in some plenty July
14th, 1873, bred specimens in 1875, and again bred several in
1876 (Forbes) ; a cream-coloured one at Egg Buckland, nr. Plymouth
(F. Briggs) ; one on the Laird Embankment, about two miles from
Plymouth (ante 1873, T. R. Briggs), single specimens from Caterham,
first week in August, 1871 (Wells), nr. Finchley, 1873 (Thomas), nr.
Maidstone, July, 1873 (Elgar), one nr. Maidstone (Ponton), Cuxton
(Walker), Folkestone (Anderson), Newbury (Sladen), one, bred, at
Thorley, also occurs in the Sunderland district (Hodgkinson), Box
514 BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
Hill (Cockerell), one emerged August 23rd, 1888, from pupa obtained
August 6th, 1888, at Mudstone Bay, Brixham (James), not uncom-
mon, three in 1878, and several since, caught and bred, at Hartlepool
(Robson), yellow examples, bred July 2nd and 3rd, 1881, at Hartle-
pool (Dixon), Lyme Regis in 1890, breeds regularly every year
(Battley, Ent. Eec., v., p. 280), several at Compton Bay, Isle of
Wight (Hodges), four, July, 1891, on the undercliff, Brooke, Isle of
Wight (Abbott), several in 1886, taken in Kent (Sabine, Proc. Sth.
Lond. Ent. Soc., 1886, p. 61), six bred from July 25th-Angust 7th,
from cocoons obtained at Wrotham, July 20th, 1898 (Smart). It
does not appear to be recorded abroad, Oberthur has 15 examples, all
British.
6. ab. chrysanthemi, Bork., " Sys., Besch.," ii., p. 166, pi. i., fig. 1 (1789) ;
" Rhein. Mag.," i., p. 647 (1793) ; Esp., " Die Schmett.," ii., pi. xxxvii., fig. 1
(1789), supp. p. 1 (? 1806) ; Hb., "Eur. Schmett.," ii., pi. iii., fig. 17 (1803) ; Ochs.,
"Die Schmett.," ii., pp. 56-58 (1808); Bdv., " Mon. des Zyg.," p. 59 (1829);
H.-Sch., " Sys. Bearb.," ii., p. 42 (1845) ; Hein., " Schmett. Deutsch.," p.
163 (1859); Staud., "Cat.," p. 47(1871); Hofmn., "Die Gross-Schmett.," p.
35 (1887) ; South, ," Entom.." xxiv., p. 234 (1891) ; Kirby, " Cat. Lep. Het.," p. 70
(1892) ; Oberth., "Etudes," etc.. livr. xxth, p. 43, pi. viii., fig. 134, transitus
(1896). — S. chrysanthemi, der Wucherblumenschwarmer, der Schwarzfleck. Nigro-
cyanea ; alas anticse nigro-cyanese : maculis sex nigris ; alee posticse nigro-fuscse :
limbo tenuissimo cyaneo. Of the size and shape of S. filipendulae. Its body
is glossy steel-blue. The ground colour of the fore-wings varies between steel-
blue and green, with six blackish spots arranged in pairs. The hind- wings
are black-brown, and have a narrow steel-blue margin (Borkhausen).
Borkhausen obtained the aberration from Schneider, who took it
in the neighbourhood of Stralsund several years in succession, but
always with the common A. filipendulae. He named it chrysanthemi,
because the .spotted Burnets are fond of settling on the flowers of the
class of plants to which the Chrysanthemum belongs. Esper's figure
was also made from one of Schneider's insects. Esper quotes Bork-
hausen in his text, and there is no doubt that the latter's name is
prior to Esper's figure. Staudinger diagnoses the form as : " Ab.
maculis obfuscatis." Herrich-Schaffer describes it as having "the
spots reddish coffee -brown." Oberthur has three transitional forms
leading to ab. chrysanthemi, from Paris, etc., which, have the spots
and hind-wings pale brown, one of them being figured Etudes, xxth livr.,
fig. 134. Heinemann notes it from near Stettin. The following appear
to be the only British records of this rare aberration : (1) The speci-
men has not a particle of red colour about it ; the six spots on the
fore-wings dark brown, almost approaching black, the hind-wings of a
decided brown colour ; the ground colour of the fore-wings and
marginal border of the hind-wings much as usual. The specimen was
bred by Mr. Leslie (St. Leonard's-on-Sea), in 1864, from a larva taken
with others, from which typical specimens emerged (Cooper, E.M.3L, i.,
p. 143). (2) The fore- wings are of the usual dark green colour, the
spots being black ; the hind-wings are black, with a dark green
margin. The insect measures 1 " 2 '", and the spots are rather small.
Captured July 3rd, 1881, in Wyre Forest (Nowers, Entomologist, xv.,
p. 39). (3) The ground colour of anterior wings of the usual shiny
greenish-black, as is also the border of the posterior wings ; the spots
and ground colour of posterior wings of a dull black hue, thus showing
up very distinctly. Reared from pupse gathered at Fleetwood, in
1888. Two of these black aberrations emerged one morning in July
ANTHROCERA FILIPENDUL^E.
516
with about 20 of the ordinary form (Baxter, Entom. Record, i., p. 240).
(4) The fore-wings of the usual bluish-green colour, but the six spots
are all black instead of crimson, the hind-wings also black instead of
crimson, with the usual bluish-black border. Captured on July 15th,
1890, nr. Rhinefield, in the New Forest, whilst crawling up a stem of
grass (Goss, Ent. Mo. Mag., xxvi., p. 247). (5) The fore-wings
smoky-black, with green and rosy gloss showing ; the six spots black,
and apparently slightly raised ; the hind-wings dull black, captured
June 24th, 1892, in a field a few miles from Hastings, in which A,
filipendulae was swarming (Bird, Entom., xxv.,p. 194). (6 and 7) Two
specimens exhibited at meeting of Ent. Soc. of London, October 5th,
1892, one captured at Lancing, Sussex, by ? B. G. Bye, the other
in August, at Riddlesdown, by Mr. M. Holmes. (8) A specimen
approaching this form was taken in 1892, at Swansea, by Holland.
i. var. mannii, Henich-Schaffer, " Sys. Bearb.," vol. vi., p. 44, supp. figs.,
109-110(1851-2); Staud., " Cat.," p. 47 (1871); Curo, "Bull. Soc. Ent. Ital.,"
vii., p. 197 (1875); Frey, " Lep. der Schweiz," p. 68 (1880); Hofmn., "Die
Gross-Schmett.," etc., p. 35 (1887); South, "Entom.," xxiv., p. 233 (1891);
Kirby, " Cat. Lep. Het.," p. 70 (1892) ; nee Lampa, "Ent. Tids.." p. 30 (1885) ;
nee Auriv., " Nord. Fjiir.," p. 53 (1888).— .Z. mannii, Nick. (supp. figs. 109-110),
from Gross Glockner. Differs from its three nearest allies, A. filipendulae,
A. transalpina, and A. medicaginis, by its much shorter, less pointed antennas and
somewhat blunter fore-wings; its scaling somewhat more transparent, colour
duller, the red being especially more crimson than carmine, spots 3 and 4 stand
very obliquely under one another, much more so than in A. filipendulae and A.
transalpina, and nearer than in A. medicaginis, 6 is large, and stands as near to
5 as in A . filipendulae . On the underside a slight red shade is present, uniting the
spots. It differs from A. hippocrepidis and A. angelicae in the much duller red, and
the less dense character of the red shade on the underside of the fore-wings
(Herrich-Schaffer).
In the " Synonymic Index " (published at the end of 'the work, vol.
ii., p. 35), Herrich-Schaffer refers to mannii as a possible form of A.
filipendulae. Frey says that A. filipendulae gradually changes to var.
mannii in the mountains, transition forms occurring in the valleys of
the Upper Engadine, from S. Moritz to the Maloja Pass, whilst in
the higher alps it is the usual form, e.g., it is so in the Stelvio, in the
mts. near Zermatt (Frey), Gadmenthal (Rat/er) ; in Italian Alps
above 2,000 metres (Curo). Staudinger diagnoses it as: "var.
alpina, tenui squamata."
K. var. arctica, Schneider, " Trom. Mus. Aarsh.," iii., pp. 85-86 (1880) ;
Kirby, " Cat. Lep. Het.," p. 70 (1892). Mannii, Lampa, " Ent. Tids.," p. 30 (1885) ;
Auriv., "Nord. Fjiir.," p. 53 (1888).— In 1878, Gylche s^nt me examples of A.
mipendulae from Groto (68° N. lat.), others again, in 1879. This form, from
the most northerly limit of the species yet known, deserves a special name,
as it differs in a general way from southern examples. This race is more
thinly-scaled, which makes quite fresh examples appear dull and worn against
a light background, especially the red colour, which appears also somewhat paler
than in southern specimens, the scales also appear to be more loosely attached.
On the average it is smaller, more slenderly built, the fore-wings more blue
than in A. filipendulae, and the red spots smaller (although in one example
the spots are united, and the blue ground colour is practically confined to the
margin). On the other hand, there appears to be no difference in the shape of the
wings, antennas, nor in the dark margin of the hind-wings, except that the latter is
perhaps rather narrower than in the type form. The description of the Alpine var. '
mannii, H.-Sch., in Heinemann, does not agree with the Arctic form, although I,
at first, thought it would. It would be interesting to have these side by side for
comparison (Schneider).
A. var. ochsenheimeri, Zell., "Isis,"1847, pp. 303-307 ; Staud., "Cat., "p. 47
(1871); Frey, " Lep. der Schweiz," p. 68 (1880); " Mitt. Sch. Ent. Ges.," vii., p. 17
(1887) ; Hofmn., " Die Gross-Schmett.," p. 35 (1887) ; " Kirby," Cat. Lep. Het.," p.
516 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
70 (1892); Tutt, " Proc. Sth. Lond. Ent. Soc.," pp. 111-113 (1895): " Ent.
Eec.," ix.. pp. 69, 87-88, 103, 166, 170-171 (1897) ; South, " Entom.," xxiv., p.
233, in part (1891), nee Boden, " Entom.," xviii., p. 317 (1885). Tr<ni*ttlpin<i,
Hb., "Eur. Schmett.," figs. 15 <? , 19 ? (1803), Ochs., "Die Schmett.," p. GO
(1808); Bdv., " Mon. Zyg.," p. 83, pi. iv., fig. 3 (1829); " Icones," ii., p.
67, pi. liv., fig. 10 (1834) ; Dup., " Hist. Nat.," supp. ii., pi. vi., fig. 1 (1835) ;
Speyer, " Geog. Verb. Schmett.," i., p. 462 (1858). Filipendulae-major, Esp.,
" Schmett. Eur.," pi. xli., fig. 4, p. 19 (1789).— Zyyaena atra, alis anticis nigro-
cyaneis, maculis sex connatis rubris subtus confluentibus ; posticis rubris margine
sinuato cyaneo. Usually as large as A. jilipendulae, sometimes considerably
larger. The fore-wings broader, more rounded, but not so much so as in A. medi-
caginis (i.e., Ochs. nee Bdv.) Head, thorax and abdomen greenish-black, the
antennae with fine brownish tips, the legs yellowish beneath. The fore-wings
blackishr-blue with a greenish lustre, concolorous fringes, the spots nearly equal
in size, those of each pair so close together that they almost touch, the basal spots
shorter than those of A. Jilipendulae ; cfn the underside a red shade unites them,
and makes them appear confluent. The hind-wings broader than those of A.
iilipendnlae and less convex, the marginal border broader, and encroaching on
the ground colour ; in the ? narrower. Italy and southern France (Ochsenheimer).
We have here given Ochsenheimer's description, because Zeller
distinctly refers the name ochsenheimeri to this description, although
the striking character of a small 6th spot mentioned by the latter is
not noticed by Ochsenheimer. After stating that several species had
been distributed under the name of tramalpina, e.tj., Hiibner's figs.
15-16, Esper's pi. xli., fig. 4 (the description on p. 19 suggests a
different species from the figure), and Ochsenheimer's insect (Die
Schmett., p. 60), Zeller names the latter ochtenheuneri, and states that
his own examples agree so accurately with Ochsenheimer's description,
that he unhesitatingly refers them there, and, as the name tramalpina
is not available, he re-names it oclwenlieimeri. Zeller distinguishes
ochsenheimeri from medicaginis, Ochs. (to which he refers charon, Bdv.,
Mon. des Zyg., p. 65, pi. iv., fig. 4) by the following characters :
(1) The deeper red which resembles that of A. Jilipendulae. (2) The
less sharp definition of the larger (? outer) spots. (3) The less finely
pointed tip of the thicker antennae. He considers that ochsenheimeri
cannot be A. Jilipendulae, to which, otherwise, he was inclined to refer
it, because its wings are in general much shorter, the marginal border
of the hind-wings (especially of the 5 ) broader, and the red area on
the underside of the fore-wings more limited and more densely scaled.
He further notes it as variable in size, but rather larger than A. jili-
pendulae, the antennae with a thicker club, more coarse base, and a
shorter tip, the outer joint of which is sometimes reddish. The
ground colour of the male is usually very bright steel-blue, rarely with
a stronger tendency to green, whilst in the female the opposite is the
case. The spots of the fore-wings and the hind-wings are of the same
colour as those of A. filipendulae, and the spots have also the same
form, but the 6th spot is small, and the nervure that passes through
it is more often of the ground colour than red, like the spot. The
marginal border of the hind-wings in the male broader than in A. Jili-
pendulae, in the female it is narrower, and on several of the nervures
runs finely inwards. On the underside- of the fore-wings a red shade,
variable in width and intensity, runs from the base to the outer pair of
spots, the spots, however, being distinguishable. Zeller caught a male at
Syracuse, on the heights of Epipolae, on April 26th, and the first J in a
valley north-west of Epipolae ; other examples, worn, were taken at
Syracuse, on May 10th, in a grassy hollow on scabious flowers, and
ANTHKOCERA
odd specimens throughout May. One worn female was found paired
with a male A. erythrus. On a flowery hill at Tolentino, on September
6th, he caught four very small males in moderately good condition, and
on September llth, at Ancona, near the sea, several very worn males,
and one very fine female. These differ from the Sicilian examples
only by their small size ( $ = 1", ? = 1" If" , against $ = 1" 4'" , $
1" 6£"' ) and more pointed fore-wings. In two males the 6th spot is
exceptionally small, and the blue very bright. These specimens,
Zeller says, are " obviously a second generation of ocfisenheimeri," and
show that this insect varies in shape, etc. ; he suspects that it is in-
'Huenced by the soil and more northern climate, but thinks that the
Italian examples are nearer typical A. filipendulae than the Sicilian,
and adds that " so little is known of the latter species that one is un-
able to say that it does not go through transitions that lead up com-
pletely to the ochsenheimeri of the last-named locality." Esper's
figure of filipendulae-major was drawn from examples received by
Gerning from southern France. The two sexes, he says, " only differ
in the prevalence of blue or green, and the larger size of the female.
There appears to be no difference in the tint and position of the six red
spots, but the hind-wings have a broader margin than in A. filipen-
didae." Esper was inclined to consider it distinct, owing to its
constantly larger size, and the wider marginal border of the hind-
wings. Palumbo and Tedaldi accept [Nat. Sic., vii., pp. 154-155
(1888)] ochsenheimeri as a form of A. filipendulae, and describe it as
" larger and redder than the type, met with by Bellier, Mann, Zeller
and Kalchberg, in addition to the localities already mentioned, at
Taormina, Favorita and Syracuse." Bellier notices that " in this
variety the spots are placed as in A. filipendulae, but somewhat
nearer to the costa, and constantly smaller." Mann notes that " the
larvae of ochsenheimeri (fylipendulae var.) from Sicily, are not rare on
Onobrychu at the end of April. The cocoon is long and white, with
silky gloss. The moth appears in mid-June, the colour of the fore-
wings steel-blue, densely scaled, the hind-wings deep red with a broad
blue-black border and fringes, whilst A. filipendulae is steel-green,
the hind-wings carmine-red with narrow black border." Staudinger
diagnoses it as : " var. major, saturatius rubra," and gives its distri-
bution as " Italy, southern France, southern Alpine valleys, Greece,
? Pontus." Frey notes it as " about as large as the type, sometimes
larger, corresponding with the type in habits and the spots on the
fore-wing, although the black marginal border of the hind-wing is
broader; recorded from Bechburg (Stehlin), south side of Simplon,
Crevola, etc. (Christ)." Later he remarks (Mitt. Sch. Ent. Oes., vii.,
p. 17), that " the antennae of the male are decidedly longer and per-
haps more slender" (Zeller says they are "coarser"); he further
considers ochsenheimeri to be not exclusively the southern form,
as he has "received typical examples of A. filipendulae from Sicily."
Hormuzaki notes the variety as occurring on the mountains of
Bucovina. Christ remarks that hybrid mingling of ocJisenJieimeri and
A. lonicerae may occur, but he does not believe the five-spotted ochsen-
heimeri to be hybrids. Evidently this is another instance of the mixing
of ochsenheimeri and medicayinis, Bdv. (vide p. 470). Zapater records it in
August from Teruel. Boisduval, who distinguished it from A. fili-
pendulae by the broader marginal border to the hind-wings and by its
5 18 6RITISH LEt>lDOt>TEfcA.
larger size, noted it from Sicily, and the parts of Italy nearest Pied-
mont. Duponchel captured it very commonly near Rome. This variety
(? species), with spot 6 ill-developed in the male, appears well distributed
in all the warm Alpine valleys. Oberthiir obtains it in the Pyrenees.
We have captured it in abundance in Piedmont, Courmayeur, and the
Tyrol (Mendel Pass). At Aix-les-Bains the form appears transitional,
and we are unable to distinguish between many continental examples
and occasional aberrations found in Britain with the type. Fletcher
has crossed (Ent; Rec., ix., pp. 69-70) oclisenlieimeri from Courmayeur
\viihjilijjendulae from Sussex, and found the progeny perfectly fertile
inter se. Some of the hybrid males, however, showed very marked
oclisenlieimeri characters.
fj.. var. ramburii, Led., " Wien. Ent..Monats.," v., pp. 151-152, pi. i., fig. 10
(May, 1861) ; H.-Sch., " Neu. Schmett.," iii., p. 32, figs. 161-162 (Jan., 1861,
? ante-dated) ; Stand., " Hor. Soc. Ent. Ross.," 1870, p. 103 ; " Cat.." p. 47 (1871) ;
Hofmn.," Die Gross-Schmett.," p. 35 (1887) ; South, «« Entom.," xxiv., p. 233 (1891) ;
Kirby, " Cat. Lep. Het.," p. 71 (1892).— A. ramburii varies much, is somewhat
smaller than ordinary examples of A. filipendnlae, somewhat blunter-winged
(Herrich-Schaffer's figures show this even better than Lederer's), like the alpine var.
mannii, which it also resembles in its pale colour. The body and fore-wings steel-
blue, the antennee with narrow clubs, and a finer apex. Spots 3 and 4 are, as a
rule, confluent, 5 and 6 united into an ill-defined blotch, formed as in A . achillcae,
intersected by the darker nervure 5 ; the spots on the underside are united by a
red shade. Hind-wings narrow, with a glassy transparent area, at the base of the
inner median nervure. Aberrations occur which are remarkable for the greater or
less intensity of the red tint, and for the difference in the arrangement of the spots.
In one extreme the spots are all separate, 6 very weak or (in one specimen) wanting.
In some specimens the basal and central, or even all the spots, are united by longi-
tudinal streaks, whilst the extremes in the other direction have the whole wing-
surface occupied by the red colour, but the most extreme aberrations in both
directions are, relatively, rare. More than 100 specimens collected at Antioch
(Lederer).
Lederer, in spite of the differences here enumerated, suspected that
ramburii vf&s only a local form of A.filipendulae,a,nd. the transparent area
on the hind-wing, together with the general appearance of the insect, alone
decided him to describe it as a species. Herrich-Schaffer describes speci-
mens received from Lederer, and states that the difficulty of separating the
insect from A. filipendulae becomes greater the more numerous the
specimens actually examined. He considers it to be " as a rule, smaller
than A. filipendulae, its ground colour darker, bluer, the red thicker,
the scaling denser (on the underside the spots are connected by a
rather strong red shade), the 6th spot scarcely noticeable, and never
placed so far back towards the outer border as in A. filipendulae, so
that, on the whole, both pairs of spots appear more approximated. In
the form of the wings and width of margin on hind-wings no differ-
ence is observable. Of 19 examples compared there are only six
females, one with entirely normal markings, another (fig. 162) with
completely confluent spots both above and beneath ; between these
extremes, however, are a number of transitions in both sexes, in which,
first of all, the 2nd and 3rd pairs of spots unite, and then longitudinal
rays appear between these and the 1st pair. In one example, 5 is
round and placed beside the extremely weak 6." Staudinger diagnoses
it as : " Maculis 6 in mac. 3 magnis confluentibus et al. post, miniaceis,
Syr. ; Graec. (ab.)," and in the Hor. Ent. Soc. Ross., viii., p. 103, notes
examples from the Parnassus and Veluchi as " only differing from
ramburii in the different tint of red, which is lighter in the latter,"
and he adds that " since little importance can be attached to difference
ANTflBOCEfiA FILiPENDtfL^E. 519
in wing form, the lighter colour is insufficient to separate the two
forms as species."
v. var. gurda. Led., " Wien. Ent. Monats.," v., pp. 152-153, pi. i., fig. 9 (May,
1861) ; Staud., " Cat.," p. 47 (1871). Mersina, H.-Sch., "Neu. Schmett.," fig. 163
(January, 1861, ? ante-dated). — Zygaena gurda is to be separated from A. Jilipen-
ditlae by the strikingly long and narrow fore-wings, with prolonged apex and
oblique margin, the hind-wings likewise with very pointed apex; the antennas some-
what longer. Anterior wings steel-blue (the ? with a greenish gloss) ; theantennaa
reach three-fourths along the costa, produced into a narrow club, but less pointed
at the apex than in A. Jilipendulae ; the spots of fore-wings and hind-wings not
deep, but bright crimson-red, spot 2 rounded, 1 somewhat lengthened, 3 and 4 con-
fluent, sharply cut off above and below, broadest above, concave on both sides, and
placed obliquely. The hind-wings pale carmine, with a very narrow steel-blue
margin, somewhat transparent at base. The spots on underside of fore-wings
united by a red shade. Only 4 specimens from Mersin.
Herrich-Schaffer's name is possibly subsequent to, although his
book is dated previously to, Lederer's description. He describes five
$ s and one ? received from Lederer. He notices it as being on
the average larger than ramburii, with noticeably narrower and more
pointed wings, hardly broadened posteriorly, the red more transparent,
approaching rose colour, the spots placed as in ramburii, but larger,
always united in pairs, 3 extended towards the costa, and towards the
base, whilst in ramburii it is always smaller than 4. Prout notes that
Herrich-Schaffer's figures of ramburii have (fig. 161) 1+2 united,
3 + 4 separate but adjacent, with 3 slightly smaller, 5 + 6 separate
but adjacent, with 5 larger ; (fig. 162) 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 forming a shape-
less blotch, 1+2 connected therewith by a tolerably wide longitudinal
line, 1 continued wedge-like along costa, and not reaching quite to 3.
His figure of mersina (gvrda) (fig. 163) has longer and narrower wings,
more slender body, spots in pairs as described, 1 running as a wedge
to meet 3, which is elongate. There is not the remotest doubt from
the figures that #«>•</«, Led., and mersina, H.-Sch., are strict synonyms.
Staudinger writes (//or. Ent. Soc. Ross., xiv., p. 321) : " Lederer's
tjurda was described by him from four specimens from Mersin. At
the same time he erected, from a large number of examples taken at
the not far distant Antioch, a species which he named ramburii. Of
this latter, 20 specimens, differing in an extraordinary manner from
each other, stood in his collection ; almost all are somewhat smaller
than German A. filipendidae, with pale red hind- wings, and only in
two large examples are they full carmine-red. These specimens scarcely
differ from ab. cytisi. Lederer had also placed among his ramburii
four specimens from Bosz-dagh (near Magnesia), which I can dis-
tinguish no better from A. filipendidae and its ab. cytisi, and in any
case should not consider it to be var. ramburii. It is clear that Lederer
was later of opinion that all were referable to filipendulae as varieties,
vide, Ann. Pint. Soc. Belg., ix. , p. 59, where he states that filipendulae
was found in the Bosz-dagh in all transitions to ramburii. His yurda
from Mersin are, however, quite indistinguishable from ramburii, with
pale reddish hind- wings. Lederer separates gurda from A. filipendulae
principally by the ' peculiar shape of the wing ' and by the ' different
antennal form,' quite untenable and even unsafe differences, e.g.'%
the wing-shape varies so much in A. achilleae males, caught at Amasia,
that one would rather separate the latter from the type form. I am
compelled, therefore, to consider yurda as a synonym olramburii. Haber-
hauer brought a typical, but small, ramburii, from the Taurus, among
his A.yraslini."
520 SKiTISH LEPIDOPTERA.
£. var. laphria, Frr., "Neu. Beitr.," vi., p. 135, pi. 568, fig. 2 (1850) ; H.-Sch.,
" Sys. Bearb.," vi., p. 44 (1852), fig. 108 (as laplura] (1851) ; Staud., " Hor. Soc. Ent.
Boss.," xiv., pp. 320-321 (1878-9).— The red spots on the fore-wings are very large
and irregularly confluent, so that they form only three larger spots of longish
quadrate outline. The antennae are very fine, with larger clubs. The abdomen
slender and not at all thick. The underside similar to the upper, only some-
what paler. From the Caucasus, captured by Kindermann (Freyer).
Prout notes that Freyer's figure brings out all these points, and
shows a moderately broad marginal border to the hind-wings ; spot 4
is much larger than 3, 6 is small, and forms an elongate appendix
to 5. Herrich-Schaffer's figure is more like normal A. fdipendulae in
appearance, the antennae less markedly slender, spots 1 and 2, and 3
and 4 separate (3 intersected by a green nervure), 5 and 6 confluent, 6
smaller than 5, and united thereto., Herrich-Schiiffer writes : " Laphria,
Kind., Sppl. 108. Two males received from Amasia, through Lederer,
of the form of a large A. filipendulae. Ground colour very dark, more
blue than green, with an especially clear blue border to the hind-wings ;
the red as in A. filipendulae, spots 3 and 4 more obliquely placed, more
extended longitudinally, 4 quadrangular, 5 and 6 united. Beneath,
the red shade of the fore-wings is somewhat denser. The second
example has a rather more convex margin to the fore-wings, and the
spots (except 3) are somewhat larger. Staudinger notes (hLor. Soc.
Ent. lioss., xiv., pp. 320-321) as follows: "On July 5th, I caught
behind the Jenikeui plateau, a $ which I certainly consider to be
ab. cytisi. On July 12th-14th, I caught, on the Ak Dagh, at about
the same elevation, three $ s which I could only refer to A. Jili^n-
dulae as a variety, and which almost exactly agree with the laphria
of Lederer's collection. Kindermann sent specimens from Tokat
which Lederer gives as laphria. The latter had in his collection
examples (unfortunately without indication of locality) some of which
may be from Tokat, others from Armenia. These specimens vary
inter se, are of the size of small A. filipendulae or large A. mcliloti, are
mostly of a paler red than A. filipendulae, and have a broader black
outer margin to the hind-wings, perhaps, than has A. charon. I at
first thought that they were large aberrant A. charon, but now decidedly
consider them to be a var. of A. filipendulae. In Gruner's collection
there were also two examples from Kindermann, taken in Pontus,
which stood as laphina. The laphira (laphria in the text) figured by
Herrich-Schiiffer (fig. 108), came from Amasia, and appears to me
to be only A. filipendulae ab. cytisi. The very peculiar-looking figure
of laphria in Freyer, from the Caucasus, may also very well only
represent an aberration of A. filipendulae.
OVUM. — The eggs are laid in masses, with some signs of regularity
observable in the lower layers, but the upper layers are more irregular.
The egg is pale yellow in colour, with one pole transparent, becoming
darker yellow as the embryo matures. Length -75 mm., breadth
•56 mm., height -5 mm. It is somewhat oval in outline with blunt
ends, tending to be brick-shaped. The surface is very shiny and
covered with faint and shallow pittings. The empty shell is perfectly
transparent (Bacot). Watkins describes the egg as oval, glassy, light
orange in colour, the yelk only partially filling the egg. Hellins notes
it is as being " very much like that of A. trifulii, perhaps a trifle shorter
and stouter." Our own notes read as follows : — " If deposited in one
layer, usually placed regularly and in ' contact,' but often as many
ANTHROCERA FlLIPENDULjE. 521
as two or three tiers are laid above the basal one, and the eggs become
at last placed very irregularly. Eggs laid July 24th, 1898, by ?
taken at Aix-les-Bains, began to hatch August 7th. About three days
before hatching they became dark coloured. Under a lens, this
darkening is seen to be due to the dark heads of the larvae showing
through the transparent shell, the embryo being distinctly bent back
in the form of a letter U inside the shell. The body of the unhatched
larva is yellowish, but the dark heads quite overwhelm the rest of the
colour of the larval embryos when viewed in mass. The full-grown
embryonic larva is small, and occupies only about a third of the space
within the shell. This suggests that the transparent pole of the egg
is really devoid of yelk." Hofmann figures the egg with a well-marked
polygonal reticulation.
LARVA. — Bacot says that he observes no difference between the
neuiij -hatched larvje of A. palustris, A. lonicerae, A. viciae and A. fili-
penthdaei The structure appears to be the same, and the arrangement
and position of the tubercles are identical. The description of A.
lonicerae in its first instar, therefore, practically applies (so far as
structure and the arrangement of the tubercles are concerned) to all
these species. When the larva has reached the hybernating stage, in
its third instar, it is of a pale yellowish or creamy colour, with complex
tubercular warts. Dorsal view : The head is retractile, placed ventrally,
the prothorax hidden by the mesothorax. The abdominal segments
are shiny, whitish, glassy in appearance, and separated from each
other by distinctly yellowish segmental incisions. The central area is
without tubercles, a broad longitudinal band of the pale ground colour
extending from the mesothorax to the anal segment. On either side
of this, but not distinctly raised above the segment, is a wart, clearly
divisible into an anterior and posterior portion, each with five black
tubercular points, forming a circle, with one similar one placed cen-
trally ; each point bears a long, yellowish, finely branched hair, with
a dark tip, the central one distinctly stouter. In the front part of each
segment, reaching to the segmental incision, and opposite the outer
and posterior half of the large dorsal tubercle, is a small roughly
quadrangular blackish patch, and a shade, slightly darker than the
ground colour, unites these so as to give the idea of a faint longitudinal
line ; pale longitudinal bands of the ground colour separate the dorsal
and supraspiracular warts, the latter of which, as well as the projecting
subspiraculars, can be seen in a dorsal view. The projecting, black,
tubular-looking spiracles on abdominal segments 1-2 are very conspicuous.
Lateral view: The ground colour is distinctly yellowish or cream-colour.
The prothorax is, however, glassy-looking, and the raised supraspi-
racular parts are also pale and glassy-looking ; each of the latter
carries ten black tubercular points (the central one very large),
each bearing a similar hair to those of the dorsal warts, but paler.
The prothoracic spiracle and the eight abdominal spiracles are jet
black, each consisting of a projecting tube-like structure, placed on a
little whitish cushion, and exceedingly conspicuous. The sub-
spiracular warts are very striking in this species, consisting of a ring
of six red-brown tubercular points, placed in the form of an almost
complete circle, with a larger central one, two similar minute but
separate points being placed directly below the lower edge of the circle ;
each point bears a glassy white minutely branched hair. There are
522 BRITISH LEP1DOPTEKA,
two rows of marginal warts, the lower one running along the base of
the prolegs, the other between the subspiracular and the lower row,
each wart (both in the upper and lower rows) consisting of six outer
red-brown points, arranged circularly, and one central one, each point
bearing a white glassy-looking hair. Ventral view : The prothorax
has the dorsal warts united, these bear white glassy-looking hairs, not
yellow ones. The ventral area is yellowish, the prolegs of a paler
whitish-yellow tint, bearing an inner curved flange with eight short
black hooks on its edge. The true legs are of a similar colour, each
bearing an exceedingly minute blackish terminal hook. The adult
larva is of a pale yellowish colour, rather cylindrical in shape,
although increasing gradually in size to the 7th abdominal segment.
The terminal segments are much -contracted ventrally, and hence slope
very rapidly to anus. Dorsally : The head is invisible, being quite
retractile within the prothorax, which forms a projecting hood with the
tubercular warts united. The anterior and posterior trapezoidals (i and
ii) are very readily distinguishable on the meso- and metathorax, and
on the abdominal segments ; the anterior, forming a circular raised
wart or cushion with seven or eight dark tubercular points, each
bearing a whitish hair, is placed between the dorsal ends of the two
black spots on either side of each segment, the posterior, forming
another similar but larger circular raised cushion, with 12 tubercular
points, is placed between the lateral ends of the same black spots.
These two cushions are united medially, forming, as it were, one long,
somewhat oblique, wart, separating the anterior and posterior portions
of the dorsal black markings on each segment ; those on the metathorax
are the least developed ; they are even well developed on the anal
(10th abdominal) segment. Laterally : The supraspiracular wart
forms a large prominent cushion, carrying several (15-20) hair-bearing
tubercular points, the hairs whitish, extending obliquely from the upper
and anterior end of the segment, to the posterior part. This also
separates two black markings, of which the anterior is the larger, and
runs below the tubercle, sometimes including the spiracle, or it may be
even joined at its lower extremity to the posterior mark. The sub-
spiracular wart forms a raised cushion, carrying many hair-bearing
tubercular points, with a black longitudinal mark below the wart, and
none above. The marginal warts are directly below this black mark,
somewhat smaller, quite round, and less prominent, but edged laterally
and below by a conspicuous horse- shoe mark on the metathorax and
1st and 2nd abdominal segments, with an oval mark on the 3rd,
4th and 5th abdominal segments, and united with the subspiracular
wart on the following segments. The spiracles in the specimens
examined (preserved in spirit by Mr. South) are deeply embedded just
below the supraspiracular tubercle, placed almost centrally in the seg-
ment, black in colour, with a black rim. This appearance is remark-
able, considering the prominent condition of the spiracles in the hyber-
nating stage of the larva. The prothoracic spiracle is more conspicuous,
and placed well back, almost in the incision between the pro- and
mesothorax. Ventrally : The head is withdrawn into the prothorax,
and is shiny, black, with scattered pale hairs ; some of the mouth-
parts white ; ocelli shiny, black. The true legs of the pale ground
colour, but with a red-brown chitinous plate on the outside of each
joint, and with a sharp, curved, minute terminal point ; the anterior edge
AHTHROCERA PILIPENDULJE. 523
of the base of the true legs and the upper joint is edged with deep black.
The 1st and 2nd abdominal segments with very conspicuous, round,
cushion-like warts, bearing many tubercular points, each with a fine
hair. The prolegs are also of the same pale ground colour, the inner
edge of the terminal joint spread out fan-like, and covered with short
black hooks on the edge of the rim ; a remarkable series of large
warts, of the same nature as the lateral warts, is placed upon the upper
joint of the prolegs externally, and appears to be a real lateral wart
(the marginal) ; the inner surface of the prolegs is covered with raised
golden points ; a dusky, broken, medioventral line is more distinct on
abdominal segments 1-4. Briggs describes the full-grown larva as
having the head and true legs black, the head, with the transverse
upper lip and the membrane at the base of the antennae white ; the
ground colour greenish-yellow, arranged in a dorsal line, and two lines
on each side ; the dorsal line with a brighter yellow spot in the fold,
formed by the hind-margin of each segment, the dorsal line much
narrower on the thoracic segments. On each side of the dorsal line is
a row of largo black spots, two on each segment, of which the anterior
is the larger, with the inner posterior angle emarginate, and rounded
on the side nearest the head ; the posterior spot is narrow and curved
on the inner margin. The pro- and mesothoracic segments often have
the anterior margin narrowly blackish, or partially margined with
black, with the dorsal spots confluent, and the anterior greatly reduced
in size. Below the dorsal longitudinal line of black spots is another
longitudinal row of black spots, two on each segment, of which the
posterior is nearly spherical, and the anterior larger and curved back-
wards, so as to terminate below the spherical spot, but sometimes
uniting with it on the posterior segments. The lower portion of
this curved spot, in which the spiracles are placed, is often separated
from the rest, as in the larva of A.palustris (trifolii-major). A minute
spot is often placed below the posterior of these two spots, but is as
often obsolete. A longitudinal pale subspiracular line follows this row
of spots, and between this line and the prolegs is a curved blackish
line on each segment, bearing a pale transverse lunule in its lower
portion. A slight dusky line is at the base of the prolegs. The
prolegs and ventral area are pale, with an interrupted (often almost
obsolete), medioventral, dusky line. Hellins describes the full-grown
larva as being about 19 mm. long when at rest (but with considerable
individual variation in size), and 7mm. wide at the 5th abdominal
segment. The latter is the largest segment of the body, which narrows
gradually to the anal segment, and rather less so towards the head.
The head is retractile within the prothorax, the segmental divisions
well-marked ; on each segment is a transverse row of eight raised
warts, the two trapezoidal tubercles on each side of the back being
united into an elongated wart, something like a dumb-bell in shape.
All the warts are set with short hairs, the skin outside is full
of little points. The general colour is dull greenish ; all the warts are
so coloured, and, by their interference, cut up the black markings ; the
dorsal line is yellowish-green, but bears a yellow spot at the hinder
end of each segment. On either side of this comes what would be a
black velvety stripe, except that it is cut up by the transverse warts
into a row of black spots, so that on each segment there is a bigger
blotch in front and a smaller one behind the wart. When the folds
524 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
are contracted the hinder blotch on each segment coalesces with the
front one on the next, so as to make one irregular blotch. Below this
row comes a subdorsal line of the ground colour, bearing nine spots
of deep yellow, placed on the hinder edge of the mesothorax and eight
following segments. On this line commences the upper end of a longi-
tudinal row of large oval warts, the lower ends of which intrude into
a series of black spots, hollowing them out into a half-moon shape.
On the lower edge of these black marks come the black, indistinct,
spiracles. Below, again, comes a row of long oval warts, with their
longer axes running longitudinally, and their lower sides edged with
black, and then another row of small warts also set in black half-moons.
The ventral prolegs have triangular warts on their sides. The head
and thoracic legs are black. Th« short hairs on the warts are mostly
whitish, but some are black.
VARIATION OF LARVA. — Briggs says that the larva has a great range
of variation ; its limit towards the confluence of the black spots is
complete confluency. The angles then become developed, and assume
the X-like appearance of the " early " trifolii, but the ground colour is
always more dusky. The limit the other way, towards the oblitera-
tion of the black spots, is seldom beyond that in the description
(quoted). In some thousands examined, this observer remarks that
he has never seen one with the spots so small, and consequently the
dorsal line so broad, as in the " late " trifolii, and he has never seen
the spots in the shape of those of A. lonicerae.
COCOON. — The cocoons vary in size, but are about 25 mm. in length
and 6mm. in width, each tapering at either end to the diameter of the
object to which it is attached, somewhat spindle-shaped, with a more
convex curve at the apex than towards the base. It is papery and
gummy (rather than silken) in texture, as shown by its being brittle,
and by its rustling when handled, semitransparent (the blackish pupa
visible through it), yellowish-white in colour, the reflected light giving
it a shiny appearance. The silken threads run chiefly in a longitudinal
direction, so that, although there is no worked opening, a longitudinal
splitting readily takes place on emergence. The interior of the cocoon
is rather more silky and less papery than the exterior. The usual
colour is pale yellowish, and has a distinct trace, in many instances, of
the paler basal half that is so pronounced in some species, others, again,
are quite whitish in colour, whilst others are of a dark yellow tint. It
is attached by its full length, the silk at the back usually encircling an
ordinary grass culm completely, and does not go beyond the end of the
cocoon ; on a thicker stem this foundation may only extend half-way
round, and on a flat surface a thin superficial layer alone is woven for
the attachment of the cocoon proper. After the exit of the imago the
empty pupa-case remains protruding from the ruptured end of the
cocoon. Harrison notes that there is no loose silk in the cocoon, the
whole being varnished until it has assumed the characteristic papery
texture ; his measurements of examples, taken in the Cher-et-Loir,
exceed ours slightly, being 28 mm. long and 8 mm. wide. The cocoons
are spun in a variety of situations — grass-culms, leaves of thistles, stiff
stems of herbaceous plants, etc. Arkle notes them as being somewhat
gregarious on stones at Tau-y-Bwlch, sometimes a dozen together ; one
often sees two or more on a single grass-culm.
PUPA. — $ . Length about 16 mm., breadth at 4th abdominal
ANTHEOCERA FILIPENDUL.2E. 525
segment (widest part) nearly 5 mm. It tapers much towards anus
(the abdomen being rather long and pointed) slightly towards head.
The eye-covers, bases of antennae and face piece (a ventral plate)
project noticeably. The sexual organs well-marked. The abdominal
segments 3-7 are free (probably also 1 and 2) ; the wing-cases are
soldered (but not firmly) together and to appendages ; the ends of the
3rd pair of legs and maxillae project unattached from beneath the wings
and reach the 6th abdominal segment ; the antennae are long, reach-
ing with the wings just beyond the 4th abdominal ; a small portion of
the hind-wings extend beyond the fore-wings over the 1st and 2nd
abdominal segments. The abdominal segments are dull or dead
black in colour, the wings, thoracic segments and anus, shiny, the
intersegmental areas between abdominal segments 2-8 are paler, but
show best between 4-5, 5-6, 6-7, 7-8. Above and behind the spiracles,
on abdominal segments 1-7, is a hollow, with the chitin in radiated
folds (as though the end of a finger had been plunged, with a twisting
movement, into putty or dough), and below the spiracle there is a
hollow, less organically marked. These place the spiracles on a slightly
marked and rounded lateral flange (the same structure, no doubt, that
is so marked in Adscitids, and give these pupae so flattened an appear-
ance). On the dorsal anterior edge of abdominal segments 3-9 there
is a ridge or row of strong curved hooks pointing backwards, and on
the posterior edge of abdominal segments 6-7, a few minute spicules,
or bristles, can be traced (they could hardly be called a row, as in the
Psychids). The 9th segment has the usual row of hooks, somewhat
modified, and a few nodules along its hind margin ; the 10th bears
somewhat dorsally some blunt points, about a dozen on each side,
rather irregularly grouped, but capable of being regarded as a double
or treble row. There is a slight tendency to a dorsal constriction or
waist between the thoracic and abdominal segments. Of the head-parts
the eye-covers and labrum are prominent, the base of the maxillae has
a projection that probably represents the maxillary palp, and there is
an internal chitinous piece that may represent a further portion ;
other small and obscure pieces probably represent the mandibles.
Bacot remarks that, having examined a number of pupae collected
within a few square yards, at Sandown, in August, 1898, he found the
same difference with regard to the development of the anal spines as
exists in the pupae of A. trifoiii, some of the pupae of A. fili]>enihdae
having then quite as well developed as those of the latter species.
Hellins describes the pupa as being " about 16 mm. long, cylindrical,
of even bulk, except that the headpiece slopes rapidly from the back
and stands out distinctly, and the last three segments of the abdomen
taper. The antennae-cases are strongly formed and well-developed,
free at their tips, as is also the tongue-case, for some distance, and the
edges of the wing-cases ; the anal segment ends in a somewhat rounded
boss, without a spike, but bearing some short sharp points, reaching
to the spiracles and pointing backwards. The colour is glossy black
on the head, thorax, wing-cases and tail ; the abdomen is more dingy
black, with the segmented folds showing dingy greenish." Moore
notes (Ent. liec., iii., p. 37) a pupa found at Deal, in August, 1890,
which was alive after a lapse of 17 months.
DEHISCENCE. — On dehiscence, the head, eyepieces and antennae
form one piece. The dorsal headpiece does not carry the eyepiece,
BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
irly,
nts:
which is attached to the prothorax. The legs separate very irregularly,
but all the parts remain attached together by the internal dissepiments ;
even the thoracic coverings separate, to some extent, by the stretching
of the intersegmental membranes. The spiracles are partially closed
by very fine dendritic processes surrounding the orifice.
FOOD-PLANTS. — Trifolinm medicayo, Lotus corniculatus. [Also re-
puted to feed on Spiraea filipendula (Linne), Plantayo, Taraxacum,
Veronica, Hieracium pilosella, Btiza media (Kaltenbach), Leontodon,
Hypericum (Snellen).]
PABASITES. — Campoplex decipiens, Gr., Cryptus filipendulae, Bore,
Cryptus fwnipennis, Gr. (Perkins), Mestogtetttu obnoxius, Gr. (Bennett,
Bignell, etc.), Heiniteles fureattu, Tasch. (Bignell), //. fulripes, Gr.
(Bignell), Anomalon tenuitarsum, .Gr. (Weston), Lihoyas tricolor, Spin.
(Jenkins), Apanteles zygoma/nan, Marsh. (July 21st, 1885, Bignell),
A. diffidlis, Nees von' Esenbeck (July 21st, 1885, Bignell), A.
juniperatae (Bignell), Macrocentrus linearis, Hal. = M. abdominal^,
Fall. (Bignell), Exorista vulyaris, Fall. (Bignell), and Tachina larva nun,
Linne (Bignell). Besides these, Hemimachus instabilis, Forst. =
H. rufocinctus, Gr. (bred July 10th, 1885, Bignell), and PezomacJnts
analis, Forst. (Grigg), have been bred as hyperparasites upon Apanteles
zyrjaenarum. The cocoons of Mestostenus obnoxius are found within the
cocoons of Anthrocera filipendulae in winter, the imagines emerge
during the last week of May or first week in June, one parasite only
to each cocoon (Watkins) ; the imago of M. obnoxius does not appear
until the larvas of A. filipendulae are nearly mature, emerging from
June 19th-July 3rd (Bignell). These two observations give a period
extending from May to July for the emergence of this parasite.
Anthrocerid cocoons, said to contain living pupas that go over the
winter, have probably been parasitised by this or an allied species.
HABITS AND HABITAT. — This species appears to be able to accommo-
date itself to almost every possible kind of habitat. Waste ground,
hillsides, downs, sloping cliffs near the sea, coast sandhills, marshes,
and even fenland are recorded as its haunts in Britain. It has the
widest distribution of all our British species in these islands, extending
from Sutherland to Cornwall, and the extreme west of Ireland, and
appears to be more or less abundant in most of our English and Irish
counties, less so, however, in Scotland. Sometimes one slope of a
hill will produce the species more abundantly than another, <>.//., on
the south escarpment of the chalk-hills, at Guildford, the species
abounds, whilst on the other slopes it is comparatively rare (Groverj ;
the stretches of shingle on the Sussex coast are a favourite haunt
(Fletcher), whilst the marshy sides of the ditches scattered over the
sandhills near Deal produce it in abundance (Tutt). Hodgkinson records
it as abundant in hay-fields all over north Lancashire, whilst Robson
says that it is particularly abundant along the coast of Northumberland
and Durham, although uncertain in its appearance, abounding one
year and very rare the next, and Fenn notes a similar uncertainty in
its appearance, the insect abounding at St. Margaret's, in 1889, very
rare in 1890. On August 5th, 1891, their cocoons were so common
on the stems of rough grass on Helpston Heath (nr. Peterborough)
that they made quite little white patches in places when seen from a
distance (Morley). Clarke notes it as abundant on the coast, and
widely distributed throughout the inland districts of the Isle of Man,
ANTHROCERA FILJPENDUL.E . 52?
in June. Henderson found it in abundance in Lundy Island, from the
sea level to the highest point of the west coast, near the lighthouse ;
the imagines swarmed, whilst the pale straw-coloured cocoons, and the
black protruding pupa-cases, were attached to grass culms, heather
stems, rushes, and even chalk blocks. B. Adkin records it as common
in the Scilly Isles, and R. Adkin from Sutherland, up to 2,000 feet.
At Folkestone, Dover, Kingsdown, Freshwater, Sandown, Shanklinand
Ventnor, it abounds on the cliffs near the sea, and at Cuxton and
Beigate on the chalk downs, inland. So varied indeed are its localities,
that one might mention probably most of the possible natural conditions
in this country without exhausting them. The banks of a railway
cutting at Madeley (Daltry), railway banks at Owston (Dixon), railway
banks and rough grass fields nr. Enfield, also the railway banks in the
New Forest (Edelsten), on the sandhills nr. Burghead (Gordon), on the
coast of Kincardine and Forfar (Reid), coast districts of Kent and
Essex (James), more plentiful on the coast of Norfolk (Atmore), on
the sandhills between Troon and Ayr, also in the Cumbraes (Dunsmore),
on the downs at Eastbourne (Edelsten), and the sides of the limestone
hillsides at Clevedon (Mason), a rough grassy undercliff near Brooke,
Isle of Wight (Hodges), in fields bordering Epping Forest (Bayne), a
grass slope by the sea at Swanage (Alderson), are a few of the reported
localities. Harker says that the imago emerges generally from 10.30 a.m.
to noon. On the continent it extends from Sicily, Italy, and southern
Europe generally, to Finmark and the shores of the White Sea ; it is
recorded from the Canary Islands, but not from continental Africa, and
the recorded Asiatic localities (excluding Asia Minor), are of the most
uncertain character. We have found it high up the mountains in
Piedmont (to 5,000ft.), on the wooded slopes of Lac Bourget, near
Aix-les-Bains, in the Forest of Fontainebleau, on heathy ground, and
other widely differing places. There are described Arctic and Alpine
races, as well as southern and eastern ones. It is rather rare in the
Channel Islands, on the cliffs, although it occurs abundantly in the Scilly
Isles, etc. Selys notes that in his garden, at Longchamps, there is a
gently sloping field, the lower end of which is marshy and abuts on
the Geer. In this marshy part he finds A. trifolii, in the upper drier
part, A. filipendulae, only occasionally one sees a stray A. trifolii
in the latter part, although the field is continuous. This localisation
is possibly due to a real specialisation of food-plants, of which, how-
ever, little is yet known. Selys has never observed any cross-pairing
between the species on this ground, nor noticed any examples that he
would consider as possible hybrids.
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — The insect generally known in Britain as
the " early" A. filipendulae, occurring in late May and early June is
referred to A. hippocrepidis, Stephs. The true A. filipendulae, how-
ever, sometimes occurs in late June, and continues to do so in different
districts until the end of September, the latest appearing, generally,
in the marshy districts of our southern coasts. Martorell says that
at Barcelona it occurs in May and lasts a month, whilst, in the
meadows of Spanish Galicia, Velado notes it as appearing in May
and June (are these hippocrepidis, St. ?). In Roumania it does not
occur until the beginning of July, and continues until the end of
August (Caradja) ; in France, in Ille-et-Vilaine it emerges in July
and August, abounding at St. Malo, on the dunes, in early August,
Ottb BRITISH LEPIDOPTEKA.
but rarer inland (Oberthur) ; at Nohant it is found from June 20th
to July 20th (Sand), and from June to August, at Rheims, in fields
and woods (Demaison), whilst the last week of June is reported for the
dept. Loir-et-Cher (E. Harrison). In Bulgaria, it occurs near Sofia in
May and June (Bachmetjew), in Austria it occurs from June 4th
to September 9th (only one after August 31st) (Fritsch), whilst in
Baden it lasts from the end of May to August (Reutti), end of June
and July in the southern, July and August in the northern, parts of
Norway (Aurivillius) ; in Switzerland it appears by the end of May in
the plains, and continues throughout June and July (Frey) ; very
common during the whole of June in Greece (Staudinger), May to
July in Sicily (Tedaldi), July 24th-26th, 1896, July 22nd-26th, 1897,
July 22nd-28th, 1898, at Aix-les-Bains (Tutt), July 18th-21st, 1890,
at Tancarville in Normandy (Leech), July 9th, 1898, and following
days, in the Laerdal, Scandinavia (Petterssen), from the end of June
to the end of July, in the Baltic provinces (Nolcken) . Reid notes it
as appearing in July, on the Aberdeenshire and Kincardine coast, and
Mason, in July at Clevedon ; Merrin notes it in June in the Gloucester
district, and Hodges that it swarmed from the end of July until Sep-
tember, 1898, in South Devon ; Hellins found larvae at Branscombe,
between Seaton and Sidmouth, in July, the imagines emerging in
August ; Bostock found imagines at Land's End in June, and on
Cannock Chase the same month, whilst Chaney notes its average time
of appearance from July 3rd to August 15th, in the Chatham district;
Fletcher records it from Totland Bay, Isle of Wight, in late August
and September, Alderson from Swanage, in August, 1891, Whittle
gives June 24th and August 13th as the earliest and latest dates at
Southend, spread over a series of years, and says that in Essex, the
species emerges in July, and lasts well into August. Henderson
notes it as most abundant in July, 1887, in Lundy Island, and Clarke,
June, 1887, in the Isle of Man. Riding received cocoons from Troon
on July 12th, 1897, some emerged during the journey, and continued to
do so for over three weeks, only one example with 5 + 6 united, whilst
at Folkestone it was very abundant throughout August, 1892, some
specimens fresh at the end of the month, many were cripples,
chiefly $ s, possibly due to the $ s disturbing and pairing with them
before the wings had fully expanded (Adkin), and at Eastbourne, in
August, 1887, the species was common, below the average size, and the
spots in the majority of examples united in pairs (Adkin) ; first week
in August, 1890, at Howth (Harker). It is impossible to deal with a
tithe of the dates (received from correspondents or published in the
magazines). The following, spread over many years, are representative :
June 23rd, 1856, at Hollingbury Combe, June 30th, 1856, at Brighton
(Image), June 19th, 1857, at Wandsworth(Blackmore), September 2nd-
7th, 1860, June 9th- July 4th, 1863, July 18th, 1864, August Snl-oth,
1867, July 29th-August 26th, 1874, very worn, June 24th-August 1st,
1875, June 20th-August 15th, 1885, June 12th larvae, 29th pupte,
imagines to August 8th, 1886, July 2nd-23rd, 1887, August 18th,
1888, June 8th larvae, 10th-13th pupre, July 20th- August 1st, 1889,
July 27th, 1890, June 20th-July 4th, 1891 pupae, June 4th larvae,
July 9th-August 28th, 1892, July 25th-August 5th, 1893, at Deal
(Fenn), June 15th- July 6th, 1868, at Caterham Common (A. H.
Jones), August lst-7th, 1871, very abundant at Caterham (Wells),
ANTHROCERA FILIPENDUL^E . 529
June 24th, 1878, July 6th, 1879, earliest dates at Rugby (Wilson),
July 12th, 1872, at Whitby, August 1st, 1874, at Darenth,
July 2nd, 1876, June 23rd, 1878, August 10th, 1879, nr. Bromley,
June 30th, 1892, at Gravesend, May 8th, 1893, at Fletching
(/ fuppocrepidis), August 29th, 1894, at Caterham (Bower), October
18th, 1871, freshly emerged, at Malvern, Lines. (Towndrow), July
10th, 1874, nr. Winchester (Richardson), July 3rd, 1874, July 27th,
1875, at Sulham, August 6th, 1876, at Warren, July 31st, 1880, at
Streatley, July 28th, 1882, at Pangbourne, July 28th, 1882, at
Whitchurch, July 14th, 1884, at Hartley Row, July 23rd, 1884,
at Goring, June 24th, 1887, at Caversham, July 2nd, 1888, pupae, at
Marlow, July 15th, 1888, at Henley, July 12th, 1889, at Aldermaston,
July 18th, 1889, at Bulmershe, July 23rd, 1890, in the New
Forest, August 1st, 1890, at Butterwood, August llth, 1891, at
Hardwick, June 17th, 1893, in Pamber Forest (Holland), Sep-
tember 26th, 1877, four specimens, small, freshly emerged, nr.
pupa-cases, nr. Reigate (Lang), August 21st, 1880, July 30th,
1882, at Hitchin Wood, August 9th, 1880, at Wilbury Hills, July
29th, 1882, at Stagenhoe (Durrani), July 6th, 1881, July 5th,
1886, earliest dates near York, June 19th, 1895, earliest date at
Spurn (Hewett), August 2nd, 1881, bred July 6th- 19th, 1888,
bred July 25th, 1890, caught at Portland, July 28th-August 5th,
1883, bred June 1st- July 6th, 1893, at Isle of Purbeck (Bankes),
mid-August to September 16th, 1883, at Morthoe (Riding), July 7th,
1886, at Armagh (Johnson), August 29th, pupae, emerged August
30th -September 3rd, 1886, at Deal, August 6th, pupae, emerged until
August 23rd, 1888, at Mudstone Bay, Brixham, June 22nd-24th, 1889,
larvae and pupae only, in Warren, Folkestone, July 6th pupae, emerged
July 10th-31st, 1891, at Clacton, June 20th-26th lame and pupae, first
imagines (2) seen June 25th, 1892, at Folkestone, July 18th, 1896, ima-
gines and pupae abundant, July 1st, 1897 larvae only, atBenfleet (James),
July 7th, 1887, bred, from Gloucester, July 21st-September 1st, 1888,
July 22nd, 1893, swarming, at Cuxton, August 10th-17th, 1888,
August lst-15th, 1890, at Deal, August 15th, 1888, at Folkestone
(Tutt), August 5th, 1887, August 4th, 1890, at Folkestone, July 26th,
1891, at Kenley, July 18th, 1892, at Holmesley (Bl cornfield), June
17th, 1888, larvae and pupae only, April 22nd, 1889, young larvae only,
at Walton, August 6th, 1888, pupae, at Folkestone, July 25th, 1892,
at Swanage, August 2 1st, 1892, at Reigate, June 9th, 1895, larvae and
pupae, at Southend, July 19th, 1895, pupae, at Deal (Williams),
July lst-7th, 1889, at Harrow, July 20th, 1895, at Leicester, July
3rd, 1897, at Owston (Kaye), June 26th, 1889, in boggy meadows at
Hartley Wintney, June 23rd, 1892, June 13th, 1894 (? hippocrepidis),
among coarse grass at Fort Hubblestone, Milford Haven, June 17th,
1893, on sand-hills at Tenby (Robertson), July 6th-26th, 1890, at
Lyndhurst (Simes), July 15th, 1890, at Rhinefield (Goss), July 18th-
25th, 1890, abundant at Abersoch (Arkle), August llth, 1890, at
Penzance, September 4th, 1894, at Southend (Burrows), July 25th-
27th, 1890, between Southend and Hadleigh (Cockerell), June 7th, larvae,
June 12th, pupae, July 8th, 1890, imagines, on Cotswolds (Lifton),
August 1st, 1891, at Swanage, June 29th, 1894, at Toft, July 28th-
August 4tb, larvae few, pupte abundant, imago one, imagines bred
August llth-18th, 1898, at Sidmouth (Raynor), August 5th, 1891,
BB
630 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
at Helpston Heath, nr. Peterborough (Morley), August 10th-23rd,
1891, at Eastbourne (Adkin), July 3rd-23rd, 1892, July lst-23rd,
1893, July 2nd-24th, 1896, in Wyre Forest (Abbott), June 20th-July
4th, 1892, in Guernsey (Hodges), July 6th, 1892, at Folkestone, July
26th, 1894, at Gomshall (Helps), July 29th-August 1st, 1892, at
Swanage, very abundant (Bloomfield), August 5th, 1892, pupce and
freshly-emerged imagines at Sidmouth (Crabtree), July loth-August
5th, 1893, at Swanage (Mackonochie), May 29th, 1893, earliest date,
also much later at Enniskillen (? hippocrepidix) (Brown), June 7th,
1893, June 22nd, 1895, June 27th, 1897, nr. Leicester (Dixon), July
3rd, 1893, at Madingley (Farren), July, 1893, in Cumbrae, July
5th-19th, 1894, at Stonehaven, July 18th, 1896, at Troon (Dalglish),
July 21st, 1894, at Peterborough (Mousley), July 22nd, 1894, cocoons
abundant at Southend (Whittle), July 25th-August 24th, 1894, at
Dover (Page), June 20th-30th, 1895, at Owston (Bouskell), July llth,
1895, July 18th, 1896, July llth, 1897, first imagines seen at Guild-
ford (Grover), June 16th, 1896, at Shoreham (Barclay), August llth,
1896, at Sidmouth. August 4th, 1897, at Starcross (Studd), June 16th,
larvae, pupae and imagines, latter till July llth, 1897, very abundant
at Blyth (Crass), August 4th, 1897, at Folkestone (Cross), June 16th,
1897, at Weymouth (Bayne), July llth, 1897, at Carlisle (Day), July
llth, 1897, at Eedcar (Lofthouse), July 3rd-20th, 1898, at Oban
(Sheldon), July 7th, 1898, at Torghiitten (Chapman), August 20th,
1898, at Eastbourne (Clark), August 8th-15th, 1898, usually in July,
at King's Lynn (Atmore), July 27th- August 2nd, 1898, at Sandown,
just appearing (Dadd), July 31st-August 15th, 1898, at Shoreham,
Kent (Can-), July 14th, 1898, worn, at Bovey Tracey, July 25th-27th,
1898, nr. Paignton (Hamm).
LOCALITIES. — Scotland : fairly generally distributed, extending into Suther-
land, distribution, however, not at all well-known. Ireland : everywhere, but most
common on eastern side of island (Kane). The following list is evidently very
incomplete. As usual, our knowledge of the most common insects is generally in
inverse proportion to their abundance. ABERDEEN: Muchalls (Maddison), Kin-
tore, etc., many inland localities (Reid). ANTRIM: Portrush (Maddison), many
places, common on the Belfast hills (Kane). ARGYLLSHIRE: Oban, not common
(Sheldon). ARMAGH: Armagh (Johnson), nr. Armagh (Kane). AYRSHIRE : between
Troon and Ayr, Millport in the Cumbraes (Dunsmore). BERKS: Sulham,
Bulmershe, Pangbourne, Aldermaston (Holland), Heading district, common
(Hamm), Hartley Wintney (Robertson). BUCKS: Princes Risboro' (Bayne),
Marlow (Holland). CAMBRIDGE : Madingley, Cherry Hinton (Farren), Box.-
worth (Thornhill). CARNARVON : Abersoch, abundant, Tan-y-Bwlch (Arkle).
CHESHIRE: local (Walker), Birkenhead (Fish), Oakmere and Knutsford (Chappell),
Delamere (Cooke). CLARE (Kane), coast district (Lawless). CORK: nr. Roches'
Point, nr. Kinsale, Glandore, Castlehaven, Crookhaven, Castletown Bere (Kane),
nr. Skibbereen, abundant (Wolfe), Mallow, abundant (Newland). Glengariff
(Adkin). CORNWALL : Land's End (Bostock), New Quay (Maddison), Pen-
zance (Burrows). CUMBERLAND: Lingholm (Beadle), Carlisle (Day). DERBY:
common (Payne). DEVON : general in north Devon (Cooper), Barracombe (Adkin),
Bovey Tracey, Paignton (Hamm), Starcross, Sidmouth (Riding and Studd), Seaton
(Reading), Wallacombe (Mera), Morthoe (Riding), Brixham (James), Plymouth
(F. Briggs), Branscombe (Hellins), Lundy Island (Mera). DONEGAL : Bundoran,
nr. Donegal, shores of L. Swilly, etc. (Kane). DORSET: Portland, abundant, Wey-
mouth (Richardson), Swanage (Alderson), Bere Regis, Lyme Regis (Battley), Wey-
mouth (Forsyth), Purbeck (Hankes). DOWN : various places (Kane). DUBLIN :
Killiney, Clondalkin, Malahide Skerries, Lambay (Kane), Howth (Harker).
DURHAM : general on coast, Hartlepool, etc. (Robson). EDINBURGH : North Berwick,
Longniddry, Pettycur, etc.J(Evans). ? ELGIN (MORAY DIST.) : Burghead, Knock of
Alves, Rother, etc. (Gordon), Duffies Hillock (Robertson). ESSEX : Colchester
(Harwood), Clacton, Benfleet (James), Southend (Whittle), Hadleigh (Cockerell), .«
ANTHROCERA FILIPENDUL^E. 581
Leigh (Bouttell), Epping, Loughton (Garland), Chingford (Bayne),Walton (Williams).
FERMANAGH: Belle Isle, Lough Erne, Portora, etc. (Kane), Enniskillen (Brown).
FORFAR : coast (Reid), Bervie (Gunning). GALWAY: Galway (Harker), widely spread,
not common at Clonbrock or Ardrahan (Kane). GLAMORGAN : Swansea (Robertson),
Penarth (Birkenhead). GLOUCESTER : Gloucester dist., common (Merrin), Newn-
ham, Cotswolds, widely distributed (Lifton). HANTS : Basingstoke dist., common
(Hamm), New Forest (Edelsten), nr. Christchurch (Fowler), Lyndhurst (Simes),
Rhinefield (Goss), Winchester (Forbes), Portsmouth, common (Pearce), Isle of
Wight— Ventnor, Shanklin, Sandown, Freshwater (Riding and Tutt), Totland Bay
(Fletcher), Compton Bay (Hodges), Pamber Forest, Butterwood, Odiham, Hart-
ley Row, New Forest (Holland). HEREFORD : Tarrinqton (Wood), Leominster
(Hutchinson). HERTS : Hitchin, not common, Wilbury Hills, Stagenhoe (Durrant),
Royston. Tring (Bayne), Barnet (Lockyer). HUNTS: St. Ives (Jagger), YaxleyFen
(Bond), Abbott's Kipton (Bayne). ISLE OF MAN : abundant on coast, rarer inland,
Douglas Head, very abundant, etc. (Clarke). KENT: Gravesend, Bromley, Darenth
(Bower), Shoreham (Carr), Deal, Dover, Canterbury, Folkestone, Cuxton, Strood,
etc. (Tutt), Sandwich (Bayne), Honor Oak Park (Bate), Wrotham (Smart), Maid-
stone (Elgar), Eltham dist., now rare (Fenn), Otford and Sevenoaks (L. New-
man), Chatham dist. (Chaney). KINCARDINE : coast districts, abundant (Reid),
Stonehaven (Dalglish). KING'S co. (Kane). KERRY : Killarney and Valley of the
Roughty above Kenmure, Sneem, Ballinskellig's Bay, about Dingle and Ventry, nr.
Castle Gregory (Kane). LANCASHIRE: locally abundant (Ellis), coast from Black-
pool to Crosby; north Lanes., common (Hodgkinson), Fleetwood (Baxter), nr.
Bolton (Johnson), Chat Moss (Chappell). LEICESTER : Ows ton, John o'Gaunt,
Saddington (Bouskell), Leicester (Dixon), Loughborough (Wieldt), Gumley
(Matthews), Aylestone (Rowley). LINCOLN : nr. Lincoln (Mousley), Malvern (Town-
drow), Newball (Carr), Toft (Raynor). LONDONDERRY: nr. Londonderry, Magilli-
gan (Kane), Lough Swilly (Campbell). MIDDLESEX : Harrow (Rothschild), Green
Lane (Bonhote), Enfield (Edelsten), nr. Finchley (Thomas), Kingsbury (Bond),
Mill Hill (South), Old Oak Common (Godwin), Isleworth (Meyers), nr. Baling
(Cockerell), Ruislip (Watts), Harrow Weald (Rowland-Brown), Harefield (Wall),
Pinner Drive, Oxhey Wood (Melvill). MONAGHAN : Monaghan, nr. Drumreaske,
nr. Favour Royal (Kane). NORFOLK : King's Lynn, etc., more common on
coast (Atmore), Hemsby (Pitman). NORTHAMPTON: Peterborough (Mousley),
Helpston Heath (Morley). NORTHUMBERLAND : Blyth, Old Hartley (Crass).
NOTTS: Mansfield (Daws). OXFORD: Warren, Streatley, Hardwick, Caversham,
Goring, Whitchurch, Henley (Holland), Chinnor (Bayne). PEMBROKE: Tenby,
Milford Haven (Robertson). SLIGO : Sligo (Russ). SOMERSET : Clevedon
(Mason), Castle Gary, common (Macmillan), Bath (Greer). STAFFORD: Madeley
(Daltry), Cannock Chase (Bostock). SUFFOLK: common (Bloomfield). SURREY:
Guildford (Grover), Reigate (Tutt), Caterham (A. H. Jones), Kenley (Bloom-
field), Box Hill (Cockerell), Riddlesdown (Crowley), Gomshall (Helps). SUSSEX:
generally distributed and abundant (Jenner), Brighton, abundant (Merrifield),
common on downs and coast districts, Shoreham, etc. (Fletcher), East-
bourne (Edelsten), Lancing (Rye), Lewes (W. E. Nicholson), Fletching (Bower),
Groombridge (Blaber), Tilgate Forest (T. Briggs), Wannock (Pearson). SUTHERLAND :
mt. Suliven at 2,000ft. (Adkin). TYRONE (Kane). WARWICK: Rugby (Wilson).
WATERFORD : Dunmore, Cappagh, and elsewhere in the valley of the Blackwater,
Tranmore, Dungarvan, Minehead (Kane). WESTMEATH : various places (Kane).
WEXFORD : Rosslare, Saltee I., Ballyteague Bay (Kane). WICKLOW : Greystones,
Newcastle, Wicklow, Arklow (Kane). WILTSHIRE : Calne (Eddrup). WORCESTER :
Wyre Forest (Abbott). YORKS : Redcar and Richmond (Sang), Whitby (Bower),
Horsforth (Mansbridge), Askham Bog (Prest), Barnsley (Harrison), Bramham
(Smith), Edlington Wood (Harrison), Filey (Taylor), Spurn (Hewett), Flamborough
Head (Mosley), Goole (Porritt), Huddersfield (Varley), Ledsham (Smethurst), Leeds
(Birchall), Pontefract (Hartley), Selby (Rockett), Sheffield (Doncaster), Wakefield
(Talbot), Sandburn, Strensall, York (S. Walker).
DISTRIBUTION. — Africa : Canary Islands, St. Vincent (Bory). Asia :
Tokat (Speyer), Dahuria (Pallas). Austria: Lemberg, Vienna (Gar-'
bowski), Agram, Barn Bludenz, Bregenz, Briinn, Bugganz, Cilli,
Gresten, Hausdorf, St. Jakob, Karschau, Kessen, Kirchdorf, Krems-
miinster, Leutschau, Linz, Mistek, Neutiscbein, Prague, Rosenau,
Eottalowitz, Salzburg, Senftenberg, Taufer (Fritsch), Wippach in
Carniola, Innsbruck 13,800 ft., Heiligenblut at 4,400 ft,, nr. Mtirren
532 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
at 5,000 ft., Buda (Speyer), Bucovina, generally distributed (Hormu-
zaki), Cracow (Zebrowski). Belgium : general (Selys), Namur
(Colignon). Bulgaria: Sofia (Bachmetjew). Denmark: common,
and generally distributed (Aurivillius). France : distributed through-
out the country, very common in north-west France, Le Havre, etc.
(Dupont), Nohant, Sologne, St. Florent, Gueret, Murols, Lac Chambon,
Auvergne, generally common (Sand), Vernet-les-Bains, Cauterets,
Ille-et-Vilaine, St. Malo, Cancale (Oberthiir), Bourg d'Oisans, Aix-les-
Bains, Fontainebleau (Tutt), Paris, common (Lucas), Depts. of
Meuse, Moselle, Meurthe, Doubs, Puy-de-D6me, Savoy (Speyer),
nr. Gavarnie (Pierret), Rheims dist., very common (Demaison),
Dept. 1'Aube (Jourdheuille), Loir-et-Cher (Harrison), Tancarville
(Leech), Loire-Inferieure (Bonjoiir), Calvados, St. Quentin (Dubus),
Dept. du Nord (Dupont). Germany : everywhere (Heinemann),
Alsace, common (Peyerimhoff), Silesia (Assmann), Thuringia, common
(Knapp), Leubusch (Prittwitz), Hilden, nr. Diisseldorf, rare, Urden-
bach, common (Kirby), nr. Stettin (Hering), Baden, common,
Pfalz, Wurtemburg, Nassau (Eeutti), Saxony (Dadd). Greece :
Parnassus and Veluchi, common (Staudinger). Italy : northern
provinces, common, central and south, less common (Curo), Pied-
mont, Liguria, Hiigel, Tuscany (Speyer), Naples (Costa), Sicily (Frey),
Montecuccio, Mondello (Tedaldi). Netherlands: in all provinces
(Snellen). Roumania : generally distributed and common (Caradja).
Russia : Lower Volga dist. (Eversmann), St. Petersburg, Livonia,
Ciscaucasiandist. (Speyer), Crimea (Melioransky), Caucasian Oprovinces,
common (Menetries), Baltic provinces, common (Nolcken), Aland, Abo
(Lampa), Finland to 60° 30' (Router), North Russia, White Sea to Urals,
Moscow district, Poland, mouth of Danube to Dnieper, Volga district
and Transcaucasia (Erschoff). Scandinavia: common in Sweden,
Norway and S. Finland, most northerly locality, Dalecarlia (Auri-
villius), Groto, 68° N. lat. (Schneider), Norway to 67* 50' N. lat.
(Reuter), Arctic Norway, Dovrefjeld, Oestersjon, Christiania, Ringe-
rige, Drommen, Smolen (Schoyen), Dovre (Siebke), Upland, Stock-
holm, common (Boheman), Upsala (Belfrage), Saltdalen (Sommer-
felt), Laerdal, St. Bergenhus (Petterssen), Torghiitten 65° 54' (Chap-
man). Spain : Galicia (Macho Velado), Province of Teruel (Zapater),
Barcelona dist., generally distributed (Cuui y Martorell). Switzer-
land : generally distributed (Frey), nr. Bellinzona, Glarus (Spoyer),
everywhere in the Engadine (Mengelbir), Oberalbula, common (Zeller),
Simplon (Jordis).
ANTHROCERA HippocREPiDis, Stephens (nee Hb.).
SYNONYMY.— Species : Illppocreindis, Stephs., " Illus.," i., p. 109 (1828) ; Wood,
" Index Entom.." iv., fig. (J (yellow ab.) (1839) ; Kirby, " Cat. Lep. Het.," p. 70
(1892) ; ".Handbook," etc., p. 94 (1897) ; Tutt. "Ent. Record." pp. 87-88. 103-104,
10(5, 169(1897) ; South, " Entom.," xxx.. pp. 181-183 (1897). Ochxenlieimeri, Boden,
"Entom.." xviii., p. 317 (1883) ; South, " Entora.," xxiv., p. 233. in part (1891).
Filipfmliilae, ? Newm., " Brit. Moths," p. 24, in part (? 1869) ; Briggs, " Trans. Ent.
Soc. Lond.," 1871, pp. 434-435, in part; Tutt, " Ent. Rec.," ii., p. 110 (1891).
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION. — Alis anticis nigro-cyaneis, maculis sex
rubris, subtus omnino confluentibus, posticis rubris sinuato viridi-
cyaneo, abdomine immaculato. This varies in size, \ikQA.jili}H')i<lidae,
which it greatly resembles ; but the border of the posterior wings is
considerably more distinct than in that insect, and undulated internally,
AttTriROCERA HIPPOCREPIDIS* 533
the 6th spot on the anterior wings, the one towards the anal angle,
is generally small, with a coloured nervure passing through it ; the
under surface of the anterior wings with the disc entirely red, and
the maculations not defined. Above, the anterior wings are blue-
black, with six red spots, disposed as in A. Jilipendulae, and the
posterior red, with an undulated greenish-blue margin ; the abdomen
immaculate (Stephens, Illustration* JiritMt Entomology, etc., i., p. 109).
IMAGO. — Anterior wings, 28-36 mm., blue-green, or green in colour,
with six crimson spots, the lower of the outer pair usually ill-developed,
often with a dark nervure passing through it. Posterior wings
crimson, with a narrow marginal border (but broader than in normal
A. Jilipendulae').
SEXUAL DIMORPHISM. — Males expand from 23 mm. -32 ram., females
from 26-36 mm., but on the whole the females are considerably larger
than the males. The males have also the 6th spot much less
defined than the females. Of two examples with it entirely absent,
both are males, of 20 others, in which it is represented by a few red
scales, all are males, whilst in 32 others, arranged in order following
the ill-developed nature of this spot, only two are females, so that
of the 54 which show spot 6 with its least development, two only are
females. Of 150 other examples, the 20 in which the 6th spot is
almost as large and well-developed as in typical A. Jilipendulae, are all
females. The males also have, on an average, a wider marginal band
to hind-wings than the females, and, taken as a whole, one is struck with
the specialisation of the sexes, the males in the direction of A. tri/olii,
the females in the direction of A. Jilipendulae. Bateson, who had the
most distinctly five-spotted example we have ever captured, with no
trace of a 6th spot on the upper, and only a few red scales in its
position on the under, side, reported it as having genitalia similar to
those of A. fttipendulae.
VARIATION. — Stephens says that, like A. Jilipendulae, this species
varies considerably, from the spots being more or less confluent or
obliterated. We have seen no really good confluent aberrations of
this species, and in our series of 280 specimens, only two are well-
defined examples of ab. cytisi, i.e., analogous with the ab. cytisi, Hb.,
of A. Jilipendulae, two or three others having the central pair of spots
united. One male example has the right fore-wing 9 mm. in expanse,
the corresponding left fore-wing being 12-5 mm. Another male has
the left hind-wing with a hole punctured through it, as if eaten out by
an ichneumon grub, another has the right fore-wing rounded apically,
and with a projecting point in the centre of the outer margin }-,
another has the right hind-wing 6 mm. long, the left 9 mm., whilst
others exhibit considerable modification in the narrowing or apical
rounding of the fore-wings. One example has the right pair of wings
of full size, but composed of whitish (almost transparent) membrane,
with the ordinary red spots and hind-wings faintly pinkish, the left
pair of wings normal. Another is distinctly pallid, ab. pallida, n. ab.,
the ground colour of the fore-wings greenish-grey, the spots of fore- -
wings and hind-wings pale pinkish-red, the marginal border of a
similar greyish hue to the ground colour of the fore-wings. In two
or three examples the bases of the hind-wings are orange, and one
other is somewhat yellowish on the outer margin of the left hind- wing.
A yellow form, ab. luttiswns, n. ab,, is described by Stephens (lilies., i.,
534 BRITISH LEPIDOfcTERA.
p. 109), and figured by Wood (Ind. Knt., iv., fig. 6). Stephens
described the yellow form of this Anthrocera as having " the anterior
wings above of a pale yellowish-green, with six pale lemon-yellow
spots ; the posterior wings of the latter colour with a bluish-green
border." He further remarks that of this form he has " seen three
specimens only, which were reared from larvfe taken near Darenth
wood, where the wild liquorice abounds." We have in the preceding
paragraph noted the variation in the size and development of spot
6, which may be totally absent, or form a large well-defined oval spot.
We have a specimen taken in 1894, in North Kent, with 4 and 6
absent on the left fore-wing, and 2 and 3 rather small.
LABVA. — The larva, in the hybernating stage, rests with its head
completely withdrawn ventrally. The dorsal line forms a gradual arch,
the ventral area being closely appressed to the surface on which the
larva is resting. 1 tonally : The body appears to be divided longi-
tudinally into three distinct areas, the central area (owing to a slight
sinking outside the line of the dorsal warts) appearing much raised
above the level of the lateral areas. The colour is of a pale amber,
shiny, and almost transparent ; the segmental incisions clearly defined.
The mediodorsal area exists as a clear longitudinal band of the ground
colour. On either side of this band is a much darker subdorsal band,
which contains the dorsal warts. Each of these forms a raised
cushion, which bears about ten finely spiculate hairs, each arising from
a small black tubercular point. These warts are readily separable
into two portions, corresponding with tubercles i and ii respectively.
In each portion one hair is central, and is surrounded by four others.
The hairs are glassy-looking, covered with fine spiculre or branching
points. On the pro- and mesothorax the dorsal warts are united,
as they are also on the anal segment. The subdorsal longitudinal
bands owe their darker colour to a series of brownish patches, which
separate the dorsal cushions on successive segments ; a short, but very
black, transverse line edges (on the anterior margin of each segment)
the front of each brown patch, which fully occupies the space between
the incision and the posterior portion of the wart behind it. There is
also a longitudinal supraspiracular band of this darker colour.
Laterally: The supraspiracular band is seen to contain the supra-
spiracular warts (iii), each of which carries an inner ring of six long
spiculate hairs, and a partial outer ring (consisting of three hairs) on
the upper edge, which enclose one central hair. Each hair arises from
a conspicuous but minute blackish-brown tubercular point. The
supraspiracular warts are also found on the thoracic segments.
Beneath the spiracles is a longitudinal series of similar subspiracular
warts (iv + vj, bearing tuberculate and spiculate hairs, six to eight
on each, surrounding a larger central one. The marginal warts (vii)
are very similar, but smaller, and run along the base of the prolegs.
Between the subspiracular and marginal series are two hair-bearing
tubercles, placed close together, on the abdominal (not thoracic) seg-
ments ; these represent Dyar's tubercle vi. The prothoracic and
abdominal spiracles are black ; each forms a conspicuous protruding
cone, which is most prominent when the larva is disturbed. The pro-
thoracic spiracle is placed well back on the segment. Ventrally : The
head is very pale brown, ocelli black, mouth parts whitish (almost
transparent). The ventral area pale amber or yellowish. The true
ANTHROCERA HIPPOCREPIDIS. 535
legs whitish, shiny, and glassy-looking, each with a very minute brown
terminal hook, and two or three fine, short, glassy-looking hairs at the
joints. The prolegs are also shiny and glassy-looking, each with
12-14 very conspicuous black hooks on the inner side of the flange,
forming the terminal joint. The anal prolegs similar to the ab-
dominal prolegs, but placed transversely, not longitudinally. [We
are indebted to Mr. South for the larvae described, which he says came
from eggs " laid by the early June A. filipendulae." Description made
January 21st, 1898.] We have unfortunately been unable to get a
full-fed larva recently, and hence cannot give a description. Stephens
describes the larva as " greenish, with a broad yellowish stripe on
each side, and a row of black spots, the head black, varied with white,
the anterior legs brown, the following yellow, the rest black."
COCOON. — The cocoons measure from 25 mm. -27 mm. in lengtb, 6 mm.
in width ; of a pale straw-yellow colour, strongly ribbed longitudinally,
spun on a grass stem ; of the usual spindle shape, with a little silk
beyond the ends on the stem, and also a little silk round the stem.
The cocoon opens for the emergence of the pupa, by one dorsal flap,
which lies on the dorsum of the protruding pupa, its apex at the
thoracic-abdominal incision ; the two side slits show a small corner
of the 5th abdominal segment.
PUPA (DEHISCED). — The dorsal headpiece stands at the anterior
margin of the prothorax, and appears to have no other connections ; it is
narrow transversely, much wider on the posterior than anterior margin.
The prothorax is a piece of similar shape, but with the outer margin
folded down ; the tracheal linings project from its outer inferior angle
internally. The spiracle is a mere hollow between the pro- and rneso-
thorax, without any obvious margin at the surface, beyond the plain
edges of the segments, but, within the chink, the prothorax has a dense
coating of very short hairs. There is a small chitinous island just
behind this point, in the delicate membrane lining the groove from
which the antenna cases have been raised. This is probably a slightly
exposed portion of the femur of 2nd leg. Looking internally, and some-
what below this, the tracheal linings from the spiracle between the meso-
and metathorax are very evident. There is no trace of maxillary palpi,
except a wide, flattened base of the maxillas, extending outwards
under the eyes and ending in a point. This flat portion represents
the base of the maxillary palpus, and no further portion reaches the
surface, unless a minute, apparently separate, piece, at the upper end of
the 1st leg, be it. This piece seems more probably to be the extremity
of the femur, the more especially as a portion of the femur and
trochanter (there being a joint in it) is seen between the maxillse and
1st leg (i.e., the tibia and tarsus of 1st leg). This 1st leg reaches up to
the hollow between the eyes and antennae, and down to four-fifths the
length of the wing, where the tarsi terminate. The 2nd leg is outside
this, and does not reach up so far by -6 mm., and only reaches down-
wards to end of 1st leg, when it disappears between 1st leg and
antennas, which cover it. The wings appear to be free from the
abdominal segments, but doubtfully from the first, and the first ab-
dominal incision distinctly to open dorsally is that between 3 and 4, but
laterally and ventrally that between 2-3 is open, and is probably so
dorsally also, though not evident in the specimen under examination ;
the segments, where covered by the wings, have a very thin texture, white
636 BKITISk LEPlDOPTEfeA*
and delicate, ciz., the ventral aspects of 1, 2, 3. Where the maxillas and
3rd legs extend for fully two segments width beyond the wings, the
venters of 4 and 5 are also delicate, and are hollowed to receive them,
as are also 6 and 7, to which the appendages may reach in pupal
movements. The maxillae seem to be united, but the legs are free
from these and from each other. The anterior dorsal margin of meta-
thorax is deeply hollowed by the backward projection of the mesothorax.
The 1st and 2nd abdominal segments, except some indefinite depres-
sions, are simple and without sculpturing, and are, with the metathorax,
somewhat depressed, forming a waist. The incisions are free to 7-8 (a
$ pupa). Dorsally, the structures of 3-7 abdominal are almost iden-
tical, viz., a narrow black line or mere thread, immediately behind the
incision, then a delicate colourless zone, easily confounded with the
intersegmental membrane proper ; then the transverse line of hooks,
looking, at a rough glance, like the anterior margin of the segment.
The actual hook projects, and has its concavity backwards ; it is very
short and thick, and stands on a black chitinous base of the width of
the hook, projecting forwards and overhanging sharply the colourless
zone noted above, and passing backwards and spreading out and losing
itself on the general surface. The thin chitin of the pale zone passes
unchanged just between the heads of these black bases, and thickens
rapidly backwards as it joins them on the general surface. Looking
dorsally at the pupa, the hooks proper are not seen, but these parallel
longitudinal strias are very marked, especially their square black anterior
ends over the pale membrane, which suggest a line of hooks directed
forwards. Their total length is ^ to £ the breadth of the segment.
The tissue at the posterior margin of the segment has a narrow,
thinner zone, which passes into the next intersegmental membrane.
The hooks with the pale zone in front occupy the dorsal half of ab-
dominal segment 4, about a fourth of 3 and 7. The central ones,
40 to 50 in number, are most marked, but there are nearly as many
more fading dut laterally, fewer on the posterior segments. On
8 they are not so distinctly formed, but they are practically the same
as on 7. On 9 they form a transverse row of spines about the middle of
the segment, round the dorsal half of its circumference, small, standing
up boldly without the linear base or pale preceding area. The posterior
edge of 9 has a few half obsolete spines or hooks, and 10 has an area
of spines in two or three rows that, viewed dorsally, range with the
series of hooks on the preceding segments ; viewed laterally, they do so
equally, the end of the segment dropping below them, and passing
without a distinct ventral area to the 9th segment. The end of this
pupa is occupied by the anal depression, the surrounding chitin, as well
as that of the venter of the 9th segment where there is a linear
depression, is very black and polished. The rest of the segmental
surfaces are dull, with fine wrinkles. The appendages are more shiny
and polished, but not so bright as the 9th and 10th abdominal seg-
ments. The fore-wings exhibit the neuration in raised ribs. The
hind-wing is broadly exposed to the posterior margin of 2nd abdominal
segment. Abdominal spiracles 1 and 2 are covered by margin of
wings, the others are by no means conspicuous, being marked by a
few wrinkles around them. Above and behind them is a marked pit
on 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and below them several longitudinal wrinkles,
together marking out the "lateral flange," not otherwise developed,
ANTHKOCEftA HIPPOCREPtDlS. 537
On segment 3 is a scrap of dark chitin, just in the line of these
wrinkles, which here fall on the delicate chitin beneath the wings.
No definite marks of prolegs exist. When they do, as they often do,
in Anthrocerids, they are probably slightly pathological, just as in Swer-
inthiis where they often, but not usually, occur. Though there are
no hooks or pale zones ventrally, the strong black line of the anterior
margins of the segment is very marked, though wanting at the
"flange," and therefore not continuous round the segment. The 8th
abdominal spiracle does not afford a tracheal lining, as in Ehopalocera.
The pits which run up each side of the mesothorax from the forward
margin of the metathorax are well marked and quite pale at their
deepest hollow — elsewhere the chitin is fairly dark and strong (black
in the living pupa), and nowhere brown (green in living pupa), as in
many Anthrocerids. The glazed eye is well marked across the cheek, as
curved smoother area, with a very denned inner margin ; the clypeus comes
down very square to the maxillre, so that, unless a trifling irregularity
on its margin represent them, no other mouth parts are seen. Except
those noted in connection with the prothoracic spiracles, no trace of hair
or bristle is anywhere to be discovered. [Chapman. Described January
1st, 1899, from empty pupa-case from nr. Strood.] Stephens says
.that " the pupa is dusky-brown, with the abdomen greenish, spotted
with black."
DEHISCENCE. — The apices of the pitpal wings rest upon the outer
surface of the cocoon, near the apex of the opening close to the stem
(to which the cocoon is attached) ; to enable them to do this the pupa
is drawn somewhat out of position, and the fore part of the pupa-skin
is thrust back at an angle of 45° degrees from the grass stem. The
separated antennae-covers being thrown forward at 45° from the pupa-
case, stand out horizontally in a conspicuous manner. They are
attached to the headpiece which carries the eye-covers and maxilke,
the whole being attached to the rest of the pupa-case by the apices
and inner colourless septa of the maxillae. Viewed dorsally, the dorsal
slit between the lateral halves of the dorsal headpiece, the prothorax
and the mesothorax, extends to the posterior margin of the meso-
thorax and stands widely open.
FOOD-PLANT. — ? Wild liquorice (Aafragalua glycyphyUos] (Stephens).
We doubt this very much, Genista tinctoria and Lotus coniiculatus are
both abundant where the species occurred in North Kent.
HABITS AND HABITAT. — The species is generally found in meadows
and rough, grassy fields. Barrett says that in some rough fields on the
top of Wenlock Edge, a range of hills in Salop, he found, in June,
1856, A. filipendulae in immense numbers, but searched in vain for
A. lonicerae', returning to the same place a fortnight later, he found
the latter species in equal profusion, but scarcely a specimen of A. fili-
pendulae was to be seen. On grassy slopes, near the sea, at Cairn -
ryan, Stranraer and Corsemalzie (Gordon), in meadows and pastures
(Stephens), in a grass field near Ashford, and on railway banks at
Grange (Crabtree), in meadows at Mill Hill, flying with A. trifulii;
also in fields at Hailsham, but here never mixing with A. trifulii
(James), in boggy meadows at Sketty Park, with A. trifolii (Eobert-
son), in pasture meadows at Newstead Park (Wright), in the rides of
the wood at Ashton Wold, at privet bloom (Prout), in fields, nr.
538 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA,
Winchester, with A. trifolii (Richardson), on railway banks at Cowran
(Routledge).
TIME OF APPEARANCE. — From the middle of May to the end of June,
according to the season, generally quite over before A. fdipendulae has
pupated, in 1888 (a very late year) was out in early July. Cross notes
that on August 4th, 1897, A. filipendulae were in great plenty at
Folkestone, but a friend living there gave him several examples of a
six-spotted species, distinctly smaller than the later one, that he had
taken plentifully on June 3rd of the same year. The following
appears to refer to this insect : June 20th, 1810, nr. Coombe Wood
(Stephens), June, 1856, on Wenlock Edge (Barrett), June Gth, 18G8,
abundant at Cirencester (Harman), second week in May until the
second week of June, normally, June 16th, 1864, at Barnwell Wold,
June 16th, 1871, at Castle Hill, DoVer (Briggs), in May, in the metro-
politan district (Boden), June 9th, 1874, with A. trifolii, at Winchester,
first specimen of true A. filipendulae seen on downs July 10th (Richard-
son), May 25th, 1881, at Great Marlow (Davis), larvae, pupae and imagines
at Grange, June 6th, 1881 (Carter), June 4th, 1883, atNewstead Park
(Wright), June 25th-26th, 1887, June 19th, 1890, May 25th-
June 24th, 1892, May 7th, May 20th- June 16th, 1893, June
16th-July 4th, 1894, worn, in North Kent (Tutt), June lst-13th,
1889, at Mill Hill, never saw the insect here later than June 15th,
May 27th-June 3rd, 1893, at Hailsham (James), occasionally at end
of May, June 4th, 1889, July 8th, 1890, June 21st, 1892, June 8th,
1893, June 27th, 1894, at Cowran (Routledge), swarming in June,
1892, at Penarth (Birkenhead), June llth, 1892, with A. trifolii, at
Rickmanswortb, May 22nd, 1893, at Northwood (South), May, 1893,
May 28tb, 1896, cocoons and imagines at Grange, June 5th, 1895,
cocoons, emerged June 24th-30th, near Ashford, Kent (Crabtree),
June 8th, 1893, at Sketty Park (Robertson), May 26th, cocoons,
emerged June 3rd-7th, imagines on wing May 29th, at Enniskillen
(E. W. Brown), May 24th, 1896, at Barmouth (Blagg), June 5th,
1896, at Cairnryan, Stranraer, June 10th, 1896, at Corsemalzie
(Gordon), June 22nd, 1896, at Ashton Wold (Prout). In April,
1881, the larvae of.. A. filipendidae were abundant, in various stages,
in one locality at Instow, long before larvae appeared in the usual
haunts of the species (Hinchliffe). " A specimen taken near the Pont-
de-1'Arche, on June 19th, 1897, in the locality, with A. trifolii, is very
like the specimen of A. hippocrepidis, St., you sent to me from Kent ;
I could at the time find no other specimen of the six-spotted form "
(Dupont).
LOCALITIES. — BUCKS: Great Marlow (Davis). CHESHIRE: between Spital and
Besborough (Moss). CUMBERLAND : Orton Wreay, Newby (F. H. Day), Cowran
(Routledge). DEVON : Instow (Hinchliffe). ? FERMANAGH : Enniskillen (E. W.
Brown). GLAMORGAN rPenarth (Birkenhead), Sketty Park (Robertson) . GLOUCESTER:
Cirencester (Harman). HANTS : nr. Winchester (Richardson). KENT : Darenth
(Stephens), Dover (Briggs), Folkestone (Cross), nr. Strood (Tutt), Ashford (Crabtree).
LANCASHIRE : Grange-over- Sands (Crabtree). MERIONETH : Barmouth (Blaggj.
MIDDLESEX (Wood), Metropolitan district (Boden), between Rickmansworth and
Northwood (South), Mill Hill (James). NORTHANTS : Barnwell Wold (Briggs), Ashton
Wold (Prout). NOTTS: Newstead Park, nr. Mansfield (Wright). ? PEMBROKE : Pem-
broke (Barrett). SHROPSHIRE: Wenlock Edge (Barrett). SURREY: nr. Coombe Wood
(Stephens). SUSSEX : Tilgate Forest (Briggs), Hailsham (James). ? WIGTONSHIKE :
Cairuryan, Stranraer and Corsemalzie (Gordon). ? WILTS: Marlborough (Meyrick).
AttTflROCERtD SPECIES. 539
ANTHROCERID SPECIES.
In obtaining the materials for the study of the Anthrocerids from
every possible source, we have been repeatedly called upon to formu-
late an opinion as to what constitutes a species in this particular
genus. Few as are our British species, they afford representatives of some
of the chief sections into which this somewhat unwieldy genus naturally
falls, and in the study of their variation the question of species faces us
at every turn. Is A. nibicundus cospecific with A. purpuralis? Are
A. viciae and A. charon, Hb., the same species ? Is A. lonicerae distinct
from A. medicayinis ? Can A. dubia be a mixture of A. medicayinis
and A. ochsenheimeri ? Are A. trifulii and A. palustris distinct ? Can
A. seriziati, the most extreme form of A. palustris, be specifically
identical with A. syracmia, the most extreme form of A. trifulii'
Should A. hippocrepidis, St., be united with A. trifulii or A.filipenditlae !
The difficulty of species among the Anthrocerids does not lie so
much in the intergrades met with, as in the tendency for a given con-
dition of environment to produce a race with a well-defined facies, and
the consequent determination whether there is sufficient distinction
between two well-marked forms to warrant one in considering them
species — thus we get the viciae-charon, the lonicerae-medicayinis, and
jilipendulae-hippocrejndis combinations. Not that intergrades do not
occur, trifolii and palustris appear to offer such, yet the question of
.ti/racnsia and seriziati as species turns rather upon their differentiation
from trifolii and palustris respectively, to which forms they are un-
doubtedly attached. Considering- these as combinations of the first
grade, i.e., the presumed species being little more than local races
with a well-defined facies, there are combinations much more far-
reaching in character, e.r/., not whether medicayinis = lonicerae or
oclisenlteiineri — filipendulae, but whether medicayinis = ochsenheimeri
(the two having been combined as dubia, Staud.), and, therefore,
whether lonicerae — fdipendulae, two very distinct insects in their
typical forms. The question of species, then, is a difficult one, and if
one sums up the characters presented by certain Anthrocerids, one
is often puzzled as to what should and what should not be considered
the limit of specific forms.
Unfortunately in this genus, two out of the three early stages yield
no characters that can be considered of value in this direction. One
can often determine certain species of Lepidoptera by an examination of
the eggs or pupae alone. The eggs of Anthrocerids are, in their broad
characters, almost identical, and the pupae are equally generalised and
similar, even when the imagines are most diverse. They present the
same number of movable segments, the maxillae, antennae and 1st pair
of legs reach to almost exactly the same points on the 5th and 6th
abdominal segments, a slight difference in the colour or texture of
certain segments alone remaining. The larvae, too, are so little
specialised that their structural uniformity is only equalled by their
general similarity, a difference in ground colour, and the size of the
black markings before and after the warts (which extend in longitudinal
series throughout) being almost the only available characters at disposal.
The imagines, although maintaining what may be called an average of
stability, are subject to the most amazing variations, so that a single
normally 5 -spotted species, A. trifolii, may present the extreme
characters of A. lonicerae or A. erytkrus, and what is true of this, is true
540 BRITIS
in a greater or less degree of all the species. Neither the border of the
hind-wings nor the antennfe offer fixed characters, and in the latter a
difference of one-third in length will sometimes occur in the males of
the same species from a single locality.
One may ask what is left on which a differentiation can be made.
Bateson discovers (ante, pp. 420-421) distinct differences between the
genitalia of A. filipenthdae, A. trifolii, A. riciac, A. e.ndans and A. pur-
puralis, yet he fails to distinguish those of A. lonicerae and A. trifolii,
and A. filipendulae and A. hippocrepidis, Stephs. A distinction in the
genitalia of A. Jilipendulae and A. lonicerae has not been sufficient to
prevent Fletcher from obtaining hybrids between these insects, nor
Standfuss from successfully crossing A. filipendulae with A. trifolii.
We have left for consideration, .^then, the habits of the insects, their
relation to their environment, their specialisation to their food-plants,
and similar factors which have caused them to take on those characters
which, in the mass, make us consider them as species. We are not in
a position to satisfactorily deal with the effect of environment on the
fixity of specific characters, yet a few considerations may be useful.
The Anthrocerid, which is best known to us as having a very specialised
environment, is A. e.ndans. It is an alpine and arctic species,
apparently incapable of carrying on its existence apart from a long and
severe winter, and an alpine flora. It haunts the marshes at the
sea-level along the shores of the Arctic Ocean, in Eussia and Finmark.
As we come south it gradually leaves the lowlying land, following the
gradually increasing altitude to which the arctic (and alpine) flora is
restricted, and reaches up the mountains of Scandinavia and Fin-
land as far as plant-life can exist. In southern Scandinavia and
Scotland it is rarely found below 1,500 ft. -2,000 ft. above sea-level,
and as we go south, the altitude at which an alpine flora is found con-
tinually increases, until in the Pyrenees, the Alps of central Europe,
and the huge mountain chains of central Asia, it never occurs at a lower
elevation than from 5,000 ft.-6,000 ft. A. e.ndans is distributed over
almost the whole of these ranges, in districts separated by thousands of
miles by lowlying land in which the species is never found. We have
only to reach a certain height to make sure of finding this insect,
slightly changed it may be, according to the district, but still undoubted
A. exulans, never coming below these comparatively barren regions of
the high alps, but going as high as vegetation can be found to
support the larva. Here, then, we have one of the most specialised
of the Anthrocerids, so far as its environment is concerned, and
here we have (except within certain very narrow limits) one of
the most constant, its constancy probably due to its isolation
through an almost incalculable period, for when an insect occurs
practically unchanged in the mountains of Scandinavia, Scotland and
France, the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Altai, confined to a certain
elevation, and absent from all the intermediate grounds, which are of
immense extent, we must conclude either (1) that the species existed
in its present form at a time when the whole of the intermediate areas
were suited to its existence, and subsequent climatic changes have
driven it into still suitable places, or (2) that in common Avith many
other species, it was able to exist in the lower lauds under different
climatic conditions, and that the competition for existence being less
severe, it retreated into those districts which it now occupies, where
ANTHROCERID SPECIES. 541
the stress of its organic environment is less potent, the insect being
slowly modified to become fitted to its new surroundings, and at last
defied almost the whole insect fauna to follow it. That it is suited to
its environment is certain, for in the most inhospitable regions A.
e.ndans is to be sometimes seen, literally in millions. Both these
theories assume that A. e.i-ulans existed in the lowlying lands, and if
this were so, the species must have taken on its present form before
the British Islands were separated from the continent of Europe, and
probably before the great break, which now separates the great
mountain-chains of Asia from those of Europe, occurred in the
neighbourhood of the Caspian and Ural Seas. If, however, we accept
either of these theories, and suppose that not A. e.ndans, but a pro-
genitor of the species, inhabited the lower ground, we have the
remarkable fact that this ancestor has developed into a practically
identical form over a vast area of the world, and maintained a
particular facies in all the different directions in which the specialisa-
tion of the species is going on.
In Anthrocera purpuralis we have a species that is not strictly
limited by altitude or latitude, nor by an arctic or sub-arctic flora. It
occurs at the sea-level in Scotland, Ireland, Scandinavia, Russia,
Germany, France, Switzerland, Austria, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Asia
Minor and Central Asia. It extends from the sea-level, through all
intermediate elevations, until it has reached 7,000 ft.-8,000 ft. —
Mont de la Saxe 7,000 ft., Cogne 6,500 ft., Le Lautaret almost 8,000 ft.,
Heiligenblut 7,000 ft., Kokand district 7,000ft., and the defile of
Chakhisnarden, in the Pamirs. Wide as is its distribution, however,
there is a roughly governing factor, the species is rarely found off a
calcareous soil, and if it be, it is usually near enough to show traces of
the characteristic flora of chalk and limestone districts. The difference
between this environment and that of A. e.ndans is perceptible at once.
The latter is confined to the summits of high mountains, or to high
latitudes, where the stress of the organic environment is reduced to a
minimum. The environment of the former extends from sea-level to
7,000 ft. or 8,000 ft., and the insect is subjected to an organic environ-
ment differing as greatly as the fauna and flora of Italy and Greece,
the west coasts of Great Britain and Scandinavia ; it is subjected to a
climatic environment differing as greatly as the hot plains of southern
Italy and Asia Minor, the wet west coasts of Britain and the cold of
the highest Alps of Dauphine, Piedmont, Switzerland, Carinthia
and the Pamirs, where winter lasts for at least eight months in the
year. Under such varying conditions, local races differing in size,
scaling, and general appearance are produced, whilst a number of
separate forms — erythrux, mbicttndits, brizae, etc. — appear to have been
developed from this species along the shores of the Mediterranean, where
the stress of the organic environment is probably at its greatest. How
far are hcrimji, ]>liit<>, nubiyena and polyr/alae distinct species ? Experts
have so considered them, and yet we are inclined to conclude that the
sum total of characters is insufficient to give them specific rank. Quite '
recently Calberla has shown that the male genitalia of rubicundus are
fixed, and on this one character we are constrained to consider it a
species apart from purpuralis, of which it had previously been con-
sidered a local race. So little is necessary to change the opinion of
lepidopterists as to whether an insect is a local race or distinct species.
542 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
n<lm
What conditions led to the specialisation of the genitalia of ncbicundiu
in a certain direction, so that they became constantly different from
those of the stem form ?
We may now consider A. viciae, better known under its synonym
of mdiloti. The distribution of this species is remarkable, extending
from Barbary to Scandinavia, and from the New Forest (its most
western limit), throughout Europe and Asia to Dahuria and Amurland.
It is local, occurring generally in great abundance in limited districts,
of which our New Forest locality may be considered an almost typical
one. It haunts borders of woods and wood-clearings, but what limits
it to these districts has yet to be discovered, nor can we suggest a cause.
Are the reputed food-plants not the natural ones ? Is it confined to a
special species of plant that exteflrds locally over all its range ? We
do not know, yet it should not be difficult to discover. Over such an
area the conditions of environment must be extremely varied, yet
under somewhat similar conditions the same form (the one we know
so well) is maintained, the specimens from Germany, France, the
Baltic provinces and Asia Minor, being almost identical with our
British examples. By the time the' insect has reached its most
northern and western limits, some degree of variation is noticed ; the
thin scaling is maintained, the general facies is little altered, but the
hind-wings show an increase in the width of the marginal border, and
the red colour is reduced to a minimum. These appear to be the only
essential differences, yet they have a marked effect on the general
appearance of the insect. In Finland this race is known as elinben/ii,
in Amurland as dahurica. An occasional British specimen will show
a few red scales on the abdomen, a suggestion of an abdominal ring in
embryo. In Pomerania and the Baltic provinces similar examples are
found, whilst an occasional specimen will have the ring almost com-
plete, forming the ab. stentzii. In Roumania, where the insect is
very abundant, a strange development occurs, for typical viciae are
here mixed with individuals which Caradja is unable to separate from
dahurica, whilst the red-ringed form is by no means rare. Occasionally,
in Britain, and in the localities of north and central Europe, an
example is found with the spots 1, 2 -j- 4, 8 + 6, forming three wedge-
shaped streaks, as in A. purpuralis, but the aberration is exceedingly
rare. In the Ala Tau district this is the common form, and Staudinger
has termed the local race confusa. So far, however, these local races
differ but little radically, and in general appearance, from the type. In
the warm, southern, transalpine valleys, however, a change occurs.
A. viciae, as we know it, appears to be almost unknown, but in its
place we have an insect thickly scaled with brighter red markings,
with a very characteristically marked marginal border to the hind-
wings, and with a tendency to develop a strongly marked and brightly
coloured red abdominal belt. In addition, this form has spot 6
developed, not strongly in all specimens, but as well-developed, say, as
is the corresponding spot in the south-alpine forms of A. ocltsenlicimcri.
This insect is the clianni of Hiibner, and even on superficial grounds
one feels inclined to say at once that it is a distinct species. Calberla,
however, has come to a different conclusion, and considers it "simply a
transalpine form of A. viciae, although at present he has published no
critical comparative life-histories of the two insects, which alone can
determine the matter. It might be supposed that the presence of the
ANTHROCERID SPECIES. 543
6th spot would settle the specific distinction of charon, but Fletcher,
Christy, and others, possess British specimens of A. viciae with spot
6 more or less well-developed. If charon be really a transalpine race
of A. viciae, then the climatic conditions, and the more nutritious food
of the southern countries, are possibly the factors that have determined
the great superficial differences that exist between our A. viciae and
the charon dwelling beyond the Alps.
A. lonicerae is the most constant, A. tri/olii the most variable, of all
our British species, the former probably the mos't constant in the character
of its environment, the latter the most variable. Bateson is unable
to separate A. lonicerae and A. trifolii by their genitalia, yet one can
determine the larvae and imagines readily enough, and the similarity of
the genital organs is emphasised by the fact that the two species
hybridise freely inter se, and produce fertile progeny. Here, then, the
specific difference is not due to a specialisation of the genital organs,
but must be due to isolation in some other form. To a certain extent
isolation may be brought about by a difference in time of appearance,
for A. lonicerae is decidedly later than A. trifolii in the normal time of
its appearance, and earlier than A. palustris. The specialisation to a
certain food-plant may be potent, although as yet insufficient attention
has been paid thereto, and it is quite possible that A. palustris is
specialised from A. trifolii by being limited to Lotus uliginosus. Both
A. lonicerae and A. trifolii present many interesting phases in the
question of species on the continent, the former in its relation to A.
wedicaginis, the latter in its relation to A. palustris and the extreme
form of the latter, A seriziati. A. tri/olii presents us, as we have
already seen, with two distinct races in Britain, A. trifolii and A.
palustris, already dealt with at length, distinct enough in their
extremes, and clearly responding to their environment. The small
meadow and hillside form prefers a dry habitat, appears in June
(sometimes in May), which suggests that the nature of the habitat
governs, to some extent, the time of its appearance. It has a less
succulent food-plant (Lotus cornicidatus), and probably as a result it is
of smaller size, rather less brilliant tint, and has generally a wider
marginal band to the hind-wings. The larger marsh form prefers a
moist habitat, and appears in July and August, it has a more succulent
food-plant (Lotus ulii/inosus), is of larger size, more brilliant tint,
rather narrower marginal band to hind-wings, etc. In their extremes,
therefore, the insects are distinct enough, and the nature of their
respective habitats, with the resulting isolation as to time of appearance
engendered thereby, appear to be sufficient to bring about a very
definite separation. Intermediate conditions possibly do prevail, and
the extremes appear to be united by overlapping forms, so that it is
difficult to consider them as species. Here, then, is a distinct factor
that weighs in the determination of species, viz., the positive separation
of distinct forms or races (by their environment, etc.), e.g., lonicerae
and trifolii, the union of otherwise distinct races (with a different
environment) by intermediate forms (with an intermediate environ-
ment). Yet the strongly-marked larva of A. tri/olii is as different in
appearance as possible when compared with the pale, scantily-marked
larva of A. palustris. We are not prepared to enter into the effect of
the wider geographical conditions to which A. trifolii is subjected, for,
with the exception of the French lepidopterists, it is doubtful whether
544 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
any of the continental lepidopterists have any very clear view as to the
differences between A. trifolii and A. loniccrae, and it would be absurd
to attempt any generalisation upon unreliable data. One may add,
however, that in Algeria, both A. trifolii and A. paluxtris maintain
their characteristic habits and habitats. A. xyracuxia represents our
A. trifolii, and in Algeria is almost indistinguishable from it; A.
seri ziati represents A. paluttris, and is marvellously modified in the
blue colour of the fore-wings and in the border of the hind-wings,
which sometimes occupies almost the whole wing. Whether or no
one would maintain the specific identity of British trifolii and palmtris,
he would be a bold man who would unite specifically the Algerian
A. syracjifia and A. scriziati.
One other species remains for consideration, viz., A.JHipcn<hd(ie.
This has a great range in Europe, although almost unknown in Asia
(exclusive of Asia Minor). It extends from the north of Scandinavia
to the Mediterranean Sea, and reaches to a considerable height up the
mountains, from 6,000-7000 ft. in the central Alps. We have not
merely, however, alpine and lowland forms, for the former, although
specialised in the direction of thinner scaling and duller coloration
(and the race from the Alps, var. inatinii, is similar to that from
Finmark, var. arctica, in these respects) resembles the lowland type,
more than do some of the lowland forms each other. We have, in
England, two of the best-marked forms, or races, that the insect
presents, viz., the early (May and June) meadow form known as
ktppocrepidi*, Stephs., and the ordinary later (July and August) form
A. jilii>cnchtlac. In many ways these are exactly parallel with A.
trifolii and A. paluttrit, respectively, hippocrepidis being earlier, smaller
in size, the red spots much reduced, the marginal border of the hind-
wings broader, whilst the fiUpendvla* of our hills and waste places
often presents us with somewhat intermediate forms between these and
the large, late specimens we obtain on our coast cliffs and marshes.
The origin of A. hippocrejridis, Stephs., is uncertain. As we have
pointed out, it is often a meadow species like the early A. trifolii, and
frequently occurs therewith, appearing in the imaginal, whilst typical
filipendidae is still in the larval, state. The specialisation in spotting
is most marked, the males having the 6th spot reduced, and occa-
sionally entirely absent, when it is quite indistinguishable from A.
trifolii. We understand that M. Dupont captured examples of Iti^jio-
<T<')iidi», Stephs., in 1898, near Le Havre, strangely enough with early
A. trifolii. Two questions arise — Is A. //////w;r/>/W/.v, Stephs., a dis-
tinct species ? Is it more closely related to A. trifolii or A.Jilipt'ndnlac ?
Bateson examined the genitalia of some of our best examples of A.
/tij>i>ocri'pidis (one distinctly A. trifolii in size, shape, colour, and
spotting), and reported them as undoubted Jili)n'iidulae. Yet its life-
history and cycle of existence are perfectly distinct from those of
A. jilii>t>ndnlat>, and there is no great similarity in the imagines, except
that a large percentage have six spots, an almost unfailing condition
in A. jiliiit'iididae. The life-histories want working out critically,
and, if possible, all stages compared by an expert, before a final con-
clusion can be reached. We have been unable, on the strength of
our field observations, to come to any other conclusion than that A.
}til>l>orn>i>idix is ft near ally, if not direct offshoot of A. trifolii. Our
reason for this supposition is that we have seen a well-known locality
ANTHBOCERID SPECIES. 545
for A. trifolii gradually fail for this species, whilst the same ground has
become remarkable for the abundance of A. hippocrepidis. It may be,
of course, that two distinct species have occupied for a considerable
time the same ground, and that what we have observed has been
simply a natural fluctuation in relative abundance and scarcity. Still,
we cannot forget that we have seen hundreds of A. trifolii in these
fields, with here and there a six-spotted hippocrepidis among them,
that of late years trifolii has disappeared, and that hippocrepidis has
taken its place, whilst the extreme males of hippocrepidis are still almost
indistinguishable superficially from A. trifolii. All these difficulties
face one in the study of the Anthrocerids, and still one asks, as yet in
vain, What is a species ? The specialisation of A. hippocrepidis
males is exactly parallel with that of A. ochsenheimeri, a fine race
occurring in the southern Alps, richly coloured and thickly scaled, but
with the 6th spot reduced in the males often nearly to vanishing
point. [This is exactly the opposite result to that occurring in A.
viciae where, in the assumed transalpine form, charon, Hb., a 6th
spot is developed.] Yet the female ochsenheimeri is indistinguishable
from many typical filipendulae, and the same is true of female hippo-
crepidis, Stephs. The life-history of the latter is still unpublished (and
practically unknown) ; it may be identical Avith A. filipendulae, it may
be very different therefrom. Our ignorance makes us form opinions,
and opinions based on ignorance are always bad. One feels, however,
that it is better to keep all these forms distinct rather than lose them
by a lumping process that is bad in itself and unscientific in principle.
One other point is worthy of mention. We forwarded to Fletcher, in
1894, $ oclisenheimeri and eggs, from Courmayeur. Some of those
bred in 1895 were characteristically marked with a small 6th spot.
The most extreme forms in this direction were crossed, and in 1896
others with spot 6 almost absent were obtained. In 1897, and 1898,
careful selection and inbreeding had got rid of spot 6 altogether, and
an artificial 5-spotted form had been obtained. These, although very
similar in appearance to the 5-spotted A. lonicerae, refused to pair
therewith, but paired freely with A. filipendulae, of which A. ochsen-
heimeri appears to be only an alpine variety. That is, Fletcher's examples
appear to have maintained the separate genitalia of A. filipendulae,
whilst spot 6 has been suppressed, and a race produced superficially
resembling the 5-spotted species. We should like to have compared
actual specimens of yurda and mersina with Harwood's Essex aberra-
tions, but the continental material was not forthcoming, and this
remains among the problems for future investigation.
The old notion that species should breed true fails utterly when
applied to the Anthrocerids. Some hybridise freely, and cross-pairing
occasionally takes place in the most erratic manner (ante, pp. 418-419).
It is clear that some well-defined Anthrocerid species that inhabit the
same ground are able to pair, if so disposed, and produce fertile
progeny, yet the species are maintained pure in their breeding-grounds,
often five or six species occurring in a very restricted habitat. Inability
to cross can, therefore, hardly be considered a test of species among
the Burnets, and if this were taken as a test, we should perhaps have
to reduce our European species to something less than a dozen, and
yet, while quite able to cross, they rarely do so in nature, so far as our
observations go. The species are generally well-defined in colour and
markings, and the variation of each takes its own lines, so that diffi-
ii
546 BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA.
culty of separation is rarely experienced in this direction. What, then,
must be the criteria of species here ? What keeps the species pure,
when they could so readily intercross ? We do not know, but we
imagine that the specialisation of the male abdominal scent glands
helps them to select their own mates, and that this is aided by the
isolation of the imagines by certain habits, by the specialisation of the
larvte to certain food-plants, and similar factors of equal importance.
When, therefore, a race has become sufficiently specialised by habit,
habitat, food-plant, or similar cause, to maintain itself as a distinct
form, definable structurally by some peculiarity of colour or distribu-
tion of markings, that race has in our opinion attained specific rank,
and should be so treated. That it should exhibit a marked difference in
egg, larva and pupa also, is hardly to be expected, except as a result of
long-continued isolation, and there is no reason why the genitalia of a
group should not be as generalised as the neuration. Specialisation
in other directions than the early stages — antennas, neuration, geni-
talia, etc. — must be looked upon as of the greatest importance in a group
like this when it does occur, but these must not be considered as the
only criteria in the determination of Anthrocerid species.
ADDENDA.
p. 869. Cochlidion avellana, Linne. — In accepting avellana, Linne,
as the specific name for the insect more generally known as limacodes,
Hufn., or testudo, Fab., we followed Kirby and Werneburg. Grave
doubts as to whether avellana, Linne, referred to the species in
question, were raised when we entered into the matter more fully, and
we are now informed by Prout that the insect in the Linnean cabinet
that bears this name is a Tortricid moth. We know that the insects
in this cabinet are not as Linne" left them, still, in the present un-
certainty, we think it advisable to add Hufnagel's description. This
reads as follows : —
Phalaena limacodes. — Die Schildmotte. Briiunlichgelb mit 2 braunen Quer-
streifen, die Unterfliigel etwas brauner. Raupe, glatt, kurz und dicke. Hat die
Figur eines Schildes ; griin mit rothen und gclben Streifen. Auf den Eichen und
Biichen ; September. Vogel. an den Bliittern der Biiume ; Mai und Junius. Von
der vierten Grosse. Selten [Berl. Mag., iii., p. 402 (1766)].
Hufnagel adds (loc. cit., p. 425) that when he first found the larvae
he took them to be those of Zephyrus betidae, until they made a round,
red-brown, very dense cocoon on the ground. The pupa, he notes, had a
very thin shell, and the position of the mouth-parts stood out strongly.
He concluded that it was likely that some species of fly or wasp would
be developed from them, but in the spring, Phalaena limacodes appeared,
the male smaller and darker than the female. He adds that much
as the larva superficially resembles that of Z. betulae, it differs in
having a short, lateral, bright, rose-red stripe on each segment,
whilst the yellow, oblique, lateral lines are wanting, and the ventral
area is covered with many pale yellow spots.
p. 470. Anthroceramtdicayinis,Bdv. — Under the name of A. ditbia
ab. confluens, Oberthur figures a form of this insect. He writes :
" Anthrocera dubia ab. confluens, Oberth., "Etudes," etc., xxth. livr.,
pi. viii., fig. 147." — This figure shows a specimen of medicaijinis, Bdv.,
with an extra spot between 3 and 5, and a slight inner extension of
5 towards the extra spot. From Vernet-les-Bains.
ERRATA.
p. 15, line 23, for " Catocalia " read " Catocalid." p. 183, line 2 from bottom, for
" tengstormi " read " tengstromi." p. 416, line 13, for " paludis " read "palustris,"
INDEX.
PAGE
abdominalis (= linearis), Macro-
centrus 526
abietaria, Boarmia 14
abietis, Dasychira 15, 16
abruptaria, Hemerophila 7, 11,
64, 66, 88, 89
absynthiata, Eupithecia 86
acerella (= sericopeza), Nepticula 343
aceris, Apatela 11
aceris, Nepticula 166, 172
acetosae, Nepticula 251-253, 259,
273, 276, 303
acharon, Adscita (Zygasna) ... 384
achillese, Anthrocera 417, 418,
424, 425, 436, 460, 519
achilleae (lonicerae ab.), Anthro-
cera 468, 469
achilleae (purpuralis), Anthrocera 431
achine, Pararge 13
Addenda 546
Addenda to Nepticulids 354
Adela 3
Adelides ... , 109
adippe, Argynnis 15
Adoneta 123, 361, 363
Adscita (= Anthrocera) 415
Adscita (Procris) 384, 385, 386, 387, 388
Adscitidi 385, 386
Adscitinae (Procrinae) 383, 384, 385, 386
Aeacis (= Anthrocera) 415
aeacus (peucedaniofr.), Anthrocera 422
aegon, Plebeius 8, 14, 98
aeneella, Nepticula 189
aeneofasciata (= aeneofasciella),
Nepticula 224
aeneofasciella (= aeneofasciata),
Nepticula 164, 165, 168, 224-
226, 227, 228
aescularia, Anisopteryx 12, 13, 37
affinis, Calymnia 39
Agaristidae 107
Agdistis 48, 114, 115, 118, 119, 121
aglaella, Micropteryx 130, 138, 157
aglaia, Argynnis 66
Aglaope 384
Aglaope (= Adscita) 388
Aglia 51, 120
agrimoniae, Nepticula 163, 165,
171, 179, 225. 313-314
agrimoniella (=agrimoniae), Nepti-
cula 309, 311, 313
Agrumenia (= Anthrocera) ... 415
albifrons, Symmerista ... 91, 92
albiguttatus, Cochlidion (Apoda) ... 368
albovenosa, Pharetra (Arsilonche) 11
albulata, Emmelesia , 65
algeriella, Micropteryx 138, 157, 159
allionella (= aureatella var.), Mi-
cropteryx 130, 152, 155, 156,
157, 158
alnetella, Nepticula 165 172, 263-
265. 270, 283, 284
alni, Jocheaera ... 49, 50, 78, 97
alniaria (tiliaria), Ennomos ... 15
amasiella, Micropteryx 138
amataria, Timandra 14
americana, Apatela 49
americana, Gastropacha 49
ammanella, Hb. (= anderschella,
H.-Sch., nee Hb.), Micropteryx
136, 138, 157
ammanella (= aureatella), Microp-
teryx 156, 157
ammanella (— mansuetella), Mi-
cropteryx 152
amoenella (=: aureatella) , Microp-
teryx 156
ampelophaga, Adscita ... 387, 390
Amphientomum 3
Anagnia 48
analis, Pezomachus 526
Anatolis 388
anceps(?geryonrar.), Adscita 401, 402
anderschella, Micropteryx 133,
134. 135, 137
anderschella (= thunbergella),
Micropteryx 154
angelicae, Anthrocera (Thermo-
phila) ... 415, 470, 472, 515
anguina, Dasylophia 41
angulifasciella, Nepticula 164,
165, 170, 171, 172. 175, 179,
268, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308-
310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 324
angusticolella, Tischeria 58
Anisota 40, 48
annulata, Hydrusa (Zygaena) 383
annulata (omicronaria), Zonosoma 84
annulata (viciae var.), Anthrocera 457
anomala (=: anomalella), Nepticula 206
anomalella. Nepticula 163, 165,
169, 174, 179, 183, 187, 192,
198, 204-211, 212, 213, 215,
243, 268
Anomalon 98, 413
Anthilaria (= Anthrocera) ...415
Anthrocera 50, 117, 118, 383.
384, 386, 387, 388, 389, 414-415
Anthroceridae (Zygaenidae) 107,
114, 116, 117. 385
Anthrocerides 109, 115, 117, 383, 38
Anthroceridi 386, 414
548
INDEX.
PAGE
Anthrocerinae 383. 384, 385, 414
anthyllidis (triptolemus), Anthro-
cera (Lycastes) 416
antiqua, Orgyia 10, 15, 27, 28,
38, 59, 100
Apatelae 49
Apatelidae... Ill
apicalis, Cochlidion (Apoda) ... 368
apicella (= argyropeza), Nepticula
323, 328, 330
apiciaria, Epione 14, 15
Apoda (= Cochlidion = Limacodes)
120, 180. 360, 361, 364. 368
Apodidae 360
apollo, Parnassius 15, 101
aprilina, Dichonia 13''
archippus, Anosia 93
arctica (= filipendulae rar.), An-
throcera 515, 544
Arctiidae 107, 111
Arctiides 28, 38, 109
arcuata (= arcuatella), Nepticula
304. 305, 306, 314
arcuatella, Nepticula 165, 178,
306-308, 309. 313
arcuosella (arcuatella), Nepticula 306
arenacea, Cochlidion (Apoda) ... 368
argentata, Hepialus 135
argentiflua, Leucophobetron ... 366
argentipedella, Nepticula 166,
172, 173, 175. 179, 184, 276,
289-291, 292, 293, 298, 308.
309, 327. 344
argentipedella {;= woolhopiella),
Nepticula 292
argiolus, Cyaniris 98
argus, Plebeius 96. 98
argyropedella (argyropeza), Nepti-
cula 327
argyropeza (= apicella), Nepticula
166. 168, 172, 177, 179, 183.
327-330, 341, 344. 348, 350
argyropeza (= subapicella), Nepti-
cula 330
argyropezella (argyropeza), Nepti-
cula 327
argyrorrhoea, Leucophobetron ... 336
argyrostigma (= headleyella), Nep-
ticula 33
Arichalca 385. 415
aries (= filipendulae), Anthrocera
(Adscita) 388, 508
Arniocera 415
arthemis, Basilarchia 98
aruncella (= podevinella), Microp-
teryx (Eriocephala) 1, 129,
130, 133, 137, 138, 139, 145-
149. 150, 151
aruncella (= seppella), Micropteryx 149
Ascalaphus 135
asella (= avellana ab.), Cochlidion 370
asella (us == cruciata) , Heterogenea
181, 375
asellana (= cruciata), Heterogenea 378
assimilella, Nepticula 166, 350-352
PAGE
atlas, Attacus 48
atricapilla (? aruncella var.), Mi-
cropteryx 138, 148
atricapitella, Nepticula 165, 183,
185-187, 188, 189. 192. 197,
198, 216, 219
atricapitella (= ruficapitella), Nep-
ticula 187
atricollis, Nepticula 164, 165,
171, 304-306, 307, 309, 314
atrifrontella, Trifurcula ... 358
atropos, Acherontia 29
Attaci 128
Attacinae 51, 123
Atychia (= Adscita) 388
Atychia (= Khagades) 406
aucupariae, Nepticula 165. 189,
195-197
auge, Cosmosoma (Zygaena) ... 383
aurago, Tiliacea (Xanthia) 12, 13, 15
aurantia (filipendulae ab.), Anthro-
cera 510, 511
aurantiaria, Hybernia 66
aureatella, Micropteryx 130, 133,
137, 138, 152, 155, 156-160
aurella, Nepticula 163, 164, 165,
174, 184, 225, 228-233, 242,
243, 244-247, 254, 260, 268.
278, 309
aurella (= gratiosella) , Nepticula 253
aurella (? = ignobilella), Nepticula 278
aurella ( = marginicollella), Nepti-
cula 260, 261, 278
auricoma, Pharetra (Acronycta) ... 11
auricrinella, Epimartyria 137, 138
aurinia var. merope, Melitaea ... 70
auromarginella, Nepticula 165, 242-243
auropulverella, Micropteryx ... 138
australis, Aporophyla 39
australis ( = syracusia) , Anthrocera 489
autumnaria, Ennomos ... 13, 14
avellana( = limacodes = testudo),
Cochlidion 37, 77. 116, 117,
135, 360. 363, 364, 365, 366,
367, 368, 369-377, 378. 380,
381, 3S9, 412, 546
ballus, Thestor 98
basalella, Nepticula 165. 172, 178,
179, 184, 297, 299-302, 306, 354
basalis (trifoliiab.), Anthrocera 418
425, 485, 487
basiguttella, Nepticula 165, 173.
217-220
bellidis (bellis), Anthrocera (Ly-
castes) 416
bembeciforme, Trochilium ... 12
berberata, Anticlea 16
berolinensis (carniolica ab.), An-
throcera 424
berytella, Micropteryx 138
betulae, Zephyrus 68, 546
betularia, Amphidasys 12, 44. 81,
84, 87, 88, 89
ftfDEX,
549
betulicola, Nepticula ... 165, 179,
249, 2G8, 269-272, 273, 280,
281, 282, 286, 303
Bibionidae ... ... ... -.. 2
bicolor, llhogas ... ... ... 526
bicolor, Sphingicampa ... ... 125
bitida, Cerura 40
biguttata. Cochlidion (Apoda) ... 368
bilineata, Camptogramma ... 65
bilunaria (illunaria), Selenia 14, 15, 84
bipunctaria, Eubolia 66
bipunctata (filipendulae ab.), Anthro-
cera 509, 512
bistortata, Tephrosia 9, 12, 13, 16
bistrigella, Phylloporia (= sub-
ammanella, Tinea) 130
bistrimaculella, Nepticula 166, 184, 354
bitorquata (achilleae ab.), Anthro-
cera 423
biundata, Heterocarnpa ... ... 48
Blattidae 2
Bohemannia (= Scoliaula) ... 359
Bombycidae 105, 107, 111
Bombycides ... 29, 38, 109, 115
Bombyx (= Cochlidion) 368
Bombyx (= Heterogenea) 377
boreata, Cheimatobia 15
brachydactylus, Pselnophorus 121, 126
Brahrnaeidae 105
brassicae, Pieris 59, 60
Brephidae Ill
Brephides 109
Brephos ... ... ... 8
brizae, Anthrocera (Mesembrynus)
416, 417, 424, 425. 458, 541
brumata, Cheimatobia ... 10, 15
Bryophila 63
bucephala, Phalera 38,60
budensis, Adscita 387
bufo (avellana ab.), Cochlidion ... 370
buglossi (viciae ab.), Anthrocera
454, 457
caerulea (geryon ab.), Adscita ... 401
caerulea (globulariae rar.),Rhagades 408
caerulea (trifolii ab.), Anthrocera 484
caeruleocephala, Diloba (Episema)
26, 27, 28, 38
caesia, Dianthoecia 65
caesiata, Larentia 14
caffra, Neurosymploca (Zygaena,
Eutychia) 383, 415
caia, Arctia ... 13, 14, 27, 28, 42
Calamorceras 161
c-album, Polygonia ... 11, 12
Callosamia 51
calthella, Micropteryx (Eriocephala)
1, 104, 129, 130, 133, 136,
137, 138-145, 149, 150, 152,
153, 155, 158, 159, 162
calthella (= seppella), Micropteryx 149
Calybia 364
cancriformis, Apus ... 24
capistrata, Syntomerata (Zygaena) 383
oapitella, Incurvaria (Lampronia) 36
PAGE
Carabidae 77
cardamines, Euchloe ... 10, 63
cardui, Pyrameis 14, 441
carmelita, Odontosia 38
carniolica, Anthrocera 415, 416,
419, 423, 424, 442, 479
carpinella (= ? fagi), Nepticula ... 316
carpophaga, Dianthoecia ... 38, 39
cassandra, Saurita (Zygaena) ... 383
casta, Arctia 27, 23
casta, Doratifera 98
casta (nitidella), Funiea (Psyche)
27, 28
castanella, Nepticula 165, 183, 302
Castniides 109
castrensis, Clisiocampa (Malaco-
soma) 9, 12
catenatus, Cochlidion (Apoda) ... 368
catharticella, Nepticula 166, 172,
337, 339-340, 341
Catocala 89
cecropia, Platysamia ... 22, 34, 59
centifoliella ( = marginicolella),
Nepticula 260
centifoliella, Nepticula 165. 183, 184,
204, 211. 261, 267-269, 273, 303
centripuncta (lonicerae ab.), Anthro-
cera ... 468
Cerambycidae 39, 43
Ceratocampa 125
Ceratocampidae (Citheroniidae) 40,
48, 103. 105. 112. 124, 125,
128, 129
Ceratomia 125
cerbera, Zygaena 383
cerinus (— filipendulae ab.), An-
throcera 513
Cerura 40, 41, 49, 92, 93, 96, 102
cervinata, Ortholitha 51
chalcophanes, Palaeomicra 138, 161, 162
Chalcosia 48
chalybea (lonicerae ab.), Anthrocera
423, 468, 469
charon (Bdv. nee Hb.), Anthrocera
470, 516
charon, Hb., (? viciae var.), Anthro-
cera 415, 455, 456, 458-460.
468, 520, 539. 542. 543. 545
charon (— medicaginis), Anthrocera
470, 516
Chelonias (= Cochlidion) 368
Chelonias (= Heterogenea) ... 377
chi. Polia 15, 39
Choerocampa ... 48, 92, 127
Choerodes 40
christophi, Anthrocera 460
christophi, Cochlidion (Apoda) ... 368
chrysanthemi (filipenaulae ab.),
Anthrocera 423, 437, 468, 487,
511, 514
Chrysaor (= Adscita) 387
chrysargyra, Palaeomicra 138
chrysocephala (geryon var.), Ad-
scita 387, 390, 400, 401, 404
chrysorrhoea, Porthesia ... 13,100
650
INDEX.
PAGE
cilipeda, Phorocera 477
cingulata (? viciae ab.), Anthrocera
458, 459
circellaris (ferruginea), Mellinia ... 12
Citheronia 40, 51
Citheroniidae 107
citrinus (filipendulae ab.), Anthro-
cera 513
clara (exulans var.), Anthrocera
446, 447, 448
clathrella, Solenobia ... 27, 28
Cleora 63
Clisiocampa 58, 76, 124
Cnethocampa 76, 115
Coccinellidae 37
Cochlidae 360'1
Cochlidia 360, 368
Cochlidiae (Eucleidae) 107. 116, 360
Cochlididae ( = Limacodidae =
Eucleidae) ... 114. 360, 3G5
Cochlidides (Eucleides) 109, 115,
117, 360
Cochlididi 368
Cochlidinae 365, 368
Cochlidion (=r Limacodes) 360,
364. 365, 368, 378
Cochliopoda (= Cochlidion) ... 368
Cochliopoda ( = Heterogenea) ... 378
Cochliopodae (= Cochliopodidae) 360
Cochliopodi (= Limacodes) ... 360
Cochliopodidae ( = Eucleidae) 103,
123, 129
Cocliopodes (rect. Cochliopodes) ... 360
codeti, Cochlidion (Apoda) ... 368
coenosa, Laelia 28
cognata (?globulariae var.), Kha-
gades 408, 413
Coleophora 51
Colias 9
comes, Triphaena 39
comma, Pamphila 16
communimacula (filipendulae ab.),
Anthrocera 510, 512
complana, Lithosia 126
completella, Micropteryx 138
concinna, Schizura ' ... 91, 93
concinnella (= aruncella), Microp-
teryx 146, 150
concolor, Cochlidion (Apoda) ... 386
concolor, Lymantria 97
concolorella (= cristatella), Buccu-
latrix 220, 221
confertella, Trifurcula 355
confluens (dubia ab.), Anthrocera 546
confluens (filipendulae ab.), Anthro-
cera 509, 512
confluens (trifolii ab.), vide, mi-
noides, Anthrocera
confluens (viciae ab.), Anthrocera 456
confusa (viciae var.), Anthrocera
456, 458, 542
confusella, Nepticula 166, 282,
294, 295, 296, 297
conjuncta (filipendulae ab.), An-
throcera 510, 512
conspersa, Dianthoecia 65
PAGE
continuella, Nepticula 166, 237,
238, 265-267. 292
convergens, Cochlidion (Apoda) ... 368
convolvuli, Sphinx 103. 125
coronillae (ephialtes ab.), Anthro-
cera 422
Corydalus 132, 135
corydon, Polyommatus ... 8, 96
coryli, Demas 38
Cossidae 2, 106, 107
Cossides 109
Cossus 43, 106, 108
Crambides 63
Crambus 36
Crameria 388
crassicornis (? statices far.), Ad-
scita 391. 392
crataegi, Trichiura... 14, 15, 38, 119
crenulella, Apterona (helix, Psyche)
26, 27, 28
crepuscularia (biundularia), Te-
phrosia 9, 12, 64
creusa, Euchromia ... ... 383
crispata, Lagoa 37, 103, 119,
123, 126, 361, 365
cristatella, Lyonetia 355
cruciata (asella), Heterogenea 37,
77. 168, 363. 366, 367, 368,
378-383
cryptella (== eurema), Nepticula ... 332
cryptella, Nepticula 166, 332,
333-335, 336
Ctenophora 3
cucubali, Dianthoecia 39
cucullata (sinuata), Anticlea ... 82
cucullatella, Nola 38
Culex 3
Culicidae 77
culiciformis, Sesia 66
cultraria, Drepana 38
cuneata (lonicerae 06.), Anthrocera 468
Curculionidae 43
cursoriella (= subbimaculella),
Nepticula 176, 184, 350, 352
Cymatophoridae 105
Cymatophorides (Thyatirides) ... 109
Cymbidae 107
cynarae, Anthrocera (Lycastes) 416,
417, 425
Cynipidae 4, 30, 177
cynthia, Samia 48
Cyrnus 161
cytisi (filipendulae ab.), Anthrocera
415. 509, 511. 512, 519, 520, 533
cytisi (hippocrepidis ab.), Anthro-
cera 533
cytisi (? lonicerae ab.), Anthrocera 468
dacica (viciae var.), Anthrocera... 457
Dactylopius 101
dahurica (viciae var.), Anthrocera
456, 457, 458, 542
dalbergiae, Dasychira 97
Danais 49
Daaychira 96, 97
INDEX.
651
Dasylophia 51
Datana 51, 84
Debos 388
decentella ( = sericopeza), Nepticula
171, 344
decipiens, Campoplex 526
declinator, Sagaritis 382
decora (? viciae ab.), Anthrocera
458, 459
decrepitalis, Scopula 9
defoliaria, Hybernia 64
Demas 96
dentatus, Cochlidion (Apoda) ... 368
depictella ( = thunbergella), Mi-
cropteryx 154
desperatella, Nepticula 165, 189,
213-215
diadema, Epeira 24
diaphana (purpuralis var.), Anthro-
cera 434, 437
dictaea, Leiocampa 48
dictaeoides, Leiocampa (Notodonta)
28, 48
difficilis, Apanteles 526
dilutata, Oporabia 64
dimidiata (? basalella), Nepticula... 299
dimidiata, Pyromorpha 389
dimidiatella (= prunetorum), Nep-
ticula 259
dimidiatus, Cochlidion (Apoda) ... 368
Dioptidae 105, 107
Diplectrona 161
diptera, Thyrassia (Zygaena) ... 383
dispar, Porthetria 13, 27, 28, 59, 60, 96
distinguenda, Nepticula 166, 171,
247, 266, 271, 280-283, 286
diversa (= obliquella), Nepticula
166, 323. 324
diversa (= ? salicis), Nepticula ... 317
dominula, Callimorpha 38, 54, 69
Doratifera 364
doroxena, Palaeomicra ... 138, 161
dorycnii, Anthrocera 456
doubledayaria (betularia, ab.), Am-
phidasys 63, 64
Drepana 76
Drepanidae 107. 109, 111
Drepanulides (Platypterygides) ... 109
Dryocampa 40
dubia, Anthrocera 539
dubia (? lonicerae var.), Anthro-
cera ... 470, 471, 472, 546
dubia (= medicaginis + ochsen-
heimeri), Anthrocera 509
dulcella, Nepticula 165, 183, 236,
237-237
dumolinii, Lophostethus 124
Eacles 40, 120
eboracae (lonicerae ab.), Anthro-
cera 467, 469
eburneigutta, Tinolius 49
egea, Polygonia 11
egeria, Pararge 13
PAGE
ehnbergii (viciae var.), Anthrocera
458, 542
electa, Catocala 88, 89
elegans, Micropteryx ... ... 138
elinguaria, Crocallis 8, 44, 88, 89
elocata, Catocala ... ... 88, 89
elpenor, Choerocampa ... 91, 101
Empretia ... 77, 123, 361, 363
Endromides 109, 115
Endromis 124, 125
Ennomos ... ... ... ... 8
Epermenia 109
Ephemera 60
ephialtes, Anthrocera (Aeacis)
383, 415, 418, 422, 428
Epicopeidae 105
Epimartyria ... 138, 160, 162
Epiplemidae 105
Eriocephala (= Micropteryx) 1,
5, 130, 138, 362, 373
Eriocephalidae 362
Eriocephalides (= Micropterygides)
1, 3, 6, 36
Eriocrania 338
Eriocrania ( = Micropteryx) 104,
106, 132, 134, 135, 137, 162, ? 338
Eriocraniides (= Micropterygides)
104, 109, 110, 114, 131
Eriogaster 58, 76, 124
Errata 162, 354, 546
erythrus, Anthrocera (Mesembrynus)
416, 417, 424, 425. 436, 517,
539, 541
eryx, Belemnia ... 383
Euchloe 9
Euchromiidae 107, 111
Euclea ... 77, 361, 363, 364
Eucleidae (Cochlididae) 107, 360, 365
Eucleides (= Cochlidides) ... 360
Eucleinae 365
Eutychia (= Anthrocera) ...415
Eulimacodes 364
Eulimacodinae 365
euphorbiae, Deilephila 47, 60, 82
euphorbiae var. myricae, Pharetra
10, 39
euphorbiella. Nepticula 334
Eupterotidae 105, 111
Eupterotides ... 109, 115. 123
eurema, Nepticula 332-333, 334, 335
excaecatus, Smerinthus 14
exclamationis, Charnidas 97
eximiella (seppella var.), Mi-
cropteryx 130, 138, 146, 149, 150
exoleta, Calocampa ... ... 39
exsiliens (exulans var.) , Anthrocera 449
extensaria, Eupithecia 79
extrema (trifolii ab.), Anthrocera 485
exulans, Anthrocera (Lycastes'i
416, 417. 421. 422. 423, 424.
427, 428, 430, 443-453, 540, 541
fagella, Diurnea (Diurnaea) ... 64
fagella (= fagi), Nepticula ... 316
fagella = ? myrtillella) , Nepticula 310
552
INDEX.
PAGE
fagi, Nepticula 178
fagi, Stauropus 80, 91, 92, 94, 101
fascelina, Dasychira ... 38, 96
fasciata, Arctia ... 15,16,68,69
fasciellus, Nematois (Nemotois) ... 36
fasciola, Lithacodes 77
fastuosella, Eriocrania 135
fausta, Anthrocera (Hesychia) 383,
415, 417, 419, 422, 424
faustina, Anthrocera (Hesychia) ... 415
fenestrata, Thyris 383
Feniseca 101
ferrugana, Peronea (Tortrix) ... 20
festaliella, Chrysocorys 7
festucae, Plusia 39
filipendula(= filipendulae), Anthro-
cera 508
filipendulae, Anthrocera 121, 383,
387, 388, 415, 416, 417, 418,
419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 424,
425, 426, 427, 428, 429, 430,
431, 437. 438, 442, 444, 454,
460, 462, 463, 467, 468, 470,
472, 473, 475, 479, 481, 482,
483, 484, 494, 496, 497, 500,
502, 503, 507-532, 533, 537,
538, 539, 540, 544, 545
filipendulae, Cryptus 526
filipendulae (= hippocrepidis, St.),
Anthrocera 532
filipendulae-major, Anthrocera 516, 517
filipendulae x lonicerae, hyb., An-
throcera 419, 420
filipendulae x ochsenheimeri, hyb.,
Anthrocera 420
filipendulae x trifolii, hyb., An-
throcera 420
filipendulae, Nepticula 165, 183.
250-251, 276
filigrammaria, Oporabia 14
fimbria, Triphaena ... 12, 39
flava (achilleae ab.), Anthrocera ... 423
flava (exulans ab.), Anthrocera 423, 448
flava (filipendulae ab.), Anthrocera
422, 510, 513-514
flava (hippocrepidis a b.), Anthrocera 422
flava (sarpedon var.), Anthrocera 423
flaveola (carniolica ab.), Anthrocera 422
flavescens (cruciata ab.), Hetero-
genea 379
flavicinctata, Larentia 63
flavicornis, Asphalia 83
flavilinea (exulans ab.), Anthrocera
447, 448
fletcheri, Nepticula 165, 204-206,
208, 211-213, 216
flexula, Aventia 85
flexuosa, Heterogenea 77
floslactella. Nepticula 164, 165,
178, 276, 277, 288, 315, 318,
320, 321, 324-327
fluctuata, Melanippe 64
fluviata, Camptogramma 14
fossilis, Nepticula 181
fragariella, Nepticula 165, 168,
183, 184, 232, 233-237, 238,
241, 242, 307
fraxini, Catocala 11, 89
freyella, Nepticula 313
frischella, Phalaena (Coleophora) 139
f ulgens ( = basalella = tityrella) , Nep-
ticula 297, 300
f ulgens, Heterogenea 368
Fulgoridae 2
fuliginosa, Spilosoma 38
fulvia (lonicerae), Anthrocera 466. 467
fulvipes, Hemiteles 526
fulviventris, Limneria 404
fumipennis, Cryptus 526
fumosa, Calybia 366
funalis (= aveUana), Cochlidion ... 369
furcatus, Hemiteles 526
furcula, Cerura 94
fuscata (marginaria ab.), Hybernia 64
fuscata (monoglypha ab.), Xylo-
phasia 65
galactodactyla, Aciptilia ... 42, 117
galatea, Melanargia ... 12, 13
gei, Nepticula 164, 165, 168, 184,
232, 233, 234, 236. 239 242, 244
geminella, Nepticula 2-30
gernmaria, Boarmia ... 14, 64
Geometridae 105. 107, 109. Ill, 112
Geometrides 29, 38, 63, 109
geryon, Adscita 386. 389, 390,
395, 400-406, 407
geryonis, Apan teles 404
gigas, Limnadia 24
gilvaria, Aspilates 84
7-inversa, Cochlidion (Limacodes)
367, 368
glaucata, Cilix 78
globulariae, Ehagades 386, 389,
390, 402. 407-414
globulariae (= statices), Adscita ... 390
glutinosae, Nepticula 165, 248,
280, 281. 283-285, 286
glutinosella ( = glutinosae), Nep-
ticula 283
glycirrhizae (trifolii ab.), Anthrocera
415, 425, 426, 485, 487, 488
gonostigma, Orgyia ... 27, 28, 59
Gordii 440
gracilis, Hepialus 135
gracilis, Taeniocampa 39
gracilis (trifolii var.), Anthrocera
490, 491
graeca (purpuralis var.), Anthrocera 434
graminis(= lonicerae), Anthrocera 467
Grapta (= Polygonia) 49
graslini, Anthrocera 519
gratiosella (= basalella), Nepticula 299
gratiosella ( = ? marginicolella), Nep-
ticula 260
gratiosella, Nepticula 165, 168,
179, 182, 203, 222, 253-256, 278
grisea, Acronycta 83
Gfi
07
INDEX.
553
PAGE
grisea, Cochlidion (Apoda) ... 308
grisea-rosea (= anomalella), Nep-
ticula 206
grisescens (filipendulae ab.), An-
throcera ... 423, 511, 513
grossulariata, Abraxas 87
guineensis, Tascia (Zygaena) ... 383
gurda (filipendulae var.), Anthrocera
519, 545
guttata, Artaxa 97
guttivitta, Heterocampa 48
Hallesus 104
halterata, Herea (Zygaena) ... 383
Harrisina 384, 386
Harrisonia 384, 429
headleyella, Nepticula 166; 330-332
hecta (us), Hepialus 135
hedysari, Anthrocera (Agrumenia) 415
helenus, Papilio 78
hellwigella ( = thunbergella), Mi-
cropteryx 154
hemadelpha, Mnesarchaea... 138, 161
hemargyrella, Nepticula ... 298,344
Hemileucidae ... 48, 103, 107, 125
Hepialidae 2, 106
Hepialides ... 1, 2, 5, 109, 110, 131
Hepialus 5, 36, 43, 46
hera, Callimorpha 9, 66, 126
heringi (purpuralis var.), Anthro-
cera 434. 435, 436, 438, 440, 541
Hesperiides 109
Hestiochora 388
Hesychia (= Anthrocera) 415
Heterogenea 3, 37, 180, 361, 362,
364, 377, 378
Heterogenea (= Cochlidion) ... 368
Heterogeneidae 360
Heterogenia (= Heterogenea) ... 377
Heterogyna 117
Heterogynides ... 109, 115, 117
hexadactyla, Orneodes (Alucita) ... 103
heydenreichii (? statices var.), Ad-
scita 391
hilaris, Anthrocera (Hesychia) ... 415
hippocrepidis, Hb., Anthrocera
(Thermophila) 415, 418, 419, 515
hippocrepidis, St., Anthrocera 416,
418, 424, 430, 480, 492, 508,
509, 513, 527, 532-538, 539,
544, 545
hippophaes, Deilephila 80
hirsutella, Sterrhopterix (fusca,
Psyche) 27, 28
hirtaria, Biston 13, 14
hodgkinsoni (= centifoliella), Nep-
ticula 267
hodgkinsoni, Nepticula 165, 183, 269
Holocentropus 161
Homoptera 87
huebnerella (? = basalella), Nep-
ticula 229, 298-299
humuli, Hepialus 135, 397
hyalinalis, Botys 21
Hydropsy che 135, 161
PAGE
... 161
... 110
... 48
Hydropsychidae
Hypercallia ...
Hypsa
ianthina, Triphaena ...... 39
icarus, Polyornmatus ... 8, 13
ignobilella, Nepticula 165, 168,
172, 192, 222. 223, 248. 256,
276, 278-280, 305, 358
ignobiliella (= ignobilella), Nepti-
cula ............... 278
ighobiliella (= turicella), Nepticula 298
ilicis, Thecla ......... 68
immaculata, Calybia ...... 366
immundella, Trifurcula 183, 334,
335, 354, 355-356, 357
imperfectella, Micropteryx ... 138
imperialis, Citheronia ...... 124
inachis, Kallima ......... 67
incerta (? globulariae var.), Kha-
gades ........... ; 409
inconspicuella, Solenobia ... 27, 28
Incurvaria ........ 36, 110
infausta, Aglaope (Zygaena) 383, 385
inferna, Cochlidion (Apoda) .. 368
Ino (= Adscita) ... 386. 387, 388
Ino (= llhagades) ...... 384, 406
instabilis, Hemimachus ...... 526
intermedia (conspersa ab.), Dian-
thoecia ............. 65
intermedia (cruciata ab.), Hetero-
genea ............ 379
intermedia (filipendulae ab.), An-
throcera ...... 510, 511
interrogationis, Polygonia 11, 12
interrupta (purpuralis ab.), An-
throcera ...... 433, 434
intimella, Nepticula 166, 168.
172. 177, 182, 337, 339, 341-342
io, Automeris ..... ... 48
io, Vanessa ...... 9 16, 51, 60
Iphiclides ........... 95
irava, Hidari .. .. ... 77
iris, Apatura ..... ... 93
ismene, Melanitis ..... ... 69
isobasella (? calthella var.), Microp-
teryx ............ 139
isocrates, Pirachola ...... 96
italica (= viciae var.), Anthrocera
jacobaeae, Euchelia
jamaicensis, Calybia
jasius, Charaxes ...
Jugatae
juniperatae, Apanteles
Kallima
38
366
34, 82, 83
5
526
71
laburnella, Cemiostoma ...... 337
Lacosomidae ... ... ... 107
Lacosomides ......... 123
Laertias ............... 95
laeta, Anthrocera (Hesychia) ... 415
Lagoa ... 120, 123, 362, 364
Lampronia ............ 129
554
lamprotornella. Nepticula ... 187
lanestris, Eriogaster 9, 12, 13,
99, 119, 20G, 375
laphira(= filipendulae var.), An-
throcera 520
laphiria (= filipendulae var.), An-
throcera 520
laphria (= filipendulae far.), An-
throcera 520
lapponica, Nepticula 166, 182,
282, 293-296
lapponicella (= lapponica), Nepti-
cula 293
larvarum, Tachina 526
Lasiocampidae 107, 111
Lasiocampides 29, 38, 109, 111. 115
latomarginata (lonicerae far.), An-
throcera 468
lavandulae, Anthrocera (Anthilaria)
415, 417, 424, 428
leda, Melanitis 69
lemniscella, Nepticula ... 290, 344
lemniscella (?marginicolella), Nep-
ticula 260, 261
lepida, Parasa 365
leporina, Acronicta 11. 39, 42, 83
leptinoides, Schizura ... 81, 93
Leptoceridae 161
lethe, Euchromia (Zygaena) ... 383
leucographa, Pachnobia . ... 39
leucophaearia, Hybernia ... 14, 64
lewini, Doratifera 98
lichenaria, Cleora 81
lichenea, Epunda 12
lichenella, Solenobia 26. 27, 28
ligniperda, Cossus 60, 86
ligula, Orrhodia .. 9
ligustri, Sphinx 27, 29, 30, 60, 85
Limacode (= Cochlidion) 368
Limacode (= Heterogenea) ... 377
limacodes ( = avellana), Cochlidion
369, 546
Limacodes ( = Cochlidion) 360,
362, 368. 477
Limacodes (= Heterogenea) ... 377
Limacodidae 360
limax (avellana ab.), Cochlidion
370, 374
Limbnobia... 3
linearis, Macrocentrus ... ... 526
Liparidae ... ... ... ... 366
Liparides 28, 38, 63
Lithosiidae 107, 111, 112
littoralis, Leucania 9, 10, 12
litura, Anchocelis 9
logani, Cethosia 91, 92
lonicerae, Anthrocera 415, 416,
418. 419, 420, 421, 422. 423,
424, 425, 426. 428, 429, 430,
442, 454, 460, 462, 463, 466-
480, 485, 486, 490, 491, 498,
500, 517, 521, 524, 537, 539,
540, 543, 544, 545
lonicerae x filipendulae, hyb., An-
throcera 419, 420
lonicerae x trifolii, hyb., Anthro-
cera 419, 420
lonicerae i>ar.( = viciae), Anthrocera 454
lonicerarum, Nepticula 216
loti (= achilleae), Anthrocera (Ly-
castes) 416, 417
loti (= ? cytisi ab.), Anthrocera ... 511
loti (= lonicerae), Anthrocera ... 467
loti (= trifolii), Anthrocera ... 483
loti (= viciae), Anthrocera ... 454
louisella ( = ?sericopeza), Nepticula 343
loxoscia, Mnesarchaea ... 138, 161
lubricipeda, Spilosoma ... 12, 38
lucernea, Agrotis ... 65
lucina, Nemeobius 18
luctuosa, Acontia 10
lugdunensis (fausta ab.), Anthro-
cera 422
lunaria, Selenia ... 14, 44, 84, 89
lutea, Pelecystoma 375
luteella, Nepticula 166, 266, 271,
281, 282, 285-287
luteicoma, Acronycta 84
luteolata, Kumia 44, 79, 84, 85,
88, 89
lutescens (hippocrepidis ab.), An-
throcera 533
lutescens (lavandulae ab.), Anthro-
cera 423
lutescens (lonicerae ab.), Anthrocera
467. 469
lutescens (purpuralis ab.), Anthro-
cera 423, 434
lutescens (trifolii ab.), Anthrocera
422, 487
lutescens-basalis (trifolii ab.), An-
throcera 488
lutescens-glycirrhizae (trifolii ab.),
Anthrocera 488
Lycastes (= Anthrocera) 415, 443
Lymantriidae 107, 111
Lymantriides 109
Lyonetia (= Nepticula) 184
Lyonetia ( = Trifurcula) 354
machaon, Papilio ... 78, 82, 94, 95
Macrurocampa 92, 96
maia, Hemileuca ... 48
major (lonicerae var.), Anthrocera
467, 468, 470, 471
Malacosoma (Clisiocampa) 58. 76, 124
malella, Nepticula 165, 171, 179,
276, 282, 302-304, 309
manani (caesia var.), Dianthoecia 65
mandan, Pamphila 34
mannii (filipendulae rar.), Anthro-
cera 515, 544
mannii (statices far.), Adscita ... 391
mansuetella, Micropteryx (Erio-
cephala) 1, 130, 135. 137, 138,
148, 152-153, 155
margaritaria, Metrocampa ... 85
Margarodia ... ... ... ... 47
marginaria, Hybernia .. ... 64
marginicolella, Nepticula 166, 221,
226, 257, 258, 260-263, 264
marthesia, Heterocampa 49
INDEX.
555
PAGE
marthesia, Macrurocampa .. 41
maschukella, Micropteryx ... 138
media, Parasa 365, 366
medicaginis (= lonicerae), Anthro-
cera 539
medicaginis (? lonicerae var.), An-
throcera 415, 468, 470-472,
509, 517, 546
medicaginis (Ochs., nee Bdv.), An-
throcera 515, 516
megacephala, Cuspidia 39
megaera, Pararge 13, 18
Megalopygidae 107, 116, 119, 363
Megalopygides .. 109, 115, 117
melilothi (= viciae), Anthrocera
453, 454
rneliloti (= carniolica), Anthrocera
(Agrumenia) 415
meliloti(= ?palustris), Anthrocera 499
melissa, Haematerion (Zygaena) ... 383
memnon, Papilio ... ... ... 78
mendica, Spilosoma 28
menthastri, Spilosoma ... 13, 63
mersina (filipendulae var.), An-
throcera 519
Mesembrynus (= Anthrocera) 415,
416, 430
meticulosa, Brotolomia 57
micans (statices var.), Adscita ... 391
Microgaster 505
Micropterygidae (Eriocephalidae)
114. 133, 137, 138
Micropterygidae (= Eriocraniidae) 2
Micropterygides (= Eriocephalides)
104, 109, 110, 114, 115, 116,
129-138, 160
Micropterygides (= Eriocraniides)
1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Micropteryginae 138
Micropteryx (= Eriocephala) ... 104
Micropteryx (= Eriocrania) 1, 2, 3, 5
Micropteryx (= Micropterix) 116,
131, 132, 134, 135. 136. 137,
138-160, 162, 292
Microsetia(= Nepticula) 184
microtheriella, Nepticula 164, 165,
248. 249, 270, 271, 273, 275-
277, 278, 281, 283
milhauseri, Hybocampa ... 79, 80
miniata, Calligenia 9
miniata (filipendulae ab.), An-
throcera 510
miniata (lonicerae ab.), Anthrocera 467
miniosa, Taeniocampa 39
minoides (trifolii ab.), Anthrocera
419, 422, 425, 426, 484, 485,
488, 512
minor (avellana ab.), Cochlidion 370
minor (exulans ab.), Anthrocera ... 449
minor (filipendulae ab.), Anthrocera 509
minor (lonicerae «b.), Anthrocera 467
minor (statices var.), Adscita ... 392
minos ( = purpuralis), Anthrocera
430, 434, 435
minusculella, Nepticula 165, 171.
173, 19(3, 197-199, 200, 201,
203, 213, 216
Mnesarchaea ... 138, 160, 161
monacha, Lymantria (Psilura) 27,
28, 38, 96
monoglypha, Xylophasia 65
montanata, Melanippe ... 88, 89
mori. Bombyx 15, 22, 25, 27, 29,
30, 37, 38, 59, 115, 121, 126,
128, 326
mucidella (? =argentipedella), Nep-
ticula 290
mucidella, Elachista 129
muscalella, Incurvaria 36
Muscidae 78
myricae ( = euphorbiae var.) , Pharetra 10
Myrmeleon 132
myrtetella, Micropteryx ... 130, 138
myrtillella, Nepticula 166, 179,
182, 315-317. 318, 324
myrtilli, Anarta 28, 82
Mystacides 135
napi, Pieris 13
Nematois (Nemotois) 36
Nemeobius ... 9
nephelus, Papilio 78
Nepticula 132, 164, 165, 176, 180,
181, 182, 183, 184, 362
Nepticulidae 182-184
Nepticulides 109, 115, 162-185
Nepticulidi 184
Nepticulinae 184
Nerice 48
Neuronia 5
Neurosymploca 415
neustria, Malacosoma (Clisiocampa)
9, 12, 347
nicaeae, Anthrocera 417
nigra (crepuscularia ab.), Tephrosia 64
nigra (cruciata ab.), Heterogenea 379
nigra (monoglypha ab. ), Xylophasia 65
nigra (repandata ab.), Boarmia ... 64
nigricans (hippocrepidis, ab.), An-
throcera 423, 487
nigricornella ( = assimilella), Nep-
ticula 350
nitidella (casta), Fumea 28
nobilis, Heterogenea 368
Noctuidae 107. Ill
Noctuides 28, 38, 63. 109
Nolidae Ill
Nolides 38
notata (? globulariae var.), llhagades 408
nothus, Apanteles 404
Notodonta 48
Notodontidae 105, 107, 111, 112
Notodontides ... 28, 38, 109, 1U
Notolophus (Orgyia) 84
nubeculosa, Cochlidion (Apoda) ... 368
nubigena (purpuralis ab.), Anthro-
cera ... 431, 434, 436, 437,541
nupta, Catocala 66, 89
Nycteolides 109
nylandriella, Nepticula 165, 195.
196, 220-221
556
INDEX.
PAGE
oblinita, Acronycta 83
obliqua, Heterocampa 48
obliqua, Heterogenea ... ... 368
obliquella (diversa), Nepticula 183,
323-324
obliterae (conspersa ab.), Dian-
thoecia 65
obnoxius, Mestostenus 526
obscura (purpuralis ab.) , Anthrocera
423, 434, 437
obscura (trifolii ab.), Anthrocera
423, 487
obscura (viminalis ab.), Cleoceris 64
obscurata, Gnophos ... 64, 66
obsoleta (trifolii ab.), Anthrocera... 485
occitanica, Anthrocera ... 424, 428
ocellana, Hedya 64
ocellatus, Smerinthus 27, 29, 80,
85, 86
ochracea (menthastri ab.), Spilo-
soma 63
ochrea (conspersa ab.), Dianthoecia 65
ochrearia, Aspilates ... ... 84
ochsenheimeri (filipendulae car.),
Anthrocera 418, 424, 470,
472, 508, 509, 515-518, 539,
542, 545
ochsenheimeri x filipendulae, hyb.,
Anthrocera 420
ochsenheimeri ( = hippocrepidis,
St.), Anthrocera 532
oculus, Polyphemus 24
Odoneta 77
Ogyris 98
olane, Ogyris 98
oleracea, Hadena ... ... ... 86
onobrychis, Anthrocera (Agrumenia) 415
oo, Dicycla ... 9, 13, 38, 39
Oporabia 37
Opostega 182
Opostega ( = Scoliaula) 359
orbicularia, Zonosoma 84
orbitalis, Casinaria 496
orichalcea (trifolii ab.), Anthrocera 485
Orna 388
Orneodes 109, 110
Ornithoptera ... 51
orobi (trifolii ab.), Anthrocera 415,
422, 486, 490
oxyacanthaecolella ( = oxyacan-
thella), Nepticula 202
oxyacanthella, Nepticula 17, 164,
165, 187, 189, 196, 200, 202-
204, 254, 255
Packardia 77, 364, 368
Palaeomicra 6. 137, 138, 160, 161, 162
pallida (exulansafr.), Anthrocera ... 449
pallida (hippocrepidis ab.), Anthro-
cera 533
pallidella, Trifurcula 354, 355, 356-358
pallidulella (= pallidella), Trifur-
cula 357
paludis (by error = palustris), An-
throcera 416, 546
tAC
palustris (trifolii-major), Anthro-
cera 416, 417, ? 419, ? 420,
?422, 430, 480-483, 484, 485,
486, 487, 490, 494, 497, 499,
507, 521-523, 539, 543, 544, 546
Panorpa 5, 136
Panorpidae 132
paphia, Dry as ... 66
Papilio 51
papilionaria, Geometra 78, 86, 87, 88
Papilionides 39,109
paracosma, Mnesarchaea ... 138, 161
paralekta, Kallima (>7
parallela, Cochlidion (Apoda) ... 368
Pararge 9
Parasa 362
pardella, Epimartyria (Micropteryx)
137, 138, 162
pavonia, Saturnia 27, 29, 51, 121,
129, 206
paykullella ( = aureatella), Mi-
cropteryx 156
paykullella, Micropteryx ... 130, 138
paykullella (= thunbergella), Mi-
cropteryx 154, 157
pectinicornis, Chalcosia (Zygaena) 383
pedaria, Phigalia 28, 29, 44
pendularia, Zonosoma ... .. 84
pennuria, Himera ... ... 14, 37
Pericopidae 107, 111
pernyi, Antheraea 59
perochraria, Acidalia 13
perpusillella (= prunetorum), Nep-
ticula 259
perpygmaeella ( = pygmaeella), Nep-
ticula 191
persicariae, Mamestra 86
persona (dominula var.), Calli-
morpha 69
peucedani, Anthrocera (Thermo-
phila) 415, 417, 418. 419,
422, 424, 438
phacae, Anthrocera (Agrumenia) 415
Phalaena ( = Heterogenea) 378
Phalaena(= Adscita) 387
phalaenarum, Telenomus 14
phegea, Zygaena (Syntomis) 383, 419
Pheocampa 87
phidippus, Amathusia 77
philarchus, Kallima ... ... 67
philodice, Colias (Eurymus) ... 51
phlaeas, Chrysophanus 13, 65, 73,
74, 75
Phobetrinae 365
Phobetron 364
pholas, Lycomorpha 384
Phryganeidae 2, 3, 4
Pieris 9
pilosellae (purpuralis), Anthrocera
431, 434, 435, 436, 437
pini, Dendrolimus 16, 16, 27, 29, 60, 69
piniperda, Panolis 82
pistacina, Anchocelis ... ... 9
pithecium, Phobetron 366
pityocampa, Cnethocampa ... 124
557
plagicolella, Nepticula 165, 171,
178. 179, 228. 248, 219, 259,
260, 268, 270, 271, 272-275,
276, 278. 303
plana, Chaerotricha 97
plantaginis, Nemeophila 54
Platyptericidae 40, 49
Platypterygides 38
Platysamia 51
plumigera, Ptilophora ... ... 15
plumistraria, Eurranthis 7
pluto (purpuralis ab.), Anthrocera
416, 424, 434, 435
poclana, Tortrix 64
podevinella (= seppella), Microp-
teryx 149
Polia 63
polychloros, Eugonia 11, 65, 73, 75
polygalae (purpuralis ab.), Anthro-
cera ... 424, 425. 432, 434,
435, 436, 437, 541
polymena, Euchromia (Zygaena) 383
polyphemus, Telea ... 22, 27, 29
polytes, Papilio ... 78
pomella, Nepticula ... 165. 189-191
populella ( = trimaculella, ab.),
Nepticula 348
populi, Poecilocampa 85
populi, Smerinthus 10, 22, 27, 29,
99. 125
porcellus, Choerocampa 91
Porthesia 100
posticella (? = ignobilella), Nepticula 278
potatoria, Cosmotriche (Odonestis)
27, 29, 60, 129, 412
poterii, Nepticula 165, 183, 227,
248-250, 251, 276
pratorum (= ? trifolii), Anthrocera 483
pretiosa, Nepticula 241
processionea, Cnethocampa ... 12 i
proconfluens (filipendulae var.),
Anthrocera 512
Procris (= Adscita) ... 387, 388
Procris (= Rhagades) 406
promethea, Callosamia 128
pronuba, Triphaena 12. 13, 39, 59, 66
prunetorum, Nepticula 165, 259-
260, 273, 274. 303
pruni, Odonestis (Lasiocampa) 16, 16
pruni, Rhagades (Adscita) 387
pruni, Thecla 14
pseudargiolus, Cyaniris 98
pseudobombycella, Talaeporia 27, 28
Pseudoipsidae Ill
Pseudoprocris 388
psi, Triaena (Acronycta) ... 67, 64
Psocidae 2
Psocus 2
Psychidae 2, 30, 107
Psychides 2, 3. 28, 109, 111, 115, 117
Pteromalina 505
Pterophorides 103, 107, 109. 115,
116, 117
Pterophorus 109, 110
pudibunda, Dasychira 12, 96, 100
PAGE
pugione, Empyreuma (Zygaena) ... 383
pulchra (exulans ab.), Anthrocera
425, 448
pulverosella, Nepticula 165, 192,
292, 334, 335, 336. 358
pulverulenta (cruda), Taeniocampa
38, 39
punctum, Anthrocera (Mesembry-
nus) ... 416, 424, 434, 435
purpuralis (minos) , Anthrocera
(Mesembrynus) 416, 417, 418,
421, 422, 424, 425. 427, 429,
430-443, 445, 446, 448, 456,
458, 488, 509, 539. 540, 541, 542
purpurascens (calthella, ab.), Mi-
cropteryx 139
purpurascens, Hepialus 135
purpurella, Eriocrania ... 104, 130
pusilella (= calthella), Micropteryx 139
pustulata, Phorodesma 90
puta, Agrotis 39
pygmaea, Calybia 366
pygmaeella, Nepticula 165, 168,
182, 187, 189, 191-193, 254,
255, 278, 279, 334, 358
pylotis, Calodesma 383
Pyralidae 103. 107
Pyrameis 76
pyri. Nepticula 165, 171, 173, 198,
199-201, 203
pyri, Saturnia 27, 29, 51
pyrina, Zeuzera 12
Pyromorpha 384
Pyromorphidae ... 107, 116, 385
Pyromorphinae 383, 384
pythia (= purpuralis), Anthrocera 434
quadricornis, Ceratomia ... ... 124
quadrimaculella, Scoliaula 257, 359-360
querceti, Euclea 366, 367
quercifolia, Eutricha (Gastropacha)
22, 26, 27, 29, 49, 68, 82, 85, 129
quercinaria, Ennomos 12, 15, 44, 89
quercus, Lasiocampa 12, 27, 29,
54, 100, 122, 129, 375
quercus, Zephyrus 14, 39, 68
quinquejuncta (filipendulae a&.),
Anthrocera 512
quinquella, Nepticula 165, 175, 182
rablensis, Micropteryx 138
radcliffei, Acronycta ... .. 84
ramburii (filipendulae var.), An-
throcera ... 512, 518. 519
rectangulata, Eupithecia 64
regalis, Citheronia 93
re<nella. Nepticula 165, 168, 172,
179, 221-223, 224, 225, 254,
279, 305
repandata, Boarmia 64
retractata, Cochlidion (Apoda) ... 368
rhadamanthus, Anthrocera (Euty-
chia) , 415
Rhagades ... 386, 388, 406-407
rhamni, Gonepteryx 9
558
PAGE
Rhyacophila ... 6, 161
Rhyacophilidae 161
roccoae, Declana • ... 81
romanovi (dominula var.), Calli- ,
morpha 69
romeo var. nevadensis gyn., An
throcera
. 422
. 206
. 138
rosella ( = anomalella), Nepticula.
rothenbachii, Micropteryx...
rubescens, Neptieula
rubi, Macrothylacia (Lasiocampa)
13, 14, 100, 127
rubicundus, Anthrocera ... 539, 541
rubicundus (? purpuralis var.), An-
throcera 416, 434, 435, 436, 437
rubiginea, Dasycampa 12
rubivora, Nepticula 165, 171, 175
248, 304, 305, 310-313
rubrifasciella ( = thunbergella), Mi-
cropteryx 153, 154
rufella ( = trimaculella), Nepticula
348, 350
ruficapitella, Nepticula 165, 172,
173, 179, 183, 186, 187-189,
191, 192, 204, 205, 219, 243
rufimitrella, Adela 36
rufocinctus (= instabilis), Hemi-
machus 526
rumia, Kallima 67
rumicis, Pharetra 10
russula, Euthemonia ... 9, 38
sagittata, Cidaria 82
salicana, Antithesia 78
salicis, Leucoma ... 13,38, 97
salicis, Nepticula 166, 168, 169,
174, 178, 179, 183, 264, 288,
293, 315, 316, 317-320, 321, 325
salicis (= obliquella), Nepticula
323. 324
salicis (= vimineticola), Nepticula 320
salicivorella (= ? salieis), Nepticula 318
salopiella, Eriocrania 130
sambucaria. Uropteryx ... 40
samiatella (= ? atricapitella), Nep-
ticula 185, 186
samiatella, Nepticula 166. 198, 219
samiatella ? (= ? ruficapilella),
Nepticula 187
sangii, Eriocrania ... 130
sarpedon, Anthrocera (Lycastes)
416, 417, 423
Saturniidae ... 105, 107, 123, 129
Saturniides ... 29, 109, 115, 123-
Satyridae 41
saucia, Peridroma.. ... 12, 39
scabiosae, Anthrocera (Mesem-
Jbrynus) 416, 424, 425, 438
scabiosae (= palustris), Anthrocera 499
Schizura ^ 48
Schizurae 81, 91
scintillans, Artaxn ... 97
scitella, Cemiostoma 337
Scoliaula (Bohemannia) 164, 182,
183, 358-359
PAGE
Scolytidae 43, 77
sedi, Anthrocera (Lycastes) 415, 416
selene, Aetias 59
semicolorella (gei at.) .Nepticula 232, 234
semilutescens (lonicerae ab.), An-
throcera 469
semilutescens (trifolii ab.), Anthro-
cera 487
semipurpurella, Eriocrania (Mi-
cropteryx) ... 1, 130, 135
separata (purpuralis ab.), Anthro-
cera 434
seppella (? aruncella var.), Microp-
teryx (Eriocephala) 1, 130,
135, 136, 137. 138, 139, 145,
146, 147, 148, 149-152
septembrella, Nepticula 163, 166,
169, 179, 182, 334, 335, 336-
338, 339, 341, 346
sequella, Tinea 348
serella, Nepticula 165, 227, 228,
245-246
sericidactylus. Leioptilus 42
sericopeza, Nepticula 166, 171,
184, 343-346, 348, 350
sericopeza (= argyropeza), Nepti-
cula 327
Sericostoma 135
seriziati (palustris rar.), Anthrocera
471, 490, 539, 543, 544
serotinella, Trifurcula 355
serotinus, Sphinctus 375
Sesia (= Macroglossa) 48
Sesiidae 107
Setodes 135
sexmaculata (palustris ab.), Anthro-
cera 500
sexmaculata-confluens (palustris)
all.), Anthrocera 500
sexpunctata (viciae ab.), Anthrocera 455
shurtleffi, Heterogenea 368
Sibine 364
sibylla, Limenitis 8
sicula (? viciae var.), Anthrocera
458, 460
similis, Porthesia ... 13, 38, 96, 100
simplicella, Nepticula 179
sinapis, Leucophasia 11
slossoniae, Calybia 365. 366
smaragdaria, Phorodesma... 38, 90
Smerinthus 38, 43
solana, Rhagades 409
Solenobiides 28
sorbi, Nepticula 165, 196, 287-289, 294
Spalgis 101
sparrmanella, Eriocrania ... 130, 135
spartiata, Chesias 14
spartifoliella, Cemiostoma (Opos-
tega) 344, 357
Sphinges- Adscitae ... 383, 388
Sphingicampa 40, 93
Hphingidae... ... 48, 105, 107
Sphingides 29, 47, 109, 114, 115, 125
Sphinx 37, 125, 126
Sphinx (= Adscita) 387
Sphinx (=Anthrocera) 414
559
PAGE
Sphinx-tellers 383
spicae, Anthrocera (Anthilaria) ... 415
spilodactyla, Aciptilia 117
spinuloides, Adoneta ... .. 366
splendidissima ( = splendidissimella),
Nepticula 243-245
splendidissimella, Nepticula 164,
165, 171. 175. 179, 235
sponsa, Catocala 89
squamatella (immundella «b.),Tri-
furcula 183, 355
Staphylinidae 77
statices, Adscita 38, 383. 384,
386, 387, 388, 389, 390-400,
401, 402, 407, 430, 444, 497
statices ( = geryon), Adscita ... 400
staticus (= statices), Adscita ... 390
Stauropus 92, 93
stellatarum, Macroglossa 99
Stenophylax 135
stentzii (viciae ab.), Anthrocera
456, 457, 459, 542
stettinensis (? minusculella var.),
Nepticula 198
stimulea, Empretia ... 122, 367
stipella, Microsetia (Tinea) ... 184
stoechadis ( = caucasia), Anthrocera 490
stoechadis ( = medicaginis), Anthro-
cera ... 470, 471, 472, 486
strataria (prodromaria), Amphi-
dasys 12, 13. 14
striata (exulans ab.), Anthrocera 425, 448
styx, Saliunca (Zygaena) 384
subammanella, Micropteryx ... 130
subapicella (= argyropeza), Nepti-
cula 166, 183
subapicella, Nepticula ... 328, 330
subbimaculella, Nepticula 163,
165, 172, 175, 177, 179, 182.
219, 292, 342, 348, 351, 352-354
subnitidella, Nepticula 348
subochracea (exulans var.). An-
throcera ... 446, 447, 448
subpurpurella, Eriocrania 130
suffusa (aglaia ab.), Argynnis ... 66
sulcatella ( = calthella), Micropteryx
138, 139
sulphurea (avellana ab.), Cochlidion 370
sylvinus, Hepialus 10, 135
Symmerista 91
Syntomidae ( = Euchromiidae) ... 383
Syntomis 383
syracusia (trifolii var.), Anthrocera
471, 486. 488-490, 494, 503,
539, 544
Tachina 50
Tantura 388
tau, Aglia 40, 91, 103
Telenomus 14
tengstromi, Nepticula 165, 183,
246-248, 546
PAGE
Tenthredinidae 46
tenuicornis, Adscita 387
tenuicornis ( = geryon), Adscita 400, 404
tenuitarsum, Anomalon ... 477, 528
Tephrosia 7
teriolensis ( = viciae var.), Anthrocera
458-459
Termes 2
Termitidae 2
testacea, Heterogenea 77
testata, Cidaria 14
testudinana ( = avellana). Cochlidion 369
tetralunaria, Selenia ... 14, 15
tetraspilaris, Cochlidion (Apoda) ... 368
Thermophila ( = Anthrocera) 415, 453
thetis, Curetis 96
thetis, Heliura 383
thrax, Erinota 101
thunbergella (rubrifasciella), Mi-
cropteryx (Eriocephala) 1,130,
135, 137, 138. 152, 153-156, 157
Thyatira 8
Thyatiridae (Cymatdphoridae) 107,
109. Ill
Thyrididae 107
thyrsis, Gangara 101
tibialis, Melittia 383
tiliae, Nepticula 166, 179, 198,
213, 215-217, 218, 219
tiliae, Smerinthus 29
tiliella (=tiliae), Nepticula ... 198
Tinea 362
Tineidae 107
Tineides 63, 109
Tinodes 135
Tipulae 3
Tipulariae 3
Tipulidae 2, 77
Tischeria 69, 292
tityrella ( = basalella). Nepticula
298, 299. 302
tityrella, Nepticula 276, 278, 323, 324
tityrella ( = turiceUa), Nepticula
297, 298, 303
tormentillella, Nepticula 184, 226-228
tormentillella ( = serella), Nepticula 246
torminalis, Nepticula 165, 223-224
Tortricidae 107
Tortricides ' 63, 109, 366
Tortricidia 368
Tortrix ( = Cochlidion) 368
Tortrix ( = Heterogenea) 377
transalpina (ferulae), Anthrocera
(Thermophila) 415, 418, 419, '
424. 515
transalpina ( = ochsenheimeri), An-
throcera 516
tremula (dictaea), Leiocampa ... 38
Trichogramma * ... 14
tricinctella ( = aureatella), Microp-
teryx ..'. 156
tricolor, Ceratosia 61
tridens, Triaena 10, 11
560
trifolii, Anthroeera 38, 415. 418,
421, 423, 424, 425. 426, 427,
423, 429. 430, 440, 455, 456,
458, 460, 462, 463, 465. 467,
470, 471, 478. 480-499, 502,
506, 507, 508, 520. 524, 525,
527, 537, 538, 539, 540, 543,
544, 545
trifolii ab. confluens x orobi, gyn.,
Anthroeera 422
trifolii x filipendulae, lnjl>., An-
throeera 418
trifolii, Lasiocampa ... 15, 29
trifolii x lonicerae, hyb., Anthro-
eera 419, 420
trifolii-major, Anthroeera, vide
palustris, A.
trifolii ( = palustris), Anthroeera ... 417
Trifurcula 164, 182, 183, 354
trigona, Cochlidion (Apoda) ... 363
trigonellae (ephialtes ab.), Anthro-
eera 422
trimaculella, Nepticula 166, 175,
348-350, 351
triquetrella, Solenobia ... 26. 27, 28
tritona, Acronycta ... ... ... 83
trivittata (tilipendulae ab.), Anthro-
cera 609
trivittata (lonicerae at.), Anthroeera 468
trivittata (trifolii ab.), Anthroeera
425, 426, 468, 482, 485, 488
turbidella, Nepticula ... 179, 327
turcosa (statices), Adscita... 388, 390
turicella, Nepticula 267, 281, 283,
284, 297-299, 300, 301, 354
turicella ( = tityrella), Nepticula
165, 172, 178, 184
turicensis ( = turicella), Nepticula
297, 298
typica (cruciata ab.), Heterogenea 379
ulmivora, Nepticula 166. 257-259, 261
uncula, Heterogenea 368
undulata, Chrysopyga ... 37, 126
unicincta, Limneria 382
unicolor, Canephora (graminella,
Psyche) 27. 28
unicolor, Heterocampa ... ... 41
unicolor. Scopelodes 366
unicornis, Schizura 81
unifasciata, Emmelesia 79
unimaculella, Eriocrania ... 130, 135
uralensis (statices var.), Adscita ... 392
Uraniidae 105
urticae, Aglais ... 39,50.51,54
urticaella ( = calthella), Micropteryx 139
vaccinii, Orrhodia 9, 13
valesina (paphia var.), Dryas ... 66
vanadis (= exulans), Anthroeera 444
vanadis (exulans var.), Anthroeera
446, 447, 44S
velleda, Tolype 11)
vernaria, lodis 12, 13, 73
versicolor, Endromis 10, 13, 92,
124, 129
vetulata, Scotosia 15
viciae x filipendulae, Anthroeera 420
viciae x hyb. (lonicerae x trifolii),
Anthroeera ... 420
viciae (meliloti) , Anthroeera (Ther-
mophila) 415, 416. 420, 421,
422, 423, 424, 429, 430, 453-
466, 473, 482, 490, 520, 539,
540. 542, 543, 545
vidua, Casinaria 496
villica, Arctia 27, 28, 38
viminalis, Epunda (Cleoceris) ... 64
virnineticola, Nepticula 166, 169,
174, 178, 183, £18, 319. 320-322
virnineticola ( = obliquella), Nepti-
cula 323
virnineticola ( = ? salicis), Nepticula 317
Viminidi 12
vinula, Cerura 10, 28, 34, 94, 95,
97, 375, 380
violacella, Tinea 185
virgularia, Aeidalia 14, 64
viridana, Tortrix 79, 80
viridaria (aenea), Phytometra 8, 10
viridis (geryon ab.), Adscita ... 401
viridis (globulariae ab.), Hhagades 408
viridis (statices ab.), Adscita ... 390
viscerella, Nepticula 166, 187,
192, 193-194. 195. 196, 216,
•257, 258. 259, 340
vitellina, Artaxa 97
vulgaris, Blepharides 505
vulgaris, Exorista 526
vulnerans, Doratifera 98, 363, 364, 365
vulpina, Acronycta 83
w-album, Thecla ... 8, 10. 13, 14
weaveri, Nepticula 163, 166, 171,
179, 182, 346-347
wockei, Micropteryx 138
woolhopiella, Nepticula 165, 173,
292-293
xanthomista var. nigrocincta, Polia 15
xerampelina, Cirrhoedia ... 11,13
Xylinodes 48
yama-mai, Antheraea ... 34, 59
ytenensis ( = viciae), Anthroeera ... 454
Zeuzera 43, 106
Zeuzerides 63, 109
zonodoxa. Palaeomicra 138
Zonosoma 110
Zutulba 415
Zygaena ( = Adscita) 3S7
Zygaena ( = Anthroeera) 383, 384, 414
zygaenarum. Apanteles 526
zygaenarum, Cryptus ... 496, 505
Zygaenidae 383
Zygaenidae ( = Euchromiidae) ... 49
Zygaenides ( = Anthrocerides) ... 3S
Zygaeninae :M5
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Store Boxes, fitted with Camphor Cells, 2.'3, 3,'6, 4/3, 5/3. Setting Boards, flat or oval, 1-in .
5d., li-in. 7d., 2-in. 9d., 2J-in. lid., 5Hn. 1'2, 4-in. 1'4, 5-in. 1/8. Plain King Nets, wire or cane,
1/6, 2/-,2,'3. Folding Nets, 3,'-, 4,'-. Umbrella Nets, self-acting, 6, 9. Pocket Boxes, 6d., 8d.,
lid., I/-. Sugaring Tins, with brush, 1/4, 1/10. Setting Houses, flat or oval boards, 86, 10/-.
Cork Back, 12/9. Breeding Cages, 2 3. Improved Style, fitted with tanks, 3 7. Coleopterist
Collecting Bottles, 1/4, 1/6. Insect and Egg Cases, from 2/3 to 10/-. Best Steel Forceps, 1/5
pair. Taxidermists' Companion, containing eight useful articles for Skinning, 9 6. Egg
Drills, from 3d. Blow Pipes, from 2d. to 5d. Zinc Relaxing Boxes, 8d., lid. Nested Chip
Boxes, 4 doz. 7d. Entomological Pins, from 1 - per oz. Zinc Larvae Boxes, 8d., lid., 1/5.
Best White Cement, 5d. a bottle. Special Cork Carpet, 9d. per square foot. Cabinet Corks,
7-in. by 3Hn. Hd. and 1/2 per dozen sheets. The " Perfection " Flat Setting Boards, for
.English Style of Setting — supersedes the Old Boards — same prices as ordinary Setting
Boards.
All Goods not approved may be exchanged, or money returned. All Goods Store Prices.
A II Best Work. Estimates given. Great A dvantages in dealing direct with Makers.
Send for Full Detailed Price List before ordering elsewhere.
7a, PRINCES STREET, CAVENDISH SQUARE, LONDON, W.
Factories— 34, EIDING HOUSE STEEET and OGLE STEEET, W.
WATKINS & DONCASTER,
Naturalists and Manufacturers of Entomological
Apparatus and Cabinets. £*s^
N.B. — For Excellence and Superiority of Cabinets and Apparatus, references are
permitted to distinguished Patrons and Colleges, i&c. Catalogues (66 pp.) sent
post free on application.
NOW BEAD Y.— The Exchange List and Label List, Compiled by Ed. Meyrick,
B.A., F.L.S., F.E.S., according to his recent "Handbook of British Lepidop-
tera." Exchange Lists, Id. each, 4d. per doz., or 2/6 per 100. Label Lists,!/- each.
Plain Ring Nets, Wire or Cane, including
stick, 1 '3, 2,'-, 2/6
Folding Nets, 3 '6 and 4/-
Umbrella Nets (self-acting), 7/-
Pocket Boxes, 6d. ; corked both sides, 9d., I/-,
. and 1/6
Zinc Relaxing Boxes, 9d., I/-, 1'6, and 2'-
Nested Chip Boxes, 4 dozen, 8d., 1/9 gross
Entomological Pins, mixed, 1 6 per oz.
Sugaring Lanterns, 2'6 to 9/6
Sugaring Tin, with brush, 16, 2'-
Bngaring Mixture, ready for use, 1/9 per tin.
Mite Destroyer (not dangerous to use), 1/6
per Ib.
Store Boxes, with Camphor Cells, 2/6, 4/-, 5/-,
and 6'-
Ditto, Book Pattern, 8/6, 9/6, and 10/6
Setting Boards, flat or oval, 1-in., 6d. ; 1^-in.,
8d ; lf-in.,9d.; 2-in.,10d.; 2£in.l/-; 3-in.,
1/2; 3£-in., 1/4 ; 4-in., 1/6 ; 4^-in., 1/8; 5-in.,
1/10. Complete set of 14 boards, 10/6
Setting Houses, 9/6 and 11/6 ; corked back,
14/-
Zinc Larva Boxes, 9d., l/-
Brass Chloroform Bottle, 2/6
Breeding Cage, 26, 4/-, 5,<- and 7/6
Taxidermist's Companion, i.e., a pocket
leather case, containing most useful
instruments for skinning, 10/6
Scalpels, 1/3; Label Lists of Birds' Eggs, 3d.,
4d., 6d.
Scissors, per pair, 2/-
Setting Needles, 3d. and 6d. per box
Coleopterist's Collecting Bottle, with tube,
1/6, 1/8
Botanical Cases, japanned double tin, 1/6,
29, 36, 4/6, 7/6
Botanical Paper, 1/1, 1 '4, 1 '9 and 2 2 per quire
Insect Cases, imitation mahogany, 2 6 to 11'-
Cement for replacing Antennae, 6d. per
bottle
Forceps for removing Insects, 1/6, 2'-, 2/6
per pair
Cabinet Cork, 7 x 3£, best quality, 1/4 per
dozen sheets
Pupa Diggers, in leather sheath, 1/9
Insect Lens, 1 '- to 8/-
Glass Top and Glass Bottomed Boxes, from
1/4 per dozen
Label Lists of British Butterflies, 2d.
Ditto Land and Fresh-water Shells, 2d.
Egg Drills, 2d., 3d., I/-; Metal Blow-pipe,
4d. and 6d.
Our New Label List of British Macro-Lepi-
doptera, with Latin and English Names,
1/6. Our new Catalogue of British Lepi-
doptera (every species numbered, 1 -; or
printed on one side for Labelling, 2/-)
All Articles enumerated are kept in stock, and can be sent immediately on receipt of orde
DIXON ' LAMP NET (invaluable for taking moths off Street
Lamps without climbing the Lamp Posts), 2/6.
CABINETS. Special Show Rooms.
The following are the prices of a few of the smaller sises ; for measurements and larger sizes
see Catalogue.
Minerals and Dried , Minerals and Dried
Insects. Eggs. Plants, Fossils, &c. Insects. Eggs. Plants, Fossils, &c.
4 Drawers... 13/6 ... 12/- 10/6 8 Drawers. ..33/-.. .30- 25,'-
6 „ ... 17/6 ... 16/6 15/- 10 „ ...45/-...S6/- 45-
A LARGE STOCK OF INSECTS & BIRDS' EGGS.
Birds, Mammals, &c., Preserved and Mounted by First-class Workmen.
36, STRAND, W.C. (5 doors from Charing Cross).
DATE DUE
000663019 8
QL555 Tutt, James William
07T88
v.l A natural history of the
British Lepidoptera .
HQK,
Bio-Ag
QL555 Tutt, James William
G7T88
v.l A natural history of the
British Lepidoptera.
BIO-AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA 92521
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