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THE 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  ANIMALS 


[CLASS     MAMMALIA]. 


BRITISH      WILD      CATTLE.   >  Boa 


i    .   ING  HAM       PARK. 


' 


THE 


NATURAL  HISTORY 


OF 


ANIMALS 


(CLASS    MAMMALIA— ANIMALS    WHICH    SUCKLE    THEIR    YOUNG), 


IN   WORD   AND   PICTURE. 


BY  CARL  VOGT,         AND         FRIEDRICH   SPECHT, 


PROFESSOR   OF    NATURAL   HISTORY    IN   THE   UNIVERSITY   OF  GENEVA, 


OF   STUTTGART,    THE   DISTINGUISHED   DELINEATOR   OF   ANIMAL   LIFE. 


TRANSLATED    AND    EDITED    WITH    ADDITIONS 

BY 

GEORGE   G.  CHISHOLM,  M.A.,  B.SC.,  F.R.G.S. 

AUTHOR  OF  "THE  WORLD  AS  IT  is;" 

TRANSLATOR   OF    "SWITZERLAND:    ITS   SCENERY   AND    ITS   PEOPLE,"  ETC. 


VOL.   II. 


LONDON: 
BLACKIE    &    SON,    49   &   50  OLD    BAILEY,    E.G. 

GLASGOW    AND    EDINBURGH. 


0^ 


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B10LOCY 

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GLASGOW  : 

W.  G.   I'.I.ACKIK  4ND  CO..  PlilNTERS 
VILLAFIELI). 


THE    CONTENTS. 


WHALES   AND    DOLPHINS    (CETACEA). 

PAGE 

Introduction, 1 

THE  TOOTHED  WHALES  (Denticete),      ...  4 

The  Dolphins  (Dclphinida} 4 

Fresh-water  Dolphin  (Platanista  gangetica),       .  4 

Inia  or  Amazon  Dolphin  (Inia  amazonica),          .  4 

Common  Dolphin  (Delphinus  dclphis),        .         .  5 

Bottle-nosed  Dolphin  (Delphinus  tursio),    .        .  6 

Porpoise  (Phocsena  communis),  ....  7 

Killer-whale  (Orca  gladiator),      ....  8 

Pilot  or  Caaing  Whale  (Globicephalus  melas),    .  8 

Beluga  or  White  Whale  (Beluga  leucas),     .        .  10 

Narwhal  (Monodon  monoceros),          .        .        .  10 

The  Sperm-whale  Family  (Physeterida),        .        ,  12 

Bottlehead  or  Common  Beaked  whale  (Hyper- 

oodon  rostratus), 12 

Sperm-whale  or  Cachalot  (Physeter  macrocephalus),  13 

THE  WHALEBONE  WHALES  (Mysticete), ...  14 

Fin-backed  Whales  (Balcrnopterida),      .        .        .16 

Rorqual  (Batenoptera  boops),     .        .        .        .16 

The  Right  Whales  (Balccnidd) 16 

Greenland  or  Right  Whale  (Balasna  mysticetus),  16 
Cape  Whale  (Balasna  australis),  .        .        .        .16 

Geographical  Distribution  and  Descent  of  the  Whales 

and  Dolphins, 17 

THE    SEA-COWS   (SIRENIA). 

Introduction, 20 

Rhytina  of  the  Behring  Sea,        .        .        .        .  21 
Dugong  (Halicore  Dugong),        .        .        .        .21 

Manatee  of  West  Africa  (Manatus  senegalensis),  22 

Manatee  of  the  Amazon  (Manatus  australis),      .  22 

Geographical  Distribution  and  Descent  of  the  Sea-cows,  24 

THE    ELEPHANTS    (PROBOSCIDEA). 

Introduction, 26 

African  Elephant  (Elephas  africanus),        .        .  30 

Indian  Elephant  (Elephas  indicus),     ...  31 

Mammoth  (Elephas  primigenius),        ...  31 

Geographical  Distribution  and  Descent  of  the  Probos- 
cideans,      35 

VOL.  II. 


ODD-TOED    UNGULATES    (PERISSODACTYLA). 

PAGE 

Introduction, 38 

THE  ROCK-BADGER  OR  CONY  FAMILY  (Hyracida),  39 

Cape  Daman  (Hyrax  capensis),  ....  41 

Syrian  Hyrax  (Hyrax  syriacus),  ....  41 
Abyssinian  Hyrax  or  Ashkok  (Hyrax  habessinicus),4i 

THE  TAPIR  FAMILY  (Tapirida),        ....  41 

Brazilian  Tapir  or  Anta  (Tapirus  americanus),  .  43 

Malayan  or  Shabrack  Tapir  (Tapirus  indicus),  .  44 
Andes  or  Hairy  Tapir  (Tapirus  Roulinii  or  villosus),  44 

Baird's  Tapir  (Elasmognathus  Bairdii),       .        .  44 

THE  RHINOCEROS  FAMILY  (Nasicornia),        .       .  44 

Quaternary  Rhinoceros  (Rhinoceros  tichorhinus),  45 

Indian  Rhinoceros  (Rhinoceros  indicus),    .        .  47 

Javan  Rhinoceros  (Rhinoceros  javanicus), .        .  47 

Sumatran  Rhinoceros  (Rhinoceros  sumatrensis),  47 

Malaccan  Rhinoceros  (Rhinoceros  lasiotis),        .  47 

Two-horned  Rhinoceros  (Rhinoceros  bicornis), .  47 

Rhinoceros  simus, 49 

THE  HORSE  FAMILY  (Equida),        ....  49 

African  or  Tiger  Horses  (Hippotigres~), .        .  52 

Zebra  (Hippotigris  Zebra), 53 

Dauw  (Hippotigris  Burchellii),    ....  53 

Quagga  (Hippotigris  quagga),     ....  53 

Asiatic  Horses, 54 

African  Wild  Ass  (Equus  ta^niopus),  ...  54 

Onager  or  Gurkur  (Equus  onager),     ...  54 

Tibetan  Wild  Ass  (Equus  hemionus),          .        .  54 

Domesticated  Horse  (Equus  caballus),        .        .  55 

The  Ass  (Equus  asinus), 55 

Horse  of  (Quaternary  Period  (Equus  curvidens),  56 

Tarpan  (Equus  Tarpan), 57 

Kertag  or  Statur  (Equus  Przevalskii),.        .        .  57 

Geographical  Distribution  and  Descent  of  the  Odd-toed 

Ungulates, 5^ 

EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES   (ARTIODACTYLA). 

Introduction, 61 

Group  of  the  Non-ruminant  or  Many-toed  Artiodac- 

tyla  (Polydactyla), 64 

THE  HIPPOPOTAMUS   OR   RIVER-HORSE   FAMILY 

(Obesa), 64 

River-horse  of  Liberia  (Hippopotamus  liberiensis),  64 

b 


164773 


VI 


THE   CONTENTS. 


Common  Hippopotamus  (Hippopotamus  amphi- 
bius), 


64 
66 


THE  PIG  FAMILY  (Suida),        .       .'     . 

Wild-boar  (Sus  scrofa), 67 

Red  River-hog  (Potamochcerus  porcus),  .  .  69 
Emgalo  or  Ethiopfan  Wart-hog  (Phacochcerus 

aethiopicus),  . 69 

Emgalo  of  Inner  Africa  (Phacochoerus  africanus),  69 
Babirussa  (Porcus  babirussa),  .  .  .  -7' 

Pigmy  Hogs  (Porcula), 72 

Collared  Peccary  (Dicotyles  torquatus),      .        .  72 

White-lipped  Peccary  (Dicotyles  labiatus),          .  72 

Group  of  the  Two-toed  Artiodactyla  or   Ruminants 

(Didactyla  or  Ruminantia),            .....  73 

THE  CHEVROTAIN  FAMILY  (Tragulida),  ...  76 

Kanchil  (Tragulus  pygmaeus),      ....  76 

Water  Chevrotain  (Hyasmoschus  aquations),      .  76 

Musk-deer  (Moschus  moschifcrus),     ...  76 

THE  DEER  FAMILY  (Cervida),        ....  77 

Muntjac  or  Kidang  (Cervtilus  muntjac),      .         .  78 

Red  Brocket  (Subulo  rufus),        ....  79 

Common  Roe  (Capreolus  vulgaris),     ...  79 

Pampas  Deer  or  Guazui  (Blastoccros  campestris),  79 

Axis  or  Spotted  Deer  (Axis  maculata),        .        .  80 

Sambtir  Deer  (Cervus  Aristotelis),       ...  80 

Common  Stag  or  Red-deer  (Cervus  elaphus),      .  82 

Wapiti  or  Canadian  Stag  (Cervus  canadcnsis),  .  82 

Cariacou  (Cervus  virginianus),     ....  83 

Fallow-deer  (Dama  vulgaris),      ....  84 

Reindeer  (Tarandus  rangifer),      ....  84 

Elk  (Alecs  palmatus), 86 

Canadian  Elk,  Moose-deer,  or  Orignal,       .         .  86 

THE  HOLLOW-HORNED  RUMINANTS  (Cavicornia), .  87 

The  Antelopes  (Antilopiita), 88 

Pronghorn  Antelope  (Antilocapra  americana),    .  88 

Chamois  (Capella  rupicapra),      ....  89 

Gazelle  (Gazella  dorcas),      .....  93 

Sassa  Antelope  (Oreotragus  saltator),          .        .  93 

Bleekbok  or  Urebi  (Calotragus  scoparius),  .  93 
Duyker-bok  or  Madocqua  (Cephalophus  mergens),  94 
Chikara  or  Four-horned  Antelope  (Tetraceros 

quadricornis), 94 

Rietbok  or  Umseke  (Reduncus  eleotragus),  .  94 
Harnessed  Antelope  or  Guib  (Tragelaphus  scriptus),  95 

Saiga  (Colus  tartaricus), 96 

Nylgau  (Portax  pictus), 97 

Sing-Sing  or  Waterbok  (Kobus  ellipsiprymnus),  98 
Sable  Antelope  or  Swarte-bok  (Hippotragus  niger),  98 

Blauw-bok  (Hippotragus  leucophasa), ...  99 

Leucoryx  or  Sabre  Antelope  (Oryx  leucoryx),     .  99 

Canna,  Elen,  or  Etatra  (Buselaphus  oreas),         .  100 

Mendes  Antelope  (Addax  nasoniaculatus), .         .  100 

Koodoo  (Strepsiceros  kudu),        .         .         ,        .  101 

Caama  or  Hartebeest  (Bubalis  Caama).      .        .  101 

Indian  Antelope  or  Sassi  (Antilope  cervicapra),  102 

Wildebeest  or  White-tailed  Gnu  (Catoblepas  gnu),  103 

The  Goats  (Caprida), 103 

Rocky  Mountain  Goat  (Haploceros  americanus),  104 

Markhor  (Capra  falconeri), 106 


PAGE 

Grecian  Ibex  or  Bezoar  Goat  (Capra  aegagrus),  .  106 
Domestic  Goat  (Capra  hircus),  ....  107 
Angora  Goat  (Capra  hircus,  var.  angorensis),  .  108 

The  Ibex-  (Ibex),  Bouquet  ins,  Steinbocks,          .        .108 
Alpine  Ibex  (Ibex  alpinus),          ....     109 

Tlu-  Sheep  (Ovis), 109 

Barbary  Wild  Sheep  (Ovis  tragelaphus),  .  .no 
Rocky  Mountain  Sheep  or  Big-horn  (Ovis  mon- 

tana),        . .in 

Mouflon  of  Kamchatka  (Ovis  nivalis),  .  .  in 
Kashkar  of  the  Kirghiz  (Ovis  Polii),  .  .  .  ill 

Argali  (Ovis  Argali), 112 

Musimon  or  European  Mouflon  (Ovis  nuisimon),  112 
Domesticated  Sheep  (Ovis  aries),  .  .  .114 

The  Ox  Croup  (Bovida), 115 

Anoa  of  the  Malays  (Probubalus  depressicornis),  115 
Musk-ox  (Ovibos  moschatus),  .  .  .  .116 

The  Buffaloes  (Bubalus),  .  .  .  .  .116 

Cape  Buffalo  (Bubalus  caffer),  .  .  .  .116 

Common  Buffalo  (Bubalus  vulgaris),  .  .  .119 

Kerabau  Buffalo  (Bubalus  Kerabau),  .  .  .117 

The  Bisons  (Bison), 119 

European  Bison  (Bison  europacus),  .  .  .119 

American  Bison  (Bison  americanus),  .  .  .120 

The  True  Oxen  (Bos), 123 

Yak  (Bos  grunniens),   .         .         .  •  .         .     123 

Gaur  (Bos  gaurus), 124 

Gayal  (Bos  frontalis), 124 

Burmese  Wild  Ox  (Bos  sondaicus),  .  .  .125 
Zebu  or  Humped  Ox  (Bos  indicus),  .  .  .126 
Tame  Breeds  of  Ox  (Bos  taurus),  .  .  .126 

THE  GIRAFFE  FAMILY  (Devexa),    .  .       .    128 

Giraffe  (Camelopardalis  giraffa), .         .         .         .128 

THE  CAMEL  FAMILY  (Camelida),     .        .        .        .129 

The  Camels  (Camelus), 130 

Bactrian  Camel  (Camelus  bactrianus),  .  .131 
Dromedary  (Camelus  dromedarius),  .  .  .  131 

The  Llamas  (Auchenia), 134 

Guanaco  (Auchenia  huanaco),     .         .         .     '    .  135 

Llama  (Auchenia  Lama), 135 

Alpaco  (Auchenia  Paco), 135 

Vicuna  (Auchenia  vicuna), 136 

Geographical  Distribution  and  Descent  of  the  Even- 
toed  Ungulates, 136 

GNAWERS   OR    RODENTS   (RODENTIA). 

Introduction, 141 

THE  SQUIRREL  FAMILY  (Sciurida),        .       .       .144 
The  Squirrels, 145 

Brown  Flying-Squirrel  (Pteromys  petaurista),  .  145 
Assapan  (Pteromys  volucella),  ....  145 
Common  Squirrel  (Sciurus  vulgaris),  .  .  .146 
Chipping  Squirrel  or  Chipmunk  (Tamias  striatus),  146 
Souslik  (Spermophilua  citillus),  .  .  .  .147 

The  Marmots  (Arctomys), 147 

Alpine  Marmot  (Arctomys  marmota),  .  .  147 
Prairie-dog  (Cynomys  ludovicianus),  .  .  .  148 


THE   CONTENTS. 


VII 


I'AGE 

THE  DORMOUSE  FAMILY  (Myoxida),      .       .        .148 

Loir  (Myoxus  glis), 149 

Common  Dormouse  (Muscardinus  avellanarius),     149 

THE  BEAVER  FAMILY  (Castorida),  .        .        .        .149 
Beaver  (Castor  fiber), 149 

THE  MOUSE  FAMILY  (Murida),       .        .        .        -153 

The  Mole-rats, 153 

Common  European  Mole-rat  (Spalax  typhlus),   .     153 

The  Hamsters  (Cricctns), 154 

Hamster  Proper  (Cricetus  frumentarius),    .        .     154 

Ra ts  and  Mice  (Mitriiia), 155 

Black  Rat  (Mus  rattus), 155 

Brown  Rat  (Mus  dccumanus),  .  .  .  .156 
Common  Domestic  Mouse  (Mus  musculus),  .  156 
Field-mouse  (Mus  agrarius),  .  .  .  .156 
Long-tailed  Field-mouse  (Mus  sylvaticus), .  .  156 
Harvest-mouse  (Mus  minutus),  .  .  .  .156 
Striped  or  Barbary  Mouse  (Mus  striatus),  .  .156 

The  Voles  (Arvicolina), 157 

Common  Field-vole  (Arvicola  arvalis),  .  .158 
Water-rat  or  Water-vole  (Arvicola  .amphibius),  .  158 
Lemming  (Myodes  lemmus),  .  .  .  .158 
Musk-rat  or  Musquash  (Fiber  zibethicus),  .  .  159 
The  genera  Hydromys,  Meriones,  Gerbillus,  159-160 

THE  JERBOA  FAMILY  (Dipodida),    .       .        .       .     160 

Egyptian  Jerboa  (Dipus  mauritanicus),  .  .  161 
Jumping-rabbit  of  Siberia  (Alactaga  jaculus),  .  162 
Cape  Jumping-hare  (Pedetes  caffer),  .  .  .  162 
Phillips's  Pocket-mouse  (Dipodomys  Phillipsii),  162 
Gopher  (Geomys  bursaria),  .  .  .  .162 

THE  PORCUPINE  FAMILY  (Hystricida),  .       .       .163 

Common  European  Porcupine  (Hystrix  cristata),  163 
African  Brush-tailed  Porcupine  (Atherura  africana),  164 
Tri-coloured  Tree-porcupine  (Cercolabes  villosus),  164 

THE  SPINY  RAT  FAMILY  (Echimyida),  .        .        .165 
Coypu  (Myopotamus  coypu),       ....     165 

THE  DEGU  FAMILY  (Octodontida), .       .        .        .166 
Degu  of  the  Chileans  (Octodon  Cummingii),      .     166 

THE  CHINCHILLA  FAMILY  (Chinchillida),      .        .     166 

Larger  Chinchilla  (Eriomys  chinchilla), 
Smaller  Chinchilla  (Eriomys  laniger), 
Cuvier's  Lagidium  (Lagidium  Cuvieri), 
Vizcacha  (Lagostomus  trichodactylus), 

THE  AGOUTI  FAMILY  (Subungulata), 

Agouti   Proper  or  Golden  Agouti   (Dasyprocta 

Aguti), 

Paca  (Coslogenys  paca), 

Patagonian  Cavy  or  Mara  (Dolichotis  patagonica),  171 
Restless  Cavy  or  Aperea  (Cavia  aperea),  .  .  171 
Capybara  (Hydrochcerus  capybara),  .  .  .172 

THE  RABBIT  FAMILY  (Leporida),    .       .       .        .     173 

Alpine  Pika  (Lagomys  alpinus),  .  .  .  •  '73 
Common  Hare  (Lepus  timidus), .  .  .  .  174 


Alpine,   Mountain,   or   Northern    Hare    (Lepus 

alpinus), 174 

Rabbit  (Lepus  cuniculus),    .....  175 

Geographical  Distribution  and  Descent  of  the  Rodents,  17; 

THE   EDENTATES   (EDENTATA). 

Introduction, 180 

THE  SLOTHS  (Bradypoda), 181 

A'i  or  Three-toed  Sloth  (Bradypus  tridactylus),      .  182 

Unau  or  Two-toed  Sloth  (Cholcepus  didactylus),  183 

THE  ARMADILLOS  (Dasypoda) 183 

Giant  Armadillo  (Prionodon  gigas),     .        .        .185 

Six-banded  Armadillo  (Dasypus  sexcinctus),      .  185 
Pichiciago  (Chlamydophorus  truncatus),     .        .185 

THE  WORM-TONGUED  EDENTATES  (Vermilinguia),  186 
Aard-vark  or  Cape  Ant-bear  (Orycteropus  capen- 


167 
167 
1 68 
1 68 

169 

169 

170 


sis), 


The  True  Ant-eaters  (Myrmecophagida], 
Great    Ant-eater   or  Ant-bear  (Myrmecophaga 

jubata), 

Tamandua  (Tamandua  tetradactyla),  . 
Little  Ant-eater  (Myrmidon  didactylus), 

The  Pangolins  or  Scaly  Ant-eaters  (Manis),  . 
Long-tailed  Pangolin  (Manis  longicaudata), 
Short-tailed  Pangolin  (Manis  pentadactyla), 


1 86 

187 

187 
1 88 
188 

188 
189 
189 


Geographical  Distribution  and  Descent  of  the  Edentates,  189 

THE    MARSUPIALS    OR    POUCH-BEARING 
MAMMALS   (MARSUPIAL1A). 

Introduction, 192 

THE  OPOSSUMS  (Didelphyida),         .        .        .        .195 
Yapock  (Cheironectes  variegatus),       .        .        .196 


Common  Opposum  (Didelphys  virginiana), 
The  Predaceous  Marsupials  (Rapaces), 

THE  POUCHED  BADGERS  (Peramelida),  . 

Long-nosed  Bandicoot  (Perameles  nasuta), 
Pig-footed  Perameles  (Choeropus  castanotus), 
Banded  Ant-eater  (Myrmecobius  fasciatus), 


196 
197 

197 
198 
199 
'99 

200 


THE  DASYURE  FAMILY  (Dasyurida), 

Brush-tailed    Phascogale   or   Tafa  (Phascogale 

penicillata), 200 

Viverrine  Dasyure  (Dasyurus  viverrinus),  .        .  201 

Tasmanian  DC*;J  O)asyurus  ursinus),          .         .  201 

Tasmanian  Vfblf£-  -^'jv&fls  cynocephalus),      .  202 

The  Fruit-eating  Marsupials  (Carpophaga), .         .         .  203 

THE  PHALANGER  FAMILY  (Phalangistida),     .        .  203 
Squirrel  Flying-phalanger  (Belideus  or  Petaurus 

sciureus), 203 

Vulpine  Phalanger  (Phalangista  vulpina),   .         .  204 
Koala  or  Native  (Australian)  Bear  (Phascolarctos 

cinereus), 204 


Vlll 


THE   CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

The  Herbivorous  Marsupials  (Poephaga),     .         .         .  206 

The  Kangaroos, 206 

Ursine  Tree-kangaroo  (Dendrolagus  ursinus),  .  207 
Tufted-tailed  Rat-kangaroo  (Hypsiprymnus  peni- 

cillatus), 207 

Yellow-footed  Rock-kangaroo  (Petrogale  xantho- 

pus) 208 

Great  Kangaroo  (Macropus  giganteus),  .  .  208 

The  Root-eating  Marsupials  (Rhizophaga), .         .         .  210 

Broad-fronted  Wombat  (Phascolomys  latifrons),  210 
Geographical  Distribution  and  Descent  of  the  Marsu- 
pials,       211 


THE    MONOTREMES    (MONOTREMATA). 

Introduction, 

The  Water-mole,  Duck-mole,  or  Duck-billed  Platy- 

P»s, 

Water-mole   or    Duck-mole  (Ornithorhynchus 
paradoxus), 

The  Echidnas,         ....... 

Long-spined   Echidna   or   Porcupine   Ant-eater 


PAGE 

216 


217 

217 
219 


(Echidna  hystrix), 219 

Short-spined  Echidna  (Echidna  setosa),      .         .219 
Echidna  of  New  Guinea  (Acanthoglossus  Bruynii),22o 

Geographical  Distribution  and  Origin  of  the  Monotremes,  220 


GLOSSARY,  explaining  the  Principal  Scientific  Terms  employed  in  this  Work, 


223 


GENERAL   INDEX,  giving  References  to  the  Animals  both  by  their  Scientific  and 

their  Popular  Names, 235 


THE    PICTURES. 


FULL-PAGE    PICTURES. 

PLATE 

XVI.  THE  GREENLAND  OR  RIGHT  WHALE  (Bala-na  mysticetus),   . 
XVII.  THE  AFRICAN  ELEPHANT  (Elcphas  africanus), 
XVIII.  THE  INDIAN  ELEPHANT  (Eiephas  indicus),     .... 
XIX.  THE  INDIAN  RHINOCEROS  (Rhinoceros  indicus), 
XX.  THE  TWO-HORNED  RHINOCEROS  (Rhinoceros  bicornis), 
XXI.  THE  DAUW  OR  BURCHELL'S  ZEBRA  (Hippotigris  Burchellii), . 
XXII.  THE  HIPPOPOTAMUS  (Hippopotamus  amphibius),     . 


Tofacepagi 

.  16 

•  30 

•  32 
.  46 
.  48 

•  5° 
.  64 


XXIII.  THE  WILD  BOAR  (Sus  scrofa) 66 

XXIV.  THE  ROE-DEER  (Capreolus  vulgaris), 78 

XXV.  THE  RED-DEER  OR  STAG  (Cervus  elaphus), 82 

XXVI.  THE  FALLOW-DEER  (Dama  vulgaris), 84 

XXVII.  THE  ELK  (Alces  palmatus) 86 

XXVIII.  THE  CHAMOIS  (Capella  rupicapra), 88 

XXIX.  THE  CANNA  OR  ELAND  (Buselaphus  canna), 98 

XXX.  THE  KOODOO  (Strepsiceros  kudu) -102 

XXXI.  THE  EUROPEAN  BISON  (Bison  europams), "8 

XXXII.  THE  AMERICAN  BISON  OR  BUFFALO  (Bison  americanus), 120 

XXXIII.  THE  GIRAFFE  (Camelopardalisgiraffa), 128 

XXXIV.  THE  DROMEDARY  OR  COMMON  CAMEL  (Camclus  dromedarius), 130 

XXXV.  THE  ALPINE  MARMOT  (Arctomys  marmota), 148 

XXXVI.  THE  BEAVER  (Castor  fiber), -  152 

XXXVII.  THE  PORCUPINE  (Hystrix  cristata), 164 

XXXVIII.  THE  A'f  OR  THREE-TOED  SLOTH  (Bradypus  tridactylus), 182 

XXXIX.  THE  ANT-BEAR  OR  GREAT  ANT-EATER  (Myrmecophaga  jubata) 188 

XL.  THE  GREAT  KANGAROO  (Macropus  giganteus), 208 

PICTURES    IN    THE    TEXT. 


131.  The  Fresh-water  Dolphin  (Platanista  gangetica),  .  5 

132.  The  Inia  or  Amazon  Dolphin  (Inia  amazonica),    .  5 

133.  The  Common  Dolphin  (Delphinus  delphis),  .        .  6 

134.  The  Bottle-nosed  Dolphin  (Delphinus  tursio),       .  7 

135.  The  Porpoise  (Phoc;ena  communis),      ...  7 

136.  The  Killer-whale  (Orca  gladiator),         ...  8 

137.  The  Pilot-whale  or  Grind  (Globicephalus  melas),  .  9 

138.  The  Beluga  or  White  Whale  (Beluga  leucas),        .  10 

139.  The  Narwhal  (Monodon  monoceros),    .        .        .11 

140.  The  Bottlehead  or  Common  Beaked  Whale  (Hyper- 

oodon  rostratus), 12 

141.  The  Sperm-whale  (Physeter  macrocephalus),         .  13 

142.  The  Rorqual  (Balasnoptera  boops),         .        .        •  '  5 


'AG« 

21 


143.  The  Dugong  (Halicore  Dugong),  ... 

144.  Manatee  of  the  Amazon  (Manatus  australis),         .  23 

145.  The  Abyssinian  Hyrax  (Hyrax  habessinicus),        .  41 

146.  The  Brazilian  Tapir  or  Anta  (Tapirus  americanus),  42 

147.  The  Malayan  Tapir  (Tapirus  indicus),  ...  44 

148.  The  Zebra  (Hippotigris  Zebra),      ....  52 

149.  The  African  Wild  Ass  (Equus  taeniopus),      .        .  53 

150.  The  Onager  (Equus  onager),  .....  54 

151.  The  Tibetan  Wild  Ass  (Equus  hemionus),     .        .  55 

152.  The  Tarpan  (Equus  Tarpan),         .        .        .        •  5^ 
1  53.  The  Red  River-hog  (Potamochcerus  porcus),         .  69 
1  54.  The  Emgalo  or  Ethiopian  Wart-hog  (Phacochcerus 

sethiopicus),         .......  7° 


THE    PICTURES. 


155.  The  Babirussa  (Porcus  babirussa),         ...      71 

156.  The  Collared  Peccary  (Uicotyles  torquatus),          .       72 

157.  The  Kanchil  (Tragulus  pygmasus),         ...       75 

158.  The  Musk-deer  (Moschus  moschiferus),         .        .       77 

159.  The  Muntjac  (Cervulus  muntjac),  .        ...      78 

1 60.  The  Red  Brocket  (Subulo  rufus),   ....      79 

1 6 1 .  The  Pampas  Deer  or  Guazui  ( Blastoceros  campestris),  80 

162.  The  Axis  or  Spotted  Deer  (Axis  maculata),  .         .       81 

163.  The  Reindeer  (Tarandus  rangifer),         ...      85 

164.  The  Pronghorn  Antelope  (Antilocapra  americana),     87 

165.  Gazelles  (Gazella  dorcas),       .....      90 

166.  The  Sassa  Antelope  (Oreotragus  saltator),     .         .      91 

167.  The  Bleekbok  or  Urebi  (Calotragus  scoparius),    .      91 

1 68.  The  Duyker-bok  or  Madocqua  (Cephalophus  mergens),  92 

169.  The  Four-horned  Antelope  (Tetraceros  quadricornis),  93 

170.  The  Rietbok  (Reduncus  eleotragus),      ...      94 

171.  The  Harnessed  Antelope  or  Guib  (Tragelaphus 

scriptus), 95 

172.  The  Saiga  Antelope  (Colus  tartaricus), .        .         .       95 

173.  The  Nylgau  (Portax  pictus), 96 

174.  The  Sing-Sing  or  Waterbok  (Kobus  ellipsiprymnus),  97 

175.  The  Sable  Antelope  or  Swarte-bok  (Hippotragus 

niger) 98 

176.  The  Leucoryx  or  Sabre  Antelope  (Oryx  leucoryx),      99 

177.  The  Mendes  Antelope  (Addax  nasomaculatus),     .     100 

178.  The  Caama  or  Hartebeest  (Bubalis  Caama),          .     101 

179.  The  Indian  Antelope  (Antilope  cervicapra),  .     102 

1 80.  The  Wildebeest  or  White-tailed  Gnu  (Catoblepas 

gnu), 103 

181.  The  Rocky  Mountain  Goat  (Haploccros  americanus),  104 

182.  The  Markhor  (Capra  falconeri),     .        .         .        .105 

183.  The  Grecian  Ibex  (Capra  Kgagrus),       .         .        .     106 

184.  The  Angora  Goat  (Capra  hircus),  .         .         .        .107 

185.  The  Alpine  Ibex  (Ibex  alpinus),     .        '.        .        .108 

186.  The  Barbary  Wild  Sheep  or  Ami  (Ovis  tragelaphus),  1 10 

187.  The  Rocky  Mountain  Sheep  or  Big-horn  (Ovis 

montana), 1 1 1 

1 88.  The  Kashkar  (Ovis  Polii), 112 

189.  The  Musimon or  European  Mouflon  (Ovis  musimon),  113 

190.  The  Anoa  (Probubalus  depressicornis),          .         .114 

191.  The  Musk-ox  (Ovibos  moschatus),         .         .         -115 

192.  The  Cape  Buffalo  (Bubalus  caffer),        .        .        .117 

193.  The  Kerabau  Buffalo  (Bubalus  Kerabau),      .         .119 

194.  The  Yak  (Bos  grunniens), 123 

195.  The  Gaur  (Bos  gaurus), 124 

196.  The  Gayal  (Bos  frontalis), 125 

197.  The  Burmese  Wild  Ox  (Bos  sondaicus),        .         .126 

198.  The  Zebu  (Bos  indicus), ,27 

199.  The  Bactrian  Camel  (Camclus  bactrianus),   .         .     131 

200.  The  Llama  (Auchcnia  Lama),        .        .        .        .     1 34 

201.  The  Alpaca  (Auchenia  Paco),         .        .         .         .135 

202.  The  Taguan  or  Brown  Flying-Squirrel  (Pteromys 

•    petaurista) I44 

203.  The  Common  Squirrel  (Sciurus  vulgaris),      .         .145 

204.  The  Chipping  Squirrel  (Tamias  striatus),       .        .146 


Kit;.  PAGE 

205.  The  Souslik  (Spermophilus  citillus),       .         .         .     147 

206.  Prairie-dogs  (Cynomys  ludovicianus),    .         .         .148 

207.  The  Loir  (Myoxus  glis), 149 

208.  The  Common   Dormouse  (Muscardinus  avellan- 

arius), 150 

209.  The  Common  European  Mole-rat  (Spalax  typhlus),     153 

210.  The  Hamster  (Cricetus  frumentarius),  .         .         .154 

21 1.  A  Brown  Rat  (Mus  decumanus)  attacking  a  Black 

Rat  (Mus  rattus), 155 

212.  The  Common  Domestic  Mouse  (Mus  musculus),  .  156 

213.  The  Striped  or  Barbary  Mouse  (Mus  striatus),      .  157 

214.  The  Common  Field-vole  (Arvicola  arvalis),  .  157 

215.  The  Water-rat  or  Water-vole  (Arvicola  amphibius),  158 

216.  The  Lemming  (Myodes  lemmus),  .         .         .         .158 

217.  The  Musk-rat  or  Musquash  (Fiber  zibethicus),      .  159 

2 1 8.  The  Egyptian  Jerboa  (Dipus  mauritanicus),  .         .  160 

219.  The  Jumping-rabbit  Of  Siberia  (Alactaga  jaculus),  160 

220.  The  Cape  Jumping-hare  (Pedetes  caffer),       .         .  161 

221.  Phillips's  Pocket-mouse  (Dipodomys  Phillipsii),    .  162 

222.  The  Gopher  (Geomys  bursaria),     .         .         .         .162 

223.  The   African    Brush-tailed    Porcupine   (Atherura 

africana), 163 

224.  The  Tri-coloured  Tree-porcupine  or  Cuy  (Cerco- 

labes  villosus), 164 

225.  The  Coypu  (Myopotamus  coypu),  .         .        .         .165 

226.  The  Degu  (Octodon  Cummingii) 166 

227.  The  Larger  Chinchilla  (Eriomys  chinchilla),          .     166 

228.  The  Smaller  Chinchilla  (Eriomys  laniger),    .         .     167 

229.  Cuvier"s  Lagidium  (Lagidium  Cuvieri), .         .         .167 

230.  The  Vizcacha  (Lagostomus  trichodacty  :us),  .         .     168 

231.  The  Golden  Agouti  (Dasyprocta  Aguti),        .         .     169 

232.  The  Paca  (Caslogenys  paca),  .         .         ...         .170 

233.  The  Patagonian  Cavy  (Dolichotis  patagonica),      .     171 

234.  The  Restless  Cavy  or  Aperea  (Cavia  aperea),        .     172 

235.  The  Capybara  (Hydrochosrus  capybara),       .         .     173 

236.  The  Alpine  Pika  (Lagomys  alpinus),      .         .        -174 

237.  The  Common  Hare  (Lepus  timidus),     .        .         .     175 

238.  The  Alpine  or  Mountain  Hare  (Lepus  alpinus),     .     176 

239.  The  Rabbit  (Lepus  cuniculus),       .         .        .        .177 

240.  The  Unau  or  Two-toed  Sloth  (Choloepus  didac- 

tyius), 183 

241.  The  Giant  Armadillo  (Prionodon  gigas),        .         .     184 

242.  The   Six-banded   Armadillo  or   Poyou  (Dasypus 

sexcinctus), 185 

243.  The  Pichiciago  (Chlainydophorus  truncatus),        .     186 

244.  The  Aard-vark  or   Cape  Ant-bear   (Orycteropus 

capensis), 187 

245.  The  Little  Ant-eater  (Myrmidon,  didactylus),         .  188 

246.  The  Long-tailed  Pangolin  (Manis  longicaudata),  .  189 

247.  The  Short-tailed  Pangolin  (Manis  pentadactyla),  .  189 

248.  The  Yapock  (Cheironectes  variegatus),          .         .  196 

249.  The  Common  Opossum  (Didelphys  virginiana),    .  197 

250.  The  Long-nosed  Bandicoot  (Perameles  nasuta),    .  198 

251.  The  Pig-footed  Perameles  (Chasropus  castanotus),  198 

252.  The  Banded  Ant-eater  (Myrmecobius  fasciatus),  .  199 


THE    1'ICTURKS. 


XI 


253.  The  Brush-tailed  Phaacogale  or  Tafa  (Phascogak 

pcnicillata), 200 

254.  The  Viverrine  Dasyurc  (I)asyurus  vivcrrinus),       .  201 

255.  The  Tasmanian  Devil  (Uasyurus  ursinus),    .         .  201 

256.  The  Tasmanian  Wolf  (Thylacinus  cynocephalus),  202 

257.  The  Squirrel  Flying-phalanger  (Belideus  sciureosX  -°4 

258.  The  Vulpini'  Phalanger  (Phalangista  vulpina),      .  205 

259.  The  Koala  or  Native  (Australian)  Hear  (I'hasco- 

larctos  cinereus), 205 

260.  The  Ursine  Tree-kangaroo  (DemlrohiL'.us  ursinus),  207 


261.  The  Tufted-tailed   Rat-kangaroo  (Hypsiprymnus 

penicillatus), 208 

262.  The    Yellow -footed     Rock -kangaroo    (Pctrogale 

xanthopus), 209 

263.  The  Broad-fronted  Wombat  (Phascofemyt  lati- 

frons), 210 

264.  The  Water-mole  or  Duck-mole  (Ornithorhynchus 

paradoxus) 217 

265.  The  Long-spined  Echidna  or  Porcupine  Ant-eater 

(Echidna  hystrix), 219 


WHALES    AND    DOLPHINS 


(CETACEA). 


Fish-like  carnivores  without  hind-limbs,  and  having  the  fore-limbs  converted  into  flippers,  the  tail  in  the  form 
of  a  horizontal  fin.  The  nostrils  (blow-holes)  are  situated  on  the  summit  of  the  forehead,  the  ill-developed 
lips  are  without  moustache  hairs,  the  skin  is  naked,  the  placenta  diffuse,  and  the  teats  situated  far  back  in  the 
abdominal  region. 


Sailors  and  the  common  people  call  these 
giants  of  our  present  fauna  simply  "fishes," 
and  the  form  of  the  body  is,  in  fact,  exactly 
that  of  a  spindle-shaped  fish,  with  a  head, 
often  of  enormous  size,  joined  directly  on  to 
the  body  without  any  apparent  neck.  Behind, 
the  body  ends  in  a  horizontal  tail,  which  is 
composed  of  a  felt- work  of  horny  fibres ;  while 
that  of  the  true  fishes  stands  vertically,  and 
is  supported  by  bony  or  cartilaginous  rays. 
Even  the  first  superficial  examination  of  a 
living  whale  enables  us  to  discover  im- 
mediately that  the  gills  are  altogether  want- 
ing; that  these  animals,  although  living  in  the 
water,  yet  breathe  atmospheric  air;  that  they 
have  warm  blood,  and  teats  by  means  of 
which  they  suckle  their  young. 

The  skin,  which  is  very  thick,  but  composed 
of  a  very  loose  or  open  tissue,  has  its  meshes 
filled  with  large  quantities  of  fat,  which  also 
collects  between  the  skin  and  the  muscles. 
This  skin  is  quite  naked,  the  epidermis  or 
scarf-skin  mostly  thick  and  often  like  a  rind. 
Hair  there  is  none.  Only  in  the  embryos 
do  we  sometimes  see  traces  of  tactile  hairs 
on  the  upper  lip,  but  these  never  develop. 
The  head  may  attain  a  third  of  the  entire 
length  of  the  body;  the  brain-case  is  round, 
but  the  jaws  are  drawn  out  in  front  into  a 


VOL.  II. 


sometimes  broad,  sometimes  beak-like  muzzle. 
In  the  skeleton  the  prolongation  of  the  jaws 
forms  a  flat  section,  above  which  the  back 
part  of  the  skull  often  rises  in  the  form  of  a 
crest,  but  in  the  living  animal  the  space 
between  the  brain-case  and  the  snout  is  often 
filled  with  large  accumulations  of  fat  or  oil, 
which  gives  the  head  a  form  quite  different 
from  that  of  the  skull. 

The  structure  of  the  respiratory  passages, 
the  complete  absence  of  external  ears,  and 
the  position  of  the  very  small  eyes,  so  far 
back  and  so  low  down,  strike  us  immediately 
on  making  a  sufficiently  close  examination  of 
the  form  of  the  head.  The  nose  is  no  longer 
a  smelling  organ;  the  whales  are  entirely 
destitute  of  this  sense.  The  olfactory  nerve 
is  reduced  to  a  thin  thread.  The  nose  is 
now  nothing  more  than  a  respiratory  canal. 
The  nostrils  open  at  the  top  of  the  skull, 
sometimes  through  a  single  blow-hole  in  the 
form  of  a  half-moon,  sometimes  through  two 
contiguous  slits.  The  cavity  of  the  nose  goes 
vertically  downwards,  and  its  communication 
with  the  windpipe  is  effected  in  a  manner 
quite  peculiar.  The  larynx  or  anterior  portion 
of  the  windpipe,  with  the  glottis  or  slit  open- 
ing into  it,  crosses  the  back  part  of  the  mouth, 
and  fits  into  the  lower  end  of  the  nasal  passage 

33 


WHALES   AND   DOLPHINS. 


so  accurately  as  to  close  it  completely.  The 
animal  can  thus  breathe  merely  by  raising 
the  top  of  its  head  to  the  surface  of  the  water, 
and  can  swallow  its  food  in  the  water  without 
a  drop  of  liquid  penetrating  into  the  wind- 
pipe and  lungs,  since  the  fragments  in  their 
way  down  the  gullet  pass  round  the  larynx 
where  it  is  inserted  into  the  posterior  part  of 
the  nasal  passage.  The  external  passage  of 
the  ear  (external  auditory  meatus)  opens  on 
the  surface  of  the  skin  by  a  very  narrow 
aperture;  even  in  a  large  whale  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  introduce  a  goose-quill  into  the 
opening.  The  eyes  are  often  placed  so  far 
behind  and  at  the  side  that  they  lie  im- 
mediately behind  the  corners  of  the  mouth. 
They  are  not  inclosed  in  a  bony  orbit,  but 
only  by  a  very  thick  white  skin.  The  pupil 
itself  is  not  larger  than  in  an  ox. 

The  lower  jaw  forms  a  more  or  less  ex- 
panded pointed  arch,  or  even  a  longish  beak. 
There  is  scarcely  any  joint  behind,  and  the 
coronoid  process,  or  ascending  part  of  the 
lower  jaw  to  which  the  muscles  of  mastication 
are  attached  in  other  mammals,  is  almost 
entirely  wanting.  We  will  afterwards  return 
to  the  dentition. 

All  these  modifications  lead  to  very  peculiar 
arrangements  in  the  structure  of  the  skull, 
but  these  we  will  not  enter  upon  in  detail  at 
present.  Let  it  suffice  to  say  that  the  petrous 
bone,  or  bone  containing  the  inner  ear,  is 
separate  from  the  other  bones  of  the  skull, 
and  the  skull  itself  is  not  symmetrical,  one  of 
the  halves,  usually  the  right,  being  always 
larger.  This  want  of  symmetry  is  often 
more  marked  in  one  individual  than  in  another 
of  the  same  species,  but  always  exists. 

The  neck  is  indistinguishable  in  the  living 
animal,  the  head,  which  is  very  broad  behind, 
being  attached  to  the  trunk  without  the 
slightest  appearance  of  constriction.  In  the 
skeleton  the  usual  number  of  neck-vertebra?, 
seven,  are  indeed  present,  but  they  soon  be- 
come fused  with  one  another,  wholly  or  par- 
tially. The  vertebrae  of  the  trunk  have  the 


processes  but  slightly  developed,  and  very 
liable  to  become  detached;  those  of  the  tail 
have  no  processes.  There  is  never  any 
sacrum,  since  the  pelvis  is  wanting. 

The  fore-limb  forms  a  fin,  connected  with 
the  trunk  by  a  triangular  shoulder-blade. 
The  short  and  usually  flattened  upper-arm  or 
humerus  is  entirely  buried  in  the  flesh  of  the 
body.  The  bones  of  the  fore-arm,  wrist,  and 
hand  are  firmly  connected  together  by  strong 
sinewy  tissues  or  ligaments  without  any  joints, 
and  are  enveloped  by  a  tough  firm  skin. 
The  whole  limb  accordingly  is  movable  only 
at  the  shoulder-  and  elbow-joints.  The  digits 
are  indicated  by  rows  of  small  rounded  bones, 
often  very  numerous,  and  the  terminal  bones 
or  phalanges  are  without  nails.  The  hind- 
limbs  are  altogether  wanting.  But  in  some 
whales  there  are  found  some  bones  buried  in 
the  flesh  which  are  rudiments  of  a  pelvis  repre- 
senting the  thigh-  and  shin-bones,  but  which 
never  become  developed,  being  found  only 
in  the  embryo.  In  most  whales  there  are 
also  to  be  seen  vertical  dorsal  fins,  formed, 
like  the  tail-fin,  of  a  skin  supported  by  a  fibrous 
and  horny  tissue. 

The  brain  is  relatively  small,  but  covered 
with  numerous  convolutions.  In  a  whale  20 
feet  in  length  and  weighing  12,000  Ibs.  the 
brain  did  not  weigh  as  much  as  4^  Ibs.  In 
the  small  species,  like  the  dolphins,  however, 
it  is  relatively  much  larger  and  in  particular 
much  broader. 

Salivary  glands  are  absent.  Numerous 
enlargements  of  the  arteries  and  veins  allow 
of  the  animal  remaining  a  considerable  time 
under  water  without  the  necessity  for  purify- 
ing the  blood  by  breathing.  The  teats  lie  in 
deep  folds  of  the  skin  on  both  sides  of  the 
anus.  The  placenta  is  diffuse,  composed, 
as  in  the  pachyderms,  of  lobes  or  cotyledons 
distributed  over  the  whole  surface  of  the 
ovum. 

The  dentition  presents  very  remarkable 
differences.  The  teeth  are  never  specialized, 
always  simple,  and  have  only  a  single  root. 


GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 


In  the  embryonic  condition  all  the  whales 
have  very  numerous  rudiments  of  teeth,  simi- 
lar in  form  and  structure  to  those  of  reptiles, 
inclosed  in  a  groove  extending  along  the 
whole  length  of  the  margin  of  the  jaw,  but 
completely  covered  by  the  gum.  But  the 
further  development  of  these  teeth  is  very 
different  in  different  cases.  In  some  forms, 
the  true  dolphins,  they  all  cut  the  gum  and 
persist  throughout  life  in  very  considerable 
number.  There  are  dolphins  with  more  than 
a  hundred  teeth  in  all.  Others,  such  as  the 
killer-whales  (Orca  gladiator),  have  a  com- 
paratively small  number,  44  in  all,  and  in  the 
beluga  or  white  whale  the  teeth  in  the  upper 
jaw  disappear  with  age.  In  others,  as  in  the 
sperm-whales,  the  teeth  cut  the  gum  only  in 
the  lower  jaw,  while  the  upper  jaw  remains 
without  teeth.  In  the  bottle-nosed  whales 
(Hyperoodon)  only  one  tooth  is  developed  in 
each  half  of  the  lower  jaw.  In  the  narwhal 
a  single  straight  spirally-twisted  canine  attains 
an  extraordinary  length,  especially  in  males, 
usually  on  the  left  side  of  the  upper  jaw. 
Lastly,  in  the  true  or  whalebone  whales  the 
embryonic  rudiments  of  teeth  persist  only  for 
a  short  time,  but  soon  afterwards  disappear 
in  order  to  permit  of  the  development  in  the 
palate  of  peculiar  horny  plates,  known  as 
whalebone,  of  which  we  shall  speak  when 
treating  of  that  family. 

We  thus  find  among  the  whales  both  a  re- 
duction in  the  number  of  the  originally  very 
numerous  but  uniform  teeth,  and  a  disappear- 
ance of  the  hind-limbs  in  consequence  of 
special  adaptations.  Manifestly  all  whales 
had  originally  a  considerable  number  of  teeth; 
manifestly  they  had  all  originally  four  limbs, 
the  hinder  pair  of  which,  however,  has  got 
reduced  to  insignificant  traces. 

The  whales  are  not  exclusively  marine 
forms.  Some  genera  and  species  inhabit  the 
large  rivers  of  South  America  and  India. 
But  they  are  all  so  dependent  on  an  aquatic 
life  that  they  pretty  soon  die  if  cast  on  the 
shore.  They  are  remarkably  social,  always 


found  in  numerous  shoals  or  "schools,"  and 
if  several  of  the  larger  species  are  nowadays 
to  be  met  with  only  singly  or  in  pairs,  this 
fact  is  traceable  to  the  persecutions  to  which 
these  animals  have  been  exposed.  Except 
in  those  cases  the  whales  swim  behind  one 
another  in  long  rows,  and  since  they  always 
come  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  and  make  a 
great  noise  in  doing  so,  these  shoals  can  be 
perceived  both  by  the  eye  and  ear  at  great 
distances.  Ungraceful  and  clumsy  as  these 
animals  appear  when  withdrawn  from  the 
water,  they  are  yet  remarkably  entertaining 
by  the  agility  and  flexibility  of  their  move- 
ments in  their, own  element.  Incomparable 
is  the  swiftness  with  which  they  dart  like 
arrows  through  the  water  without  any  great 
exertion.  No  fish  can  be  compared  with  them 
in  respect  of  the  ease  with  which  they  assume 
all  possible  positions,  turn  head  over  tail,  and 
scorn  all  obstacles  to  their  progress.  One 
must  have  seen  a  shoal  of  large  dolphins  with 
black  backs  and  white  bellies,  as  they  are 
often  seen  in  the  northern  seas,  playing  round 
the  ship  in  heavy  storms,  diving  under  the 
keel,  showing  sometimes  the  upper,  sometimes 
the  under  side,  to  form  any  idea  of  the  enor- 
mous muscular  strength  which  these  animals 
have  at  their  command. 

They  migrate  through  wide  expanses  of  the 
ocean,  and  during  these  rapid  journeys  the 
movements  of  the  animals  as  they  follow  one 
another  are  quite  rhythmical.  The  top  of  the 
head  emerges  for  an  instant  above  the  water, 
and  at  that  moment  the  animal  exhales  and 
inhales  with  a  great  noise.  In  the  large 
species  the  act  of  expiration  produces  a  column 
of  vapour  visible  at  a  great  distance,  which 
thus  betrays  to  the  fishers  the  presence  of  the 
whales.  I  have  seen  large  rorquals  swimming 
round  our  ship  at  the  distance  of  a  rifle-shot, 
and  have  been  able  to  satisfy  myself  that  the 
blow-holes  rise  entirely  out  of  the  water  in 
breathing,  and  that  the  appearance  of  a  jet 
shot  up  by  a  fountain  begins  only  at  some 
little  distance  above  the  head.  This  appear- 


WHALES   AND    DOLPHINS. 


ance  is  accordingly  produced  only  by  the  con- 
densation in  the  colder  air  of  the  vapour  ex- 
pelled from  the  lungs  through  the  blow-holes. 
A  large  whale,  which  I  saw  pass  my  window 
at  Nice  daily  for  three  weeks,  only  shot  up 
an  insignificant  jet,  which  often  was  not  visible 
at  all.  The  air  was  warmer.  Only  when 
the  animals  are  pursued,  and  begin  to  breathe 
while  the  blow-hole  is  still  beneath  the  surface, 
is  there  any  water  carried  up  into  the  air 
along  with  the  vapour. 

This  process  of  breathing  lasts  only  a  few 
seconds.  The  head  is  then  again  submerged, 
the  back  and  dorsal  fin  appear  for  an  instant 
describing  a  curve  above  the  surface,  and  at 
last  the  tail  fin  momentarily  appears,  but  is 
again  immediately  submerged  while  the  head 
is  raised  anew.  A  shoal  of  dolphins  swim- 
ming close  behind  one  another  in  a  row  pro- 
duces, in  a  wonderfully  deceptive  manner,  the 
appearance  of  a  large  serpent  swimming  on 
the  surface  of  the  water  by  means  of  vertical 
undulations. 

All  whales  are  exclusively  carnivorous  and 
very  voracious.  Some  feed  on  fish,  others 
on  calamaries  and  cuttle-fishes,  others  again 
on  crustaceans  and  molluscs.  The  kind  of 
food  is  not  always  in  proportion  to  the  size 
of  the  ravager;  numbers  must  make  up  for 
deficiency  in  size.  The  Greenland  or  right 
whale  swallows  pteropods,  a  small  kind  of 
naked  mollusc,  in  tons,  and  the  rorqual  pur- 
sues shoals  of  herrings  into  bays  or  the  shores, 
and  commits  frightful  ravages  amongst  them. 
The  small  species  are  much  dreaded  by  fisher- 
men on  account  of  the  injury  they  do  to  their 
nets,  the  large  ones  are  energetically  pursued 
for  the  oil  which  they  yield. 

It  appears  that  the  whales  propagate  their 
kind  at  all  seasons,  for  embryos  have  been 
found  in  the  mothers  at  different  seasons  in 
the  same  stage  of  development.  But  nothing 
is  known  either  about  the  congress  of  the 
sexes  or  the  birth  of  the  young.  After  birth 
the  young  follow  the  mother  about  for  a  little, 
and  on  the  appearance  of  danger  are  taken 


by  the  latter,  who  is  ready  to  sacrifice  her  life 
for  her  offspring,  under  her  fin,  as  shown  in 
Plate  XVI. 

We  divide  the  order  of  the  Cetacea  into 
two  groups,  the  Toothed  Whales  (Denticete), 
which  have  teeth  in  the  adult  forms,  and 
Whale-bone  Whales  (Mysticete),  in  which 
the  teeth  are  replaced  by  whalebone. 

THE   TOOTHED   WHALES 

(DENTICETE). 

The  Dolphins  (Ddphinida). 

> 
The  toothed  whales  comprise  first  of  all  the 

True  Dolphins  (Delphinida),  which  have  a 
larger  or  smaller  number  of  uniform  teeth  in 
both  jaws  and  feed  exclusively  on  fishes. 

The  Fresh-water  Dolphin,  the  Susuk  of 
the  Hindus  (Platanista  gangctica],  fig.  131, 
belongs  to  this  stock.  It  is  found  in  the 
Ganges  and  its  tributaries,  and  also  in  the 
Indus,  ascends  pretty  far  up  into  the  land, 
although  it  is  always  most  abundant  near 
the  mouth.  It  is  distinguished  from  other 
dolphins  by  its  long  thin  beak  slightly  curved 
upwards,  which  has  along  the  middle  line  a 
longitudinal  ridge  separating  the  narrow  slits 
which  form  the  blow-holes.  It  has  about  32 
slightly  recurved  conical  teeth,  which  become 
longer  near  the  point  of  the  beak.  The 
dorsal  fin  is  in  the  form  of  a  low  triangular 
lobe.  The  tail  fin  is  deeply  two-lobed.  The 
animal  attains  a  length  of  only  6^  feet. 
The  back  is  almost  black.  It  is  said  to  make 
use  of  its  beak  to  dig  among  the  cane-thickets 
on  the  river-banks.  Its  fat  is  used  as  a 
salve. 

The  large  rivers  of  South  America, 
especially  the  Amazon  and  the  Orinoco, 
appear  to  be  inhabited  by  several  species 
of  long-beaked  dolphins,  among  which  the 
species  called  by  the  natives  the  Inia,  Bonto, 
or  Amazon  Dolphin  (Ima  amazonica  (geof- 
frensis)},  fig.  132,  is  the  best  known.  The 
beak  is  straight  and  narrow,  and,  unlike  what 
we  find  in  other  whales,  is  set  with  short  stiff 


THE    DOLPHINS. 


hairs.  The  body  is  thick,  the  dorsal  fin 
scarcely  indicated,  the  tail  fin  large,  but  only 
slightly  hollowed  out  behind,  the  fore-limbs 


5 

very  long,  and  very  narrow  at  the  end.  The 
blow-hole  is  simple,  and  has  the  form  of  a 
horse -shoe  with  the  convexity  directed 


uiter  Dolphin  \Platanistagangt 


towards  the  forehead.  There  are  as  many 
as  70  short  wrinkled  teeth  thickened  at  the 
base.  These  dolphins,  which  are  very 
abundant  in  many  localities,  lead  a  very  noisy 


life,  and  here  and  there  are  protected  by  a 
number  of  prejudices  and  superstitious  tales 
against  persecution  by  the  Indians.  They 
attain,  like  the  Platanista,  a  length  of  only 


Fig.  132. — The  Inia  or  Amazon  Dolphin  (lain  amazoiiica 


feet.     The  back  is  bluish,  the  belly  of  a 
rose-colour. 

The  true  Marine  Dolphins  {Delphinus} 
approach  this  fresh-water  genus  in  the  horse- 
shoe-shape of  the  blow-hole,  and  in  the 


possession  of  a  long  beak  with  numerous 
teeth.  The  Common  Dolphin  (Delphinus 
dclphis),  fig.  133,  which  is  found  in  the 
ocean,  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Red 
Sea,  is  the  best-known  representative  of  the 


WHALES   AND    DOLPHINS. 


genus.  It  attains  the  length  of  about  8  feet 
or  more,  and  has  an  arched  brow  separated 
by  a  prominent  swelling  from  the  long  flat 
beak.  The  body  is  thickset,  spindle-shaped, 
the  dorsal  fin  sickle-shaped  and  pretty  high, 
the  tail  fin  scarcely  lobed,  the  fore-limbs  short 
and  pointed.  The  very  tough  skin  has  an 
olive-brown  shimmer  on  the  back,  and  is 
white  below.  There  are  at  least  100,  some- 


times   200,    small,    conical,    and    very    sharp 
teeth. 

This  dolphin  is  the  animal  celebrated  by 
fabulists  and  depicted  by  artists,  the  friend 
of  man,  who  carries  the  singer  Arion  to  the 
shore,  renders  aid  to  the  shipwrecked,  draws 
the  chariot  of  Galatea,  and  carries  the 
Tritons  and  nymphs  of  the  court  of  Amphi- 
trite.  Unfortunately  all  these  virtues  have 


Fig.  133. — The  Common  Dolphin  (Dclphinas  delphis).     page  5. 


disappeared  under  the  critical  eye  of  modern 
observers,  who  no  doubt  recognize  in  the 
dolphin  an  agreeable  travelling-companion, 
who  shortens  the  idle  hours  of  a  long  sea- 
voyage  by  his  graceful  sporting  round  the 
ship,  but  who,  at  the  same  time,  is  a  terribly 
voracious  ravager,  who  pursues  with  fury 
the  fastest  swimmers  among  fishes,  herrings, 
mackerel,  water-snakes  (Pelamides),  and 
flying-fish,  darting  about  after  them  with  the 
most  rapid  and  abrupt  changes  in  his  course, 
and  hastening  up  to  a  mortally  wounded 
comrade,  not  to  render  him  succour,  as  the 
ancients  said,  but  to  devour  him. 

With  this  species  is  often  confounded 
another  much  larger  one,  which  attains  a 
length  of  from  12  to  16  feet.  This  is  the 
Bottle-nosed  Dolphin  (Delphinus  tursio],  fig. 


134,  which  has  a  shorter  and  more  rounded 
snout,  and  longer  and  narrower  fore-limbs, 
and  which  is  of  a  bluish-black  colour  above, 
white  underneath.  The  less  numerous  teeth 
are  stronger,  and  get  worn  away  horizontally ; 
a  proof  that  these  dolphins,  which  advance 
almost  exclusively  by  constantly  turning 
somersaults,  add  numerous  crustaceans  to 
their  mostly  fish  diet. 

Other  dolphins  are  characterized  by  their 
rounded  muzzle,  which  is  not  drawn  out  into 
a  snout,  and  is  not  longer  than  the  cranial 
region  of  the  skull.  They  are  distinguished 
from  the  former  by  having  fewer  teeth,  and 
these  thick  and  conical,  and  by  having  the 
fore-limbs  situated  pretty  high  on  the  sides, 
while  in  the  former  species  they  are  very 
low. 


THE   DOLPHINS. 


The  best -known  representative  of  this 
genus  is  the  Porpoise  {Phocccnct  communis), 
%•  '35'  verv  abundant  in  the  northern  seas, 


in  the  ocean  generally,  in  the  Black  Sea  and 
the  Sea  of  Azof,  not  so  common,  however, 
in  the  Mediterranean  proper.  The  teeth, 


Fig.  134.  -  The  Bottle-nosed  Dolphin  (Dtlphinus  tursio}. 


which  are  flattened  at  the  sides,  sharp,  and 
somewhat  expanded  at  the  end,  may  be  as 


many  as    100   in    number,    25    in  each    half 
of  each  jaw.     It  attains  a  length  of  6  feet, 


Fig.  135. — The  Porpoise  {Phocana  communis). 


is  black  with  a  violet-blue  shimmer  on  the 
back,  white  on  the  belly;  the  fins  are  black. 
Its  food  consists  of  fish,  which  it  pursues 
pretty  far  up  rivers,  and  it  is  often  caught 


in  nets  in  which  it  has  got  entangled  in  the 
eagerness  of  its  chase.  On  certain  coasts 
a  considerable  number  of  these  are  caught 
for  the  sake  of  the  oil.  Its  flesh  was  for- 


WHALES   AND    DOLPHINS. 


merly  highly  esteemed  in  France,  and  was 
a  food  allowed  by  the  church  in  periods  of 
fasting.  Belon  relates  that  he  saw  porpoises 
sold  in  Paris  on  Friday.  Porpoise  flesh 
has  a  very  decided  taste  of  train-oil,  and  at 
the  present  day  its  use  as  an  article  of  food 
is  confined  to  the  high  north. 

The  number  of  the  teeth  is  much  smaller 


in  the  terrible  Killer-whale  (Orca  gladiator], 
fig.  136,  the  hysena  of  the  northern  seas. 
This  formidable  dolphin  may  attain  the  length 
of  26  feet.  It  has  a  round  head,  a  short 
flattened  and  rounded  muzzle,  and  broad 
fore-limbs  rounded  at  the  end.  The  dorsal 
fin  is  very  high  and  pointed,  in  the  form  of 
a  bent  sabre;  the  tail  fin  large,  halfmoon- 


Fig.  136. — The  Killer-whale  (Orca  gladiator). 


shaped;  the  body  slender,  black  above,  white 
below,  often  marked  with  white  patches  above 
the  eyes  and  behind  the  dorsal  fin.  The  jaws 
have  only  1 1  very  strong  conical  and  slightly 
recurved  teeth  in  each  half,  44  accordingly  in 
all,  and  these  are  all  situated  in  front 

The  killer- whales  swim  in  a  line,  one 
behind  the  other,  with  a  speed  that  really 
makes  one  dizzy  to  look  at  them.  I  have 
often  seen  them  on  the  coasts  of  Norway; 
they  came  only  in  heavy  storms  to  sport 
round  our  ship.  They  are  the  absolute 
tyrants  of  the  seas,  and  work  fearful  slaughter 
among  the  seals  and  among  other  cetaceans. 
Eschricht,  a  Danish  anatomist,  who  has 
occupied  himself  with  the  Cetacea  in  a  very 
thorough  manner,  found  a  seal  sticking  in  the 
throat  of  a  killer- whale  of  about  16  feet  in 
length,  which  had  owed  its  death  to  its 
voracity,  since  it  was  prevented  from  swallow- 


ing this  seal  by  having  thirteen  porpoises  and 
fourteen  seals  already  engulfed  in  its  stomach! 
The  shoals  of  killer-whales  attack  the  largest 
cetaceans,  and  vanquish  them.  They  are  said 
to  be  peculiarly  fond  of  the  fat  fleshy  tongues 
of  the  whalebone  whales.  Whale-fishers  de- 
test them  because  the  whales  soon  leave  the 
parts  where  the  killer -whales  show  them- 
selves, and  the  whalers  cannot  harpoon  the 
latter  because  of  their  rapidity.  They  are 
frequently  killed  with  explosive  bullets  fired 
from  weapons  of  wide  range.  Frequently  in 
the  eagerness  of  their  pursuit  they  are  carried 
too  far  in  their  chase  after  fishes  and  seals, 
and  thus  find  their  way  into  rivers  or  get 
stranded  on  the  shores. 

The  Pilot-whale,  the  Caaing  Whale  of  the 
Scotch  (Globiccphalns  me/as], fig.  137,  although 
a  near  ally  of  the  killer-whale,  is  nevertheless 
widely  distinguished  from  it  by  its  pacific 


THE    DOLPHINS. 


9 


character,  and  by  the  quiet  submissiveness 
with  which  it  often  gives  itself  up  to  man. 
An  accumulation  of  fat  fills  the  whole  space 
between  the  end  of  the  upper  jaw  and  the 
back  of  the  head,  so  that  the  head  appears 
almost  round  but  blunted  in  front.  The  body, 
19  to  22  feet  in  length,  is  spindle-shaped, 
very  thick  in  the  region  of  the  pectoral  fins, 
thin  towards  the  tail,  and  flattened  on  the 
sides,  the  back  thus  forming  a  sort  of  blunt 


keel.  The  fore-limbs  are  long  and  pointed, 
and  attain  the  length  of  nearly  5  feet.  The 
dorsal  fin  is  short  but  pointed,  the  tail  fin 
deeply  lobed.  The  body  is  quite  black,  with 
the  exception  of  a  white  stripe  along  the 
belly.  There  is  the  same  number  of  teeth 
as  in  the  killer- whale,  and  they  all  lie  ob- 
liquely in  the  gums  so  that  the  small  conical 
crown  alone  projects.  The  teeth  are  very 
apt  to  disappear. 


Fig.  137. — The  Pilot-whale  or  Grind  (GloUfcpAalus  melas). 


The  pilot- whale  or  grind,  as  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Faroe  Islands  call  it,  always  lives  in 
numerous  shoals,  frequently  numbering  several 
hundreds  of  individuals,  and  it  feeds  chiefly 
on  squids,  calamaries,  and  cuttle-fishes,  but 
also  on  small  fish  like  the  herring.  It  swims 
slowly,  showing  the  whole  length  of  its  back 
above  the  water,  and  it  is  seldom  seen  in- 
dulging in  the  violent  exercises  in  which  the 
dolphins  and  killer- whales  take  so  much 
delight.  The  shoal  follows  almost  blindly 
the  movements  of  an  old  male  who  acts  as 
leader.  When  any  of  their  number  are 
wounded  the  others  collect  round  them,  and 
do  not  leave  them  even  though  their  own  life 
is  threatened.  The  fishermen  endeavour  to 
drive  the  leader  ashore,  and  if  they  succeed 
in  this  they  regard  the  whole  shoal  as  captured. 

It  appears  to  be  the  lot  of  the  pilot- whales 


Vol.  II. 


to  be  stranded  on  the  shores.  On  the 
Orkney,  Shetland,  and  Faroe  Islands  this  is 
a  common  spectacle,  and  the  inhabitants  of 
the  last- mentioned  islands  would  be  un- 
fortunate if  there  were  not  at  least  one  shoal 
of  pilot-whales  stranded  during  the  year. 
Old  laws  regulate  the  capture  of  this  animal. 
On  a  signal  being  given  from  a  fishing-boat 
that  the  pilot-whales  are  approaching,  boats 
are  sent  out  to  surround  them  and  drive  them 
towards  a  bay  so  as  to  strand  them,  and  the 
crews  begin  the  slaughter  as  soon  as  they  are 
certain  that  the  animals  cannot  escape.  From 
two  to  three  hundred  are  often  killed  at  once. 
It  is  calculated  that  each  animal  yields  a  tun 
of  train-oil.  The  flesh  is  eaten  both  fresh 
and  salted  and  cured  like  bacon.  The  fresh 
meat  is  compared  to  coarse  beef.  The  pilot- 
whale  fishery  is  an  important  resource  for  the 

34 


IO 


WHALES    AND    DOLPHINS. 


inhabitants  of  the  Faroe  Islands.  On  the 
7th  of  January,  1812,  a  shoal  of  these  animals 
was  stranded  at  Paimpol  in  Brittany,  after 
the  fishermen  had  driven  the  leader  ashore, 
where  he  bellowed  like  a  bull.  The  shoal 
consisted  of  7  males,  5 1  females,  and  1 2  suck- 
lings. One  of  these  animals  lived  five  days 
in  a  bay,  which  he  could  not  leave  on  account 
of  the  shallowness  of  the  water  at  the  mouth. 


The  Beluga  or  White  Whale  (Beluga 
Icncas],  fig.  138,  is  very  like  the  previous 
species  as  regards  the  form  of  the  head  and 
body,  but  the  flippers  are  much  shorter  and 
the  dorsal  fin  is  altogether  wanting.  With 
reference  to  this  character  the  name  Delphin- 
apterus  ("finless  dolphin")  has  been  chosen 
by  some  as  the  name  of  the  genus.  The 
dentition  is  likewise  similar  to  that  of  the 


Fig.  138. — The  Beluga  or  White  Whale  (Beluga  leuctis). 


pilot- whale,  only  the  teeth  are  not  so  numerous, 
and  they  are  very  apt  to  be  lost  with  the 
advance  of  age,  especially  in  the  upper  jaw. 
The  whole  body  is  of  a  brilliant  whitish- 
yellow  colour. 

This  beautiful  dolphin,  which  may  attain  a 
length  of  20  feet,  and  always  lives  in  shoals, 
is  the  ornament  of  the  western  parts  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean  from  Behring's  Strait  to  Green- 
land. It  seldom  comes  south,  and  yet  in  the 
year  1813  one  was  observed  making  itself 
quite  at  home  in  the  Firth  of  Forth  near 
Edinburgh,  traversing  the  estuary  at  every 
tide,  till  at  last  it  was  killed  by  a  bullet. 
Like  the  pilot-whale  the  beluga  feeds  on 
cephalopods  and  small  fishes.  Europeans  do 


not  attack  it,  and  even  hail  its  approach  to 
the  ships  with  joy,  in  the  conviction  that 
whales  are  to  be  found  near.  The  Eskimo 
and  Aleutians,  on  the  other  hand,  esteem  the 
flesh  of  the  beluga  very  highly,  both  when 
fresh  and  when  cured,  and  they  therefore  try 
to  catch  the  animal  in  nets.  According  to 
them  the  beluga  is  accompanied  by  shoals  of 
herring,  cod,  and  flat-fish,  which  serve  it  as 
food. 

The  Narwhal  (Monodon  monoccros),  fig. 
139,  resembles  the  beluga  in  the  form  of  its 
head  and  body,  as  well  as  in  the  absence  of 
the  dorsal  fin.  The  flipper  is  short  and 
pointed,  the  tail  pretty  long,  the  tail  fin  very 
large  and  deeply  lobed.  The  body  is  yellowish- 


THE    DOLPHINS. 


ii 


white,  mottled  with  numerous  brown  spots. 
The  animal  attains  at  most  a  length  of  20 
feet,  frequents  the  same  parts  of  the  Arctic 
Seas  as  form  the  home  of  the  beluga,  and 
feeds  on  cephalopods,  holothurians,  and  fishes. 
The  mouth  is  very  small. 

What  distinguishes   the   narwhal   from  all 
other  cetaceans  is  its  peculiar  dentition.      It 


has  no  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw,  and  in  the 
upper  jaw  only  two  straight  canines  are 
formed  in  deep  sockets  of  the  maxillae.  In 
the  female  these  teeth  remain  through  life 
in  the  sockets,  so  that  it  seems  to  be  tooth- 
less, but  in  the  male  one  of  these  canines 
grows  straight  out  to  an  extraordinary  length. 
There  have  indeed  been  found  rare  examples 


Fig.  139. — The  Narwhal  (Monodon  monoceros). 


of  narwhals  with  two  tusks,  but  in  this  case 
they  were  always  unequally  developed,  and 
usually  it  is  the  left  canine  which  grows  out 
in  this  manner,  while  the  right  remains 
embedded  in  its  socket.  In  consequence  of 
this  peculiar  dentition  the  want  of  symmetry 
which  characterizes  the  skull  of  cetaceans 
generally  reaches  its  acme  in  the  narwhal. 
In  the  embryos  two  small  incisors  and  an 
upper  molar  are  also  to  be  seen,  but  these 
are  soon  lost. 

The  socket  of  the  canine  which  forms 
the  tusk  is  so  wide  that  the  premaxilla  (the 
bone  which  holds  the  upper  incisors  when 
present)  comes  to  form  part  of  its  wall.  The 
tusk  is  straight,  and  composed  so  to  speak 


of  spirally  twisted  strands,  and  may  attain 
a  length  of  10  feet.  On  these  tusks,  for 
which  high  prices  were  formerly  paid,  has 
been  founded  the  fable  of  the  unicorn,  which 
still  figures  in  the  English  national  coat  of 
arms. 

Manifestly  the  tusk  of  the  narwhal  is  a  for- 
midable weapon,  but  it  is  apparently  used  only 
in  battles  between  males,  and  not  as  a  means 
of  defence  against  enemies  or  for  other  pur- 
poses. Broken  or  injured  teeth  are  often  met 
with,  but  the  narwhal  has  never  been  seen  to 
use  its  tusk  against  the  killer-whale,  which 
commits  fearful  ravages  among  them.  All 
observers  are  agreed  in  depicting  the  nar- 
whals as  peaceable  creatures  and  excellent 


12 


WHALES   AND    DOLPHINS. 


swimmers,  which  migrate  in  numerous  shoals 
when  driven  on  by  the  ice-masses,  by  which 
they  often  get  forced  into  bays  and  there 
hemmed  in  and  suffocated.  The  Europeans 
do  not  often  pursue  them,  but  the  Eskimo 
are  very  eager  in  the  chase  of  this  animal, 
prizing  its  flesh  very  highly. 


The   Sperm-whale   Family  (Physeterida). 

This  family  consists  of  those  forms  which  have  fully  developed 
teeth  only  in  the  lower  jaw. 

As  representative  of  a  group  of  pretty 
numerous  but  little -known  cetaceans  with 
only  two  permanent  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw, 


Fig.  140.— The  Bottlehead  or  Common  Beaked  Whale  (Hypcroodmi  rostratus). 


we  have  selected  the  Bottlehead  or  Common 
Beaked  Whale  (Hyperoodon  rostratus),  fig. 
140.  This  whale,  which  attains  the  length 
of  about  26  feet,  usually  inhabits  the  Arctic 
Seas  round  Greenland,  but  some  individuals 
have  been  stranded  on  our  coasts.  The  first 
good  description  of  this  species  was  given  by 
John  Hunter,  to  whom  it  owes  its  English 
name,  and  whose  description  was  based  on 
a  specimen  caught  in  the  Thames.  In  winter 
this  whale  migrates  pretty  regularly  as  far 
as  the  waters  of  Iceland  and  the  Faroe 
Islands. 

The  back  part  of  the  head  is  swollen,  and 
this  swelling  is  still  further  increased  by  a 
remarkable  accumulation  of  fat  in  front  of  the 
nostrils  between  two  vertical  plates  which 


stand  up  like  walls  on  the  outer  edges  of  the 
jaw-bones  (maxillae).  The  flattened  snout  is 
continued  in  front  of  this  swelling.  The  Ice- 
landers compare  its  head  to  that  of  a  duck. 
The  opening  of  the  mouth  is  small.  In  adult 
animals  there  are  only  two  large  conical  teeth 
in  each  half  of  the  lower  jaw  near  the  front. 
But  in  young  animals,  in  each  half  of  the  jaw 
both  above  and  below,  a  dozen  small  teeth 
begin  to  be  formed,  but  they  never  cut  the 
gum  and  are  soon  re-absorbed.  The  flippers 
are  very  small,  the  dorsal  fin  pointed  and 
also  small,  the  tail  fin  not  divided  into  lobes. 
The  colour  is  gray,  inclining  to  black,  darker 
on  the  back  than  on  the  under  side.  The 
animals  feed  on  cephalopods.  In  the  northern 
waters  they  are  very  eagerly  hunted  for  their 


THE    SI'KK.M-U'IIALK    FAMILY. 


fat,  which  is  of  excellent  quality,  and  is  largely 
used  for  mixing  with  spermaceti. 

The  Sperm-whale  or  Cachalot  (Pkyseter 
macrocephalus),  fig.  141,  owes  its  Latin  specific 
name  (derived  from  two  (ireek  words  meaning 


long-headed)  to  the  monstrous  size  of  its 
head,  which  makes  up  about  a  third  of  the 
whole  length  of  the  body,  in  old  males  ac- 
cordingly upwards  of  30  feet  in  length.  Along 
with  the  right  whales  and  rorquals  the  sperm- 


ale  (Phvscter  macroccfhalus}. 


whales  are  the  most  gigantic  members  of  the 
fauna  of  the  present  world.  The  weight  of 
an  adult  animal  is  estimated  at  about  200 
tons.  In  a  male  of  only  66  feet  in  length 
the  short,  broad,  thick  flipper  was  found  to 
measure  only  5  feet  3  inches,  while  the  two- 
lobed  tail  fin  had  a  breadth  of  nearly  20  feet. 
The  form  of  this  inhabitant  of  the  deep  in 
temperate  and  warm  seas  is  in  the  highest 
degree  remarkable.  The  enormous  quad- 
rangular head,  so  abrupt  in  front,  carries  on 
the  upper  edge  of  the  anterior  surface  the 
S-shaped  blow-holes,  the  canal  from  which 
leads  obliquely  backwards  to  the  bony  nasal 
cavities,  which,  as  usual,  are  situated  on  the 
crown  of  the  skull.  The  opening  of  the 
mouth  is  very  long,  but  narrow  like  a  furrow, 


and  the  two  halves  of  the  beak-like  lower 
jaw  are  united  in  front  for  half  their  length. 
The  eye  is  situated  behind  the  angle  of  the 
mouth,  and  immediately  behind  it  again  comes 
the  flipper.  The  top  of  the  back  is  con- 
tinued almost  in  a  straight  line  from  the 
upper  part  of  the  head.  A  long  thick  fold 
of  the  skin  of  little  height  forms  a  rudimen- 
tary dorsal  fin.  The  belly  is  enormous,  the 
body  becomes  very  much  thinner  towards  the 
large  tail. 

If  we  examine  the  skeleton  we  have  at  first 
some  trouble  in  bringing  it  into  correspond- 
ence with  the  form  of  the  living  animal.  The 
skull  in  fact  rises  up  behind  like  a  wall  some- 
what as  in  other  cetaceans,  and  more  especially 
in  the  bottle-nosed  whale.  The  jaws  are 


THE   WHALEBONE   WHALES. 


flattened,  and  the  crest  on  the  back  part  of 
the  head  is  continued  forwards  on  the  edges 
of  the  upper  jaw  so  as  to  form  a  wide  basin. 
There  is  no  resemblance  at  all  between  this 
skull  and  the  head  of  the  living  animal.  The 
enormous  cylinder  which  forms  the  latter  is 
in  fact  composed  of  sinewy  tissues  forming 
large  cells  filled  with  a  fat,  which  at  the  tem- 
perature of  the  animal  is  fluid,  but  which  in 
the  solid  form  is  known  as  spermaceti  or  cetin. 
It  is  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  this  fat  that  the 
sperm-whale  is  pursued.  A  large  male  may 
yield  as  much  as  twelve  tons  of  spermaceti, 
for  the  valuable  substance  is  contained  not 
only  in  the  cells  in  the  head,  but  in  a  long 
cellular  tube  which  runs  along  the  back.  The 
dentition  is  peculiar.  The  upper  jaw  has 
only  rudiments  of  teeth  during  embryonic 
life,  but  the  lower  jaw  is  armed  with  large, 
strong,  conical  teeth,  which  are  at  first  sharp- 
pointed  but  afterwards  get  blunted,  and  which 
are  received  into  corresponding  pits  in  the 
upper  jaw  when  the  creature  shuts  its  mouth. 
The  sperm-whales,  of  which  there  are  pro- 
bably two  species,  one  living  in  the  southern 
seas  the  other  in  those  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, appear  to  feed  exclusively  on  cuttle- 
fishes. Now  that  we  know  that  enormous 
cuttle-fishes,  gigantic  specimens  of  which  are 
occasionally,  though  rarely,  cast  on  our  shores, 
are  found  in  almost  all  seas,  this  kind  of  food 
does  not  appear  so  incompatible  with  the  size 
of  the  creature  as  it  once  did.  Though  it  is 
chiefly  for  the  spermaceti,  as  has  already  been 
stated,  that  the  sperm-whale  is  pursued,  that 
is  not  the  sole  product  of  commercial  value 
that  it  yields.  Besides  the  blubber,  which  is 
not  very  abundant  and  yields  only  a  mediocre 
oil,  this  whale  supplies  us  also  with  the  am- 
bergris which  is  so  highly  esteemed  in  the 
East  as  an  article  to  burn  as  incense  and  for 
use  in  perfumery,  and  which  is  not  only 
obtained  directly  from  the  animal  itself,  but  is 
likewise  found  floating  on  the  waves  in  clumps 
about  the  size  of  one's  fist.  It  is  probable 
that  these  fatty  masses  are  formed  either  in  the 


bladder  or  the  genital  glands  of  the  male. 
The  teeth  are  also  used  for  the  same  purposes 
as  ivory. 

The  chase  of  the  sperm-whale  is  difficult 
and  dangerous:  difficult,  because  the  animal 
avoids  man  more  carefully  than  any  other 
cetacean,  and  remains,  on  diving,  much  longer 
under  the  water;  dangerous,  because,  when 
wounded,  the  creature  defends  itself  with 
courage,  attacks  the  boats  and  even  the  ships, 
endeavouring  to  capsize  them  or  to  pierce 
their  sides.  Numerous  cases  have  been 
known  in  which  ships  have  had  their  sides 
shattered  by  sperm-whales  which  dashed 
against  them  with  the  utmost  rapidity,  giving 
a  shock  with  their  heads  like  that  inflicted  by 
the  ram  of  an  ironclad. 

THE   WHALEBONE   WHALES 

(MYSTICETE). 

The  members  of  this  group  are  much  less 
numerous  than  the  toothed  whales.  The 
head,  which  is  always  massive,  relatively  very 
large  and  broad,  has  a  weak  lower  jaw  of 
elliptical  outline,  a  mouth  with  an  enormous 
cavity,  from  the  roof  of  which  hang  down  the 
horny  plates  which  yield  the  whalebone,  while 
the  lower  part  of  the  cavity  is  filled  with  an 
enormous  tongue  composed  almost  entirely 
of  fat.  The  halves  of  the  lower  jaw  are 
separate,  connected  only  by  a  rather  loose 
ligament.  In  those  countries  in  which  the 
whale-fishery  is  carried  on  these  bones  of  the 
lower  jaw  are  used  as  gate-posts  at  field-gates. 
In  the  rest  of  their  organization  the  whale- 
bone whales  do  not  differ  very  much  from  the 
toothed-whales.  They  all  have  double  blow- 
holes, the  halves  of  which  are  separated  by  a 
narrow  partition. 

We  have  already  said  that  in  the  embryo 
numerous  teeth  which  never  cut  the  gum  are 
concealed  in  a  continuous  groove  running 
round  the  jaw.  These  little  teeth,  similar  in 
form  to  those  of  the  sperm-whale,  become 
absorbed  as  the  animal  grows. 


THE   SPERM-WHALE   FAMILY. 


The  roof  of  the  mouth,  even  in  the  embry- 
onic condition,  is  marked  with  numerous 
transverse  folds,  such  as  are  found  also  in 
many  other  cetaceans,  and  in  general  in  most 
mammals.  Only  in  the  group  with  which  we 
are  now  dealing  these  folds  are  very  numer- 


ous and  covered  with  a  thick  horny  epithelium. 
During  the  growth  of  the  young  animal  this 
horny  epithelium  goes  on  developing.  It 
grows  down  on  both  sides  in  the  form  of  a 
fringe,  and  at  last  forms  triangular  transverse 
plates,  which  are  attached  to  the  roof  of  the 


Bal<cnoptera  boops).     page 


mouth  by  the  small  grooved  edge,  while  they 
present  to  the  exterior  a  firm,  slightly  curved 
edge,  and  on  the  interior  are  broken  up  into 
a  number  of  cylindrical  fibres,  the  ends  of 
which  form  the  third  side  of  the  triangle 
which  slopes  away  from  the  middle  line  of 
the  palate  towards  the  outer  edge  of  the 
mouth.  Into  the  above-mentioned  groove  on 
the  upper  edge  of  each  of  these  plates  there 
sinks  a  fold  of  the  mucous  membrane,  which 
is  richly  charged  with  blood-vessels  and 
secretes  the  horny  substance.  These  closely- 
packed  whalebone  plates,  the  number  of 
which  may  amount  to  200  on  each  side,  the 
middle  ones  with  a  length  of  about  15  feet, 
while  the  edge  attached  to  the  roof  of  the 


mouth  is  only  about  i  foot  in  length,  form 
by  their  union  an  arched  sieve,  in  the  cavity 
of  which  lies  the  tongue.  The  water  runs 
through  the  free  fibres  on  the  inner  edges  of 
the  whalebone,  while  all  the  small  molluscs, 
crabs,  and  fishes  are  retained. 

These  enormous  animals  feed,  in  fact, 
chiefly  on  small  swimming  creatures,  shell-less 
pteropods,  crustaceans,  &c.,  which  swarm  in 
the  northern  seas,  and  are  swallowed  by  them 
in  tons.  The  throat  of  the  whalebone  whales 
is  pretty  narrow;  but  its  narrowness  has 
sometimes  been  exaggerated,  since  fish  of  the 
size  of  a  herring  can  be  swallowed  quite  easily. 
It  is  known  that  the  herring-fishers 'are  very 
glad  to  see  the  rorquals  approach  their  coasts, 


THE    WHALEBONE    WHALES. 


because  they  know  that   these  whales  drive 
shoals  of  fishes  before  them. 

Two  chief  groups  are  distinguished:  the 
Fin -backed  Whales  (Bahenoptcrida],  with 
longitudinal  parallel  folds  extending  from 
the  throat  to  the  belly,  and  a  dorsal  fin ;  and 
the  Right  Whales  (Balffiiida),  which  have 
neither  folds  nor  dorsal  fin. 

Fin-backed  Whales  (Balcenoptcrida). 

As  representative  of  this  family  an  illus- 
tration is  given  of  the  Rorqual  (Balcenoptcra 
hoops,  Physalus  antiqiwrnm],  fig.  142,  which 
may  even  attain  the  length  of  1 1 5  feet,  and 
is  pretty  frequently  met  with  on  the  coasts 
of  England  and  Norway.  Its  true  home 
appears,  however,  to  be  further  north. 

It  is  the  longest,  most  slender,  and  most 
agile  of  all  whalebone  whales.  The  head 
is  relatively  short;  the  body  spindle-shaped; 
the  flippers  flat,  short,  and  curved;  the  dorsal 
fin  small,  sickle-shaped,  placed  very  far  back ; 
the  tail  broad  and  half-moon  shaped.  The 
rorqual  is  black  above,  white  below.  The 
ventral  folds  are  bluish-black  at  the  base. 
The  whalebone  plates  are  small,  and  of  little 
value.  The  animal  has  little  blubber,  and 
since  it  is  courageous  and  rapid  in  its  move- 
ments, and  when  in  danger  attacks  instead  of 
fleeing,  it  is  seldom  pursued. 

The  rorqual  feeds  chiefly  on  fishes.  It  is 
fond  of  remaining  for  a  considerable  time  at 
one  place  when  it  finds  that  the  place  suits  it. 
At  Nice  I  saw  one  of  this  species  swim  daily 
backwards  and  forwards  in  front  of  my 
windows  between  Antibes  and  Monaco  for 
weeks  together,  and  sometimes  it  came  so 
near  the  shore  as  to  alarm  the  promenaders 
on  the  beach.  It  had  a  group  of  dolphins 
playing  round  it,  and  appeared  like  a  sovereign 
surrounded  by  his  court.  It  was  afterwards 
stranded  at  St.  Tropez  (French  department 
of  Var).  In  the  course  of  our  voyage  along 
the  Norwegian  coast  we  were  accompanied 
for  several  days  in  the  Great  Altenfjord  by  a 
rorqual  of  about  the  length  of  a  two-master, 


which  approached  so  near  us  that  we  could 
fire  a  bullet  into  its  back,  which  appeared 
scarcely  to  tickle  it.  Without  any  apparent 
exertion  this  monstrous  animal  could  traverse 
the  waters  with  a  rapidity  which  rendered  it 
difficult  for  the  gulls  that  swarmed  around 
to  follow  it.  Agile  and  powerful  as  it  is, 
the  rorqual  loves  to  tumble  about  after  the 
manner  of  dolphins.  On  one  occasion  when 
in  the  latitude  of  the  Lofoden  Isles  we  re- 
peatedly heard  thundering  noises  at  a  distance 
as  if  proceeding  from  heavy  artillery.  When 
we  approached  we  saw  a  large  rorqual,  which 
jumped  out  of  the  water,  then  plunged  its 
head  underneath  the  waves,  turned  itself 
vertically  downwards,  made  two  or  three 
rapid  vibrations  with  its  enormous  tail,  which 
we  guessed  to  be  at  least  20  feet  in  breadth, 
and  then  brought  it  down  ,  !th  a  mighty 
stroke  on  the  surface,  producing  a  noise 
which  resounded  far  and  wide.  It  continued 
this  exercise  for  hours  together. 

The  Right  Whales  (Bahcnida). 

The  Greenland  or  Right  Whale  (Balana 
mysticetus),  of  which  there  is  a  full -page 
illustration  (Plate  XVI.)  showing  a  mother 
with  her  young  one,  forms  the  type  of  the 
whalebone  whales  without  a  dorsal  fin  and 
without  ventral  folds.  In  contrast  with  the 
rorqual  it  is  very  clumsy,  thickset,  and  un- 
gainly. It  may  attain  a  length  of  upwards 
of  80  feet  and  a  weight  of  nearly  150  tons. 
The  head  is  one-third  of  the  whole  length. 
The  body  is  short  and  round,  and  decreases 
in  thickness  towards  the  tail  very  rapidly. 
The  flippers  are  heavy  and  thick;  the  tail 
only  slightly  lobed.  The  right  whale  is  not 
very  agile,  and  not  much  given  to  sports,  yet 
it  swims  pretty  quickly.  It  repels  an  assail- 
ant with  little  vigour,  except  in  those  cases 
in  which  a  mother  tries  to  defend  her  suck- 
ling. 

This  species,  to  which  a  very  similar  but 
smaller  one  known  as  the  Cape  Whale  (B. 
aristralis)  corresponds  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean, 


To  face  page  270. 


PLATE  XVI.  -      THE    GREENLAND   OR    RIGHT    WHALE   (Balana  mystiettui). 


GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTRIBUTION    AND    DESCENT. 


has  been  driven  back  by  the  ceaseless  pursuit 
to  which  it  has  been  exposed  since  the  middle 
ages  to  the  remotest  parts  of  the  Polar  seas. 
The  chase  is  in  itself  not  very  dangerous. 
It  sometimes,  though  rarely,  happens  that  one 
of  these  whales  capsizes  a  boat  with  a  stroke 
of  its  tail,  or  carries  the  boat  down  with  it  in 
diving  when  the  sailors  have  not  succeeded 
in  cutting  at  the  right  moment  the  rope  to 
which  the  harpoon  is  attached.  The  dangers 
which  threaten  whalers  are  those  to  which 
all  navigators  in  the  icy  regions  round  the 
poles  are  exposed,  and  every  year  a  certain 
number  of  ships  are  lost  through  being  caught 
and  crushed  in  the  ice.  In  spite  of  these 
dangers  the  pursuit  is  actively  carried  on  in 
both  the  Polar  seas  for  the  sake  of  the  train- 
oil  and  the  whalebone.  A  Greenland  whale 
60  feet  in  length  yields  24  tons  of  oil,  and 
about  32  cwt.  of  whalebone. 

While  the  Greenland  whale  formerly 
advanced  as  far  as  the  Bay  of  Biscay  it  now 
seldom  crosses  the  65th  parallel  of  north 
latitude.  The  southern  whale  till  about  fifteen 
years  ago  used  to  come  pretty  regularly  as 
far  north  as  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  but  now, 
probably  in  consequence  of  the  pursuit  carried 
on  uninterruptedly  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  (the 
Sandwich  Islands  forming  the  headquarters 
of  this  business),  the  fisheries  already  men- 
tioned as  carried  on  in  the  channel  between 
the  island  of  Trinidad  and  the  mainland  of 
South  America  have  come  to  an  end.  Perhaps 
these  whales  have  also  been  scared  away  by 
the  increasing  steamship  traffic.  The  Green- 
land whale  also  speeds  away  on  hearing  any 
noise.  The  utmost  possible  quietness  is  an 
essential  condition  of  a  successful  chase. 

[Some  peculiarities  in  the  mode  of  whale-fishing 
in  the  Antarctic  Ocean  at  Kerguelen's  Land  are 
mentioned  by  Moseley  in  his  Notes  of  a  Naturalist 
on  the  Challenger  (chap,  viii.) : — "A  difficulty  would 
arise  from  a  whale  when  struck  running  through 
the  thick  beds  of  kelp  (Macrocystis)  which  every- 
where form  tangled  barriers  at  a  certain  distance 

from  shore.     This  is  got  over  by  having  large  very 
VOL.  n. 


sharp  knives  ready,  which  are  held  close  beside  the 
line  as  the  boat  scuds  through  the  water,  dragged 
by  the  whale,  and  cut  a  clear  passage  in  the  weed. 

"  The  whales  are  killed  by  means  of  a  bomb,  a 
cylindrical  iron  tube  full  of  powder  provided  with 
a  fuse  and  pointed  at  one  end;  at  the  other,  pro- 
vided with  feathers  like  an  arrow.  The  whole  is 
not  unlike  a  large  cross-bow  bolt.  The  feathers 
are  made  of  vulcanized  india-rubber,  and  when  the 
bolt  is  rammed  into  the  gun  from  which  it  is  fired 
are  wrapped  round  the  end  of  the  shaft.  As  soon 
as  the  bolt  leaves  the  muzzle  they  expand,  and 
prevent  the  bombs  wobbling  or  capsizing. 

"The  invention  is  extremely  ingenious.  The 
bomb  is  fired  from  a  heavy  gun  from  the  shoulder, 
and  is  good  up  to  about  fifteen  paces.  It  is  fired 
into  the  whale  just  behind  the  flipper. 

"  It  goes  in,  and  after  a  while  makes  a  loud 
explosion,  often  killing  the  beast  almost  at  once. 
Four  kinds  of  whales  are  common  about  Kerguelen's 
Island,  but  only  one,  the  southern  whalebone 
whale,  is  regularly  hunted.  .  .  .  Similar  bombs 
are  now  regularly  used  in  the  North."] 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  AND  DESCENT 
OF   THE   WHALES   AND    DOLPHINS. 

It  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  say  any- 
thing definite  regarding  the  geographical  dis- 
tribution of  the  whales.  The  facility  with 
which  these  animals  traverse  enormous  ex- 
panses of  the  ocean,  and  the  readiness  with 
which  they  undertake  distant  migrations,  the 
difficulty  in  procuring  the  necessary  material 
for  the  distinction  of  species  and  genera,  the 
rarity  of  many  types  which  inhabit  the  high 
seas,  the  numerous  accidents  by  which  these 
animals  get  carried  away  out  of  their  usual 
domain  and  stranded  on  shores  without  one 
being  able  to  learn  whence  they  have  come, 
and  lastly,  the  persecutions  of  man,  which 
have  driven  them  away  from  their  original 
homes,  all  these  circumstances  combine  to 
hinder  us  from  arriving  at  definite  conclu- 
sions on  this  subject. 

The  two  great  groups  of  the  toothed 
whales  and  whalebone  whales  are  distributed 
over  all  seas,  and  if  the  latter  are  found 

35 


18 


WHALES   AND   DOLPHINS. 


chiefly  in  the  cold  Polar  seas,  we  cannot  say 
that  they  are  wholly  excluded  from  the 
temperate  and  warm  parts  of  the  ocean. 
The  Basques  formerly  fished  the  Greenland 
whale  off  their  own  coasts,  and  till  about 
1860  there  was  a  whale-fishing  station  in  the 
channel  separating  the  island  of  Trinidad 
from  the  coast  of  South  America.  Only  a 
few  individuals,  to  be  sure,  were  captured 
every  year,  but  there  were  always  some 
caught  sooner  or  later  in  passing  through 
this  strait.  We  can  thus  assign  a  restricted 
domain  only  to  certain  species,  such  as  the 
fresh-water  dolphins,  the  beluga,  the  narwhal, 
and  the  true  porpoises,  which  are  confined  to 
the  northern  seas;  but  as  regards  all  the 
other  more  or  less  abundant  types,  we  must 
say  that  they  are  found  in  all  seas,  and  that 
their  presence  in  large  numbers  in  this  or  that 
sea  appears  rather  to  depend  on  secondary 
causes,  such  as  abundance  of  food,  safety 
from  pursuit,  and  so  forth. 

Similar  difficulties  are  presented  in  in- 
vestigating the  origin  of  the  cetaceans.  In 
the  Cambridge  Museum  there  are  preserved 
a  few  fossil  vertebrae  belonging  to  a  whale 
different  from  all  other  known  species.  They 
were  discovered  in  the  diluvial  loam  of  the 
neighbourhood,  but  Professor,  now  Sir 
Richard,  Owen  found  the  appearance  of  these 
vertebrae  to  agree  so  closely  with  that  pre- 
sented by  the  fossil  remains  of  the  Kimmeridge 
Clay  of  the  locality,  that  he  came  to  the 
conclusion,  a  conclusion,  however,  only  very 
doubtfully  expressed,  that  these  vertebrae 
may  have  been  washed  out  of  Jurassic  strata 
into  the  diluvial  loam  in  which  they  were 
found.  If  this  surmise  should  be  confirmed, 
then  these  vertebrae  would  be  the  oldest 
known  remains  of  placental  mammals,  and 
the  cetaceans  would,  therefore,  have  to  be 
regarded  as  having  preceded  all  other  Mono- 
delphia.  '  In  that  case,  accordingly,  one 
might  not  find  the  roots  of  this  stock  in  other 
orders  from  which  it  has  been  attempted  to 
derive  it.  This  is  still  an  open  question. 


But  with  the  exception  of  this  still  doubtful 
case  the  earliest  fossil  remains  of  cetaceans 
that  have  yet  been  found  belong  to  the 
Miocene.  Europe  has  yielded  a  great  num- 
ber of  such  remains  from  Pliocene  strata. 
In  the  Pliocene  period  the  mouth  of  the 
Scheldt  appears  to  have  formed  a  bay  in 
which  numerous  shoals  of  whales  were 
stranded  from  time  to  time.  America  has 
likewise  yielded  many  of  the  same  kind  of 
remains  dating  from  Miocene  times.  But 
these  remains  teach  us  nothing  whatever 
concerning  the  derivation  of  this  order,  for 
the  large  groups  of  the  toothed  whales  and 
whalebone  whales  are  already  represented  in 
the  Miocene,  and  even  the  secondary  sub- 
divisions are  not  wanting  there.  It  may 
accordingly  be  said  that  from  a  palaeontological 
point  of  view  the  Cetacea  present  themselves 
on  their  first  appearance  with  all  the  characters 
which  now  distinguish  the  various  groups. 

Embryological  studies,  again,  are  too  in- 
complete and  fragmentary  to  allow  of  any 
well-grounded  conclusions  on  this  matter. 
Anatomy  reveals  to  us  a  number  of  points 
which  indicate  a  low  organization  related  to 
that  of  the  reptiles.  The  absence  of  marrow 
cavities  in  the  long  bones;  the  spongy  nature 
of  the  bony  tissue  generally;  the  structure  of 
their  vertebrae,  only  imperfectly  fused  with 
their  apophyses ;  the  arrangement  of  the  bones 
of  the  skull,  which  often  exhibits  gaps  and 
breaches  of  continuity ;  the  uniform  character 
of  the  dentition,  which  is  composed  of  un- 
specialized  teeth  often  set  in  a  continuous 
groove  without  distinct  sockets,  the  absence 
of  fleshy  movable  lips,  the  smallness  of  the 
brain  compared  with  the  size  of  the  body- 
all  these  characters  appear  to  be  derived  from 
the  reptiles.  The  fore-limbs,  although  re- 
maining in  a  certain  measure  in  the  embryonic 
condition,  yet  show  by  their  organization, 
and  especially  by  the  large  number  of  the 
phalanges,  or  small  bones  of  the  fingers,  a 
tolerably  close  resemblance  to  those  of  the 
large  extinct  sea-reptiles,  the  Enaliosaurii, 


GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTRIBUTION    AND    DESCENT. 


whose    best-known    representatives    are    the 
Ichthyosaurus  and  Plesiosaurus. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  can  point  to  char- 
acters which  are  plainly  the  result  of  a  retro- 
grade development.  The  small  bones  found 
in  the  pelvic  region  in  many  cetaceans  mani- 
festly show  that  the  ancestors  of  the  whales 
had  hind -limbs,  which  became  degraded 
through  a  process  of  special  adaptation,  and 
finally  disappeared.  In  all  the  series  of 
extinct  and  living  mammals  and  reptiles  yet 
known  we  cannot  point  to  any  type  to 
which  the  whales  could  be  attached  without 
violence.  The  Zeuglodonts,  large  marine 
forms,  with  hind -limbs,  belonging  to  the 
upper  Miocene  and  the  Pliocene,  unite  cer- 
tain characters  of  the  whales  with  a  den- 
tition similar  to  that  of  the  seals,  but  it  is 
impossible  to  regard  them  as  representing 
the  primitive  type  of  the  whales,  which  are 
contemporary  with  them  or  even  precede 
them.  The  diffuse  placenta  connects  the 
cetaceans  with  the  ungulates.  If  it  is  possible 
to  connect  the  other  placental  mammals  in 
more  or  less  direct  lines  of  succession  with 
the  old  dwarf  mammalian  types,  whether 


marsupial  or  otherwise,  which  have  been 
discovered  in  Triassic  and  Jurassic  strata, 
such  an  attempt  would  be  altogether  impos- 
sible with  the  whales.  How  could  animals 
with  a  reptilian  dentition  be  derived  from 
old  stems  which  already  possessed  a  speci- 
alized dentition  and  molars  with  double 
roots! 

All  these  questions  are  insoluble  in  the 
present  state  of  our  knowledge.  The  balance 
inclines  at  present,  perhaps,  in  favour  of  a 
direct  connection  of  the  whales  with  the 
extinct  sea-lizards,  the  Enaliosaurs,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  Mosasaurs  and  Clidastes 
of  the  Chalk,  on  the  other,  although  all  these 
have  only  a  single  joint-surface  at  the  back 
of  the  head  (a  single  occipital  condyle),  while 
the  whales,  like  all  mammals,  have  two.  If 
this  surmise  should  be  confirmed,  it  would 
furnish  a  beautiful  proof  of  the  evolution  of 
the  class  of  the  Mammalia  from  various 
stocks.  But  for  the  present  these  are  only 
doubtful  surmises,  which,  nevertheless,  are 
better  supported  than  those  which  would 
derive  the  whales  either  from  the  seals  or 
from  the  ungulates. 


THE    SEA-COWS 


(SIRENIA). 


Fish-like  herbivora  without  dorsal  or  ventral  fins,  with  a  small  head  and  distinct  neck,  thick  lips  set  with  tactile 
hairs,  molars  with  broad  crowns,  nostrils  at  the  end  of  the  muzzle,  and  pectoral  teats. 


At  the  first  glance  we  perceive  that  the 
Jbody  of  these  inoffensive  herbivorous  animals 
resembles  that  of  the  whales  in  its  general 
form,  in  the  possession  of  a  horizontal  tail 
and  of  flippers,  and  in  the  absence  of  external 
ears  and  hind -limbs.  As  in  some  whales, 
one  or  two  small  bones  are  indeed  found 
buried  in  the  flesh  in  the  pelvic  region,  repre- 
senting an  undeveloped  pelvis;  but  externally 
no  trace  of  a  hind-limb  can  be  seen.  In  the 
skeleton  some  other  characters  can  be  pointed 
out  which  these  creatures  have  in  common 
with  the  whales,  such,  for  example,  as  the  fact 
of  the  bone  inclosing  the  inner  ear  being 
distinct l  from  the  other  bones  of  the  skull, 
with  which  it  is  connected  only  by  sutures; 
the  simplification  of  the  vertebral  column, 
the  absence  of  a  sacrum,  and  so  forth.  But 
there  the  resemblances  end,  and  with  respect 
to  all  the  rest  of  their  organization  these 
animals  are  quite  different  from  the  whales. 
The  head  is  small,  round,  well  marked  off 
from  the  neck,  the  vertebrae  of  which  are 
not  fused  together;  the  eyes  are  on  the 
upper  surface,  not  low  down  at  the  sides; 
the  muzzle  is  comparatively  small,  and  sur- 
rounded by  swollen  fleshy  lips,  on  which  are 

1  In  most  mammals,  as  in  man,  that  bone  is  fused  witli  the 
temporal  bone,  forming  what  is  called  the  petrous  portion  of  the 
temporal  bone. — TR. 


set  thick  and  often  very  long  tactile  hairs. 
The  nostrils  are  situated  at  the  end  of  the 
muzzle,  and  lead  into  nasal  cavities  of  the 
same  structure  as  in  other  mammals.  The 
flippers  have  indeed  the  form  of  oars  of 
uniform  width,  but  are  longer  than  in  the 
whales;  the  digits  have  only  three  phalanges 
each,  and  all  the  bones  of  the  flippers  are 
movable  on  each  other  by  joints,  while  in 
the  whales,  as  we  have  seen,  they  are  firmly 
united  together  by  fibrous  masses.  The 
teeth  are  differentiated.  In  the  milk-dentition 
we  can  distinguish  incisors,  no  canines,  but 
premolars,  to  which  molars  of  diverse  form 
are  afterwards  added,  these  latter  being 
formed  in  different  genera  on  the  type  of 
those  of  the  ungulates.  The  form  of  the 
skull  is  altogether  different  from  that  of  the 
whales,  and  the  same  may  be  said  regarding 
the  structure  of  the  brain  and  the  respiratory 
and  circulatory  organs.  The  teats  are  situated 
in  the  pectoral  region.  Short  stiff  hairs  are 
scattered  over  the  thick  tough  skin. 

The  sea-cows  are  often  included  in  one 
and  the  same  order  with  the  true  whales. 
But  when  we  consider  that  all  the  characters 
which  these  orders  have  in  common  with  one 
another  proceed  solely  from  the  adaptation 
to  an  aquatic  mode  of  life,  while  the  other 
characters,  to  be  explained  by  inheritance, 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS. 


21 


are  different,  we  must  confess  that  this  asso- 
ciation is  not  in  harmony  with  the  principles 
that  must  be  followed  in  a  natural  classifica- 
tion. 

The  sea-cows  are  large,  peace-loving  animals 
which  inhabit  the  gulfs  and  bays  on  the  sea- 
coast,  and  advance  up  the  mouths  of  rivers 
far  into  the  interior  of  the  land  in  order  to 


seek  their  food,  which  consists  solely  of 
vegetable  substances — various  alga;  in  the 
sea,  leaves,  roots,  and  fleshy  fruits  in  the 
rivers.  Only  two  living  genera  are  now 
known.  A  third,  the  Rhytina,  which  formerly 
inhabited  the  shores  of  the  Behring  Sea  and 
other  coasts  of  Eastern  Siberia,  has  been 
extinct  since  1768.  Steller  has  left  us  a  very 


Fig.  143. — The  Dugong  (fJalicore  Dugong). 


valuable  and  complete  description  of  this 
animal,  but  that  description  unfortunately 
was  not  accompanied  by  a  drawing.  Since 
the  year  mentioned  no  living  example  of  this 
remarkable  species  has  been  seen,  although, 
indeed,  in  certain  districts  regular  graveyards 
of  bones  belonging  to  it  have  been  dis- 
covered. 

The  Dugong  (Halicore  Dugong],  fig.  143, 
inhabits  the  Indian  Ocean  and  its  bays,  the 
Red  Sea,  the  Persian  Gulf,  &c.,  and  extends 
even  to  Australia.  It  is  a  large  massive 
animal,  attaining  the  length  of  16  or  17  feet. 
The  pretty  thick  body  becomes  rapidly 
thinner  towards  the  broad  halfmoon- shaped 
tail.  The  flippers  are  short  and  broad,  and 
without  nails.  The  small  head  ends  in  a 


very  thick  upper  lip,  which  is  very  blunt 
below  and  behind,  and  incloses  the  swollen 
ball-shaped  lower  lip.  The  skin,  dark  gray 
on  the  back  but  lighter  on  the  under  surface, 
is  sparsely  covered  with  short  hair.  The 
eyes  are  pretty  small,  provided  with  a  large 
third  eyelid  or  nictitating  membrane,  and 
protected  by  a  semicircle  of  stiff  eyelashes 
above.  The  hairs  of  the  whiskers  are  strong 
and  short,  almost  spiny. 

The  form  of  the  jaws  and  the  arrangement 
of  the  teeth  are  very  remarkable.  The  very 
large  premaxilla  is  bent  downwards  in  an 
adult  animal  at  an  angle  of  60  degrees,  and 
in  the  male  each  half  of  it  carries  at  its  end 
a  strong  straight  tusk  which  gets  worn  away 
obliquely  and  thus  kept  sharp  by  use.  This 


22 


THE   SEA-COWS. 


incisor  is  the  only  tooth  in  the  whole  set 
which  takes  the  place  of  a  milk-tooth.  In  the 
female  it  is  not  developed.  On  the  inner  side 
of  this  curved  premaxilla  the  palate  forms  a 
sort  of  narrow  groove,  which  is  continued 
backwards  to  the  posterior  nares.  Near 
these  openings  there  are  in  each  half  of  the 
jaw  large  teeth  with  quite  smooth,  round  or 
oval  grinding  surfaces.  The  lower  jaw  is 
very  high,  but  short,  and  is  cut  away  in  front 
in  correspondence  with  the  curve  of  the  upper 
jaw;  and  this  abrupt  and  narrow  portion, 
which  fits  into  the  above-described  groove  of 
the  upper  jaw,  is  covered  by  a  rough,  thick 
horny  plate,  below  which  there  are  in  the 
bone  four  empty  sockets  from  which  the  teeth 
have  disappeared.  In  the  posterior  horizontal 
part  of  the  jaw  there  is  a  varying  number  of 
molars  similar  to  those  of  the  upper  jaw.  In 
the  milk-dentition  there  are  five  molars  in 
each  half  of  the  jaw,  both  above  and  below, 
but  these  gradually  get  reduced  to  two. 

It  is  still  doubtful  whether  the  specimens 
obtained  in  the  Red  Sea  and  those  on  the 
coast  of  Australia  belong  to  different  species 
or  not.  In  any  case  these  animals  have  the 
same  habits.  They  keep  to  the  coasts,  seldom 
ascend  the  rivers,  swim  slowly,  and  allow 
themselves  to  sink  to  the  bottom  like  a  lump 
after  coming  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  during 
which  process  they  show  the  upper  part  of 
their  body.  Only  in  moments  of  danger  do 
they  make  use  of  their  strength,  which  is 
sufficient  to  enable  them  to  deal  vigorous 
blows  with  their  tail.  The  mothers  keep 
their  young  one  pressed  to  their  breast  under 
their  flipper,  defend  it  to  the  last,  and  allow 
themselves  to  be  killed  rather  than  desert  it. 
The  dugongs  prefer  bays  that  are  not  very 
deep,  where  they  find  abundance  of  sea-weed. 
They  assemble  in  flocks  where  they  find 
themselves  secure,  migrate  to  fresh  parts 
when  they  have  fully  cropped  a  submarine 
pasture,  but  always  keep  to  the  coasts  during 
these  migrations.  They  are  hunted  for  their 
fat,  for  their  hide,  and  for  their  tolerably 


palatable  but  rather  sweet  flesh.  They  are 
either  harpooned,  as  in  the  Red  Sea,  or  are 
caught  in  nets  and  being  thus  prevented 
from  breathing  are  actually  drowned. 

The  Manatees  (Manatus)  are  distinguished 
from  the  previous  genus  by  their  straight 
head,  thicker  body,  by  having  smooth  nails 
on  the  last  phalanx  of  the  four  outer  digits  of 
the  flipper,  and  by  having  the  tail  rounded  off 
to  the  form  of  a  thick  disc.  The  jaws  ex- 
hibit only  a  faint  indication  of  that  very  pro- 
nounced curvature  by  which  those  of  the 
dugong  are  characterized.  The  incisors  and 
canines  are  both  wanting  in  adults,  but  in 
new-born  animals  some  representatives  of 
these  teeth  are  found,  but  these  soon  drop 
out  in  the  lower  jaw,  while  a  single  pair  of 
incisors  persist  in  the  young  animal,  but  after- 
wards get  lost.  The  sockets  of  these  teeth 
are  covered,  as  in  the  dugong,  by  a  callous 
horny  skin.  The  molars  are  never  shed,  but 
are  gradually  developed  one  after  the  other 
as  the  old  ones  get  worn  away  by  use.  In 
this  way  a  dozen  molars  may  be  formed  in 
each  half  of  the  jaw,  but  there  are  never  more 
than  seven  or  eight  in  use  at  one  time.  These 
molars  are  similar  in  form  to  those  of  the 
tapirs.  They  all  have  two  or  more  roots,  and 
the  almost  cubical  crown  has  on  the  chewing 
surface  two  transverse  ridges  separated  by  a 
deep  groove. 

Two  species  of  manatees  are  distinguished, 
the  smaller  of  which  (Manatiis  scnegalensis) 
inhabits  the  coasts  of  West  Africa  and 
ascends  the  Senegal  and  other  rivers,  while 
the  other  larger  species  (M.  aus traits),  fig. 
144,  which  attains  as  much  as  10  feet  in 
length,  is  confined  to  the  east  coast  of 
America.  This  latter  species  has  two  geo- 
graphical varieties,  one  in  the  north  found  all 
round  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  other  further 
towards  the  south 

The  manatee  of  the  Amazon  ascends  very 
high  into  the  interior  of  the  mainland,  as 
high  as  the  rapids.  It  is  eagerly  pursued  in 
the  large  rivers  of  Brazil  and  Guiana  and 


GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS. 


their  affluents  as  well  as  in  the  lakes  com- 
municating with  them.  The  upper  lip  is  in 
the  form  of  a  rounded  knob,  and  covered 
with  a  delicate  skin ;  it  probably  serves  as  an 
organ  of  touch.  The  colour  of  the  skin  is  a 
dark  bluish-gray  on  the  back,  but  lighter 
underneath.  The  few  bristles  which  are 
scattered  over  it,  and  which  form  a  sort  of 
brush  on  the  lips,  are  of  a  bright  yellow. 


The  thick  but  not  very  dense  skin  is  easily 
permeated  by  water,  and  is  used  for  making 
cords  and  whips. 

The  very  abundant  fat  has  a  good  flavour, 
and  is  used  both  for  food  and  as  a  material 
for  illumination.  The  tasty  flesh  is  not 
unlike  pork.  The  animal  is  easily  harpooned 
when  confined  beyond  the  power  of  escape 
in  the  temporary  lakes  left  behind  after 


Fig.  144. — The  Manatee  of  the  Amazon  (Afanatus  australis). 


inundations.  It  has  been  found  possible  to 
tame  a  few  of  these  gentle  and  inoffensive 
animals.  They  were  kept  in  closed  tanks. 
They  came  when  called  to  receive  their  food, 
and  even  carried  people  on  their  back  to 
the  other  side  of  the  tank.  A  German 
named  Kappler,  settled  in  Surinam,  who  in 
the  course  of  twenty  years  had  sent  forty 
manatees  to  various  museums  in  Europe,  had 
a  suckling  which  he  reared  first  with  milk 
and  afterwards  with  bananas.  To  the 
training  of  this  little  animal,  only  about 
three  feet  in  length,  he  devoted  a  good 
deal  of  attention,  and  succeeded  so  well  that 
at  last  it  would  even  leave  the  water  to  cling 
to  the  knees  of  its  benefactor.  It  died  during 
the  voyage  to  England. 


The  following  account  is  given  by  Dampier  of 
the  method  employed  in  his  day  (seventeenth 
century)  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Mosquito  Coast, 
Central  America,  in  killing  and  capturing  the  mana- 
tee:— "The  Mosquito-men  have  always  a  small  canoe 
for  their  use  to  strike  fish,  tortoise,  or  manatee,  which 
they  keep  usually  to  themselves  and  very  neat  and 
clean.  They  use  no  oars,  but  paddles,  the  broad 
part  of  which  does  not  go  tapering  towards  the 
staff,  pole,  or  handle  of  it,  as  in  the  oar;  nor  do 
they  use  it  in  the  same  manner,  by  laying  it  on 
the  side  of  the  vessel,  but  hold  it  perpendicularly, 
griping  the  staff  hard  with  both  hands,  and  putting 
back  the  water  by  main  strength  and  very  quick 
strokes.  One  of  the  Mosquitos  (for  there  go  but 
two  in  a  canoe)  sits  in  the  stern,  the  other  kneels 
down  in  the  head,  and  both  paddle  till  they  come 
to  the  place  where  they  expect  their  game.  Then 
they  lie  still  or  paddle  very  softly,  looking  well 


THE   SEA-COWS. 


about  them,  and  he  that  is  in  the  head  of  the  canoe 
lays  down  his  paddle,  and  stands  up  with  his 
striking  staff  in  his  hand.  This  staff  is  about 
8  feet  long,  almost  as  big  as  a  man's  arm  at  the 
great  end,  in  which  there  is  a  hole  to  place  his 
harpoon  in.  At  the  other  end  of  his  staff  there  is 
a  piece  of  light  wood  called  lobwood,  with  a  hole 
in  it,  through  which  the  small  end  of  the  staff 
comes,  and  in  this  piece  of  lobwood  there  is  a  line 
of  10  or  12  fathoms  wound  neatly  about,  and  the 
end  of  the  line  made  fast  to  it.  The  other  end 
of  the  line  is  made  fast  to  the  harpoon,  which  is  at 
the  great  end  of  the  staff,  and  the  Mosquito-man 
keeps  about  a  fathom  of  it  loose  in  his  hand. 
When  he  strikes,  the  harpoon  presently  comes  out 
of  the  staff,  and  as  the  manatee  swims  away  the 
line  runs  off  from  the  bob ;  and  although  at  first 
both  staff  and  bob  may  be  carried  under  water,  yet 
as  the  line  runs  off  it  will  rise  again.  Then  the 
Mosquito-men  paddle  with  all  their  might  to  get 
hold  of  the  bob  again,  and  spend  usually  a  quarter 
of  an  hour  before  they  get  it.  When  the  manatee 
begins  to  be  tired  it  lies  still,  and  then  the  Mos- 
quito-men paddle  to  the  bob  and  take  it  up,  and 
begin  to  haul  in  the  line.  When  the  manatee  feels 
them  he  swims  away  again  with  the  canoe  after 
him;  then  he  that  steers  must  be  nimble  to  turn 
the  head  of  the  canoe  that  way  that  his  consort 
points,  who,  being  in  the  head  of  the  canoe  and 
holding  the  line,  both  sees  and  feels  which  way  the 
manatee  is  swimming.  Thus  the  canoe  is  towed 
with  a  violent  motion  till  the  manatee's  strength 
decays.  Then  they  gather  in  the  line,  which  they 
are  often  forced  to  let  all  go  to  the  very  end.  At 
length,  when  the  creature's  strength  is  spent,  they 
haul  it  up  to  the  canoe's  side,  and  knock  it  on  the 
head  and  tow  it  to  the  nearest  shore,  where  they 
make  it  fast  and  seek  for  another;  which  having 
taken,  they  go  on  shore  with  it  to  put  it  into  their 
canoe,  for  it  is  so  heavy  that  they  cannot  lift  it  in, 
but  they  haul  it  up  in  shoal  water  as  near  the  shore 
as  they  can,  and  then  overset  the  canoe,  lying  on 
one  side  close  to  the  manatee,  and  roll  it  in,  which 
brings  the  canoe  upright  again,  and  when  they 
have  heaved  out  the  water  they  fasten  a  line  to  the 
other  manatee  that  lies  afloat,  and  tow  it  after 
them.  I  have  known  two  Mosquito-men  for  a 
week  every  day  bring  on  board  two  manatees  in 
this  manner,  the  least  of  which  hath  not  weighed 
less  than  600  pounds,  and  that  in  a  very  small 
canoe,  that  three  Englishmen  would  scarce  adven- 
ture to  go  in.  When  they  strike  a  cow  that  hath 


a  young  one,  they  seldom  miss  the  calf,  for  she 
commonly  takes  the  young  one  under  one  of  her 
fins." — The  Voyages  and  Adventures  of  William 
Dampier. 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION   AND 
DESCENT   OF   THE   SEA-COWS. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  the  sea- 
cows  plainly  shows  that  the  type  must 
formerly  have  been  more  wide-spread  than  it 
is  now.  The  two  species  of  manatees,  which 
are  both  in  a  great  measure  fresh-water  forms, 
are  separated  by  the  whole  breadth  of  the 
Atlantic,  and  it  is  scarcely  conceivable  that 
these  animals,  living  only  on  plants,  should 
at  any  time  have  been  able  to  cross  this  wide 
expanse  of  water.  The  dugong  frequents 
the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean  throughout 
all  its  vast  extent  from  Mozambique  to  the 
north  coasts  of  Australia,  and  it  has  only  had 
to  cross  arms  of  the  sea  of  no  great  width  in 
order  to  extend  its  domain  in  this  manner. 
The  third  genus,  the  Rhytina,  as  we  have 
already  stated,  still  swarmed  in  and  near 
Behring's  Strait  in  the  first  half  of  last 
century,  the  flocks  of  this  harmless  creature 
feeding  on  the  pastures  of  sea-weed  on  the 
coasts  of  Kamchatka,  Northern  Siberia,  and 
Western  North  America,  as  cows  graze  on 
the  pastures  of  the  mainland.  Thanks  to 
the  ferocity  of  man  this  species  is  now  com- 
pletely extirpated. 

The  sea-cows  appear  in  both  hemispheres 
with  the  Miocene,  and  their  remains  are 
found  in  all  the  deposits  which  were  formed 
along  the  coasts  during  this  and  the  following 
periods.  There  are  genera  very  closely  allied 
to  the  manatees  (Prorastomus  in  Jamaica), 
others  which  can  scarcely  be  distinguished 
from  the  dugong  (Felsinotherium  in  Italy), 
others  again  which  appear  to  occupy  an 
intermediate  position  (Halianassa,  Metaxy- 
therium)  and  which  during  the  Miocene 
were  distributed  from  the  west  of  France 
through  Germany  as  far  as  Vienna.  The 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION   AND   DESCENT. 


type  was  accordingly  well  established  from 
the  time  of  the  Miocene  epoch,  and  the  local 
isolation  of  the  present  species  is  no  doubt  to 
be  explained  by  this  wider  distribution  in 
former  times. 

The  sea-cows  approach  the  whales  in  the 
characters  due  to  special  adaptation,  and  if 
we  take  into  account  only  these  characters, 
to  which,  as  already  mentioned,  belong  the 
form  of  the  body,  the  presence  of  a  horizontal 
tail  fin,  and  the  absence  of  visible  hind-limbs, 
we  may  rank  them  as  a  sub-order  of  the 
Cetacea.  But  all  the  rest  of  their  organiza- 
tion proves  clearly  enough  that  the  sea-cows 
are  derived  from  a  different  stock  from  the 
whales,  and  that  by  their  thick  fleshy  lips  set 


with  tactile  hairs,  their  dentition,  their  small 
distinct  head  capable  of  being  moved  at  the 
neck,  the  position  of  their  nostrils,  the  structure 
of  their  skull,  their  brain,  and  their  organs 
of  reproduction,  and  by  a  number  of  other 
characters  which  we  cannot  fully  explain 
here,  they  are  associated  with  the  ungulates. 
Since  the  ungulates  are  already  met  with  in 
the  oldest  Eocene  strata,  while  the  sea-cows 
first  appear  in  the  Miocene,  there  is  nothing 
to  prevent  us  from  regarding  them  as  a 
retrograde  branch  of  the  former,  as  repre- 
sentatives of  a  type  which,  by  a  process 
similar  to  that  which  we  have  demonstrated 
in  the  case  of  the  seals  and  the  carnivores, 
has  adapted  itself  to  an  aquatic  life. 


VOL.  II. 


36 


THE    ELEPHANTS 


(PROBOSCIDEA). 


Large  animals  whose  nose  is  prolonged  into  a  proboscis,  which  serves  as  a  prehensile  and  tactile  organ,  with 
column-like  legs,  and  feet  with  five  toes  united  into  a  mass  and  covered  with  flattened  hoofs;  the  upper  incisors 
mostly  in  the  form  of  tusks,  no  canines,  compound  molars ;  placenta  zonary. 


This  order,  much  more  abundantly  de- 
veloped in  former  geological  periods,  is  re- 
presented at  the  present  day  only  by  the 
elephants  inhabiting  the  tropics  of  the  Old 
World.  There  are  now,  in  fact,  only  two 
species,  one  of  which  is  confined  to  Africa, 
and  the  other  to  Southern  Asia  and  the  Sunda 
Islands.  They  are  sufficiently  different  from 
one  another  for  us  to  be  able  to  regard  them, 
along  with  the  fossil  species,  as  types  of 
different  sub-genera. 

The  elephants  are  the  most  gigantic  of 
land  animals,  and  as  such  are  held  in  becom- 
ing respect  by  all  other  creatures  except  man. 
These  peaceable  colossi,  which  live  in  bands, 
often  very  numerous,  and  tenderly  protect 
their  young  up  to  the  age  at  which  they  are 
able  to  defend  themselves,  would  be  able  to 
pass  their  life  unmolested  even  in  the  com- 
pany of  tigers  and  lions  if  it  were  not  that 
man  attacks  them,  and  even  succeeds  in 
taming  them. 

The  external  characters  are  easily  seized. 
The  head  seems  enormous,  high  and  short; 
the  neck  short;  the  huge  body  raised  very 
high  on  the  massive,  straight,  columnar  legs. 
The  skin  is  very  thick,  and  has  clumsy- 
looking  folds,  and  is  sparsely  covered  with 
hairs.  These  form  a  tuft  at  the  end  of  the 


tail,  which  scarcely  reaches  to  the  "heel," 
that  is,  it  must  be  remembered,  to  the  joint 
of  the  hind-legs.  The  head  is  striking  on 
account  of  the  unusual  development  of  the 
brow,  the  relatively  small  size  of  the  eyes 
situated  at  the.  sides,  the  large  size  of  the 
fan -shaped  external  ears,  and  lastly,  on 
account  of  the  trunk,  which  is  always  long 
enough  to  touch  the  ground  when  the  animal 
stands  erect.  This  trunk  is  formed  through- 
out its  whole  length  of  two  tubes  separated 
by  a  middle  partition,  and  consisting  of  a 
fibrous  continuation  of  the  cartilaginous  nose, 
surrounded  by  very  thick  masses  of  muscle, 
the  fibrous  bundles  in  which  intercross  in 
various  directions  and  thus  impart  an  extra- 
ordinary degree  of  mobility  to  this  organ.  At 
the  end  of  the  trunk  the  partition  forms  a 
finger-like  process,  which,  like  the  entrance  to 
the  nasal  cavities,  is  covered  with  a  delicate 
skin.  This  fleshy,  very  mobile  finger  serves 
chiefly  as  an  organ  of  touch  and  prehension, 
and  the  elephant  makes  use  of  it  with  wonder- 
ful dexterity  to  pick  up  even  the  smallest 
objects.1  Under  the  trunk  is  seen  the  trian- 

1  This  dexterity,  nevertheless,  seems  often  to  have  been  ex- 
aggerated. Mr.  R.  A.  Sterndale,  author  of  the  Mammalia  of  India 
and  Ceylon,  speaks  of  the  difficulty  with  which  an  elephant  "  scrapes 
up"  a  coin;  and  both  he  and  Mr.  G.  P.  Sanderson  are  incredulous 
as  to  the  stories  of  elephants  picking  up  needles. — TR. 


(iKNKRAL    CHARACTERISTICS. 


s^ular  opening  of  the  mouth,  from  which  emerge 
two  huge  tusks  embracing  the  root  of  the 
trunk.  These  tusks  are  much  longer  and 
stronger  in  the  male  than  in  the  female.  The 
root  of  the  trunk  represents,  so  to  speak,  the 
upper  lip,  the  side  parts  of  which  alone  are 
present.  The  lower  lip  is  triangular,  and  is 
drawn  out  in  front  into  a  pendent  point.  If 
the  trunk  is  mainly  an  organ  of  touch  and 
prehension  it  serves  at  the  same  time  as  a 
means  of  procuring  food  and  as  a  weapon  of 
defence.  The  elephant  takes  hold  of  its  food 
and  carries  it  to  its  mouth  with  its  trunk;  when 
it  wishes  to  drink  it  fills  the  trunk  with  water, 
which  it  then  squirts  into  its  mouth.  A 
good  blow  with  the  trunk  is  enough  to  break 
the  back-bone  of  a  tiger  which  might  have 
the  audacity  to  attack  this  colossus.  Lastly, 
the  different  sounds  which  the  animal  emits 
by  driving  air  through  this  wonderful  organ 
express  its  feelings  of  joy  and  pain. 

Behind  the  short  neck  with  its  broad  folds 
of  skin  comes  the  huge  and  thick  but  com- 
paratively short  body  supported  by  the  four 
clumsy  and  unshapely  columns  formed  by  its 
legs,  which  appear  to  have  only  one  joint  in 
the  middle,  since  the  upper  arms  and  the 
thighs  are  concealed  in  the  flesh.  All  the 
bones  of  the  limbs  are  present  in  the  skeleton 
in  their  full  number;  but  the  short  and  plump 
bones  of  the  toes  and  the  wrist  and  ankle  are 
so  completely  surrounded  by  sinewy  and 
fibrous  masses  that  the  foot  has  the  appear- 
ance of  an  enormous  pavior's  beetle,  with  a 
broad,  flat,  undivided  sole.  On  the  front 
edge  of  the  foot-plate  of  this  beetle,  and  partly 
on  the  upper  surface,  are  found  short,  rounded, 
somewhat  arched  hoofs,  which  only  cover  the 
ends  of  the  toes  and  are  very  apt  to  be  lost. 
With  these  clod-crushers  the  elephant  tramples 
to  death  an  antagonist  which  he  has  laid  low 
with  a  blow  of  his  trunk. 

Altogether  the  elephant  creates  the  impres- 
sion of  a  huge  clumsy  creature  imposing  by 
its  size,  but  yet  not  fitted  to  inspire  the  same 
terror  as  a  large  well-armed  carnivore.  One 


would  at  once  say  that  with  a  little  adroitness 
it  would  be  easy  to  elude  this  awkward  booby. 
One  might  find  one's  self  mistaken,  however. 

The  internal  organization  of  the  elephant 
proves,  indeed,  the  necessity  for  having  a 
separate  order  for  these  creatures,  but  at  the 
same  time  reveals  many  affinities  with  other 
orders,  and  especially  with  those  forms  of 
which  the  large  group  of  the  pachyderms  was 
formerly  composed.  The  skull  is  very  high 
behind,  and  thus  presents  a  certain  resemblance 
to  that  of  the  whales,  a  resemblance  which 
would  be  still  more  marked  if  the  bones  of 
the  forehead  were  not  greatly  enlarged  by 
enormous  cavities  separated  by  leaf-like  bony 
partitions,  and  communicating  with  the  cavities 
of  the  nose.  These  frontal  cavities  are  so 
large  that  they  far  exceed  in  size  the  cavity 
of  the  brain-case,  and  in  an  adult  elephant  the 
external  plate  of  the  frontal  bone  is  about  half 
a  yard  or  more  distant  from  the  internal  plate 
adjacent  to  the  brain.  The  hunters  know 
very  well  that  a  bullet  shot  at  the  forehead 
never  penetrates  to  the  brain,  but  remains 
sticking  in  these  cavities,  which  are  lined  with 
a  mucous  membrane  such  as  that  which  lines 
the  cavities  of  the  nose. 

The  dentition  consists  of  a  single  incisor  in 
each  of  the  premaxillae  and  of  a  huge  and 
very  complex  molar  in  each  half  of  each  jaw. 
The  premaxillae  are,  in  fact,  drawn  out  into 
huge  tubes  whose  cavities  extend  very  far 
back,  even  to  the  region  beneath  the  eyes. 
In  these  sockets  there  arises  and  grows  on  a 
conical  papilla  one  incisor  on  each  side,  which 
is  at  first  straight  and  conical.  This  incisor 
is  present  even  in  the  milk-dentition,  and  at 
the  shedding  of  the  teeth  gives  place  to  a 
permanent  tusk,  which  on  emerging  from  the 
socket  curves  outwards  and  upwards,  goes 
on  growing  during  the  whole  of  life,  and 
often  becomes  remarkably  large  in  the  males, 
while  in  the  females  it  is  straighter  and  less 
massive.  It  is  from  these  tusks  that  ivory 
is  derived.  The  short,  high,  deeply  grooved 
lower  jaw,  thick  behind  and  pointed  in  front, 


28 


THE   ELEPHANTS. 


somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  dugong, 
carries  no  incisors.  The  molars  deserve 
special  attention.  These  teeth,  the  grinding 
surface  of  which  may  attain  a  length  of  more 
than  15  inches  and  a  breadth  of  4  inches, 
may  be  considered  as  composed  of  a  number 
of  very  close-set  transversely -placed  tooth- 
fragments,  each  of  which  has  its  own  root, 
pulp-cavity,  dentine,  and  enamel-layer,  while 
all  the  crowns  are  united  together  by  a  bony 
cement.  These  compressed  tooth-fragments 
are  clearly  seen  to  be  separate  at  the  roots. 
At  first  they  form  separate  transverse  ridges; 
afterwards  the  cement  brings  these  ridges 
to  a  uniform  level,  and  when  the  tooth  has 
emerged  from  the  socket  and  is  brought  into 
operation  it  gets  worn  away  horizontally  so 
as  to  present  an  almost  level  surface,  on 
which  the  folds  of  enamel  are  not,  indeed, 
very  prominent,  but  yet  form  very  distinct 
lamellae.  In  different  species  these  lamellae 
exhibit  a  characteristic  arrangement,  and  in 
the  fossil  genera  and  species  of  the  Probos- 
cidea  we  can  trace  all  the  transitions  from 
molars  with  transverse  ridges  (Dinotherium), 
or  with  series  of  tubercles  (Mastodon),  to  the 
more  complicated  forms  of  the  elephants 
proper. 

This  structure  has  as  its  consequence  the 
gradual  replacement  of  the  molars  as  they  get 
worn  away  by  use,  and  this  renewal  takes 
place  from  behind  forwards.  A  second  molar, 
larger  and  having  more  numerous  plates,  is 
formed  in  a  closed  cavity  behind  the  active  or 
functional  molar,  and  this  second  molar,  by  a 
rotatory  movement  which  goes  on  in  the  pro- 
cess of  growth,  pushes  out  the  older  one, 
when  it  is  used  up,  and  takes  its  place.  The 
elephant  thus  has  in  most  cases  only  a  single 
active  molar  in  each  half  of  the  jaw,  but  there 
may  be  as  many  as  three:  one  in  front  just 
ready  to  drop  out  and  worn  down  to  an  insig- 
nificant stump,  a  second  in  full  operation,  and 
a  third  behind  just  beginning  to  emerge  from 
the  socket.  So  far  as  our  observations  yet 
go  this  renewal  may  be  repeated  five  times  in 


the  Asiatic  elephant.  The  first  milk-molar, 
which  cuts  the  gum  at  the  age  of  three 
months  and  is  replaced  in  the  second  year, 
consists  of  only  four  plates  or  lamellae,  while 
the  sixth  has  as  many  as  twenty- seven.  I  n  the 
fossil  proboscideans  we  can  prove  a  more  or  less 
decided  tendency  to  this  successive  replace- 
ment of  the  molars  carried  on  almost  through- 
out life,  in  place  of  the  single  shedding  and 
renewal  which  is  the  prevalent  process  in 
other  animals. 

Among  the  features  of  the  internal  organ- 
ization we  mention  first  of  all  the  form  and 
size  of  the  brain.  The  elephant  has  the 
largest  brain  of  all  living  and  fossil  animals. 
This  brain,  besides  being  larger  than  that 
of  the  whales,  exhibits  very  numerous  and 
complex  convolutions.  These  are  two  notable 
facts,  which,  however,  should  not  be  exagger- 
ated. The  point  of  importance  lies  not  in 
the  absolute  size  of  the  brain,  but  in  the  pro- 
portion of  its  mass  to  that  of  the  whole  body. 
Now,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  body  the 
elephant  has  not  a  very  large  brain.  To  show 
this  it  is  enough,  without  making  any  accurate 
measurements,  to  compare  the  contents  of  the 
brain-case  of  the  skull  of  an  elephant  and  that 
of  a  man  after  both  have  been  sawn  through. 
The  development  of  the  convolutions  of  the 
brain  likewise  stands  in  close  relation  with  the 
size  of  the  animal.  Large  animals  always 
exhibit  more  complex  convolutions  than  small 
ones  of  the  same  family.  The  brain  of  the 
elephant  even  exhibits  some  characters  which 
point  to  a  lowly  organization.  The  hemi- 
spheres of  the  large  brain  (the  cerebrum)  do 
not  cover  the  small  brain  or  cerebellum.  The 
stomach  is  simple,  the  coecum  enormous,  the 
uterus  bicornuate.  The  elephants  are  distin- 
guished from  the  other  ungulate  animals, 
except  the  Hyracida  or  rock-badger  family, 
by  their  zonary  placenta,  which  is  not  indeed 
contracted  like  that  of  the  Carnivora,  but 
nevertheless  admits  of  the  development  of  a 
deciduous  membrane  in  the  uterus. 

In  the  moist  primeval  forests  of  their  native 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS. 


29 


regions  the  elephants  roam  about,  often  in 
numerous  bands.  The  more  abundant  is  the 
supply  of  water  the  more  agreeable  is  it  to 
the  proboscis-bearers,  and  they  often  venture 
up  into  pretty  high  and  cold  mountains,  pro- 
vided they  can  find  there  ponds  and  marshes 
in  which  to  bathe  and  cool  themselves 
during  the  heat  of  the  day.  They  are  fond 
of  a  moist  heat,  but  they  do  not  dread  the 
cold  if  they  can  only  get  plenty  of  food  and 
water.  During  the  day  the  elephants  seek 
the  densest  parts  of  the  thickets,  or  plunge 
into  pools  up  to  their  heads  in  order  to  pro- 
tect themselves  against  the  Hies  and  all  sorts 
of  parasitic  insects  which  frequently  make 
their  abode  on  their  skin.  An  elephant  living 
in  a  state  of  freedom  is  seldom  seen  without 
having  its  back  occupied  by  African  beef- 
eaters (Bitpkaga  africana)  and  other  birds, 
which  render  it  the  service  of  seeking  out 
these  parasites  and  the  larva;  which  bore  into 
its  skin.  Without  being  entirely  nocturnal 
in  their  habits  a  herd  of  elephants  yet  rest 
mostly  by  day,  and  set  out  on  the  march  only 
at  sunset. 

The  elephant  is  exclusively  herbivorous. 
All  that  he  can  reach  with  his  trunk  comes 
right  to  him.  Still  he  has  his  favourite  plants. 
He  eagerly  plunders  certain  trees  by  breaking 
off  thick  branches,  from  which  he  not  only 
eats  the  leaves  and  the  buds,  but  also  strips 
off  and  swallows  the  bark,  and  even  eats  the 
wood.  The  ravages  which  a  herd  can  com- 
mit in  the  woods,  and  in  sedge  and  bamboo 
thickets,  as  well  as  in  the  plantations  of  the 
natives,  are  extraordinary.  Not  only  are  the 
branches  broken  all  along  the  route  selected 
by  such  a  troop,  but  even  tolerably  thick  trees 
are  overthrown,  and  everything  is  trampled 
into  the  ground.  The  interior  of  many 
woods  on  the  island  of  Ceylon,  on  the  Sunda 
Islands,  and  in  the  interior  of  Africa  is  acces- 
sible only  by  the  paths  which  the  elephants 
have  made  in  traversing  them.  The  herds 
frequently  number  as  many  as  a  thousand  in- 
dividuals, and  formerly,  before  man  had  com- 


menced his  disastrous  raids,  they  were,  with- 
out doubt,  much  more  numerous. 

It  will  readily  be  understood  that  such 
numerous  companies  of  these  huge  animals 
must  lay  waste  the  region  in  which  they  have 
settled  for  a  time.  Moreover,  the  elephant 
is  essentially  a  vagabond  which  continually 
changes  its  quarters  and  even  undertakes  great 
migrations,  in  the  course  of  which  it  is  stopped 
neither  by  rivers  nor  mountains,  nor  even  by 
sandy  plains  if  they  are  not  of  too  great  size. 
The  elephant  swims  easily  and  long  without 
getting  tired,  merely  keeping  the  end  of  his 
trunk  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  It 
climbs  among  rocks  with  no  little  skill,  man- 
ages to  find  out  the  lowest  passes  in  crossing 
mountains,  and  knows  how  to  overcome  the 
worst  difficulties  of  the  ground.  But  this 
dexterity  is  often  prejudiced  by  an  excessive 
caution.  The  movements  of  the  animal  are 
in  themselves  neither  graceful  nor  expert.  It 
is  always  a  very  ponderous  clumsy  creature, 
greatly  impeded  by  its  own  massiveness. 
The  trunk  alone  is  worthy  of  admiration  on 
account  of  its  flexibility,  the  certainty  with 
which  its  movements  can  be  executed,  and 
the  strength  which  it  can  put  forth.  But 
otherwise  the  elephant  is  not  very  adroit. 
Its  gait  is  pretty  slow,  though  the  colossus 
can  run  very  fast  when  once  in  full  career, 
but  this  pace  never  lasts  very  long  and  is 
always  maintained  in  a  straight  line.  The 
animal  turns  only  with  difficulty,  and  a  leap 
to  the  side  is  usually  enough  to  get  men  and 
beasts  when  pursued  out  of  the  reach  of  its 
fury. 

The  elephant  is  very  shy  and  mistrustful. 
The  slightest  noise  alarms  him,  and  any  kind 
of  artificial  hindrance,  however  insignificant, 
stops  his  progress.  It  is  manifestly  acquaint- 
ance with  man  that  has  developed  this  timidity. 
The  powerful  animal,  which  easily  uproots  a 
moderately  large  tree,  allows  itself  to  be  kept  in 
by  a  wretched  stake  stuck  in  the  earth  by  man. 

The  disposition  of  these  giants  is  very 
pacific.  Observers  have  never  been  able  to 


THE   ELEPHANTS. 


witness  quarrels  or  serious  battles  among  the 
herds.  Live  and  let  live  seems  to  be  the 
highest  law  of  these  troops.  Every  individual 
drinks,  eats,  bathes,  and  rests  according  to 
its  own  pleasure,  while  keeping  on  good 
terms  with  its  neighbour.  The  young  are 
guarded  and  tended  in  common,  are  fondled 
and  caressed  by  all,  and  are  suckled  by  the 
females  in  milk.  Only  at  the  breeding  season 
do  serious  battles  take  place  between  the 
males;  and  the  rejected  males,  which  live  as 
hermits,  the  so-called  "rogue"  elephants, 
alone  exhibit  a  fierce  disposition,  and  are 
dangerous  even  to  man. 

The  female  remains  pregnant  for  20  or  2 1 
months.  The  new-born  elephant  is  about 
three  feet  or  more  in  height.  It  sucks  with 
the  mouth,  bending  back  its  trunk,  and  is 
able  to  follow  the  herd  at  the  end  of  a  few 
hours.  The  young  continue  growing  till 
they  are  about  25  years  old,  and  examples 
are  known  of  elephants  which  have  lived  to 
be  more  than  a  hundred. 

The  mental  qualities  which  the  elephant 
exhibits  in  a  wild  state  scarcely  surpass  those 
of  other  social  animals,  and  are  certainly 
inferior  to  those  of  the  apes  and  monkeys, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  they  far  excel  those 
of  the  generally  stupid  ruminants.  An  old 
male  leads  the  herd  with  infinite  care  and 
caution.  It  is  he  who  scrutinizes  suspicious 
places,  leads  the  marches,  selects  the  halting- 
places,  and  stations  the  sentinels  to  ensure  the 
safety  of  the  herd  while  resting,  bathing,  or 
feeding.  The  herd  follows  him  with  a  blind 
confidence,  and  all  the  members  of  it  give 
themselves  up  to  their  sports  without  fear 
when  the  leader  shows  himself  satisfied. 

It  may  justly  be  said  that  the  higher 
mental  qualities  of  the  elephant,  which  cannot 
be  called  in  question,  have  been  developed 
only  after  he  came  into  contact  with  man,  his 
sole  enemy.  It  is  for  that  reason  that  he  has 
an  unbounded  fear  of  man,  and  it  is  on 
account  of  this  fear  that  he  allows  himself 
to  be  easily  tamed  and  employed  as  a 


domestic  animal,  which  still  has  its  value  in 
certain  parts,  but  wherever  civilization 
advances  must  yield  to  the  ox  and  horse, 
whose  services  in  the  way  of  labour  are  much 
greater  in  proportion  to  the  food  consumed. 

The  African  Elephant  (Elepkas  africanits, 
Plate  XVII.)  may  attain  the  height  of  16 
feet.  It  is  easily  distinguished  by  its  short, 
thickset  body,  supported  by  long  and  rather 
thin  legs,  by  its  steep  brow,  and  its  enor- 
mous flat  ears  in  the  form  of  nearly  half- 
moon  shaped  discs,  which  cover  the  neck 
and  shoulders  and  touch  the  nape  of  the 
neck  as  well  as  the  under  surface  of  the 
throat  with  their  extremities.  These  enormous 
fans  are  almost  always  in  motion,  and  impart 
to  the  animal  a  quite  peculiar  appearance 
according  to  the  position  in  which  it  holds 
them.  The  brow  appears  to  be  less  arched 
than  that  of  the  Indian  elephant,  not  in 
consequence  of  the  lower  development  of  the 
brain,  as  some  recent  writers  assert,  but 
because  the  hollow  spaces  which  we  have 
described  in  the  frontal  bone  are  not  so  much 
puffed  up.  The  trunk  is  pretty  slender, 
somewhat  compressed,  and  has  numerous 
folds  which  stand  out  on  the  edges  like 
flattened  scales.  The  tusks  of  the  males  are 
enormous,  and  may  attain  a  length  of  several 
yards  and  a  weight  of  no  Ibs.  each.1  The 
skin  is  roughly  folded,  of  a  dirty  slate-blue 
colour,  and  almost  destitute  of  hair,  which  is 
found  in  small  quantity  only  on  the  neck,  the 
breast,  and  the  belly. 

At  the  present  day  the  African  elephant, 
which  far  excels  the  Indian  in  size  and 
strength,  and  also  in  wildness,  is  only  the 
object  of  unceasing  and  destructive  pursuit, 
carried  on  for  the  sake  of  the  ivory,  the 
tusks.  The  yield  of  ivory  and  the  size  of 
the  tusks  brought  to  market  are  gradually 

1  Isolated  instances  of  much  heavier  tusks  are  recorded.  Officers 
belonging  to  the  Niger  expedition  of  1837  reported  that  a  negro 
chief  had  shown  them  two  tusks  each  measuring  2^  feet  in  circum- 
ference at  the  socket  and  weighing  more  than  330  Ibs.,  and  Broderip 
states  in  his  Zoological  Recreations  that  a  tusk  of  that  weight  was 
sold  at  Amsterdam.  See  Von  Scherzer,  Das  wirihschqftlickt  Leben 
der  Viilker,  p.  366,  n. — TR. 


To  face  past  Jo. 


PLATE  XVII.  -    THE    AFRICAN    ELEPHANT   (Elep/uts africanus). 


THE   INDIAN    ELEPHANT. 


diminishing  with  the  steady  diminution  in 
the  number  of  the  animals.  While  in  1810 
the  tusks  exported  from  Africa  weighed  on 
an  average  about  29  Ibs.,  this  average  has 
decreased  since  then  by  about  one-third. 

Though  the  tusks  in  both  species  are  pretty 
much  alike,  this  is  not  the  case  with  the 
molars.  Those  of  the  African  elephant  ex- 
hibit on  the  grinding  surface  at  most  twelve 
lozenge-shaped  bands  of  enamel,  the  middle 
angles  of  which  almost  touch  one  another. 
In  early  years  these  teeth  with  their  tubercled 
lamellae  of  enamel  still  unworn  resemble  in  a 
certain  measure  those  of  the  mastodons,  and 
it  may  be  said  in  general  that,  as  regards  the 
dentition,  the  inferior  development  of  the 
frontal  spaces,  and  a  number  of  other  char- 
acters belonging  to  the  skeleton,  the  African 
elephant  has  preserved  many  archaic  forms. 

The  ancients  used  to  tame  this  species 
and  employed  a  large  number  in  their  circus 
games  as  well  as  in  war.  In  the  time  of  the 
Caesars  thousands  of  elephants  were  caught 
every  year  and  sent  to  Rome  to  be  trained 
to  all  the  arts  for  which  Asiatic  elephants  are 
now  used.  In  our  time  hunters  have  begun 
to  send  over  young  specimens  to  our  zoo- 
logical gardens. 

The  chase  of  the  wild  elephant  is  not  in- 
deed without  danger,  but  cannot  be  compared 
in  this  respect  with  that  of  other  large  ani- 
mals. The  elephant  is  essentially  timid;  it 
flees  when  it  can,  and  though  when  wounded 
it  darts  with  fury  on  its  pursuer,  it  is  not 
very  adroit  in  its  defence,  and  usually  spends 
its  strength  in  vain.  The  hunters  of  various 
tribes  of  Inner  Africa  pursue  it  on  horseback 
or  on  foot  armed  only  with  a  two-handed 
sword.  While  one  of  the  hunters  keeps  the 
elephant  engaged,  the  others  seek  to  approach 
him  in  order  to  cut  through  at  a  stroke  the 
sinews  of  the  foot,  or  even  to  cut  the  trunk 
itself  in  two.  In  other  regions  the  elephants 
are  inclosed  in  a  ring  of  fire  by  setting  fire 
to  the  tall  grasses  of  the  steppes,  and  in 
other  places  again  they  are  entrapped  in 


carefully  concealed  pits.  But  all  these  earlier 
modes  of  elephant  hunting  are  gradually  giv- 
ing place  to  the  method  introduced  by  Euro- 
peans, that  of  shooting  them  with  heavy 
bullets  shot  from  rifles  specially  made  for  the 
purpose.  The  hunter  adopting  this  method 
usually  follows  the  elephant  on  horseback. 
The  ball  is  fatal  only  when  it  strikes  behind 
the  ear,  the  only  part  of  the  head  at  which  it 
can  penetrate  to  the  brain,  or  behind  the 
shoulder-blade  so  as  to  reach  the  heart. 
The  thick,  tough  hide  is  often  used  to  cover 
shields  or  to  make  into  straps,  but  in  most 
cases  the  hunter  contents  himself  with  hew- 
ing out  the  tusks,  leaving  the  carcass  to  the 
hyaenas  and  vultures. 

The  Indian  Elephant  (Elephas  indicus), 
Plate  XVI II.,  is  not  so  large  and  has  not  such 
long  slim  legs  as  that  of  Africa.  The  fore- 
head is  somewhat  depressed  in  the  middle 
and  highly  arched  at  the  sides.  The  ears 
are  much  smaller  and  have  the  form  of  paper- 
cornets  with  the  points  hanging  down  and 
the  upper  edge  rolled  in.  The  tusks  of  the 
male  are  straighter  and  not  so  large.  The 
molars  are  specially  characteristic.  The 
grinding  surface  exhibits  a  great  number  of 
transverse  enamel  plates,  which  form  a  series 
of  closely  adjoining  very  narrow  ellipses,  so 
that  one  may  say  that  the  whole  tooth  is 
transversely  striped  with  narrow  plates  of 
enamel  which  are  united  in  pairs  at  the  edges 
of  the  tooth.  As  fossil  species  are  found 
similar  to  the  African  elephant  in  respect  of 
its  dentition,  so  also  are  there  fossil  species 
the  molars  of  which  resembled  in  structure 
those  of  the  Indian  elephant.  Of  these  the 
best  known  is  the  mammoth  (E .  primigenius), 
a  gigantic  species  with  enormous  highly-re- 
curved tusks,  which  lived  along  with  man  in 
great  numbers  on  the  whole  of  the  European 
continent  during  the  Quaternary  period,  and 
at  the  end  of  this  period  perished  in  heaps  in 
the  Polar  regions.  As  has  been  proved  by 
the  discovery  of  well-preserved  carcasses  of 
this  species  in  the  frozen  diluvium  on  the 


THE   ELEPHANTS. 


banks  of  the  Lena,  these  mammoths  were 
covered  with  a  thick  fleece,  and  had  long 
fluttering  manes  depending  from  the  back 
and  breast. 

The  Indian  elephant  is  scarcely  hunted  at 
all  now  like  the  African  one  for  the  sake  of 
its  ivory,  but  it  is  often  captured  to  be  tamed 
and  used  for  the  transport  of  heavy  material 
over  marshy  and  difficult  ground  where  there 
are  no  roads.  For  such  work  the  elephant 
is  admirably  adapted  by  its  patience,  caution, 
and  skill,  and  its  remarkable  strength  enables 
it  to  overcome  the  greatest  obstacles.  In 
general  they  are  obedient  and  attached  to 
their  masters.  But  at  the  time  of  heat, 
which  occurs  at  irregular  periods,  they  can- 
not be  trusted,  since  they  are  then  subject 
to  sudden  accesses  of  fury.  Their  keepers 
know  very  well  that  the  increased  excretion 
of  a  strongly-smelling  oily  fluid  from  a  super- 
ficial gland  behind  the  eye  bodes  no  good. 

It  has  been  said  that  elephants  do  not 
propagate  in  captivity.  That  is  entirely 
false.  In  the  countries  in  which  elephants 
are  still  frequently  used,  in  which  they  are 
attached  to  the  royal  train,  and  even  enjoy  a 
kind  of  worship,  as,  for  example,  in  Siam, 
there  are  breeding-studs  of  elephants,  as  we 
have  breeding-studs  of  horses,  and  not  very 
long  ago  a  young  elephant  was  born  in  New 
York  of  a  female  that  had  been  kept  for 
twenty  years  in  a  menagerie.  But  the  pro- 
pagation in  this  way  takes  place  extremely 
slowly,  so  that  it  is  necessary  to  have  constant 
resort  to  wild  animals  to  make  up  deficiencies. 
In  some  countries,  especially  in  Ceylon, 
there  are  certain  castes,  in  which  the  business 
of  elephant -hunter  is  handed  down  from 
father  to  son.  Mostly  these  hunters  go  out 
in  pairs  armed  only  with  a  very  strong  lasso 
or  noose  made  of  buffalo  hide.  They  know 
how  to  slink  up  to  an  animal  unobserved, 
but  instead  of  severing  the  sinew  at  the  knee, 
like  the  African  hunters,  one  of  them  throws 
the  noose  round  one  of  its  feet  while  his 
companion  fastens  the  other  end  to  a  thick 


tree.  The  captured  elephant  becomes  furious, 
makes  all  possible  efforts  to  get  free,  but  is 
at  last  subdued  by  hunger,  thirst,  and  pain; 
and  at  the  end  of  a  few  months  the  elephant- 
catchers  return  in  triumph  with  the  tamed 
elephant,  which  is  often  accompanied  by  a 
female  and  her  young  one.  Sometimes  also 
great  elephant  battues  are  organized  for  the 
purpose  of  capturing  whole  troops. 

The  following  notices  regarding  the  elephant,  and 
account  of  the  mode  of  capturing  it  in  large  bands, 
by  G.  P.  Sanderson,  superintendent  of  government 
elephant-catching  operations  in  Bengal,  will  be  read 
with  interest: — 

"The  opinion  is  generally  held  by  those  who  have 
had  the  best  opportunities  of  observing  the  elephant, 
that  the  popular  estimate  of  its  intelligence  is  a 
greatly  exaggerated  one;  that,  instead  of  being  an 
exceptionally  wise  animal,  its  sagacity  is  of  a  very 
mediocre  description.  The  truth  of  this  opinion  no 
one  who  has  lived  amongst  elephants  can  doubt. 
It  is  a  significant  fact  that  the  natives  of  India  never 
speak  of  the  elephant  as  a  peculiarly  intelligent 
animal,  and  it  does  not  figure  in  their  ancient  litera- 
ture for  its  wisdom,  as  do  the  fox,  the  crow,  and  the 
monkey. 

"One  of  the  strongest  features  in  the  domesticated 
elephant's  character  is  its  obedience.  It  may  also 
be  readily  taught,  as  it  has  a  large  share  of  the 
ordinary  cultivable  intelligence  common,  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree,  to  all  animals.  But  its  reasoning 
faculties  are  undoubtedly  far  below  those  of  the 
dog,  and  possibly  of  other  animals ;  and  in  matters 
beyond  the  range  of  its  daily  experience  it  evinces 
no  special  discernment.  Whilst  fairly  quick  at 
comprehending  anything  sought  to  be  taught  to  it, 
the  elephant  is  decidedly  wanting  in  originality. 
To  begin  with,  the  elephant  displays  less  intelligence 
in  its  natural  state  than  most  wild  animals.  Whole 
herds  are  driven  into  ill-concealed  enclosures,  which 
no  other  forest  creatures  could  be  got  to  enter;  and 
though  these  enclosures  are  made  immensely  strong, 
and  are  generally  capable  of  resisting  the  efforts  of 
any  single  elephant,  they  would  not  for  a  moment 
withstand  the  combined  attack  of  even  two  or  three, 
much  less  of  a  whole  herd.  But  elephants  never 
thus  combine  to  free  themselves.  I  have  frequently 
seen  fifty  or  sixty  crowded  into  a  stockade  only 
thirty  yards  in  diameter,  the  palisades  of  which 
would  have  been  of  no  more  account  than  corn- 


To/act  faff  J*. 


PLATE  XVIII.  -     THE    INDIAN    ELEPHANT   (Elefhas indicui). 


THE   INDIAN    ELEPHANT. 


33 


stalks  before  the  rush  of  three  or  four  of  them,  but 
no  such  rush  has  been  made.  More  significant  still, 
I  have,  on  several  occasions,  seen  a  single  elephant 
in  a  herd,  by  a  bold  dash,  burst  through  the  palisade 
and  effect  its  esqape,  but  I  never  yet  saw  any  other 
elephant  follow,  and  the  hunters  have  at  once  re- 
paired the  breach. 

"When  a  herd  of  wild  elephants  is  secured  within 
a  stockade,  or  kliftidali,  the  mahouts  ride  trained 
elephants  amongst  the  wild  ones  without  fear, 
though  any  one  of  the  wild  ones  might,  by  a  move- 
ment of  his  trunk,  dislodge  the  men.  This  they 
never  do.  Single  elephants  are  caught  by-  being 
bound  to  trees  by  men  under  cover  of  a  couple  of 
tame  elephants,  the  wild  one  being  ignorant  of 
what  is  going  on  until  he  finds  himself  secured. 
Escaped  elephants  are  retaken  without  trouble; 
even  experience  does  not  bring  them  wisdom. 
Almost  yearly,  one  or  two  tame  elephants  of  the 
hunting  establishment  at  Dacca  are  lost  in  the 
jungles  by  straying,  or  other  accident,  whilst  en- 
gaged in  the  capture  of  their  fellows.  As  an  ex- 
ample, in  December,  1878,  an  elephant  which  had 
been  captured  three  years,  and  partially  trained  to 
hunting,  took  fright  at  the  fires  and  guns  used  in 
driving  a  herd,  and  ran  away.  Her  mahout  fell  off, 
and  nothing  more  was  seen  of  her  until  March 
last,  when  we  recaptured  her  after  four  and  a  half 
years'  absence,  in  a  herd  of  twenty-one  elephants, 
100  miles  from  where  she  was  lost.  She  had  a  calf 
at  heel.  When  pricked  with  a  spear,  and  ordered 
to  kneel,  she  did  so  promptly,  and  in  three  days 
she,  and  another  reclaimed  runaway,  were  employed 
in  the  capture  of  their  fellows.  Whilst  such  facts 
testify  to  the  docility  of  the  elephant,  they  tell 
heavily  against  its  intelligence 

"  The 'government  kheddah  plan  is  the  most  cer- 
tain and  economical  method  of  taking  wild  elephants. 
As  many  as  1 18  have  been  secured  in  one  drive  by 
this  means.  ...  A  kheddah  party  of  370  men 
having  been  collected,  it  marches  to  the  hunting 
grounds,  sometimes  200  miles  distant,  where  a  base 
camp  is  ready,  and  where  the  establishment  of  tame 
elephants,  generally  from  loo  to  150,  has  been  col- 
lected, together  with  the  stores,  tools,  and  ropes 
required  for  the  operations.  Muskets  and  rations 
having  been  delivered  to  the  men,  and  religious 
ceremonies  for  success  having  been  performed,  the 
hunters  enter  the  jungle.  The  trackers  of  the  party 
have  probably  already  marked  down  a  herd,  where- 
upon the  hunters  approach  to  within  a  mile,  and  then 

divide  under  two  experienced  leaders,  one  half  filing 
>  OL  i  r. 


off  to  the  right,  and  the  other  to  the  left,  their 
object  being  to  enclose  the  herd  in  a  large  circle  by 
meeting  beyond  it.  A  man  is  left  at  every  30 
yards  or  so  along  the  lines,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  ground.  The  skill  with  which  this  move- 
ment is  effected  is  very  remarkable,  as  the  ground 
is  usually  quite  unknown  to  the  hunters,  and  the 
difficulty  of  crossing  streams  and  hills,  of  forcing 
their  way  through  dense  jungle  where  no  path 
exists,  and  of  gaining  the  point  they  are  making 
for  without  a  compass,  is  considerable. 

"The  circle,  when  completed,  is  often  five  or  six 
miles  in  circumference.  A  large  one,  with  men 
posted  fifty  yards  apart  or  so,  is  more  efficient  in 
keeping  in  a  herd  than  a  smaller  one  with  men 
much  closer.  Unless  plenty  of  room  be  allowed  to 
the  elephants,  they  are  liable  to  break  through  the 
cordon  of  guards;  but  it  is  a  maxim  in  elephant 
catching  that,  the  circle  having  once  been  formed, 
a  herd  can  only  escape  through  accident  or  great 
carelessness.  It  usually  takes  three  or  four  hours 
to  surround  elephants.  In  a  couple  of  hours  the 
hunters  run  up  a  thin  fence  of  split  bamboos  round 
the  enclosure,  and  clear  a  path  for  communication 
between  each  others'  posts.  Their  chief  duty  then 
is  to  see  that  the  elephants  do  not  break  out  of  the 
circle.  The  animals  seldom  give  trouble  during 
the  day ;  at  night  large  fires  are  kept  up,  and  shouts 
and  shots  are  used  to  drive  them  back  should  they 
approach.  The  bamboo  fencing  serves  to  show  the 
chief  hunters,  who  patrol  the  circle  at  intervals, 
where  the  elephants  have  broken  out  should  they 
escape,  so  that  the  particular  men  who  are  to  blame 
can  be  detected.  This  investment  of  the  elephants 
may  have  to  be  maintained  for  a  week,  sometimes 
for  a  month,  if  the  elephants  cannot  be  secured  in 
the  first  attempts. 

"The  elephants  usually  give  some  little  trouble  for 
the  first  two  nights,  but  their  conservative  nature 
then  seems  to  lead  them  to  believe  that  there  are 
set  bounds  to  their  wanderings ;  and  unless  fodder 
or  water  becomes  scarce,  they  seldom  try  to  force 
the  guards.  A  small  herd  always  gives  more  trouble 
than  a  large  one.  The  former  may  only  be  a 
wandering  party  from  some  large  body  of  elephants 
not  far  away;  it  then  shows  a  strong  desire  to  break 
through  to  join  its  companions.  A  small  herd,  too, 
probably  has  no  calves  with  it,  which  is  a  great  dis- 
advantage, as  it  is  then  restless  and  quick  in  its 
movements.  And  a  herd  of  a  dozen  elephants  or 
so  may  be  well  in  command  of  one  courageous 
leader;  whereas,  in  a  large  gathering,  timid  animals 

37 


34 


THE   ELEPHANTS. 


preponderate  so  greatly  that  a  panic  is  easily  esta- 
blished, and  elephants  that  might  otherwise  behave 
boldly  become  infected  with  the  general  fear.  .  .  . 
"On  the  day  following  the  investment  of  the  herd, 
the  construction  of  the  kheddah,  or  small  enclosure 
into  which  the  elephants  are  to  be  driven,  is  com- 
menced. It  is  situated  on  one  of  their  chief  paths 
(within  the  circle)  and  is  constructed  with  the  trunks 
of  young  trees,  about  6  inches  in  diameter,  and  12 
feet  high,  arranged  in  a  circle  of  from  20  to  50 
yards  across.  Inside,  round  the  foot  of  the  pali- 
sades, a  trench  6  feet  wide  and  4  feet  deep  is  dug, 
the  earth  from  this  being  thrown  up  into  a  bank  on 
the  inner  side.  The  trench  and  bank  of  loose  earth 
usually  deter  elephants  from  attacking  the  stockade, 
or  should  they  do  so,  prevent  their  employing  their 
full  force  against  it.  The  palisades  are  lashed  to- 
gether with  canes,  and  are  strongly  supported  by 
cross  beams  and  forked  supports  behind,  the  whole 
structure  being  designed  to  support  outward  pres- 
sure only.  Were  elephants  to  pull  the  palisades 
inwards,  they  would  yield  at  once,  but  they  never 
use  their  trunks  for  this  purpose.  An  entrance  of 
4  yards  in  width  is  left  for  the  ingress  of  the  herd, 
and  a  gate,  studded  inside  with  sharp  spikes,  is 
either  slung  from  the  trees  overhead,  or  is  made  in 
two  leaves,  and  is  pushed  to  upon  the  entrance  of 
the  herd,  by  men  stationed  behind  it. 

"Astockadeof  40  yards  indiameteraccommodates 
100  elephants  easily.  To  guide  the  elephants  into 
it,  two  lines  of  strong  palisades  are  run  out  from 
the  gate  along  each  side  of  the  path  by  which  the 
herd  is  to  approach.  These  guiding  wings  diverge 
to  perhaps  60  yards  across  at  their  commencement, 
which  may  be  100  yards  or  so  from  the  gate. 
When  the  whole  is  completed,  the  new  woodwork 
is  hidden  with  leaves  and  branches.  The  stockade 
is  usually  completed  in  three  or  four  days.  The 
hunters  consider  Friday  the  most  lucky  day  for 
driving,  and  they  make  extraordinary  efforts  to  get 
the  stockade  ready  by  that  day  if  possible.  The 
work  of  the  stockade  is  done  by  one  half  the  hunters 
being  taken  from  the  large  circle  from  morning  till 
evening  daily,  as  a  weak  cordon  of  guards  suffices 
to  keep  the  elephants  in  during  the  day. 

"  All  being  in  readiness  for  driving  a  number  of 
men  are  taken  from  the  original  circle,  and  a  smaller 
interior  surround  is  formed  by  commencing  at  the 
guiding  wings  of  the  kheddah,  and  posting  the  men 
until  the  elephants  are  again  closed.  The  original 
circle  is,  of  course,  still  maintained,  in  case  of  the 
elephants  breaking  through  the  inner  one.  If  the 


herd  be  in  two  or  three  detachments,  as  frequently 
happens,  these  are  quietly  driven  together,  and  the 
whole  are  then  moved  forward  towards  the  kheddah. 
Should  they  show  an  inclination  to  break  to  the 
right  or  left,  the  men  deter  them  by  striking  their 
axes  against  the  trees.  When  the  elephants  gain 
the  funnel-shaped  approach  to  the  stockade,  the 
men  close  in  from  behind,  and  from  the  sides,  and 
urge  them  on  with  shots  and  shouts.  If  the  herd 
suspects  danger,  and  breaks  back  through  the 
beaters,  fatal  accidents  not  uncommonly  occur. 
Sometimes  a  herd  declines  altogether  to  go  in  the 
direction  of  the  stockade,  owing  to  their  having  the 
wind  from  thatquarter.  In  sucha  case  a  new  stockade 
may  have  to  be  constructed,  and  if  that  does  not 
succeed,  others  also.  In  this  way  elephants  are 
sometimes  kept  in  a  surround  for  a  month.  .  .  . 

"When  a  herd  has  been  driven  into  the  stockade, 
the  gate  is  closed  and  barricaded,  and  men  with 
firebrands  and  spears  repel  any  attacks  upon  it  or 
the  palisades.  But  the  trench  is  usually  sufficient 
to  deter  the  elephants  from  crossing  it.  On  the 
same,  or  following  day,  ten  or  twelve  tame  ele- 
phants are  admitted  with  a  mahout  and  rope-tier 
upon  each.  .  .  .  The  mahouts  separate  the 
wild  elephants  one  by  one  from  their  companions, 
when  their  hind  legs  are  tied  by  men  who  slip  to 
the  ground  for  the  purpose.  A  rope  is  then  secured 
round  each  captive's  neck,  and  to  its  hind  legs,  and 
it  is  led  out  and  picketed  in  the  forest  near.  .  .  . 

"The  number  of  wild  elephants  that  can  be  taken 
care  of  is,  at  the  most,  50  per  cent  more  than  the 
tame  ones.  As  each  capture  is  concluded,  the  wild 
elephants  are  marched  out  of  the  jungle  into  open 
country,  for  if  kept  in  the  forest  they  continue  to 
be  excited  by  jungle  sights  and  sounds,  and  to 
struggle  for  liberty,  whilst  flies  are  much  more 
troublesome  to  their  wounds  in  the  jungle  than  in 
the  plains.  Each  batch  of  new  elephants  requires 
a  number  of  tame  ones  to  be  detached  in  charge  of 
it;  thus  the  hunting  operations  are  limited  by  the 
number  of  the  latter. 

"When  a  sufficient  number  of  elephants  has  been 
taken,  the  hunters  are  dismissed,  and  all  elephants 
under  7  feet  in  height  are  sold  to  merchants  who 
follow  the  kheddah  parties  for  the  purpose  of  pur- 
chasing such.  Those  above  7  feet  are  retained  for 
government  service,  except  some  males  and  old 
females,  which  are  also  disposed  of.  Not  more 
than  30  per  cent  of  the  elephants  captured  are 
young  and  strong  females,  thoroughly  suitable  for 
government  service." 


GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTRIBUTION    AND    DESCENT. 


35 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION   AND 
DESCENT   OF  THE   PROBOSCIDEANS. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  the  pro- 
boscideans of  the  present  day  may  be  summed 
up  in  a  few  words.  They  are  entirely  con- 
fined to  the  warmer  parts  of  the  Old  World, 
and  while  the  African  elephant  inhabits  the 
whole  of  the  mainland  of  that  continent  south 
of  the  Sahara,  the  Indian  elephant  is  found 
everywhere  to  the  south  of  the  Himalayas 
as  far  as  the  frontiers  of  China,  and  on  the 
large  islands  in  the  south  from  Ceylon  to 
Borneo  and  Sumatra.  It  may  be  that  the 
elephants  from  the  last-mentioned  island  form 
a  separate  geographical  variety,  but,  if  so, 
this  variety  is  only  slightly  different  from  the 
elephant  belonging  to  the  mainland. 

The  problem  becomes  much  more  com- 
plicated when  we  take  into  account  the  fossil 
proboscideans,  of  which  we  know  with  cer- 
tainty besides  the  elephants  two  different 
genera  now  quite  extinct :  the  Mastodons 
with  a  few  tubercled  molars,  and  the  Dino- 
theria  with  numerous  smaller  molars,  whose 
crowns  have  transverse  ridges  (Zygodonts). 
To  enter  more  thoroughly  into  the  problem 
we  must  study  the  origin  of  the  Proboscidea, 
and  the  relations  in  which  the  individual 
genera  stand  to  each  other. 

The  true  elephants  have  come  down  to  us 
from  the  Miocene  period,  and  in  particular 
the  Upper  Miocene  of  India.  They  are 
accordingly  of  comparatively  recent  date,  and 
are  not  even  known  in  the  contemporaneous 
strata  of  other  countries.  In  Europe  it  is 
not  till  the  time  of  the  Lower  Pliocene  that 
we  meet  with  species  which  approach  the 
African  form  in  the  structure  of  their  molars. 
The  Miocene  Indian  elephants  from  the 
Sewalik  Hills,  from  Ava  and  Perim,  belong 
to  a  pretty  considerable  number  of  species, 
whose  molars  form  transitions  to  the  masto- 
dons through  having  their  enamel  folds 
notched  into  the  form  of  tubercles.  This 


approximation  is  so  close,  indeed,  that  certain 
species  (Elephas  Cliftii,  E.  insignis),  forming 
the  sub-genus  Stenodon,  are  considered  by 
some  naturalists  to  be  true  mastodons.  Only 
in  the  Pleistocene  of  the  "forest  bed"  of 
Cromer,  near  Norwich,  and  in  the  contem- 
poraneous strata  on  the  mainland  of  Europe 
and  in  North  America,  are  there  found 
elephants  whose  dentition  approaches  more 
nearly  to  that  of  the  Indian  species,  and 
since  the  African  type  still  continues  we  find 
the  two  still  living  forms  almost  everywhere 
together  at  that  time.  But  in  Quaternary 
times  the  species  of  the  African  type  are  for 
the  most  part  restricted  to  the  regions  lying 
round  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  while  those  of 
the  Indian  type,  and  especially  the  mammoth 
(E.  primigenius),  are  spread  over  the  whole 
of  the  European  mainland  and  the  whole  of 
Asia  north  of  the  Altai  as  far  as  the  Polar 
Regions.  The  elephants  of  the  African  type 
(E. prisons,  meridionalis,  &c.)  died  out  earlier 
than  the  others.  The  mammoth,  as  already 
intimated,  survived  to  be  a  contemporary  of 
man,  and  an  allied  species  (E.  Columbi)  lived 
in  Georgia  and  Mexico  into  the  Ice  Age. 

The  molars  present  so  many  transitional 
forms  not  easy  to  distinguish  that  we  may 
fairly  infer  a  progressive  development  of  the 
species  from  one  another.  Since  the  elephants 
undertake  extensive  migrations,  we  are  driven 
to  assume  that  they  gradually  extended  their 
domain  westwards  and  northwards  from  India, 
becoming  meanwhile  slightly  modified  in 
their  forms,  and  that  these  migrations  re- 
quired a  long  interval  of  time,  so  that  the 
elephants  did  not  reach  the  centre  and  south 
of  Europe  till  Pliocene,  nor  the  north  till 
Quaternary  times.  The  Miocene  deposits 
of  India  have  yielded  species  from  which  the 
types  now  living  can  be  derived  without 
difficulty.  The  African  elephant  still  lived 
beyond  a  doubt  in  Malta,  Sicily,  and  Southern 
Italy  during  the  Quaternary  period. 

Be  that  as  it  may,  the  astounding  fact  still 
remains  that  enormous  accumulations  of  the 


THE   ELEPHANTS. 


remains  of  the  mammoth,  and  even  whole 
carcasses  with  the  flesh  and  skin,  have  been 
found  even  in  the  most  remote  islands  of  the 
Arctic  Seas,  and  that  this  extinct  species, 
which  furnishes  us  at  the  present  day  from 
Siberia  with  much  of  the  ivory  of  commerce, 
was  adapted,  as  is  shown  by  its  maned  woolly 
fleece,  to  much  colder  climates  than  those  of 
our  temperate  zone,  while  our  still  living 
almost  naked  elephants  are  not  met  with  far 
outside  the  tropics.  The  presence  of  Quater- 
nary elephants  in  the  United  States  and  in 
Mexico  perhaps  finds  its  explanation  in  this, 
that  migrations  of  these  animals  took  place 
across  Behring's  Strait,  a  view  supported 
by  the  fact  that  on  the  islands  and  coasts 
of  this  strait  enormous  accumulations  of 
remains  have  been  found  partly  buried  under 
very  old  glaciers. 

The  genus  Mastodon  is  distinguished  from 
the  elephants  especially  by  its  tuberculated 
molars,  by  having  more  or  less  deciduous 
tusks  (incisors)  in  the  lower  jaw,  and  by  the 
absence  of  air-spaces  in  the  frontal  bones. 
This  remarkable  genus  appeared,  in  Europe 
at  least,  at  the  time  of  the  Middle  Miocene 
at  Simorre  and  in  Orleanais,  and  prevailed 
chiefly  during  the  time  of  the  Upper  Miocene, 
when  Europe  rivalled  India  in  the  wealth  of 
species.  The  Pliocene  witnessed  a  diminu- 
tion in  the  number  of  species.  At  this  stage 
the  genus  died  out  in  Europe  and  the  whole 
of  the  Old  World,  while  it  appears  again  with 
the  Pleistocene  both  in  North  and  South 
America,  and  evens  exhibits  several  species 
in  the  Quaternary  strata  of  that  hemisphere. 
The  great  mastodon  of  the  Ohio  {Mastodon 
giganteunt]  played  a  similiar  role  during  the 
Quaternary  period  in  North  America  to  that 
played  by  the  mammoth  in  the  Old  World. 
The  elephants  have,  without  doubt,  developed 
from  mastodons,  for  in  spite  of  all  the  dis- 
tinctions which  we  have  mentioned,  there  are 
yet  transitional  forms  so  closely  related  to 
one  another  that  we  cannot  but  agree  with 
Gaudry  in  saying,  "  In  reality  it  is  impossibfe 


to  say  at  what  moment  a  tooth  can  no  longer 
be  ascribed  to  a  mastodon  or  must  be  ascribed 
to  an  elephant." 

But  while  we  remain  confined  to  the  region 
of  well -distinguished  species,  we  must  con- 
clude from  the  fact  above  enumerated,  that 
the  mastodons,  having  first  appeared  on  the 
mainland  of  the  Old  World,  migrated  to 
America  towards  the  close  of  the  Pliocene, 
and  there  continued  to  exist  till  the  beginning 
of  the  present  period. 

The  extinct  genus  Dinotherium  deviates 
most  widely  from  the  rest  of  the  Proboscidea. 
The  skull  so  closely  resembles  that  of  the 
sea-cows  that  many  naturalists  included  the 
animal  in  this  order  before  the  limbs  were 
discovered.  The  molars  were  ascribed  by 
Cuvier  to  a  gigantic  tapir,  and  lastly,  the 
enormous  sabre-like  tusks  set  in  the  down- 
wardly curved  lower  jaw  impart  to  the  animal 
a  quite  peculiar  aspect.  The  bones  of  the 
limbs  discovered  at  Pikermi  and  in  Bohemia 
leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  true  relationships 
of  the  Dinotheria;  they  exhibit  very  close 
affinities  to  those  of  the  Mastodons.  The 
form  of  the  molars  with  transverse  ridges, 
the  so-called  zygodont  molars,  can  throw 
little  light  on  the  affinities  of  the  Dinotheria, 
for  this  form  is  found  also  in  the  kangaroos, 
manatees,  and  tapirs,  as  well  as  in  our 
elephants.  The  presence  of  large  incisors 
in  the  form  of  tusks  in  the  lower  jaw  is 
remarkable.  The  Mastodons,  the  oldest 
proboscideans,  have  incisors  in  both  jaws; 
the  elephants,  their  successors,  have  them 
only  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  the  Dinotheria 
only  in  the  lower  jaw.  The  Dinotheria  be- 
came extinct  at  the  close  of  the  Tertiary 
period. 

If  we  can  trace  back  the  ancestral  stock 
of  our  present  elephants  to  the  Miocene 
mastodon  of  Simorre  with  narrow  teeth,  it  is 
impossible  for  us  to  pursue  it  to  a  more 
remote  antiquity.  The  mastodons,  no  doubt, 
exhibit  distant  relationships  to  the  ungulates 
generally,  and  especially  to  the  even-toed 


GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTRIBUTION   AND    DESCENT. 


37 


ungulates  (Artiodactyla),  but  these  relations 
do  not  suffice  to  represent  any  special  stock. 
All  the  affinities  that  have  hitherto  been 
suggested  break  down  in  face  of  one  slight 
objection,  namely"  this,  that  the  supposed 
ancestors  belong  to  more  recent  strata  than 
their  assumed  descendants.  There  is  only 
one  exception.  The  members  of  the  genus 
Dinoceras,  gigantic  animals  from  the  Middle 
Eocene  of  Wyoming  and  Colorado  at  the  foot 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  are  older  than  the 
mastodons.  But  does  that  suffice  to  entitle 
us  to  regard  these  forms  as  constituting  the 
primitive  stock  of  our  proboscideans?  I  do 
not  believe  it.  It  appears  to  me  difficult 


to  bring  these  animals,  furnished  with  horn- 
like bony  excrescences,  numerous  very 
small  molars,  and  enormous  canines  and 
no  incisors,  into  connection  with  the  pro- 
boscideans, in  which  the  incisors  play  so 
important  a  role  and  the  canines  are  always 
absent. 

To  sum  up,  the  Proboscidea  form  a  separate 
order,  which  has  some  affinities  to  the  Un- 
gulata,  which  was  formerly  spread  over  the 
whole  breadth  of  the  mainlands  of  both  hemi- 
spheres, but  which  is  now  in  process  of  rapid 
decay,  since  its  members  are  all  extinct  with 
the  exception  of  two  species  living  in  the 
tropics  of  the  Old  World. 


ODD-TOED    UNGULATES 


(PERISSODACTYLA). 


Hoofed  animal  mostly  of  large  size,  usually  with  an  odd  number  of  toes  on  both  pairs  of  feet,  the  middle  toe  being 
the  one  that  continues  the  axis  of  the  leg.  The  thigh-bone  has  a  third  trochanter;  dentition  complete; 
stomach  simple;  teats  abdominal  or  inguinal;  placenta  usually  diffuse  and  composed  of  separate  cotyledons 
distributed  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  ovum. 


The  animals  belonging  to  this  order  formed 
the  greater  part  of  the  division  of  the  Pachy- 
derms with  an  odd  number  of  toes  of  Cuvier, 
the  group  of  herbivorous  Pachyderms  of 
other  authors,  who  do  not  ascribe  so  much 
importance  to  the  structure  of  the  feet  as  has 
been  done  in  recent  times  especially  with 
respect  to  the  fossil  series.  The  genera  now 
living  are,  in  fact,  only  the  greatly  thinned 
and  isolated  relics  of  the  fossil  types,  and  in 
order  to  acquire  a  proper  understanding  of 
the  relations  of  the  living  Perissodactyla 
among  one  another,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
recourse  to  the  fossil  forms  from  which  they 
are  derived. 

We  comprise  in  this  order  the  Rock-badger 
or  cony  family  (Hyracida),  Rhinoceroses, 
Tapirs,  and  Horses,  but  willingly  confess  that 
the  rhinoceroses  and  the  tapirs  alone  have 
near  relations  of  affinity  to  one  another  in  the 
fauna  of  the  present  day,  while  the  horses, 
and  in  a  still  greater  degree  the  rock-badgers, 
appear  to  be  much  more  divergent  types. 

The  leading  character  of  this  order  consists 
in  the  structure  of  the  feet,  which  serve  for 
no  other  use  than  standing  or  running,  and  in 
which  the  distal  or  lower  end  is  dominated  by 
an  axis  running  through  the  middle  toe,  to 
which  all  the  others  are  from  the  first  sub- 


ordinate. We  have  at  the  present  day  not  a 
single  five-toed  perissodactyle  surviving,  but 
the  original  number  of  the  toes  was  five,  and 
if  we  trace  the  series  back  to  the  oldest  Eocene 
strata,  we  can  demonstrate  the  existence  of 
certain  five-toed  perissodactyles  in  these  strata, 
and  arrange  the  forms  in  stages,  showing  how 
by  a  gradual  reduction  in  the  number  of  toes 
we  arrive  at  the  apparently  single-toed  foot  of 
the  horse.  The  law  according  to  which  these 
reductions  take  place  is  easy  to  understand. 
First  of  all  the  toes  destined  to  disappear 
do  not  develop  sufficiently  to  touch  the 
ground,  they  become  steadily  shorter  and 
more  rudimentary,  while  the  middle  toe  gains 
in  importance,  and  is  brought  into  the  same 
line  with  the  bones  belonging  to  it  of  the 
carpus  and  metacarpus  in  the  fore-limbs,  or 
tarsus  and  metatarsus  in  the  hind  limbs  (that 
is,  the  bones  corresponding  in  the  one  case 
to  those  of  the  wrist  and  palm  of  the  hand,  in 
the  other  to  the  ankle  and  sole  of  the  foot). 
This  process  of  reduction  first  affects  the  first 
or  innermost  digit,  which  disappears  before 
all  the  others.  The  fore-feet  of  the  tapirs 
and  rock-badgers  still  have  four  toes;  the  first 
digit  is  altogether  wanting,  but  it  is  at  once 
felt  that  the  fifth  digit  is  already  condemned 
to  impotence  and  tends  to  vanish.  This  loss 


THE    ROCK-BADGER   OR   CONY    FAMILY. 


39 


is  completed  on  all  the  four  feet  of  the  rhin- 
oceroses and  on  the  hind-feet  of  the  Hyracida 
and  tapirs,  so  that  these  feet  are  composed 
only  of  the  dominant  middle  toe  together  with 
the  second  and  fourth  digits.  The  gradual 
loss  of  the  latter  two  digits  can  be  traced  in 
the  series  of  fossil  horses.  In  the  fossil  genus 
Hipparion  they  no  longer  touch  the  ground, 
and  carry  so-called  false  hoofs,  and  in  our 
present-day  horses  they  are  reduced  to  two 
little  style-like  splint-bones,  as  they  are  called, 
attached  to  the  two  sides  of  the  enormously 
enlarged  metacarpal  (or  metatarsal)  bone. 
This  reduction,  which  converts  the  limb  into 
a  column,  leads,  as  may  easily  be  imagined, 
to  the  loss  of  the  ulna  in  the  fore-limb  and  to 
that  of  the  fibula  in  the  hind-leg,  so  that 
the  lower  arm  and  lower  leg,  each  originally 
composed  of  two  distinct  bones,  come  at  last 
to  consist  only  of  the  radius  (chief  bone  of  the 
fore-arm)  and  tibia  (shin-bone)  respectively. 

The  limbs  themselves  are  sometimes 
shorter  and  more  massive,  as  in  the  rhino- 
ceroses and  the  tapirs,  sometimes  longer,  as 
in  the  horses;  but  whatever  their  special 
organization  may  be,  one  characteristic  is 
always  present:  the  thigh-bone  always  has 
below  the  great  trochanter  a  separate  bony 
process,  known  as  the  third  trochanter,  for 
the  attachment  of  the  muscles.  This  process 
often  becomes  remarkably  large,  as  in  the 
rhinoceros,  and  since  it  is  never  absent  it 
affords  an  excellent  distinguishing  character. 

What  still  further  distinguishes  the  Peris- 
sodactyla  is  the  large  number  of  vertebra 
between  the  neck  and  the  pelvis — of  rib- 
bearing  dorsal  vertebrae  and  of  lumbar 
vertebrae.  The  number  of  these  vertebrae  is 
never  less  than  22,  it  may  rise  even  to  29  or 
30.  In  a  rock-badger  belonging  to  the  Cape 
I  have  counted  as  many  as  21  rib-bearing 
and  8  lumbar  vertebrae. 

The  dentition  presents  highly  archaic 
characters  in  the  cheek-teeth  along  with 
pretty  considerable  modifications  in  the  front 
teeth.  We  always  find,  in  fact,  in  the  first 


instance  seven  cheek-teeth  in  each  half  of  the 
jaw,  both  above  and  below,  and  these  re- 
semble each  other  so  closely  that  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  distinguish  premolars  from  true 
molars  by  the  form.  All  these  teeth  are 
compound  and  exhibit  on  the  grinding  surface 
of  the  crown  varied  forms  of  enamel  folds, 
which  become  more  and  more  prominent  as 
the  teeth  get  worn  away  by  use,  and  which, 
at  least  in  the  horse  series,  increase  in  com- 
plexity from  ancient  to  more  recent  times. 
The  close-set  series  of  cheek-teeth  are  separ- 
ated from  the  front  teeth  by  a  larger  or 
smaller  interval  or  diastema.  In  this  front 
set  of  teeth  there  prevails  great  diversity. 
The  incisors,  originally  present  in  considerable 
number,  may  become  specialized  as  in  the 
Hyracida,  or  become  deciduous  as  in  the 
rhinoceroses;  the  canines,  always  weak,  may 
become  quite  rudimentary. 

The  brain  of  all  perissodactyles  is  not  very 
large,  and  the  hemispheres  of  the  cerebrum 
always  leave  the  cerebellum  uncovered.  The 
brain  of  the  rock-badger  shows  some  very 
simple  convolutions ;  the  hemispheres  of  the 
large  genera,  as  is  always  the  case  with  larger 
animals,  have  more  complex  convolutions. 
The  intelligence  of  these  animals,  even  of  the 
most  perfect,  such  as  the  horse,  is  always 
very  limited.  The  stomach  is  simple  and 
relatively  small,  and  shows  no  tendency  to 
a  further  subdivision.  The  intestines,  and 
especially  the  caecum,  are  very  long,  as  in 
many  entirely  herbivorous  animals. 

THE 
ROCK-BADGER  OR  CONY  FAMILY 

(HYRACIDA). 

This  family  contains  animals  of  the  size  of 
a  rabbit,  which  are  so  very  different  from  the 
other  Perissodactyla  in  respect  of  various 
characters  that  they  may  very  well  be  taken 
to  form  a  sub-order.1  Formerly  these  little 

1  By  many  naturalists  they  are  regarded  as  constituting  a  separate 
order. — TR. 


40 


THE   ODD-TOED   UNGULATES. 


inhabitants  of  the  stony  deserts  of  Africa  and 
Syria  were  regarded  as  rodents,  and  the  older 
zoologists  were  not  a  little  astonished  when 
Cuvier  declared  that  they  had  a  great  resem- 
blance to  the  rhinoceroses.  Their  possession 
of  a  zonary  placenta  induced  many  more 
recent  naturalists  to  rank  them  with  the  ele- 
phants. Now  that  we  are  acquainted  with  a 
considerable  number  of  fossil  ungulates  of 
small  size,  both  odd-toed  and  even-toed,  the 
persistence  of  a  genus,  which  is  about  equal 
in  size  to  such  old  genera  as  Tapirulus,  has 
nothing  so  very  remarkable  about  it  as  ap- 
peared to  be  the  case  when  only  the  large  Per- 
issodactyla  of  the  present  day  were  known. 

In  their  external  appearance  the  Hyracida 
resemble  small  marmots,  the  bobaks  of  the 
Russian  steppes,  and  the  prairie  dogs  of  North 
America  (Cynomys).  The  short  fat  body 
ending  with  a  thick  head,  pointed  in  front 
and  supported  by  two  pairs  of  short  slender 
limbs,  while  at  the  other  end  there  is  only 
a  short  stump  representing  a  tail,  is  clothed 
with  a  fine  thick  silky  fur  of  a  yellowish-gray 
colour,  which  is  darker  on  the  back  than 
underneath,  and  is  somewhat  shaded  round 
the  eyes  and  mouth.  The  muzzle  is  that  of 
a  rodent,  the  upper  lip  is  cleft  in  the  middle, 
the  eyes  are  small  and  prominent,  the  ears 
rounded,  almost  concealed  under  the  hair. 
The  weak  and  short  feet  have  four  toes  in 
front  and  three  behind,  and  these  toes  are 
united  down  to  their  extremities  by  skin  and 
are  covered  with  small  slightly  arched  hoofs, 
with  the  exception  of  the  inner  toe  of  the 
hind-foot,  which  carries  a  small  claw.  The 
sole  of  the  foot  is  covered  with  a  firm,  rough 
naked  skin  divided  into  several  lobes  by 
means  of  deep  furrows.  The  Hyracida  can 
make  use  of  these  little  cushions  and  furrows 
for  the  production  of  vacuums  which  act  as 
suckers.  In  this  manner  they  cling  to  the 
smooth  surfaces  of  the  rocks,  in  the  clefts  of 
which  they  have  their  retreats.  They  climb 
just  as  easily  as  geckos,  and  attach  them- 
selves like  tree-frogs  to  smooth  surfaces. 


What  is  most  striking  in  the  skeleton  of 
these  little  animals  is  the  very  large  number 
of  dorsal  and  lumbar  vertebrae,  the  fused  tail 
vertebrae,  the  structure  of  the  feet,  which 
resemble  those  of  tapirs  on  a  small  scale,  the 
remarkable  width  of  the  skull  between  the 
eyes,  and  the  great  height  and  breadth  of 
the  posterior  half  of  the  lower  jaw. 

The  dentition  is  distinguished  by  an  ap- 
proximation to  that  of  the  rodents,  indicated 
mainly,  indeed,  in  the  incisors,  but  made  still 
more  marked  by  the  entire  absence  of  canines 
in  both  jaws.  The  development  of  a  large 
rootless  curved  incisor  in  each  half  of  the 
premaxilla  reminds  us  of  the  rodents.  But 
these  incisors  present,  not  one,  but  two 
external  surfaces  covered  with  white  enamel, 
while  the  internal  surface  is  merely  formed 
of  dentine.  A  transverse  section  of  one  of 
these  continuously  growing  incisors  exhibits 
the  form  of  an  equilateral  triangle,  and  as  the 
tooth  gets  worn  away  by  use  it  always  shows 
two  cutting  edges,  which  unite  in  the  middle 
in  a  point  corresponding  to  the  angle  at 
which  the  enamel  surfaces  meet  one  another. 
In  the  milk  dentition  there  is  a  second  pair 
of  quite  small  incisors,  which  are  soon  shed 
and  are  never  replaced.  The  lower  incisors 
are  four  in  number,  and  are  very  closely  set 
at  the  fused  symphysis  of  the  halves  of 
the  lower  jaw.  They  have  the  form  of  long 
compressed  blades  lying  obliquely  and  worn 
away  transversely. 

Behind  the  incisors  there  follows  a 
diastema  in  place  of  the  canine,  and  after- 
wards there  follow  seven,  or  even  eight, 
cheek-teeth  in  each  half  of  the  jaw,  and  these, 
while  all  very  similar  in  form,  increase  in  size 
from  before  backwards.  There  are,  in  fact, 
four  premolars  and  three  or  four  true  molars. 
The  upper  cheek-teeth  are  larger  than  the 
lower;  both  above  and  below  each  tooth 
seems  to  consist  of  two  halves.  In  the  upper 
jaw  each  half  has  an  internal  heel  surrounded 
by  a  strip  of  enamel,  and  both  heels  are 
united  by  a  strong  external  serrated  enamel 


THE    TAPIR    FAMILY. 


plate.  In  the  lower  jaw  each  cheek-tooth 
is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  half-  moon 
shaped  parts  with  the  convexity  to  the  out- 
side. These  molars  resemble  those  of  the 


1  .  o  .-7-8 

2  .  o  .  7-8 


fossil  Palaeotheria.    Dental  formula: 

=  34-38  teeth. 

The  largest  species  of  the  genus  Hyrax, 

the    Cape    Daman    (H.    capcnsis],    which   the 

Dutch  settlers  call   Klippdass,   that  is,   rock- 

badger,  attains  a  length  of  15  or   1  6  inches. 

Like     the     Syrian 

Hyrax    (H.    syria- 

fits),     which     is 

known  in  the  He- 

brew Scriptures 

by    the    name    of 

Saphan     (in     the 

authorised  version 

Cony),     and     the 

Abyssinian  hyrax, 

the  Ashkok  of  the 

natives  (H.  habcs- 

sim'fus),    which    is 

shown  in  fig.  145, 

this  animal   is  found  in  large  companies  in- 

habiting stony  deserts,   where  it  can  easily 

find    retreats    amongst    fragments    of   rock, 

and    has    abundance    of   savoury    plants    for 

its    food.       These    companies    behave    very 

much  as  marmots  do.      They  come  out  of 

their    holes    and    corners    only    after    they 

have  cautiously  examined  all   round   to  see 

that  there   is  no  danger.     They  sit  upright 

on    the    watch,     never    go    very    far    from 

their  holes,  and  give  warning  of  danger  by 

means   of  a   sharp  whistling   sound.     They 

bring  forth  only  two  young  ones  at  a  time, 

but  these  soon  become  independent  of  their 

mother,  and  would  soon  swarm  all  round  if 

it  were  not  that  many  of  them,  in  spite  of  all 

their  caution,  become  the  prey  of  carnivores. 

They  are  delightful    little  creatures,   always 

good-humoured,    agile    in    their   sports,    but 

rather   lazy    where    food    is   abundant,    and, 

according    to  the  reports  of  travellers,   live 

VOL.  II. 


Fig.  145. — The  Abyssinian  Hyrax  (Hyrax  habessinicus}. 


notwithstanding  their  timidity  on  good  terms 
with  ichneumons  and  large  lizards.  The  flesh 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  rabbit,  and  here  and 
there  is  much  liked  and  eaten. 

Although  in  most  species  there  is  a  com- 
plete adaptation  to  a  life  among  the  rocks,  it 
is  not  to  be  inferred  that  this  is  universally 
true  of  the  group.  There  are,  in  fact,  in 
Mozambique  and  in  the  interior  of  Africa 
certain  species  out  of  which  the  genus  Den- 
drohyrax  has  been  formed,  a  genus  scarcely 

distinguishable  in- 
deed by  any  es- 
sential characters 
in  the  dentition 
or  in  the  struc- 
ture of  the  limbs, 
but  one  of  which 
the  species  pass 
their  life  on  trees, 
pairs  buildingnests 
for  themselves  in 
holes  in  the  trunks, 
and,  in  short,  be- 
having altogether 
as  climbing  animals.  The  structure  of  the 
extremities  already  described  facilitates  in 
these  species  the  climbing  even  of  straight 
stems.  It  is  a  remarkable  example  of 
adaptation  to  a  tolerably  diverse  mode  of 
life,  but  one  which  is  rendered  intelligible 
by  the  relations  that  may  have  subsisted 
between  the  essentially  arboreal  Prosimii 
and  their  supposed  ungulate  ancestors. 

THE   TAPIR   FAMILY 

(TAP  I  RID  A). 

The  family  of  the  tapirs  has  originated 
from  one  of  the  oldest  mammalian  stocks, 
one  that  was  distributed  in  Eocene  times 
over  the  whole  earth. 

The  Tapirs  (Tapirus)  are  clumsy,  massive, 
short-legged  animals  of  about  the  height  of 
an  ass,  but  with  the  general  appearance  of  a 
pig,  from  which,  however,  they  are  at  once 

88 


42 

distinguished  by  the  structure  of  the  feet, 
these  having  four  hoofed  toes  in  front,  three 
behind.  The  longish  head  with  pretty  high 
brow  has  a  certain  resemblance  to  that  of  a 
pig  in  the  development  of  a  short  proboscis 
which  hangs  down  over  the  muzzle.  This 
proboscis  is  almost  naked,  with  a  round 


THE   ODD-TOED   UNGULATES. 


extremity  pierced  by  the  nostrils,  and  serves 
mainly  as  an  organ  of  touch.  It  is  constantly 
in  motion.  The  tapir  sniffs  and  feels  objects 
with  it,  and  even  employs  it  to  press  things 
into  its  mouth;  but  it  cannot  use  this  pro- 
boscis as  the  elephant  does  his,  and  in 
particular  it  drinks  directly  through  the 


Fig.  146. — The  Brazilian  Tapir  or  Anta  (Tapirus  amcricanus}. 


mouth  instead  of  squirting  into  its  mouth 
water  which  it  had  previously  sucked  up  into 
this  proboscis.  In  some  species  the  partition 
between  the  nostrils  terminates  in  a  small 
finger-like  process  as  in  the  elephants.  The 
ears  are  always  straight,  in  the  form  of 
pointed  paper-cornets.  The  neck  is  short, 
the  belly  round  and  large,  the  tail  rudi- 
mentary. The  last  phalanges  of  the  toes  are 
inclosed  in  flat  rounded  hoofs,  which  all 
touch  the  earth.  The  pollex  or  first  (inner- 
most) toe  is  wanting  in  the  fore-feet,  and  of 
the  other  four  toes  the  fifth  or  outermost  is 
the  shortest,  while  the  middle  toe  exceeds  in 
length  and  size  the  second  and  fourth  on  each 
side.  The  hind-feet  have  only  three  toes, 


namely,  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  digits. 
The  hallux  or  innermost  digit  and  the  fifth 
digit  are  wanting. 

In  the  skeleton  we  observe  the  massive 
form  of  the  bones,  the  large  number  of  rib- 
bearing  vertebrae  (eighteen),  the  third  tro- 
chanter  on  the  thigh-bone,  and  the  peculiar 
form  of  the  astragalus  (the  ankle-  or  sling- 
bone) — all  characters  common  to  the  Perisso- 
dactyla  generally.  The  skull  is  elongated, 
and  has  its  height  increased  behind  by  a  well- 
marked  ridge  or  crest  running  along  the 
middle  line  longitudinally  (sagittal  crest).  In 
the  ordinary  tapirs  the  nasal  bones,  which 
are  sometimes  very  short,  form  an  incomplete 
roof  triangular  in  form  extending  horizontally 


THE   TAPIR   FAMILY. 


43 


over  the  cavity  of  the  nose.  They  are  very 
unequal  in  sixe,  and  are  attached  at  a  rather 
open  angle  to  the  very  narrow  forehead.  In 
the  genus  Klasmognathus,  which  has  been 
separated  from  the  true  tapirs,  the  structure 
of  the  nasals  approaches  that  seen  in  the 
rhinoceroses.  The  nasal  roof  in  this  case 
is  much  larger,  is  arched,  and  supported  by 
a  long  partition. 

The  dentition  is  very  characteristic.  In 
both  jaws  there  are  six  incisors,  three  on 
c.uh  side;  but  while  in  the  lower  jaw  these 
incisors  are  chisel-shaped  and  diminish  in 
sixe  outwards,  those  of  the  upper  jaw,  on  the 
contrary,  are  conical,  massive,  pointed,  and 
assume  altogether  the  appearance  of  strong 
sharp  canines.  The  true  canines  are  very 
small  in  the  upper  jaw;  in  the  lower  jaw,  on 
the  other  hand,  furnished  with  a  short, 
strong,  sharp  crown.  In  both  jaws  these 
teeth  are  separated  by  a  wide  interval  from 
the  cheek-teeth,  of  which  there  are  seven 
above,  six  below,  in  each  half  of  the  jaw,  all 
indistinguishable  in  form  and  structure.  They 
have  almost  quadrangular  crowns,  which  are 
often  so  deeply  divided  by  a  transverse  fissure 
that  they  seem  to  be  composed  of  two  blades 
set  behind  one  another.  In  the  lower  jaw 
this  so-called  zygodont  structure  of  tooth  is 
most  marked,  since  the  ridges  are  very  straight 
and  appear  to  be  completely  separate,  while 
in  the  upper  cheek-teeth  they  are  connected 
externally  by  a  strip  running  length-ways. 

These  creatures  are  inoffensive  vegetable- 
feeders,  which  live  in  families,  seldom  forming 
small  troops,  and  roam  about  especially  in 
morasses  and  in  moist  forests  abounding  in 
streams  and  pools.  They  are  somewhat 
nocturnal  in  their  habits,  sleeping  by  day, 
while  by  night  they  go  out  in  search  of  tasty 
plants,  roots  containing  plenty  of  starch,  and 
fruits;  they  are  very  timid,  and  when  danger 
threatens  at  once  seek  refuge  in  the  water, 
where  they  swim  and  dive  with  great  facility. 
They  are  fond  of  diving  to  the  bottom  like 
hippopotamuses.  They  bring  forth  one  or 


two  young  ones  at  a  time,  and  these  have 
a  striped  skin  similar  to  that  of  porkers. 
The  females  are  larger  than  the  males. 

Two  genera  can  be  distinguished.  The 
Brazilian  Tapir,  the  Anta  of  the  natives 
(Tapirus  ameruattus),  fig.  146,  belongs  to 
the  genus  of  the  true  tapirs,  with  a  cartila- 
ginous nasal  septum.  The  proboscis  is  cylin- 
drical at  the  end,  the  finger-like  process  but 
slightly  developed,  the  colour  of  the  skin 
brownish-gray,  rather  darker  along  the  middle 
line  of  the  back.  On  the  neck  there  is  a  sort 
of  mane,  composed  of  short  stiff  hair.  In 
other  respects  the  covering  of  hair  is  similar 
to  that  of  a  pig,  being  composed  of  thinly- 
scattered  adpressed  bristles. 

The  animal  lives  in  the  low  marshy  forests 
of  South  America,  hides  by  day,  forms  paths 
by  which  it  regularly  passes  and  repasses 
in  the  thickets,  wallows  in  the  marshes  and 
the  mud,  is  remarkably  timid,  and  endeavours 
to  make  its  escape  at  the  least  sound,  either 
plunging  into  the  water  or  rushing  blindly 
through  the  underwood.  Only  in  defending 
their  young  do  the  mothers  become  furious, 
and  dart  violently  against  the  hunters  and 
dogs  that  attack  them.  In  their  own  country 
tapirs  feed  solely  on  vegetable  matters,  and 
are  just  as  eager  as  ruminants  in  searching 
out  salt  pools  and  ponds.  The  large  felines, 
jaguars  and  cougars  (pumas),  pursue  the 
tapir  with  not  less  eagerness  than  man,  who 
finds  his  flesh,  which  is  somewhat  like  beef, 
very  much  to  his  taste,  and  in  addition  makes 
an  excellent  thick  leather  out  of  his  hide. 
The  anta  is  often  kept  in  zoological  gardens, 
where  he  thrives  pretty  well  if  only  supplied 
with  plenty  of  water  and  mud  in  which  to 
bathe  and  wallow,  and  with  a  good  warm 
crib  for  winter. 

Altogether  the  tapirs  are  harmless  creatures, 
which  love  rest  and  quiet,  show  little  attach- 
ment to  their  keepers,  are  as  fond  as  pigs  are 
of  being  scratched,  and  live  on  good  terms 
with  their  fellows,  but  do  not  inspire  visitors 
with  any  great  interest. 


44 


THE   ODD-TOED    UNGULATES. 


The  Malayan  or  Shabrack  Tapir,  the  Maiba 
of  the  natives  ( Tapirusindicus(»ialayaiius}\  fig. 
147,  is  distinguished  from  the  Brazilian  only  by 
its  rather  shorter  proboscis  flattened  under- 
neath, by  the  less  abrupt  profile  of  the  head, 
by  the  absence  of  the  mane,  and  by  the 
colour  and  markings  of  the  skin.  The  whole 
body  is  very  dark  with  the  exception  of  the 


hinder  part,  which  is  of  a  dirty-white  colour, 
and  makes  it  appear  as  if  the  whole  of  the 
body  from  the  shoulders  to  the  root  of  the 
tail  and  the  top  of  their  thighs  were  covered 
with  a  shabrack  or  horse-cloth  fastened  under 
the  belly.  This  rare  species,  found  chiefly 
on  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  the  island  of 
Sumatra,  was  first  made  known  to  science  in 


1820.  A  few  specimens  have  been  brought 
to  Europe,  but  they  have  not  lived  long. 

An  American  species,  the  Andes  or  Hairy 
Tapir  ( T.  Roulinii  or  villosus),  has  a  still  more 
sloping  forehead  than  the  previous  one,  very 
thick  and  dense  hair,  quite  black,  with  an 
indistinct  whitish  patch  on  the  lips.  By  this 
development  of  a  woolly  covering  the  species 
has  adapted  itself  to  a  life  in  the  high  valleys 
of  the  Cordilleras  at  a  height  of  10,000  feet 
and  more,  where  severe  winters  prevail. 

Finally  Baird's  Tapir  (Elasmognatkus 
( Tapirus)  Bairdii],  of  a  uniform  dark  brown, 
with  white  lips  and  without  a  mane,  has  only 
recently  been  discovered  in  Guatemala  and 
on  the  isthmus  of  Panama.  This  tapir  is 
distinguished  in  a  very  marked  manner  from 


the  others  by  the  very  level  brow  like  that  of 
a  boar,  by  the  bony  septum  of  the  nose,  and 
by  the  more  delicate  and  narrower  hoofs. 
The  structure  of  the  nose  causes  the  skull  to 
resemble  that  of  the  following  family. 

THE    RHINOCEROS    FAMILY 

(NASICORNIA). 

At  the  present  day  this  family  consists  of 
only  a  single  genus,  Rhinoceros,  within  which 
subordinate  groups  have  been  formed  in 
accordance  with  the  degree  of  persistence  in 
the  incisors,  the  presence  or  absence  of  a 
second  horn,  or  even  the  greater  or  less  thick- 
ness of  the  hide. 

All  rhinoceroses  are  huge,  heavy,  clumsy 


RHINOCEROS    FAMILY. 


45 


animals,  with  bent  legs  so  short  that  the  belly 
seems  almost  to  drag  on  the  ground,  extremely 
ugly  in  appearance,  with  a  rather  surly  temper 
generally,  and  during  accesses  of  fury  ter- 
rible. They  are  confined  at  the  present  day 
to  the  tropics  of  Africa  and  I  ndia,  and  present 
specific  differences  in  different  localities. 

The  head  is  of  moderate  size,  we  may  even 
say  small  in  comparison  with  the  huge  body; 
it  is  greatly  elevated  behind.  Above,  at  the 
back  of  the  head,  there  are  long  ears  in  the 
form  of  pointed  paper-cornets  with  a  narrow 
thickened  rim.  The  small  eyes  are  placed  at 
the  side,  the  long  projecting  snout  is  arched 
above,  and  on  this  arch  stands  a  horn  of  vari- 
able size,  or  sometimes  there  are  two  horns 
one  behind  the  other.  These  horns,  which 
are  borne  on  very  strong  upwardly-curved 
nasal  bones,  are  composed  solely  of  fused 
horny  fibres,  and  their  texture  is  exactly  like 
that  of  the  hoofs  or  the  hollow  horns  of  oxen. 
But  they  are  distinguished  from  the  latter  in 
that  they  have-  no  bony  core,  being  quite  solid 
and  connected  only  with  the  skin.  The  nasal 
bones  are  only  wrinkled  and  spongy  at  the 
parts  where  these  horns  are  attached  not  very 
firmly.  The  horns  readily  come  off  a  few  days 
after  the  death  of  the  animal,  through  the 
destruction  of  the  vessels  and  the  horn-pulp. 
In  certain  districts  these  horns  still  have  a 
considerable  value.  They  are  used  to  make 
cups,  which  have  the  reputation  of  destroying 
the  efficacy  of  poisons  poured  into  them. 

The  jaws  and  opening  of  the  mouth  are 
enormous,  the  lips  thick,  and  especially  the 
upper  lip,  which  is  covered  with  a  very  thin 
skin,  and  is  produced  in  the  middle  into  a 
finger-like  prolongation,  which  enables  the 
animal  to  seize  the  twigs  and  stems  of  plants 
on  which  it  feeds.  The  neck  is  usually  thicker 
than  the  head  and  surrounded  by  broad  folds 
of  skin,  the  belly  very  thick,  the  tail  short, 
and  ending  in  a  tuft.  The  legs  cannot  be 
better  described  than  by  comparing  them  to 
those  of  a  badger-hound,  so  twisted  and  un- 
shapely are  they.  They  terminate  in  three 


toes,  which  are  placed  very  close  together, 
covered  with  arched  hoofs,  and  which  all 
touch  the  ground.  Behind  these  hoofs  there 
is  a  broad  callous  sole.  The  very  thick  tough 
hide  is  highly  valued  for  the  making  of 
shields,  straps,  cords,  and  whips.  In  living 
aninials  it  presents  two  very  remarkable 
modifications,  which  have  even  been  employed 
for  the  grouping  of  species.  In  the  Asiatic 
forms  there  are  scattered  over  it  broad  shield- 
like  plates  composed  of  firmer  parts,  which 
are  connected  together  by  more  flexible  folds 
all  running  in  the  same  direction.  The  animal 
appears  to  carry  a  coat  of  armour  composed 
of  several  pieces,  admitting  of  a  certain  amount 
of  mobility  at  the  neck,  shoulders,  and  hips. 
In  the  African  species,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
hide,  though  far  from  thin,  is  yet  more  flexible, 
adapts  itself  better  to  the  outline  of  the  body, 
and  presents  a  smooth  surface,  instead  of  ex- 
hibiting, like  the  armour-clad  forms,  as  we 
might  call  them,  a  number  of  knobs  and 
bosses,  which  have  a  distant  resemblance  to 
the  inequalities  in  the  shields  of  the  armadillos. 
Usually  this  skin  is  quite  naked;  only  a  few 
hairs  are  found  on  the  edges  of  the  ears  and 
at  the  end  of  the  short  tail,  where  they  form  a 
tuft  which  never  reaches  down  to  the  hollow  of 
the  knee.  The  Quaternary  rhinoceros,  whose 
remains  are  found  in  such  abundance  along 
with  those  of  the  mammoth  (R/t.  tichorhinus), 
had  a  woolly  fleece  interspersed  with  stronger 
bristles,  manifestly  as  the  result  of  adaptation 
to  colder  climates. 

The  skeleton  of  these  animals  everywhere 
shows  heavy  clumsy  forms,  with  very  marked 
ridges  for  the  insertion  of  the  muscles.  The 
skull  is  in  some  species  short  and  compact,  in 
others  greatly  lengthened  in  consequence  of 
the  enormous  size  of  the  jaws.  The  rough 
warty  patches  indicating  the  place  of  attach- 
ment of  the  horns  (which,  in  some  species, 
may  grow  to  a  length  of  more  than  3  feet) 
are  very  conspicuous  on  the  back  of  the 
nasals.  The  transverse  ridges  at  the  back  of 
the  head,  the  processes  of  the  vertebrae,  the 


THE   ODD-TOED   UNGULATES. 


ridges  on  the  bones  of  the  limbs,  and  especi- 
ally the  third  trochanter  on  the  thigh,  are 
enormous ;  even  the  ribs  have  oblique  middle 
ridges  throughout  their  entire  length. 

The  dentition  is  characterized  by  the  want 
of  constancy  in  the  front  teeth,  and  the 
peculiar  form  of  the  enamel  folds  in  the 
cheek-teeth.  The  canines  are  always  want- 
ing, so  that  a  considerable  interval  separates 
the  cheek-teeth  from  the  incisors,  which  were 
originally  (in  fossil  forms)  four  or  evert  six 
in  number  both  above  and  below.  The 
rhinoceroses  of  the  present  day  have  at  first 
two  incisors  in  each  half  of  the  jaw,  but  their 
subsequent  development  varies  greatly.  In 
the  upper  jaw  the  incisors  are  very  close-set; 
the  outer  pair  are  the  smaller  and  first  dis- 
appear. In  the  lower  jaw  the  incisors  are 
conical,  almost  horizontal,  and  directed  for- 
wards ;  the  outer  ones  are  often  very  strong, 
and  in  some  fossil  species  developed  almost  in 
the  form  of  tusks.  They  persist  the  longest; 
while  the  inner  ones  drop  out  early,  although 
always  subsequently  to  the  shedding  of  the 
outer  incisors  of  the  upper  jaw.  At  last  all 
the  incisors  disappear  and  are  never  replaced. 
We  thus  have  species  in  which  there  are  only 
two  incisors  above  and  four  below;  others  in 
which  only  two  incisors  are  found  below  in 
the  adult ;  and  others  again  in  which  they  are 
latterly  altogether  wanting,  and  in  which  the 
callous  margins  of  the  gum  serve  to  root  up 
plants.  In  the  young  animal  the  various  stages 
of  this  gradual  reduction  can  be  observed. 
The  cheek-teeth  are  seven  in  number  in  each 
half  of  each  jaw,  in  all  twenty-eight,  but  they 
are  very  diverse  in  their  nature.  The  upper 
ones  are  much  larger  than  the  lower.  They 
have  two  irregular  transverse  prominences, 
which  are  separated  on  the  inside  by  a  deep 
winding  fissure,  but  on  the  outside  are  con- 
nected by  a  longitudinal  fold.  When  the  tooth 
has  been  worn  down  to  some  extent  these  pro- 
minences seem  to  be  surrounded  by  a  con- 
tinuous curiously-twisted  strip  of  enamel.  The 
lower  cheek-teeth  are  longer  than  broad,  and 


exhibit  two  sickle-shaped  bodies  surrounded 
by  enamel,  these  bodies  standing  obliquely  be- 
hind one  another  and  having  their  convexity 
behind. 

Among  the  internal  parts  of  the  organization 
we  may  take  note  of  the  relatively  small 
simple  stomach,  the  enormous  colon  and 
caecum,  the  small  brain,  the  two -horned 
uterus,  the  two  inguinal  teats,  and  the  diffuse 
placenta.  The  female  remains  pregnant 
seventeen  months,  and  brings  forth  a  single 
young  one,  which  is  defended  by  the  mother 
with  fury.  The  horn  begins  to  grow  only 
when  the  young  animal  has  advanced  a  little 
in  age ;  the  new-born  animal  has  only  a  slight 
swelling  on  the  nose,  such  as  characterized 
the  hornless  ancestors  of  our  present  rhino- 
ceroses (Aceratherium)  throughout  life. 

The  habits  of  these  dull,  stupid,  and  clumsy 
but  powerful  animals  are  almost  everywhere 
the  same.  They  are  exclusively  herbivorous ; 
but  while  most  of  them  prefer  marshy  woods, 
the  jungle,  and  the  banks  of  rivers  and  ponds 
where  they  can  wallow  in  the  mud,  we  have 
African  species  (Rh.  simus)  which  show  a 
preference  for  the  steppes  with  dry  stiff 
grasses.  But  in  general  rhinoceroses  require 
water  and  mud  if  it  is  for  nothing  else  than 
to  defend  themselves  against  the  insects  which 
torment  them  in  spite  of  the  thickness  of 
their  hide.  These  giants  have  no  enemy  to 
fear  except  man.  Lions  and  tigers  go  out 
of  their  way,  for  their  horns  and  feet  are 
terrible  weapons,  and  when  once  a  rhino- 
ceros has  broken  out  into  fury  nothing  can 
withstand  the  violence  of  his  onslaughts. 
With  head  down  he  darts  upon  his  enemy, 
throws  him  to  the  ground,  and  tramples  him 
under  his  feet.  We  have  heard  of  battles 
between  elephants  and  rhinoceroses,  but  no 
recent  observer  has  ever  witnessed  one.  But 
it  appears  that  these  two  giants  of  the  forest 
shun  one  another,  although  in  Quaternary 
times  the  mammoth  and  the  rhinoceros  with 
bony  nasal  septum  manifestly  lived  together 
as  peaceable  neighbours. 


PLATE  XIX.   -      THE    INDIAN    RHINOCEROS   (Rhinoceros  inditus). 


THK    RHINOCEROS    FAMILY. 


47 


The  rhinoceroses  have  an  acute  sense 
of  hearing  and  a  keen  scent.  They  avoid 
man  when  they  have  come  to  know  his  power, 
and  in  hunting  these  animals  it  is  necessary 
to  observe  carefully  the  direction  of  the  wind 
and  to  proceed  without  noise.  But  when 
met  unexpectedly  or  driven  into  a  corner  the 
rhinoceros  becomes  terrible,  and  woe  to  the 
sportsman  who  misses  his  aim!  In  the  forests 
which  they  inhabit  they  make  paths  for  them- 
selves through  the  densest  underwood  by 
treading  down  everything  in  their  way,  and 
although  the  hunters  make  use  of  these  paths 
they  nevertheless  carefully  avoid  meeting 
with  these  stupid  and  passionate  animals. 
In  captivity  the  rhinoceroses  are  sluggish, 
unintelligent,  and  unsocial.  They  can  scarcely 
be  rendered  attached  to  their  keepers,  who 
are  obliged  to  behave  with  great  caution 
towards  them.  They  astonish  but  do  not 
attract  visitors. 

The  rhinoceroses  may  be  divided  into  two 
groups. 

The  Asiatic  Rhinoceroses  have  permanent 
incisors,  and  armour-plates  on  the  hide  sepa- 
rated by  deep  folds.  They  have  sometimes 
one,  sometimes  two  horns. 

In  a  full-page  illustration  (PI.  XIX.)  is 
shown  a  one-horned  species  known  from  time 
immemorial,  the  Indian  Rhinoceros  (Rh. 
indicus),  which  is  distributed  over  the  region 
from  Bengal  to  Cochin- China.  It  attains  a 
length  of  13  and  a  height  of  6^  feet.  The 
horn,  more  than  a  foot  and  a  half  long,  is 
curved  backwards  and  is  rather  slender;  the 
upper  lip  is  very  large.  It  has  the  most 
complete  armour  of  all.  One  plate  covers 
the  back  of  the  neck,  another  the  shoulder,  a 
third  the  belly,  a  fourth  the  rump,  and  a  fifth 
the  thigh.  The  hide  is  of  a  dirty-gray  colour. 
Pompey  caused  the  first  specimen  which  was 
ever  seen  in  Europe  to  be  brought  to  Rome 
in  the  year  61  B.C.  It  is  eagerly  pursued  on 
account  of  the  tremendous  ravages  it  commits 
in  plantations.  Among  the  other  eastern 
species  the  Javan  Rhinoceros  (Rh.  javanictis 


(sondaicus) )  is  one-horned  like  the  preceding 
specie's;  while  that  of  Sumatra  (A'/t.  siimai- 
rcnsis),  and  another  from  Malacca,  with  tufts 
of  hair  on  the  ears  (Rh.  /asiotis1),  have  two 
horns  and  form  the  transition  to  the  African 
species. 

The  African  Rhinoceroses  have  all  two 
horns  and  a  thinner  hide  forming  folds  with- 
out plates.  Their  incisors  drop  out. 

The  Two-horned  Rhinoceros  (R/i.  bicornis), 
PI.  XX.,  is  quite  as  large  as  the  Indian 
species,  but  the  head  is  shorter  and  carries 
two  horns,  the  foremost  of  which  is  the  long- 
est. The  hide  has  a  dark-brown  colour 
inclining  to  black.  The  animal  formerly 
inhabited  the  whole  of  the  mainland  of  Africa 
clown  to  the  Cape,  but  has  been  driven  north- 
wards towards  the  interior  by  the  colonists 
on  account  of  the  ravages  it  committed  in 
their  plantations.  It  is  regarded  as  much 
more  stupid  and  much  wilder  than  the  Indian 
species.  The  hide  has  only  small  folds. 

[The  Hon.  W.  H.  Drummond,  author  of  The 
Large  Game  of  Soutli  and  South-east  Africa,  speaks 
on  several  occasions  of  the  ferocity  of  Rh.  biconris, 
which  he  considers  the  most  dangerous  of  all 
African  game.  This  ferocity,  however,  is  exhibited 
only  towards  man,  and  without  doubt  there  is 
good  reason  for  its  manifestation.  "  Their  cun- 
ning," he  writes,  "  is  only  equalled  by  their  vicious- 
ness.  In  most,  if  not  in  all  cases,  they  will  at  once 
charge  on  getting  the  wind  of  a  human  being,  and 
if  they  cross  his  track  they  will  often  follow  it  up 
like  a  dog,  making  none  of  the  puffing  sounds 
natural  to  them  when  angry,  till  they  absolutely 
see  him.  When  wounded,  and  occasionally  when 
much  disturbed,  their  spoor  consists  of  parallel 
straight  lines,  so  that  it  is  next  to  impossible  to 
overtake  them  without  being  discovered,  and  giving 
them  an  opportunity  of  charging  you  from  one 
side.  They  will  wait  with  the  utmost  patience 
concealed  in  thick  jungle,  until  you  almost  touch 
them,  and  then  rush  out  at  you.  When  they  do 
catch  an  unfortunate  being,  they  knock  him  down 
and  knead  him  with  their  feet,  returning  again  and 
again  until  nothing  but  a  shapeless  mass  remains, 

1  This  is  a  very  mre  animal.     Only  two  examples  are  said  to  l>e  as 
yet  known.     See  Nature,  vol.  xxix.  p.  427. — TR. 


THE   ODD-TOED    UNGULATES. 


uttering   all   the  day  their  shrill  squeal  of  rage. 
This  I  once  saw  myself. 

"  Four  of  us,  consisting  of  myself,  three  native 
hunters,  and  my  gun-bearer,  were  on  our  way  to 
join  a  native  hunting-party  some  twelve  miles  off, 
and  just  after  crossing  a  small  stream  about  half- 
way we  saw  a  flock  of  rhinoceros-birds  hovering 
over  an  ukaku  thicket,  and  evidently  accompany- 
ing some  game  passing  through  it.  The  place  was 
of  no  great  size,  so  two  of  the  hunters  ran  round 
to  the  further  sides,  while  I  and  the  remaining 
one  went  into  it,  and  in  a  few  seconds  struck  the 
spoor  of  an  upetyane.1  I  am  thankful  now  to 
recollect  that  I  at  once  suggested  leaving  the 
vicious  brute  alone,  partly  because  it  was  such 
dangerous  work  and  its  death  would  do  us  no 
good,  partly  on  account  of  the  time  it  would  waste 
and  the  distance  we  had  yet  to  go.  However,  the 
hunter  wanted  to  go  after  it,  and  to  have  said 
more  would  have  implied  fear  on  my  part,  a  thing 
one  has  to  guard  against  when,  being  the  only 
white  man  among  natives  far  in  the  interior,  one's 
comfort,  and  not  impossibly  one's  life,  depends 
upon  one's  prestige;  and  so  we  went  on,  and  in 
scarcely  five  minutes  I  saw  it,  having  already 
heard  it  snorting  like  a  steam-engine,  trotting 
along,  tossing  its  head,  and  looking  like  mischief 
personified,  having  evidently  got  the  wind  of  some 
of  us,  and  being  quite  as  anxious  to  find  us  as  we 
it.  It  was  about  fifteen  yards  off,  and  I  instantly 
let  drive  with  both  barrels  into  its  shoulder,  spring- 
ing as  I  did  so  into  the  tree  under  which  I  was. 

"My  unlucky  companion,  who  was  a  little  distance 
on  one  side,  and  had  hitherto  only  heard  it,  came 
running  towards  the  shots,  and  absolutely  met  it 
face  to  face;  he  at  once  fired  and  turned  to  run, 
but  it  was  too  late,  and  he  was  caught  on  the  spot, 
thrown  up  with  a  single  toss,  which  must  probably 
have  stunned  him,  and  was  then  trampled  out  of 
all  semblance  to  humanity  by  the  bloodthirsty 
brute.  Any  description  would  be  sickening.  I 
could  do  nothing,  for  my  gun-bearer  had  disap- 
peared, seeking  safety  in  some  other  spot,  and  I 
found  that  I  had  not  a  single  cartridge  left  in  the 
little  pouch  I  carried ;  but  after  a  minute  I  could 
stand  the  inaction  no  longer,  and  getting  down 
from  the  tree  unperceived  I  stole  away,  and  as 
soon  as  I  was  out  of  reach  began  to  shout  to  the 
others.  Two  of  them  soon  came  up,  my  gun- 
bearer  and  a  hunter,  one  of  them  having  hidden 
himself  on  finding  the  sort  of  animal  we  had  to 

1  Native  ( Kaffir)  name  of  the  Kit.  bicornis. 


deal  with ;  and  I  having  got  a  supply  of  cartridges, 
we  went  back  to  the  spot  until  we  got  sight  of  the 
brute,  still  trampling  and  squealing,  when,  kneeling 
down,  we  fired  at  it  together. 

"  My  nerves  had  been  so  much  shaken  that  I  was 
unsteady  and  missed  clean,  not  twenty  yards  off, 
but  the  ball  from  my  companion's  great  elephant- 
gun  sped  more  truly,  and  the  brute  fell  on  its 
knees,  where,  by  dint  of  repeated  if  not  very  well- 
aimed  shots,  I  succeeded  in  keeping  it  until  he  had 
reloaded,  when  we  finished  it  off  together." 

In  illustration  of  the  ferocious  disposition  of  the 
animal  one  instance  is  related  in  which  the  con- 
sequences are  little  more  than  amusing  to  read, 
though  disagreeable  enough  no  doubt  at  the  time 
of  the  occurrence.  A  small  party  of  hunters,  of 
which  Mr.  Drummond  was  one,  were  engaged  in 
roasting  an  antelope,  the  sole  resource  after  a  hard 
day's  work,  for  their  evening  meal.  "  In  about  an 
hour  the  first  shoulder  was  done,  and  the  boy 
brought  it  to  me  and  stuck  it  up  in  front  of  me  by 
means  of  the  stick  which  had  already  been  sup- 
porting it  while  roasting,  and  I,  drawing  my  hunt- 
ing-knife, and  sharpening  a  stick  for  a  fork,  was 
just  in  the  act  of  breaking  my  fast  for  the  first 
time  that  day,  when  I  heard  a  sudden  succession 
of  puffs,  like  a  train  just  starting,  and  could  dis- 
tinguish the  heavy  footfall  of  some  animal.  In  a 
second  everybody  was  on  his  feet,  and  in  another 
we  were  all  scrambling  up  the  tree,  I,  I  am  sorry 
to  say,  still  holding  on  to  my  shoulder  of  antelope, 
and  oblivious  of  the  fact  that  I  had  left  my  gun 
down  below.  We  were  barely  in  time;  indeed,  if 
the  rhinoceros  had  charged  straight  up  to  the  tree 
it  must  have  caught  me;  but  it  was  not  necessary 
to  go  very  high,  and  I  was  soon  able  to  watch  its 
movements.  Hardly  ten  seconds  had  elapsed 
since  I  had  heard  the  first  warning  puff,  and  now 
our  fire  was  scattered  in  every  direction,  and  the 
vicious  animal  was  stamping  upon  it  and  every- 
thing else  it  saw,  and  squealing  with  rage  the 
whole  time.  The  meat  had  disappeared,  some  of 
it  trampled  into  the  ground,  and  some  thrown 
yards  away  by  its  feet;  two  great  burning  logs  of 
wood  were  smoking  on  the  top  of  my  spread-out 
bed,  and  even  from  where  I  was  I  could  smell  the 
smouldering  blankets;  the  remains  of  my  water- 
calabash  were  lying  in  every  direction,  and  every- 
thing in  camp,  save  my  gun,  which  the  brute  had 
not  so  far  touched,  was  more  or  less  destroyed. 
It  was  enough  to  try  any  one's  temper,  and  I 
asked  the  man  next  me  if  his  gun  was  loaded,  and 


To  face  page  fit. 


PLATE  XX.  -      THE    TWO-HORNED    RHINOCEROS  (RAin 


THK    HORSE    FAMILY. 


49 


on  getting  an  affirmative  answer  I  told  him  to 
pass  it  over  to  me,  and  propping  myself  up  against 
the  trunk  to  prevent  myself  being  knocked  down, 
for  it  was  an  elephant-gun  of  six  to  the  pound,  I 
aimed  at  the  shoulder  of  the  trampling  and  squeal- 
ing beast  and  pulled  the  trigger.  A  stillness  fol- 
lowed the  report  for  a  second,  and  then  a  heavy 
thud,  and  after  that  violent  struggles  on  the  ground. 
The  other  hunter  had  a  double-barrel,  and  emptied 
both  of  them  into  the  struggling  mass  below  him; 
but  despite  the  shots  the  brute  regained  its  legs, 
and  went  away  the  moment  after  it  did  so,  its 
vicious  temper  much  sobered  by  the  treatment  it 
had  received.  Ours  were  not,  however,  improved 
by  the  incident,  and  it  was  all  I  could  do  to  pre- 
vent one  of  the  hunters,  who  was  almost  speechless 
with  rage  at  losing  his  supper,  from  giving  chase 
on  the  spot.  ...  A  shoulder  of  antelope  was 
not  much  among  four  famished  men."] 

Another  African  species  (Rk.  simtis)  is  the 
largest  of  all.  The  head  is  very  long,  the 
snout  rounded  like  that  of  an  ox,  the  front 
horn  very  large,  a  yard  and  more  in  length, 
the  hinder  one  very  small.  This  species  fre- 
quents the  steppes  covered  with  tall  grass, 
amidst  which  it  often  grazes  in  very  numer- 
ous herds,  and  in  the  dry  seasons  it  under- 
takes great  journeys  in  search  of  water. 
This  species,  notwithstanding  its  superior  size, 
is  regarded  as  the  most  good-natured  of  all. 
It  is  hunted  chiefly  for  its  flesh,  which  appears 
to  be  excellent. 

THE    HORSE    FAMILY 

(EQUIDA). 

In  our  present  fauna  this  family  forms  a 
group  so  well  characterized  by  the  structure 
of  the  feet,  and  so  natural,  that  if  only  the 
living  types  are  taken  into  consideration  one 
is  perfectly  justified  in  making  a  separate 
order  out  of  them  under  the  name  of  Solidun- 
gula,  the  single-hoofed.  But  the  distinctions, 
seemingly  so  sharply  defined,  gradually  dis- 
appear when  we  place  the  forms  that  have 
lived  in  earlier  times  side  by  side  with  the 
living  ones.  The  feet  provided  with  a  single 
hoof  are  then  seen  to  be  the  last  stage  in  a 

VOL.  II. 


process  of  evolution  in  course  of  which  there 
first  appeared  forms  which  had  feet  like  the 
rhinoceroses  and  tapirs,  and  in  which  the 
general  characters  of  the  Perissodactyla  are 
revealed  with  so  much  clearness  and  distinct- 
ness that  it  is  impossible  to  assign  a  greater 
value  to  the  equine  type  than  that  of  a  family. 
The  horse  is  the  last  member  in  a  series  of 
forms  due  to  a  process  of  specialization  gov- 
erned by  the  tendency  to  transform  many-toed 
and  comparatively  sluggish,  heavily -built 
animals  into  runners,  which  do  not  yield  in 
fleetness  to  any  other  forms.  The  feet  are 
simplified  by  this  process  to  the  highest 
degree,  and  are  modified  so  as  to  be  adapted 
solely  for  running.  If  we  adopt  the  stand- 
point which  it  has  been  our  constant  aim  to 
maintain  in  this  work  with  respect  to  the 
evolution  theory,  we  must  regard  the  Solid- 
ungula  as  the  type  of  a  highly-specialized 
family. 

We  all  know  the  general  characters  of  the 
horses,  zebras,  and  asses  which  make  up  this 
family.  The  greatly -elongated  head  with 
straight  profile  and  sharp-pointed  ears,  the 
long  neck,  the  relatively  short  body  borne 
on  long  slender  legs,  the  feet  ending  in 
rounded  hoofs,  the  tail  of  moderate  length 
bearing  a  long  brush  composed  of  coarse  hair, 
the  mane  of  bristly  hair  on  the  neck,  the 
covering  of  finer  short  hair  on  the  body  lying 
very  thick  but  so  closely  applied  to  the  skin 
that  the  most  minute  details  of  the  form  are 
visible;  all  these  characters  are  such  as  the 
reader  does  not  need  to  be  reminded  of. 
The  feet  with  only  a  single  hoof  enable  us 
to  recognize  at  the  first  glance  the  not  very 
numerous  species  of  this  family  which  are 
now  found  wild  only  in  the  Old  World.  As 
domestic  animals  the  horses  have  not  only 
reconquered  the  domains  which  they  formerly 
inhabited,  but  have  spread  over  the  entire 
surface  of  the  earth  save  only  the  extreme 
Polar  regions. 

The  skull  of  the  horses  when  seen  from 
above  strikes  us  by  its  narrow  greatly-elon- 


THE   ODD-TOED    UNGULATES. 


gated  rhomboidal  form.  The  cranial  region 
is  relatively  very  small,  forming  only  a  little 
more  than  one-third  of  the  whole  length  of 
the  head,  and  it  becomes  greatly  constricted 
near  the  foramen  magnum  or  opening  by 
which  the  spinal  column  passes  into  the  brain. 
The  brow  is  flattened  and  is  continued  almost 
horizontally  into  the  long  nasal  bones,  which 
form  a  beak-like  roof  above  the  nostrils.  In 
front  of  these  projects  the  elongated  portion 
of  the  upper  jaw  which  carries  the  incisors 
and  canines.  The  pretty  large  orbits  are 
surrounded  by  a  complete  bony  ring,  but 
leave  a  wide  opening  behind  into  the  temporal 
fossae.  The  halves  of  the  lower  jaw  are  com- 
pletely fused  in  the  middle,  as  in  the  tapirs, 
whose  jaws  have  a  great  resemblance  in  their 
general  features  to  those  of  the  Solidungula. 

The  dentition  of  the  horses  also  resembles 
that  of  the  tapirs  in  the  general  arrangement. 
Both  above  and  below  we  find  a  semicircle 
composed  of  six  incisors  in  the  form  of  some- 
what curved  chisels  with  blunt  edges.  The 
canines,  which  are  in  all  cases  but  slightly 
developed,  and  which  in  the  females  for  the 
most  part  disappear  entirely,  although  more 
prominent  in  the  males,  are  larger  in  the 
lower  jaw  than  in  the  upper,  and  in  that  jaw 
follow  close  after  the  incisors,  while  in  the 
upper  they  are  rather  farther  apart  from 
these.  As  in  all  other  Perissodactyla  a  long 
interval  divides  the  cheek-teeth  from  these 
front  ones.  It  is  in  this  interval  that  the  bit 
is  placed.  The  cheek-teeth,  seven  in  number 
in  each  half  of  each  jaw,  are  much  larger  in 
the  upper  jaw,  where  they  present  a  quad- 
rangular chewing  surface,  than  in  the  lower, 
in  which  these  teeth  are  more  elongated  and 
laterally  compressed.  The  first  of  these 
cheek-teeth  is  always  very  poorly  developed, 
reduced,  in  fact,  to  a  mere  stump;  it  is  very 
readily  and  often  very  early  lost.  The  other 
six  cheek-teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  appear  as  if 
composed  of  two  halves,  which  are  soldered 
together  by  a  strong  external  vertical  pillar. 
To  this  external  pillar  there  corresponds  on 


the  inner  side  another  less  prominent  broad 
pillar,  which  shows  on  the  grinding  surface 
in  the  form  of  a  loop  of  enamel.  On  the 
surface  of  each  tooth  are  to  be  seen  four 
sickle-shaped  enamel  stripes  with  their  con- 
cavity directed  outwards;  and  these  stripes 
are  separated  from  each  other  and  in  the 
middle  by  deep  fissures.  In  the  lower  cheek- 
teeth the  pillars  are  wanting.  Each  tooth 
has  on  the  outside  and  in  the  middle  a  deep 
vertical  groove,  which  indicates  the  separa- 
tion into  two  halves,  and  the  enamel  stripes 
run  back  each  into  itself,  as  if  there  had  been 
bosses  or  tubercles,  the  surface  of  which  be- 
came planed  away.  This  kind  of  dentition 
forms,  as  will  be  readily  seen,  an  excellent 
masticatory  mill. 

The  structure  of  the  limbs  deserves  special 
attention.  The  bones  corresponding  to  the 
upper  arm  and  thigh  are  short,  thick,  and 
buried  in  the  flesh  of  the  body.  The  third 
trochanter  on  the  thigh-bone  is  placed  pretty 
low  down.  The  ulna  and  fibula  are  greatly 
reduced,  and  are  recognizable  only  as  un- 
shapely adjuncts  at  the  upper  part  of  the 
radius  and  tibia  respectively.  The  bones  of 
the  wrist  and  ankle  are  greatly  reduced  both 
in  number  and  size.  These  are  followed 
below  by  a  single  bone,  which  is  often  errone- 
ously spoken  of  as  the  shin-bone,  but  which 
is  nothing  else  than  the  excessively  developed 
metacarpal  (or  metatarsal)  bone  of  the  middle 
toe,  and  has  at  its  upper  end  two  small 
pointed  style-like  bones  (the  splint-bones) 
attached  to  it  on  both  sides,  these  being  the 
remains  of  the  metacarpal  (or  metatarsal) 
bones  of  the  second  and  fourth  digits,  which 
are  thereby  only  indicated.  Finally,  at  the 
lower  end  of  this  elongated  metacarpal  or 
metatarsal  there  come  the  three  phalanges  of 
the  middle  digit,  which  form  the  fetlock  and 
hoof,  the  bone  of  which  latter  has  pretty  much 
the  same  form  as  the  horny  hoof  that  covers 
it.  By  studying  the  development  it  may  be 
shown  that  in  the  embryo  three  digits  begin 
to  be  formed,  but  that  the  two  outer  ones 


To  face  pag€  SO- 


PLATE  XXI.  -      THE    DAUW   OR   BURCHELL'S    ZEBRA 


THE    HORSE    FAMILY. 


remain  rudimentary ;  and  the  examination  of 
the  feet  of  the  ancestors  of  the  horse  reveals 
to  us  the  fact  that  there  were  actually  five 
toes  in  the  first  representatives  of  this  group. 
Examples  of  foals  born  with  two  or  three 
more  or  less  developed  toes  are  not  rare. 

We  wish  further  to  draw  special  attention 
to  the  smallness  of  the  brain  and  its  lowly 
organization,  indicated  by  the  fact  that  the 
hemispheres  of  the  cerebrum  do  not  cover 
the  cerebellum.  This  lowly  organization  is, 
to  be  sure,  in  a  certain  measure  compensated 
by  the  number  of  the  convolutions,  which  in 
their  disposition  follow  the  same  general  plan 
as  those  of  the  tapirs,  but  are  much  more 
complicated.  Between  these  two  animals 
the  relations  in  respect  of  brain-structure  are 
somewhat  similar  to  those  which  subsist  be- 
tween man  and  the  macaque.  The  general 
plan  is  the  same,  but  in  the  lower  type  it  is 
shown  in  its  original  simplicity,  while  in  the 
higher  it  is  complicated  by  a  thousand 
secondary  formations.  We  likewise  mention 
the  structure  of  the  digestive  organs,  which 
is  in  accordance  with  the  plan  exhibited  in 
all  herbivorous  perissodactyles :  a  simple  and 
relatively  small  stomach,  a  very  thick  colon 
and  ceecum.  The  two  teats  are  situated  in 
the  region  of  the  groin. 

The  wild  horses — for  it  is  only  these  with 
which  we  have  to  do — live  in  great  herds  in 
prairie  and  steppe  regions.  That  is  their  true 
home.  For  this  social  life  in  lands  with  a 
wide  horizon  they  are  wonderfully  organized. 
Mountains  they  shun,  and  they  seek  the 
woods  only  to  enjoy  the  shade  for  a  brief 
interval.  It  must  be  allowed  that  neither 
the  keenness  of  their  senses  nor  their  powers 
of  defence  are  sufficient  to  adapt  them  for  a 
life  in  the  thickets,  where  each  individual  is 
compelled  to  have  his  qualities  developed  in 
the  highest  degree.  The  range  of  vision  in 
horses  is  not  very  great;  they  can  distinguish 
only  near  objects  clearly.  Their  scent  is  dull. 
Only  their  hearing  is  very  acute,  and  enables 
them  to  distinguish  the  least  audible  com- 


ponents in  distant  noises.  Observations  on 
the  development  of  the  senses  have  been 
made  chiefly,  though  not  exclusively,  on 
domesticated  horses  that  have  run  wild.  It 
has  been  established  that  in  the  pampas  the 
mustang  does  not  scent  the  jaguar  at  more 
than  thirty  paces  off,  and  that  the  lion  is 
always  sure  of  getting  within  the  necessary 
distance  for  a  spring  when  a  zebra  is  the 
object  of  his  pursuit. 

The  herds  live  under  the  leadership  of 
some  old  males,  which  have  to  watch  over  the 
well-being  of  their  subjects.  We  cannot  but 
admire  the  courage  of  these  proud  creatures, 
which,  seeming  to  rejoice  in  battle,  dart  down 
upon  an  attacking  carnivore,  the  whole  herd 
arranging  itself  in  a  circle  with  the  foals  in 
the  middle,  and  all  ready  to  strike  with  the 
hoofs  of  their  hind-legs.  In  fighting  with 
wolves  stallions  try  to  seize  their  antagonist 
with  their  teeth  by  the  nape  of  the  neck,  then 
to  lift  them  up  and  dash  them  on  the  ground, 
after  which  they  trample  them  underneath 
their  feet. 

But  these  battles,  from  which  perhaps  the 
military  art  has  derived  the  formation  of 
squares,  are  only  exceptions  to  the  rule,  and 
take  place  only  in  cases  of  sudden  attack  or 
when  the  herds  are  driven  to  straits.  Usually 
the  herd  seeks  its  safety  in  rapid  flight. 
Tearing  along  in  furious  gallop,  with  ears  and 
mane  erect,  the  herd  dashes  away  with  the 
speed  of  the  wind,  driving  their  young  ones 
before  them,  the  males  galloping  on  the 
flanks  and  at  the  end  of  the  column  to  protect 
the  herd  in  its  hurried  flight.  No  carnivore 
can  follow  them  long.  The  Cape  hunting- 
dogs  alone  can  keep  up  the  pursuit  for 
several  hours,  and  even  then  they  are  compelled 
to  content  themselves  with  the  stragglers  who 
have  got  wounded  in  the  flight;  they  are  not 
able  to  follow  the  herd,  which  at  last  dis- 
appears beyond  the  horizon  of  the  immense 
plain. 

The  leading  traits  of  wild  horses  are  ac- 
cordingly these:  dull  senses,  little  intelligence, 


52 

great  sociability,    and  a  courage  amounting 
even  to  rashness. 

Except  for  the  battles  between  the  fiery 
stallions,  and  especially  the  younger  ones,  in 
their  efforts  to  secure  rights  for  themselves 
as  regards  the  mares,  the  herds  live  together  in 
harmony.  The  old  males  chase  the  young 


THE   ODD-TOED   UNGULATES. 


ones  out  of  the  herd  when  the  latter  begin 
to  show  an  inclination  for  the  mares,  and 
these  young  ones,  which  are  compelled  to  live 
as  celibates,  bring  on  serious  battles  with  a 
view  to  acquire  by  conquest  a  few  females 
with  which  to  found  a  new  family.  The 
herds  make  great  migrations  in  the  steppes 


Fig.  148.— The  Zebra  (Hippotigris  Zebra}. 


and  deserts  in  order  to  seek  out  good  pastures 
or  water. 

Wild  horses  are  keenly  pursued  for  the 
sake  of  their  skin  and  flesh,  which  is  highly 
esteemed,  and  also  in  order  to  procure  men- 
agerie specimens.  They  are  caught  in  winter 
in  snares;  but  usually  advantage  is  taken  of 
their  excessive  curiosity,  and  of  the  passion 
which  the  males  betray  even  for  domesticated 
mares.  The  arts  resorted  to  differ  according 
to  the  locality  and  the  character  of  the  people; 
but  they  all  come  to  this,  that  the  hunter  en- 
deavours to  introduce  himself  either  on  horse- 
back or  on  foot  into  a  herd  in  order  to  kill  the 
adults  and  capture  the  foals. 

The  species  are  but  slightly  different  from 


one  another  in  internal  structure.  The  skele- 
ton, the  dentition,  are  so  much  alike,  that 
apart  from  the  size  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish 
the  species  except  when  seen  alive  or  stuffed, 
when  the  colour  and  markings  of  the  coat,  the 
length  of  the  ears,  &c.,  afford  more  or  less 
well-defined  characters. 

The  horse  family  may  be  divided  into  two 
groups,  distinguished  by  the  markings  of  the 
coat,  and  almost  completely  separated  from 
one  another  in  geographical  range. 

Most  of  the  African  Horses  have  a  coat 
adorned  with  dark  stripes  on  a  light  ground. 
They  have  been  united  into  a  subdivision 
under  the  name  of  Hippotigres,  that  is,  Tiger- 
horses.  They  are  in  general  well-proportioned, 


THK    HORSE    FAMILY. 


S3 


have  a  small  head,  moderately  large  ears,  and 
short  straight  mane.  The:  middle  line  of  the 
hack  is  somewhat  curved  downwards  as  in  the 
horse;  the  tail  has  little  hair  at  the  root,  hut 
ends  in  a  long  tuft;  the  hoofs  are  elegant,  but 
exceptionally  broad  behind.  A  dark  stripe 
always  runs  along  the  middle  line  of  the  hack 
as  far  as  the  tail.  The  transverse  dark  stripes 
are  differently  distributed  in  the  three  known 
species,  which  all  inhabit  Africa  south  of  the 


Sahara.  It  has  been  observed  that  the  herds 
ot  these  beautiful  and  fleet  animals  live  on  a 
gooil  understanding  with  certain  antelopes, 
and  still  more  with  ostriches,  and  thus  derive 
advantage  from  the  watchfulness  of  these 
comrades.  A  few  specimens  have  been  tamed, 
but  they  mostly  remain  savage  and  intractable, 
much  given  to  biting. 

The     Zebra     (I  I  ippotigris    Zebra    (Eqiius 
)),    figure    148,    frequents    chiefly    hilly 


'-  SrSsrir 

Fig.  149. — The  African  Wild  Ass  (Equus  tteniopus).     page  54. 


regions.  It  is  entirely  marked  with  black 
stripes  on  an  almost  white  or  yellowish 
ground.  The  legs  are  ringed  down  to  the 
hoofs,  and  the  mane  is  composed  of  alter- 
nate black  and  white  stripes.  The  tail  is 
black.  It  is  the  rarest  species  in  our  men- 
ageries. The  Jardin  d' Acclimatisation  at 
Paris  has  a  well-trained  pair  which  draws  a 
carriage. 

The  Dauw  (H ippotigris  (.Equus)  Burchellii], 
PI.  XXI.,  is  distinguished  from  the  former 
species  by  having  the  legs  and  feet  not  ringed 
but  of  a  uniform  light  colour  like  the  ground 
colour  of  the  body.  The  stripes  on  the  body 
are  broader,  directed  obliquely  backwards, 
and  forked  at  their  lower  ends.  The  head 


presents  pretty  much  the  same  mingling  of 
colours  as  in  the  zebra. 

A  third  species,  the  Quagga  {Hippotigris 
(Eqmis)  quagga]  is  brownish  above,  white 
underneath.  The  tail,  which  is  completely 
covered  with  bushy  hair,  and  the  ears  are 
white.  The  rather  broad  brown  stripes  attain 
a  considerable  length  only  on  the  neck  and 
shoulders,  gradually  diminishing  in  length  on 
the  back.  The  whole  of  the  hinder  part  of 
the  body  as  well  as  the  legs  remain  unstriped. 

It  is  these  two  latter  species  that  are  gener- 
ally seen  in  menageries.  They  are  more 
easily  tamed  than  the  zebra,  and  it  is  said 
that  in  the  South  African  colonies  individuals 
caught  young  are  associated  with  herds  of 


54 

sheep,  which  they  defend  vigorously  against 
the  attacks  of  wild  animals  and  especially 
hyeenas. 

The  Asiatic  Horses  approach  more  nearly 
to  the  ass  in  the  greater  length  of  their  ears, 
in  the  nature  of  the  dark  stripe  along  the 
back,  in  the  greater  thickness  of  the  head,  and 
in  the  more  delicately-formed  feet.  Like  the 
ass  they  have  only  a  terminal  tuft  on  the  tail, 


THE   ODD-TOED    UNGULATES. 


and  frequently  a  dark  vertical  stripe  on  the 
shoulders,  forming  with  the  longitudinal  stripe 
on  the  back  the  cross  common  on  the  domes- 
ticated ass.  They  are  found  on  both  sides 
of  the  Red  Sea. 

The  African  Wild  Ass  (Equus  tceniopiis), 
fig.  149,  inhabits  the  districts  east  of  the  Nile 
to  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea.  It  is  probably 
one  of  the  parent  stocks  of  the  domesticated 


Fig.  150. — The  Onager  {Equus  onager). 


ass,  and  in  particular  that  of  Egypt.  It  is 
large  and  slender,  of  a  pale -brownish  or 
grayish-yellow  colour,  with  a  very  marked 
cross,  and  some  inconspicuous  circular  mark- 
ings round  the  lower  part  of  the  legs  imme- 
diately above  the  hoofs.  The  mane  is  long, 
the  tail-tuft  very  long,  the  ears  pretty  long 
but  elegantly  formed  and  sharp.  The  do- 
mesticated ass  of  Abyssinia  closely  resembles 
this  species,  which,  with  its  markings  on  the 
legs,  forms  the  transition  from  the  "tiger- 
horses"  to  the  wild  asses  of  Asia. 

Among  the  two  known  species  belonging 
to  Asia  the  Onager,  the  Gurkur  of  the  natives 
(E.  onager],  fig.  150,  approaches  most  nearly 
to  our  domesticated  ass.  It  inhabits  the 


steppes  of  Asia  Minor,  Arabia,  and  Persia, 
and  extends  as  far  as  the  frontiers  of  India. 
The  head  is  clumsy,  thick  and  short,  the  ears 
long,  the  mane  soft,  the  tail-tuft  pretty  long. 
The  general  colour  is  grayish-white,  passing 
over  to  a  pale  isabel-yellow.  The  brown 
cross  is  bordered  with  white,  but  is  sometimes 
wanting. 

The  Tibetan  Wild  Ass  (E.  hemionus),  fig. 
151,  stands  midway  between  the  horse  and  ass. 
The  different  names  which  the  natives  give 
to  this  species,  distributed  over  the  whole  of 
the  interior  of  Asia  from  the  Kirghiz  steppes 
to  Tibet  and  China,  have  given  rise  to 
confusion.  According  to  some  of  the  more 
recent  authorities,  whose  opinion  we  share, 


THE    HORSE    FAMILY. 


55 


the  Kulan  of  the  Kirghiz,  the  Jiggetai  of  the 
Mongols,  anil  the;  Kiang  of  the  Tibetans  are 
one  and  the  same  species,  comprising  a  few 
very  slightly  different  geographical  varieties. 
Besides  the  short  and  somewhat  massive 
head  the  animal  has  the  same  very  harmonious 


proportions,  the  same  graceful  outlines,  slim     colour    is  a  light    isabel-yellow.     The   belly 


legs,  and  thin  hoofs.  The  ears  are  somewhat 
longer  than  those  of  the  horse,  but  shorter 
than  in  the  mule.  The  line  of  the  back  is 
straight,  but  slightly  elevated  at  the  croup; 
the  tail  is  furnished  with  a  long  tuft;  the 
mane  is  erect  and  pretty  thick.  The  general 


Fig.  151. — The  Tibetan  Wild  Ass  (Equus  htmionus). 


and  inner  sides  of  the  legs  are  whitish  yellow; 
the  mane  and  tail  dark  brown.  The  dark 
line  on  the  back  sends  no  branches  down  the 
shoulders.  Examples  of  this  species  are  now 
to  be  seen  in  almost  all  menageries.  Most 
of  them  come  from  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  at 
Paris,  into  which  Dussumier  introduced  a  few 
pairs,  which  propagate  there.  On  several 
occasions  some  of  these  animals  have  been 
trained  with  pretty  fair  success.  Numerous 
variations  in  colour  have  been  observed. 

We  have  now  to  face  the  question  of  the 
origin  of  the  domesticated  horse  (E.  cadalliis], 
which  man  has  diffused  over  almost  the  whole 
surface  of  the  earth.  The  problem  is  not  less 


complicated  than  that  relating  to  the  origin 
of  the  domestic  clogs,  and  all  the  more 
difficult  of  solution  since  we  know  very  few 
wild  species  that  could  be  brought  into 
relation  with  the  domestic  races. 

With  regard  to  the  Ass  (E.  asinus)  there 
are,  perhaps,  scarcely  any  differences  of 
opinion.  We  may  feel  certain  that  the  two 
species  above-named,  the  onager  and  the 
African  wild  ass,  have  each  contributed  their 
contingent  to  the  formation  of  the  different 
races. 

But  with  reference  to  the  domesticated 
horse  we  can  take  into  consideration  only  the 
kiang  or  Tibetan  wild  ass  among  living 


THE  ODD-TOED    UNGULATES. 


species,  together  with  the  extinct  species 
which  have  lived  during  Quaternary  times. 
The  tiger- horses  of  Africa  cannot  have 
contributed  to  the  formation  of  the  domestic 
breeds.  Stripes  and  lines  are  too  rare  in 
these  latter  for  us  to  be  able  to  consider  them 
as  reversions  to  an  original  type  of  colouring. 


One  fact  dominates  the  whole  problem,  at 
least  so  far  as  Europe  is  concerned.  Through- 
out the  Quaternary  period  the  whole  of  our 
continent  was  inhabited  by  a  race  of  small 
wild  horses  which  were  eagerly  hunted  in  the 
Stone  Age.  Whole  graveyards  of  these  ani- 
mals slaughtered  for  food  have  been  found, 


-"^*J- 


Fig.  152.— The  Tarpan  (Eyuus  Tarpan}. 


lor  example,  at  Solutre,  near  Macon  (Saone- 
et- Loire).  While  previously  an  object  of 
eager  pursuit  this  small  animal  was  probably 
domesticated  at  the  time  when  polished  stone 
implements  were  used  (the  Neolithic  Age), 
when  agriculture  was  introduced.  It  is 
accordingly  highly  probable  that  the  small 
horses  of  Norway,  the  Shetland  ponies,  and 
those  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  are  the  more 
or  less  modified  descendants  of  this  prehistoric 
small  and  rather  thick-headed  horse. 

But  there  were  also  horses  of  larger  size 
during  Quaternary  times.  As  regards  Amer- 
ica this  is  incontestable.  The  horse  with 
curved  incisors  (E.  curvidens),  which  roamed 
over  the  whole  of  America  during  Quaternary 


times,  was  of  about  the  size  of  a  pretty  tall 
domesticated  horse.  But  this  American 
species  has  left  no  descendants.  At  the  time 
of  the  discovery  of  America  there  were  no 
horses  in  the  New  World. 

The  large  domestic  horse  was  probably  in- 
troduced into  Europe  along  with  the  use  of 
metals.  It  came  from  some  of  the  countries 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  perhaps  from 
India,  where  it  had  long  been  domesticated. 
But  we  do  not  know  with  certainty  any 
Quaternary  predecessor.  Can  the  domestic 
horse  be  derived  from  the  Tibetan  wild  ass? 
That  is  very  doubtful. 

If  we  turn  our  attention  to  the  horses  that 
have  again  become  wild  in  the  steppes  of 


THE   HORSE   FAMILY. 


57 


Asia  and  America,  we  scarcely  meet  with  any 
solution  of  the  riddle. 

An  illustration  is  furnished  of  the  degener- 
ate; horse  of  Asia,  the  Tarpan  (7f.  Tarpaii), 
fig.  152.  These  horses  as  well  as  the  mus- 
tangs of  America  exhibit  some  common  char- 
acters. The  skin  has  acquired  a  uniform 
colour,  dark -brown  in  summer,  lighter  in 
winter.  The  head  is  thick  and  short,  the 
neck  long  and  slim,  the  ears  long  and  pointed, 
the  hoofs  delicately  formed  and  narrow.  The 
sixe  has  diminished,  and  the  mane,  which  has 
become  shorter,  exhibits  a  decided  tendency 
to  become  erect;  but  the  tail  is  bushy  through- 
out its  whole  length.  We  thus  see  that  these 
degenerate  horses  have  made  a  few  steps  back- 
wards in  the  direction  of  the  Tibetan  wild  ass; 
but  yet  the  distance  that  separates  the  two 
appears  to  be  still  too  great.  It  is  possible 
that  by  careful  selection,  by  giving  an  abun- 
dance of  suitable  food,  and  by  constant  atten- 
tion, the  domestic  breeds  have  gradually  been 
reared  out  of  the  Tibetan  wild  ass;  but  it  is 
also  possible  that  Quaternary  horses,  the 
remains  of  which  may  some  time  be  found  in 
Asia,  have  contributed  to  the  production  of 
our  domestic  breeds.1 

The  domesticated  horse  has  acquired  its 
valuable  qualities  chiefly  by  association  with 
man.  Its  courage  must  have  been  the  quality 

1  A  recent  discovery  of  Przevalsky's  has  a  great  deal  of  interest  in 
connection  with  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the  domestic  horse. 
That  traveller  has  made  the  scientific  world  acquainted  with  a  horse 
hitherto  unknown  inhabiting  Central  Asia,  and  possessing  characters 
more  closely  approaching  those  of  the  domestic  horse  than  any  mem- 
ber of  the  genus  hitherto  discovered.  The  following  paragraphs 
relating  to  it  are  taken  from  feature,  vol.  xxx.  p.  391  (where  a  cut 
of  the  new  horse  is  given). 

"  The  horses,  which  constitute  the  genera  Equus  of  Linnseus,  and 
are  the  sole  recent  representatives  of  the  family  Equidae,  fall  natur- 
ally into  two  sub-genera,  as  was  first  shown  by  Gray  in  1825  (Zoo!. 
'Jour.  i.  p.  241) — Eqiiiis  and  Asians. 

"The  typical  horses  (Equus)  are  distinguishable  from  the  asses 
(Asimts)  by  the  presence  of  warts  upon  the  hind-legs  as  well  as  upon 
the  fore- legs,  by  their  broad  rounded  hoofs,  and  by  their  tails  begin- 
ning to  throw  off  long  hairs  from  the  base,  instead  of  having  these 
hairs  confined,  as  a  sort  of  pencil,  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail.  Up 
to  a  recent  period  all  the  wild  species  of  Equns  known  to  science 
were  referable  to  the  second  of  these  sections,  that  is,  to  the  sub- 
genus  Asians,  known  from  Equns  by  the  absence  of  warts  or  callos- 
ities on  the  hind-legs,  by  the  contracted  hoofs,  and  by  the  long  hairs 
of  the  tail  being  restricted  to  the  extremity  of  that  organ.  .  .  . 

"  Under  the  circumstances  great  interest  was  manifested  when  it 
was  known  that  Przcvalsky,  on  his  return  from  his  third  great  jour- 
ney into  Central  Asia,  had  brought  back  with  him  to  St.  Petersburg 
VOL.  II. 


which  man  first  learned  to  prize.  Remote 
antiquity  knew  only  how  to  employ  the  horse 
in  war,  in  which  it  still  shines.  But  whatever 
may  be  said,  its  intelligence  is  limited.  What 
the  horse  is  at  the  present  day  it  owes  to  the 
training  founded  on  its  docility  and  curiosity. 

[The  behaviour  of  wild  horses  in  Patagonia  is 
graphically  described  in  more  than  one  passage  by 
Lady  Florence  Dixie  in  her  account  of  her  journey 
across  that  part  of  the  South  American  continent. 
"  After  a  time,"  she  writes  in  one  place,  "  we  came 
to  a  region  evidently  much  frequented  by  wild 
horses,  and  eventually  we  hit  on  a  path  worn  by 
them  right  through  the  woods,  and  following  this, 
we  jogged  along  at  a  very  fair  pace.  Soon  our 
horses  began  to  neigh  and  prick  up  their  ears  as 
we  advanced  towards  a  clearing.  Their  cries  were 
answered  from  somewhere  beyond  us,  and  pushing 
forward  into  the  open  we  came  upon  a  herd  of 
wild  horses,  who,  hearing  our  advance,  had  stopped 
grazing,  and  now  they  stood  collected  in  a  knot 
together,  snorting  and  stamping,  and  staring  at  us 
in  evident  amazement.  One  of  their  number  came 
boldly  trotting  out  to  meet  us,  and  evidently  with 
no  pacific  intentions;  his  wicked  eye,  and  his  white 
teeth,  which  he  had  bared  fiercely,  looked  by  no 
means  reassuring.  But  suddenly  he  stopped  short, 
looked  at  us  for  a  moment,  and  then  with  a  wild 
snort  dashed  madly  away,  followed  by  the  whole 
herd.  They  disappeared  like  lightning  over  the 
brow  of  a  deep  ravine,  to  emerge  again  to  our  view 
after  a  couple  of  seconds,  scampering  like  goats  up 

an  example  of  a  new  species  of  wild  horse,  which  belonged,  in  some 
of  its  characters  at  least,  to  true  Equus.  .  .  . 

"Przevalsky's  wild  horse  has  warts  on  its  hind-legs  as  well  as  on  its 
fore-legs,  and  has  broad  hoofs  like  the  true  horse.  But  the  long 
hairs  of  the  tail,  instead  of  commencing  at  the  base,  do  not  begin 
until  about  half-way  down  the  tail.  In  this  respect  Equns  przevalskii 
is  intermediate  between  the  true  horse  and  the  asses.  It  also  differs 
from  typical  Equus  in  having  a  short,  erect  mane,  and  in  having  no 
forelock,  that  is,  no  bunch  of  hairs  in  front  of  the  mane  falling 
down  over  the  forehead.  ...  Its  whole  general  colour  is  of  a 
whitish-gray,  paler  and  whiter  beneath,  and  reddish  on  the  head. 
The  legs  are  reddish  to  the  knees,  and  thence  blackish  down  to  the 
hoofs.  It  is  of  small  stature,  but  the  legs  are  very  thick  and  strong, 
and  the  head  is  large  and  heavy.  The  ears  are  smaller  than  those 
of  the  asses. 

"  Przevalsky's  wild  horse  inhabits  the  great  Dsungarian  Desert 
between  the  Altai  and  Tianshan  Mountains,  where  it  is  called  by 
the  Tartars  '  Kertag,'  and  by  the  Mongols  '  Statur.'  It  is  met  with 
in  troops  of  from  five  to  fifteen  individuals,  led  by  an  old  stallion. 
Apparently  the  rest  of  these  troops  consist  of  mares,  which  all 
belong  to  the  single  stallion.  They  are  lively  animals,  very  shy, 
and  with  highly-developed  organs  of  sight,  hearing,  and  smelling. 

"  They  keep  to  the  wildest  part  of  the  desert,  and  are  very  hard  to 
approach.  They  seem  to  prefer  especially  the  saline  districts,  and 
to  be  able  to  do  long  without  water." — TR. 

40 


THE   ODD-TOED   UNGULATES. 


its  opposite  side,  which  rose  almost  perpendicular 
to  a  height  of  six  or  seven  hundred  feet.  They 
reached  its  crest  at  full  gallop  in  the  twinkling  of 
an  eye,  and  without  pausing  an  instant  disappeared 
again,  leaving  us  wondering  and  amazed  at  their 
marvellous  agility.  I  had  often  seen  their  paths 
leading  up  hill-sides  which  a  man  could  scarcely 
climb;  but  till  now  that  I  had  witnessed  a  specimen 
of  their  powers  with  my  own  eyes,  I  had  scarcely 
believed  them  possessed  of  a  nitnbleness  and  clever- 
ness of  foot  that  would  not  discredit  a  chamois." 
— Across  Patagonia,  chap,  xvii.] 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  AND  DESCENT 
OF   THE   ODD-TOED    UNGULATES. 

The  present  Geographical  Distribution  of 
the  Perissodactyla  would  be  altogether  unin- 
telligible if  the  relations  to  the  extinct  types 
did  not  shed  some  light  upon  the  question, 
without,  however,  solving  all  difficulties.  We 
must  trace  the  stems  of  the  different  families 
back  to  their  deepest  roots,  in  order  to  obtain 
some  fairly  valid  indications  on  the  subject. 

The  Rock-badger  Family  (Hyracida]  is  an 
essentially  African  type,  which,  however,  has 
advanced  further  east  and  has  spread  into 
Syria,  Palestine,  and  Stony  Arabia,  where 
suitable  conditions  of  life  offered.  Hitherto 
no  direct  fossil  predecessors  of  this  family 
have  been  found.  But  we  must  here  take 
into  consideration  the  fact  that  the  soil  of 
Africa  is  precisely  that  which  has  as  yet  been 
least  examined  with  reference  to  palaeontology. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  know  a  pretty  large 
number  of  fossil  Perissodactyla  derived  from 
the  upper  Eocene  and  Miocene  strata  (Lophio- 
therium,  Tapirulus,  Hyracodon,  &c.),  which 
approach  the  Hyracida  in  size,  in  the  general 
character  of  their  dentition,  and  in  particular 
in  the  structure  of  their  teeth,  and  which 
therefore  might  well  be  their  remote  ancestors. 
The  type  would  accordingly  be  one  that  had 
been  very  little  modified  since  Eocene  times. 

In  the  case  of  the  Tapirs  it  is  altogether 
different.  They  occupy  at  the  present  day 
two  widely-distinct  centres  in  the  tropics,  the 


larger  in  south  America,  the  other  in  the 
Malay  Peninsula  and  on  the  islands  of  Borneo 
and  Sumatra;  and  what  is  very  remarkable, 
the  shabrack-tapir  of  the  Sunda  Islands  is  not 
so  different  from  the  Brazilian  tapir  as  this 
is  from  the  highly- interesting  neighbouring 
mountain  species  of  Colombia,  out  of  which 
the  genus  Elasmognathus  has  been  formed. 
We  find  the  explanation  of  this  striking 
phenomenon  in  the  fact  that  during  Eocene 
times  the  entire  surface  of  the  earth,  with  the 
exception  of  Australia,  was  inhabited  by  con- 
siderable numbers  of  tapir-like  animals,  which 
have  indeed  been  continued  down  to  present 
times,  but  have  become  steadily  reduced  in 
numbers  while  their  domains  have  become 
more  and  more  limited.  These  animals, 
which  are  distributed  by  palaeontologists 
among  numerous  genera,  were  represented 
by  different  genera  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
ocean.  The  genus  Lophiodon  in  Europe, 
those  of  Hyrachyus  and  Helaletes  in  America, 
were  the  ancestors  of  genera  which  already, 
in  the  Miocene  of  Europe,  approached  very 
near  to  the  true  tapirs,  while  this  approxima- 
tion in  America  did  not  become  very  marked 
till  the  close  of  the  Tertiary  period.  On  the 
other  hand,  their  domain  on  the  mainland  of 
the  Old  World  became  contracted  much  earlier 
than  on  the  New.  Tapirs  still  existed  in 
Quaternary  times  in  North  America,  and  it 
was  only  in  the  present  geological  period  that 
they  became  confined  to  South  America.  I 
would  insist  especially  on  the  great  difference 
between  the  original  American  and  Oriental 
stocks.  These  two  stocks  approach  one 
another  by  a  gradual  process  of  development, 
each  for  itself  and  independently  of  the  other, 
producing  at  last  two  species  so  closely  re- 
sembling one  another  as  the  Malayan  tapir 
and  the  Brazilian  anta,  which  are  so  widely 
separated  from  each  other  in  space. 

The  other  two  families  of  Perissodactyla 
now  living,  the  rhinoceroses  and  the  horses, 
agree  in  being  now  entirely  restricted  to  the 
Old  World,  while  they  are  both  represented, 


GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTRIBUTION    AND    DESCENT. 


59 


ami  that  in  quite  respectable  numbers,  among 
tht:  fossil  remains  of  the  New. 

Let  us  speak  first  of  the  Rhinoceroses.  At 
the  present  clay  we  have  about  eight  or  nine 
species,  half  of  which  inhabit  tropical  Africa, 
while  the  other  half  are  confined  to  India  ami 
the  Sunda  I  slands.  All  the  African  rhinoceroses 
have  two  horns;  in  Asia  there  are  both  one- 
horned  and  two-horned  species.  All  these 
species  approach  one  another  so  closely  that 
they  can  hardly  be  grouped  with  propriety 
into  sub-genera. 

The  distribution  during  the  Quaternary 
period  was  quite  different  from  the  present. 
Rhinoceroses  were  then  found  everywhere; 
in  the  extreme  north  as  well  as  in  the  tropics, 
on  the  highest  mountains  (16,000  feet  above 
sea-level  in  Tibet)  as  well  as  on  low-lying 
plains,  in  the  Old  as  well  as  in  the  New 
World.  We  know  about  twenty  species  from 
Quaternary,  Pliocene,  and  Miocene  strata, 
and  we  can  trace  their  descent  backwards  to 
the  time  of  the  Upper  Eocene.  Step  by  step 
we  can  demonstrate  the  gradual  modifications 
by  which  the  old  rhinoceroses  have  arrived 
at  their  present  forms.  The  old  types  (Acera- 
therium)  had  no  horns,  and  the  development 
of  the  horns,  which  have  mostly  got  separated 
from  the  fossil  skulls,  can  be  traced  on  the 
nasal  bones,  which  at  last  come  to  be  streng- 
thened by  a  bony  partition,  to  enable  them  to 
carry  the  enormous  outgrowths  by  which  they 
are  surmounted.  But  in  this  case  also  we 
can  follow  out  in  the  two  hemispheres  two 
different  independent  lines,  derived  from  dif- 
ferent stocks,  which  gradually  approach  nearer 
to  one  another,  and  which  in  Europe  pass 
from  the  Palseotheria  through  the  hornless 
forms  (Aceratherium)  to  the  true  rhinoceroses; 
while  in  America  the  original  genera  are  called 
Colonoceras,  Diceratherium,  and  Amycodon, 
and  are  totally  different  from  the  European 
stem-forms.  But  in  America  there  were  only 
hornless  forms,  which  die  out  with  the  Plio- 
cene; while  in  the  Old  World  the  type  is 
continued  down  to  the  present  time,  though 


getting  gradually  more  restricted  in  the  area 
of  its  domain,  which  in  Quaternary  times 
was  far  more  extensive.  A  rhinoceros  with 
enormous  horns  and  a  bony  nasal  septum 
(AY/,  tichorhinus)  was  the  faithful  companion 
of  the  mammoth,  and,  like  this  elephant,  had 
a  thick  fleece  as  a  protection  against  the 
severe  cold  of  the  Polar  Regions. 

The  Wild  Horses  finally  have  a  pretty 
simple  distribution  in  the  present-day  fauna. 
The  "tiger-horses"  are  inhabitants  of  tropical 
and  sub-tropical  Africa.  The  asses  with  a 
coat  of  uniform  colour  hail  from  the  steppes 
and  deserts  of  Asia,  and  the  wild  ass  distributed 
over  the  western  shores  of  the  Red  Sea  forms 
the  connecting  link.  But  in  this  family  we  see 
astonishing  circumstances  in  relation  to  the 
origin. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  discoveries  of 
the  palaeontology  of  the  present  day  is  that 
of  the  two  parallel  lines  in  which  the  horse 
type  has  gradually  developed  in  the  Old  and 
the  New  World.  In  the  latter  have  been 
found  small  five-toed  animals  of  the  size  of  a 
fox  (Eohippus  Phenacodus)  in  strata  belonging 
to  the  Lower  Eocene,  and  from  this  all  the 
different  stages  up  to  the  Quaternary  horse 
(Eguus  eurvidens)  have  been  discovered  with- 
out the  omission  of  one.  Every  geological 
series  of  strata  has  revealed  a  separate  genus 
different  from  that  of  the  preceding  group, 
and  these  successive  genera  approach  the 
modern  horse  step  by  step  through  the  in- 
crease in  the  size  of  the  body,  through  the 
multiplication  and  increasing  development 
and  complexity  of  the  enamel  folds  in  the 
cheek-teeth,  and  through  the  gradual  reduc- 
tion in  the  number  and  size  of  the  toes.  In 
the  Lower  Eocene  genera  the  tendency  to- 
wards a  reduction  in  the  five  toes  present  is 
already  manifest.  The  middle  toe  is  the 
longest  and  strongest ;  the  second  and  fourth 
digits  are  equal  in  length,  and  though  some- 
what shorter  than  the  middle  one,  still  fur- 
nished with  broad  hoofs,  which,  without  doubt, 
touched  the  ground.  The  fifth  digit  is  much 


6o 


THE   ODD-TOED    UNGULATES. 


smaller,  has  the  last  phalanx  pointed,  and, 
there  can  be  no  doubt,  both  it  and  the  first 
digit,  or  pollex,  which  is  quite  rudimentary, 
bore  a  false  claw,  which  could  touch  the  earth 
only  on  sinking  into  soft  or  marshy  ground. 
Henceforth  the  first  digit  disappears  entirely. 
In  Orohippus  from  the  Middle  and  Upper 
Eocene  the  fifth  still  carries  a  false  claw,  but 
in  Mesohippus  from  the  Lower,  and  Miohip- 
pus  from  the  Upper  Miocene,  is  already  re- 
duced to  the  metacarpal  (or  metatarsal)  bone, 
having  no  phalanges,  while  the  second  and 
fourth  digits  have  become  smaller.  In  Pro- 
tohippus  from  the  Lower  Pliocene,  as  well  as 
in  the  succeeding  genera,  the  metacarpal  bone 
of  the  fifth  digit  has  also  vanished,  and  the 
second  and  fourth  digits  no  longer  carry  hoofs 
but  claws.  Then  these  two  digits  likewise 
get  reduced  to  their  metacarpal  bones  in 
Pliohippus  belonging  to  the  Upper  Pliocene. 
The  last  member  of  this  long  series  of  genera 
forming  successive  links  in  an  unbroken  chain 
was  a  horse  which  was  similar  to  the  domes- 
ticated horse,  but  possessed  rather  differently 
formed  incisors,  and  which,  during  the  Qua- 
ternary period,  roamed  over  the  whole  of 
America,  both  North  and  South,  so  that  it 
has  left  remains  in  the  deposits  of  the  Pampas, 
as  well  as  in  the  caves  of  Brazil  and  the 
alluvium  of  the  United  States. 

In  the  Old  World  we  have  a  similar  though 
a  less  complete  series.  Our  horses  appear 
to  be  traceable  back  to  the  Palaeotherium  as 
their  stem-form,  this  being  an  equivocal  in- 
termediate type  with  four  toes  on  the  fore- 
feet, and  apparently  also  the  stem  from  which 
the  rhinoceroses  have  been  derived.  But  in 
the  genus  Anchitherium  of  the  Upper  Eocene 
and  the  Lower  Miocene  the  equine  characters 
are  already  expressed  with  the  utmost  dis- 
tinctness in  the  dentition  as  well  as  in  the 
structure  of  the  feet,  and  may  be  traced 
through  the  genus  Hipparion,  corresponding, 
we  may  say,  to  the  American  Protohippus, 
a  genus  which  had  three  toes,  and  whose 


numerous  remains,  found  in  Upper  Miocene 
deposits  at  Pikermi  in  Greece  and  Sansans 
at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  prove  that  these 
elegant  animals  then  traversed  southern  Eu- 
rope in  numerous  herds. 

I  cannot  enter  into  details  here,  but  will 
only  state  that  none  of  the  genera  belonging 
to  the  series  in  the  evolution  of  the  American 
horses  is  identical  with  any  one  of  those 
belonging  to  the  succession  on  this  side  of  the 
ocean,  and  that  the  initial  differences  are 
greater  than  those  at  the  end  of  the  two  series. 
The  difference  between  the  Anchitherium  of 
the  Lower  Miocene  of  Europe  and  the 
Mesohippus  on  the  same  horizon  in  America 
is  considerable,  while  the  differences  between 
the  Quaternary  horses  of  the  two  hemispheres 
are  but  slight.  The  series  have  accordingly 
approached  one  another  instead  of  presenting 
increasing  divergencies.  But  in  both  series 
is  seen  the  same  tendency  to  form  out  of 
small,  plump,  plantigrade  or  semi-plantigrade 
animals,  omnivorous  in  their  diet,  and  pro- 
bably dwellers  in  marshy  districts,  larger, 
slimmer,  light-footed  herbivora  inhabiting  dry 
steppes. 

To  sum  up,  we  see  in  the  Perissodactyla  a 
great  original  and  old  order  which  has  gradu- 
ally declined  in  the  process  of  geological 
evolution.  The  stems  to  which  we  can  now 
with  greater  or  less  probability  refer  the 
branches  of  our  present  fauna  were  much 
more  varied,  much  richer  in  forms  than  they 
are  now.  There  has  been  a  gradual  decay 
along  with  a  one-sided  development.  By 
domestication  the  highly  specialized  type  of 
the  horses  has  reconquered  the  domain  which 
it  had  lost  at  the  beginning  of  the  present 
geological  epoch;  the  other  types,  not  capable 
of  domestication,  seem  to  be  surely  advancing 
towards  extinction,  in  which  several  pretty 
rare  types  have  preceded  them,  types  which 
have  gradually  died  out  in  the  course  of 
evolution,  and  of  which  we  do  not  need  to 
speak  here. 


EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES 


(ARTIODACTYLA). 


Ungulates  of  very  variable  size,  almost  always  with  an  even  number  of  toes,  which  are  arranged  about  two  parallel 
axes  running  through  the  middle  line  of  the  second  and  fourth  digits.  The  thigh-bone  has  no  third  trochanter. 
The  stomach  shows  a  tendency  to  subdivision.  The  originally  complete  dentition  gets  gradually  specialized 
and  reduced.  The  teats  are  abdominal  and  inguinal.  Placenta  diffuse. 


This  order,  now  the  most  numerous  after 
the  Rodents,  presents  similar  phenomena  to 
those  which  we  have  observed  in  the  previous 
one.  In  it,  if  we  consider  only  the  members 
now  living,  we  in  fact  recognize  two  pretty 
different  series  of  forms,  which  would  neces- 
sitate a  division  into  two  orders,  the  rumi- 
nants on  the  one  hand,  and  the  pigs  or 
many- toed  ungulates  on  the  other;  but  when 
we  enter  into  the  details  of  the  organization, 
and  especially  also  into  those  of  fossil  forms, 
then  we  must  acknowledge  that  the  lines 
of  demarcation  fall  away  one  after  the  other, 
and  that  even  among  the  living  forms  these 
limits  are  not  so  complete  as  those  which 
separate  the  tapirs  and  rhinoceroses  from  the 
horses.  Among  the  palaeontological  remains 
we  find  proofs  of  an  evolution  similar  to  that 
which  we  have  traced  in  the  perissodactyles. 
Out  of  the  originally  clumsy  and  heavy  forms 
with  a  complete  dentition  and  at  least  four 
toes  touching  the  earth  have  at  last  arisen 
slender,  shapely  forms  with  elegant  limbs, 
in  which  the  toes  are  reduced  to  two  and  the 
dentition  is  no  longer  complete.  The  many- 
toed  forms  with  complete  dentition  of  our 
present  fauna  approach  more  closely  to  the 
ancestral  stem-forms,  from  which  have  sprung, 
as  palaeontology  proves,  the  two-toed  forms 


with  incomplete  dentition,  those,  namely, 
which  have  been  called  the  Ruminants,  on 
account  of  a  special  function,  while  the  others 
may  be  called  the  Many-toed  (Polydactyla). 

The  predominant  character  of  the  Artio- 
dactyla  is  that  which  is  presented  by  the 
structure  of  the  feet,  which  always  have  the 
toes  clothed  with  hoofs,  and  which  are 
adapted  only  for  locomotion.  All  these  ani- 
mals "divide  the  hoof,"  as  the  Bible  says;  in 
other  words,  the  toes  are  arranged  in  pairs, 
and  there  are  two  equivalent  widely  separate 
axes  formed  by  the  third  and  fourth  digits. 
The  first  or  innermost  digit  is  wanting  even 
in  the  ancestral  forms,  which  have  four  almost 
equal  toes,  with  the  corresponding  meta- 
carpal  and  metatarsal  bones  quite  separate; 
while  both  bones  of  the  lower  fore-limb  and 
hind-limb,  that  is,  the  radius  and  ulna  in  the 
one  case,  and  the  tibia  and  fibula  in  the  other 
case,  are  likewise  separate  and  attain  an  equal 
degree  of  development.  This  structure  of 
the  limbs  has  been  preserved  in  the  hippo- 
potamus. The  two  lateral  digits,  the  second 
and  the  fourth,  then  get  steadily  reduced  in 
size  in  the  general  evolution  of  the  group. 
The  two  middle  toes  alone  touch  the  ground ; 
the  two  lateral  ones  are  shorter,  but  still  carry 
false  or  accessory  hoofs ;  the  two  middle  toes 


THE   EVEN-TOED   UNGULATES. 


have  their  metacarpal  or  metatarsal  bones 
still  separable;  and  the  bones  of  the  limbs, 
radius  and  ulna  in  the  fore-limb,  tibia  and 
fibula  in  the  hind-limb,  still  persist  as  distinct 
bones.  This  structure  is  that  seen  in  the 
pigs.  Everyone  knows  that  a  pig's  foot  may 
be  split  along  its  whole  length  to  the  wrist  or 
ankle.  The  reduction  in  the  toes  advances 
still  further  in  the  peccaries,  that  peculiar 
family  of  American  pigs.  In  one  species  the 
inner  toe  of  the  hind-foot  has  vanished,  so 
that  this  foot  is  only  three-toed,  and  the 
metatarsal  bones  of  the  middle  toes  begin  to 
get  fused  at  their  upper  ends.  Step  by  step 
we  can  follow  in  the  same  manner  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  radius  and  fibula,  that  of  the  two 
lateral  toes,  and  the  fusion  of  the  principal 
metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones,  in  the  fossil 
forms  as  well  as  in  those  now  living.  A 
genus  of  living  musk-yielding  animals,  Hyae- 
moschus,  which  has  also  been  found  fossil, 
still  presents  astonishing  similarities  to  the 
peccaries  in  the  structure  of  its  limbs.  The 
ulna,  which  in  the  other  ruminants  is  reduced 
to  a  rudiment,  still  exists  entire  and  quite 
separate  from  the  radius.  The  metacarpal 
bones  are  not  fused,  while  in  the  hind-limbs 
the  tibia  and  fibula  are  completely  fused  and 
the  metatarsal  bones  united  at  their  lower 
end.  The  fusion  goes  on  in  such  a  manner 
that  in  the  other  ruminants,  as  in  the  horses, 
there  comes  to  be  only  a  single  metacarpal 
or  metatarsal  bone,  which,  however,  is  dis- 
tinguished from  that  of  the  Solidungula  by 
always  having  more  or  less  well-marked  lon- 
gitudinal grooves  running  down  the  middle 
line  both  before  and  behind,  indicating  the 
place  of  fusion  of  bones  which  are  still  sepa- 
rate in  the  embryo.  This  bone  carries  only 
the  two  middle  toes,  and  at  its  lower  end 
shows  two  rounded  joint-surfaces  correspond- 
ing to  them.  The  two  side  toes  gradually 
disappear,  but  are  still  represented  externally 
by  prominences  and  so-called  false  or  acces- 
sory hoofs,  and  are  recognizable  in  the  skele- 
ton by  small  style-like  bones.  Finally,  in  the 


giraffe  the  limbs  have  reached  the  last  stage 
of  simplification:  there  is  neither  ulna  nor 
fibula;  the  metacarpals  and  metatarsals  are 
simple,  without  any  visible  groove  or  any  trace 
of  lateral  toes.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  process 
,  of  simplification  in  this  case  is  similar  to  that 
which  we  observed  in  the  Perissodactyla, 
with  only  this  difference,  that  in  these  there 
was  only  a  single  dominant  toe,  while  in  the 
Artiodactyla  the  changes  all  took  place  in 
relation  to  two  toes  of  equal  importance. 

We  do  not  intend  to  enter  into  details  re- 
garding the  modifications  which  the  different 
bones  of  the  limbs  undergo,  but  must,  never- 
theless, remark  that  the  astragalus,  the  bone 
which  is  so  characteristic  in  the  ankle  of  the 
hind-foot,  has  a  very  different  form  from  that 
which  it  presents  in  the  Perissodactyla,  so 
that  we  can  say  at  the  first  glance  whether 
this  bone  belongs  to  a  member  of  the  one 
order  or  the  other. 

The  dentition  likewise  presents  remarkable 
transitional  series.  Originally  all  these  ani- 
mals had  forty-four  teeth  in  all,  three  incisors, 
one  canine,  and  seven  cheek-teeth  in  each  half 
of  the  jaw,  and  this  number  has  only  got  re- 
duced at  a  comparatively  late  period;  for  even 
in  the  ruminants,  which  have  neither  upper 
incisors  nor  canines,  there  are  found  in  the 
embryos  the  germs  of  these  teeth,  which  never 
get  developed.  In  an  Eocene  artiodactyle, 
the  Anoplotherium,  we  even  find  all  the  teeth 
in  continuous  close-set  rows  of  equal  height, 
as  in  man.  The  cheek-teeth  are  always  com- 
plex in  structure;  composed  of  eminences  or 
wrinkled  and  folded  tubercles  as  in  our  pre- 
sent pigs,  forming  the  type  of  the  Bunodontia, 
or,  as  in  our  ruminants,  of  half-moon-shaped 
enamel  folds,  forming  the  type  of  the  Seleno- 
dontia.  Now  the  specialization  of  the  teeth 
goes  on  hand  in  hand  both  with  their  reduction 
in  number  and  with  the  change  in  the  habits 
of  the  animals  from  an  omnivorous  to  a  purely 
vegetable  diet,  which  change  again  is  con- 
nected with  the  conversion  of  sturdy  thickset 
forms  into  slender  ones  and  with  the  loss  or 


GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS. 


transposition  of  the  weapons  of  attack  and 
defence.  The  incisors,  which  stand  vertically 
in  the  upper  jaw  but  are  almost  horizontal  in 
the  lower,  gradually  disappear  altogether  in 
the  former.  While  the  pigs  have  in  all  six 
incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  the  hippopotamuses 
have  only  four,  the  camels  only  two,  and  in 
all  other  ruminants  they  are  altogether  absent. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  lower  incisors  in  the 
latter  are  increased  by  a  pair,  so  that  their 
total  number  is  brought  up  to  eight.  It  is 
probable  indeed  that  the  outermost  pair  con- 
sist of  canines  which  have  got  displaced  for- 
wards. The  canines,  which  in  the  hippopo- 
tamuses, pigs,  musk-deer,  and  chevrotains 
are  formidable  weapons,  always  more  highly 
developed  in  the  male  than  in  the  female,  are 
reduced  in  size  in  the  camels  and  most  of  the 
deer  family,  and  disappear  entirely  in  the 
other  ruminants.  It  cannot,  however,  be 
said  that  the  growth  of  horns  is  an  equivalent 
for  the  loss  of  the  canines,  for  the  muntjac 
has  both  horns  and  large  canines,  which  are 
used  by  it  as  weapons.  The  number  of 
the  cheek-teeth,  which  are  separated  by  an 
interval  from  the  front-teeth,  and  can  often 
be  distinguished  by  their  external  form  as 
molars  and  premolars,  diminishes  through  the 
loss  of  the  latter.  The  last  molar  exhibits  a 
manifest  tendency  to  increase  in  size,  and 
this  tendency  is  so  marked  in  the  wart-hogs 
that  the  masticating  surface  in  them  belongs 
wholly  to  this  single  enormously  enlarged 
molar. 

There  is  little  to  say  regarding  the  internal 
organization.  The  brain  and  the  skull  are 
always  very  small  in  relation  to  the  size  of  the 
body  and  the  development  of  the  elongated 
jaws.  The  brain  itself  exhibits  a  peculiar 
system  of  convolutions,  which,  in  the  smaller 
forms,  are  more  simple,  in  the  larger  more 
complex.  The  cerebral  hemispheres  never 
cover  the  cerebellum,  and  they  even  leave  a 
portion  of  the  mid-brain  exposed.  More- 
over, the  Artiodactyla  in  general  stand  upon 
a  very  low  level  of  intelligence,  which,  how- 


ever, does  not  prevent  them  from  having  a 
certain  keenness  of  sense. 

Among  the  anatomical  features  we  would 
draw  attention  also  to  the  tendency  of  the 
stomach  to  become  subdivided,  a  tendency 
which  goes  hand  in  hand  with  the  change 
from  a  miscellaneous  to  a  purely  vegetable 
diet.  In  the  Perissodactyla  this  change  of 
habits  affected  chiefly  the  colon  and  caecum. 
Most  of  the  pigs  still  have  a  simple  stomach. 
In  the  hippopotamuses  and  peccaries  that 
portion  of  the  stomach  into  which  the  oeso- 
phagus or  gullet  opens,  the  so-called  cardiac 
end,  is  divided  into  two,  making  three  parts 
in  all.  This  threefold  division  is  maintained 
likewise  in  the  chevrotains;  but  in  the  other 
ruminants  the  other  end  of  the  stomach,  the 
pyloric  end,  is  also  divided  into  two  parts, 
so  that  the  stomach  now  consists  of  four  dif- 
ferent sacs,  which  have  four  distinct  functions. 

Only  in  the  pigs  are  the  teats  found  ex- 
tending in  pairs  along  the  whole  length  of  the 
abdomen.  In  the  other  Artiodactyla  they  are 
situated  in  the  region  of  the  groin  (placed  in- 
guinally).  The  placenta  is  always  diffuse, 
spread  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  ovum; 
but  while  in  the  pigs,  camels,  and  chevrotains 
the  placenta  has  still  preserved  a  primitive 
character,  being  composed  of  delicate  isolated 
tufts,  these  form  in  the  other  ruminants  more 
compact  masses,  which  have  been  called  coty- 
ledons. 

Almost  all  Artiodactyla  live  socially,  often 
in  numberless  herds,  which,  however,  are 
without  that  more  or  less  intelligent  organ- 
ization observable  in  troops  of  horses  or 
societies  of  monkeys.  Some  rely  for  their 
safety  on  their  strength,  others  on  their 
speed.  Although  these  animals  are  mostly 
stupid  and  unintelligent,  yet  certain  of  their 
senses,  as  smelling  and  hearing,  may  be 
extraordinarily  keen  and  delicate.  They  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  show  any  attachment  to 
man,  who,  nevertheless,  has  domesticated  a 
great  number  of  them.  In  all,  without  ex- 
ception, even  in  the  most  peaceably  disposed, 


64 


THE   NON-RUMINANT   OR   MANY-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


we  can  observe  a  liability  to  sudden  accesses 
of  fury,  the  causes  of  which  it  is  difficult  to 
guess,  though  they  may  be  so  violent  as  to 
lead  the  animals  affected  thereby  to  dash 
blindly  against  everything  that  stands  in 
their  way.  Yet  among  all  the  orders  of  the 
Mammalia  this  is  probably  the  one  that  is 
most  useful  to  man,  who  derives  the  greatest 
advantage  from  it  in  respect  of  clothing,  food, 
and  labour.  If  in  civilized  countries  it  is 
impossible  to  dispense  with  the  hollow-horned 
animals,  such  as  the  ox,  sheep,  and  goat, 
which  yield  us  their  wool,  milk,  and  flesh, 
and  are  in  part  an  important  aid  in  field 


labour,  the  steppes  and  the  deserts  would  be 
impassable  without  camels,  and  the  existence 
of  the  Polynesian  and  Malayan  races  would 
be  endangered  if  they  were  deprived  of  pigs, 
as  that  of  the  Polar  races  would  be  impossible 
without  the  reindeer. 

We  adopt  two  subordinate  groups  or  sub- 
orders: the  Non-ruminant  many-toed  forms 
(Polydactyla),  which  comprise  the  hippopo- 
tamuses and  the  pigs,  constituting  one;  and 
the  Ruminants  (Biclactyla),  to  which  belong 
the  musk-deer,  the  true  deer,  the  hollow- 
horned  animals,  the  giraffe,  and  camels  con- 
stituting the  other. 


GROUP    OF    THE 
NON-RUMINANT   OR   MANY-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA 

(POLYDACTYLA). 


THE    HIPPOPOTAMUS 
OR    RIVER-HORSE    FAMILY 

(OBESA). 

The  River-horses  (Hippopotamus)  rival  and 
even,  if  possible,  surpass  the  rhinoceroses  in 
ugliness.  They  form  a  specially  African 
type,  which  consists  of  only  two  species,  the 
smaller  of  which  (H.  liberiensis),  almost  a 
dwarf  form,  hitherto  found  only  in  the  repub- 
lic of  Liberia,  is  but  little  known.  This 
dwarf  species,  which  has  many  affinities  to 
a  fossil  form  found  in  Europe  (H.  minor), 
attains  only  the  size  of  a  tapir,  while  the 
well-known  species  kept  in  our  zoological 
gardens,  the  Common  Hippopotamus  (H. 
amphibius),  which  inhabits  the  whole  of  Cen- 
tral Africa,  and  even  extends  to  the  Cape, 
and  which  is  figured  in  a  full-page  illustration 
(PI.  XXII.),  attains  a  length  of  about  15  feet 
and  a  weight  of  about  2^  tons. 


It  is  with  good  reason  that  the  river-horses 
have  been  taken  as  the  type  of  a  separate 
family  under  the  name  of  Obesa,  the  stout 
animals.  Everything  about  them  is  heavy 
and  large.  The  enormous  belly  almost  drags 
on  the  ground;  the  feet  are  short,  massive, 
somewhat  twisted,  and  have  four  rounded 
hoofs  on  the  short  toes,  which  are  connected 
together  by  an  insignificant  swimming  mem- 
brane; the  neck  is  short  and  thick,  the  head 
massive,  long,  and  almost  level  on  the  surface, 
the  tail  short  and  furnished  with  a  few  thick 
bristles  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  tuft.  The 
hide,  at  least  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in 
thickness,  forms  great  folds  on  the  shoulders 
and  thighs,  and  is  quite  naked  except  for  a 
few  thinly  scattered  hairs  in  the  folds.  It  is 
of  a  dirty  copper  colour.  There  is  no  other 
mammal  which  creates  such  an  impression  of 
a  formless  mass  of  revolting  nakedness  as  the 
hippopotamus  does. 

The  enormous  head  has  the  form  of  an 


PLATE  XXII.  -    THE    HIPPOPOTAMUS   (Hippopotamus amphibiui). 


THE    HIPPOPOTAMUS. 


elongated  rectangle,  somewhat  contracted 
below  the  eyes  and  rounded  off  in  front  with 
a  thick  snout,  on  which  the  nostrils  open  in 
the  form  of  S-shaped  slits.  The  eyes  are 
small  and  surrounded  by  a  projecting  orbit. 
The  cars  stand  at  the  angles  of  the  back  part 
of  the  head,  where  it  sinks  abruptly  down 
towards  the  neck,  and  are  small  and  in  the 
form  of  pointed  paper-cornets.  When  the 
animal  is  in  the  water,  its  true  element,  it  so 
to  speak  drives  this  unshapely  head  along 
the  surface  in  such  a  manner  that  only  the 
ears,  eyes,  and  nostrils  are  visible  above  the 
water,  which  forms  a  small  pool  on  the 
depressed  part  between  the  eyes  and  nostrils. 
The  latter  open  in  breathing  with  a  great 
noise  and  can  be  hermetically  closed  in  diving. 
( )nly  when  the  creature  leaves  the  water  can 
we  see  the  muzzle,  on  which  the  upper  lip  is 
puffed  up  at  the  sides  so  as  to  conceal  the 
tusks,  and  this  gives  a  peculiar  curved  form 
to  the  opening  of  the  mouth. 

The  skull  of  the  animal  is  elongated  in 
consequence  of  the  enormous  size  of  the  jaws, 
while  the  brain -case  is  very  small.  The 
dentition  is  terrible.  In  the  upper  jaw  there 
are  two  incisors,  one  on  each  side,  set  in  the 
two  halves  of  the  premaxilla,  which  are 
separated  by  a  wide  excavation  in  the  middle. 
These  incisors  resemble  short  pegs,  and  are 
kept  sharp  by  use.  The  canines  which  follow 
these  incisors  form  two  lateral  projections, 
and,  like  the  incisors,  keep  growing  without 
interruption  throughout  life.  Their  crown 
is  very  short,  but  is  kept  sharp  by  use.  In 
the  lower  jaws  both  incisors  and  canines  like- 
wise keep  constantly  growing.  The  inner 
incisors  are  enormously  long  and  straight, 
and  directed  obliquely  forwards  and  upwards. 
In  a  young  hippopotamus,  whose  last  molars 
had  not  yet  cut  the  gum,  these  teeth  were 
more  than  a  foot  in  length  and  about  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  thickness.  The  outer  pair  of 
lower  incisors  are  smaller,  but  also  of  cylin- 
drical form.  The  lower  canines  are  of  enor- 
mous size,  and  curved  upwards,  grooved  on 

VOL.  II. 


their  enamelled  surface  and  worn  away  on 
their  inner  face  so  as  to  present  a  sharp 
cutting  edge  at  the  end.  A  pretty  wide 
interval  separates  the  cheek-  and  front-teeth 
in  both  jaws.  In  each  half  of  each  jaw  there 
are  seven  cheek-teeth  in  all — four  premolars 
with  a  conical  elevation  in  the  middle,  and 
three  true  molars,  which,  before  they  are 
much  worn,  exhibit  four  folded  conical 
tubercles  separated  by  two  deep  fissures 
forming  a  cross.  Through  the  effect  of  use 
the  crowns  come  to  present  to  view  in  place 
of  the  tubercles  four  figures  like  clover-leaves 
surrounded  by  stripes  of  enamel.  This  figure 
is  characteristic  of  the  teeth  of  adult  hippo- 
potamuses. 

The  "behemoth  '  of  the  Bible  is  an  essen- 
tially herbivorous  and  aquatic  animal.  For- 
merly extending  from  the  mouths  of  the  Nile 
to  the  rivers  of  the  Cape,  it  has  now  been 
pushed  back  into  the  interior  by  the  advance 
of  civilization,  and  in  proportion  as  the  rifle 
shooting  heavy  bullets  with  great  power  of 
penetration  advances  up  the  rivers  and  lakes 
of  Central  Africa  will  this  huge  animal 
gradually  disappear.  The  natives  hunt  it 
successfully  by  hurling  against  it  harpoons 
attached  to  floats,  and  then  killing  it  with 
lances  after  terrible  battles.  But  these  are 
always  only  isolated  encounters  which  cannot 
seriously  diminish  the  numbers  of  the  herds. 

The  hippopotamus  is  on  the  whole  a 
nocturnal  animal,  and  where  it  has  made 
acquaintance  with  firearms  leaves  the  water 
only  by  night,  or  if  by  day,  only  to  bask  in 
the  sun  on  sand-banks  and  islands  out  of 
range  of  bullets.  In  the  rivers  and  lakes 
whose  banks  are  occupied  by  tasty  plants 
rich  in  starch,  such  as  it  can  easily  uproot  by 
means  of  its  incisors  and  canines,  it  remains 
constantly  in  the  water  while  seeking  its  food ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  where  the  banks  are 
naked  it  quits  the  water  in  order  to  browse  in 
the  neighbouring  woods  and  plantations,  which 
it  devastates  in  a  piteous  manner.  Besides 
the  fact  of  its  having  tolerably  palatable  flesh, 


41 


66 


THE   NON-RUMINANT   OR   MANY-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


a  hide  yielding  a  good  thick  leather,  and 
tusks  affording  an  ivory  as  highly  esteemed 
as  that  derived  from  the  elephant,  it  is  chiefly 
these  devastations  that  have  always  drawn 
down  upon  it  the  furious  persecution  of  the 
colonists. 

It  is  a  peaceable  animal,  a  capital  swimmer 
and  diver,  able  to  remain  five  minutes  under 
the  water  without  coming  up  to  breathe,  and 
fond  of  roaming  about  on  dry  land  in  the 
evening,  when  it  will  sport  with  other  members 
of  its  own  species,  bellowing  with  joy  in  a 
voice  which,  according  to  the  negroes,  is  equal 
to  that  of  a  hundred  oxen.  It  spends  the  day 
in  inactivity,  and  then  affords  an  opportunity 
to  insect-eating  birds  to  wander  about  on  its 
back  hunting  out  the  numerous  parasites  by 
which  it  is  infested.  It  is  said  that  these 
birds  also  serve  as  sentinels  to  the  hippo- 
potamus, giving  it  warning  by  their  cries  of 
the  approach  of  danger.  The  only  danger 
to  which  the  hippopotamus  is  exposed  is  that 
which  is  due  to  man ;  other  animals  take 
good  care  not  to  attack  this  Titan.  The 
stories  told  of  battles  between  hippopotamuses, 
lions,  and  crocodiles  are  mere  fables.  The 
females  of  the  species  are  tenderly  attached 
to  their  young,  which  follow  them  about  in 
the  water  a  few  hours  after  birth,  and  often 
sit  riding  on  their  back. 

When  wounded  or  pursued,  or  when  from 
any  cause  it  falls  into  a  fury,  the  hippopotamus 
becomes  terrible.  It  attacks  boats,  which  it 
shatters  between  its  formidable  jaws,  crushes 
men  to  death  with  its  teeth,  or  tramples  them 
with  its  paws,  and  sometimes  it  will  dart 
upon  its  opponent  from  some  place  of  con- 
cealment with  the  rapidity  of  lightning,  over- 
turning every  obstacle  by  its  mere  momentum. 
The  mothers  appear  to  take  revenge  for  their 
slaughtered  and  captured  young  even  a  con- 
siderable time  after  these  have  been  lost. 
The  narratives  of  travellers  and  natives  are 
full  of  exciting  accounts  of  hunts  after  and 
battles  with  these  terrible  beasts,  which  are 
all  the  more  dangerous  since  even  the  heaviest 


bullets  can  pierce  their  hide  only  at  short 
distances,  and  the  animal  is  remarkably 
tenacious  of  life. 

Even  the  ancient  Romans  brought  hippo- 
potamuses to  Europe  for  their  games  in  the 
circus,  In  our  time  some  specimens  are  to 
be  seen  in  all  zoological  gardens,  where  they 
have  even  multiplied.  Their  intelligence  is 
certainly  very  obtuse,  and  their  keepers  must 
always  be  on  their  guard;  and  so  likewise 
must  the  spectators — for  the  hippopotamus 
has  the  habit  of  ejecting  its  semi-fluid  excre- 
ment out  of  the  water  to  a  distance  of  perhaps 
twenty  yards,  this  process  being  accompanied 
by  jerking  movements  of  the  tail. 

THE   PIG   FAMILY 

(SUIDA). 

The  pigs  or  hogs  form  a  separate  family, 
characterized  for  the  most  part  by  having  the 
upper  canines  almost  always  directed  upwards, 
while  the  lower  canines  are  so  closely  applied 
to  them  that  the  two  together  on  each  side 
form  only  a  single  tusk.  With  the  exception 
of  the  peccaries,  which  have  the  upper  canines 
directed  downwards  in  the  normal  manner, 
the  pigs  do  not  defend  themselves  by  biting, 
but  make  thrusts  to  the  right  and  left  and 
from  beneath  upwards  with  these  laterally 
projecting  weapons.  The  muzzle  is  drawn 
out  in  the  form  of  a  proboscis,  and  spread 
out  at  the  end  into  a  disc  in  which  the 
nostrils  open.  With  this  very  tough  instru- 
ment, which  is  supported  internally  by  the 
cartilage  of  the  nose,  the  animal  digs  up  the 
earth.  The  incisors  are  three  in  number  in 
each  half  of  each  jaw,  but  the  upper  ones  are 
very  apt  to  be  lost,  and  not  infrequently  do 
not  cut  the  gum  at  all.  The  cheek-teeth  are 
composed  of  numerous  tubercles  arranged  in 
folds.  The  eyes  are  small,  the  ears  always 
erect,  pointed,  paper-cornet-shaped;  only  in 
the  domestic  forms  do  they  become  broad 
and  pendent.  The  hide  is  covered  with  stiff 
bristles,  which  often  become  lengthened  to 


PLATE  XXIII.   -      THE    WILD    BOAR 


THE    PIG    FAMILY. 


67 


form  a  sort  of  mane.  The  legs  are  thin  in 
the  lower  parts;  only  the  two  middle  digits 
touch  the  ground,  and  these  are  completely 
encased  by  hoofs;  the  lateral  digits  are  short 
and  carry  accessory  hoofs.  The  tail  is 
rather  short,  sometimes  even  quite  unde- 
veloped; when  present  it  carries  a  tuft  of 
long  bristles.  The  teats  are  numerous,  and 
are  situated  on  the  abdomen.  In  most  cases 
the  young  have  a  striped  or  spotted  coat. 

All  members  of  the  family  are  social  and 
nocturnal  in  their  habits,  omnivorous  in  their 
diet,  given  to  frequenting  waters  and  marshes, 
and  fond  of  wallowing  in  mire.  They  live 
in  more  or  less  numerous  troops,  and  feed  on 
all  that  they  find.  Though  they  consume 
principally  plants,  roots,  and  tubers,  they 
have  no  hesitation  in  devouring  the  living 
animals  that  fall  in  their  way,  and  do  not 
leave  even  carrion  untouched.  Notwith- 
standing their  voracity,  their  frequently  dis- 
gusting food,  and  their  habits,  it  cannot  be 
said  that  they  are  in  themselves  filthy  animals. 
They  dig  with  their  snouts  in  the  ground, 
wallow  in  mire,  rub  themselves  against  trees 
to  coat  their  bristles  with  resin,  but  they 
always  choose  out  a  particular  place  far  from 
their  lair  in  which  to  deposit  their  dung.  By 
day  they  remain  inactive,  and  they  go  about 
in  search  of  their  food  by  night.  The  banks 
of  rivers  and  pools,  bogs  and  marshes  are 
their  favourite  resorts.  They  run  and  gallop 
tolerably  well,  uttering  loud  grunts,  are  excel- 
lent swimmers,  and  are  assisted  in  this  mode 
of  locomotion  by  a  thick  layer  of  fat  developed 
between  the  skin  and  the  muscles.  Their 
sense  of  smell  is  very  acute.  They  follow 
the  track  of  a  wounded  animal  like  dogs,  and 
manage  to  find  out  underground  fungi  and 
tubers  by  means  of  their  nose.  Their  hear- 
ing is  likewise  very  keen,  but  the  other  senses 
are  obtuse. 

Usually  peaceable,  but  by  no  means  timid 
animals,  the  pigs  know  how  to  defend  them- 
selves both  against  beasts  of  prey  and  against 
man,  when  they  find  that  they  cannot  escape 


by  flight.  They  support  one  another  in  their 
battles;  the  males,  which  are  always  better 
armed,  defend  the  females  and  young  with 
courage,  and  though  not  always  victorious 
they  are  antagonists  not  to  be  despised. 

The  genera  which  we  distinguish  in  this 
family  are  distributed  over  both  hemispheres; 
but  the  pigs  of  the  Old  World  are  altogether 
different  from  those  of  America.  We  will 
begin  with  the  former. 

The  true  Pigs,  forming  the  genus  Sus, 
have  preserved  more  of  the  original  characters 
than  the  other  members  of  the  family,  and  if 
one  will  speak  of  antediluvian  animals  it  is 
rather  the  pigs  than  the  much  more  recent 
hippopotamuses,  as  is  usually  the  case,  that 
should  be  so  designated. 

In  PI.  XXIII  is  represented  a  family  of 
wild  boars  (Sits  scrofa)  belonging  to  our  own 
division  of  the  globe.  This  species  has  a 
very  remarkable  geographical  distribution. 
It  is  found  in  all  Asia  and  Europe,  including 
the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
countries  round,  and  extends  even  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Arctic  zone.  A  species 
so  widely  distributed  could  not  fail  to  exhibit 
local  varieties  or  races,  which  may  present 
considerable  differences  among  one  another. 
It  is,  therefore,  not  to  be  wondered  at  when 
we  find  that  each  of  the  Sunda  Islands  has  its 
own  race,  which  has  been  described  by  many- 
naturalists  as  a  separate  species,  or  that  the 
wild  pigs  of  the  Atlas  are  a  little  different 
from  those  of  Central  Europe,  which  latter 
again  can  be  very  easily  distinguished  from 
their  Indian  kindred.  The  difficulties  arising 
from  this  production  of  local  varieties  are 
multiplied  by  the  facility  with  which  all  these 
races  can  be  habituated  to  a  certain  kind  of 
domestication,  though  just  as  ready  to  revert 
with  equal  rapidity  to  the  wild  condition  when 
opportunity  offers.  Now,  since  the  wild- 
boar  has  been  domesticated  from  the  earliest 
times  in  Egypt  as  well  as  in  the  East,  there 
arises  therefrom  an  extraordinarily  intricate 
problem,  since  the  naturalist  always  has  to 


68 


THE    NON-RUMINANT    OR   MANY-TOED    ARTIODACTYLA. 


meet  the  question  whether  he  has  to  do 
with  a  reversion  to  the  wild  state,  or  an 
adaptation  to  the  conditions  of  more  or  less 
complete  domestication. 

Be  that  as  it  may,  our  wild-boar  has  its 
head  in  the  form  of  an  elongated  pyramid, 
with  a  flat  brow  and  thick  proboscis,  behind 
which  project  the  strong  sharp  tusks.  The 
ears  are  small,  erect,  the  legs  pretty  short  but 
elegantly  shaped,  the  tail  curled  and  adorned 
with  a  long  terminal  tuft.  The  body  is  thinly 
covered  with  black  bristles  with  yellow  points, 
and  these  stand  up  as  a  mane  on  the  back  of 
the  neck.  The  general  colour  is  dark  gray 
since  the  surface  of  the  skin  is  black. 

The  dentition  shows  in  the  upper  jaw  six 
sharp  incisors,  close  set  in  a  long  curved  line 
on  the  edge  of  the  very  narrow  premaxilla, 
two  massive  canines  grooved  on  the  outside 
and  directed  outwards  and  ,  upwards,  and 
seven  close-set  cheek-teeth.  The  first  pre- 
molar  is  very  small  and  laterally  compressed; 
the  three  next  in  order  gradually  increase  in 
size  till  we  come  to  the  true  molars,  the  last 
of  which  is  as  long  as  the  two  immediately  in 
front  taken  together.  The  crowns  of  the 
cheek-teeth  consist  of  tubercles  with  numerous 
folds  and  furrows,  and  those  of  the  lower  jaw 
also  are  similar  in  structure.  In  this  jaw, 
however,  the  six  sharp  incisors  are  placed 
horizontally  and  directed  forwards,  while  the 
strong  and  long  canines,  which  are  triangular 
in  section,  are  curved  like  a  bow,  and  exhibit 
behind  a  polished  surface  resulting  from 
friction  against  the  upper  canine.  The  first 
very  small  but  sharp  premolar  stands  pretty 
close  behind  the  canine,  and  is  separated  by 
a  considerable  interval  from  the  other  teeth, 
which  form  a  continuous  series. 

Fortunately  for  agriculture  wild-boars  are 
almost  entirely  extirpated  in  civilized  coun- 
tries. Among  us l  they  are  still  kept  in  closed 
parks  for  the  sake  of  the  pleasures  of  the 
chase — a  chase  no  longer  dangerous.  They 
still  live  in  perfect  freedom  after  the  manner 

1  That  is,  in  Germany.  — TR. 


of  all  pigs  in  a  few  large  forests  and  in  unculti- 
vated districts.  Formerly  they  were  hunted 
with  packs  of  strong  and  well-knit  dogs, 
against  which  they  show  an  instinctive  hatred. 
When  after  a  bloody  battle,  in  which  several 
dogs  were  usually  ripped  open,  the  wild- 
boar  was  driven  into  a  corner,  it  received 
its  death-blow  from  a  particular  kind  of  lance 
or  spear  (whence  this  form  of  sport  is  known 
as  "pig-sticking"),  or  from  the  hunting-knife, 
which  the  hunter  rested  against  his  knee. 
The  wild-boar  would  charge  the  huntsman, 
who  was  then  placed  in  great  danger  if  he 
did  not  succeed  in  transfixing  the  animal 
with  his  weapon.  At  the  present  day  plat- 
forms are  erected  on  which  the  hunters  can 
stand  in  safety  while  the  game  is  driven  past 
them.  Boar-hunting  has  come  to  signify 
shooting  for  a  wager  at  a  rolling  disc.  The 
flesh  of  a  wild-boar  more  than  two  years  old 
is  decidedly  bad — tough  and  hard;  that  of 
sucklings  and  porkers,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
excellent,  and  the  head  and  snout  are  particu- 
larly esteemed. 

The  domesticated  races  have  arisen  from 
numerous  crosses  between  varieties  origin- 
ally reared  in  the  country  to  which  they  be- 
long. Our  wild -boar,  and  another  smaller 
variety  with  longer  legs,  the  wild-boar  of  the 
lake-dwellings  (Sus  palustris],  the  wild-boars 
of  India  and  the  Sunda  Islands,  perhaps  even 
the  river-hogs  of  Africa  have  contributed 
to  the  production  of  these  races,  in  which 
domestication  and  selection  have  given  rise 
to  remarkable  characters — hanging  ears,  head 
truncated  behind,  face  marked  with  folds  and 
furrows,  shortened  snout,  and  other  characters 
which  are  described  in  detail  by  Nathusius 
and  Riitimeyer,  but  which  we  cannot  enter 
upon  here. 

The  African  Hogs  are  distinguished  by 
bony  excrescences  on  the  sides  of  the  face. 

In  the  River-hogs  (Potamochcerus)  these 
excrescences  form  two  rounded  and  not  very 
prominent  swellings.  In  the  illustration  on 
the  opposite  page  is  represented  the  oldest 


THL-:    PIG    FAMILY. 


69 


known  species,  the  Red  River-hog  of  Guinea 
(/'.  />i>ir/ts  (paiicillatns)  ),  fig.  153,  which 
attains  the  length  of  rather  more  than  three 
fei-t  exclusive  ol  the  tail.  The  river-hogs  are 
distinguished  from  ordinary  pigs  by  their  more 
slender  forms,  longer  legs,  thinner  bellies, 
and  especially  by  the  dentition,  which  always 


wants  one  premolar,  so  that  they  have  only 
40  teeth  in  all.  The  bristles  are  finer,  and 
are  greatly  elongated  on  the  middle  line  of 
the  back,  on  the  abdomen,  and  on  the  sides 
of  the  face  where  they  form  whiskers.  The 
most  striking  external  character  consists  in 
the  form  of  the  ears,  which  are  long  pointed 


Fig.  153. — The  Red  River-hog  (Potamocharus  farcus). 


paper-cornet-like  organs,  the  points  of  which 
are  considerably  prolonged  by  tufts  of  fine 
bristles.  It  is  on  account  of  this  structure 
that  a  name  meaning  "tufted  hogs"1  is  applied 
to  the  members  of  this  genus  in  German. 
The  species  shown  in  the  illustration  above  is 
of  a  beautiful  dark  orange-brown  colour;  the 
brow,  cheeks,  ears,  and  slim  legs  are  black ; 
the  ear-tufts,  whiskers,  eyebrows,  and  mane 
white;  the  delicate  long  snout  of  a  grayish 
colour.  It  is  the  most  highly  coloured  of  all 
pigs.  Another  species  with  a  less  variegated 
coat  was  discovered  by  Stanley  near  Lake 
Tanganyika.  The  very  agile  young  ones  of 
this  species  have  a  striped  coat.  They  live 
in  troops  in  marshy  districts.  In  captivity 

1  Pinselschweine. 


they  are  comparatively  gentle  animals,  yet 
liable  to  accesses  of  sudden  fury. 

The  Wart-hogs  of  Africa  (Phacochcerus) 
certainly  form  one  of  the  ugliest  types  known 
among  animals.  Two  species  are  distin- 
guished, the  Emgalo  of  the  Cape  {Ph.  cethio- 
picus)  and  that  of  Inner  Africa  (Ph.  africanus), 
which  is  spread  over  the  whole  of  Africa 
from  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea  to  the  ocean. 
The  distinctions  between  the  two  species  are 
not  very  important.  The  first  has  a  shorter 
head,  broader  snout,  more  prominent  cheek- 
swellings,  and  more  readily  loses  the  incisors 
with  advancing  years. 

The  wart-hogs,  fig.  154,  are  of  the  size  of 
a  wild -boar,  with  enormous  head  and  long 
legs.  The  body  is  almost  naked,  of  a  dirty 


THE  NON-RUMINANT  OR  MANY-TOED  ARTIODACTYLA. 


gray  colour,  and  set  with  coarse  bristles  very 
sparsely  scattered,  except  on  the  middle  line 
of  the  back,  where  they  form  a  pretty  long 
mane  which  hangs  down  on  both  sides.  The 
cheeks  are  surrounded  by  whiskers,  and  the 
short  tail  carries  a  tuft.  The  head  forms  the 


fourth  part  of  the  whole  length  of  the  body. 
Behind,  it  terminates  abruptly  in  the  form  of 
a  quadrangle,  at  the  upper  corners  of  which 
are  situated  the  broad,  short,  sharp-pointed 
ears,  while  small  prominent  eyes  are  placed 
on  the  flat  brow.  Two  warty  protuberances 


Fig.  154. — The  Emgalo  or  /Ethiopian  Wart-hog  (Phacochasrus  cethiopicus],    page  69. 


as  large  as  the  ears  rise  beneath  and  in  front 
of  the  eyes,  like  two  short,  flattened,  recurved 
horns.  A  second  pair  of  small  warts  is  found 
on  the  sides  of  the  face  near  the  enormous 
tusks,  to  form  which  the  upper  and  lower 
canines  are  set  close  together  so  as  to  form 
terrible  weapons  curving  upwards  and  back- 
wards. The  snout  is  short,  but  very  broad, 
and  oval  in  section.  The  legs  are  pretty 
long,  but  strong,  and  on  the  joints  of  the 
wrist  there  are  broad  callosities  or  warty 
patches.  In  order  to  be  able  to  turn  up  the 
soil  with  greater  force  the  wart-hogs  have 
acquired  the  habit  of  kneeling  on  these 
patches  and  advancing  by  pushing  with  the 
hind-feet. 

The  dentition  is  very  remarkable,  unique 


in  its  kind.  In  the  premaxilla  there  is  only 
a  single  incisor  on  each  side,  and  this  is 
placed  behind  a  bony  eminence  supporting 
the  snout.  This  pair  of  incisors,  which  bend 
inwards  towards  each  other,  often  disappear, 
especially  in  the  Cape  species.  In  the  lower 
jaw  there  are  six  incisors  arranged  in  a  semi- 
circle, and  these  also  in  the  Cape  species 
often  disappear  in  the  adult.  The  upper 
canines  are  of  enormous  size,  set  in  project- 
ing sockets,  and  have  their  anterior  surface 
grooved  and  worn  away  at  the  base  by 
friction  against  the  slender  and  very  sharp- 
pointed  canines  of  the  lower  jaw.  In  each 
half  of  each  jaw  the  last  of  the  cheek-teeth 
is  of  enormous  size,  and  takes  up  almost  the 
whole  length  of  the  jaw,  while  in  front  of  it 


THE   PIG   FAMILY. 


there  are  a  few  small  blunt  rudimentary 
premolars,  which  gradually  get  squeezed  out 
by  this  huge  molar,  or,  so  to  speak,  become 
included  in  it.  Thus  in  the  skull  of  a  wart- 
hog  which  I  now  have  before  my  eyes,  there 
arc  three  premolars  above  and  below  on  the 
right  side  and  only  two  on  the  left,  where  the 


large  molar  has  undergone  an  elongation 
which  enables  it  to  replace  both  in  form  and 
size  the  absent  premolar.  The  large  molar 
is  at  least  six  times  as  long  as  it  is  broad, 
and  its  chewing  surface,  which  is  always 
getting  worn  away  while  in  use,  consists  of 
a  double  series  of  oval  tubercles  surrounded 


Fig.  155. — The  Babirussa  (Porcus  iaiirussa). 


by  enamel,  eight  to  nine  in  each  row,  between 
which  a  number  of  smaller  tubercles  similarly 
isolated  are  arranged  like  squares  on  a  chess- 
board. These  large  molars,  it  will  be  seen, 
are  very  similar  in  structure  to  those  of  the 
elephants. 

The  wart-hogs  live  in  troops  in  marshy 
regions,  and  have  a  certain  reputation  for 
savageness  and  untamableness.  The  natives 
of  the  Cape  dread  them  more  than  they  do  the 
lion.  The  wart-hogs  are  fond  of  hiding  in 
the  holes  of  other  digging  animals,  and  some- 
times they  dig  pits  for  themselves.  Speci- 
mens are  now  often  to  be  seen  in  zoological 
gardens.  They  are  not  very  sociable,  and 
show  no  interest  in  anything,  but  are  rather 
fond  of  having  their  unshapely  head  scratched. 


Nevertheless  one  must  constantly  be  on  one's 
guard  against  them.  The  first  specimen 
brought  to  Europe  killed  its  keeper  in  a 
moment  of  fury. 

The  Babirussa  (Porctis  babiriissa  (Babirussa 
alfurus}},  fig.  155,  is  a  not  less  remarkable 
type  found  on  the  island  of  Celebes  and  some 
of  the  neighbouring  islands,  such  as  the 
island  of  Bouro.  It  attains  almost  the  size 
of  an  ass,  having  rather  long  slim  legs.  The 
hide,  of  a  dirty  grayish-black  colour,  forms 
numerous  folds,  and  is  set  with  only  a  few 
stiff  bristles.  The  tail  is  short,  pendent, 
straight,  without  a  terminal  tuft;  the  back  is 
arched.  The  relatively  small  head,  with 
longish  pointed  proboscis,  carries  paper- 
cornet-shaped  ears  and  small  eyes.  The 


THE  NON-RUMINANT  OR  MANY-TOED  ARTIODACTYLA. 


upper  canines  have  their  roots  set  in  sockets 
which  open  upwards,  and  appear  as  it  were 
glued  to  the  sides  of  the  jaw.  They  pierce 
the  skin,  and  in  the  course  of  growth  get  so 
bent  round  that  the  compressed  points  come 
to  lie  on  the  middle  line  of  the  forehead.  In 
profile  these  teeth  have  almost  the  form  of 


The  fourth  digit  on  all  the  feet  remains  much 
smaller  than  in  all  other  Suida.  Nothing  is 
known  of  the  mode  of  life  of  these  animals, 
which  obviously  approach  the  ruminants  in 
the  characters  mentioned. 

The  American   Peccaries  (Dicotyles)  like- 
wise form  a  separate  group  approaching  the 


a  chamois  horn.  The  lower  tusks  are  less 
curved,  more  slender,  pointed  like  triangular 
daggers,  and  di- 

• 

reeled  outwards. 
They  are  not 
closely  applied 
to  those  of  the 
upper  jaw,  but 
are  placed  fur- 
ther forwards, 
and  form  dan- 
gerous weapons. 
There  are  in  all 
only  four  incisors 
in  the  upper  jaw, 
six  in  the  lower. 
Each  half  of  each 

jaw  has   tWO  Ore-  Fig'  'S6-— The  Collared  Peccary  (Dicotyles  torqualas). 

molars  and   three  molars,  the  last  of  which 


ruminants  in  the  division  of  the  stomach  into 
three  parts    and    the  loss  of  the  outermost 

digit  of  the  hind- 
feet.  They  have 
only  two  incisors 
in  each  half  of 
the  premaxilla, 
and  often  lose 
the  outer  pair. 
The  canines  are 
short,  but  very 
strong  and  sharp- 
edged  ;  they  do 
not  project  be- 
yond the  lips. 
The  upper  ones 


is  the  largest.  In  the  arrangement  of  the 
tubercles  of  these  teeth,  which  are  somewhat 
like  those  of  tapirs,  there  is  a  remarkable 
tendency  to  the  zygodont  form. 

The  mode  of  life  of  the  babirussa  is  like 
that  of  the  other  members  of  the  family. 
It  runs  and  swims  very  well,  and  defends 
itself  with  courage  when  driven  into  a  corner. 
Specimens  have  often  been  brought  to 
Europe,  but  like  other  inhabitants  of  moist 
tropical  climes  they  have  not  survived  long. 
A  suckling  born  in  a  zoological  garden  was 
not  striped. 

Lastly,  among  the  types  belonging  to  the 
Old  World  we  must  mention  the  Pigmy  Hogs 
(Porcula),  discovered  by  Hodgson  in  the 
Himalayas.  They  are,  in  fact,  the  dwarfs  of 
the  group,  attaining  the  length  of  scarcely 
two  feet.  The  tail  is  only  a  stump.  The 
incisors  of  these  animals  remain  undeveloped. 


are  not  directed 
upwards,  but,  as 
in  the  ruminants,  downwards.      Moreover  the 


peccaries  do  not  butt,  but  bite. 

They  are  pretty  little  animals,  for  the 
smaller  species,  the  Collared  Peccary  (D. 
torquatus\  fig.  156,  which  inhabits  the  main- 
land of  America  as  far  north  as  Mexico,  is 
only  about  three  feet  in  length;  while  the 
larger  species,  the  White-lipped  Peccary 
(D.  labiatus),  grows  to  a  length  of  little  more 
than  three  feet  and  a  half.  The  body  is 
short  and  thickset,  the  neck  very  thick,  the 
head  thick  behind,  becoming  finely  pointed 
towards  the  snout,  the  tail  rudimentary,  the 
legs  slim.  The  general  colour  is  dark-gray; 
the  stiff  and  not  very  thickly  planted  bristles 
are  longer  on  the  neck  and  along  the  middle 
line  of  the  back.  The  northern  species  is 
marked  with  a  yellowish  stripe  on  the 
shoulders,  forming  a  sort  of  collar.  They 
have  at  most  three  pairs  of  teats. 

All   peccaries  have  on   the  back  a  pretty 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS. 


73 


well  developed  superficial  gland,  which  exudes 
an  oily  fluid  with  a  disagreeable  penetrating 
odour.  When  the  animal  is  killed  in  hunting 
this  gland  must  be  at  once  removed  with  the 
adjoining  part  of  the  skin,  otherwise  the 
highly  palatable  llesh  of  the  animal  would 
become  quite  unfit  for  food. 

The    peccaries    are    nomads    which    roam 
about   in  large  troops  in  the  forests  both  by 


night  and  by  day.  They  are  not  so  fond  of 
marshes  as  other  members  of  the  family,  are 
often  found  hiding  in  hollow  trees,  and  support 
each  other  loyally  in  battles  against  beasts 
of  prey,  and  especially  against  dogs.  They 
are  very  zealously  hunted,  but  the  hunters 
always  try  to  single  out  from  the  herd  a 
few  individuals,  which  can  then  be  easily 
mastered. 


GROUP    OF    THE 

TWO-TOED    ARTIODACTYLA    OR    RUMINANTS 

(DIDACTYLA   OR    RUMINANTIA). 


We  have  already  drawn  attention  to  the 
principal  characters  of  this  group,  and  these 
we  will  now  only  shortly  summarize. 

The  feet  are  always  two-toecl,  the  toes  are 
encased  in  hoofs  and  mostly  articulated  to  a 
single  long  metacarpal  or  metatarsal  bone, 
which  is  only  rarely  divided  longitudinally, 
but  for  the  most  part  exhibits  a  trace  of  the 
fusion  that  has  taken  place  in  a  longitudinal 
groove  of  greater  or  less  depth.  The  two 
latent  digits  never  touch  the  ground,  and 
carry  more  or  less  well  developed  accessory 
hoofs.  But  if,  on  the  one  hand,  the  meta- 
carpal and  metatarsal  bones  belonging  to 
these  digits  remain  for  the  most  part  more 
or  less  distinct,  in  other  cases  they  are  rudi- 
mentary, and  in  others  again  they  vanish 
altogether  with  the  toes  themselves.  There 
is  thus  a  series  of  developments  by  which 
the  two  lateral  digits  get  more  and  more 
reduced,  and  this  series  is  the  continuation 
of  that  which  was  presented  by  the  preceding 
group.  At  the  same  time  the  limbs  become 
more  slender  and  longer,  as  the  fleetness  of 
the  animal  increases.  Among  the  ruminants 
we  meet  with  runners  which  surpass  all  other 
known  mammals  in  point  of  speed. 


In  many  ruminants  there  are  found  on  the 
hoof-bearing  joints  of  the  toes  special  sacs 
formed  of  folds  of  the  skin  lined  with  hair,  at 
the  bottom  of  which  open  numerous  glands, 
from  which  an  oily,  often  strongly  smelling, 
fluid  is  exuded.  The  presence  of  these 
so-called  interdigital  glands  often  serves  to 
distinguish  genera  and  groups  of  genera. 
The  dentition  displays  very  characteristic 
evolutional  series,  but  confined  within  pretty 
narrow  limits.  In  the  first  place  there  is 
observed  a  tendency  to  dispense  with  the 
upper  incisors,  which  often  begin  to  appear 
in  the  embryo,  but  remain  undeveloped 
except  in  the  camels,  in  which  a  single  incisor 
survives  in  each  premaxilla.  A  callous  pad 
covering  the  edge  of  the  jaw  takes  on  the 
function  of  the  absent  teeth.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  number  of  incisors  in  the  lower  jaw 
is  brought  up  to  eight,  which  are  united  in 
a  semicircle  and  placed  almost  horizontally. 
This  increase  perhaps  arises  in  most  cases 
from  the  fact  that  the  lower  canine  assumes 
the  form  of  an  incisor  and  gets  attached  to 
the  series  of  true  incisors.  The  upper  canines 
remain  longer  distinct,  but  in  the  hollow- 
horned  ruminants  and  the  giraffes  they 


You  II. 


74 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


disappear  altogether.  The  true  cheek-teeth 
are  always  formed  of  semi-cylinders,  which, 
through  the  disposition  of  the  enamel,  exhibits 
on  the  chewing  surface  a  half-moon,  the  con- 
vexity of  which  in  the  upper  cheek-teeth  is 
turned  inwards  and  in  those  of  the  lower  jaw 
outwards.  The  selenodont  (moon- shaped) 
type  of  dentition  is  here  accordingly  developed 
in  all  its  purity.  The  premolars  readily  fall 
into  two  groups.  The  first  frequently  stands 
near  the  incisors  and  canines,  so  that  it  is 
separated  from  the  others  by  an  interval  or 
diastema,  while  the  originally  simple  hinder 
premolars  become  associated  with  the  true 
molars  both  in  position  and  form.  Since  the 
function  of  the  cheek-teeth  consists  specially 
in  the  bruising  of  the  grass  by  a  lateral 
grinding  motion,  the  condyle,  or  joint-surface 
at  the  end  of  the  lower  jaw,  has  the  form  of 
a  longish,  transversely-placed  cylinder. 

Even  in  some  members  of  the  hog  family, 
those,  namely,  belonging  to  Africa,  we  may 
observe  a  tendency  to  the  formation  of  bony 
outgrowths  on  the  skull,  these  having  the 
appearance  of  swellings.  In  the  ruminants 
we  can  trace  step  by  step  the  growth  of  such 
bony  excrescences,  which,  according  to  their 
structure,  are  called  horns  or  antlers.  The 
original  types  of  the  ruminants  had  no  horns, 
which  are  likewise  entirely  wanting  in  some 
still  living  families,  as  the  camels  and  the 
musk-deer.  Three  different  forms  can  be  dis- 
tinguished in  these  weapons,  which  are  often 
developed  only  in  the  males,  and,  in  any  case, 
are  always  stronger  and  larger  in  them  than 
in  the  females.  In  the  giraffe  a  bony  knob 
rises  in  the  middle  of  the  brow  a  little  behind 
the  eyes,  and  two  short  horns  are  formed  just 
at  the  back  of  the  head  between  the  ears. 
They  have  bony  cores  which  are  connected 
by  sutures  with  the  bones  of  the  skull.  All 
these  protuberances  are  covered  by  the  quite 
unmodified  hairy  skin.  From  this  primitive 
structure  of  a  simple  bony  peg,  so  to  speak, 
covered  with  skin,  have  been  developed,  on 
the  one  hand,  horns,  on  the  other,  antlers. 


In  the  former  we  have  a  solid  or  hollow  bony 
core  completely  fused  with  the  skull  and 
traversed  by  numerous  vessels,  the  canals 
through  which  these  run  giving  a  spongy 
or  striped  appearance  to  the  internal  struc- 
ture. This  permanent  core  is  covered  by  a 
hard  sheath,  which,  like  the  nails  and  hoofs, 
is  composed  of  horny  fused  fibres.  These 
horny  sheaths  keep  constantly  growing  by 
the  addition  of  new  layers  internally.  They 
can  easily  be  separated  from  the  bony  core, 
with  which  they  are  connected  only  by  vessels 
and  the  soft  tissue  out  of  which  the  horny 
substance  is  formed.  Like  the  hoofs  they 
persist  throughout  life,  and  at  the  lower  part, 
where  the  bony  core  enters  them,  they  are 
hollow.  It  is  the  family  of  the  Hollow-horned 
Artiodactyla  (Cavicornia)  the  members  of 
which  are  furnished  with  horns  of  that  sort. 

The  antlers  of  the  Deer  are  formed  in  a 
different  way.  From  the  hinder  .and  upper 
angles  of  the  frontal  bones  there  rise  processes 
or  protuberances  known  as  dossets,  which 
belong  to  the  bone  itself,  and  like  it  are 
covered  by  the  hairy  skin.  These  processes, 
usually  very  short,  may  attain,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  muntjac,  a  considerable  length,  and 
are  manifestly  analogous  to  the  horns  of  the 
giraffe.  But  in  the  deer  they  spread  out  at 
the  end  into  a  disk  surrounded  by  a  ring  of 
bony  knots  forming  the  burr.  On  the  disk 
may  be  observed  at  certain  times  what  is 
nothing  else  than  an  inflammation,  which 
leads  to  the  extraordinarily  rapid  growth  of  a 
true  bone  traversed  by  numerous  vessels  and 
covered  by  a  thin  layer  of  skin  with  short 
hair.  During  the  growth  of  this  bony  pro- 
cess the  number  of  blood-vessels  is  remarkable, 
and  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  grow- 
ing bone  is  very  active.  But  as  soon  as  the 
bone  has  attained  its  full  length  the  circulation 
gradually  slackens,  and  ultimately  it  ceases 
altogether.  The  skin  becomes  dry,  breaks 
off  in  fragments,  and  the  whole  antler  dies. 
It  still  remains  for  a  time  attached  to  the 
burr,  but  finally  it  breaks  off  in  order  to  give 


GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS. 


75 


place  to  a  new  antler.  Iv xcept  in  the  case 
of  the  reindeer  only  the  male  deer  carry 
antlers,  and  their  formation  is  intimately 
related  to  the  sexual  function.  A  castrated 
slag  produces  no  new  antlers  after  the  shed- 
ding of  those  which  it  had  at  the  time  of  the 
mutilation,  or  these  latter  may  be  permanently 
retained.  Originally  all  antlers  are  simple 
spikes  or  stilus,  and  it  is  only  in  course  of  the 
periodical  renewals  that  we  see  the  formation 
of  the  lateral  shoots  or  lines,  which  are 
sometimes  expanded  and  flattened. 

Notwithstanding  the  amount  of  difference 
between  horns  and  antlers  there  is  yet  a 
connecting  link  in  the  American  Prong-horned 
Antelope  (.•Intilocafii'a  ai/icn'cana},  the  tines 
of  whose  antlers  are  covered  with  horny 
sheaths  as  in  the  Cavicornia,  sheaths  formed 
of  a  thickened  and  hardened  epidermis  or 
outer  skin,  but  which  are  shed  and  renewed 
several  times  in  the  process  of  growth,  fresh 
ones  budding  off  round  the  bony  cores. 

The  structure  of  the  stomach  in  the  pres- 
ent group  is  likewise  remarkable.  It  is  this 
which  gives  rise  to  the  process  of  rumination. 
All  the  members  of  the  group  are  exclusively 
herbivorous,  and  most  of  them  can  escape 
from  their  enemies  only  by  their  fleetness 
of  foot.  They  accordingly  consume  great 
quantities  of  herbs  and  leaves  with  the  utmost 
haste,  filling  therewith  a  capacious  compart- 
ment in  their  stomach,  which  serves  as  a  sort 
of  storehouse,  and  then  betake  themselves  to 
some  retired  spot  where  they  can  perform 
the  second  mastication  at  their  leisure.  Since 
the  first  mastication  is  very  imperfect  and 
does  not  suffice  for  the  extraction  of  the 
nutritive  matter  contained  in  the  herbs  and 
leaves,  such  an  arrangement  is  all  the  more 
advantageous,  inasmuch  as  it  permits  of  a 
more  intimate  mixture  of  the  food  with  the 
saliva.  The  structure  of  the  stomach  is  mani- 
festly due  to  the  necessity  for  returning  to 
the  mouth  the  material  stored  up  in  the  large 
compartment  above  mentioned  in  order  that 
it  should  be  finely  ground  by  the  action  of  the 


teeth.  The  stomach  is  first  divided  into  two 
parts,  one  which  serves  as  a  storehouse,  and 
the  other  which  carries  on  the  proper  work 
of  digestion.  The  first  part  is  in  direct  con- 
nection with  the  gullet  through  the  cardiac 
opening,  the  second  part  is  continued  by  the 
pyloric  opening  into  the  intestine.  Now 
each  of  these  parts  is  again  divided  into  two 


Fig.  157. — The  Kanchil  (Tragulus pygmirus).     page  76. 

subordinate  compartments,  those  of  the  car- 
diac portion  being  the  paunch  or  rumen, 
which  is  always  very  capacious  and  often 
forms  several  secondary  pouches,  and  the 
reticulum  or  honey-comb  stomach.  Into  these 
two  compartments  the  food  is  first  admitted, 
and  from  the  reticulum  it  can  ascend  again 
to  the  mouth  through  the  gullet,  which  is 
widely  expanded  for  the  purpose.  But  the 
gullet  has  throughout  its  whole  length  a  thick- 
lipped  groove  opening  into  the  cavity  of  the 
pyloric  section  of  the  stomach,  which  pyloric 
section  is  subdivided  into  the  liber,  psalterium 
or  manyplies,  and  the  abomasum  or  rennet 
stomach.  The  remasticated  food  glides  down 
the  groove  just  mentioned,  the  lips  of  which 
shut  so  as  to  form  a  tube,  and  passes  thence 
directly  into  the  psalterium,  and  from  there 


76 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


into  the  abomasum,  in  which  is  secreted  the 
acid  gastric  juice  by  which  the  work  of 
digestion  is  performed.  In  young  ruminants 
still  sucking,  the  paunch  and  reticulum  are 
only  slightly  developed;  these  organs  attain 
their  full  size  only  as  the  animals  pass  over  to 
a  purely  vegetable  diet.  There  are  numerous 
variations  in  the  structure  of  these  different 
parts  of  the  stomach,  but  the  most  remarkable 
is  that  seen  in  the  chevrotains  (Tragulida), 
in  which  the  psalterium  is  altogether  absent, 
which  brings  about  a  close  resemblance 
between  their  stomach  and  that  of  the 
peccaries.  The  teats  are  situated  in  the 
region  of  the  groin.  The  young  come  into 
the  world  in  a  very  advanced  state,  and 
are  able  to  follow  their  mothers  a  few  hours 
after  birth.  They  are  not  numerous;  one, 
or  at  most  two,  at  a  birth  is  the  rule  in  the 
ruminants. 

THE   CHEVROTAIN    FAMILY 

(TRAGULIDA). 

This  family  stands  nearest  to  that  of  the 
pigs,  and  especially,  as  just  stated,  to  the 
peccaries,  in  virtue  of  the  structure  of  the 
stomach,  which  has  no  psalterium;  and  also 
in  virtue  of  the  structure  of  the  feet,  in  which 
the  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones  are  not 
yet  completely  fused;  the  structure  of  the 
brain,  which  is  very  simple,  has  few  con- 
volutions, small  cerebral  hemispheres,  and 
the  cerebellum,  often  even  a  part  of  the  mid- 
brain,  uncovered;  and  lastly,  in  virtue  of  the 
structure  of  the  placenta. 

They  are  the  smallest  of  the  ruminants, 
for  the  Kanchil  (Tragulus  pygmczus),  fig  157, 
does  not  exceed  the  size  of  a  hare,  and  the 
Water  Chevrotain  (Hyamoschus  (Hyomoschus} 
aqnaticus],  the  largest  species,  is  of  about  the 
size  of  a  roebuck  a  few  months  old.  The 
family  is  represented  only  by  the  genera  just 
mentioned.  The  true  chevrotains,  forming 
the  genus  Tragulus,  in  which  several  species 
are  distinguished,  are  indigenous  in  India,  the 


Eastern   Peninsula,   China,   Ceylon,   and   the 
Sunda  Islands;  the  water  chevrotain  is  con- 
fined    to    the    west    coast    of    Africa — the 
Gaboon  and  Sierra  Leone.      The  head  of  the 
Tragulida   is    finely   shaped   and    pointed    in 
front.      In    the    males    two    sharp,    slender, 
pointed  canines  curved  downwards  and  out- 
wards   project  beyond   the  mouth   from   the 
upper  jaw.      The   eyes    are   very   large   and 
sparkling,    the    ears    small    and    but    slightly 
covered  with  hair,  the  neck  short,  the  body 
thick,  the  back  arched,  the  legs  slender  and 
well  formed,  the  tail  short  and  bushy.     The 
fur  is  short,  very  thick,  usually  of  a  yellowish- 
brown  colour,  almost  white  underneath,  and 
often  marked  with  white  stripes  and  spots  on 
the  throat  and  sides.     The  lateral  digits  are 
well  developed,  and  are  carried  by  complete 
metacarpal  (or  metatarsal)  bones;   the  lower 
incisors  are  set  close  together,  and  the  middle 
pair  has  the  crowns  spread  out  like  a  spade. 
The  lower  canines  are  absent.     The  three 
premolars  above  and  below  are  simple,  with 
sharp   triangular  crowns.      The   three   upper 
molars    exhibit    double    crescents,    while    on 
those  of  the  lower  jaw  there  are  only  single 
crescents    on    the    edges.       There    are    no 
horns,  and  the  males  have  no  musk-pouch. 
These  pretty  little  creatures  live  singly  or  in 
pairs    in    mountainous    regions.     They   are 
very  agile,   leap    and   climb    admirably,   run 
well,  but  not  long  at  a  time;  and  among  the 
Malays,  who  have  a  saying,  "as  cunning  as 
a    kanchil,"    enjoy    a    perhaps    exaggerated 
reputation  for  craftiness.     They  feign  death 
in  order  to  escape  pursuit.     They  are  eagerly 
hunted  for  their  flesh,  and  they  have  often 
been  brought  to  Europe,  where  they  thrive 
very  well  in  the  zoological  gardens;  they  are 
graceful,  but  very  shy  and  timid. 

The  Musk-deer  (Mosck&s  inoschifcrus),  fig. 
158,  forms  the  connecting  link  between  the 
chevrotains  and  the  true  deer.  Like  the 
former,  it  has  no  horns,  has  a  pretty  thick 
body  highly  arched  behind,  large  accessory 
hoofs  and  strong  canines,  which  in  the  males 


11  IK    DliER    FAMILY. 


77 


project  beyond  the  mouth;  but  in  respect  of 
all  the  other  characters  of  the  dentition,  the 
limbs,  the  whole  skeleton,  anil  the-  stomach 
and  intestines,  are  in  no  way  different  from 
the  true  deer.  On  these  grounds  Alph. 
Milne  Kdwards  has  separated  the  musk-deer 
from  the  chevrotains,  with  which  they  were 
formerly  united  in  the  same  group. 


Fig.  158.— The  Musk-deer  (Moschus  mosckiferus). 

What  distinguishes  this  species,  which  is 
distributed  over  an  enormous  range  in  all  the 
mountainous  parts  of  Central  Asia,  from 
Siberia  to  Cochin-China,  and  from  Kamchatka 
to  the  Ural  Mountains,  is  the  pouch,  which 
stands  in  close  relation  to  the  sexual  organs 
of  the  male,  and  yields  the  musk,  which  was 
formerly  highly  esteemed  in  medicine,  but  at 
the  present  day  is  used  almost  exclusively  in 
perfumery.  The  musk-pouch  is  a  fold  of  the 
skin  as  large  as  the  fist  which  opens  in  the 
middle  line  of  the  abdomen  behind  the  navel, 
and  contains  numerous  glands  which  excrete 
an  oily  substance  of  a  yellowish-red  colour, 
becoming  brown  on  drying.  The  pouch  of 
an  adult  male  may  contain  as  much  as  two 
ounces  of  the  precious  substance,  or  even 


more,  and  it  is  chiefly  for  the'  sake  of  this 
product  that  the  very  shy  and  agile;  animal 
is  hunted.  The  musk-deer  is  of  the  size  of 
a  roebuck,  and  like  this  animal  has  a  stiff 
coarse  hair-covering,  which  is  very  variable 
in  colour.  Reddish-gray  is,  however,  the 
prevailing  hue,  but  white-spotted  and  even 
quite  white  varieties  are  found.  The  musk- 
deer  hides  itself  by  day  and  goes  out  in 
search  of  pasture  at  sunset.  It  jumps  and 
climbs  about  on  the  mountains  as  cleverly  as 
a  chamois;  but  since  it  is  much  attached  to 
its  own  retreats,  and  always  returns  thither 
after  an  excursion,  it  is  easily  caught  in  snares 
or  shot  with  bullets.  The  Siberian  musk  is 
the  least  highly  prized;  nevertheless  this 
country  yields  about  9000  pouches  every 
year. 

THE    DEER   FAMILY 

I  RVIDA). 

By  the  exclusion  of  the  musk-deer  from 
the  deer  family  this  group  is  restricted  to 
those  ruminants  which  possess  antlers,  which 
are  always  developed  in  the  males,  but  seldom 
in  the  females.  The  males  almost  always 
have  canines  also,  which  in  some  species 
even  grow  to  a  considerable  size,  but  in  most 
cases  remain  small  and  insignificant.  The 
eight  lower  incisors  form  a  close-set  series, 
and  are  almost  alike  in  form  and  size.  The 
premolars  are  very  little  different  either  in 
form  or  size  from  the  true  molars.  Deer 
have  large  ears,  prominent  eyes,  and  always 
have  under  the  eye  lachrymal  glands  or 
tear-pits  exuding  an  oily  fluid  which  in  the 
breeding  season  acquires  a  peculiar  smell. 
The  tail  is  very  short,  the  body  usually  long, 
and  covered  with  coarse,  stiff,  thickset  hair. 
The  long  slender  legs  carry  small  accessory 
hoofs  at  a  considerable  height  above  the 
ground.  Between  the  hoofs  of  the  hind-feet 
there  is  a  brush  of  stiff  hairs.  Polygamy 
appears  to  be  the  rule  in  the  deer  family; 
they  seldom  live  in  pairs,  almost  always  in 


THE   TWO-TOED    ARTIODACTYLA. 


herds.  They  prefer  the  woods,  are  shy  and 
sudden  in  their  movements,  but  the  males 
become  quarrelsome  and  even  ferocious  in 
the  rutting  season,  when  they  utter  loud 
bellowings  and  carry  on  furious  battles  with 
one  another.  The  family  is  distributed  over 
the  whole  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds  as 
far  as  the  limit  of  forests,  occasionally  even 
beyond  that 
limit,  andevery- 
where  they  are 
the  objects  of 
keen  pursuit, 
for  the  sake  of 
their  tender 
flesh, their  hide, 
which  furnishes 
pretty  good  lea- 
ther, and  even 
their  antlers, 
which  are  used 
in  the  making 
of  instruments 
and  works  of 
art.  The  fe- 
males have  four 
teats,  but  sel- 
dom bring  forth 

more  than  one  young  one  at  a  time.  Hearing 
is  the  most  highly  developed  of  all  the  senses ; 
the  intelligence  is  very  slight.  Beautiful, 
but  stupid!  is  the  motto  for  them. 

The  very  numerous  family  of  the  deer  has 
been  divided  into  genera  and  sub-genera, 
regard  being  had,  in  making  these  sub- 
divisions, chiefly  to  the  form  of  the  antlers, 
which  are  sometimes  simple  spikes,  sometimes 
forked,  branched,  or  spatulate — expanded 
somewhat  like  a  spade.  The  distinctions  are, 
however,  very  slight,  so  that  no  great  value 
can  be  attached  to  these  subdivisions.  From 
these  groups  we  select  a  few  characteristic  or 
specially  interesting  species. 

Through  the  possession  of  large  project- 
ing canines  by  the  male  and  the  absence  of 
bunches  of  hair  on  the  soles  of  the  hind-feet 


the  Muntjac  (Cervulus  muntjac],  fig.  159,  also 
called  by  the  natives  Kidang,  approaches  the 
musk-deer,  while  in  all  other  characters  it 
is  a  member  of  the  true  deer  family.  The 
muntjac  lives  on  the  Great  Sunda  Islands, 
Borneo,  Java,  and  Sumatra;  an  allied  but 
little-known  species  inhabits  India.  These 
pretty  deer,  of  the  size  of  our  roe,  are  distin- 
guished by  the 
structure  of  the 
antlers,  the  vel- 
vet-clad  por- 
tions of  which 
begin  in  the 
form  of  two 
strong  lateral 
bony  ridges  on 
the  nose,  and 
rise  free  above 
the  brow  to  a 
height  equal  to 
about  half  the 
length  of  the 
head.  At  a 
point  a  little 
way  above  the 
burr  there  rises 
a  short  brow- 


g|3§ 


Fig.  159. — The  Muntjac  (Cfrvultu  muntjac). 

tine,  while  the  stem  or  beam  is  continued  in 
a  form  like  that  of  a  bow  with  the  concavity 
inwards.  The  fawns  are  spotted;  the  adult 
animals  have  a  brownish-yellow  coat,  with 
two  white  spots  on  the  throat;  the  tear-pits 
are  very  large  and  surmounted  by  tufts  of 
hair.  The  males  live  solitary  in  the  woods, 
associating  with  the  females  only  in  the 
breeding  season,  are  very  courageous,  and 
can  defend  themselves  very  well  against  dogs 
with  their  horns  and  teeth.  In  confinement 
they  are  subject  to  accesses  of  fury  which 
may  prove  dangerous  at  times. 

South  America  nourishes  several  species 
of  small  deer  about  equal  in  size  to  our  roe- 
deer,  but  even  more  slimly  built.  These  are 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  brockets  (genus 
Subulo)  on  account  of  their  small,  somewhat 


PLATE  XXIV.  -     THE    ROE-DEER   (Cap reolus  wlgaris}. 


THE   DEER   FAMILY. 


79 


curved,  pointed  antlers  without  tines.  An 
illustration  is  given  of  the  commonest  species, 
the  Red  Brocket  (Snlnt/o  (Cariacus)  ntftis), 
fig.  160,  which  has  a  coat  of  a  brilliant  reddish- 
brown  colour  on  the  back  and  reddish-yellow 
underneath.  This  very  timid  animal  lives  in 
pairs  in  the  densest  parts  of  the  forests  of 
Brazil  and  Guiana.  The  tail  is  short,  the 
tear-pits  are  slightly  developed.  Canines  are 
present  only  in  the 
young  males. 

Our  Common  Roe 
(Capreolns  vulgar  is 
(•-apr(ca) ),  which  is 
represented  in  PI. 
XXIV.,  is  the  type 
of  a  group  charac- 
terised by  having 
short  strong  antlers 
with  a  thick,  round, 
straight  beam,  the 
end  of  which  forks 
one  or  more  times 
with  increasing  age. 
The  tear- pits  are 
scarcely  indicated, 
the  tail  is  only  a 
stump,  the  canines  are  present  only  in  the 
young  males.  The  roe-deer  lives  in  small 
troops  scattered  over  all  Europe.  A  larger 
variety  extends  over  Central  Asia  as  far  as 
China.  The  general  colour  is  brownish-gray. 
The  very  stiff  fur  is  shorter  and  redder  in 
summer,  longer  and  grayer  in  winter.  There 
is  a  white  patch  on  the  hips  behind  known 
to  hunters  as  the  speculum.  The  males  in 
the  rutting  season  are  very  combative  and 
challenge  one  another  with  a  peculiar  cry, 
which  in  hunting  is  sometimes  imitated  by 
means  of  a  small  instrument  placed  in  the 
mouth.  The  roebuck  imagines  that  he  hears 
the  voice  of  a  rival  and  at  once  dashes  to 
meet  him.  At  other  times  the  roe  is  a  timid 
animal,  hiding  by  day  in  the  dense  parts  of 
the  forest,  but  preferring  the  neighbourhood 
of  open  glades  and  fields.  The  troops  go 


Fig.  160.- 


out  only  at  night  under  the  leadership  of  an 
old  male.  The  roe  yields  us  the  most  highly 
esteemed  kind  of  game.  The  pregnancy  of 
the  female  presents  an  exceptional  condition 
like  that  which  we  have  already  observed  in 
bats.  The  ovum  is  impregnated  in  July  and 
August,  but  only  in  November  does  it  begin 
to  develop,  and  the  young  are  born  in  May. 
Roes  have  often  been  tamed,  but  the  instances 
•MUB  ;  ;  have  remained  isol- 

ated, since  the  bucks 
become  very  ill-tem- 
pered as  they  grow 
old. 

The  members  of 
the  genus  Blasto- 
ceros  (sometimes  in- 
cluded in  the  genus 
Cariacus)  take  the 
place  of  our  roe-deer 
in  S.  America.  The 
commonest  species, 
the  Pampas  Deer,  or 
Guazui  of  the  natives 
(/?/.  (Cariacus)  cam- 
pestris),  is  repre- 
sented in  fig.  1 6 1. 

They  are  distinguished  from  the  roes  by  their 
longer  tail  and  larger  and  thinner  antlers, 
which  besides  the  terminal  peak  carry  two  or 
three  long,  thin,  and  sharp -pointed  tines. 
The  species  represented  is  of  the  size  of  a 
small  fallow-deer,  with  very  long  slender  legs. 
The  under  parts  are  white,  and  the  eyes  are 
surrounded  by  white  rings.  This  pretty 
creature  prefers  the  pampas  and  treeless 
steppes,  which,  however,  are  covered  with 
tall  grasses  in  which  it  hides  by  day.  It  is 
easily  tamed,  and  becomes  very  confiding, 
but  the  male  in  the  rutting  season  has  such 
a  penetrating  and  clinging  smell  that  it  be- 
comes a  very  disagreeable  guest,  while  its 
flesh  is  rendered  quite  unpalatable. 

In  the  East  Indies  there  are  numerous 
forms  allied  to  those  just  described,  forms  in 
which  the  antlers  attain  the  length,  and 


8o 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTVLA. 


exhibit  in  the  beams  the  roundness  and  cur- 
vature characteristic  of  our  common  deer,  but 
scarcely  ever  give  off  more  than  three  tines, 
one  of  which,  the  brow-tine,  is  situated  near 
the  burr  above  the  eyes. 

As  type  of  this  group  an  illustration  is 
given  of  the  Axis  or  Spotted  Deer  (Axis 
mactdata  (Cervus  axis}),  fig.  162,  whose 


beautiful  brownish-yellow  fur  is  marked  with 
a  dark  stripe  on  the  back,  and  is  dotted 
over  with  numerous  white  spots.  The  antlers 
are  thin  and  almost  smooth.  This  beautiful 
stag,  which  does  not  quite  attain  the  size 
of  the  fallow-deer,  inhabits  the  jungles  of 
India.  It  is  often  hunted.  It  is  propa- 
gated pretty  easily  in  our  zoological  gar- 


Zsyjf&Snfv^"  -  **fci^r          ,r-     i-  __  " ^  —  . -^*    *  *--  *»-_  — .    _  -  — fe-T-T^^i?1"- 

Fig.  161. — The  Pampas  Deer  or  Guazui  (Blastoccros  campestris}.     page  79. 


dens,  but  can  scarcely  stand  the  cold  of  our 
winters. 

[A  close  ally  of  this  species  is  the  sambur  or 
samber  deer  (Cervus  Aristotelis),  which  in  Ceylon, 
where  it  is  much  hunted,  goes  under  the  name  of 
the  "elk."  The  hunting  of  this  deer  is  described 
by  Sir  Samuel  Baker  in  the  following  enthusiastic 
terms  in  his  Rifle  and  Hound  in  Ceylon: — 

"  It  is  a  glorious  sport  certainly  to  a  man  who 
thoroughly  understands  it;  the  voice  of  every  hound 
familiar  to  his  ear;  the  particular  kind  of  game 
that  is  found  is  at  once  known  to  him  long  before 
he  is  in  view  by  the  style  of  the  hunting.  If  an 
elk  is  found  the  hounds  follow  with  a  burst  straight 
as  a  line  and  at  a  killing  pace  directly  up  the  hill, 
till  he  at  length  turns  and  bends  his  headlong 
course  for  some  stronghold  in  a  deep  river  to  bay. 
Listening  to  the  hounds  till  certain  of  their  course, 


a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  country  at  once  tells 
the  huntsman  of  their  destination,  and  away  he  goes. 
"  He  tightens  his  belt  by  a  hole,  and  steadily 
he  starts  at  a  long  swinging  trot,  having  made  up 
his  mind  for  a  day  of  it.  Over  hills  and  valleys, 
through  tangled  and  pathless  forests,  but  all  well 
known  to  him,  steady  he  goes  at  the  same  pace  on 
the  level,  extra  steam  downhill,  and  stopping  for 
a  moment  to  listen  for  the  hounds  on  every  elevated 
spot.  At  length  he  hears  them!  No;  it  was  a 
bird.  Again  he  fancies  that  he  hears  a  distant 
sound — was  it  the  wind?  No;  there  it  is — it  is  old 
Smut's  voice — he  is  at  bay !  Yoick  to  him !  he  shouts 
till  his  lungs  are  well-nigh  cracked;  and  through 
thorns  and  jungles,  bogs  and  ravines,  he  rushes 
towards  the  welcome  sound.  Thick-tangled  bushes 
armed  with  a  thousand  hooked  thorns  suddenly 
arrest  his  course;  it  is  the  dense  fringe  of  under- 
wood that  borders  every  forest;  the  open  plain  is 


THK  DKKK.  FAMILY. 


81 


within  a  few  yards  of  him.  The  hounds  in  a  mad 
chorus  are  at  bay,  and  the  woods  ring  again  with 
the  cheering  sound.  Nothing  can  stop  him  now — 
thorns,  or  clothes,  or  flesh  must  go — something 
must  give  way  as  he  bursts  through  them  and 
stands  upon  the  plain. 


"  There  they  are  in  that  deep  pool  formed  by  the 
rivrr  as  it  sweeps  round  the  rock.  A  buck!  a  noble 
fellow!  Now  he  charges  at  the  hounds,  and  strikes 
the  foremost  beneath  the  water  with  his  fore-feet; 
up  they  come  again  to  the  surface— they  hear  their 
master's  well-known  shout — they  look  round  and 


sec  his  welcome  figure  on  the  steep  bank.  Another 
moment,  a  tremendous  splash,  and  he  is  among  the 
hounds,  and  all  are  swimming  towards  their  noble 
game.  At  them  he  comes  with  a  fierce  rush. 
Avoid  him  as  you  best  can,  ye  hunters,  man  and 
hounds! 

"  Down  the  river  the  buck  now  swims,  sometimes 
galloping  over  the  shallows,  sometimes  wading 
shoulder-deep,  sometimes  swimming  through  the 
deep  pools.  Now  he  dashes  down  the  fierce  rapids 
and  leaps  the  opposing  rocks,  between  which  the 
torrent  rushes  at  a  frightful  pace.  The  hounds  are 
after  him,  the  roaring  of  the  water  joins  in  their 
wild  chorus,  the  loud  holloa  of  the  huntsman  is 
heard  above  every  sound  as  he  cheers  the  pack  on. 
He  runs  along  the  bank  of  the  river,  and  again 
the  enraged  buck  turns  to  bay.  He  has  this  time 

Vou  II. 


taken  a  strong  position ;  he  stands  in  a  swift  rapid 
about  two  feet  deep,  his  thin  legs  cleave  the  stream 
as  it  rushes  past,  and  every  hound  is  swept  away 
as  he  attempts  to  stem  the  current.  He  is  a 
perfect  picture,  his  nostrils  are  distended,  his  mane 
is  bristled  up,  his  eyes  flash,  and  he  adds  his  loud 
bark  of  defiance  to  the  din  around  him.  The 
hounds  cannot  touch  him.  Now  for  the  huntsman's 
part;  he  calls  the  staunchest  seizers  to  his  side, 
gives  them  a  cheer  on,  and  steps  into  the  torrent 
knife  in  hand.  Quick  as  lightning  the  buck  springs 
to  the  attack;  but  he  has  exposed  himself,  and  at 
that  moment  the  tall  lurchers  are  upon  his  ears; 
the  huntsman  leaps  upon  one  side  and  plunges  the 
knife  behind  his  shoulder.  A  tremendous  struggle 
takes  place — the  whole  pack  is  upon  him;  still  his 
dying  efforts  almost  free  him  from  their  hold,  a 


82 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


mass  of  spray  envelopes  the  whole  scene.  Suddenly 
he  falls — he  dies — it  is  all  over.  The  hounds  are 
called  off,  and  are  carefully  examined  for  wounds." 
Elsewhere  the  same  writer  records  another 
striking  incident  in  elk-hunting.  "  One  great  plea- 
sure," he  says,  "  in  the  hunting  at  Newera  Ellia 
is  the  ease  with  which  it  is  obtained.  In  fact,  the 
sport  lies  at  the  very  door.  This  may  be  said  to 
be  literally  true,  and  not  a  fagon  de  parler,  as  I 
once  killed  an  elk  that  jumped  through  a  window. 
It  was  a  singular  incident.  The  hounds  found 
three  elk  at  the  same  time  on  the  mountain  at  the 
back  of  the  hotel  at  Newera  Ellia.  The  pack 
divided;  several  hounds  were  lost  for  two  days, 
having  taken  their  elk  to  an  impossible  country, 
and  the  rest  of  the  pack  concentrated  upon  a  doe, 
with  the  exception  of  old  Smut,  who  had  another 
elk  all  to  himself.  This  elk,  which  was  a  large 
doe,  he  brought  down  from  the  top  of  the  mountain 
to  the  back  of  the  hotel,  just  as  we  had  killed  the 
other  which  the  pack  had  brought  to  the  same 
place.  A  great  number  of  persons  were  standing 
in  the  hotel  yard  to  view  the  sport,  when  old  Smut 
and  his  game  appeared,  rushing  in  full  fly  through 
the  crowd.  The  elk  was  so  bothered  and  headed 
that  she  went  through  the  back-door  of  the  hotel 
at  full  gallop,  and  Smut,  with  his  characteristic 
sagacity,  immediately  bolted  round  to  the  front  of 
the  house,  naturally  concluding  that  if  she  went  in 
at  the  back-door  she  must  come  out  at  the  front. 
He  was  perfectly  right ;  the  old  dog  stood  on  the 
lawn  before  the  hotel  watching  the  house  with 
great  eagerness.  In  the  meantime  the  elk  was 
galloping  from  room  to  room  in  the  hotel,  chased 
by  a  crowd  of  people,  until  she  at  length  took 
refuge  in  a  lady's  bed-room,  from  which  there  was 
no  exit  as  the  window  was  closed.  The  crash  of 
glass  may  be  imagined  as  an  animal  as  large  as  a 
pony  leaped  through  it;  but  old  Smut  was  ready 
for  her,  and  after  a  chase  of  a  few  yards  he  pulled 
her  down."] 

In  the  True  Deer  (Cervus)  the  round 
antlers  become  very  large,  and  have  an 
additional  tine  added  to  them  every  year;  at 
first  a  simple  shoot  each  branch  may  come 
to  bear  ten  or  even  more  tines  or  prongs. 
Since  our  Common  Stag  or  Red-deer  (Cervus 
elapkus],  PI.  XXV.,  is  so  highly  esteemed 
as  an  object  of  the  chase  the  increase  in  the 
number  of  the  tines  is  a  subject  which  has 


been  closely  studied,  and  books  on  hunting 
are  filled  with  minute  details  regarding 
animals  with  ten  and  twenty  tines  or  even 
more.  We  cannot  here  enter  upon  these 
particulars  any  more  than  we  can  take 
account  of  the  refined  investigations  which 
have  enabled  hunters  to  judge  of  the  age, 
sex,  size,  and  weight  of  an  animal  from  the 
impressions  of  its  hoofs — their  size  and  de- 
gree of  divergence. 

The  red -deer,  which  is  shown  in  Plate 
XXV.,  is  a  beautiful  well-formed  animal  with 
a  majestic  bearing,  of  a  reddish-gray  colour, 
about  5  feet  high  at  the  withers,  with  large 
ears,  large  lachrymal  glands,  and  antlers 
curved  upwards  and  outwards.  The  tail  is 
pretty  short,  the  fur  slightly  spotted  in  the 
young  animal.  The  stag  prefers  the  depths 
of  the  forests,  defends  itself  bravely  against 
depredators,  and  at  the  season  of  heat  is  very 
combative;  this  occurs  in  September  and 
October,  and  then  the  male  may  be  heard 
challenging  his  rivals  to  fight  with  hoarse 
trumpet-like  tones,  which  resound  to  a  great 
distance.  The  older  the  stag  is  the  deeper 
is  the  sound  that  it  emits.  Formerly  it  was 
the  practice  in  hunting  the  stag  to  imitate 
this  sound  by  means  of  small  horns  specially 
made  for  the  purpose,  and  in  order  all  the 
more  surely  to  attract  the  animal  the  horns 
were  made  to  resemble  the  sound  of  a  com- 
paratively weak  stag. 

Several  allied  species,  such  as  the  Wapiti 
or  Canadian  stag,  the  Persian  Deer,  and 
others,  have  been  distinguished.  All  these 
presumed  species  appear  to  us  to  be  only 
geographical  varieties,  the  distinctions  between 
which  are  of  little  moment.  Thus  the  wapiti, 
for  example,  is  certainly  much  more  powerful 
and  much  taller  than  our  European  stag.  Its 
antlers  are  much  stronger,  and  animals  with 
twenty  tines  are  no  rarity  in  Canada.  But 
in  the  middle  ages  our  stag  reached  a  much 
greater  size  than  it  does  now,  and  the  nu- 
merous antlers  which  have  been  collected  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  lake-dwellings  are  so 


Te/act  faft  to. 


PLATE  XXV.  —    THE    RED    DEER    OR    STAG   (C«w« 


THE    DKKK    FAMILY. 


thick  and  have  so  many  tines  that  they  would 
have  to  be  assigned  to  the  wapiti  rather  than 
to  our  stag.  All  these  stags  have  the  same 
habits,  the  same  keenness  of  sense,  the  same 
savage  impulses  at  the  breeding  season,  and 
we  are  obliged  to  add  the  same  stupidity. 
Notwithstanding  repeated  efforts  at  domesti- 
cation, they  remain  but  little  adapted  for  the 
companionship  of  man,  but  for  all  that  ex- 
cellent animals  for  the  chase. 

If  the  varieties  are  considered  as  belonging 
to  the  same  species  as  the  red-deer,  the 
territory  occupied  by  this  species  is  a  re- 
markably large  one,  extending  as  far  as  the 
limit  of  forests  in  the  temperate  zones  of 
both  hemispheres.  Everywhere  the  red-deer 
is  hunted  with  eagerness,  although  its  flesh 
is  not  very  much  to  be  recommended,  for, 
according  to  our  experience,  it  resembles 
tough  beef  with  thick  fibres.  But  for  the 
sportsman  the  chase  of  the  stag  has  always 
been  one  of  the  keenest  of  pleasures.  The 
chase  proper  is  rather  an  exercise  in  horse- 
manship than  a  true  hunt.  Almost  every- 
where in  civilized  Europe  the  stag  has  given 
way  before  the  persecution  which  it  has  well 
deserved  on  account  of  the  devastation  which 
it  commits  in  fields  and  forests.  It  is  now 
seldom  found  except  in  the  large  inclosures 
reserved  for  game. 

[Of  the  species  or  varieties  above  referred  to  the 
commonest  in  America  is  that  known  as  the 
Cariacou  (Cervus  virginiamis).  It  is  smaller  and 
more  elegant  than  the  red-deer,  and  throughout 
the  southern  part  of  North  America,  as  far  as 
43°  N.,  it  is  a  favourite  object  of  the  chase.  This 
deer  is  the  one  which  American  sportsmen  have 
the  most  frequent  opportunities  of  hunting.  "  It  is 
where  the  country  is  divided  into  ranges  of  wood- 
clad  mountains,  or  high  hills  divided  by  valleys, 
down  which  rivers  or  creeks  run,  or  in  which 
lakelets  are  situated,  that  the  proper  theatre  is 
found  for  running  the  deer  with  hounds.  For  this 
purpose  packs  of  greater  or  less  number  are  kept 
as  in  different  parts  of  Europe.  In  such  localities 
different  runways  are  adopted  by  the  deer,  where 
they  pass  the  water-courses  in  going  from  one 
elevation  to  another,  or  where  they  approach  the 


little  lake  for  bathing.  Several  sportsmen  engage 
in  the  hunt.  Karly  in  a  still,  frosty  morning  they 
n  pair  to  the  ground,  generally  on  horseback,  when 
one,  and  sometimes  two,  are  stationed  at  each  of 
the  well-know  n  runways,  when  their  horses  are  con- 
cealed and  the  hunters  secretly  station  themselves  so 
as  to  command  the  crossing  place  and  its  approach. 
The  hounds,  in  lead,  are  sent  on  to  the  mountains, 
and  at  a  likely  place  they  are  slipped,  and  the  hunt 
commences.  So  soon  as  the  deer  is  started,  the 
hounds  give  tongue.  This  is  the  signal  anxiously 
listened  for  by  the  watchers  at  the  several  runways. 
Far  away  in  the  distant  mountain,  at  first  like  a 
faint  murmur,  the  sound  is  heard,  uncertain  whether 
it  is  the  baying  of  the  dogs  or  the  whisper  of  an 
insect.  The  note  soon  becomes  more  distinct,  and 
it  is  certain  that  the  game  is  afoot.  Anxiety  now 
increases  to  determine  who  occupies  the  favoured 
location.  All  along  the  line  the  attention  of  each 
watcher  is  strained  to  the  utmost  tension,  to  detect 
by  the  sound  the  course  selected  by  the  deer. 
Rifles  are  cocked,  not  a  whisper  is  breathed,  not  a 
twig  is  broken,  not  a  leaf  is  stirred.  Every  wander- 
ing thought  is  summoned  back  and  absorbed  in 
the  excitement  of  the  moment.  The  course  of  the 
hounds  may  be  traced  by  their  voices,  each  listener 
calculating  the  chances  of  their  arriving  at  his  stand. 

"  This  is  the  moment  when  the  inexperienced 
hunter  is  liable  to  make  his  greatest  mistake.  He 
forgets  that  the  deer  is  not  with  the  dogs,  but  may 
be  a  mile  or  more  ahead  of  them.  He  listens  to 
the  dogs,  and  his  eyes  are  in  the  direction  whence 
the  sound  comes.  If  they  seem  to  approach  him, 
he  forgets  that  the  game  may  be  already  upon  him. 
When  he  least  expects  it  there  is  a  rushing  noise, 
a  crackling  of  the  bush,  and  the  deer  emerges  from 
the  thicket,  and  with  an  elastic  bound  is  already 
at  the  ford,  and  with  a  few  lofty  leaps  is  across 
the  creek,  and  like  a  flash  disappears  in  the  dark 
covert  beyond,  before  the  startled  watcher,  quaking 
from  head  to  foot  with  the  buck-fever,  could  more 
than  bring  his  gun  to  his  face  and  fire  a  random 
shot,  when  all  is  still  again,  save  the  tumultuous 
beating  of  his  own  heart. 

"  Less  fortunate  is  the  deer  if  he  makes  the  run- 
way occupied  by  the  experienced  sportsman.  Only 
thinking  of  the  danger  behind  him,  and  confident 
of  his  powers  to  far  outstrip  the  baying  pack,  he 
bounds  through  the  forest,  proudly  throwing  aloft 
his  great  branching  antlers,  as  if  in  derision,  bidding 
defiance  to  his  pursuers,  nor  dreaming  of  danger 
before,  he  fearlessly  rushes  to  the  little  opening  on 


84 


THE   TWO-TOED    ARTIODACTYLA. 


the  bank  of  the  stream,  where  he  is  accustomed  to 
make  the  crossing,  whether  at  his  leisure  or  when 
pursued.  This  is  just  what  the  watcher  is  hoping 
and  expecting.  While  he  hears  the  distant  baying 
of  the  pack,  he  is  intently  listening  for  the  least 
noise  in  the  near  forest  which  could  indicate  the 
approach  of  the  game.  And  now  he  hears  the 
breaking  of  a  dry  limb,  or  the  heavy  tramp  among 
the  rustling  leaves.  If  his  pulse  quickens  a  little, 
as  it  surely  will,  still  no  tremor  or  agitation  is  felt, 
but  only  tension  and  firmness  are  established  in 
every  nerve  and  in  every  muscle.  The  trusty  rifle 
is  quickly  brought  to  the  cheek,  and  the  next 
instant,  with  a  lofty  bound,  the  magnificent  but 
graceful  form  of  the  stately  stag  bursts  from  the 
border  of  the  covert,  his  face  in  a  horizontal  line, 
his  antlers  thrown  back  upon  his  shoulders,  so  that 
every  branch  and  vine  must  easily  glance  from  the 
backward  pointing  tines,  his  seat  erect,  and  his 
bright  eye  glistening  in  the  excitement  of  the 
moment,  when  instantly  and  while  he  is  yet  in 
mid-air,  a  sharp  report  is  heard,  when,  to  use  a 
hunter's  expression,  '  he  lets  go  all  holds/  his  hind- 
feet,  propelled  by  the  great  momentum,  are  thrown 
high  in  the  air  as  if  his  very  hoofs  would  be  snapped 
off,  and  he  falls,  all  in  a  heap,  or  turns  a  complete 
somersault,  and  then  rolls  upon  the  ground  pierced 
through  the  heart,  or  with  both  fore -shoulders 
smashed.  .  .  .  It  is  a  glorious  moment,  and 
unsurpassed  by  human  experience.  I  have  been 
there,  and  know  how  it  is  myself,  and  so  I  speak 
from  knowledge.  Had  the  deer  been  standing, 
and  with  a  full  inspiration,  he  might  have  made 
a  few  bounds  before  he  fell,  but  in  the  position 
described  he  could  never  rise  again." — Caton,  The 
Antelope  and  Deer  of  America?^ 

A  group  less  rich  in  species  is  formed  by 
the  Cervida  with  broad  shovel-like  antlers,  in 
which  the  beam  and  the  tines  show  a  tendency 
to  become  flat. 

The  Fallow-deer  (Dama  vulgaris),  shown 
in  PI.  XXVI.,  is  still  to  be  seen  in  our  in- 
closures  for  game.  Its  home  was  Central  and 
Southern  Europe,  including  the  Asiatic  and 
African  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean. I  n  point  of  size  the  fallow-deer  stands 
between  the  roe-deer  and  the  stag.  It  is  more 
thickset  and  not  so  long-legged  as  the  latter, 
but  has  much  shorter  and  more  elegant  ears 


and  a  longer  tail.  Though  less  in  height  it 
is  more  graceful  than  the  stag,  which  appears 
always  to  serve  as  the  model  for  the  draughts- 
man. The  elegantly  curved  antlers  have  a 
round  beam  with  one  or  two  tines  of  which  the 
brow-tine  stands  very  near  the  burr.  After 
the  beam  has  given  off  these  tines  it  spreads 
out  into  a  shovel  from  the  edge  of  which 
proceed  small  tooth-like  prongs.  The  colour 
of  the  fallow-deer  is  very  variable ;  in  some 
the  coat  is  spotted  like  that  of  a  fawn,  in 
others  again  uniformly  reddish,  grayish,  or 
even  white.  The  fallow-deer  easily  accustoms 
itself  to  the  presence  of  man,  and  its  flesh  is 
much  more  tender  and  palatable  than  that  of 
the  stag. 

The  Reindeer  (Tarandus  rangifer  (Ran- 
gifcr  tarandus)  ),  fig.  163,  is  the  deer  of  the 
polar  regions  in  both  hemispheres.  With 
the  exception  of  the  elk  it  is  probably  the 
least  elegant  species  in  the  whole  family. 
The  long  body  is  supported  by  relatively 
short  and  thick  legs,  which  have  swollen  and 
knotty  joints,  and  end  in  broad  divergent 
hoofs,  and  which  carry  accessory  hoofs  almost 
touching  the  ground.  The  head  is  borne 
horizontally,  not  erect  as  in  the  other  deer. 
It  is  short,  and  has  a  blunt  naked  muffle. 
The  reindeer  is  the  only  species  of  deer  in 
which  the  female  carries  antlers  as  well  as 
the  male.  Those  of  the  female  are  indeed 
smaller  than  those  of  the  male,  but  otherwise 
resemble  the  latter  very  closely  in  form, 
although  in  both  the  form  is  very  variable. 
It  is  indeed  impossible  to  find  two  reindeer 
antlers  of  the  same  form,  or  even  a  single 
symmetrically  formed  pair;  the  two  branches 
of  the  antlers  are  always  unlike.  We  must 
accordingly  seek  out  the  common  characters 
from  a  great  number  of  variations.  These 
consist  in  a  thin  flattened  beam,  which  has  a 
well-marked  curve  first  backwards  and  then 
upwards,  and  near  the  burr  gives  off  two 
tines  within  a  short  distance  of  each  other. 
At  their  extremity  these  tines  spread  out 
considerably  and  frequently  even  fork  again. 


To  fact 


PLATE  XXVI.  _    THE    FALLOW    DEER  (Dama  vulgaris). 


or-  TH  ; 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Till;    DKKK    FAMILY. 


One  brow-tine,  sometimes  the  right,  some- 
times the  left,  is  always  longer  than  the 
other;  it  turns  and  curves  inwards  so  that  its 
Made  becomes  perpendicular  to  the  middle 
line  of  the  nose,  thus  forming  a  broad  spade 


which  the  animal  makes  use  of  to  sweep  away 
the  snow  under  which  it  seeks  its  food.  A  tier 
giving  off  the  two  pairs  of  unlike  tines  of 
which  we  have  spoken,  the  long  drawn-out 
beam  of  the  antler  bends  round  in  the  manner 


Kig.  163. — The  Reindeer  (Tarandus  riingi/er). 


described  and  terminates  in  a  small  blade 
bordered  with  very  irregular  teeth.  The 
coat  of  the  reindeer  consists  in  winter  of  a 
thick  woolly  fur  with  very  long  hair,  which 
forms  a  long  mane-like  beard  under  the  neck; 
this  dirty-gray  winter  fur  is  shed  in  summer 
in  large  tufts  disclosing  to  view  the  darker 
and  shorter  summer  hair.  The  gait  of  the 
reindeer  even  in  running  is  very  inelegant; 
it  takes  very  long  strides,  and  appears  rather 
to  slide  along  the  surface  than  to  run.  The 
divergence  of  the  hoofs,  which  are,  more- 
over, very  broad,  is  admirably  adapted  to  aid 
its  movements  across  the  snow  and  across 


bogs.  While  walking  or  running  it  causes  a 
crackling  sound  to  be  heard  almost  like  that 
of  an  electric  spark;  this  noise  is  no  doubt 
produced  in  the  interior  of  the  joints. 

The  reindeer  in  the  wild  state  must  of 
course  be  distinguished  from  the  animal  in  a 
half-domesticated  condition. 

The  former  is  an  animal  of  the  plains  and 
high  plateaux,  which  shelters  itself  in  winter 
in  the  woods,  and  only  in  summer  ventures 
into  treeless  low  grounds.  Such  are  the 
habits  of  the  wild  reindeer  in  America, 
Siberia,  and  even  in  Lapland.  The  reindeer 
has  erroneously  been  considered  as  a  climbing 


86 


THE    TWO-TOED    ARTIODACTYLA. 


animal,  because  naturalists  have  for  the  most 
part  observed  it  only  in  the  Scandinavian 
Alps.  But  these  highlands  have  the  char- 
acter of  stony  plateaux,  which  indeed  are 
intersected  by  profound  gorges,  but  spread 
out  into  enormous  and  mostly  marshy  flats. 
Upon  these  high  moss-grown  table-lands  the 
reindeer  is  in  its  element,  but  not  among 
mountains  with  narrow  valleys  with  steep 
sides  and  without  vast  level  stretches  like 
our  Alps  or  the  Pyrenees.  I  have  hunted 
the  chamois  and  the  wild  reindeer;  there  is 
not  the  least  comparison  to  be  made  between 
these  two  animals;  the  one  climbs  and  leaps, 
the  other  strides  and  trots. 

The  life  of  many  northern  tribes  is  depen- 
dent on  the  domesticated  reindeer,  which 
nevertheless  remains  an  awkward  stubborn 
animal,  difficult  to  manage.  The  Laplander 
makes  use  of  everything  derived  from  it, 
even  the  contents  of  its  stomach,  which  he 
boils  as  a  vegetable,  and  the  still  warm 
marrow,  which  he  eats  raw.  The  reindeer 
is  even  made  use  of  as  a  beast  of  draught. 
It  is  led  about  in  large  flocks  under  the 
conduct  of  small  intelligent  dogs,  which  are 
highly  esteemed  by  their  owners.  But  the 
reindeer  always  remains  half  wild,  and  is 
very  apt  to  return  to  a  state  of  freedom.  It 
never  becomes  tame  enough  to  allow  of  the 
female  being  milked  before  it  has  been  bound 
by  means  of  a  noose  thrown  over  the  antlers. 
The  pleasure  of  riding  in  a  sledge  drawn  by 
reindeer  is  one  which  most  people  would 
gladly  leave  to  the  Laplanders,  who  are 
accustomed  to  the  somersaults  and  all  the 
other  disagreeables  which  a  wild,  stubborn, 
and  stupid  mule  could  cause. 

The  largest,  but  at  the  same  time  the 
ugliest  of  all  the  deer  family  is  the  Elk  (Alces 
palmattis  (Macklis)  ),  PL  XXVII.  This 
species,  which  at  the  present  day  is  confined 
to  the  tracts  bordering  on  the  Baltic  on  the 
east  and  north  and  to  Canada,  was  during 
the  middle  ages  an  object  of  the  chase  in 
Central  Europe,  from  whence  it  is  now 


entirely  banished.  In  Prussia,  where  the  elk 
was  formerly  very  abundant,  there  is  now 
only  a  single  forest,  that  of  Ibenhorst,  near 
Tilsit,  where  a  herd  has  been  preserved 
through  the  adoption  of  severe  protective 
measures.  The  elk  ranges  from  the  Baltic 
provinces,  Finland,  and  the  south  of  Scan- 
dinavia, throughout  Asia  as  far  as  the  shores 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean  near  the  Amur. 

It  is  a  large  animal,  about  six  and  a  half 
feet  high  at  the  withers,  with  a  short  thickset 
body  and  long  thick  legs,  with  narrow  hoofs 
connected  by  loose  skin,  and  accessory  hoofs 
long  enough  to  touch  the  ground.  The 
head  is  very  ugly ;  the  ears  are  so  large  that 
the  female,  being  without  antlers,  resembles 
at  a  distance  a  large  ass;  the  eyes  are  small 
and  without  expression.  But  what  specially 
disfigures  the  head  is  the  enormously  thick 
and  broad  loose  upper  lip,  which  hangs  down 
over  the  mouth  like  a  rounded  curtain.  It 
is  very  flexible,  and  serves  admirably  for 
tearing  off  the  shoots,  the  young  twigs,  and 
the  bark  of  the  shrubs  and  trees  on  which 
the  elk  prefers  to  feed.  The  muffle  formed 
by  this  upper  lip  gives  to  the  head  an  ex- 
tremely ugly  termination.  The  fur  consists 
of  a  short  and  fine  down  and  long  brittle 
hairs  of  a  gray  colour,  which  form  a  goat's- 
beard  at  the  chin,  a  sort  of  mane  on  the  back, 
and  a  tuft  at  the  end  of  the  short  tail.  The 
antlers  of  the  male  acquire  a  characteristic 
form  only  in  the  fifth  year.  It  is  only  then 
that  the  antlers  begin  to  spread  out  so  as  to 
form  a  broad  hollow  shovel,  on  which  the 
tines,  the  number  of  which  increases  with 
age,  are  in  most  cases  set  in  two  groups. 

The  Canadian  Elk,  the  Moose-deer  of  the 
Americans,  the  Orignal  of  the  French  Cana- 
dians, is  only  a  geographical  variety,  which 
when  full-grown  is  larger  and  stronger  than 
the  elk  of  the  Old  World.  It  answers  to  our 
elk  as  the  wapiti  does  to  our  stag. 

The  elk  inhabits  damp  woods  containing 
marshes  and  peat-bogs  here  and  there.  It 
feeds  almost  exclusively  on  willow  leaves, 


PLATE  XXVII.   -    THE    ELK   (Alct* palmate,). 


O"TH£ 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


THE   HOLLOW-HORNED    RUMINANTS. 


bilberries,  alders,  and  the  bark  of  shrubs  such 
as  grow  in  the  damp  and  marshy  soils  which 
it  frequents.  Like  all  members  of  the  deer 
family,  it  lives  in  Hocks,  which  conceal  them- 
selves by  day  and  go  out  in  the  evening 
under  the  leadership  of  very  combative  and 


even  fierce  males.  The  flesh  of  the  elk  is 
tough,  coarse,  and  of  an  unpleasant  taste;  but 
the  hide,  which  is  of  a  very  firm  texture,  is 
highly  esteemed  on  account  of  the  very  good 
flexible  leather  which  is  made  from  it.  Great 
havoc  was  wrought  among  the  flocks  of  elk 


Fig.  164. — The  Pronghorn  Antelope  (Antilocapra  americana).     page  bti. 

in  those  times  when  it  was  thought  impossible 
to  have  a  good  cavalry  without  tightly-fitting 
leather  hose. 


THE   HOLLOW-HORNED  RUMINANTS 

(CAVICORNIA). 

The  family  of  the  hollow-horned  ruminants 
is  distinguished,  as  the  name  indicates,  by 
the  possession  of  hollow  horns,  which  form 
cases  round  bony  pegs  or  processes  from  the 
frontal  bone. 

All  typical  Cavicornia  have  only  simple 
horns,  without  branches,  formed  over  bony 
axes,  which  are  either,  as  in  the  goats,  solid 
and  traversed  only  by  the  canals  of  the  blood- 
vessels, or  are  hollow  in  the  middle,  and  in 


that  case  have  the  bony  tissue  of  a  much 
more  spongy  texture,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
ox  genus.  It  is  impossible  to  convey  a 
better  idea  of  these  horny  but  very  variously 
formed  cases  than  by  saying  that  they  stand 
in  the  same  relation  to  the  bony  core  as  the 
hoof  to  the  last  phalanx  of  the  toe.  A  thick 
and  highly  vascular  coat  forming  a  continu- 
ation of  the  skin  covers  the  bone,  and  is 
nourished  by  its  vessels;  and  the  hollow  case 
or  envelope  is  composed  of  fused  horny 
fibres  formed  from  fluids  which  exude  from 
this  vascular  coat.  The  growth  of  the  horny 
case  goes  on  throughout  life,  but  with  less 
rapidity  in  advanced  age,  and  with  numerous 
interruptions,  which  betray  themselves  by 
the  presence  of  rings  and  knobs. 


88 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


Diverse  as  the  Cavicornia  are  in  external 
form,  they  yet  agree  so  closely  in  their 
general  structure  that  the  dividing  up  of  this 
numerous  group  into  families  becomes  very 
difficult,  if  not  impossible.  There  are  many 
forms  in  which  the  horns  belong  only  to  the 
males,  but  frequently  there  are  closely-allied 
species  in  which  both  sexes  are  horned. 
The  dentition  is  remarkably  uniform;  the 
upper  incisors  and  upper  canines  are  alto- 
gether wanting,  the  lower  incisors,  to  the 
number  of  eight  in  all,  have  very  similar 
forms;  the  cheek-teeth,  always  six  in  number 
in  each  half  of  each  jaw,  exhibit  on  the 
surface  of  the  crown  typical  half-moon-shaped 
folds;  the  three  premolars  gradually  assume 
the  form  of  the  true  molars.  The  forms 
presented  by  the  teeth  may  indeed  serve  to 
distinguish  genera  and  species,  especially 
through  the  absence  of  side-columns  in  the 
molars  of  the  large  species,  but  these  forms 
vary  within  very  narrow  limits. 

The  Cavicornia  almost  always  have  pretty 
well  developed  accessory  hoofs;  some  have 
tear-pits,  others  not ;  but  here  also  there  are 
transitions  which  render  it  impossible  to  fix 
definite  boundaries.  Pretty  much  the  same 
holds  good  with  respect  to  all  the  other 
characters;  from  the  plump  forms  of  the  ox 
genus  we  pass  by  gentle  gradations  to  forms 
the  most  elegant  and  graceful,  such  as 
those  of  the  gazelles.  Though  most  of  the 
species  live  in  very  numerous  flocks,  there 
are  others  which  are  to  be  met  with  only  in 
pairs;  some  are  stationary  in  their  abode, 
others  on  the  contrary  undertake  great  mi- 
grations ;  some  prefer  moist  places,  morasses, 
and  the  banks  of  running  and  standing  waters, 
others  the  dry  and  withered  plains,  others 
again  the  steep  slopes  of  the  mountains;  the 
Tropics  are  not  too  hot  for  them  nor  the 
Arctic  regions  too  cold. 

The  Cavicornia  are  usually  broken  up  into 
sub-families  or  groups,  which  are  designated 
by  the  names  antelopes,  goats,  sheep,  and 
oxen.  But  in  order  to  avoid  mistake,  we 


must  repeatedly  insist  on  the  fact,  that  these 
subdivisions  have  no  sharp  lines  of  demarca- 
tion, that  on  all  sides  we  meet  with  transitional 
forms,  with  respect  to  which  doubts  might  be 
raised  as  to  the  group  to  which  they  ought 
to  be  referred,  so  that  we  must  consider  these 
groups  only  as  aids  which  help  us  to  connect 
the  less  clearly  defined  forms  with  well- 
characterized  types. 

The  Antelopes. 

The  antelopes  (Antilopida)  are  a  collector's 
group,  if  I  may  so  express  myself.  They 
cannot  be  characterized  zoologically.  They 
exhibit  the  most  various  forms.  Certain 
antelopes  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from 
oxen,  others  resemble  goats  or  sheep.  There 
is  not  a  single  character  common  to  all  the 
animals  so  called.  We  accordingly  renounce 
the  idea  of  characterizing  them  in  any  other 
way  than  in  the  words  of  Pallas,  who  said, 
naturalists  have  given  the  name  of  antelopes 
to  those  ruminants  with  hollow  horns  which 
cannot,  without  violence,  be  grouped  with  the 
oxen,  the  goats,  or  the  sheep. 

We  have  already  pointed  out  in  the  opening 
remarks  on  the  ruminants  that  a  connecting 
link  between  the  deer  and  the  hollow-horned 
ruminants  exists  in  the  Pronghorn  Antelope 
(Antilocapra  americana},  fig.  164,  which 
inhabits  the  broad  plains  on  both  sides  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  from  Mexico  as  far  as 
the  53d  degree  of  northern  latitude.  The 
horns  are  without  doubt  constructed  on  the 
type  of  those  of  the  Cavicornia ;  they  have  a 
solid  bony  core  and  a  horny  case  of  little 
thickness.  In  the  young  animals  these  horns 
are  simple  prongs.  These  first  horns  are 
often  changed,  and  the  change  takes  place 
not  by  the  shedding  of  the  bony  core  as  in 
the  deer,  but  by  the  growth  of  a  new  horny 
case,  which  gradually  raises  and  finally  thrusts" 
off  the  old  one.  When  the  horns  have 
acquired  their  permanent  form  they  are  no 
longer  shed,  and  then  they  are  forked  pretty 
much  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the 


7*  /att  fa  ft  St. 


PLATE  XXVIII.   —    THE    CHAMOIS    (Cafella  ruficafra). 


THE   ANTELOPES. 


muntjac,  but  are  broad  and  flattened,  ele- 
gantly curved  inwards,  and  provided  with  a 
short  prong  directed  forwards  and  another 
ending  in  a  hook  directed  backwards.  The 
pronghorn  antelope  is  the  only  member  of 
the  Cavicornia  with  a  branched  horn;  in  all 
the  others  the  horns,  whatever  their  form 
may  be  otherwise,  are  simple.  In  this  case, 
accordingly,  we  must  recognize  an  approxi- 
mation to  the  deer  family.  As  regards  the 
rest  of  its  organization,  the  pronghorn  ante- 
lope may  be  described  as  an  antelope  of 
about  the  size  of  a  small  fallow-deer,  with  an 
expressive  head,  which,  on  account  of  its  long 
ears,  resembles  that  of  a  stag.  The  neck  is 
somewhat  long  and  rounded,  the  body  slender, 
the  tail  short,  like  that  of  the  deer;  the  slim 
and  rather  long  legs  carry  only  two  narrow 
and  pointed  hoofs.  The  accessory  hoofs  are 
entirely  absent  as  in  the  giraffes.  The  hair 
is  thick  and  wavy,  but  brittle.  The  general 
colour  is  a  fine  isabel-gray,  which  becomes 
darker  on  the  back,  round  the  eyes,  round  the 
large  tear-glands,  as  well  as  upon  the  nose; 
the  belly,  the  speculum  on  the  back  of  the 
thighs,  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  and  the 
cheeks  are  white;  a  few  white  spots  are  also 
to  be  seen  in  front  of  the  neck  and  breast. 
The  horns  of  the  female  are  less  developed 
than  those  of  the  male. 

This  beautiful  animal  traverses  the  prairies 
of  its  native  land  in  great  herds  under  the 
lead  of  an  old  male.  The  hunters  are  unani- 
mous concerning  the  grace  of  its  rapid  move- 
ments, its  extraordinary  fleetness,  its  wonderful 
leaps;  as  special  characteristics  they  mention 
its  remarkable  shyness  and  the  courage  with 
which  it  defends  its  young  against  the  prairie- 
wolves  (coyotes).  When  caught  young  these 
antelopes  may  easily  be  tamed  in  their  native 
land,  but  they  do  not  survive  long  in  our 
gardens,  which  cannot  afford  them  the  room 
necessary  for  their  movements.  The  prong- 
horn  is  the  only  American  species  of  antelope, 
all  the  others  without  exception  belong  to 
the  Old  World.  Since  there  are  no  scientific 


VOL.  II. 


characters  to  distinguish  them  we  group  them 
according  to  the  form  of  their  horns  and  their 
size. 

The  sole  representative  of  the  antelopes 
in  Western  Europe  is  the  Chamois  (Capclla 
rnpicapra  (Rupicapra  tragus)),  PI.  XXVIII. 
It  is  a  characteristic  animal  of  our  high  moun- 
tain chains,  and  ranges  from  the  Pyrenees, 
the  Abruzzi,  and  the  Balkans,  through  the 
Alps  and  the  Carpathians  as  far  as  the 
Caucasus  and  Georgia.  There  are  geo- 
graphical and  localized  varieties.  The  "isard" 
of  the  Pyrenees  is  smaller  than  the  others 
and  is  of  a  reddish  colour;  the  "achi"  of  the 
Caucasus  has  a  slightly  peculiar  curve  of  the 
horns,  but  at  bottom  it  is  always  the  same 
species,  a  creature  of  not  very  elegant  form, 
resembling  a  beardless  goat  with  a  short  thick 
neck  and  thick  knotty  legs.  The  head  is 
small,  rather  long  and  pointed;  the  ears  of 
moderate  length,  straight  and  pointed;  the 
eyes  large  and  prominent ;  the  tail  short ;  the 
broad  hoofs  divergent,  very  hard  and  almost 
sharp  at  the  outer  edge,  the  accessory  hoofs 
concealed  under  a  tuft  of  hair.  Both  sexes, 
which  in  all  respects,  except  the  somewhat 
slighter  build  of  the  female,  are  exactly 
alike,  carry  horns,  which  are  supported  by 
almost  straight  solid  bony  cores,  and,  rising 
at  first  almost  perpendicularly,  afterwards 
diverge  a  little  to  the  side,  and  finally  end 
in  very  sharp  hooks  directed  backwards. 
These  horns,  at  first  round  and  slightly 
ringed,  afterwards  become  smooth,  and  at 
the  hook,  which  is  delicately  grooved  or 
striated,  somewhat  compressed.  The  stiff 
and  coarse  hair  is  longer  in  winter  than  in 
summer.  In  general  it  is  of  a  dirty  gray 
colour,  in  winter  darker,  in  summer  lighter. 
With  the  exception  of  a  characteristic  dark 
stripe  stretching  from  the  root  of  the  ear 
over  the  eye  to  the  corner  of  the  mouth,  the 
head  is  of  a  lighter  colour. 

The  chamois  inhabits  the  mountains  as  far 
as  the  limit  of  trees,  and  sometimes  advances 

beyond  it.     In  winter  it  often  descends  pretty 

M 


90 

far  down  into  the  valleys,  while  in  summer 
it  visits  the  treeless  and  stony  heights  as  far 
as  the  snow  limit.  It  runs  with  great  rapidity 
even  upon  ice-fields  and  glaciers,  exhibits  the 
most  wonderful  dexterity  in  climbing  among 
the  rocks,  taking  advantage  of  the  slightest 
inequalities  in  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and 
makes  astonishing  leaps  with  remarkable 
precision  and  security.  It  rests  by  night  and 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


goes  out  to  graze  by  day,  always  in  larger  or 
smaller  troops  under  the  guidance  of  an  old 
female,  which  stations  itself  on  an  elevated 
spot  whence  it  can  keep  an  outlook  over  the 
surrounding  country  so  as  to  be  able  to  give 
warning  of  threatening  danger  by  a  sharp 
whistling  sound.  The  scent  of  the  chamois 
is  very  keen,  the  hearing  likewise,  the  sight 
less  highly  developed.  Curiosity  and  timidity 


Fig.  165. — Gazelles  {Gazella  dorcas 


are  the  chief  qualities  in  the  disposition  of 
the  chamois;  the  extraordinary  adroitness 
which  it  displays  in  the  wild  mountainous 
regions  which  it  inhabits  saves  it  from  many 
dangers  which  its  limited  intelligence  would 
not  enable  it  to  perceive.  The  chase,  the 
favourite  sport  of  the  mountaineers,  is  ren- 
dered difficult  only  by  the  nature  of  the  spots 
which  the  chamois  frequents — spots  which  are 
often  quite  inaccessible  to  man.  Were  it  not 
for  that  it  would  be  scarcely  less  easy  than 
that  of  the  roe-deer.  In  the  Alps  the  chamois 
would  have  been  extirpated  long  ago  had  it 
not  been  protected  by  severe  laws  against 
hunters.  In  Switzerland,  where  the  chase  is 


allowed  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  the 
chamois  is  already  a  rare  animal,  while  in  the 
Eastern  Alps  one  still  may  meet  with  pretty 
numerous  troops  in  the  estates  belonging  to 
the  great  land -owners.  The  old  bucks  are 
quarrelsome  and  ill-tempered;  they  live 
solitary  except  in  the  season  of  heat,  when 
they  wage  savage  battles  with  their  rivals. 
For  the  most  part  the  chamois  brings  forth 
only  one  young  one  at  a  time.  The  young 
animal  is  very  attached  to  its  mother,  who 
leads  it  about  with  great  care  till  about  the 
age  of  six  months.  It  can  follow  its  mother 
from  the  first  day  of  its  life,  and  soon  exhibits 
as  much  cleverness  in  leaping  and  climbing 


THK    AN 'I  I-.I.OI'I'.S. 


as  tin:  adult  animals,  while  it  manifests  at  the 
same  time  a  great  deal  of  sportiveness. 

The  chamois  can  easily  he  kept  in  captivity, 
but  it  does  not  live 
long,  and  its  keepers 
have'  only  seldom  been 
successful  in  obtaining 
offspring.  Hybrids 
between  the  chamois 
and  the  goat  have 
often  been  met  with, 
but  it  has  never  been 
found  possible  to  cause 
these  hybrids  to  pro- 
pagate. I  hope  I  may 
be  permitted  to  say 
without  offence  to  the 
lovers  of  chamois  flesh 
that  I  have  never  my- 
self found  it  palatable 
except  in  the  case  of 
young  animals.  As  soon  as  the  chamois 
becomes  pretty  well  grown  its  flesh  becomes 


166. — Tin- 


tough,  and  this  is  especially  true  of  old  bucks, 
of  the  killing  of  which  many  a  hunter  is  so 
proud.  The  flesh  of  such  an  animal  has  not 

only  a  shockingly  bad 
taste,  but  also  a  dis- 
agreeable smell. 

["  The  tenacity  of  life 
exhibited  by  the  chamois 
is  very  remarkable. 
Tschudi,  author  of  Das 
Tliicrlcbcn  der  Alpenwclt, 
mentions  an  instance  in 
which  a  chamois  buck 
was  shot  dead,  which  had 
previously  had  one  of  its 
horns  shot  away  and  one 
of  its  legs  broken,  and 
which  bore  the  scars  of  a 
bullet  that  had  passed 
through  its  body.  In 
another  case  two  chamois 
were  shot  over  a  precipice, 
and  the  hunter,  in  taking  up  one  of  them,  detected 
signs  of  life  still  remaining  in  it,  and  gave  it  two  or 


Antelope  (On't>tmgu.<i  sti/ttifor).     page  93. 


Fig.  167. — The  Bleekbok  or  Urebi  (Calotragus  scoparius).     page  93 

three  smart  blows  on  the  head.  This,  however,  had 
only  the  effect  of  making  the  animal  recover  more 
completely,  for  though  held  by  one  leg  it  at  once 
bounded  off  dragging  the  hunter  along  with  it,  till 
at  last  it  managed  to  disengage  itself  by  a  great 


leap,  after  which  it  was  quickly  lost  to  view. 
Often  the  hunter  follows  an  animal  that  he  has 
struck  on  what  would  seem  to  others  quite  im- 
practicable steeps,  and  the  most  astonishing  adven- 
tures are  recorded  of  huntsmen,  who,  in  the  heat 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


of  the   chase,  have  achieved   feats  which   in   cold 
blood  they  could   not  have  had  the  hardihood  to 
contemplate.     The  following  adventure  is  related, 
on  the  authority  of  Kohl,  by  the  author  referred  to 
above.     A  chamois-hunter  in  the  Bernese  Oberland 
leaped  down  upon  a  friable  ledge  of  slate  only  a  foot 
in  breadth   running  along  the  face  of  a  precipice 
about  six  hundred  feet  high.     When  he  found  the 
rock   crumbling  away       ,  ,  .  ..  .    .. 

and  threatening  togive 
way  altogether  beneath 
his  feet  he  was  com- 
pelled to  lay  himself 
slowly  down  on  the 
ledge,  face  downwards, 
and  drag  himself  cau- 
tiously along.  With 
a  small  axe  he  broke 
away  the  brittle  slate 
in  front  of  him,  and 
crawled  on  foot  by 
foot,  in  constant  dread 
of  seeing  the  ledge 
break  entirely  away. 
After  labouring  on  for 
an  hour  and  a  half 
he  observed  a  shadow 
fluttering  on  the  face 
of  the  rock  beside  him, 
and  managing  with 
some  difficulty  to  look 
upwards  saw  a  large 
eagle  circling  in  the 
air  above,  and  evidently  bent  on  hurling  him  down 
the  abyss.  He  at  once  began  to  contrive  the 
means  of  turning  round  on  his  back,  and  having 
by  dint  of  great  efforts  and  the  exercise  of  the 
utmost  caution  accomplished  this,  succeeded  at  the 
end  of  another  quarter  of  an  hour  in  bringing  his 
rifle  into  position  for  firing.  Then  resting  the  back 
of  his  head  against  one  small  projection  in  the 
rock,  and  twisting  one  of  his  legs  round  another, 
he  lay  for  a  while  in  that  position  watching  the 
eagle,  which  in  the  end  thought  it  better  to  fly  off 
and  leave  the  hunter  to  continue  his  efforts  to  crawl 
along  the  narrow  shelf  on  which  he  was  hanging 
on  the  brink  of  destruction.  Three  hours  of  the 
most  desperate  exertions  it  cost  him  before  he  got 
to  the  end  of  the  ledge  and  was  able  to  stand  on 
firm  ground  with  torn  clothes  and  lacerated  hands 
and  arms. 

"  When  the  hunter  has  succeeded  in  overtaking 


Fig.  168. — The  Duyker-bok  or  Madocqua  (Cephalophus  mergens),     page  94. 


his  game  he  fills  the  air  with  a  shout  of  victory, 
gives  the  animal  the  final  thrust,  tears  out  the 
entrails  and  throws  them  away,  taking,  however, 
great  care  of  the  fat,  ties  each  of  the  lower  legs 
to  the  thigh,  and  then  swings  his  booty,  perhaps 
seventy  pounds  in  weight,  by  a  strap  over  his  back. 
His  comrades  follow,  and  they  seldom  fail  to  finish 
up  with  a  grand  carousal.  If  the  leader  of  the 

troop,  the  '  Fiihrgeiss,' 
has  been  slain,  the 
others  usually  run  con- 
fusedly round  in  a 
circle,  not  knowing 
what  to  do,  and  fall  an 
easyprey  to  the  hunter. 
"  The  reader  will  no 
doubt  ask,  what  is  the 
reward  of  the  risks  and 
hardships  that  the 
chamois-hunter  has  to 
encounter?  He  per- 
haps imagines  that  the 
chase  of  the  chamois 
is,  at  anyrate,  a  lucra- 
tive occupation.  Not 
so.  A  Freiburg  pro- 
verb says  that  it  re- 
quires nine  chamois- 
hunters  to  support  one. 
The  dangers  and  diffi- 
culties of  the  chase 
itself  arealmost  its  sole 
attraction,  but,  never- 
theless, they  form  an  attraction  so  strong  that  with 
the  true  chamois-hunter  the  love  of  the  sport  is  no 
less  than  an  irresistible  passion.  The  following  case 
may  seem  almost  incredible,  but  can  be  matched,  it 
is  said,  by  many  others.  A  devotee  of  the  sport  had 
one  of  his  legs  amputated,  and  two  years  afterwards 
sent  his  surgeon  out  of  gratitude  half  of  a  chamois 
that  he  had  shot,  remarking  that  with  his  wooden 
leg  he  could  not  get  along  so  well  as  before  in  the 
chase,  though  he  hoped  to  bring  down  many  a 
chamois  yet.  At  the  time  of  the  amputation  the 
man  was  seventy-one  years  old.  Alongside  of  this 
case  may  be  mentioned  that  of  the  guide  who 
said  to  Saussure:  'A  short  time  ago  I  was  very 
happily  married.  My  grandfather  and  my  father 
both  perished  in  the  chase  of  the  chamois,  and 
I  am  sure  to  meet  my  end  in  the  same  way. 
But  if  you  would  make  my  fortune  on  condition 
that  I  should  give  up  the  chase,  I  could  not 


Till-:    A  NTH  LOPES. 


93 


accept  the  offer.' '—Switzerland:    Its  Scenery  and 

Next  to  the  chamois  we  may  arrange  .1 
large  number  of  elegant  animals  which  have- 
horns  of  simple  form  and  attain  at  the  most 
the  size  of  a  goat  or  a  roe-deer.  In  this 
group  the  Arabians  have  always  claimed  the 
first  place  for  the  Gaz- 
elle ((,'azc/ta  t/orctis). 
lig.  165,  in  which  both 
sexes  are  adorned  with 
the  characteristic  black 
horns  with  a  slight 
lyre-shaped  curve. 
The  large  straight  ears 
are  rounded  at  the 
end.  The  wonderfully 
beautiful  yellowish- 
brown  eyes  are  held  in 
as  high  esteem  by  the 
Arab  poets  as  the  for- 
get-me-not eyes  among 
those  of  Germany. 
The  body  is  slender, 
the  tail  short  but  with 
a  thick  tuft,  the  legs 
long  and  very  slim. 
On  the  elegant  little 
head  may  be  observed 
tear-pits  of  no  great 
size.  The  colour  is 
yellow  on  the  back, 
darker  stripe  separates  these  two  colours. 

The  home  of  the  gazelle  extends  from  the 
mimosa-clad  steppes  and  deserts  of  Nubia 
and  Kordofan  to  Arabia  on  the  east,  and 
to  Morocco  on  the  west.  The  colour  of  its 
coat  conceals  it  perfectly  in  the  midst  of  the 
stones.  The  flocks  pasture  by  day  under 
the  leadership  of  an  olcl  female.  In  some 
cases  the  young  are  rather  weak  on  the  legs 
for  several  days  after  birth,  so  that  they 
easily  fall  a  prey  to  wild  animals  or  to  man. 
The  flesh  is  good  to  eat,  and  the  chase  is 
carried  on  by  all  methods — by  means  of  the 
cheetah,  by  means  of  falcons,  with  dogs,  or 


Fig.  169. — The  Four-horned  Antelope  (Tctraceros  quadricornis}.    p.  94 

a    beautiful    grayish- 
white    underneath,    a 


with  fire-arms.  The  gazelle  has  a  keen  scent 
and  acute  hearing,  but  is  not  very  intelligent. 
It  is  often  met  with  in  the  East  as  a  domestic 
animal;  gentle  and  even  docile  as  a  rule,  it 
is  yet  subject  to  accesses  of  fury,  during 
which  it  may  become  dangerous  to  children. 
In  the  high  mountains  of  the  Cape  region, 
of  Sennar,  and  Abys- 
sinia, the  Sassa  of  the 
Abyssinians  (Orcotra- 
giis  saltator),  fig.  166, 
takes  the  place  of  our 
chamois,  which  it  quite 
equals  in  adroitness  and 
facility  of  movement. 
The  male  alone  carries 
small,  almost  straight 
horns,  with  the  points 
bent  a  little  forwards. 
The  head  is  small  and 
short,  the  legs  thick, 
the  tail  rudimentary, 
the  hoofs  sharp  at  the 
edge.  Tear-pits  are 
present.  The  colour 
is  a  light  olive-green 
marbled  with  white. 
The  animal  lives  in 
pairs  or  in  families, 
shows  much  attachment 

to  its  chosen  seats,  and  is  eagerly  hunted  on 
account  of  its  excellent  flesh. 

The  Bleekbok  (pale-buck)  of  the  Boers, 
the  Urebi  of  the  natives  (Calotragus  scopa- 
rius],  fig.  167,  is  also  met  with  at  the  Cape. 
It  lives  in  pairs,  and  prefers  the  steppes  with 
tall  grasses.  The  horns  of  the  male,  some- 
what stronger  than  those  of  the  previous 
species,  are  similar  in  form ;  the  tear-pits  are 
tolerably  large.  This  pretty  antelope  is  of 
about  the  size  of  a  roe-deer.  It  is  reddish 
or  cinnamon-brown  on  the  back,  white  under- 
neath, with  white  spots  round  the  eyes  and 
on  the  lips  and  chin.  On  the  knees  there 
are  long  tufts  of  hair.  Notwithstanding  its 
agility  and  the  extraordinary  leaps  which  it 


94 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


makes  this  game  easily  becomes  the  prey  of 
the  hunter,  who  takes  advantage  of  its 
stupidity. 

The  Duyker-bok  or  Madocqua  (Cephalop/i/is 
mergens),  fig.  168,  is  distinguished  by  the 
short  and  straight  horns  of  the  male,  which 
are  almost  hidden  by  a  tuft  of  hair  and  by 
the  very  large  pointed  ears.  The  legs  are 
very  thin,  the  tail  short  and  provided  with  a 


terminal  tuft.  The  colour  varies  very  much 
from  gray  to  olive-green.  The  animal  fre- 
quents moist  places  in  the  denser  parts  of 
the  bush,  and  shows  great  skill  in  taking 
advantage  of  the  shelters  afforded  by  its 
retreat  to  hide  itself  from  pursuit;  hence  the 
name,  meaning  "ducker,"  bestowed  upon  it 
by  the  Boers.  It  takes  a  zigzag  course  in 
running.  Its  flesh  is  tough,  but  the  leather 


Fig.  170. — The  Kietbok  (Keduncus  eleotragus). 


made  from  its  hide  is  highly  esteemed  as  a 
material  for  whip-cords. 

The  Chikara  of  India,  the  Four-horned 
Antelope  ( J^etraceros  quadricornis},  fig.  1 69, 
an  animal  of  about  the  size  of  a  gazelle,  is 
easily  distinguished  by  the  possession  of  a 
second  pair  oi  small  horns  above  the  eyes, 
while  the  principal  horns,  which  are  almost 
straight  and  not  very  large,  are  set  between 
the  ears.  The  ears  are  large,  the  tear-pits 
rather  long,  the  nose  broad  and  naked,  the 
legs  long  and  slender.  The  male  alone  carries 
horns.  The  animal  inhabits  the  wooded 
mountainous  regions  of  Bengal  and  Nepaul. 
In  captivity  it  shows  boldness  and  ill-temper. 


The  Rietbok  (reed-buck)  of  the  Boers,  the 
Umseke  of  the  natives  (Rcduncus  eleotragus), 
fig.  1 70,  is  a  little  larger  than  our  roe,  and  at 
the  same  time  a  little  more  slender  and 
higher  on  the  legs.  The  very  sharp  horns 
of  the  male  are  curved  forwards,  the  ears 
long,  the  neck  long  and  round,  the  tail  com- 
paratively long  and  bushy,  the  fur  rather 
short  but  thick,  of  a  reddish-gray  colour, 
lighter  underneath.  The  animal  lives  in 
pairs  in  the  dense  thickets  of  Central  and 
Southern  Africa.  When  hunted  it  allows  its 
pursuer  to  approach  pretty  close  up  to  it, 
concealing  itself  meanwhile  carefully.  On 
perceiving  signs  of  danger  it  gives  warning 


THE   ANTELOPES. 


95 


to    its   comrades    by    means    of    a    kind    of     detested   by  the    Kaffirs   and    Namaquas   on 
sneezing   as   many   antelopes   do;    and   it   is     account   of  the   devastation   which   it   works 


!&aja?fB 


Fig.  171.— The  Harnessed  Antelope  or  Guib  ( Tragdaphus  serif  tus] 


111 


their  fields.      It  is  very  tenacious  of  life. 


Its  flesh  is  highly  esteemed. 


The   Harnessed  Antelope,  the  Guib  (Tra- 
gelaphus  scrrptus),  fig.  171,  an  animal  of  the 


Fig.  172. — The  Saiga  Antelope  (Colus  tartaricus}.     page  96. 


of  a  fallow-deer,  a  native  of  Abyssinia 
and  the  whole  of  West  Africa,  is  remarkable 


for  the  bright  colours  of  its  coat.     The  head, 
the  neck,  the  breast,  and  the  back  are  of  a 


96 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


brownish-gray  colour;  the  sides  and  the  thighs 
of  a  rusty  red,  and  upon  these  parts  there 
are  white  spots  and  stripes,  of  the  arrange- 
ment of  which  the  illustration  will  give  a 
better  idea  than  a  long  description.  The 
horns  of  the  male  are  thick,  flattened,  and 


provided  with  two  keels  or  ridges,  which 
meet  at  the  extremity  of  the  horn.  The 
two  horns  have  an  elegant  curve  inwards. 
This  beautiful  animal  lives  in  pairs  in  the 
forests;  it  is  easily  tamed,  stands  our  climate 
pretty  well,  and  on  account  of  its  gentleness 


Fig.  173. — The  Nylgau  (Portax  picfus). 


and  easiness  of  management  has  become 
one  of  the  favourites  as  well  as  one  of  the 
most  frequent  ornaments  of  our  zoological 
gardens. 

The  Saiga  (Cohis  tartaricus  (Saiga  tar- 
tarica)},  fig.  172,  is  the  only  European  an- 
telope besides  the  chamois.  Its  domain  for- 
merly extended  as  far  as  the  foot  of  the 
Pyrenees;  but  at  the  present  day  it  is  con- 
fined to  the  steppes  of  Russia,  from  the 
frontiers  of  Poland  to  the  Altai  Mountains. 
It  is  a  rather  abnormal  type,  with  a  sturdy 
massive  body  and  short  legs,  and  is  spe- 
cially distinguished  by  the  peculiar  form  of 


its  nose  and  upper  lip,  which  are  swollen  and 
wrinkled,  the  lip  hanging  down  over  the 
mouth  like  a  short  but  very  mobile  proboscis. 
The  horns  of  the  male  are  short,  curved 
slightly  in  the  form  of  a  lyre,  almost  trans- 
parent. The  animal  possesses  a  large  num- 
ber of  skin-glands,  which  exude  fragrant  oily 
fluids.  Besides  the  very  deep  tear-pits  there 
are  glands  in  the  region  of  the  groin.  The 
fur,  gray  on  the  back  and  the  flanks,  whitish 
on  the  abdomen  and  brow,  is  almost  like  the 
fleece  of  a  sheep.  The  animal  lives  in  troops, 
which  are  often  very  numerous,  is  very  timid 
but  easily  tired  out  when  pursued,  and  in 


THE   ANTELOPES. 


97 


spite  of  its  keen  scent  easily  becomes  the 
prey  of  the  hunter.  The  flesh  is  made  dis- 
agreeable by  the  smell  of  musk  imparted  to 
it  by  the  superficial  glands.  The  saiga  is 
often  seen  in  zoological  gardens,  where  it 
frequently  perishes  through  its  own  stupidity, 
breaking  its  neck  or  its  legs  by  clashing 
against  the  bars  of  its  cage. 


The  Nylgau  (Portax  pictus  (Bosclap/nix 
tragocamclus)  ),  fig.  173,  forms  the  transition 
to  the  powerful  and  clumsy  species  which  are 
higher  at  the  shoulders  than  behind,  the 
reverse  being  the  case  with  the  slighter  and 
more  elegant  forms  of  which  we  have  just 
been  treating.  The  nylgau,  which  inhabits 
principally  the  edge  of  the  jungles  in  the 


Fig.  174. — The  Sing-Sing  or  Waterbok  (Kobus  ellipsiprymnus}.     page  98. 


East  Indies,  is  often  imported  into  Europe, 
where  one  can  make  its  acquaintance  in  the 
zoological  gardens.  It  is  of  the  size  of  a 
stag,  is  on  the  whole  ill-proportioned  and  in- 
elegant, has  a  rather  shaggy  coat,  and  appears 
to  be  decidedly  weak  in  the  loins.  The  small 
longish  head  is  often  furnished  in  both  sexes, 
most  commonly,  however,  only  in  the  male, 
with  short,  pointed,  slightly  curved  horns. 
The  ears  are  large,  the  eyes  small  and  lively 
but  malicious,  the  tear-pits  deep.  On  the 
breast  is  a  slight  dewlap.  The  shoulders  are 
very  high  and  angular,  the  back  slopes  rapidly 
towards  the  hinder  extremity,  the  tail  is  pretty 

Vm..    II. 


long  and  bushy,  the  feet  strong  and  provided 
with  broad  hoofs  and  flattened  accessory 
hoofs.  The  hair  is  rough  and  coarse;  it 
forms  a  sort  of  mane  at  the  neck  and  shoul- 
ders, and  there  is  a  long  tuft  about  the  middle 
of  the  neck  in  front  as  well  as  at  the  end  of 
the  tail.  The  general  colour  is  a  grayish- 
brown  with  blue  reflex  colours,  which  have 
procured  for  the  nylgau  the  name  of  the 
"  blue  ox."  Besides  a  few  white  spots  on 
the  lips,  the  throat,  and  under  the  tail,  the 
nylgau  is  specially  distinguished  by  two  white 
rings  on  the  feet,  one  immediately  below,  the 
other  above  the  accessory  hoofs.  The  nylgau 

45 


98 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


is  much  hunted  on  account  of  its  excellent 
flesh  as  well  as  on  account  of  its  hide,  which 
makes  a  very  flexible  leather.  When  wounded 
it  attacks  the  hunter,  throwing  itself  upon  its 
knees  and  creeping  up  to  him.  In  captivity 
it  is  ill-tempered  and  often  attacks  its  keepers. 
Since  1860  the  King  of  Italy  has  possessed 


a  pretty  large  herd  of  nylgaus  at  San  Ros- 
sore,  near  Pisa,  where  the  animals  appear  to 
thrive. 

The  Sing-Sing,  the  Waterbok  of  the  Boers 
(Kobus  cllipsiprymnus),  fig.  1 74,  has  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  large  fallow-deer  and  almost 
attains  the  size  of  our  stag.  The  horns  of 


Fig.  175. — The  Sable  Antelope  or  Swarte-bok  (Hippotragus  niger 


the  male  are  large,  curved  in  the  shape  of  a 
lyre,  ringed  for  two -thirds  of  their  length, 
the  ears  of  moderate  size,  the  eyes  pretty 
large.  The  hair  is  rough  but  oily-looking 
and  shining,  somewhat  longer  at  the  neck 
than  in  other  parts,  and  there  is  a  tuft  at  the 
end  of  the  tail.  The  legs  are  slender.  The 
waterbok  lives  in  small  •  herds  under  the 
leadership  of  an  old  male,  and  inhabits  the 
marshes  of  Central  Africa  and  the  Cape  re- 
gion. It  always  remains  in  the  vicinity  of 
water,  into  which  it  plunges  when  danger 
threatens,  in  order  to  save  itself  by  swimming. 
The  flesh  of  adult  animals  smells  strongly  of 
musk ;  that  of  the  young  alone  is  eatable. 


The  Sable  Antelope  or  Swarte-bok  {Hippo- 
tragus niger),  fig.  175,  is  of  about  the  size  of 
a  stout  short  stag.  The  male  carries  long 
horns  curved  backwards  and  ringed  to  the 
points  like  those  of  a  goat.  The  horns  of 
the  female  have  the  same  form  but  are 
smaller.  The  head  is  small  and  short,  the 
ears  long  like  those  of  an  ass,  the  tail  of 
moderate  length,  very  thin  and  with  a  large 
terminal  tuft.  A  long  loose  mane  runs  from 
the  nape  of  the  neck  to  the  middle  of  the 
back,  and  there  is  a  shorter  one  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  neck.  The  colour  is  a  brilliant 
black;  a  broad  white  stripe  extends  from  the 
eye  to  the  lips  and  here  unites  with  another 


To  fact  faft  ft. 


PLATE  XXIX.   -    THE    CANNA    OR    ELAND    (Bnulaphtu  canna). 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


TIIK  ANTELOPES. 


99 


white  chin-stripe.  The  under  side  of  the 
breast  and  the  belly,  as  well  as  the  inner 
sides  of  the  legs,  are  white.  Formerly  this 
animal  was  considered  to  be  a  "blauw-bok 
(//.  Icucopluca)  in  its  summer  dress,  but  it 
has  now  been  ascertained  to  be  an  inde- 


pendent though  rare  species.  Blauw-boks 
and  swarte-boks  live  in  troops  under  the 
leadership  of  an  old  male  in  the  rocky  and 
mountainous  parts  of  Central  Africa.  In  the 
Cape  region  they  are  almost  extirpated.  They 
are  extremely  shy  and  timid,  darting  off  on 


Fig.  176. — The  Leucoryx  or  Sabre  Antelope  (Oryx  leucoryx). 


the  least  hint  of  danger.     The  flesh  has  an 
abominable  taste  like  that  of  a  he-goat. 

The  Spietboks  (Oryx)  are  large  African 
antelopes,  heavy-looking  and  clumsy  in  form. 
They  are  of  about  the  size  of  a  stag,  and  are 
distinguished  by  their  enormous  horns,  which 
are  usually  as  long  as  the  body,  They  are 
straight  or  very  slightly  curved,  thin,  pointed, 
plainly  ringed,  and  are  developed  in  both 
sexes.  The  head  and  the  tail  resemble  those 
of  the  cow,  of  which  the  short  and  massive 
neck  also  remind  us,  especially  since  it  often 
carries  a  slight  dewlap.  The  species  repre- 
sented in  fig.  176,  the  Leucoryx  or  Sabre 
Antelope  (O.  leucoryx},  is  found  in  the  deserts 


of  Central  Africa,  especially  in  Sennar,  and 
it  advances  up  to  the  Egyptian  frontier. 
Formerly  its  domain  extended  further  to  the 
north,  as  is  shown  by  the  numerous  figures 
seen  on  the  ancient  monuments.  These 
beautiful  animals  wander  about  in  small 
troops  in  the  dry  steppes,  and  in  spite  of  their 
apparent  clumsiness  rival  the  best  horses  in 
running.  Bold  and  defiant,  they  make  a 
stand  against  both  beasts  of  prey  and  hunters, 
endeavouring  to  transfix  their  assailants  with 
their  horns.  Where  they  have  made  acquain- 
tance with  fire-arms,  however,  they  flee  before 
the  hunter,  whom  they  scent  at  a  great  distance. 
The  species  represented  is  whitish -yellow 


100 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


above,  white  underneath,  and  marked  with 
brown  spots  on  the  head.  It  is  often  seen 
in  zoological  gardens. 

The  Canna  of  the  Kaffirs,  the  Elen  of  the 
Boers  (Buselaphus  areas),  PI.  XXIX.,  is 
the  heaviest  of  all  the  antelopes,  and  that 


which  has  most  resemblance  to  the  oxen,  and 
especially  to  the  zebu.  This  resemblance  is 
so  great  that  at  a  distance,  when  the  horns 
cannot  be  distinguished,  one  is  in  doubt 
whether  a  herd  grazing  in  the  steppes  con- 
sists of  cannas  or  zebus.  The  neck  adorned 


Fig.  177. — The  Mendes  Antelope  (Addax  nasomaculatus}. 


with  a  large  pendent  dewlap,  the  short  sturdy 
limbs,  the  pretty  long  tail  with  a  large 
terminal  tuft,  the  absence  of  tear-pits,  the 
presence  of  a  hump  on  the  shoulders,  the 
brownish-yellow  colour,  with  the  white  spots 
on  the  head  and  neck,  the  habits,  the  gait— 
everything  reminds  us  of  the  humped  oxen. 
The  horns,  however,  are  very  different. 
They  are  straight,  of  moderate  length,  con- 
tinue the  line  of  the  brow,  and  have  a  large 
thick  keel  or  ridge  wound  round  them  spirally 
to  the  extremity.  A  strong  bull  of  this  species 
may  reach  the  weight  of  a  ton.  The  canna 
is  now  found  only  in  Inner  Africa  between 
the  equator  and  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  but 


its  domain  formerly  extended  to  the  Cape 
region,  where,  at  the  time  when  the  settlers 
arrived,  troops  of  several  hundred  head  used 
to  pasture.  Mounted  hunters  endeavour  to 
overtake  the  old  bulls,  which  cannot  hold  out 
very  long  in  running.  Descendants  of  a  pair 
of  cannas  which  the  Earl  of  Derby  intro- 
duced in  1840  are  now  found  in  almost  all 
zoological  gardens,  where  they  behave  like 
cattle.  The  flesh  is  very  savoury,  that  of  the 
young  animal  tender,  while  that  of  the  old 
bulls  has  a  disagreeable  odour  like  the  flesh 
of  a  he-goat. 

The  Mendes  Antelope,1  the  Abbu  Addas  of 

1  Supposed  to  be  the  pygarg  of  Deut.  xiv.  5. — TR. 


Till':    ANTKI.OPKS. 


101 


the  Arabs  (^li/i/ti.v  nasoiiiacit/a/iis),  fig.  177, 
is  found  in  the  eastern  Sahara  and  as  lar  east 
as  Xuln'a,  usually  in  pretty  large  (locks. 
This  antelope,  which  is  more  eagerly  hunted 
than  any  other  by  the  nomads  with  their 
slughis  or  Arabian  greyhounds,  is  indeed  less 
clumsy-looking  than  the  canna,  but  yet  resem- 


bles the  oxen  pretty  closely  in  the  plumpness 
of  the  body,  the  thickness  of  the  legs,  and  the 
general  appearance  of  the  tail,  which  is  long 
and  has  a  large  terminal  tuft.  The  horns, 
which  are  found  on  both  sexes,  are  straight 
from  base  to  tip,  but  have  a  double  spiral 
twist  round  their  axis,  and  for  two-thirds  of 


Fig.  178.— The  Caama  or  Hartebeest  (Butalis  Caama). 


•<*—         --       ,.  » ;/&•        -  •  * 


their  length  up  are  surrounded  by  numerous 
oblique  rings.  These  horns  served  as  an 
ornament  for  the  head  in  many  of  the  deities 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  The  head,  the 
neck,  and  the  short  mane  are  brown,  the  rest 
of  the  body  whitish-yellow.  A  white  trans- 
verse stripe  is  always  to  be  seen  on  the  nose. 
Regions  of  drought  are  the  favourite  abode 
of  the  addax.  It  is  a  swift  runner,  and 
defends  itself  with  courage  against  dogs  when 
wounded.  In  captivity  it  is  ill-tempered  and 
liable  to  accesses  of  fury. 

The  Koodoo  (Strepsiceros  kudu],  of  which 
there  is  a  full-page  illustration  (PI.  XXX.), 
has  long  flattened  horns,  indistinctly  ringed 


and  with  a  marked  spiral  twist.  The  size, 
the  appearance,  and  the  habits  of  this  beau- 
tiful antelope  remind  us  of  our  stags.  It 
frequents  the  forests  and  the  bush  of  the 
whole  of  the  interior  of  Africa  from  the  Cape 
to  the  borders  of  Sahara,  lives  like  our  stag, 
and  is  used  and  hunted  like  it.  The  general 
colour  is  a  reddish  or  brownish  gray,  but 
there  are  irregular  white  spots  on  the  flanks. 
The  mane  and  the  tail-tuft  are  blackish,  the 
long  hair  on  the  dewlap  gray,  the  legs  and 
the  middle  of  the  forehead  white. 

The  Caama  of  the  Kaffirs,  the  Hartebeest 
of  the  Cape  Colonists  (Bttbalis  (Alcelapkus) 
Caama],  fig.  178,  which  is  also  of  about  the 


IO2 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


size  of  a  stag,  is  distinguished  by  its  longish 
head  and  its  short  stout  horns,  which  meet 
at  the  base,  are  markedly  ringed  and  curved 
in  the  form  of  a  lyre.  Recently  naturalists 
have  distinguished  several  species  which 
approach  very  close  to  the  hartebeest,  and  are, 
perhaps,  only  local  varieties.  The  species 
shown  in  fig.  1 78  is  cinnamon-brown,  the 
forehead,  the  front  of  the  legs,  and  the  bushy 


tail  are  black,  narrow  rings  round  the  eyes, 
the  inner  side  of  the  thighs  and  the  speculum 
are  white.  The  hartebeest  was  formerly  very 
abundant  near  the  Cape,  but  has  been  almost 
extirpated  there  by  the  ceaseless  persecution 
to  which  it  has  been  exposed  on  the  part  of 
hunters.  It  is  still  found  in  Inner  Africa,  in 
the  land  of  the  Bogos  and  the  Niam-niam, 
and  is  generally  to  be  seen  on  the  banks  of 


Fig.  179. — The  Indian  Antelope  {Antilope  ceruicapra}. 


rivers  in  herds  of  about  twenty  individuals. 
It  is  a  rather  quarrelsome  animal,  but  may  to 
a  certain  extent  be  tamed,  though  it  some- 
times becomes  dangerous. 

We  have  reserved  till  now  a  singular  ante- 
lope belonging  to  India,  and  known  as  the 
Indian  Antelope,  though  called  by  the  Hindus 
themselves  the  Sassi  (Antilope  cervicapra], 
fig.  1 79.  Its  long,  ringed  and  spirally  twisted, 
but  straight  horns  remind  us  of  the  addax, 
but  in  other  respects  it  has  rather  the  appear- 
ance of  a  gazelle.  The  animal  is  reverenced 
by  the  Hindus,  who  have  placed  it  in  the 
zodiac  in  place  of  the  ibex  (Capricorn),  and 
regard  it  as  sacred  to  Chandra-,  the  goddess 
of  the  moon.  The  male,  which  alone  is 
horned,  is  of  a  dark  grayish-brown  colour, 


the  female  lighter;  the  belly,  the  inner  side 
of  the  legs,  the  speculum,  the  lips,  the  ears, 
and  the  rings  round  the  eyes  are  white. 
The  legs  are  thin,  the  tail  short  and  provided 
with  a  terminal  tuft,  and  tufts  of  hair  adorn 
the  knees.  The  tear-pits  and  inguinal  glands 
are  remarkably  large,  and  filled  with  an  oily 
ill-smelling  secretion.  The  animal  lives  in 
open  woods  and  groves  in  pretty  numerous 
troops  led  by  an  old  male.  The  great  nobles 
of  Bengal  hunt  it  with  falcons  or  grey- 
hounds. 

The  Gnus  (Catoblepas  (Connochaetes) )  pre- 
sent a  union  of  rather  singular  characters, 
which  may  always  be  observed  in  our  mena- 
geries and  zoological  gardens.  Two  species 
are  known,  both  natives  of  the  Cape;  of 


To  face  fa f€  tea. 


PLATE  XXX.  —    THE     KOODOO    (Strefsiceros  k«du). 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


THE   GOATS. 


103 


these  the  one  shown  in  fig.  180,  the  Wilde- 
beest of  the  colonists  (C.  gun],  is  the  com- 
monest. The  head  resembles  in  a  measure 
that  of  a  small  buffalo;  the  horns,  which  are 
placed  near  one  another  and  are  present  in 
both  sexes,  are  twisted  first  outwards  and 
downwards  and  then  upwards  and  forwards, 


and  finally  end  in  sharp  points.  The  ears 
are  of  moderate  size,  there  is  a  tuft  of  stiff 
hairs  on  the  nose,  another  on  the  throat;  a 
short  stiff  mane  similar  to  that  of  the  zebras 
runs  along  the  neck  from  the  nape  to  the 
shoulders.  Tufts  of  hair  also  hang  from  the 
breast,  and  the  tail,  which  is  moderately  long, 


Fig.  180.— The  Wildebeest  or  White-tailed  Gnu  (CutoUefas gnu). 


is  bushy.  The  body  is  pretty  long,  the  legs  ! 
strong  and  of  moderate  length,  the  hoofs  i 
broad  and  high.  The  nostrils  can  be  com- 
pletely closed ;  the  small  eyes  have  an  expres- 
sion of  wild  savagery.  The  general  colour 
is  a  dark  brownish-gray;  the  eyebrows  and 
the  hair  on  the  lips  are  white.  The  animal  is 
of  about  the  size  of  an  ass.  Large  flocks  of 
it  inhabit  the  plains  of  Africa  south  of  the 
equator.  From  all  other  antelopes  it  is  dis- 
tinguished by  its  alternately  roguish  and 
frolicsome,  but  frequently  also  sullen  and 
savage  disposition.  The  colonists  were  right 
when  they  bestowed  upon  it  the  name  of 
"wild  cattle."  It  is  now  often  seen  in  our 
menageries,  but  its  outbursts  of  fury  always 
make  it  dangerous  to  its  keepers. 


The  Goats. 

The  group  of  the  goats  (Caprida)  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  structure  of  the  horns. 
These  have  solid  bony  cores,  and  the  horny 
sheath  is  bent  backwards  and  laterally  com- 
pressed, so  as  to  form  an  edge,  and  has 
knobs  or  tubercles  arranged  transversely  in 
the  form  of  rings.  Both  sexes  carry  horns, 
but  those  of  the  female  are  always  smaller 
than  those  of  the  male,  and  are  like  those 
of  the  young  he-goats.  The  goats  almost 
always  have  a  beard  at  the  chin.  They 
have  neither  tear-pits  nor  inguinal  or  inter- 
digital  glands.  The  short  tail  with  two  lines 
of  hairs  and  naked  on  the  under  surface  is 
usually  carried  erect.  The  large  hard  hoofs 


104 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


are  almost  sharp  on  the  outer  edge,  and  when 
seen  in  profile  have  the  form  of  a  rhomboid. 
The  hair  is  sometimes  coarse,  sometimes  fine 
and  silky,  but  it  does  not  present  the  character 
of  true  wool.  The  straight  nose  distinguishes 
the  goat  from  the  ram's-nose  of  the  sheep. 
But  it  must  be  confessed  that  there  are  tran- 
sitional forms  between  these  two  groups,  as 
well  as  between  antelopes  and  goats,  the  con- 
necting links  being  the  chamois  on  the  one  side 
and  the  Rocky  Mountain  goat  on  the  other. 


The  goats  inhabit  high  and  steep  un- 
wooded  mountains,  where  they  can  climb 
about  to  their  heart's  content,  scorning  the 
dangers  presented  by  the  chasms  and  preci- 
pices. They  are  not  fond  of  woods,  but 
delight  to  graze  among  shrubs  and  dwarfed 
and  creeping  trees,  where  they  find  aromatic 
herbs  in  abundance.  They  run,  climb,  and 
spring  with  wonderful  dexterity;  the  smallest 
point  of  support  serves  to  enable  them  to 
make  a  leap  or  to  take  foothold.  The  ibex 


Fig.  181. — The  Rocky  Mountain  Goat  (Hafloceros  americantis}. 


surpasses  even  the  chamois  in  the  certainty 
with  which  it  estimates  distances  for  extraor- 
dinary leaps.  The  senses,  especially  those 
of  smell  and  sight,  are  extremely  well  devel- 
oped. The  goats  are  very  capricious  in  the 
choice  of  plants  on  which  to  feed;  they  are 
roguish  and  fond  of  teasing,  cunning  in  case 
of  need,  bold  in  presence  of  danger,  if  they 
cannot  escape  from  it  by  rapid  flight.  The 
old  males  become  ill-tempered  and  even 
dangerous  to  man.  The  old  females  take 
charge  of  the  herd  in  turn  while  it  is  grazing 
or  resting.  The  young  goats  are  delightful 


on  account  of  their  graceful  movements  and 
comical  attitudes.  They  can  follow  their 
mothers  a  few  hours  after  birth.  All  goats 
have  that  peculiar  smell  which  is  so  well 
known,  and  which  is  present  even  in  the  flesh, 
which  on  that  account  is  less  highly  esteemed 
than  that  of  the  sheep.  The  hunting  of  goats 
is  always  laborious  and  exhausting,  and  often 
likewise  dangerous  on  account  of  the  nature 
of  the  resorts  where  they  are  found. 

The  American  Rocky  Mountain  Goat  (ffap- 
loceros  americamis],  fig.  181,  inhabits  the 
heights  of  the  mountains  from  which  it  is 


THE   GOATS. 


105 


named  as  far  as  the  65th  parallel  of  northern 
latitude.  It  is  a  wonderfully  beautiful  animal, 
of  the  si/e  of  a  goat,  but  with  more  thickset 
body,  stronger  legs,  and  this  appearance  is 


still  further  enhanced  by  the  long  thick  white 
coat  of  hair  by  which  it  is  completely  covered. 
Only  the  borders  of  the  nose  and  lips  besides 
the  hoofs  are  naked.  This  beautiful  coat 


Fig.  182. — The  Markhor  (Capra  falconer!),    page  106. 


consists  of  a  thick  close-set  down  and  of 
stiffer  hairs,  which  become  longer  on  the 
back  so  as  to  form  a  thick  erect  mane, 
extending  from  between  the  horns  along  the 
middle  line  of  the  back  to  the  root  of  the  tail. 
The  pretty  thick  beard  rather  forms  whiskers 
than  a  true  goat's  beard.  The  down  is  not 
wool  composed  of  flattened  and  spirally 
twisted  hair,  but  is,  on  the  contrary,  made  up 
of  very  thin,  long,  and  perfectly  cylindrical 
hairs.  The  animal  undoubtedly  shows  a 

VOL.  II. 


tendency  to  approach  the  antelopes  in  the 
character  of  its  horns,  which  are  round,  with- 
out edges  or  tubercles,  and  feebly  ringed  at 
the  base,  yet  the  terminal  hook  is  not  so  well 
marked  as  in  the  chamois.  Besides,  the  tail 
is  not  that  of  a  goat.  It  is  covered  with  hair 
all  round,  and,  instead  of  being  carried  erect, 
bends  down  between  the  legs.  These  goats 
may,  therefore,  be  ranked  as  a  separate  genus, 
approaching  more  closely  to  the  antelopes 
than  others,  but  belonging  to  the  goats  in 


46 


io6 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


respect  of  the  rest  of  their  organization.  The 
Rocky  Mountain  goat  frequents  the  highest 
naked  peaks  of  its  home,  between  the  limit 
of  forests  and  the  snow-line,  and  among  the 
few  hunters  of  those  sparsely  inhabited 
regions  enjoys  the  same  reputation  as  the 
chamois  with  us.  Its  flesh  is  very  bad. 


The  Markhor  of  the  natives  of  the  East 
Indies  (Capra  falconeri  (mcgaccros} ),  fig.  182, 
is  a  powerful  animal,  much  stronger  than  the 
domestic  goat.  It  is  distinguished  by  the 
strongly  keeled  horns  of  the  male,  which  are 
twisted  like  a  cork-screw,  and  are  very  similar 
to  those  of  the  koodoo  antelope;  the  horns 


Fig.  183.  —The  Grecian  Ibex  (Capra  cegagrus). 


of  the  female  are  much  smaller  and  less 
twisted.  It  also  has  the  skin  pretty  uniformly 
covered  with  hair,  while  in  the  adult  male 
the  beard  is  prolonged  into  a  kind  of  mane 
which  envelops  the  neck  and  breast,  and  gets 
lengthened  on  the  shoulders  and  back  into 
a  shaggy  fur.  This  mane  is  a  little  lighter 
than  the  rest  of  the  fur,  which  has  a  dark 
grayish-brown  colour  on  the  hinder  parts  and 
the  front  of  the  legs,  while  the  under  surface 
and  the  inner  side  of  the  legs  are  again 
somewhat  lighter.  The  markhor  lives  on 
the  high  peaks  of  the  Himalayas  of  Tibet,  in 
Kashmir  and  Afghanistan,  and  the  hunters 
maintain  that  it  devours  serpents.  Speci- 
mens of  this  goat  have  been  brought  to 
Europe,  where  it  has  been  tamed  to  a  certain 


degree,  but  has  always  remained  somewhat 
capricious. 

The  Grecian  Ibex  or  Bezoar  goat,  the 
Pasong  of  the  Persians  (Capra  agagrus),  fig. 
183,  is  manifestly  the  wild  goat  which  Homer 
mentions  when  he  speaks  of  the  islands  of  the 
Cyclops  and  Crete.  Even  at  the  present  day 
its  domain  extends  from  the  islands  of  the 
Archipelago  to  Persia.  The  strongly  curved 
horns  of  the  male  exhibit  about  a  dozen 
knobs  or  tubercles  in  front,  those  of  the 
female  are  simply  compressed.  The  beard 
is  very  strong.  The  usual  colour  of  the  hair 
is  reddish-brown;  the  under  surface  and  the 
inner  side  of  the  legs  are  whitish ;  the  patch 
on  the  brow,  the  tail,  and  a  longitudinal  stripe 
on  the  back  are  black.  On  the  shoulders 


THK    COATS. 


107 


also  darker  stripes  ran  be  distinguished,  as 
well  as  on  the  under  parts  of  the  Hanks  and 
the  legs.  Formerly  these  goats  were  much 
hunted  in  Asia  Minor,  because  peculiar 
medicinal  virtues  were  ascribed  to  the  round 
swellings  which  are  formed  in  the  stomach 
of  these-  as  well  as  many  other  ruminants,  and 
which  arc;  known  as  bezoar  balls. 


Here  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the 
Domestic  Goat  (Caflra  hirciis)  is  forced  upon 
us,  a  question  which,  as  in  the  case  of  all 
other  animals  domesticated  at  a  remote 
period,  is  complicated  by  the  number  of 
varieties,  the  mingling  of  species,  and  the 
influence  of  man.  In  the  first  place  it  is 
incontestable  that  the  wild  goats  already 


184. — The  Angora  Goat  (Cap, 


mentioned  and  figured,  as  well  as  many  others, 
all  originally  belonging  to  Asia,  which  have 
not  been  figured  in  this  work,  are  capable  of 
producing  fertile  hybrids  with  our  domestic 
goat.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  equally  in- 
contestable that  goats  belong  to  the  oldest  of 
domestic  animals,  that  their  remains  have 
been  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  lake- 
dwellings,  that  among  the  ancient  Egyptians 
at  least  two,  if  not  more,  easily  recognizable 
races  were  represented,  and  that  at  the  present 
day  we  know  at  least  a  dozen  different  races 
distributed  over  all  countries  of  the  world. 
Yet  we  are  now  acquainted  with  not  a  single 
wild  goat  either  in  Western  or  Central  Europe, 
or  in  Africa,  with  the  sole  exception  of  the 
ibex,  which  is  essentially  different  in  the  struc- 


tgtrauis).     page  108. 


ture  of  its  horns  from  the  domesticated  breeds. 
It  is  accordingly  probable  that  the  goats  were 
introduced  into  Egypt  and  the  lake-dwellings. 
The  two  species  represented  in  this  work  are 
so  like  certain  domesticated  races  that  we 
must  allow  that  they  have  contributed  to 
their  formation,  which  does  not  exclude  the 
possibility  that  other  species  also  have  co- 
operated with  these  towards  the  same  end. 
But  whatever  the  truth  may  be  as  regards 
this  matter,  it  is  at  least  certain  that  goats 
easily  revert  to  the  wild  condition,  just  as 
wild  goats  are  very  easily  tamed. 

But  it  is  not  our  business  to  discuss  the 
tame  races  which  have  been  formed  by  the 
influence  of  man.  We  take,  however,  this 
opportunity  of  expressing  our  opinion  of  the 


io8 


THE    TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


utility  of  these  animals.  If,  on  the  one  hand, 
it  is  unquestionable  that  the  goat  must  be 
called  on  account  of  its  milk  the  cow  of  the 
poor,  that  it  yields,  especially  in  countries 
where  cattle 
and  sheep  do 
not  thrive  very 
well,  an  impor- 
tant element  of 
food,  that  the 
skins  are  of  the 
highest  value, 
and  that  cer- 
tain races,  such 
as  the  Kash- 
mir and  the 
Angora  Goat 
(Capra  hircus, 
van  angoren- 
sis),  fig.  184, 
have  been 
brought,  in 
certain  moun- 
tainous coun- 
tries with  a 
raw  climate,  by 
careful  in-and- 
in  breeding,  to 
produce  an  in- 
valuable kind 
of  long  wool, 
which  envel- 
ops almost  the 
entire  body 
of  the  animal, 

and   is  unsur  "  Fig'  l8s-The  Alpine  Ibex 

passed  for  delicacy  and  softness ;  yet  it  must 
be  confessed,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the 
goat  is  the  most  destructive  creature  in  the 
world  in  forests,  and  that  the  old  seats  of 
civilization,  namely  the  countries  round  the 
Mediterranean,  owe  the  destruction  of  their 
forests,  the  nakedness  of  their  mountains, 
and  the  inevitable  consequence  of  that  con- 
dition, the  dryness  of  their  climate,  to  the 
devastations  of  these  animals.  Man  destroys 


the  forests  when  full-grown  in  order  to  pro- 
cure the  timber,  the  goat  prevents  their  being 
renewed.  It  devours  the  young  plants  as 
they  spring  up  out  of  the  ground  and  the 

young  shoots 
on  the  trees; 
wherever  the 
goat  comes  it 
makes  the 
work  of 


re- 

afforestation 
an  impossibili- 
ty. It  is  not 
without  rea- 
son that  a  Ger- 
man  legend 
ascribes  the 
creation  of  the 
goat  to  the 
devil.  The 
evil  spirit  is 
said  to  have 
bestowed  upon 
it  its  horns,  its 
eyes,  and  its 
beard,  and  to 
have  bitten  its 
tail  short  be- 
cause it  got 
caught  by  it 
in  the  under- 
wood. Its 
influence  in 
lands  deprived 
of  trees  has 
been  perni- 


(Ibex alpinus).     page  109. 


cious  enough  to  justify  such  a  legend. 
The  Ibex. 

The  Bouquetins,  the  steinbocks  of  German 
Switzerland  (Ibex),  are  distinguished  from 
the  goats  proper  by  the  enormous  size  of 
their  horns.  These  are  triangular  in  section  ; 
in  front  they  are  broad,  and  on  that  side 
there  is  on  each  horn  a  series  of  transverse 
ridges.  In  other  respects  they  are  goats. 


THE   SHEEP. 


109 


Every  chain  of  lofty  mountains  in  Europe 
and  \Ycstcrn  Asia  has  its  own  species  of  ibex. 
The  Alps,  the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  Caucasus, 
the  Altai  Mountains,  Mount  Sinai,  and  the 
mountains  of  Abyssinia  have  ibexes  \\hich  are 
somewhat  different  from  each  other  as  regards 
their  horns  and  skins,  but  are  similar  to  one 
another  in  the  rest  of  their  structure  and  their 
mode  of  life.  They  are  all  animals  which 
dwell  in  the  highest  regions  and  exhibit  all 
the  (nullities  of  goats  in  the  highest  degree. 
\\'e  have  not  considered  it  necessary  to  repeat 
here  what  has  already  been  said,  and  we  only 
add  a  few  words  concerning  the  Alpine  Ibex 
(//h-.v  alpiiins  (Capra  ibex}  ),  fig.  185,  which 
has  no  beard,  and  simply  curved,  and  slightly 
divergent  horns  with  very  prominent  ridges 
or  knobs. 

This  majestic  animal,  formerly  distributed 
over  the  whole  Alps,  had  already  in  the 
middle  ages  become  rare,  thanks  to  the  un- 
reasing  pursuit  of  which  it  was  the  object,  in 
consequence  of  a  fancy  which  ascribed  all 
sorts  of  medicinal  virtues  to  different  parts  of 
the  animal.  Even  at  the  present  day  the  fat 
and  the  dried  blood  of  the  ibex  are  sold  in 
certain  Alpine  valleys  at  high  prices.  The 
horns,  likewise,  had  a  considerable  value,  and 
the  labours,  privations,  and  dangers  connected 
with  the  chase  of  the  ibex  on  the  almost 
inaccessible  peaks  where  it  had  to  be  followed, 
were  among  the  highest  enjoyments  of  sport. 
Now  the  ibex  exists  only  in  a  few  districts  of 
the  Alps,  where  it  is  protected  in  the  strictest 
manner.  From  the  Swiss  Alps  it  has  en- 
tirely disappeared,  and  in  the  western  Alps 
it  is  still  found  only  in  the  Val  de  Cogne  and 
the  ravines  opening  into  it,  which  King 
Victor  Emmanuel  placed  under  strict  super- 
vision. On  the  summit  of  the  Col  de  Geant, 
between  Chamounix  and  Courmayeur,  there 
is  to  be  seen  at  the  height  of  ten  thousand 
feet  a  board  with  the  inscription,  "  Defense 
de  chasser,"  and  keepers  are  placed  all  round. 
There  are  perhaps  in  this  district  still  about 
three  hundred  head  in  all,  distributed  in 


small  troops  of  about  a  dozen  each.  Attempts 
have  been  made  without  success  to  re-intro- 
duce the  ibex  into  the  Austrian  Alps.  In  the 
zoological  gardens  at  Schonbrunn  and  a  few 
others  elsewhere  are  kept  a  number  of  ibexes, 
which  excite  general  astonishment  by  their 
enormous  leaps.  They  are  capable  of  being 
tamed  to  a  certain  degree,  but  in  old  age  they 
become  ill-tempered.  Hybrids  between  the 
ibex  and  the  common  goat  have  also  been 
reared,  but  all  of  these  became  in  advanced 
years  so  ill-tempered  and  unmanageable  that 
they  had  to  be  killed.  The  descendants  of 
these  hybrids  acquired  in  course  of  time  the 
characters  of  common  goats. 

The  Sheep. 

The  sheep  are  distinguished  from  the  goats 
by  their  flat  brow,  the  ram's  nose,  the  absence 
of  the  beard,  and  the  presence  of  tear- pits 
and  interdigital  glands,  as  well  as  by  the 
character  of  their  horns,  which  are  twisted 
like  the  shell  of  a  snail,  and  adorned  with 
rings  of  knobs  or  tubercles.  These  rings 
are  continued  on  the  three  or  four  sides  of 
the  horns.  The  legs  are  thinner  and  longer 
than  those  of  the  goats,  the  body  more 
slender,  and  the  tail  shorter  and  covered  with 
hair  all  round.  This  covering  is  made  up  of 
a  thick  wool  mixed  with  longer  fine  hairs. 
But,  as  already  mentioned,  there  are  connect- 
ing links  between  the  two  groups,  for  ex- 
ample, goats  without  any  beard  and  with 
interdigital  glands  and  small  tear-pits,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  sheep  with  a  straight  nose 
and  without  tear-pits.  In  the  sheep  both 
sexes  are  provided  with  horns,  but  those  of 
the  female  are  always  smaller  than  those  of 
the  male,  and  also,  for  the  most  part,  less 
twisted. 

The  mode  of  life  of  wild  sheep  is  absolutely 
the  same  as  that  of  goats.  But  for  us,  who 
only  know  the  tame  animal,  rendered  stupid 
by  slavery,  the  sheep  is  the  type  of  dull  sub- 
missiveness,  of  peace-loving  indolence  and 
blind  obedience,  without  will,  without  vivacity, 


I  IO 


THE   TWO-TOED    ARTIODACTYLA. 


and  without  individuality.  Further,  we  know 
sheep  only  as  numbers  of  a  herd  which  acts 
in  a  mass  under  the  direction  of  a  foreign 
will,  blindly  following  the  movements  of 
whatever  leader  happens  to  be  selected, 
whether  a  male  of  their  own  species,  a  dog, 


or  a  man.  The  wild  sheep  is  quite  different 
from  this;  it  is  intelligent,  when  young  full 
of  spirit  and  sportiveness,  when  full-grown 
courageous.  It  climbs  and  leaps  well,  and  is 
an  untiring  runner;  no  mountain  slope  is  too 
steep  for  it,  no  peak  inaccessible.  As  in- 


Fig.  186.— The  Barbary  Wild  Sheep  or  Ami  (Ovis  tragelaphus). 


habitants  of  the  lofty  naked  parts  of  mountain 
chains,  the  sheep  behave  altogether  like  goats, 
except  that  in  them  the  social  tendencies  are 
more  highly  developed,  since  they  very 
readily  collect  into  considerable  troops,  and 
are  easily  led  by  their  watchful  and  careful 
leaders.  They  likewise  become  very  easily 
attached  to  man ;  yet,  while  other  animals 
have  advanced  in  the  development  of  their 
capacities  by  association  with  man,  the  sheep, 
cattle,  and  to  a  certain  extent  also  goats,  have 
in  that  way  lost  their  intellectual  and  in- 
dividual qualities,  inasmuch  as  they  have 
become  in  the  hands  of  their  master  merely 
means  for  the  production  of  flesh,  milk,  and 
wool. 

The  Barbary  Wild  Sheep,  the  Ami  of  the 


Arabs  (Ovis  tragelapfms],  fig.  186,  is  an  essen- 
tially African  type,  characteristic  of  the  high 
chains  on  the  south  of  the  Mediterranean.  It 
approaches  most  nearly  to  the  ibex  in  respect 
of  its  straight  forehead,  thick-set  body,  thick 
and  simply  curved  horns,  with  numerous  but 
only  slightly  prominent  rings,  and  by  the 
absence  of  tear-pits.  It  possesses,  however, 
interdigital  glands.  It  is  a  large  animal, 
which  is  found  only  in  the  most  desolate 
tracts  of  the  Atlas  and  the  Aures,  where  it  is 
hunted  with  infinite  labour  and  even  danger, 
for  the  old  males,  which  attain  a  height  of 
upwards  of  three  feet  at  the  shoulders,  will 
attack  man  without  hesitation.  The  male  is 
distinguished  by  the  possession  of  very  long 
hair  in  front,  where  it  hangs  down  to  the 


THE   SHEEP. 


in 


ground.  This  appendage  begins  with  the 
heard,  and  is  particularly  well  developed  on 
the  hn-.isi  and  fore-feet,  and  it  gives  to  the 
animal  a  peculiar  appearance.  In  the  female 
this  hair  is  considerably  shorter,  and  reaches 
only  to  the  knee.  The  tail  is  pretty  long, 
and  carries  a  long  tuft  of  hair  at  the  end,  the 


hairs  being  set  very  thick  on  both  sides. 
The  colour  of  the  coarse  and  shaggy  fleece 
is  a  bright  reddish  yellow,  and  admirably 
adapted  to  the  rocks,  in  the  midst  of  which 
it  lives  in  small  herds.  The  ami  has  been 
brought  to  Europe,  where  it  propagates  itself 
very  readily  in  zoological  gardens.  The  old 


Fig.  187. — The  Rocky  Mountain  Sheep  or  Big-horn  (Ovis  montana). 


males,  however,  become  very  ill-tempered, 
and  often  attack  with  fury  some  part  of  their 
cage,  which  they  try  to  break  through  by 
butting  with  their  horns. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  Sheep,  the  Big-horn 
of  the  Americans  (Ovis  montana),  fig.  187, 
attains  even  a  greater  size  than  the  ami. 
The  body  is  more  slender,  the  legs  are  longer 
and  thicker,  the  profile  of  the  forehead  is 
likewise  straight,  as  in  the  latter  animal ;  but 
the  horns  of  the  male  are  thicker  and  very 
broad  in  front;  they  have  more  of  a  spiral 
twist  than  in  the  ami,  and  end  in  blunt  points 
directed  outwards.  The  rings  on  the  horns 
are  very  close-set.  The  horns  of  the  female, 
however,  resemble  those  of  an  ordinary  goat. 
An  adult  male  may  attain  the  weight  of  nearly 


four  hundred  pounds.  The  hair  is  short, 
erect,  and  soft;  its  usual  colour  a  grayish- 
brown,  darker  on  the  back.  The  under  sur- 
face, the  inner  side  of  the  legs,  and  a  patch 
on  the  hinder  quarters  are  white;  the  tail  is 
short,  and  ends  in  a  blackish  point  or  tuft  of 
hair.  The  big-horn  climbs  and  leaps  in  the 
most  wonderful  manner.  It  inhabits  the 
desert  tracts  on  the  western  slopes  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  between  the  4oth  and  68th 
degrees  of  northern  latitude.  A  living  speci- 
men has  never  been  obtained.  A  mouflon 
belonging  to  Kamchatka,  the  Kurile  and 
Aleutian  Islands  (O.  nivalis]  has  been  de- 
scribed, but  it  is  probably  only  a  slightly 
different  variety  of  the  big-horn. 

The  Kashkar  of  the  Kirghiz  (Ovis  Polii), 


112 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


fig.  1 88,  inhabits  the  high  plateaux  of  the 
Pamir  in  the  east  of  Bokhara,  and  probably 
extends  to  Tibet.  This  splendid  animal  has 
been  figured  as  a  representative  of  a  pretty 
considerable  number  of  sheep  inhabiting 
Central  Asia,  among  which  the  Argali  (Ovis 
Argali]  is  the  best  known,  and  the  largest, 
for  it  attains  the  size  of  a  moderately  large 


stag.  The  kashkar,  which,  according  to 
Wood,  is  of  about  the  size  of  a  two-year  old 
foal,  and  attains  the  weight  of  about  five 
hundred  pounds,  has  had  its  Latin  specific 
name  bestowed  upon  it  in  honour  of  the 
celebrated  traveller  Poli,  who  was  the  first  to 
describe  it.  The  horns  of  the  male  are  very 
large,  bent  round  in  a  circle  with  the  ends 


K==g5r:N 

Fig.  i88.-The  Kashkar  (Ovis  Po/ii). 


turned  outwards,  and  very  broad  in  front; 
the  two  side  faces  form  at  their  junction  a 
sharp  cutting  edge.  The  ringed  structure  is 
very  marked,  and  the  rings  themselves  lie 
very  close  together.  The  female  has  horns 
resembling  those  of  a  goat,  and  also  closely 
ringed.  The  profile  of  the  head  is  slightly 
curved,  the  body  rather  long,  the  legs  long 
and  tolerably  slim,  and  the  tail  quite  short. 
The  back  and  sides  are  usually  of  a  brown 
colour  with  a  shimmer  of  gray  and  red;  the 
front,  the  neck,  breast,  under  surface,  the 
lower  portion  of  the  legs,  the  tail,  and  hind- 
quarters are  white;  a  dark  stripe  extends 
along  the  back  to  the  root  of  the  tail.  The 
fleece  is  composed  of  a  very  delicate,  but  not 
very  dense  wool,  interspersed  with  strong 
coarse  hairs,  which  become  rather  longer 


on  the  neck  and  hind -quarters.  Wood 
designates  the  beard  of  the  male  expressly 
"a  reverend  beard."  The  animal  frequents 
more  particularly  the  elevated  stony  plateaux, 
and  is  generally  found  in  troops  of  about 
thirty  under  the  lead  of  an  old  male.  At  the 
season  of  heat  the  males  are  very  combative. 
The  chase  is  extremely  difficult,  especially  on 
account  of  the  extraordinary  tenacity  of  life 
by  which  these  animals  are  characterized. 
The  Kirghiz  build  pyramids  with  their 
colossal  horns  in  order  to  serve  as  land- 
marks in  their  vast  solitudes. 

The  Musimon  or  European  Mouflon  (Ovis 
musimoii),  fig.  189,  is  distinguished  from  the 
giants  of  Central  Asia  even  by  its  size,  being 
little  larger  than  the  common  sheep.  This 
native  of  the  mountain  chains  in  the  countries 


THE   SHEEP. 


bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  (for  it  was 
formerly  found  in  Greece,  on  the  island  of 
Sicily,  and  the  Balearic  I  si.-'  ids)  is  at  the 
present  day  confined  to  Corsica  and  Sardinia, 
and  chiefly 
met  with  on 
the  latter, 
where  it  is  still 
to  be  seen  in 
the  mountain 
chains  of  the 
east  and  centre 
in  pretty  nu- 
merous herds 
under  the  lead 
of  an  old  male. 
The  head  has  a 
curved  profile, 
that  of  the 
male  resem- 
bles the  h<ad 
of  a  ram.  The 
horns  describe 
a  curve  of 
three-fourths 
of  a  circle;  at 
the  base  they 
are  triangular 
in  section, 
towards  the 
end  laterally 
compressed 
and  marked 
with  promi- 
nent rings. 
The  female  is 


quarters  are  whitish.  A  whitish  or  yellowish 
spot  is  to  be  seen  especially  on  the  winter 
fleece  on  the  flanks.  Like  all  wild  sheep  the 
musimon  is  lively  and  agile,  a  good  leaper 

and  climber, 
and  does  not 
allow  anyone 
to  approach  it 
i  easily.  It  is 
much  hunted 
for  the  sake 
of  its  excellent 
flesh.  It  is 
now  to  be  seen 
in  all  zoologi- 
cal gardens. 
It  is  easily  ren- 
dered tame, 
but  exhibits  a 
peculiar  stub- 
bornness in  its 
attacks  on  the 


of    its 
There 


(9. — The  Musimon  or  European  Mouflon  (Ovis  musimon) 


bars 
cage, 
was  once  in 
the  Jardin  des 
Plantes  at 
Paris  a  musi- 
mon which 
took  it  into  its 
head  to  break 
through  a  cer- 
tain part  of 
its  inclosure. 
Every  day  it 
made  fierce 


often  entirely  without  horns;  when  present  at 
all  they  are  small  and  straight.  The  animal 
possesses  a  sturdy  thickset  body,  with  long 
thick  legs  and  a  small  tail,  which  is  naked  at 
the  lower  end  and  is  bent  between  the  legs. 
Tear-pits  and  interdigital  glands  are  present. 
The  fleece  is  short  and  thick,  and  is  composed 
of  coarse  hairs  rather  longer  on  the  throat 
and  breast  than  elsewhere.  The  under  sur- 
face, the  inner  sides  of  the  legs,  and  the  hind- 


VOL.    II. 


attacks  for  several  hours  together  against  this 
spot,  part  of  which  had  been  strengthened  with 
thicker  stakes.  The  blows  which  it  gave  in 
butting  with  its  horns  were  heard  to  a  great 
distance.  It  would  easily  have  broken  through 
any  other  part  of  its  inclosure,  but  it  did  not 
think  of  that,  and  for  at  least  a  year  I  con- 
tinued to  hear  it  from  the  workroom  which 
M.  Laurillard  had  given  up  to  me,  regularly 
repeating  its  onslaughts  on  the  chosen  spot. 

47 


114 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


At  this  point  we  must  take  up  the  question 
of  the  Domesticated  Sheep  (Ovis  arics],  and 
it  may  be  observed  at  the  outset  that  there 
are  a  few  important  facts  that  dominate  the 
whole  question.  In  the  first  place,  it  is 
manifest  that  the  sheep  became  domesticated 
among  the  ancient  Egyptians  at  least  much 
later  than  the  ox  and  the  horse,  since  the  old 
wall-paintings  which  represent  these  two 
animals  never  represent  the  sheep,  while  we 


have  found  drawings  of  the  arni,  from  which 
Jupiter  Ammon  derived  his  horns.  We  come 
upon  drawings  of  a  later  date,  however,  ex- 
hibiting sheep  of  various  breeds,  and  in 
particular  breeds  with  pendent  ears,  which  is 
always  a  sign  of  lengthened  domestication. 
The  Egyptians  of  the  later  dynasties  appear 
accordingly  to  have  received  this  animal  after 
it  had  first  been  domesticated  elsewhere.  In 
the  second  place,  we  must  take  into  con- 


Fig.  190. — The  Anoa  (Prohitalm  diprtssictmis). 


sideration  the  fact  that  there  have  been  found 
representations  of  sheep  with  woolly  fleece, 
which  is  likewise  plainly  a  result  of  domesti- 
cation; for  wild  sheep,  such  as  the  kashkar 
and  the  argali,  may  indeed  have  a  little  fine 
wool  under  the  hair  of  which  the  fleece 
consists,  but  never  have  a  fleece  entirely  of 
wool.  On  the  other  hand,  remains  have 
been  found  round  the  Swiss  lake-dwellings 
of  a  long-legged  sheep,  whose  horns  resemble 
those  of  a  goat,  and  whose  descendants,  but 
slightly  altered  in  form,  appear  to  have  been 
preserved  to  the  present  day  in  the  mountains 
of  the  Grisons.  In  short,  the  sheep  is,  if  I 
may  so  express  myself,  the  animal  which  has 
been  least  remodelled  in  the  hands  of  man. 


Every  country,  even  those  regions  in  which 
it  is  certain  that  there  has  never  been  any 
wild  sheep,  possesses  its  own  peculiar  race. 
In  some  cases  the  breeds  have  undoubtedly 
been  produced  according  to  the  demand  that 
had  to  be  supplied — whether  wool,  flesh,  or 
tail -fat,  which  last  is  the  case  in  certain 
Oriental  breeds,  in  which  the  tail  is  an 
enormous  lump  of  fat,  which  the  animal  has 
to  drag  along  on  a  small  wheeled  cart.  Be- 
sides the  wild  sheep  already  indicated  there 
are  three  or  four  others  all  belonging  to 
Tibet,  the  Himalayas,  or  other  parts  of 
Central  Asia,  and  all  similar  to  the  European 
sheep.  It  is  accordingly  probable  that  wild 
sheep  have  been  domesticated  on  the  spot, 


THE   OX   GROUP. 


and  that  these  different  species  have  con- 
tributed to  produce  the  various  breeds  of 
domesticated  sheep,  which  can  easily  be 
crossed  with  one  another  or  with  the  still 
existing  species  of  wild  sheep. 

The  Ox  Group. 

The  members  of  this  group  (Bovida)  un- 
distinguished  from  the  other  hollow-horned 


ruminants  by  the  massive  forms  of  their  bodies 
and  skeletons,  and  their  smooth  round  un- 
ringed  horns,  which  have  a  decided  curve  and 
a  hollow  bony  core.  The  forehead  is  broad, 
and  so  also  is  the  moist  and  naked  muffle. 
From  the  neck  depends  a  dewlap;  the  long 
round  tail  ends  in  a  tuft  of  hair;  the  hoofs 
are  broad,  and  there  are  no  accessory  hoofs; 
the  tear-pits  are  absent.  On  the  cheek-teeth, 


Fig.  191. — The  Musk-ox  (Ovibos  moschatus}.     page  116. 


at  the  point  where  the  half- moon -shaped 
lamellae  meet,  there  stands  a  small  column, 
which  in  the  upper  cheek-teeth  is  situated 
on  the  inner  surface,  in  the  lower  ones  on 
the  outer  surface.  Like  most  ruminants  they 
live  in  herds  under  the  lead  of  an  old  male, 
are  peaceable  and  gentle  in  disposition 
through  indolence,  but  become  terrible  and 
dangerous  during  accesses  of  fury.  When 
attacked  they  arrange  themselves  in  a  circle 
and  show  their  horns  to  the  enemy.  They 
are  fond  of  plains  and  marshy  tracts. 

In  this  group  we  are  acquainted  with  two 
animals    which    form    connecting   links   with 


other  cavicornia,  the  anoa  forming  the  tran- 
sition to  the  antelopes,  and  the  musk-ox  to 
the  sheep. 

The  Anoa  of  the  Malays  (Probubalus 
(Anoa}  depressicornis),  fig.  190,  has  the  form 
and  general  bearing  of  a  young  cow,  for  it 
attains  the  height  of  only  about  four  and  a 
half  feet  at  the  withers.  The  forehead  is 
broad,  but  the  head  becomes  more  pointed 
towards  the  naked  muffle.  The  ear  is  small 
and  pointed,  the  eyes  are  large  and  promi- 
nent. The  much-compressed  horns,  rounded 
on  the  outer  edge,  but  with  almost  a  cutting 
keel  on  the  inner  edge,  are  pretty  straight, 


u6 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYEA. 


short,  very  sharp -pointed,  and  indistinctly 
ringed.  They  are  set  on  the  head  at  some 
little  distance  from  each  other.  The  tail  is 
moderately  long,  and  tufted  at  the  end;  the 
legs  are  slender,  and  the  accessory  hoofs  are 
pretty  long.  The  tear-pits  are  wanting,  the 
coat  is  dark  brown,  but  some  parts  on  the 
under  jaw  are  white.  A  half-moon-shaped 
patch  on  the  breast,  and  the  inner  sides  of 
the  legs  are  light  in  colour.  The  hair  is 
thinly  scattered.  Concerning  the  mode  of 
life  of  this  animal  very  little  is  known.  It 
dwells  in  the  mountains  of  the  interior  of 
Celebes,  and  prefers  marshy  tracts.  It  is  to 
be  seen  in  certain  zoological  gardens,  where 
it  exhibits  a  rather  sluggish  disposition,  but 
among  the  natives  of  the  region  where  it  is 
found  it  has  the  reputation  of  being  shy  and 
wild.  The  form  of  the  horns,  the  colour, 
the  slender  limbs,  and  the  presence  of  the 
accessory  hoofs  give  it  a  good  deal  of  resem- 
blance to  the  antelopes  in  external  appear- 
ance. 

The  Musk-ox  (Ovidos  moschatus),  fig.  191, 
is  found  at  the  present  day  only  in  the  polar 
parts  of  America,1  Greenland,  and  the  terri- 
tories round  Hudson's  Bay,  while  during  the 
Ice  Age  its  domain  extended  as  far  as 
Germany  and  the  middle  of  France.  This 
is  the  dwarf  among  the  oxen,  for  a  full-grown 
bull  measures  at  the  shoulders  only  about  four 
feet.  The  rather  long  body,  resting  on  short 
legs,  is  completely  covered  with  long  coarse 
hair,  which  envelops  also  the  legs  as  far  as 
the  knees,  and  leaves  only  the  end  of  the 
mouth,  the  region  round  the  eyes,  the  horns, 
and  the  lower  parts  of  the  legs  free.  Mixed 
with  this  long  hair,  which  is  of  a  brown 
colour,  is  a  long  dense  and  bushy  wool  of  a 
gray  colour  which  imparts  a  marbled  appear- 
ance to  the  body  generally.  A  brighter  patch 
is  observable  on  the  buttocks.  The  imper- 
fectly-developed tail  is  completely  hidden 
under  the  fleece.  The  horns  are  very  thick, 

1  It  was  discovered  by  Lieut  Greely,  the  commander  of  the 
United  States  Polar  expedition  of  1882-83,  in  Grinnell  Land  in  as 
high  a  latitude  as  Si  «i°  N.— TK. 


are  round  in  section,  and  their  swollen  bases 
meet  on  the  brow.  They  are  peculiarly 
curved  like  a  fishing-hook,  and  have  their 
sharp  ends  directed  forwards.  The  hoofs 
are  strong  and  broad,  the  accessory  hoofs  are 
small. 

The  musk-ox  roams  over  its  inhospitable 
home  in  large  herds.  In  winter  it  makes 
great  migrations  in  order  to  approach  the 
woods,  but  it  knows  how  to  find  the  mosses 
and  lichens  under  the  snow.  It  has  been  met 
with  in  East  Greenland  in  places  where  the 
temperature  was  such  as  to  freeze  mercury. 
It  flees  from  man  when  it  has  once  become 
acquainted  with  him,  but  when  driven  into 
a  corner  or  obliged  to  defend  its  young  will 
charge  him  boldly.  Its  flesh  is  often  an 
invaluable  resource  for  those  who  are  com- 
pelled to  pass  the  winter  in  the  dreary  wastes 
of  Polar  America.  That  of  the  bull  has  a 
decidedly  musky  taste. 

The  Buffaloes. 

The  Buffaloes  (Bubalus)  form  a  pretty  dis- 
tinct sub-group,  which  has  been  raised  to  the 
rank  of  a  genus.  They  are  oxen  with  thickset 
bodies,  thick  legs,  large  ears  placed  at  the 
side  of  the  head,  and  having  hair  round  the 
edges,  arched  brow,  very  broad  muffle,  and 
thick  horns,  which  are  curved  first  outwards 
and  then  inwards.  The  tail  is  long,  the  hair 
coarse  and  very  thinly  scattered,  so  that  old 
animals  are  almost  completely  deprived  of  it. 
They  are  forms  belonging  to  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  Old  World. 

The  Cape  Buffalo  (Bubalus  coffer),  fig.  192, 
may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  the  subdivision 
of  the  buffaloes  with  round  horns.  The  head 
is  relatively  small,  the  ears  are  very  large, 
fringed  with  long  hairs,  and  spread  out  side- 
ways like  two  fans.  The  extraordinarily 
broad  bases  of  the  horns  meet  in  the  middle 
line  of  the  brow,  and  are  wrinkled  and  flat- 
tened. The  very  sharp  ends  are  turned 
upwards  and  forwards.  The  small  eye  has 
a  wild  expression.  The  muffle  is  very  broad, 


the  tail  thin  but  long,  the  hide  almost  naked 
and  very  dark.  The  Cape  buffalo  lives  in 
pretty  numerous  herds  throughout  South  and 
Central  Africa  as  far  as  the  i  Jth  degree  of 
northern  latitude.  It  is  fond  of  plains  and 
marshy  forests,  and  delights  to  remain  the 


THE    BUFFALOES.  117 

whole  day  buried  in  mud  up  to  the  shoulders 
in  order  to  protect  itself  against  insects  by 
which  it  is  infested,  and  from  which  it  is  partly 
delivered  by  birds  that  settle  on  its  back. 
Terrible  battles  are  waged  between  the  bulls 
in  the  season  of  heat,  and  the  vanquished 


e  Cape  Buffalo  (Butalus  caffer). 


animals  roam  about  in  solitary  savageness, 
and  are  then  highly  dangerous  even  to  man. 
The  Cape  buffalo  is,  in  fact,  more  dreaded 
by  the  natives  than  the  lion.  The  solitary 
bulls  dash  with  blind  fury  on  everything  that 
comes  in  their  way,  and  conceal  themselves 
in  the  bush  or  even  behind  trees  in  order  to 
fall  unexpectedly  on  men  or  animals  passing 
by.  All  the  accounts  of  travellers  in  those 
regions  are  filled  with  narratives  of  disastrous 
encounters  with  these  terrible  buffaloes,  and 
there  is  not  a  village  in  which  one  does  not 
meet  with  persons  who  have  been  maimed 
by  them.  When  caught  young  they  may  be 


tamed  to  a  certain  degree,  but  they  are  always 
to  be  dreaded  on  account  of  their  liability  to 
outbursts  of  fury.  The  hunting  of  the  buffalo 
is  dangerous.  The  flesh  is  good,  and  the 
thick  leather  made  from  its  hide  of  the  first 
quality. 

The  buffaloes  of  Asia  have  compressed 
horns  placed  on  the  sides  of  the  brow  at  some 
little  distance  from  one  another.  Their  bases 
do  not  meet  in  the  middle  line. 

To  this  group  belongs  the  Common  Buffalo 
(Biibalus  vulgaris),  which  occurs  both  tame 
and  wild  in  India,  and  has  been  introduced 
into  Europe  and  Egypt,  where  in  some  dis- 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


tricts  it  takes  the  place  of  ordinary  cattle. 
The  marshes  of  Italy  are  peopled  by  these 
animals  in  a  half- wild  condition,  and  the 
buffaloes  are  there  employed  on  account  of 
their  great  strength  for  field  labours,  while 
their  very  rich  milk,  their  hides,  and  horns 
are  also  utilized.  The  flesh,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  by  no  means  good.  In  India  they 
are  even  ridden  like  horses,  and  no  one 
mounted  on  a  buffalo  needs  to  fear  tigers. 
The  hotter  the  country  in  which  these  animals 
live  the  more  docile  and  tractable  are  they 
found  to  be.  In  Egypt,  for  example,  they 
are  as  gentle  as  sheep;  in  Italy,  on  the 
contrary,  very  wild. 

[The  following  adventure  will  show,  however,  that 
even  in  Ceylon  the  disposition  of  the  animal  is  not 
always  so  mild  that  its  pursuit  is  unattended  with 
danger.  The  narrator  had  pursued  a  Ceylon  buffalo 
to  the  edge  of  a  small  lake,  and  seeing  it  take  to 
the  water  ran  round  to  meet  it  on  the  other  side, 
wading  in  a  certain  distance  towards  it.  Fifteen 
paces  off  the  animal  stood  sullenly  eyeing  him,  and 
the  narrator  then  goes  on  to  say: — "  I  took  a  quick 
but  steady  aim  at  his  chest,  at  the  point  of  con- 
nection with  the  throat.  The  smoke  of  the  barrel 
passed  to  one  side — there  he  stood — he  had  not 
flinched;  he  literally  had  not  moved  a  muscle. 
The  only  change  that  had  taken  place  was  in 
his  eye;  this,  which  had  hitherto  been  merely 
sullen,  was  now  beaming  with  fury;  but  his  form 
was  as  motionless  as  a  statue.  A  stream  of  blood 
poured  from  a  wound  within  an  inch  of  the  spot  at 
which  I  had  aimed ;  had  it  not  been  for  this  fact  I 
should  not  have  believed  him  struck. 

"Annoyed  at  the  failure  of  the  shot,  I  tried  him 
with  the  left-hand  barrel  at  the  same  hole.  The 
report  of  the  gun  echoed  over  the  lake,  but  there 
he  stood  as  though  he  bore  a  charmed  life;  an 
increased  flow  of  blood  from  the  wound  and 
additional  lustre  in  his  eye  were  the  only  signs  of 
his  being  struck. 

"  I  was  unloaded,  and  had  not  a  single  ball  re- 
maining. It  was  now  his  turn.  I  dared  not  turn 
to  retreat,  as  I  knew  he  would  immediately  charge, 
and  we  stared  each  other  out  of  countenance. 
With  a  short  grunt  he  suddenly  sprang  forward, 
but  fortunately,  as  I  did  not  move,  he  halted;  he 
had,  however,  decreased  his  distance,  and  we  now 


gazed  at  each  other  within  ten  paces.  I  began  to 
think  buffalo  shooting  somewhat  dangerous,  and  I 
would  have  given  something  to  have  been  a  mile 
away,  but  ten  times  as  much  to  have  had  my  four- 
ounce  rifle  in  my  hand.  Oh,  how  I  longed  for  that 
rifle  in  this  moment  of  suspense!  Unloaded,  with- 
out the  power  of  defence,  with  the  absolute  certainty 
of  a  charge  from  an  overpowering  brute,  my  hand 
instinctively  found  the  handle  of  my  hunting-knife, 
a  useless  weapon  against  such  a  foe. 

"  Knowing  that  B.  was  not  aware  of  my  situation 
at  the  distance  which  separated  us  (about  a  mile), 
without  taking  my  eyes  from  the  figure  before  me 
I  raised  my  hand  to  my  mouth  and  gave  a  long 
and  loud  whistle;  this  was  a  signal  that  I  knew 
would  be  soon  answered  if  heard. 

"With  a  stealthy  step  and  another  short  grunt 
the  bull  again  advanced  a  couple  of  paces  towards 
me.  He  seemed  aware  of  my  helplessness,  and  he 
was  the  picture  of  rage  and  fury,  pawing  the  water 
and  stamping  violently  with  his  fore-feet. 

"This  was  very  pleasant!  I  gave  myself  up  for 
lost,  but  putting  as  fierce  an  expression  into  my 
features  as  I  could  possibly  assume,  I  stared  hope- 
lessly at  my  maddened  antagonist. 

"  Suddenly  a  bright  thought  flashed  through  my 
mind.  Without  taking  my  eyes  off  the  animal 
before  me,  I  put  a  double  charge  of  powder  down 
the  right-hand  barrel,  and  tearing  off  a  piece  of 
my  shirt,  I  took  all  the  money  from  my  pouch, 
three  shillings  in  sixpenny  pieces,  which  I  luckily 
had  with  me  in  this  small  coin  for  paying  coolies. 
Quickly  making  them  into  a  rouleau  with  the  piece 
of  rag  I  rammed  them  down  the  barrel,  and  they 
were  hardly  well  home  before  the  bull  again  sprang 
forward.  So  quick  was  it  that  I  had  no  time  to 
replace  the  ramrod,  and  I  threw  it  into  the  water, 
bringing  my  gun  on  full  cock  in  the  same  instant. 
However,  he  again  halted,  being  now  within  about 
seven  paces  from  me,  and  we  again  gazed  fixedly 
at  each  other,  but  with  altered  feelings  on  my  part. 

"At  this  time  I  heard  a  splashing  in  the  water 
behind  me  accompanied  by  the  hard  breathing  of 
something  evidently  distressed.  The  next  moment 
I  heard  B.'s  voice.  I  dared  not  turn  my  face  from 
the  buffalo,  but  I  cautioned  B.  to  reserve  his  fire 
till  the  bull  should  be  close  into  me,  and  then  to 
aim  at  the  head. 

"  The  words  were  hardly  uttered  when,  with  the 
concentrated  rage  of  the  last  twenty  minutes,  he 
rushed  straight  at  me!  It  was  the  work  of  an 
instant.  B.  fired  without  effect.  The  horns  were 


To  face  fage  nS. 


PLATE  XXXI.  -    THE    EUROPEAN    BISON   (Bison  eurof,™ 


THE   BISONS. 


119 


lowered,  their  points  were  on  either  side  of  me, 
and  the  muzzle  of  the  gun  barely  touched  his  fore- 
head when  I  pulled  the  tricar,  and  three  shillings' 
worth  of  small  change  rattled  into  his  hard  head. 
Down  he  went,  and  rolled  over  with  the  suddenly 
checked  momentum  of  his  charge.  Away  went 
B.  and  I  as  fast  as  our  heels  would  carry  us  through 
the  water  and  over  the  plain,  knowing  that  he  was 
not  dead  but  only  stunned.  There  was  a  large 


fallen  tree  about  half  a  mile  from  us,  whose  whitened 
branches,  rising  high  above  the  ground,  offered  a 
tempting  asylum.  To  this  we  directed  our  flying 
steps  and  after  a  run  of  a  hundred  yards  we  turned 
and  looked  behind  us.  He  had  regained  his  feet 
and  was  following  us  slowly.  .  .  . 

"  On  he  came,  but  fortunately  so  stunned  by  the 
collision  with  her  Majesty's  features  upon  the  coin 
which  he  had  dared  to  oppose  that  he  could  only 


- 


Fig.  193. — The  Kerabati  Buffalo  (Unia/us  Kcrabau}. 


reel  forward  at  a  slow  canter.  By  degrees  even 
this  pace  slackened,  and  he  fell." — Sir  Samuel 
Baker,  Rifle  and  Hound  in  Ceylon.~\ 

Fig.  193  gives  an  illustration  of  the  Kerabau 
Buffalo  (J)iibalus  Kerabaii]  as  a  representative 
of  this  group  with  flattened  horns.  This 
animal  is  a  native  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago 
from  Celebes  to  the  Philippines.  In  size  it 
is  equal  to  the  largest  buffaloes  of  the  Kaffir 
country.  The  head  is  rather  long  and  slender, 
the  muffle  is  broad,  the  body  long  and  plump, 
the  dewlap  only  slightly  developed,  the  colos- 
sal flattened  horns  have  well-marked  rings 
and  are  gently  curved  first  outwards  and 
then  backwards.  In  a  wild  state  this  animal 
lives,  like  other  buffaloes,  in  morasses ;  when 
tamed  it  is  very  gentle  and  tractable  in  the 
hands  of  the  natives,  but  ill-tempered  and 
dangerous  towards  Europeans.  It 


is   em- 


ployed like  other  buffaloes  as  a  beast  of 
draught  and  burden.  Specimens  of  it  have 
been  brought  to  Europe,  and  have  been 
paired  with  the  common  buffalo. 

The  Bisons. 

The  Bisons  (Bison)  likewise  form  a  sepa- 
rate group,  the  members  of  which  are  charac- 
terized by  their  broad  arched  brow,  their 
small  short  horns,  which  are  thick  and  bent 
upwards,  by  their  coat  of  long  thick  hair,  and 
by  their  height  at  the  withers,  which  part 
presents  a  marked  contrast  to  the  relatively 
small  hinder  quarters.  There  are  two  species 
of  bisons,  one  of  which  lives  in  Europe  and 
Western  Asia,  and  the  other  in  America. 

The  European  Bison  (Bison  europceus 
(bonams}\  PI.  XXXI.,  has  at  all  times  had  the 
singular  fortune  to  be  confounded  with  another 


120 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


large  member  of  the  ox  tribe,  the  Ur  or 
Auerochs,  while  the  inhabitants  of  the  coun- 
tries to-  which  they  belonged  distinguished 
these  two  rather  different  species  very  well. 
Both  species  were  favourite  objects  of  the 
chase  in  the  middle  ages.  In  the  account 
of  Siegfrid's  hunting  expedition  at  Worms, 
which  is  introduced  into  the  Nibelungenlied, 
an  account  in  which  mention  is  made  of  all 
the  leading  kinds  of  game  then  hunted  in 
Germany,  two  species  of  wild  cattle,  namely, 
the  Bison  and  the  Ur,  occur  among  the 
number.  The  Poles  also  had  separate  names 
for  the  two  species,  distinguishing  the  one  as 
Subr  and  the  other  as  Tur.  Pliny  likewise 
mentions  the  same  species,  which  in  his  day 
were  brought  to  Rome  for  the  games  of  the 
circus,  and  distinguishes  the  Bonassus  with 
its  thick  mane  from  the  Urus  with  its  terrible 
horns.  It  was  only  about  the  sixteenth 
century  that  the  two  species  began  to  be 
confounded  in  Western  Europe.  At  that 
time  the  urus  was  already  extinct  or  had 
been  transformed  into  domesticated  cattle, 
while  the  bison  survived  only  in  Poland. 
The  name  of  the  extinct  animal  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  survivor,  and  the  bison  was 
called  also  the  Ur,  Aur,  or  Auerochs,  a  name 
which  has,  unfortunately,  been  preserved  in 
French  nomenclature,  but  which  ought  to  be 
allowed  to  drop  out  of  use  altogether  in 
order  to  prevent  the  confusion  from  becoming 
endless. 

We  see  then  that  the  bison,  the  Wisent 
of  the  Germans,  the  Subr  of  the  Poles,  still 
exists.  It  is  found  at  the  present  day  in 
the  large  forests  of  Bialowicza,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Grodno  in  Lithuania,  and  in  the 
heart  of  the  Caucasus,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
sources  of  the  Terek  and  the  Kuban.  It 
is  an  animal  of  huge  size.  An  old  bull 
may  attain  the  height  of  7^  feet  at  the 
withers.  The  head,  with  its  broad  arched 
forehead,  short  ears,  and  broad  swollen 
muffle,  carries  the  small  round  sharp  horns, 
which  are  turned  upwards  in  such  a  manner 


that  the  points  stand  over  the  roots  at  the 
edge  of  the  brow.  The  legs  are  short  and 
sturdy,  the  hoofs  rounded,  the  accessory 
hoofs  small,  and  the  short  thick  tail  carries 
a  tuft  of  hair  at  the  end.  A  thick  coat  com- 
posed of  wool  and  of  long  soft  hair  envelops 
the  breast,  shoulders,  and  withers,  and  forms 
a  sort  of  mane  on  the  head  and  neck.  It 
becomes  considerably  longer  underneath  the 
dewlap,  between  the  horns,  and  upon  the 
withers,  which,  apart  from  this,  are  so  high 
that  the  animal  appears  to  carry  a  hump. 
The  close-set  but  shorter  hair  covers  all  the 
rest  of  the  body.  The  colour  is  a  dark 
brown  on  the  back,  lighter  on  the  sides. 

Bisons  live  in  herds,  which  were  formerly 
numerous,  under  the  leadership  of  one  of  the 
older  bulls,  and  generally  frequent  marshy 
woods  when  they  can.  They  are  savage  and 
courageous,  terrible  in  attack,  and  dash  with 
fury  on  the  hunter  who  ventures  to  pursue 
them.  Formerly,  when  it  was  considered 
the  rule  to  kill  the  animal  with  the  naked 
weapon,  the  hunting  of  the  bison  was  looked 
upon  as  a  battle  for  life  or  death.  The 
bisons  that  are  found  at  the  present  day  in 
our  zoological  gardens  are  descendants  of 
a  few  pairs  which  were  captured  young,  and 
presented  by  the  Russian  emperors,  by  whose 
command  the  wild  animals  of  the  forest  of 
Bialowicza  are  strictly  preserved.  The  bisons 
are  always  savage  in  their  disposition,  and 
the  cows,  in  themselves  much  more  tractable 
than  the  bulls,  invariably  kill  their  calves,  to 
which  they  are  extremely  devoted,  when  the 
hand  of  man  has  touched  them.  The  flesh 
was  at  one  time  esteemed,  and  as  late  as  the 
year  1000  the  vassals  of  the  monastery  of 
St.  Gall  had  to  hand  over  the  bisons  killed 
by  them  to  the  kitchen  of  the  bishop. 

The  American  Bison  (Bison  americanus], 
PI.  XXXII.,  which  likewise  occupies  a  full- 
page  plate,  is  not  essentially  different  from 
the  European.  The  hair  is  thicker  and 
longer  both  on  the  general  surface  of  the 
body  and  on  the  parts  occupied  by  the  mane. 


To  face  page  120. 


PLATE  XXXII.          THE    AMERICAN    BISON    OR    BUFFALO    (Bison  ameri 


O -•  THi 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


THE    BISONS. 


121 


The  hump  is  more  prominent,  the  tail  shorter, 
and  the  horns  thicker;  but  in  other  respects 
the  two  species  are  closely  similar.1 

Formerly  the  bison  roamed  in  enormous 
herds  over  the  whole  territory  of  the  United 
States  as  far  as  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The 
pursuit,  or,  as  we  well  may  say,  the  senseless 
slaughter  which  has  been  practised  by  Indians 
and  settlers  has  driven  it  back  to  the  prairies 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Mississippi,  and  has 
compelled  it  to  seek  refuge  at  the  present  day 
either  on  the  west  side  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains or  in  the  northern  regions.  It  is  easy 
to  foresee  the  time  in  which  the  American 
bison,  like  his  European  cousin,  will  be  quite 
extinct.  Those  bisons  still  traverse  the 
prairies  in  herds  of  several  thousand  head,2 
swim  across  the  largest  streams,  and  under- 
take great  migrations.  Since  the  introduction 

1  It  may  be  worth  while  to  draw  attention  here  to  an  error  that 
has  crept   in  a   very  singular  manner  into  many  accounts  of  the 
European  and  American  bison.     The  error  is  as  to  the  number  of 
ribs,  the  European   bison   being  stated  to  have  fourteen,  and  the 
American  fifteen  pairs  of  ribs.     The  fact  is,  that  both  species  have 
the  same  number  of  ribs,  namely,  fourteen  pairs.     In  a  note  on  this 
subject,  J.  A.  Allen,  in  his  American  Bisons,  Living  and  Extinct 
(p.  2),  says: — "In  this  case  the  error  had  a  singular  origin,  and  its 
repetition  is  to  some  degree  justifiable.     The  first  skeleton  of  the 
American  bison  known  in  Europe  was  that  obtained  from  a  living 
specimen  received  at  the  Paris  menagerie  in  1819,  and  which  was 
described  by  Cuvier  in  his  Osscmetis  Fossiles  (tome  iv.  p.  118  of  third 
edition).     This  specimen — one   instance   probably  in   thousands — 
chanced  to  have  fifteen  pairs  of  ribs,  and  consequently  but  four 
lumbar  vertebras.     Cuvier,  of  course,  called  attention  to  this  fact  as 
affording  an  important  distinction  between  the  American  and  Euro- 
pean bisons.     .     .     .     It  is  hence  not  strange  that  mere  compilers, 
and  even  authorities  of  some  eminence,  should  for  a  time  perpetuate 
the  error,  especially  since  it  was  many  years  before  a  second  skeleton 
of  the  American  bison  fell  under  the  eye  of  a  comparative  anatomist. 
Yet  it  seems  a  little  strange  to  find  it  repeated  by  leading  English 
anatomists  and  zoologists  for  many  years  after  several  of  the  leading 
museums  of  Great  Britain  contained  skeletons  of  the  American  bison. 
Owen,   as   late   as    1866,    in   his   great  work   on   the   Comparative 
Anatomy  of  the  Vertebrates  (vol.  ii.  p.  462),  says :  '  The  European 
bison  has  fourteen  dorsal  and  five  lumbar  vertebra; ;  the  American 
bison  has  fifteen  dorsal  and  four  lumbar,  and  this  is  the  extreme 
reached   in   the    Ruminant   order,    of  movable   ribs,    equalling  in 
number  those  of  the  hippopotamus.'" — TR. 

2  This  was  probably  still  true  at  the  date  when  it  was  written, 
hut  so  rapid  has  been  the  destruction  of  this  animal  in  recent  years 
that  the  National  Museum  of  the  United  States  not  long  ago  thought 
it  necessary  to  send  out  an  expedition  to  collect  a  few  specimens 
before  it  was  completely  exterminated.     A  report  furnished  to  the 
museum  about  the  middle  of  1886  shows  what  difficulty  the  expedi- 
tion had  in  fulfilling  its  mission  in  consequence  of  the  extinction  of 
this  species  having  been  so  nearly  effected  already.      "  It  is  firmly 
believed  by  good  authorities,"  the  report  states,  "that  there  are  not 
now  more  than  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  buffaloes  in  the  whole  of 
Montana  [where  a  few  years  ago  this  animal  was  remarkably  abun- 
dant], outside  of  the  National  Park,  where  there  are  probably  from 
two  hundred  to  three  hundred  head." — TR. 

VOL.  II. 


of  horses  and  fire-arms  into  America  they 
flee  from  man,  or  only  very  seldom  try  to 
make  head  against  him.  When  they  have 
once  begun  to  run  they  plunge  on  like  sheep, 
with  head  held  down,  in  dense  crowds. 
They  are  hunted  partly  for  the  sake  of  the 
sport,  but  also  for  their  excellent  flesh,  their 
fleece,  and  their  hides.  The  efforts  that  have 
been  made  to  domesticate  them  have  not 
been  successful  ;3  yet  in  our  zoological  gardens 
they  are  not  so  savage  as  the  European 
bison,  and  they  are  easily  reproduced  in 
confinement. 

[Throughout  North  America  this  animal  is  known 
as  the  "buffalo."  "I  suppose,"  writes  Dodge,  one 
of  the  veterans  of  sport  in  the  United  States,  "I 
ought  to  call  this  animal  the  'bison;'  but,  though 
naturalists  may  insist  that  'bison'  is  his  true  name, 
I,  as  a  plainsman,  also  insist  that  his  name  is 
buffalo. 

"As  buffalo  he  is  known  everywhere,  not  only  on 
the  plains,  but  throughout  the  sporting  world ;  as 
buffalo  'he  lives  and  moves  and  has  his  being;'  as 
buffalo  he  will  die;  and  when,  as  must  soon  happen, 
his  race  has  vanished  from  earth,  as  buffalo  he  will 
live  in  tradition  and  story." — Plains  of  the  Great 
West. 

The  hunting  of  the  buffalo  is  pursued  either  on 
horseback  or  on  foot,  the  latter  mode  being  called 
the  "still  hunt."  "Although,"  writes  Dodge,  "there 
is  not  a  particle  of  danger  in  approaching  a  herd, 
it  requires  in  a  novice  an  extraordinary  amount  of 
nerve.  When  he  gets  within  three  hundred  yards, 
the  bulls  on  that  side,  with  heads  erect,  tails  cocked 
in  air,  nostrils  expanded,  and  eyes  that  seem  to 

3  On  this  subject  the  following  passages  from  J.  A.  Allen's 
American  Bisons,  Living  and  Rxtinct,  are  worth  quoting: — 

"  Now  that  the  buffalo  is  apparently  so  nearly  exterminated,  it  is 
greatly  to  be  regretted,  not  only  that  its  ultimate  extinction  has  been 
so  rapidly  hastened  by  improvident  and  wanton  slaughter,  but  that 
no  persistent  attempts  have  as  yet  been  made  to  utilize  this  valuable 
animal  by  domestication.  .  .  .  That  the  buffalo  calf  may  be 
easily  reared  and  thoroughly  tamed  needs  not  at  this  late  day  to  be 
proved.  The  known  instances  of  their  domestication  are  too  many 
to  admit  even  of  enumeration,  but  they  have  usually  been  kept 
merely  as  objects  of  curiosity,  and  little  or  no  care  has  been  given 
to  their  reproduction  in  confinement,  and  few  attempts  have  been 
made  to  train  them  to  labour." 

After  quoting  accounts  of  several  instances  in  which  domestication 
had  been  successfully  effected,  the  writer  concludes:  "From  the 
foregoing  the  following  facts  are  sufficiently  attested:  (I)  That  the 
buffalo  is  readily  susceptible  of  domestication  ;  (2)  that  it  interbreeds 
freely  with  the  domestic  cow ;  (3)  that  the  half-breeds  are  fertile ; 
and  (4)  that  they  readily  amalgamate  with  the  domestic  cattle." 
American  Bisons,  sec.  4. — TR. 


122 


THE   TWO-TOED    ARTIODACTYLA. 


flash  fire,  even  at  that  distance,  walk  uneasily  to 
and  fro,  menacing  the  intruder  by  pawing  the  earth 
and  tossings  of  their  huge  heads. 

"The  enemy  still  approaching,  some  bull  will  face 
him,  lower  his  head,  and  start  on  a  most  furious 
charge.  But  alas  for  brute  courage!  When  he  has 
gone  twenty  or  thirty  yards  Mr.  Bull  thinks  better 
of  it,  stops,  stares  an  instant,  and  then  trots  back 
to  the  herd.  Another  and  another  will  try  the 
same  game,  with  the  same  result;  and  if,  in  spite 
of  these  ferocious  demonstrations,  the  hunter  still 
approaches,  the  whole  herd  will  incontinently  take 
to  its  heels." 

The  professional  hunter,  when  desiring  to  load 
his  teams  with  meat,  advances  as  close  to  the  herd 
as  he  can,  concealed  as  far  as  possible  by  the  grass 
and  the  inequalities  of  the  ground,  and  "will  rarely 
make  his  first  shot  at  a  greater  distance  than  fifty 
to  seventy-five  yards.  If  the  shot  result  fatally, 
the  herd  rarely  moves  more  than  fifty  yards  before 
stopping  to  look  for  the  cause  of  the  mishap  to 
their  fallen  companion,  and  turning  half  round  to 
get  a  good  view  rearward,  they  thus  present  them- 
selves in  the  best  possible  position  to  the  hunter 
at  still  short  range.  Here  others  fall  before  the 
hunter's  shots;  the  herd,  again  slightly  startled, 
moves  on  a  few  paces,  and  again  stops  to  gaze. 
The  hunter,  still  keeping  prostrate,  approaches,  if 
necessary,  under  cover  of  those  already  killed,  and 
continues  the  work  of  destruction.  The  shots  are 
thus  often  repeated  till  fifteen,  twenty,  or  even 
thirty  buffaloes  are  killed  before  the  herd  becomes 
thoroughly  alarmed  and,  in  hunter's  parlance, 
'stampedes.'  By  keeping  prostrate  the  hunter  is 
able  to  creep  up  to  the  herd  again  as  it  recedes,  till 
he  has  killed  enough  to  furnish  loads  for  his  teams; 
and  even  sometimes  he  has  to  rise  and  drive  away 
the  stupid  creatures  to  prevent  the  living  from 
playfully  goring  the  dead!  When  the  hunter  is 
thus  successful,  it  is  termed  'getting  a  stand  on  the 
herd.'  A  'stand'  is  most  surely  made  in  nearly 
level  ground.  In  shooting  from  ravines,  the  herd 
usually  runs  away  after  three  to  five  or  six  of  their 
number  have  fallen.  During  the  rutting  season,  if 
a  cow  falls  at  the  first  shot,  the  hunter  is  pretty 
sure  of  a  'stand;'  and  of  getting  a  dozen  or  more 
shots,  if  he  keeps  prostrate  and  uses  due  caution. 
As  soon  as  he  rises  the  buffaloes  seem  at  once  to 
recognize  the  cause  of  their  trouble,  and  generally 
immediately  stampede;  but  so  long  as  he  re- 
mains prone  they  seem  to  have  no  perception  of 
the  character  of  their  enemy,  and  often  do  not 


notice  him  at  all." — Allen:  The  American  Bisons, 
sec.  3. 

"Buffalo  hunting  on  horseback,"  however,  "is  a 
very  different  thing,  and,  to  a  novice,  full  of  excite- 
ment. A  buffalo  can  run  only  about  two-thirds 
as  fast  as  a  good  horse;  but  what  he  lacks  in 
speed  he  makes  up  in  bottom  or  endurance,  in 
tenacity  of  purpose,  and  in  most  extraordinary 
vitality. 

"A  herd  will  stand  staring  at  an  approaching 
horseman  until  he  is  within  about  three  hundred 
yards.  It  will  then  begin  to  move  off  slowly,  and, 
when  he  is  within  about  two  hundred  and  fifty 
yards,  it  will  probably  break  into  a  gallop.  This 
is  the  sportsman's  moment.  A  good  horse  ridden 
by  a  man  who  knows  his  business  will  be  among 
them  before  they  have  gone  two  hundred  yards,  to 
shoot  and  slaughter  at  his  pleasure.  A  poor  horse, 
or  careful  rider,  and  the  hunter  will  find  to  his  sor- 
row that  'a  stern  chase  is  a  long  chase.'  If  a  herd 
is  not  overtaken  in  five  or  six  hundred  yards  the 
chase  had  better  be  abandoned,  if  any  regard  is  to 
be  had  for  the  horse.  The  difficulty  in  this  hunting 
is  that  the  herd  is  enveloped  in  a  cloud  of  dust, 
which  prevents  very  careful  aim ;  the  explosion  of 
the  pistol  creates  a  turmoil,  confusion,  and  change 
of  places  among  the  flying  animals,  rendering  it 
almost  impossible  to  shoot  at  any  individual  buffalo 
more  than  once;  and  their  vitality  is  so  great,  that 
it  is  an  exceedingly  rare  exception  when  one  is 
brought  down  by  a  single  shot. 

"The  danger  is  not  so  much  from  the  buffalo,  who 
rarely  makes  an  effort  to  injure  his  pursuer,  as  from 
the  fact  that  neither  man  nor  horse  can  see  the 
ground,  which  may  be  rough  or  broken  and  per- 
forated with  prairie-dog  or  gopher  holes.  This 
danger  is  so  imminent  that  a  man  who  runs  into 
a  herd  of  buffalo  may  be  said  to  take  his  life  in 
his  hand. 

"I  have  never  known  a  man  hurt  by  a  buffalo  in 
such  a  case.  I  have  known  of  at  least  six  killed, 
and  a  very  great  many  more  or  less  injured, 
some  very  severely,  by  their  horses  falling  with 
them. 

"The  knowledge  of  the  danger,  the  rush  of  the 
horse,  the  thundering  tread  of  the  flying  brutes,  the 
turmoil,  the  dust,  the  uncertainty,  and,  above  all, 
the  near  proximity  and  ferocious  aspect  of  the 
lumbering  throng,  furnish  excitement  enough  to  set 
wild  the  man  who  is  new  to  it.  There  is,  however, 
a  sameness  about  it  which  soon  palls,  and  an  old 
buffalo  hunter  rarely  runs  buffalo." — Dodge.} 


THE   TRUE   OXEN. 


123 


The  True  Oxen. 

The  True  Oxen  (Bos)  are  distinguished  by 
their  straight  back,  not  elevated  at  the  withers, 
and  by  their  unarched  and  not  very  broad 
forehead. 

The  Yak  (Bos  (Poephagus)  grunnicns),  fig. 


194,  approaches  most  closely  to  the  bisons  in 
the  possession  of  a  thick  coat  of  hair,  elevated 
withers,  and  slightly  arched  brow.  The 
home  of  these  enormous  cattle  is  the  moun- 
tains and  plateaux  of  Tibet,  from  the  height 
of  about  13,000  to  23,000  feet  above  sea-level. 
They  are  the  largest  members  of  the  genus, 


old  bulls  sometimes  attaining  the  height  of 
nearly  10  feet  at  the  withers.  The  very 
broad  head  with  protruding  muzzle  and  not 
very  broad  muffle,  carries  relatively  small 
horns,  which  are  flattened  and  near  the  base 
ringed.  They  are  placed  quite  at  the  side 
and  have  their  sharp  points  directed  upwards. 
What  specially  distinguishes  the  yak  is  the 
woolly  covering,  consisting  of  fine  silky  hair, 
which  is  rather  loose  on  the  brow,  and  on  the 
rather  hump-like  withers  forms  a  long-fringed 
cushion.  The  yak  has  likewise  long  and 
partly  curly  hair  on  the  dewlap  and  on  the 
legs,  which  are  completely  hidden  under  this 
covering.  The  legs  are  short  but  strong, 
with  broad  hoofs  but  small  accessory  hoofs. 
The  long  tail  resembles  that  of  a  horse.  Its 


fine  silky  hair  trails  upon  the  ground.  The 
whole  fleece  is  of  a  deep-black  colour  with 
the  exception  of  one  silver-gray  stripe  along 
the  back,  and  the  tail,  which  is  almost  white. 
This  splendid  animal  is  at  home  only  in 
the  rocky  solitudes  of  its  native  region,  where 
it  delights  in  rolling  in  the  snow  and  bathing 
in  the  icy  mountain  torrents.  It  runs  and 
climbs  well,  but  is  in  general  sluggish  and 
indolent;  it  is  fond  of  reposing  where  it  can 
chew  the  cud  at  leisure.  Its  scent  is  keen, 
its  sight  weak,  and  its  intelligence  very 
limited.  It  stares  stupidly  when  wounded 
in  the  chase,  then  begins  to  charge  the 
hunter,  but  is  apt  to  halt  in  indecision  so  as 
to  receive  a  second  ball.  The  hunting  of 
the  yak  is  carried  on  very  actively,  riot  only 


124 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


for  the  sake  of  its  excellent  flesh,  but  more 
particularly  on  account  of  its  tail,  which  is 
employed  to  sweep  away  flies,  and  is  held  in 
no  little  esteem  as  an  ornament  for  banners 
and  as  an  emblem  of  war  among  the  tribes 
of  the  highlands  of  Central  Asia.  The  so- 


called  horse-tails  of  the  pashas  and  beys  were 
originally  yak  tails.  The  ancients  knew  this 
species  under  the  name  of  Poephagus.  The 
yak  has  been  tamed,  and  is  employed  chiefly 
to  ride  on  and  as  a  beast  of  burden.  Its  milk 
also  is  used.  Domesticated  yaks  are  gentle, 


Fig.  195. — The  Gaur  (Bos  g aurus). 


readily  associate  with  ordinary  oxen,  and  are 
contented  with  any  kind  of  food,  but  are  liable 
at  times  to  outbursts  of  fury.  They  carry 
tolerably  large  burdens  in  those  elevated 
regions  where  it  is  difficult  for  both  men  and 
animals  to  breathe.  The  yak  is  now  to  be 
seen  in  all  zoological  gardens. 

The  Gaur  (Bos  (Gav&us)  gaurus],  fig.  195, 
is  a  native  of  the  Indian  Peninsula,  where 
it  is  often  known  by  the  name  of  the  bison. 
It  is  most  abundant  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  peninsula,  and  prefers  the  stony  wooded 
or  bushy  heights.  It  closely  resembles  the 
large  species  of  our  domesticated  oxen,  has 
short  shining  hair,  a  short  thick  head,  long 


ears,  and  a  tufted  tail.  The  colour  is  a  very 
dark  brown,  almost  black,  but  the  feet  are 
white.  At  the  shoulders,  where  there  is 
very  little  indication  of  a  hump,  the  height 
is  nearly  6^  feet.  The  old  bulls  are  danger- 
ous when  hunted;  but  if  a  few  English 
officers  have  lost  their  life  in  the  chase,  one 
ought  to  bear  in  mind  that  these  gentlemen 
expose  themselves  to  danger  with  rather  too 
naive  rashness.  The  natives  have  sometimes 
managed  to  tame  specimens  of  this  ox.  In 
Europe  this  species  is  rarely  seen. 

The  Gayal  (Bos  (Bibos)  frontalis),  fig.  196, 
is  a  distinct  species  rarely  brought  to  Europe, 
a  native  of  the  mountains  on  the  east  and 


THE   TRUE   OXEN. 


125 


north-east  of  Bengal.  It  is  specially  dis- 
tinguished by  its  very  broad  and  short  fore- 
head, and  by  its  thick,  conical,  and  slightly 
curved  horns.  The  body  is  sturdy,  thickset, 
and  clumsy;  the  shoulders  are  slightly  ele- 
vated into  a  hump;  the  legs  are  short;  the 


colour  of  the  coat  black.  At  Antwerp  I 
have  seen  this  animal  represented  as  the 
ideal  of  an  ox  by  a  celebrated  artist.  I 
confess  that  I  have  conceived  a  totally  con- 
trary impression  of  it.  However  that  may 
be,  we  are  assured  that  the  gayal  in  its  native 


l"ig.  196.— The  Gayal  (Bas  fnatalis). 


country  is  a  very  agile  animal,  and  not  at  all 
savage.  It  is  said  to  flee  from  man,  but 
defends  itself  vigorously  against  other  oxen. 
It  is  easily  tamed,  and  whole  herds  of  gayals 
are  captured  by  gradually  accustoming  them 
to  associate  with  domesticated  oxen. 

The  Burmese  Wild  Ox,  the  Banteng  of 
the  Javanese  (Bos  (Gavaus)  sondaicus],  fig. 
197,  is  found  on  Java,  Borneo,  and  Sumatra, 
and  resembles  some  species  of  our  domesti- 
cated oxen  so  much  that  it  could  not  be 
distinguished  from  them  if  a  single  individual 
happened  to  be  met  with  in  a  herd.  It  is 
far  inferior  in  size  to  the  yak;  a  full-grown 
bull  measures  only  5  feet  at  the  shoulders. 


It  might  be  described  as  a  race  of  oxen  with 
slender  legs,  short  broad  head,  moderately 
long  horns,  which  are  turned  only  upwards, 
and  with  a  fine  smooth  reddish-brown  coat, 
which  shows  white  patches  on  the  lips,  the 
lower  parts  of  the  legs,  and  on  the  hinder 
quarters.  It  is  found  everywhere  on  the 
Sunda  Islands  where  there  is  water  or  marshy 
ground,  both  on  the  mountains  and  on  the 
plains.  It  always  flees  from  man,  but  defends 
itself  when  attacked,  and  it  is  much  hunted 
on  account  of  its  excellent  flesh.  It  also  is 
easily  tamed.  The  natives  are  accustomed 
to  drive  their  cows  into  the  woods  in  order 
that  they  may  unite  with  the  banteng  bulls. 


126 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


The  Zebu  or  Humped  Ox  (Bos  indicus), 
fig.  198,  is  still  found  in  a  wild  state  in  several 
parts  of  India,  but  it  is  a  question  whether 
these  are  not  domesticated  animals  run  wild. 
The  wild  specimens  are  in  no  respect  different 
from  the  tame,  numerous  breeds  of  which 


are  distributed  over  India  and  Africa.  It 
is  remarkable  on  account  of  a  cushion  of  fat 
forming  a  hump  on  the  shoulders,  as  well  as 
for  its  rather  large  dewlap,  and  is  also  char- 
acterized by  its  pendent  ears,  the  straight 
line  of  its  back,  its  pretty  long  slim  legs,  and 


Fig.  197. — The  Burmese  Wild  Ox  (Bos  sondaicus}.     page  125. 


its  usually  bright -coloured  or  spotted  skin. 
The  size  varies.  The  South  African  breeds 
are  commonly  large  and  brown,  and  often 
have  horns  of  considerable  size;  but  in  all 
countries  where  they  are  found  there  are 
also  moderate-sized  and  small  breeds,  even 
genuine  dwarfs  of  about  the  size  of  a  large 
pig.  Then  there  are  also  breeds  with  moder- 
ate-sized or  small  horns,  or  even  without 
horns  at  all.  The  zebus  run,  trot,  and  gallop 
like  horses;  they  are  highly  esteemed  as 
steeds  and  as  beasts  of  draught  and  burden, 
and  among  some  tribes,  especially  in  South 
and  Central  Africa,  they  form,  so  to  speak, 
the  sole  wealth. 


.  The  zebus  furnish  a  contribution  to  the 
solution  of  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the 
domesticated  breeds  of  cattle.  According 
to  the  results  of  the  investigations  of  Riiti- 
meyer,  which  have  indeed  been  confirmed  by 
other  inquirers,  but  are  nevertheless  far  from 
having  exhausted  the  question,  the  European 
breeds  are  derived  from  three  races  or  species, 
the  remains  of  which  are  found  in  a  fossil 
condition  in  the  Quaternary  strata.  Some 
of  these  species  have  lived  along  with  man, 
but  have  afterwards  become  extinct  or  have 
been  modified  through  the  influence  of  man. 

The    first    place    among    these    primitive 
species  belongs  to  the  Urus,  Ur,  or  Auerochs 


Til  1C    TRUE    OXI'.N. 


127 


of  the  Germans,  the  Tur  of  the  Poles  (/>V.v 
f»-i»iigf>iins),  which  in  the  middle  ages  still 
lived  wild  in  Central  Europe,  and  which  was 
equal  in  size  to  the  bison,  or  even  surpassed 
it.  It  was  dreaded  in  the  chase,  and  accord- 
ing to  the  account  of  a  contemporary,  differed 
"  from  the  tame  cattle  only  in  being  black 
and  in  having  a  whitish  stripe  on  the  back." 


According  to  Riitimeyer  a  white  kind  of 
cattle  with  black  or  red  ears  preserved  in 
some  English  and  Scottish  parks,  as  in  that 
of  Chillingham  belonging  to  Lord  Tankerville, 
and  the  high  parks  of  the  Duke  of  Hamilton 
at  Hamilton,  almost  in  a  wild  state,  is  the 
most  direct  and  least  modified  descendant  of 
the  Auerochs.  The  tame  breeds  of  the 


lowlands  bordering  on  the  North  Sea  and 
the  Baltic,  the  breeds  of  Friesland,  Holland, 
Holstein,  and  Podolia,  and  so  on,  are  likewise 
said  to  be  more  modified  descendants  of  the 
same  stock,  the  urus. 

The  heavy  spotted  breeds  of  Central 
Europe,  the  spotted  cattle  of  France,  of 
Switzerland,  and  South  Germany,  the  Scan- 
dinavian and  English  races  with  rudimentary 
horns  or  without  horns  at  all  (short-horns  of 
the  English)  are  said,  on  the  other  hand,  to 
be  descended  from  a  Quaternary  ox,  to  which 
the  name  of  Bos  frontosus  has  been  given, 
and  which  had  a  rather  long  head  with  a 
brow  either  flat  or  even  hollowed  out  in  front, 
and  long  curved  horns. 

Finally,  the  uniformly  coloured  unspotted 
breeds  with  short  strong  horns,  not  so  plump 


bodies,  and  less  massive  legs,  breeds  which 
are  chiefly  to  be  found  in  hilly  or  mountainous 
countries;  the  breeds'  accordingly  of  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland,  of  Brittany,  Auvergne, 
Schwyz,  and  similar  districts,  are  believed  to 
be  derived  from  another  stock,  the  Bos 
bracl^irus,  numerous  remains  of  which  have 
been  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lake-dwell- 
ings. 

We  give  our  entire  assent  to  these  con- 
clusions, but,  as  we  have  already  intimated, 
they  are  far  from  exhausting  the  question. 
When  we  consider  the  ease  with  which 
buffaloes,  yaks,  zebus,  and  almost  all  other 
wild  races  of  cattle  can  be  tamed,  acclimatized, 
and  rendered  serviceable,  such  attempts  must 
have  been  made  in  the  remotest  antiquity  in 
all  countries  where  such  races  of  wild  cattle 


128 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


were  found.  Now  these  tamed  breeds  must, 
through  the  wanderings  of  tribes,  through 
mutual  exchanges  of  many  kinds,  have  got 
mixed  together,  and  new  breeds  would  aH 
the  more  easily  be  formed  since  all  these 
races  are  mutually  fertile. 

As  a  proof  of  what  we  have  now  advanced 
we  may  point  to  what  has  actually  happened 
in  Africa.  On  that  continent  no  Quaternary 
cattle  have  yet  been  found,  and,  with  the 
exception  of  the  variety  of  races  introduced 
in  recent  times  by  the  Europeans,  we  may 
probably  say  that  the  whole  of  the  interior 
of  the  continent  was  peopled  by  various 
zebu  races,  from  which  in  some  cases  the 
hump  has  disappeared.  It  is  accordingly 
probable  that  the  native  African  races  were 
introduced  from  India  and  have  become  more 
or  less  modified  on  this  continent.  Now  the 
ancient  Egyptians  already  knew  and  reared 
three  different  races  of  cattle,  as  is  proved 
by  numerous  representations;  one  race  with 
long  horns  was  greatly  reverenced  because 
it  produced  the  bull  Apis,  a  second  had  short 
horns,  and  the  third  had  a  hump,  consisted 
in  fact  of  true  zebus.  This  is  a  clear  proof 
that  in  that  long-past  epoch  importations  had 
already  been  made  from  other  countries,  and 
in  particular  from  Central  Asia,  where  there 
are  no  zebus. 

If  now  in  Europe  alone  there  are  three 
ancient  stocks  which  have  been  continued  in 
varieties  of  domesticated  cattle  of  the  present 
day,  there  is  no  reason  to  reject  the  opinion 
which  supposes  the  same  thing  to  have  taken 
place  in  Asia,  where  the  species  which  are 
still  found  partly  tame  and  partly  wild  have 
certainly  contributed  to  the  production  of 
mixed  races  and  of  breeds  more  or  less 
modified  by  domestication.  From  all  these 
facts  it  would  result  as  a  final  conclusion  that 
tame  cattle  are  not,  as  Linnaeus  called  them, 
a  separate  species,  Bos  taurus,  but  a  mixed 
product  of  extremely  numerous  and  very 
diverse  factors,  developed  in  widely  separated 
regions  of  the  Old  World. 


THE    GIRAFFE    FAMILY 

(DEVEXA). 

The  family  of  the  giraffes,  which  on  account 
of  their  very  sloping  back  have  been  called 
Devexa,  is  composed  of  only  a  single  species, 
confined  to  Africa,  namely  the  Giraffe  (Came- 
lopardalis  gira/a),  PI.  XXXIII. 

This  is  without  doubt  one  of  the  most 
singular  types  that  can  be  seen,  and  we  can 
easily  understand  the  astonishment  of  the 
beholders  when  they  first  set  eyes  on  the 
small  head  carried  at  the  extremity  of  an  ex- 
cessively long  neck  about  twenty  feet  above 
the  ground,  and  the  short  body  with  its  steep 
backward  slope  elevated  on  legs  not  less  long 
or  less  stiff.  Notwithstanding  its  beautiful 
coat  and  its  splendid  eyes  the  giraffe  must 
certainly  be  pronounced  one  of  the  most 
disproportioned  of  mammals,  one  in  which 
everything  is  stiff  and  angular. 

The  head  is  relatively  very  small  and 
rather  long  and  narrow.  It  ends  in  a  muffle 
with  very  mobile  lips,  and  is  adorned  with 
two  short  horns  covered  with  hair  set  upon 
the  occipital  bone,  as  well  as  with  a  swelling 
between  the  large  prominent  eyes,  which  are 
placed  at  the  side,  and  are  distinguished  by 
their  brilliancy  and  their  gentle  but  lively 
expression.  The  pointed  funnel-shaped  ears 
are  longer  than  the  horns.  The  tongue  is 
worthy  of  special  note.  It  is  long,  worm-like, 
dark-blue  in  colour,  very  flexible,  and  capable 
of  serving  as  a  tactile  and  prehensile  organ. 
The  giraffe  twines  this  tongue  round  the  twigs 
and  leaves  of  the  trees  on  which  it  feeds. 
Although,  as  in  almost  all  other  mammals, 
the  neck  of  the  giraffe  has  only  seven  verte- 
bra;, it  is  yet  of  immoderate  length.  It  is  by 
no  means  flexible,  and  is  almost  always  carried 
erect.  The  short  thick  body  is  remarkable 
on  account  of  the  steep  slope  of  the  back 
from  the  shoulders  to  the  croup,  a  slope 
which  is  due  to  the  increasing  length  from 
behind  forwards  of  the  spiny  processes  of  the 


To/acrfaft  ,2». 


PLATE  XXXIII.    -      THE     GIRAFFE    (Camdopardala giraffa). 


THE   CAMEL   FAMILY. 


129 


dorsal  vertebra.  The  tail  is  thin,  of  moderate 
length,  and  ends  in  a  long  thick  tuft  of  hair. 
The  legs  are  of  equal  length,  and  the  bones 
of  the  lower  parts  of  the  legs,  including  the 
metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones,  are  ex- 
cessively elongated,  while  the  upper  arm 
(humerus)  and  thigh  (femur)  are  short  and 
hidden  in  the  flesh.  The  hoofs  are  broad, 
and  there  is  no  trace  of  accessory  hoofs  or  of 
the  bones  which  carry  them.  Of  all  rumi- 
nants the  giraffe  is  the  one  that  has  the  foot 
most  reduced.  Tear-pits  and  interdigital 
glands  are  likewise  wanting.  The  dentition 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  Cavicornia.  The 
hair  is  for  the  most  part  thick  and  short; 
there  are  only  a  few  longer  and  coarser  hairs 
on  the  middle  line  of  the -neck  besides  the 
very  long  ones  of  the  tail.  The  ground 
colour  of  the  coat  is  a  light-yellow,  almost 
white  on  the  back  and  on  the  lower  parts  of 
the  legs,  which  are  not  spotted.  The  other 
parts  show  irregular  but  always  polygonal 
and  often  pretty  large  brown  spots. 

The  animal  inhabits  the  steppes  and  deserts 
of  the  tropical  parts  of  Central  Africa.  It  is 
always  met  with  in  small  troops,  which  haunt 
in  particular  those  places  where  mimosas  and 
other  trees  form  very  open  clumps.  With 
the  exception  of  the  eyes  all  the  organs  of 
sense  seem  to  be  very  obtuse,  and  the 
intelligence  of  the  creature  is  assuredly  not 
very  high.  The  giraffe  feeds  on  the  leaves 
and  young  shoots  of  trees,  which  it  is  enabled 
to  reach  by  the  enormous  length  of  its  neck 
and  the  protrusible  tongue.  The  grazing  of 
grass  is  difficult  for  it,  and  it  is  enabled  to 
reach  anything  on  the  ground  only  by  spread- 
ing out  its  fore-legs  as  widely  as  possible, 
which  gives  it  almost  a  comical  attitude.  It 
cannot  trot,  but  it  gallops  with  great  rapidity, 
and  when  galloping  it  holds  its  long  stiff  neck 
erect  like  a  mast  and  keeps  swinging  it  from 
side  to  side,  while  at  the  same  time  it  lashes 
its  back  with  its  tail.  Its  pursuers  hunt  it 
on  horseback  or  mounted  on  fleet  dromedaries, 
relays  being  stationed  at  different  points, 

VOL.  II. 


where  fresh  riders  and  animals  take  up  the 
chase. 

The  ancient  Egyptians  received  giraffes  as 
tribute  from  the  subject  tribes  of  the  Soudan. 
Julius  Caesar  brought  the  first  giraffes  to 
Rome.  In  our  times  the  first  two  young 
giraffes  were  brought  to  Europe  in  1827,  one 
to  Paris  and  one  to  London.  They  excited 
great  attention;  there  were  even  fashions 
"a  la  girafe"  introduced.  Since  then  they 
have  been  brought  over  in  tolerably  large 
numbers,  and  all  zoological  gardens  now 
possess  specimens.  They  are  in  general 
gentle  and  easy  to  manage,  but  do  not  stand 
our  climate  very  well.  They  are  specially 
liable  to  become  rachitic  if  not  carefully 
protected  from  draughts  and  rain,  which  last 
inspires  them  with  a  real  dread. 

THE   CAMEL   FAMILY 

(CAMELIDA). 

The  family  of  the  camels  has  also  received 
the  name  of  the  Pad-footed  (Tylopoda),  on 
account  of  the  singular  structure  of  their  feet, 
which  are  but  slightly  cloven  and  carry  small 
narrow  hoofs  seated  on  a  broad  rounded 
warty  pad  forming  the  sole. 

The  structure  of  the  teeth  is  not  less 
remarkable.  The  camels  are  the  only  rumi- 
nants which  have  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw. 
Young  animals  have  three  of  these  on  each 
side;  but  the  inner  ones  soon  drop  out  and  are 
not  replaced.  In  older  animals  there  is  in 
each  half  of  the  premaxillary  bone  only  a  single 
large  incisor,  which  is  prominent,  conical,  and 
pointed  like  the  canine,  but  smaller.  In  the 
lower  jaw  there  are  three  pairs  of  incisors, 
and  immediately  behind  the  last  there  stands 
the  large  pointed  canine,  similar  to  the  upper, 
which,  however,  is  separated  from  the  incisors 
by  a  diastema.  The  jaws  are,  accordingly, 
much  better  armed  in  front  than  in  the  other 
ruminants,  and  in  the  countries  of  which  the 
camels  are  natives  it  is  very  well  known  that 
their  bite  is  not  without  danger.  Immediately 

49 


130 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


behind  the  canine  there  comes  a  premolar, 
which  is  shed  sooner  or  later,  and  which  also 
resembles  the  canine  in  form.  The  diastema 
occurs  between  this  canine-shaped  premolar 
and  the  other  cheek-teeth.  The  latter  are 
constructed  according  to  the  ordinary  rumi- 
nant type.  As  age  advances  some  of  the 
molars  are  shed;  we  then  find  in  the  upper 
jaw  only  five  instead  of  six,  in  the  lower  only 
four  instead  of  six.  The  camels  have  no 
horns. 

The  family  is  composed  of  only  two  genera, 
which  are  geographically  separated  by  the 
oceans;  the  camels  proper  belong  to  the  Old 
World,  the  llamas  to  South  America. 

The  Camels. 

The  Camels  (Camelus)  are  among  the 
largest  of  the  ruminants,  for  they  attain  at 
the  shoulders  a  height  of  about  8*/£  feet. 
The  head  is  very  unshapely,  the  brow  arched, 
the  mouth  long,  and  broad  at  the  end ;  the 
large  upper  lip  is  a  little  cloven  in  the  middle 
and  protrudes  beyond  the  pendent  lower  lip. 
The  broad  movable  nostrils  are  placed  above 
the  mouth,  but  far  from  the  end  of  the  snout. 
The  large  prominent  eyes  are  not  in  the 
least  expressive;  the  ears  are  small;  the  back 
of  the  head  somewhat  round,  and  occupied 
near  the  back  by  two  skin-glands,  which, 
especially  in  the  breeding  season,  excrete  a 
fluid  of  a  peculiarly  disgusting  smell.  The 
long  neck  is  pretty  stiff,  and  is  flattened  at 
the  sides;  the  body  is  short  and  thick;  and 
the  dorsal  ridge  in  the  skeleton  slopes  some- 
what backwards  from  the  shoulders,  but  in 
the  living  animal  this  is  concealed  by  a  large 
hump  or  two  humps  of  fat.  The  short  thin 
tail  has  a  tuft  at  the  end.  The  thick  legs, 
much  swollen  at  the  joints,  appear  as  if  they 
were  badly  inserted  in  their  sockets.  They 
end  in  broad  padded  soles  which  are  round 
behind  and  cloven  in  front,  where  the  two 
short  triangular  hoofs  are  placed.  The  hind- 
limbs  appear  as  if  they  were  dislocated. 
When  the  camel  is  resting  it  lays  itself  down 


exactly  like  a  frog  ready  to  spring.  On  the 
fore-knees  there  are  callous  protuberances  on 
which  the  animal  supports  itself  in  lying 
down. 

The  rather  long  brain-case  with  curved 
nasals  has  a  strong  ridge  running  along  the 
middle  line,  and  connected  behind  with  two 
transverse  side  ridges  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  inclose  on  each  side  a  broad  space  in 
which  the  strong  temporal  muscles  are  at- 
tached. The  dentition  presents  certain  char- 
acteristic marks.  In  the  adult  animal  there 
are  in  each  half  of  the  upper  jaw  three 
canine-shaped  teeth  set  close  together;  they 
are  all  sharp- pointed,  cutting,  and  a  little 
recurved.  The  first  of  these  teeth,  which  is 
set  in  the  premaxillary  bone,  is  an  incisor; 
the  second,  the  largest  of  all,  is  the  canine; 
the  third  is  the  first  premolar.  A  not  very 
large  gap  follows,  and  then  comes  the  series 
of  cheek-teeth,  the  first  two  of  which  are 
premolars  with  simple  half- moon -shaped 
lamellae,  while  the  others  are  true  molars 
with  lamellae  placed  in  pairs.  In  the  lower 
jaw  the  relative  situations  of  the  different 
sorts  of  teeth  are  the  same.  The  three  pairs 
of  incisors,  which  are  rather  prominent,  are 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  rather  long  narrow 
jaw  in  a  segment  of  a  circle,  and  they  are 
immediately  followed  by  strong  recurved 
canines,  next  to  which  come  a  pair  of  curved 
premolars,  which  are  flattened  at  the  sides 
and  sharp.  A  wide  interval  separates  this 
series  from  the  back -teeth,  of  which  there 
are  only  four  on  each  side. 

The  structure  of  the  stomach  is  extremely 
interesting.  On  the  rather  large  paunch  are 
to  be  seen  two  large  swellings,  which  con- 
sist essentially  of  more  than  800  large  cells 
arranged  in  parallel  rows  and  separated  by 
membranous  partitions,  in  which  the  muscular 
tissue  is  so  beautifully  developed  that  it  forms 
true  sphincters  capable  of  closing  the  mouths 
of  the  cells,  which  are  more  or  less  filled  with 
water.  This  considerable  store  of  fluid  in 
the  stomach,  a  store  which  the  camel  eagerly 


To  face  page  /jo. 


PLATE  XXXIV.  -     THE    DROMEDARY   OR   COMMON    CAMEL   (Camdus drtmedanui). 


THE   CAMEL. 


renews  when  the  opportunity  presents  itself, 
enables  it  to  go  for  several  days  without 
drinking,  and  that  too  even  in  the  glowing 
deserts  which  it  inhabits.  The  third  stomach, 
the  liber,  on  the  other  hand,  is  undeveloped. 

We  are  not  acquainted   with   any  camels 
living  perfectly  wild.     The  animals  belonging 


to  Central  Asia  which  have  been  described 
as  such  are  probably  only  escapes  from 
domestication. 

Two  species  are  usually  distinguished,  the 
two-humped  or  Bactrian  Camel  (Camelus 
bactrianus),  fig.  199,  which  is  confined  to 
Asia,  and  in  particular  Central  Asia  north  of 


Fig.  199.— The  Bactrian  Camel  (Camelus  bactrianus). 


the  Himalayas;  and  the  single-humped  camel 
or  Dromedary  (Camelus  dromedarius),  PI. 
XXXIV.,  which  is  found  tame  throughout 
Africa  and  Asia  Minor.  Both  species  are 
illustrated  in  this  work. 

These  two  so-called  species  are  distin- 
guished only  by  their  humps,  those  accumula- 
tions of  fat,  which  are  very  variable  as  re- 
gards their  volume.  The  state  of  health  of  the 
camel  is  held  to  be  indicated  by  the  condition 
of  this  hump,  which  in  well-nourished  animals 
is  large,  full,  erect,  and  elastic  when  touched, 
but  in  ill-fed,  starved,  or  diseased  animals 
hangs  down,  and  is  sometimes  scarcely  ob- 
servable. Apart  from  this  feature  no  dis- 


tinguishing mark  can  be  pointed  out  between 
the  two  species;  and  we  may  add  that  the 
numerous  breeds  which  have  manifestly  been 
produced  by  artificial  selection  by  man  pre- 
sent far  greater  differences  as  regards  the 
proportions  of  the  limbs,  the  structure  of  the 
skeleton,  the  character  of  the  hair-covering, 
and  so  forth,  than  the  two  species  described. 
It  is  true  that  the  two-humped  camel  is 
heavier,  its  body  more  thickset,  its  hair-cover- 
ing denser  and  coarser,  especially  on  the 
head,  the  shoulders,  and  round  the  hump; 
but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  animal, 
as  an  inhabitant  of  the  steppes  of  Central 
Asia,  where  it  is  employed  in  various  ways 


132 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


by  Turkomans,  Mongols,  and  Kirghiz,  has 
to  endure  very  severe  winters,  that  much 
less  care  is  bestowed  in  selection  than  in  the 
case  of  the  dromedaries ;  and,  finally,  that  it  is 
employed  almost  solely  as  a  beast  of  burden 
in  the  trade  between  China  and  the  countries 
of  the  West.  Manifestly  the  Bactrian  camel 
is  the  original  breed.  It  is  said  that  north 
of  Tibet  there  are  animals  which  have  be- 
come wild,  but  we  have  no  precise  and  trust- 
worthy accounts  of  these.  It  is  certain  that 
the  camel  is  originally  a  native  of  Asia;  that 
the  Semites,  for  whom  it  is  a  necessary  con- 
dition of  life  at  the  present  day,  were  not  yet 
acquainted  with  it  in  the  earliest  antiquity; 
that  it  was  nevertheless  introduced  into 
Egypt  1400  years  before  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era;  that  mention  is  made  of 
it  at  the  very  commencement  of  the  Bible 
narrative,  that  the  Egyptian  name  for  it  is 
the  same  as  the  Hebrew,  the  name  from 
which  the  word  camel  itself  comes,  and  that 
the  Semites  introduced  it  into  northern  Africa 
and  the  Sahara,  while  it  already  lived  in  the 
Soudan  in  the  preceding  epoch,  from  which 
we  have  figures  of  it  showing  that  it  was 
then  in  Egypt. 

But  however  that  may  be,  it  is  certain 
that  the  word  dromedary  is  unknown  to  the 
African  tribes,  who  rear  only  the  single- 
humped  camel;  and  everywhere  in  Africa 
this  species  is  called  by  the  Europeans  camel, 
by  the  Arabs  jemmel.  But  the  latter  dis- 
tinguish several  races,  some  of  which,  used 
only  for  riding  on,  are  known  as  meharis, 
and  compared  with  animals  used  to  carry 
burdens  are  as  much  more  highly  esteemed 
as  noble  racers  are,  compared  with  draught- 
horses.  The  mehari,  excellent  sires  of  which 
are  reared  by  the  Tuaregs  of  the  Sahara, 
has  very  long  slender  legs,  a  short-haired 
glossy  coat,  expressive  eyes,  and  stands  in 
high  repute  on  account  of  its  fleetness,  which 
surpasses  that  of  the  best  horses,  since  the 
speed  can  be  maintained  longer. 

The  camel  is  certainly  an  animal  wonder- 


fully adapted  to  a  life  in  the  steppes  and 
deserts.  The  colour  of  its  coat,  a  yellowish- 
fawn  colour  or  brown,  is  suited  to  that  of  the 
ground;  only  with  difficulty  can  a  recumbent 
camel  with  its  long  neck  stretched  out  on 
the  ground  be  distinguished  from  a  mass  of 
rock.  Its  moderation  as  regards  food  is  quite 
proverbial.  In  case  of  need  it  feeds  on  the 
tough  spiny  plants  which  the  desert  produces, 
and  even  devours  them  with  delight  when 
incrusted  with  salt  proceeding  from  the  ex- 
halations of  the  desert.  When  it  is  able  to 
feed  on  fresh  juicy  herbs  it  can  endure  thirst 
for  more  than  a  week.1  Thanks  to  its  broad 
callous  soles,  it  runs  easily  across  the  glowing 
sands;  and  it  carries  considerable  burdens, 
which,  however,  must  not  overtax  its  strength. 
It  is  the  "  ship  of  the  desert"  in  the  fullest 
sense  of  the  word,  without  whose  aid  the 
caravans  would  be  an  impossibility;  and  it 
has  this  resemblance  to  a  ship  also,  that  it 
causes  sea-sickness  in  riders  not  accustomed 
to  it. 

[To  novices  in  the  art  of  camel-riding  there  are 
other  inconveniences  attending  this  mode  of  pro- 
gression, which  are  graphically  portrayed  in  the 
following  account  of  a  camel-journey: — 

"  We  are  to  mount  the  ship  of  the  desert.  There 
are  several  methods  of  doing  this,  each  of  which 
has  its  difficulties.  The  most  plausible  appears  to 
be  to  mount  while  the  animal  is  still  crouching  on 
the  ground.  But  we  take  very  good  care  not  to 
attempt  that  alone,  since,  long  before  we  could  seat 
ourselves  properly,  whenever  it  felt  our  weight  in 
mounting,  the  camel  would  rise  suddenly  and  fling 
us  backwards  and  sideways.  Any  one  who  is 
accustomed  to  riding  on  a  camel  knows  that  quite 
well,  and  is  able  to  seat  himself  firmly  at  once. 
We  uneducated  folks,  however,  while  mounting  and 
gradually  trying  to  settle  ourselves  in  our  seat,  cause 
the  driver  to  tread  upon  the  forefeet  of  the  still 
squatting  camel  so  as  to  keep  them  from  moving, 
or  to  tie  them,  and  fix  one  hand  upon  the  bar  of 
the  compressing  apparatus  that  projects  before  the 
saddle.  It  is  only  in  this  way  that  we  can  prepare 
ourselves  for  all  the  changes  of  our  centre  of  gravity 

1  Mr.  F.  L.  James,  in  giving  an  account  of  a  journey  through  the 
Somali  country,  speaks  of  camels  that  had  gone  fifteen  days  without 
water.  See  Proc.  Roy.  Geog.  Soc.  1885,  p.  630. — TR. 


THE   CAMEL. 


133 


that  we  have  to  undergo.  We  give  the  driver  a 
signal  to  release  the  animal,  and  our  body  is  now 
swung  in  rapid  succession  backwards,  forwards,  and 
again  backwards;  for  the  animal  first  springs  up  with 
the  lower  part  of  the  f6re-leg  (it  is  far  more  willing 
to  do  this  than  to  kneel),  then  brings  its  hind  feet, 
on  the  stretch,  into  play,  and  rears  at  last  quite  up- 
right, while  it  now  raises  the  lowest  portion  of  its 
fore-legs,  and  stands  upon  the  sole. 

"\Yc  now  find  ourselves  high  above  the  ground, 
higher  than  we  have  ever  ridden  before;  we 
shudder  when  we  think  upon  our  helpless  condition. 
If  the  animal  were  to  become  refractory  what  could 
we  do?  \Ye  sit  far  too  high  to  be  able  to  steady 
ourselves  with  the  calves  of  the  legs  as  in  riding  on 
horseback.  If  we  sit  astride  upon  the  broad  saddle, 
our  soles  scarcely  touch  the  ribs ;  if  we  seat  our- 
selves, as  is  the  common  plan,  with  our  feet  dang- 
ling down  over  the  neck  or  over  the  side  of  the 
animal,  our  position  is  indeed  more  comfortable, 
but  is  less  secure  should  the  awkward  case  occur  in 
which  both  saddle  and  rider  are  flung  off  by  the 
violent  movements  of  the  camel.  The  bridle  is  of 
no  use,  since  the  cord  brought  round  its  nose  has 
little  influence  on  the  beast  however  hard  it  is 
pulled.  The  Mosliin  merely  cries,  "The  name  of 
God  on  you  "  (Bismillah  Alek),  when  it  turns  res- 
tive or  refractory.  Such  misbehaviour  on  the  part 
of  the  animal  is  fortunately  rare,  however;  were  it 
not  so  other  means  of  subduing  it  would  have  been 
discovered  before  now.  During  its  ordinary  running 
pace  we  are  in  the  greatest  security. 

"We  find  that  the  angular  projections  of  the 
wooden  part  of  the  saddle  on  which  any  part  of  the 
body  rests  are  still  insufficiently  padded,  so  that  we 
cannot  endure  to  ride  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and 
have  to  request  the  driver  to  let  us  dismount.  He 
warns  us  to  stick  on  firmly  as  in  mounting,  since 
the  backward  and  forward  shakings  are  the  same, 
only  they  occur  in  reverse  order.  We  can  also  dis- 
mount from  a  standing  camel  by  grasping  the  pro- 
jecting bar  of  the  saddle  with  one  hand  and  sliding 
down  by  means  of  the  other  on  the  sloping  hind- 
neck.  On  remounting,  after  our  seat  has  been  im- 
proved, we  employ  the  second  method  for  a  change. 
The  camel  stands,  we  grasp  with  one  hand  that 
important  saddle-bar,  the  driver  forms  one  step 
with  his  back  or  his  hand,  the  hollow  of  the  animal's 
neck  forms  a  second,  and  this  being  reached  we 
climb  as  gracefully  as  we  can  into  the  saddle.  It 
is  certainly  still  better  to  emancipate  oneself  entirely 
from  the  driver,  to  compel  the  camel  to  lower  its 


neck,  and  to  get  the  knee  upon  this  by  swinging 
oneself  up  with  one  hand  on  the  saddle-bar,  where- 
upon the  animal  itself  raises  both  neck  and  rider, 
who  can  now  obtain  full  possession  of  his  seat. 
During  the  latter  operation,  however,  the  animal  is 
again  on  the  march,  which  makes  turning  oneself 
somewhat  difficult.  A  person  should  likewise  learn 
to  make  the  animal  let  him  down  when  travelling 
alone,  and  how  to  bring  it  to  the  trot,  and  also  how 
to  dismount  when  on  the  march.  But  this  belongs 
to  the  higher  branches  of  the  riding  art;  we  are  glad 
if  we  can  mount  and  dismount  in  any  manner  with- 
out damage." — Upper  Egypt,  by  C.  B.  Klunzinger.] 

The  senses  ol  the  camel,  except  that  of 
smell,  are  obtuse.  Their  scent,  however,  is 
keen  enough  to  guide  thirsty  animals  to 
water  at  a  distance  of  several  miles.  The 
character  of  the  camel  has  been  very  variously 
estimated.  The  natives  of  the  East  in  general 
exaggerate  its  good  qualities.  The  Europeans 
overwhelm  it  with  all  kinds  of  denunciations. 
To  me  it  appears,  when  I  combine  all  these 
different  estimates  with  my  own  observations, 
that  the  camel,  like  so  many  other  domestic 
animals,  has  come  to  share  the  character  of 
its  masters;  it  is  frugal,  patient,  and  peace- 
able till  the  moment  when  the  passion  of 
love  comes  into  play.  To  all  that  one  tries 
to  get  it  to  do  it  offers  a  blind  stubborn 
resistance,  accompanied  with  a  deafening 
bellowing,  but  at  last  submits  with  a  patience 
proof  against  any  trial.  Sometimes  it  is 
cunning  and  mischievous,  generally  it  yields 
only  to  force,  shows  no  attachment  to  its 
keeper,  and  surrenders  itself  to  all  the  conse- 
quences of  his  actions  with  passive  subjection. 
To  the  European,  to  whom  time  is  money, 
these  qualities  are  in  the  highest  degree  irri- 
tating and  distracting;  for  the  Oriental  they 
are  only  the  reflex  of  his  own  mode  of  action. 
The  camel  avenges  itself  for  the  bad  treat- 
ment to  which  it  is  subjected  by  all  kinds  of 
tricks,  which  are  sometimes  contrived  with 
devilish  cunning;  but  except  during  the  breed- 
ing season,  when  it  becomes  intractable,  it 
submits  in  the  end  and  does  all  that  its  master 
imposes  on  it,  so  far  as  its  strength  allows. 


134 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


Attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce 
camels  into  other  countries  besides  those  in 
which  they  are  already  found,  and  a  stud  has 
existed  at  San  Rossore,  near  Pisa,  for  about 
two  centuries,  but  hitherto  it  has  not  rendered 
any  great  services.  Camels  manifestly  re- 
quire the  great  plains  with  dry  climate,  the 


steppes  and  deserts,  and  they  will  prosper  in 
Australia.1 


The  Llamas. 


The  Llamas  (Auchenia  (Lama))  belong  to 
South  America,  and  are  seen  at  the  first 
glance  to  differ  considerably  from  camels, 


Fig.  200. — The  Llama  (Auchenia  Lama). 


through  being  of  smaller  size,  having  no 
hump,  and  having  slender  legs.  They  like- 
wise differ  in  having  the  feet  more  deeply 
cleft  and  the  callous  pads  less  developed. 
The  tail  is  short  and  rudimentary,  and  the 
hair  long  and  thick,  which  caused  the  first 
conquerors  of  South  America  to  look  upon 
the  llamas  as  sheep.  But  with  respect  to 
the  bodily  structure  there  are  no  other  dif- 
ferences besides  those  which  relate  to  the 
slighter  build  of  the  llama.  The  dentition, 
however,  is  so  far  different,  in  that  the  first 
premolar,  which  adjoins  the  rather  sharp 
recurved  canines,  is  shed  at  an  early  period 
of  life,  and  the  interval  between  the  can- 


ines and  the  back  teeth  is  thereby  rendered 
greater. 

Of  these  animals  we  know  four  species,  two 
of  which,  the  Guanaco  and  Vicuna,  are  still 
found  in  the  wild  condition,  while  the  other 
two,  the  Llama  and  Alpaca,  are  completely 
domesticated.  They  were  already  subject  to 
man  at  the  time  of  the  conquest.  Although 
all  these  animals  are  essentially  inhabitants  of 
the  mountains,  and  in  particular  of  the  Cor- 
dilleras, yet  some  of  them  also  descend  to  the 
plains  and  live  there  in  considerable  herds. 

1  Camels  have  often  been  employed  in  exploring  the  interior  of 
Australia,  and  are  now  reared  in  the  colony  of  South  Australia, 
where  they  are  regularly  made  use  of  in  the  conveyance  of  stores  into 
the  interior,  and  for  other  purposes. — TR. 


THE   LLAMAS. 


135 


The  Guanaco  (Avckenia  iinanaco]  has  the 
form  of  a  large  fallow-deer,  and  lives  both  in 
the  plains  of  Patagonia,  where  the  herds,  led 
by  an  old  male,  readily  associate  with  the 
rheas  or  South  American  ostriches,  and  in 
the  Cordilleras,  where  it  climbs  like  a  goat. 
Its  general  colour  is  a  dirty  reddish-brown; 
the  under  parts  are  whitish,  and  so  also  are 


the  inner  sides  of  the  legs.  The  coat  consists 
of  a  fine  wool  with  longer  hairs  interspersed. 
The  guanaco  has  been  tamed  in  the  moun- 
tains; in  the  plains  it  is  only  hunted,  and 
always  on  horseback.  It  is  caught  by  means 
of  the  bolas,  that  is  an  apparatus  consisting 
of  two  balls  attached  to  a  long  strap  or  thong, 
which,  after  being  swung  round  the  head,  are 


fe  ' 

Fig.  201. — The  Alpaca  (Auchenia  Paco). 


thrown  at  the  animal  so  as  to  entangle  the 
legs. 

The  Llama  (Auchenia  Lama  (Lama  pern- 
ana)  ),  fig.  200,  a  domesticated  form  descended 
in  all  probability  from  the  guanaco,  which 
it  resembles  in  form  and  proportions.  In 
relation  to  colour  all  sorts  of  varieties  are  met 
with:  brown,  yellow,  red,  black,  white,  and 
often  even  spotted  examples.  The  llama  is 
the  camel  of  the  Cordilleras,  and  as  a  beast  of 
burden  serves  to  carry  on  the  trade  across  the 
mountain  passes  between  the  mines  and  the 
sea-coast.  It  can  carry  one  hundredweight 
at  the  outside.  It  runs  and  climbs  well,  but 
cannot  accomplish  any  great  distances;  when 
loaded,  at  the  most  thirteen  or  fourteen  miles 
in  a  day.  The  llamas  are  gentle  creatures, 


but  require  to  be  humanely  treated.  The 
only  resistance  which  they  offer  to  violence 
is  to  squirt  their  disgusting  yellow  spittle  in 
the  face  of  their  tormentor.  When  well 
treated  they  are  extremely  docile.  The  hair 
is  coarse  and  can  be  used  only  to  make  string. 
The  flesh,  especially  of  young  fattened  ani- 
mals, is  good. 

The  Alpaca  (Auchenia  Paco),  fig.  201,  is 
smaller  than  the  preceding  species,  has 
thinner  legs,  and  a  splendid  coat  of  long  soft 
wool.  The  alpacas  are  kept  in  great  herds 
on  the  mountain  plains,  where  they  are  not 
nice  as  to  their  food.  Once  a  year  they  are 
collected  with  infinite  trouble  into  larger  herds 
in  order  to  be  shorn.  The  wool,  as  every 
one  knows,  is  highly  esteemed,  and  the  flesh 


136 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


is  excellent.  To  catch  the  animals  one  must 
always  resort  to  a  kind  of  chase ;  they  are  as 
obstinate  as  mules,  and  when  separated  from 
the  herd  throw  themselves  down  on  the 
ground.  Their  colour  varies  like  that  of  the 
llama,  which  is  always  a  sign  of  domestica- 
tion. As  beasts  of  burden  they  are  not  used 
at  all. 

The  Vicuna  (Auckenia   vicuna)    is    found 
only  at  the  height  of  13,000  feet  and  upwards 


on  the  Cordilleras  of  Ecuador,  Peru,  and 
Bolivia.  This  species  is  the  smallest  and  the 
slenderest.  A  remarkably  fine  and  highly 
esteemed  woolly  fleece  covers  the  animal  like 
a  sheep.  Head,  neck,  rump,  and  thighs  are 
of  a  reddish-brown  colour,  the  other  parts  are 
white.  The  animals  live  like  wild  goats  or 
sheep,  like  these  too  are  agile  and  good 
climbers,  and  they  are  eagerly  hunted  on 
account  of  their  wool  and  very  palatable  flesh. 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION   AND    DESCENT   OF   THE 

EVEN-TOED    UNGULATES. 


The  geographical  distribution  of  the  even- 
toed  ungulates  presents  two  peculiarities  to 
which  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  call 
attention,  namely,  on  the  one  hand  cases  of 
very  restricted  localization,  and  on  the  other 
hand  cases  in  which  the  range  is  extraor- 
dinarily wide. 

The  hippopotamuses  are  entirely  confined 
to  the  African  continent,  where  their  domain  is 
constantly  getting  more  and  more  restricted. 
The  small  species  has  been  found  in  the 
republic  of  Liberia,  the  large  still  existed  in 
historical  times  in  the  Lower  Nile  (in  Egypt) 
as  well  as  in  the  streams  of  the  Cape  region, 
whence  it  has  entirely  disappeared.  It  is 
still  abundant  and  wide-spread  in  the  interior 
of  Africa.  In  the  Quaternary  period  hippo- 
potamuses even  existed  throughout  Central 
Europe'  and  extended  to  England. 

Trie  Hog  family  has  two  entirely  distinct 
territories.  The  Peccaries  are  characteristic 
in  South  America,  and  range  as  far  north 
as  Texas.  Before  the  introduction  of  the 
domestic  pig  the  hog-type  was  wholly  un- 
represented in  the  north  of  America.  The 
Wart-hogs  and  the  River-hogs  are  exclusively 
African  types.  The  Babirussa  is  confined 
to  the  islands  of  Celebes  and  Buru,  accor- 
dingly to  the  confines  of  the  Indo-Malayan 


and  Australian  regions.  The  true  Pigs  are 
distributed  over  the  whole  of  the  Eurasian 
continent,  as  well  as  over  the  Mediterranean 
region,  which  was  formerly  separated  from 
the  African  continent,  and  over  the  islands  of 
Asia  as  far  as  Japan  and  New  Guinea.  Per- 
haps there  are  also  members  of  the  group  in 
Central  Africa,  but  hitherto  the  evidences 
adduced  in  favour  of  this  view  are  not  quite 
convincing. 

The  Tragulida  have  a  highly  peculiar  dis- 
tribution. The  genus  Hyaemoschus,  resem- 
bling the  pigs,  is  found  only  in  West  Africa, 
while  the  true  Chevrotains  exist  only  in 
India  up  to  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  and 
on  the  Sunda  Islands. 

The  Musk-deer  inhabits  Central  Asia.  Its 
limits  are  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  the  moun- 
tains of  Siam  and  Tibet  in  the  south,  and  the 
Altai  Mountains  and  the  banks  of  the  Amur 
in  the  north. 

The  Deer  family  is  distributed  over  the 
whole  earth,  with  the  exception  of  the  greater 
part  of  Africa  and  the  whole  of  Australia, 
from  which  great  island  the  placental  mam- 
mals generally  are  almost  entirely  excluded. 
With  the  exception  of  some  northern  species, 
such  as  the  elk,  the  reindeer,  and  the  stag, 
all  the  American  species  are  different  from 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION   AND   DESCENT. 


'37 


those  of  the  Old  World,  but  the  forms  belong- 
ing to  the  two  sides  of  the  ocean  show  a 
certain  parallelism.  It  may  be  presumed 
that  the  three  forms  mentioned  reached 
North  America  by  migrating  from  the  Polar 
regions. 

The  Hollow-horned  Ruminants  are  alto- 
gether absent  from  South  America,  and  are 
but  feebly  represented  in  the  northern  division 
of  the  continent.  The  curious  forms  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  the  pronghom  antelope, 
the  big-horn,  and  the  white  goat,  together 
with  the  musk-ox,  are  the  only  characteristic 
forms  of  North  America.  The  American 
bison  approaches  too  closely  to  that  of  the 
Old  World  for  us  to  be  able  to  consider 
these  two  forms  as  anything  else  than  varieties 
descended  from  the  same  species,  which  has 
immigrated  into  both  continents  from  the 
Polar  regions.  In  the  Old  World  the  Goats 
and  the  Sheep  appear  to  be  exclusively  of 
Eurasian  origin.  The  Barbary  wild  sheep 
makes  only  an  apparent  exception;  the 
Mediterranean  zone  forms,  in.  fact,  a  whole 
by  itself,  which  belongs  to  the  Palaeozoic 
region.  On  the  other  hand,  the  big-horn 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  might  perhaps  be 
only  an  immigrant  from  the  opposite  peninsula 
of  Kamchatka.  Oxen  and  Antelopes  inhabit 
the  whole  of  the  Old  World.  These  two 
groups  present  in  part  very  characteristic 
genera  and  species  for  the  two  continents  of 
Eurasia  and  Africa.  Among  the  antelopes, 
for  example,  the  saiga  and  the  chamois  for 
Europe  and  Asia,  the  gnus  for  Africa, 
among  oxen  the  yak  and  anoa  for  Asia, 
while  other  groups  are  found  everywhere  in 
the  Old  World,  though  almost  entirely  absent 
in  the  New,  for  North  America  possesses 
only  the  forms  already  mentioned  and  South 
America  none  at  all. 

The  Giraffes  are  exclusively  African  types. 
The  Llamas  are  confined  to  South  America, 
and  the  Camels  belong  originally  to  Central 
Asia,  whence  they  have  been  introduced  into 
Africa. 

VOL.  II. 


The  present  geographical  distribution  of 
the  Artiodactyla  differs  widely  from  that 
which  immediately  preceded  in  the  Quater- 
nary period,  and  corresponds  exactly  to  the 
facts  from  which  palaeontologists  have  inferred 
certain  lines  of  descent. 

In  comparing  the  faunas  of  the  Quaternary 
period  with  the  present  distribution  we 
observe  remarkable  transpositions  in  two 
opposite  directions,  and  in  connection  with 
that  fact  we  have  to  note  some  rather  striking 
instances  of  the  extinction  of  certain  species. 
Let  us  now,  then,  examine  the  various  groups 
from  this  point  of  view,  and  trace  them  out 
to  the  point  where  their  characters  become 
clearly  prominent. 

In  the  Quaternary  period  the  Hippopota- 
muses inhabited  the  rivers  of  Southern  and 
Central  Europe,  and  extended  as  far  as 
Ireland.  A  larger  species  than  the  present 
hippopotamus  (Hippopotamus  major],  but 
otherwise  very  little  different,  lived  within 
these  wider  limits,  while  in  Sicily  and  the 
valley  of  the  Arno  has  been  found  a  species 
(//.  minor)  which  was  no  larger  than  a  pig, 
and  may  have  been  more  closely  allied  to  the 
hippopotamus  of  Liberia.  Now  still  older 
hippopotamuses  have  hitherto  been  found 
only  in  Algeria  in  the  Pliocene,  and  in  India 
in  the  Miocene  of  the  Sewalik  Hills,  where 
there  existed  hippopotamuses  with  six  incisors 
and  poorly  developed  canines,  and  in  addition 
to  these  a  genus,  Merycopotamus,  (which 
through  the  structure  of  its  skeleton  and  its 
dentition  forms  the  transition  to  the  pigs. 
At  the  present  day  there  are  no  longer  any 
members  of  the  family  in  India.  This  new 
type,  for  it  is  new,  since  it  appears  first  in 
the  Upper  Miocene,  must  accordingly  have 
migrated  from  its  home  to  its  present  African 
domain  after  it  had  peopled  a  part  of  Europe 
in  the  Quaternary  period. 

The  Hog  Family  shows  two  parallel  primi- 
tive stocks  of  much  greater  antiquity,  the  one 
belonging  to  the  Old  World,  the  other  to 
America.  True  Pigs  (Sus)  are  found  already 


60 


138 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


in  the  Middle  Miocene,  and  a  series  of  very 
closely  allied  genera  can  be  traced  through 
the  preceding  strata  until  we  arrive  at  the 
two-toed  genera  E ntelodon  and  Chcerotherium, 
belonging  to  the  Upper  Eocene,  and  the 
four-toed  genera,  Chceropotamus  and  Hyo- 
potamus,  of  the  Eocene  gypsums  of  Mont- 
martre.  The  pigs  accordingly  belong  to  a 
very  old  stock,  the  stages  in  whose  devel- 
opment we  can  follow  without  interruption 
down  to  the  forms  now  existing.  No  fossil 
forms  have  yet  been  found,  however,  repre- 
senting the  babirussa,  the  wart-hog,  or  the 
river-hogs. 

A  quite  different  series  is  presented  by  the 
American  peccaries.  "  We  appear,"  says 
Marsh,  "  to  have  in  the  series  of  genetic 
forms  comprised  between  the  Eohyus  of  the 
Lower  Eocene  and  the  peccaries  of  our  own 
time  (Helohyus,  belonging  to  the  Middle 
Eocene;  Perchcerus,  to  the  Lower  Miocene; 
Thinohyus,  to  the  Upper  Miocene),  the  line 
of  descent  terminating  in  the  typical  American 
Suidse  of  the  present  day.  Extinct  genera 
are  already  found  in  the  Quaternary  period, 
for  example,  Platygonus ;  but  at  that  time  the 
peccaries  extended  to  the  northern  boundary 
of  the  United  States,  whence  they  have  since 
retreated."  I  insist  on  the  difference  in  the 
primitive  stocks  on  the  two  sides  of  the  ocean 
since  Eocene  times.  "Whatever  may  be  said 
of  them,"  Marsh  continues,  "so  much  is  cer- 
tain, that  no  authentic  remains  of  the  genera 
Sus,  Porcus,  Phacochcerus,  or  Hippopotamus, 
which  constitute  the  group  of  the  Suidse  in  the 
Old  World,  have  ever  been  found  in  America." 

On  both  sides  of  the  ocean  the  old 
bunodont  Artiodactyla  of  Eocene  times  had 
four  toes  on  the  feet.  The  reduction  of  this 
number  has  gone  on  during  the  further 
development  of  the  type,  but  has  not  been 
completed;  it  has  stopped  short  in  the 
peccaries  at  the  stage  indicated.  That  the 
peccaries  are  the  forms  which  approach  most 
closely  to  the  ruminants  of  all  the  hog  family 
has  already  been  mentioned. 


In  the  series  of  the  selenodont  ruminants 
we  have  to  take  note  of  analogous  facts. 
With  reference  to  these  also  we  may  without 
fear  of  contradiction  maintain  the  proposition, 
that  we  find  two  entirely  different  stem-lines 
on  the  two  sides  of  the  ocean.  These  arise 
from  genera  belonging  to  the  Middle  and 
Lower  Eocene,  in  which  the  characters  derived 
from  the  dentition  and  the  structure  of  the 
feet  are  still  not  well  pronounced,  inasmuch 
as  the  cheek-teeth  exhibit,  so  to  speak, 
wavering  forms  between  bunodont  and  sele- 
nodont types,  the  number  of  the  incisors 
begins  to  be  reduced,  and  the  four-toed  feet, 
by  continuous  reduction  of  the  lateral  toes, 
become  by  degrees  two-toed.  It  is  only  in 
later  epochs  that  we  begin  to  obtain  characters 
derived  from  antlers  and  horns.  It  may  be 
taken  as  a  general  rule  that  these  outgrowths 
are  only  late  products,  and  that  the  original 
ruminants  were  without  them,  as  the  young 
animals  are  still.  The  fact  that  horns  and 
antlers  do  not  appear  till  long  after  birth 
is  in  itself  enough  to  show  that  these  appen- 
dages are  of  recent  acquisition. 

The  transition  from  these  equivocal  and 
variable  forms,  which  Leidy  has  characterized 
as  "  ruminant  pigs,"  is  effected  principally,  as 
Kowalewsky  has  shown,  by  the  disposition  of 
the  bones  of  the  wrist  and  ankle  (carpus  and 
tarsus),  which  get  arranged  in  two  vertical 
series  in  such  a  manner  that  each  series 
corresponds  to  one  of  the  principal  toes  and 
so  helps  to  carry  the  weight  of  the  body, 
while  the  forms  in  which  this  arrangement 
does  not  take  place  remain  unfruitful  and 
cannot  be  continued  in  the  direct  line  of  the 
present  ruminants. 

In  the  Middle  and  Upper  Eocene  are  found 
a  number  of  these  forms,  whose  teeth  already 
show  the  half-moon-shaped  folds,  but  which 
still  retain  the  full  number  of  incisors  in  the 
upper  jaw,  and  which,  moreover,  sometimes 
have  very  strong  canines.  In  many  of  these 
the  lateral  toes  are  greatly  reduced,  although 
the  wrist  and  ankle  still  retain  the  unfavourable 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION   AND   DESCENT. 


'39 


condition  above  described.  Such  forms  are 
Hyopotamus;  Anoplotherium,  examples  of 
which  are  so  abundant  in  the  gypsums  of 
Montmartre;  Xiphodon,  whose  canines  re- 
semble those  of  the  musk-deer;  the  four-toed 
genus  Dichobune,  some  species  of  which  did 
not  exceed  the  size  of  a  hare.  In  America 
the  corresponding  genera  are  present  in  enor- 
mous quantity  in  the  Eocene  strata;  Eomeryx, 
Opomeryx,  and  Oreodon  represented  in  the 
New  World  the  ruminant  pigs. 

The  first  true  ruminant  in  Europe  is  the 
genus  Gelocus  belonging  to  the  Upper 
Eocene.  It  was  about  the  size  of  a  dog,  but 
cannot  be  assigned  to  any  particular  family. 

The  Tragulida  first  appear  as  represented 
by  the  still -existing  genus  Hysemoschus, 
remains  of  which  have  been  found  in  the 
phosphorites  of  Quercy  in  the  west  of  France, 
that  is,  in  the  Upper  Eocene,  and  in  the 
Middle  Miocene  of  Sansans.  This  genus 
accordingly  lived  in  Europe  at  the  same  time 
as  the  prosimian  genus  Necrolemur  so' closely 
resembling  the  African  pottos,  which  has 
been  found  in  the  same  phosphorites;  and  it 
is  curious  to  note  that  these  two  genera  are 
now  both  confined  to  the  west  coasts  of 
Africa,  while  their  ancestors  lived  in  Europe. 

Deer  and  fully  characterized  Antelopes 
appear  at  the  same  time  in  the  Middle 
Miocene  strata  of  Sansans  and  St.  Gaudens. 
The  old  deer  have  forked  horns,  which  in 
certain  respects  are  like  those  of  the  muntjac 
and  the  pronghorn  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Only  in  the  Upper  Miocene  and  the  Pliocene 
do  we  meet  with  antlers  with  several  tines; 
antlers  have  thus  passed  through  the  same 
course  of  development  in  the  geological 
epochs  as  they  pass  through  in  our  stags  in 
the  course  of  life.  Yet  this  family  shows 
the  greatest  development  of  the  antlers  during 
the  Pliocene  and  Quaternary  period;  Cervus 
Stdgwickii  from  the  forest  bed  of  Cromer 
had  gigantic  antlers,  and  still  more  gigantic 
were  those  of  the  Megaceros  from  the  peat- 
bogs of  Ireland.  The  latter  species,  standing 


as  regards  its  horns  between  the  fallow-deer 
and  the  elk,  was  distributed  over  all  central 
and  southern  Europe.  Whole  skeletons  of 
it  have  been  found  in  the  peat -bogs  of 
Ireland,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  these 
gigantic  deer  were  hunted  by  man.  During 
the  ice-age  the  elk  and  reindeer  were  spread 
over  all  Europe  north  of  the  Alps  and  the 
Pyrenees.  The  reindeer  first  retired  within 
the  Arctic  circle;  it  did  so  even  in  prehistoric 
times,  and  it  was  only  in  the  middle  ages 
that  it  was  followed  by  the  elk. 

The  Antelopes  are  as  old  as  the  deer. 
Their  remains  are  found  in  the  Upper 
Miocene  of  Pikermi,  Mont  Leberon,  and  the 
Sewalik  Hills,  and  in  such  quantity  that  it 
is  plain  that  in  those  times  numerous  herds 
of  these  animals  must  have  roamed  over 
southern  Europe  as  well  as  India.  Some  of 
the  species  then  living  approached  the  gaz- 
elles, others  the  cannas  and  the  Oryx.  The 
saiga  has  had  its  former  domain  restricted 
like  the  elk.  During  the  Quaternary  period 
it  was  spread  over  the  plains  of  central 
Europe  up  to  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees. 

The  Oxen  are  apparently  descended  from 
the  antelopes.  The  oldest  forms  are  the 
buffaloes  from  the  Sewalik  Hills.  The  bisons 
first  appear  in  the  Quaternary  period  in  the 
form  of  an  intermediate  species  which  is  to  be 
placed  between  the  European  and  American 
bison.  Ancestors  of  the  true  oxen  are  found 
in  the  Pliocene  strata  of  Italy  and  Asia;  in 
the  Quaternary  deposits  they  are  very  numer- 
ous. Goats  and  sheep  can  be  distinguished 
by  the  structure  of  their  skeleton,  the  only 
means  of  distinction  accessible  to  palaeonto- 
logists, neither  from  one  another  nor  from 
certain  antelopes.  Unquestionable  remains 
of  members  of  these  two  groups  are  first 
found  in  Quaternary  strata.  The  highly  re- 
markable intermediate  form  of  the  musk-ox, 
which  at  the  present  day  is  confined  to  the 
Polar  regions  of  North  America,  still  inhabited 
during  Quaternary  times  the  north  of  Ger- 
many and  France. 


140 


THE   TWO-TOED   ARTIODACTYLA. 


The  family  of  the  Giraffes  appears  for  the 
first  time,  represented  by  an  actual  giraffe, 
in  the  Miocene  strata  of  Pikermi.  This  type 
accordingly  then  inhabited  Europe.  But  at 
Pikermi,  as  well  as  in  the  deposits  of  the 
Sewalik  Hills,  which  are  perhaps  a  little 
older,  there  are  preserved  also  some  gigantic 
forms  which  are  unquestionably  allied  to  the 
giraffe,  and  some  of  which  must  have  been 
very  clumsy  and  unwieldy  creatures;  such,  for 
example,  are  the  Helladotherium  of  Pikermi, 
the  Sivatherium  and  Bramatherium  in  India. 
These  forms  are  extremely  curious,  and 
Sivatherium,  for  instance,  had  a  skeletal 
structure  as  heavy  and  clumsy  as  that  of  a 
Rhinoceros. 

The  Camels,  finally,  are  traced  back  in  the 
Old  World  to  the  Miocene  of  the  Sewalik 
Hills. 

The  primitive  stocks  have  developed  in 
America  in  a  manner  generally  analogous 
to  what  we  find  in  Europe,  but  differing  in 
the  details.  In  this  part  of  the  world  no 
fossil  remains  have  yet  been  found  of  giraffes, 
goats,  sheep,  antelopes,  or  true  cattle;  and 
these  groups  are  likewise  absent  from  the 
fauna  of  the  New  World,  except  the  goat, 


the  sheep,  and  the  pronghorn  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  bisons  date  there  from  the 
Pliocene;  and  during  the  ice  age  the  musk- 
ox  ranged  over  the  whole  area  of  the  United 
States. 

The  Camel  Family,  on  the  other  hand,  has 
a  much  older  line  of  descent  in  America  than 
in  the  Old  World.  This  line  plainly  begins 
in  the  Upper  Eocene  with  a  genus  Parameryx. 
It  gets  more  and  more  sharply  characterized 
in  the  Miocene  and  Pliocene,  and  even  in 
the  Quaternary  period  the  llamas  inhabited 
the  whole  area  of  the  United  States,  whence 
they  have  since  retired. 

The  Deer  finally  show  the  same  gradual 
development  of  the  antlers  as  in  Europe. 
They  begin  in  the  Lower  Pliocene  with  genera 
(Casoryx),  which  have  the  metacarpal  and 
metatarsal  bones  still  separate,  and  are  con- 
tinued without  interruption  till  we  come  to 
the  types  of  the  present  day.  In  the  Quater- 
nary period  the  reindeer  advanced  as  far  as 
Texas. 

Lastly,  we  mention  that  it  has  been  alleged 
that  antelopes  have  been  found  in  the  caves 
of  Brazil,  but  a  careful  investigation  is  re- 
quired for  the  establishment  of  this  fact. 


GNAWERS    OR    RODENTS 


(RODENTIA). 


The  Rodents  have  claws  on  the  toes  (Unguiciilata)  and  an  incomplete  dentition.  They  have  only  two  large 
functional  incisors,  without  roots,  above  and  below;  there  are  no  canines;  the  cheek-teeth,  all  nearly 
similar  in  form,  stand  in  a  close-set  series  beside  one  another,  and  are  separated  from  the  incisors  by 
a  wide  interval.  The  placenta  is  discoidal. 


The  Rodents  or  Gnawers  are  the  order  of 
mammals  richest  in  genera  and  species.  It 
is  an  order,  the  members  of  which  vary  in  an 
extraordinary  degree  through  the  diversity  of 
secondary  characters  arising  from  adaptations 
to  different  modes  of  life,  and  yet  are  best 
marked  off  from  other  orders  by  the  con- 
stancy of  their  essential  characters.  The 
internal  structure,  on  the  description  of  which 
we  cannot  here  enter,  is  little  different  from 
that  of  the  insect-eaters,  and  certain  details 
even  remind  us  of  the  marsupials. 

The  rodents  are  in  general  small  animals; 
the  largest  of  them,  the  Capybara,  does  not 
exceed  in  size  a  one-year-old  pig.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  smallest  rodents  rival  in 
diminutiveness  the  pigmy  shrew  or  shrew- 
mole  of  the  Irish.  With  respect  to  the 
external  characters  we  may  observe  a  certain 
parallelism  to  the  insect-eaters,  with  which 
the  rodents  also  agree  in  the  simple  structure 
of  the  brain  as  well  as  in  the  peculiar  forma- 
tion of  the  sexual  organs. 

The  dentition  presents  the  chief  distin- 
guishing character,  that  in  which  there  is  but 
little  variation,  and  in  which  there  is  an 
essential  difference  from  the  insect-eaters. 
In  the  latter  the  form,  number,  and  position 
of  the  teeth  are  remarkably  varied,  while  in 


the  rodents  we  must  enter  into  the  details 
of  structure  to  find  any  distinctions  at  all 
between  the  different  types,  and  even  then 
they  are  not  profound. 

The  long-drawn-out  jaws  have  only  four 
incisors  altogether,  one  in  each  half  of  each 
jaw.  These  incisors  have  no  roots,  and 
consequently  keep  growing  throughout  life. 
They  are  deep-set  in  large  sockets,  which  are 
continued  far  backwards,  and  are  always 
curved  in  the  arc  of  a  circle.  The  enamel 
layer,  often  yellow  or  red  in  colour,  is  found 
only  on  the  outer  surface.  Sometimes  they 
show  longitudinal  folds.  Since  the  condyle 
or  articulating  surface  of  the  lower  jaw  is 
drawn  out  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the 
skull,  and  the  gnawing  action  takes  place 
through  backward  and  forward  movements 
of  the  jaw,  these  teeth  get  worn  away  on 
the  back  by  mutual  friction  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  enamel  layer  always  presents  a 
chisel-shaped  cutting  edge  transversely  placed. 
The  marks  which  are  left,  for  example,  by 
the  teeth  of  a  beaver  on  trees  cut  down  by 
them,  resemble  the  marks  of  a  chisel  so  much 
that  it  has  often  been  a  matter  of  controversy 
whether  certain  marks  found  on  fragments 
of  timber  that  have  come  down  from  pre- 
historic times  are  to  be  ascribed  to  the  hand 


142 


THE   GNAWERS   OR    RODENTS. 


of  man  or  to  beavers.  Since  these  incisors 
go  on  constantly  growing,  remarkable  mal- 
formations can  be  produced  in  captive  animals 
by  preventing  them  from  using  these  teeth. 
Only  in  a  single  family,  that  of  the  hares,  do 
we  find  behind  the  large  functional  incisors  a 
pair  of  small  incisors,  which  are  so  placed  that 
they  seem  to  serve  as  a  heel  to  the  former.1 

The  canines  are  altogether  wanting  even 
in  the  milk-dentition. 

The  number  of  the  cheek-teeth  is  rather 
small,  varying  from  two  to  six  in  each  half 
of  each  jaw.  They  resemble  each  other  very 
closely,  so  that  the  premolars  cannot  be  dis- 
tinguished by  their  form  alone  from  the  true 
molars.  If,  however,  we  trace  out  their 
development,  we  find  that  there  are  always 
three  true  molars,  and  that  the  teeth  standing 
in  front  of  these  are  liable  to  be  shed.  But 
in  certain  rodents,  for  instance,  it  has  been 
observed  that  the  milk-teeth  are  shed  even 
before  birth,  so  that  these  species  come  into 
the  world  with  the  permanent  dentition. 
The  rodents  with  three  molars  do  not  get 
their  single  premolar  replaced,  whether  it  be 
shed  before  or  after  birth;  those  with  four 
molars  have  a  single  premolar  replaced,  and 
thereby  present  a  remarkable  point  of  agree- 
ment with  the  marsupials,  which  also  have 
only  one  replaceable  tooth  in  their  dentition. 
Lastly,  the  rodents  with  five  molars  have  two 
replaceable  premolars. 

The  structure  of  the  cheek-teeth,  although 
it  varies  greatly  in  details,  may  be  reduced 
to  a  few  types,  which,  however,  are  connected 
by  intermediate  forms.  We  find  in  the  first 
place  rootless  constantly-growing  cheek-teeth 
in  which  the  part  set  in  the  socket  is  wide 
open  below,  but  otherwise  resembles  the 
crown  in  form.  Such  is  the  case,  for  example, 
with  the  Capybara.  Secondly,  we  see  teeth 
with  clearly-distinguished  crown  and  root,  as 
in  the  rats.  But  between  these  extremes 
there  are  transitional  forms  with  a  more  or 

1  On  this  account  this  family  is  sometimes  separated  as  a  distinct 
sub-order  under  the  name  of  the  Duplicidentata.— TR. 


less  complete  closure  of  the  roots,  and  we 
even  find  genera  in  which  the  distinction 
between  root  and  crown  first  comes  out  in 
advanced  age;  the  root  in  the  young  animal 
is  open  and  gets  constricted  only  with 
advancing  years. 

The  relations  between  the  different  sub- 
stances which  compose  the  cheek-teeth, 
enamel,  dentine,  and  cement  (if  the  last  is 
present  at  all),  vary  considerably,  and  have 
been  made  the  ground  of  important  zoologi- 
cal distinctions.  In  some,  for  example  the 
octodonts,  the  cheek-teeth  are  simple  cylin- 
ders exhibiting  a  round  or  oval  surface  filled 
with  dentine  and  surrounded  with  an  unbroken 
ring  of  enamel.  These  teeth  resemble  those 
of  certain  edentates.  In  others  again  the 
teeth  are  tubercled,  and  accordingly  in  a 
certain  measure  similar  to  those  of  the 
Omnivora  or  Insectivora.  As  the  tooth  gets 
worn  away  the  tubercles  form  small  isolated 
patches  surrounded  by  enamel.  Such  teeth 
are  found  in  the  rats.  Vertical  enamel  folds 
producing  grooves  on  the  outside  penetrate 
more  and  more  deeply  into  the  dentine.  If 
there  is,  as  in  the  jumping-hares,  only  one 
such  fold,  the  worn  surface  presents  a  figure 
like  that  of  a  loaf  of  bread  divided  by  a  single 
groove  down  the  middle.  If  there  are  two 
folds,  an  outer  and  an  inner,  the  tooth 
appears  to  consist  of  two  halves  connected 
by  a  bridge,  and  when  these  folds  curve  and 
wind,  as  in  the  beavers,  the  gnawing  surface 
presents  a  confused  coil  of  folds,  which  pro- 
duces the  appearance  of  a  piece  of  coarse 
cloth  irregularly  folded  and  pressed.  Lastly, 
the  folds  may,  as  in  the  Capybara,  pass  right 
across  the  teeth  and  thus  become  subdivided 
into  a  number  of  plates  or  lamellae  connected 
by  cement  and  having  the  intervals  between 
them  filled  with  dentine,  so  that  these  teeth, 
which  resemble  those  of  elephants,  seem  to 
be  made  up  of  a  number  of  small  teeth  pressed 
close  together.  There  are,  accordingly,  among 
the  rodents,  simple,  tubercled,  folded,  and 
lamellar  teeth. 


GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS. 


'43 


We  do  not  mean  to  discuss  here  the 
characters  drawn  from  the  skeleton  and  the 
nature  of  the  internal  organs,  but  confine 
ourselves  to  the  following  remarks.  The 
limbs  present  considerable  differences  accor- 
ding to  the  uses  to  which  they  are  adapted. 
Those  rodents  which  use  their  fore-feet  as 
hands  to  hold  their  food  while  they  gnaw,  as 
well  as  those  which  climb,  swim,  and  burrow, 
always  have  a  collar-bone,  while  this  bone  is 
rudimentary  or  altogether  absent  in  those 
which  use  their  limbs  only  for  running.  The 
toes  are  almost  always  free,  seldom  connected 
by  a  web  for  swimming.  In  most  cases  they 
are  furnished  with  more  or  less  sharp  claws. 
But  there  is  a  South  American  family,  to 
which  our  guinea-pig  also  belongs,  provided 
with  true  hoofs,  whereby  it  is  proved  that  the 
distinction  between  Ungulata  and  Unguicu- 
lata,  to  which  so  much  consequence  has  often 
been  attached,  is  after  all  of  doubtful  value. 

Lastly,  we  direct  attention  to  a  singular 
fact  first  observed  in  guinea-pigs,  but  also 
verified  in  rats  and  mice.  In  all  other  known 
mammals,  and  even  in  other  rodents,  as  the 
rabbit,  the  embryo  is  formed  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  central  nervous  system, 
which  occupies  the  back,  is  turned  towards 
the  outer  part  of  the  egg,  the  yolk  of  which 
is  enveloped  by  the  abdominal  side  of  the 
embryo ;  but  in  the  species  named  the  position 
is  exactly  the  reverse.  We  now  know  the 
cause  of  this  inversion,  which  at  first  appeared 
an  inexplicable  anomaly;  but,  nevertheless, 
when  we  observe  this  phenomenon  occurring 
in  species  separated  by  the  whole  breadth 
of  the  ocean,  we  cannot  cease  to  regard  it  as 
striking. 

Altogether  the  rodents  form  a  well-defined 
order,  constituting,  as  we  shall  see,  one  of 
the  oldest  types  of  placental  mammals.  It 
cannot  be  denied  that  it  presents  certain 
affinities  to  the  insectivores  and  even  to  the 
marsupials,  and  it  is,  moreover,  clear  that  the 
dentition  of  the  aye-aye,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  hyrax  on  the  other  hand,  indicates 


very  well  the  manner  in  which  the  peculiar 
dental  structure  of  the  rodents  has  been 
brought  about  by  the  loss  of  the  lateral 
incisors,  the  canines,  and  some  of  the  pre- 
molars ;  yet  it  must  also  be  granted  that  these 
modifications  of  the  dentition  are  very  old, 
and  that  the  affinities  that  may  have  existed, 
either  with  other  placental  mammals  or  with 
the  still  older  marsupials,  are  very  obscure 
and  difficult  to  demonstrate. 

It  is  likewise  impossible  to  say  anything 
general  concerning  the  habits  and  mode  of 
life  of  the  members  of  this  order.  They 
have,  indeed,  become  adapted  to  all  modes 
of  life,  to  all  the  conditions  which  all  the 
different  parts  of  the  globe,  with  all  their 
varieties  of  climate,  present.  The  Torrid 
and  the  Frigid  Zones,  mountains  and  plains, 
withered  steppes  and  soft  marshes,  are  in- 
habited by  them.  Wherever  vegetable  or 
animal  life  of  any  kind  is  found  at  all,  rodents 
of  some  kind  are  to  be  met  with;  in  the 
water  and  under  the  ground  as  well  as  on 
the  surface.  Everywhere  we  find  them 
exposed  to  a  violent  struggle  for  existence, 
pursued  and  preyed  upon  by  carnivorous 
animals  of  all  classes — mammals,  birds,  rep- 
tiles, and  even  fish,  and  from  these  struggles 
we  always  see  them  come  forth  as  victors, 
not  through  bodily  strength  or  cunning,  but 
through  their  incredible  fertility.  Only  a 
few  of  them  are  provided  with  means  of 
defence,  for  example,  the  porcupines,  and 
these  bring  forth  but  few  young,  and  have  a 
long  period  of  gestation.  But  in  the  case  of 
the  great  majority  of  rodents,  and  especially 
the  small  species,  the  females  bring  forth  a 
considerable  number  of  young  ones,  which 
complete  their  development  in  a  comparatively 
short  space  of  time,  and  soon  become  capable 
of  reproducing  their  kind.  In  this  manner 
the  rodents,  if  the  conditions  are  otherwise 
favourable,  multiply  with  extraordinary  ra- 
pidity, and  in  this  fact  we  find  the  explanation 
of  their  frequently  sudden  appearance  in 
innumerable  swarms,  which,  like  swarms  of 


144 


THE   GNAWERS   OR   RODENTS. 


locusts,  overwhelm  the  land  and  leave  de- 
struction and  desolation  behind  them.  Their 
enemies  also  multiply  rapidly  indeed,  but  are 
helpless  in  face  of  such  prodigious  swarms, 
which  always  leave  enough  to  continue  their 
species. 


THE    SQUIRREL    FAMILY 


(SCIURIDA). 


The  family  of  the  squirrels   comprises  a 
pretty  large    number  of  forms,   which   vary 


, 
V  ^r 


Fig.  202. — The  Taguan  or  Brown  f 


between  the  two  extremes  presented  by  our 
ordinary  squirrels,  the  agile  climbers,  and  the 
sluggish  clumsy  marmots,  which  live  almost 
entirely  underground.  But  the  intermediate 
forms  are  so  numerous  that  it  is  impossible 
to  break  up  this  family  into  any  subdivisions. 
It  is  characterized  as  a  whole  by  the  structure 
of  the  teeth,  the  skeleton,  and  the  feet.  In 
the  upper  jaw  there  are  usually  five,  in  the 
lower,  four  cheek-teeth,  with  triple  or  quad- 
ruple roots  and  triangular  crowns;  the  internal 
heel  and  the  division  of  the  tooth  into  external 


points  present  the  >-form  so  characteristic 
of  the  insect-eaters.  In  the  majority  these 
cheek-teeth  retain  more  or  less  sharp  peaks 
and  tubercles  even  when  worn,  but  others 
have  the  grinding  surface  flattened  by  use  so 
as  to  present  more  or  less  complicated  folds. 
The  first  upper  cheek-tooth  is  small  and  in 
some  species  is  soon  shed.  In  the  skull  we 
are  struck  by  the  longish  nasals,  which 
become  broad  at  the  end  so  as  to  support 
the  blunt  snout.  The  frontal  bone  carries  a 
considerable  process,  which  forms  in  the  rear 


THE   SQUIRRELS. 


'45 


a  boundary  between  the  cavity  of  the  orbit 
and  the  temporal  fossa,  without,  however, 
forming  a  complete  ring  round  the  former. 
A  collar-bone  is  always  present,  an  indication 
of  the  fact  that  the  fore-limbs  are  capable 
of  varied  applications;  they  can,  in  fact,  be 
used  as  arms  and  hands.  The  feet  have 
always  four  free  toes 
in  front,  five  behind, 

and  these  are  armed  •KL^HI 

with  strong,  sharp, 
curved  claws;  but 
there  is  always  at 
least  a  rudiment  of 
the  first  digit  more 
or  less  well-develop- 
ed. The  squirrel 
family  is  distributed 
over  the  whole  earth 
with  the  exception  of 
Australia  and  Mada- 
gascar. 

According  to  their 
mode  of  life  the 
members  of  this 
family  may  be  con- 
sidered as  forming 
two  groups,  the 
climbing  squirrels 
and  the  crawling 

marmots.     The  typical  members  of  the  for- 
mer group  live  chiefly  on  trees. 

The  Squirrels. 

The  Flying- Squirrels  (Pteromys)  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  parachute,  formed  of  a 
fold  of  skin  stretched  out  between  their  limbs, 
neck,  and  tail,  as  in  the  colugo  or  flying-cat. 
By  means  of  this  hair-covered  parachute  they 
can  make  extraordinary  leaps.  A  bony  spur 
proceeding  from  the  wrist  serves  as  a  support 
for  it.  In  other  respects  they  are  true 
squirrels,  with  round  heads,  elegant  limbs, 
and  a  tail  which  is  in  some  cases  round  and 
bushy  like  that  of  a  fox,  sometimes  set  with 
two  lines  of  hair  as  in  the  ordinary  squirrels. 

VOL.  II. 


The  small  ears  are  not  tufted.  In  habits  they 
are  nocturnal.  During  the  day  they  sleep  in 
holes  in  the  trees,  where  they  build  warm 
nests  for  themselves.  In  the  evening  they 
awake  and  go  out  in  search  of  food,  not  only 
collecting  fruits,  nuts,  and  berries  of  all  sorts, 
but  also  catching  insects  and  birds.  Like 

our  squirrels,  too, 
they  are  unsparing 
plunderers  of  nests, 
and  know  well  how 
to  suck  out  the  con- 
tents of  the  eggs, 
which  they  hold 
gracefully  in  their 
fore-paws.  Like  all 
nocturnal  animals 
they  are,  when  kept 
in  captivity,  sleepy 
and  inactive  by  day, 
and,  when  teased, 
ill-tempered,  but  at 
night  extremely 
lively  and  agile. 
The  larger  species 
are  rather  vicious, 
and  their  sharp  nar- 
row incisors  inflict 
deep  wounds.  The 
flying-squirrels  are 

found  in  the  East  Indies,  on  the  Sunda 
Islands,  and  in  the  northern  part  of  both 
hemispheres.  A  markedly  divergent  genus 
(Anomalurus),  with  a  dentition  allied  to  that 
of  the  porcupine  and  a  tail  covered  with 
scales  at  the  base,  inhabits  the  west  coast  of 
Africa.  The  largest  of  the  flying-squirrels, 
the  Brown  Flying-Squirrel,  the  Taguan  of  the 
Malays,  the  Oral  of  the  Coles  (Pt.petauristd), 
fig.  202,  attains  the  size  of  a  cat,  while  the 
smallest,  the  Assapan  of  the  red-skins  (Pi. 
vohicclla)  has  a  body  less  than  6  inches  in 
length  with  a  tail  of  about  4  inches. 

The  True  Squirrels  (Sciurus)  form  a  genus 
extraordinarily  rich  in  species,  found  wherever 
woods  exist  in  the  parts  of  the  earth  above 

61 


146 


THE   GNAWERS   OR   RODENTS. 


indicated.  As  the  type  of  this  genus  an 
illustration  is  given  of  our  Common  Squirrel 
(Sciurus  vulgaris],  fig.  203,  a  charming 
creature,  just  as  pretty  as  it  is  destructive,  in 
captivity  very  entertaining  when  young,  but 
ill-tempered  and  apt  to  bite  when  old.  Its 
bites  are  deep  and  leave  ugly  scars  behind. 
Every  one,  no  doubt,  is  acquainted  with  this 
rodent,  which,  like  all 
species  belonging  to 
the  same  genus,  has 
a  roundish  head  with 
two  large  eyes  and 
enormous  ears  cover- 
ed with  hair  ending  in 
a  long  bunch  of  stiff 
bristles.  The  body  is 
slender,  the  long  tail 
thickly  covered  with 
hair  arranged  in  two 
rows.  The  limbs  are 
rather  short,  and  have 
in  front  four  well -de- 
veloped toes  and  a 
warty  protuberance  in 
place  of  a  thumb, 
while  there  are  five 
toes  behind.  All  these 
toes  are  free  and 
armed  with  sharp 
curved  claws.  Our  species  has  a  coppery- 
red  coat,  inclining  to  brown  or  yellow  on  the 
back,  but  on  the  under  surface  always  yellow- 
ish. In  winter  the  colour  becomes  paler. 
There  are  also  black  varieties,  more  rarely 
white  or  spotted  ones 

The  squirrel  lives  chiefly  on  trees,  and 
feeds  on  seeds,  nuts,  young  shoots,  and  the 
bark  of  trees  when  filled  with  sap,  and  often 
does  much  damage  to  young  plantations. 
The  cembra  pine,  that  beautiful  tree  of  the 
high  elevations,  can  hardly  thrive  in  the  Alps 
because  the  squirrels  greedily  search  for  and 
destroy  their  seeds,  which  resemble  pistachios. 
The  squirrel  is  at  the  same  time  a  ruthless 
destroyer  of  birds'-nests,  and  is  particularly 


Fig.  204. — The  Ch 


fond  of  eggs  and  young  birds.  It  builds 
nests  for  itself  in  hollow  trees,  or  sometimes 
among  the  small  twigs  growing  out  from 
strong  branches.  The  nests  are  warmly 
lined,  roofed  over,  and  have  an  opening  below 
directed  to  the  east.  The  squirrels  collect 
considerable  stores  of  food  for  winter,  and 
the  species  living  in  Northern  Siberia  under- 
take great  migrations. 
The  Ground-Squir- 
rels (Tamias),  unlike 
the  last  species,  live 
on  the  ground,  and 
inhabit  chiefly  the 
northern  parts  of  both 
hemispheres.  They 
are  smaller  and  more 
thickset  than  our 
squirrels,  have  cheek- 
pouches  of  consider- 
able size,  a  shorter 
and  not  very  hairy 
tail,  and  small  rounded 
ears  without  tufts, 
but  otherwise  resem- 
ble our  squirrels  in 
bodily  structure.  They 
dig  holes  for  them- 
selves in  the  ground. 
The  species  repre- 
sented in  fig.  204,  the  Chipping  Squirrel 
( Tamias  striatus),  the  Burunduk  of  the  Rus- 
sians, the  Chipmunk  of  North  America,  is  only 
about  6  inches  and  the  tail  4  inches  long.  A 
black  stripe  along  the  middle  of  the  back  and 
two  lateral  stripes  stand  out  in  relief  against 
the  general  yellowish  hue  which  forms  the 
ground  colour  of  the  fur.  This  tiny  creature, 
which  is  detested  by  the  tillers  of  the  ground, 
digs  holes  for  itself  under  the  roots  of  trees  in 
the  forest,  and  these  holes  it  fills  with  acorns, 
nuts,  and  grains  of  corn.  It  has  a  winter 
sleep,  but  not  a  very  deep  one. 

The  Spermophiles  (Spermophilus)are  hardly 
any  larger  than  the  ground-squirrels,  and 
their  general  habit  is  exactly  like  that  of 


•:1  or  Chipmunk  (Tamias  striatus). 


THK    MARMOTS. 


marmots.  The  body  is  small  and  thickset, 
the  tail  short,  and  the  ears  are  almost  com- 
pletely hidden  in  the  fur.  They  have  large 
cheek-pouches.  They  inhabit  the  cold  tracts 
of  both  hemispheres,  dig  holes  in  fields  and 
meadows,  and  connect  their  holes  by  passages. 
They  also  collect  considerable  stores  and 
pass  the  winter  in 
sleep.  The  species 
shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion, the  Souslik 
(Spermophilus  citil- 
lus\  fig.  205,  is  very 
extensively  distribut- 
ed in  Russia,  and  is 
also  found  in  the  Sla- 
vonic provinces  of 
Austria.  The  fur  of 
this  species  is  reddish- 
yellow,  somewhat 
lighter  on  the  under 
parts.  The  souslik 
accustoms  itself  very 
readily  to  the  pre- 
sence of  man. 

The  Marmots. 


Fig.  205. — The  Souslik 


The  True  Marmots 
(Arctomys)  have  a 
thickset  body,  almost 
equally  thick  along  the  whole  length,  a  flat 
skull,  slightly  concave  between  the  eyes,  and 
a  short  tail.  There  are  no  cheek-pouches; 
the  ears  are  hidden  in  the  coarse  fur. 

The  Alpine  Marmot  {Arctomys  nian/wla], 
PI.  XXXV.,  inhabits  the  higher  regions  of 
the  Pyrenees,  Alps,  and  Carpathians  between 
the  woods  and  the  glaciers.  It  is  among  the 
larger  rodents,  for  a  full-grown  marmot  has 
a  body  about  20  inches  in  length,  exclusive 
of  the  tail,  which  is  about  4  inches  long. 
There  is  a  smaller  species,  called  the  Quebec 
Marmot  (A.  monax),  a  native  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  another  still  smaller,  the 
Bobak  (A.  Bobac],  a  native  of  the  steppes  of 
European  Russia,  Mongolia,  and  Siberia. 


The  Alpine  marmot  is  olive-brown  in  colour, 
sometimes  very  dark  brown  on  the  back,  but 
a  little  lighter  on  the  under  parts. 

All  marmots  lead  the  same  kind  of  life. 
They  dig  out  underground  passages,  which 
are  often  rather  complicated  and  pretty  deep, 
and  these  passages  end  in  a  chamber  vaulted 

like  a  baker's  oven, 
and  warmly  lined 
with  dried  herbs. 
They  collect  no 
stores  of  provisions, 
and  when  they  leave 
their  holes  it  is  only 
with  the  utmost  cau- 
tion, after  they  have 
carefully  surveyed 
the  neighbourhood. 
When  they  have  as- 
certained that  all  is 
safe,  they  stand  sen- 
tinel in  front  of  their 
hole,  sitting  on  their 
hind  quarters  with 
their  fore-paws  hang- 
ing down,  and  direct- 
ing their  glances  all 
round.  Gradually 
other  marmots  ven- 

(Spcrmophitus  citillus).  ,  •     , 

ture  out,  the  neigh- 
bours come  together,  they  play,  and  devour 
fresh  herbs,  berries,  seeds,  and  so  forth, 
but  an  old  animal  always  stands  sentinel. 
A  shrill  whistle  gives  warning  of  approach- 
ing danger,  and  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye 
the  whole  assembly  has  disappeared  in  their 
holes,  from  which  they  never  venture  very 
far.  In  the  autumn  the  marmots  are  fat,  and, 
as  I  can  testify  from  my  own  experience,  very 
tasty ;  but  since  the  fat  is  of  a  greenish  tinge 
it  is  rather  disgusting  to  some  people.  On 
the  approach  of  the  winter's  cold  the  marmot 
retires  to  his  chamber,  after  carefully  closing 
the  mouth  of  his  hole  and  the  passages  with 
dried  herbs,  and  passes  the  winter  in  deep 
sleep.  The  chase  of  the  marmot  is  rather 


148 


THE   GNAWERS   OR    RODENTS. 


difficult,  because  in  those  rocky  solitudes  with- 
out trees  and  without  shrubs  it  is  not  easy  to 
find  a  cover  under  which  to  creep  up  and 
surprise  the  object  of  pursuit,  and  unless  the 
marmot  is  killed  at  the  first  shot  it  escapes 
at  once  to  its  hole.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
marmots  are  very  easily  dug  out  in  winter  if 
their  holes  have  previously  been  marked. 


The  so-called  Prairie -dog  (Cynomys  ludo- 
vicianus),  fig.  206,  which  owes  its  peculiar 
name  to  its  voice,  which  resembles  the  bark 
of  a  dog,  is  properly  speaking  nothing  but 
a  small  marmot,  which  inhabits  the  prairies 
of  North  America  west  of  the  Mississippi. 
This  pretty  and  amusing  little  creature  is 
distinguished  from  the  other  marmots  by 


Fig.  206. — Prairie-dogs  (Cynomys  ludovicianus}. 


the  comparatively  large  size  of  its  first 
cheek-tooth,  by  its  cheek-pouches,  and  by 
the  possession  of  a  fully-developed  thumb 
armed  with  a  claw.  These  prairie-dogs  live 
exactly  like  marmots,  but  it  is  a  remarkable 
fact  that  in  their  holes  one  may  often  find 
rattlesnakes  and  large  ground-owls,  with 
which  they  appear  to  live  on  good  terms. 

THE   DORMOUSE    FAMILY 

(MYOX1DA). 

This  small  family  is  composed  of  animals, 
the  general  habit  of  which  is  not  unlike  that 
of  the  squirrels,  but  which  are  distinguished 
from  them  by  having  only  four  cheek-teeth 
above  and  below,  these  teeth  being  made  up 
of  transverse  bars  of  enamel,  and  always 


having  roots.  Apart  from  the  structure  of 
the  teeth  and  the  form  of  the  skull,  which  is 
somewhat  elongated  like  that  of  the  rats,  the 
dormice  agree  more  or  less  both  with  the 
marmots  and  squirrels.  Like  the  former 
they  pass  the  winter  in  sleep,  while  they 
agree  with  the  squirrels  in  their  arboreal 
habits.  The  fur  is  soft  and  woolly,  the  tail 
long  and  thickly  haired,  except  in  the  case  of 
a  few  African  species.  The  ears  are  rounded 
and  have  no  tuft.  The  fore-paws  have  four 
toes  with  sharp  claws  and  a  small  rudimentary 
thumb  covered  with  a  flat  nail.  On  the  hind- 
feet  there  are  likewise  four  toes. 

All  dormice  build  nests  for  themselves  like 
squirrels.  In  these  they  sleep  by  day.  By 
night  they  go  out  in  search  of  food,  which 
consists  exclusively  of  vegetable  substances, 


To  fact  fast  US. 


PLATE  XXXV.    —    THE    ALPINE     MARMOT    (Arctomys  marmota). 


• 
ERSITY 


OF 


THE   BEAVER    FAMILY. 


149 


especially  seeds,  small  nuts,  and  the  like. 
Their  stomach  is  incompletely  divided  into 
two  sections.  The  large  species  are  remark- 
ably voracious,  and,  like  the  squirrels,  are 
ruthless  destroyers  of  birds'  nests.  In  autumn 
they  become  very  fat,  and  their  winter  sleep  is 
not  less  deep  than  that  of  the  marmots.  Out 
of  three  European 
species  the  largest  and 
the  smallest  have  been 
selected  for  illustra- 
tion. 

The  Loir  or  Com- 
mon Dormouse  of  the 
European  mainland 
(Myoxus  ghs),  fig- 
207,  resembles  the 
squirrel  most  on  ac- 
count of  its  bushy  tail, 
which  may  attain  the 
length  of  6  inches, 
almost  the  same  as 
that  of  the  body.  Of 
the  four  cheek-teeth 
the  two  middle  ones 
are  the  largest.  They 
have  four  deep  folds  of 
enamel,  into  which  fit 
three  opposite  folds. 
The  head  with  its  round  blunt  ears  resembles 
that  of  a  rat.  The  thick  silky  fur  is  of  a  gray 
colour,  inclining  more  to  brown  on  the  back 
and  the  tail,  which  has  the  hair  arranged  in 
two  rows.  The  loir  lives  chiefly  in  Eastern 
and  Southern  Europe,  preferring  oak  and 
beech  woods  for  its  home.  It  builds  its  nest 
in  hollow  trees  or  in  holes  in  the  rocks,  but 
never  exposed  in  the  fork  between  two 
branches  like  squirrels.  It  collects  stores, 
and  wakes  on  warm  winter  days  to  eat. 
The  Romans  prized  this  animal  so  highly 
that  they  used  to  keep  specimens  of  it  in 
cages  called  gliraria.  The  loir  is  easily 
caught  in  traps;  and  it  is  very  ready  to 
settle  in  the  box -nests  which  are  set  up 
in  some  districts  for  starlings  and  tits.  In 


captivity  the  loir  is  ill-natured;  its  bites  are 


severe. 


The  Common  Dormouse,  the  Hazel  Mouse 
of  the  Germans  (Muscardinus  (Myoxus) 
avellanarius),  fig.  208,  is  just  as  gentle  and 
agreeable  in  its  disposition  as  the  loir  is 
ill-natured  and  disagreeable.  It  is  a  charm- 
ing little  creature  of 
about  the  size  of  an 
ordinary  mouse,  of  a 
reddish-yellow  colour, 
with  a  tail  about  as 
long  as  the  body,  but 
not  very  hairy.  It 
frequents  shrubberies, 
and  is  particularly 
fond  of  hazel  hedges 
and  thickets;  and  it 
advances  as  far  to  the 
north  and  ascends  as 
high  in  the  mountains 
as  its  favourite  plant 
does.  The  dormouse 
builds  a  very  artistic 
round  nest,  in  which 
it  rolls  itself  up  in  the 
form  of  a  ball.  It 
can  easily  be  kept  in 
birds'  cages,  and  it 
makes  an  agreeable  pet  on  account  of  its 
cleanliness,  its  graceful  movements,  and  its 
gentle  and  affectionate  disposition. 

THE    BEAVER    FAMILY 

(CASTORIDA). 

The  Beaver  (Castor  fiber)  may  well  be 
referred  to  a  separate  family,  although  it  is 
the  only  species  belonging  to  it.  Formerly 
the  beaver  was  spread  over  all  the  temperate 
and  cold  countries  of 'both  hemispheres.  It 
was  so  much  sought  after  for  the  sake  of  its 
flesh,  its  fur,  and  the  castoreum,  a  product 
yielded  by  both  sexes  and  highly  prized  in 
medicine,  that  at  the  present  day  it  is  con- 
fined to  Eastern  Europe,  Siberia,  Canada, 


Loir  (Myoxus  gits}. 


ISO 


THE   GNAWERS   OR   RODENTS. 


and  the  regions  lying  to  the  west  of  the 
Mississippi.  Only  here  and  there,  as,  for 
example,  on  the  small  islands  of  the  Rhone 
near  Aries,  in  Bohemia  and  Silesia,  a  few 
specimens  are  to  be  found;  but  elsewhere, 
except  in  a  few  streams  in  which  some  lovers 
of  zoology  have  allowed  one  or  two  beavers 
to  live  in  a  state  of 
freedom,  the  beaver 
has  fortunately  been 
extirpated  in  the  cul- 
tivated parts  of 
Europe. 

[Among  other  families 
of  beavers  that  have  been 
maintained  in  a  state  of 
freedom  or  semi-freedom 
by  lovers  of  zoology  is 
one  belonging  to  the 
Marquis  of  Bute  in  the 
grounds  of  Mount 
Stuart,  Isle  of  Bute. 
Eight  beavers  had  been 
procured  by  the  marquis 
in  January,  1875,  and  in 
September,  1877,  the 
family  was  visited  by  the 
late  Mr.  Frank  Buckland 
in  company  with  Mr. 
Bartlett  of  the  Zoologi- 
cal Gardens,  London. 
Of  that  visit  an  interesting  account  is  given  in  an 
article  afterwards  published  in  Notes  and  Jottings 
from  Animal  Life.  At  some  little  distance  from 
the  house  above  named,  says  Mr.  Buckland,  "there 
is  a  lonely  pine-wood.  Through  part  of  this  wood 
runs  a  natural  stream.  In  the  centre  of  the  wood 
a  stone  wall  has  been  built  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  keep  the  beavers  perfectly  quiet  and  undis- 
turbed. 

"As  far  as  could  be  ascertained  by  the  curator 
of  the  beavery  there  were  twelve  beavers.  There 
were  certainly  one  or  more  young  ones  in  the  big 
house  which  these  most  intelligent  animals  had 
erected.  These  when  born  are  about  as  large  as 
rats;  and  from  their  size  and  other  observations 
the  curator  thinks  that  beavers  have  two  litters  of 
cubs  in  the  year. 

"On  entering  the  inclosure  one  might  easily  im- 
agine that  a  gang  of  regular  woodcutters  had  been 


Fig.  208. — The  Common  Dormouse  (Afuscardinus  avellanarius}.    p.  149. 


at  work  felling  the  trees  all  around  them.  Wood- 
cutters had  indeed  been  at  work  very  busily,  but 
they  were  not  biped  labouring  men  working  with 
sharp  axes,  but  fur-clad  quadrupeds,  armed  by 
nature  with  exceedingly  sharp  powerful  teeth. 

"The  original  stream,  which  flows  gently  down 
a  slight  incline,  is  now  divided  into  one  larger  and 
two  smaller  ponds  by  means  of  darns  or  weirs, 

which  the  beavers  have 
built  directly  across  the 
run  of  the  water. 

"It  is  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  to  see  these 
wonderful  dam -makers 
at  work,  as  they  gener- 
ally, I  hear,  are  out  at 
night  and  are  very  shy 
beasts.  From  the  struc- 
ture they  have  made  it 
is  evident  that  they  work 
with  a  design,  I  may 
even  say  with  a  definite 
plan.  The  trees  have 
been  cut  down  in  such 
a  manner  that  they  shall 
fall  in  the  position  in 
which  the  beaver  thinks 
they  would  be  of  the 
greatest  service  to  the 
general  structure,  gener- 
ally right  across  the 
stream.  The  cunning 
fellows  seem  to  have 
found  out  that  the  lowest  dam  across  the  river 
would  receive  the  greatest  pressure  of  water  upon 
it.  This  dam,  therefore,  is  made  by  far  the  strong- 
est. They  seem  to  have  packed,  repaired,  and 
continually  attended  to  the  tender  places  which 
the  stream  might  make  in  their  engineering  work. 

"  A  fact  still  more  curious — the  custodian  of  the 
beavers  pointed  out  to  us  a  portion  of  the  work 
where  the  dam  was  strutted  up  and  supported  by 
the  branches  of  trees  extending  from  the  bed  of 
the  stream  below  to  the  sides  of  the  dam — forming, 
in  fact,  as  good  supports  to  the  general  structure 
as  any  engineer  could  have  devised.  .  .  . 

"  Mr.  Bartlett  and  I  closely  examined  the  mark- 
ings of  the  beavers'  chisel-like  teeth  on  the  trees 
which  they  had  cut  down.  These  trees  were  oak, 
larch,  pine,  birch,  and  willow.  The  young  ones, 
judging  from  the  markings  of  their  teeth,  are  not  such 
good  workmen  as  their  parents,  and  one  would 


THE    BEAVER    FAMILY. 


almost  imagine  that  it  was  necessary  for  them  to 
go  through  some  sort  of  education  in  cutting  down 
trees.  It  is  very  interesting  to  observe  how  the 
beaver  goes  to  work  to  cut  down  a  tree.  Attack- 
ing one  side  he  cuts,  by  means  of  his  sharp  chisel, 
a  regular  notch  in  the  tree.  One  side  of  this  notch 
is  flat  like  a  saw  cut;  the  other  side  is  brought 
down  to  the  saw  cut  by  an  angle;  in  fact,  he  cuts 
down  the  trees  by  the  same  sort  of  incision  as  we 
ourselves  employ  to  cut  a  stick  out  of  the  hedge. 
Mr.  Bartlett  informs  me  that  he  has  seen  the  beaver 
put  his  head  so  far  into  the  notch  that  he  was 
afraid  the  weight  of  the  tree  from  above  would 
crush  down  upon  him  and  smash  his  head;  but 
Mr.  Beaver  is  a  better  carpenter  than  this.  Mr. 
Bartlett  has  seen  him  at  this  stage  of  the  proceed- 
ings come  out  and  go  to  a  little  distance,  sit  on  his 
hind-legs,  and  inspect  the  tree  with  the  air  of  an 
engineer  looking  at  a  scaffold  in  process  of  con- 
struction. When  the  beaver  has  gnawed  his  notch 
as  deep  as  he  dare  into  the  tree,  the  cunning  fellow 
will  test  its  stability  by  standing  on  his  hind-legs 
and  pushing  the  tree  to  see  the  degree  of  firmness 
of  the  portion  which  holds  the  two  pieces  of  wood 
together;  but  how  is  he  to  separate  the  bit  which 
unites  the  wood?  He  simply  leaves  off  gnawing 
the  big  notch  he  has  made.  He  then  goes  to  the 
other  side,  where  the  bark  and  wood  have  not  been 
touched  at  all,  and  gnaws  away  until  down  comes 
the  tree. 

"These  beavers  are  most  industrious  little  animals. 
These  water-carpenters  have  converted  the  place 
into  a  regular  subterranean  city,  for  they  have  bur- 
rowed out  the  earth  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form 
streets,  galleries,  highways,  and  by-ways.  These 
runs,  I  imagine,  are  made  primarily  for  the  purpose 
of  safety,  and  secondly  that  the  houses  or  dams 
may  be  connected  together,  so  that  the  families 
living  in  the  different  huts  may  be  able  at  will  to 
visit  their  friends." 

Of  the  beaver  family  to  which  the  preceding 
paragraphs  relate,  there  survived  in  the  spring  of 
1887,  as  the  owner  of  the  family  was  kind  enough 
to  inform  the  translator  of  the  present  work,  only 
two  individuals.  These,  however,  were  apparently 
healthy,  having  raised  a  new  dome-shaped  house 
and  done  a  great  deal  of  work  in  damming,  &c.] 

Many  writers  have  uttered  sentimental 
complaints  regarding  the  extirpation  of  the 
beaver,  but  it  cannot  be  denied  that  this  is 
one  of  the  most  destructive  of  animals.  We 


have  more  need  of  timber  than  of  its  fur  and 
castoreum.  It  feeds  chiefly  on  roots  and 
the  bark  and  young  wood  of  trees  in  which 
the  sap  is  flowing,  and  it  builds  dams  and 
habitations  in  the  water  out  of  stems  and 
branches,  sometimes  measuring  2  feet  in 
diameter.  It  thus  causes  considerable  de- 
vastation in  forests,  especially  among  willows 
and  poplars.  The  beaver  is  consequently 
an  animal  that  is  bound  to  disappear  before 
the  advance  of  cultivation,  and  which  neither 
complaints  nor  pious  wishes  will  be  of  any 
avail  to  preserve. 

The  beaver  is  one  of  the  largest  of 
rodents.  It  attains  a  length  of  more  than 
3  feet,  and  its  flat  scaly  tail  measures  about 
12  inches.  Its  weight  may  amount  to  66 
pounds.  The  body  is  short  and  thickset, 
the  back  arched.  The  head  is  thick  and 
blunt  in  front.  The  legs  are  short  and  thick, 
and  have  five  toes  with  small  nails.  The 
hind -toes  are  connected  by  a  web.  The 
small  eyes  have  a  large  nictitating  membrane, 
the  nostrils  are  capable  of  being  closed,  and 
the  short  round  ears  may  be  laid  over  the 
external  ear-passage  (auditory  meatus)  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  close  it  in  diving.  With 
respect  to  the  structure  of  the  sexual  organs 
of  the  female  the  beaver  has  a  remarkable 
resemblance  to  the  marsupials,  or  even  to  the 
monotremes.  The  fur  consists  of  a  fine  soft 
down  interspersed  with  long  bristly  hairs;  it 
is  of  a  fine  chestnut-brown  colour,  darker  on 
the  back  than  on  the  under  parts.  The  four 
cheek-teeth  in  each  half  of  the  jaw  present 
to  view  extremely  complicated  folds  on  the 
grinding  surface ;  the  thick  and  broad  incisors 
are  covered  with  a  dark -brown  layer  of 
enamel.  The  castoreum  is  secreted  in  two 
pouches  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  anus. 

The  American  beaver  (PI.  XXXVI.), 
which  many  naturalists  take  to  be  a  distinct 
species,  is  beyond  doubt  only  a  geographical 
variety.  It  is  rather  darker  than  the  Euro- 
pean, and  has  a  narrower  head  and  a  curved 
profile. 


152 


THE   GNAWERS    OR   RODENTS. 


Beavers  live  in  holes,  which  are  dug  out 
on  the  banks  of  rivers,  and  have  their  entrance 
under  the  water  like  those  of  otters.  From 
the  entrance  a  tunnel  leads  obliquely  upwards 
to  a  chamber  which  lies  above  the  level  of 
high  water  and  to  which  air  is  admitted  by 
a  narrow  opening.  In  retired  places  they 
build  dams  across  the  streams  out  of  the 
trunks  of  trees,  which  are  driven  into  the 
ground  and  have  their  branches  consolidated 
by  earth.  In  this  manner  they  convert 
streams  into  a  series  of  pools  with  a  constant 
level.  In  front  of  these  dams  they  construct 
out  of  clay  regular  fortresses  with  arched 
roofs,  which  have  the  entrances  under  the 
water,  and  in  addition  to  the  warmly  lined 
dwelling -chambers  contain  also  provision 
rooms.  The  beavers  are  extraordinarily 
expert  in  the  use  of  their  fore-feet  and  teeth 
in  the  working  up  of  the  various  materials 
which  they  carry  or  drag  to  the  desired  place, 
waddling  on  erect  on  their  hind-feet  as  they 
do  so.  In  the  construction  of  these  dams 
and  dwellings  the  beaver  undoubtedly  reveals 
a  decided  mental  superiority  to  other  rodents. 
Its  flesh,  which  was  regarded  as  one  of  the 
meats  that  might  be  used  during  fasts,  is 
very  palatable,  and  the  tail  is  considered  a 
delicacy. 

The  beaver  is  generally  caught  in  traps. 
America  yields  about  100,000  skins  yearly. 
The  castoreum  is  in  high  esteem ;  it  is  almost 
ten  times  as  valuable  as  the  fur.  There  are 
some  Indian  tribes  which  live  almost  ex- 
clusively by  catching  the  beaver. 

[The  following  extracts,  besides  furnishing  some 
further  details  of  interest  regarding  the  habits  of 
the  beaver  and  its  trapping  in  older  days,  show  at 
least  that  some  of  the  generally  received  accounts 
of  this  animal  do  not  apply  to  its  behaviour  in  all 
parts  of  the  region  inhabited  by  it  even  in  North 
America : — 

"In  regard  to  the  beavers'  houses,  I  am  forced 
to  come  to  the  conclusion,  either  that  travellers 
who  have  written  regarding  the  beaver  in  the 
country  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  have  woe- 
fully taken  advantage  of  a  traveller's  license,  have 


listened  to  mere  hearsay  wonders  without  seeing 
for  themselves,  or  that  the  habits  of  the  beaver 
differ  much  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

"It  is  only  after  they  have  been  pointed  out  to 
you  that  the  'houses'  can  be  recognized,  as  they 
seem  like  loose  bundles  of  sticks  lying  on  the  water. 
In  a  recent  account  of  the  beaver  in  the  British 
provinces  in  North  America  by  an  anonymous 
writer,-  the  houses  are  described  as  being  exactly 
the  same  as  I  have  seen  them  in  the  West,  and  not 
plastered  domes.  The  vigilance  of  the  little  builders 
is  so  great  that  it  is  rarely,  unless  closely  watched 
for  a  long  time,  that  they  can  be  seen.  A  passing 
traveller  rarely  surprises  them  at  work.  .  .  .  The 
only  approach  to  plastering  their  houses  which  I 
have  observed  is  its  giving  a  self-satisfied  'clap' 
of  the  tail  on  laying  down  its  load.  .  .  . 

"In  winter  they  have  a  store  of  food  secured  at 
some  convenient  distance  from  their  abodes^  When 
they  require  any  they  start  off  to  get  it.  They  do 
not  eat  there,  but  bring  it  to  their  house,  and 
there  make  their  meal.  Of  the  almost  human 
intelligence  of  the  'thinking  beaver'  the  stories  are 
innumerable;  but  many  of  them  are  much  exag- 
gerated, or  even  fabulous  (such  as  Buffon's  account). 
The  following  is  tolerably  well  authenticated,  my 
informants  vouching  for  the  accuracy  of  it.  In  a 
creek  about  four  miles  above  the  mouth  of  Quesnelle 
River,  in  British  Columbia,  some  miners  broke 
down  a  dam  in  the  course  of  the  operation  for 
making  a  ditch,  at  the  same  time  erecting  a  wheel 
to  force  up  the  water.  Beavers  abounded  on  this 
stream,  and  found  themselves  much  inconvenienced 
by  these  proceedings.  Accordingly,  it  is  said  that, 
in  order  to  stop  the  wheel,  the  beavers  placed  a 
stick  between  the  flappers  in  such  a  way  as  to  stop 
the  revolutions  of  the  wheel.  This  was  so  continu- 
ally repeated  night  after  night,  and  was  so  artfully 
performed,  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  its 
being  accidental.  .  .  . 

"  When  beaver  was  30^.  per  Ib.  Rocky  Mountain 
beavers  were  piled  up  on  each  side  of  a  trade-gun 
until  they  were  on  a  level  with  the  muzzle,  and 
this  was  the  price!  The  muskets  cost  in  England 
some  1 5 s.  These  were  the  days  of  the  free  trapper 
— joyous,  brave,  generous,  and  reckless — the  hero 
of  romance,  round  whom  many  a  tale  of  daring 
circles,  the  love  of  the  Indian  damsel,  the  beau 
ideal  of  a  man  in  the  eyes  of  the  half-breed,  whose 

1  Mr.  Green,  the  writer  of  the  communication  from  the  notes  to 
which  these  extracts  are  taken,  states  that  one  day's  supply  of  sticks 
for  a  single  beaver  would  fill  a  house. 


To  fact  p 


PLATE  XXXVI.  —    THE    BEAVER   (Castor fiber). 


THE   MOLE-RATS. 


"S3 


ambition  never  rose  higher  than  a  coureur  dcs  bois  — 

a  class  of  men  who,  with  all  their  failings,  we  cannot 

but    be  sorry   to   see   disappearing    from    the   fur- 

countries.     The  fall  of  beavers'  peltry  rang   their 

death-knell;  and,  as  a  separate  profession,  trapping 

is  almost  extinct,  being  nearly  altogether  followed, 

at  uncertain  spells,  by  the  Indians  and  the  lower 

class  of  half-breeds.     The  world  is  fast  filling  in; 

the  emigrant,  with  his  bullock-team  and  his  plough, 

is  fast  destroying  all  the  romance  of  the  far  West  — 

fast  filling  up  with  the  stern  prose  of  the  plough 

and  the  reaping-machine  and  the  whistle  of  steam 

what  was  once 

only      claimed 

by  the  pleasant 

poetry   of    the 

songs    of    the 

voyagair,     the 

coureur  des  bois 

—the    hunters 

and  trappers  of 

the    great    fur 

companies! 

But  perhaps  it 

is   better  after 

all!"  —  Notes 

by      Mr.      R. 

Brown    to    a 


the  members  of  this  family  have  only  three 
cheek-teeth  in  each  half  of  each  jaw,  and 
these  teeth  exhibit  in  most  cases  transversely- 
placed  tubercles,  whereby  an  approach  to  the 
zygodont  structure  is  brought  about.  When 
worn  away  by  use  these  tubercles  often 
appear  as  more  or  less  complicated  folds,  and 
then  the  cheek-teeth  have  distinct  roots.  In 
other  cases,  however,  there  are  cheek-teeth 
with  lamellae  and  without  roots;  there  are 
also  cases  in  which  only  two  cheek-teeth  are 

present ;  and 
lastly,  those 
in  which  the 
upper  jaw 
alone  posses- 
ses four  teeth 
of  this  kind. 
The  mice  al- 
ways have 
well-develop- 
ed collar- 
bones. Us- 
ually there 
are  on  the 


communication 
by  Mr.  A.  H.  Green  "On  the  Natural  History  and 
Hunting  of  the  Beaver  on  the  Pacific  Slope  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,"  read  before  the  Linnean  So- 
ciety; Linnean  Society  s  Journal,  vol.  x.] 


THE   MOUSE   FAMILY 

(MURIDA). 

The  large  family  of  the  rats  and  mice  and 
their  kindred  is  so  numerous  and  varied  that 
many  naturalists  have  erected  it  into  a  sub- 
order, which,  however,  has  no  well-marked 
distinctive  characters.  One  might  almost 
say  that  in  this  family  have  been  included  all 
those  forms  which  are  connected  together  by 
almost  imperceptible  links  of  transition,  and 
which  could  not  well  be  referred  to  any  other 
family.  In  this  respect  this  family  plays 
pretty  much  the  same  role  as  that  of  the 
antelopes  among  the  ruminants.  In  general 

VOL.  II. 


Fig.  209.—  The  Common  European  Mole-rat  (Spalax  typhlus). 


fore-feet  four 
toes  and  a  rudimentary  first  digit;  the  hind- 
feet  have  five  toes.  The  tibia  and  fibula 
are  fused  together  in  their  lower  parts.  On 
the  whole  no  general  characters  can  be  given. 
From  among  the  numerous  groups  we  have 
selected  only  a  few  characteristic  representa- 
tives. 

The  Mole-rats. 

The  Common  European  Mole-rat  (Spalax 
typhlus),  fig.  209,  may  be  taken  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  this  family,  the  Spalacida,  a 
group  consisting  of  a  large  number  of  animals 
resembling  the  moles  in  their  habit,  their 
behaviour,  and  their  underground  mode  of 
life.  Their  head,  however,  presents  some 
differences.  It  is  short,  broad,  almost  as 
round  as  a  ball,  and  shows  in  front,  instead 
of  the  rather  long  snout  of  the  moles,  the 
large  incisors  not  covered  by  the  lips.  The 

52 


154 


THE   GNAWERS   OR   RODENTS. 


eyes  are  very  small,  often  quite  hidden  under 
the  skin;  the  external  ears  are  altogether 
wanting;  the  tail  is  rudimentary  or  quite 
absent.  The  form  of  the  body  resembles 
that  of  the  moles.  The  stout  fore-feet  are 
furnished  with  four  toes  with  powerful  bur- 
rowing claws  and  a  rudimentary  first  digit 
covered  with  a  smooth  nail.  These  animals 


live  in  underground  galleries,  in  the  course 
of  which  they  throw  up  little  mounds  of  earth 
like  mole-hills.  In  plantations  they  cause 
considerable  damage  by  gnawing  away  the 
roots  even  of  large  trees.  The  species  re- 
presented in  fig.  209  is  a  native  of  the  east 
of  Europe,  very  abundant  in  Ukraine  and 
Moldavia,  not  rare  in  Hungary,  and  met  with 


-     - 


Fig.  210. — The  Hamster  (Cricetus  frumentariits}. 


as  far  as  the  Caucasus  and  the  Urals.  The 
minute  eyes  are  completely  covered  with  skin. 
The  fur  is  silky,  soft,  thick,  and  of  a  dark 
yellowish-gray  colour.  The  three  cheek-teeth 
have  two  enamel  folds  running  into  them,  and 
small  spots  of  enamel  in  the  centre. 

The  Hamsters. 

This  group  (Cricetus)  forms  the  transition 
to  the  field-mice  and  the  rats,  but  is  distin- 
guished by  the  presence  of  enormous  cheek- 
pouches  opening  into  the  mouth,  covered 
with  a  sinewy  membrane,  and  sometimes 
extending  immediately  beneath  the  skin  far 
back,  even  behind  the  shoulders.  The  first 
cheek-teeth  have  six  tubercles  arranged  in 
three  transverse  lines,  the  others  only  four. 

The   typical   species,   the   Hamster  Proper 


( Cricetus  frumentarius),  fig.  210,  is  met  with 
in  corn-fields  in  the  temperate  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, from  the  Vosges  on  the  one  side  to  the 
Urals  on  the  other.  Formerly  it  was  much 
more  widely  distributed,  but  it  has  never 
passed  beyond  the  Vosges  within  historical 
times,,  although  in  certain  years  it  is  tolerably 
abundant  in  Alsace  and  the  Palatinate  of  the 
Rhine.  It  is  a  plump,  compact  animal  with 
short  legs,  and  measures  about  1 2  inches  in 
length.  The  head  resembles  that  of  a  cat, 
with  short  broad  rounded  ears  and  brilliant 
moderately  large  eyes.  The  tail  is  very 
short;  the  toes,  notwithstanding  the  burrow- 
ing habits,  have  only  short  claws.  The  thick 
fur  is  brownish  on  the  back,  black  underneath, 
and  bright  yellow  on  the  feet  and  the  rest  of 
the  body.  Light-yellow  patches  separate  the 


RATS   AND   MICE. 


155 


two  leading  tints  on  the  sides  of  the  head,  the 
breast,  and  the  Hanks.  As  regards  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  colours,  however,  there  are 
numerous  varieties. 

The  hamster  is  a  remarkably  destructive 
animal,  which  in  many  years  multiplies  with 
almost  incredible  rapidity.  It  confines  itself 
to  cultivated  fields,  where  it  digs  tunnels  in 
all  directions,  and  forms  its  nest  and  provision 


.    • 


cellars.  These  it  fills  chiefly  with  grain, 
which  it  carries  home  in  its  enormous  cheek- 
pouches.  It  is  a  real  pest  in  Saxony  and 
Thuringia,  where  hamster  years  are  recorded 
as  cockchafer  years  are  elsewhere.  In  a 
single  year  a  hamster  can  store  up  as  much 
as  a  hundredweight  of  grain.  All  methods 
are  resorted  to  for  its  destruction,  and  its 
provision  stores  when  found  are  used  like 


Fig.  an.— A  Brown  Rat  (Mus  dtcum.inus)  attacking  a  Black  Rat  (Mus  rattus). 


grain  kept  in  a  granary.  The  hamster  is  at 
once  an  ill-tempered  and  courageous  animal, 
which,  small  as  it  is,  will  spring  at  the  throat 
of  dogs,  bite  men  on  the  legs,  and  seek  to 
destroy  every  animal  it  meets  with  in  order  to 
devour  it.  It  is  very  fond  of  eggs  and  birds. 

Rats  and  Mice. 

This  remarkably  numerous  group  (Murina) 
has  the  same  sort  of  dentition  as  the  hamsters, 
cheek-teeth  with  tubercles  and  true  roots,  but 
the  cheek-pouches  are  absent,  and  the  tail, 
which  is  longer,  is  ringed,  scaly,  and  sparsely 
covered  with  hair,  the  hair  being  arranged  in 
accordance  with  the  rings.  The  typical 
genus  may  be  divided  into  two  groups :  the 
larger  members  forming  the  Rats,  in  which 
the  grooves  of  the  palate  run  from  the  teeth 


on  one  side  of  the  mouth  to  those  on  the 
other  side,  and  the  smaller  members  forming 
the  Mice,  in  which  these  folds  are  separated 
in  the  middle.  In  this  genus  are  found,  along 
with  the  field-mice,  the  most  disagreeable 
pests  of  human  dwellings. 

The  Black  Rat  (Mus  rattus),  fig.  211, 
attains  a  length  of  6  inches,  while  the  tail 
measures  7^  inches,  and  is  furnished  with  at 
least  260  rings.  On  the  back  this  rat  is  of  a 
dark-brown  colour,  underneath  rather  lighter. 
Till  the  beginning  of  last  century  it  was  the 
master  on  European  soil,  and  only  occasion- 
ally had  to  fight  against  another  rat  with 
white  belly,  which  was  more  common  in  the 
south  and  in  Egypt  (Mus  tectorum  s.  leuco- 
gaster).  It  accompanied  man  wherever  he 
went,  travelled  round  the  whole  earth  on 


1 56 


THE   GNAWERS   OR   RODENTS. 


ships,  and  settled  everywhere— in  the  Tropics 
as  in  the  Frigid  Zone,  in  America  as  in 
Australia.  But  this  almost  universal  do- 
minion has  been  greatly  encroached  on  by 
the  immigration  of  another  rat,  more  powerful 
and  more  ferocious,  from  Asia  into  Europe, 
and  in  the  latter  continent  the  Brown  Rat,  as 
it  is  called  ( Mus  decumamis),  fig.  211,  has 
everywhere  displaced 
the  black  rat.  In  the 
year  1727  prodigious 
swarms  of  the  brown 
rat  swam  across  the 
Volga  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Astra- 
khan, and  since  then 
this  species  has  multi- 
plied with  great  rap- 
idity, extinguished  the 
black  rat,  peopled 
Europe,  and  has  also 
reached  transoceanic 
countries  on  ships. 
At  the  present  day  the 
brown  rat  has  already 
advanced  beyond  the 
Mississippi,  and  soon 
it  will  have  overrun 
the  whole  territory  of 
the  United  States  as 
it  has  already  done 
the  whole  area  of  Europe, 
sewers  of  towns,  in  houses,  barns,  and  stables, 
and  may  become  a  real  plague,  and  above 
all  on  ships.  The  brown  rat  attains  a  length 
of  8  inches;  the  tail  has  only  about  220  rings. 
The  hair  is  coarse,  and  of  a  grayish-brown 
colour  on  the  back,  lighter  underneath.  It 
eats  anything,  destroys  everything,  burrows 
everywhere,  is  courageous  and  fierce,  and, 
like  all  members  of  the  group,  extraordinarily 
prolific.  An  albino  variety  with  white  hair 
and  red  eyes  is  pretty  common. 

The  Mice  are  not  such  mischievous  de- 
stroyers, but  nevertheless  are  far  from  agree- 
able companions.  In  fig.  212  is  represented 


•   •••, 


Fig.  212. — The  Common  Domestic  Mouse  (Mus  miisculus). 

It  lives  in  the 


the  Common  Domestic  Mouse  (Mus  musculus), 
which  attains  a  length  of  4  inches  at  the 
most.  Its  tail,  with  about  180  rings,  is  just 
about  as  long  as  the  body.  The  colour  is  a 
well-known  gray,  a  little  darker  on  the  back 
than  on  the  under  parts.  The  houses,  cellars, 
and  barns  which  it  inhabits  it  is  very  un- 
willing to  quit,  and  it  hardly  ever  ventures 

beyond  the  gardens 
into  the  fields,  where 
it  is  replaced  by  the 
Field-mouse  (Mus  ag- 
rarius);  in  the  woods 
the  Long-tailed  Field- 
mouse  takes  its  place 
(Mus  sylvalicus] ;  and 
in  many  corn-fields 
and  reedy  marshes 
there  is  a  smaller 
species,  the  Harvest- 
mouse  (Mus  (Micro- 
mys)  minutus),  which 
builds  for  itself  a 
round  nest  hanging 
to  the  stalks  of  the 
corn  or  reeds.  In  Al- 
geria and  the  steppes 
of  the  interior  of 
Africa  occurs  one  of 
the  prettiest  members 
of  this  genus,  the 

Striped  or  Barbary  Mouse  (Mus  striatus  (bar- 
6arns)},  fig.  213.  Its  fawn-coloured  fur  is 
marked  with  ten  dark -brown  longitudinal 
stripes;  the  belly  is  white.  It  attains  a  length 
of  very  nearly  5  inches. 

All  these  mice  lead  much  the  same  kind 
of  life,  residing  in  holes,  where  they  make 
nests  for  their  frequent  litters  of  young. 
From  eight  to  ten  young  ones  are  always 
born  at  a  birth.  The  period  of  gestation  is 
never  more  than  four  weeks,  and  at  the  age 
of  four  months  the  young  animals  are  already 
capable  of  reproduction.  A  new  period  of 
gestation  begins  almost  immediately  after  the 
birth  of  a  litter.  If  one  will  only  take  the 


THE   VOLES. 


157 


trouble  to  reckon  up  the  number  of  generations  |  joke, 
possible  during  the 
summer  months, 
from  April  to  Octo- 
ber, one  will  get  some 
idea  of  the  almost 
fabulous  rate  of  mul- 
tiplication of  these 
little  creatures.  S 

[In  South  Af:ir;i  Liv- 
ingstone met  with  a 
species  of  "  rats,  or 
,ratHer  large  mice,  close- 
ly resembling  J/WJT  pn- 
tni/io  (Smith),"  which 
he  says  are  "quite  fa- 
cetious, and,  having  a 
great  deal  of  fun  in 
them,  often  laugh  heart- 
ily. Again  and  again 
they  woke  us  up  by 
scampering  over  our 
faces,  and  then  bursting 

into  a  loud  laugh  of  He!  he!  he!  at  having  per- 
formed the  feat.  Their 
sense  of  the  ludicrous 
appears  to  be  exquisite ; 
they  screamed  with 
laughter  at  the  attempts 
which  disturbed  and 
angry  human  nature 
made  in  the  dark  to 
bring  their  ill-timed  mer- 
riment to  a  close.  Un 
like  their  prudent  Euro- 
pean cousins,  which  are 
said  to  leave  a  sinking 
ship,  a  part  of  these  took 
up  their  quarters  in  our 
leaky  and  sinking  vessel. 
Quiet  and  invisible  by 
day,  they  emerged  at 
night,  and  cut  their  funny 
pranks.  No  sooner  were 
we  all  asleep,  than  they 
made  a  sudden  dash  over 
the  lockers  and  across 
our  faces  for  the  cabin- 


They  next  went  forward  with  as  much 
delight  and  scampered 
over  the  men.  Every 
night  they  went  fore 
and  aft,  rousing  with 
impartial  feet  every 
sleeper,  and  laughing  to 
scorn  the  aimless  blows, 
growls,  and  deadly 
rushes  of  outraged 
humanity." — Expedition 
to  tlie  Zambesi,  chap. 
vl] 

The  Voles. 
This  group  (Arvi- 
colina)  consists  of 
rodents  very  similar 
to  the  rats  and  mice, 
but  distinguished 
from  them  by  their 
thicker  head  with 
broad  blunt  muzzle, 
their  thickset  body, 

their  short  tail,   and    the  structure  of  their 

cheek-teeth.  These 
have  such  a  large 
number  of  enamel 
folds  crossing  one 
another  at  acute 
angles,  that  the  grind- 
ing surface  of  the 
three  very  close -set 
teeth  of  this  kind 
forms  a  long  zigzag 
line.  The  field-voles 
live  like  the  true  field- 
mice,  do  no  little  dam- 
age in  plantations  and 
forests,  but  never 
enter  houses.  They 
flee  as  much  as  pos- 


Fig.  214. — The  Common  Field-vole  (Arvicola  arvatis). 


sible    from    the    pre- 
sence of  man. 

Of    the    numerous 
native  members  of  this 


door,  where  all  broke  out  into  a  loud  He!  he!  he! 
he!  he!  he!  showing  how  keenly  they  enjoyed  the 


group  we   mention   first  of  all   the  Common 
Field-vole,  Campagnol,  or  Short-tailed  Field- 


158 


THE   GNAWERS    OR    RODENTS. 


mouse  (Arvicola  arvalis  (agres(is)},  fig.  214.  j  considerably  shorter  tail.     This  rat  digs  tun- 


It  is  of  about  the  size 
of  an  ordinary  mouse, 
but  its  tail  measures 
little  more  than  an 
inch  out  of  a  total 
length  of  5^/2  inches. 
The  colour  is  a  yellow- 
ish-gray, somewhat 
darker  on  the  back 
than  underneath ;  on 
the  belly  it  is  a  dirty 
white  inclining  to  red. 
It  is  this  field-vole  in 
particular  which  dev- 
astates our  fields; 
sometimes  it  multi- 
plies to  such  an  extent 
that  the  harvest  is 
totally  destroyed.  In 
the  circle  of  Zabern 
(Saverne)  in  Alsace, 


215. — The  Water-rat  or  Water-vole  (Arvicola  amphibius). 


in  the  mouse  year,  1822,  a  million  and  a  half 
of  these  destroyers 
were  killed.  Foxes, 
polecats,  weasels, 
owls,  mouse-buzzards, 
and  other  beasts  of 
prey  are  of  all  the  less 
avail  in  checking  its 
devastations,  since 
these  animals  are 
themselves  relentless- 
ly destroyed  in  the 
most  senseless  man- 
ner. 

The  Water-rat  or 
Water-vole  {Arvicola 
amphibius),  fig.  215, 
likewise  belongs  to 
this  genus.  It  is  of 
the  same  colour  as  the 
black  rat,  and  attains 
about  the  same  size, 


nels  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  water,  and 
lays  waste  plantations, 
though  at  the  same 
time  it  is  very  fond  of 
•  a  flesh  diet.  It  is  a 
capital  swimmer  and 
diver.  It  is  still  a  mat- 
ter of  doubt  whether 
the  schemnaus  of  the 
Germans,  which  does 
not  frequent  the  water, 
is  the  same  species  or 
only  a  variety. 

A  species  regarding 
which  many  fables 
have  been  invented  is 
the  Lemming  (Myodes 
lc minus],  fig.  216,  a 
vole  with  a  thickset 
body,  large  broad  flat- 


Fig.  216.— The  Lemming  (Myodes  lemmus). 


but  is  distinguished  from  it  by  its  thick  blunt 
head,  its  short  broad  rounded  ears,  and   its 


tened  head,  and  with  ears  hidden  in  the  fur. 

The  lemming  attains 
the  size  of  a  moderate- 
sized  rat,  but  has  a  tail 
only  about  an  inch  in 
length.  On  the  fore- 
feet the  first  digit  is 
completely  developed. 
The  coat  resembles 
that  of  the  hamster, 
and  is  in  general  of  a 
yellow  colour  with 
brown  spots  and  white 
stripes.  The  under 
parts  are  likewise 
rather  whitish. 

The  lemming  in- 
habits the  northern 
parts  of  Europe. 
During  the  Ice  Age 
its  domain  extended 
as  far  as  the  Pyrenees 
and  the  Alps.  Species  allied  to  it  are  found 
in  Siberia  and  Canada.  On  the  high  plateaux 


THE   VOLES. 


159 


of  the  Scandinavian  Alps,  in  Lapland  and 
Finland,  it  is  met  with  everywhere.  It  lives 
like  the  hamster,  and  like  this  kinsman,  too,  is 
courageous  and  vicious  notwithstanding  its 
small  size.  In  favourable  years  it  multiplies 
to  such  an  extent  that  enormous  swarms  are 
compelled  to  emigrate  in  order  to  seek  their 
food  elsewhere.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  their 
habitual  mode  of  life  is  a  nocturnal  one,  they 


then  move  on  in  a  close  phalanx  in  the  full 
light  of  day,  swim  across  brooks  and  even 
rivers,  and  are  not  deterred  by  the  fact  of 
their  being  pursued  by  eagles,  falcons,  and 
small  carnivores.  The  carcasses  of  those 
which  die  on  the  way  pollute  the  air  all  round. 
Similar  migrations  of  the  brown  rat,  voles, 
and  other  rodents  have  been  observed. 

The   Musk-rat,  the   Musquash  of  Canada, 


Kig.  217.  —  The  Musk-rat  or  Musquash  (Fiber  ziiethicus). 


the  Ondatra  of  the  Indians  (Fiber  zibethicus), 
fig.  217,  is  a  species  living  entirely  in  the 
water.  This  is  a  pretty  large  rat,  whose  com- 
pressed and  flattened  tail,  sparsely  covered 
with  stiff  bristles,  is  of  about  the  same  length 
as  the  body.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
anus  there  is  a  gland  of  the  size  of  a  nut,  which 
secretes  an  oily  substance  with  a  strong  smell 
of  musk.  The  five  toes  of  the  hind-feet  as 
well  as  the  four  toes  of  the  fore-feet  are  con- 
nected by  a  web  set  with  stiff  intercrossing 
bristles,  which  are  of  service  in  swimming. 
The  coat  consists  of  very  fine  thick  soft 
woolly  hair,  beyond  which  projects  a  number 
of  long  glossy  bristles.  On  the  back  the 
colour  is  brown,  on  the  belly  reddish-gray. 
In  Canada  it  is  eagerly  hunted  for  the  sake 
of  its  very  valuable  fur.  About  three  millions 
of  skins  are  obtained  every  year.  The  mode 


of  life  of  the  musk-rat  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
beaver.  According  to  circumstances  it  either 
excavates  tunnels  on  the  steep  banks  of  rivers 
or  constructs  regular  fortresses  with  domed 
roofs  rising  above  the  surface  of  the  water; 
but  such  fortresses  are  of  course  distinguished 
from  those  of  beavers  by  their  much  smaller 
size. 

We  now  mention  a  few  mice  of  which  no 
illustrations  are  given,  but  which  yet  deserve 
some  attention. 

First  there  is  the  Australian  genus  Hy- 
dromys,  which  is  distinguished  from  all  other 
rodents  by  the  remarkably  small  number  of 
its  cheek-teeth.  In  each  jaw  there  are,  in  fact, 
only  two  such  teeth ;  these  have  oval  enamel 
folds.  This  genus  lives  in  the  water  like  the 
musk-rats.  The  fore-feet  are  adapted  for 
burrowing,  the  hind  ones  for  swimming. 


i6o 


THE   GNAWERS   OR   RODENTS. 


This    animal    is    one    of   the    few    placental 
mammals  of  Australia. 

Secondly,  we  mention,  by  way  of  transition 
to  the  next  family,  mice  with  elongated  hind- 
legs.  Some  of  these  (Meriones)  have  almost 
the  habit  of  hares.  They  dwell  in  the  steppes 
round  the  Caspian  Sea.  Others  (Gerbillus) 
have  a  greater  resemblance  to  the  jumping- 


the  collar-bone  is  present,  and  there  are 
almost  always  five  toes  armed  with  sharp 
claws.  A  single  American  genus  (Jaculus), 
which  is  found  in  the  Arctic  Regions  round 
Hudson's  Bay,  has  only  four  toes  and  a 
rudimentary  first  digit  with  a  flat  nail.  These 
fore-feet  are  used  in  walking  onlv  while  the 

O  J 

animal  is  feeding;  as  a  rule  the  jerboa  goes 


Fig.  218. — The  Egyptian  Jerboa  (Dipus  mauritanicus). 

hares,  and  occur  in  Africa.    They  have  a  long 
tail  without  any  terminal  tuft. 


THE  JERBOA   FAMILY 

(DIPODIDA). 

This  family  is  so  sharply  distinguished 
from  all  other  rodents  by  the  structure  of 
their  hind-legs  that  some  naturalists  have 
constituted  them  a  sub-order.  Their  whole 
structure  is  adapted  for  jumping,  and  we  find 
resemblances  in  this  structure  on  the  one 
hand  to  the  kangaroos,  and  on  the  other 
hand  to  the  jumping-shrews  among  the  Insec- 
tivora.  The  fore-feet,  although  very  much 
reduced  in  size,  are  yet  perfectly  well  formed; 


—      7~-    ir-^f^-. 

^  — -^ 

Fig.  219.— The  Jumping-rabbit  of  Siberia  (Alactaga  Jaculus).    p.  162. 

only  on  two  feet,  and  the  fore-feet  are  com- 
monly used  only  for  conveying  food  to  the 
mouth  or  for  burrowing.  The  hind -leg, 
which  when  extended  to  its  full  length  is 
longer  than  the  body,  has  a  long  and  thick 
shin-bone  (tibia),  while  the  fibula  is  rudi- 
mentary or  rather  degraded.  The  ankle  is 
greatly  reduced  with  the  exception  of  the 
heel-bone  (calcaneum),  on  which  is  a  long 
projecting  process  serving  as  a  lever  for  the 
attachment  of  the  tendons  of  the  muscles 
used  in  jumping.  The  metatarsus  is  almost 
as  long  as  the  tibia,  and  shows  the  greatest 
variety  of  structure.  In  Jaculus  and  the 
jumping-hares,  which  have  five  or  four  toes 
on  the  hind-feet,  there  is  the  same  number 


THK   JERBOA    FAMILY. 


161 


of  metatarsal  bones;  in  the  Alactagas  there 
are  three  distinct  metatarsal  bones  for  each 
of  the  three  perfect  toes,  while  the  two 
rudimentary  toes  have  none;  in  the  jerboas 
proper,  finally,  which  have  only  three  toes, 
the  metatarsal  bones  are  fused  together  into 
one,  which  shows  at  its  lower  end  three 
rounded  pulley-like  surfaces  for  the  three 


toes,  and  thus  exactly  resembles  that  of  birds. 
There  is,  accordingly,  a  marked  tendency 
to  this  fusion.  The  hind-toes  are  always 
long  and  armed  with  erect  claws.  The 
jerboas  run  like  long-legged  birds,  make 
enormous  leaps,  and  in  doing  so  draw  their 
fore-feet  towards  their  breast  or  lay  them  on 
their  cheeks.  The  tail,  usually  of  considerable 


Fig.  220. — The  Cape  Jumping-hare  (Pcdctes  ca/er).    page  162. 


length,  serves  as  a  rudder  in  leaping;  except 
in  the  jumping-hares  (Pedetes)  it  has  only  a 
terminal  tuft;  in  the  forms  mentioned  it  is 
completely  covered  with  hair.  The  jerboas 
live  in  steppes  and  deserts  and  are  nocturnal 
in  their  habits.  By  day  they  hide  in  their 
holes,  which  they  hollow  out  with  remarkable 
rapidity.  Their  food  consists  of  seeds,  insects, 
and  the  eggs  of  small  birds.  The  northern 
species  have  a  deep  winter  sleep,  and  with  a 
view  to  this  build  a  warm  nest. 

The  Egyptian  Jerboa  or  Common  Jerboa 
of  Northern  Africa  (Dipiis  mauritaniciis 
(agyptius)},  fig.  218,  is  the  best-known  species. 
It  can  be  abundantly  procured  in  Algeria  and 
Egypt,  where  it  is  wide-spread  in  the  desert 


VOL.  II. 


tracts.  Besides  the  characters  above  men- 
tioned this  genus  has  three  cheek-teeth  with 
tubercles  and  folds  of  enamel.  The  head  of 
our  species  is  round  and  arched,  the  ears  are 
pretty  large,  and  the  whiskers  of  considerable 
length;  the  three  toes  of  the  hind-feet  are 
protected  against  the  heat  of  the  sand  by 
small  bunches  of  hair.  The  fine  thick  coat 
of  hair  has  the  colour  of  the  sand  of  the 
desert.  The  animal  is  especially  fond  of  the 
alfa-covered  steppes,  lives  socially,  and  digs 
holes  of  no  great  depth,  which  communicate 
with  one  another.  In  captivity  the  jerboa 
is  a  charming  creature,  of  gentle  disposition 
and  very  cleanly  habits,  by  no  means  timid; 
but  it  is  advisable  to  keep  it  in  metal  cages. 


162 


THE   GNAWERS   OR   RODENTS. 


The  Alactagas  ( Alactaga  or  Scirtetes)  of  \  Africa,  and  its  mode  of  life  resembles  that  of 
Asia  have  exactly  the 
habit  of  ordinary  jer- 


boas, but  differ  in  not 
having  the  three  me- 
tatarsal  bones  fused 
together,  and  in  hav- 
ing, besides  the  three 
principal  toes,  two 
side-toes  which  do  not 
touch  the  ground. 
The  species  repre- 
sented (fig.  219),  the 
Jumping-rabbit  of  Si- 
beria (A.  jatu/us),  is 
nearly  of  the  size  of 
a  squirrel.  It  inhabits 
the  steppes  of  Asia 
and  European  Russia. 
The  Cape  Jumping- 
hare  (Pedetes  coffer), 
fig.  220,  resembles  an 


Fig.  221.— Phiffips's  Pocket-mouse  (Difodpmys  PkiWfai\. 


the  members  of  allied 
genera.  It  also  lives 
in  holes  in  the  ground. 
Its  flesh  is  as  highly 
esteemed  as  that  of 
our  own  hare. 

A  rather  aberrant 
genus  is  that  of  the 
"Pocket-mice"  of  the 
Americans  <  Dipodo- 
rnys).  which  are  na- 
tives of  California  and 
Mexico,  and  in  which 
the  possession  of 
cheek-pouches  open- 
ing externally  by 
lateral  slits  is  added 
to  the  general  habit 
of  jerboas.  The 
pouches  are  situated 
on  both  sides  of  the 


ordinary  hare  in  the  shape  of  its  ears  and  the  I  mouth,  and  are  haired  on  the  interior.     Phil- 


colour  of  its  fur,  and 
is  of  about  the  same 
size ;  but  its  fore-legs 
are  stronger  and  the 
hind-legs  shorter 
than  in  the  allied 
jumpers.  The  feet 
are  completely  cov- 
ered with  hair  and 
have  five  free  toes 
furnished  with  hoof- 
like  nails.  The  long 
tail  is  likewise  com- 
pletely covered  with 
hair.  The  four 
cheek-teeth  have 
only  a  single  enamel 
fold,  which  in  the 
lower  jaw  runs  in 
from  the  interior  and 
in  the  upper  from  the 
exterior.  The  jump- 


g.  222.— The  Gopher  (G 


lips's  Pocket -mouse 
(D.  Phillipsii\,  fig. 
221,  lives  in  general 
like  the  jerboas.  Its 
domain  extends  even 
to  Texas.  It  is 
scarcely  larger  than 
a  mouse. 

A  series  of  Ameri- 
can genera  in  which 
the  difference  in  size 
between  the  fore  and 
hind  legs  tends  more 
and  more  to  disap- 
pear, leads  up  to  the 
clumsy  thickset  forms 
resembling  the  moles 
in  form,  and  posses- 
sing three  simple 
cheek-teeth  without 
roots.  \Ye  select  as 
representative  of  this 


ing-hare  is  a  native  of  the  steppes  of  Southern  j  group  the  Gopher  (G corny s  bursaria),  fig.  222, 


THE    PORCUPINE    FAMILY. 


163 


which  attains  the  si/e  of  an  ordinary  rabbit, 
and  lives  like  moles  in  Canada  and  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region.  It  digs  out  tunnels,  builds 
complicated  nests,  and  throws  up  mounds  of 
earth.  Notwithstanding  its  underground  life 
its  eyes  are  well  developed;  the  external  ears, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  altogether  wanting; 
the  tail  is  thin  and  short.  The  strong  claws 
on  the  five  toes  attain  a  considerable  length, 
especially  on  the  fore-feet.  The  cheek - 
pouches  opening  externally  on  the  sides  of 
the  mouth  are  very  large  and  reach  back  to 


the  shoulders.  The  fur  is  soft  and  velvety 
like  that  of  a  mole;  it  is  of  a  dark-gray  colour, 
reddish  on  the  back,  lighter  underneath. 

THE    PORCUPINE    FAMILY 

(HYSTRICIDA). 

This  family  comprises  mostly  clumsy  thick- 
set forms,  which  have  a  defensive  armour 
consisting  of  spines  on  the  back.  In  each 
half  of  each  jaw  they  have  four  cheek-teeth 
with  or  without  roots,  but  always  provided 


g.  223.— The  African  Brash-tailed  Porcupine  (At/icrur.i 


page  164. 


with  enamel  folds.  The  collar-bones  are  not 
fully  developed ;  in  most  cases  only  the  middle 
portion  is  ossified,  while  the  two  ends  are 
still  cartilaginous  or  tendinous.  The  porcu- 
pines may  be  divided  into  two  groups:  those 
of  the  Old  World  are  animals  that  live  on  the 
ground;  those  of  the  New  World,  on  the 
contrary,  are  arboreal  in  their  habits,  and 
often  even  have  a  tail  capable  of  being  rolled 
up. 

The  Common  European  Porcupine  (Hystrix 
cnstata],  PI.  XXXVI  I.,  inhabits  the  countries 
on  the  Mediterranean,  but  is  especially  abun- 
dant in  Algeria  and  Asia  Minor,  while  in 
Italy,  Sicily,  and  Spain  it  has  become  rather 
rare.  On  account  of  its  plump  thickset  body 
it  has  been  compared  to  the  pig.  It  attains 


a  length  of  rather  more  than  2  feet,  but  the 
short  thick  tail  measures  only  about  4  inches. 
The  head  is  blunt  in  front  and  has  an  arched 
brow.  The  upper  lip  is  cloven,  and  this 
cleft  communicates  with  a  transverse  groove 
into  which  the  nostrils  open.  The  first  digit 
is  rudimentary,  especially  on  the  fore-feet, 
but  the  other  toes,  four  in  number,  are  all 
provided  with  strong  sharp  claws.  The  front 
part  of  the  body  is  covered  with  short  strong 
bristles.  The  bristly  defensive  armour  begins 
on  the  brow.  The  hairs,  which  are  at  first 
flexible,  become  stiffer  and  stiffer  till  they  at 
last  acquire  the  form  of  strong  spines  marked 
with  alternate  stripes,  such  as  we  are  all 
familiar  with  as  used  for  pen-holders,  brush- 
holders,  and  the  like.  These  spines,  which 


164 


THE   GNAWERS    OR   RODENTS. 


cover  the  whole  of  the  hinder  part  of  the 
body,  can  be  erected  or  depressed  at  pleasure 
by  means  of  a  strong  superficial  muscle.  The 
noise  occasioned  thereby  resembles  the  crack- 
ling of  withered  branches.  The  animal  places 
itself  in  an  attitude  of  defence  by  rolling  itself 
up  in  the  form  of 
a  ball,  concealing 
its  head  under  its 
body,  and  pre- 
senting the 
points  of  its 
spines  all  round. 
The  spines  easily 
come  off,  and 
when  they  do  so 
they  show  the 
strong  bristly 
hairs  with  which 
they  are  inter- 
mingled. The 
tail  also  is  set 
with  spines.  This 
armour  is  not  in 
general  so  dan- 
gerous as  it  ap- 
pears. If  we 
press  down  the 
spines  with  a 
stick  it  is  easy  to 
seize  the  animal 
by  the  nape  of 
the  neck,  and 

porcupines    inspire   the   carnivorous    animals 
with  no  dread. 


I, 


of  the  tail  and  the  very  sharp-pointed  smooth 
spines,  which  have  a  deep  longitudinal  groove, 
these  animals,  with  their  short  legs,  round 
head,  and  rounded  ears,  would  resemble  an 
ichneumon  rather  than  a  porcupine.  The 
species  shown  in  fig.  223,  the  African  Brush- 

_^^.         tailed    Porcupine 

(A  tJicrura  afri- 
cana],  is  a  native 
of  Fernando  Po; 
the  other  species 
live  in  tropical 
Africa,  in  the 
East  Indies,  and 
on  the  Sunda 
Islands.  Their 
mode  of  life  is 
nocturnal.  The 
spines  of  all  these 
species  are  much 
more  formidable 
than  those  of  the 
porcupine.  They 
end  in  a  recurved 
hook,  and  since 
they  come  out 
very  readily,  they 
remain  sticking 
in  the  wound 
which  they  make. 
The  porcu- 


^  pines  of  the  New 

Fig.  224. — The  Tri-coloured  Tree-pcrrcupine  or  Cuy  (Cercolabes  vHlosai).  *TT       i   ,  n 

World    are    all 

climbers,   and   the   South  American   species 
have  a  tail  capable  of  being  rolled  up  like 


The  porcupine  lives  a  solitary  life  in  holes 
which  it  digs  in  the  ground,  and  which  it 
quits  only  at  night.  It  is  easily  tamed,  but 
it  exhibits  extremely  little  intelligence.  Its 
scent  is  keen. 

The  Brush -tailed  Porcupines  (Atherura) 
are  distinguished  by  their  rather  long  body 
resting  on  short  legs.  The  tail  is  as  long  as 
the  body,  and  ends  in  a  bunch  of  flattened 
horny  strips  which  are  curiously  twisted  and 
cut.  Were  it  not  for  this  singular  appendage 


that  of  a  howling-monkey.  As  representative 
of  this  group  we  have  selected  the  Tri-coloured 
Tree -porcupine,  the  Cuy  of  the  natives 
(Cercolabes  mllosus),  fig.  224.  The  length  of 
its  body  is  about  2  feet;  the  pointed  tail  is 
naked  on  the  back  and  measures  about  14 
inches.  The  various  species  of  Cercolabes 
are  distinguished  almost  solely  by  their  colour 
and  the  relations  of  the  spines  and  bristles  on 
their  back.  Their  behaviour  is  like  that  of 
sloths;  in  all  their  movements  they  are  ter- 


2)  v  v 
x~-/i_j-3t 


To/ate  f**se  161, 


PLATE  XXXVII.   —    THE     PORCUPINE    (Hyslrix  crisluta). 


.  ;-i£ 
UNIVERSITY    ^ 

OF 


THE   SPINY   RAT   FAMILY. 


165 


ribly  slow.  By  day  they  remain  cowering 
on  the  branch  of  a  tree  to  which  they  attach 
themselves  by  means  of  their  tail,  and  they 
go  out  in  search  of  their  food  only  at  night. 
They  feed  on  the  leaves  of  trees.  The 
spines  have  only  a  very  thin  root,  but  they 
are  somewhat  thicker  in  the  middle,  and  at 
the  end  they  are  as  sharp  as  a  needle,  and 
are  provided  with  a  barb,  which  easily  breaks 
off.  These  tree-porcupines  are  more  detested 


by  hunters  than  any  other  animals;  they  are, 
perhaps,  even  more  dreaded  than  the  rattle- 
snake. A  dog  which  attacks  a  cuy  at  once 
gets  its  mouth  full  of  spines,  which  break  off 
when  one  attempts  to  pull  them  out,  and  in 
consequence  of  their  barbs  penetrate  more 
and  more  deeply  into  the  flesh.  The  tail  of 
the  allied  North  American  genus  of  the 
Ursons  (Erethizon  dorsatnni)  does  not  serve 
for  grasping,  but  the  animal  is  large  and 


-~- 


Fig.  225.  —  The  Coypu  (Mj/ofotanms  coypu). 


thickly  covered  with  those  dangerous  spines. 
In  defending  itself  against  attack  the  animal 
deals  vigorous  blows  with  its  broad  tail. 

THE   SPINY   RAT   FAMILY 

(ECHIMYIDA). 

Beside  the  porcupines  we  place  the  spiny 
rats,  which  are  chiefly  met  with  in  South 
America,  but  have  a  few  representatives  also 
in  tropical  Africa.  They  have  four  cheek- 
teeth, which  are  sometimes  simple,  sometimes 
composed  of  a  series  of  enamel  folds  like 
those  of  the  beaver,  and  mostly  have  roots. 
The  collar-bones  are  complete,  and  the  feet 
usually  have  five  toes.  The  hair  is  mostly 
coarse,  interspersed  with  glossy  bristles,  and 


often  also  with  a  few  real  spines,  which  are 
sharp  but  short.  Some  of  these  animals  are 
climbers — for  example,  the  capromys  of  the 
Antilles — but  the  majority  of  them  are  terres- 
trial animals  living  like  the  rats  and  mice. 
The  type  selected  by  us  is  an  inhabitant  of 
the  water. 

The  Coypu  of  the  Indians  (Myopotamus 
coypu\  fig.  225,  is  a  native  of  South  America, 
and  inhabits  more  particularly  the  marshes 
bordering  on  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  its 
tributaries.  Its  fine  fur  consists  of  soft  woolly 
hair  and  glossy  bristles,  is  of  a  beautiful  brown 
colour,  and  is  known  to  the  fur-dealers  by 
the  name  of  the  "  Plate  beaver."  The  ani- 
mal exceeds  3  feet  in  length  including  the 
tail,  which  is  about  equal  in  length  to  the 


1 66 


THE   GNAWERS   OR   RODENTS. 


body.  The  tail  is  round,  thin,  ringed,  and 
covered  with  inconspicuous  scales.  The  thick 
flat  head  is  blunt  in  front,  and  carries  small 
ears;  the  short  sturdy  legs  have  five  toes 


seldom  on  trees,  and  when  attacked  dart 
courageously  in  large  numbers  on  their  assail- 
ants. Allied  genera  (Ctenomys)  advance  as 
far  south  as  the  desert  tracts  of  Tierra  del 


Fig.  226.— The  Degu  (Octodon  Cuminingii}.  Vig.  227.—  The  Larger  Chinchilla  (Kriomys 


connected  by  webs.  The  coypus  live  in  pairs 
in  holes  on  the  edge  of  the  water;  they  are 
excellent  swimmers,  but  dive  badly  and  sel- 
dom ;  they  seek  their  food  by  day. 


THE    DEGU    FAMILY 

(OCTODONTIDA). 

This  family  owes  its  scientific  name1  to 
the  fact  that  the  enamel  folds  of  its  four 
cheek-teeth  form  on  the  grinding  surface  a 
figure  of  8.  The  feet  have  for  the  most  part 
five  toes,  and  the  collar-bone  is  always  fully 
developed.  The  typical  species,  the  Degu  of 
the  Chileans  (Octodon  Cummingii),  fig.  226, 
has  the  size,  habit,  and  colour  of  a  rat,  and  is 
very  abundant  in  Chile,  where  it  does  a  great 
deal  of  damage  in  cultivated  fields  and  gar- 
dens. These  rats  dig  holes  and  galleries, 
clamber  about  in  hedges  and  shrubberies,  but 

1  !•  rom  Gr.  okto,  eight,  and  odoits,  odontos,  a  tooth. 


Fuego,  and  climb  to  the  higher  parts  of  the 
Cordilleras. 

THE   CHINCHILLA   FAMILY 

(CHINCHILLIDA). 

South  America,  which  is  so  rich  in  rodents 
generally,  possesses  another  family  of  impor- 
tance for  us,  that  of  the  Chinchillida.  The 
distinguishing  character  of  this  family  is 
formed  by  the  four  rootless  cheek-teeth, 
which  consist  of  two  or  at  the  most  three 
bands  of  enamel  placed  obliquely  and  con- 
nected together  in  such  a  manner  that  each 
tooth  appears  to  be  composed  of  two  oval 
halves.  The  collar-bones  are  complete;  the 
fine  soft  fur  is  almost  woolly. 

The  Chinchillas  Proper  (Eriomys  or  Chin- 
chilla) occupy  the  first  place  in  this  family. 
They  lead  a  similar  life  to  our  marmots,  and 
are  natives  of  the  higher  rocky  and  treeless 


THK    CHINCHILLA    FAMILY. 


.67 


parts  of  the  Cordilleras  of  Peru,  Chile,  and  I  The  other  (Eriomys 

Bolivia,     when-    they  

are  much  hunted  on 
account  of  their  ex- 
traordinarily fine  and 
soft  fur,  which  has  a 
pretty  silvery  look 
and  is  of  a  pearl-gray 
colour.  Illustrations 
are  given  of  the  two 
species  to  which  the 
name  Chinchilla  is 
specially  applied,  and 
which  are  celebrated 
under  that  name  on 
account  of  their  ex- 
tremely valuable  fur. 
The  first  of  these 
( Kriomys  chinchilla 
( Chinchilla  brcvuan- 
data} ),  fig.  227,  is  of 
about  the  sixe  of  a 
squirrel,  but  has  a 

,  .    .  I'ig.  228.— The  Smaller  Chinchilla  (Eriomyi  lanicfr). 

much    more    thickset 

body.    It  is  distributed  over  Peru  and  Bolivia.  |  agile   animals,    which 


(Chinchilla  lani- 
gcra)\  fig.  228,  is  the 
smaller  species,  and 
occurs  chiefly  in  Chile. 
In  both  species  the 
head  is  round,  and 
the  ears  are  large, 
the  whisker-hairs  long 
and  thick.  The  fore- 
feet have  five  pretty 
long  divergent  toes, 
the  hind  ones  four 
toes  with  short  claws. 
The  genus  is  likewise 
characterized  by  hav- 
ing the  cheek-teeth 
composed  of  three 
narrow  plates  of  ena- 
mel, and  their  tail 
completely  covered 
with  hair,  as  well  as 
by  their  naked  ankle 
(tarsus). 

The  chinchillas  are 
run    and    climb    well. 


:ig.  229.— Cuvier's  Lagidium  (Lag 


').     page  168. 


They  are  fond  of  stony  districts,   and  live 
socially    in    holes    dug    out    by    themselves. 


They    resemble    marmots    in    their    general 
mode  of  life.     In  confinement  they  are  ex- 


1 68 


THE   GNAWERS   OK    RODENTS. 


tremely  graceful,  gentle,  good-humoured,  and 
cleanly,  yet  they  may  become  rather  trouble- 
some from  their  curiosity  and  their  disposition 
to  gnaw  everything  that  comes  in  their  way. 
Their  flesh  resembles  that  of  the  wild  rabbit. 
The  members  of  the  genus  Lagidium  (or 
Lagotis)  inhabit  the  same  regions  as  the 
chinchillas,  and  resemble  these  latter  in  the 


structure  of  their  teeth,  but  are  distinguished 
by  having  longer  legs,  a  less  delicate  fur, 
much  longer  ears,  and  a  long  tail,  which  is 
haired  only  on  the  upper  surface.  The 
general  appearance  of  these  animals  is  some- 
thing like  that  of  a  long-tailed  hare.  They  run 
and  jump  like  hares,  and  excavate  burrows 
like  rabbits,  to  which  they  are  about  equal  in 


Fig.  230.— The  Vizcacha  (Lagostomus  trichodactylus). 


size.  They  are  hunted  solely  for  the  sake 
of  their  savoury  flesh.  An  illustration  is 
furnished  of  the  species  which  is  so  abundant 
in  the  higher  parts  of  Peru  (Lagidium 
(Lagotis)  Cuvieri),  fig.  229. 

The  Vizcacha  (Lagostomus  trichodactylus}, 
fig.  230,  is  the  only  species  of  this  family  that 
descends  to  the  lowlands.  It  literally  renders 
the  Pampas  of  the  Argentine  Confederation 
and  Patagonia  unsafe  by  the  enormous  bur- 
rows which  it  makes.  These  burrows  are  in 
communication  with  one  another,  and  are 
occupied  by  families  which  sometimes  num- 
ber as  many  as  fifty  individuals.  By  day 
the  vizcachas  rest,  but  at  night  they  move 
out  in  dense  crowds.  On  account  of  the 
danger  caused  by  their  burrows  to  horses, 


which  frequently  stumble  in  them  and  get 
overthrown,  the  vizcachas  are  thoroughly 
detested  and  relentlessly  destroyed  at  every 
opportunity.  Whenever  possible  their  bur- 
rows are  placed  under  water;  the  vizcachas 
themselves  are  pursued  by  dogs,  against  which, 
however,  they  defend  themselves  bravely. 
The  vizcachas  are  distinguished  from  the 
members  of  allied  genera  by  their  thicker 
head  and  more  thickset  body,  by  their  long 
stiff  whiskers,  their  dentition,  and  their  rather 
short  but  very  hairy  tail;  moreover,  the  fore- 
feet are  four-toed,  the  hind  ones  only  three- 
toed.  The  first  three  cheek-teeth  have  two 
quite  separate  oval  rings  of  enamel,  the  last 
has  three  of  these.  The  body  attains  a 
length  of  about  twenty  inches.  The  colour  is 


THE   AGOUTI    FAMILY. 


169 


a  dark  gray  on  the  hack,  but  the  belly  is  white, 
and  there  is  a  white  stripe  across  the  nose 
and  cheeks. 

THE   AGOUTI    FAMILY 

(SUBUNGULATA). 

The  South  American  family  of  the  agoutis 
is  distinguished 
from  all  the  other 
families  by  the  pe- 
culiar structure  of 
the  toes,  which  in- 
stead of  nails  or 
claws  carry  a  sort 
of  hoofs.  This 
structure  of  the  toes 
is  very  conspicuous 
in  the  largest  mem- 
ber of  the  family, 
and  indeed  the 
largest  of  all  ro- 
dents, the  capybara. 
In  this  animal  the 
last  phalanx  on  all 
the  toes  appears  in 
the  skeleton  round- 
ed, flat,  and  spongy, 
as  in  the  tapirs, 
and  it  is  encased  by  a  horny  hoof,  which 
is  likewise  flat  and  rounded.  In  the  other 
genera  this  structure  of  the  toes  is  not  so 
manifest.  The  hoof  stands  erect  in  the  form 
of  a  ridge  or  keel,  and  is  prolonged  beyond 
the  bony  phalanx,  only  the  last  part  of  which 
is  inclosed  by  it,  and  as  it  is  also  a  little 
curved  it  presents  something  of  the  appear- 
ance of  a  claw.  In  this  family  there  are 
accordingly  transitional  forms,  which  show 
that  the  distinction  between  hoofed  and  clawed 
mammals  (Ungulata  and  Unguiculata)  is  by 
no  means  so  fundamental  as  has  been  repre- 
sented. 

All  the  Subungulata  have  a  rather  coarse 
fur,  feet  naked  on  the  soles,  and  a  mere  stump 
for  a  tail,  often  scarcely  projecting  beyond  the 

VOL.  II. 


pelvis.  The  collar-bones  are  altogether  want- 
ing. These  animals  are  extremely  stupid  and 
indolent.  The  development  of  the  ovum  and 
the  embryo,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  capy- 
bara, presents  some  remarkable  peculiarities. 
The  dentition  is  far  from  uniform.  There 
are  always,  indeed,  four  cheek-teeth  in  each 
half  of  each  jaw;  but  these  are  so  varied  in 

.     structure    that    the 
^  family   can    be   di- 

vided into  two 
groups  in  accord- 
ance with  these  dif- 
ferences. 

In  the  first  group 
the  cheek-teeth  are 
arranged  in  two 
parallel  rows,  and 
have  distinct  roots, 
which,  however, 
are  not  completely 
closed.  The  sur- 
face of  the  crown 
when  worn  flat  ex- 
hibits intricate  folds, 
so  that  it  acquires 
the  appearance  of 
a  coarse  fabric 
which  has  been 
lined  and  then  folded  twice. 

The  Agoutis  (Dasyprocta)  belong  to  this 
first  group.  These  animals,  which  have  some- 
times been  called  "golden  hares,"  have  a 
thickset  body,  which  is  high  and  arched  be- 
hind. The  muzzle  is  somewhat  blunt;  the 
ears  are  small  and  rounded;  the  legs,  especi- 
ally the  hind  ones,  long  and  thin,  the  tail- 
stump  naked.  The  fore-feet  have  four  toes 
with  broad,  strong,  slightly  curved  nails,  and 
a  rudimentary  first  digit  covered  with  a  flat 
hoof;  the  hind-feet  have  only  three  toes,  but 
these  are  very  long  and  are  inclosed  in  rather 
long  claw-like  hoofs.  The  large  incisors  are 
yellow  in  front;  the  cheek-teeth  have  two 
bundles  of  simple  folds.  The  species  shown, 
the  Agouti  Proper  or  Golden  Agouti  (D.  Aguti], 

64 


:n  Agouti  (Dasyprocta  Aguti). 


i  ;o 


THE   GNAWERS   OR   RODENTS. 


fig.  231,  has  a  pretty  thick  but  coarse  fur, 
the  hairs  of  which  exhibit  alternate  lemon- 
yellow  and  dark  brown  markings,  which  pro- 
duce a  peculiar  shimmering  effect  when  the 
animal  moves.  The  agouti  walks,  runs,  gal- 
lops, and  jumps  almost  like  a  hare;  by  day  it 
conceals  itself  especially  in  the  hollows  of 
trees;  except  at  the  breeding  season  it  lives 
solitary ;  it  makes  paths  for  itself  in  the  forest, 
and  is  so  eagerly  pursued  by  dogs  that  the 
latter  will  give  up  any  other  game  in  order  to 


follow  up  the  trace  of  an  agouti.  The  flesh 
of  these  animals  is  not  highly  esteemed.  In 
confinement  the  agouti  is  peaceable  and 
gentle,  but  shows  no  sign  of  attachment  to  its 
owner;  in  zoological  gardens  they  excite  but 
little  interest  among  the  spectators. 

The  Paca  (Ccelogenys  paca),  fig.  232,  be- 
longs to  the  same  group.  Its  incisors  are 
orange-coloured  in  front,  and  the  cheek-teeth 
have  still  more  intricate  enamel  folds  than 
those  of  the  previous  species.  In  the  skull 


Fig.  232. —The  Paca  (Caclogcnys paca). 


of  the  paca  we  are  at  once  struck  by  the  con- 
siderable development  of  the  cheek-bone, 
which  is  rounded  externally,  and  so  large  that 
it  hides  the  back  half  of  the  lower  jaw.  On 
the  outer  surface  are  prominent  ridges,  such 
as  are  also  to  be  seen  on  the  frontal  and  nasal 
bones.  In  the  living  animal  a  sinewy  skin 
stretches  across  the  inner  side  of  this  bone  so 
as  to  inclose  a  cavity  at  the  side  of  the  mouth, 
into  which  it  opens.  Yet  the  paca  does  not 
appear  to  make  use  of  this  pouch  as  a  store 
for  food,  and  no  use  has  yet  been  discovered 
for  it. 

The  paca  is  a  pretty  large  animal  consider- 
ing that  it  is  a  rodent,  for  it  attains  the  length 
of  nearly  2^  feet.  Its  general  appearance  is 
like  that  of  a  young  pig;  but  the  head  is 
short,  almost  spherical,  with  small  ears,  blunt 
muzzle,  and  a  cleft  upper  lip.  The  tail  is  a 


mere  stump.  The  strong  legs  are  all  five- 
toed,  and  the  toes  are  enveloped  by  large  and 
rather  long  hoofs.  The  short  coarse  and 
thick  fur  is  yellowish-brown  on  the  back, 
whitish-yellow  beneath.  On  the  sides  are 
five  rows  of  bright  yellow  spots.  The  paca 
lives  solitary,  or  in  pairs,  in  the  marshy  for- 
ests of  Brazil  and  the  Southern  Antilles.  By 
day  it  confines  itself  to  the  hole  which  it  digs 
for  itself,  but  by  night  it  is  very  active.  It 
runs  and  swims  well,  and  works  considerable 
damage,  especially  in  plantations  of  sugar-cane 
and  maize  and  melon  fields.  Its  flesh  is  the 
favourite  sort  of  game  in  Brazil,  and  is  pre- 
pared for  the  table  like  pork,  the  hair  being 
boiled  off  in  hot  water.  The  animal  is  easily 
caught  in  traps  and  snares,  into  which  it  is 
enticed  by  a  head  of  maize.  The  paca  stands 
our  climate  very  well,  but  its  introduction 


THE   AGOUTI    FAMILY. 


171 


into  Europe  is  not  to  be  recommended,  since 
it  eats  a  great  deal,  grows  slowly,  and  is  not 
very  prolific. 

In  the  second  group  of  the  Subungulata  the 

cheek-teeth  are  composed  of  narrow  flat  plates 
arranged  transversely  and  obliquely  and  con- 
nected by  cement,  which,  however,  leaves  the 


points  of  junction  of  the  enamel  plates  free. 
This  structure  is  specially  well  marked  in  the 
furthest  back  teeth,  and  in  the  capybara  it  is 
so  pronounced  that  one  might  take  these  teeth 
for  miniature  elephants'  teeth.  As  regards 
structure  at  least  there  is  no  essential  difference 
between  the  grinding  teeth  of  these  animals. 


Fig.  233. — The  Patngonian  Cavy  (Dolichotis patagonica) 


The  Patagonian  Cavy  or  Mara  (Dolichotis 
patagonica],  fig.  233,  resembles  when  standing 
some  hornless  antelopes.  It  has  long  thin 
legs  of  equal  length,  a  rather  long  body  some- 
what arched  behind,  and  a  short  tail  almost 
hidden  in  the  hair.  In  a  sitting  attitude,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  would  be  more  like  a  hare, 
if  its  ears  were  not  so  short.  It  attains  a 
length  of  about  20  inches,  and  is  about  2 
inches  less  in  height  at  the  shoulders.  The 
incisors  are  relatively  small,  and  the  four 
cheek-teeth  have  only  a  single  fold  in  the 
middle.  The  soft  thick  glossy  fur  is  grayish- 
brown  in  colour  and  has  a  whitish  shimmer 
on  the  back  and  sides.  On  the  belly  and  the 
buttocks  it  is  white,  and  the  latter  white  patch 


(the  speculum)  is  surrounded  by  a  black  ring. 
The  hair  on  the  belly  and  underneath  the 
neck  is  a  little  longer  than  elsewhere.  The 
mara  inhabits  the  steppes  and  deserts  of 
Patagonia.  It  runs  well,  and  lives  in  troops 
under  the  leadership  of  an  old  male.  It  is 
remarkably  shy,  and  often  hides  in  the  holes 
dug  by  the  vizcachas.  In  captivity  the  mara 
behaves  like  a  hare.  Its  fur  is  much  used  in 
making  carpets  and  blankets;  its  flesh  is  white 
and  not  exactly  palatable. 

The  Restless  Cavy  or  Aperea  (Cavia  aperea 
(porcelhts)},  fig.  234,  is  very  probably  the 
ancestor  of  our  Guinea-pig  (C.  cobayd),  which, 
as  has  been  historically  proved,  was  introduced 
into  Europe  from  America  in  the  middle  of 


1/2 


THE   GNAWERS   OR   RODENTS. 


the  sixteenth  century.     The  aperea  inhabits  rodents,  and,  as  is  indicated  by  its  Latin  and 

the  borders  of  the  forests  of  Paraguay,  lives  German  names  (both  meaning  "  water-pig"), 

in  small  troops,  and  when  it  comes  out  to  j  is  very  fond  of  the  water,   into  which  it  is 

graze  early  in  the  morning  and  in  the  evening  always  ready  to  plunge  on  the  approach  of 

is  rendered  by  its  stupidity  an  easy  prey  to  danger,  uttering  at  the  time  a  peculiar  cry. 

carnivores,  serpents,  and  rapacious  birds.     Its  The  thick  head  with  the  blunt  muzzle  and  the 

length  is  about  10  inches.     Its  colour  is  brown  cleft  upper  lip  carries  small  ears  and  inexpres- 

or  grayish-brown  on  the  back,  light  gray  or  sive  eyes.     The  four  toes  of  the  fore-feet  and 


yellowish  under- 
neath. The  head 
with  the  short  broad 
ears,  the  thick  stumpy 
body,  the  short  legs 
with  four  toes  in 
front,  three  behind, 
the  bearing,  the 
short  trot,  every- 
thing, in  short,  is  ex- 
actly as  in  our  guinea- 
pig.  The  dentition 
also  is  the  same.  In 
the  aperea  the  in- 
cisors are  slightly 
yellow,  but  their  size 
as  well  as  the  struc- 
ture of  the  cheek- 
teeth, which  are  al- 
most divided  into 
two  parts  by  the 
double  fold  of  enamel,  offer  no  point  of  dis- 
tinction. The  skull  of  the  aperea  is  slightly 
pointed  in  front,  more  rounded  behind;  the 
guinea-pig  is  almost  always  marked  with  white, 


Fig.  234. — The  Restless  Cavy  or  Aperea  (Cavia  apcrta).     page  171. 


the  three  toes  of  the 
hind-feet  have  large 
flat  rounded  hoofs, 
and  are  connected 
by  a  web.  A  stump 
serves  for  a  tail.  The 
anus  and  the  sexual 
organs  are  covered 
by  a  fold  of  skin 
forming  a  sort  of 
sack.  The  strong 
reddish-brown  bris- 
tles are,  as  in  the  pig, 
only  sparsely  scat- 
tered over  the  sur- 
face of  the  body. 
The  dentition  is  ex- 
tremely remarkable. 
The  strong  white  in- 
cisors are  grooved ; 
the  cheek-teeth  are 


composed  of  obliquely  placed  close-set  plates 
of  enamel,  which,  in  the  hindmost  tooth,  are 
so  close  together  that  this  tooth  resembles 
that  of  an  elephant,  while  in  those  nearer  the 


yellow,  or  brown  spots: — these  are  the  only     front  of  the  mouth  these  plates  are  arranged 


points  of  distinction,  and  these  are,  unques- 
tionably, the  result  of  domestication,  such  as 
have  been  brought  about  in  many  other 
animals  by  the  same  means. 

The  Capybara  (Hydrochcerus  capybara},  fig. 
235,  is  the  rodent  which,  among  all  those 
belonging  to  South  America,  shows  the  most 
complete  adaptation  to  an  aquatic  life.  It  is 
of  the  same  size  and  general  appearance  as  a 
one-year-old  pig,  for  it  attains  a  weight  of 
about  i  cwt.,  a  length  of  4  feet,  and  a  height 
of  about  20  inches.  It  is  the  largest  of  all 


like  a  V  lying   on   its  side   with    the   point 
directed  inwards. 

The  capybara  lives  in  families  on  the  marshy- 
banks  of  the  rivers  of  South  America.  It 
runs  little,  seldom  goes  far  from  the  banks, 
but  springs  well,  and  swims  and  dives  with 
wonderful  dexterity.  It  would  lead  a  quiet 
life,  like  the  peace-loving  and  ease-loving, 
not  very  intelligent  animal  that  it  is,  were 
it  not  that  the  large  beasts  of  prey,  the  huge 
serpents  of  South  America,  large  fish,  and 
above  all,  man,  stand  constantly  on  a  war- 


THE    RABBIT   FAMILY. 


'73 


footing  with  regard  to  it  on  account  ol  its 
excellent  flesh.  The  animal  leads  in  other 
respects  much  the  same  kind  of  life  as  a  pig, 
is  fond  of  wallowing  in  the  mud,  and  could 
easily  be  domesticated  among  us  if  it  were 
of  sufficient  value  to  make  it  worth  while  to 
do  so. 


THE    RABBIT    FAMILY 

(LEPORIDA). 

This  family  is  distinguished  from  all  other 
families  of  rodents  by  the  possession  of  a 
small  pair  of  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  not, 


Fig.  235. — The  Capybara  (HydrocHarus  capytara}. 


however,  placed  beside,  but  close  behind  the 
large  gnawing  teeth.  They  are  rather  small 
and  narrow,  and  form,  so  to  speak,  a  heel 
which  prevents  the  lower  incisors  from  pene- 
trating the  flesh  of  the  palate  when  the 
mouth  is  closed.  They  have,  however,  their 
own  sockets  and  are  rootless  like  the  large 
incisors.  The  cheek-teeth  are  present  in 
considerable  number;  in  the  lower  jaw  there 
are  always  five  on  each  side,  in  the  upper 
the  number  may  rise  to  six.  These  rootless 
cheek-teeth,  which  are  furnished  with  double 
rings  of  enamel,  get  worn  away  by  long  use 
in  such  a  manner  that  they  assume,  especially 
in  the  lower  jaw,  the  zygodont  character. 
The  skull  also  exhibits  a  remarkable  pecu- 
liarity. The  branch  of  the  jaw  forming  the 


cheek  is  incomplete,  and  exhibits  either  a 
single  gap  or  a  series  of  holes  like  a  lattice. 
The  palate,  too,  is  only  slightly  ossified. 
The  rabbit  family  is  composed  of  only  two 
genera,  and  is  distributed  everywhere  except 
in  Australia. 

The  Asiatic  genus  of  the  Piping  or  Calling 
Hares  or  Pikas  (Lagomys),  of  which  the  most 
wide-spread  species,  the  Alpine  Pika  (L. 
a/pinus],  is  shown  in  fig.  236,  will  be  best 
characterized  if  we  compare  it  as  regards  size 
and  general  appearance  to  a  guinea-pig,  and 
as  regards  its  mode  of  life  to  a  marmot. 
The  members  of  the  genus  in  general  are 
unequivocally  shown  to  be  hares  by  the 
above-described  double  incisors.  But  their 
body  is  thickset;  the  legs  are  almost  of 


174 


THE   GNAWERS    OR   RODENTS. 


equal  length,  and  in  each  half  of  each  jaw 
there  are  only  five  cheek-teeth  with  a  single 
fold  of  enamel.  Moreover,  the  ascending 
part  of  the  lower  jaw  has  only  a  simple  hole 
instead  of  being  perforated  by  several  holes. 
The  large  incisors  are  deeply  grooved.  The 
piping  hares  are  further  distinguished  from 
the  ordinary  hares  by  the  short  oval  ears, 
which  are  almost  naked  on  the  upper  surface, 
and  by  the  entire  ab- 
sence of  the  tail,  the 
place  of  which  is  taken 
by  a  small  lump  of  fat. 
The  species  selected 
for  illustration  inhabits 
the  stony  plateaux  of 
the  Altai  Mountains 
and  other  lofty  ranges 
of  Central  Asia.  It  is 
found  even  at  a  height 
of  13,000  or  14,000 
feet.  Another  species 
prefers  the  naked 
steppes  of  the  low 
grounds.  In  Quater- 
nary times  the  piping 
hares  were  distributed 
over  all  Central  Eu- 


rope. 

These  small  agile  ro- 
dents live  in  holes  and 


Fig.  236. — The  Alpine  Pika  \Lagomys  at'finus).    page  173. 


their  small  erect  tail.  An  enormous  number 
of  species  difficult  to  distinguish  inhabit  almost 
the  whole  earth.  Only  those  which  have  a 
special  interest  for  us  are  here  illustrated  and 
described. 

The  Common  Hare  (Lcpus  timidus  (euro- 
p&us)},  fig.  237,  has  a  rather  long  body  and 
long  legs;  its  ears  are  at  least  as  long  as  its 
head.  It  attains  a  length  of  about  26  inches, 

and  is  of  an  earthy  gray 
on  the  back  and  whitish 
on  the  under  parts.  It 
inhabits  the  plains,  hills, 
and  mountains  to  the 
height  of  about  3500 
feet,  and  by  day  pre- 
fers to  confine  itself  to 
woods  and  thickets, 
which  it  quits  in  the 
evening  in  order  to 
seek  its  food  in  the 
fields.  It  is  particu- 
larly fond  of  juicy 
plants,  cabbages,  tur- 
nips and  other  sweet 
root  crops,  parsley  and 
clover.  The  common 
hare  makes  no  hole  for 
itself:  during  the  winter 
it  buries  itself  under 
the  snow.  It  is  the 


have    no   winter    sleep.       They    accumulate  i  principal    object   of  chase    for   the   ordinary 


regular  stacks  of  hay  and  herbs,  which  they 
protect  from  the  rain  with  broad  leaves. 
They  never  retire  far  from  their  holes,  and 
like  the  marmots  give  warning  to  each  other 
of  the  approach  of  danger  by  a  shrill  whistling 
sound. 

The  other  genus  composing  this  family 
(Lepus)  comprises  the  ordinary  hares  and 
rabbits.  These  are  distinguished  by  their 
long  hind-legs,  which  are  four-toed,  while  the 
short  fore-legs  have  five  toes,  and  also  by 
their  large  spoon-shaped  ears,  by  the  six 
cheek-teeth  of  the  upper  jaw,  the  last  of 
which,  however,  is  poorly  developed,  and  by 


huntsman.  It  is  a  good  runner,  full  of  a 
timid  curiosity,  but  rather  stupid.  In  many 
districts  it  multiplies  with  extraordinary  ra- 
pidity. When  it  has  been  able  to  feed  on 
plenty  of  aromatic  herbs  its  flesh  is  all  the 
more  tasty. 

The  Alpine,  Mountain,  or  Northern  Hare 
(Lepus  alpinus  (variabilis)),  fig.  238,  takes  the 
place  of  the  common  hare  in  the  Alps  and  the 
Arctic  regions.  Its  winter  coat  is  perfectly 
white,  except  the  tips  of  the  ears  which  are 
black.  This  animal  confines  itself  principally 
to  the  zone  between  the  trees  and  the  limit  of 
perpetual  snow ;  but  in  winter  it  betakes  itself 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION   AND   DESCENT. 


175 


to  the  woods.  Its  mode  of  life  resembles  that 
of  the  common  hare.  The  males,  during  the 
pairing  season,  are  remarkably  ardent,  like 
those  of  the  common  hare,  and  like  them, 
too,  are  very  savage  towards  their  young. 

The  Rabbit  (L.  cuniculns],  fig.  239,  has  a 
thickset   body,  and   is  in  every  way  smaller 


than  the  hare;  its  hind-legs  are  relatively 
considerably  shorter  than  those  of  the  latter 
animal.  The  ears,  when  laid  against  the 
side  of  the  head,  do  not  reach  to  the  end  of 
the  mouth.  The  creature  is  fond  of  stony 
and  sandy  places  where  it  can  make  burrows, 
in  which  it  breeds  with  considerable  rapidity. 


Fig.  237. — The  Common  Hare  (Lfpus  timidus). 


The  rabbit  is  a  destroyer  without  a  rival, 
doing  much  damage  in  forest  plantations  and 
fields.  Of  tame  rabbits  there  is  an  enormous 
number  of  varieties,  all  due  to  artificial  selec- 
tion. The  flesh  of  the  rabbit  is  white;  that 
of  the  hare,  on  the  contrary,  rather  dark. 
Fertile  hybrids  between  these  two  species 
have  been  reared. 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION   AND 
DESCENT  OF   THE   RODENTS. 

This  order,   the  richest  of  all    the  mam- 
malian orders  in  genera  and  species,  and  at 


the  same  time  one  of  the  oldest,  might  be 
expected  to  show  rather  complicated  and 
remarkable  phenomena  with  respect  to  its 
geographical  distribution,  and  the  phenomena 
which  it  does  present  under  this  head  may 
be  looked  at  from  various  points  of  view. 

We  are  first  of  all  struck  by  the  fact  that 
two  large  islands,  Australia  and  Madagascar, 
are  almost  entirely  destitute  of  these  animals. 
In  these  two  regions  we  find  only  a  few  re- 
presentatives of  the  great  family  of  the  mice, 
and  while  the  three  genera  represented  on 
Madagascar  are  absolutely  confined  to  this 
island,  two  out  of  the  six  Australian  genera 
are  found  also  on  the  neighbouring  continent 


I76 


THE   GNAWERS   OR   RODENTS. 


of  Asia,  the  other  four  being  restricted  to 
Australia.  Since  the  latter  island  is  other- 
wise inhabited  only  by  non-placental  mam- 
mals, the  presence  of  a  few  rodents  cannot 
but  be  regarded  as  a  phenomenon  all  the 
more  striking.  The  island  of  Madagascar, 
on  the  other  hand,  occupies  an  altogether 
exceptional  position  from  another  point  of 
view,  inasmuch  as  it  is  peculiarly  rich  in 
other  placental  mammals,  and  contrasts  with 


other  regions  also   in   the   peculiarity  of  its 
rodents. 

The  other  regions  of  distribution  exhibit 
very  unusual  relations.  South  America  is 
the  richest  of  all  the  continents  in  rodents 
and  that  which  has  the  most  specialized 
forms.  Of  the  thirty-seven  genera  repre- 
sented there,  thirty-two  belong  to  it  exclu- 
sively, three  it  shares  with  North  America, 
and  the  other  two  genera,  those  of  the  hares 


Fig.  238. — The  Alpine  or  Mountain  Hare  (Lepits  alpinus).     page  174. 


and  rabbits  and  the  squirrels,  are  genera 
which  are  found  all  the  world  over.  It  is 
manifest,  accordingly,  that  South  America 
formed  an  independent  centre  of  evolution, 
whose  primitive  stocks  were  different  from 
those  of  the  other  parts  of  the  earth. 

Such  also  is  the  case  with  the  true  continent 
of  Africa,  which,  considered  from  a  zoological, 
botanical,  and  geological  point  of  view,  com- 
prises only  the  region  to  the  south  of  the 
Sahara.  Yet,  though  this  region  is  almost 
as  rich  in  forms  as  South  America  (there  are 
in  it  thirty-one  genera),  it  is  far  from  present- 
ing the  same  degree  of  specialization ;  for  it 
has  four  genera  besides  the  hares  and  squirrels 
in  common  with  the  Mediterranean  region, 


other  four  in  common  with  the  East  Indies, 
so  that  only  twenty-one  belong  to  it  ex- 
clusively. 

The  Palaearctic  Region,  notwithstanding 
its  enormous  extent,  including  as  it  does  all 
the  area  to  the  north  of  the  Atlas  Mountains 
and  the  Himalayas,  is  more  sparingly  supplied 
with  rodents  than  either  of  the  two  previously 
mentioned  regions.  India  being  left  out  of 
account,  Europe  and  Asia  together  have  only- 
nine,  out  of  twenty-five  genera  represented 
in  them,  peculiar;  the  other  sixteen  are 
shared  either  with  Africa,  India,  or  North 
America.  As  in  so  many  other  cases,  we 
can  in  the  case  of  the  rodents  also  verify  the 
fact  that  the  polar  regions  have  a  large 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION   AND   DESCENT. 


177 


: 


number  of  types  in  common,  a  fact  most 
probably  to  be  explained  by  the  supposition 
that  the  types  in  question  have  radiated  in 
different  directions  from  the  extreme  north, 
that  portion  of  the  earth  having  had,  even  in 
the  Miocene  period,  a  mild  climate'  similar  to 
that  of  Southern  Europe  at  the  present  day. 

North  America  is 
only  slightly  differ- 
ent from  the  region 
just  spoken  of.  Out 
of  its  twenty-four 
genera  only  eleven 
belong  to  it  alone; 
the  others  are  shared 
by  it  with  South 
America,  or  with  the 
Eurasian  continent. 
The  types  peculiar 
to  it,  however,  are 
so  sharply  special- 
ized that  we  may 
rrgard  them  as  de- 
scendants of  separ- 
ate stocks. 

It  may  justly  ex- 
cite surprise  that 
India  and  the  Sunda 
Islands  are  so  poor 
in  rodents.  This 
region,  which  is  so  rich  in  the  other  mam- 
mals, is  so  sparingly  supplied  with  rodents 
that  we  may  well  suppose  that  all  the  forms 
represented  there  are  due  to  immigration.  Of 
sixteen  genera  known  to  exist  in  India  and 
the  Sunda  Islands  only  four  are  peculiar  to 
these  regions,  three  of  the  four  belonging  to 
the  mouse  family,  and  one  to  that  of  the 
porcupines;  and  there  is  even  something 
arbitrary  in  the  assigning  of  generic  charac- 
ters to  the  four  genera  in  question.  If  the 
East  Indies  have  in  the  case  of  the  other 
orders  of  mammals  contributed  many  of  the 
primitive  stocks,  in  the  case  of  the  rodents  it 
has  furnished  not  one  characteristic  form ;  the 
few  types  represented  there  are  derived  from 


Fig.  239. — The  Rabbit  (Lepus  cuniculus}.    page  175. 


VOL.  II. 


other  regions.  Now  this  remarkable  result 
can  be  due  neither  to  the  influence  of  climate 
nor  to  deficiency  of  food,  for  South  America 
and  some  parts  of  Africa,  which  have  the 
same  conditions  of  existence,  are  richly  sup- 
plied with  rodents. 

We  are  met  with  similar  peculiar  phe- 
nomena in  studying 
the  distribution  of 
the  families.  We 
have  already  on 
several  occasions  di- 
rected attention  to 
the  fact  that  the  sub- 
division of  the  ro- 
dents into  families 
and  genera  is  pecu- 
liarly difficult,  and 
that  investigators 
still  hold  contrary 
opinions  as  regards 
this  matter.  But 
whatever  view  one 
may  adopt,  one  is 
bound  to  admit  that 
certain  types  are  re- 
markably widely  dis- 
tributed, while  others 
are  limited  to  more 
or  less  restricted 
areas.  As  regards  the  latter,  South  America 
exhibits  the  greatest  amount  of  peculiarity, 
for,  apart  from  the  northern  regions,  the  two 
hemispheres  are  sharply  separated  from  one 
another,  and  illustrate  that  contrast  that  has 
often  been  dwelt  on. 

There  is  in  fact  oniy  a  single  family  dis- 
tributed over  the  whole  earth,  including 
Australia  and  Madagascar.  This  is  the  re- 
markably numerous  family  of  the  mice,  which 
has  adapted  itself  to  all  climates.  And  then 
there  are  two  others,  the  hares  and  squirrels, 
which  are  excluded  only  from  the  regions 
mentioned.  To  the  Old  World  exclusively 
belong  only  the  mole-rats,  the  dormice,  and 
the  typical  porcupines;  the  beavers,  the 

65 


1/8 


THE   GNAWERS   OR   RODENTS. 


jerboas,  and  the  pikas  are  represented  in  the 
Old  World  and  in  the  colder  parts  of  North 
America ;  the  warmer  zones  of  the  Old  World 
and  South  America  have  the  octodons  and 
the  spiny  rats,  which  are  chiefly  developed 
in  America.  On  the  other  hand,  all  the  Sub- 
ungulata,  as  well  as  the  genus  Lagidium,  are 
purely  of  South  American  origin,  while  the 
pouched  rats  and  the  tree  porcupines  are 
natives  of  North  and  South  America.  The 
New  World  thus  excels  the  Old  in  the  num- 
ber, richness,  and  diversity  of  its  types,  and 
manifestly  South  America  is  the  most  favoured 
region  of  all. 

This  remarkable  distribution  of  the  rodents 
cannot  be  explained  by  any  peculiarities  of 
climate,  food,  and  so  forth,  such  as  are  usually 
erroneously  regarded  as  the  dominant  factors 
in  determining  the  distribution  of  faunas. 
The  poverty  of  the  East  Indies  in  rodents 
has  sometimes  been  attributed  to  the  large 
number  of  small  beasts  of  prey  there  met 
with,  and  to  the  uniformity  of  the  conditions 
of  existence,  which  is  held  to  have  been  un- 
favourable to  the  development  of  varieties. 
It  is  not  easy  to  understand  how  such  a  con- 
clusion can  ever  have  been  arrived  at  in  face 
of  the  facts  observed  in  South  America,  where 
the  rodents  are  at  once  most  numerous  and 
most  varied,  notwithstanding  the  uniformity 
of  the  climatic  conditions,  and  notwithstand- 
ing the  abundance  of  terrestrial  and  winged 
enemies  which  are  found  there  also. 

These  differences  in  distribution,  on  which 
we  have  so  often  laid  special  stress,  must  ac- 
cordingly be  due  to  another  cause,  and  this 
can  only  lie  in  the  origin  or  descent  of  the 
different  types.  The  geographical  distribu- 
tion points  us  first  of  all  to  various  centres 
from  which  the  rodents  must  have  spread; 
and  these  centres  are  unquestionably  the  two 
Americas,  South  Africa,  and  the  Eurasian 
continent.  During  the  process  of  distribution 
over  the  earth  the  rodents  have  naturally 
undergone  greater  or  less  modifications.  We 
must  accordingly  seek  the  key  to  explain  the 


phenomena  observed  at  the  present  day  in 
the  facts  of  palaeontology. 

The  Upper  Eocene  has  yielded  in  Europe 
the  remains  of  two  genera  still  living,  Myoxus 
and  Sciurus,  both  of  which  have  continued 
without  interruption  to  the  present  day.  It 
is  a  rather  notable  fact  that  of  these  two 
earliest  known  genera  one  has  tubercled  teeth 
and  the  other  enamel  ridges  on  the  crown, 
while  in  both  the  teeth  have  roots.  It  is 
also  worthy  of  note  that  the  dormice,  notwith- 
standing their  occurrence  in  very  remote 
epochs,  have  remained  confined  to  the  Old 
World,  while  the  squirrels,  which  at  the  pre- 
sent day  are  remarkably  abundant  in  the  New 
World,  have  hitherto  yielded  no  remains  in 
America  older  than  the  Quaternary  strata. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  find  in  the  Eocene  of 
Wyoming  two  extinct  genera,  Paramys  and 
Sciuravus,  the  latter  of  which,  as  the  name 
itself  indicates,  is  closely  allied  to  the  true 
squirrels ;  and  we  find,  moreover,  that  there  is 
in  the  Upper  Eocene  a  genus  allied  to  the 
marmots,  Plesiarctomys.  The  mice  are  re- 
presented in  the  Eocene  of  America  by  the 
extinct  genus  Myops,  and  a  genus  called 
Megamys,  belonging  to  the  family  of  the 
Octodontida,  is  mentioned  as  belonging  to  the 
South  American  Eocene,  together  with  doubt- 
ful remains  referred  to  the  genus  Arvicola 
(the  voles).  The  European  genus  Theridomys, 
found  in  the  Upper  Eocene  of  Auvergne,  would 
be  regarded  as  the  ancestor  of  the  spiny  rats. 

Mice,  dormice,  squirrels,  octodons,  and 
spiny  rats  would  thus  all  have  their  ancestors 
in  the  Upper  Eocene. 

In  the  Miocene  we  find  a  greater  wealth  of 
families  and  genera;  only  the  mice  make  an 
exception  in  this  respect,  they  remaining 
almost  stationary.  The  jerboas  first  appear 
in  Europe,  represented  by  the  extinct  genus 
Issyodrimys;  the  beaver  family  makes  its 
appearance  with  the  genera  Castor  (the  true 
beavers),  Chalicomys,  and  Steneofiber  in  Eu- 
rope (the  two  latter  now  extinct),  and  with 
the  extinct  Palaeocastor  in  America.  In  India 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION   AND   DESCENT. 


179 


the  porcupines  make  their  first  appearance, 
and  the  piping  hares  have  been  found  associ- 
ated with  an  extinct  genus,  Titanomys,  which, 
during  the  Miocene  period,  inhabited  Central 
Germany  and  France. 

To  these  families,  which  are  continued 
right  on  without  interruption,  the  Pliocene 
strata  add  the  families  of  the  chinchillas  and 
the  Subungulata  in  South  America.  The 
other  genera  and  families  are  confined  in  that 
period  to  the  regions  now  inhabited  by  them, 
and  though  a  great  number  of  still  surviving 
or  extinct  genera  have  been  found  in  brec- 
ciated  Quaternary  strata  or  in  caves,  it  must 
nevertheless  be  admitted  that  the  geographi- 
cal limits  were  then  precisely  the  same  as  they 
are  now. 

From  this  series  of  facts  it  results  that  the 
rodents  have  mainly  been  developed  in  the 
Miocene  period,  but  that  their  roots  reach 
as  far  back  as  the  Eocene.  Some  American, 
and  indeed,  perhaps,  even  some  South 
American  types  appeared  in  Europe  at  that 
time.  I  do  not  know  whether  the  characters 
are  clearly  enough  marked  to  establish  this 
identity  satisfactorily. 

Is  it  possible  to  fix  with  any  degree  of  con- 
fidence on  any  old  type  which  might  be  re- 
garded as  related  to  the  rodents?  The  answer 
to  this  question  must  for  the  present  be  given 
in  the  negative.  We  can  only  admit  the 
possibility  that  the  characteristic  dentition  of 
the  rodents  has  developed  from  that  of  very 
ancient  insectivores  or  marsupials,  possibly 
connected  with  Plagiaulax,  the  remains  of 


which  have  been  found  in  the  Purbeck  Beds 
(Wealden  Series — Cretaceous),  and  recently 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Reims  in  France. 
The  occurrence  in  the  Eocene  of  rodents  with 
tubercled  teeth  having  distinct  roots,  and  an 
insectivorous  type  of  structure,  is  in  favour  of 
the  first  supposition,  as  well  as  the  fact  that 
the  aye-aye  has  in  the  milk  dentition  canines 
which  are  afterwards  shed  in  order  to  give 
place  to  a  dentition  of  a  rodent  type.  The 
same  thing  might  indeed  have  occurred  in 
former  geological  epochs,  and  since  it  often 
happens  in  the  case  of  certain  insectivores 
that  the  canines  are  replaced  by  larger  incisors, 
the  inference  might  be  drawn  that  the  denti- 
tion of  the  primitive  rodents  had  been  modi- 
fied through  the  loss  of  the  canines.  On  the 
other  hand,  I  confess  that  the  jaws  of  Plagi- 
aulax are,  in  my  opinion,  much  more  similar 
to  those  of  the  rodents  than  to  those  of  any 
other  type,  and  that  in  them  I  cannot  discern 
the  marks  of  a  carnivorous  dentition  such  as 
Owen  professes  to  have  found.  The  large 
incisors  of  this  genus  of  the  Purbeck  Beds 
have  certainly  no  resemblance  in  form  to 
those  of  a  rodent,  inasmuch  as  they  are  cylin- 
drical and  pointed;  but  these  teeth  are  fol- 
lowed by  a  wide  interval  or  diastema,  and  the 
premolars  themselves  have  a  great  resem- 
blance to  the  cheek-teeth  of  certain  rodents, 
not  only  in  virtue  of  their  position,  but  also 
on  account  of  the  fact  of  their  being  composed 
of  series  of  transversely  placed  enamel  plates, 
which  get  worn  away  in  much  the  same  way 
as  the  cheek-teeth  of  rodents. 


THE    EDENTATES 


(EDENTATA). 


Placental  mammals  with   incomplete  dentition  and   rootless  teeth  without  enamel.     The   free  digits  carry  hoofs 

transformed  into  sickle-shaped  claws. 


It  is  difficult  to  find  a  suitable  name  and 
satisfactory  distinguishing  characters  for  this 
order,  which  is  manifestly  made  up  of  diverse 
elements.  Linnaeus  designated  them  Bruta, 
embracing  under  this  term,  however,  also  the 
rhinoceroses  and  other  animals  without  in- 
cisors. The  name  edentate,  invented  by 
Cuvier  and  now  in  general  use,  does  not 
correspond  at  all  to  the  actual  facts.  There 
are  indeed  in  this  group  certain  animals,  such 
as  the  ant-bear  or  tamanoir,  in  which  the 
teeth  are  altogether  absent,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  are  other  animals  belonging  to  this 
order — for  example,  the  giant  armadillo — hav- 
ing more  teeth  than  any  terrestrial  mammal 
of  any  other  order.  The  incisors  are  almost 
always  wanting,  but  we  know  one  species, 
the  six-banded  armadillo,  in  which  the  first 
pair  of  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  though  exactly 
like  the  cheek-teeth  in  form  and  structure, 
are  set  in  the  premaxillary  bone,  and  must 
accordingly  be  regarded  as  incisors.  As  a 
rule  there  are  no  canines,  but  we  find  in  the 
unau,  a  sloth,  beautiful  strong  canines  both 
above  and  below.  These  are  pointed  and 
sharp,  and  thus  considerably  different  from 
the  ordinary  cheek-teeth.  It  is  true  that 
these  teeth  fit  into  one  another  in  a  different 
manner  from  the  canines  of  other  mammals, 
so  that  when  the  mouth  is  shut  the  upper 


comes  in  front  of  the  lower,  yet  this  circum- 
stance should  not  lead  to  any  difference  in 
the  naming  of  the  teeth,  any  more  than  the 
fact  of  a  tooth  placed  in  the  premaxillary 
bone  agreeing  in  form  and  structure  with  the 
cheek-teeth  would  deprive  such  tooth  of  the 
character  of  an  incisor. 

But  even  apart  from  these  details  we  must 
acknowledge  that  all  these  teeth  are  con- 
structed on  a  quite  peculiar  plan.  They 
show  no  trace  of  enamel,  and  consist  solely 
of  dentine  overlaid  by  a  layer  of  cement, 
which  sometimes  rises  from  the  part  set  in 
the  socket  a  considerable  way  up  towards 
the  crown  with  considerable  thickness.  The 
teeth  never  have  roots;  in  one  genus,  Oryc- 
teropus,  they  even  consist  of  a  number  of 
small  prisms  united  by  cement,  each  of  the 
prisms  having  a  vertical  canal  filled  with 
pulp.  This  kind  of  dentition  calls  to  mind 
that  of  certain  fishes. 

The  claws  also  deserve  special  attention. 
In  some  genera,  as  in  the  sloths,  they  are 
enormous  sickle-shaped  sharp  implements, 
flattened  at  the  sides;  in  others,  again,  they 
are  broad  and  well  adapted  for  burrowing  in 
the  earth.  Their  form,  however,  is  a  matter 
of  no  moment.  As  regards  their  structure 
they  are  in  every  case  hoofs,  that  is,  they  do 
not  merely  cover  the  last  phalanx  of  the  toes, 


THE   SLOTHS. 


181 


like  the  claws  and  nails  of  other  mammals, 
but  envelop  them  all  round.  This  important 
distinction  clearly  separates  the  edentates 
from  the  true  clawed  mammals,  with  which 
they  have  often  been  associated. 

It  is  difficult  to  point  out  any  other  general 
characters.  The  skeleton,  the  nature  of  the 
skin  and  its  appendages,  the  arrangement  of 
the  limbs,  and  the  structure  of  the  internal 
organs  are  all  very  different  in  the  sloth,  for 
instance,  on  the  one  hand,  and  in  the  arma- 
dillos and  the  ant-bears  on  the  other  hand. 
The  brain  is  always  without  convolutions, 
and  relatively  to  the  size  of  the  body  and  its 
members  must  be  called  small ;  the  fore-limbs 
are  endowed  with  an  extraordinary  power  of 
rotation,  especially  in  the  sloths;  the  collar- 
bone is  always  well  developed;  the  pelvis 
likewise  peculiar  in  structure,  containing  alto- 
gether a  much  greater  number  of  vertebra 
than  in  any  other  mammals.  The  move- 
ments of  these  creatures  are  remarkably  slow, 
and  this  slowness  may  probably  be  attributed 
to  the  great  subdivision  of  the  arteries,  which 
form  the  so-called  "  retia  mirabilia"  The 
arteries,  that  is  to  say,  are  broken  up  at  the 
joints  into  a  large  number  of  ramifying  or 
anastomosing  branches,  which  ultimately  unite 
again  to  form  single  vessels.  The  structure 
of  the  placenta  is  so  varied  that  nothing  of  a 
general  nature  can  be  said  about  it. 

We  subdivide  this  order  into  three  fami- 
lies: the  Sloths,  the  Armadillos,  and  the 
Ant-eaters. 

THE   SLOTHS 

(BRADYPODA). 

The  members  of  this  family  have  a  spherical 
head  and  very  long  fore-limbs.  The  zygo- 
matic  arch  is  incomplete,  and  the  jugal  or 
cheek  bone  has  a  downward  process.  The 
tail  is  either  altogether  wanting  or  is  a  mere 
stump.  The  body  is  covered  with  strong 
bristles.  The  sloths  are  exclusively  a  South 
American  arboreal  type. 


The  upper  part  of  the  head  has  a  swollen 
or  bulging  appearance  on  account  of  the  ex- 
ceptionally large  development  of  the  frontal 
sinuses,  which  extend  back  even  to  the  oc- 
cipital region,  forming  considerable  cavities 
between  the  plates  of  the  bones  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  skull.  The  jaws  are  rather  short, 
and  the  two  halves  of  the  high  and  strong 
lower  jaw  are  completely  fused.  The  zygomatic 
arch,  only  the  front  portion  of  which  is  de- 
veloped, sends  a  long  flat  process  downwards 
so  as  to  extend  over  the  outer  surface  of  the 
lower  jaw.  The  articulations  between  the  head 
and  the  neck  vertebrae  are  so  free  that  the 
creatures  are  capable  of  turning  the  head 
completely  round  to  the  back.  As  already 
observed,  the  fore-limbs  are  extremely  long; 
thus,  in  the  ai  or  three-toed  sloth,  which  has 
a  total  length  of  about  20  inches,  the  humerus 
or  bone  of  the  upper  arm  measures  about  6 
inches,  the  two  bones  of  the  fore-arm  each 
about  4^4  inches,  the  hand  or  fore-foot  from 
the  wrist  to  the  end  of  the  claws  somewhat 
more  than  4  inches.  The  humerus  is  cylin- 
drical and  without  any  ridges  for  the  attach- 
ment of  the  muscles;  the  two  bones  of  the 
fore-arm  are  capable  of  executing  much 
greater  movements  of  rotation  than  in  man. 
On  account  of  this  great  freedom  of  rota- 
tion and  on  account  of  the  shape  of  the 
head  some  naturalists  have  proposed  to 
associate  the  sloths  with  the  monkeys.  The 
hind-limbs  are  thicker  and  shorter  that  those 
in  front;  the  thigh  is  cylindrical;  there  is 
no  third  trochanter.  In  the  ordinary  attitude 
of  the  animal  the  extremities  show  the  em- 
bryonic bend  of  the  soles  of  the  feet  inwards ; 
in  walking  the  outer  edge  of  the  feet  cor- 
responding to  the  fifth  digit  touches  the 
ground.  The  two  or  three  digits  which  are 
present  carry  enormous  claws  flattened  at 
the  sides  and  shaped  like  a  sabre  or  sickle. 
Frequently  the  metacarpal  or  metatarsal  bones 
of  the  other  digits  are  also  present.  The 
pelvis  is  very  broad  and  flat,  and  the  hip-bones 
unite  behind  with  the  sacral  vertebrae.  The 


1 82 


THE    EDENTATES. 


number  of  the  neck  vertebrae,  which  is  so 
constant  in  almost  all  other  mammals,  varies 
in  the  sloths.  Instead  of  seven  a  species 
closely  allied  to  the  unau  or  two-toed  sloth 
has  only  six;  the  ai  or  three-toed  sloth  has 
nine.  In  general  the  skeleton  of  the  sloths 
is  distinguished  by  great  power  of  move- 
ment in  the  joints;  many  of  the  vertebrae 
resemble  those  of  serpents,  and  this  structure 
enables  the  animals  to  take  up  the  most  sin- 
gular attitudes  with  the  greatest  ease,  and  to 
perform  gyrations  and  dislocations  which 
would  be  impossible  for  other  mammals. 
The  tail,  which  is  composed  of  broad  vertebrae, 
is  either  short  or  even  quite  imperceptible. 
The  body  is  covered  with  a  coat  of  long, 
coarse,  stiff  hair,  so  that  the  animal  when 
crouched  up  appears  like  a  bundle  of  hay  or 
dried  moss.  The  direction  of  the  hair  is  from 
the  ventral  towards  the  dorsal  surface,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  inverted  position  which 
these  animals  so  frequently  assume.  The 
teeth  are  simple,  without  roots,  and  in  both 
jaws  are  set  so  far  apart  from  one  another 
that  those  of  the  one  jaw  fit  into  the  gaps  left 
between  those  of  the  other.  They  usually 
get  worn  away  by  use  into  obliquely  placed 
transverse  ridges.  All  the  teeth  are  set  in 
the  maxilloe  or  mandibles;  the  premaxillae  are 
quite  rudimentary.  The  stomach  has  three 
parts  like  those  of  the  peccaries;  there  is  a 
paunch  and  a  reticulum  with  large  cells.  The 
oesophagus  is  continued  in  the  form  of  a 
groove  to  the  pyloric  region  of  the  stomach. 
With  respect  to  the  sexual  organs  the  sloths 
stand  very  near  the  monotremes  and  marsu- 
pials, but  there  are  teats  on  the  breast. 

The  sloths  are  peaceable,  sluggish  animais, 
and  lead  an  essentially  nocturnal,  arboreal 
life  in  the  primeval  forests  of  South  America. 
They  are  usually  seen  singly  or  in  pairs,  with 
head  and  back  downwards,  hanging  from  the 
branches  of  trees,  to  which  they  cling  with 
two  feet,  or  frequently  with  only  one.  Not 
uncommonly  these  animals  will  remain  by  the 
hour  in  the  most  curious  positions  without 


moving.  They  move  along  slowly  from 
branch  to  branch,  and  never  leave  a  tree 
till  they  have  entirely  stripped  it  of  its  leaves 
and  fruit.  By  night  they  become,  indeed, 
a  little  more  active,  but  even  then  their 
movements  are  slow  and  deliberate.  They 
get  from  one  tree  to  another  by  hooking  on 
to  an  adjacent  branch,  without  descending 
to  the  ground,  where  their  mode  of  progres- 
sion is  extremely  toilsome;  in  walking  they 
seem  as  if  mowing  with  their  legs.  Sloths 
can  endure  hunger  and  thirst  for  a  long  time, 
but  not  cold.  They  bring  forth  only  one 
young  one  at  a  birth.  Immediately  after  birth, 
the  young  sloth  hangs  on  to  the  neck  of  the 
mother,  who  carries  it  about  with  her.  Indo- 
lent and  stupid,  the  sloths  cling  with  unparal- 
leled strength  to  their  branches,  and  defend 
themselves  by  their  apathy.  Nevertheless  it 
has  been  found  possible  to  domesticate  sloths 
so  far  that  they  could  recognize  the  voice  of 
|  their  keepers  who  brought  them  their  food. 
But  this  is  all  that  can  be  attained.  The 
food  is  conveyed  to  the  mouth  by  means  of 
the  fore-paw. 

The  AV  or  Three-toed  Sloth  (Bradypus  tri- 
dactylus),  which  is  represented  in  a  full-page 
illustration  (PI.  XXXVIII.),  has  three  claws 
on  all  the  feet ;  its  neck  is  cylindrical  and 
rather  long,  the  head  spherical  and  of  uniform 
thickness.  The  nose  is  a  little  turned  up. 
The  nearly  black  face  with  white  rings  round 
the  eyes  is  quite  naked.  The  coarse  dry 
brittle  hair  begins  on  the  brow,  is  parted  on 
the  back,  and  forms  a  ring  or  collar  round 
the  face,  to  which  the  small  eyes,  without 
apparent  pupils,  impart  a  stupid  and  at  the 
same  time  rather  childish  look.  The  tail  is 
short,  measuring  in  an  animal  of  about  20 
inches  in  length  only  2  inches  or  less.  There 
are  five  teeth  in  each  half  of  each  jaw,  the 
first  being  a  little  smaller  than  the  others; 
the  chewing  surface  is  round  and  concave. 
The  colour  is  usually  a  fallow  gray  with  two 
light  brown  but  not  very  conspicuous  stripes 
along  the  back.  The  ai  lives  in  Brazil. 


To  face  page  i $ 


PI.ATK  XXXVIII.    -       THE     AI    OR    THREF.-TOED    SLOTH    (/?/™>;»/«  tridactyh^. 


THE   ARMADILLOS. 


183 


Other  species,  recognizable  by  a  black  patch 
on  the  back,  have  been  combined  into  a 
separate  genus  under  the  name  of  Arctopi- 
thecus. 

The  Unau  or  Two-toed  Sloth  (C/iolirpits 
didactylus),  fig.  240,  is  a  native  of  Guiana  and 
Surinam,  and  at- 
tains a  greater 
size  than  the 
former  species,  its 
total  length  a- 
mounting  to  about 
28  inches.  Its 
head  is  thicker 
than  that  of  the  ai, 
the  broad  muzzle 
projects,  the  neck 
is  short,  the  body 
slender,  and  the 
tail  is  altogether 
absent.  The  olive- 
brown  hair  with 
a  shimmer  of  gray 
is  only  a  little 
lighter  in  colour 
on  the  ventral  sur- 
face than  on  the 
other  parts.  The 
hair-covering  be- 
gins at  the  root  of 
the  nose.  In  both  f^ 

jaws  there  are 
strong  canines, 
which  are  pointed 
and  sharp,  and 
like  the  cheek-teeth  are  covered  with  a  layer 
of  black  cement.  In  section  they  are  tri- 
angular. The  upper  canines  are  sharpened 
to  a  point  by  friction  against  the  hinder  sur- 
face, while  in  the  lower  ones  it  is  the  front 
that  is  ground  away.  The  four  round  cheek- 
teeth acquire  a  tranverse  ridge  by  use.  The 
fore-feet  have  two,  the  hind  ones  three  claws. 
The  number  of  the  neck  vertebra  in  the  unau 
is  seven  (the  normal  number);  in  an  allied 
species  (Cholcepits  Hofmannt)  it  is  only  six. 


Fig.  240.-T1 


Dr  Two- 


THE   ARMADILLOS 

(DASYPODA). 

This  family  inhabits  the  steppes  and  bushy 
parts  of  South  America.  The  skeleton  of 

these  animals  is 
remarkable  for  its 
solidity.  The 
head  has  the  form 
of  a  more  or  less 
elongated  cone, 
and  carries  large 

|  funnel-shaped 
pointed  ears.  Cy- 
lindrical simple 
teeth  are  always 
present,  often 
even  in  consi- 
derable number. 
Only  in  the  six- 
banded  armadillo 
does  the  first  of 
these  teeth  stand, 

1  as  already  men- 
tioned, in  the  pre- 
maxilla;  in  all  the 
others  there  are 
only  round  cheek- 
teeth, which  are 
sometimes  flatten- 
ed at  the  sides. 
They  stand  at  a 
greater  or  less 
toed  sioth  (Choirs  didactyiu*.  distance  from  one 

another,  and  get  worn  away  so  as  to  form  a 
transverse  median  keel.  The  short  tongue 
is  covered  with  firm  horny  warts.  The  zygo- 
matic  arch  is  complete  and  semicircular  in 
form,  and  there  is  no  such  downward  process 
as  is  so  characteristic  in  the  sloths.  The 
lower  jaw  is  weak  and  slim.  The  neck 
vertebra,  always  seven  in  number,  are  often 
fused  together,  and  the  second,  the  axis 
vertebra,  carries  a  large  and  high  vertical  pro- 
cess inclined  backwards,  so  that  it  resembles 


1 84 


THE   EDENTATES. 


in  form  the  second  neck  vertebra  of  many 
marsupials.  The  dorsal  vertebrae  have  high 
vertical  processes,  and  the  lumbar  vertebrae 
have  in  addition  to  these  very  high  oblique 
processes.  On  the  expanded  ends  of  these 
vertebral  processes  rests  the  dorsal  shield. 
The  hinder  portion  of  the  pelvis  is  remark- 
ably large,  and  often  comprises  nine  sacral 
vertebrae;  it  also  has  strong  processes  serving 


as  supports  for  the  dorsal  shield.  The  tail  is 
long  and  thick;  the  vertebra?  of  the  tail  like- 
wise carry  strong  vertical,  oblique,  or  trans- 
verse processes  as  supports  for  the  separate 
parts  of  the  tail-sheath.  The  limbs  of  the 
armadillos  are  short,  and  their  bones  are  pro- 
vided with  well-marked  ridges  for  the  attach- 
ment of  the  muscles.  The  humerus  is  twisted, 
the  ulna  has  a  prolongation  reaching  far 


fcis^^%fe 

C'  r :  ^-^^—> 
'        -    y*ZL^ -- 


Fig.  241. — The  Giant  Armadillo  (Prioiiodoii  giga 


beyond  the  elbow,  and  the  thigh  has  a  third 
trochanter.  While  the  bones  of  the  fore-legs 
enjoy  a  great  degree  of  mobility,  the  tibia 
and  fibula  are  fused  at  the  ends  and  separate 
only  in  the  middle.  The  toes  are  armed 
with  stout  burrowing  claws.  The  ribs  are 
often  so  broad  that  their  edges  touch  or  even 
overlap  one  another. 

The  most  remarkable  character  of  the 
armadillos  arises  from  the  development  of  a 
dermal  skeleton  composed  of  small  plates, 
mostly  hexagonal,  laid  edge  to  edge,  and 
adorned  with  peculiar  markings  on  the  sur- 
face. These  thin  plates,  which  in  the  living 
animal  are  flexible,  are  composed  of  true 
bone  tissue  overlaid  with  a  horny  covering. 
In  most  cases  they  form  a  series  of  three 
shields,  one  for  the  head,  a  second  for  the 
shoulders,  and  the  third  for  the  hinder  part 
of  the  back.  The  two  latter  are  separated 


by  transverse  bands  varying  in  number. 
These  transverse  bands  are  connected  to- 
gether by  a  flexible  integument,  so  that  the 
animal  can  easily  enough  bend  the  head  and 
back,  and  can  even  roll  itself  up  into  a  ball. 
The  tail  is  usually  complete  and  surrounded 
by  plates  arranged  in  rings.  The  sides  of 
the  head,  the  neck,  and  the  limbs  are  covered 
with  isolated  plates  or  horny  scales  belonging 
to  the  epidermis.  On  the  belly  there  is  only 
a  firm,  tough  skin,  almost  naked.  Between 
the  plates  and  on  the  edges  of  the  dorsal 
shields  are  to  be  seen  strong  bristles  fre- 
quently grooved  in  rings. 

All  armadillos  live  in  holes  in  the  ground, 
which  they  excavate  with  remarkable  rapidity, 
and  which  they  never  leave  voluntarily  except 
at  night.  They  then  go  out  in  search  of 
their  food,  which  consists  of  all  kinds  of 
things.  They  devour  everything  that  they 


Till:    ARMADILLOS. 


185 


can  find  upon  or  under  the  earth,  and  it  is 
even  asserted  that  they  attack  the  dead 
bodies  in  the  cemeteries.  Their  llesh  is 
highly  esteemed,  and  the  animals  are  caught 
by  surprising  them  with  well-trained  dogs 
after  they  have  left  their  holes.  They  an; 
remarkably  strong,  and  as  soon  as  one  of  them 
has  got  half  its  body  under  the  earth  it  is 
impossible  for  a  man  to  pull  it  out  by  the  tail. 
In  general  they  run  slowly;  only  the  young 
animals  trot  like  guinea-pigs.  From  the 


'£~ 


large  number  of  species  distributed  through- 
out South  America  we  select  two  of  the  most 
characteristic. 

The  Giant  Armadillo  (Prio)iodon  (Priodonta) 
g'tgets),  fig.  241,  is  not  only  the  largest  but 
also  the  rarest  of  the  armadillos'.  It  inhabits 
the  forests  north  of  Paraguay,  attains  a  length 
of  more  than  3  feet,  and  is  remarkable  for 
the  enormous  number  of  its  teeth,  which  may 
reach  a  hundred.  They  are  all  simple.  Its 
armour  consists  of  quadrangular  plates  ar- 


Fig.  242.— The  Six-banded  Armadillo  or  Poyou  (Dasyptis  sexcinctus). 


ranged  in  bands.  The  thirteen  middle  bands 
are  movable.  The  middle  claw  of  the  fore- 
tret  is  of  enormous  size.  The  thin  tail  grows 
to  the  length  of  about  20  inches. 

The  Six-banded  Armadillo  or  Poyou  (Dasy- 
pns  sexcinctus),  fig.  242,  has,  as  its  name 
indicates,  six  broad  movable  bands  of  quad- 
rangular plates,  while  the  dorsal  shields  are 
composed  of  hexagonal  plates.  The  body  of 
this  animal  attains  a  length  of  16  inches,  the 
tail  about  8  inches.  In  the  upper  jaw  there 
are  nine  teeth  on  each  side,  the  first  of  which 
is  set  in  the  premaxilla;  in  the  lower  jaw 
there  are  ten  on  each  side.  This  animal  is 
extremely  abundant  in  the  Pampas. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  types  of  this 
family  is  the  Pichiciago  (Chlamydophoriis 
truncatus),  fig.  243,  which  inhabits  the  stony 
desert  plains  of  the  provinces  of  Mendoza 
and  San  Luis  (Argentine  Confederation). 


This  little  animal  attains  a  length  of  about 
5  inches,  and  has  a  tail  rather  more  than 
i  inch  long,  which  expands  at  the  end.  The 
whole  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  body  from 
the  forehead  to  the  hinder  quarters  is  covered 
with  a  coat  of  armour  composed  of  rectan- 
gular plates,  movable  on  one  another  and 
arranged  in  transverse  rows.  Immediately 
behind  this  dorsal  armour  comes  a  firm  bony 
plate  or  shield  covering  the  hinder  quarters 
and  very  elegantly  decorated.  This  hind- 
shield  is  fused  to  processes  of  the  pelvis,  and 
has  the  form  of  the  segment  of  a  round  con- 
cave shield,  the  segment  being  about  two- 
thirds  of  a  circle.  The  tail  projects  from  a 
slit  beneath  this  shield.  The  head  is  exceed- 
ingly short,  and  is  conical  in  form,  pointed  at 
the  muzzle,  and  arched  behind.  On  the  fore- 
head of  the  bony  skeleton  stand  two  wart-like 
elevations  of  considerable  size.  Notwith- 


VOL.   II. 


66 


1 86 


THE    EDENTATES. 


standing  the  small  size  of  the  animal  the  bony 
skeleton  is  of  remarkable  solidity,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  fore-limbs,  which  are  armed  with 
five  enormous  sickle-shaped  claws.  The 
hind-feet  are  likewise  five-toed  but  less  strong; 
the  pelvis  is  of  considerable  size.  The  flat 
and  twisted  humerus  and  femur,  both  bearing 
well-marked  ridges  for  the  attachment  of  the 
muscles,  as  well  as  ether 
peculiarities  of  the  skele- 
ton, give  this  dwarf  more 
resemblance  to  the  ex- 
tinct giant  forms  Mega- 
therium, Scelidotherium, 
and  Glyptodon  than  to 
any  other  living  animal. 
The  pichiciago  lives  in. 
underground  holes. 

THE 

WORM-TONGUED 
EDENTATES 

(VERMILINGUIA). 


The  principal  feature 
in  this  family  is  a  tongue 
of  extraordinary  length. 
This  tongue  is  always 
covered  with  very  viscous 

..  1*1  11  «      Fig.  243. — Tile  Pichiciaijo  (Chlainydophorus  tnincatus}.     p 

saliva,  which  enables  it 
to  serve  as  an  organ  of  prehension.  The 
long  weak  jaws  are  in  most  cases  without 
teeth,  and  when,  closed  form  a  sort  of  tube 
in  which  the  tongue  plays.  The  opening  of 
the  mouth  is  usually  very  small. 

The  Earth-hogs  (Orycteropus)  are  natives 
of  Africa,  and  having  shorter  and  stronger 
jaws  than  the  other  members  of  the  family, 
having  these  jaws  occupied  by  teeth,  and 
having  besides  a  wide  mouth  and  a  strongly 
built  skeleton,  form  in  a  manner  a  transition 
from  the  armadillos  to  the  ant-eaters. 
Naturalists  are  not  yet  agreed  as  to  whether 
the  forms  belonging  to  this  genus,  forms  ex- 
tending to  Abyssinia  on  the  one  hand  and  to 
the  Senegal  on  the  other  hand,  are  to  be 


regarded  as  different  species  or  merely  geo- 
graphical varieties.  The  form  represented, 
fig.  244,  the  Aard-vark  or  Cape  Ant-bear 
(Oryctcropus  capensis},  is  found,  as  the  name 
implies,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  This 
creature,  with  its  arched  back,  its  long  and 
sturdy  hind-legs,  and  its  powerful  tail,  on 
which  it  is  in  the  habit  of  sitting  erect,  has  a 
slight  resemblance  in 
form  to  the  kangaroo,  but 
its  remarkably  strong 
fore-limbs  and  its  head 
drawn  out  into  a  long 
snout  like  that  of  a  pig 
have  no  resemblance 
whatever  to  the  corres- 
ponding parts  of  the  mar- 
supial just  mentioned. 
The  nostrils  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  fringe  of 
bristles;  the  very  large 
naked  pointed  ears  are 
narrow  and  funnel- 
shaped.  The  feet  have 
four  toes  in  front  and  five 
behind,  and  all  the  toes 
have  strong  flat  claws 
surrounding  the  last  pha- 
lanx like  hoofs,  and  pro- 
vided with  sharp  cutting 
edges.  In  the  upper  jaw  there  are  eight,  in 
the  lower  six  cheek-teeth  on  each  side,  but 
some  of  these  drop  out  as  the  animal  increases 
in  age.  The  peculiar  structure  of  these  teeth 
we  have  already  described  (p.  180).  The 
grinding  surface  is  tubular  in  section.  The 
thick  skin  is  sparsely  covered  with  stiff  hairs, 
which  are  rather  longer  on  the  belly  and  legs 
than  on  the  other  parts. 

The  aard-vark  preys  on  ants  and  termites. 
Like  the  other  ant-eaters  it  burrows  in  the 
mounds  of  these  insects  and  shoots  out  its 
tongue  among  the  ants  swarming  in  the 
galleries.  It  pays  no  heed  to  bites  or  stings, 
and  when  it  has  got  its  sticky  tongue  suffi- 
ciently loaded  with  insects  it  withdraws  it  to 


THE   TRUE   ANT-EATERS. 


187 


swallow  its  prey.  But  though  ants  and  ter- 
mites arc  its  favourite  food,  it  by  no  means 
despises  other  larger  insects  or  even  eggs 
and  small  vertebrates.  On  the  approach  of 
danger  it  burrows  with  remarkable  strength 
in  the  ground  in  order  to  escape.  Its  dwell- 
ing consists  of  a  roomy  chamber,  which  it 


leaves  only  at  night.  The  aard-vark  attains 
the  length  of  6^  feet.  Its  name,  meaning 
carth-hog,  it  owes  to  the  Dutch  settlers  at 
the  Cape,  who  thought  that  its  flesh  resembled 
that  of  a  young  pig.  For  the  sake  of  this 
llcsh,  as  well  as  its  hide,  which  yields  an  ex- 
cellent leather,  it  is  much  hunted. 


Fig.  244. — The  Aard-vark  or  Cape  Ant-bear  (Oryctcropus  capensis). 


All  the  other  worm-tongued  edentates  have 
no  teeth  at  all.  The  mouth  is  in  general 
very  small,  the  lower  jaw  long  but  weak. 

The  True  Ant-eaters  (Myrmecophagida). 

The  members  of  this  group  are  characterized  by  their  very 
thick  hair  covering.     Several  genera  are  distinguished. 

The  Great  Ant-eater  or  Ant-bear,  the 
Yurumi  of  the  inhabitants  of  Paraguay 
(Myrmecophaga  jnbata),  which  is  represented 
in  a  full-page  illustration  (Plate  XXXIX.), 
is  the  largest  species.  Its  body  measures 
about  4  feet  3  inches,  the  tail  with  the  hair 
nearly  a  metre  (3  feet  3  inches).  The  crea- 
ture has  a  very  peculiar  form,  but  is  by 
no  means  ugly,  as  many  naturalists  assert. 


The  long  thin  head  is  cylindrical  in  shape 
and  has  a  scarcely  observable  curvature ;  the 
mouth  is  so  narrow  that  a  finger  just  fits  into 
it;  eyes  and  ears  are  both  very  small.  The 
short  legs  have  four  toes  in  front  and  five 
behind,  all  the  toes  armed  with  large  sharp 
sickle-shaped  claws.  The  fore-paws  are  so 
twisted  and  curved  that  in  walking  or  running 
they  touch  the  ground  only  with  the  outer 
edge.  The  animal  is  specially  distinguished 
by  its  splendid  bushy  tail  with  long  hair  like 
that  of  a  horse.  The  tail  is  carried  erect 
over  the  back.  The  rest  of  the  body  has  a 
luxuriant  growth  of  coarse  shaggy  hair;  a 
mane  hangs  down  from  the  back  on  both 
sides.  The  whole  animal  is  in  fact  little  more 


1 88 


THE   EDENTATES. 


than  a  mane.  The  general  colour  is  very  dark, 
almost  black ;  a  jet  black  horizontal  stripe  ex- 
tends from  the  neck  across  the  shoulders  and 
along  the  back,  terminating  in  a  point  at  the 
hips.  It  is  fringed  by  white  hairs  of  consider- 
able length,  especially  on  the  fore-legs.  There 
is  further  a  white  line  on  each  side  of  the 
brow  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  black  stripe. 

By  day  the  yurumi 
roams  about  in  the 
steppes  in  search  of  ant- 
hills, while  by  night, 
since  it  makes  no  bur- 
row, it  creeps  among  the 
bushes  to  sleep.  Its 
sense  of  smell  is  very 
keen,  but  the  other 
senses  are  only  slightly 
developed.  It  some- 
times defends  itself  by 
embracing  its  antagon- 
ist like  a  bear,  and  in- 
flicting wounds  with  its 
sharp  claws.  The  great 
ant-eater  is  now  to  be 
seen  pretty  frequently 
in  zoological  gardens; 
it  ultimately  learns  to 
know  the  voice  of  its 

Fig.  245. — The  Little  Ant-eater  (Myrmidon  didacty/ns). 


which    is    reddish-yellow    on   the    back,    and 
more  of  a  gray  colour  on  the  under  parts. 

The  little  ant-eater  is  a  nocturnal  animal. 
It  climbs  about  on  the  trees  like  sloths,  with 
this  difference,  however,  that  it  is  aided  in  so 
doing  by  its  powerful  tail,  which  it  twines 
round  the  branches.  Like  the  sloths  it  sleeps 
either  clinging  to  a  branch  or  crouching  on 

its  hind-legs.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  primeval 
forests  on  the  banks  of 
the  Amazon  and  the 
Orinoco.  I  have  re- 
ceived a  specimen  from 
the  island  of  Trinidad, 
but  it  was  not  certain 
whether  it  had  not  been 
brought  over  from  the 
mainland. 

The   Pangolins  or  Scaly 
Ant-eaters. 


keeper.  An  allied  spe- 
cies, the  Tamandua  (  Tamandua  tetradactyla], 
is  a  good  climber,  and  has  a  prehensile  tail 
scaly  at  the  end. 

The  Little  Ant-eater  (Myrmidon  (Cyclo- 
thurus)  didactylus),  fig.  245,  is  a  small  crea- 
ture, arboreal  in  its  habits,  measuring  only 
8  inches,  and  having  a  prehensile  tail  of 
the  same  length.  The  moderately  long  head 
is  spherical  in  shape,  and  has  a  short  but 
pointed  snout;  the  tongue  is  likewise  rather 
short,  the  whole  body  is  thick  and  rather  long. 
The  short  but  strong  paws  carry  two  large 
sickle-shaped  claws  in  front  and  four  of  the 
same  kind  behind.  The  ribs  are  very  broad 
so  as  to  overlap  at  the  edges.  The  cylindrical 
body  is  clothed  with  thick  soft  woolly  hair, 


This  group,  forming 
the  genus  Manis,  are 
ant-eaters  which  have 
their  body  covered  with 
scales  overlapping  one 
another  like  tiles  on  a 
roof  (imbricated  scales). 
And  this  is  the  chief 
distinguishing  character  of  these  animals,  for 
as  regards  their  bodily  structure  they  entirely 
resemble  the  true  ant-eaters;  their  skeleton, 
their  toothless  mouth,  their  worm-like  tongue, 
and  their  in-turned  fore-paws  are  all  exactly 
like  what  we  find  in  the  latter  animals.  The 
pangolins  are  natives  of  Africa  and  the  East 
Indies.  The  scales,  which  are  formed  of  a 
firm  horny  mass,  are  round  or  rhomboidal  in 
form  at  the  free  part,  which,  as  in  fishes, 
covers  the  front  portion  of  the  next  scale. 
The  markings  on  the  surface  of  the  scales 
appear  to  indicate  that  these  are  composed  of 
fused  horny  fibres.  They  cover  the  whole  of 
the  body  and  tail  with  the  exception  of  the 
abdominal  surface  and  the  inner  sides  of  the 


rum:  XXXIX.  -    THE    ANT-BEAR   OR   GREAT    ANT-EATER   (Myrmccophaga ju 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION   AND   DESCENT. 


189 


legs.  The  pangolins  are  nocturnal  in  their 
habits.  They  have  a  singular  habit  of  fre- 
quently running  only  on  their  hind-legs, 
balancing  their  body  with  their  tail  while  so 
doing.  They  also  climb  very  well.  Their 


food   is   the   same   as   that   of   the   true   ant- 
eaters. 

An  illustration  is  given  of  the  Long-tailed 
Pangolin  (Manis  longicaudata),  fig.  246, 
which  is  a  native  of  Guinea.  Its  tail  is 


Fig.  246.— The  Long-tailed  Pangolin  (Manis  longicaudata). 


even  longer  than  the  body,  and  the  paws 
are  only  slightly  hairy.  The  Short -tailed 
Pangolin  (Manis  peritadactyla\  fig.  247,  has 


very  broad  scales,  a  shorter  tail,  and  short 
legs  completely  covered  with  scales.  With 
respect  to  the  form  of  the  body  this  creature 


\ , 


S^n-.    ' 

Fig.  247.— The  Short-tailed  Pangolin  (Manis  pcntadactyla). 


is  exactly  like  a  squat  lizard  with  short  legs, 
for  instance  the  skink.  This  pangolin 
inhabits  India  and  Ceylon. 

GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION   AND 
DESCENT   OF   THE   EDENTATES. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  this  order 
is   extremely  simple.      At    the    present  day 


we  find  only  two  groups  of  them  in  the  hotter 
parts  of  the  Old  World.  One  of  these,  the 
Pangolins,  spread  over  the  whole  of  Africa 
south  of  the  Sahara,  as  well  as  over  the  East 
Indies,  including  the  Sunda  Islands,  as  far  as 
China,  while  the  other,  that  of  the  Earth-hogs, 
is  confined  to  Africa.  All  the  other  families, 
the  True  Ant-eaters,  the  Armadillos,  and  the 


190 


THE   EDENTATES. 


Sloths  are  found  solely  in  South  America, 
with  the  exception  of  a  very  few  species 
which  extend  into  Central  America. 

Nevertheless  this  simple  geographical  dis- 
tribution has  something  unusual  in  it.  The 
pangolins  of  the  East,  notwithstanding  their 
armour  of  scales,  resemble  the  true  ant-eaters 
of  America,  which  are  only  clothed  with  hair, 
but  like  them  are  entirely  without  teeth;  the 
earth-hogs  of  Africa,  on  the  other  hand,  have 
a  certain  though  no  doubt  rather  distant 
resemblance  in  their  teeth  and  the  form  of  the 
head  to  the  armadillos.  Manifestly,  however, 
these  Old  World  forms  stand  in  no  direct 
relation  to  those  of  South  America. 

The  oldest  types  of  the  edentates  that  we 
know  do  not  reach  further  back  than  the 
Upper  Miocene.  In  that  period  Greece  was 
inhabited  by  a  giant  genus,  Ancylotherium, 
France  and  Germany  by  one  scarcely  less 
gigantic,  Macrotherium,  the  latter  with  rather 
long  and  slender  limbs.  The  structure  of 
the  teeth  in  the  latter  is  somewhat  similar  to 
that  of  the  earth-hogs;  and  the  giant  of 
Pikermi,  the  Ancylotherium,  is  also  placed 
beside  this  genus,  which  since  the  Miocene 
period  must  have  moved  southwards  till  at 
last  it  came  to  concentrate  itself  entirely  in 
Africa. 

Subsequent  to  the  Miocene  period  the  Old 
World  has  no  edentate  remains  to  show  so 
far  as  is  yet  known.  It  is  probable,  indeed, 
that  Africa  will  yet  yield  such  remains  when 
that  continent  has  been  as  thoroughly  explored 
as  Europe  has  been  already.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  most  curious  types  have  been 
brought  to  light  from  the  Pliocene  and 
Quaternary  strata  of  America. 

The  Pliocene  of  California  incloses  the 
remains  of  a  gigantic  genus,  Morotherium; 
the  Quaternary  caves  of  the  eastern  parts  of 
the  United  States  contain  another,  Megalonyx; 
but  most  types  have  been  yielded  by  the 
Pleistocene  and  Quaternary  strata  of  the 
Pampas  and  the  caves  of  Brazil.  The  forms 
derived  from  these  regions  are  extremely 


numerous,  and  many  of  their  skeletons  have 
been  preserved  in  their  smallest  details. 

It  is  incontestable  that  these  fossil  forms, 
now  entirely  extinct,  fall  into  two  groups, 
that  of  the  armoured  Glyptodons  on  the  one 
hand,  and  that  of  the  Megatheriums  (Gravi- 
grada]  on  the  other  hand,  the  latter  of  which 
had  a  naked  skin,  or  a  skin  covered  only 
with  hair.  The  former  have  been  ranked 
with  the  armadillos,  the  latter  with  the  sloths, 
and  a  single  genus,  of  which  very  little  is 
known,  called  Glossotherium,  has  been  re- 
garded as  allied  to  the  ant-eaters.  No  direct 
ancestor  of  the  sloths  has  yet  been  found, 
however,  and  the  armour-clad  glyptodons 
cannot  be  brought  into  any  direct  relation 
with  the  armadillos,  for  true  armadillos  have 
been  found  in  the  same  strata  with  them.  I 
have  myself  had  under  my  eyes  a  proof  of 
this  fact,  for  the  museum  at  Geneva  possesses 
the  skeleton  of  a  true  fossil  armadillo,  which 
unfortunately  is  too  completely  incorporated 
with  the  rock  in  which  it  is  embedded  to  be 
capable  of  being  entirely  restored. 

Certain  it  is,  however,  that  these  fossil 
types  exhibit  singular  combinations  of  char- 
acters. All  of  them,  whether  armour-clad  or 
not,  show  in  the  structure  of  the  skull  and  of 
a  number  of  other  parts  of  the  skeleton  the 
essential  characters  of  the  sloths ;  to  give 
only  one  instance,  all  of  them  have  the  typical 
downward  process  from  the  cheek-bone. 
Further,  they  are  all  provided  with  teeth, 
which  are  in  some  cases  sharply  distinguished 
from  those  of  the  sloths  and  armadillos.  On 
the  other  hand,  not  a  single  fossil  genus  pos- 
sesses the  slender  elongated  limbs  of  the 
sloths;  the  limbs  of  the  unarmoured,  as  well 
as  the  armoured  forms,  have  most  resemblance 
to  those  of  the  pichiciago.  The  resemblance 
between  the  skeleton  of  the  megatheriums 
and  that  of  the  sloths  is  so  great,  that  even 
Cuvier  called  the  megatherium,  in  spite  of  its 
clumsy  massive  legs,  a  gigantic  sloth.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  shield  of  the  glyptodons 
differs  considerably  from  that  of  the  armadillos. 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION   AND   DKSC1A  I. 


191 


The  bands  of  the  latter  are  always  movable, 
whereas  the  armour  of  the  glyptodons  is 
rigid  like  that  of  the  turtles,  and  is  entirely 
composed  of  pieces  joined  together  im- 
movably by  sutures.  The  only  genus  which 
had  a  longish  head  somewhat  similar  to  that 
of  the  armadillos,  the  genus  Scelidotherium, 
hail  no  armour. 

\Ve    can    thus    trace    neither    the    present 
armadillos   back   to   the  glyptodons   nor   the 


megatheriums  back  to  the  sloths;  but  it  is  no 
doubt  with  justice  that  the  edentates  have 
been  reckoned  as  a  degenerate  branch  of  the 
ungulates.  Moreover,  a  certain  affinity  to 
the  monotremes  may  be  admitted,  since  they 
approach  these  in  the  structure  of  the  brain 
and  limbs.  On  the  whole,  however,  we  must 
confess  that  we  are  so  far  confined,  from  the 
want  of  an  adequate  basis  of  facts,  to  more 
or  less  bold  hypotheses. 


THE    MARSUPIALS 


OR    POUCH-BEARING    MAMMALS 


(MARSUPIALIA). 


Non-placental  mammals,  with  free  digits  bearing  nails  or  claws.  The  young  are  born  in  a  very  imperfect  condition, 
and  complete  their  development  attached  to  teats  situated  in  an  external  abdominal  pouch  (marsupium) 
supported  by  two  special  bones  (marsupial  bones]  attached  to  the  pelvis.  The  dentition  is  usually  complete 
but  permanent,  except  in  the  case  of  a  single  premolar,  which  is  shed  and  renewed.  The  lower  angle  of  the 
lower  jaw  behind  is  turned  inwards. 


The  marsupials  form  along  with  the  next 
order,  the  monotremes,  a  separate  group  of 
mammals,  distinguished  by  characteristic  fea- 
tures in  the  mode  of  reproduction.  All  other 
mammals  produce  in  the  ovary  eggs  of  mi- 
croscopic size,  which,  after  leaving  the  ovary, 
get  lodged  in  the  uterus  or  womb,  with  the 
aid  of  a  separate  organ  called  the  placenta, 
formed  partly  from  the  egg  itself  and  partly 
from  the  walls  of  the  uterus.  By  the  rapid 
circulation  of  the  blood  in  this  organ  the 
necessary  materials  for  the  growth  of  the 
embryo  are  supplied  to  the  egg,  and  it  is 
only  by  the  constant  exchange  between  the 
blood  of  the  mother  and  that  of  the  embryo 
that  the  development  of  the  latter  is  rendered 
possible.  Now  nothing  of  this  kind  takes 
place  in  the  two  orders  mentioned,  which 
have  no  placenta  and  are  hence  called  non- 
placental  mammals.  As  in  the  Amphibia, 
the  eggs  in  these  orders  contain  in  them- 
selves all  the  materials  requisite  for  the  de- 
velopment of  the  embryo,  and  the  latter  does 
not  enter  into  relations  with  the  organs  of 
the  mother,  but  receives  further  supplies  of 
the  materials  required  for  the  growth  of  the 
embryo  only  from  the  fluids  contained  in  the 


maternal  organs.  Among  the  marsupials 
this  embryo,  which  always  lies  completely 
free  in  the  uterus,  is  extruded  in  a  very 
undeveloped  condition,  but  yet  in  a  condition 
so  far  advanced  that  it  is  able  to  obtain 
further  nutriment  for  itself  by  sucking  the 
teats  of  its  mother,  which  secretes  a  very 
abundant  supply  of  milk.  The  small  size  of 
these  embryos  at  birth  is  something  extra- 
ordinary. The  young  of  the  great  kangaroo, 
which  when  full-grown  is  as  large  as  a  man, 
is  even  less  than  an  inch  in  size  at  the  time 
of  its  birth.  In  the  case  of  the  monotremes 
a  perfect  egg  with  a  thin  shell  is  extruded. 

While,  on  the  one  hand,  the  relations 
between  the  young  and  the  mother  are  not 
the  same  in  the  marsupials  and  monotremes, 
there  are  also  considerable  differences  in  the 
further  development  of  the  embryo.  The 
monotremes  possess,  indeed,  separate  marsu- 
pial bones,  but  there  is  formed  for  the  egg 
and  the  embryo  which  proceeds  from  it  only 
a  temporary  brood-pouch,  into  which  the 
milk-glands  open  directly  without  teats;  in 
the  marsupials,  on  the  other  hand,  we  find 
for  the  most  part  numerous  and  often  very 
long  teats,  these  teats  being  situated  on  the 


GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS 


'93 


abdomen,  and  cither  surrounded  by  simple 
folds  of  the  skin,  or  contained  in  an  actual 
pouch.  This  pouch  has  only  a  single  open- 
ing, usually  in  front,  but  sometimes,  as  in 
tin:  pouched  badgers  ( IVramelida),  behind. 
It  is  nothing  but  a  fold  of  the  skin,  and  has 
no  connection  whatever  with  the  abdominal 
cavity.  In  the  ordinary  position  of  these 
animals,  on  their  four  feet,  the  marsupial 
bones  protect  the  pouch  from  the  pressure 
of  the  abdominal  viscera,  imparting  as  they 
do  greater  solidity  to  the  walls  of  the  ab- 
domen. According  to  the  observations  made 
in  zoological  gardens  the  mother  takes  the 
\<>ung  one  by  the  mouth  immediately  after 
birth,  and  attaches  it  to  one  of  the  teats  in 
the  pouch;  the  young  one  then  remains  hang- 
ing there  for  a  longer  or  a  shorter  period; 
and  even  afterwards,  when  it  is  able  to  move 
about  freely,  it  frequently  seeks  refuge  in  the 
pouch,  which,  however,  it  ultimately  leaves 
tor  ever. 

This  peculiar  mode  of  reproduction  natu- 
rally involves  a  considerable  number  of  modi- 
fications in  the  structure  of  the  sexual  organs ; 
but  on  these  we  do  not  enter  at  present. 
They  are  associated  with  other  characteristic 
features  in  the  general  organization,  with  the 
aid  of  which  it  is  always  easy  to  distinguish 
a  marsupial,  notwithstanding  the  considerable 
divergences  existing  among  themselves. 

We  must  lay  great  stress  on  the  fact  that 
the  marsupials  do  not  form  an  order  in  the 
sense  in  which  the  word  is  used  with  re- 
ference to  the  other  (the  placental)  mammals, 
but  rather  a  large  group,  composed  of  a 
number  of  divergent  types,  each  of  which 
forms  an  order  by  itself.  In  this  group  we 
find  carnivores,  rodents,  insect-eaters,  and 
herbivores,  all  well  characterized,  and  this 
diversity  of  types  can  be  understood  only 
when  we  regard  the  marsupials  of  the  present 
day  as  the  relics  of  an  old  order  of  things, 
in  which  the  entire  class  of  the  mammals  was 
represented  solely  by  marsupials  over  the 
whole  earth.  As  we  are  taught  by  the  facts 

VOL.  II. 


of  palaeontology,  the  former  marsupials  were 
the  stocks  from  which,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
placental  mammals  were  evolved;  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  their  less  modified  descen- 
dants form  the  marsupials  of  the  present  day. 
\Ve  need  not  be  astonished,  therefore,  when 
we  observe  that  these  descendants  have  pre- 
served a  number  of  primitive  characters,  and 
that  they  occupy  a  very  subordinate  position 
with  respect  to  the  other  orders  of  mammals. 

The  brain  and  the  part  of  the  skull  inclos- 
ing it  are  unusually  small  in  relation  to  the 
bones  of  the  face  and  the  jaws.  The  brain, 
which  is  itself  small,  exhibits  positive  marks 
inferring  a  low  stage  of  development.  The 
hemispheres  are  smooth  and  never  cover  the 
cerebellum.  In  most  cases  the  corpora  quad- 
rigemina  also  remain  uncovered;  only  in  the 
large  species  are  there  to  be  seen  a  few 
faintly-marked  convolutions  on  the  hemi- 
spheres. The  corpus  callosum,  which  is  so 
highly  developed  in  the  placental  mammals, 
consists  in  this  group  only  of  a  few  unim- 
portant fibres.  The  bones  of  the  skull  are 
not  fused.  The  lower  jaw  always  shows  an 
inflection  of  the  posterior  angle  inwards. 
This  last  characteristic  feature  does  not  be- 
long exclusively  to  the  marsupials,  for  I  have 
also  observed  it  in  certain  American  rodents 
—in  the  ursons  of  North  America  (Erethizon) 
and  the  Mexican  souslik  (Spcrmophilus  mexi- 
canus).  As  a  peculiarity  of  the  skeleton  we 
may  mention  the  marsupial  bones.  These 
are  two  bones,  mostly  cylindrical  in  shape, 
united  to  form  a  sort  of  fork,  which  is  at- 
tached to  the  pubic  symphysis. 

The  dentition  exhibits  considerable  modi- 
fications. I-n  comparison  to  the  placental 
mammals  the  number  of  the  teeth  is  in 
general  very  high.  In  the  carnivorous  and 
insectivorous  marsupials  we  often  find  an 
extraordinary  number  of  incisors  and  cheek- 
teeth; in  the  former  the  canines  are  always 
developed,  and  the  number  of  carnassial  teeth 
may  be  as  many  as  three.  But  although  in 
the  groups  mentioned  we  find  three  or  four 

67 


194 


THE    MARSUPIALS. 


sorts  of  teeth  represented,  incisors,  canines, 
premolars,  and  molars,  it  ought  to  be  borne 
in  mind  at  the  same  time,  that  in  the  herbi- 
vorous marsupials  we  meet  with  the  same  in- 
stances of  reduction  in  the  number  of  teeth 
and  specialization  of  their  structure,  which 
have  been  shown  to  take  place  in  the  pla- 
cental  mammals.  These  modifications  affect 
especially  the  incisors,  canines,  and  premolars, 
and  may  lead  in  the  end  to  the  formation  of 
a  rodent  dentition.  With  very  few  exceptions 
the  marsupials  have  four  cheek-teeth  both  in 
the  upper  and  lower  jaw  on  each  side  of  the 
mouth,  while  the  number  of  premolars  may 
be  reduced  from  three,  the  original  number, 
to  two,  or  even  one.  The  forms  of  the  teeth 
vary  in  a  remarkable  degree,  but  with  a  few 
rare  exceptions  the  cheek-teeth  have  double 
or  treble  roots,  and  in  this  respect  are  in  no 
way  different  from  the  best  characterized 
teeth  of  the  placental  mammals. 

There  is,  however,  a  fundamental  distinc- 
tion as  regards  the  origin  and  development 
of  the  teeth.  According  to  the  discovery  of 
Flower  the  distinction  between  the  milk  and 
the  permanent  dentition  consists  in  this,  that 
only  a  single  premolar  is  exchanged — shed 
and  replaced.  It  does  indeed  happen,  for 
example,  in  the  case  of  some  kangaroos, 
that,  as  in  the  elephants,  the  front  molars  are 
extruded  by  a  rotatory  motion  of  the  hinder 
ones  as  they  grow,  but  a  regular  exchange 
of  the  front  cheek-teeth  belonging  to  the 
milk  dentition  for  others  belonging  to  the 
permanent  dentition,  such  as  takes  place  in 
the  placental  mammals,  does  not  occur  except 
as  regards  the  single  tooth  referred  to.  This 
is  an  important  character,  which,  as  we  have 
already  had  occasion  to  mention  in  treating 
of  the  Carnivora,  has  served  as  a  means  of 
distinguishing  the  extinct  hysenodons  from 
the  marsupials. 

The  feet  also  undergo  various  modifications. 
It  cannot  be  repeated  too  often  that  the 
original  form  of  the  foot  is  that  with  five  dis- 
tinct toes  provided  with  nails.  All  forms 


with  a  smaller  number  of  toes  and  with  hoofs 
are  departures  from  the  primitive  type  clue  to 
a  one-sided  development.  The  divergence 
of  the  thumb  or  great  toe,  which  may  proceed 
so  far  that  this  digit  may  become  capable  of 
being  opposed  to  the  others,  is  likewise  a 
primitive  formation  represented  from  the  first 
in  a  very  pronounced  manner  in  all  mammalian 
embryos.  The  result  is  that  most  of  the 
marsupials  still  retain  the  original  form  of  foot, 
that  is,  five  toes  with  nails,  and  some  groups, 
such  as  the  phalangers  and  the  opossums, 
possess  an  opposable  great  toe  on  the  hind- 
feet.  Reduced  feet  are  found  especially  in 
the  kangaroos  and  kangaroo-rats;  but  in  these 
animals  the  process  of  reduction  follows 
another  rule  than  in  the  placental  mammals. 
In  the  latter  it  is  the  first  digit  that  first  dis- 
appears, then  the  fifth,  then  the  second,  and 
lastly  the  fourth,  so  that  at  last  only  the  middle 
digit  remains  as  in  the  horses,  or  the  middle 
and  fourth  as  in  the  ruminants.  In  the 
marsupials,  on  the  other  hand,  the  toes  get 
degraded  in  regular  sequence  from  the  interior 
outwards,  from  the  thumb  or  great  toe  to  the 
middle  digit,  so  that  the  kangaroos  come  to 
rest  in  leaping  on  the  abnormally  developed 
fourth  and  fifth  digits.  This  is  an  important 
distinction  with  reference  to  the  morphology 
of  the  feet. 

The  body  of  the  marsupials  is  always 
covered  with  thick,  mostly  soft,  seldom  coarse 
hair. 

All  the  other  characters  belonging  to  the 
bodily  structure  vary  considerably  according 
to  the  kind  of  life  to  which  the  animals  are 
adapted.  With  a  single  exception  the  marsu- 
pials are  all  terrestrial.  An  American  opossum, 
the  yapock  (Cheironectes  variegatus),  has  feet 
adapted  for  swimming,  and  lives  like  the  otter 
or  rather  like  the  water-shrews.  All  the  other 
marsupials  are  climbers,  runners,  jumpers,  or 
burrowers. 

The  mental  qualities,  beyond  doubt,  stand 
on  a  very  low  level,  and  do  not  suffice  for  the 
struggle  for  existence  where  placental  mam- 


THE   OPOSSUMS. 


195 


mals  enter  seriously  into  competition  with  the 
members  of  this  group.  In  captivity  marsu- 
pials generally  appear  dull-minded  creatures, 
without  curiosity  and  without  interest  regard- 
ing their  surroundings.  Neither  towards  man 
nor  towards  the  companions  of  their  cage  do 
they  show  the  slightest  attachment.  Most  of 
them  are  characterized  by  an  astonishing  ten- 
acity of  life.  Among  the  Americans  the  opos- 
sums have  become  proverbial  on  that  account. 

From  the  Old  World,  which  was  formerly 
peopled  by  marsupials,  this  group  has  dis- 
appeared since  Miocene  times;  at  the  present 
day  this  old  and  singular  group  survives  only 
in  Australia  and  America.  In  the  latter  area 
the  group  is  represented  only  by  two  peculiar 
genera.  All  the  other  marsupials  belong  to 
the  Australian  region,  most  of  them  to  the 
vast  island  itself,  the  others  to  the  neighbour- 
ing islands  of  New  Guinea,  the  Moluccas,  and 
the  Philippines.  With  the  exception  of  the 
dingo,  a  few  rodents,  a  few  bats,  and  the 
monotremes,  the  whole  Australian  fauna  con- 
sisted at  the  time  of  its  discovery  of  marsu- 
pials, which,  as  we  shall  afterwards  see,  form 
the  oldest  stock  of  the  entire  class  of  the 
Mammalia. 

We  arrange  the  marsupials  according  to 
their  mode  of  life  as  indicated  by  the  structure 
of  their  teeth  and  feet,  and  begin  with  the 
American  genera. 

THE   OPOSSUMS 

(DIDELPHYIDA). 

The  numerous  species  of  this  exclusively 
American  family  are  found  from  Patagonia  to 
Canada.  In  the  New  World  they  play  in  a 
measure  the  part  of  the  insect-eaters,  which 
are  poorly  represented  in  North  America  and 
in  South  America  not  at  all.  They  form 
only  two  genera,  the  True  Terrestrial  Opos- 
sums (Didelphys),  and  the  Aquatic  Opossums 
or  Yapocks  (Cheironectes),  which  are  confined 
to  South  America,  and  resemble  the  otters  in 
their  mode  of  life. 


The  opossums  are  small  nocturnal  animals, 
which  attain  at  most  the  size  of  a  cat,  but  are 
frequently  no  bigger  than  a  rat  or  a  mouse, 
which  latter  they  resemble  moreover  in  their 
general  habit.  The  longish  head  is  pointed, 
the  muzzle  set  with  strong  whisker-hairs,  the 
eyes  rather  small,  the  ears,  on  the  other  hand, 
pretty  large  and  almost  naked.  The  body  is 
pretty  long  and  rests  on  short  legs.  It  ends 
in  a  long  almost  naked  tail,  capable  of  being 
rolled  up,  and  mostly  scaly  like  that  of  the 
shrews.  Almost  all  the  species  make  use  of 
this  tail,  like  the  American  monkeys,  to  attach 
themselves  to  branches  of  trees  whenever  they 
wish  to  do  so.  The  feet  are  five-toed,  the 
toes  themselves  free  and  provided  with  strong 
hooked  claws.  The  animals  lay  the  whole 
sole  of  the  foot  on  the  ground  in  walking. 
The  great  toe  of  the  hind-foot  is  very  strong, 
very  long,  and,  as  in  the  monkeys,  completely 
opposable.  On  account  of  the  structure  of 
this  hind-hand,  so  to  speak,  these  animals 
have  sometimes  been  designated  by  the  name 
of  the  "  hand-footed  "  (Pedimana). 

The  dentition  answers  to  the  general  char- 
acter of  that  of  the  marsupials,  inasmuch  as  it 
comprises  a  large  number  of  teeth,  and  more- 
over exhibits  a  remarkable  commingling  of 
teeth  of  a  carnivorous  with  those  of  an  insec- 
tivorous type.  In  each  half  of  the  premaxilla 
there  are  five  recurved  pointed  incisors,  the 
middle  one  of  which  is  usually  the  largest. 
In  the  lower  jaw  we  find  only  four  such  teeth. 
The  large  recurved  sharp-pointed  canines  re- 
semble those  of  the  fox.  In  each  half  of  each 
jaw  there  are,  in  addition,  both  above  and 
below,  three  compressed  cutting  premolars, 
each  with  a  double  root  and  triangular  crown. 
So  far  this  kind  of  dentition  might  pass  for 
that  of  a  typical  carnivore,  but  in  each  half  of 
each  jaw  there  are,  over  and  above  all  these 
teeth,  four  true  molars,  which  all  exhibit  the 
characters  of  insectivorous  teeth,  and  especially 
so  in  the  upper  jaw,  where  the  grinding  surface 
presents  the  characteristic  appearance  of  a  V, 
the  angle  of  which  is  somewhat  obliquely 


THE   MARSUPIALS. 


directed  inwards.  In  the  lower  jaw  the  molars 
have  each  a  sharp  cusp  in  the  middle  with 
two  sharp-pointed  side-lobes. 

The    dental    formula    is  =5° 

4  •      •  .3  •  4 
teeth. 

The  Yapock  (Chcironectes  variegatus],  fig. 


Fig.  248. — The  Yapock  (C.helronectes  variegatus). 

248,  is  the  sole  representative  of  its  genus,  a 
genus  which,  as  we  have  already  mentioned, 
is  characterized  by  its  aquatic  habits  and  the 
structure  of  its  hind-feet,  in  which  the  long 
toes  are  connected  by  a  web  reaching  to  the 
claws.  The  first  digit  is  opposable  and  carries 
no  claw.  The  claws  of  the  fore-feet  are 
pretty  large  and  sharp. 

The  head  of  this  pretty  creature,  which 
attains  the  size  of  a  large  rat,  is  tolerably 
round ;  the  ears  are  of  moderate  size,  and  the 
long  round  tail  is  haired  only  at  the  root, 
elsewhere  scaly  and  only  sparsely  set  with 
bristles.  The  hair  is  very  soft,  silky,  and 
fine ;  on  the  back,  round  the  eyes,  and  on  the 
muzzle  of  a  chestnut-brown  colour,  on  the 
sides  silver-gray,  and  on  the  belly  white. 
The  throat  also  is  white,  and  a  light  stripe 


extends  thence  to  above  the  eyes,  and  taper- 
ing stripes  of  brown  run  from  the  back  to 
mingle  with  the  gray  of  the  flanks. 

The  animal  is  a  native  of  the  whole  of 
South  America,  living  on  the  banks  of  forest 
rivers.  It  is  nocturnal  in  its  mode  of  life; 
conceals  itself  by  day  in  holes,  feeds  on  fish, 
and  sometimes  gets  caught  in  the  nets  of 
fishermen.  The  female  has  a  complete  pouch, 
which,  it  may  be  observed  in  passing,  refutes 
the  theory  advanced  by  some  naturalists  that 
the  pouch  is  due  to  the  adaptation  of  the 
members  of  this  order  to  life  in  arid  regions. 
How  could  an  animal  which  leads  a  thoroughly 
aquatic  life  possess  a  pouch  if  this  feature 
owed  its  origin  to  a  mode  of  life  directly 
opposite? 

As  a  representative  of  the  terrestrial  mem- 
bers of  this  family  forming  the  genus  Didelphys 
an  illustration  is  given  of  the  Common  Opos- 
sum {Didelphys  virginiana),  fig.  249,  the 
animal  so  much  detested  by  the  Americans. 
This  is  the  largest  species  of  its  genus,  which 
has  been  divided  into  several  sub-genera. 
These  sub-genera  are  distinguished  either  by 
having  an  imperfect  pouch,  by  having,  for 
example,  instead  of  the  pouch  merely  two 
folds  of  skin,  as  in  the  sub-genus  Philander, 
or  by  having  a  short,  naked,  and  scaly  tail, 
this  appendage  being  in  most  forms,  as  in  the 
species  now  under  consideration,  capable  of 
being  coiled  up.  This  animal  is  distributed 
over  the  whole  of  North  America  from  Mexico 
to  Canada.  Its  body  attains  a  length  of  about 
20  inches  and  its  tail  is  about  equally  long. 

This  hateful  stinkard  has  a  very  sharp- 
pointed  head  and  uncommonly  large  ears. 
The  body  and  neck  are  strongly  built;  the 
hair  is  thin  and  soft,  the  usual  colour  a  fallow- 
gray,  rather  darker  on  the  back  than  on  the 
under  parts. 

Like  all  the  members  of  the  genus  to  which 
it  belongs  the  opossum  leads  a  nocturnal 
solitary  life.  It  is  a  very  good  climber,  em- 
ploying in  climbing  principally  its  fore-paws 
and  its  long  tail,  by  the  latter  of  which  it  often 


THE   POUCHED   BADGERS. 


'97 


remains  hanging  for  a  long  period  at  once. 
Birds  and  birds'  eggs  form  its  favourite  food. 
In  inhabited  districts  it  often  intrudes  into  the 
farmyards  in  order  to  plunder  the  poultry- 
pens,  and  thereby  it  calls  down  upon  itself  the 
wrath  of  the  farmers,  who  pursue  it  with  fury. 
Its  flesh  is  bad  and  diffuses  a  disgusting 
odour.  When  the  opossum  is  attacked  and 
wounded  it  pretends  to  be  dead  and  rolls 
itself  up,  and  then  the  greatest  tortures  will 
not  suffice  to  induce  it  to  stir  in  the  slightest 
degree.  The  young  of  this  animal,  as  has 
been  well  established,  come  into  the  world 
after  a  period  of  gestation  lasting  only  a  fort- 
night, and  at  birth  are  blind  and  without  ears. 
The  new-born  opossum  is  only  of  about  the 
size  of  a  pea,  and  its  mouth  forms  a  sort  of 
tube  into  which  the  teat  to  which  it  is  attached 
fits.  It  remains  for  about  two  months  in  the 
pouch,  which  the  mother  keeps  constantly 
closed.  When  it  has  grown  to  about  the  size 
of  a  rat  it  leaves  the  pouch  for  ever.  As 
man}-  as  sixteen  young  ones  have  been  counted 
in  a  single  pouch. 

The  distinction  between  a  carnivorous  and 
an  insectivorous  dentition,  which  is  so  well 
marked  in  the  placental  mammals,  is  much 
less  pronounced  in  the  marsupials,  as  we  have 
seen  above  in  the  case  of  the  opossums.  In 
the  Australian  marsupials,  which  are  now 
about  to  engage  our  attention,  this  comming- 


ling of  dental  characters  likewise  occurs,  yet 
we  cannot  but  recognize  the  fact  that  a 
divergence  of  type  begins  to  appear,  leading, 
on  the  one  hand,  to  a  perfect  carnivorous 
dentition,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  one  of 
a  purely  insectivorous  character.  All  these 


v 


ana). 


different  types  we  unite  in  one  group,  on 
which  we  bestow  the  name  of  the  Preclaceous 
Marsupials. 


THE    PREDACEOUS    MARSUPIALS 


THE    POUCHED   BADGERS 

(PERAMELIDA). 

The  family  of  the  Peramelida  or  pouched 
badgers  is  that  in  which  the  dentition  most 
closely  resembles  that  of  the  Didelphyida;  but 
the  members  of  this  family  are  distinguished 
from  the  latter  by  their  general  habit  and  the 


(RAPACES). 

structure  of  the  feet.  The  dental  formula 
would  be  exactly  the  same  as  that  of  the 
previous  family,  if  a  pair  of  incisors  were  not 
wanting  in  the  lower  jaw;  instead  of  four 
incisors  on  each  side  there  are  only  three. 
The  premolars  and  molars  have  the  same 
form  and  are  present  in  the  same  number,  yet 
the  carnivorous  type  of  dentition  is  less  marked 


1 98 


THE   PREDACEOUS    MARSUPIALS. 


in  the  front  of  the  mouth.  The  canines  are 
indeed  recurved,  but  are  altogether  less  highly 
developed;  the  lower  incisors  are  inclined 
forwards.  In  the  upper  jaw  the  fifth  incisor 
is  separated  from  the  others  by  an  interval, 
while  the  inner  ones  are  all  very  close-set. 

The   Bandicoots,   as  the  members  of  the 
genus  Perameles  are  called  by  the  Australian 


Fig.  250.  — The  Long-nosed  Bandicoot  (Perameles  nasuta). 

colonists,  take  in  Australia  the  place  of  the 
African  Macroscelida  or  elephant -shrews, 
which  they  resemble  in  the  possession  of  a 
tapering  head  running  out  into  a  movable 
proboscis,  large  ears  (mostly  naked),  short 
fore-legs,  long  but  strong  hind-legs,  and  long 
tail,  which  is  seldom  thickly  haired.  Con- 
siderable differences,  however,  are  at  once 
recognizable.  The  great  toe  of  the  fore-feet 
(the  pollex)  is  replaced  by  a  wart  or  tubercle, 
which  is  usually  without  a  nail.  The  fifth 
digit  scarcely  projects  at  all,  but  usually  carries 
a  flat  nail.  Only  the  three  middle  digits  are 
free  and  armed  with  strong  claws.  The  fore- 
legs are  remarkably  short,  and  are  pressed 
close  to  the  breast  when  the  animals  are  in 


the  act  of  leaping.  In  the  hind-legs  the  great 
toe  (the  hallux)  is  entirely  absent;  the  second 
and  third  digits  are  very  thin  and  united  to- 
gether as  far  as  the  claws;  the  fourth  and  fifth 
digits,  on  the  contrary,  are  well  developed,  and 
their  claws  are  powerful.  As  in  all  jumpers 
the  ankle  (tarsus)  is  very  long.  The  opening 
of  the  pouch  in  the  bandicoots  is  behind. 


Fig.  251. — The  Pig-footed  Perameles  (Charopas  castanoitis). 

The  species  represented  in  fig.  250,  the 
Long-nosed  Bandicoot  (Perameles  nastitd),  is 
distinguished  from  its  allies  by  its  long  pro- 
boscis-like nose,  its  large  ears,  and  the  fallow- 
gray  colour  of  its  coarse  hair,  a  colour  darker 
on  the  back  than  on  the  under  parts.  It  lives, 
like  the  other  bandicoots,  in  the  mountainous 
and  cool  districts  of  Australia,  is  social  in  its 
habits,  and  digs  holes  in  the  ground,  into 
which  it  darts  for  refuge  when  the  slightest 
noise  is  heard.  It  catches  insects  in  the  act 
of  jumping,  and  though  these  form  its  principal 
food  it  does  not  despise  juicy  roots,  fruits,  and 
seeds.  The  long-nosed  bandicoot  is  14  inches 
long  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  root  of 
the  tail,  and  the  tail  measures  about  6  inches. 


THE   POUCHED    BADGERS. 


199 


The  degradation  of  the  feet  has  advanced 
still  further  in  the  genus  Chcuropus.    The  only 
species    represented    in    this    work,    the    Pig- 
footed  Perameles  (Cliicropiis  castanotus),  fig. 
251,  was  formerly  erroneously  denied  to  have 
a  tail,  because  the  example  first  found  hap- 
pened to  be  maimed       -  ^ 
in   this  respect.      As 
regards  the  structure 
of  the  body  this  ani- 
mal   is   a    bandicoot, 
but  the  fore-limbs  are 
longer   and    thinner, 
and    have    only    two 
long  toes  with  rather 
short  claws.     A  third 
toe  with  a  short  claw 
placed  very  far  back 
is  properly  only  the 
degraded  metacarpal 
bone.     The  long  and 
slender  hind-foot  has 
only  a  single  strong 
toe  with  a  solid  well- 
formed    claw.      Two 
other  greatly  reduced 
toes  with  extremely 
minute  claws  are  situ- 
ated   on    the    outer 
side,  another  of  simi- 
lar form  on  the  inside. 
The  middle  toe  is  ac- 
cordingly   the     only 
one  that  is  perfectly  developed.     The  tail  is 
ot  moderate  length. 

The  pig-footed  perameles  has  long  soft  hair 
of  a  dark  brownish-gray  colour  on  the  back, 
rather  lighter  on  the  belly;  the  back  of  the 
tail  is  black.  The  animal  inhabits  the  steppes 
on  the  banks  of  the  Murray  River  in  New 
South  Wales,  builds  a  nest  of  twigs,  and 
appears  to  feed  chiefly  on  insects.  It  attains 
a  length  of  only  about  1 2  inches  in  the  body, 
with  a  tail  of  rather  less  than  5  inches. 

Between  the  bandicoots  and  the  following 
families  stands  the  Banded  Ant-eater  (Afyrmc- 


rofa'ies/dsffii/its),  tig.  252,  of  which  an  illustra- 
tion is  furnished.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the 
south  and  west  of  Australia,  and  attains 
about  the  same  size  as  the  stoat.  The 
dentition  of  this  pretty  little  creature  is  very 
remarkable;  it  is  closely  allied  to  that  of 

certain  marsupials  of 
the  Jurassic  period. 
In  each  half  of  each 
jaw  there  are  six 
molars  with  several 
cusps  on  the  crown, 
three  premolars  with 
triangular  cusps,  and 
a  not  very  prominent 
canine.  Then  there 
are  in  the  upper  jaw 
four  incisors,  but  in 
the  lower  only  three, 
so  that  the  entire 
number  of  teeth 
amounts  to  fifty-four, 
a  number  which  is  not 
exceeded  by  any  liv- 
ing marsupial.  The 
dental  formula  is 


Fig.  252. — The  Banded  Ant-eater  (Mynnecobiusfascialus}. 


_-      .- 
3.1.3-6 

The  banded  ant- 
eater  is  a  very  ele- 
gant creature,  with  a 
tapering-  head  and 
pointed  paper-cornet- 
shaped  ears.  Its  fore- feet  are  five-toed,  and 
the  hind-feet  carry  four  free  toes  armed  with 
sharp  claws.  In  running  the  animal  carries 
its  long  bushy  tail  as  squirrels  do.  The 
female  has  no  pouch,  but  has  eight  teats 
arranged  in  a  circle.  The  long  thick  hair  is 
dark-coloured  on  the  back,  and  passes  behind 
from  a  fallow-gray  into  black.  The  throat 
has  an  ochre-yellow  and  the  belly  a  whitish 
colour;  on  the  sides  the  general  dark  colour 
is  varied  by  light  transverse  stripes.  The 
animal  lives  chiefly  on  ants,  which  it  snaps 
up  with  its  long  adhesive  tongue. 


2OO 


THE    PREDACEOUS    MARSUPIALS. 


THE   DASYURE   FAMILY 

(DASYURIDA). 

In  this  family  the  carnivorous  dentition 
becomes  more  and  more  pronounced.  For  the 
most  part  these  animals  have  four  incisors  in 
the  upper  jaw,  three  in  the  lower,  all  close-set, 
conical,  and  provided  with  a  cutting  edge. 
The  large  recurved 
canines  are  very 
prominent,  and  the 
four  molars  have 
several  broad  and 
sharp  cusps.  Only 
the  number  of  the 
premolars  sometimes 
varies ;  some  forms, 
for  example  the  Tas- 
manian  wolf,  have 
three  premolars  with 
sharp  triangular 
cusps ;  others,  like 
the  dasyures  proper, 
have  only  two  of 
these.  The  dental 
formula  is 

4.1.  2-T.  .  4 

± ^ — 2  =  42  to 

3-1-2-3.4 

46  teeth. 

As  a  representa- 
tive of  the  genus  Phascogale  with  forty-six 
teeth,  a  figure  is  supplied  of  the  largest 
species,  the  Brush-tailed  Phascogale,  the  Tafa 
of  the  natives  (Ph.  penicillata),  fig.  253.  It 
attains  about  the  size  of  a  squirrel,  which  it 
likewise  resembles  in  the  possession  of  a  Tong 
bushy  tail.  The  smaller  species  have  been 
united  in  a  separate  sub-genus,  on  which  has 
been  bestowed  the  name  of  Antechinus.  The 
members  of  this  sub-genus  are  characterized 
by  having  a  shorter  tail  less  thickly  covered 
with  hair.  Their  habits  are  similar  to  those 
of  our  rats  and  mice,  to  which  they  are  about 
equal  in  size. 

All   these  animals  are  agile  climbers  and 


Fig.  253. — The  Brush-tailed  Phascogale  or  Tafa  (Phascogale penicillata). 


surprisingly  quick  in  their  movements;  in 
ferocity  of  disposition  they  can  be  compared 
only  to  our  polecats  and  shrews.  The  smaller 
species  must  indeed  content  themselves  with 
insects  and  eggs,  but  the  large  species,  like 
the  tafa,  are  dreaded  enemies  of  the  poultry- 
yard;  they  kill  for  the  sake  of  killing,  and 
intoxicate  themselves  with  blood.  They  are 
therefore  pursued  with  fury  by  the  settlers, 

who  have  great 
trouble  in  protecting 
their  poultry  against 
these  adroit  noctur- 
nal robbers. 

The  middle  in- 
cisors in  the  upper 
jaw  of  the  members 
of  this  genus  are 
large  and  recurved ; 
the  canines  are  slen- 
der, and  the  many- 
pointed  molars  have 
in  the  upper  jaw  a 
triangular  form  like  a 
V.  The  short,  thick 
legs  have  five  free 
toes  with  curved 
claws ;  only  the  great 
toe  of  the  hind-foot 
has  no  nail.  The 
pouch  is  sometimes 
well-formed,  sometimes  rudimentary.  The 
tafa  is  gray  on  the  back,  white  underneath, 
and  there  are  black  rings  round  the  eyes. 
The  animal  defends  itself  when  attacked  with 
wild  fury,  and  inflicts  dangerous  bites.  Like 
the  opossum  it  is  endowed  with  a  remarkable 
tenacity  of  life. 

The  True  Dasyures  (Dasyurus)  have  only 
two  premolars  in  each  half  of  each  jaw,  and 
consequently  forty-two  teeth  in  all.  The 
first  three  many-pointed  molars  still  retain 
the  insectivorous  type,  especially  in  the  upper 
jaw,  but  the  last  molar  is  thin,  greatly  com- 
pressed, and  transversely  placed. 

The    long    bodies,   tapering   heads,   small, 


THE   DASYURE   FAMILY. 


201 


stout  legs,  pointed  tails,  soft,  thick,  and 
frequently  spotted  fur,  and  the  whole  bearing 
give  to  these  marsupials  a  striking  resem- 


blance to  the  Viverrida,  and  more  particularly 
to  the  genets.  The  fore-feet  have  five,  the 
hind  ones  four  toes  with  strong  curved  claws. 


A         '      -N 


Fig.  254.— Tin.-  Yi\LTrmu  Dasyure  (Dasyurus  viverriaus). 


These  animals  creep  like  Viverrida,  roam 
about  by  night,  and  commit  great  havoc 
among  the  weaker  animals.  Mentally,  how- 
ever, they  are  not  highly  endowed,  and  they 


are  easily  caught  in  traps.  The  species 
shown  in  fig.  254,  the  Viverrine  Dasyure 
(Dasyurus  viverrinus),  has  round  white  spots 
irregularly  distributed  over  its  fur,  which  is 


r  ig.  255.  —  I  ne  I  asmanian  Devil  (Uasyurus  urstnus}. 


brown  above  and  rather  lighter  beneath.  The 
animal  is  fond  of  roaming  about  near  the  sea- 
shore, and  hunts  principally  after  poultry. 

The  Tasmanian  Devil  (Dasyurus  ursinus], 
fig-  255-  was  formerly  the  terror  of  the  settlers 
on  account  of  the  devastation  which  it  wrought 

VOL.  II. 


not  only  in  the  poultry-yards  but  even  among 
flocks  of  sheep,  on  account  of  the  stupid 
ferocity  with  which  it  would  defend  itself 
against  men  and  dogs-,  and  on  account  of 
its  remarkable  tenacity  of  life.  Its  name 
sufficiently  indicates  the  hatred  and  terror 


58 


THE  PREDACEOUS  MARSUPIALS 


which  the  animal  inspired,  even  though  it  is 
by  no  means  a  large  species,  measuring  only 
about  28  inches  from  the  tip  of  its  snout  to 
the  root  of  its  tail,  which  is  about  12  inches 
in  length. 

The  Tasmanian  devil  is  an  ugly  animal, 
with  a  thick  head,  blunt  snout,  compact  body, 
short,  stoutly-built  legs,  and  moderately  long 


tail  Its  coarse  hide  is  quite  black  except 
for  a  white  stripe  on  the  breast.  Its  formid- 
able dentition  comprises  forty-two  teeth,  all 
of  which  are  distinguished  by  their  mas- 
form.  They  are  emphatically  the  teeth  of 
a  beast  of  prey.  The  strong  canines  are 
sharp-pointed,  the  two  premolars  conical 
Behind  the  first  three  molars,  which  are 


fig.  25fiL-The  T; 


genuine  carnassials,  there  follows  in  the  upper 
jaw  a  smaller  tubercled  tooth,  while  in  the 
lower  jaw  the  four  molars  are  three-lobed 
and  have  a  cutting  edge.  No  bone  can 
withstand  these  terrible  shears. 

The  jaws  of  the  Tasmanian  Wolf  (  Tkyla- 
cinus  cynocephalus),  fig.  256,  are  armed  in  the 
same  manner;  but  there  is  an  additional  pre- 
molar,  and  consequently  the  total  number  of 
the  teeth  is  brought  up  to  forty-six.  The  gen- 
eral habit  of  this  largest  beast  of  prey  among 
the  still  surviving  marsupials  resembles  that 
of  a  dog  with  a  long  body  and  rather  short 
legs.  The  head  has  the  profile  of  a  grey- 
hound's, with  erect  ears  and  very  wide  mouth. 


The  length  of  the  animal  is  rather  more  dian 
3  feet,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  which  is  about 
half  that  length.  The  tafl  is  round  and 
tapers  to  a  point.  The  hair  is  short  and  far 
from  thick,  the  colour  a  brownish-gray  on 
the  back,  rather  lighter  underneath.  From 
twelve  to  fourteen  black  transverse  stripes 
extend  from  the  back  down  the  sides. 

The  animal  inhabits  Tasmania,  and  leads 
a  nocturnal  life.  It  is  very  sensitive  to  light 
Formerly  it  was  spread  over  the  whole  island 
and  devastated  the  sheep-flocks  of  the  settlers, 
who  called  it  "the  striped  wolf."1  At  the 

'This  name.  I  un  afcraed,  is  no  lugcr  «cd.  Ac  only  BUMS 
grac*  to  thenon!  ia  TxauMn  briar  Ike  "•iliu   tiger"  oc 


THE   PIIALANGER   FAMILY. 


203 


present  day  it  is  restricted  to  the  mountainous 
districts  of  the  interior,  and  is,  in  fact,  nearly 
extinct.  It  is  fierce,  but  stupid,  and  its  pur- 
suit and  destruction  are  accordingly  easy. 


All  other  marsupials  are  to  a  greater  or 
extent  vegetable-feeders;  and  the  modi- 
fications of  their  cheek-teeth,   the  reduction 


of  their  canines,  and  the  form  of  their  incisors 
bear  witness  to  this  kind  of  diet.  The  in- 
cisors are  present  in  large  number  only  in  the 
upper  jaw;  in  the  lower  jaw  there  are  no 
more  than  two  in  each  half,  and  these  are 
mostly  directed  horizontally  forwards.  In 
this  section  we  distinguish  several  groups 
and  families. 


THE    FRUIT-EATING    MARSUPIALS 

(CARPOPHAGA). 


In  this  group  there  are  in  all  six  vertical 
incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  three  in  each  pre- 
maxilla.  In  the  same  jaw  canines  are  always 
present,  but  these  are  sometimes  absent  in 
the  lower.  The  number  of  the  molars  is 
four,  that  of  the  premolars  varies.  The 
great  toe  of  the  hind-foot  (the  hallux)  is 
opposable.  The  second  and  third  digits  on 
these  feet  are  weak  and  united  in  a  kind  of 
sinewy  sheath  as  in  the  dasyures.  The  fore- 
feet are  five-toed.  Looking  to  their  nocturnal 
and  arboreal  mode  of  life  and  their  general 
habit  we  may  say  that  the  Carpophaga  hold  the 
same  position  among  the  marsupials  as  the 
Prosimii  among  the  placental  mammals. 

THE   PHALANGER   FAMILY 

(PHALANGISTIDA). 

This  is  a  family  very  rich  in  species.  The 
genera  and  sub-genera  have  been  distin- 
guished according  to  the  presence  or  absence 
of  a  flying  membrane,  and  in  accordance 
with  slight  modifications  in  the  dentition. 
All  the  members  of  this  family1  have  canines 
in  both  jaws,  but  in  some,  as  in  cuscus,  these 
are,  at  least  in  the  upper  jaw,  sharp  and 
prominent,  while  in  others  they  may  be 
scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  premolars. 

1  The  opossums  of  the  Australian  colonists. — TR. 


The  upper  molars  are  quadrangular,  the 
lower  ones  oblong;  they  are  all  composed 
of  transverse  ridges  which  project  in  the  form 
of  a  half-moon  both  to  the  exterior  and  the 
interior.  Premolars  and  canines  are  often 
difficult  to  distinguish.  From  this  family  we 
select  only  a  few  representatives. 

The  Squirrel  Flying-phalanger  (BelidtUS 
or  Petaiirus  sciureiis],  fig.  257,  belongs  to  the 
genus  Petaurus,  of  which  Belideus  is  a  sub- 
genus,  distinguished  by  having  a  third  pre- 
molar  in  both  jaws,  while  the  other  sub-genera 
have  only  two.  The  shape  of  the  head,  which 
is  round,  short,  and  much  expanded  behind 
the  snout,  the  large  round  eyes,  the  short 
erect  ears,  the  soft  fur,  the  long  bushy  tail,  and 
the  patagium,  or  flying-membrane  stretched 
out  between  the  limbs,  give  to  these  creatures 
a  marvellously  close  resemblance  to  the  flying- 
squirrels,  so  that  the  two  might  from  their 
external  appearance  be  confounded  with  each 
other.  An  examination  of  the  dentition,  or 
a  glance  at  the  pouch,  or  at  the  feet,  would 
at  once  enable  us  to  distinguish  the  former 
from  the  latter.  The  slightly  developed  great 
toe  of  the  fore-feet  (the  pollex)  is  opposable, 
and  so  also  is  the  great  toe  of  the  hind-feet 
(the  hallux),  which,  however,  is  very  powerful 
and  is  provided  with  a  flat  nail.  The  second 
and  third  digits  are  short,  weak,  and  united 


2O4 


THE   FRUIT-EATING   MARSUPIALS. 


together,  the  fourth  and  fifth,  on  the  other 
hand,  free.  The  animals  sleep  by  day  and 
go  out  at  night  in  search  of  their  food,  which 
is  of  a  rather  mixed  nature,  consisting  of 
plants,  insects,  eggs,  and  even  small  birds. 
The  creatures  climb  and  leap  with  wonderful 
dexterity,  and  at  night  are  just  as  agile  and 
active  as  they  are 
sluggish  and 
sleepy  by  day. 
The  species 
shown  in  the  il- 
lustration is  of  an 
ashy-gray  on  the 
back,  white  on  the 
underparts  and 
the  edges  of  the 
patagium.  It  is 
a  native  of  New 
South  Wales, 
lives  socially,  and 
is  fond  of  a  sugary 
diet.  The  body 
and  tail  each  mea- 
sure about  10 
inches  in  length. 

[A  smaller  mem- 
ber of  this  group  is 
the  Opossum  or  Fly- 
ing Mouse  (Aero- 
bates  pygmceiis), 
which  is  about  the  size  of  our  common  mouse. 
"The  little  Opossum  Mouse,"  says  Gould,  "is  a 
general  favourite  with  the  colonists;  and  well  may 
it  be  so,  for  in  its  disposition  it  is  as  amiable  as  its 
form  is  elegant  and  its  fur  soft  and  beautiful;  what 
the  dormouse  is  to  the  English  boy  this  little  animal 
is  to  the  juveniles  of  Australia.  I  have  seen  it  kept 
as  a  pet,  and  its  usual  retreat  in  the  day,  while  it 
sleeps,  was  a  pill-box ;  as  night  approaches  it  be- 
comes active,  and  then  displays  much  elegance  in 
its  motions." — Introduction  to  the  Mammals  of 
Australia^ 

The  True  Phalangers  (Phalangista)  have 
the  same  dentition  and  structure  of  the  feet, 
but  are  distinguished  by  having  a  tail  capable 
of  being  rolled  up,  mostly  naked  on  the  under- 


Kig.  257.— The  Squirrel  Flying-phalanger  (Bclidcus  sciureus).     p.  203. 


side,  and  by  the  absence  of  the  patagium. 
Like  the  members  of  the  previous  genus  they 
lead  a  nocturnal  life.  This  genus  also  has 
been  subdivided  into  several  sub-genera. 

The  Vulpine  Phalanger  (Phalangista  vul- 
pina],  of  which  an  illustration  is  given  (fig. 
258),  is  a  very  common  species  in  the  forests 

of  Australia  and 
Tasmania.  It 
attains  the  size  of 
a  cat.  Its  long 
bushy  tail  is  naked 
on  the  under  side 
only  at  the  tip. 
The  soft  thick  fur 
is  of  a  general 
brownish  -gray 
colour,  but  on  the 
back  assumes  a 
reddish  tinge, 
while  on  the 
underparts  it  even 
inclines  to  yel- 
low ;  the  throat  is 
rusty -red.  The 
natives  make 
mantles  out  of  the 
skins. 

Other  phalan- 
gers,  like  the 
cuscus  with  its 


strong  canines,  extend  even  to  the  Moluccas. 
The  Koala  or  Native  (Australian)  Bear, 
sometimes  called  also  the  Pouched-bear  (P/ias- 
colarctos  cinereus),  fig.  259,  is  a  form  that 
diverges  a  good  deal  from  this  family.  Like 
the  other  phalangers  it  is  a  good  climber,  but 
it  has  no  tail.  The  body  is  thickset,  the  head 
thick  and  rather  blunt.  In  its  gait  and  in  the 
appearance  of  its  fur  it  resembles  a  small 
thick-coated  bear.  Its  large  ears  are  hidden 
by  large  thick  tufts  of  hair;  the  short  thick  legs 
have  toes  armed  with  strong  claws,  and  the 
feet  have  a  peculiar  structure  which  reminds 
one  of  that  of  the  feet  of  the  chameleons. 
On  the  fore-feet  the  two  inner  toes,  the 


THE   PHAL ANGER   FAMILY. 


205 


thumb  and  forefinger,  are  opposable  to  the 
other  three,  so  that 
the  paw  forms,  as  it 
were,  a  pair  of  pincers. 
The  great  toe  of  the 
hind-feet  has  no  nail, 
but  is  very  large  and 
strong,  and  can  be 
opposed  to  the  other 
toes  either  alone  or 
along  with  the  two 
adjoining  toes.  The 
dentition  is  a  transi- 
tion to  that  of  the 
rodents.  The  two 
middle  incisors  of  the 
upper  jaw  are  remark- 
ably strong  and  get 
worn  by  use  so  as  to 
form  a  keel.  With 
respect  to  the  corres- 
ponding teeth  of  the 
lower  jaw  they  assume 
the  same,  position  as 


as  well  as  the  canines  arc  very  small ;  in  the 

lower  jaw  the  latter  are 
wanting  altogether. 
The  prcmolars  have 
blunt  edges  and  stand 
in  close-set  rows  sep- 
arated by  a  tolerably 
wide  interval  from  the 
molars.  The  latter 
have  a  number  of 
tubercles  arranged  in 
the  form  of  a  cross. 
The  animal  is  gentle, 
peaceable,  and  in- 
dolent. Its  colour  is 
a  dark -gray  on  the 
back,  rather  lighter 
on  the  underparts. 
By  night  it  clambers 
slowly  about;  men- 
tally it  appears  to  be 
not  very  highly  de- 
veloped. The  female 
carries  its  young  one 


srer  </'/ 


in  the  rodents.     The  remaining  upper  incisors  |  about  with  it  for  a  long  time  on  its  back. 


Fig.  259.— The  Koala  or  Native  (Australian)  Bear  (Phascolarctos  cinenus). 


2O6 


THE   HERBIVOROUS   MARSUPIALS. 


THE    HERBIVOROUS    MARSUPIALS 


(POEPHAGA). 


The  members  of  this  group  are  above  all 
remarkable  for  their  powers  of  climbing. 
The  fore-legs  are  very  much  shortened,  but 
capable  of  a  great  variety  of  movement,  en- 
abling them  to  serve  as  hands.  They  are 
always  five-toed  and  provided  with  strong 
claws.  The  hind-legs,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
very  long  and  stoutly  built;  they  carry  the 
whole  weight  of  the  body,  have  no  hallux 
(great  toe),  and  have  the  second  and  third 
digits  so  slim  and  so  closely  united  that  they 
might  be  taken  to  be  one;  the  fourth  digit  is 
long  and  strong,  and  like  the  fifth  carries  a 
sharp  claw.  Of  the  six  upper  incisors,  which 
are  set  far  forwards  in  the  mouth,  the  middle 
pair  are  always  the  strongest  and  sometimes 
resemble  canines  in  form.  The  two  lower 
incisors  are  directed  horizontally  forwards. 
The  canines  when  present  are  always  weak, 
but  usually  there  are  none  at  all  ;  in  the  lower 
jaw  they  are  always  wanting.  A  wide  inter- 
val separates  the  front  from  the  cheek  teeth. 
The  single  premolar  is  very  variable;  the 
four  molars  exhibit  transverse  ridges. 

Dental  formula:—3 


T  ' 


teeth. 


i  .    o   .1.4 


The  Kangaroos. 


=  28  to 


When  mention  is  made  of  marsupials  every 
one  is  sure  to  think  first  of  all  of  the  singular 
forms  of  the  kangaroos,  so  frequently  seen  in 
our  zoological  gardens.  People  stare  with 
astonishment  at  these  animals  with  their 
small  heads  and  large  hinder  parts,  sitting  on 
their  two  strong  hind-legs  and  powerful  tail 
as  on  a  tripod,  looking  about  them  with  erect 
ears,  and  perhaps  scratching  their  back  with 


their  fore-paws.  They  are  astonished  to  see 
them  when  eating  resting  on  their  small  fore- 
paws,  and  sticking  their  long  hind-legs  be- 
tween the  former  in  order  to  glide  onwards; 
and  probably  still  more  astonished  to  see  the 
flying  leaps  which  they  are  able  to  take,  first 
resting  with  their  body  inclined  on  their  long 
hind-legs  and  outstretched  tail,  and  then  dart- 
ing through  the  air  to  a  great  distance,  and 
scurrying  through  the  bushes  in  a  very  few 
leaps.  And  they  are  no  less  astonished  when 
they  see  the  elegant  little  head  of  a  young 
one  peeping  forth  from  out  of  the  pouch  in 
front,  and  then,  after  a  few  glances  round, 
springing  out  on  the  grass,  dancing  for 
a  little  round  the  mother,  and  afterwards 
leaping  back  head  foremost  with  the  greatest 
dexterity  into  the  pouch,  whenever  any  move- 
ment is  made  to  alarm  it. 

The  kangaroos  are  in  fact  wonderfully 
adapted  to  the  arid  withered  savannahs  and 
prairies  of  Australia.  They  formerly  inhabited 
these  regions  in  great  herds.  Excessively 
timid,  and,  at  the  same  time,  rather  stupid, 
and  not  very  adroit  in  resisting  their  enemies, 
they  nevertheless  multiplied  rapidly  notwith- 
standing the  incessant  pursuit  to  which  they 
were  exposed  on  the  part  of  the  natives ;  but 
the  advance  of  the  Europeans  has  materially 
altered  the  conditions  of  existence  for  these 
creatures,  and  at  the  present  day  the  kan- 
garoos have  been  forced  back  into  remote 
regions,  into  which  the  bush-settlers  with 
their  sheep-dogs  and  fire-arms  have  not  yet 
penetrated.1  Besides  birds  they  form  the  sole 

1  Nevertheless,  in  some  of  the  pastoral  districts  of  Queensland 
they  are  still  so  numerous  and  destructive  that  the  Queensland 
government  offers  a  reward  of  &/.  for  each  kangaroo  and  qd.  for  each 
wallaby  scalp.  Wallaby  is  the  popular  name  for  the  members  of 


THE   KANGAROOS. 


207 


game  of  these  regions,  and  although  their 
tlesh  and  skin  are  of.  comparatively  little  value 
they  are  nevertheless  highly  esteemed  for  the 
want  of  anything  better. 

The  kangaroos  graxe  by  day  and  sleep 
by  night — the  larger  species  in  the  bush  and 
in  woods,  the  smaller  ones  in  holes  dug 
by  themselves,  which 
they  line  with  grasses 
and  dry  herbs. 
Their  food  is  essen- 
tially vegetable. 
They  graze  after  the 
manner  of  our  cattle, 
and  a  certain  herb, 
of  which  the  kanga- 
roos are  particularly 
fond,  has  received 
from  the  settlers  the 
name  of  "  kangaroo 
grass."  When  they 
have  torn  up  the 
grasses  or  leaves  of 
the  herbs  they  sit 
down  on  their  tripod 
to  eat  them,  in  doing 
which  they  make  use 
of  their  fore- paws 
as  hands. 

The  numerous 
species  have  been 
distributed  among 
several  genera  dis- 
tinguished by  differences  in  the  dentition  and 
the  relative  length  of  the  fore  and  hind  legs. 

The  least  abnormal  type  is  that  of  the 
Tree-kangaroos  (Dendrolagus) of  New  Guinea, 
the  commonest  species  of  which,  the  Ursine 
Tree-kangaroo  {Dendrolagus  itrsinus],  is  shown 
in  fig.  260.  Although  its  legs  and  feet  are 
constructed  on  the  general  type  of  those  of 
the  kangaroos,  the  disproportion  between  the 
fore  and  hind  legs  is  not  so  striking  as  in 

the  genus  Halmaturus,  which  closely  resemble  the  true  kangaroos, 
but  are  distinguished  by  having  a  naked  muzzle.  The  commonest 
species,  the  black  wallaby,  is  about  2%  feet  in  length,  exclusive  of 
the  tail.— TK. 


Fig.  260. — The  Ursine  Ti 


other  forms,  the  fore-legs  being  almost  equal 
in  length  to  the  hind  ones.  All  the  toes  have 
flattened  somewhat  curved  cutting  claws. 
The  upper  incisors  are  almost  equal  in  size, 
the  canines  are  very  prominent,  and  the  pre- 
molar  is  of  considerable  length.  The  body 
and  the  cylindrical  tail  are  each  about  2  feet 

long.  The  coat  is 
dark-brown  on  the 
back,  light-brown 
underneath.  The 
members  of  this 
genus  have  become 
completely  adapted 
to  a  tree  life.  They 
climb  well  and  feed 
on  everything  that 
they  can  obtain  on 
their  airy  abodes. 

The  Rat-kangaroos 
or  Potoroos  (Hypsi- 
prymnus)  may  attain, 
as  in  the  species 
shown  in  fig.  261, 
the  Tufted-tailed 
Rat-kangaroo  (//. 
penicillatus),  the  size 
of  a  rabbit  or  a  hare; 
but  usually,  as  the 
name  indicates,  arc: 
not  so  large.  They 
live  on  the  arid  hilly 
savannahs,  sleep  by 

day  in  a  warm  well-lined  hole,  are  social  in 
their  habits,  and  burrow  in  the  ground  in 
search  of  roots  and  tubers.  They  make  use 
of  their  long  prehensile  tail  to  carry  herbs 
to  their  nests.  The  fore-paws  are  shorter 
than  in  the  tree-kangaroos,  and  the  dentition 
also  is  considerably  different.  The  middle 
incisors  are  decidedly  larger  than  the  canines, 
and  are  sharp  and  recurved.  The  surface 
of  the  long  premolar  is  notched  with  deep 
folds  running  down  from  the  crown,  which  is 
compressed  from  side  to  side.  The  species 
shown  in  the  illustration  is  brownish-gray  on 


208 


THE    HERBIVOROUS   MARSUPIALS. 


the  back  and  sprinkled  with  white  on  the 
belly,  and  is  distinguished  by  the  long  tuft  of 
hair  on  the  end  of  the  tail. 

The  Rock-kangaroos  (Petrogale)  have  no 
canines  and  only  slight  folds  in  the  premolar. 
They  have  become  adapted  to  life  in  rocky 
districts,  and  are  remarkably  adroit  climbers, 
all  the  more  since  their  hind-legs  are  not 


Fig.  261. — The  Tufted-tailed  Rat-kangaroo (Hrfsiprjmiiits  fe*itill<iliu\. 
pageaoj. 

excessively  long.  The  species  shown  in  the 
illustration,  the  Yellow-footed  Rock-kangaroo 
(Pctrogale  xantliopus),  fig.  262,  inhabits  New 
South  Wales,  and  attains  a  length  of  about 
2  feet.  Like  its  allies  it  leaves  its  retreat 
only  at  night.  The  tail,  including  its  large 
terminal  tuft,  is  as  long  as  the  body.  The 
long  coarse  hair  is  brownish-gray  on  the  back, 
whitish  beneath;  on  the  rump  there  is  a  white, 
on  the  brow  a  black  stripe. 

The  Great  Kangaroo  {Macropus  giganteus) 
has  been  selected  as  the  representative  of  the 
kangaroos  proper,  in  which  the  disproportion 
between  the  fore  and  hind  legs  reaches  its 
climax.  It  is  shown  in  a  full-page  illustra- 
tion (PL  XL.).  These  animals  have  no 


canines,  and  of  the  upper  incisors  the  second 
is  considerably  smaller  than  the  other  two. 
The  premolar  is  small  and  flat.  The  molars 
show  the  transverse  ridges  very  beautifully. 

The  males  of  the  species  figured,  which  is 
a  native  of  New  South  Wales,  attain  in  a 
sitting  attitude  a  height  of  6^  feet  and  are 
accordingly  taller  than  man.  They  are  a  third 
larger  than  the  females,  and  their  weight 
may  amount  to  330  pounds.  The  coat  has  a 
dark  brown-gray  colour  on  the  back,  a  lighter 
shade  of  the  same  colour  underneath.  As  in 
all  true  kangaroos  the  fourth  digit  of  the  hind- 
foot  is  the  largest:  the  sharp  claw  with  which 
it  is  armed  may  become  a  dangerous  weapon, 
and  it  is  used  with  effect  for  this  purpose  both 
against  men  and  dogs.  The  observations 
made  on  the  reproduction  of  marsupials 
mostly  relate  to  this  species,  so  frequently  to 
be  seen  in  our  zoological  gardens. 

["  In  Van  Diemen's  Land  *  the  Jfacrepus  major 
forms  an  object  of  chase,  and,  like  the  deer  and  fox 
in  England,  is  hunted  with  hounds.  .  .  .  The 
following  particulars  of  the  hunt  have  been  obliging- 
ly forwarded  to  me  by  the  Honourable  Henry  Elliot, 
late  aide-de-camp  to  His  Excellency  Sir  John 
Franklin,  and  one  of  its  chief  patrons.  .  .  . 

'The  'Boomer'1  is  the  only  kangaroo  which 
shows  good  sport,  for  the  strongest  Brush  Kan- 
garoo* cannot  live  above  twenty  minutes  before  the 
hounds;  but  as  the  two  kinds  are  always  found  in 
perfectly  different  situations,  we  never  were  at  a  loss 
to  find  a  Boomer,  and  I  must  say  that  they  seldom 
failed  to  show  us  good  sport.  \Ve  generally  'found' 
in  a  high  cover  of  young  wattles;  but  sometimes 
we  'found'  in  the  open  forest,  and  then  it  was  really 
pretty  to  see  the  style  in  which  a  good  kangaroo 
would  go  away.  I  recollect  one  day  in  particular, 
when  a  very  fine  Boomer  jumped  up  in  the  very 
middle  of  the  hounds,  in  the  open ;  he  at  first  took 
a  few  high  jumps  with  his  head  up,  looking  about 
him  to  see  on  which  side  the  coast  was  clearest,  and 


1  It  may  be  well  to  explain  nowadays  that  Van  Diemen's  Land  is 
an  old  name  for  Tasmania,  the  latter  name  having  been  adopted  by 
the  colonists  when  they  were  allowed  to  set  up  for  themselves  with 
an  independent  legislature. — T*. 

1  A  roll-grown  male,  often  of  enormous  sue.  "  Like  the  'rogue 
elephants'  of  Ceylon,  these  patriarchs  are  often  solitary,  and  are 
generally  very  savage." — Ctmlf. 

*  Bennett's  Wallaby  (f/ffmatitrms  SatmtOi}. 


PLATE  XL.  -      THE    GREAT    KANGAROO   (Afacrofits  gigantms). 


THE   KANGAROOS. 


209 


then,  without  a  moment's  hesitation,  he  stooped  for- 
ward and  shot  away  from  the  hounds,  apparently 
without  an  effort,  and  gave  us  the  longest  run  I  ever 
saw  after  a  kangaroo.     He  ran  fourteen  miles  by 
the  map  from  point  to  point,  and  if  he  had  had  fair 
play  I  have  very  little  doubt  but  that  he  would  then 
have  beat  us;  but  he  had  taken  along  a  tongue  of 
land  which  ran  into  the 
sea,    so   that,   on    being 
pressed,  he  was    forced 
to  swim  across  the  arm 
of  the  sea,  which,  at  the 
place  where  he  took  the 
water,  cannot  have  been 


less  than  two  miles 
broad ;  in  spite  of  a  fresh 
breeze  and  a  head  sea 
against  him  he  got  fully 
half-way  over,  but  he 
could  not  make  head 
against  the  waves  any 
further,  and  was  obliged 
to  turn  back,  when,  be- 
ing quite  exhausted,  he 
was  soon  killed. 

"The  distance  he  ran, 
taking  in  the  different 
bends  in  the  line,  cannot 
have  been  less  than 
eighteen  miles,  and  he 
certainly  swam  more 
than  two.  I  can  give 
no  idea  of  the  length  of 
time  it  took  him  to  run 

this  distance,  but  it  took  us  something  more  than 
two  hours,  and  it  was  evident,  from  the  way  in 
which  the  hounds  were  running,  that  he  was  a 
long  way  before  us;  and  it  was  also  plain  that  he 
was  still  fresh,  as,  quite  at  the  end  of  the  run,  he 
went  over  the  top  of  a  very  high  hill,  which  a  tired 
kangaroo  never  will  attempt  to  do,  as  dogs  gain  so 
much  on  them  in  going  up-hill.  His  hind  quarters 
weighed  within  a  pound  or  two  of  seventy  pounds, 
which  is  large  for  the  Van  Diemen's  Land  kangaroo, 
though  I  have  seen  larger. 


Boomer  had  taken  along  the  beach  and  left  his 
prints  in  the  sand,  the  length  of  each  jump  was 
found  to  be  just  fifteen  feet,  and  as  regular  as  if  they 
had  been  stepped  by  a  sergeant.  When  a  Boomer 
is  pressed  he  is  very  apt  to  take  to  the  water,  and 
then  it  requires  several  good  dogs  to  kill  him ;  for 
he  stands  waiting  for  them,  and  as  soon  as  they 

swim  up  to  the  attack 
he  takes  hold  of  them 
with  his  fore- feet  and 
holds  them  under  water. 
The  buck  is  altogether 
very  bold,  and  will  gen- 
erally make  a  stout  re- 
sistance, for  if  he  cannot 
get  to  the  water  he  will 
place  his  back  against  a 
tree,  so  that  he  cannot 
be  attacked  from  behind, 
and  then  the  best  dog 
will  find  in  him  a  for- 
midable antagonist. 

"'The  doe,  on  the 
contrary,  is  a  very  timid 
creature,  and  I  have 
even  seen  one  die  of  fear. 
It  was  in  a  place  where 
we  wished  to  preserve 
them,  and  as  soon  as  we 
found  that  we  were  run- 
ning a  doe  we  stopped 
the  hounds  just  at  the 

moment  they  were  run- 
Fig.  262.— The  Yellow-footed  Rock-kangaroo  (Petrogaie  xanthopus).  .        .          .  ^.^  ^ac} 

O  * 

not  received  the  slightest  injury,  but  she  lay  down 
and  died  in  about  ten  minutes.  When  a  doe  is 
beat  she  generally  makes  several  sharp  doubles,  and 
then  gets  among  the  branches,  or  close  to  the  trunk 
of  a  fallen  tree,  and  remains  so  perfectly  still  that 
she  will  allow  you  almost  to  ride  over  her  without 
moving,  and  in  this  way  she  often  escapes.  A 
tolerably  good  kangaroo  will  generally  give  a  run 
of  from  six  to  ten  miles,  but  in  general  they  do 
not  run  that  distance  in  a  straight  line,  but  make 
one  large  ring  back  to  the  place  where  they  were 


" '  We  did  not  measure  the  length  of  the  hop  of 
this  kangaroo,  but  on  another  occasion,  when  the 


found,  though   the  larger  ones  often  go  straight 
away.'" — Gould,  Mammals  of  Australia^ 


VOL.  II. 


2IO 


THE   ROOT-EATING   MARSUPIALS. 


THE    ROOT-EATING    MARSUPIALS 

(RHIZOPHAGA). 


This  group  is  represented  solely  by  the 
genus  of  the  Wombats  (Phascolomys).  Fig. 
263  represents  the  Broad-fronted  Wombat 


(Ph.  Iatifr0*s),  which  is  pretty  common  in 
South  Australia  and  is  likewise  often  kept  in 
our  zoological  gardens.  It  is  a  large  thick 


;-.   --- 


plump  creature  with  short  legs,  a  mere  stump 
for  a  tail,  and  a  thick  rounded  head.  The 
broad  paws  have  five  toes  with  large  daws 
adapted  for  burrowing.  The  dentition  is  ex- 
actly like  that  of  a  rodent:  two  strong,  sharp. 
chisel-shaped  incisors  form  the  equipment  of 
the  front  part  of  the  jaws  both  above  and 
below.  A  wide  interval  (diastema)  is  then 
followed  by  a  series  of  rootless  cylindrical 
teedi  with  a  flat  grinding  surface.  The  pre- 
molar  consists  of  a  single  cylinder,  while  the 
true  molars  are  made  up  of  two  cylindrical 
parts  fused  together.  There  are  no  canines. 


'  -° 


=  2±  teeth. 


The  dental  formula  is 

1.0.1.4 

The  wombats  are  the  very  embodiment  of 
stupidity,  or  rather  of  apathy.     With   their 


broad  burrowing  paws  they  dig  out  holes  in 
the  earth,  in  which  they  remain  by  day;  by 
night  they  walk  out  at  a  leisurely  pace  in 
search  of  their  food.  They  offer  no  resistance 
to  Hi-treatment:  they  are  obstinate  in  their 
indifference,  yet  they  sometimes  become  furi- 
ous without  any  apparent  cause.  They  are 
content  with  any  sort  of  food,  and  endure 
captivity  very  welL  In  Australia  their  flesh 
is  esteemed  as  highly  palatable.  The  coarse 
hair  is  of  a  bright  yellowish-gray  colour. 

[*  The  following  notes  arc  from  the  peas  of  rariovs 
authors  who  hare  written  on  the  wombat,  theearfi- 
estofwhom  was  Mr.  Bass,  i»  Coffins  s 

•"The  Wombat.'  says  Mr.  Bass. ' b  a  : 
short-legged,  and  rather  inactive  quadruped-     Its 
" _  -  ' ,   .-.:.         .  .  . .".".  -  "  >  r-t "    ."  _      •..""'_:...-"  --. .  ?- 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION   AND   DESCENT. 


21  I 


of  a  bear;  its  pace,  too,  is  hobbling  or  shuffling,  and 
not  unlike  the  awkward  gait  of  that  animal.  In 
disposition  it  is  mild  and  gentle,  but  it  bites  hard 
and  becomes  furious  when  provoked,  and  then  utters 
a  low  cry  between  a  hissing  and  a  whizzing  sound, 
which  cannot  be  heard  at  a  greater  distance  than 
thirty  or  forty  yards.'  Mr.  Bass  chased  one  of  these 
animals,  lifted  it  off  the  ground  and  laid  it  along 
his  arm,  as  if  carrying  a  child.  It  made  no  noise, 
nor  any  effort  to  escape,  not  even  a  struggle.  Its 
countenance  was  placid  and  undisturbed,  and  it  ex- 
hibited no  discomposure,  although  in  the  course  of 
a  mile  walk  it  was  frequently  shifted  from  arm  to 
arm,  and  sometimes  laid  over  the  shoulder;  when, 
however,  he  proceeded  to  secure  it  by  tying  its  legs, 
while  he  left  it  to  cut  a  specimen  of  a  new  wood,  it 
became  irritated,  whizzed,  kicked,  and  scratched 
most  furiously,  and  snapped  off  a  piece  from  the 
elbow  of  Mr.  Bass's  jacket  with  its  powerful  incisors. 


Its  temper  being  now  ruffled  it  remained  implacable 
all  the  way  to  the  boat,  ceasing  to  kick  and  struggle 
only  when  quite  exhausted. 

"Mr.  G.  Bennett  in  his  Wanderings,  speaking  of 
one  of  these  animals  kept  in  a  state  of  domestication 
at  Been  in  the  Sumat  country,  states  that  'it  would 
remain  in  its  habitation  till  dark,  it  would  then  come 
out  and  seek  for  the  milk-vessels,  and  should  none 
be  uncovered  it  would  contrive  to  get  off  the  covers 
and  bathe  itself  in  the  milk,  drinking  at  the  same 
time.  It  would  also  enter  the  little  vegetable  gar- 
den attached  to  the  station  in  search  of  lettuces,  for 
which  it  evinced  much  partiality.  If  none  could 
be  found,  it  would  gnaw  the  cabbage  stalks  without 
touching  the  leaves.  Although  this  animal  is  very 
numerous  in  the  most  distant  parts  of  the  colony, 
it  is  difficult  to  procure,  from  the  great  depth  to 
which  it  burrows.'" — Gould,  Mammals  of  Austra- 
lia^ 


GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTRIBUTION   AND    DESCENT   OF   THE 

MARSUPIALS. 


The  geographical  distribution  of  this  group 
is  very  simple.  The  wombats  and  the  mem- 
bers of  the  genus  Myrmecobius  are  entirely 
confined  to  Australia  and  Tasmania;  the 
dasyures,  the  pouched  badgers,  the  kangaroos, 
and  the  phalangers,  on  the  other  hand,  extend 
beyond  this  centre  both  to  the  north  and  west 
into  the  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago, 
of  which  Celebes  and  New  Guinea  form  the 
nuclei.  The  non-placental  mammals  might 
thus  be  regarded  as  an  Australasian  peculiarity, 
were  it  not  for  the  existence  of  the  opossum 
family  in  America  from  the  Hudson  and  the 
Missouri  through  the  whole  of  the  United 
States  and  Mexico  to  the  southernmost  point 
of  the  South  American  continent.  Only  the 
Old  World  at  the  present  day  has  no  marsu- 
pials to  show. 

Yet  the  Old  World  has  known  marsupial 
forms,  and  that  in  very  early  geological  epochs. 
In  order  to  follow  the  chain  of  the  marsupials 
back  to  the  oldest  representative  of  the  group, 


we  must  first  consider  the  Quaternary  forms, 
which,  like  their  allies  of  the  present  epoch, 
were  confined  to  the  Australian  and  American 
regions. 

The  bone  caves  of  Brazil  and  the  United 
States  have  yielded  a  number  of  species  of 
opossums  closely  allied  to  the  true  opossums 
of  the  present  day,  if  not  identical  with  these. 

The  Myrmecobii,  Peramelida,  and  Phalan- 
gistida  have  not  yet  furnished  any  Quaternary 
or  older  remains. 

The  genera  Thylacinus  and  Dasyurus  are 
represented  in  the  Quaternary  strata  of  Aus- 
tralia. There  has  been  found,  moreover, 
a  genus,  Thylacoleo,  of  the  size  of  a  lion, 
which  is  regarded  by  Owen  as  the  largest 
of  the  carnivorous  marsupials,  but  by  Flower 
and  Krafft,  on  the  contrary,  as  a  vegetable 
feeder  standing  between  the  kangaroos  and 
the  phalangers.  In  any  case  we  must  await 
further  investigations  concerning  this  extinct 
type. 


212 


THE   MARSUPIALS. 


Further,  the  wombats  are  represented  by 
a  species  which  attained  the  size  of  a  tapir, 
while  the  still  surviving  species  are  only  about 
equal  to  a  peccary  in  size. 

But  the  most  remarkable  types  yielded  by 
the  Quaternary  strata  belong  to  the  family 
of  the  kangaroos.  Both  the  kangaroos  proper 
and  the  rat-kangaroos  have  left  remains  in 
these  strata.  The  genera  Protemnodon  and 
Sthenurus,  which  have  been  found  on  the 
island  of  Australia,  have  great  similarity  to 
the  tree-kangaroos,  which  at  the  present  day 
are  confined  to  New  Guinea.  But  the  most 
curious  forms  are  unquestionably  Diprotodon 
and  Nototherium.  The  latter  genus  has  teeth 
with  elevated  transverse  ridges,  like  the  kan- 
garoos, the  tapirs,  and  the  Dinotherium,  but 
these  ridges  were  very  high  and  sharp.  The 
skull  of  this  animal  preserved  in  the  British 
Museum  is  upwards  of  3  feet  in  length,  and 
the  bones  of  the  limbs  give  evidence  of  their 
having  belonged  to  a  long-legged  animal  with 
a  lower  fore-leg  capable  of  being  to  some 
extent  twisted  round  like  that  of  the  majority 
of  the  marsupials  of  the  present  day.  The 
lower  jaw  has  a  well-marked  inflection  of  the 
posterior  angle.  This  animal  must  have  been 
at  least  as  large  as  an  elephant. 

The  no  less  colossal  genus  Nototherium 
appears  to  have  had  no  incisors,  and  its 
cheek-teeth  perhaps  resembled  those  of  Dip- 
rotodon. In  the  remains  that  have  come 
down  to  us  they  are  unfortunately  worn  away 
to  such  a  degree  that  no  conclusion  can  be 
drawn  as  to  the  form  of  the  crowns. 

We  thus  see  that  the  Quaternary  strata  of 
America  and  Australia  stand  in  exactly  the 
same  relation  to  the  fauna  found  in  the  same 
regions  at  the  present  day  as  the  extinct  and 
living  placental  faunas  do  to  one  another  in 
other  lands.  The  extinct  genera  and  species 
are  in  general  considerably  larger  than  the 
surviving  species.  The  geographical  limits 
have  remained  the  same,  for  in  America  also 
the  Quaternary  opossums  advanced  farther 
to  the  north  than  do  those  of  the  present  day. 


In  the  exclusively  Australian  Quaternary 
strata  only  marsupial  forms  have  been  found 
among  mammalian  remains.  If,  now,  we 
take  into  account  the  fact  that  at  the  time  of 
the  discovery  of  Australia,  that  great  island 
contained  in  addition  to  marsupials  only  a 
few  rare  bats  and  rodents,  which  were  per- 
haps accidentally  introduced  by  man,  and  that, 
moreover,  in  the  Australasian  region  we  meet 
with  some  other  monodelphian  or  placental 
forms  only  in  the  districts  of  Celebes  and 
New  Guinea,  which  are  inhabited  by  a  mixed 
fauna,  we  are  necessarily  driven  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  underlying  strata  can  contain 
nothing  but  marsupial  remains,  and  that  per- 
haps we  shall  some  day  discover  in  Australia 
evidences  of  an  evolution  such  as  we  find 
traces  of  in  other  regions  in  the  case  of  pla- 
cental mammals  in  Tertiary  times.  The 
marsupials  of  the  present  day  would  thus 
be  only  the  remains  of  those  old  faunas  which 
have  preserved  the  marsupial  character  in 
Australia  through  the  Cretaceous  period, 
while  in  other  regions  of  the  earth  the  trans- 
formation of  non-placental  into  placental  forms 
was  accomplished  during  that  geological  epoch. 

We  may,  indeed,  be  led  to  such  a  conclu- 
sion in  another  way  when  we  consider  that 
the  placental  mammals  are  already  repre- 
sented in  the  earliest  Eocene  strata  by  a 
certain  number  of  types,  which  cannot  be 
derived  from  one  another,  when  we  bear  in 
mind  further  that  the  Tertiary  strata  in  Europe 
have  hitherto  yielded  but  few  remains  of 
marsupials,  and  that  the  Cretaceous  strata 
have  up  to  the  present  day  revealed  no  traces 
of  mammals  whatever,  and  when  we  remem- 
ber finally  that  the  oldest  known  mammalian 
remains  belong  mostly,  if  not  exclusively,  to 
the  marsupials. 

The  genus  Peratherium,  which  is  repre- 
sented by  several  species  in  the  Upper  Eocene 
of  France  and  England,  as  well  as  in  the 
Lower  Miocene  of  Auvergne,  is  not  very 
different  from  the  opossums  of  the  present 
day,  and  may  without  hesitation  be  referred 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION   AND   DESCENT. 


213 


to  that  group.  Very  probably  other  ancestors 
of  the  opossums  will  yet  be  found  in  America, 
still  it  remains  a  noteworthy  fact  that  the 
family  is  restricted  to  America,  and  is  not 
represented  in  Europe  subsequently  to  the 
Middle  Miocene. 

But  we  must  not  lay  too  great  stress  on 
the  resemblance  between  the  Tertiary  Euro- 
pean marsupials  and  those  of  America.  Re- 
cent investigations  of  Lemoine  have  shown 
that  the  genus  Plagiaulax  still  lived  in  Tertiary 
times  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Reims.  This 
genus  has  incontestable  affinities  to  the  Aus- 
tralian rat-kangaroos  of  the  present  day,  and 
we  shall  return  to  them  again  when  speaking 
of  the  Jurassic  marsupials. 

The  earliest  mammalian  remains  of  any 
kind  are  small  teeth,  which  are  found  in  the 
transitional  breccias  of  the  New  Red  Marl 
(Keuper)  belonging  to  the  Triassic  strata  of 
Degerloch  near  Stuttgart,  and  in  a  bone 
breccia  near  Frome  in  England  manifestly  be- 
longing to  the  same  period.  To  these  remains 
the  name  of  Microlestes  has  been  given. 
These  isolated  small  teeth  resemble  most 
closely  those  of  the  genus  Myrmecobius  among 
still  living  forms,  and  those  of  Plagiaulax 
among  extinct  genera,  and  on  account  of 
this  resemblance  these  remains  have  been 
regarded  as  belonging  to  a  small  insectiv- 
orous marsupial.  A  lower  jaw  found  in 
North  Carolina  and  referred  to  a  marsupial 
called  Dromatherium  sylvestre  is  much  more 
complete;  it  shows  seven  three-cusped  molars, 
three  sharp-pointed '  premolars,  a  slender 
canine,  and  three  incisors  placed  at  some  little 
distance  from  each  other. 

These  teeth  thus  seem  to  indicate  an  insec- 
tivorous marsupial  resembling  the  still  sur- 
viving genus  Myrmecobius  and  the  fossil 
Spalacotherium  of  Purbeck. 

We  thus  see  that  without  doubt  it  is  the 
insectivorous  type  of  dentition  that  is  most 
clearly  developed  in  the  oldest  mammalian 
teeth.  We  may  well  lay  special  stress  on 
this  point,  which  seems  to  us  to  be  of  peculiar 


importance,  for  with  regard  to  the  form  of  the 
crown  with  several  sharp  peaks,  and  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  different  sorts  of  teeth, 
molars,  premolars,  canines,  and  incisors,  the 
insectivorous  is  not  inferior  in  richness  to  any 
other.  The  dentition  in  all  the  other  orders 
of  mammals  appears  rather  to  be  a  modifi- 
cation or  degradation  of  some  kind  or  other 
of  the  original  insectivorous  dentition,  and  at 
the  most  we  can  point  to  the  more  complex 
internal  structure  of  certain  dentitions  as  in- 
stances of  a  higher  development.  The  con- 
siderable number  of  the  teeth  would  rather 
appear  to  connect  these  primitive  dentitions 
of  the  old  marsupials  with  those  of  the  reptiles. 
If  we  assume  that  the  Dromatherium  had  the 
same  number  of  teeth  in  both  jaws,  then  the 
total  number  of  teeth  belonging  to  it  would 
amount  to  fifty-six,  and  even  this  number  is 
exceeded  by  that  found  in  the  Thylacotherium 
(Amphitherium)  of  the  Jurassic  period,  in 
which  the  like  assumption  would  give  a  total 
of  sixty-four  teeth. 

The  Stonesfield  Slates,  belonging  to  the 
Lower  Oolitic  strata  of  the  Jurassic  period, 
have  yielded  many  highly  interesting  lower 
jaws,  some  of  which  (Amphitherium,  Amphi- 
lestes,  Phascolotherium)  still  show  the  insec- 
tivorous typeof  dentition  along  with  thecharac- 
teristic  inflexed  angle  of  the  lower  jaw  of  the 
marsupials,  while  the  genus  Stereognathus 
again  presents  a  quite  different  character. 
The  fragment  of  the  latter  that  has  been  pre- 
served has  three  molars  with  crowns  which 
seem  to  indicate  rather  a  herbivorous  or  an 
omnivorous  animal.  According  to  Owen  these 
teeth  differ  considerably  from  those  of  all  other 
living  or  extinct  mammals  known  to  us. 
The  form  most  closely  resembling  them  is 
found  in  the  second  lower  molar  of  Pliolophus 
vulpiceps,  a  small  hoofed  animal  of  the  London 
Clay(Lower  Eocene),  which  again  is  connected 
through  the  genus  Hyracotherium,  belonging 
to  the  same  strata,  with  the  Palaeotherida  of 
the  Upper  Eocene.  Other  naturalists  profess 
to  discover  a  certain  resemblance  between 


214 


THE   MARSUPIALS. 


the  teeth  of  Stereognathus  and  those  of  the 
still  living  koala. 

It  is  important  to  observe  further  that  the 
hoofed  mammals,  at  least  as  regards  their 
dentition,  are  descended  from  an  animal  be- 
longing to  the  Jurassic  period  whose  marsu- 
pial character  is  not  indeed  perfectly  demon- 
strated, but  is  nevertheless  highly  probable. 

A  wide  gap  separates  the  marsupials  of  the 
Stonesfield  Slates  from  those  of  the  "dirt- 
bed  "  of  the  Purbeck  strata.  Geologists  still 
dispute,  not  indeed  about  the  relative  position, 
but  about  the  classification  of  these  strata;  if 
they  are  referred  to  the  Jurassic  system  then 
they  form  its  uppermost  story;  if,  on  the 
other  hand,  they  are  referred  to  the  Creta- 
ceous system,  then  they  form  its  base.  But 
whichever  of  these  two  systems  they  be  as- 
signed to,  the  fact  remains,  that  between  those 
Purbeck  strata  and  the  lower  members  of  the 
Tertiary  series  there  lies  the  whole  extent  of 
the  Cretaceous  system,  which  has  hitherto 
appeared  to  be  altogether  devoid  of  mam- 
malian remains. 

In  the  case  of  most  of  the  jaws  found  in 
the  Purbeck  region  the  marsupial  character 
is  unequivocally  demonstrated  by  the  occur- 
rence of  the  inflexed  angle  of  the  lower  jaw; 
in  the  case  of  the  others  it  appears  to  be 
placed  beyond  doubt  by  the  great  similarity 
of  the  teeth  to  those  of  actual  marsupials  of 
the  present  day.  In  general  the  insectivorous 
type  still  prevails:  Spalacotherium,  Amblo- 
therium,  Peralestes,  Stylodon,  Balodon,  are 
characteristic  insectivores ;  Triconodon,  Tria- 
canthodon,  already  present  more  resemblance 
to  the  carnivorous  Tasmanian  wolf,  a  living 
marsupial  form,  as  the  reader  will  remember. 
Only  the  genus  Plagiaulax  presents  a  quite 
exceptional  type.  While  Owen  refers  it  to 
the  carnivorous  mammals  and  ranks  it  with 
the  genus  Thylacoleo  of  the  Quaternary 
strata  of  Australia,  other  investigators  regard 
Thylacoleo  and  Plagiaulax  as  herbivorous  and 
allied  to  the  rat-kangaroos.  In  the  strata  of 
the  Upper  Jura  of  Wyoming  in  America, 


corresponding  to  the  Purbeck  Beds  of  Eng- 
land, still  other  remains  have  been  found, 
some  of  which  (Ctenacodon)  are  allied  to 
Plagiaulax,  and  others  again  (Dryolestes, 
Tinodon)  appear,  on  the  contrary,  rather  to 
be  insectivorous  in  their  relations. 

At  the  end  of  the  wide  interval  of  the 
Cretaceous  Period  there  at  last  appear  in  the 
Upper  Eocene  and  Lower  Miocene  of  Europe, 
besides  Plagiaulax,  the  genus  Peratherium, 
allied  to  the  opossums,  and  the  genus  Gale- 
thylax,  both  of  which  may  be  regarded  as 
sub-genera  of  the  present  Didelphyida.  The 
smaller  species  of  the  latter  still  retain  a  per- 
fect insectivorous  dentition,  while  in  the  larger 
species  the  shortening  of  the  inner  cusps  or 
peaks  in  the  molars  indicates  a  relationship  to 
the  carnivorous  teeth  provided  with  a  heel 
such  as  is  seen  in  the  martens  and  Viverrida. 

With  respect  to  the  dentition  we  should 
thus  be  able  to  establish  the  existence  of  an 
almost  unbroken  chain  of  insectivorous  mar- 
supials stretching  down  from  the  earliest  period 
in  which  there  are  any  mammalian  remains 
whatever  to  the  present  day,  though  in  doing 
so  it  would  certainly  be  necessary  to  note  the 
tendency  to  a  bunodont  dentition  manifested 
in  the  genus  Stereognathus  of  the  Stonesfield 
Slates,  and  the  tendency  to  a  carnivorous 
dentition  that  appears  still  later  in  the  remains 
found  in  the  Purbeck  strata.  The  dentition 
of  Plagiaulax  might  even  be  regarded  as 
representing  a  peculiar  type,  which  would 
lead  up  either  to  the  rodents  or  to  elephants. 

The  different  views  that  have  been  put 
forward  regarding  the  transitional  forms  of 
dentition  such  as  are  represented  by  the 
genera  Stereognathus,  Plagiaulax,  and  Thy- 
lacoleo, show  that  these  are  indeterminate 
equivocal  types,  from  which  different  forms  of 
dentition  with  well-marked  characters  might 
be  developed;  that,  in  other  words,  they  are 
collective  types  exhibiting  a  union  of  char- 
acters which  afterwards  come  to  be  separated. 

Another  trait  in  the  organization  also 
deserves  to  be  noted. 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION   AND   DESCENT. 


215 


A  large  number  of  the  present-day  marsu- 
pials are  hand-footed,  that  is,  have  the  great 
toe  of  the  hind-foot  (the  hallux)  capable  of 
being  opposed  to  the  other  toes,  whereby  a  true 
hand  is  formed,  at  least  as  regards  function. 
The  phalangers,  the  koala,  and  above  all,  the 
members  of  the  opossum  family  are  distin- 
guished by  such  a  structure  of  the  hind-feet;  in 
general,  accordingly,  those  genera  and  families 
which  have  retained  the  insectivorous  type  of 
dentition.  It  must,  of  course,  be  admitted  that 
it  is  very  far  from  being  the  case  that  all  insect- 
eaters  exhibit  this  character;  the  genus  Myr- 
mecobius  with  its  very  pronounced  insectivor- 
ous dentition  has  only  four  toes  on  the  hind- 
feet,  but  except  for  the  peculiar  modification 
seen  in  the  kangaroos,  most  marsupials  have 
five  free  toes  on  the  hind-feet,  these  toes  being 
provided  with  curved  nails  or  claws.  There 
are,  however,  some  genera  in  which  the 
thumb  or  great  toe  carries  a  flat  nail.  On 
account  of  these  characters  the  marsupials 
were  formerly  even  placed  among  the  Ungui- 
culata  (nailed  mammals)  beside  the  rodents 
or  the  edentates,  and  this  error  is  still  clung 
to  by  some  naturalists,  who  concern  them- 
selves more  with  toes  and  nails  than  with  all 
the  other  parts  of  the  structure. 

So  far,  I  believe,  no  fossil  remains  have 
been  found  which  could  give  any  exact  know- 
ledge of  the  structure  of  the  foot  of  the  old 
marsupials;  but  from  the  close  relationship 
existing  between  the  genera  Peratherium  and 
Galethylax  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  opos- 
sums on  the  other  hand,  we  may  probably 
conclude  that  these  Eocene  genera  were 
likewise  hand-footed,  and  the  insectivorous 
character  of  still  older  genera  leads  to  the 
presumption  that  they  were  at  least  clawed 
mammals  if  not  likewise  hand-footed. 


In  consideration  of  these  facts  we  come 
therefore  to  the  conclusion  that  five-toed  feet, 
and  indeed  feet  with  free  nailed  toes,  may, 
with  the  highest  probability,  be  regarded  as 
the  primitive  type  of  mammalian  limbs,  and 
that  all  other  forms  of  limb  have  been 
developed  out  of  this  form.  If  this  conclusion 
is  correct,  it  follows  further  that  five-toed  feet 
constructed  on  this  type  indicate  no  advance, 
but  are  an  inheritance  from  long- extinct 
ancestors.  The  very  probable  existence  of 
hands  in  .the  Eocene  opossums  likewise 
proves  to  us  that  the  hand  is  an  original 
structure  and  not  the  last  result  of  a  continu- 
ous process  of  development  leading  to  a 
higher  and  higher  degree  of  perfection.  The 
only  thing  that  can  be  urged  with  any  force 
against  this  supposition  is  the  fact  that  in  the 
marsupials  the  hand  is  restricted  to  the  hind- 
limbs.  But  we  meet  with  a  similar  pheno- 
menon in  the  prosimians  and  monkeys,  which 
are  pre-eminently  the  climbers  among  the 
placental  mammals,  these  having  the  hands 
of  the  hind-limbs  much  better  developed  than 
those  of  the  fore-limbs. 

Our  examination  of  the  limbs  thus  leads  us 
to  the  same  conclusions  as  the  consideration 
of  the  dentition:  the  seemingly  more  highly 
developed  forms  are  the  original  and  inherited 
ones,  the  simpler  forms,  on  the  contrary,  the 
result  of  a  later  adaptation. 

We  can  thus  sum  up  our  investigations 
regarding  the  marsupials  by  the  statement 
that  they  are  the  oldest  known  mammals,  and 
that  their  present  geographical  distribution, 
in  connection  with  that  of  the  oldest  represen- 
tatives known  to  us,  does  not  show  their 
derivation  from  a  single  primitive  type,  but 
rather  proves  that  they  have  sprung  from 
many  roots. 


THE    MONOTREMES 


(MOXOTREMATA). 


Non-placental  mammals  without  true  teeth,  with  the  genital  and  urinary  ducts  opening  along  with  the  rectum  into 
a  common  chamber  (cloaca).  They  have  neither  marsupial  pouch  nor  teats,  but  have  milk-glands  and  marsupial 
bones. 


This  order,  consisting  only  of  two  Austra- 
lian genera,  the  duck-mole  and  the  echidnas, 
represents  beyond  doubt  the  lowest  stage  of 
degradation  that  can  be  reached  by  the  mam- 
malian type.  The  structure  of  these  remark- 
able animals  exhibits  its  many  points  of 
resemblance  to  the  marsupials,  but  there  are 
other  characters  peculiar  to  them  which  seem 
to  have  been  derived  from  reptiles,  amphibians, 
or  fishes. 

The  smooth  brain  of  these  animals  is  even 
less  developed  than  that  of  the  marsupials, 
and  has,  like  that  of  the  latter,  an  imperfect 
corpus  callosum  and  simple  corpora  quadri- 
gemina  with  scarcely  observable  furrows. 
The  eyes  are  small,  and  the  external  ears 
altogether  wanting.  The  slit-like  external 
openings  of  the  ears  can  be  opened  and 
closed  by  the  animal  at  pleasure.  The  bones 
of  the  skull  become  fused,  as  in  the  birds,  very 
early.  The  teeth  are  either  altogether  want- 
ing, or  are  represented,  as  in  the  duck-mole, 
only  by  horny  plates.  The  lower  jaw  is  very 
weak  and  has  no  inflexed  angle.  Through  the 
development  of  coracoid  bones  the  shoulder- 
girdle  of  the  monotremes  comes  to  resemble 
that  of  the  above-mentioned  lower  vertebrates. 
The  mouth  has  the  form  of  a  beak,  in  the 
duck-mole  flat  and  blunt,  in  the  echidnas 
rather  long  and  pointed,  and  is  not,  as  in 


almost  all  other  mammals,  clothed  with  fleshy 
lips,  but  with  a  horny  covering.  The  struc- 
ture of  the  sexual  organs  is  quite  peculiar. 
The  ovaries  produce  large  eggs,  but  that  of 
the  right  side  is,  as  in  the  birds,  degraded. 
There  is  no  true  uterus.  The  egg  remains 
a  long  time  in  an  enlargement  of  the  oviducts, 
which  open  separately  along  with  the  urinary 
ducts  into  a  common  canal,  the  urino-genital 
canal,  which  in  its  lower  part  receives  also 
the  rectum,  and  thus  forms  a  cloaca  with  a 
single  opening  to  the  exterior.  Such  a  struc- 
ture, which  exists  also  in  the  amphibians, 
reptiles,  and  birds,  is  found  also  in  the  em- 
bryos of  the  other  mammals,  in  which,  how- 
ever, it  disappears  in  the  course  of  develop- 
ment. 

The  monotremes  have  five  toes  on  all 
four  limbs.  On  the  ankle  of  the  hind-foot 
(the  tarsus)  there  is  a  sharp,  horny  spur  sup- 
ported by  a  few  tiny  bones,  and  this  spur 
might  be  regarded  as  a  sixth  toe.  In  the 
females  this  spur  is  only  rudimentary.  In 
the  males  it  is  traversed  by  a  canal  leading 
into  a  gland  lying  beneath  the  skin  of  the 
foot.  The  true  function  of  this  spur,  which 
has  been  erroneously  regarded  as  a  venomous 
weapon,  is  not  yet  known. 

Quite  recently  it  has  been  definitely  shown, 
especially  by  Haast  and  Caldwell,  that  the 


THE  WATER-MOLE. 


217 


monotremes  lay  eggs  similar  to  those  of  rep- 
tiles and  birds.  These  eggs  have  a  thin  but 
yet  calcareous  shell  and  arc  carried  about  for 
a  time  in  a  depression  of  the  skin.  Into  this 
depression  open  several  canals  belonging  to 
glands  which  secrete  milk  and  which  accor- 
dingly are  true  milk-glands,  but  which  form 
no  projecting  teats.  In  the  duck-mole  the 
egg-pouch  forms  a  longish  fold  of  the  skin, 


which,  after  the  escape  of  the  young  one 
from  the  egg,  becomes  so  reduced  as  to  be 
scarcely  recognizable,  and  is  seized  hold  of 
by  the  young  one  with  its  broad  beak  in 
sucking.  The  young  of  the  echidna,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  lodged  in  a  round  brood-pouch, 
in  which  it  buries  its  head  with  its  still  short 
beak,  seizing  hold  of  the  bottom  of  the  pouch 
along  with  the  gland  openings  which  are 


Fig.  264.  — The  Water-mole  or  Duck-mole  (Ornithorhynchus p,, 


found  there.  Here,  accordingly,  we  see  a 
transition  to  the  formation  of  a  complete 
marsupial  pouch. 

Concerning  the  development  of  the  young 
in  the  egg  we  possess  so  far  no  observations. 
In  any  case  they  escape  from  the  egg  while 
still  in  a  very  imperfect  state  of  development. 
The  youngest  specimens  which  have  been 
found  were  still  without  hair,  the  eyes  were 
closed  and  concealed  by  the  skin;  on  the 
short  limbs  the  five  toes  are,  however,  already 
recognizable,  and  in  the  males  also  the  spur. 
The  beak  of  these  young  ones  is  very  short, 
in  the  duck-mole  roundish,  in  the  echidnas 
more  elongated.  The  large  thick  tongue 
reaches  to  the  point  of  the  beak  and  ap- 
parently plays  in  sucking  the  part  of  a 
piston. 

The  two  genera  forming  this  order  are  so 
different  in  their  bodily  structure  that  they 

VOL.  11. 


must  be  regarded  as  representatives  of  dif- 
ferent families. 

The  Water-Mole,  Duck-mole,  or  Duck-billed 
Platypus. 

This,  the  sole  known  species  (Ornithorhyn- 
chus  paradoxes],  fig.  264,  is  a  native  of 
Southern  Australia  and  Tasmania.  It  may 
attain  a  length  of  about  20  inches,  and  pre- 
sents a  very  singular  appearance.  The  body 
is  rather  long,  compact,  and  almost  every- 
where of  the  same  thickness.  It  rests  on 
short  massive  legs,  and  carries  a  flat  broad 
tail,  which  is  only  slightly  covered  with  hair, 
and  that  only  on  the  under  side.  The  body, 
which  resembles  that  of  the  sea-otter,  is 
covered  with  a  short,  thick,  gray  down  inter- 
spersed with  numerous  coarse  hairs  of  a 
brown  colour,  these  hairs  being  pretty  long 
on  the  back,  where  they  almost  form  a  sort 

60 


218 


THE   MOXOTREMES. 


of  spines.  On  the  under  parts  they  are  finer 
and  somewhat  silky,  and  the  down  hair  in 
those  parts  is  rather  lighter  in  colour.  The 
mixture  of  these  two  hues  produces  a  varied 
play  of  colour.  The  legs  are  so  short  that 
the  animal  in  walking  or  running  actually 
drags  its  body  along  the  ground.  They 
have  five  toes  with  strong  burrowing  claws. 
A  broad  web  unites  the  toes  of  the  fore-feet, 
and  projects  so  far  beyond  them  that  the  nails 
appear  to  rest  on  the  web  itself,  the  free  edge 
of  which  folds  back  when  the  animal  burrows 
in  the  ground.  The  spur  on  the  hind-feet  of 
the  males  is  large  and  curved  backwards. 

On  the  body  thus  adapted  for  an  aquatic 
mammal  there  is  set  a  head  which  might 
rather  be  compared  with  that  of  a  duck  than 
that  of  a  mammal  if  it  had  not  hair,  or  rather 
a  soft  down  on  its  hinder  part.  Here  are 
seated  the  very  tiny  eyes,  on  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  skull  but  directed  forwards,  while 
a  little  further  back  may  be  observed  the 
openings  of  the  ears,  which,  as  already  men- 
tioned, the  creature  has  the  power  of  closing 
at  pleasure.  Half  the  length  of  the  head  is 
occupied  by  the  flat,  horny,  broad-ended  beak, 
the  form  of  which  reminds  us  of  that  of  certain 
ducks.  It  is  separated  from  the  hairy  part 
of  the  head  by  a  horny  protuberance,  capable 
of  being  laid  back  and  expanded.  The  nos- 
trils are  placed  at  the  end  of  the  beak,  which 
is  surrounded  by  a  horny  but  very  sensitive 
lip.  The  lower  jaw  is  much  narrower  than 
the  upper,  but  has  a  form  adapting  it  to  fit 
into  the  latter.  Far  back  in  the  mouth  may 
be  seen  the  thick  horny  and  warty  tongue; 
two  of  the  warts  resemble  sharp-pointed  teeth. 
In  each  half  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  on  each 
side  of  the  base  of  the  skull,  in  a  position 
corresponding  to  the  more  retired  position  of 
the  lower  jaw,  there  is  a  depression  with  a 
reticulated  bottom,  in  which  there  is  a  warty 
eminence  formed  of  horny  fibres,  so  that, 
if  this  wart  were  actually  a  tooth,  the  animal 
would  have  four  long,  horny,  flattened  teeth 
at  the  back  of  the  mouth. 


The  singular  creature  leads  an  aquatic  life. 
It  excavates  for  itself  burrows  of  from  20  to 
25  feet  in  length1  on  the  banks  of  quiet 
streams  and  creeks  where  there  is  a  muddy 
bottom.  The  entrance  to  these  burrows  lies 
under  the  water.  Many  side  galleries  are 
given  off  in  the  course  of  the  main  burrow, 
which  ultimately  leads  to  a  chamber,  some- 
times found  to  contain  the  female  with  her 
unshapely  young.  The  latter  are  proved  by 
the  contents  of  their  stomachs  actually  to  feed 
on  milk.  As  a  rule,  the  duck-mole  leaves 
its  burrow  on  the  approach  of  night,  yet  it 
sometimes  tumbles  about  in  the  water  even 
by  day.  It  swims  and  dives  admirably,  and 
gropes  about  in  the  mud  with  its  beak.  On 
the  whole  the  duck-moles  appear  to  be  of 
a  lively  and  peaceable  disposition ;  the  young 
ones  especially  appear  to  be  fond  of  playing 
together,  and  their  behaviour  shows  them 
to  be  possessed  of  a  keen  scent  and  acute 
hearing.  They  dive  at  the  slightest  sound. 
Specimens  of  these  animals  have  been  kept 
in  captivity  for  a  certain  length  of  time,  but 
since  their  habits  were  not  known,  they  have 
ultimately  either  escaped,  or  been  drowned, 
or  have  died  of  hunger. 

[Dr.  Bennett,  a  naturalist,  who  visited  Australia 
in  the  earlier  part  of  the  present  century,  having 
procured  two  young  specimens  of  the  duck-mole,  or 
mallangong,  as  it  is  called  by  the  natives,  by  digging 
them  out  of  a  burrow  35  feet  in  length,  was  able  to 
make  some  interesting  observations  on  their  be- 
haviour. "  The  little  animals  appeared  often  to 
dream  of  swimming,"  he  says ;  "  for  I  have  frequent- 
ly seen  their  fore-paws  in  movement  as  if  in  the  act 
If  I  placed  them  on  the  ground  during  the  day, 
they  ran  about  seeking  some  dark  corner  for  repose ; 
and  when  put  in  a  dark  place,  or  in  a  box,  they 
huddled  themselves  up  as  soon  as  they  became  a 
little  reconciled  to  the  locality,  and  went  to  sleep. 
.  .  .  They  usually  reposed  side  by  side,  looking 
like  a  pair  of  furred  balls,  and  surly  little  growls 
issued  from  them  when  disturbed;  nevertheless, 
when  very  sound  asleep,  they  might  be  handled  and 

1  Bennett,  author  of  the  WamJmiigs  of  a  A'atxra&a  in  Australasia, 
mentions  that  the  burrows  of  the  duck-mole  are  sometimes  50  feet 
in  length. — TK. 


THE   ECHIDNAS. 


219 


examined  without  evincing  any  si-jus  of  annoyance. 
One  evening  both  the  little  pets  came  out  about 
dusk,  went  as  usual  and  ate  food  from  a  saucer,  and 
then  commenced  playing  like  two  puppies,  attacking 
each  other  with  their  mandibles,  raising  their  fore- 
paws,  and  tumbling  one  over  the  other.  .  .  . 
In  the  struggle  one  would  get  thrust  down ;  and  at 
the  moment  when  the  spectator  would  expect  it  to 
rise  again  and  renew  the  combat,  it  would  com- 
mence scratching  itself,  its  antagonist  looking  on 
and  waiting  for 
the  sport  to 
be  renewed. 
\Vhcn  running 
they  were  ex- 
ceedingly ani- 
mated, their 
little  eyes  glis- 
tened, and  the 
orifices  of  their 
ears  contracted 
and  dilated 
with  rapidity. 
.  .  .  Their 
eyes  being 
placed  so  high 
on  the  head, 
they  do  not  see 
objects  well  in 
a  straight  line, 

and  consequently  run  against  everything  in  the 
room  during  their  perambulations,  spreading  con- 
fusion among  all  the  light  and  easily  overturnable 
articles.  .  .  . 

"At  first  I  was  inclined  to  consider  them  as  noc- 
turnal animals,  but  I  afterwards  found  that  their 
time  of  leaving  their  resting-place  was  exceedingly 
irregular,  both  during  the  day  and  night.  They 
seemed,  however,  more  lively  and  more  disposed  to 
ramble  about  the  room  after  dark,  generally  com- 
mencing about  dusk;  but  all  their  movements  in 
this  respect  were  so  very  capricious  that  no  just 
conclusion  could  be  drawn,  further  than  that  they 
were  both  night  and  day  animals,  preferring  the  cool 
and  dusky  evening  to  the  heat  and  glare  of  noon. 
.  .  .  I  have  often  found  one  asleep  and  the 
other  running  about  at  the  same  period  of  the  day, 
the  male  alone  first  leaving  the  nest,  and  the  female 
remaining  asleep:  he  would,  after  feeding  and  run- 
ning about  for  a  short  time,  return,  curl  himself  up 
and  sleep,  and  then  the  female  would  leave  in  her 
turn.  Although,  however,  they  thus  frequently  left 


g.  265.— The  Long-spined  Echidna  or  Porcupine  Ant-eater  (Echidna  hystrix}. 


the  nest  alternately,  at  other  times  they  would  sud- 
denly go  out  together.     .     .     . 

"  It  was  very  curious  to  sec  the  uncouth  little 
creatures  open  their  mandible-like  lips  and  yawn, 
stretching  out  the  fore-paws  and  extending  the  webs 
of  the  fore-feet  to  their  utmost  expansion.  Although 
this  was  natural,  yet,  not  being  in  the  habit  of  see- 
ing a  duck  yawn,  it  had  the  semblance  of  being 
perfectly  ridiculous.  It  often  surprised  me  how 
they  contrived  to  reach  the  summit  of  a  book-case, 

or  any  other 
elevated  piece 
of  furniture. 
This  was  at  last 
discovered  to 
be  effected  by 
the  animal  sup- 
porting its  back 
against  the 
wall,  placing  its 
feet  against  the 
book-case,  and 
thus,  by  means 
of  the  strong 
cutaneous  mus- 
cles of  the  back 
and  the  claws 
of  the  feet  con- 
triving to  reach 
the  top  very  ex- 
peditiously.  They  often  performed  this  mode  of 
climbing,  so  that  I  had  frequent  opportunities  of 
witnessing  the  manner  in  which  it  was  done.  The 
food  I  gave  them  was  bread  soaked  in  water, 
chopped  egg,  and  meat  minced  very  small.  Although, 
at  first  I  presented  them  with  milk,  they  did  not 
seem  to  prefer  it  to  water."— Bennett,  Wanderings 
of  a  Naturalist  in  Australasia] 

The  Echidnas. 

Of  the  genus  Echidna  several  species  are 
known.  That  shown  in  fig.  265,  the  Long- 
spined  Echidna  or  Porcupine  Ant-eater  {Echid- 
na hystrix  (aculcata)},  inhabits  the  mountains 
of  South  Australia,  and  is  distinguished  from 
the  Short-spined  Echidna  (E.  setosa)  of  Tas- 
mania by  the  possession  of  black-pointed 
spines  which  taper  uniformly  to  their  extrem- 
ities, while  those  of  the  latter  species  are 
thickened  in  the  middle  and  have  white 


220 


THE   MONOTREMES. 


points.  Perhaps  even  these  species  are  merely 
local  varieties.  In  recent  years,  however, 
Gervais  has  described  a  third  species  belong- 
ing to  New  Guinea  with  a  relatively  longer 
beak  which  is  curved  downwards,  and  this 
species  he  has  erected  into  a  new  genus,  giving 
to  it  the  name  of  Acanthoglossus  Bruynii. 
From  these  discoveries  it  would  appear  that 
the  family  of  the  porcupine  ant-eaters  has  a 
much  wider  geographical  distribution  than  that 
of  the  duck-moles.  In  its  external  appearance 
the  long-spined  echidna  resembles  a  large 
hedgehog  with  a  long  beak  and  a  rudimen- 
tary tail.  The  head,  with  the  exception  of 
the  beak,  the  neck,  belly,  and  feet,  are  set 
with  thick  silky  bristles  which  are  in  general 
short,  but  are  specially  well  developed  round 
the  slits  forming  the  external  openings  of  the 
ears.  The  beak  may  be  compared  to  that 
of  a  snipe.  It  is  as  long  as  the  rest  of  the 
head  and  a  little  arched.  In  its  front  part 
are  situated  the  nostrils,  and  its  under  side  j 
is  grooved  so  as  to  allow  free  play  for  the 
long  worm-like  tongue,  which  is  flattened  and 
covered  with  a  horny  layer.  The  lower  jaw 
is  remarkably  thin,  and  so  surrounded  by  the 
horny  envelope  of  the  beak  that  only  a  very 
small  opening  remains  for  the  mouth,  an 
opening  only  just  sufficient  to  allow  of  the 
protrusion  of  the  tongue.  Above  the  open-  ; 
ing  of  the  mouth  is  a  narrow  horny  upper-lip. 
Of  teeth  there  is  not  the  slightest  trace. 
The  animal  feeds  chiefly  on  ants.  These  it 
procures  by  means  of  its  tongue,  which  is 
always  kept  covered  with  a  viscous  secretion 
derived  from  the  large  salivary  glands  situated  j 
beside  the  throat. 

The  back  and  sides  of  the  body  are  covered 
with  short,  solid,  sharp-pointed  spines,  be- 
tween which  are  set  numerous  bristles.  The 
animal  can  roll  itself  up  into  a  ball  like 
our  hedgehog,  but  prefers  to  burrow  under 
the  ground  to  escape  from  its  enemies.  The 
feet  are  essentially  burrowing  feet.  In  the 
whole  class  of  the  Mammalia  there  is  perhaps 
no  other  species  with  so  strong  a  shoulder-  \ 


girdle,  a  humerus  so  much  flattened  or  pro- 
vided with  such  prominent  ridges  for  the 
attachment  of  the  muscles.  The  fore-feet 
form  a  broad  spade-like  implement;  the  five 
toes  are  armed  with  very  long  flat  claws;  the 
hind-feet  are  narrower  and  longer,  and  in 
them  the  second  toe  is  the  strongest.  The 
spur  of  the  male  attains  a  considerable  size, 
and  the  marsupial  bones  are  likewise  well 
developed.  The  short  tail  is  hidden  under 
two  bunches  of  spines. 

The  porcupine  ant-eaters  prefer  the  dry 
woods  of  mountainous  regions  up  to  a  height 
of  about  3000  feet  or  more,  so  long  as  they  find 
plenty  of  ant-hills.  They  lead  a  nocturnal 
life,  sleeping  by  day  in  holes.  In  attacking 
an  ant-hill  they  first  dig  a  hole  in  it  and  then 
insert  their  viscous  tongue,  to  draw  it  out 
again  covered  with  ants.  Like  the  arma- 
dillos they  dig  their  way  under  the  ground 
with  remarkable  rapidity,  and  hold  on  with 
such  firmness  to  a  hole  that  they  have  once 
begun  that  it  is  only  with  the  greatest  diffi- 
culty that  they  can  be  torn  away  from  it. 
They  are  indolent  and  in  captivity  generally 
gentle  creatures.  Young  specimens  have 
been  brought  to  England  and  fed  at  first 
with  milk,  afterwards  with  hard-boiled  eggs 
rubbed  down.  Their  flesh  is  said  to  be  pretty 
good.  They  are  very  tenacious  of  life.  In 
the  museum  at  Geneva  there  is  a  skeleton  of 
a  porcupine  ant-eater  showing  the  marks  of 
a  blow  with  a  sharp  instrument  which  divided 
eight  ribs  in  a  line  parallel  to  the  line  of  the 
back.  This  enormous  wound  afterwards  be- 
came perfectly  healed,  for  one  can  see  that 
the  broken  ribs  are  re-united  by  means  of 
new  bone  substance. 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION   AND 
ORIGIN   OF  THE   MONOTREMES. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  the  mem- 
bers of  this  group  is  remarkably  simple. 
They  are  essentially  an  Australian  type. 


GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTRIBUTION    AND    DKSCKX  T. 


221 


The  duck-mole  is  entirely  confined  to  Aus- 
tralia and  Tasmania;  the  porcupine  ant-eaters, 
on  the  other  hand,  as  recent  discoveries  have 
shown,  extend  to  New  Guinea. 

In  contrast  to  this  the  origin  of  these  crea- 
tures is  very  obscure.  The  palitontological 
data  hearing  on  the  question  are  limited  to  a 
few  remains  of  an  echidna  which  have  been 
found  in  the  Quaternary  strata  of  Australia. 
This  poverty  of  fossil  remains  combined  with 
the  low  organization  of  the  creatures  has 
called  forth  the  most  singular  speculations,  to 
which  we  must  devote  a  few  words. 

First  of  all  we  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  by 
the  insufficiency  of  the  dental  system.  The 
echidna,  like  the  manis,  has  no  teeth  at  all, 
and  it  is  noteworthy  that  it  approaches  the 
latter  animal  also  in  the  structure  of  the  jaws, 
tongue,  and  nails,  besides  resembling  it  in  the 
nature  of  its  food.  The  duck-mole  possesses 
a  few  horny  plates  which  in  respect  of  their 
structure  may  perhaps  be  compared  with  the 
teeth  of  certain  fishes.  This  reduction  of  the 
dentition  must  certainly  be  pronounced  an 
acquired  character  due  to  a  long  process  of 
modification,  for  all  old  mammals  possess  a 
very  complete  dentition  and  also  in  general 
more  teeth  than  their  descendants. 

Now  the  skeleton  exhibits  the  closest  af- 
finity not  only  to  that  of  reptiles  and  birds 
but  also  to  that  of  amphibians,  in  addition  to 
which  it  has  certain  marsupial  characters. 

We  cannot  here  enter  into  the  details  of 
these  relationships,  the  exposition  of  which 
would  lead  us  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work. 
It  is  enough  to  mention  the  fact  that  all 
investigators  are  agreed  upon  these  points, 
and  recognize  the  characters  which  these 
creatures  possess  in  common  with  the  lower 
vertebrates  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  marsu- 
pials on  the  other  hand. 

What  conclusion  shall  we  draw  then  from 
this  singular  commingling  of  characters? 
May  we  from  the  facts  just  mentioned  deduce 
the  inference  which  has  recently  been  put  for- 
ward and  forced  into  publicity  by  some  natu- 


j  ralists  of  mark,  that  the  monotremes  are  an 

1  older  form  than  the  marsupials,  and  that  the 
latter  are  direct  descendants  of  the  former? 

There  are  two  facts  which  stand  in  opposi- 
tion to  this  view:  first,  the  rudimentary  den- 
tition; and  second,  the  present  geographical 
distribution  of  the  monotremes. 

With  respect  to  the  first  point  the  difficulty 
has  sometimes  been  got  over  by  a  wholly 
groundless  assertion.  According  to  those 
who  get  over  the  difficulty  in  this  way  "the 
now  extinct  monotremes,  which  comprised  all 
the  forms  of  the  then  existing  mammalian 
fauna,  had  certainly  a  more  highly  developed 
dentition,  which  had  been  transmitted  to  them 
by  the  fishes,"  and  Microlestes  and  Droma- 
therium  of  the  Jurassic  Period  "are  probably 
descended  from  these  primitive  mammals." 
This  hypothesis  is  in  fact  altogether  without 
foundation.  Wherever  we  have  discovered 
the  inner  side  of  the  lower  jaw  of  those  pri- 
mitive mammals,  there  we  have  been  able  to 
observe  the  characteristic  indexed  angle  of  the 
marsupials,  nothing  of  which  is  seen  in  the 
monotremes.  Yet  that  is  of  no  consequence! 
The  descendants  may  have  acquired  or  lost 
this  character,  may  also  have  gained  or  lost 
any  number  of  teeth. 

Further,  the  present  geographical  distribu- 
tion does  not  give  the  slightest  indication  of 
any  great  antiquity  belonging  to  this  type. 
Wherever  we  meet  with  old  groups,  which 
have  reproduced  themselves  with  ceaseless 
modifications  through  the  geological  epochs, 
while  retaining  their  general  characters,  like 
the  Insectivora,  Ungulata,  and  so  forth,  we 
find  them  spread  over  wide  areas,  taking 
possession  of  almost  entire  continents;  and 

;  when  we  have  to  do  with  old  types,  which 
are  near  their  point  of  extinction,  we  find  the 
few  survivors  in  the  most  widely  different 
geographical  regions.  The  tapirs  afford  a 

'  striking  example  of  geographical  discontinuity 
of  this  kind  in  types  which  are  undoubtedly 
very  old,  but  which  are  gradually  disappear- 
ing. We  must,  therefore,  look  with  con- 


222 


THE    MONOTREMES. 


fidence  for  monotremes  on  one  or  other 
hemisphere,  if  these  actually  represent  a  very 
ancient  group  reduced  at  the  present  day  to 
a  small  number  of  descendants.  But  instead 
of  that  we  find  the  members  of  the  group 
restricted  to  a  remarkably  narrow  area,  an 
area  that  could  hardly  be  smaller — the  east 
and  south  of  Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New 
Guinea;  and  nowhere  else  has  the  slightest 
trace  of  them  been  discovered  either  in  the 
fauna  of  the  present  day  or  in  the  deposits  of 
past  geological  epochs.  Such  a  limited  dis- 
tribution belongs  rather  to  types  which  have 
had  only  a  very  brief  past. 

In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  we 
can  accordingly  assert  nothing  positive  con- 
cerning the  origin  of  this  abnormal  and  highly 
aberrant  type.  We  can  only  say  that  the 
facts,  which  must  in  any  case  be  admitted  to 


be  very  indeterminate,  speak  rather  in  favour 
of  a  somewhat  recent  origination  of  this 
group  by  degeneration  from  the  marsupials. 
But  it  is  possible  to  defend  all  kinds  of  sur- 
mises and  hypotheses;  and  while  some  regard 
the  monotremes  as  direct  descendants  of  the 
fishes  or  reptiles,  in  favour  of  which  view,  it 
must  be  admitted,  the  laying  of  eggs  by 
monotremes  gives  considerable  weight;  while 
others  again  hold  them  to  be  degraded  mar- 
supials, which  have  degenerated  through  an 
adaptation  to  a  lower  stage  of  development, 
we  must  modestly  confess  that  comparative 
anatomy  cannot  decide  in  whose  favour  the 
balance  inclines.  This  science  is,  however, 
so  far,  the  only  one  that  would  have  a  word 
to  say  on  the  subject,  for  neither  the  palaeon- 
tology nor  the  embryology  of  these  animals 
is  known. 


GLOSSARY.1 


ABDOMEN  (Lat.).  The  posterior  cavity  of  the  body, 
separated  from  the  chest  by  the  diaphragm,  and  con- 
taining the  intestines,  liver,  kidneys,  and  other  viscera. 

ABOMASUM  (Lat.  al>,  from,  and  omasum,  bullock's 
tripe).  The  fourth  or  true  digestive  stomach  in  the 
compound  stomach  of  the  ruminants.  Also  called  Rcniu-t 
Stomach.  See  fig.  37. 

ACCESSORY    HOOP'S.     See  HOOKS. 

ACETABULUM  (Lat.,  a  cup-shaped  vessel).  The 
socket  in  which  the  upper  end  of  the  thigh-bone  is 
inserted.  In  the  Echidna  or  spiny  ant-eater  this  socket 
is  not  ossified  in  the  middle,  so  that  the  part  of  the  pelvis 
where  it  is  situated  appears  perforated  in  the  dry  skeleton, 
as  in  birds,  &c. 

ALLANTOIS  (Gr.  alias,  allantos,  a  sausage).  A  pear- 
shaped  sac  developed  from  the  posterior  end  of  the  primi- 
tive alimentary  canal  in  the  young  of  mammals  and  some 
other  vertebrates  before  birth.  In  the  higher  mammals 
it  elongates,  and  while  the  terminal  portion  expands  and 
enters  into  intimate  connection  with  the  wall  of  the 
uterus  in  the  parent,  and  thus  helps  to  form  the  placenta, 
the  other  portion  forms  part  of  the  umbilical  cord,  con- 
taining the  great  blood-vessels  by  means  of  which  the 
vascular  system  of  the  young  is  brought  into  communica- 
tion with  that  of  the  parent.  After  birth  the  portion  of 
the  allantois  within  the  body  of  the  young  remains  through 
life  as  the  urinary  bladder. 

ALLUVIAL.     Belonging  or  pertaining  to  alluvium. 

ALLUVIUM  (Lat.  alluvia,  an  inundation).  •  A  deposit 
of  soil  collected  by  the  action  of  water;  a  term  sometimes 
specifically  applied  in  geology  to  the  more  recent  of  the 
Post-tertiary  or  Quaternary  deposits,  those  in  which  the 
mammals  are  all  of  still  living  species.  In  this  sense,  in 
which  it  is  distinguished  from  Diluvium,  the  word  is 
more  frequently  used  by  continental  than  by  English 
writers. 

AMNION  (Gr.).  A  membrane  investing  the  young 
of  mammals  and  some  other  vertebrates  before  birth. 

AMPHIBIA  (Gr.  amphi,  both,  and  bios,  life).  A 
class  of  vertebrates  adapted  in  the  young  condition  to 
live  in  the  water  and  breathe  by  gills,  but  in  a  more 
advanced  stage  to  live  on  land  and  breathe  by  lungs. 

ANAL  (Lat.  anus,  the  posterior  or  inferior  opening 
of  the  alimentary  canal).  Pertaining  to,  or  situated  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  anus;  as,  anal  glands. 

ANALOGOUS  (Gr.  ana,  according  to,  and  logos, 
ratio).  A  term  applied  in  natural  history  to  mean  similar 

'The  author  is  indebted  to  Prof.  W.  A.  Herdman  of  University 
College,  Liverpool,  for  kindly  reading  the  proofs  of  this  Glossary. 


in  function  though  different  in  structure,  as  the  wing  of  a 
bird  and  the  wing  of  a  bat.  See  HOMOLOGOUS. 

ANASTOMOSE  (Gr.  ana,  again,  anew,  and  stoma,  a 
mouth).  To  inosculate  with  or  run  into  each  other;  to 
communicate  with  each  other,  as  the  arteries  and  veins. 

ANCESTOR  (Old  Fr.  anctstre,  from  Lat.  antecesscr, 
a  predecessor).  In  the  language  of  the  evolutionary 
theory  a  form  from  which  a  later  form  is  believed  to  have 
developed  by  natural  descent. 

ANCESTRAL.  Pertaining  to  an  ancestor;  having 
the  character  or  characters  of  an  ancestor  in  the  evolu- 
tionary sense  of  that  term. 

ANKYLOSED,  or  ANCHYLOSED  (Gr.  angkylos,  crooked, 
angkyle,  a  joint).  A  term  applied  to  bones  immovably 
fixed  together  in  places  where  joints  have  at  one  time 
existed  or  usually  do  exist. 

ANTHROPOID  (Gr.  anthropos,  man,  eidos,  form). 
Resembling  man. 

ANTHROPOMORPH^  (Gr.  anthropos,  a  man,  and 
morphc,  form).  The  name  of  the  group  of  apes  which 
has  most  resemblance  to  man ;  the  group  including  the 
gorilla  and  chimpanzee,  the  orang-utang,  and  the  gibbons. 

ANTHROPOMORPHOID.  Belonging  to  or  resem- 
bling the  Anthropomoiphse. 

ANTLERS.  The  branching  horns  of  a  stag.  See 
fig.  i. 


Fig.  i.— Antlers  of  Red  Deer.     br.  Brow-tine;  tcz.  Bez  tine  ;  a.r.  Antler-royal; 
s.r.  Sur-royal. 

APOPHYSIS  (Gr.  apo,  from,  and  physis,  growth). 
A  protuberance  growing  out  from  a  bone;  a  knob  or 
prominent  part  of  a  bone,  whatever  shape  it  may  happen 
to  possess. 

ARBOREAL  (Lat.  arbor,  a  tree).  Living  on  or  fre- 
quenting trees. 

ARCHAIC  (Gr.  archc,  beginning).  Primitive;  as 
applied  to  structures  in  an  evolutionary  sense,  belonging 
to  a  primitive  type. 


224 


GLOSSARY. 


ARTIODACTYLA  (Gr. 
finger).  The  name  of 
an  order  of  hoofed  ani- 
mals in  which  the  num- 
ber of  toes  is  even  (two 
or  four),  and  there  are 
two  main  axes  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  leg. 
See  the  body  of  the 
book,  vol.  ii.  pp.  38-9 
and  61,  and  under 
CANNON-BONE  in  this 


artiffs,  even,  and  dakfY/os,  a 


Fig.  3. —Atlas  Vertebra,  seen  from  above. 
ri.  Ring-shaped  opening  in  the  centrum  or 
body  of  the  vertebra  to  receive  the  odontoid 
process  (o.p.}  of  axis  vertebra  (Fig.  4). 


Fig.  4.— Side  view  of  Axis 
Vertebra,  o.p.  Odontoid  pro- 
cess. 


to  support  the  earth  on  his  shoulders).  The  first  vertebra 
of  the  neck,  articulating  with  and  supporting  the  skull. 
In  the  mammals  it  is  ring-shaped,  and  in  the  higher 
forms  its  centrum  or  body  is  replaced  by  a  process  from 
the  second  vertebra  or  axis  fitting  into  the  ring.  See 
figs.  3  and  4. 

AXIS.    The  name  of  the  second  vertebra.    See  ATLAS. 

BALEEN  (Lat.  balana,  a  whale).     The  horny  plates 
on  the  palate  of  the  true 
or  whale-bone  whales. 
See  fig.  5. 

BEAM.  In  a  special 
sense,  the  main  stem  of 
a  deer's  antler  above  the 
burr. 

BICORNUATE  (Lat. 
bis,  twice,  and  cor/ui,  a 
horn).  Two-horned;  speci- 
fically applied  to  a  uterus 
which  forks  and  terminates 
in  two  cavities. 

BRAIN,  LARGE,  and 
SMALL  or  HIND.  See 
respectively  CEREBRUM 


Fig.  5. —  Baleen  in  the 
Upper  Jaw  of  Whale. 


a.  Section  of  a  portion  of  the  palate 
of  a  whalebone  whale  showing  three 
baleen  plates,  b.  The  arrangement 
of  the  baleen  plates  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  jaw. 


and  CEREBELLUM. 

BRECCIA  (Ital).  In  geology,  an  aggregate  com- 
posed wholly  or  mainly  of  angular  fragments  of  the  same 
rock  or  different  rocks  united  by  a  matrix  or  cement. 


Fig.  2. — Skull  of  Sheep,  a  typical  Arlio- 
dactyle,  belonging  to  the  group  of  the  Rumi- 
nants. Showing  the  close-set  cheek-teeth 
adapted  for  grinding,  the  wide  interval  be- 


Glossary.   See  also  fig.  2.   !wee" . them  and  ,lhc  !™M  .leetl; of  'he  ll"vcr 

'  j;uv,  the  incisor-shaped  canine  placed  in  a  line 

ARTIODACTYLE.     with  the  latter,  and  the  absence  of  front  teeth 

One  of  the  Artiodactyla.    in  llle  upper  ja"' 

ARYTENOID  (Gr.  arytaina,  a  ladle  or  cup).  A  term 
applied  in  anatomy  to  two  small  cartilages  at  the  top  of 
the  larynx,  and  also  to  the  muscles,  glands,  &c.,  connected 
with  these  cartilages. 

ASTRAGALUS  (Gr.,  the  ankle-bone).  The  bone  of 
the  ankle  supporting  the  inner  of  the  two  bones  of  the 
lower  leg,  namely,  the  tibia  or  shin-bone.  See  fig.  7. 

ATLAS  (in  Gr.  mythology  the  god  who  was  believed 


BUNODONT  (Gr.  boiuios,  a  mound,  and  odons,  otloutos, 
a  tooth).    Having  tubercled  teeth; 
specifically  applied  to  a  group  of 
the  Artiodactyla.     See  fig.  6. 

BURR.  A  ring-shaped  bony 
ridge  at  the  base  of  a  deer's  antler, 
a  little  above  the  skull. 

C-fECUM  (Lat.  aecns,  blind). 
A  blind  process  or  more  or  less 
elongated  sac  in  the  alimentary 
canal  of  various  animals. 

CALCANEUM  (Lat..  the  heel). 
The  largest  bone  of  the  ankle,  very 
prominent  in  the  horse.  See  figs. 
7,  34- 

CAMPANULATE  (Lat.  cam- 
panula, a  bell).  Bell-shaped;  speci- 
fically  applied  to  a  certain  form  of 
placenta. 

CANINE  (Lat.  canis,  a  dog). 
The  eye-tooth,  the  tooth  coming 
immediately  after  the  incisors;  very  prominent  in  the 
Carnivore,  and  hence  named  from  one  of  the  most 
familiar  members  of  this  order.  See  figs.  6  and  9. 

CANNON-BONE  (Gr.  kanon,  a  ruler).     The  single 
bone  extending  from  the  toes  to  Fig.  ^. 

the  ankle-bones  in  ruminants  and 
some  other  quadrupeds.  In  the 
horse  it  is  from  the  first  a  single 
bone  and  is  without  any  longi- 
tudinal groove;  in  the  cow  or 

Fig.  8. 


Fig.  6. -  Lower  Jaw  of  Hip- 
popotamus, c/t.  The  Cheek- 
teeth, originally  tubercled, 
but  worn  down  by  use  so  as 


bands  of  enamel ;  ;.  Incisor>  ; 
c.  Canines.  See  the  body  of 
the  book,  vol.  ii.  pp.  62  and  65. 


Fig.  7. — Lower  portion  of  the  Hind-limb  of 
a  Horse,  t.  Tibia  ;  ca.  Calcaneum  ;  a.  Astra- 
galus ;  se.  Sesamoid  bone.  III.  IV.  Meta- 
tarsal  bones  of  digits  III.  and  IV.  III.  is  the 
cannon-bone,  and  IV.  one  of  the  splint-bones. 

Fig.  8.— i.  The  Cannon-bone  of  a  Horse,  formed  of  a  single  metacarpal  bone 
carrying  the  third  digit.  The  digits  are  numbered  in  the  cut  according  to  the 
usual  practice.  See  Digit. 

2.  Cannon-bone  of  a  Sheep,  formed  of  the  fused  metacarpal  bones  carrying  the 
third  and  fourth  digits.     II.  V.,  Splint-bones  representing  the  second  and  fifth 
metacarpals.     //.  I'.,  Nodules  representing  the  second  and  fifth  digits.     On  the 
outside  these  are  indicated  by  the  false  or  accessory  hoofs. 

3.  Cannon-bone  of  a  Camel,  formed  in  the  same  way  as  that  of  the  sheep. 
Observe  the  complete  fusion  in  the  middle  and  distinct  separation  at  the  lower 
extremity. 

4.  Lower  part  of  Fore-limb  of  Tragulus,  showing  the  metacarpals  of  the  func- 
tional digits  either  not  fused  at  all  or  only  very  partially  so,  and  the  two  complete 
but  small  and  functionless  lateral  digits. 

sheep  it  is  formed  by  the  fusion  or  union  of  two  bones, 
and  the  place  of  fusion  is  indicated   by  a  longitudinal 


GLOSSARY. 


225 


groove  down  the  middle;  in  the  camel,  these  two  bones 
are  separate  at  the  lower  end;  and  in  the  Tragulina  they 
remain  separate  throughout  life  or  fuse  only  at  a  late 
period.  See  figs.  7  and  8. 

CARAPACE  (Fr.).  A  protective  shield,  like  that  of 
the  armadillos,  or  the  hard  covering  of  certain  insects,  ot 
crustaceans,  &c. 

CARDIAC  (Gr.  kardia,  the  heart).  Pertaining  to  the 
heart,  nearer  the  heart ;  applied  to  the  part  of  the  stom- 
ach situated  nearest  to  the  entrance  of  the  oesophagus. 

CARNASSIAL  (Lat  caro,  (amis,  flesh).  The  name 
applied  to  a  tooth  found  in  the  Carnivora,  and  adapted 
for  tearing  ilesh.  It  has  lateral  cusps  or  prominences 


Fig.  9. — i.  Skull  of  Dog.  /«.  Molars;  pm,  Premolars;  cl.  Carnassial ;  can. 
Canines ;  /.  Incisurs.  2.  Skull  of  Thylaanus.  Note  in  fig.  3  (representing  the 
front-teeth  of  Thylucimis  the  fuur  incisors  in  the  upper,  and  three  in  the  lower  jaw. 

for  dividing  the  flesh,  and  a  tubercled  internal  heel  or 
process.  It  is  either  a  molar  or  premolar.  Also  called 
Rectorial.  See  the  description  of  the  carnivorous  denti- 
tion in  the  general  account  of  the  Carnivora  in  the  body 
of  the  book.  See  fig.  9. 

CARNIVORA  (Lat.  caro,  carnis,  flesh,  and  voro,  to 
devour).  An  order  of  mammals  mostly  adapted  for  a 
flesh  diet.  See  fig.  9. 

CARNIVORE.     A  member  of  the  Carnivora. 

CARPAL.     Pertaining  to  the  carpus. 

CARPUS  (Lat.).    The  wrist  or  the  part  of  a  limb  cor- 
responding to  the  wrist, 
as,  for  example,  the  so- 
called  "knee"  in  the 
fore-limb  of  a  horse. 

CARTILAGE  (Lat 
cartilago).  The  name 
of  a  tough  elastic  tissue 
in  the  body;  gristle. 

CARTILAGI- 
NOUS. Composed  of 

Fig.  10— One  of  the  Digits  of  a  Cat,  (A)  with 
the  claw  in  its  ordinary  position,  (B)  with  the 
claw  pulled  down.  _/?.  Tendon  of  the  flexor 


muscle  or  muscle  that  pulls  down  the  claw; 
el.  Elastic  ligament,  which  retracts  the  claw. 


cartilage. 

CATARRHINE 
(Gr.  kata,  down,  and 
r/iis,  rhinos,  the  nose). 
Adj.  belonging  to  the  Catarrhinae,  or  the  group  of  Quad- 
rumana,  which  includes  the  ape,  gorilla,  chimpanzee,  &c., 
and  in  which  the  openings  of  the  nostrils  are  directed 
downwards.  Noun,  a  member  of  the  Catarrhinae. 

CAT-TRIBE.  Used  in  the  text  as  equivalent  to 
Felida,  or  the  family  comprising  the  genus  Felis  and 
allied  genera.  See  fig.  10. 

CEMENT.  The  bony  tissue  enveloping  the  fang  of 
a  tooth,  and  sometimes  found  filling  up  spaces  between 
enamel  ridges  on  the  crown. 

CENTRUM.     See  VERTEBRA. 

VOL.  II. 


CEREBELLUM   (Lat).     The  small  or   hind  brain. 
See  figs.  11-13. 


cl 


Fig.  13. — Brain  of  Baboon — vertical  section. 

ol.  Olfactory  lobes ;  c.  Cerebrum,  large  brain  or  brain  proper ;  cl.  Cerebellum, 
small  or  hind  brain  ;  cc.  Corpus  caltositm. 

CEREBRAL.  Pertaining  to  the  cerebrum. — Cerebral 
hemispheres,  the  two  halves  of  the  large  brain. 

CEREBRUM  (Lat).  The  fore-  or  large  brain.  See 
figs.  11-13. 

CERVICAL  (Lat.  cervix,  the  neck).  Pertaining  to 
the  neck. 

CETACEA  (Gr.  ketos,  a  whale).  An  order  of  mammals 
comprising  the  whales,  dolphins,  and  their  allies.  See 
figs.  20  and  21. 

CHEEK-TOOTH.  One  of  the  teeth  behind  the 
canines,  whether  a  molar  or  a  premolar. 

CHEVRON  BONES  (from  the  name  of  a  zigzag 
ornament  in  heraldry).  A  name  given  to  V-shaped  bones 
placed  between  the  bodies  or  centra  of  adjacent  vertebra? 
on  the  under  side  of  the  tail.  See  figs.  14  and  27. 


ch' 

Fig.  14.— Skeleton  of  the  Tail  of  a  Dolphin,    ch.  Chevron  bones. 

CHIROPTERA  (Gr.  cheir,  the  hand,  and  pteron,  a 
wing).  The  order  of  mammals  comprising  the  bats. 
See  fig.  1 5. 

CLAVICLE  (Lat.  davicula,  a  little  key).  The  collar- 
bone, the  bone  extending  from  the  shoulder-blade  to  the 
breast-bone. 

CLOACA  (Lat,  a  sewer).  A  common  chamber  or 
cavity  into  which  the  alimentary  canal  and  the  ducts  of 
the  generative  and  urinary  organs  open,  as  in  the  mono- 
tremes. 


226 


GLOSSARY. 


COCCYX  (Gr.  Itokkyx,  a  cuckoo).  The  terminal 
portion  of  the  vertebral  column  in  man,  so  called  from 
its  resemblance  to  a  cuckoo's  beak.  See  fig.  32. 


Fig.  15. — Skeleton  of  Bat's  Wing,  with  outline 
of  extended  membrane.  I.-V.  The  digits  as  num- 
bered, cl.  Clavicle;  r.  Radius. 


COLON  (Gr.).  The  middle  section  of  the  large 
intestine,  forming  the  largest  portion  of  the  whole  in- 
testine. 

CONDYLE  (Gr.  kondylos,  a  knuckle).  A  rounded 
knob  at  the  end  of  a  bone  serving  to  form  a  joint  with 
another  bone. 

CORACOID  (Gr.  korax,  a  crow,  and  eidos,  form).  A 
bone  present  in  the  monotremes  (as  well  as  in  birds  and 
some  other  vertebrates)  passing 
from  the  shoulder-joint  to  the 
breast-bone;  so  called  because 
it  corresponds  to  a  process  of 
the  shoulder-blade  in  man  re- 
sembling a  crow's  beak.  See 
fig.  1 6. 

CORONO1D  (Gr.  korone,  a 
crow,  and  eidos,  form).  A  term 
applied  to  the  upper  anterior 
process  near  the  hinder  end  of 
the  lower  jaw;  so  called  on  ac- 
count of  its  curved  shape  resembling  a  crow's  beak, 
figs-  33.  36,  and  39. 

CORPORA  QUADRIGEMINA  (Lat.,  fourfold 
bodies).  A  portion  of  the  brain  lying  between  the  cere- 
brum and  the  cerebellum. 

CORPUS  CALLOSUM  (Lat,  hard  or  callous  body). 
In  anatomy,  the  great  band  of  brain  tissue  which  unites 
the  two  hemispheres  of  the  cerebrum  in  mammals.  See 
fig-  '3- 

CRANIAL   REGION.     See  under  SKULL. 

CRANIUM  (Lat.).  The  part  of  the  skull  inclosing 
the  brain. 

CRUMEN  GLANDS.  Scent-glands  in  the  deer 
family,  situated  in  depressions  in  the  lachrymal  bone  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  eye. 

CRUPPER.     The  rump  or  buttocks  of  a  horse. 

CUSP  (of  a  tooth).  One  of  the  prominences  of  the 
molar  or  cheek-teeth. 

DECI DUATF.  (I,at  decide,  to  fall  off).    A  term  applied 


Fig.  16.— Part  of  the  Skeleton 
of  the  Duck-mole,  cr.  Coracoid. 


See 


to  a  placenta,  the  whole  of  which,  including  the  part 
formed  from  the  wall  of  the  uterus  of  the  mother,  is  cast 
off  at  the  birth  of  the  young  animal 

DECIDUOUS  (Lat.  dccido,  to  fall  off).  Liable  to  be 
shed;  as  the  milk-teeth. — Deciduous  Placenta:  same  as 
Dedduate  Placenta. 

DEGRADED.  In  evolutionary  language,  applied  to 
a  structure  which  is  believed  to  have  lost  certain  special 
characters  possessed  by  ancestral  types.  The  degraded 
carnassial  of  the  bears,  for  example,  is  a  tooth  which 
does  not  possess  the  marked  characters  found  in  the 
carnassial  teeth  of  most  Carnivora. 

DENTITION  (Lat.  dens,  a  tooth),  i.  The  arrange- 
ment and  structure  of  the  teeth.  2.  A  set  of  teeth  of  a 
particular  character. — Complete  dentition,  a  set  of  teeth  in 
which  all  the  three  kinds,  incisors,  canines,  and  cheek-teeth 
(molars  and  premolars)  are  represented.  See  fig.  9. 

DEVELOPMENT.  A  term  used  in  botany  and 
zoology  in  a  special  sense  to  signify  the  organic  changes 
which  take  place  in  animal  and  vegetable  bodies  from 
their  embryo  state  to  the  state  of  maturity. 

DIASTEMA  (Gr.,  an  interval).  Specifically,  a  gap  or 
interval  between  teeth. 

DIFFERENTIATE.  To  render  different ;  specifically, 
in  evolutionary  language,  to  become  differentiated  is  to 
be  made  different  from  a  previous  type  through  the 
acquisition  of  special  characters. 

DIFFERENTIATION,  i.  The  process  of  differ- 
entiating. 2.  A  character  or  set  of  characters  by  which 
one  form  is  distinguished  from  another  of  more  primitive 
type. 

DIFFUSE.  As  applied  to  the  placenta,  having  tufts 
or  lobes  containing  blood-vessels  distributed  all  over  the 
surface  of  the  embryo. 

DIGIT  (Lat  digitus,  a  finger).  A  general  term  useil 
by  naturalists  to  denote  either  fingers  or  toes  in  man  or 
the  members  corresponding  to  these  in 
the  lower  animals.  The  digits  are  always 
numbered  from  the  innermost  outwards, 
supposing  the  palm  of  the  hand  or  sole 
of  the  foot  to  be  laid  down  flat.  Thus 
the  thumb  or  great-toe  is  always  the  first 
digit;  and  when  certain  digits  are 
wanting,  as  in  the  horse  or  cow, 
the  absent  digits  are  always  taken 
into  account  in  naming  those  which 
are  present.  See  figs.  17, 
20-23,  27,  34,  and  35. 

DIGITIGRADE  (Lat. 
digitus,  a  finger,  and  gra- 
dior,  to  step  or  walk). 
Applied  to  animals  which 
in  walking  touch  the 
ground  only  with  the  digits 
or  toes,  and  not  with  the 
parts  corresponding  to  the 
sole  of  the  foot  or  palm  of  the  hand  in  man;  in  a  more 
special  sense,  applied  to  a  group  of  the  Carnivora  dis- 
tinguished by  that  mode  of  standing  and  walking.  See 
fig.  17. 

DILUVIUM  (Lat,  a  deluge).  Specifically,  in  geology, 
the  earlier  deposits  of  Post-tertiary  or  Quaternary  times, 


Vig.  17. — Lower  part  of  the  Fore-limb 
of  a  Lion,  to  illustrate  the  diguigratie 
structure,  r.  Radius;  ».  Ulna;  c.  Carpal 
bones ;  ;«.  Metacarpal  bones  ;  d.  Digits. 


GLOSSARY. 


227 


those  deposits  in  which  many  of  the  mammals  belong  to 
species  now  extinct;  in  this  country  usually  called  Pleis- 
tocene or  Post-pliocene.  See  ALLUVIUM. 


KIL:.  18      Skull  of  Great  Ant-cater,     na.  Nasal;  ma.  .Maxilla  :  f.m.  Pre-maxilla. 
ihc  entire  absence  of  teeth,  and  the  incomplete  ryenmitic  arch  (2.0.). 


Fig.  ig. — Skull  of  Sloth.    //.  Jugal  or  malar  process  ;  a  downward  process 
fmm  the  ju^al  or  cl.eek  bone.     s.a.  Incomplete  zygomatic  arch. 

D1PHYODONT  (Gr.  ifis,  twice,  phyo,  to  become,  and 
odous,  odontos,  a.  tooth).  Furnished  with  two  sets  of  teeth 
in  succession,  as  man. 

DISCO  1  DAT,  (Gr.  diskos,  a  disc,  and  eidos,  form). 
Having  the  form  of  a  disc;  more  or  less  round  and  flat. 

DISTAL  (Lat.  disto,  to  stand  apart  or  away  from). 
Farthest  away  from  the  trunk  or  centre;  as,  the  wrist- 
hones  are  at  the  distal  ends  of  the  radius  and  ulna. 

DIURNAL  (Lat.  diurnus,  belonging  to  the  day). 
Active  by  day,  not  by  night. 

DORSAL  (Lat.  dorsuin,  the  back).  Pertaining  to  the 
back. — Dorsal  region,  the  back  part  of  the  body  from  the 
neck  to  the  last  of  the  false  ribs. 

EDKNTATA  (Lat.  t,  without,  dens,  a  tooth).  An 
order  of  mammals  in  which  the  middle  incisors  are  always 
wanting,  and  in  some  members  of 
which  there  are  no  teeth  at  all.  See 
figs.  1 8  and  19. 

EDENTATE.  A  member  of  the 
Edentata. 

EMBRYO  (Gr.  en,  in,  and  bryo, 
to  swell).  A  young  animal  before 
birth. 

EMBRYO7,OGY  (embryo,  and  Gr. 
logos,  discourse).  The  science  which 
deals  with  the  development  of  em- 
bryos. 

EMBRYONIC.  Pertaining  to  an 
embryo. 

EOCENE  (Gr.  eos,  dawn,  and 
kainos,  new).  Belonging  to  the  oldest 
division  of  the  Tertiary  rocks.  See 
GEOLOGICAL  TABLE,  vol.  i.  p.  23. 

EPIGLOTTIS  (Gr.  eft,  upon,  and  glotta,  the  tongue). 
A  cartilaginous  plate  behind  the  tongue,  which  during  the 
act  of  swallowing  covers  the  glottis  or  slit-like  opening 
into  the  larynx  at  the  top  of  the  windpipe,  and  thus  pre- 
vents foreign  bodies  from  entering  the  latter. 


EPITHELIUM  (Gr.  rfi,  upon,  and  thelc,  the  nipple). 
A  thin  and  delicate  kind  of  cuticle  like  that  which  covers 
the  nipple;  specifically,  a  tissue  composed  of  one  or 
more  layers  of  cells  covering  any  free  surface  of  the 
body,  including  the  walls  of  internal  cavities,  such  as 
the  mouth,  and  such  passages  as  have  an  internal  free 
surface,  like  the  nasal  passages,  respiratory  organs,  &c. 
The  epidermis  or  scarf-skin  is  only  a  slightly  modified 
epithelium. 

EURASIAN.  Belonging  to  the  combined  continent 
of  Europe  and  Asia. 

EVOLUTION.  The  process  by  which  one  species  is 
believed  to  be  developed  by  natural  descent  from  pre- 
existing species. 

EVOLUTIONARY.  Pertaining  to  evolution,  or  per- 
taining to  the  theory  that  new  species  arise  by  natural 
descent  from  pre-existing  ones. 

FACIAL   REGION.     See  under  SKULL. 

FAUNA  (Lat,  the  goddess  of  fields,  cattle,  &c.).  A 
collective  name  for  the  animals  belonging  to  a  region  or 
epoch;  as,  \\\e  fauna  of  Great  Britain;  the  Triassic/rf wiii. 

FELINE  (Lat.  felis,  a  cat).  Used  in  the  text  in  the 
sense  of  a  member  of  the  genus  Felis,  or  (as  an  adjective) 
belonging  to  the  genus  Felis. 

FEMUR  (Lat).  The  thigh-bone;  the  bone  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  hind-leg. 

FETLOCK.  A  tuft  of  hair  growing  behind  the  pastern 
joint  of  horses,  and  also  the  joint  itself. 

FIBULA  (Lat,  a  brooch).  The  outer  of  the  two 
bones  of  the  lower  hind-leg,  corresponding  to  the  ulna  of 
the  fore-leg  or  fore-arm.  See  figs.  20-23. 

FLIPPER.  The  fore-limb  modified  so  as  to  serve 
for  a  paddle  in  swimming,  as  in  seals,  whales,  and  sea- 
cows. 

FLORA  (Lat.,  the  goddess  of  flowers).  A  collective 
name  for  the  plants  belonging  to  a  region  or  epoch.  See 
FAUNA. 

FORM.  Used  in  botany  and  zoology  as  a  general 
term  for  a  species  or  variety. 


ri- 


ng. 20.— Skeleton  of  the 
Fore-limb  or  Flipper  of 
the  Whalebone  Whale. 


Fig.  2i.-Same  of  the         Fig.  22. -Same  of  the        Fig.  23.-Same  of  the  Seal. 
Caaing  Whale.  Dugong. 

r,  Radius ;  ».  Ulna:  h.  Humerus.     I.-V.  Digits. 

FOSSA  (Lat,  a  ditch).  A  depression.— Temporal  fossa, 
the  depression  in  the  skull  in  the  region  of  the  temple. 
See  fig.  24. 

FRfENUM  LINGUA  (Lat,  bridle  of  the  tongue). 
The  ligament  or  fold  of  the  mucous  membrane  which  is 


228 


GLOSSARY. 


situated  underneath  the  tongue,  and  limits  the  motions 
of  that  member. 

FRONTAL  (Lat.  frons,  frontis,  the  forehead).  One 
of  the  bones  of  the  fore- 
head in  man,  or  one  of 
the  corresponding  bones 
in  one  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals. See  fig.  39. 

FUNCTIONAL. 
Acting ;  performing  a 
function. 

FUNCTIONLESS. 
Having  no  function;  as 
the  splint-bones  in  the 
leg  of  a  horse. 

FUSED.  Specifically 
applied  to  bones  united  though  originally  distinct;  that 
is,  either  distinct  in  the  embryo,  in  the  young  animal,  or 
in  some  allied  form. 

GLAND   (Lat.  glans,  glandis,  an  acorn).     A  part  of 
an  organism  yielding  some  special  secretion. 

GLOTTIS    (Gr.).     The    slit-like    opening    into    the 
trachea  or  windpipe. 

HALLUX  (Lat.  hallex,  or  allex,  the  thumb  or  great- 
toe).     The  first  digit  of  the  hind-foot.     See  DIGIT. 


Fig.  24. — Skull  of  Black  Indris.  _/!  Tem- 
poral fossa ;  o.  Orbit.  In  this  case  the 
orbit  is  open  behind  and  thus  communicates 
with  the  temporal  fossa. 


Fig.  25.— Skull  of  Kangaroo.     Observe  the  horizontal  incisor  of  the  lower  jaw. 
/.  Incisors,    z.a.  Zygomatic  arch. 


Fig.  26.— a.  Upper,  b.  Lower  Jaw  of  the  Colugo  or  Flying-cat  (Caleopithccus 
volans} ;  c.  Front  portion  of  the  lower  jaw,  showing  the  pectinate  incisors ; 
d.  Section  of  one  of  the  pectinate  incisors  (magnified). 

HEEL  (of  a  tooth).  A  portion  of  the  tooth  extending 
horizontally  from  the  base. 

HOLOTHURIAN.  A  member  of  the  sea-cucumber 
order  of  echinoderms,  or  the  class  which  includes  the 
sea-urchins. 

HOMOLOGOUS  (Gr.  homos,  same,  and  logos,  ratio 
or  proportion).  Corresponding  in  structure  though  not 


in  function,  as  the  arm  of  a  man  and  the  wing  of  a 
bat. 

HONEY-COMB   BAG.     Same  as  Reticnlum. 

HOOFS.  Horny  coverings  encasing  the  toes  all  round. 
— Accessory  hoofs,  the  small  hoofs  present  in  sheep,  goats, 
and  other  members  of  the  cow  family  at  some  distance 
above  the  ground,  representing  the  absent  second  and 
fifth  digits.  See  DIGIT. 

HUMERUS  (Lat).  The  bone  of  the  upper  arm  or 
corresponding  bone  in  the  lower  animals. 

HYOID  (Gr.  Y,  and  cidos,  form).  The  Y-shaped 
bone  at  the  root  of  the  tongue,  which  it  serves  to  support 
in  vertebrates. 

INCISOR  (Lat.  incido,  to  cut  into).  One  of  the  teeth 
situated  in  the  premaxilte  (in  the  front  of  the  mouth)  in 
the  upper  jaw,  or  the  corresponding  teeth  in  the  lower 
jaw;  so  called  because  generally  adapted  for  cutting  or 
dividing.  Their  form  is  exceptional  in  rodents,  hippo- 
potamuses, many  marsupials,  the  flying  cat  (Galeopi- 
thecus),  and  some  other  animals.  See  figs.  2,  6,  9,  25, 
26,  and  36. 

INDECIDUATE  (Lat.  in,  not,  and  decide,  to  fall  off). 
Applied  to  a  placenta  which  is  not  wholly  extruded  from 
the  body  of  the  parent  at  the  time  of  the  birth  of  the 
young  animal.  See  DECIDUATE. 

INDEX  (Lat.,  a  pointer).  The  fore-finger,  or  second 
digit  of  the  extremity  of  the  fore-foot. 

INGUINAL  (Lat.  inguen,  the  groin).  Pertaining  to 
or  situated  in  the  region  of  the  groin. 

INSECTIVORA  (Lat.  inscctum,  an  insect,  and  voro, 
to  devour).  An  order  of  mammals  mostly  adapted  for 
feeding  on  insects.  See  fig.  35. 

INSECTIVORE.     A  member  of  the  Insectivora. 

INSECTIVOROUS.  Pertaining  to  the  Insectivora; 
insect-eating.— Insectivorous  dentition,  a  dentition  of  a 
simple  kind,  in  which  the  teeth  are  exceptionally  uniform 
in  character,  generally  more  or  less  conical  in  shape. 

INTERDIG1TAL  (Lat  inter,  between,  and  digitits, 
a  finger).  Situated  between  the  fingers  or  digits. — 
Inter-digital  glands,  glands  situated  on  the  hoof-bearing 
joints  of  many  ruminants.  See  body  of  the  book,  vol.  ii. 

P-  73- 

INTERMAXILLARY  (Lat.  inter,  between,  and 
maxilla,  the  bone  at  the  side  of  the  upper  jaw).  Same 
as  premaxilla;  so  called  because  the  two  premaxillx  are 
contiguous  and  lie  in  the  middle  of  the  mouth  between 
the  two  maxillae. 

ISCHIAL  CALLOSITIES.  Naked  warty  patches 
on  the  hips  of  many  monkeys. 

ISCHIUM  (Lat.).  The  lowermost  or  hindmost  part 
of  the  hip-bone,  a  separate  bone  in  the  embryo. 

JUGAL  BONE.  The  cheek-bone;  the  bone  external 
to  the  eye  and  giving  prominence  to  the  cheek.  In  a 
group  of  the  sloths  this  bone  is  characterized  by  a  well- 
marked  descending  process.  See  fig.  19. 

KAINOZOIC  (Gr.  kainos,  new,  and  zoe,  life).  In 
geology,  same  as  Tertiary.  See  GEOLOGICAL  TABLE, 
vol.  i.  p.  23. 

LACHRYMAL  (Lat.  lachryma,  a  tear).  Pertaining 
to  tears,  or  to  the  place  where  tears  are  formed. — Lachry- 
mal bone,  one  of  the  bones  which  compose  the  lower 
part  of  the  orbit. — Lachrymal  sinus,  a  depression  in  the 


GLOSSARY. 


229 


lachrymal  bone  in  the  fleer  family;  the  depression  con- 
taining the  crumen  gland. 

LAMBDOIDAL 
SUTURE  (Gr.  lambda, 
the  letter  A,  and  cidos, 
form).     The    suture   at 
the  back  of  the  crown 
of  the  head  connecting 
the  upper  part  of  the 
occiput    with    the    two 
parietal     bones.       See 
SUTURE  and  fig.  39. 
—  Lambdoidal    crest, 
a  bony  ridge  situated 
at  this  suture. 

LAMELLA 
(Lat.).  A  thin 
plate. 

LARYNX  (Gr. 
and  Lat.).  The 
voice-box;  the 
upper  part  of  the 
windpipe,  the  part 
in  which  sounds 
are  produced. 

LIBER  (Lat,  a 
book).  The  third 
compartment  in 
the  complex  sto- 
mach of  a  rumi- 


upwards  from  the  front  of  the  pelvis;  characteristic  of 
the  marsupials  and  monotremes.  See  figs.  27  and  28. 

MARSUPIALIA  (Lat.  marsupium,  a  pouch).  An 
order  of  mammals  in  which  the  females  usually  have  a 
pouch  in  front  in  which  they  carry  about  their  young  for 
some  time  after  birth.  See  figs.  27  and  28. 

MAXILLA  (I-at).  One  of  the  bones  forming  the 
side  of  the  upper  jaw;  the  bone  in  which  all  the  teeth 
behind  the  upper  canines  are  set. 

MEDIAN  (Lat.  meditts,  middle).  Placed  in  the 
middle;  running  along  the  middle  line. 

MESOZOIC  (Gr.  mesos,  middle,  and  zoe,  life).  In 
geology,  same  as  Secondary. 

METACARPAL  (Gr.  meta,  after,  and  carpus).  Be- 
longing to  the  palm  of  the  hand,  or  the  corresponding 
part  in  the  fore-limb  of  the  lower  animals.  See  fig.  17. 

METATARSAL  (Gr.  meta,  after,  and  tarsus).  Be- 
longing to  the  sole  of  the  foot,  or  the  corresponding  part 
in  the  hind-limb  of  the  lower  animals.  See  fig.  34. 

MILK  DENTITION,  MILK  TEETH.  The  teeth 
which  first  appear,  and  which  are  afterwards  shed  in  those 
animals  which  have  two  sets  of  teeth. 

MIOCENE  (Gr.  meios,  less,  and  kainos,  new).  In 
geology,  belonging  to  the  middle  division  of  the  Tertiary 
rocks.  See  GEOLOGICAL  TABLE,  vol.  i.  p.  23. 

MOLAR  (Lat.  molo,  to  grind).  Sometimes  used  as 
a  general  term  for  one  of  the  cheek-teeth,  but  more 


IV. 


Fig.  27. — Skeleton  of  Kangaroo,  m.nt.  Marsupial  bones:  II. -V.  Digits  as 
numbered.  Observe  the  small  second  and  third  digits  which  in  the  living 
animal  are  united  under  the  same  fold  of  skin  as  far  as  the  claws.  Observe  also 
the  strong  tail  with  chevron  bones  (ck.). 

nant;  so  called  because  it  contains  layers  of  mucous 
membrane  arranged  like  the  leaves  of  a  book;  also  called 
Omasum,  Psalterinm,  and  Manyplies,  or  (Scotch)  Motiy- 
plics.  See  fig.  37. 

LIGAMENT  (Lat.  ligamcnitim,  from  ligo,  to  bind). 
A  strong  tissue  serving  to  bind  one  bone  to  another. 

LUMBAR  (Lat.  lumbus,  the  loin).  Pertaining  to  the 
loin. — Lumbar  region,  the 
posterior  portion  of  the  body 
between  the  false  ribs  and 
the  upper  edge  of  the  haunch- 
bone. 

MAMM^  (Lat).  The  fe- 
male breasts.  See  vol.  i.  p.  3. 

MANUBRIUM  STERNI 
(Lat,  handle  of  the  breast- 
bone). Same  as  Prtsternum. 

MANYPLIES  =  many  folds.     Same  as  LIBER. 

MARSUPIAL.  Noun,  a  member  of  the  Marsupialia. 
Adj.  pertaining  or  belonging  to  the  Marsupialia. — Mar- 
supial bones,  two  spur-like  bones  running  forwards  and 


Fig.  28. — Lower  Jaw  of  Wombat, 
showing  the  inflexion  behind,  char- 
acteristic of  the  Marsupials. 


Fig.  29.— Last  Lower  Tooth  (Molar)  of 
Indian  Elephant. 


Fig.    30.  —  Last    Lower  Tooth 
(Molar)  of  African  Elephant. 


specifically  applied  to  those  cheek-teeth  which  appear 
only  in  the  permanent  dentition.  See  figs.  6,  29,  and  30. 

MOLLUSK  (Lat.  mottuscus,  soft).  A  member  of  the 
Mollusca,  the  group  of  soft-bodied  animals  to  which  the 
snails,  mussels,  sea-slugs,  &c.  belong. 

MONOPHYODONT  (Gr.  monos,  alone,  phyS,  to  be- 
come, and  odoiis,  odontos,  a  tooth).  Furnished  with  only 
one  set  of  teeth  in  the  course  of  life,  like  most  of  the 
Edentata.  Distinguished  from  Diphyodont. 

MONOTREMATA  (Gr.  monos,  single,  and  trenia,  an 
aperture).  The  name  of  an  order  of  mammals  in  which 
there  is  only  one  opening  to  the  exterior  for  the  chamber 
which  receives  the  terminations  of  the  intestinal  canal, 
and  the  ducts  of  the  urinary  and  generative  organs. 

MONOTREME.     A  member  of  the  Monotremata. 

NARES  (Lat).  The  nostrils.—  Posterior  nares,  the 
passages  leading  from  the  nostrils  to  the  back  of  the 
mouth. 

NASAL  (Lat  nasus,  the  nose).  Belonging  to  the 
nose;  specifically,  applied  to  the  bones  inclosing  the 
nostrils  and  situated  immediately  in  front  of  the  frontals. 
See  figs.  31,  33,  and  39. 

NICTITATING  MEMBRANE  (Lat.  nicto,  to  wink). 
A  membrane  placed  within  the  eyelids,  and  capable  of 
being  rapidly  passed  over  the  front  of  the  eye  to  remove 
foreign  matters;  also  called  the  third  eyelid.  It  is  present 
in  reptiles  and  birds,  and  in  the  monotremes  among 
mammals. 


230 


GLOSSARY. 


Fig.  31. — Skull  of  Rhinoceros.  Observe  the  prominent 
nasal  ^fta.]  to  support  the  horn  or  horns.  z.a.  Zygomatic 
aich. 


NOCTURNAL  (Lat  tuvhinnis,  belonging  to  the 
night).  Active  by  night,  and  resting  by  day;  opposed  to 
Diurnal. 

NUCHAL  (Low  Lat  micha,  the  nape  of  the  neck). 
Pertaining  to  the  nape  of  the  neck. 

OCCIPITAL.  Pertaining  to  the  occiput  or  back  part 
of  the  head. — Occifital  fawe,  the  bone  at  the  back  of  the 
head.  See  fig.  39. 

OCCIPUT  (Lat.).     The  back  part  of  the  head. 

(ESOPHAGUS  (Gr.  oisophagos}.  The  gullet;  the 
tube  leading  from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach. 

OLFAC- 
TORY (Lat. 
olfario,  olfac- 
tum,  to  smell). 
Pertaining  to 
the  sense  of 
smell. — Olfac- 
tory lobes,  t\vo 
lobes  or  seg 
ments  of  the 
brain  in  which 
the  nerves  of 
smell  have 
their  origin. 
See  fig.  ii. 

OMASUM  (Lat.,  bullock's  tripe).     Same  as  LIBER. 

ONTOGKNETIC  (Gr.  en  fa,  beings,  snA  genesis,  genera- 
tion). Pertaining  to  the  development  of  the  individual : 
distinguished  from  Phylogenetic.  See  DEVELOPMENT. 

OPPOSABLE.  As  applied  to  the  first  digit  of  the 
fore-  or  hind-foot,  capable  of  having  the  fleshy  part  on  the 
fore  or  under  surface  placed  in  contact  with  the  corres- 
ponding part  of  the  other  digits  of  the  same  extremity. 

ORBIT  (Lat.  orbita,  a  circuit).  The  bony  ring  or 
socket  in  which  the  eye  is  set  It  is  said  to  be  closed 
when  cup-shaped  as  in  man;  complete  when  consisting 
of  an  entire  ring  though  open  behind,  as  in  the  lemurs; 
and  incomplete  when  there  is  not  an  entire  ring  of  bone, 
as  in  the  Carnivora.  See  fig.  24. 

ORBITAL.     Pertaining  to  the  orbit. 

ORIGINAL.  In  evolutionary  language,  first  in  the 
course  of  development;  also,  present  in  or  pertaining  to 
a  primitive  type. 

OSTEO LOGICAL  (Gr.  as f eon,  a  bone,  and  logos,  dis- 
course). Pertaining  to  osteology  or  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  bones ;  pertaining  to  the  bones  of  the  body 
and  their  arrangement. 

OVARY  (Lat.  m-arium).  The  organ  in  the  female 
producing  ova  or  eggs. 

OVIDUCT  (Lat  ovum,  an  egg,  and  ductiis,  a  duct). 
A  passage  for  the  ovum  or  egg  from  the  ovary. 

OVUM,  plur.  OVA  (Lat).  An  egg;  a  cell  capable 
when  impregnated  of  developing  into  a  young  animal. 

PACHYDERM  (Gr.  fachys,  thick,  and  derma,  skin). 
A  thick-skinned  animal;  a  member  of  the  Pachydermata, 
an  order  of  mammals  constituted  by  Cuvier  to  include 
the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  &c.,  the  members 
of  which  are  now  divided  among  several  orders. 

PAL/EONTOLOGY  (Gr.  palaios,  old,  onto,  beings, 
and  logos,  discourse).  The  science  that  treats  of  fossils 
or  relics  of  extinct  forms  of  life. 


PALAEOZOIC  (Gr.  palaios,  old,  and  zde,  life).  In 
geology,  same  as  Primary. 

PARIETAL  (Lat.  paries,  a  wall).  Belonging  to  the 
side. — Parietal  bones,  the  bones  forming  most  of  the  side 
of  the  skull  in  man,  and  the  corresponding  bones  in  the 
lower  animals.  See  fig.  39. 

PATAGIUM  (Lat.,  the  border  of  a  dress).  The  term 
applied  to  the  flying  membrane  in  bats,  flying  squirrels, 
the  flying  cat,  and  other  quadrupeds  capable  of  flying, 
or,  at  least,  maintaining  themselves  in  the  air  so  as  to 
make  great  leaps. 

PAUNCH.  The  first  compartment  in  the  complete 
stomach  of  the  ruminants.  Also  called  Rumen.  See 

fig-  37- 

PECTINATE  (Lat.  feet  en,  a  comb).  Comb-like.  See 
fig.  26. 

PECTORAL  (Lat.  pcctus,  the  chest).  Pertaining  to 
the  chest. — Pectoral  arch,  same  as  Shoulder-girdle. 

PELVIS  (Lit.,  a  basin).     The  bony  arch  connecting 
the  lower  or  hind  limbs, 
which  are  articulated  to 
it.     See  fig.  32. 

PERISSODAC- 
TYLA  (Gr.  perissos, 
odd,  and  daktylos,  a 
finger).  The  name  of 
an  order  of  hoofed 
mammals  in  which 
there  is  always  an  odd 
number  of  toes  on  the 
hind-feet,  and  the  toes 
on  the  fore-feet,  if  even 
in  number,  are  unsymmetrical.  See  figure  33. 

PERISSODACTYLE.  A  member  of  the  Perisso- 
dactyla.  See  fig.  33. 

PETROUS  PORTION  OF  TEMPORAL  BONE. 
See  under  TEMPORAL. 

PHALANX,  plur.  PHALANGES  (Gr.,  a  row).  One  of 
the  small  bones  of  a  finger  or  toe. 


Fig.  32.— The  Pelvic  Bones  and  lower  part 
of  Vertebral  Column  in  Man.  //.  Ilium  ;  is. 
Ischium  :  /.*  Pubic  symphysis  ;  c.  <_' 


Fig.  33- — Skull  of  Horse,  a  typical  Perissodactyle,  showing  dentition.  /.  In- 
cisors; c.  Canines;  c.t.  Cheek-teeth  (molars  and  premolars  similar);  c.f.  Coronoid 
process  ;  z.a.  Zygomatic  arch  :  fra.  Xasal. 

PHYLOGENETIC  (Gr.  phyle,  a  class  or  tribe,  and 
genesis,  generation).  Pertaining  to  the  evolution  of  a 
form  or  group  of  forms;  pertaining  to  development  from 
ancestral  types. 

PINNIPEDIA  (Lat  pinna,  a  wing  or  fin,  and  pes, 
pedis,  the  foot).  An  order  of  mammals  including  the 
seals  and  walruses:  sometimes  considered  as  a  sub-order 
of  Carnivora.  See  FLIPPER  and  fig.  23. 


GLOSSARY. 


23' 


Tig.  34—  Skeleton  of  Hind-limb  of 
Bear,  to  illustrate  the  Plantigrade  struc- 
ture, r.  Radius:  «.  Ulna:  t.  Tarsal 
bones :  or.  Metalarsal  bones  :  d.  Digits; 
ca.  Calcancum. 


PLACENTA  (l.at..  .1  cake).  The  organ  by  which  in 
the  higher  mammals  the  blood  vascular  system  of  the 
embryo  is  brought  into  in- 
timate connection  with  that 
of  the  mother. 

PLANTIGRADE  (Lat 
//<////.;,  the  sole  of  the  foot, 
and  gradior,  to  step  or  walk). 
Applied  to  animals  which 
in  standing  and  walking 
touch  the  ground  with  the 
entire  sole  of  the  foot, 
man.  or  with  the  pans  cor- 
responding to  the  sole  of 
the  foot  or  palm  of  the  hand. 
See  fig.  34. 

PLATYKKHINK  (Gr. 
platy-i.  broad,  and  rAis, 
r/iitws,  the  nose).  Adj.,  be- 
longing to  the  PlatyrrhinK. 
or  the  group  of  the  (juad- 
rumana  in  which  the  nose 
has  a  broad  middle  partition  and  the  nostrils  directed  more 
or  less  sidewards.  Xoun,  a  member  of  the  Platyrrhinae. 

PI.IOCEN'K  (Gr.  pleios,  more,  and  kainos,  new).  In 
geology,  the  term  applied  to  the  most  recent  division  of 
the  Tertiary  rocks.  See  GEOLOGICAL  TABLE,  vol.  i.  p.  23. 

PLOUGHSHARE   BONE.     The  name  of  a  highly 
modified  sesamoid  bone  present  in 
the  moles.     See  fig.  35. 

POLLEX  (Lat,  the  thumb).  The 
thumb;  the  first  digit  of  the  hand 
or  fore-foot  See  DIGIT. 

PREMAXILLA  ( Lat prte, before, 
and  maxilla).  The  bone  situated  in 
front  of  the  maxilla;  the  bone  in 
which  the  upper  incisors  are  set 
Also  called  Intermaxillary  or  Inter- 
maxillary Bone. 

PREMOLAR  (Lat.  pra,  before, 
and  molar).  One  of  the  front  cheek-teeth;  more  pre- 
cisely, one  of  the  cheek-teeth  which  appear  in  the  milk 
dentition  and  are  replaced  by  others  in  the  permanent 
dentition. 

PRESTERNUM  (Lat  fra,  before,  and  sternum,  the 
breast-bone).  The  anterior  portion  of  the  breast-bone; 
the  tnanubrium  sterni. 

PRIMARY.  In  geology,  the  term  applied  to  the 
older  rocks  from  the  Cambrian  to  the  Permian  inclusive. 
Also  called  Palaozoic.  See  GEOLOGICAL  TABLE,  vol.  i.  p  23. 

PROBOSCIDEA  (Gr.  proboskis,  Lat  proboscis,  and 
Gr.  eidos,  form).  An  order  of  mammals,  the  members  of 
which  are  furnished  with  a  proboscis  which  serves  as  an 
instrument  for  grasping  and  as  an  organ  of  touch;  the 
elephant  order. 

PROBOSCIDEAN.     A  member  of  the  Proboscidea. 

PROCESS.  Specifically,  in  comparative  anatomy,  an 
outgrowth,  especially  one  of  considerable  length  relative 
to  its  breadth;  a  prolongation,  not  a  mere  swelling,  knob, 
or  excrescence. 

PRONATION  (Lat  promts,  having  the  face  down- 
wards). The  act  of  rotating  the  lower  arm  in  such  a 


Fig.  35. — Lower  part  of 
the  Fore-limb  of  a  Mole. 
st.  Sesamoid  plough- 
share bone.  I.-V.  Digits. 


manner  as  to  turn   the   palm  of  the  hand  downwards: 
opposed  to  Supination. 

PROXIMAL  ( Lat  prcximus,  next).  A  term  applied 
to  the  part  of  anything  nearest  to  the  trunk  or  point  of 
origin;  as  the  bone  of  the  upper  arm  is  articulated  at  its 
proximal  end  to  the  shoulder-blade:  opposite  to  Diftai. 

PSALTERU'M  (\jn.  form  olGr.psallfrwii,  the  name 
of  a  stringed  instrument).  Same  as  Liber. 

PYLORIC  (Gr.  pylons,  a  gate-keeper).  A  term 
applied  to  that  part  of  the  stomach  where  the  pylorus  or 
opening  into  the  intestine  is  situated:  opposite  to  Cardiac. 

QUADRUMANA  (Lat.  quatuor,  four,  and  maaus,  the 
hand).  The  order  of  mammals  comprising  the  apes  and 
monkeys:  so  called  because  very  generally  provided  with 
an  opposable  first  digit  both  on  the  fore-  and  hind-feet. 

QUATERNARY  (Lat  qualuor,  four).  In  geology,  a 
term  applied  to  all  the  rocks  after  the  Pliocene.  Also 
called  Post-tertiary.  See  GEOLOGICAL  TABLE,  vol.  i.  p.  ^3. 

RADIUS  (Lat,  a  ray  or  spoke  of  a  wheel).  The  bone 
of  the  forearm  which  lies  innermost  when  the  palm  of 
the  hand  is  laid  flat,  and  the  corresponding  bone  in  the 
fore-limb  of  a  quadruped.  It  corresponds  to  the  tibia  in 
the  leg  or  hind-limb  of  a  quadruped.  See  figs.  1 7  and  34. 

RECTUM  (Lat  n\tus,  straight).  The  terminal  portion 
of  the  intestinal  canal 

RENNET  STOMACH.  The  abomasum,  the  fourth 
or  true  digestive  stomach  in  the  complex  stomach  of 
ruminants:  so  called  from  containing  the  juice  which 
enables  it  to  coagulate  milk.  See  fig.  37. 

RETE  MIRAB1LE,  plur.  RETIA  MIRABILIA  (Lat,  a 
wonderful  net).  A  branching  net-work  of  small  blood- 
vessels in  the  course  of  a  large  blood-vessel. 

RETICULUM  (Lat,  a  net).  The  second  division  of 
the  complex  stomach  of  ruminants :  so  called  from  being 
divided  into  small  compartments  or  cells  by  means  of 
partitions  crossing  each  other  netwise.  Also  called 
Honey-tomb  Bag.  See  fig.  37. 

RETRACTILE.     Capable  of  being  retracted. 

RETROGRADE  DEVELOPMENT.  In  evolution- 
ary language,  a  modification  or  process  of  modification 
by  which  has  been  brought  about  a  structure  less  highly 
specialized  than  one  believed  to  have  existed  in  an 
ancestral  form. 


Fig.  36.— Skull  of  Hare.     Observe  the  small  upper  incisors  I  behind  the  large 
functional  ones  i :  <•->.  Coronoid  process :  =.a  Zygomatk  arch. 

RODENT  (Lat.  rodo,  to  gnaw,  rodens,  rodentis,  gnaw- 
ing). A  member  of  the  Rodentia. 

RODENTIA.  An  order  of  mammals  with  incisor 
teeth  specially  adapted  for  gnawing.  See  fig.  36. 

RUMEN  (Lat,  the  throat).    The  paunch.    See  fig.  37. 


232 


GLOSSARY. 


RUMINANT  (Lat.  ruminor,  to  chew  the  cud).  An 
animal  that  chews  the  cud.  See  fig.  37. 

SACRUM  (Lat,  sacred).  The  vertebrae  (usually  an- 
chylosed)  to  which  the  haunch-bones  are  articulated. 

SAGITTAL  (Lat.  sagitta,  an  arrow).  A  term  applied 
to  the  suture  connecting  the  two  parietal  bones.  See 
under  SKULL. — Sagittal  crest,  a  bony  ridge  in  the  position 
of  the  sagittal  suture. 

SCAPHOID  (Gr.  skaphl,  a  boat,  and  ados,  form). 
The  bone  in  the  wrist  at  the  end  of  the  radius;  the 
corresponding  bone  in  the  carpus  of  the  lower  animals. 


Fig.  37. — Stomach  of  Ruminant  .external;.  Internal  Structure  of  Stomach  of  Ruminant. 

/.i.  Paunch  or  rumen ;  /*.  Psaherium,  liber,  omasum,  or  manyplies ;  ret.  Reticulum 
or  honey-comb  bag.     r.  st.  Rennet -stomach  or  aoomasum  ;  the  true  digestive  stomach. 


SCAPULA  (Lat).     The  shoulder-blade. 

SEA-COW.     The  popular  name  for  one  of  the  Sirenia. 

SEBACEOUS  (Lat.  sebaceus).  Fatty;  secreting  fat— 
Sebaceous  glands,  skin  glands  secreting  an  oily  or  fatty 
matter. 

SECTORIAL  (Lat  seco,  to  cut,  sector,  a  cutter).  Same 
as  Carnassial. 

SELENODONT   (Gr.  selene,  the  moon,  and  odous, 
odontos,  a  tooth.)     A  term  applied  to 
teeth    the    surface    of   which    exhibits 
crescent-shaped  bands  of  enamel.     See 

fig-  38- 

SEPTUM  (Lat).     A  partition. 

SESAMOID  BONES.  The  name 
of  certain  bones  formed  at  the  joints 
of  the  toes  and  elsewhere  in  many 
mammals;  so  called  from  the  supposed 
resemblance  of  manyof  them  to  the  seeds 
of  the  Indian  plant  called  Sesame.  See  figs.  7  and  35. 

SHIN-BONE.     Same  as  Tibia. 

SHOULDER-GIRDLE.  The  circle  of  bones  formed 
by  the  two  shoulder-blades  and  the  two  collar-bones. 
Also  called  Pectoral  Arch. 

SINUS  (Lat,  a  bay).  A  cavity. — Frontal  sinuses,  the 
cavities  between  the  plates  of  the  frontal  bones  or  bones 
of  the  forehead,  the  cavities  which  in  man  produce  the 
prominent  ridges  above  the  eyes. 

SIRENIA  (Gr.  sdren,  a  mermaid).  An  order  of 
mammals.  See  fig.  22. 

SKULL  The  skeleton  of  the  head.  It  is  divided 
into  a  cranial  region,  constituting  the  brain-case,  and  a 
facial  region,  comprising  the  bones  of  the  face.  See  fig.  39. 

SNAG.  A  prong  or  spike;  specifically  applied  to  the 
single  spike  which  is  the  earliest  form  of  a  deer's  antler. 

SPECIALIZE.  To  make  special;  to  adapt  to  the 
performance  of  special  functions.  The  teeth,  for  example, 
are  said  to  be  specialized  when  they  are  so  formed  as  to 


Fig.  38.  —  Upper 
Surface  of  Molar  of 
Cfma  megnceros,  to 
illustrate  selenodont 
dentition. 


be  adapted  for  performing  the  special  acts  of  gnawing,  as 
in  rodents,  grinding,  as  in  horses  and  cows,  and  so  on. 

SPECULUM  (Lat,  a  mirror).  In  zoology,  a  bright 
spot  in  animals,  such  as  the  light-coloured  patch  on  the 
hind-quarters  of  the  roe-deer. 

SPHINCTER  (Gr.  sp/iiiigktcr,  from  sphingo,  to  con- 
strain). A  name  applied  generally  to  a  kind  of  circular 
muscles,  or  muscles  in  rings,  which  serve  to  close  the 
external  orifices  of  organs,  and  more  particularly  to  those 
among  them  which  have  the  peculiarity  of  being  in  a 
state  of  permanent  contraction,  independently  of  the  will, 
and  of  relaxing  only  when  it  is  required 
that  the  contents  of  the  organs  which  they 
close  should  be  evacuated. 

SPLINT-BONES.  The  functionless 
bones  on  each  side  of  the  cannon-bone 
of  a  horse,  representing  the  metacarpal 
bones  of  the  second  and  fourth  digits. 
See  fig.  7. 

SUPINATION  (lat.  supinm,  on  the 
back).  The  act  of  rotating  the  lower  arm 
in  such  a  way  as  to  turn  the  palm  of  the 
hand  upwards:  opposed  to  Pronation. 

SUPRA-OCCIPITAL  CREST.  Same 
as  Lambdoidal  Crest  or  Ridge. 

SUTURE  (Lat.  sutura,  from  suo,  to  sew).  The  line 
along  which  any  two  bones  of  the  skull  are  dove-tailed 
into  one  another.  See  LAMBDOIDAL  and  SAGITTAL,  and 

%•  39- 

SYMPHVSIS  (Gr.,  a  growing  together).  The  union 
of  bones  by  means  of  cartilage;  the  place  where  bones 
are  so  united.- — Pubic  symphysis,  the  union  of  the  bones 
in  the  inferior  and  front  portion  of  the  pelvis. 

TARSUS  (Gr.  tarsos,  the  flat  of  the  foot).  The  as- 
semblage of  small  bones  belonging  to  the  ankle,  and  the 
corresponding  bones  in  the  hind-limbs  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals.— Tarsal  region,  the  region  of  the  tarsus. 

TEAR-PIT.  Same  as  Lachrymal  Sinus.  See  LACHRY- 
MAL. 

TEMPORAL  (Lat  tempera,  the  temple).  Belonging 
to  the  temple. — Temporal  fossa.  See  under  FOSSA. — 
Petrous  portion  of  the  temporal  bone,  that  part  of  the  tem- 
poral bone  which  contains  the  internal  organs  of  the 
answering  to  the  pro-otif,  or  bone  in  front  of  the  ear  in 
the  lower  vertebrates. 

TENDINOUS.  Pertaining  to  a  tendon;  composed 
of  tissue  like  that  of  a  tendon. 

TENDON  (Fr.  from  Latin  tendo,  to  stretch).  In 
anatomy,  a  cord  composed  of  a  bundle  of  fibres  forming 
a  tough  tissue  which  serves  as  the  means  of  attaching  a 
muscle  to  a  bone. 

TERRESTRIAL.  Belonging  to  the  earth;  frequent- 
ing or  inhabiting  the  surface  of  the  ground :  opposed  to 
Aquatic  and  Arboreal. 

TERTIARY  (Lat  tertius,  third).  In  geology,  the 
term  applied  to  the  more  recent  rocks  above  the  Cre- 
taceous and  ending  with  the  Pliocene.  See  GEOLOGICAL 
TABLE,  voL  i.  p.  23. 

THIRD    EYELID.     See  NICTITATING  MEMBRANE. 

THORACIC.     Belonging  to  the  thorax. 

THORAX  (Gr.).  The  chest;  the  part  of  the  body 
extending  from  the  neck  to  the  last  of  the  ribs. 


GLOSSARY. 


233 


TIBIA  (Lat.,  a  flute).  The  shin-bone;  the  inner  of 
the  two  bones  of  the  lower  leg,  or  lower  part  of  the  hind- 
limb  in  quadrupeds.  It  corresponds  to  the  radius  in  the 
arm  or  fore-limb.  See  fig.  7. 

TINE.  A  spike  or  prong;  specially  applied  to  a 
spiked  branch  of  the  antlers  of  a  deer. 

TRAGUS  (Gr.  tragos,  a  goat).  The  cartilaginous 
valve-like  flap  which  extends  from  the  front  backward?, 
over  the  entrance  to  the  ear-passage :  so  called  probably 
from  the  fact  of  its  being 
provided  in  some  persons 
with  a  tuft  of  hairs  like  a 
goat's  beard. 

TROCHANTER  (Gr. 
trcfho,  to  turn).  A  knob 
or  process  at  or  near  the 
upper  end  of  the  thigh 
bone  for  the  attachment 
of  muscles  concerned  in 
rotating  the  limb. —  T/iini 
trochanter,  a.  lateral  tro- 
chanter  near  the  upper 
end  of  the  thigh-bonechar- 
acteristic  of  the  Perisso- 
dactyla. 

TUBERCLED 
TOOTH.  A  tooth  the  surface  of  which  is  provided 
with  small  blunt  knobs  or  tubercles;  especially,  one  of 
the  molars  in  the  Carnivora  behind  the  carnassials. 

IT.NA  (Lat,  the  elbow).  The  outer  of  the  two  bones 
of  the  forearm  when  the  palm  of  the  hand  is  laid  flat,  or 
the  corresponding  bone  in  the  fore-limb  of  one  of  the 
lower  animals.  It  answers  to  the  fibula  in  the  hind-limb. 
See  figs.  17  and  34. 

UNDIFFERENTIATED.  Not  characterized  by  a 
special  structure;  for  example,  the  simple  and  uniform 
teeth  of  the  dolphin. 

UNGUICULATE  (Lat.  uuguis,  a  nail).  Furnished 
with  nails  or  claws. 


F 'S-  39- — The  Cranium,  mi.  Nasal ; 
fr.  Frontal ;  pa.  Parietal ;  o.  Occipital ; 
t.  Temporal ;  j.  Jugal,  malar,  or  check 
bone ;  c.p.  Coronoid  process  ;  z.a.  Zygo- 
tnatic  arch ;  s.s.  Line  of  sagittal  suture; 
l.s.  Lambdoidal  suture. 


'P. 


UNGULATE  (I.at.  ungitla,  a  hoof).  Furnished  with 
hoofs. 

UTERUS  (Lat.).     The  womb. 

VASCULAR  (Lat.  ras,  a  vessel).  Connected  with  or 
belonging  to  the  system  of  blood-vessels,  or  the  circula- 
tory system. 

VELVET.  In  a  special  sense,  the  delicate  hairy 
covering  of  a  deer's  antlers  while  growing. 

VERTEBRA  (I-at.  verto,  to  turn).     One  of  the  bones 
of  the  column  inclosing  the 
spinal  cord.     See  fig.  40. 

VISCERA  (Lat.  pi.  of 
riscus).  The  contents  of  the 
great  cavities  of  the  body, 
especially  of  the  chest  and 
abdomen.  Thus  the  heart, 
liver,  stomach,  &c.,  are  all 
viscera,  and  one  of  them 
separately  is  a  viscits. 

WITHERS.  The  eleva- 
tion at  the  junction  of  the 
shoulder-bones  of  a  horse. 

WRIST.  The  part  of  the 
arm  where  the  hand  is  jointed 
to  the  forearm;  sometimes 
used  in  the  body  of  the  book  in  a  wider  sense  to  designate 
also  the  corresponding  part  in  the  fore-limb  of  one  of  the 
lower  animals ;  the  carpus. 

ZONARY  (Gr.  zoi  f,  Lat.  zona,  a  belt).  Having  the 
form  of  a  belt  or  ring. 

ZYGODONT  (Gr.  zygon,  a  yoke,  and  odous,  odontos,  a 
tooth).  A  term  applied  to  teeth  divided  into  transverse 
ridges  by  means  of  deep  grooves,  as  in  the  tapir. 

ZYGOMATIC  ARCH  (Gr.  zygoma,  from  zygon,  a 
yoke).  The  arch  of  bone  in  the  skull  formed  by  the 
meeting  of  a  backward  process  from  the  jugal  or  cheek 
bone  and  a  forward  process  from  the  temporal  bone. 
In  some  forms  this  arch  is  incomplete.  See  figs,  31,  33, 
36,  and  39,  and  comp.  figs.  18  and  19. 


Fig.  40.  —  Dorsal  Vertebra  seen  from 
above,  f.  Centrum  or  body  of  the 
vertebra ;  s.c.  Spinal  or  neural  canal : 
us.  Neural  spine,  the  whole  series  of 
which  in  the  vertebral  column  forms 
the  uneven  ridge  on  the  back;  /./. 
Transverse  processes  articulating  with 
the  ribs. 


VOL.  II. 


INDEX. 


An  asterisk  *  after  number  of  page  indicates  an  engraving;  the  contraction  gen.  chars.  =  general  characters. 


Aard-vark,  ii.  186,  187.* 

Aardwolf,  i.  157,*  234. 

Abbu  Addas,  ii.  100.* 

Acanthoglossus  Bruynii,  ii.  220. 

Aceratherium,  ii.  46,  59. 

Achi,  ii.  89. 

Acrobates  pygma?us,  ii.  204. 

Addax  nasomaculatus,  ii.  100,*  101. 

Agouta,  i.  120.* 

Agouti,  Golden,  ii.  169.* 

—  family,  general  chars.,  ii.  169. 
Aguarachay,  i.  145,  146.* 

Ai,  ii.  182.* 
Ailuropoda,  i.  188. 
Ailuropus,  i.  234. 

—  melanoleucus.  i.  204.* 
Ailurus  fulgens,  i.  203.* 
Alactaga  jaculus,  ii.  160,  *  162. 
Alcelaphus  Caama,  ii.  101.* 
Alces  Machlis,  ii.  86.* 

—  palmatus,  ii.  86.* 
Alluvium,  ii.  223. 
Alpaca,  ii.  134,  135.* 
Amblotherium,  ii.  214. 
Amphicyon,  i.  236. 
Amphilestes,  ii.  213. 
Amphitherium,  ii.  213. 
Amycodon,  ii.  59. 
Anchitherium,  ii.  60. 
Ancylotherium,  ii.  190. 
Aneturas,  general  characters,  i.  66. 
Angwantibo,  i.  87,  88.* 

Anoa,  ii.  114,*  115. 

—  depressicomis,  ii.  114,*  115. 
Anoplotherium,  ii.  62,  139. 
Anta,  ii.  42,*  43. 

Ant-bear,  ii.  187.* 

—  Cape,  ii.  186,  187.* 
Ant-eater,  Banded,  ii.  199.* 

—  Great,  ii.  187.* 

—  Little,  ii.  188.* 

—  Porcupine,  ii.  219.* 
Ant-eaters,  Scaly,  gen.chars.,  ii.  188. 

—  True,  ii.  187. 

Antelope,  American  Prong-horned, 

»•  75- 

—  Four-horned,  ii.  93,*  94. 

—  Harnessed,  ii.  95.* 

—  Indian,  ii.  102.* 

—  Mendes,  ii.  100.* 

—  Pronghorn,  ii.  87,*  88. 

—  Sable,  ii.  98.* 

—  Sabre,  ii.  99.* 

Antelopes,   general  characters,   ii. 

88;  137,  139. 
Anthropomorphae,  i.  32. 
Antilocapra  americana,  ii.  75,  87,* 

88. 

Antilope  cervicapra,  ii.  102.* 
Antilopida,  general  characters,  ii.88. 
Aperea,  ii.  171,  172.* 
Apes,  Anthropoid,  i.  32. 

—  Black  Anthropoid,  i.  32. 


Apes,  Red  Anthropoid,  i.  36. 

—  and  Monkeys,  gen.  chars.,  i.  25. 
—  Geographical  Distribution  and 
Descent  of  the,  i.  73. 

Arcticlis  binturong,  i.  202.* 
Arctocebus  calabarensis,  i.  87,  88.* 
Arctocyon,  i.  236. 
Arctocyonida,  i.  236. 
Arctomys  Bobac,  ii.  147. 

—  marmota,  ii.  147.* 

—  monax,  ii.  147. 
Arctonyx,  i.  235. 
Arctopitheci,  i.  28,  30,  70. 
Argali,  ii.  112. 

Armadillo,  Giant,  ii.  184,*  185. 

—  Six-banded,  ii.  185.* 
Armadillos,  general  chars.,  ii.  183. 
Ami,  ii.  no.* 

Artiodactyla,  general  chars.,  ii.  61. 

—  Hollow-horned,  ii.  74. 

—  Non-Ruminant   or    Many-toed, 
ii.  64. 

—  or  Ruminants,  Two-toed,  ii.  73. 
Arvicola,  ii.  178. 

—  agrestis,  ii.  157.* 

—  amphibius,  ii.  158.* 

—  arvalis,  ii.  157.* 
Ashkok,  ii.  41.* 
Ass,  ii.  55. 

—  African  Wild,  ii.  53,*  54. 

—  Tibetan  Wild,  ii,  54,  55.* 
Asses,  Wild,  ii.  59. 
Assapan,  ii.  145. 

Ateles,  i.  30,  64. 

—  eriodes,  i.  64,  65.* 
Atherura  africana,  ii.  163,*  164. 
Auchenia,  general  chars.,  ii.  134. 

—  Lama,  ii.  134,*  135. 

—  Paco,  ii.  135.* 

—  vicufia,  ii.  136. 
Auerochs,  ii.  120,  126. 
Axis  maculata,  ii.  80,  81.* 
Aye-aye,  i.  85,*  86. 

Babakoto,  i.  84,*  85. 
Babirussa,  ii.  71,*  136. 

—  alfurus,  ii.  71.* 
Baboon,  Arabian,  i.  51,  55. 

—  Common,  i.  53,  57,  58.* 

—  Guinea,  i.  57. 

—  Pig-faced,  i.  57. 

Baboons,  general  characters,  i.  53. 
Badger,  Common,  i.  213,  214.* 

—  Stinking,  i.  215,*  216. 

—  family,  i.  235. 

—  and    Weasel     family,     general 
characters,  i.  211. 

Badgers,  general  characters,  i.  213. 

—  American,  general  chars.,  i.  216. 

—  Honey,  i.  217. 

—  Indian,  general  chars.,  i.  216. 

—  Pouched,  general  chars.,  ii.  197. 

—  True,  i.  235. 


Balaena  australis,  ii.  16. 

—  mysticetus,  ii.  16.* 
Balasnoptera  boops,  ii.  15,*  16. 
Balasnopterida,  ii.  16. 
Baiodon,  ii.  214. 

Bandicoot,  Long-nosed,  ii.  198." 
Banteng,  ii.  125,*  126. 
Banxrings,  general  chars.,  i.  114. 
Barbary  Ape,  i.  52.* 
Barbastelle,  i.  104,*  105. 
Baribal,  Black,  i.  208,*  209. 
Barrigudo,  i.  64.* 
Bassaris  astuta,  i.  198.* 
Bat.CommonMouse  coloured,  i.  105. 

—  Dwarf,  i.  106,  107.* 

—  Flap-nosed,  i.  107,  108.* 

—  Greater  Horse-shoe,  i.  no.* 

—  Lesser  Horse-shoe,  i.  no. 

—  Long-eared,  i.  97,  104.* 

—  Pug-nose,  i.  104,*  105. 

—  Water,  i.  105.* 

Bats,  general  characters,  i.  96. 

—  Fruit-eating,  i.  101. 

—  Horse-shoe,  i.gSigen. chars.,  109. 

—  Insect-eating,  i.  103. 

—  Leaf-nosed,  i.  107. 

—  True,  i.  103. 

—  Water,  i.  98. 

—  Geographical    Distribution   and 
Descent  of  the,  i.  no. 

Bear,  Black,  i.  208,  *  209. 

—  Brown,  i.  207.* 

—  Coco-nut  Palm,  i.  209,*  210. 

—  Common  Indian  Black,  i.  210.'* 

—  Gray  or  Grizzly,  i.  206. 

—  Malayan,  i.  209,*  210. 

—  Native  (Australian),  ii.  204,  205.* 

—  Pouched,  ii.  204,  205.  * 

—  Sloth-,  i.  210.* 

Bears,  general  characters,  i.  196. 

—  Large,  gen.  chars.,  i.  204;  234. 

—  Small,  gen.  chars.,  i.  198;  234. 
Beaver,  ii.  149.* 

—  family,  general  chars.,  ii.  149. 
Beech-marten,  i.  222.* 
Beef-eaters,  African,  ii.  29. 
Behemoth,  ii.  65. 

Belideus  sciureus,  ii.  203,  204.  * 
Beluga,  ii.  10.* 

—  leucas,  ii.  10.* 

Bibos  frontalis,  ii.  124,*  125. 
Big-horn,  ii.  in.* 
Binturong,  i.  202,*  234. 
Bison,  American,  ii.  120.* 

—  European,  ii.  119.* 
— bonasus,  ii.  119. 

Bisons,  general  characters,  ii.  119. 

Black  Ape,  i.  26,  53,  55.* 

Blastoceros  campestris,  ii.  79.  80.* 

Blauw-bok.  ii.  99. 

Bleekbok,  ii.  91,*  93. 

Boars,  Wild,  general  chars.,  ii.  67.* 

Bobac,  ii.  147. 


Bonnet-monkey,  i.  49. 

Bonlo,  ii.  4,  5.* 

Boomer,  ii.  208. 

Boonder,  i.  49,  51. 

Bos,  general  characters,  ii.  123. 

—  brachyurus,  ii.  127. 

—  frontalis,  ii.  124,*  125. 

—  frontosus,  ii.  127. 

—  gaums,  ii.  124.* 

—  grunniens,  ii.  123.* 

—  indicus,  ii.  126,  127.* 
-sondaicus,  ii.  125,  126.* 

—  taurus,  ii.  128. 

Boselaphustragocamelus,  ii.  96, '97. 
Bouquetins,  general  chars.,  ii.  108. 
Bovida,  general  characters,  ii.  115. 
Brachyurus,  general  chars.,  i.  67. 

—  calvus,  i.  67.* 

—  ouakari,  i.  67.* 
Bradypoda,  general  chars.,  ii.  181. 
Bradypus  tridactylus,  ii.  182.* 
Bramatherium,  ii.  140. 

Brocket,  Red,  ii.  79.* 

Bruan,  i.  209,*  210. 

Bruta,  ii.  180. 

Bubalus,  general  chars. ,  ii.  1 16. 

—  Caama,  ii.  101.* 

—  caffer,  ii.  116,  117." 
-  Kcrabau,  ii.  119.* 

—  vulgaris,  ii.  117. 
Buffalo,  Cape,  ii.  116,  117.* 

—  Common,  ii.  117. 
Buffaloes,  general  chars.,  ii.  116. 
Bunodontia,  ii.  (a. 

Buphaga  africana,  ii.  29. 
Burrowers  (Insectivora),  i.  122. 
Burunduk,  ii.  146.* 
Buselaphus  oreas,  ii.  100.  * 
Bush-dog,  i.  219.* 

Caama,  ii.  101.* 
Cacamizli,  i.  198,*  234. 
Cachalot,  ii.  13.* 
Callithrix,  Masked,  i.  68.* 

—  personata,  i.  68.* 
Calotragus  scoparius,  ii.  91,"  93. 
Camel  family,  gen.  chars.,  ii.  129. 

—  Bactrian,  ii.  131.* 
Camelida,  ii.  129. 
Camelopardalis  giraffa,  ii.  128.* 
Camels,  ii.  130,  137,  140. 
Camelus,  ii.  130. 

—  bactrianus,  ii.  131.* 

—  dromedarius,  ii.  131.* 
Cumpagnol,  ii.  157.* 
Canida,  i.  234. 

Canis,  i.  136;  general  chars.,  i.  137. 

—  anthus,  i.  141.* 

—  Azarre,  i.  145,  146.* 

—  corsac,  i.  148.* 

—  dingo,  i.  143,*  144. 

—  jubatus,  i.  139.* 

—  lagopus,  i.  149.* 


236 


INDEX. 


Canis  latrans,  i.  140.* 

—  lupaster,  i.  139.* 

—  lupus,  i.  137.* 

—  mesomelas,  i.  145.* 

—  vulpes,  i.  146,  147.* 

—  zerda,  i.  150.* 
Canna,  ii.  100.* 
Cannon-bone,  ii.  224.* 
Cape  Daman,  ii.  41. 

—  Ratel,  i.  216,*  217. 
Capella  rupicapra,  ii.  89.* 
Capra  cegagrus,  ii.  106.* 

—  angorensis,  ii.  107,*  108. 

—  falconeri,  ii.  105,*  106. 

—  ibex,  ii.  108,*  109. 

—  hircus,  ii.  107,*  108. 

—  megaceros,  ii.  105,*  106. 
Capreolus  caprosa,  ii.  79.* 

—  vulgaris,  ii.  79.* 

Caprida,  general  characters,  ii.  103. 

Capybara,  ii.  172,  173.* 

Caracal,  i.  182.* 

Cariacou,  ii.  83. 

Cariacus  campestris,  ii.  79,  80.* 

—  rufus,  ii.  79.* 

Carnivora,  general  chars.,  i.  129. 
Carpophaga,  i.  101. 
Casoryx,  ii.  140. 
Castor,  ii.  178. 

—  fiber,  ii.  149.* 

Castorida,  general  chars.,  ii.  149. 
Cat,  Coffee,  i.  191.* 

—  Gloved,  i.  171,  172.* 

—  Palm,  i.  191.* 

—  Pampas,  i.  179,*  180. 

—  Wild,  i.  172,  173.* 

—  tribe,  general  chars.,  i.  158:  ii. 
225. 

Catarrhinoe,  i.  32. 
Catoblepas,  ii.  102. 

—  gnu,  ii.  103.* 

Caudatx,  general  characters,  i.  42. 
Cave-hyaena,  i.  237. 
Cavia  aperea,  ii.  171,  172.* 

—  cobaya,  ii.  171. 

—  porcellus,  ii.  171,  172.* 
Cavicornia,  general  chars.,  ii.  87. 
Cavy,  Patagonian,  ii.  171.* 

—  Restless,  ii.  171,  172.* 
Cebidae,  general  characters,  i.  65. 
Cebus,  i.  65. 

—  capucinus,  i.  66.* 
Centetes  ecaudatus,  i.  121.* 
Centetida,  i.  120. 
Cephalophus  mergens,  ii.  92,*  94. 
Cercolabes  villosus,  ii.  164.* 
Cercoleptes  caudivolvulus,  i.  201,* 

202. 

Cercopitheci,  i.  74. 
Cercopithecus,  i.  48. 

—  diana,  i.  49.* 

—  pyrrhonotus,  i.  49. 

—  sabseus,  i.  49.* 
Cerebellum,  ii.  225.* 
Cerebrum,  ii.  225.* 

Cervida,  general  characters,  ii.  77. 
Cervulus  muntjac,  ii.  78.* 
Cervus,  general  characters,  ii.  82. 

—  Aristotelis,  ii.  80. 

—  axis,  ii.  80,  81.* 

—  elaphus,  ii.  82.* 

—  Sedgwickii,  ii.  139. 

—  virginianus,  ii.  83. 
Chacma,  i.  57. 

Chasropus  castanotus,  ii.  198,*  199. 
Chalicomys,  ii.  178. 
Chamois,  ii.  89.* 
Cheetahs,  i.  161,  162. 
Chego,  i.  35. 

Cheironectes   variegatus,    ii.    194, 
196.* 


Chevrotain  family,  general  charac- 
ters, ii.  76;  136. 
Chevrotain,  Water,  ii.  76. 
Chikara,  ii.  93,*  94. 
Chimpanzee,  i.  31,  33,*  74. 
Chinchillafamily,  gen.  chars., ii.i66. 

—  Larger,  ii.  166,*  167. 
— Smaller,  ii.  167.* 

—  brevicaudata,  ii.  166,  *  167. 

—  lanigera,  ii.  167.* 
O'hinchillida,  general  chars.,  ii.  166. 
Chipmunk,  ii.  146.* 
Chirogaleus,  i.  79,  81-83. 

—  furcifer,  i.  83,*  84. 
Chiromys  madagascariensis,  i.  85,* 

86. 

Chiroptera,  general  chars.,  i.  96. 
Chlamydophorus  truncatus,  ii.  185, 

186.* 

Chceropotamus,  ii.  138. 
Choerotherium,  ii.  138. 
Cholcepus  didactylus,  ii.  183.* 

—  Hofmanni,  ii.  183. 
Chrysochlorida,  gen.  chars.,  i.  125. 
Chrysochloris  capensis,  i.  126.* 
Chrysothrix  sciurea,  i.  69.* 
Civet,  African,  i.  189. 

—  Asiatic  or  Indian,  i.  189.* 
Civet-cats,  i.  189. 

Civets,  general  characters,  i.  188. 

Cladobates,  i.  114. 

• — Tana,  i.  114,  115.* 

Clawed  Monkeys,  i.  8;  general 
characters,  i.  70. 

Clidastes,  ii.  19. 

Climbers,  i.  114. 

Coati,  Social,  i.  200,*  201. 

Coatis,  general  chars.,  i.  199;  234. 

Ccelogenys  paca,  ii.  170.* 

Colobi,  i .  30,  61,  74 ;  general  char- 
acters, i.  48. 

Colobus  guereza,  i.  47,  *  48. 

Colonoceras,  ii.  59. 

Colugo,  i.  93,*  94. 

Colus  tartaricus,  ii.  95,*  96. 

Condylura,  i.  127. 

—  cristata,  i.  125.* 
Connochaetes,  ii.  102. 
Cony,  ii.  41. 

—  family,  ii.  38,  39. 
Corsac,  i.  148.* 
Cougar,  i.  176,  177.* 
Couxio,  i.  67.* 
Coyote,  i.  140.* 
Coypu,  ii.  165.* 

Crawlers  (Insectivora),  i.  120. 
Cricetus  frumentarius,  ii.  154.* 
Crocidura  aranea,  i.  118.* 

—  etrusca,  i.  118. 
Crossopus  fodiens,  i.  118,  119.* 
Cryptoprocta,  i.  234. 

—  ferox,  i.  184,  185.* 
Ctenacodon,  ii.  214. 
Ctenomys,  ii.  166. 
Cuscus,  ii.  204. 
Cuy,  ii.  164.* 

Cyclothurus  didactylus,  ii.  188. 
Cynailurus,  gen.  chars.,  i.  161,  162. 

—  guttatus,  i.  161.* 
— jubatus,  i.  162. 
Cynocephali,  i.  73. 
Cynocephalus,  general  chars.,  i.  53. 

—  Babuin,  i.  57.* 
gelada,  i.  53,  55,  56.* 

—  hamadryas,  i.  55. 

—  leucophseus,  i.  59. 

—  Maimon,  i.  59.* 

—  Mormon,  i.  53. 

—  niger,  i.  26,  53,  55.* 

—  porcarius,  i.  57. 

—  sphinx,  i.  57. 


Cynodon,  i.  236,  237. 
Cynogale  Bennettii,  i.  191,  192.* 
Cynomorphae,  i.  26,  43. 
Cynomys  ludovicianus,  ii.  148.* 
Cynopithecus,  i.  53. 

—  nigcr,  i.  26. 

Cynopoda,  general  chars. ,  i.  192. 

Cyon,  i.  136. 

Cystophora  cristata,  i.  248.* 

—  proboscidea,  i.  246,  247.* 

Dama  vulgaris,  ii.  84.* 
Dasypoda,  general  chars.,  ii.  183. 
Dasyprocta  Aguti,  ii.  169.* 
Dasypus  sexcinctus,  ii.  185.* 
Dasyure  family,  gen.  chars.,  ii.  200. 
Dasyurus,  i.  237. 

—  ursinus,  ii.  201.* 

—  viverrinus,  ii.  201.* 
Dasyurida,  general  chars.,  ii.  200. 
Dauw,  ii.  53.* 

Deer,  ii.  139,  140. 

—  family,  general  chars.,  ii.  77;  136. 

—  Antlers  of,  ii.  74,  223.* 

—  Pampas,  ii.  79,  80.* 

—  Persian,  ii.  82. 

—  Red,  ii.  82.* 

—  Spotted,  ii.  80,  81.* 

—  True,  general  characters,  ii.  82. 
Degu,  ii.  166.* 

—  family,  general  chars.,  ii.  166. 
Delphinapterus,  ii.  10. 
Delphinida,  general  chars.,  ii.  4. 
Delphinus,  ii.  5. 

—  delphis,  ii.  5,  6.* 

—  tursio,  ii.  6,  7.* 
Delundung,  i.  190.* 
Dendrohyrax,  ii.  41. 
Dendrolagus  ursinus,  ii.  207.* 
Dental  Characters,  i.  16. 

—  Formulae,  i.  9. 
Denticete,  ii.  4. 

Desmans,  general  chars.,  i.  116. 
Devexa,  general  chars.,  ii.  128. 
Diana  Monkey,  i.  48,  49.* 
Diceratherium,  ii.  59. 
Dichobune,  ii.  139. 
Dicotyles  labiatus,  ii.  72. 

—  torquatus,  ii.  72.* 
Didactyla  or  Ruminantia,  ii.  73. 
Didelphyida,  general  chars.,  ii.  195. 
Didelphys  virginiana,  ii.  196,  197.* 
Digit,  in  Glossary. 
Digitigrada  and  Plantigrada,  i.  6. 
Diluvium,  ii.  226. 

Dingo,  i.  143,*  144. 

Dinoceras,  ii.  37. 

Dinotheria,  ii.  35. 

Diphyodonts,  i.  8. 

Dipodida,  general  chars.,  ii.  160. 

Dipodomys  Phillipsii,  ii.  162.* 

Diprotodon,  ii.  212. 

Dipus  aegyptius,  ii.  160,*  161. 

—  mauritanicus,  ii.  160,*  161. 
Distribution  in  Space,  i.  12. 
Dititherium,  i.  236. 

Divers  (Insectivora),  general  char- 
acters, i.  116. 
Dog,  Australian,  i.  143.*  144. 

—  Cape  Hunting,  i.  136,  152,  153.* 

—  Domestic,  i.  142. 

—  tribe,  general  characters,  i.  134. 
Dogs,  Proper,  i.  136 ;  general  char- 
acters, 137. 

Dolichotis  patagonica,  ii.  171.* 
Dolphin,  Amazon,  ii.  4,  5.* 

—  Bottle-nosed,  ii.  6,  7.* 

—  Common,  ii.  5,  6.* 

—  Fresh-water,  ii.  4,  5.* 
Dolphins,  Marine,  ii.  5. 

—  True,  general  characters,  ii.  4. 


Dormouse  family,  gen.  chars.  ,11.148. 

—  Common,  ii.  149,  150.* 
Douroucouli,  Three-banded,  i.  70.* 
Drill,  i.  59. 

Dromatherium,  ii.  221. 

—  sylvestre,  ii.  213. 
Dromedary,  ii.  131.* 
Dromotherium,  i.  127. 
Dryolestes,  ii.  214. 
Dryopithecus,  i.  73,  76. 
Duck-mole,  ii.  217.* 
Dugong,  ii.  21,*  24. 
Duplicidentata,  i.  4;  ii.  142. 
Duyker-bok,  ii.  92,  *  94. 

Earth-hogs,  ii.  186. 
Earth-wolf,  i.  157.* 
Echidna  aculeata,  ii.  219.* 

—  hystrix,  ii.  219.* 

—  setosa,  ii.  219. 

—  Long-spined,  ii.  219.* 

—  Short-spined,  ii.  219. 
Echimyida,  general  chars.,  ii.  156. 
Edentates,  general  chars.,  ii.  180. 

—  Wormed-tongued,  general  char- 
acters, ii.  186. 

—  Geographical   Distribution   and 
Descent  of  the,  ii.  189. 

Kland,  ii.  100.* 
Elasmognathus,  ii.  58. 

—  Bairdii,  ii.  44. 
Elen,  ii.  ico.* 
Elephant,  African,  ii.  30.* 

—  Indian,  ii.  31.* 
Elephants,  general  chars.,  ii.  26. 
Elephas  africanus,  ii.  30.* 

—  Cliftii,  ii.  35. 

—  Columbi,  ii.  35. 

—  insignis,  ii.  35. 

—  meridionalis,  ii.  35. 

—  primigenius,  ii.  31,  35. 

—  priscus,  ii.  35. 
Elephant-shrew,  i.  115,*  116. 
Elk,  ii.  86.* 

—  Canadian,  ii.  86. 

—  Ceylon,  ii.  80. 
Emgalo,  ii.  69. 
Enaliosaurii,  ii.  18,  19. 
Enhydris  marina,  i.  231,  232.* 
Entellus  Monkeys,  i.  45.* 
Entelodon,  ii.  138. 
Entomophaga,  i.  103. 
Eocene,  i.  235 ;  ii.  24,  138. 
Eohippus  Phenacodus,  ii.  59. 
Eohyus,  ii.  138. 

Eomeryx,  ii.  139. 

Epiglottis,  ii.  227. 

Epithelium,  ii.  227. 

Equida,  general  characters,  ii.  49. 

Equus  asinus,  ii.  55. 

—  Burchellii,  ii.  53.* 

—  caballus,  ii.  55. 

—  curvidens,  ii.  56,  59. 

—  hemionus,  ii.  54,  55.* 

—  onager,  ii.  54.* 

—  Przevalskii,  ii.  57. 

—  quagga,  ii.  53. 

—  taeniopus,  ii.  53,*  54. 

—  Tarpan,  ii.  56,*  57. 

—  Zebra,  ii.  52,*  53. 
Erethizon  dorsatum,  ii.  165. 
Ericulus,  i.  120. 
Erinacei,  i.  121. 

Erinaceus  europasus,  i.  122,  123.* 
Eriomys  chinchilla,  ii.  166,*  167. 

—  laniger,  ii.  167.* 
Ermine,  i.  226.* 
Eupleres,  i.  126. 

Evolution,  bearing  on  dental  sys- 
tems, i.  10. 
Eyra,  Brazilian,  i.  180.* 


INDEX. 


237 


Fahhad,  i.  161,*  162. 
Fallow-cat,  i.  171,  172.* 
Fallow-deer,  ii.  84.* 
Felida,  general  chars.,  i.  158;  234. 
Kelincs  of  the  New  World,  i.  175. 

—  of  the  Old  World,  i.  163. 

—  True,  general  chars.,  i.  161,  163. 
Kelis,  i.  163. 

—  catus,  i.  172,  173.* 

—  concolor,  i.  176,  177.* 

—  eyra,  i.  180.* 

—  leo,  i.  163.* 

—  Leopardus,  i.  168,  169.* 

—  macroscelis,  i.  169,*  170. 

—  nuiniculata,  i.  171,  172.* 

—  marmorata,  i.  170,  171.* 

—  onca,  i.  175.* 

—  pajeros,  i.  179,*  180. 

—  I'amhera,  i.  168. 

—  pardalis,  i.  178,*  179. 

—  pardinus,  i.  183,  184.* 

—  Serval,  i.  174,  175.* 

—  tigris,  i.  165.* 

-    viverrina,  i.  174.* 
Felsinotherium,  ii.  24. 
Fennecus,  i.  235. 
Fennek,  i.  150.* 
FVrret,  i.  225.* 
Fiber  zibethicus,  ii.  139.* 
FL-ld-mouse,  ii.  156. 

—  Long-tailed,  ii.  156. 
Field-vole,  Common,  ii.  157.* 
Flesh-eaters,  general  chars.,  i.  129. 

—  Geographical    Distribution   and 
Descent  of  the,  i.  234. 

Flipper,  ii.  247.* 

Flipper-footed    Animals   or  Seals, 

i.  239. 

Flying-cat,  i.  93,*  94. 
Flying-phalanger,  Squirrel,  ii.  203, 

204.* 

Flying-squirrels,  ii.  145. 
Fore-  and  Hind-limbs,  i.  5. 
Fossa,  i.  184,  185,*  234. 
Fox,  i.  146,  147.* 

—  Long-eared,  i.  152.* 

—  Sahara,  i.  150.* 

—  White  or  Arctic,  i.  149.* 
Foxes,  general  characters,  i.  144. 

—  Flying,  i.  lor. 

Galago,  Common,  i.  89.* 

—  Grand  or  Thick-tailed,  i.  88. 

—  crassicaudatus,  i.  88. 
Galagonida,  i.  88. 
Galagos,  i.  88. 
Galeopithecida,  i.  93. 
Galeopithecus,  i.  78. 

—  volitans,  i.  93,*  94. 
Galethylax,  ii.  214,  215. 
Galictis,  general  characters,  i.  219. 

—  barbara,  i.  220.* 

—  vittata,  i.  220. 
Galidia,  i.  234. 
Galidictis,  i.  234. 
Garden-shrew,  i.  118.* 
Gaur,  ii.  124.* 
Gavasus  gaurus,  ii.  124.* 

—  sondaicus,  ii.  125,  126.* 
Gayal,  ii.  124,  125.* 
Gazella  dorcas,  ii.  90,  *  93. 
Gazelle,  ii.  90,*  93. 
Gelada,  i,  43,  53,  55,  56.* 
Gelocus,  ii.  139. 

Genet,  Common,  i.  187,*  188. 
Genetta  vulgaris,  i.  187,*  188. 
Geomys  bursaria,  ii.  162.* 
Gerbillus,  ii.  160. 

Gibbon,  White-handed,  i.  42,  43.* 
Gibbons,  general  characters,  i.  39. 
Giraffe,  general  characters,  ii.  128.* 


Giraffes,  ii.  137,  140. 

Gliraria,  ii.  149. 

Globicephalus  melas,  ii.  8,  9.* 

Glossotherium,  ii.  190. 

Glutton,  i.  218.* 

Glyptodons,  ii.  190. 

Gnawers,  general  characters,  it.  141. 

Gnu,  White-tailed,  ii.  103.* 

Gnus,  ii.  102. 

Goat,  Angora,  ii.  107,*  108. 

—  Bezoar,  ii.  106.  * 

—  Domestic,  ii.  107. 

—  Rocky  Mountain,  ii.  104.* 
Goats,  gen.  chars.,  ii.  103;  137. 
Gopher,  ii.  167.* 

Gorilla,  i.  31,  32,  35,*  74. 

Gravigrada,  ii.  190. 

Grind,  ii.  8,  9.* 

Grisons,  general  characters,  i.  219. 

Ground  Squirrels,  ii.  146. 

Guanaco,  ii.  134. 

Guazui,  ii.  79,  80.* 

Guenons,  gen.  chars.,  i.  48,  49.* 

Guereza,  i.  47,*  48. 

Guib,  ii.  95.* 

Guinea-pig,  fi.  171. 

Gulo  borealis,  i.  218.* 

Gurkur,  ii.  54.* 

Gymnorhina,  i.  103. 

Gymnura,  i.  126. 

—  Rafflesii,  i.  121. 

Gymnuroe,  general  characters,  i.  62. 

Hair,  i.  3. 

Halianassa,  ii.  24. 

Halicore  Dugong,  ii.  21,*  24. 

Halmaturus,  ii.  207,  208. 

Hamster,  Proper,  ii.  154.* 

Hand,  i.  6. 

Hapale,  i.  71. 

— Jacchus,  i.  72,*  73. 

—  midas,  i.  72. 

—  rosalia,  i.  71,*  72. 
Hapalemur,  i.  79. 

—  griseus,  i.  82,*  83. 
Haploceros  americanus,  ii.  104.* 
Hare,  Alpine,  ii.  174,  176.* 

—  Common,  ii.  174,  175.* 

—  Mountain,  ii.  174,  176.* 

—  Northern,  ii.  174,  176.* 
Hares,  Piping  or  Calling,  ii.  173. 
Hartebeest,  ii.  101." 
Harvest-mouse,  ii.  156. 
Hedgehogs,  gen.  chars.,  i.  121, 123.* 
Helaletes,  ii.  58. 

Helictis,  i.  235. 
Helladotherium,  ii.  140. 
Helohyus,  ii.  138. 
Herpestes,  i.  192. 

—  griseus,  i.  194.* 

—  Ichneumon,  i.  193.* 

—  Widdringtoni,  i.  193. 
Hipparion,  ii.  60. 
Hippopotamus,  ii.  64,*  136-138. 

—  amphibius,  ii.  64.* 

—  liberiensis,  ii.  64. 

—  major,  ii.  137. 

—  minor,  ii.  64,  137. 
Hippotigris,  ii.  52. 

—  Burchellii,  ii.  53.* 

—  quagga,  ii.  53. 

—  Zebra,  ii.  52,*  53. 
Hippotragus  leucophasa,  ii.  99. 

—  niger,  ii.  98.* 

Hog  family,  ii.  136,  137. 
Hogs,  African,  ii.  68. 

—  Pigmy,  ii.  72. 
Honey-bear,  i.  201,*  202. 
Hoolock,  i.  41.* 

Horse,  Domesticated,  ii.  55. 

—  family,  general  chars.,  ii.  49. 


Horses,  ii.  38. 

—  African,  general  chars.,  ii.  52. 

—  Asiatic,  gem-Mi  charx ,  ii.  54. 

—  Wild,  general  character*,  ii.  5.,. 
Howlers,  general  characters,  i.  62. 
Howling  Monkey,  Red,  i.  63.* 
Hununian,  i.  45,*  46. 

Huron,  i.  224. 
Hussar  Monkey,  i.  48. 
Hya-moschus,  ii.  62,  136,  139. 

—  aquaticus,  ii.  76. 
II\;i-na,  Brown,  i.  157,  237. 

—  Spotted,  i.  156,*  157,  237. 

—  Striped,  i.  156,*  237. 

—  arvernensis,  i.  237. 

—  brunnea,  i.  157. 

—  crocuta,  i.  156,*  157,  237. 

—  eximia,  i.  237. 

—  Perrieri,  i.  237. 

—  spela,'a,  i.  237. 

—  striata,  i.  156.* 

Hyaanas,  gen.  chars.,  i.  154:234,237. 
Hyaenida,  general  characters,  i.  154. 
Hyasnarctos,  i.  236. 
Hyaenictis,  i.  236. 
Hycenodontida,  i.  235. 
Hydrochceruscapybara, 11.172, 173.* 
Hydromys,  ii.  159. 
Hylobates,  general  characters,  i.  39. 

—  lar,  i.  42,  43.* 

—  leuciscus,  i.  41.* 

—  syndactylus,  i.  40. 
Hylomys,  i.  114. 
Hyomoschus  aquaticus,  ii.  76. 
Hyopotamus,  ii.  138,  139. 
Hyperoodon,  ii.  3. 

—  rostratus,  ii.  12.* 
Hypsiprymnus  penicillatus,  ii.  207, 

208.* 

Hyrachyus,  ii.  58. 
Hyracida,  ii.  38;  general  characters, 

39;  58. 

Hyracodon,  ii.  58. 
Hyracotherium,  ii.  213. 
Hyrare,  i.  220.* 

Hyrares,  general  characters,  i.  219. 
Hyrax,  Abyssinian,  ii.  41.* 

—  Syrian,  ii.  41. 

—  capensis,  ii.  41. 

—  habessinicus,  ii.  41.* 
Hystricida,  general  chars.,  ii.  163. 
Hystrix  cristata,  ii.  163.* 

Ibex,  general  characters,  ii.  108. 

—  Alpine,  ii.  108,*  109. 

—  Grecian,  ii.  106.  * 
Ichneumon,  Egyptian,  i.  193.* 

—  Gray,  i.  194.* 
Ichthyopsida,  i.  2. 
Ichthyosaurus,  ii.  19. 
Icticyon  venaticus,  i.  219.* 
Ictonyx,  i.  235. 

Indris,  general  characters,  i.  77. 

—  family,  i.  84. 

—  or  Babakoto,  i.  84.* 
Indrisida,  general  chars.,  i.  84. 
Inia  amazonica,  ii.  4,  5.* 
Insect-eaters,  gen.  chars.,  i.  112. 

—  Geographical    Distribution   and 
Descent  of  the,  i.  126. 

Insectivora,  general  chars.,  i.  112. 
Inuus,  ecaudatus,  i.  49,  52.* 
Isard,  ii.  89. 
Issyodrimys,  ii.  178. 

Jackal,  i.  141.* 

—  Black-backed,  i.  145.* 

—  Slender,  i.  141.* 
Jackal-gna,  i.  152.* 
Jaculus,  ii.  160. 
Jaguar,  i.  175.* 


Jaguarondi,  i.  180. 
Java  Monkey,  i.  49,*  51. 
Jrmmcl,  ii.  132. 

I  i:\ptian,  ii.  160,*  161. 

—  family,  general  chars.,  ii.  160. 

»•  55- 

jiimping-harv,  Cape,  ii.  161,*  162. 
Jumping-hares,  ii.  160. 
Jumping-rabbit  of  Siberia,  ii.  160,* 

162. 

Jumping-shrew,  Algerian,  i.  116. 
Jumping-shrews,  i.  115.  127. 

Kahau,  i.  46,*  47. 

Kalong,  i.  102.* 

Kanchil,  ii.  75,*  76. 

Kangaroo,  Great,  ii.  208.* 

Kangaroos,  general  chars.,  ii.  206. 

Kashkar,  ii.  in,  112.* 

Kerabau  Buffalo,  ii.  119.* 

Kiang,  ii.  55. 

Kidang,  ii.  78.* 

Killer-whale,  ii.  3,  8.* 

Kinkajou,  i.  201,*  202. 

Kinkajous,  i.  234. 

Klippdass,  ii.  41. 

Koala,  ii.  204,  205,*  215. 

Kobus  ellipsiprymnus,  ii.  97,*  98. 

Komba,  i.  89. 

Koodoo,  ii.  101.* 

Kulan,  ii.  55. 

Lagidium,  Cuvier's,  ii.  167,*  168. 
Lagomys  alpinus,  ii.  173.  174.* 
Lagostomus  trichodactylus,  ii.  168.* 
Lagothrix  Humboldti,  i.  64.* 
Lagotis  Cuvieri,  ii.  167,*  168. 
Lama,  general  characters,  ii.  134. 

—  peruana,  ii.  134.*  135. 
Laopithecus,  i.  76. 
Larynx,  ii.  229. 
lemming,  ii.  158.* 
Lemur,  i.  77. 

—  Cat,  i.  8j,*03. 

—  Dwarf,  i.  81,*  83. 

—  Fox,  i.  8i,*83. 

—  Gray  or  Broad-nosed,  i.  82,"  83. 

—  Mouse,  i.  8 1,  83,*  84. 

—  Ring-tailed,  i.  81,  83,*  84. 

—  Slow-paced,  i.  90.* 

—  varius,  i.  82. 
Lemuravida,  i.  95. 
Lemurida,  i.  80. 
Lemurs,  i.  80. 

— African  Slow,  i.  87. 

—  Flying,  i.  93. 

—  Veiled,  i.  85. 

—  Weasel,  i.  81. 

leopards,  Hunting,  i.  i6r,  162. 
Lepidilemur,  i.  79,  81. 
Leporida,  general  chars.,  ii.  173. 
I^eptonyx  leopardinus,  i.  249.* 

—  monachus,  i.  249. 
Lepus  alpinus,  ii.  174,  176.* 

—  cuniculus,  ii.  175,  177.* 

—  europreus,  ii.  174,  175.* 

—  timidus,  ii.  174,  175-* 

—  variabilis,  ii.  174,  176-* 
Leucoryx,  ii.  99.* 
Lichanotus  Indris,  i.  84.* 
Limbs,  i.  4. 
Limnofelis,  i.  236. 
Limnotherida,  i.  95. 
Linsang,  i.  190.* 

Lion,  i.  163.* 

Llama,  ii.  134,*  135. 

Llamas,  general  chars.,  ii.  134;  137. 

Loir,  ii.  149.* 

Lophiodon,  ii.  58. 

Lophiotherium,  ii.  58. 

Loris,  i.  77,  89. 


INDEX. 


Loris,  Plump,  i.  89,  90. 

—  Slender,  i.  90.* 
Lorisida,  i.  89. 

Lutra  vulgaris,  i.  229,  231.* 

Lutreola,  i.  227. 

Lutrictis,  i.  236. 

Lutrida,  general  characters,  i.  229. 

Lycaon,  i.  136,  235. 

—  pictus,  i.  152,  153.* 
Lyncodon  patagonicus,  i.  229.* 
Lynx,  Booted,  i.  181. 

—  Polar,  i.  182,  183.* 

—  Spanish,  i.  183,  184.* 

—  caligatus,  i.  181. 

—  Caracal,  i.  182.* 

—  pardinus,  i.  183,  184.* 

—  vulgaris,  i.  182,  183.* 
Lynx-tooth,  i.  229.* 

Lynxes,  general  chars.,  i.  161,  180. 

Macacus,  general  characters,  i.  49. 

—  cynomolgus,  i.  49,  51.* 

—  ecaudatus,  i.  49,  52.* 

—  erythroeus,  i.  51. 

—  Inuus,  i.  49,  52.* 

—  nemestrinus,  i.  74. 

—  rhesus,  i.  49,  50,*  51. 

—  silenus,  i.  49,  51.* 
Macaques,  gen.  chars. ,  i.  49 ;  74. 
Machairodi,  i.  236. 
Macropus  giganteus,  ii.  208.* 

—  major,  ii.  208. 
Macroscelida,    general   characters, 

i.  115;  127. 
Macroscelides  Rozeti,  i.  116. 

—  typicus,  i.  115,*  116. 
Macrotherium,  ii.  190. 
Madocqua,  ii.  92,*  94. 
Magot,  i.  49,  52.* 
Maiba,  ii.  44.* 
Malbruk,  i.  49. 
Mammalia,  general  chars.,  i.  2. 

—  orders,  families,  and   tribes  of, 
i.  18-22. 

Mammals,  i.  2. 

—  Xon-placental,  ii.  192. 

—  Pouch-bearing,  ii.  192. 
Mammoth,  ii.  31. 
Mampalon,  i.  191,  192.* 
Manatees,  general  chars.,  ii.  22. 
Manatus  australis,  ii.  22,  23.* 

—  senegalensis,  ii.  22. 
Mandrill,  i.  53,  59.* 
Mangabey,  i.  48. 
Mangoustis,  gen.  chars.,  i.  192. 

—  True,  i.  192. 

Manis  longicaudata,  ii.  189.* 

—  pentadactyla,  ii.  189.* 
Mara,  ii.  171.* 
Marbled  Cat,  i.  170,  171.* 
Markhor,  ii.  105,*  106. 
Marmoset,  Silky,  i.  71,*  72. 
Marmosets,  Common,  i.  72,*  73. 
Marmot,  Alpine,  ii.  147.* 

—  Quebec,  ii.  147. 
Marmots,  True,  ii.  147. 
Marsupial,  Skeleton  of  a,  ii.  229.* 
Marsupials,  general  chars. ,  ii.  192. 

—  Fruit-eating,  gen.  chars.,  ii.  203. 

—  Herbivorous,  gen.  chars. ,  ii.  206. 

—  Predaceous,  gen.  chars.,  ii.  197. 
--Root-eating,  gen.  chars.,  ii.  210. 

—  Geographical    Distribution   and 
Descent  of  the,  ii.  211. 

Marten,  i.  221. 

—  American,  i.  224. 

—  Canadian,  i.  224. 

Martens,  general  chars.,  i.  218,  220. 

—  True,  general  characters,  i.  221. 
Martida,  general  characters,  i.  218. 
Mastodon,  ii.  35,  36. 


Mastodon,  giganteum,  ii.  36. 
Megalonyx,  ii.  190. 
Megalotis,  i.  235. 
Megamys,  ii.  178. 
Megatheriums,  ii.  190. 
Mehari,  ii.  132. 
Meles,  i.  235. 
---taxus,  i.  213,  214.* 
Mellivora,  i.  217. 

—  capensis,  i.  216,*  217. 
Mephitis,  i.  217,  235. 

—  suffocans,  i.  217,*  218. 
Meriones,  ii.  160. 
Merycopotamus,  ii.  137. 
Mesohippus,  ii.  60. 
Metaxytherium,  ii.  24. 
Mias,  i.  36.* 
Microcebus,  i.  77,  82. 

—  myoxinus,  i.  81,*  83. 
Microlestes,  i.  127;  ii.  213,  221. 
Micromys  minutus,  ii.  156. 
Midas  leoninus,  i.  72. 

—  ursulus,  i.  72. 
Milk-glands,  i.  3. 
Miniopterus  Schreiberi,  i.  97. 
Mink,  i.  228. 

Miohippus,  ii.  60. 
Miriki,  i.  64,  65.* 
Mirikina,  i.  70.* 
Mole,  Star-nosed,  i.  125.* 
Moles,  i.  123,  124. 

—  Golden,  i.  125,  126.* 
Mole-rat,    Common   European,   ii. 

'S3-* 

Mona,  i.  48. 

Monachus  albiventer,  i.  249. 
Mongoose,  i.  194.* 
Monk-seal,  i.  249. 
Monkeys,     Bushy-eared,     general 

characters,  i.  73. 

—  Naked-tailed,  gen.  chars.,  i.  62. 

—  Short-tailed,  gen.  chars.,  i.  67. 

—  of  New  World,  i.  60. 

—  of  Old  World,  i.  32. 
Monodelphia,  i.  236. 
Monodon  monoceros,  ii.  10,  ii.* 
Monophyodonts,  i.  8. 
Monotremes,  gen.  chars.,  ii.  216. 

—  Geographical    Distribution   and 
Origin  of  the,  ii.  220. 

Moorish  Monkey,  i.  48. 
Moose-deer,  ii.  86. 
Mormon  leucophceus,  i.  59. 

—  Maimon,  i.  59.* 
Morotherium,  ii.  190. 
Morse,  i.  250. 
Mosasaurs,  ii.  19. 
Moschus  moschiferus,  ii.  76.* 
Mouflon,  ii.  in. 

—  European,  ii.  112,  113.* 
Mouse,  Common  Domestic,  ii.  156.* 

—  Opossum  or  Flying,  ii.  204. 

—  Striped  or  Barbary,  ii.  156,  157.* 
Mouse  family,  gen.  chars.,  ii.  153. 
Muntjac,  ii.  78.* 

Murida,  general  characters,  ii.  153. 
Mus  agrarius,  ii.  156. 

—  barbarus,  ii.  156,  157.* 

—  decumanus,  ii.  155,*  156. 

—  leucogaster,  ii.  155. 

—  minutus,  ii.  156. 

--  musculus,  ii.  156.* 

—  rattus,  ii.  155.* 

—  striatus,  ii.  156,  157.* 

—  sylvaticus,  ii.  156. 

—  tectorum,  ii.  155. 
Musangs,  i.  190. 
Muscardinus  avellanarius,  ii.   149, 

150.* 

Musimon,  ii.  112,  113.* 
Musk-deer,  ii.  76,*  136. 


Musk-ox,  ii.  115,*  116,  139. 
Musk-rat,  ii.  159.* 
Musk-shrews,  i.  116. 
Musquash,  ii.  159.* 
Mustela,  gen.  chars.,  i.  220,  221. 

—  americana,  i.  224. 

—  erminea,  i.  226.* 

—  foina,  i.  222.* 

—  furo,  i.  225.* 

—  martes,  i.  221.* 

—  putorius,  i.  224,*  225. 

—  vulgaris,  i.  227.  * 

—  zobellina,  i.  223.* 
Mustelida,  gen.  chars.,  i.  211;  234. 
Mycetes,  general  characters,  i.  62. 

—  seniculus,  i.  63.* 
Mydaus,  i.  235. 

—  Telagon,  i.  215,*  216. 
Myiopithecus,  i.  48. 
Myodes  lemmus,  ii.  158.* 
Myogale,  i.  116. 

—  moschata,  i.  116.* 

—  pyrenaica,  i.  116. 
Myogalida,  i.  116. 
Myopotamus  coypu,  ii.  165.* 
Myops,  ii.  178. 

Myoxida,  general  chars.,  ii.  148. 
Myoxus,  ii.  178. 

—  avellanarius,  ii.  149,  150.* 

—  glis,  ii.  149.* 
Myrmecobius,  ii.  213. 

—  fasciatus,  ii.  199.* 
Myrmecophaga  jubata,  ii.  187.* 
Myrmidon  didactylus,  ii.  188.* 
Mysticete,  general  chars.,  ii.  14. 

Nails,  i.  3. 
Narwhal,  ii.  10,  ii.* 
Nasicornia,  general  chars.,  ii.  44. 
Nasua  socialis,  i.  200,*  201. 
Necrolemur,  i.  94 ;  ii.  139. 
Nisnas  Monkey,  i.  48. 
Noctule,  i.  106.* 
Nototherium,  ii.  212. 
Nyctereutes,  i.  235. 

—  viverrinus,  i.  151.* 
Nycticebus  tardigradus,  i.  89. 
Nyctipithecus,  i.  69. 

—  trivirgatus,  i.  70.* 
Nylgau,  ii.  96,*  97. 

Obesa,  general  characters,  ii.  64. 

Ocelot,  i.  178,*  179. 

Octodon  Cummingii,  ii.  166.* 

Octodontida,  gen.  chars.,  ii.  166. 

Onager,  ii.  54.* 

Ondatra,  ii.  159.* 

Opomeryx,  ii.  139. 

Opossum,  Common,  ii.  196,  197.* 

Opossums,  gen.  chars.,  ii.  195;  215. 

Oral,  ii.  144,*  145. 

Orang-utang,  i.  36.* 

Orca  gladiator,  ii.  3,  8.* 

Oreodon,  ii.  139. 

Oreotragus  saltator,  ii.  91,*  93. 

Orignal,  ii.  86. 

Ornithorhynchus     paradoxus,     ii. 

217.* 

Orohippus,  ii.  60. 
Orycteropus,  ii.  180. 

—  capensis,  ii.  186,  187.* 
Oryx,  ii.  99. 

—  leucoryx,  ii.  99.* 
Otaria  jubata,  i.  243. 

—  Stelleri,  i.  243.* 

—  ursina,  i.  244,  245.* 
Otarida,  general  chars. ,  i.  241. 
Otocyon,  i.  136. 

—  caffer,  i.  152.* 

—  megalotis,  i.  152.* 
Otolicnus  agisymbanus,  i.  89. 


Otolicnus  crassicaudatus,  i.  88. 

—  galago,  i.  89.* 

Otter,  European,  i.  229,  231.* 

SIM-,  i.  231,  232.* 
Otters,  general  characters,  i.  229. 
Ouakari,  i.  67.* 
Ouistiti,  i.  72,*  73. 
Ovibos  moschatus,  ii.  115,*  116. 
Ovis  Argali,  ii.  112. 

—  aries,  ii.  114. 

—  montana,  ii.  in.* 

—  musimon,  ii.  112,  113.* 

—  nivalis,  ii.  in. 

—  Polii,  ii.  in,  112.* 

—  tragelaphus,  ii.  no.* 

Ox,  Burmese  Wild,  ii.  125,  126.* 

—  Humped,  ii.  126,  127.* 

—  group,  general  chars.,  ii.  115. 
Oxen,  ii.  137,  139. 

—  True,  general  chars.,  ii.  123. 

Paca,  ii.  170.* 
Pachyderms,  ii.  38. 
Pad-footed  family,  ii.  129. 
Pajou,  ii.  185.* 
Pal;rocastor,  ii.  178. 
Palosotherida,  ii.  213. 
Pala-'otherium,  ii.  60. 
Pale-buck,  ii.  91,*  93. 
Panda,  i.  203,*  234. 
Pangolin,  Long-tailed,  ii.  189.* 

—  Short-tailed,  ii.  189.* 
Pangolins,  general  chars.,  ii,  188. 
Panther,  African,  i.  168. 

—  Asiatic,  i.  168. 
Paradoxure,  Common,  i.  191.* 
Paradoxures,  i.  190. 
Paradoxurus  typus,  i.  191.* 
Paramys,  ii.  178. 

Paseng,  ii.  106.* 
Peccaries,  ii.  136. 

—  American,  general  chars.,  ii.  72. 
Peccary,  Collared,  ii.  72.* 

—  White-lipped,  ii.  72. 
Pedetes  caffer,  ii.  161,*  162. 
Pedimana,  ii.  195. 

Pekan,  i.  224. 
Pelvic  Bones,  ii.  230.* 
Peralestes,  ii.  214. 
Perameles  nasuta,  ii.  198.* 

—  Pig-footed,  ii.  198,*  199. 
Peramelida,  general  chars.,  ii.  197. 
Peratherium,  ii.  212,  214,  215. 
Perchoerus,  ii.  138. 
Perissodactyla,  ii.  58. 

—  general  characters,  ii.  38. 
Petaurus  sciureus,  ii.  203,  204.* 
Petrodromus,  i.  116,  127. 
Petrogale  xanthopus,  ii.  208,  209.* 
Phacochcerus,  ii.  138. 

—  aethiopicus,  ii.  69.* 

—  africanus,  ii.  69. 
Phalanger,  Vulpine,  ii.  204,  205.* 

—  family,  general  chars.,  ii.  203. 
Phalangista  vulpina,  ii.  204,  205.* 
Phalangistida,  gen.  chars.,  ii.  203. 
Pharaoh's  Rat,  i.  193.* 
Phascogale,  Brush-tailed,  ii.  200.* 

—  penicillata,  ii.  200.* 
Phascolarctoscinereus,  ii.  204, 205.* 
Phascolomys  latifrons,  ii.  210.* 
Phascolotherium,  ii.  213. 
Phillips's  Pocket-mouse,  ii.  162.* 
Phoca  grcenlandica,  i.  249,  250.* 

—  vitulina,  i.  249. 
Phocasna  communis,  ii.  7.* 
Phocida,  general  chars.,  i.  246. 
Phyllostoma  spectrum,  i.  108,  109.* 
Phyllostomata,  i.  107. 

Physalus  antiquorum,  ii.  15,*  16. 
Physeter  macrocephalus,  ii.  13.* 


INDKX. 


239 


Physeterida,  general  chars.,  ii.  12. 
Pichiciago,  ii.  185,  186.* 
I'ig  family,  general  chars.,  ii.  66. 
Pigs,  Ruminant,  ii.  138. 
•  True,  ii.  67,  136,  137. 
Pika,  Alpine,  ii.  173,  174.* 
Pine-marten,  i.  221.* 
Pinnipc-dia,  general  chars. ,  i.  239. 
1'ipistrelle,  i.  106,  107.* 
Pithecia  Satanas,  i.  67.* 
Pithesciurtis  sciureus,  i.  69.* 
I'lagiaulax,  ii.  179,  213. 
Plantigrade  Hind-limb,  ii.  231.* 
Platanista  gangctica,  ii.  4,  5.* 
Plate  Heaver,  ii.  165. 
Platygonus,  ii.  138. 
Platypus,  Duck-billed,  ii.  217.* 
Platyrrhina1,  i.  60. 
Platyrrhines,  American,  i.  73. 
Plecotus  auritus,  i.  97,  104.* 
Pleistocene,  ii.  35. 
PK'siarctiimys,  ii.  178. 
Plrsiosaurus,  ii.  19. 
Pliocene,  i.  135;  ii.  137. 
Pliohippus,  ii.  60. 
Pliolophus  vulpiceps,  ii.  213. 
Pocket-mice,  ii.  162. 
Poephaga,  general  chars. ,  ii.  206. 
I'oeptmgus  grunniens,  ii.  123.* 
Polar  Bear,  i.  205.* 
Polecat,  i.  224,*  225. 

—  Tiger,  i.  226. 
Polecats,  i.  220,  224. 
Polydactyla,  ii.  61,  64. 
Porcula,  ii.  72. 

Porcupine,  African  Hrush-tailed,  ii. 
163,*  164. 
•Common  European,  ii.  163.* 

—  family,  general  chars.,  ii.  163. 
Porcus,  ii.  138. 

—  babirussa,  ii.  71.* 
Porpoise,  ii.  7.* 
Portax  pictus,  ii.  96,*  97. 
Potamochcems  penicillatus,  ii.  69.* 

—  porcus,  ii.  69.* 
Potamogale,  i.  126. 
Potoroos,  ii.  207. 
Potto,  i.  87.* 

—  family,  i.  87. 
Poyou,  ii.  185.* 
Prairie-dog,  ii.  148.* 
Priodonta  gigas,  ii.  184,  185.* 
Prionodon  gigas,  ii.  184,*  185. 

—  gracilis,  i.  190.* 
Proboscidea,  gen.  chars.,  ii.  26. 
Proboscideans,    Geographical  Dis- 
tribution and  Descent  of,  ii.  35. 

Proboscis-bears,  general  chars.,  i. 

199. 

Proboscis  Monkey,  i.  46,"  47. 
Probubalus  depressicornis,  ii.  114,* 

"5- 

Procyon  cancrivorus,  i.  198. 

—  Hernandez!,  i.  198. 

—  lotor,  i.  198,  199.* 
Propithccus,  i.  79,  85. 
Prorastomus,  ii.  24. 
Prosimians,  general  chars.,  i.  77. 

—  African,  i.  87. 

—  East  Indian,  i.  89. 

—  of  Madagascar,  i.  80. 

—  Geographical    Distribution   and 
Descent  of  the,  i.  94. 

Prosimii,  general  chars.,  i.  77. 
Proteles,  i.  234. 

—  Lalandii,  i.  157.* 
Protemnodon,  ii.  212. 
Protohippus,  ii.  60. 
Pseudcelurus,  i.  236. 
Pterodicticus  Potto,  i.  87.* 
Pterodictida,  i.  87. 


Pterodon,  i.  237. 

Pteromys  petaurista,  ii.  144.*  145. 

—  volucella,  ii.  145. 

Pteropida,  i.  101. 

Pteropus  edulis,  i.  102.* 

Ptilocercus,  i.  1 14. 

Puma,  i.  176,  177.* 

Putorius,  i.  220.  224. 

—  crminea,  i.  226.* 

—  feetidus,  i.  224,*  225. 

—  furo,  i.  225.* 

—  lutreola,  i.  228.* 

—  sarmaticus,  i.  226. 
sihiricus,  i.  228. 

—  vulgaris,  i.  227. 

—  vison,  i.  228. 
Pygarg,  ii.  100. 

Quagga,  ii.  53. 
Quaternary  Period,  ii.  137. 

Rabbit,  ii.  175,  177.* 

family,  general  chars.,  ii.  173. 
Raccoon,  Common,  i.  198,  199.* 

—  Crab-eating,  i.  198. 

-  Mexican  or  Black-footed,  i.  198. 
Raccoons,    general    characters,    i. 

198;  234. 

Rangifer  tarandus,  ii.  84,  85.* 
Rapaces,  ii.  197. 
Rat,  Black,  ii.  155.* 

—  Brown,  ii.  155,*  156. 
Rats  and  Mice,  ii.  153. 
Rat-kangaroo,    Tufted- tailed,    ii. 

207,  208.* 
Ratelus,  i.  217. 

—  capensis,  i.  216,*  217. 
Reduncus  eleotragus,  ii.  94.* 
Reed-buck,  ii.  94.* 
Reindeer,  ii.  84,  85.* 
Reproduction,  i.  it. 

Retia  mirabilia,  ii.  181. 
Rhesus  Monkeys,  i.  50.* 
Rhinoceros,  ii.  38. 

—  family,  general  chars.,  ii.  44. 

—  African,  ii.  47. 

—  Two-horned,  ii.  47.* 

—  bicornis,  ii.  47.* 

—  indicus,  ii.  47.* 

—  javanicus,  ii.  47. 

—  simus,  ii.  46,  47. 

—  sumatrensis,  ii.  47. 

—  tichorhinus,  ii.  45,  59. 
Rhinoceroses,  ii.  59. 
Rhinolophus,  i.  98,  109. 

—  ferrum-equinum,  i.  no.* 

—  hipposideros,  i.  no. 
Rhinopoma  microphyllum,   i.    107, 

108.* 

Rhizophaga,  general  chars.,  ii.  210. 

Rhytina,  ii.  21,  24. 

Rhyzaena  tetradactyla,  i.  195.* 

Rietbok,  ii.  94.* 

River-hog,  Red,  ii.  69.* 

River-hogs,  ii.  68,  136. 

River-horses,  general  chars.,  ii.  64. 

Rock-badger  family,  general  char- 
acters, ii.  39;  58. 

Rock-kangaroo,  Yellow-footed,    ii. 

208,  209.* 

Rock-systems  of  the  earth,  i.  23. 
Rodents,  general  characters,  ii.  141. 

—  Geographical    Distribution   and 
Descent  of  the,  ii.  175. 

Roe,  Common,  ii.  79.* 
Rorqual,  ii.  15,*  16. 
Ruminants,  Hollow-horned,  general 
characters,  ii.  87;  137. 

—  Stomach  of,  ii.  232.* 
Runners  (Insectivora),  i.  117. 
Rupicapra  tragus,  ii.  89.* 


Sable,  i.  233.* 
S:ii.  i.  66.* 

Saiga,  ii.  95,*  96. 

irica,  ii.  95,*  96. 
Saimiri,  i.  69.* 

Sajous,  i.  61;  general  chars.,  i.  65. 
Saki,  Black,  i.  67.* 
Sakis,  general  characters,  i.  66. 

—  proper,  i.  67. 
Saphan,  ii.  41. 
Sasnassu,  i.  68.* 
Sassa,  ii.  91,*  93. 
Sassi,  ii.  102.* 
Sauropsida,  i.  2. 
Scalops,  i.  127. 

—  canadensis,  i.  125. 
Scelidotherium,  ii.  191. 
Scherrmaus,  ii.  158. 
Scirtetes,  ii.  162. 
Sciuravus,  ii.  178. 

Sciurida,  general  characters,  ii.  144. 
Sciurus,  ii.  178. 

—  vulgaris,  ii.  145,  146. 
Sea-l«ar,  i.  244,  245.* 
Sea-calf,  i.  249. 

Sea-cows,  general  characters,  ii.  20. 

—  Geographical    Distribution    and 
Descent  of  the,  ii.  24. 

Sea-elephant,  i.  246,  247.* 
Sea-leopard,  i.  249.* 
Sea-lion,  Steller's,  i.  243.* 
Sea-reptiles,  ii.  18. 
Seal,  Bladder-nosed,  i.  248.* 

—  Common,  i.  249. 

—  Greenland,  i.  249,  250.* 
Seals,  general  characters,  i.  239. 

—  Eared,  i,  241. 

— True,  general  characters,  i.  246. 

—  Geographical    Distribution    and 
Descent  of  the,  i.  253. 

Selenodontia,  ii.  62. 
Semnopitheci,  gen.  chars.,  i.  46;  73. 
Semnopithecus  entellus,  i.  45,*  46. 

—  nasica,  i.  46,*  47. 
Serval,  i.  174,  175.* 

Sheep,  general  chars.,  ii.  109;  137. 

—  Barbary  Wild,  ii.  no.* 

—  Domesticated,  ii.  114. 

—  Rocky  Mountain,  ii.  in.* 
Shoulder-girdle,  i.  5. 
Shrew  of  Tuscany,  i.  118. 
Shrews  (Insectivora),  i.  117. 
Siamang,  i.  40. 

Simia,  general  characters,  i.  36. 

—  satyrus,  i.  36.* 

Simiae,  general  characters,  i.  25. 

—  American,  i.  74. 
Sing-Sing,  ii.  97,*  98. 

Sirenia,  general  characters,  ii.  20. 

Sivatherium,  ii.  140. 
I  Skeleton,  i.  4. 
j  Skin,  i.  3. 

Skull,  i.  4,  and  Glossary. 

Skunk,  Brazilian,  i.  217,*  218. 

Skunks,  i.  217. 

Sloth,  Three-toed,  ii.  182.* 

— Two-toed,  ii.  183.* 

Sloths,  general  characters,  ii.  181. 

Solenodon  paradoxum,  i.  120.* 

Sorex  etruscus,  i.  118. 

Soricida,  i.  117. 

Souslik,  ii.  147.* 

Spalacotherium,  i.  127;  ii.  213,  214. 

Spalax  typhlus,  ii.  153-* 

Spectre-tarsier,  i.  91,*  92. 

Spermophiles,  gen.  chars.,  ii.  146. 

—  citillus,  ii.  147.* 
Sperm-whale,  ii.  13.* 

—  family,  general  characters,  ii.  12. 
Spider-monkeys,  i.  30,  61,  64. 
Spietboks,  ii.  99. 


Spiny    Rat    family,    general    char- 
acters, ii.  165. 
Squirrel.  Knmii  M\inj^,  n.  144, "145. 

uion,  ii.  145.*  146. 
-('hipping,  ii.  146.* 

family,  general  chars.,  ii.  144. 
Squirrels,  True,  ii.  145. 
Squirrel-monkey,  i.  69.* 
Slag,  Canadian,  ii.  82. 

—  Common,  ii.  82.* 
Steinbocks,  general  chars.,  ii.  108. 
Steneofiber,  ii.  178. 

Stenodon,  ii.  35. 
Stenops  gracilis,  i.  90.  * 

—  tardigradus,  i.  89. 
Stereognathus,  ii.  213,  214. 
Sthenurus,  ii.  212. 

Stoat.  Common,  i.  226.* 
Stomach  of  Ruminant,  ii.  232.* 
Stone-marten,  i.  222.* 
StrcpMceros  kudu,  ii.  101.* 
Stylodon,  ii.  214. 

Subdivision  of  Mammals  based  on 
presumed  orderof  Evolution,  i.  14. 
Subulo  rufus,  ii.  79.* 
Subungulata,  general  chars. ,  ii.  169. 
Subursida,  general  chars.,  i.  198. 
Suida,  general  characters,  ii.  66. 
Superficial  Glands,  i.  3. 
Suricata  tetradactyla,  i.  195.* 
Sus,  ii.  138. 

—  palustris,  ii.  68. 

—  scrofa,  ii.  67.* 
Swarte-bok,  ii.  98.* 

Synotus  barbastellus,  i.  104,*  105. 

Tafa,  ii.  200.* 

Taguan,  ii.  144,*  145. 

Tailed  Monkeys,  gen.  chars.,  i.  42. 

Talapoin,  i.  48. 

Talpa  europasa,  i.  123,  124.* 

Talpida,  i.  123. 

Tamandua  tetradactyla,  ii.  188. 

Tamias  striatus,  ii.  146.* 

Tana,  i.  114,  115.* 

Tanrecs,  i.  120,  121.* 

Tapir,  Andes  or  Hairy,  ii.  44. 

—  Baird's,  ii.  44. 

—  Brazilian,  ii.  42,*  43. 

—  Malayan,  ii.  44.* 

—  Shabrack,  ii.  44.* 

—  family,  general  chars.,  ii.  41. 
Tapirs,  ii.  38,  58. 
Tapirulus,  ii.  58. 

Tapirus  americanus,  ii.  42,*  43. 

—  Bairdii,  ii.  44. 

—  indicus,  ii.  44.* 

—  malayanus,  ii.  44.* 

—  Roulinii,  ii.  44. 

—  villosus,  ii.  44. 
Tarandus  rangifer,  ii.  84,  85." 
Tarpan,  ii.  56,*  57. 
Tarsius,  i.  77. 

—  spectrum,  i.  91,*  92. 
Tasmanian  Devil,  i.  237;  ii.  201.* 

—  Wolf,  ii.  202,*  214. 
Taxidea,  i.  235. 
Tayra,  i.  220.* 
Tee-tees,  i.  68. 

Teeth,  i.  6,  and  Glossary. 
Milk  and  Permanent,  i.  8. 

—  Structure  of  the,  i.  7. 
Telagon,  i.  215.*  216. 
Tendracs,  i.  120. 

Tetraceros  quadricornis,  ii.  93,*  94. 
Theridomys,  ii.  178. 
\  Theropithecus,  i.  53. 
Thinohyus,  ii.  138. 
Thylacinus  cynocephalus,  ii.  202.* 
Thylacoleo,  ii.  211.  214. 
Thylacotherium,  ii.  213. 


240 


INDEX. 


Tiger,  i.  165.* 

—  Clouded,  i.  169,*  170. 
Tiger-horses,  ii.  52,  59. 
Tinodon,  ii.  214. 
Titanomys,  ii.  179. 
Tragelaphus  scriptus,  ii.  95.* 
Tragulida,    general   characters,    ii. 

76;  136,  139. 

Tragulus  pygmseus,  ii.  75,*  76. 
Tree-kangaroo,  Ursine,  ii.  207.* 
Tree-porcupine,    Tri-coloured,     ii. 

164.* 

Triacanthodon,  ii.  214. 
Trichecus  rosmarus,  i.  250.* 
Triconodon,  i.  127;  ii.  214. 
Troglodytes,  i.  31,  32,  74. 

—  gorilla,  i.  35.* 

—  niger,  i.  33. 

—  Tchego,  i.  35. 
Tupaiae,  i.  114. 
Tupaias,  Climbing,  i.  126. 
Tur,  ii.  127. 
Tylopoda,  ii.  129. 

Umseke,  ii.  94.* 
Unau,  ii.  180,  183.* 
Ungulates,  Even-toed,  ii.  36. 
—  general  characters,  ii.  61. 

Geographical  Distribution  and 

Descent  of  the,  ii.  136. 

—  Odd-toed,  gen.  chars.,  ii.  38. 


Ungulates,  Odd-toed,  Geographical 
Distribution  and  Descent  of  the, 
ii.  58. 

Ur,  Urus,  ii.  120,  126. 

Urebi,  ii.  91,*  93. 

Ursida,  general  chars. ,  i.  196,  204. 

Ursons,  ii.  165. 

Ursus  americanus,  i.  208,*  209. 

—  arctos,  i.  207.* 

—  ferox,  i.  206. 

—  horribilis,  i.  206. 

—  labiatus,  i.  210.* 

—  malayanus,  i.  209,*  210. 

—  maritimus,  i.  205.* 


Vampire,  True,  i.  108,  109.* 
Vermilinguia,  gen.  chars. ,  ii.  186. 
Vertebra,  ii.  233.* 
Vertebrata,  general  characters  and 

different  types  of,  i.  i. 
Vespertilio  Daubentoni,  i.  105.* 

—  murinus,  i.  105. 
Vespertilionidae,  i.  103. 
Vesperugo  Nilsoni,  i.  107. 

—  noctula,  i.  97,  106. 

—  pipistrellus,  i.  106,  107.* 
Vicufla,  ii.  134,  136. 
Vison,  American,  i.  228. 

—  European,  i.  228.* 

—  Siberian,  i.  228. 

Visons,  general  chars. ,  i.  225,  227. 


Viverra  Civetta,  i.  189. 

—  Dog,  i.  151.* 

—  Zibetha,  i.  189.* 

Viverrida,  gen.  chars.,  i.  186;  234. 
Viverrine  Cat,  i.  174.* 

—  Dasyure,  ii.  201.* 
Vivcrrines,  general  chars. ,  i.  186. 
Vizcacha,  ii.  168.* 

Voles,  general  characters,  ii.  157. 
Vulpes,  i.  144. 

Wallaby,  ii.  206. 
Walrus,  i.  250. 
Waluvi,  i.  83,*  84. 
Wanderoo,  i.  49,  51.* 
Wapiti,  ii.  82. 

Wart-hogs,  general  chars.,  ii.  69. 
Waterbok,  ii.  97,*  98. 
Water-hogs,  ii.  136. 
Water-mole,  ii.  217.* 
Water-rat,  ii.  158.* 
Water-shrew,  i.  118,  119.* 
Water-vole,  ii.  158.* 
Weasel,  Proper,  i.  227.* 
Weasels,  general  chars.,  i.  225. 
Weeper  Capuchin,  i.  66.* 
Whale,     Bottlehead    or    Common 
Beaked,  ii.  12.* 

—  Caaing,  ii.  8.* 

—  Cape,  ii.  16. 

—  Greenland,  ii.  16.* 


Whale,  Pilot,  ii:  8.* 

—  Right,  4i.  16. 

—  White,  ii.  10.  * 
Whales,  Bottle-nosed,  ii.  3. 

—  Fin-backed,  ii.  16. 

—  Toothed,  general  chars. ,  ii.  4. 
Whales     and     Dolphins,     general 

characters,  ii.  i. 

—  Geographical  Distribution  and 
Descent  of  the,  ii.  17. 
Whalebone  Whales,  general  char- 
acters, ii.  14. 
Wildebeest,  ii.  103.* 
Wolf,  African,  i.  138,*  139. 

—  Common,  i.  137.* 

—  Maned,  i.  139.* 

—  Prairie,  i.  140.* 

Wolves,  general  characters,  i.  137. 
Wombat,  Broad-fronted,  ii.  210.* 
Woolly  Monkeys,  i.  64. 
Wuychuchol,  i.  116.* 

Xiphodon,  ii.  139. 

Yak,  ii.  123.* 
Yapock,  ii.  194,  196.* 
Yurumi,  ii.  187. 

Zebra,  ii.  52,*  53. 
Zebu,  ii.  126,  127.* 
Zeuglodonts,  ii.  19. 


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