vm^miwm
THE
NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW :
^uartfi'Ig Jffttnml of ilulffgiml ^tmm,
EDITED BY
G. BUSK, F.R.S., Sec. L.S. W. B. CARPENTER, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
F. CURREY, F.R.S., F.L.S. J. REAY GREENE, A.B.
T. H. HUXLEY, F.R.S., F.L.S. SIR J. LUBBOCK, BART., F.R.S., F.L.S.
R. M'DONNELL, M.D., M.R.LA. D. OLIVER, F.R.S., F.L.S.
P. L. SCLATER, M.A., Ph. D., F.R.S. WYVILLE THOMSON, LL.D., F.R.S.E.
E. P. WRIGHT, A.M., M.D., F.L.S.
1865.
WILLIAMS AND NOEGATE,
[4, HENRIETTA STREET, CO VENT GARDEN, LONDON ; AND
20, SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, EDINBURGH.
1865.
CONTENTS OF VOL. V.
No. XVII.-JANUAEY, 1865.
REVIEWS.
1. The Zoology of British India
2. Nordmann on Steller's Manatee
3. Giinther's Catalogue of Fishes
4.. Siebold's European Freshwater-Fishes
5. Huxley and Hawkins' Osteological Atlas
6. Peters, Cants and Gerstaecker's Handbook of Zoology
7. Phipson's Phosphorescence
8. New Colonial Floras ....
9. Report on Sexuality in the Lower Cryptogams
PAGE
1
15
18
24
28
29
42
46
64
ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
10. On the Dentition of Hyena Spelsea and its varieties, with Notes on the
recent Species. By W. Boyd Dawkins, B.A. Oxon. F.G.S.
11. Sketch of the primary Groups of Batrachia salientia. By Edward D.
Cope, of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, U S. A.
12. On Cranial Deformities. — Trigonocephalus. By Dr. W. Turner
1 3. Proceedings of the Scientific Societies of London : — 1 . Ethnological Society.
2. Geological Society. 3. Linnean Society. 4. Zoological Society
Miscellanea:— 1. Dimorphism in the Genus Cynips. 2. Return of
Dr. R. Spruce, the Botanical Traveller. 3. Natural History in Natal.
4. Progressive Extinction of the Native Fauna in New Zealand. 5. Notice
of a Mule Breeding. 6, The Dentition of the Aye-Aye. 7. Calluna
vulgaris in Cape Breton, N. America. 8. Discovery of Asplenimn viride,
in New Brunswick. 9. The Tartaiian Antelope alive in England. 10.
List of Publications received ......
14.
80
97
121
125
138
No. XVIII.— APEIL, 1865.
REVIEWS.
15. The Zoology of British India ...... 153
16. The Bats of North America . . . . , .170
17. The Fauna of Spitsbergen . . . . . .172
18. Hall's Esquimaux . . . . . . .176
19. The Linnean Society's Transactions . . . . .189
20. The Ancient and Modern Floras of Montpellier .... 202
21. Species and Subspecies , . . . . . . 226
ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
22. On Synostosis of the Cranial Bones, especially the Parietals, regarded as
a Race-character in one class of ancient British and in African Skulls.
By John Thurnam, M.D. •....] 242
23. Description of an Ovo- viviparous Moth, belonging to the Genus Tinea'
By A. W. Scott, Esq., M.A, . . . . . .268
24. Proceedings of the Scientific Societies of London: — 1. Ethnological Society.
2. Geological Society. 3. Linnean Society. 4. Zoological Society . 272
25. Miscellanea: — 1. Eozoon canadense in this country. 2. New Species
of Fclis. 3. The White Whale. 4. Dr. W. Peters on Cholcepus HofF-
manni. 5. Macrauchenia Patachonica. 6. Proceedings of Collectors in
Foreign Countries. 7. List of Publications received . . . 297
A A i\
12
CONTENTS.
No. XIX.— JULY, 1865.
REVIEWS.
26. The Zoology of British India
27. The Structure of Macrauchenia
28. Recent Works on the Entozoa
29. Bronn's Animal Kingdom
30. Lucaze-Duthiers on Coral
3 1 . The Reproduction of AnneUds
32. Herbert Spencer's Biology
33. The Natural History of Cyprus
PAQK
305
319
323
351
359
367
373
385
ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
34. On the dentition of Rhinoceros megarhinus. By W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.
Oxon. F.G.S. . ... . . . . .399
35. On portions of a Cranium and a Jaw, in the slab containing the fossil
remains of the Archseopteryx. By John Evans, F.R.S., F.G.S. . 415
36. Proceedings of the Scientific Societies of London: — 1. Ethnological Society.
2. Geological Society. 3. Linnean Society. 4, Zoological Society . 422
37. Miscellanea: — 1. Dr. W. Peters on Choloepus HoJfmannL 2. Death of
Dr. Thomas B. Wilson. 3. Lions in India. 4. Reproduction of the
Axolotl {Sired on Mexicanus). 5. Proposed new expedition in search
of Dr. Leichardt's party. 6. List of Publications received . . 452
No. XX.— OCTOBEE, 1865.
REVIEWS.
38. The Zoology of Siberia
39. The Gare-fowl and its historians .
40. Zoological Museums
41. The Structure of the Medulla oblongata
42. British Annelids .
43. Lubbock's Prehistoric Times
44. Antediluvian History in Poitou .
Recent Archaeological Discoveries
The Trees and Shrubs of the Ancients
The Physiology of the Sphseriaceas
IVIr. Tristram's Explorations in Palestine
45.
46.
47.
48.
ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
49. Upon the Episternal portions of the Skeleton, as they appear in Mam-
malia and in Man, By C Gegenbauer .....
50. Note on Hybridism in Vegetables. By C Naudin
51. Notices of distinguished Naturalists recently deceased
52. Proceedings of the Scientific Societies of London :—l . Ethnological Society.
2. Geological Society. 3. Linnean Society. 4. Zoological Society
53. Miscellanea: — 1. The transfer of the Marsupial Ibctus into the maternal
pouch. 2. The cause of Submergence during the Glacial Epoch. 3.
Birth of a Hippopotamus in Europe. 4. Note on a Shell from Labuan.
5. List of Publications received ......
457
467
488
503
507
516
525
530
534
536
541
545
567
574
581
594
THE
NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW
A
QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE.
I.— The Zoology of British India.
(1.) Catalogue of the Mammalia ii^ the Museum of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal. By Edward Blyth, Curator,
Calcutta, 1863.
(2 ) The Birds of India, being a Natural History of all Birds
knowu to inhabit Continental India. By T. C, Jerdon, Surgeon-
Major, Madras Army, 3 toIs. 8vo. Calcutta, 1862-4.
(3.) The Eeptiles of British India. By Dr. Albert Giintlier.
London, 1861*. Published for the Bay Society, by Bobert
Hardwicke.
"Whateyer other advantages may have resulted to civilization from
the British occupation of the Indian Peninsula, it cannot be said
that the established authorities of our kith and kin in that country
haye as yet done much for the benefit of the Natural Sciences. A
whole host of private collectors and amateurs have, it is true, worked
long and laboriously on different branches of Indian Zoology and
Botany. But up to the present time we look in vain for anything
like an attempt to reduce into order the mass of materials thus
accumulated, and to combine them into a Natural Histoiy of British
India — such as has been prepared by other European Governments,
in the case of similar foreign dependencies.
It Avould, nevertheless, appear that the governmental mind of
India is at length awakening to the fact that it is the part of an
enlightened administration, if not to take such matters in hand
altogether, at least to suffer others to do so, and in certain cases
even to mete out some slight encouragement to their labours.
The " Flora Indica*' of Drs. Hooker aad Thompson, which some
N.H.E.— 1865. B
2 THE NATURAL HISTOET REVIEW.
years ago was refused all assistance, is now promised substantial
aid. Dr. Jerdon, who has undertaken the very arduous task of
preparing a set of Mammals of the Natural History of the Ver-
tebrate Animals, specially adapted for India, is, as we learn from the
preface of the portion relating to the Birds, now complete, permitted
to draw his full pay as Surgeon-Major while engaged in editing hia
work. So that we must allow that what with the advancing position
occupied by Science of late years, and, perhaps we should add, under
the influence of the hitherto unheard of event of a surplus in the
Indian Exchequer, things are looking a little more bright for the
Naturalist in British India.
It is indeed with no small satisfaction we are able to call the
attention of our readers at one time to three different publications
on the Zoology of India — one relating to the Mammals, a second to
the Birds, and a third to the Eeptiles ; which, although of very
different orders of merit as regards the information they contain
and the labour bestowed upon them, will each alike serve as a basis
for some general remarks upon those parts of the Fauna of British
India of which they treat.
To begin with the Mammals — Mr. Blyth's recently issued cata-
logue, of which the title stands at the bead of our list, does not
relate solely to the Mammals of India, but is, in fact, a list only of
those of which specimens are contained in the Museum of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta. This well known Institution,
which has done so much for the progress of the Natural Sciences in
our Eastern possessions, acquired the services of Mr. Blyth as its
Curator in 1841. At that time, as may be seen by reference to the
loth volume of the Society's Journal,* the collection of Mammals in
the Society's Museum was meagre indeed, consisting only of some
thirty specimens. How laboriously the new Curator set to work to
develope the collections under his care — how the civil and military
officials of every part of our Indian Empire were pressed into the
service of Natural History, and induced to contribute specimens to
the Museum and facts to the Journal of the Society — is well known
to every Naturalist, who has paid attention to the Zoology of the East.
The value of the contributions made by Mr. Blyth to our knowledge
of the Natural History of India, during the twenty-four years of his
* Catalogue of Mammalia in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. By
T. C. Tearson. Journ. A. S. B. x. p. 660,
THE ZOOLOaX OF BEITISH INDIA. S
curatorship of the Asiatic Society's Museum is a matter of history,
and we believe few occurrences have given greater satisfaction
amongst the friends of science than the well-earned pension bestowed
upon him by the Indian G-overnment, upon his recent return in
broken health and with shattered constitution to this country.
When Mr. Blyth arrived at Calcutta, the Society's collection of
Mammals consisted, as we have already said, of some 30 or 40 speci-
mens, which might, as we have been told, have been all arranged on a
moderate sized table. Before his departure, as the present catalogue
tells us, the collection embraced 585 species of IMammals — many of
them represented by large and well-selected series of specimens of
different sexes and ages, and from different localities. The fault of the
collection now is, we believe, that it is too crowded, and that the proper
care of it weighs too heavily upon the finances of the Society. This
evU, as we learn from the recent numbers of the Society's Journal,
is proposed to be remedied by the transfer of the whole of the
Museum to the Grovernment upon certain conditions, whereby a
new building will bo obtained, and the collection will form the
nucleus of a Public Museum of Natural History for British India.
Por this purpose the Society's collection will be of the utmost value,
as containing a very large number of typical specimens of every
class. The series of Indian Mammals, to which our catalogue refers,
although not quite complete, is very nearly so. As we turn over its
pages we propose to call our readers' attention to the principal
features of the Mammal- fauna of the Indian Peninsula, as they
are thus brought before us, neglecting, for the present, the specimens
from other parts of the world.
The typical Quadrumana are represented in India by species
of three different types — namely, the genera HylohateSy Macacus and
Semnopithecus. Of the Gibbons {Hylohates) no species occurs in the
Peninsula of India proper. On the eastern side of the bay of
Bengal, however, two of this genus are found — the S. hooloolc and
the H. lar. The former is the provaleut species in Arracan, and
" extends thence over all the hill-ranges of Sylhet and Assam,"
whilst the AVhite-handed Gibbon {S. lar), also found in Assam,
ranges southwards down the Malayan Peninsula to Malacca.
Of the Macaques, the well known " Toque," or Bonnet-Monkey
{M. Q'ddiatus) is a common inhabitant of the forests of Southern
India, ranging on the Coromandel side as far north as the Godavery.
In Ceylon this species is replaced by the nearly allied M. pi/eafiis,
4 THE :JTATURAL niSTOIlY 31ETTEW.
commonly, but incorrectly, called the " Chinese" Bonnet-monkey.
In Southern India also, we find the singular "Lion-Monkey" {Macacus
silemcs)y often said to be from Ceylon, but of which the true home
is " Travancore and Cochin, and the Malabar ghats as high as
Goa." In Central India and Bengal the Ehesus-monkey (J/, rhesus) y
so common in Eiu-opean menageries is the only species of this form,
unless the varieties distinguished by Hodgson* be deemed worthy of
a higher rank than what is generally accorded to them.
The genus SemnopitJiecus or Preshytes is better represented in
Continental India, if we accept the claims of the various " dis-
tinguishable races" of the S. entellus to be considered as specifically
distinct. The true Hoonuman or Sacred Monkey, 8. entellus (verus)
of Mr. Blyth's w^ritings, is foimd only in Bengal and Upper India.
In Southern India it is replaced by S. piiamus of the Coromandel
coast, and S. hypoleueus of the Malabar ghats, in the Subhimalayan
region by 8. scJiistaceus. In Southern India is also found the distinct
species S. cucullaius of the Nilgiris, Pulneys and Malabar ghats.
On the eastern side of the bay of Bengal, Mr. Blyth's >S^. pileatus
appears to be a northern outlier of the S. cnstatus of Sumatra.
In Ceylon, besides the continental S. priaviuSy -sYhich is common in
the north and east, we meet with 8. tJiersites, S. ur sinus, and S.
cephalopterus. The former of these belongs to the true entellus
group, the two latter are quite distinct, and more nearly allied to
8. maurus. So that in British India we have some seven or eight
representatives (belonging to two sections) of this group of
Quadrumana.
The Lemurida? are represented in India -by two outlying strag-
glers of this Ethiopian group, quite distinct in their geographical
range, and although often united under one generic head, equally so
in organization. The slender Loris {Loris gracilis) is found in
Ceylon and Southern continental India. In Bengal, however, the
only representative of this family is the Nyticehus tardigradus,
or Slow Loris, which, like so many other animals of this district,
is little more than a northern form of the scarcely separable
N. javanicus.
The next great group of Mammals, following the arrangement
of JMr. Blyth's catalogue, is very extensively difiused in our Indian
dominions, as in most other parts of the world. But the Chiroptera
* J. A. S. B. ix. 1213.
TUE ZOOLOGY OF BEITISK INDIA.
are at present iu such a state of confusion both as regards genera
and species — that we shall content ourselves by merely stating that
Mr. Blyth records the existence of three i'rugivorous* Bats in
Continental India, and enumerates the names of about thirty-ii\'e
others belonging to the Insectivorous families of the group.
Of the Carnivora of India, although many of the genera are still
in a stat€ of confusion, almost rivalling that of the Bats, and little
creditable to Naturalists, we can speak rather more at length. The
Indian Canidae consist, according to Mr. Blyth's catalogue, of the
Cuon rutilans~t\iQ " Dhob" or "Wild Dog," as it is commonly
called, the Canis palUpes, or Indian "Wolf, the Jackal {C. aiu^eus) and
a fox, Vuljyes hengalerisis. Four other species of the latter genus are
also recorded as inhabiting the Subhimalayan and north-western
districts, but some of these require further examination. One species
only of Hyena is found in India — namely, the widely diffused
jH". striata^ which appears to have diffused itself from the true focus
of this group in Africa throughout South-western Asia, and though
not general in Lower Bengal, to extend its wanderings occasionally
even to the gates of Calcutta. The more typical Viverridse of India
consist of the Viverra zibetlia, or Indian Civet — still kept in cages in
many parts of the country for the supply of the drug whence it
obtains its name — as is likewise the Basse Viverricula malaccensis, a
smaller animal of the same type, and several species of Paradoxurus.
In the same group, Mr. Blyth arranges the Subhimalayan repre-
sentative of the genus Prionodon ; a small, but very bold and
rapacious quadruped resembling Herpestes and Viverra in many
particulars, but in its "short close fur and other characters showing an
affinity to the true Telidge. The very singular Binturong {Artictis)
likewise ranges from Sumatra along the hills of the Indian penin-
sula into Assam, and even as far north as ISTepal, according to
Mr. Blyth, while some seven species of Herpestes complete the list
of Indian Viverridse. The typical TelidaB which follow next in
IMr. Blyth's catalogue are well represented in British India, at least
10 or 11 species of Felis beiug more or less common in various parts
of the country — amongst which are the largest and finest forms of
the genus, such as the Lion, now nearly extinct except in the
"^^ Pteropus meilitis, Tcmm. (generally called erroneously P, edwardsU) Pt.
Icschcnaultii and Cynoptcnis murgiiinti'S.
b THE NATURAL ITTSTOllY REVIEW-
province of Kattywar in Guzerat — the Tiger, the Leopard, and
the Cheetah. The members of the succeeding family, Mustelidse are
mostly more northern in their range, but the Indian list includes at
least one Martin (Maries Jlaviffula), a species of wide distribution,
and two Mustelce belonging to the Subhimalayan region. The
Katcl {Mellivora indica), which, judging from the living specimens
now in the Zoological Society's Gardens, seems separable from its
African brother (M. cape?isis), a species of the Eastern- Asiatic genus
Helictis, and two of the peculiar Indian form Arctonyx likewise
belong to this family of the Carnivora, which seems altogether
to number about nine Indian representatives. Of the remaining
family of this Order — the Ursidae — four very distinct species occur
in various parts of the same country. The " Wah" (Ailurus
fulgens) is a somewhat abnormal form, confined to the slopes
of the Himalayas, and not descending below the level of 7000
feet. The Ursus isabellimos is probably nothing more than a variety
of the widely distributed Ursus arctos^ and is also confined to
the higher ranges of the Himalayas, while the lower forest-districts
of the same region are tenanted by the TIrsus tibefanus or Black
Bear of the Indian sportsmen, and the Sloth Bear {ProcJiilus
laUatus) is generally distributed over the Indian peninsula and
Ceylon.
The Insectivora, which follow next the Carnivora in Mr. Blyth's
list, are also numerous in India, particularly the Shrews of the genua
Sorex and its allied forms, of which nearly twenty species have been
recorded as belonging to this Fauna,* although the whole of this
difficult group requires a searching revision. Of the Hedgehogs
(Erinaceits), at least two species are found in India, and of the
Banxrings {Tiipaia), one well-marked species inhabits the Eastern
ghats of the peninsula,! while a second runs up the Malayan
peninsula, as far north as the Khasya hills, and perhaps even to
Sikhini. The TalpidsD are only represented in India, as far as
we know at present, by two species of the typical genus TaJpa.
The Cetaceans of the Indian seas, according to Mr. Blyth's
catalogue, consist of seven species of DelphinidsD, the Sperm-whale,
* See an article by Messrs. Blyth and Tomes, Ami. N. H. ser. 2, xvii. p. 11,
(1856.)
t Tripaia cUiotti, Waterhousc, P. Z. S. 1849, pi. xiii. p. 106.
THE ZOOLOGY OP BRITISH INDIA. 7
and a single species of Whalebone whale of the genus BalfEnoptera^^
which occasionally even enters the Persian gulf. Not the least
remarkable of these is the freshwater Dolphin, Flatanista gangelica,
which is only found in the fresh waters of the Ganges and neigh-
bouring rivers. It is said to be common in the Brahmaputra in the
valley of Assam, and to ascend that stream probably up to the foot of
the mountains. In the Indus and its tributaries this Dolphin appears
to be replaced by an allied, but distinct species, recently described by
Mr. Blyth as Flatanista indi,\ of which, we believe, no specimens
have yet reached this country.
Mr. Blyth now enters upon the most formidable order of
Mammals, as regards their classification, both from their varying forms
and from the numbers of the species. The Order Eodentia in India as
elsewhere in the world (except always those lands of exceptions,
Australia and Madagascar) comprises a greater number of specific
forms than any other of the great divisions of the Mammalia. The
Squirrels, Sciuridce, of which we have only one species in this
country, are very numerous in the extensive forests of India, both in
those of high and of low elevation. Many of the former pass into
well-marked geographical varieties in difierent regions, and have
been distinguished as species by Mr. Blyth, who has devoted much
attention to tiiis group of Mammals. Of the Flying Squirrels
{Fteromijs and Sciuropterus) our catalogue enumerates some thirteen
Indian species, and of true Sciuri about fifteen, besides many others
of the adjoining Malayan provinces and great Asiatic Islands,
The Myoxidse or Dormice on the other hand, a group, it is true, not
very numerous in species, have only one representative in India.
This is a singular and very little known form, allied to the African
GrapMicri, but with sharp flat spines on the back. It is only found
on the Malabar coast, and was described by Mr. Blyth a few years
ago as Flatacantliomys lasiurics.X The Spalacidae in like manner have
but one or perhaps two representatives within the area of India
proper, in the shape of the Bamboo-rats of the genus Bhizomysj
of which one species occurs in the north-eastern parts of the
country. The Muridae or true Mice are numerous. Mr. Blyth's
* B. indica, Blyth, J. A. S. B. xxviii. 488.
t Ibid. p. 493. X J. A. S. B. xxviii. p. 288.
THE NATURAL HISTOET EEVIEW.
list gives US the names of nearly twenty species of IIus and its sub-
divisions, besides a species of Oerhillus^ and at least two Voles,
wliicli occur at some elevation on the slope of the Himalayas, and are
perhaps rather to be regarded as stragglers from the great stronghold
of this group in Europe and Central Asia. There is much, however,
to be done before this very difficult group of Mammals can be said to
be anything like satisfactorily worked out, and future investigation
will, no doubt, augment the present list, while at the same time it
may get rid of many merely nominal species.
Of the Porcupines {Hystricidce) there are two well-marked
Indian species — Hystrioc Mrsutirostris, scarcely distinguishable ex-
ternally from the European K. cristata, and the crestless H. Jiodgsoni
of the Subhimalayas. But a recent writer speaks of a third, specimens
of which have not yet reached Europe.* The long catalogue of Eodents
closes with the Hares {Leporidce), three of w^hich seem to have good
claims for admission into the Indian Eauna. These are all true hares
{Lepus), as distinguished from the Piping-hares {Lagomys) of the
Steppes of Central Asia, which only descend just far enough to look
over the edge of the Himalayas, and are quite foreign to the true
Mammal-fauna of India.
As, in spite of what Professor Schlegel has advanced, we agree
with Dr. Ealconerf in considering the specific difference of the Indian-
peninsular and Ceylonese Elephants as not yet proven, we shall only
allow one Proboscidean to count in the Indian list. The Equida?, which
follow next in Mr.Blyth's catalogue, have also but one living represen-
tative in the Indian Eauna. This is the Equus onager, or wild Ass of
the deserts of Western Asia, extending from Syria through Persia and
Beloochistan to the run of Cutch, upon the left bank of the Indus.
Judging from specimens now living in the Zoological Society's Gar-
dens, examples from all these countries are indistinguishable, whereas
they are strongly contrasted with the true Uquus hemionus of Pallas,
which is spread over the high plains of Central Asia, and is often
encountered by Indian sportsmen in the eastern parts of Ladakh.
On the Subject of the Indian Ehinoceroses, we confess we do not
quite understand Mr. Blyth's views, although he has lately put them
* Hijstrix malabarica, Day (Land of the Permauls, p. 446)— the " Orange
Porcupine" of the Western Ghauts.
t See Nat. Hist. Rev. 1862, p. 144, and 1863, p. 43.
THE ZOOLOGY OF BIUTISII INDIA. i)
forward at considerable length.* They appear, however, to be tbat
the true JR. unicornis sive indicus is confined to the Tarai regions at
the base of the Eastern Himalayas, inclusive of the valley of the
upper Brahmaputra and province of Assam ; and that the B. sondaicus,
generally heretofore supposed to be confined to the islands of
Java and Borneo, extends right up the Malay peninsula into the
Sundarbans of Bengal, and even to the E/ajmahal hills north of
Calcutta. There seems to be no doubt that the two-horned Ehino-
reros of Sumatra (R. sumatranus) likewise ranges along the Malay
peninsula into the Tenasserim provinces, but though Mr. Blyth says
it is "rare in Assam," he does not furnish us with any precise
evidence aa to its occurrence so far north. It is interesting to the
student of geographical distribution to notice that the Sumatran
Ehinoceros, although ^z^o-horned, belongs strictly to the Asiatic
section of the genus with lower incisors, and has nothing to do with
the African type with deciduous lower incisors, in which two horns
are always present.f The Suidse are represented in India by various
" distinguishable" races of wild Sus, which Mr. Blyth groups to-
gether under the specific name of our European Sus scro^plia, and by
the little Pigniy Hog of the Tarai forests of Nepal and Gorruckpore,
which Mr. Hodgson described as Forcula salvania in 1847,:|: but of
which no satisfactory account has yet been published, although, we
believe, skin and skull are in our National collection.
Of the marine order of Sirenia, the Dugong {Halicore indicd)
occurs in the Bay of Bengal — the specimens in the Society's Museum
being from the Andaman islands, where it seems the natives occasion-
ally use its flesh for food.
The Cervidas of the Old "World are divisible into two sections —
the sub-families, CervinsD and Eusinse of Mr. Blyth, although we
should doubt even the generic distinctness of these two groups. The
Cervinse or typical Cervi can hardly be said to enter strictly into the
Eauna Indica — this form being characteristic of the northern regions
of the two Hemispheres. But the Cervus ivallicliii, which is dis-
tributed from the shores of the Caspian throughout the "mountain-
ranges of Caucasia and Persia, certainly occurs abundantly in the
* See Mr. Bljth's article '•' On the living Asiatic Species j3^8|^B«Gm>s,"
J. A. S. B. xxxi. p. 151, (1862.) /^<\S>^}il^L
------—-— ^^^J^,^.
LjlLIBRARYjao
\ Cf. De Blainvillc's Ortcographie, Ehinoceros, p. 209. A^N/ '<n09 A^XV-.
± J. A. S. B. xvi. 423. (^ O ^^_ ^A^
'^;^ ^^^ ^tol
10 THE NATUIIAL HISTOET REVIEW.
forests of Cashmir, and probably in those of the Nepalese Terai ;
while we suspect that the Ccrvus qffinis of Hodgson, although it has
been called "the Saul forest Stag,"* is confined to the northern
slopes of the Himalayan range. It is certainly quite contrary to
the laws of distribution that these two large, nearly-allied species
should co-exist in the same area. The Eusine Cervi^ on the other
hand, arc the characteristic group of the Indian region, to which
indeed they are peculiar. In India proper we have four distinct
species of this form — the Cervus duvaucelii of Upper Bengal, Nepal,
and Assam — the C. aristotelis or Sambur, Avhich is generally distri-
buted over the peninsula and Ceylon — the Cervus axis with the same
wide distribution, and the Cervus porcimcs confined to the eastern
parts of India and Ceylon, but according to Mr. Blyth "unknown in
the peninsula of India generally." On the opposite side of the Bay of
Bengal the very distinct Cervus eldii occurs, which ranges from Pegu
northward to the valley of Munipur. The four first-named species of
Indian Deer have already been introduced into this country and bred
in the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London, and we hear
that the last-named species, so conspicuous for its curiously
lengthened brow-antlers may be shortly expected as a new addi-
tion to the Society's celebrated Menagerie. The only remaining
member of the family Cervidce is the Muntjac (the Barking Deer or
Jungle Sheep of the Indian sportsmen), very incorrectly, as we
believe, placed by Mr. Blyth in the family of Moschidse. It is certainly '
not a Musk, although its exserted canines give it a superficial resem-
blance to those animals, and together, with the elongated pedicils on
which the horns are mounted, distinguish it from the typical
Cervida). Mr. Blyth does not separate the Indian Cervulus from
the true G. vaginalis of Java and Sumatra, although, judging from the
living specimens seen in this country, the latter would appear to be
the larger and finer animals, and quite as different as many
similarly allied representative forms.
The Tragulidaj as, in accordance with M. A. Milne-Edwards' f
views, we suppose we must call the next group, appear to have only
one representative in India — the Tragulus meminna. The T. kancldl
occurs in the* southern Tenasserim provinces, but the locality of
* Gray, Cut. of Ungulata, p. 199.
t Sec Nat. Hist. Rev. 1864, p. 495.
TIIE ZOOLOGT OF BRITISH INDIA. 11
" Ceylou" usually attributed to T. Stanley anus is without doubt
erroneous.
We now come to the Bovidse, the last and most important family
of Euminantia, both as regards the number of its species, the size of
many of them, and their importance to carnivorous Man, as affording
him his principal sustenance. The Zebu or Bos indicus of Linnseus
is a theoretical name for the species whence the numerous races of
the humped cattle of Southern Asia and Africa were derived.
Mr. Blyth considers it may have been originally derived from Africa.
However this may be, certain it is that it is now unknown in the
originally wild state, just as is the case with Bos tauriis and Equus
cahallus, though " feral herds" of the Zebu are said to exist in Ceylon
and in many parts of India. On the other hand, the Indian penin-
sula possesses a fine wild Bos in the Gaour or " Bison" of Indian
sportsmen, (B. gaurus) which is found in suitable districts throughout
the country, extending into Burmah and the Indo-Chinese region.
The G-ayal {Bos frontalis) is a second distinct Indian species, confined,
however, to the hill-regions east of the Brahmaputra, and extending
thence northwards to the Subhimalayan districts and southwards
into the Tenasserim provinces. Unlike the Gaour the Gayal has
become a quasi-domestic animal, although it appears only occasion-
ally to breed in captivity. The Buffalo {Buhalus hiiffalus) is also
a primeval inhabitant of the Subhimalayan forests, but although
met with in a w^ld state in other suitable localities — the great
swampy jungles of India — is considered by Mr. Blyth to have been
introduced there.
The Antelopine series which we next encounter is, as is well
known, African jpar excellence, some 60 or 70 species of this group
being met with in various parts of the Ethiopian Eegion. In
India, however, there are several animals, which, though mostly
distinct from the African types, clearly belong to difierent parts
of the same series. These are the Nylghai {Bortax picta) — the
Pour-horned Antelope, Tetracerus quadricornis, and the ^^'S>Tn.(Antilope
hezartica) aU inhabitants of the peninsula of India — as is likewise the
Gazella lennettii — the " Eavine Deer" of Indian sportsmen, a
straggling outlier of the African genus Gazella. The Mountain-
Antelopes, which form the transition between the Antelopinse and
the goats and sheep are, on the other hand, a group distributed
over the northern regions of the two Hemispheres of which the well-
12 THE NATUEAL HISTORY REYIEW.
knowu Cliamois {Rupicapra tragus) is a somewhat aberrant Euro-
pean representative. Of tliis group two species of the genus
NemorJicedus {N. goral and N. hubalinus) inhabit the southern
slopes of the Himalayas, whilst a third, N. sumatrensis* extends
up the Malayan peninsida as far north as the Tenasserim
hills. Closely allied to NemorlKBdus is the Budorcas taxicolor of
Hodgson, a singular form of gnu-like aspect, which inhabits the
Mishnii hills at the head of the valley of Assam.
Of the Goats the Cajora hylocria of Ogilby (the so-called " Ibex"
of the Nilgiris) is alone found in the peninsula of India. In the Hima-
layas we meet with C.jemlaica and C. siblrica, and in the Punjab salt-
range and Kashmir with Oapra megaceros. The Sheep (Ovis) can hardly
be considered strict members of the Indian Fauna, although one
species (0. cycloceros) occurs in the Sulimani salt-range of the
Punjab, and two if not three othersj upon the heights of the
Himalayas. Excluding, therefore, the extreme mountain-forms,
which only occur on the highest ranges of the Himalayas, we shall
have about fifteen'*species of the family Bovidse, strictly appertinent
to the Indian Eauna.
The Edentata are only represented in the peninsula of India
by a single species of the genus Matiis — the M. pentadactgla,
replaced, however, in Sikhim and the Himalayas by Ji£. aurita,
Hodgson, which Mr. Blyth states to be conspicuously distinct from
the preceding. As Marsupials are unknown to the recent Fauna of
the Old AVorld, except in Australia, we have now arrived at the
termination of the Mammalian series, and can sum up the Mammals
of the Indian Fauna in the subjoined table.
♦ The Ant, goral of Hardwicke and A. huhalina Hodgson, have been made by
Ogilby (P. Z. S. 1836, p. 138) the typos of two distinct genera, Eeniasawd Capri-
cornis, which have been adopted .by subsequent systematists, but, as Mr. Turner
remarks, (P. Z. S. 1850, p. 173), the genus is too well-marked in nature to admit
of sub-division, and the oldest name for it is Nemorhccdus, established by Hamilton
Smith in 1827, (Griffith's edition of Cuvier's Animal Kingdom, Vol. v.) with
A. mmatrensis as its type. Other species of the group are N. s)vm7ioii, Gray,
of Formosa, (figured P. Z. S. 1862, pi. xxxv.) N. rubulus, Blyth, of Aracan, (if
distinct from N. huhaliimti), and the species described by Radde (Kcisen in Ost-
Sibericn I, p. 262), which is probably different from the India N. (/oral, as well
as from the Jai)ancse N. cris2)i(s.
t Ovis ar(jaU, 0. nahoor and 0. vi'jnei.
THE ZOOLOGY OF BRITISH INDIA,
13
APPROXIMATE E
3TIMATE OF INDI
Order.
Family.
QU-VDRUMAXA
SimiidsB
Lemuridse .
ClIIROPTERA
Pteropodidse
(Fam. Insectivorop)
Insectivora
Erinaceidoe .
SorecidfB
Tnpaiidge
Talpidae
Fer^
Canidse
Viverridse .
Felida
Mnstelidse .
Ursidse
RODENTIA ,
Sciuridas
Myoxidae
Muridaj
Hystricidse .
Leporidse
Spalacidse .
Proboscidea
Elephantidae
Artiodactyla .
Tragulidaj .
Cervidse
Bovidse
SuidoB
Perissodacttla
Eqnidse
Rhinocerotidje
SiRENIA
Halicorida? .
Cetacea
Baloenopteridse.
Physeteridae
Delphinidse .
NumVer of Species.
Edentata
Manidae
17
38
15
2
3
35
2
20
2
2
— 2G
8
16
11
9
4
48
28
1
21
3
3
2
1
6
15
2
— 24
1
2
— 3
1
1
1
7
9
2
227
It would thus appear tliat within the area of India and Ceylon,
including the lower and middle ranges of the Himalayas up to the
point Tvhere the great Palsearctic Eauna which pervades Europe and
14 THE NATURAL HTSTORT REVIEW.
Northern Asia meets that of the Indian Eegion in its wide sense,
and excluding the Malayan provinces on the eastern side of the Bay
of Bengal, about 227 species of Mammals are met with. Amongst
these are representatives of every one of the great orders of
Mammals, except the Seals and Marsupials. The beasts of prey are
very fully developed, and amongst them are the two largest and
finest species of the typical genus Felis. The important order of
Ruminants is also well represented, although not to the extent that it
is in Africa, where the Antelope-group is very numerous.
But it is hardly fair to compare the country we have been
speaking of with the huge continent of Africa. India, we must
recollect, is but a portion of a great Zoological Eegion, which
embraces not only the Indian peninsula and adjoining lands up to
the Himalayas, but also the whole of South-eastern Asia, together
with the great Islands of Java, Sumatra and Borneo and other
islands up to the line through the Strait of Macassar, which Mr.
Wallace has shown* to be the boundary between this and the
Australian EegiOn^ In any comparison with Africa this region should
be taken in its entirety, and it is not our present purpose to enter
upon such a wide field of discussion. It may suffice to say that the
Indian Eegion, in its wide sense, is richly endowed with repre-
sentatives of all the most highly organized forms of Mammals, and
that whether we look at it as regards variety of forms and species or
perfection of type, it is but little if at all iuferior to the Ethiopian
Eegion.
So much for the Mammals of our Indian dominions. The subject
is a fertile one, and we have occupied so much space in discussing it
that we are constrained to reserve our account of Dr. Jerdon's
volumes on the Birds of India, and Dr. Giinther's elaborate work on
the Ecptiles of the same country for another number.
* Jouni. Roy. Gcograph. Soc. Vol. xxxiii. p 217.
15
II. — NOEDMANN ON StELLER's MaNATEE.
Beiteage zirii Kej^ntniss des Knochex-eatjes dee Ehytina
Stelleei, Yon Dr. Alex. v. Nordmann. Acta Soc. Sc. Pennicse,
Vol. Yii. Helsingfors, 1861.
The publications of the Einnish Society of Sciences are bo little
known in this country that we are sure our readers will thank us for
some notice of the paper of which the title is above given, although
it appears to have been published several years ago. The communi-
cation referred to contains an account of a newly discovered
skeleton of the remarkable Sirenian Bliytina Stelleri, from tlie pen of
Dr. Alexander v. Nordmann, the learned Professor of Zoology in the
Imperial University of Helsingfors.
This large marine animal, formerly so abundant on the coasts of
Bering's Island has, as is well knoAvn, now quite disappeared from the
surface of the globe as a living animal, and even the date of the
destruction of the last individual of the race has been ascertained
with exactness.*
The original account of the Northern Sea-cow by Steller, which was
published at Petersburg in 1751,t long remained our only authority
on the subject, and for many years subsequently no specimen, nor
even any portion of a specimen, of the Bhytina was known to exist
in any collection. In 1832, Professor Brandt found among the
* The last Rhytina was killed in 1768, according to Saner, the Secretaiy of
Captain Billings' expedition. We may remark, that Professor Owen (Paleontology,
p. 400), states that the extinction of this animal "does not appear to have
been due to any special quest and persecution by man." This is, however,
directly contrary to the conclusions ariived at by v. Baer in his learned article
upon this subject, (Untersuchungen iiber den Nordischen Seekuh — Mem. Acad.
S. Pet. vi. Ser. 1840, iii. p. 53, et seq.) Steller, who first discovered the
Rhytina during Bering's second expedition in 1741, when ten months were passed
upon Bering's Island, the only spot where this remarkable animal is known
to have existed in recent times, estimated its numbers as then so large as to be
sufficient to feed the whole population of Kamtschatka. But the hunters and
adventurers following in Steller's track along the chain of the Aleutian Islands,
who were in the habit of wintering in Bering's Island; and of provisioning their
ships with these animals, made such havoc with them, that, as we are informed by
Sauer, in his narrative of Billing's expedition, which remained five years in these
seas, from 1789 to 1793, they were at that time totally extinct, the last known
individual having been killed in 1768.
t De Bestiis marinis, auctore G. W. Steller, Nov, Coram. Petr. xi. p. 294,
(1751).
16 THE 3TATUEAL HISTORT REYIEW.
treasures of tlie St. Petersburg Museum, one of tlie singular lioriiy
palatine plates of the Bhytina, and described and figured it as a molar
tootli,* supposing it to be a modification of that organ. This
discovery induced the learned Professor to take every means in
his power to have the former habitat of the Rliytina ransacked,
in order to obtain further portions of its remains. Baron "Wrangel,
who was then commencing his celebrated explorations in North-
eastern Asia, aud whose ardent zeal in favour of the Natural Sciences
is well known, only succeeded in obtaining some fragments of the
ribs of the missing animal, together with the information that
the huge beast was certainly utterly extinct. But a few years
later, Mr. Wosnessenski, who was sent out to the Eusso- American
colonies in 1839, to collect specimens of Natural History for the
Zoological Museum, succeeded in disinterring portions of a cranium
of the Rhytina from the soil of Bering's Island. This precious
fragment served as the material for Professor Brandt's learned
treatise, published in Memoirs of the Academy of St. Petersburg
in 184i9,f in which a complete history of the Rliytina, including all that
was then known of its structure and habits, and a full discussion of
its place in the Natural System is given. The conclusions arrived at
by Professor Brandt, correspond nearly to those of De BlainvilleJ
and Owen§ — namely, that the Sirenia constitute an order of
Mammals, quite distinct from the Cetacea, and in some characters
more nearly allied to the Pachyderms. As regards the subdivisions
of the Sirenia, Professor Brandt clearly points out the remarkable
characters which divide the Bhytina from Halicore and Manatus.
These he considers necessitate the subdivision of the Sirenia into
two tribes — the first of which, embracing the two latter genera,
he calls " Sirenia Dentigera sen Halicorea." The latter, containing
only the toothless Rliytina, he names " Sirenia Edentata seu
Ehy tinea."
Shortly after the publication of this Essay, as we learn from a
notice in the Bulletin of the Academy of St. Petersburg, || the
* Ucbcr den Zahnban dcr Stellerschen Seekuh. Mem. Acad. St. Pet. vi. Ser.
Sc. Math. ii. p. 103.
t SjTnboloe Sirenologicce quibus prascipue Rhytinfe historia naturalis illustratur.
Mem. Acad. St. Pet. Sc. Nat. v. (1849).
X Osteographie, Vol. iii. Genus Manatus.
§ Proc. Zool. Soc. 1838, p. 45, et aliis locis.
II Bull. Acad. Imp. Sc, St. Pet. iv. p. 30.5,
NOEDMANN ON STELLEe'S MANATEE. 17
Imperial Museum received further specimens of the RJiytina. These
consisted of a complete cranium as well as of several occipital bones,
ribs, and other parts of the skeleton. A few years later, Professor
Brandt was so fortunate as to obtain through the Eusso-American
Company, a nearly complete skeleton, and a second not quite so
perfect was procured through the same agency by M. Simachko.
These materials have served as a basis for Professor Brandt's second
Memoir on the Sirenia, which, if published, appears not yet to have
been received in this country.
In the meanwhile, however, we have Dr. Alexander von Nord-
mann's Essay, describing a nearly complete skeleton of the Bhytina,
received by the Zoological Museum of Helsingfors under the fol-
lowing circumstances. Dr. Nordmann's fellow-countryman, Captain
Furuhjelm, having been appointed Governor of Eussian- America,
was earnestly besought to try to obtain a skeleton of the Bhytina
for the Museum of his National University. In 1861, Captain
Furuhjelm succeeded in accomplishing this — a specimen of the
much desired object having been dug up in Bering's Island by two
Aleutians — and wrote home to his friend that he had forwarded the
same by water " along with other trifles." The skeleton thus received
is described as being that of an immature individual — measuring
16^ feet in length.* The only parts deficient are the hand-bones,
some of the caudal vertebrae, and the epiphyses of the shoulder blade,
humerus, ulna, and radius. There seems no question that the rest of
the skeleton must all have belonged to the same individual. All the
bones were obtained in the same spot from the earth, and show no
trace of Balanus, Serpulce, or other marine product. As Professor v.
Nordmann observes, had an expert been present he would probably
have found the missing portions likewise.
Professor von Nordmann gives in his paper an elaborate account
of every portion of these precious relics, and illustrates his descrip-
tions with five lithographic plates, which represent all the more
characteristic parts, as also the whole skeleton reduced to one
fifteenth of its natural size.f
* Steller gives the length of the adult Bhytvm as 296 English inches = 24 ft.
8 inches.
f Professor v. Nordmann, states (p. 17 of his Paper), that '' Bhytina, as Steller
rightly remarks, possesses only six cervical vertebrae." Brandt in his paper referred
to by Mr. Flower, (Nat. Hist. Rev. 1864, p. 259), says there can be no doubt
N.H.R.— 1865. C
18 THE NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW.
In conclusion, we venture to make the impertinent suggestion
to the Lords of Her Majesty's Admiralty that the crew of one
of the vessels of war on the Pacific Station might be very usefully
employed in visiting Bering's Island, and obtaining for our National
Collection a skeleton of this very singular mammal. At present we
have not a fragment of it in this country, except two ribs purchased
by the British Museum some two years since from St. Petersburg.
A cruise up to Bering's Island in the summer montbs, and a little
digging would involve neither hardship nor risk to the vessel selected
for this service, and might be the means of mucb increasing our
knowledge of this curious animal.
III. — G-unthee's Catalogue of Fishes.
Catalogue op the Pishes ik the British Museum. By Albert
Gunther, M.A., M.D., Ph.D., &c. 5 vols. London : 1859-64.
Half a century ago our National Collection of Zoology was one
of the most indifferent of the larger Museums of Europe, and cer-
tainly not to be compared either in value or in extent with the sister
institutions of Paris, Ley den, Berlin, or Vienna. Now-a-days,
thanks to the untiring zeal of the naturalist, who has so long
presided over this department of the British Museum, it has become,
taken altogether, the largest in existence, although as regards par-
whatever of the necessity of ascribing to it seve7i, and certainly the figures and
description in Nordmann's paper show distinctly that the anterior part of the head
of the first rib is received into an articular fossa on the posterior edge of the body
of the seventh vertebra, as in the mammalia generally, proving without any
doubt that this is the last cervical and not the first dorsal vertebra. Brandt's
description is therefore perfectly coiTect, and Nordmann is in error on this point.
It is rather surprising that the circumstance of the broad tubercle of the first
rib being brought by the excessive antero-posterior compression of the neck
bones into relation wilh the hinder edge of the transverse process of the seventh
vertebra, should have caused Nordmann to have overlooked the far more important
relation of its head to the bodies of the vertebrae.
Since tlic publication of the note above referred to, we are informed by Mr. Flower,
that the skeleton of a West African Manatee {3Ianatus senerjalensis) has been received
at the Royal College of Surgeons, with the cervical vertebrje still united by their
ligaments. There are certainly not more than six of them; so that it may
now be affirmed with perfect confidence that the noimal number of the cervical
vertebra in the genera Halicorc and RhijHna is seA'en, and in 3Tanatus only six.
GUJs'TnER's CATALOGUE OP FTSHES. 19
ticular branches it may be rivalled, and perhaps even excelled by-
some of the Continental and American collections.
In the year 18^3 Dr. Grray obtained the sanction of the Trustees
of the British Museum to the publication of catalogues of certain
portions of the Zoological collection. These were at first merely
systematic lists of the specimens of animals belonging to the different
species of the groups to which they referred, with indications of the
locality from which they had been obtained, and of the mode in
which they had been acquired for the collection. But the plan has
been gradually extended, until from mere lists of the specimens
in the Museum many of these catalogues have become elaborate
treatises on different groups of animals, including not only the
species represented in the Museum collection, but also all others
known to science, and constituting in fact what are termed com-
plete Monographs of the subject. Some of the lately issued
catalogues, such as that of the Tortoises, by Dr. Gray himself, and
that of the Lantern- flies (Phasmidas), by Professor "Westwood, are
elaborately illustrated, and form the most recent and generally-
referred-to standard works on the subjects to which they relate.
Dr. Giinther's above-named contribution to this series, of which
five volumes are now complete, is of a still more important nature
than those we have last mentioned. Although commenced simply
as a catalogue of the " xlcanthopterygian" Fishes in the British
Museum, the limits of this great division of the class Pisces have
already been passed, and, if the author is permitted to complete his
work, we believe it is intended that the whole of this numerous and
imperfectly known division of the Vertebrates shall be treated of in
the same manner. And although the simple term ''catalogue" is
used in its title. Dr. G-iinther's work would be more Mrly described
by a much more important name. So far from confining himself to
a mere enumeration of the specimens of fishes in the collection of
the British Museum, Dr. Giinther follows the lead of Dr. Gray and
the other authors of the more extended catalogues, and gives
descriptions of all the known species of each genus, whether they are
foimd in the British Museum or are known to exist in some other
collection. Diagnoses of the genera and higher groups are also
included, so as to render the so-called " Catalogue," a complete
treatise on general Ichthyology. In relation to this Dr. Giinther well
remarks in the preface to his first volume, that the number of kno-wn
species of fishes having been considerably increased of late years,
" c 2
20 THE NATUEAL HISTOET EETIEW.
and the descriptions of the new species being scattered throngli a
great many Journals, Voyages and Eeports, such a general synopsis
as the present in which all the species of which descriptions are
accessible are contained, will meet a real want in Ichthyology.
Dr. Giinther has commenced his labours, as we have already said,
with the Teleostian Fishes of the great order " Acanthopterygii,"
as defined by Johannes Miiller in his celebraCted modification of
Cuvier's System. Frequent, he says, as have been the objections
against these modifications, " no one has yet proposed any arrange-
" ment which would give a more satisfactory result if put to the test
" of carrying it out to a detailed subdivision." Under these circum-
stances our author, who was, we believe, in former years a pupil of
the great anatomist, has been satisfied to adopt, nearly without
alteration, his master's views as a basis, and to distribute the species
into natural minor divisions according to Miiller's ordinal arrange-
ment. As regards the points mostly to be attended to in subdividing
the orders, Dr. Giinther is of opinion that there is no character
equal in importance to the structure and position of the fins, as these
organs stand in immediate connection with the entire habit of fishes
and their mode of life, and therefore supply the best indication of
their natural affinities, although isolated exceptions are occasionally
met with. Another character of great importance for the distinction
of the families is, according to Dr. Giinther, the number of the
vertebrae, but whether this has any bearing of still greater import
cannot exactly be determined at present, as the osteological portion
of the collection has not been yet completely examined.
The first three volumes of Dr. Giinther's work are entirely taken
up with the order " Acanthopterygii," of which no less than 3481
species are given, and 2811 of these are considered to be well
characterized. In Cuvier and Valenciennes, Histoire Naturelle des
Poissons (1828-1849) — the last published general work upon this
class of Vertebrates — only 2146 species of the same group are
enumerated, and upwards of 600 of these are considered by Dr.
Giinther to have been merely nominal species, so that we see at a
glance what large additions have lately been made to our knowledge
of this class.
In a synopsis of the Acanthopterygian Eishes at the end of the
third volume, Dr. Giinther furnishes the following scheme for the
primary division of this Order : —
GtJNTHEH's CATALOGUE OP FISHES. 21
A soft dorsal and an anal fin. Yent^j 36 families
remote from the extremity of the | separated into
tail, and behind the ventral fins, if j> 16 divisions, and
they are present. [ comprising all the
J typical forms.
Dorsal and anal fins developed. Yent ) 1 fam.
in front of the ventrals. ) Aphredoderidss.
3. Body riband-shaped, with the vent near j -. £
its extremity ; a short anal behind "^^ ~
vent ; dorsal as long as the body.
its extremity ; a short anal behind the > j ^i^^fn^^sg
4i, Anal absent ; caudal rudimentary, or not ^ ^ n
in the longitudinal axis of the fish. ^ ^ -, 4- • i
Skeleton soft. \ ^^^ ^^
J
5. Soft dorsal absent or rudimentary ; -n
ventrals abdominal, composed of / 1 fam.
several unarticulated and articulated C Notacanthi.
rays. ^
Leaving out the four strongly aberrant groups placed at the end
of the series, the mass of the typical Acanthopterygians, it will be
observed, are divided into 16 divisions, containing altogether 43
families, the greater number of which are newly defined. These
" divisions " are mostty named from the title of the most typical or
best known genus, to which the termination-ybrw/^ is added, and
consist of one or more " families," as the case may be. The arrange-
ment thus given is completely new, and in fact has only been per-
fected since the termination of the working out of the whole group,
as it will be noticed that the species as given in the text of the three
volumes, do not follow this consecutive order.
Dr. Giinther's fourth volume contains the two orders Flianjn-
gognathi acanthopterygii and Anacanthiniy of Miiller. In dealing
with the former of these orders Dr. Giinther has deviated from
Miiller's arrangement — changing the name into AcantJwpterggii
pTiaryngognafhi — as he considers the structure of the fins a more
important character than that of the pharyngeal bones. He also
omits altogether the soft-finned Pharyngognaths of Miiller (Scom-
beresocidse), not considering the coalesced pharyngeal bones as
a character of sufficient importance to unite acanthopterous and
malacopterous fishes in the same order. The Anacanthuni on the
other hand (which coincide essentially with the Malacoptorygii
22 THE NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW.
jugular es of the old autliors) appear to Dr. Gunther to be a very
natural order, although the want of symmetry in the Pleuroneetidse
would at first sight induce one to distinguish them rather strongly
from the symmetrical Gradidae and their allies. But, as Dr. Giinther
reminds us, the absence of symmetry in the latter is the only
constant character upon which such a distinction can be made, and
in the more highly organized Pleuronectidse (such as Fsettodes)
this character is but little developed. On the other hand the
Gadidas and Pleuronectidse agree in other important characters,
such as the great development of the dorsal and anal fins, the
position of the ventrals, and the increased number of the caudal
vertebra?.
Dr. Giinther gives 1090 species of Acanthopterygii Pharyn-
gognathi and Anacanthini, of which he considers 890 to be well
characterized. There are a great number of new species described
in these two orders, particularly in the families Chromidse and
Pleuronectidse. In the former groups the freshwater lakes of
Guatemala, lately explored for the first time by Messrs. Salvin and
Godman, have yielded an abundant harvest, and we believe a
special communication of Dr. Giinther on this subject, with figures of
many of the new species, will shortly appear in the Zoological
Society's " Transactions."
Dr. Giinther's fifth volume commences the series of those families
of Pishes, which Miiller called Fhysostomi, from the air bladder being
connected with the pharynx by an air-duct. The extensive family of
8iluroids is taken first, of which nearly 700 species are known, and
the details of which take up the greater portion of the volume. These
are followed by the Characinoids and several other smaller families.
Amongst these perhaps the most noticeable in the way of novelty is a
new genus of Australian freshwater fish called Frototroctes — the
representative of the Salmonoids of the K'ortheru Hemisphere in
the Antipodes. The genus is of greater interest as being naturally
associated in one family with the genus Ilaplocliiton of Jenyns,
discovered by Mr. Darwin, during the voyage of the Beagle, in the
freshwaters of the temperate parts of South America, and thus givino-
us a new link between the Pauna of Australia and that of South
America,
Dr. GUnther's fifth volume is also of great importance in making
such extensive additions to our knowledge of the fishes of the Kile
basin— the Silurida? and Characini, being as is well known very fully
gukther's catalogue of fishes. 28
developed in the freshwaters of the Ethiopian as well as in those of
the Neotropical region.
The whole of Dr. G-iinther's fifth volume contains 1005 species,
against 492 in the corresponding portions of Cuvier and Valen-
ciennes' work. Of these 849 are considered to be undoubtedly
valid specimens.
In conclusion we heartily wish Pr. Giinther health and strength
sufficient to carry his great and important labours to completion — of
his industry, and of his ability (in other ways) to finish what he has
begun we have no doubt. It is no small task, as our readers must
acknowledge, that has already been accomplished — that of naming,
cataloguing, and describing some five or six thousand species ; and
those who know the energetic author of the " Catalogue of Tishes"
are well aware, that these volumes are by no means the only pro-
ducts of Dr. Giinther's laborious industry during the last six years.
The work, however, is now more than half accomplished, and we trust
that another five years will see the " Catalogue of Fishes" complete.
Its efiect upon the study of Ichthyology will in all probability be very
remarkable. AVe cannot suppose that more than a fourth part of
the fishes now in existence are yet known to science, nay, perhaps,
not more than a tenth part, for of many parts of the world the
Pisci-fauna is almost unknown. The fact is that the study of these
creatures has been hitherto greatly obstructed by the want of a con-
venient book of reference, wherein what is at present kno^vn is sum-
marized and brought together. The publication of Dr. Giinther's
Catalogue will therefore, no doubt, give a great and immediate
impetus to the study of fishes — indeed we may say in relation to
the published portions that it has already done so. Its imme-
diate efiect will be in all probability an increase of at least ten per
cent, in the number of described species of this class of Vertebrates.
It has already operated well for our National Collection in inciting
the accession of a very large number of valuable additions to this
department, as will be seen by reference to the long lists of donations
and purchases given at the commencement of each volume of the
catalogue. It has also been of the greatest service to the collection
in another way — we mean in enabling selections to be made out of
series offered for sale. Until a collection has been properly named
and catalogued there is of course perpetual risk of acquiring dupli-
cates when new purchases are made, or of rejecting new specimens.
As the catalogue advances this risk diminishes, and the means for
24 THE NATURAL HISTOET REYIEW.
acquiriug serviceable additions proportionately increase. At the
completion of Dr. Giinther's labours, therefore, he may fairly look
forward to having under his care the largest as well as the most per-
fectly catalogued series of Fishes in existence.
ly. — Siebold's European Freshwater-fishes.
Pie SiisswASSERFiscHE VON Mitteleuropa. Bearbeitet von C.
Th. E. V. Siebold. Leipzig, 1863. 8vo.
"We believe that a feeling of some surprise, mixed with no little
curiosity, was excited among zoologists, when it became known that
one of the editors of the " Journal fiir "Wissenschaftliche Zoologie,"
had descended to the level of ordinary Zoology — we mean the Zoology
of the old school, which considers an animal worth examining, even
when this can be done without the aid of the microscope and the dis-
secting needle. "Would one of the founders of the modern German
school of *' scientific zoology" treat his subject in a new style ? "Would
he discover new ways of distinguishing species, and put forward
hitherto unknown views leading to a more perfect systematic arrange-
ment ? "Would he teach us, as we have been taught in the case of the
North American Tortoises, that to study the adult animal is useless,
and that to understand specific and generic affinities, we must ex-
amine embryonic and subembryonic conditions ? How far conjectures
of this kind were verified by the result we shall shortly see.
"When Bloch, the celebrated German Ichthyologist of the last
century, humbly requested Frederic the Great to order certain
officials to aid him in collecting the fishes of the Mark of Branden-
burg, he received the reply : " I am glad to hear that you occupy
yourself with fishes, but what you ask of me is nonsense;
for I know all the fishes in the Mark myself. There are carp,
Sander, perch, and eels. Are you going to count their bones ?"
"We need hardly say that Dr. v. Siebold found his Government
more enlightened than this. In fact, the present work owes its
origin to the order he received from it to prepare a report on the
fishes of Bavaria — and as by degrees he extended his researches far
beyond the limits first assigned to it, he not only enjoyed material
assistance from his own rulers, but also obtained aid from the govern-
ments of neighbouring countries. Having devoted nine years to a
SIEBOLd's EUROPEAN FUESHWATEE-FISHES. 26
study which he found infinitely more difficult and time-absorbing
than he had anticipated, he presents us with the results of his
labours in an octavo volume of 430 pages, illustrated by 64 woodcuts,
and 2 coloured plates.
The somewhat lengthy introduction to Dr. von Siebold's volume is
evidently \vritten for that part of the public which does not care much
about the information which they might gather from the work itself.
In this the author describes the ordinary ways and means of collect-
ing materials and information, which are familiar to every one who
has studied any portion of a particular fauna. The introduction is
followed by a complete and excellent review of the literature bearing
upon the fishes of Germany, whereby the author evades the usual
practice of quoting in the synonymy of each species every author
who has ever noticed it. This is a method far superior to the one in
which valueless works and names of would-be naturalists are promis-
cuously quoted along with original descriptions and scientific authors.
From the author's own assertions in his introductory remarks and
especially from the synonymy itself, it is evident that he places himself
on the side of those Zoologists who would counteract the mischief doiie
by Agassiz, Valenciennes, Bonaparte, and Heckel, in introducing
into ichthyology the custom of splitting up species and genera
on the slightest and most insufficient grounds. " The catalogue of
our freshwater-fishes," says Dr. v. Siebold, " abounds with untenable
species. This nuisance has been partly caused by systematists
who have carried the multiplication of the genera so far, and
who have defined the characters of these genera so indistinctly,
that in consequence of their insufficient examinations they were
obliged not only to separate fishes which must be referred to
the same species by every unbiassed observer, but even to place
them in two distinct genera, in obedience to the principles of their
unnatural system." Of the authors mentioned none fares worse
than Heckel, and although Dr. v. Siebold pays him all those compli-
ments which celebrated savants usually pay to one another, the sy-
nonymy of almost every species shows, that he has no great
opinion of the discriminating powers of the man who endeavoured to
make Vienna the head-quarters of our knowledge of European fresh-
water-fishes. For although out of Austria there never was much
doubt as to the scientific value of Heckel's genera and species, it re-
quired a publication like the present^ to entirely supersede the " Siiss-
wasserfische der Oesterreichischen Monarchie," and to thoroughly
26
THE -NATURAL niSTOET RETIEW.
expose the fallaciousness of the principles upon which that work was
based. Dr. v. Siebold has done much and well to reduce the number
of Grerman freshwater-fishes. We recommend a glance over the
synonymy of the Dace (Squalius leuciscus) p. 203, to those whose
tendencies carry them the other way — our author may have gone too
far in a few cases. Thus, for instance, nobody who has seen our
Chub and its representative of the Continent, will agree with him,
that both are of the same species. But there is no fear that other
Ichthyologists will allow such questions as these to remain unsettled
for long.
Dr. V. Siebold gives detailed descriptions of those species only
which are not perfectly known, whilst the commoner kinds, like the
Perch, Pike, etc. are sufficiently characterized in a short diagnosis.
His method of examining and describing a fish does not difi'er from
that of previous writers, but whatever species is referred to, the
account given of it will be found evidently to have been drawn from
the author's own original researches, and shows that he has lost no
opportunity of thoroughly acquainting himself with his subject. The
history of each species is given as completely as possible. Oar author
fairly acknowledges where observations previously made, are only
confirmed by him, and details the reasons which induce him to enter-
tain different views from his predecessors. Even where he does not
add any new fact, as for instance in the history of the Eel, his ac-
count Avill be read with ]3leasure for its perspicuity, and for the
honesty with which he confesses where his own knowledge is incom-
plete.
No other Ichthyological work has dealt in an equally prominent
manner with two facts which, if only one half of the observations
relating to them shall turn out correct, are of the greatest import-
ance in distinguishing the different species, viz, liyhridism, and
sterility. The author gives it as his opinion that hybridism is by no
means of rare occurrence among fishes, although the cases which
he considers as more or less established, belong to one family only,
that of the Cyprinoids. They are five in number :
Hybrid between
1. Carpio kollarii, Heck. } Cyprinus carpio, K and
^ i Carassius vulgaris JNilss.
y. Abramis leuckartii, Ileck. \ Abrauiis, sp :
, iicciv. J Leuciscus, sp ?
( Abramis sp ?
3. Abramis abramo-rutilus, Holaudre-! Scardinius erythroph-
(. thalmus, L.
SIEBOLD's EUROPEAN FRESKWATEE- FISHES, 27
- -r . 111^ TT 1 J ( Alburniis lucidiis
4. Leuciscus dolabratus, Holandre | y^^ialius cephalus
_ ^, , ^ 1 A • ( Chondrostoma nasus
5. Chondrostoma rysela, Agassiz ^^ ^^^^^^^^ agassizii.
The least doubtful is the first, but then we must not forget that
this Carpio kollarii is the produce of two domesticated species, viz.
the Carp and Crucian Carp, and therefore that this instance per se
onJj proves that hybridism is possible in this class of vertebrate
animals. The other instances certainly need confirmation : and
nobody who looks over the list given above, will fail to remark that
in every case, the fishes said to be the parents of these hybrids, are
referred to two different genera, and are thus not the offspring of
closely allied species of the same genus, as we should expect a priori.'^
Surely there is something wrong here ! Either the genera are based
upon merely specific characters, and not entitled to that rank in our
system, or the explanation of the origin of those hybrids, and even
their hybrid nature itself becomes a matter of great difficulty. Dr.
V. Siebold himself is evidently wavering : for whilst he asserts his
conviction that the fishes are hybrids, he not only prefixes to their
descriptions the heading " characters of the species," but actually
forms two new genera, viz. Ahramidopsis for A. leuchartii, and Blic-
copsis for A. ahramo-rutilus ! Not even Heckel or Bonaparte would
have been guilty of such an inconsistency as this, and we can only
partly account for it from the author's former studies of the lower
classes of the animal kingdom, where many genera are founded upon
larval forms.
The question whether these hybrids are fertile, is not solved ;
but their sexual organs were found to be fully developed.
The discovery of the author, that there are individuals of certain
species, especially of the Salmonoids, but perhaps of all other fami-
lies, which remain sterile throughout their life, assuming with age a
form very different from that of individuals with the sexual organs
normally developed, is scientifically of the greatest importance, and
will engage Ichthyologists for some time to come. A speedy con-
firmation of it is the more wanted, as should these barren fish
occur in considerable numbers, the question would assume a practical
* Ornitliologists who call to mind the hybrids between different species of ducks,
will, perhaps, not find any thing sui'prising in this, but a genus in Ichthyology is
generally more comprehensive than one in Ornithology.
28 THE NATUEAL HISTORY REVIEW.
bearing ; for normally developed fishes feed little during tlie time of
propagation, and consequently are lean and unfit for the table im-
mediately afterwards, whilst a sterile individual continues to feed,
and therefore remains in season throughout the year.
A systematic index with short diagnoses, and three synoptical
tables showing the horizontal and vertical geographical distribution
of the eighty species described, and their spawning seasons, conclude
a work which has done a great deal to expiate the sins of its prede-
cessors, and which we particularly recommend to the Ichthyologists
of this country — not to be copied from, but to be imitated.
Y.— Huxley atjd Hawkins' Osteological Atlas.
An Elementary Atlas or Comparative Osteology. By Pro-
fessor Huxley, P.E.S. and B. Waterhouse Hawkins. "Williams
and Norgate, 1864.
The object of this work, as stated in the introductory note, is to
aid students in comprehending the general arrangement, and some
of the most important modifications of the bony framework of the
Yertebrata. The drawings are executed by Mr. "Waterhouse
Hawkins : the very important task of selecting, arranging, and
naming the parts of the objects figured is Professor Huxley's share
in the work.
There are twelve plates, folio size, drawn on stone, containing
on the average about twenty figures in each plate. The first shows the
structure of the skull of four of our commonest domestic animals,
belonging to as many diff"erent orders of mammals — viz., the dog,
pig, horse, and sheep, illustrated by views of the upper, imder and
lateral surface, as well as by a median longitudinal vertical section.
Comparison of the different objects both in this plate and in most of
the others in the work is greatly facilitated by the figures being all
drawn of the same absolute size, and also by the names of the
diff'erent elements being marked on the plate, so that no turning-over-
pages to refer to a description is required. The second plate shows
in the same manner the most characteristic differences between the
skull of man, and of the several species of apes, both of the Old and
New World. In the third and fourth plates are figured the crania
of some of the lower mammals, of birds and of reptiles ; the fifth is
PETEES' HANDBOOK OP ZOOLOGY. 29
devoted to the skulls of fishes ; the vertebrae of the different regions
of the spinal column of a mammal (wolf), a bird (ostrich), and a
reptile (crocodile) are compared and contrasted in the sixth and
seventh plates. The illustrations of the structure of the verfcebrfe are
continued in the eighth plate, together with views of some of the
principal modifications of the hyoidean apparatus in the mammal,
bird, reptile, and fish. The remaining four plates are devoted to the
osteology of the extremities. Two of these contain views of the
terminal division of the fore and hind limb of various mammals
reduced to the same absolute size, and showing in a very instructive
manner the changes in the carpal and tarsal bones, and in the number
and structure of the digits.
From this summary of the contents of the difierent plates, an
idea may be gained of the large amount of information to be
derived from this Atlas, the production of which at a comparatively
moderate price does great credit to the publishers. The drawings
are executed in a very artistic style, and with the great advantage of
the supervision and nomenclature added by Professor Huxley, they
cannot fail to prove a great boon to the student in comparative
anatomy.
VI. — Petees, Caeijs and G-eestaeckee's Handbook of Zooloqt.
Handbtjch dee Zoologie, von "W. C. H. Peters, Jul. Victor
Carus, und C. E. Adolph Gerstaecker. Zweiter Band. Leipzig,
Engelmann, 1803. 8vo, pp. 842.
It is not quite a century since the twelfth edition of the Systema
Naturae of Linnaeus made its appearance, and it would be neither
uninteresting nor uninstructive if we could have a detailed history of
the Manuals of Zoology that have been produced since that day.
The fortunate zoologists who witnessed the publication of the
Systema Naturae, could take that immortal work as the guide of
their first steps in the investigation of the mysteries of their science,
and continue to walk by its light for the greater part of their course ;
but the very progress initiated by the publication of a good system
soon did away with at least one portion of its value, and its import-
ance as a " Species Animalium" was not of long duration. "Within
little more than twenty years after the appearance of Linne's
30 THE NATURAL HISTOET EEVIE^.
twelfth edition the gigantic compilation of Gmelin showed the
world that Natural History, in its rapid progress, had already out-
grown the limits of any single book, and that thereafter the elabora-
tion of a general system of Nature, with descriptions of all the
species, was to be regarded as an impossibility. Blumenbach's
Manual is an example of an elementary systematic work, giving the
general outline of the Linnaean classification ; but within ten years
of the publication of G-melin's edition of the Systema NaturaB,
Cuvier commenced the work of innovation by the production of his
Tableau elementaire^ in which he indicated the division of the Animal
Kingdom into four groups, a system afterwards fully developed by
him in the two editions of his Regne Animale.
In all these works, as also in Lamarck's Histoire Naturelle des
Animaux sass Vertebres, an effort was made to give the characters
not only of the larger groups, but of the genera, with descriptions of
illustrative species, and many of us can recollect a time when the works
of Cuvier and Lamarck formed the chief standards to which all newly
established generic groups were referred. That time, however, has
long since passed away, and from the rapid progress of Zoology during
the last thirty years, the number of genera has increased so greatly,
that, at the present day, any attempt to include short characters of
all the genera of animals within a single book of moderate compass,
is almost as impossible as it would have been for Cuvier and Latreille
to have described all the species known to them in the five volume^
of their Btgne Animale. Many of our writers of Manuals have, accor-
dingly, abandoned the description of genera altogether, contenting
themselves with carrying their classification as low as the family
groups, and indicating, or briefly describing, typical examples of each
family. Others, again, and amongst them are the authors of the
Handbook now before us, have endeavoured to give a selection of
genera, a course of which we cannot altogether approve, — as, although
a certain number of types may, by this means, be ascertained by the
student, it is a question whether a much greater amount of usefulness
might not be attained by omitting these partial generic details, and by
devoting the space thus gained to the fuller elaboration of the structure
and life-history of the more prominent members of the larger groups.
Thus, in the work now under consideration, the generalities upon
the organisation, functions, &c., of the Classes and Orders are
reduced within the smallest compass, whilst some of the most im-
portant questions of modern Zoology, such as those relating to the
peters' handbook of zoology. 31
geograpliical and geological distribution of animals, scarcely receive
more than a passing mention.
The volume before us, which constitutes the second volume of the
book, includes those animals which formed the sub-kingdoms, An-
nulosa and Eadiata, in the Cuvierian system ; the Vertebrata and
MoUusca being postponed until the publication of the first volume.
The authors of this present volume, Dr. Gerstaecker and Professor
J. y. Carus, divide these animals into five groups, of which the first
alone, that of the Arthropoda, has been consigned to the treatment
of the former gentleman. This group is divided into the usual four
classes, Insecta, Myriapoda, Arachnida, and Crustacea, and the
description of the characters of these and of their subordinate groups
occupies considerably more than half the volume.
The classification of the Insecta will present some appearance of
novelty to the English Entomologist, as it is in accordance with the
views generally entertained by the more advanced German school.
The Apterous, or so-called Ametabolous orders are got rid of alto-
gether, being amalgamated, as originally proposed by Burmeister,
with other recognised groups ; the Strepsiptera are referred to the
order Neuroptera, and the whole series of insects is thus made to
consist of seven orders. But the most striking change to our insular
prejudices consists in the peculiar limitation of the first two orders
in Dr. Gerstaecker's classification, — the Orthoptera and Neuroptera.
The former group includes the whole of the Insecta with an imper-
fect metamorphosis and biting oral organs ; so that besides the
ordinary Orthoptera, in Latreille*s sense, we have as members of this
great order the Termites, Psoci, Perlidcd, I^pliemerida:, Dragon-flies,
and Physopoda among winged insects, and the Thysanura among the
apterous forms. The latter ought certainly to have been accom-
panied by the Mallophaga, or Mandibulate Lice, but the author has
chosen to place them with the true Lice under the Hemipterous
order, being induced to take this course by the supposed near
alliance existing between the two gi'oups, and because, as he says, by
'* their reversion to the Orthoptera, they close the circle of the Insect-
Orders" (p. 287). It seems to us that the latter purpose would have
been equally well served by placing these curious parasites in their
natural position among the Orthoptera, and their alliance to the
Pediculina appears to be one chiefly of gen-eral appearance and mode
of life.
The order Neuroptera, deprived of all the groups with an imperfect
32 THE NATUBAL HISTOET EEVIEW,
metamorpliosis, appears sadly diminislied in importance — it includes
only the Planipennia of Latreille, and the Trichoptera of English
authors, with the addition, as already stated, of the singular Strep-
sipterous Bee-parasites. The latter are regarded by Dr. Gerstaecker
as most nearly allied to the Phryganidse, with which, he says, they
*' agree in the structure of the pro thorax, the free, elongated anterior
and middle coxae, the rudimentary oral organs, of which the maxillae are
amalgamated in a similar manner with the labium, and likewise in the
radiate venation of the posterior wings," and he cites, as a further
proof of this relationship, " the branchiiform respiratory organs de-
tected by Newport on the abdominal segments of the larvse of the
Strepsiptera" (p. 79). It does not appear to us, however, that Dr.
Grerstaecker has by any means made out his case in favour of the Neu-
ropterous nature of the Strepsiptera, — the characters adduced by him
in proof of their relationship to the Trichoptera are for the most part
non-essential, and the peculiar organs noticed by Newport, upon which
Dr. Grerstaecker lays so much stress, are only supposititiously regarded
by him "as imperfect respiratory organs of the nature of branchiae."
The balance of evidence, especially that derived from the life-history
of these curious parasites, seems to preponderate greatly, as shown
by Dr. Schaum in a recent paper in Wiegmann's Archiv, in favour of
their Coleopterous nature, almost all their most striking peculiarities
being paralleled among the Coleoptera by the Meloidae.
The division of the Coleoptera into characterisable groups higher
than the natural families is certainly one of the greatest difficulties
with which Entomologists have to contend, and Dr. Gerstaecker has
been unable to get over it. He accordingly adopts the old Latreillian
divisions in accordance with the number of joints of the tarsi,
although he admits that it is liable to many exceptions in the Penta-
merous group, and brings together, under the common term Hete-
romera, the most " heterogeneous elements." In otlier respects the
author has been most fortunate in his elaboration of the analysis of
the Coleoptera, and especially in his selection of characteristic
genera, which must have been a work of no small labour in a group
so extensive.
Passing over the order Hymenoptera, our author's treatment of
which presents no peculiarity calling for special notice, we must
object strongly to his primary division of the Lepidoptera into two
groups, denominated from the general size of the species in each,
Macro- and Micro-lepidoptera. It may be true that certain charac-
peters' handbook oe zoology. 33
ters exist of sufficient value to justify the division of the Hetero-
cerous Lepidoptera into two sections, but in any classification
professing to show the natural affinities of these Insects, the Butter-
flies (Ehopalocera) may certainly claim to form a group of higher
rank than that of a family. The Diptera also are divided into sec-
tions on an unusual principle, — the true Diptera {Diptera genuina,
Gerst.), after the deduction of the Pupipara and Aphaniptera, being
formed into two groups, according as the pupa is coarctate or not.
The group with an obtected pupa includes the Tipuliform and Culi-
ciform families, with the Tdbani, Asili, Empidce, Bomhylii, and some
other families, — that with a coarctate pupa only the Mtiscidce, Si/r-
pliidce, and Stratiomyidce. The propriety of this mode of division
seems rather questionable ; tlie pupa in both sections is essentially
the same, and the circumstance of its being retained within the dried
larva-skin in the one set of forms and not in the other can hardly bo
regarded as of equal importance with the structural differences by
which the Nemocerous and Brachycerous Diptera are distinguished.
Dr. Gerstaecker's seventh and last order of Insects, to which he
gives the name of Hemiptera, includes the Ehynchota of Burmei-
ster, with the addition, as stated above, of the Mallophaga. ^he
author refers the Ploteres to the Hydrocores, which is certainly
incorrect, but in other respects the classification adopted by him,
although not satisfactory, furnishes a good general view of the insects
composing this little known order.
The treatment of the small class of Myriapoda presents nothing
to call for special notice, but in the classification of the Arachnoidea,
Dr. Gerstaecker departs widely from the principles ordinarily adopted
in the division of this class into groups. The old sections of Pul-
monary and Tracheary Arachnoids are entirely ignored by him, and
in place of them he adopts groups founded upon certain peculiarities
in the external structure. Thus his first order is denominated Arthro-
gastra, and includes all the Arachnoidea with '*a sessile and distinctly
segmented abdomen," whether they respire by means of lungs or by
tracheae. The groups thus brought together into a single order are
very heterogeneous in their character, including, as they do, the
Scorpions, Phrynidise, Pseudoscorpiones {Chelifer), Phalangida?, and
Solifugae (Solpuffa), — nay. Dr. Gerstaecker even interpolates the
Chelifers between the true Scorpions and the Phrynidae in his first
section of the order which he designates Didactyla, from the pre-
sence of didactyle nippers on the first maxillary palpi. "We cannot
N.H.R.— 18C5. D
S'i THE XATTJRAL HISTOBY EETIEW.
but think that Dr. Gerstaeeker would have done better had he
allowed more weight to those *' many essential differences" which he
admits to exist between the forms thus grouped together within the
limits of a single order, of which the nature of the respiratory organs
is the most striking, especially as these differences are reflected, or
at least accompanied, by corresponding peculiarities even in the ex-
ternal structure. His order Arthrogastra consists of essentially
incongruous elements, and we cannot expect ever to see it generally
adopted. Of the remaining orders of Arachnoidea little need be
said, — the Araneina and Acarina constitute well-marked groups, as
to the limits, of which there can be little difference of opinion, and
the only change adopted by Dr. Gerstaeeker consists in the separa-
tion from the latter of the Tardigrada and Linguatulina, of which he
makes distinct orders. The Pycnogonidae are also justly regarded by
Dr. Gerstaeeker as Arachnoidea, — he places them in a distinct order,
to which he gives the name of Pantopoda, in allusion to their being
apparently composed only of legs.
In his general arrangement of the Crustacea, Dr. Gerstaeeker
seems to us to have been particularly successful, and as this class,
from the multitude of forms which it includes, and the marvellously
varied life-history of its members, is perhaps the most important and
interesting to the experienced Naturalist of all the Arthropod classes,
and at the same time the most difficult for the student to obtain a
clear notion of, we cannot but regard it as a fortunate circumstance
that, in this Manual of Zoology, it has been treated in so philosophical
a spirit.
The orders of Crustacea recognised by Dr. Gerstaeeker are seven
in number. In the first and highest of these, under the name of
Dccapoda, he includes the whole of the Podophthalmous Crustacea,
justly considering that the Stomapoda, whilst still constituting a
subordinate group, form an essentially uninterrupted series with the
other Decapoda, from which they are distinguished by characters of
less than ordinal value. Pollowing the example of Kroyer and Spence
Bate, Dr. Gerstaeeker unites the Whale-lice to the Amphipoda,
and thus gets rid of the Latreillian order Lremodipoda, — the family
Pranizida3, including the single genus Anceus (of which the researches
of M. Hesse have shown Praniza to be only a larval and female form),
is placed in an appendix to the Isopoda, the author remarking justly
upon the singular resemblance of these curious Crustacea to the
Decapoda, which, with other peculiarities, renders it somewhat diffi-
cult to settle accurately their systematic position.
petee's handbook of zooloot. 35
The King- Crabs constitute a fourtli order, leading naturally from
the Malacostracous to the Entomostracous Crustacea, and for this
Dr. Grerstaecker adopts the name of Poecilopoda, applied by Latreille
to a heterogeneous assemblage, in which these animals figure together
with ArguluSj Caligus, Anthosoma, and several other parasitic genera.
Wliy he has rejected Latreille's term Xyphosura for the King-Crabs,
or rather sunk it into a family name does not appear ; it is certainly
the most characteristic name for the order, and the change is by no
means an advantageous one.
The fifth order, Branchiopoda, receives from our author a wider
extension than is given to it by Milne-Edwards, embracing the Fossil
Trilobites and the Cypridiform Crustacea, in addition to the Phyl-
lopoda and Cladocera of Latreille. With regard to the precise
sytematic station of the Trilobites (which Dr. Gerstaecker erro-
neously describes (p. 395) as " the oldest representatives not only of
the Anthropoda, but of all animal organisms") we certainly possess no
positive evidence, and although Burmeister's investigations have shown
that their nearest allies in existing nature are the Phyllopoda, they
nevertheless present characters which, taken in conjunction with
their limited distribution in time, would seem to justify our regard-
ing them as a distinct order. The difficulty of placing the Trilobites
in a definite position is, however, only a negative one, arising from
our ignorance of those parts from which the essential characters of
the orders are derived, but the Ostracoda have evidently presented
our author with a positive difficulty, which has interfered materially
with his definition of the order Branchiopoda — a difficulty which he
has but imperfectly got over, by assuming that the two pairs of
branchiferous footjaws in these Crustacea are in reality to be re-
garded as belonging to the series of abdominal feet. This is a point
which may be cleared up by future researches, — in the meanwhile it
is certainly better to place the Ostracoda in the same order with
the very analogous Daphnidaa, than to adopt the only other course,
that of establishing a distinct order for this small group. This
indeed is the only alternative open to us, for Dr. Gerstaecker's sixth
order, to which he restricts the term Entomostraca, must be re-
garded as a perfectly natural group. In it he includes, besides the
Copepoda, the whole of the parasitic Entomostraca of authors, form-
ing a group which it is perhaps difficult to characterise satisfactorily,
but which, from the close similarity in the young animals, and the
agreement in many important points of the life-history of its mem-
D 2
36 THE NATURAL HISTORY REYIEW.
"bers, presents all the essential marks of homogeneity. The chief
character by which the Cirripedia are distinguished from the Ento-
mostraca consists in their hermaphroditism, and Dr. Gerstaecker seems
to entertain some doubt as to the accuracy of Mr. Darwin's observa-
tions of the occurrence of " complemental males " in some species.
He adopts the opinion of Lilljeborg as to the Cirripedian nature of
the curious parasitic Sacculina and its allies, and admits them into
the system as forming a family, to which he gives the name of Suc-
toria, proposed for them by that author.
The Crustacea conclude Dr. Gerstaecker's portion of this Manual
of Zoology, which, notwithstanding some minor defects, such as
those which we have briefly indicated, has evidently been executed
with great care and with a most conscientious desire to do full justice
to his subject. It is of course easy to cavil at some portions of his
system, but we must at the same time admit that he has produced a
most successful general view of the vast series of Arthropod animals,
while the generic types described as examples of the families are
generally judiciously selected, and the chief facts- in the life-history
of the animals, especially those bearing upon systematic Zoology, are
clearly, although of course very briefly depicted.
Dr. Cams' section of the work, occupying just one-third of the
volume, strikes us as being rather slighter in its general execution ;
but when we consider the vast extent of systematic ground that he
has had to rim over in so short a space, and that the great extension
of the Arthropod section has evidently necessitated a correspondingly
increased compression of that devoted to the lower Invertebrata, we
may excuse some little shortcomings.
Dr. Cams commences his work with the Eotatoria, which he
regards as a class forming a sort of appendix to the Arthropoda, and
under any circumstances they must be looked upon as constituting a
sort of transition between those animals and the true Vermes. The
author divides the Eotatoria into eight families, out of which he
claims five as newly defined by himself, although three of them were
certainly recognised and named long since, and admitted with very-
little diflerence of contents in Yan der Hoeven's " Handbook."
The Vermes, although treated here as a primary section of the
Animal Kingdom, are not regarded by Dr. Cams as constituting a
distinct type, but only " as forms of that great series (Aunulosa)
which attains its climax in the Arthropoda." In this respect he
differs from Vogt, who even allows the Mollusca to intervene between
PETEES' HANDBOOK OF ZOOLOGY. 37
his Vermes and Arthropoda, In liis general view of tlie members
of tlae group, however, he agrees pretty closely with Vogt, except
that he excludes the Eotatoria and Gregarinae and includes Sagitta.
The Vermes, according to Dr. Carus, form five classes — naAely,
Annulata, Grephyrea, ChaBtogrfatha, Nematelminthes, and Platyel-
minthes. With regard to the first of these groups we need only say
that the author closely follows Grube in his classificatiou, and that he
has given a most careful analysis of the families and genera of the
[Ringed-worms. Here and there we find new family groups defined,
and on p. 447 Dr. Carus proposes a new provisional section, Halo-
scolecina, with two families for the reception of the problematical
genera Dero and CapiteUa and their allies.
The Gephyrea {Sipunculus and its allies) placed by many authors
with the Holothuroidea among the Echinodermata form the second
class of the Vermes in the system of Dr. Carus, who gives as his
reason for referring them to this position that " although their
organisation is not exhaustively known, the deficiency of calcifica-
tion in the skin, the absence of the aquiferous system with its
dilatable appendages, the decided bilateral symmetry, the bristles and
other characters indicate their proper position to be amongst the
"Worms." — (p. 452.) At the same time these curious creatures
present many characters incompatible with their occupying a place
even among the multifarious types of the Annelides, and perhaps the
best course that can be adopted at present, is that followed by our
author, of placing them in a distinct (provisional) group in the
immediate vicinity of the Hinged- worms. Dr. Carus divides them
into four families — namely, the Sternaspidea, Echiuridea, Sipunculidea
and Priapulidea.
The SagittcB, which have the somewhat questionable honour of
having been referred by diflerent writers to no less than three of the
great primary divisions of the animal kingdom, constitute Dr. Cams'
third class of Vermes, the Chsetognatha, It is hardly fair of the
author, however, to ascribe to the late Edward Forbes the establish-
ment of the Molluscous order Nucleobranchiata for the reception of
these puzzling creatures, considering that that group was founded
many years ago by De Blainville for the genera Carinaria and Firola,
and that those Zoologists who referred Sagitta to such a position were
led to do so by a very laudable desire to avoid establishiug a new group
for animals of which they knew next to nothing. In the present day
Zoologists are, as stated by Dr. Carus, pretty well agreed that the
38 THE NATUEAL HISTOET EEVIEW.
BaglttcB must occupy a place among the Vermes, but their precise
position is still open to discussion. It is a question, however,
whether Dr. Carus might not have done better towards pro-
ducing a clear picture of this difficult branch of Zoology, had he
divided his Vermes only into three great classes, of which the first
might include the three groups to which we have already adverted.
The differences between his Annulata, Gephyrea, and Chsetognatha
are hardly of the value of those upon which classes of animals
are generally founded, and by including the constituents of the three
groups as orders of a single class, their stronger mutual affinity as
compared with that existing between them and the parasitic Nema-
telminthes and Platyelminthes would be better expressed.
Of the former of these parasitic classes we need say but little, —
the author adopts the generally received classification of the Nema-
toid worms and follows Diesing for the most part in the subordinate
groups. But in regard to the Platyelminthes he reverts to the old,
and it seems to us erroneous, plan of including the Turbellaria
in the same class with the parasitic Trematode and Cestoid
worms, a proceeding from which we should have thought he
might have been restrained even by the difficulty which he has
evidently experienced in framing his definition of the class. The
Turbellaria are manifestly of a higher type than the Trematode
w^orms with which they are here associated, and approach in many
respects to the lower forms of the Hirudinea, most of which, like the
majority of the Turbellaria, are hermaphrodite. Moreover, in the
Turbellaria we find no trace of that complicated system of digenesis
which prevails, as far as we know, almost throughout the Trematode
and Cestoid worms, — the so-called alternation of generations in the
Nemertiua being of a very dissimilar nature.
The classification of the Turbellaria here adopted is founded upon
the systems proposed by Keferstein, Max Schultze, and Schmarda,
with the introduction of some groups established by Mr. Stimpson in
his " Prodromus," published in the Proceedings of the Philadelphian
Academy for 1857. The Trematoda and Cestodea are arranged
in accordance with the latest systematic views of Van Beneden.
It is unfortunate with respect to furnishing the student with a
clear view of the primary grouping of the animal kingdom, that the
five main sections described in this volume are represented tyjpo-
grapliically as of equal value, although three of them are regarded by
the authors as going to make up the great division of the Annulosa,
peters' handbook of zoology. 39
Tliis circumstance may be of little consequence to the advanced
student, who forms his own conclusions upon classification, and
views such books as this by the light of an intelligent criticism, but
to the beginner it must be not a little puzzling to find that groups
treated apparently as equivalent are really of very different value,
and that what is spoken of as a class in one page is subsequently
divided into classes. Thus the Arthropoda and Vermes which stand
as primary heads in this book, are regarded by Dr. Cams as sections
of the Annulosa, to which great division of the animal kingdom he
likewise refers the third main section (Echinodermata) ; and both
the Vermes and Echinodermata are mentioned as classes (pp. 422
and 485) whilst their subdivisions are also described as classes.
And again these groups appear as if equivalent to the Coelenterata
and Protozoa which follow them, but which are universally allowed
to be of higher systematic rank. It may be thought that such
remarks savour of hypercriticism, but let any one look back to the
period of his first steps in science and he will hardly be inclined to
make light of such a iault as want of method in a student's manual.
It is to be hoped in the interests of a sound zoological system, that
when the first volume of this '* Handbook" makes its appearance a
table of classification showing the true relations and subordinations
of the groups may form part of its contents. The Echinodermata
are divided by Dr. Cams into the usual four orders — viz., Holothu-
rioidea, Echinoidea, Asterioidea, and Crinoidea.
"With regard to the classification of the Coslenterata, which are
adopted here as constituting a primary division, our author difters
somewhat from the views advocated by Huxley. Eecognizing the
two types of structure represented by the Actinozoa and Hydi'ozoa
of that distinguished zoologist, he yet divides the Coelenterata into
three classes, considering the characters presented by the Ctenophora
to be of sufficient value to entitle them to rank as a distinct class.
In this he is probably right, as, notwithstanding the unmistakeable
resemblance of some of the Ctenophora to such Actinian forms as
llyantkus and Fhilomedusa, the bilateral symmetry of the body, the
nature of the tentacles when present, the peculiarities of the canal-
system, the degree of development of the nervous system, and the
ciliated paddles by which the free movements of the animals are
eftected, would seem to entitle them to rank as a group apart from
the Anthozoa. The latter arc described by Dr. Cams under the
name of Polypi, and his classification of them is founded upon that
40 THE E^ATUEAL niSTOET EEYIEW.
establislied by Milne-Eclwards in the well-lmown "Ilistoire Naturelle
des Coralliaires " except tliat he has removed the Tabulata and Eugosa
of Mihie-Edwards, chiefly formed of Eossil corals, to the place
assigned to them among the Hydrozoa by the researches of Agassiz.
In his treatment of the complicated phenomena of the life-history
of the Hydrozoa and his appreciation of their bearing upon the
system, Dr. Cams seems to us to have been very happy. His first
order consists of the Medusee (the Steganophthalmata of Forbes,
the Lucernarid^e of Huxley, less Lucernaria), his second of the Lucer-
naricBy the Calycozoa of Leuckart. For his third and last order he
adopts Yogt's name of Hydromedusae, giving it, however, a sense
very different from that in which its author used it. The Hydrome-
dusce of Dr. Carus include two groups, the Siphonophora and the
Hydroidea ; the former described in general accordance with
Professor Huxley's views, except that the main division into Caly-
cophorida3 and Physophoridae is rejected ; the latter including the
whole of the Hydroid Polypes and Naked-eyed Medusae of former
authors. Of the sexual Medusoids, whether set free from fixed
Polype-forms or produced directly from the ova of similar creatures,
an analysis is given in accordance with Gegenbaur's " System der
Medusen," but this is only preliminary to the systematic resume, in
which the author endeavours to represent the multifarious relations
of these perplexing creatures. In this the Hydroidea are divided
into two sections, Haplomorpha and Diplomorplia, the former includ-
ing those Medusoid forms (Geryonidse, Trachynemidge, ^quoreid^,
and Aeginidae) which are developed directly from the ovum without
metagenesis, — and the latter, the Polypoid forms which produce either
free sexual zooids, or attached and usually more or less Medusoid
buds. To the latter group Dr. Carus refers the Tabulate and Eugose
Corals, of course provisionally, forming with them a section to which
he gives the name of Litliydrodea ; his other sections of Diplomorpha
are called Shenotolca (Sertularian and Campanularian polypes) and
Gjjmnotolca (Tubularidae, Corynidse, with Hydra).
That there may be defects in this system can hardly be denied,
but it seems to us to approach more nearly towards the production
of a true picture of the natural relations of the Hydrozoa than any
of its predecessors.
Indeed as we approach the lower confines of the Animal Kingdom,
or of any of its great divisions, a certain difficulty of satisfactorily
classifying the objects under consideration seems always to meet us.
PETEllS' nANDBOOK OF ZOOLOGY. 41
due no doubt to a comparative multiplicity of forms with a greater
simplicity of organisation. Hence among these lower groups, nearly
every writer has his own system, and although none of these efforts
may lead to a classification at all comparable for clearness of defini-
tion with the well established gTOupings of the higher forms, we may
generally find some justification for them. Nevertheless we are
rapidly approaching to a uniformity of opinion even as to the classifi-
cation of the lowest forms of animal life, such as the Coelenterata
and Protozoa, and although each successive author may show us
some slight change of the kaleidoscopic picture, its broad and
general features remain pretty much the same.
Dr. Carus indeed in his systematic arrangement of the Protozoa
establishes one new class for the reception of JSfoctiluca, to which he
gives the name of Myxocystodea, — and in the classification of the
other forms he introduces some new groupings. His second and
third classes, consisting of the Gregarinse and Spongise, present no
peculiarity calling for remark, but in his classes of Ehizopoda and
Infusoria we find some new views. Thus the Ehizopoda form three
orders, of which the first, under the new name of Homogenea, includes
only the Poraminifera, distributed in accordance with a combination
of the systems of Carpenter and Max Schultze ; the second,
Phloeophora, is established for the Actinophryua, and the third,
Cytophora (Hackel), contains the w^hole of the Eadiolaria of J.
Miiller. The latter are arranged in accordance with Hiickel's distri-
bution, and Dr. Carus has gone so far as to give a complete analysis
of the multitudinous genera proposed by that author. "Whatever
may be the value hereafter attached to Hackel's work, this analysis
cannot but prove welcome to the working naturalist.
The presence of a nucleus and contractile vesicle in Amceha and
its allies induces Dr. Carus to remove these singular creatures from
the class of Ehizopoda, of which they have generally been regarded
as typical examples ; they constitute the first order, Atricha, of his
Infusoria. His second order, Suctoria (Clap, and Lachm.) includes
only the Acinetina, the right of which to a distinct place in the
system is, however, still disputed by Stein. The true Infusoria consti-
tute a third order, to wdiich Ehrenberg'snameCiliata is appropriated,
and a fourth gToup the Elagellata (Ehrenb.), includes several families
such as the Peridima, Yolvocicea, and Monadina, the animal nature
of which is, to say the least of it, very doubtful. The last mentioned
order is, however, inserted only provisionally.
We have thus, not without some labour, endeavoured to analyse
42
THE NATUEAL HISTORY EEYIEW,
the general classification put forward in the work before us, chiefly
with the purpose of indicating to our readers those particulars in
which it departs more or less from w^hat we believe to be the generally
received views of Zoologists. That the system adopted is open to
certain objections there can be no doubt, and the more prominent of
these have been indicated to the best of our power in the preceding
pages, but on the whole the work appears to be the best and most
complete Manual of Systematic Zoology that has yet appeared. As a
guide to classification it is superior to the excellent Handbook of
Vander Hoeven, although it is inferior to that work in copiousness
of detail as to the general organisation and developmental phenomena
of the various groups. The great space devoted to the generic
analysis has necessarily compelled the authors to compress what they
had to say upon these subjects into a comparatively small compass,
but what they do give is exceedingly good, and has evidently been
prepared with a thorough appreciation of the most recent investiga-
tions into the various departments of Zoology.
VII. — Phipson's Phosphobescence.
Phosphorescence; or, the Emission of Light by Minerals,
Plants, and Animals. By T. L. Phipson, Ph.D., P.C.S. Lon-
don : Lovell Reeve, and Co. 1862.
Towards the close of the eighteenth century, in a narrow winding
street of the old town of Bologna, a cobbler — Yincenzo Cascariolo
by name— might have been found, more intent on the pursuit of
alchemy than in making or repairing boots. While enjoying a w^alk
one Sunday evening, near the Monte Paterno, not far from the city,
he picked up a stone, w^hich, from its great weight, struck him as
peculiar, and from which he fancied he could extract gold. This
stone was sulphate of Baryta, which Cascariolo, heating in his crucible
with charcoal, converted into a sulphuret of Barium, and produced
a body well known for its strange property of giving out light after
it has been exposed for some time to the Sun's rays. Since then, other
substances have been discovered endowed with this strange property,
and from the most remarkable of them, phosphorus, the name of
phosphorescence, is derived. This phosphorescence is not, however,
confined to the mineral kingdom ; but, on the contrary, some of the
most remarkable instances of this phenomenon are found in many of
phipson's phosphorescekce. 43
the species of the animal and vegetable kingdoms ; and we could
conceive a most interesting volume being written on the various
creatures, organic and inorganic, in which this peculiar property is
found. Phosphorescence is a phenomenon familiar to all students of
nature. Even in this country, the naturalist by the sea-side recollects
the long flashes that come pouring in on the saDds, as on some warm
summer's evening he watches the waves gently breaking on the shore,
or the drops of fire that fall on the feathering of an oar. The
naturalist in this country brings to mind the glowworm, with its in-
effectual fire, or the centipede that leaves behind it a luminous trail.
He who has travelled in other lands, remembers how these phenomena
become intensified — Lucciola flying among the bushes, and Tunicates
and Hydrozoa rolling like globes of molten metal through the waves.
The Kttle volume, the name of which heads this notice, is T,n
attempt to handle this subject in a popular-scientific manner.
The first portion of the volume speaks of miiieral phosphor-
escence ; the second, of the phosphorescence of vegetables ; the
third, of the phosphorescence of animals ; and the concluding part
is devoted to some historical and practical considerations about
phosphorescence. The whole of these subjects are treated of in a
very general, and, we may as well at once say, in a very unsatisfactory
manner ; and, though many of the accounts collected together are
curious and interesting, yet there is among them but little that strike
us as new ; while there are many things that show a strange amount
of ignorance, mixed up, it is true, with a certain small amount of
knowledge.
The observations of Linneus's daughter on the common garden
ITasturtium, of Prof. Haggern on the Marigold and Orange Lilies, of
Pries on the Poppies, are all quoted as examples of phosphorescence
in flowering plants ; while the species of Ehizomorpha, the Agaricics
olearius, and others, are mentioned as instances of the same among
Cryptogams. In the chapter on the emission of light by dead animal
matter, the author alludes to a " peculiar mucus, sometimes seen
about spring, on the damp ground, near rivulets, which, from the
circumstance of its being occasionally phosphorescent at night, has
been regarded, since the middle ages, as having some connection with
the shooting-stars. This substance appears to be the "peculiar mucus"
which envelopes the ova of the frog. It swells to an enormous
volume when it has free access to water. It is swallowed by some
large crows, or other birds, and afterwards vomited, from its peculiar
44 THE NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW.
property of swelling to an immense size in their bodies." The wliole
of this account is so strange, that we confess we should have liked
a few more details, especially when we are told that the history of
this curious substance is gi\'en in the Medical Journal of Brussels
for 1855.
The chapter on the phosphorescence of the sea is perhaps the
worst in the book. Instead of giving ample details of this subject,
the author contents himself with giving a most meagre and imperfect
list of such marine animals as are known to be luminous ; and we
have the history of the Noctiluca miliaris repeated twice. [Figures of
some of the animals are given — one of Fyrosoma atlanticum, just one
inch and a quarter long, and scarcely one quarter of an inch wide is
said to represent " the entire animal magnified !" while a representa-
tion of two or three of the zooids — about the size of life, and very badly
represented — is said to be *' the phosphorescent surface of the body,
magnified about 300 diameters." We recollect not long since hearing
a popular lecturer on Zoology confounding N'octiht.ca, Fyrosoma, and
Salpa together ; the creature described was made up of thousands of
N^octiluccd ; it had i:he shape and form of Pyrosonia, and the strange de-
velopment of Saljm. We wondered, at the time, where he could have
got the idea, not believing it possible it could have been hazarded
on chance. We now think that Dr. Phipson is, perhaps, to blame
for the lecturer's errors ; because, while talking of the Noctiluca
miliaris, he proceeds to allude to and figures Pyrosoma, and says
" it belongs to the tribe of Tnnicata ; each individual resembles a
minute cylinder of glowing phosphorus. Sometimes they are seen
adhering together in such prodigious numbers, that the ocean ap-
pears as if covered with an enormous layer of molten lava." Then
comes a brief account of Salpa cristata, wherein it is stated that
they also swim adhering together in vast numbers, with a figure of
Salpa cristata, " an isolated individual," and of five Salp^e " united
as they swim." Phosphoric Infusoria are referred to, and bad figures
oi Peridinicoafusca (?) and Frorocentrtim micans are given. Appended
to the description of this latter is a foot-note, which, as it appears to
show that the author does know something about these creatures he
writes of, we quote : " It is exceedingly probable that this animalcule
will be placed among the Ehizopodes ; and the same remark may
apply to many now called Infusoria. In this microscopic class of
animals, as it undergoes fresh investigations, the species are con-
tinually being removed and placed in higher genera, families, or
phipso:j^'s phosphorescence. 45
classes. Thus the Eotifera are now classed among the Annelides.'*
If the author really knows as much of these creatures as this foot-
note would appear to indicate, how are we to account for the many-
blunders made in the portion of this volume which treats about them?
"We are so far inclined to agree with him, that we would remove ail
the non-ciliated animalcula from the group of the true Infusoria ;
but as they do not possess pseudopodia in any form, we would not
be inclined to place them among the Ehizopodes. They will probably
turn out to be either larval forms of other animals, or vegetable
zoospores. Many marine phosphorescent animals are not even
alluded to by name in this chapter. The brilliant emerald green
phosphorescence of several of the species of Nereis, that of many
of the Sertularian Hydrozoa, and several others, are passed by
without a word. Some details are given in reference to the phos-
phoric light of the earth-worms, and of the two species, electrica
and pTiospliorica of the genus Scolependra. Macartney's curious
observations on S. electrica have been lately confirmed by Dr. Stokes,
who has found this species in some numbers on the Hill of Howth,
near Dublin. A short account follows of phosphoric insects, chief
among which are enumerated the glow-worm of JSTorthern, and the
Lucciola, or fire-fly, of Southern Europe, the females of the first
apterous, and of the second winged. "We have observed that the male
of our common species — Lampyris noctiluca — shows a much more
brilliant light in Italy than what we have seen it exhibit in England
or Northern Germany ; but the light exhibited by the female is
twofold more brilliant than that of the male, or than that exhibited
by either sex of the L. Italica. There are few sights more beautiful
than, when driving along some bye-road on the plains of Lombardy,
to see the countless thousands of Lucciola flying about like wandering
stars — now here, now there, causing the hedgerows quite to rival
the heavens. On plunging several of these Eire-flies into weak
spirits, we noticed that their light shone forth Vvith vivid intensity,
but faded away in a few minutes. Nothing satisfactory is as yet
known as to the why and the wherefore of the luminosity of these
insects. The author includes the species of the genus Fulgora among
the phosphorescent insects ; we believe that as yet all the evidence
goes to prove that this genus is not luminous. The case, pro and
con, will be found detailed in a manner very pleasant to read, in the
third volume of the " Entomological Magazine," for 183G ; and we
are not aware that much information has since been obtained. The
46 - THE NATUEAL HISTOET REVIEW.
autlior says that Mr. F. Smith, of the British Museum, has rehated
to him the following anecdote, which confirms the opinion that
Fulgora is certainly luminous: "Whilst shewing these insects to
two young middys, one of them exclaimed, ' Why, look here !
these are the Candle-flies that we used to knock down with our
caps in China.'" If our friend, ]\ir. E. Smith, were to tell
us that he had seen a Fulgora emitting light, we would at once
believe him ; but we do not think the reader will believe in the fact
on such evidence as appears decisive to Dr. Phipson. In addition,
he urges that the fact must be so, as Dr. Donovan has carefully
figured these insects, and his figures show them in the act of
emitting light from the points of their peculiar proboscis. If he
had only known it, he might have also referred to the title pages of
the "Entomological Magazine" for Fulgora showing a wondrous
luminosity, 'sine me dare lumina terris.' But we doubt if, in the
discussion above referred to, Mr. Newman brought this fact forward
as conclusive.
Into the historical, theoretical, and practical considerations which
form the fourth and concluding portion of this volume, we do not
propose to enter. We cannot recommend this volume as a complete,
or even a tolerably complete, treatise on Phosphorescence. But it
nevertheless contains a compendium of facts of great interest, many
of which may be new to some of our readers.
Vin. — New Coloi^ial Eloeas.
Eloea op the Beittsh West I]s-dia:n- Islaij^ds. By A. H. E.
Griscbach, M.D., E.L.S., Professor of Botany in the University
of Gottingen. London: Eeeve and Co. 1864. 8vo. pp. 789.
Enumeeatio Plant AEiJM ZETLAi^iiE ; AN Enumeeation of Ceylon
Plants, with Descriptions or the new and little known
Geneea and Species, Observations on their Habits, Uses,
Native Names, ETC. By G. H. K. Thwaites, E.L.S., Director of
. the E-oyal Botanic Gardens, Peradenia, Ceylon ; assisted in the
identification of the species and synonymy, by J. D. Hooker,
M.D., E.E.S., &c. London : Dulau and Co., Soho Square. 1864.
Svo. pp. 483.
Dr. Geisebach's " Elora of the British West Indian Islands," is
the only work containing a complete account of the plants of any con-
NEW COLONIAL FL0EA9.
47
siderable tropical area that has ever been brought to a termination,
and as such it marks an epoch in the history of descriptive Botany.
It is the first of the Coloniairioras, published by Government, the
origin and progress of which are detailed in the vols, for 1861 and
1863 of the present work. It includes all that is known of the Floras
of Jamaica, the Bahama and Turk Islands, Virgin Isles, St. Kitts,
Nevis, Montserrat, Dominica, St. Vincent, G-renada, Antigua, Bar-
badoes, Tobago, Trinidad, and other smaller islands. Of these by far
the largest and best explored is Jamaica, containing 5470 square
miles,* and mountains of 8000 feet elevation. The Bahamas rank
next, with 5100 miles in all. They lie chiefly beyond the Tropic
(between 27° and 21^ N. Lat.), present no elevation of any importance,
and their Elora, which has not been well explored, is probably neither
rich nor varied. Trinidad has been pretty well botanized, it presents
an area of nearly 2000 square miles, and points of elevation of 3000
feet. In its climate, geographical features, and Mora, it partakes of
the characters of the neighbouring coast of Cumana, and should
perhaps rank botanicaUy rather with Venezuela, than with the
"West India Islands proper. Of the other Islands, Dominica has
been the best explored, but all want a careful botanical investigation.
It may not be the case that they will add many species to the Elora,
but they will certainly extend the known range of the species very
materially.
The main botanical features of the "West Indies are of course
tropical American, and with the exception of the slight approxi-
mation of the Elora of the most northern islands to that of the
South-Eastern American States, and the more evident affinity of that
of the southern islands with the Venezuelan, there seems to be no
very marked or contrasting subdivisions of the Elora. Still pecu-
liarities occur, which lead Dr. Grisebach to recognise five botanical
divisions in the Archipelago. He says in his preface : —
" Though reaching beyond the Tropics (N. Lat. 10° to 27°), the
"West Indian Islands present an entirely tropical character in their
vegetable productions, and the Northern Bahamas in this respect
are quite distinct from the opposite continental shore of Elorida,
from which they are separated by the Gulf stream, while Trinidad,
lying almost contiguous to the delta of the Orinoco, partakes of the
* According- to the American authority which Dr. Grisebach has followed ; but
4256 square miles, according to British maps.
48
THE KATUEAL UISTORY EEVIEV/.
Plora of Venezuela and G-uiana. Jamaica again, from its moun-
tainous cliaracter, and more dista-nt position, — most of the Leeward
Islands, from being wooded voleanos, — and the majority of the
Windward ones, with a dry climate and a low calcareous soil, form
three divisions of this tropical archipelago, which show as many
peculiarities. Thus the whole of the British West Indies, as com-
prised in this Elora, may be divided into five natural sections, eacb
with a distinct botanical character, and including the following
islands, the geographical area of which is added according to the
American almanac for 1858, and other sources.
English
Square miles.
I. 27°— 21° KL. Bahamas . . . 5420
21° Turk Islands . . 400
II. 19«— 18° Jamaica . . . 5470
III. Western Caribbean Islands (most Leeward, and
including some of the Windward Islands).
140
70
30
50
290
225
130
155
30
90
100
170
190
2000
18°
Virgin Islands
170
St. Kitts
)}
Nevis
160
Montserrat
150
Dominica
14«— 13«
St. Lucia
130
St. Vincent
120
G-renada and Grrenadillos
IV. Eastern Caribbean Islands (most Windward, and some
Leeward Isl
mds).
ISO
Auguilla
170
Barbuda
>>
Antigua
130
Barbadoes
110
Tobago
V. IQo
Trinidad
'' Thus the territory comprised may be estimated as amounting
to about 15,000 English square miles, or nearly twice as much as
the area of Wales. Haiti alone is nearly twice as largo as the whole
of the British West Indies ; Cuba surpasses them almost three
times, and this will account for the fact, that, considerable as were
the materials at my disposition, and great the exertions of so many
excellent collectors, the number of novelties in my Flora is, compa-
NEW COLONIAL FLOIIAS. 40
rativelj speaking, small, while Cuba aftords a daily increasing num-
ber of unpublislied species. Considering, at tlie same time, bow
neglected by botanists Cuba bas been, if we compare it with tbe
standard works of men like Jacquin and Swartz, tbe publications of
whom, with regard to the "West Indies, were almost confined to the
British possessions, it will appear probable, that by far the greatest
part of the plants of our territory consists of old species ; these
indeed being the foundation of our scientific knowledge of the Flora
of tropical America.
" To study these primary species and their varieties (which have
so often been misunderstood that their synonyms are far more
numerous than their numbers) to show that many of them range
through the whole of tropical America, and some even beyond its
limits, and that a considerable number of so-called geographical
species must be reduced, is an object of great systematic importance,
and this has been the aim which, during my labour, I have con-
stantly had in view."
The first remark we must make on the AYest Indian Elora is the
apparent absence of temperate American species or types on the
loftier mountains. These, as stated above, rise in Jamaica to 8000
feet, and yet, with the exception of a few naturalized plants, as
Fragaria vesca, Ranunculus repens, &c., we find scarcely any European
or North American temperate genera or species, and very few Andean
either. Indeed, of nearly 1100 West Indian genera, less than 100
(exclusive of aquatic genera) are decidedly northern, and of this
number the majority are tropical genera represented in Europe. The
more decidedly temperate genera represented in the West Indies
amount to only thirty. Of these, the most remarkable are CahiJe
(C.cequalis, a species closely allied to our C. maritima, and which
has indeed been reduced to it by A. Eichard and others) ; Drosera
(D. longifolia (3., an American form of the European plant which ranges
from Canada to South Brazil, but which, in the West Indies, has
hitherto been found only in Trinidad) ; various American species
belonging to Salicc^ Facciniumy Primus, Ruhus, Galium, Lactuca,
Sonchus, Pinguicula, Plantago, and other genera which are found in
the Cordilleras ; and lastly, a species of Allium, which ranges from
the United States to Chili. The actually European and North
American species, exclusive of water plants and sub-tropical grasses,
believed to be indigenous in the Islands, are.
N.H.R.— 1865. E
50 THE NATUEAL HISTORY EEYIEW.
Carclamine liirsuta, Leonurus Sibiricus,
Nasturtium officinale, Drosera intermedia, /3.,
Sonohus asper, J uncus tenuis,
oleraceus, Oxalis corniculata,
Plantago major, /3.,
of which several are possibly introduced, and most of the rest are
weeds of wide dispersion.
Whether the lofty mountains of Cuba and Haiti present a larger
assemblage of JSTorthern forms, we do not know ; the Mexican Alps
certainly do, and as there is a marked affinity between the more
peculiar vegetation of the Blue Mountains of Jamaica and the
Mexican Alps, on the one hand, and the New Grrenada ranges on the
other, it may prove that there has been an ancient geological con-
nection between these regions, previous to that cold epoch which
favoured the migration of Northern forms across the Tropics which
Mr. Darwin so plausibly advocates. Be this as it may, the almost
total absence of typical North American plants in the West Indies,
is perhaps the most singular feature in the whole Flora, one that
is incompatible with their having shared in the effects of a glacial
migration.
On the other hand, it may be argued that the difference between
the temperature of the islands, and of even the warmest of the
North American States, is so great, that this alone may have expelled
what Northern plants once inhabited the islands. In favour of this
view, it must be stated, that it is difficult to conceive greater contrasts
of climate within equally small distances than obtain between the
Bahamas and Florida. This, as is well known, is due to the influence
of the Gulf stream, which, where it impinges on the American
Coast, does not raise its winter temperature much, but which, bathing
even the northernmost Bahama Islands off the Floridan coast, raises
their winter temperature to that of the tropics.
As to the extent to which this induced climate may have affected
the Northern plants, we can only judge by observing its effects upon
such as have been introduced by the agency of man. Of these, a
small proportion ha-se run wild, or become naturalized ; and it may
be worth while to devote a short space to the consideration of them.
Fortimately Dr. Grisebach has most carefully discriminated between
the truly naturalized species and occasional escapes, and thus enables
us to extract the following information from the body of his work : —
In the British West Indies the naturalised species amount to less
XEW COLONIAL FLORAS.
51
than 150 out of tlie 3055 flowering plants ; a very small proportion
considering how long the Islands have been not only colonised, but
under cultivation, and how extensive and of how long duration the
intercourse between these Islands and both Europe and Africa has
been. If we arrange these under the Continents to which they
are severally indigenous, another remarkable fact appears, viz., that
the numbers contributed by each Continent are almost exactly in an
inverse ratio to what would a jyriori have been assumed. They are
as foUows : —
African
American
European
Asiatic
13 species.
17 „
31 „
85
Over and above these, there are some 250 species which are common
to the three tropical Continents of America, Africa, and Asia, and
some of which may have been introduced, but being chiefly littoral
plants, or annual weeds, that have with equal probability been diff'used
by natural agencies over them all, they have been regarded as indi-
genous in all. With these we have here nothing to do at present.
To begin with the African species, the most important are those
which have been introduced for food or commercial purposes.
They are
Coflee
Oil-Palm
Tamarind
Akee ....
Grroundnuts .
Calabash, or American nutmeg
Henna
The others are an Aloe, Capparis, Cassia, TepTirosia, and two species
of Acacia.
The American naturalised plants of Economic value are
Cherimolia . . . Anona Cherimolia.
Coffea Arabica.
Elaeis Guineensis.
Tamarindus Indica.*
Blighia sapida.
Arachis hypogsea.
Monodora Myristica.
Lawsonia inermis.
Tobacco
Sweet potato
Coco-nut
Maize .
Pine Apple
Nicotiana Tabacum.
Ipomea Batatas.
Cocos nucifera.
Zea Mays.
Aoanassa sativa.
* Which is indigenous nowhere in Asia.
E 2
52
THE IfATXJEAL HISTORY REVIEW.
The otters are, almost without exception, garden plants that have
been introduced for ornament. *
Asia supplies
Nutmeg
Ben- oil
Castor-oil
Jews' Mallow
Orange .
Lemon .
Citron .
Shaddock
Lime
Bread fruit
Club Wood
Mango .
Cassia pod
Senna .
Native Almond
Indigo .
Dhal or Pigeon Pea
Jute
Clove .
Otaheite Apple
Malay or Eose Apple
Jambolana
Cinnamon
Mankuda
Kauki .
Sesamum
Cocoe, or Eddoes, or Bleed-
ing Heart
Bamboo
Chinese corn
Sugar cane
Job's Tears
Balsam Apple
Cerasee
Bottle Gourd
Towel Gourd
Yams .
Plantains and Bananas
Ginger
Myristica moschata.
Moringa pterygosperma.
Eicinus Palma-Christi.
Corchorus olitorius.
Citrus Aurantium.
Citrus Medica var.
Citrus Medica var.
Citrus decumana.
Citrus Aurantium var.
Artocarpus incisa.
Casuarina equisetifolia.
Mangifera Indica.
Cassia Pistula.
Cassia obovata.
Terminalia Catappa.
Indigofera tinctoria.
Cajanus Indicus. .
Crotalaria juncea.
Caryophyllus aromaticus.
Jambosa Malaccensis.
Jambosa vulgaris.
Sizygium jambolanum.
Cinnamomum zeylanicum.
Morinda citrifolia.
Mimusops Kauki.
Sesamum orientale.
Colocasia esculenta.
Bambusa vulgaris.
Setaria italica.
Saccharum officinarum.
Coix Lachryma.
Momordica charantia.*
Momordica Balsamina.
Lagenaria vulgaris.*
LufFa acutangula.*
Dioscorea alata and triphylla.
Musa Sapientum and Paradisiaca.
Zingiber officinarum.
* Those marked with an asterisk are undoubtedly of Asiatic origin, though not
so stated in the Flora.
NEW COLONIAL FLORAS.
63
The remaining Asiatic naturalized plants are chiefly garden
shrubs, as Jasmines and Ixoras, together with a very few weeds.
Of the European naturalized plants, the great majority are
escapes from gardens, that have established themselves here and
there, very few being generally diffused. As, however, they are
almost without exception British species, it may be interesting
to euumerate them, which we shall do under two heads.
1. Plants introduced for food or pasture, or other economic pur-
Cress .
Lepidium sativum.
Purze .
Ulex EuropaDus.
White Clover .
Trifolium repens.
Creeping do. .
T. filiforme.
Vetches
Yicia sativa.
Lentils
E^vum hirsutum.
Strawberry
IVagaria vesca
Parsley
Petroselinum sativum.
Parsnip
Pastinaca sativa.
Carrot
Daucus Carota.
Pomegranate .
Punica Grranatum.
2. Introduced accidenta
ly, or for ornament.
Creeping Crowfoot
Eanimculus repens.
Small flowered ditto
par\dflorus
Hedge Mustard
Sisymbrium officinale.
Shepherd's Purse
Capsella Bursa.
Hearts' Ease
Viola tricolor.
Purple Spurge
Euphorbia Peplus.
Erench Catch-fly
Silene gallica.
Mouse-ear Chickweed .
Cerastium viscosum. .
Nettle-leaved Groosefooi
} Chenopodium murale.
White ditto
— album.
Mountain Crane's bill
Geranium Pyrenaicum.
Nipple-wort
Lapsana communis.
Dandelion
Taraxacum dens-leonis.
Centaury
ErythrsDa ramosissima.
Thyme-leaved Speedwe
[1 Veronica serpyllifolia.
Yellow Toad-flax
Linaria vulgaris.
Corn Wound-wort
Stachys arvensis.
Prunella
Prunella vulgaris.
Donax Cane
Arundo Donax.
Brome Grass .
Bromus sterilis.
The European list is certainly a remarkable one for a thoroughly
54 THE JfATURAL HISTORY EEYIEW.
tropical climate, showing as it does that many of the common weeds
of our own country have the power of establishing themselves under
climatic conditions so very different from our own. Some of the
species are, it is true, confined to the upland districts of Jamaica ;
but even here the mean annual temperature is high compared with
any part of Northern Europe, and the extreme temperatures very
feebly contrasted.
Turning to the elements of the indigenous British West Indian
Flora (exclusive of Cryptogams), these may be roughly classed into
the Endemic and non-Endemic, the former being quite one-third of
the whole ; about 1030 out of 3050 being hitherto found only in the
West Indian Islands (British and others). No doubt a certain number
of them will yet be discovered on the main land of America ; but, on
the other hand, probably a more than counterbalancing number of
Endemic species remain to be discovered in the Islands. Whether
this proportion represents the Endemic character of the w^hole West
Indian Elora or no, it is impossible to say. Cuba and Haiti will no
doubt add enormously to the number of peculiar plants ; but on the
other hand, such islands as Curacoa and Tobago must contain a
large proportion of continental species not found in any of the other
Islands. Meanwhile, we are glad to learn, that Dr. Grisebach pro-
mises us a work on the distribution of the whole Elora of the West
Indies, as far as is known, which will, no doubt, throw great light
on the precise relation between the Floras of the several Islands and
between these and the neighbouring parts of the Continent.
Let us now briefly consider this Flora, and compare it with that
of other tropical countries. Of the above 2000 indigenous species
(or thereabouts), which are common to the West Indies and other
countries, 1750 are American exclusively, and about 250 are also
natives of the Old World. The latter is a surprisingly small number,
considering the great similarity that pervades the vegetation of
most tropical littoral climates, and observing how readily so many
Asiatic and African trees and shrubs have become naturalized in the
islands after being introduced by man.
When again these 250 extra- American plants are divided into
African and Asiatic, another curious fact appears, viz., that notwith-
standing the proximity of the West Indies to Africa, and the constant
traffic between these countries for upw^ards of three centuries, there
are actually fewer plants common to the West Indies and Africa
SLW COLONIAL fLORAS. ^O
than there are to the West Indies and Asia ; the approximate numbers
being, of the former 210, and of the hitter 220. Of the aggregate
number, upwards of 200 are common to Africa and Asia, leaving a
very few common to Africa and the AVest Indies, and not hitherto
found in Asia. Of these the following are, as being large trees, the
plants of most interest in this inquiry : —
American trees that have migrated to Africa ; or vice versa.
Carapa Gruianensis.
Paullinia pinnata.
Loncbocarpus sericeus.
Drepanocarpus lunatus.
Hecastophyllum Brownii.
Andina inermis.
Chrysobalanus Icaco.
Of these seven, four belong to one Natural Order, Leguminosm,
and most of these, together with probably all the rest, are more or
less littoral plants.
Under whatever light we regard this fact, it appears a very strong
argument against their being much oceanic and aereal transport of
seeds between the tropics of the Eastern and Western worlds ; and,
coupled with the no less remarkable counter-fact, that there are many
more marked points of affinity between the Floras of the extra- tropical
regions of America and Africa (though these are so very much more
distant geographically), than between the tropical Floras of these
countries, it would at first-sight appear to throw us back upon an-
cient continental extension, to accouat for much of the community of
vegetation, which we do find to exist between the tropics of the Old
and New Worlds. But sufficient ancient continental extension demands
incalculable time to account for ; and one effect of this, if granted,
must be great specific and even generic change on the descen-
dants of the species that lived on the common continent. The
question, therefore, next to be asked is, whether there is greater
generic affinity between the West Indies and Africa, than between
the West Indies and Asia? Here again we 'are baffled, there being
only 50 genera common to the former case, but 53 in the latter ! ;
besides which, there are a considerable number of large and impor-
tant Natural Orders common to the West Indies and xisia, that are
almost wanting, or comparatively very rare, in tropical Africa ; such
are LaurinecB, IlagnoUacece, Ilgristicece, Ilicinece, Guttiferce, Buta-
cece, Gesneriacece, Vacciniece, ConifercB, Orchidece, Falmece, PiperacecB.
6Q
THE NATUKAL HISTOKT EEYIEW.
It is evideut from these considerations, that tropical Africa and
America have borrowed little of one another within the period
of the creation of the forms of plants now inhabiting each, —
that the differences between these Floras are so gi-eat, that it is
doubtful whether at any time there has been much community of
vegetation,— and that the hypothetical modern Atlantic continent,
which Heer assumes to have existed in the North Atlantic, and to
have connected Europe and North America, cannot have extended
to the south of the Tropic of Cancer.
If, on the other hand, we compare tropical Africa with tropical
Asia, we find, 1, a vast amount of specific and generic identity;
2, an absence in Africa of any great or peculiar group, that is
not also Asiatic ; and 3, an absence in Africa of many of the great
groups that are characteristic of Asia. The sum of these facts
amounts to fair evidence, that tropical Africa was peopled by plants
from tropical Asia, and that within a comparatively modern epoch.
Up to the present time we have no sufficient data for comparing tropi-
cal Africa, generically even, with America beyond the West Indies,
and until this is done, it would be rash to speculate upon the means
whereby the few plants common to tropical Africa and the West
Indies have been transported from the one to the other ; or why it
is that there should be so many Orders common to America and Asia,
that are scantily represented, or totally absent in tropical Africa.
Turning now from these points of difference between the Floras
of the Old and New Worlds to those of similarity, a comparison of
the contents of Dr. Grisebach's Flora with those of Mr. Thwaites'
enumeration, gives some curious results.
In the first place, the number of Natural Orders is almost pre-
cisely the same in both areas, viz., 156 in Ceylon, and 152 in the
West Indies ; and the Ordersf themselves are to a great extent the
same ; the Orders not represented in both being, with the exception
of six, either small or feebly represented. These are the following : —
I^resent m
the West Indies, hut
I Ceylon.
ORDERS.
PapavcraceaB .
Sauvagesiacese
GEN.
2
1
SPEC.
2
1
Present in Ceylon, hut ahsent in
the West Indies.
ORDERS. GEN. SPEC.
BerberidesB . . 1 1
*Tamariscineaj . 1 1
t The respective authors have sh'ghtly different opinions as to the limits of
some of the Orders, but these are here reduced to the same standard.
NEW COLONIAL FLOEAS.
57
*Ganellaceae .
. 2
2
Elatinese
. 1
2
*Marcgraviacese . 3
4
Lineae
. 2
3
Chrysobalanej
*Papayace8e
*Turiierace8e .
e . 4i
10
3
6
*Dipterocarpese
*Aurantiaceae
GeraniacesB
. 8
. 12
. 1
10
19
1
Loasese
1
*Balsamine8B
* 2
22
*Cyrille9e
Myoporineae
Juglandese
1
1
1
*Pittospore8B
Corneas
Yalerianeae
. 1
. 1
. 1
2
2
1
MyricesB
*Grarryace8e
Lacistemese
1
1
1
Dipsacese
*Stylidieae
*Salvadoreae
. 1
. 1
. 1
1
1
1
Saliceae
1
*Jasmineas
. 1
7
Conifers
5
Orobancheae
. 2
6
IridesD
3
Santalaceae .
. 3
2
Hsemodoracese
1
ElaBagneaD
. 1
1
*B romeliacese
! 13
37
*Nepenthacese
TriuridesB
*Apostasiacea3
, 1
. 1
. 1
1
1
1
Therefore tlie sum of tbe Ordinal differences between two spots
in the tropics of the Old and New World respectively, and containing
together upwards of 2000 genera and 5000 species is represented by
only about 82 genera and 200 species.
If again we seek to ascertain the extent to which the dominant
Orders are represented in each, we find a further great and remarkable
uniformity. More than half the Flowering plants belong to eleven
Orders in the case of the West Indies, and to ten in that of Ceylon,
whilst with but one exception the Ceylon Orders are the same as
the "West Indian, and they follow in nearly the same sequence in each
country.
West Indies
Ceylon.
(Of total 3500 species.)
(Of total 2400 species.)
1. LeguminosaB .
262
1. Legiiminosae .
196
2. Orchideae
226
2. GramineaB .
168
3. Eubiaceae
173
3. Orchideas
146
4. G-ramineaB .
160
4. EubiaceaB
168
5. Compositse .
. 160
5. Cyperaceae .
133
6. Euphorbiaceae
. 118
6. EuphorbiaceaB
121
7. Cyperaceae .
. 107
7. Acanthaceae.
82
8. Melastomaceae
. 103
8. Compositae .
70
9. Urticeae
69
9. Urticeae
59
10. Solanese
67
10. Melastomaceae
52
11. Convolvulaceae
64
* The species in each column marked with an asterisk, are confined (in the
tropics) to the Old and New Worlds respectively.
58
THE NATURAL IIISTOEY EEYIEW.
Tropical Africa, according to the data published twenty years
ago, in tne Niger Flora, differs little in its ten dominant Orders,
and their sequence fromr Ceylon ; and lastly, to show that this
uniformity is not accidental, we have taken the figures from Miquel's
riora of the Dutch East Indian Islands, which also includes a good
many Continental Asiatic plants.
TEOPICAL AERICA.
MIQUEL S FLORA.
1. Leguminosae
. 264
1. Leguminosae.
. 632
2. EubiacesB
159
2. Orchideae
. 616
3. G-ramineee .
152
3. EubiaceaD
594
4. Compositse .
82
4. Gramineae .
. 430
5. CyperacesB .
74
5. Urticeae
412
6. Acanthaceae
61
6. Euphorbiaceae
268
7. Euphorbiacese
55
7. Cyperaceae .
262
8. Convolvulacese
45
8. Acanthaceae .
257
9. Malvaces3
55
9. Compositse .
250
0. Urticeae
35
10. Melastomacae
224
•Again, of the 110 Orders, common to Ceylon and the British
"West Indies, only 37 are so unequally represented as to contain in
one country double the number of species which the other contains.
They are the following : —
Majority in West Indies.
Samydese.
Malvaceae.
Buttneriaceae.
Malpighiaceae.
Eutaceae.
Melastomaceae.
Onagrarieae.
Passifloreae.
Caeteae.
Compositae.
Lobeliacese.
Ericeae.
Myrsineae.
Boragineae.
Solaneae.
Begoniaceae.
Gresneriaceae.
Yerbenaceae.
JSTyctagineae.
Begoniaceae.
Piperaceae.
Palmeae.
Amaryllideae.
Musaceae.
Majority iti Ceylon.
Dilleniaceae.
Anonaceae.
Menispermeae.
Bixineae.
Olacineae.
Ampelideae.
Bosaceae.
Rhizophoreae.
Styraceae.
Ebenaceae.
Acanthaceae.
Eestiaceae.
Liliacete.
The following Orders are singularly equally represented in each :-
"West Indies. Ceylon.
Magnoliace.TB .
Nymph aeacese .
Cruciferae
Tiliaceae
Ternstroemiaceae
Guttiferse
1
3
5
19
7
14
1
3
4
21
6
18
NEW COLONIAL FLOEAS.
59
Erythroxyleae .
6
4
Sapindacese .
31
•25
Meliaceae
13
14
Oxalidese
* 5
5
Oclinaceae
5
5
Hippocrateaceae
6
7
Chailletiaceae .
1
1
Ehamnese
9
12
Terebinthacesa
17
22
Connaraceae .
4
4
Lythrariese
9
12
Homaliniese .
1
1
Araliacese
7
5
UmbelliferaB .
6
9
Loranthacese .
22
19
Caprifoliaceae
2
3
Lentibularineae
10
8
Sapotaceae
23
17
OleioeaB
6
7
Asclepiadeae .
28
33
Gentianese
20
19
Labiatse
33
39
Amarantacese
25
26
Laurineae
28
30
Thymeleae
5
5
EupborbiaceaB
118
121
Cycadeae
2
2
Aroideae
29
25
Xyrideae
4
4
ScitamineaB
26
32
550
569
It would be wortb inquiring to what longitudes tbis similarity of
vegetation is confined within tbe tropics. We know that no such Or-
dinal uniformity exists between the vegetation of extratropical Africa
and South America, nor between that of either of these countries and
extratropical Australia ; and we also know that the Floras of the Me-
diterranean Eegion and the Southern American States, and those of
middle Europe and the Northern American States, differ more than
those of Ceylon and the West Indies in their Ordinal relations. This is
a most interesting subject in relation to the hypothesis of an intertro-
pical cold epoch, such as Mr. Darwin demands for the migration of the
Northern Elorato the Southern hemisphere, and which epoch, occur-
ring (as it must have occurred) since the creation of most of the exist-
ing temperate species, must have destroyed a great part of the pre-ex-
60 THE NATURAL HISTOEY EEVIEW.
istent Tegetation of the Tropics, obliging us to regard the majority
of existing tropical plants as modern creations compared with the
temperate. "With ourselves it is a matter of doubt whether the
vegetation of the Tropics (exclusive of the temperate regions of its
mountains) is richer generically and specifically than that of the
Temperate zones. If it should prove to be richer, it presents a grave
difficulty in the way of Mr. Darwin's hypothesis, and one which he
may perhaps best obviate by showing that, owing to the struggle of
life being greater in intertropical regions, and the greater activity
of the subsidiary agencies (such as rapid development of vegetable life,
insects and the elements that tend to hasten change), there has been
a more rapid process of difterentiation and selection. There will still,
however, be the difficulty of accounting for the uniform distribution of
Genera and Orders over the Tropics of the Old and New World,
without any obvious means of transoceanic migration between them.
The last point to which we shall allude in the West Indian Flora
is the astonishing number of Ferns it contains. Dr. Grisebach
adopts Sir W. Hooker's moderate estimate of the value of specific
characters, and according to it enumerates no less than 340 species (ex-
clusive of 23 Lycopodiacece). Considering the area of the two islands
which contain almost the whole of them, viz. Jamaica and Trinidad,
this number is enormous. Ceylon, a very rich country, contains
205 species and 14 Lycopodiacece. Jamaica alone contains 290 Terns
and 17 Lycopodiacece.
In Mr. Thwaites' Enumeratio Plantarum Zeylanise, we have a
work whose modest title covers a great amount of most accurate
botanical matter, which will prove of the greatest use to the Indian
as well as to the Cingalese Botanist. It comprises the Flowering
plants and Ferns of .one of the richest tropical islands in the world,
perhaps the very richest, considering its area and elevation ; and one
which derives an additional interest from being the first the Flora of
which was published in a systematic form, and this too by the great
Linnseus.
The number of species described by Linnseus in 1757 as indige-
nous to Ceylon was 657. Mr. Thwaites enumerates no less than 2832,
which might be considerably enlarged by those who take a narrower
view of specific limits than he does. On this subject the author says
in his preface, " Care has been taken not to multiply species unne-
cessarily, for observation has shown that the amount of variation is
often considerable in plants, affecting a large range of station, and
KE^V COLONIAL FLORAS. 61
consequently of climate. Instances occur, as in the genera Hortonia,
Mappia, Turpinia, Mwnt/mus, Elceodendron, in wliicli a more elevated
locality produces a form or variety possessing a stouter habit and
larger flower than are observed in the same species -when growing
only a little above the level of the sea. These forms or varieties
would probably be viewed by some botanists in the light of distinct
though closely allied species, and they occupy, in fact, that debatable
ground the difficulties and perplexities of which the practical natural-
ist alone knows, and which, in the opinion of many (and I may include
myself among the number), are only to be got rid of by the adoption
of the views enunciated by Mr. Darwin as regards the relationship
of alKed forms or species by descent from a common ancestor."
Owing partly to our ignorance of the extent of the Moras of
other tropical islands, and partly to the different estimates of specific
limits entertained by different authors, it is not possible to com-
pare the Ceylon Mora accurately with that of any other tropical
island, except that of Jamaica, which, as we gather from Grisebach's
Flora of the British "West Indies, contains about 1092 species of
flowering plants. The latitudes, areas, and elevations of these islands
respectively are —
Latitude. Area. Elevation. Gen. Sp.
Jamaica 18° N. 4256 miles 8000 ft. 735 1840
Ceylon 6— 10° N. 24,600 „ 8300 „ 933 2832
This comparison would not be, however, a good one, for Jamaica
presents little variation of climate beyond what the elevation of the
Blue Mountains afford. In Ceylon, on the other hand, Mr. Thwaites
tells us that much of the variety of its vegetation is due to the great
difference of climate which the island presents. The southern part
possesses a humid very hot climate, equable temperature, and consi-
derable rainfall. The northern portion is hot and dry, being screened
by the hilly interior from the rainy south-west monsoon, and enjoys
but a short rainy season. The mountainous interior again presents
a considerable tract of cool very rainy districts. Hence, as Mr.
Thwaites remarks, the vegetation of the humid south is akin to that
of Sumatra and the Malay Archipelago. That of the dry northern
districts is identical wdth that of the Coromandel Coasts, and of the
hilly interior with the Neilgherrie Mountains.
It is to be hoped that on some future occasion Mr. Thwaites will
enter fully into the subject of the relations of the vegetation to the
climate, and tell us how far he thinks the presence in Ceylon of
G2 THE NATURAL IITSTORT REVIEW.
the plants of the several countries he cites as having analogous
climates, maj be accounted for by favouring climate alone. AVith
regard to the peopling of the northern districts by Coromandel
plants, few naturalists would, in the present state of geological
belief, deny that the immigration of these may have taken place
before the severance of Ceylon from the great Western Peninsula
of India ; and as the large Indian mammals of the island could only
thus have found their way across, it is reasonable to suppose that the
plants did so too. To account thus, however, for the generic and
almost specific identity of the mountain temperate Flora of Ceylon
with that of the Neilgherries, 400 miles distant, is not so easy, and,
except a great lowering of temperature be assumed, demands not
only continuous land, but a continuous mountain chain. In this
case the small size of many of the seeds of the plants, common to
both mountain-ranges, and other circumstances connected with their
facility of transport, (direct by currents, or indirect by birds, &c.)
must also be taken into account.
Far more curious and suggestive, however, than the similarity of
the northern and mountain Floras of Ceylon, with those of Coro-
mandel and the Neilgherries, is the relation of the Southern Ceylon
Flora with the Malayan. This which alone would furnish materials
for a most interesting discussion is evidenced by the presence of gigan-
tic trees of DipterocarpecB^ of which Order Ceylon contains 8 genera
and 42 species, while in continental India there are probably not one-
sixth of that number; by the presence of Cycas BumpTiiii^ and by a
great many representative and identical species, scattered through
many Natural Orders. There is also a most curious relation established
between Madagascar and tropical Africa and Ceylon by means of a
species of Cacteae, Bhipsalis Cassytha, the only plant of its Order
found beyond the limits of America, by AngrcBcum and sundry other
plants; to which must be added, by way of negative evidence the
absence of Conifers and CupuliferaB in both countries.
Our limits prevent us going further into detail as to the contents
of Mr. Thwaites' volume, which we the less regret, from believing it
to be only a precursor to a general Flora of the island, in which he
will doubtless expatiate upon these and kindred topics.
"We should like too to have carried out our comparison between
Ceylon and the "West Indies, and show all the points in which they
* Discovered by Mr. Thwaites wliilst the last part of his work was passinc
through the j)ress
2sEW COLONIAL FLORAS.
63
contrast, but we must confine ourselves to the most prominent, and
that is the very intimate relationship subsisting between the Cinga-
lese vegetation and that of the temperate zone to the northward of
it. The West Indies, as we showed, have not on their mountains any
temperate North American types ; Ceylon, on the other hand, though
its mountains are no higher and are situated much nearer the
Equator, presents many Northern and even European plajii»i-— -O
these the most remarkable are
Of Genera.
Thalictrum.
Anemone.
Eanun cuius.
Berberis.
Sinapis.
Cardamine.
Nastiu'tium.
Viola.
Drosera.
Stellaria.
Cerastium.
Linum.
Hypericum.
Geraniaceae.
Eubus.
Potentilla.
Poterium.
Helosciadium.
Pimpinella.
Heracleum.
Yiburnum.
Galinmi^^ ^^^ ^
ValeriaikolLIBRARYlaj
DipsacuL^V '^t^"^, /^
Bidens. V^Jv^ ^ _
Sonchus. V^>^AS3;
Doronicum.
Campanula
Yaccinum.
Gaultheria.
Bhododendron.
Lysimachia.
Ligustrum.
Gentiana.
Pedicularis.
Scutellaria.
Teucrium.
Elseagnus.
Arum.
Asparagus.
Allium.
Avena.
Of Species.
Stellaria media.
Tamarix gallica.
Oxalis corniculata.
Agrimonia Eupatoria.
Alchemilla vulgaris.
Sanicula Europsea.
Bupleurum falcatum.
Artemisia vulgaris.
Here then we have in Ceylon no less than 57 genera (out of 933)
which are all European, in contrast to 30 (out of 1091) in the West
Indies; and 15 Northern species in Ceylon, in contrast to 9 in the
West Indian highlands.
Mentha arvensis.
Calamintha Clinopodium.
Plantago major /3.
Chenopodium murale.
Juncns glaucus.
Brachypodium sylvaticum.
Triticum repens.
64 THE NATURA-L HISTORT RETIEW.
IX. — Eepoet on Sexuality in the Lower CEXPToaAMiA.
It was at first intended in this Eeport to have recapitulated the
principal discoveries with regard to sexuality in the Cryptogamia
generally ; but two reasons suggested themselves against the adoption
of this course : — one was the great length to which the report must
have been extended ; but the other and principal reason was, that the
main facts with regard to the sexuality of the Higher Cryptogamia
are already accessible to the English reader in the Eeport of the late
Professor Henfrey to the British Association in the year 1851, and
in the translation of Dr. Hofmeister's Treatise on the Higher Crypto-
gamia, published by the Eay Society in 1862.
This Eeport has, therefore, been limited to what are usually
styled the Lower Cryptogamia, viz., the Lichens, Fungi and Algae.
The Lichens may be disposed of in a few words — for our know-
ledge as to their sexuality may really be said to be nil. The function
of the small bodies called *' speronatia,^ (which are so very generally
present in special conceptacles on the thalli of Lichens), does not
appear to be fecundative as has been supposed by some botanists ;
and the notion of their being male organs is now, we believe, very
generally abandoned, although Dr. Stitzenberger, in the Eatisbon
Flora for 1862, speaks of them as " mannliche Befruchtungsorgane."
"We must, however, mention Karsten's recent statements with
regard to Coenogonium Andini.
At the end of his essay on Parthenogenesisare to be found some
observations on the development of the apothecia in that Lichen,
which, if correct, would show that the latter originate in a free cen-
tral cell, contained in an organ similar to the archegonia of the
higher cryptogams. This central cell he states to be impregnated in
a manner almost exactly similar to what occurs in ColeocJicBte and
Saprolegnia amongst the Algse. If Karsten's observations were to
be relied upon, the problem of sexuality in the Lichens would have
been solved, for it could hardly be doubted that what was alleged to
have been seen in Ccenogonium would speedily have been discovered
in other Lichens, when observers were put upon the track. Kar-
sten's observations, however, have not been confirmed by any other
botanist ; and Dr. Schwendener, in the Flora for 1862, meets them
with a positive contradiction. We have not space to give more than
Dr. Schwendener's concluding remarks ; but he says : " Whether the
SEXUALITY I:N^ THE LO^ER CEYPTOQAMIA. 65
" mother-cells of the spores or some other cells are impregnated, is a
" question still unsettled, and which ^Yill probahly occupy many an
" observer until the right solution is arrived at. As matters stand
*'at present, however, the assumption of an impregnation of the
" young asci is the most probable one. It is easily seen that in many
" apothecia, tolerably wide canals lead down from the upper surface
" of the lamina proligera to the apex of the asci ; and moreover,
" that the membrane of the older asci exhibits at this spot (which is
** usually thickened and gelatinous), a pore, which traverses the inner
" layers, extending often as far as the so-called primary membrane.
" May it not be suspected that these circumstances have some con-
" nexion with the impregnation ?"
We cannot venture to say yes or no to this inquiry : the question
remains an enigma for Lichenologists, and we now pass on to the con-
sideration of the Fungi.
The speculations as to the existence and nature of the sexual
organs of Fuugi have been numerous, and of the most various kind.
It would be merely a matter of historical curiosity to follow out the
diiferent suggestions which have from time to time been made, and
we would refer those who wish to acquaint themselves with the
literature of the subject to the 9th chapter of Tulasne's *' Selecta
rungorum Carpologia." Of all the speculations above referred to,
that which held its ground the longest, and which is as old as the
time of Micheli, is the theory which attributed sexual functions to
the so-called " cystidia," which are large overgrown vesicles occurring
upon the gills of many of the Agaricini, as well as upon Boletus. The
idea of the sexuality of these organs has been supported by Bulliard
and (long after him) by Klotzsch ; but of recent writers, Corda has
been the most decisive in its favour. He called the organs in ques-
tion antliericUa or pollinaria, and considered each of them equivalent
to a pollen-grain : he thought that a granular fluid emerged from
their apices, the diifusion of which stimulated the formation of spores.
He was of opinion that the antheridia differed so much in their struc-
ture and partial distribution from the paraphyses of the Ascomj'-cetes
that the two could not have the same function. Phoebus,* on the
other hand, alleges that the cystidia are a peculiar kind of altered
paraphyses or basidia, and that although they are more often absent
from the Agaricini than paraphyses are from the ascophorous stratum
* Nova Acta, vol. xix. and Deutschland's Kryptogamische, Gift-gewachse.
N.H.R.— 1865. r
66 THE KATTJEAL HISTORY EEYIEW.
of the Discomycetes, still that they serve the same purpose of pro-
tecting the shorter fertile basidia with which they are mixed. M. de
Seynes, in his recent work, " Essai d'une Flore mycologique de la
region de Montpellier et du Gard," has some remarks upon the nature
of the cystidia which deserve careful consideration. He describes
the cystidiiim as a cell generally larger than the basidium, and which
varies much in its form : growing from the parenchyma at the same
level, as, or rather below, the other elements of the hymenium, it
protrudes sometimes as a simple barren cell of somewhat larger size
than the others, sometimes in the shape of a more or less elongated
cone, sometimes bearing a small sphere at its extremity, sometimes
becoming lageniform. After stating that it is not found in all the
Hymenomycetes, nor even in all Agarics, he alludes to Corda's
notion of its being a male organ, and then gives his own vievrs as
follows. He says : " It is difficult to accept this (Corda's) interpre-
"tation. Numerous observations upon these organs, some made
" even before I was aware of Corda's hypothesis, lead me to quite
" a different conclusion, and I consider these cystidia to be nothing
*' more than organs remitted to vegetative functions by a sort of
" hypertrophy of the basidium. Corda asserts that impregnation is
" eff'ected by means of a viscous fluid issuing from these organs ; but
" if we remark that the instances of this sort of impregnation are
"taken from fungi (A^. riitiJus,Schsdf^. viscidus Fr., mucosiis, Bull.),
" in which all the vegetative portions are viscous, or have a tendency
" to become so in wet weather, we shall see nothing surprising in
*' the fact of one of their cells having the same property, and thus
"becoming attached to the spores: on the contrary, we shall be
" rather led to suppose that the cystidia are simple vegetative organs.
" In the milky My cense (Ag. galopus), which have the organs of
" reproduction very diiferent from those of the Lactarii, the cystidia
" are identical with those of the Lactarii ; in the division Pluteus
" they are so like the basidia that but for their size they would be
" taken for the latter ; being divided at the apex into short horns
" they even seem to liave retained the sterigmata. In other cases
** their form is like that of the cells of the parenchyna; in a new
" Agaric {Ag. sulcatus, Dun,) I have observed the cystidia forming
•' small cylinders with a swollen spherical extremity, and this is pre-
" cisely the form which the vegetative cells assume in the pileus and
" gills. These observations have led me to consider these organs,
•' which are scattered over the gills, or frequently crowded near the
SEXUALITY IN THE LOWEE CRYPTO OAMIA. 67
" margin, as basidia which have become hypertrophied and resumed
" the character of vegetative organs, as one sees abnormally a carpel
" become a leaf. "We are thus brought back to Micheli's first con-
" ception, who called them barren flowers, using the terms, however,
" in a sense diametrically opposite to his. The cystidia seem to me to
** fulfil, with regard to the gills, the same function as the ring does
" with the pileus and stipes ; these two organs send out prolonga-
"tions which bind them together: the gills, organs of the same
." nature and contiguous, have a tendency to send out prolongations
'* to bind one another together. A certain number of basidia obey-
" ing this law elongate and are diverted from their primitive function,
*' but in like manner as the ring may be very much developed, or so
"fugacious and rudimentary that its existence may be only just
" ascertainable, and may seem to be altogether wanting ; in like man-
" ner the cystidia may be wanting, or may be so well-developed as to
" be visible to the naked eye. In some cases they fulfil this function
"of 'ties' so well that in separating the laraellse of a partially
" expanded specimen of Ag. atramentarius, Bull., the gills separate
*' into two longitudinal portions instead of the corresponding faces of
*' two different gills parting from one another. This phenomenon is
*' so apparent that Delile, who was ignorant of the cystidia, had
" noted the existence of fibrous prolongations binding together the
" gills of this Agaric."
In the " Botanische Zeitung" (Vol. xiv. p. 153), Hoffman noticed
the occurrence of small corpuscles scattered about the mycelium of
certain Agarics. They were said not to germinate, and to be like
the spermatia of the Discomycetes and Lichens. They do not, how-
ever, appear to be male organs. Tulasne says of them :* " Eecunda
si qua vis eis impertitur, saltern in sporis priusquam germinent
sicuti docuerunt experimenta ad hoc instituta non exercetur ; utrum
vero mycelio recenti quodammodo prosint, hactenus prorsus igno-
ratur."
In the " Botanische Zeitung" for April 5th, 1861, (Vol. xix.
p. 89), Dr. De Bary states that he has observed in £eronospora
calotheca and P. alsinearum small curved clavate cells, springing from
the mycelium, which press with their upper end against the
wall of the large vescicular spore-cells observed by Tulasne and
Caspary. He considers these latter cells to be one-spored oogonia,
* Sel. Fung. Carp. Vol. i. p. 168.
F 2
68 THE NATURAL HTSTOEY EEYIEW.
and the small clavate cells to be antheridia. The spore- cells in their
early stage exhibit an accumulation of granular matter in their
interior, not at first clothed by a membrane. As soon as this ball
of granular matter is formed, the antheridium emits a delicate pro-
longation (similar to those of the antheridia of Saprolegnia) which
pierces through the wall of the oogoniam, and reaches the granular
ball. The latter then becomes immediately clothed with a delicate,
colourless membrane, and thus forms an oospore. The contents of the
prolongation are similar to those of the main body of the antheridia,
and no traces of spermatozoa are visible. He then describes the
production of the outer membrane of the oospore of P. alsinearum^
which is formed from the surrounding plasma within the oogonium.
Pringsheiin*s Jahrbiicher flir wissenschaftliche Botanik, Vol. ii.,
contains some observations by Hofmeister, with regard to what he
considers indications of sexuality in Tiiber. He noticed that the
terminal cell of the delicate threads which surround the ascus in
Tuber, and which appeared to him to spring from the stalk of the
ascus, became firmly united to the outer membrane of the ascus
itself. At the point of junction, and sometimes at other points also,
he observed a depression in the membrane of the ascus ; and he
suggests the possibility of the terminal cell being, in fact, an
antheridium. In the Selecta Eungorum Carpologia,* the MM.
Tulasne, in noticing these observations of Hofmeister, say, " We
" remember, whilst studying the Truffles, having often observed
" very delicate filaments which adhered so pertinaciously to the asci
" that it was difficult to detach them what these fila-
" ments were, we did not then imderstand, we now agree v>ith
" Hofmeister in looking to Saprolegniaf for an explanation of the
" phenomenon." He Bary, in his recent work — " IJeber die Prucht-
entwickelung der Ascomycelen" — suggests doubts as to the sexual
nature of the threads in Tuber ; but although his doubts may be
valid, his reasons for them have not been considered conclusive. J
Eurther indications of sexuality have also been suggested by He
Bary as occurring in Erysijphe cicJioracearum, HC. In his work just
mentioned — " Ueber die Eruchtentwickelung der Ascomyceten" —
he traces the origin of the perithecium of ErysipJie ciclioracearum,
* Vol. i. p. 176, 177.
f As to Supvoleonia, see the latter part of this Report.
X Sec Nat. Hist. Rev. Vol. iv. p. 231.
SEXUALITY IN THE LO\VeR CRYPTOGAMIA. 69
DC, from its earliest state up to the formation of the single ascus
and spores. In this process he notices two cells as being always
present and visible from the earliest period, one of which he calls
the **Ei-zelle," and the other the " Antheridium." The former
afterwards divides, and the ascus is the result of this division. De
Bary admits that the evidence of the sexuality of these organs is
not strong. '* However," he says, " it is certain that the cell by
" the division of which the ascus and its coating are formed, only
" develops itself when it has been in contact, and therefore probably
" in some sort of intercommunication with the antheridium, which
" latter organ is never wanting, is always of the same form and size,
" and originates in the same manner." He adduces the Phsenogams
as showing that impregnation may take place by mere contact, and
concludes that it may be assumed as very probable that the " Ei-zelle"
is impregnated by the antheridium, and that the perithecium of
Mysi])Jie (excepting the outer wall) is the product of sexual im-
pregnation.
We are not aware of any other recent observations with regard
to the sexuality of the Fungi ; and we pass, therefore, to the conside-
ration of the Algge, in which family the greatest discoveries in
relation to impregnation have been made.
Dr. Cohn, writing in the year 1855, says, " Until last year, few
botanists believed in the sexuality of the Algae;" and although this
remark went rather too far, when we consider that Thuret's obser-
vations were made in the year 18 i5, it tends to show how little v/as
known ten years ago in comparison with our present knovvledge.
We will notice, in the first place, M. Thuret's observations on the
Fucaceae. It is to him that botanists are principally indebted for a
knowledge of the facts relative to sexuality and fecundation in that
tribe.* The organs of fructification of the Fucaceae are enclosed in
cavities under the epidermis of the frond, and which open on the
surface of the latter by a little pore or ostiolum. These cavities
contain two different kinds of organs. The one kind consists of
large bodies of an oval form, and an olive colour, attached to the
walls of the cavities by a short pedicel. These bodies are in some
genera simple, in others are divided into two, four, or eight spores.
* See Comptes Rendus, t. xxvi. p. 745 ; Memoires de la Societe des Sciences
natiirelles de Chertourg, t. i. p. 161; Annales des So. Nat. 4 Ser. Vol. ii. p. ]!)7,
and Vol. vii. p. 35.
70 THE NATURAL HISTOEY EEYIEW.
The other organs are small sacs inserted on the hairs which line
the walls of the cavities. The sacs contain a number of hya-
line corpuscles, enclosing a red granule, which, after their escape
from the sac, move rapidly in the water by means of two vibratile
cilia. Some EucacesB are diaecious, others hermaphrodite. Por in-
stance, Fucus serratuSf L., JFucus vesictdostcs, L., and Fucus
nodosuh', L. are diaecious, Fucus platy carpus, Thur., Fucus canali-
culatus, L. and Fucus tuherculatus, Huds. are hermaphrodite. Fucus
vesiculosuSf L. is the species to which M. Thuret has devoted the
most attention, and his account of his observations and experi-
ments is shortly as follows : — An examination of the young female
conceptacles of this species shows that the sporangia originate in
small protuberances forming the wall of the cavity. These mamillse,
which are at first unicellular, become bi-cellular by the formation
of a transverse septum, the upper one of the two cells thus formed
becomes the sporangium, the lower one the pedicel. The dark
coloured contents of the sporangium at length divide into eight
segments, and by the rupture of the sporangium the divided body or
" octospore," escapes, enclosed in a hyaline membrane (epispore)
which keeps the eight segments closely pressed together. "Within
the epispore is another extremely delicate membrane extending over
the octospore. By the dissolution of the upper portion of the
octospore and the rupture of the delicate membrane just mentioned,
the octospore becomes free, and separates into eight spherical spores
which have no integument. Thus far the observations have
reference to the female organs. The process which takes place
in the male fronds is very similar. The small sacs or antheridia
become detached from the walls of the conceptacle and escape in
vast quantities through the orifice of the latter. Shortly after
their escape they burst and emit swarms of spermatozoa, which
move about in sea water with great rapidity, their motion lasting
sometimes for upwards of two days.
When the spores and spermatozoa, are placed in water together,
the latter attach themselves to the former in great numbers, and
by means of their vibratile cilia communicate a motion of rotation
sometimes extremely rapid.* After lasting for a time, but rarely
* M. Thuret does not consider this rotation to be of much importance, for
although seen plainly enough under the microscope he thinks it never occurs in
pature, and that it is in no way necessary for impregnation. The fact of its
SEXUALITY IN THE LOWER CEYPTOGAMIA. 71
more than half au hour, the rotation ceases: the motion of the
spermatozoa lasts somewhat longer, but is less active, and they also
eventually become quiescent.
After the spores have been in contact with the spermatozoa
the former become clothed with a plainly visible membrane,* and
shortly afterwards septa are formed and germination commences.
Those spores which have not been in contact with spermatozoa remain
unchanged for some days and ultimately decompose. Sometimes a
membrane is formed over them, and a kind of imperfect germiua-
tion commences, but this only lasts for a few days, after which
the spores decay in the same way as those in which no membrane
was formed.
Fucus serratus, L. and Fucus nodosus, L. (Ozoihallia vulgaris j
Dene and Thur.) yielded M. Thuret the same results, except that
in the latter species the contents of the sporangium form four, not
eight spores as in F, vesiculosus.
The intermixture of the spores of F. nodosus with the sperm^atozoa
of F. serraius and vesiculosus, and of the spores of the two latter
with the sj)ermatozoa of the former yielded no results, although
the spermatozoa attached themselves to the spores and produced
the ordinary movement of rotation. Neither could the spores of
Himanthelia lorea be impregnated by the spermatozoa of Fucus
nodosus or F. serratus. The spores of F. serratus, could not be fer-
tilized by the spermatozoa of F. vesicvhsus, but strange to say, on the
inverse operation, i. e., when the spores of F. vesiculosus were mixed
with the spermatozoa of F. serratus, the spores germinated. Upon
these facts, M. Thuret observes, that F. nodosus, Himanthelia lorea,
and F. serratus, are very constant in their form, wliilst F vesiculosus
is extremely variable, and he thinks it not improbable that the great
variability is owing to the facility with which the latter species is
occurring when spores are examined under the microscope he explauis by attribut-
ing it to the concentration of a much greater number of spermatozoa than could
ever be found in the same space in nature. At the same time he considers the
rotation as not altogtlier accidental, for he found that the spermatozoa of Fucus
communicated no rotation to some spores of Florideee, which were small enough,
and round enough to have been easily set in motion, and as a matter of precaution
in experiments he recommends the application of a sufficient nimiber of sperma-
tozoa, to render the rotation manifest.
* The formation of this membrane, is said to commence six or eight minutes
after the contact of the spore with the spermatozoa. See Beuxieime note sur la
fecondation des Fucades. A. S. N. 4. Ser. Yol. vii. p. 35.
72 THE NATURAL UISTOIIY liEVIEW.
hybiidized by its congeners. F. plati/carpus and F. ceranoldes
exhibit the same variability.
M. Thuret remarks, that he finds nothing to support the supposi-
tion of those observers who believe that the spermatozoa eftect an
entrance into the spore : he has always seen them on the surface,
never within the substance of the spore.*
AVe have next to consider the division of the Chlorosperme?e or
Zoosporeae, in which very important results have been arrived at,
principally from the observations of Dr. Pringsheim.
The plant upon which some of his earliest observations were made,
was the well-known Vauclieria sessilis,^ which from the simplicity
of its structure offers peculiar facilities for observations of this
nature. From the tubular filament of which this plant is composed,
two papillae in close proximity are produced. One of these becomes
ultimately developed into a horn-like organ, more or less spirally
twisted, in the middle of which, but at no very definite point, a
septum is formed, cutting off the apex from the base. The other
papilla forms a lateral protuberance, at first symmetrical, but which
afterwards throws out a beak-like process (rostrum), "on the side
turned towards the horn. A'septum is then formed at the base of
this protuberance, cutting it off from the parent tube. After the
formation of the septum in the hornlet, minute rod-like bodies are
seen imbedded in its colourless mucous contents. In the mean-
time an internal layer of colourless substance, called by Pringsheim
the cutaneous layer, increases to such an extent, especially in the
fore-part of the rostrum, that at last the membrane of the latter is
ruptured, and a portion of the cutaneous layer escapes.
Just at this period the horn opens at it apex, and the contents
escape in the form of very minute rod-like corpuscles, which enter
the orifice of the sporangium, and penetrate the portion of the
cutaneous la^'er which remains. After this a membrane is formed
around tlie contents of the sporangium (which were previously bare),
and thus a cell is formed, which completely fills the sporangium —
the embryonic cell of the plant. This embryonic cell, which is at
first green, becomes colourless, with one or more dark-brown bodies
* See Ann. des Sc. Nat. Vol. vii. p. 43.
t A summary of these observations was given in the Quarterly Journal of
Microscopical Science, Vol. iv. p 63, and 124.
On the same subject, see Schenk on Vaucheria, Wiirz. N. Z. Vol. ii. p. 201 and
Nachtrag zur Kritik, &c. (Pringsheim) in " Jahrbucher f iir wiss. Bot." Vol. ii.
p. 470.
SEXUALixr I2;r the lower crtptooamia. 73
in its interior. It then becomes detacliecl from the parent plant
by the decay of the membrane of the sporangium, and after some
time suddenly resumes -ts green colour and grows into a young
VaucJieria, exactly resembling the parent plant.
Before dismissing Vauclieria, we may mention that fifty years
before Pringsheim's publication, Yaucher had suggested the sexual
nature of the horns, which he considered to be the anthers of the
plant through which the pollen was discharged.
Dr. Pringsheim's observations on VaucJieriaj were shortly
afterwards followed by those of Cohn upon Sphceroplea annulina.^
This somewhat rare Conferva was found by Dr. Cohn, covering
a field of potatoes which had been overflowed by the river Oder.
It forms long filaments, composed of more or less elongated
cellules placed end to end. The endochrome of some of these
cellules becomes transformed into a number of small spherical
bodies, consisting of a green substance, with some grains of starch.
Each of these bodies is clothed with a delicate smooth layer of
plastic matter, but not with a cellulose membrane. They are called
by Cohn ]^rimor dial-spores. During, or before the formation of
these primordial-spores, the membrane of the cellules, in which they
are contained has become perforated with minute apertures. At the
same time the colour of the contents of other cellules of the same
filament changes from green to a reddish-brown, and the contents
themselves become transformed into an innumerable multitude of
cylindrico-elon gated corpuscles, which escape through small aper-
tures in the membrane of the cellules. These corpuscles, which are
in fact the spermatozoa of the plant, enter the cellules, which con-
tain the primordial spores, by means of the apertures existing in the
membrane of the latter cellules. One or two of the corpus-
cles attach themselves by their cilia and beak to the end of the
primordial spores and remain attached, after which the latter speedily
assume a true cellular membrane. Thus, as Dr. Cohn remarks, we
distinguish in the component cellular tissue of Splicer opJe a male
cellules and female cellules, which may be called antheridia and
sporangia, and we recognize the fact, that in the impregnation, if not
of the Algse generally, at least in that of the EucacesB, Vaucherise,
and SphcEvoplea, the one essential circumstance, viz. the direct
contact of spermatozoids with a primordial cell as jet devoid of
« See Ann. cles So. Nat. xx. 4, Ser. Vol. v. p. 188.
74 THE NATURAL HISTOET EETIEW,
any inyesting membrane. There is also in Sphceroplea, the very-
remarkable fact, that whilst in Fucus, tbe unimpregnated spores are
dispersed over the surface of their thallus where the spermatozoa
must come in contact with them, and whilst in Vaucheria the orifice
of the antheridium almost joins that of the sporangium, the
Sphceroplea have to search out a female cellule, sufficiently developed,
and often at a distance, and have then to effect an entrance through
narrow apertures designed for the purpose. What the force may
be which guides them to their destination. Dr. Cohn pronounces to be
a veritable physiological enigma.
In GEclogonium and Bulhoclicete^^ impregnation is also effected by
the action of spermatozoa upon the contents of the female cells or
sporangia. The contents of these female cells {Oogonia of Pring-
sheim) shortly before impregnation part from the wall of the cell
and become contracted into a globular mass, called by Pringsheitn
the ^^ BefriLchtungsJcuf/el,'" which is a membraneless rudimentary
S]3ore. An opening is formed in the wall of the oogonium, and the
nature of this opening as well as the form of the rudimentary spore
varies in different species. The simplest and most frequent opening
is by a small oval hole in the membrane of the oogonium, formed at
the same time as the rudimentary spore. The portion of the latter
which adjoins the opening is covered with a colourless protoplasm,
which projects as a papilla. The spermatozoon touches and becomes
intermixed with the pai)illa, which then retracts itself into the
oogonium and the impregnation of the spore is effected.
The most remarkable point in the impregnation of the CEdogenieso
is the different mode in which the spermatozoa originate in different
species. In some species of (Edogonium they are produced directly
from certain cells which are true antheridia — the antheridia and
oogonia occurring in most cases upon separate plants, but in some
instances upon the same plants. This is quite similar to what occurs
in other Algas. But in other species of (Edogonium, and in most, if
not all, of Bidhoch(jete, the antheridia are produced by certain
bodies to which M. Pringsheim has given the name of androspores.
These androspores are produced in cells differing from the ordinary
vegetative cells only in their small size. The androspores differ
hardly at all from the ordinary zoospores of the plant except in
being of smaller size, and after their escape from the parent cell they
* See Jahrbiicher fiir wiss. Bot. Vol. i. p. 1.
SEXrALITT IIT THE LOWER CRYPTO GAMIA. 75
swim about freely in tlie water. They are oval, nearly filled with a
green substance, but having a transparent beak surrounded by cilia.
After some time the androspores attach themselves by the beak to
the oogonia, the cilia fall oif , and they then commence a true vegeta-
tive growth and become transformed into an organ which produces
spermatozoa. In some cases the cavity of the androspore gives im-
mediate birth to two spermatozoa; in other cases a septum is formed
dividing the androspore into two cells, the upper one of which pro-
duces two spermatozoa : in other cases again several septa are formed
giving rise to several cells in each of which cells two spermatozoa
are produced.*
The point to which we have alluded in speaking of the Fucacese —
viz., whether impregnation is effected by contact merely, or whether
the spermatozoa are absorbed in the rudimentary spore has been much
discussed in the case of the (Edogonieae. ^ Pringsheim, De Bary, and
Petrowski being ranged on the one side, and Yaupell on the other.
In the JahrbiJcher fiir wissenschaffcliche Botanik, Vol. ii. p.
1-36, Dr. Pringsheim gives the results of his observations on the
genus CoJeochcEte. Here again we meet with oogonia and sperma-
tozoa, the former being impregnated by the latter so that the
sexuality of these plants also may be considered to be established.f
"With regard to the nature of the Saproleguieae much diff"erence
of opinion has existed and still exists, some botanists considering
them to belong to the Pungi, others to the Alg89. Mr. Berkeley's
opinion (and none could be more valuable) was, and we believe still
is, in favour of their being submerged conditions of mucedinous
Pungi, but we think the majority of botanists still rank them as
Algje.J However this may be, the observations of Pringsheim and
De Bary show that impregnation is efiected by the operation of active
spermatozoa upon membraneless *' primordial spores," a process pre-
cisely analogous to what we have already stated to take place in
Fucits, (Edoffonium, and SpTicBvojplea. We have not space to enter
into details with regard to the structure of the oogonia and anthe-
ridia, but it is worthy of remark that in all the three genera of the
family — viz., Saprolegnia, Aclilya, and Pythium^ the spermatozoa
reach the contents of the oogonia {i.e., the so-called 'primordial spore)
* In (Edogonium curvum, Pr. it appears that only one spermatozoon is produced
in eacli antheridial cell.
t On the peculiarity of the fructification of the Coleochaeteae and their relations
to the Mosses and Characeae, see the papers above cited, pp. 24-29.
X See Jahi-b. flir wiss. Bot. Vol. i., p. 284, Vol. ii. pp. 169 and 205.
76 THE ITATXJRAL- HISTORY EEA^IEW.
by passing tlirougli holes in tlie membrane of the oogonium, a mode
of access which we have abeady seen to occur in SphcBroplea.
We must not part with the Zoosporese without mentioning the
observations of M. Cohn and Mr. H. J. Carter* on reproduction in
the VolvocinesB. Although these two writers are at variance with
ref^ard to the monaecious or disecious nature of Volvox globator (the
species which has received the greatest amount of attention) there
seems no reason to doubt that the sexual process corresponds exactly
with that which has been observed in other Alg?e — viz., That it con-
sists in the impregnation by spermatozoa of a previously membrane-
less "primordial spore."
In the riorideas the knowledge of the phenomena of impregnation
is far less advanced than in the other two divisions. The organs of
fructification are of three kinds, 1st, the tetraspores consisting of
an oblong or globular external cell enclosing four spores, each of
which is capable of 'germination and of reproducing the plant
directly ; 2nd, antheridia, containing corpuscles which have been,
regarded as spermatozoa, but the nature of which is as yet extremely
doubtful.
It is stated in Mr. Berkeley's Introduction to Cryptogamic
Botany, that the plants of this division produce antheridia filled
with active spermatozoa ; but although some observations to this
eff'ect have been recorded by Derbes and Solier, they have not been
confirmed by other botanists. Dr. Pringsheim, at the meeting of
German Naturalists at Bonn, in the year 1857 (a report of which
is to be found in the Botanische Zeituug for 1857, p. 784), un-
hesitatingly denies the existence of spiral or motile filaments. Since
that time Dr. Grustav Yenturi has describedf certain organs occurring
in Wranaelia penicillatay Polysiphonia elongata, and Callithamnion
vesicolor, which have the appearance of being antheridia. He did
not, however, find true spermatozoa, although in Callithamnion
versicolor the upper cells of the so-called antheridia contained
minute cellules in which slight movements were observed, but whicli
movements might possibly have been only molecular.
" Thirdly, besides the tetraspores and the so-called antheridia, the
Eloridese produce spores grouped in definite masses, and usually, but
* See Annales Sc. Nat. 4 Ser., Vol. v. p. 323. Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.
Jan. 1859.
t See " Beobachtungcn liber die Fructifications-organe der Florideen." Wien
Z. B. V. Vol. X. p. 583.
SEXUALITY IN THE LOWER CRTPTOGAMIA. 77
not always, enclosed in special cells or conceptacles. M, Pringsheim
long since suggested* that these conceptacular spores, called cystocarps
by Nageli, are either true female sexual organs, or that they produce,
like the spores of ferns, an organ which performs in some way the
female sexual functions. It would seem, however, that he has since
seen reasons for changing this opinion, for in the Eotanische Zeitung
(loc. cit.) he is reported to say that the conceptacular fruit does not
differ essentially from the tetraspores ; that it is, in fact, only a
more divided form of the latter; that in FtUota plumosa the
transition from one to the other may be followed out ; and that the
spores often germinate within the capsule, in which case impregnation
is out of the question. In a paper on the Ceramiaceae in the Eeports
of the Bavarian Academy, j* ISTageli has some observations on the
nature of the fruit of the Eloridere. They occur iu the course of
some comments upon a proposed subdivision of the Order by J.
Agardh, who separated two groups, viz. the Spyridiese and the "Wran-
geliese, on the ground of the different formation of their cystocarps.
iN'ageli says : " In most Florideae both cystocarps and tetra-
" spores are found; in some, however, the one or the -other kind
" of fruit is wanting. Their physiological import is still uncertain,
" I have expressed the opinion that the tetraspores are the
" female fruit, and that they are impregnated by the antheridia ;
" the cystocarps, on the other hand, are the asexual germs. Up
" to this time, I find no reason to give up this opinion, and until
" it is confirmed or set aside, it is for many reasons the most
" probable. Irrespective of the striking resemblance between
" the cystocarps, and the gemmae and receptacles of the mosses
" and liverworts, two points relative to the CeramiacesB may be
" mentioned. In the first place, the tetraspores and the antheridia
" are constant in their relative position, and therefore agree in their
" morphological signification, whilst the cystocarps vary. The
" second circumstance to be noted is the distribution of the three
" reproductive organs upon different individuals. Triseciousness is
" most usual, so that one plant bears only antheridia, another only
" tetraspores, a third only cystocarps. Exceptionally, however.
* See Ann. des Sc. Nat. 4 Ser. Vol. lii. p. 376.
f Beitrage zur Morphologie und Systcmatik der Ceramiaceae. Sitzungsberichte
der konigl. Bayerischen Acad, der Wiss. 7.w IVEunchen ; Jahrgang 1861. Band ii.
p. 297.
78 THE NATUEAL HISTOET EEVIEW.
" tetraspores and cystocarps occur upon tlie same plant, as has been
" seen by the MM. Crouan in a species of Callithamnion; antheridia
*' and cystocarps have been seen by Bornet upon Lejolisia ; and
" antheridia and cystocarps have also been seen by myself upon
" Callithamnion hipinnatum, Crouan, and Herpothamnion hermaphrodi-
*' turn, Nageli. These observations point to the fact that the Elorideae
" are normally disecious, and that the plants with cystocarps may
" really be male and female individuals, in which, for the support of
''■ the neutral organ, the formation of the sexual organs (antheridia
" and tetraspores) has been suppressed.
" If my opinion as to the nature of the cystocarps is correct,
" they might possibly be wanting in certain Elorideae, whilst the tetra-
" spores must occur in all. It might be objected that there are
*' probably more Floridese, iii which the tetraspores are unknown than
" in w^hieh the cystocarps are unknown. This, however, is not con-
" elusive, inasmuch as the former are usually invisible to the naked
" eye, whilst the latter are easily seen and collected. There are some
" Ceramiaceae very generally distributed, and occurring in places
"where indefatigable algologists reside, in which tetraspores have
" been found, but no cystocarps have yet been observed, e.g. i2^oc?ocAor-
" ton Bothii and R. florididum and AntitJiamnion cruciaitim.'^
The result at which Professor Nageli arrives is that the cystocarps
ought not, in the classification of the Ceramiacese, to be used even for
subordinate divisions ; and if he is right in his views they must be
considered as asexual organs of very little importance. Whether
botanists wdll accept this conclusion time alone can show. At pre-
sent we can only say, as M. Vaillant has remarked in his recent work,*
that the notions of botanists as to the Florideae are very unde-
fined, and that although the nature of their organs may lead to the
supposition of sexuality, further observations are indispensable before
the existence of male and female Tlorideae can be looked upon as any-
thing more than a vague supposition.
We must not close this report without referring to the disputed
question as to the nature of the conjugation which takes place in the
Zygnemaceae and other allied Algae. As far as w^e are aware it is not
yet settled whether this conjugation is a sexual process. We cannot
here discuss the point, and must refer those who are interested in
the question to Dr. De Bary's Essay, " UntersuchuDgen iiber die
53.
SEXUALITY IN THE LOWEE CEYPTOGAMIA. 79
Tamilie der Conjugaten," and particularly to the second chapter
" Ueber die Bedeutung der Copulation und ihre Verbreitung."
Note.
Since this report went to press we have seen a paper by SoUman
in the Botanische Zeitung for September 2, 1864, in which that
author professes to have discovered a true process of impregnation in
Nectria Lamyi, De Not. "Without venturing any opinion as to the
correctness of his observations, we append the conclusions with
which he sums them up. He says : —
1. Nectria Lamyi has a manifest mycelium, out of which tlie
stroma is formed, and upon the latter the perithecia are developed.
2. The perithecia consist of tlu-ee layers of cells. The innermost
layer is the fructifying layer.
3. Upon this layer, in young perithecia, are situated the processes
which bear the spermatia, and which, after the sperm atia are sepa-
rated from them, become developed into paraphyses.
4. The spermatia penetrate the fructifying layer, and reach
the cavity of the rudimentary asci, which are in process of deve-
lopment.
5. In the double-walled asci eight cytoblasts originate, into
which the spermatia penetrate and amalgamate with their contents,
so as to form a uniform mass.
6. After the penetration of the spermatia the cytoblast assumes
a visible smooth membrane, and becomes a spore capable of repro-
ducing the plant.
7. The species of Nectria are hermaphrodite.
8. The bodies supposed to be granules of protoplasm in the
young asci of Sphseriae, are the particles of disintegrated spermatia.
9. They effect the impregnation of the spores.
80
©ilijginal Jiiiii4li;.^»
X. — On the Dentition oe IlTiENA spelj^a, and its taeieties,
WITH Notes on the eecent Species. By W. Boyd Dawkins,
B.A.. Oxon. r.Gr.S. Geological Survey of Great Britain.
Inteoductiox.
§ I. Recent Siiecics. — a. H. striata.— h. H. hmnnea.—c. B. crocuta. (p. 80.)
§ II. Fossil Species, (p. 82.)
§ III. H. spelcea. — A. Milk Molar Dentition. — b Comparative measurements of
Milk Teeth. — c. Succession of permanent Teeth.— d. Upper permanent Dentition.
— E. Lower permanent Dentition, (p. 83.)
§ IV. H. hruyinea, Fossil in Britain ? (p. 94.)
§ V. H. spelcea, a true H. crocuta. (p. 95.)
§ VI.^Table of Comparative Measurements of Permanent Dentition of Recent
and Fossil Species, (p. 95 )
In tlie course of the determination of the vast quantity of organic
remains from "Wookey Hole Hyaena-den,* upwards of 200 jaws and
500 teeth of Ilycena spelcea of all ages, and showing considerable
variations from the typical form, passed through my hands. My
only excuse for adding the following notes about them, to a literature
already so bulky, is that they clear up some of the doubtful points
in the researches of MM. Croizet and Jobert, Marcel de Serres, De
Blainville, and others, relative to the value of certain differences
assumed to be specific in the milk and permanent dentition of the
Spelaean Hysena. Before, however, I can enter upon these, I must
briefly run over the differences which obtain in the dentition of the
three existing species of the Genus.
§ 1. The genus Ilycena is characterized by a dental formula, inter-
mediate between the Canidae on the one hand, and the FelidaB on the
other, the deciduous series consisting of .,' „' ,-,' " -^ ' ' , and the
^ 1. 3. C. 1. Dm. 3. '
permanent of ?• t ^- V ?!"■ t ^I" j "
^ 1. 3. C. 1. Pm. 3. M. 1.
A. Of the three species into which it is divided, the most common,
ranging through North Africa, Asia Minor, Arabia and Persia, and
extending down to the Cape, H. striata, Zimmer. {H. vulgaris, Cuv.),
* See two papers hy the Author. Quart. Journal Geol. vol. xvii. p. 115. vol.
xix. p. 260.
DAWKIJfS ON THE DENTITION OF HTiENA SPELiEA. 81
differs from the other two in the small size of its teeth. In the
upper jaw, Premolar 2 is characterized by the presence of the an-
terior accessory cusp, and by the large development of the posterior
one ; Premolar 3, by the presence of both these, which are absent
or rudimentary ui the other two species ; Premolar 4, by the divi-
sion of its sectorial edge into three subequal lobes. But the
oblong transverse tubercular upper true molar exhibits the maximum
differences, in its implantation by three fangs. According to M. De
Blainville,* it possesses but one fang (" na' qu'une racine"), on the
authority of Frederic Cuvierf (" elle a plus de deux racines") more
than two, while all those that I have examined in the British, Hun-
terian, and Oxford Museums, without exception, possess three, situ-
ated very nearly in the same transverse line. Its crown is composed
of three tubercles, inter- connected by a ridge, the stouter on the
inner side, and each supported by a fang.
In the lower jaw, the accessory cusps are much more strongly
marked in the Premolar series, than in the other species, while the
true molar exhibits considerable differences of size and form. The
tubercular portion is developed largely at the expense of the carnas-
sial, the blades of which are subequal in antero-posterior extent.
On the inner siHe, and springing from the posterior of these, is a
stout cusp or tubercle, the analogue of that in the Canidse.
B. The dentition of the species which comes next to the former,
H. brunnetty Thunberg — (-ST. fusca of Geoffrey, Crocuta hrunneay
Gray, H. villosa, Smith), offers very considerable points of difference,
the principal of which are the large development of the posterior
lobe of the upper sectorial, and the small size and triangular form
of the upper true molar. The latter, in its implantation, also differs
from the preceding species. In the Eoyal College of Surgeons
(Hunt. Cat. 4447), and in the British Museum (822 B. Gray's Cat.)
it is supported by two fangs, while in a second specimen in the latter
Museum (822 A. Gray's Cat.) it possesses but one.
In the carnassial of the lower jaw, the posterior blade is longer
in antero-posterior extent than the anterior ; the cusp springing
from its inner base is reduced to a minimum, and the tubercular
portion is very feebly developed.
• Osteographie, Article Hyena, p. 27.
t Oss. Foss. torn. iv. p. 236, 4to. 1823.
N.H.R— 1865.
82 THE NATURAL HISTORY RETIEW.
In the premolars of both upper and lower jaw, the principal
cones are developed at the expense of the accessory ones.
C. The third species, H. crocuta, Bodd. {Grocuta maculata,
G-ray, S. Capensis, Desm.) ranging through South Africa, the
Guinea Coast, and Senegal, is very closely allied to the preceding
in its dentition, so closely indeed, that Professor Owen has entered
a skull of the former in the Hunterian catalogue (No. 4447), as be-
longing to the latter. In the specimens in the British Museum, the
basal ridge on the inner side of the upper Premolar 2, and the lower
Premolars 3, 4, is more stroDgly developed than in S. hrunnea. But
the most important characteristic is the absence of all trace of the
cusp at the inner and posterior base of the lower carnassial. The
tubercular portion of the latter, reduced to a small talon, is divided
by a slight ridge into two portions of which the exterior is the
smaller.
On the authority of M. De Blainville,* the upper true molar is
very small and subtriangular, and, according to Professor Owen,t is
implanted by two fangs.
§ 2. Having thus noted the differences which obtain in the three
recent species of Hyenas, we are now in a position to turn to the
analysis of the Possil species. So far back as the 'year 1839, the
fact that the H. striata, or more dog- like of the existing hyenas, was
represented in the bone caverns of Prance, was proved by the dis-
covery of H. prisca by Marcel de Serres,:^ in the caverns of Lunel-
Yiel. Nine years after this, the existence of the second or interme-
diate species H. hrunnea in Auvergne, was shown by the labours
of §MM. Croizet and Jobert, in the discovery of S. Arvernensis.
Irrespective of size, the differences between the recent and the
fossil species, in each of the above cases, would by no means
warrant a specific distinction. M. De Blainville refers both
these to H. striata, or the Striped Hyena, including JEE. hrunnea also
under the name of H. fusca in the same species. And, lastly, we
owe to our great explorer of caves. Dr. Buckland,|| the proof that
the third or most Peline of the recent species, H. crocuta, was
* Osteographie, Art. Hyena, p. 29,
t Brit. Eoss. Mam. 8vo. 1840, p. 150.
X liecherches sur les Oss. humatilcs des Caverncs de Lunel-Viel, par Marcel de
Serres, Dubrueil et Jcanjean, 4to. 1 839.
§ Kecherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles dii PujdeDome, 4to. 1484, p. 198, pi. 1.
fig. 4.
II Reliquiae Diluvianse, 4to. 1824.
DAWKINS ON THE DENTITION OF HTJENA SPEL^A.
83
represented in the caverns of France, Germany, and England, by the
Spelaean Hyena.
Of the relation of R. Monspessulana of Christol, to S. prisca,
and of S. Eximia, mentioned by M. Gaudry (Bui. Soc. Geol. de
France, 1862-3, 2 Series, torn. 20, p. 404i), to H. hrunnea and B.
Arvernensis, we can say nothing.
The equivocal premolar found in Auvergne, upon which the pro-
visional species H. duhia^ (Croizet and Jobert) is based, and that
found in the Eed Crag of Suffolk, and described by Mr. Lankester
under the name of H. antiqua,^ differ to such an extent from any
known or extinct species, and bear such an exceptional character,
that we must wait for further evidence before discussing their merits.
The fossil species which now remain to be discussed, are the IL
intermedial of Marcel de Serres, and the §3". Ferreri of MM.
Croizet and Jobert. And as the question of their validity as species
is most essentially connected with the accurate definition of the
dental characteristics of S. spelcea, it will be more convenient to
treat of them along with the latter.
§ 3. A. The following notes upon the deciduous dentition of I£.
spelcda, are based upon an examination of two upper jaws in the
British Museum, and two in my own possession, and of five lower
jaws and numerous isolated teeth. The pair of jaws figured (fig. 1 &
2), containing the entire unworn milk molar series, were obtained by
Mr. Ayshford Sanford, F.G.S. and myself in Wookey Hole Hyena-
den in our further exploration of 1863. Tliey were lying imbedded
in the red earth, with which the cavern was filled, within a few feet
of each other, at the point where the passage B. joins the Antrum in
the groimd plan given in the Quarterly Geological Journal, || and
close to a mass of breccia, containing fragments of calcined bone
and one roughly chipped splinter of greensand chert. Their state
of preservation shows that they belonged to the same individual,
which probably, from the teeth marks on the lower jaw, fell a prey
to some of its older and more powerful fellows. The fragments of
album grsecum which fill up the alveolus of the lower true molar,
prove also that the jaw was lying on the coprolite covered floor of
the cave for some time previous to its being imbedded.
* Op. cit. p. 181.pl. 2. fig. 4.
f Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Series 3, vol. xiii. No. 73.
t Op. cit. p. 88.
§ Op. cit. p. 173, pi. 1, fig. 12. pi. 11, fig. 3.
II Vol. xix. p. 261. G 2
84;
THE NATURAL HISTORT REVIEW.
Dm. 1. (See fig. 1. & 2.) The first milk molar of fhe upper jaw
presents a trenchant conical crown traversed by a slight ridge, that
'';\
Fig. 1.
divides the latter into two equal halves. Anteriorly at its junction
with the cingulum it is slightly thickened. On the posterior aspect
of the crown, which, as in the Canidae, is longer than the anterior, is
a vrell defined notch marking ofi" a small cusp. The cingulum is
more strongly marked behind than before, and in the British Museum
specimens is also largely developed on the inner side. The crown is
supported by two cylindrical divergent fangs, and is implanted
obliquely in the jaw, to admit of the crowding of the small Premolar
1 into the alveolar border.
Dm. 2. The second milk molar, as is usual in the carnivora, con-
EAWKlSa 03 XUE DENIITIOU OF UYJiNA SPELJJi.
85
sists Of a sectorial and tubercular portion. Anteriorly are two smaU
trohedral cusp., situated obliquely and separated fro/ each otW by
Fig. 2.
a notch (fig 2J^ The outer of these is separated from the antenor
th't Ifthe n l'^^'" ^*' *''^'^'='^'™* ^^S<> shorter tha^
that of the posterior, oifers a point of contrast with the corres-
edges aie oi both blades subequal. A smaU obtusely pointed cusp the
inner tubercle" of Prof. Owen, is developed fronfthe middle of the
niner base of the anterior blade, as in the representative tooth (^ 5)
of the Cats, Dogs, Civets, Gluttons, and ZoriUas, and extends a con-
86 THE NATURAL HISTOEY EEYIEW.
siderable distance inwards. A faint ridge passes from the summit
of the anterior blade to the interspace between the inner of the two
above-mentioned cusps and the inner tubercle. The anterior por-
tion of the crown is supported by a small cylindrical, the inner
tubercle by a small incurved fang, oval in section, and lastly the pos-
terior portion by a broad stout fang.
Dm. 3. The tubercular molar is remarkable for its size and strik-
ing resemblance to its homologue in H. striata. The crown, trihe-
dral in form, with the long base on the anterior aspect, bears on its
surface a stout ridge inter-connecting its three angles together. In
a specimen from Brixham there is a stout cusp at each angle of the
crown, while in that figured (fig. 2) it is only feebly developed in
the interior angle, and entirely absent from the exterior. As in
the homologous tooth of H. striata, each angle of the crown is sup-
ported by a divergent fang, of which the inner is by far the stouter
and longer.
Dr. Buckland (Eeliquise DHuv. 4to. 1820, pi. vi. fig. 26—27), and
Cuvier (Ossemens Toss. 4to. pi. 30, fig. 14), figure the isolated tooth.
In size, form and implantation, it agrees with M. de Blainville's
description and figure of its homologue in H. crocuta.*
Dm. 1. The first tooth of the lower milk series is trenchant, coni-
cal, and slightly incurved. Its anterior base narrower than the
posterior, bears a small cusp, while the posterior generally exhibits a
slight thickening without the cusp. Sometimes, however, the ac-
cessory cusp is developed behind and suppressed before. The crown
is supported by two fangs, cylindrical and divaricant, the posterior
being by far the stouter.
Dm. 2. The second lower milk molar consists of a median tren-
chant cone and two trenchant accessory cusps divided from it by a
cleft. On the inner and posterior side of the posterior accessory
cusp is a small ridge that sometimes bears a row of small tubercles.
The posterior portion of the tooth overlaps the anterior of the suc-
ceeding molar, in the alveolar border. The fangs are two in num-
ber, divergent, cylindrical, and sub equal.
Dm. 3. The third, or the sectorial milk molar, presents a highly
carnassial form. The trenchant edges of the two blades are divided
* Osteogr. Art. Hyena, p. 30, PI. vi. " Elle a en effet trois racines diver-
gentes, ime pour chaque angle de la couronne trilobee qui represente assez bien un-
triangle rectangle a bords excaves."
DAWKIXS ON THE DENTITION OF HY^NA SPELiEA. 87
from each other by a deep cleft, beneath which, on the inner side,
is a broad and shallow depression. The posterior blade is the larger
and in this point contrasts with the homologue in H. striata, in
which species they are snbequal. Its posterior aspect is traversed
by a descending ridge, which, more or less notched immediately above
its junction with the tubercular portion of the tooth, offers a rudi-
ment of the accessory cusp so strongly developed in the representa-
tive molar 1 of H. striata. The tubercular portion is large and
well developed, consisting generally, as in the jaw figured, of three
small snbequal cusps placed transversely and separated from the pos-
terior blade by a broad smooth area. It is, however, subject to con-
siderable variations in size and form, sometimes as in one on the table
as I write (fig. 3), all three cusps are suppressed, and the ridge which
Fig. 3.
takes their place is cleft posteriorly, giving the tubercular portion a
slightly bilobed appearance. In fig. 21, PL vi. of the Eeliquise Dilu-
viansB, the latter appears to be the result of the development of the
two lateral at the expense of the median cusp. This characteristic is
deemed by MM. Croizet and Jobert of specific value, and to have
belonged to a species which coexisted with the Spelaean Hyaena in
Auvergne, and which they term JEE. Perrieri.* "Whether or no this
difference be sufficient to map off a distinct species, will be discussed
in the description of its permanent analogue, in which it also is
present in three specimens from "Wookey Hole Hyena-den.
The annexed table of measurements, taken at the base of each
tooth, in decimals of an inch, gives the relative size of the milk series
of the Spelaean Hyena, as compared with that of H. striata.
The antero-posterior extent of the milk series of the upper jaws,
in S. striata is 1*52 inches, in S. speleea given below, 1*53, in that
figured 1*57, while that of the lower jaw measures respectively, 1-62,
1-86, and 1-63 inches.
* Op. cit. p. 174.
88
THE NATURAL HISTOEY EEVIEW.
COMPAEATIYE MeASUEEMENTS OF MiLK TeETH.
Upper.
Lower. |
H. striata. British Museum.
1. Antero-posterior extent
2. Transverse extent
3. Vertical Height
H.spelcea, British Museum. 37164.
1.
2.
H. spelaa. Figured.
1.
2.
3.
Dm.l.
2.
3.
Dm. 1. 1 2.
3.
0-53
0-3
0-46
0-25
0-46
0-29
0-85
0-51
0-41
0-85
0-5
0-9
0-5
0-45
0-32
0-47
0-3
0-46
0-32
0-55
0-46
0-19
24
0-3
0-22
0-36
0-22
0-22
0-62
0-25
0-4
0-58
0-25
0-54
0-23
0-3.5
0-7
0-25
0-4
0-85
0-26
0-7
0-26
0-3.5
Succession. In the upper jaw figured above, (fig. 1, 2,) immedi-
ately in front of Dm. 1, is a small conical tooth, almost equally far
advanced in growth. This is the small conical one-fanged Premolar
1, which appears in the alveolar border, while the other premolars and
the canine exist as mere germs buried deeply in their alveolar cavi-
ties, and while the milk series are unworn. The small calcified cap
of enamel, which is to compose the crown of Premolar 2, lies hid
deep in the jaw at the point where the palatal process joins the
maxillary, very much to the inner side of the Dm. 1, which it is to
displace. The large conical cap of enamel, on the other hand, which
represents Premolar 3, is situated immediately underneath the ante-
rior portion of Dm. 3, which it displaces at the same time that the
anterior portion of the permanent sectorial displaces the posterior
half. The posterior blade displaces the third and last milk molar at
nearly the same time that Dm. 2 is shed.
Coincident with the^ appearance of Premolar 4 on the alveolar bor-
der in the lower jaw, is that of the Canine, Dm. 1 and 2, remaining
a little later, and being pushed out nearly at the same time. The
lower sectorial makes its appearance very early, while the milk series
is in place, and worn but little.
The teeth first to disappear in the adult hyena are — as one would
expect— the large bone crushers. Premolars 2 and 3 of the upper,
3 and 4 of the lower jaw. These are always very much worn in the
middle aged adult, while the upper Premolar 1, and the lower Pro-
molar 2, exhibit scarcely any trace of wear.
§ 3. D. In the permanent dentition the crowns of the Incisors
one and two of the upper jaw are divided into two cusps by a deep
DAWKINS ON THE DENTITION OF HTJENA SPELiEA. 89
transverse groove, the larger anterior, the smaller posterior. The
latter of these also is bisected by a groove running parallel to the
median line. On the outer side of the anterior aspect is a slight
ascending ridge which is more marked in Incisor 2. The fangs are
very much compressed, and have square bases. Incisor 3, in its stout
caniniform shape and rounded fang, contrasts strongly with the rest.
The crown is composed of a stout recurved cone traversed on the
anterior and inner side by a trenchant ridge, that, after sweeping
round the inner base, reascends the crown on the outer and posterior
side. The area circumscribed by it is very nearly one half of the
crown. The upper canine is differentiated from the lower by the ab-
sence of the lateral curvature of the fang. Its crown is untraversed
by the longitudinal grooves so constant in the canines of the Felidse.
Of the Premolars the crown of the small mono-fanged first, is
obtusely pointed, incurved and traversed by a ridge ; the cingulum
is very pronounced on the inner side. That of the second is com-
posed of a stout obtusely pointed cone, surrounded on every side
but the posterior by a stout cingulum, very marked on the anterior
and inner aspects. At its inner base are two small pits of greater or
less depth, and posteriorly is a small secondary cone, the feeble re-
presentative of that in H. striata. It is traversed by an ascending
ridge, and supported by two cylindrical incurved fangs.
Premolar 3, by far the stoutest of the conical premolars, is com-
posed of a stout cone incurved and slightly inclined backwards, sup-
ported by two incurved divaricant fangs. On the anterior and inner
side is a stout ascending ridge, that with its fellow of the posterior
side includes an area equal to one third of the tooth. Anteriorly
the cingulum is thickened and presents a talon-like form : posteriorly,
also largely developed, it sometimes bears a small trenchant cusp, as
that figured in the Ossemens Possiles.* The fourth premolar, or the
upper carnassial, consists of two portions ; the cuspid anteriorly and
the sectorial posteriorly, the former playing on the interspace be-
tween the lower molar and the lower premolar four, the latter play-
ing scissor-fashion on the corresponding portion of the lower molar.
On the inner side of the exterior stout conical cusp, which is much
lower than the anterior blade, is the inner tubercle of Professor
Owen. Each portion of the crown is supported by a fang, the two
* Tom. cit.Pl.XXX. Fig. 12.
90 THE NATURAL HISTORY EEYIEW.
blades "by one broad triangular in outline, the anterior cusp and the
inner tubercle, eacb by a cylindrical incurved one, that of the former
being tbe smaller. The posterior blade is almost equal in antero-
posterior extent to the anterior cusp and the anterior blade, and
according to Cuvier* is sometimes larger than in H. crocuta. The
blades are separated from each other by a deep cleft.
In the same traus verse line with the posterior blade, and on the
inner side is the upper true molar. In the two specimens which have
passed through my hands from "Wookey Hole, it is very small, equi-
lateral-triangular, and supported by two fangs of which the anterior
and outer is by far the smaller. The posterior, supporting the two
posterior angles, is enclosed in an alveolus with very delicate walls,
which would soon disappear by absorption after the loss of the tooth.
M. De Blainville,t describes one tooth as perfectly round, and sup-
ported by one conical fang (" portee sur un racine unique, conique") ;
and then proceeds to cite the rounded form of the crown, as differen-
tiating the Spelaean Hyena from the recent H. crocuta^ in which it
is nearly triangular (subtriquetre). Professor Owen, following his
lead, infers from the presence of one alveolus only in the specimens
that have passed through his hands, that the tooth in question is
supported by one fang only, and then proceeds to quote this as addi-
tional evidence in favour of the specific difference between the two. J
On a careful examination of the skull of the Lawford Hyena in the
Eucklandian Collection, brought forward in evidence of the one-
fanged true molar, I failed to detect the least trace either of it or
its alveolus, on either side.§ The latter has been entirely obliterated
by absorption. That, however, the true molar of Spelaean Hyena
was sometimes supported by one fang only is proved not only by
fig. 57 in the Fossil Mammals, the history of which is not given, but
by a beautiful upper jaw in the "Williams Collection at Taunton in
which the alveolus is preserved. It is clear, therefore, that the upper
true molar of the Spelaean Hyena was sometimes one — at others bi-
* Op. cit. p. 399- t Op. cit. p. 42.
X Foss. Mam. p. 150. Fig. 57. 8vo. 1846.
§ Professor Owen, (Op. cit. p. 149) indeed, seems to have laboured under
some mistake when he says : " The socket of the small tubercular or fifth molar
tooth is preserved on each side of this rare and beautiful cranium (the Lawford
skull), illustrating the character first observed by M. De Blainville in a fragment of
the upper jaw of a Jlycena spelcea from a continental locality, now in the Parisian
Museum ; viz. the small size and rounded form of the fifth or tubercular molar." Is
it possible to infer the form of the crown, from the shape of the alveolus ?
DAWKINS ON THE DENTITION OF HY.^NA SPELiEA. 91
fanged. That this implantation by one or two fangs, putting out of
the question tlie evidence of the two specimens from Wookey Hole,
is of little zoological value, is proved by the two skulls of S. brimnea
in the British Museum, 822, A. B., in the former of which the last
molar is supported by one, in the latter by two fangs. It is, there-
fore, evident that neither the roundness of crown quoted by M. De
Blainville, nor the implantation by one fang, according to Professor
Owen, can be cited in favour of the specific distinctness of the fossil
cave Hyena from the recent H. crocuta.
§ 3. E. The incisors of the lower jaw, smaller than those of the
upper, progressively increase in size from the first to the third.
Their recurved crowns are slightly hollowed behind, and bear a Y-
shaped furrow immediately above the Y-shaped cingulum circum-
scribing the posterior base. In I. 2 and 3 the furrow passes over the
ascending trenchant edge of the tooth on the outer side, insulating a
small cusp. The fangs are straight and thicker anteriorly than
posteriorly, and traversed by a broad groove on the inner and outer
sides.
The lower canine, stout, conical and slightly recurved, is charac-
terized by the stoutness of the cingulum and of the two ascending
ridges that divide the inner from the outer portion of the crown, and
by the absence of the longitudinal grooves so constant in its Peline
homologues. Its fang is twisted slightly outwards to admit of the
implantation of the succeeding tooth.
The crown of Premolar 2, separated by a short diastema from the
canine, is composed of a stout obtusely pointed incurved cone, spring-
ing from above a very stout cingulum, and divided into two subequal
halves by two ascending trenchant ridges. Posteriorly a small cleffc
divides it from the small posterior accessory cusp. Anteriorly also,
in some cases, a small cleft maps off a rudimentary cusp, the homo-
logue of that so fully developed in the Striped Hyena. Of its two
fangs the anterior has its tip suddenly reflected by the growth of the
fang of the canine, the posterior is the larger.
In Premolar 3 the crown consists of a stout cone pointing back-
wards, and divided into two subequal halves by an anterior and pos-
terior ascending ridge. Posteriorly the cingulum is very stout and
bears a small cusp, the homologue of that wliich in the next succeed-
ing tooth is largely developed. It is thickened also anteriorly. The
two cylindrical fangs are slightly recurved, and the anterior is slightly
the longer.
92 TUE XATUHAL HISTOEY REYIEW.
The crown of Premolar 4, consists of a principal cone bisected by
trencbant ridges and mapped oiF from the two accessory cusps by a
cleft. Of tbe latter tbe posterior is by far tbe larger. On tbe inner
and posterior side is a broad excavation bounded posteriorly by a ridge.
The anterior of the two straight cylindrical fangs is slightly the
longer, the posterior is bevelled as it approaches the cervix of the
tooth to admit of the close apposition of the true molar on the inner side.
In the lower true molar (M. 1.) the sectorial portion of the
crown is largely increased at the expense of the tubercular, which is
proportionally diminished. The anterior blade of the unworn tooth
is by far the largest. A slight ridge traverses its anterior base,
and is more pronounced on the outer than the inner side. On the
posterior aspect of the tooth a ridge descends down to the inner side
of the tubercular portion. This latter rising but little above the
level of the cingulum is variable in form and size to such a degree
that its variations have been deemed by eminent French Palseonto-
logists of specific value. So far as it is concerned the 18 jaws upon
the table before me as I write, fall into three groups. In the first,
represented by 8 jaws, its surface is traversed by a ridge which
passes obliquely from the posterior border to the descending ridge
of the posterior blade from which it is separated by a small cleft.
The faint ridge bearing small tubercles on the summit of the cingu-
lum is not cleft behind, nor is there any trace of a cusp at the inner
and posterior base of the posterior blade. This is the form most
common in the jaws of the Spelaean Hyena, and is that which MM.
Croizet, Jobert, Marcel de Serres, Dubrueil and Jeanjean have con-
sidered strictly typical. In the three jaws representing the second
group, the ridge on the tubercular portion is still present, stout in
two, scarcely marked in the third. At the point, however, where
it joins the descending ridge of the posterior blade, is a small well de-
fined cusp, separated by a cleft in one, by a notch in the remaining two,
from the blade (fig. 4 & 5). This is the form which Marcel de Serres,
Dubrueil and Jeanjean have named Hycena intermedia,* and con-
sidered representative of H. brunnea. M. De Blainvillef has met
with this form in a jaw from a foreign locality in the Jardin des
Plantes, and in a second from Kent's Hole. And lastly, two jaws are
characterized by the development of a stout cusp on the inner side
of the tubercular portion, which, together with the ridge, give it a
* Tom. cit. p. 88. f Tom. cit. p. 40.
DAWKINS ON THE DENTITION OF HTiENA SPELiEA.
93
bilobed form (fig. 6), the depression occupying the position that the
ridge more usually occupies. In neither is there the slightest trace
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
of a cusp at the inner base of the posterior blade. This, repeated
also in the milk dentition as described above, according to MM.
Fig. 6.
Croizet and Jobert, is characteristic of SycBua Perrieri* Of the
remaining jaws which make up the 18, two are allied to the second
group by the small cusp at the base of the posterior blade, and two
to the third by the faint division into two lobes of the tubercular
surface. One, now in the cabinet of the Eev. H. H. "Winwood,
P.G-.S., in the bilobation of the tubercular portion and the develop-
* Tom cit. PI. 2. Fig. 3. p. 176.
94 THE NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW.
ment of the cusp on the inner side, unites the characteristics of both
the second and third groups — in other words of H. intermedia and H.
Perrieri. It appears to me, therefore, conclusive, that these differ-
ences must be looked upon as variations merely from the typical
form of the lower molar of Hycena spelcea^ and by no means of spe-
cific value ; and this view is corroborated by the exact correspondence
in the form and proportions of the other teeth of the jaws in which
these abnormal differences occur, with those of the Spelaean Hyena.
Along with M. De Blainville,* therefore, though not on the same
grounds, I cannot admit the validity as species of either S. Perrieri
of Croizet and Jobert, or of H. intermedia of M. de Serres.
§. ly. But on the other hand it may fairly be asked, " Is not the
presence of the small cusp at the inner base of the posterior blade of
the lower molar, evidence that the Hyena brunnea co-existed in the
caverns with the Spelaean Hyena ?" It is perfectly true that the above
characteristic is now confined to H. hrunnea alone of the existing
species : but the series of jaws mentioned above, proves that the fossil
Hyena was subject to a considerable number of variations — " un assez
bonnombre de variations qui etablissent des nuances intermediaires"t
— some of which point in the direction of the PL. hrunnea of Thunberg,
without, in my opinion, actually indicating that species. Just in pro-
portion as our knowledge increases of any group of animals so do the
lines of demarcation between the species become more and more
faint. Nature has every where worked ' catenatim hand seriatim,'
to the great confusion of systematists. If, for example, we turn to
the Carnivora, one of the best defined of natural groups, we find that
the various genera overlap, or if we take a particular genus — the
Bears — we find that in the recent as in the fossil state they present
variations almost infinite with reference to the dentition. The fossil
species {JJrsi arctos, arctoideuSy jpriscus and spelceus) shade off" into
one another, and present a series of lower jaws, in the Museums of
Taunton, Oxford, Leeds, and especially in the British Museum,
ofiering every variation in size, in the form of the teeth, in the shape of
the coronoid process, the angle and the condyle. Thus PL, spelcea
does not stand alone in its variations from the more usual form :
and as these have been traced step by step to the form confined now
to H. hrunnea, I cannot but conclude that this also is a variety only
* Op. cit p. 45. and 48.
f De Blainville, Osteographie, Art. Hyena, p. 40.
DAWKINS ON THE DENTITION OF HT^NA SPEL^A, 95
of the SpelsDan Hyena. It is just possible, that as now the Brown
and Spotted Hyena are found side by side with the living Hippopo-
tamus in South Africa, so both may have been associated with Hippo-
potamus major, in the Fauna of the Newer Pliocene, in Britain ; but
the balance of evidence preponderates in favour of the latter species
only and its varieties. In a word the whole question hinges upon
this point, — Is H. h^imnea specifically distinct from, or merely a
variety of H. crocuta ? — a point which as yet has not been placed
beyond all doubt.*
§. V. In systematic arrangement the Spelaean Hyena may be
divided into two varieties ; — a being the S. intermedia of Marcel
de Serres, /3 the JEL. Perrieri of ^IM. Croizet and Jobert ; the former
of which points towards H. brunnea. In the preceding remarks
I have attempted to prove that the apparent differences between
it and H. crocuta, so far as relate to the dental series, do not obtain
in every case, but are merely accidents of no specific value. And
after a careful comparison of a very large series of remains, repre-
senting all the hard parts of the fossil hyena, I can detect no
greater difi"erences between it and the H. crocuta, than between
the Wolf of the caves, and that now living in Europe, or between
the fossil and the recent Eeindeer. It is indeed to a careful search
for minute distinctions between recent and fossil animals, originat-
ing in the main from the idea that the present order of things
is separated from the past by some great catastrophe, that we
owe a great many of our so-called fossil species. Now that
Archaeology is creating a kingdom for itself, in the border land be-
tween the Historical Period and that of the Newer Pliocene, it is
most essential that the true relation of the fossil to the recent species
should be fully realized. In this particular case the name S.
spelcea (Goldfuss) is retained, merely as representing that section
of the existing H. crocuta which inhabited Europe in the Newer
Pliocene times.
§. YI. The following table of measurements, taken at the base of
the teeth in inches and tenths, shows at a glance the relative size of
the teeth of the recent and Spelaean Hyenas. It may be compared
with those given by Cuvier, Deslonghamps, Croizet and Jobert, and
Dr. Schmerling.
* Van Der Hoeven (Handbook of Zoology, 8vo. vol. ii. p. 705, translated by
Dr. Clarke) gives references to the literature of the recent Hyenas. I have adopted
his views with reference to their classification.
98
THE NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW.
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97
XI. — Sketch of the peimaey Geoups of Batrachia salientia.
By Edward D. Cope, of the Academy of Natural Sciences,
Philadelphia, U. S. A. ; C. M. Z. S. L.
The peculiarities of their osseous structure appear to point out
among the families of the Batrachia salientia three series. First,
those characterized by an absence of teeth and manubrium sterni,
where the diapophysis of the sacrum is dilated, and the sternum with
or without cartilaginous arches. Secondly, those having teeth, the
coracoid and epicoracoid bones divergent and connected by a longi-
tudinally placed cartilaginous arch,* that of the one side overlapping
that of the other ; the sacral diapophysis being either dilated or
cylindrical, and the manubrium present or absent. Thirdly, those
having teeth, the sacral diapophysis cylindrical, and a sternum of the
following structure. The axes of the coracoid and epicoracoid are
parallel, not divergent, their distal extremities separated only by
interposed articular cartilage, and that of the epicoracoid resting
upon that of the coracoid, which is much dilated : there are therefore
no arciform cartilages. There is always a bony manubrium, and
usually an osseous styliform xiphisternal piece.
These series may be called the Bufoniformia, the Arcifera, and
the Eaniformia. The first is extensively developed in the Neotro-
pical, the Ethiopian, and Palaeotropical regions ; many species occur
in the Nearctic district, a small number in the Palsearctic, and but
three in the Australian. The second is found in all the regions of
the globe except the Ethiopian, but is relatively much most de-
veloped in the Austi'alian and Neotropical faunae ; in the Palaeotro-
pical but four or five species occur. The Eaniformia, on the contrary,
are not found in Australia, are represented by but one species
in South America, are well represented (relatively) in the Ne-
arctic and Palsearctic regions, abound in the ^Ethiopian, but are
most numerous in the Palaeotropical.
In each of these series or suborders we find types adapted for
* Plainly homologous with those connecting the coracoids and epicoracoids
of the Lacertilia. They are homologized by M. Duges with the clavicles; and the
bones usually so called in the Batrachia salientia he terms acromials. A super-
ficial view favours the opinion that the latter are rather epicoracoids, and that
the clavicles of the Lacertilia have no homologue among the Frogs.
N.H.R.— 1865. H
98 THE NATTJRAL niSTCfRY EEVIEW.
burrowing, others for an aquatic life ; some are entirely terrestrial,
and some are constructed for maintaining their position upon the
leaves and branches of trees. But the different adaptive modifica-
tion so graduate into each other on one hand, while similar ones are
so constantly separate on the other, different structures frequently
serving the same purpose,* that we are compelled to believe that a
different idea pervades the scheme ; and that, although adaptive
modifications undoubtedly distinguish many generic and such subor-
dinate types, the direction of their series is in accordance with
another law which is not explained. This is the case, it will be seen,
within the more definitely restricted series, the families.
In addition to the many species constituting the three suborders
above-mentioned, there are known three living and perhaps as many
extinct ones characterized by an extension of the pterygoid bones so
as to enclose the cava tympani and tubse Eustachii, causing the latter
to present a single united ostium pharyngium. The living species
have at the same time no tongue. The genera Fipa, Dactylethra,
and Palceohatrachus are alluded to. The vertebrs3 in these animals
are opisthocoelian, as in the Salamanders, and their sternum of the
arciferous type.
With our present knowledge these types may be regarded as
constituting a distinct suborder ; but it is possible that Palaolatra-
chus and Dactyletlira may come to be looked upon as extremes of the
series of Arcifera, succeeding the family Asterophrydidcs of the
latter. The peculiar vertebras without ribs and the simply arti-
culated coccyx are points of resemblance w^hich do not occur
elsewhere. In Pipa the relations of the fronto-parietal, ethmoid
and prefrontal bones, also the sternum, find a close parallel in the
BTiinopJirynidce, which, with the absence of teeth, suggest that it
may be the most divergent type of the Bufoniform suborder.
AGLOSSA.
PlPID^.
No ribs ; simple coccyx attached to a single condyle. Coracoid
and epicoracoid divergent, their connecting arches not overlapping.
No manubrium. Pronto-parietal completely ossified; prefrontals
* Vide Professor Owen, in Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. v. p. 91, line 21.
COPE ON TH^ BATEACHIA SALIENTIA. 9^
separate. Teeth none ; sacral diapophyses dilated. Terminal pha-
langes acute, simple. External metatarsals separated by a web.
The Neotropical genus Pipa has the atlas confluent with the
second vertebra, so that there are but seven anterior to the sacrum.
There are distinct nasal bones, and the median septum of the ethmoid
is partially ossified. The prefrontals are completely in contact with
each other and with the fronto-parietal.
D ACTYLETHKIDiE .
No ribs : OS ilium attached to the ninth vertebra only. Coracoida
and epicoracoids well separated from those of the opposite side.
Fronto-parietal strongly ossified, overhanging the confluent pre-
frontals. Teeth present ; sacral diapophyses dilated. Terminal
phalanges acute, simple. External metatarsals separated by a web.
One genus Bactylethra, in the Eegio ^thiopica. In this the
interorbital ethmoid plate, though long, is not produced anteriorly,
and is entirely concealed by the fronto-parietal. The prefrontal
diOQ^ not always extend to it. The first two vertebrae are separate,
but the sacral and coccyx confluent. There are ossa nasalia above
the nares.
Pal^obateachidje.
No ribs : os ilium attached to the diapophyses of the confluent
ninth, eighth, and seventh vertebrae, which form a disc; coccyx
attached by a simple glenoid cavity. Eronto-parietal strongly
ossified, not produced further than the separate prefrontals. Ex-
ternal metatarsals probably separated by a web.
The genus FalceobatraGhus, Tsch., represented by several species
in the miocene of Germany. The superior plate of the ethmoid was
concealed ; and the atlas confluent with the first vertebra, leaving but
six between the occiput and sacrum.
Von Meyer states* that, of a great number of specimens of
P. diluvianus which he examined, but one exhibited the complete
developmental stage, as indicated by the complete fusion of the sacral
diapophyses, which is certainly a remarkable circumstance. Such an
one preserved in the British Museum has opisthocoelian vertebrae.
Von Meyer describes the vertebrae of P. giganteus as procoelian,
while some of them are figured as opisthocoelian. It remains there-
* Palgeontographica, iii. p. 147.
H 2
100 THE 1TA.TUEAL HISTOET EEYIEW.
ore a question of interest whether any species of this family pos-
sesses the ordinary Batrachian type of vertebrae.
BUFONIFOEMIA.
No species of this suborder has articulated ribs or opisthocoelian
vertebrae, nor a distinct web between the external metatarsal bones.
In one genus only are the sacral diapophyses cylindrical. The
families are the Hhinophrynidce, Engystomidce^ BracTiymeridce, Bufo^
nidcPf and Dendrohatidcs,
EniNOPHETNIDiE.
Ethmoid septal walls ossified to the end of the muzzle, and
separating the prefrontals ; its superior plate covered by the com-
pletely ossified fronto-parietale. Fronto-nasalia well developed,
entirely in contact with fronto-parietalia, separated by a median
point of the latter and by the ethmoid septum. No os pterygoideum
or pterygoid wing of ectopterygoid : the latter straight, with a short
maxillary suture. Sacral diapophysis dilated. Coracoid and epico-
racoid divergent, connected by a narrow single cartilage ; the
former not dilated, in contact with, or slightly separated from, that
of the opposite side. Tongue bound or retractile posteriorly. Ear
imperfectly developed.
RhinopTirynus and Hemisus represent this form in Mexico and
Africa respectively. In the latter genus the coracoidii are in
contact, and there is a strong manubrium : the posterior free border
of the tongue may be drawn into a transverse slit by a flabelliform
retractor muscle. This slit is beneath the free portion of the tongue
when it is extended.* In both genera there are nine vertebrae (in-
clusive of sacral) and a coccyx attached to two condyles.
Engtstomid^.
Ethmoid septal walls cartilaginous ; the interorbital portion of
the superior plate usually covered by the completely ossified fronto-
parietals. jN"o pterygoidium. Sacral diapophyses dilated. Cora-
coids dilated, always in contact with each other, also with the epico-
racoids when present (with one exception), and always without
arciform cartilages. Tongue free, not retractile posterior^.
There are two types in this family. In the first the o. prefrontalia
* This I first observed in a specimen of Hemisus gnineensis preserved in the
vniiscum of Professor Geheimrath Ilyrtl, in Vienna, to whom lam nnder many obli-
gations for opportunities of studying valuable specimens and preparations.
COPE ON THE B.\.TRACHIA SALIENTIA. 101
are developed to their fullest extent, forming complete sutures with
each other and with the parietale. In the second, these bones are
separated widely or partially by the exposed superior plate of the
ethmoid, which may be principally cartilaginous (^BrachycepJialus) ,
a broad bony area {BJiinode^'md)^ or strongly ossified in the form of
the nose-piece of a helmet, to the end of the muzzle (Atelopus, sp.).
Of these three genera the first has the ear imperfectly developed ; in
species of the third the epicoracoidei are not in contact with the
coracoidei, but have a very short, simple, cartilaginous connexion.
There are also but eight vertebrae in some of the species, the atlas
being confluent with the first, and in A.fiavescens the coccygeal con-
dyle is single (transverse). This peculiar group is confined to the
Neotropical region, where it represents, in the structure of its skulh
the typical group of CystignathidcB among the Arcifera, and Dendro-
hatidcej from which it is not far removed in affinity.
In the first section, Micro-hyla exhibits an imperfectly developed
ear. Caloliyla (= Holonectes and Flectropus), and Micro-Jiyla have
digital dilatations similar to those of the Tree-Frogs ; their terminal
phalanges are furnished with a terminal transverse limb, which is
most noticeable in the first-named genus, and similar to the structure
in Hylarana, but difierent from those in Folypedates and Hyla,
Cacopus, Gthr. (Hyperodon), auct.), Diplopelma, and Micro-hyla are
the only genera in the family without o. epicoracoidea. JEngystoma
and Calophry7ie are the remaining genera, the former the only one
which is not confined to the Palseotropical region : it is both North
and South American. In the latter the coccyx is articulated to the
sacrum by a single transverse condyle ; in all the other genera it is
double. In their completely developed parietal and fronto-nasal
bones, the genera of this section resemble the types of aquatic
ManidcB of the same region. The xiphistemum is either entirely or
basally fibro-cartilaginous ; in the three genera of the secoud division
it is thin and cartilaginous.
Brachymeeid^,
Superior plate of ethmoid not ossified, either medially or wholly
cartilaginous or fibro-cartilaginous. Epicoracoids divergent from
coracoids, and connected with them by a single or double narrow
cartilaginous band, the latter in contact with each other i* no ma-
* Not observed in Braclujmerus.
102 THE NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW.
nubrium. Eronto-parietals ossified on their superciliary borders
only, thus enclosing a large fontanelle. Sacral diapophyses dilated.
Ear perfectly developed. Tongue free, not retractile posteriorly.
ChelydohatracJius in Australia, and JBreviceps and JBrachymerus in
South Africa, are the only genera of this family. The double carti-
lages of the sternum of the first foreshadow the arches of the
Bufonidce, and its prefrontal bones are in contact throughout, being
developed as in that family and in the JEngystomidcd. In Breviceps
gibhosus the prefrontals are transverse, in contact medially, often
only fibro-cartilaginous. There are true nasal bones lelow the
external nares. There are but eight vertebrse, the atlas and first
being confluent ; and the coccyx is confluent with the sacrum. In
J5. mossamhicus the prefrontals are separated. The terminal seg-
ment of each ramus mandibuli has an expanded cartilaginous border
inferiorly, in this as well as the nest genus ; it exists in a less degree
in Diplopelma. In Brachymerus the prefroutals are very narrow and
widely separated from each other ; the terminal phalanges have a
distal transverse limb for supporting a palette, as in Calohyla. In
the three genera the epicoracoid exists. The xiphisternnm in Bre-
viceps is a short, broad, deeply emarginate, cartilaginous disc : in
Chelydobatrachus it is not emarginate, and is attached by a broad
bony pedicel.
BUFONID^.
Epicoracoidei divergent from coracoidei ; the latter dilated, nearly
or quite in contact, each connected with the former on the same side
by a cartilaginous arch, of which that on the right (the animal being
on its back) overlaps with its convexity the left coracoid, and that of
the left coracoid nnderlaps that on the right. Superior plate of the
ethmoid completely ossified, vary rarely prolonged anteriorly, usually
covered by the completely ossified fronto-parietals, or by these and
the prefrontals together. No pterygoideum. Sacral diapophyses
dilated ; coccyx attached to two condyles. Tongue free, not retractile
posteriorly.
This family embraces the genera JPseudophryne, JPTirijniscuSy
Epidalea,* Bufo, InciUus,f Sclerophrys, Beltaphryne, Bhceho,X Balu-
dicola, ScMsmaderma, Otilophus, Bhrynoidis, Nectes.
* Called O. dentale by Duges.
t Vi(^e Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1863, p. 49.
X Having seen the type-specimens of Rhcsho leschenmiUii and R. guttatus, I in-
cline to consider them different species. They have been supposed identical by
Prof. Peters, I. c.
COPE ON THE BATEACHIA SALIENTIA. 103
In the first two only is the ear imperfectly developed. In all,
except Pseudophryne and Epidalea,* the fronto-parietals are entirely
osseous ; in the genera named they embrace a large fontanelle. In
Otiloplms and JPhynoidis^ there are but eght vertebrae, the atlas
and first being confluent. In Nectes there are resemblances to the
Asterophydidce ; the profrontals are narrow, divergent, in contact
only anteriorly ; the superior plate of the ethmoid is small, trans-
verse, not entirely covered by the fronto-parietals, which are but
weakly ossified medially, although embracing no fontanelle. In the
other genera the prefrontals are in contact mth each other and with
the fronto-parietals throughout.
In none of the genera known to belong to the family is there a
manubrium sterni. The xiphisternum is a slender weak cartilage in
FseudopTiryne and JPhryniscus and Bufo helaartii : in the other
species the style supporting the terminal disc is strouger, sometimes
fibro- cartilaginous ; in Bufo vulgaris and B. melanost ictus it is
broader and nearly bony, and in Nectes% suhasper strongest and
broadest.
In Bufo helaartii the terminal phalanges have a slight terminal
transverse extension.
BseudopJiryne, the weakest and least-developed form, is Australian ;
Phryniscus, Btfo, Inciliu^, Peltaphryne, and Otiloplms are Neo-
tropical ; Bufo and ScJiismaderma, Ethiopian ; Bufo and Incilius,
Nearctic ; Bufo and Bpidalea, Palsearctic ; and Bufo, Incilius, Pliry-
noidiSf and Nectes, Palaeotropical.
DENDE0BATID2E.
Epicoracoidei transverse, their distal extremities in contact with
each other and with the dilated distal extremities of the coracoidei,
which are also in contact with each other. A manubrium. Sacral
diapophyses cylindrical. Eronto-parietal bones completely and
strongly ossified. Tongue not retractile posteriorly. Ear perfectly
developed.
* Epidalea calamita {Bufo calamita of authors), found in Western Europe.
f The raised orbital ridges of this genus do not constitute its essential character,
as formerly supposed, but rather the division of the neural spines and the wide
separation of the lateral portions (they stand above the zygapophyses) throughout
the vertebral column ; perhaps the fusion of the atlas with the first vertebra
important in the same connexion. There is but one species at present known,
P. osper.
% I prefer this name to the hybrid Pseudohujo, though later in date.
104
THE NATURAL HISTORY REYIEW.
The few species of the remarkable genus Denhrolates, constitut-
ing this family, are found in the Neotropical region. They are
characterized by many peculiarities. The ethmoideum is the most
strongly developed in the order ; it is largely produced anteriorly,
widely separating the small prefrontalia ; post ero -laterally it fills the
entire space between the sphenoideum and parietale, leaving only the
foramen opticum. The terminal phalanges support discs, by a trans-
verse limb upon the extremity of each, as in Calohyla. There is the
usual number of nine vertebrae, the sacral giving attachment to the
coccyx by two condyles ; the diapophyses and posterior zygapophyses
are connected by a horizontal bony lamina, w^hich gives the dorsal
surface of the vertebrae an unusual extent.
AECIFERA.
The greater number of the families of this suborder possess, as in
the last, dilated sacral diapophyses : the tongue is always free, and
never retractile posteriorly. It is, however, particularly interesting
as embracing types which offer an approach to the Batrachia gra-
dientia in the possession of ribs and opisthocoelian vertebrae. These
inhabit exclusively the Palsearctic region, where they were preceded
in miocene times by forms, some more completely developed, others
quite similar. The representatives of these in the Palaeotropical
region do not exhibit such decided salamandrine tendencies, but form
a connexion between them, the procoelian Arcifera and the Aglossa ;
in the case of the last, by a form common during the Miocene period
in Europe, but not at present existing. With a very few exceptions,
the remaining types are American and Australian. The six families
are distinguishable as follows : —
I. Sacral diapophyses dilated ; vertebrae opisthocoelian.
Eibs; diapophyses of first coccygeal vertebra;
outer metatarsi separated by web .... Discoglossid^.
No ribs or coccygeal diapophyses; outer meta-
tarsi bound together Asterophetdid^.
II. Sacral diapophyses dilated ; vertebrae procoelian.
Terminal phalanges continuous, conic, simple . Scaphiopodid-S.
Termiual phalanges, with a swollen base, and
slender, curved, claw-like termination . . . Hylid^.
COPE ON THE BATEACHIA SALIENTIA. 105
III. Sacral diapophyses cylindrical ; vertebrse procoelian.
External metacarpal bones mostly bound to-
gether, rarely free CTSTiaNATHiDiE.
DiSCOGLOSSID-aE.
Vertebrse opithocoelian.* Diapopbyses of sacrum dilated. Pirst
coccygeal vertebra united as usual with the second or style, but fur-
nished with posteriorly divergent diapophyses, and attached to the
sacral by two cotyloid cavities (with one exception). Short ribs
articulated to the anterior diapophyses.f Ossa fronto-parietalia
enclosing a fontanelle (in existing genera). External metatarsi
more or less separated by a web. Terminal phalanges continuous,
simple. Xiphisternum of two slender postero-exteriorly diverging
fibro-cartilaginous or cartilaginous styles. Tongue round, entire,
and little or not at all free behind.
G-enera : Latotiia, von Meyer. ; Discoglossus, Otth. ; Alytes,
Wagl. J Combinatory Merr.
Although the species composing this family are European, and
have long been under the eyes of zoologists, few have been in some
respects less understood.
"W"e may commence the series of the Arcifera with the great
central family of the Ch/stignathidcd, which afford the closest points
of resemblance, perhaps affinity, on the one hand to the Bicfoniformia
through Fhyllohates and Dendrobates, and on the other to the Bani-
formia through CystignatJius and Cassina. We will then end it with
the families Aster cphry did cb and DiscoglossidcB, which are perhaps
equally connected with that which precedes them — the Scaphiopodidce.
The former leads to DactyletJira through Balceobatrachus ; the latter,
as far as our present knowledge indicates, finds its completest deve-
lopment in the extinct genus Latonia, established by Yon Meyer on
the L. seyfriedi% from the miocene of Oeningen. A species also
occurs in the freshwater deposits of Sansan, L. rugosa,§ whose sala-
mander-like vertebrae have been noticed by Gervais.|| These animals
were nearly related to Discoglossusy and had, like it, short posteriorly-
* Observed by Duges and Gervais in Alytes.
f Noticed by Dnges in Alytes and Bomhinator.
X Saugethiere Vogel u. Keptilien von Oeningen, p. 18.
§ Rana rugosa, Lartet (Notice sur la Colline de Sansan, p. 41). My acknow-
ledgments are due to M. Lartet for the pleasure of being able to make an examina-
tion of the reptilian remains of Sansan, preserved in his private collection.
II Pal^eontologie Fran(,-aise, p. 494,
106 THE KATUEAL HISTORY EEVIEW.
directed processes on the ribs, as in the genus Salamandra; they
were, however, much larger, had the fronto-parietal bones com-
pletely ossified, and the whole of the cranium roughened externally
by a dermo-ossification. On this account the genus has been com-
pared with CeratophrySy which belongs to the family of Cystigna-
thidcB. This dermo-ossification occurs in various families, especially
in the New World.
In the remaining and recent genera, the structure of the sternum
is worthy of note. In old individuals of DiscoglossuSy it is some-
times fibro-cartilaginous, as in Cystignathus and Fipa. This part
is probably homologous, with the xiphisternum of the Lacertilia,
while the part commonly called by that name is the united hsBmapo-
physial cartilages of the anterior ribs. In the genera in question,*
this part is divided nearly up to the point of attachment to that
preceding, each moiety being directed outwards and backwards, and
tapering into a lateral linea semilunaris. Between these and the
pubis there are in Discoglossus the usual three pairs of lineae semi-
lunares, connected on the median line by a remarkably strong linea
alba.
In Discoglossus the prefrontalia are strongly developed, being
in contact for most of their length, sometimes touching the fronto-
parietalia. In Alytes they are also in contact throughout, but are
transverse and do not reach the fronto-parietals ; the fontanelle is
larger, and the ribs without processes : the whole animal is weaker.
In this genus, as well as the preceding, the pupil is a vertical slit ;
elsewhere found only in JlylorJiina. A species, A. troschelii,f has
left its remains in the miocene Braunkohle along with FalcBohatrachus.
Bomlinator is similar to Alytes in its osseous structure, except that
the prefrontalia are in contact anteriorly only, and that the sacrum
presents but one condyle for the articulation of the coccyx, as is
typical of the Asterophrydidce and Aglossa. Along with Alytes and
Dactyletlira it has true ossa nasalia, which bound the external nares
exteriorly, thus explaining their anomalous position in Breviceps,
where they are inferior. In this genus there is no cavum tympani,
and the tubas Eustachii are rudimentary or wanting. This
character^ is said to be variable, and to be occasionally, more or
* Duges has given a figure of it in Bomlinator, pi. 3. fig, 24,
I Rana troschellii (Von Meyer, Palseontographica, iii . p , 138) is undoubtedly
an Alytes.
X Vide Glintliei-, Proc. Zool. Soc 1858, p. where Tschudi's remarks are quoted.
COPE ON THE BATEACHIA SALIENTIA. 107
less traceable, in allied genera. There are no arboreal types in
this family.
ASTEEOPHETDID-a;.
Yertebrse opisthocoelian (with one exception). Diapophysis of
sacrum dilated, of first coccygeal vertebra wanting ; the latter at-
tached by but one cotyloid ca^dty (except in one genus). Eibs none.
External metatarsi not separated for a web ; terminal phalanges con-
tinuous, simple. O. fronto-parietalia not strongly ossified medially,
but without fontanelle. Superior plate of the ethmoid well deve-
loped anteriorly. Ear perfectly developed. Xiphisternum a slender
osseous style (first two genera not examined).
G-enera : Cryptotis, Grthr. ; AsteropTirys, Tsch. ; MegalopJirys ,
Kuhl ; Xenophrys, Grthr. ; Leptohrachium, Tsch.
The JBalceobatraohidcd differ from this family in the conversion of
their seventh, eighth, and ninth vertebral centra and diapophyses
into a sacrum, instead of the ninth only ; and in the osseous cover-
ing of the cavum tympani and tuba Eustachii.
Cryptotis, the only Australian genus of the family, possesses two
sacral condyles for the articulation of the coccyx; it has a long
tooth-like process on the os dentale, similar to that seen in Bana
macrodon, and JR. huhlii.
The other genera belong to the Malayan Islands, except Xeno-
ph^ys, which has only been found in the mountains of India.*
Leptobracliimn is remarkable as possessing procoelian vertebrae,
forming a point of affinity to the Scaphiopidce, especially to Pelodytes
ptmctatus.
There are no arboreal forms known in this family.
SCAPHIOPODID^.
Vertebrae procoelian. No ribs or coccygeal diapophyses ; sacral
diapophyses dilated ; two condyles for the coccyx. External meta-
carpi bound together. Terminal phalanges continuous, conic. Ma-
nubrium weak, cartilaginous.
In seven of the eight genera of this family the toes are webbed ;
in three there is no cavum tympani; in four there is a front o-
* As Dr. Giinther informs me.
108 THE NATmAL HISTOEY EEVIEW.
parietal fontanelle ; and in one a bony xiphisternuin. They are as
follows : —
I. No fronto-pariental fontanelle.
A cavum tympani ; no osseous styloid xiphisternum.
Chirole'ptes, Scaphiopus.
No caA^um tympani, or osseous xiphisternal style.
Telmatobius.'^
No cavuin tympani : xiphisternal style osseous, slender.
Felohates.
II. A fronto-parietal fontanelle.
No cavum tympani. Alsodes.
Cavum tympani j atlas and second vertebra distinct.
Selioporus, Hi/peroUa.f
Cavum tympani ; atlas and second vetebra confluent.
I*elodi/tes.
The xiphisternum in Scaphiopus solitarius is a cartilaginous plate ;
in Felodytes the cartilage is supported by an oblong plate-like
osseous style, as in many Cystignathids. In Pelobates and Scaphiopus
only, are the sacral and coccygeal vertebrsB confluent. In Scaphiopus,
Selioporus^ and St/perolia, are parotoid glands. The heterogeneous
structure of this family, is not more striking than its geographical
distribution. Thus Hyperolia, Helioporus, and GJiiroleptes are Aus-
tralian ; Alsodes and Telmatolius, Neotropical ; ScapTiiopus, Nearctic ;
and Felohates and JPelodytes, Palaearctic. It is quite possible that
Alsodes, in which the dilatation of the sacral diapophyses is extremely
slight, should be removed to the Cystignathidce, and placed between
CyclorliampTius and Crinia ; in some species of the latter the diapo-
physes are quite as much dilated. J
Eemains from the Braunkohle, from Eott, near Bonn, indicate a
species of Felobates larger than those now existing.
HTLID-aE.
Vertebrae procoelian. Sacral diapophyses dilated, the simple coccyx
articulated to two condyles. External metacarpi bound together.
Terminal phalanges articulated inferiorly on to the extremity of the
penultimate, globular or swollen proximally, and giving rise, usually
from a central emargination, to the curved, acute distal portion
* My knowledge of the sternum in this genus is not definite.
t Sometimes written Uperoleia.
X Vide Gunther, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1864, Peb. 9th.
COPE ON THE BATBACHIA SALIENTTA. 109
which is of a more compact tissue. O. fronto-parietaKa shortened
anteriorly, usually embracing a fontanelle. Superior plate of eth-
moid never covered by fronto-parietals, usually produced anteriorly,
between fronto-nasals. Ear perfectly developed.
This family embraces the Tree-Progs of the New "World and
Australia, though in the latter country, with its usual perverseness,
they are terrestrial in their habits. One species is found in the Old
World, viz. B^yla arborea of the Fauna Palsearctica.
There are fifteen genera in this family, of which five want the
parietal fontanelle. In two the prefrontals are in contact. The
xiphisternum is usually a parallelogrammic fibro-cartilaginous plate,
deeply emarginate posteriorly, and divided by an imperfect longitu-
dinal suture in two halves ; or it is entirely cartilaginous, as in Pseu-
dacris. The manubrium is slightly developed, usually cartilaginous,
rarely apparently wanting. The following is a sketch of the
genera: — . .
I. No fronto-parietal fontanelle.
a. Head covered with a dermo-ossification.
A dorsal dermal pouch Opistliodelphys.
No pouch ; prefrontals in contact anteriorly TracliycepTialus.
aa. Head without dermo-ossification.
No pouch; prefrontals large, in contact
medially their entire length. No paro-
toid Acrodytes.^
No pouch. Prefrontals in contact. A paro-
toid covering head and back .... Scytopis.
A dermal pouch ; toes slightly webbed . Nototrema.
II. A fronto-parietal fontanelle ; the prefrontals separated by the
horizontal ethmoid plate.
a. Parotoid glands present.
Parotoid on scapular regions. Interior
digits not opposable Felodryas.
Interior digits opposable. Poot without
web ; tongue elongate, free . . . » . JBliyllomedusa.
aa. No parotoid glands.
h. Toes webbed.
* Type B%jla vcnulosa, Daudin.
110 THE NATURAL HISTOET EEVIEW.
c. Inner finger not opposite the others ; fonta-
nelle broad ; superior ethmoid plate usually
with a supraorbital angular dilatation.
d. Inferior palpebra reticulate with
fibrous veins.
Tongue elongate, extensively free . . . Agalyclmis.^
dd. Inferior palpebra transparent.
e. Tongue little free posteriorly, entire
or nearly so.
No vomerine teeth or cranial ridges . . . Sylella,
No cranial ridges ; vomerine teeth . . . Hyla.
Two longitudinal cranial ridges ; vomerine
teeth Osteocephalus.^
ee. Tongue extensively free and deeply
notched behind.
Digital dilatations small Aeris.
cc. Inner finger opposite others ; ethmoid plate
not dilated j fontauelle narrow.
Litoria.
bh. Toes free ; dilatations small ; fontanelle wide.
Superior ethmoid plate osseous .... iPseudacris.
Superior ethmoid plate cartilaginous ; pre-
frontals well developed, in contact me-
dially Thoropa.X
Of these genera Felodryas is Australian ; Litoria and Syla are
common to that and the Neotropical region ; Acris and Fseudacris
are confined to the Nearctic. The other genera are Neotropical ;
Hyla only being represented in the Nearctic and Palsearctic regions.
CxSTiaNATHIDJE.
Vertebrae proccelian ; sacral diapophyses cylindrical ; coccyx
simple, attached to two condyles. External metacarpi usually bound
together. Terminal phalanges continuous, either uniformly conic or
with divergent terminal processes or their rudiments. Manubrium
* Embraces Ifyla vioreletii, Dum., H. Iiolochlora, Salvin, and H. callidryas, Cope.
f I am not acquainted with the stnictui-e of the skull of these species from
examination.
X Contains the Cystignathus misiessii (Bibr., Voyage de la Bonitc, i. p. 148),
from Rio de Janeiro.
COPE ON THE BATRAOniA SALIENTIA. Ill
wanting or weak, cartilaginous or fibro-cartilaginous proximally.*
Ear perfectly developed.
G-ROTJP A. — External metacarpi free, separated by natatorial mem-
brane. Terminal phalanges continuous, conic, simple. Manubrium
slightly developed. Ear perfectly developed. Eronto-parietal bones
perfectly developed.
Genera : 3Iyxopliyes, Griinther ; Fseudis, "Wagl. ; and probably
Lysapsus, Cope, in whicli tbe sacral diapopbyses are slightly dilated,
as in some species of Crinia.
These genera exhibit a structure more similar to that of the true
BancB than anything in this or the preceding sub-orders. The first-
named genus is Australian ; the two remaining South American.
Geoup B. — External metacarpi bound together. This group em-
braces twenty- three genera (perhaps even more), and a considerable
variety in physiognomy and special characters. About half the
genera have a fronto-parietal fontanelle ; seven genera are provided
with digital dilatations, which are supported by phalanges formed as
in many of the arboreal Raniformia, and not as in the IlylidcB of the
same region. The following sketch will exhibit many of the minor
peculiarities of the genera : —
I. Toes free, the terminal phalanges with transverse or divaricate
terminal processes. No fronto-parietal fontanelle ; the pre-
frontals extensively in contact, typically joining the anterior
margin of the fronto-parietals. Xiphisternum slender, weak,
cartilaginous Hylodes.
II. Toes free or slightly webbed, the terminal phalanges with or
without distal processes. No fronto-parietal fontanelle, the
superior plate of the ethmoid produced anteriorly, separating
the fronto-nasalia.f Proximal xiphisternal piece osseous or
fibro-cartilaginous, typically styliform.
a. Toes slightly webbed ; terminal phalanges with pro-
cesses.
A tarsal dermal wing ; tongue oval, ad-
herent Ulosia.l
• Except in Limnocharis.
f These bones are in a very few instances partially in contact.
J I do not know the sternum of this genus, or whether it is truly distinct from
Limnocharis. I am also in doubt as to the sternum of Phyllohafes, Crossodactf/lus,
Enliydrohius, Gomphobates, Livperus, Strahomantis, and Tarsopterns,
112 THE NATURAL HISTORY RETIEW.
? No tarsal wing. Manubrium a bony-
style ; xiphisternal basal plate broad . . LimnocJiaris.
aa. Toes free.
5. Terminal dilatations on phalanges with processes.
No vomerine teeth or digital fringes j tongue
very narrow, free Phyllolates»
Vomerine teeth and digital fringes ; tongue
oval, adherent Crossodactylus.
Vomerine teeth and no digital fringes . . Tlnliydrobius,
hh. No digital dilatation; xiphisternum with a fibro-
cartilaginous or osseous style.
No lumbar gland Cystignatlius.
A lumbar gland Gnatliophysa.^
III. Toes more or less webbed, terminal phalanges simple ; basal
xiphisternal piece a broad, fibro-cartilaginous disc. Prefrontals
in contact anteriorly only, or separated by the prolonged
ethmoid plate. No fronto-parietal fontanelle. Manubrium
none, or very short. Head short, elevated.
Eyelids prolonged; a cranial dermo-ossifi-
cation Ceratoplirys.
Eyelids and cranium normal ; a metatarsal
shovel Tomopterna.
IV. Toes webbed ; no digital dilatations, phalanges simple. Fronto-
parietal fontanelle present or absent ; prefrontals extensively
in contact medially, and more or less with the fronto-parietals.
Manubrium cartilaginous.
a. No fontanelle.
Xiphisternum a thin cartilaginous disc ; a
cranial dermo -ossification CalyptocepTialus.^
Xiphisternum smaller, medially a small ,
fibro-cartilaginous portion. Prefrontals
transverse, no dermo-ossification ; a
lumbar gland FitJiecopsis.
aa. A fontanelle.
Xiphisternum with a proximal fibro-car-
tilaginous disc. No glands or dermo-
ossification. Prefrontals transverse . . CyclorJiamphus.
* Contains the Cydigyiathus labt/rinthicus, figured by Castelnau.
t Phrijnocerus testndiniceps (Pr. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1862, p. 157) is a species of
this genus.
COPE ON THE BATRACni^ SALIENTIA. 113
V. Toes webbed, terminal phalanges simple, very long. A fronto-
parietal fontanelle ; superior ethmoid plate much developed
anteriorly, separating the oblique longitudinal prefrontals.
Xiphisternal basil piece broad, styliform. Manubrium short,
produced transversely.
Pupil erect ; head shortened in front . . Hylorhina.'^
TI. Toes free, terminal phalanges simple, not prolonged. A fronto-
parietal fontanelle ; superior plate of ethmoid more or less
exposed anteriorly. Xiphisternal cartilage supported by a
fibro-cartilaginous basal plate or style. Manubrium very
weak.
a. Inguinal glands.
Vomerine teeth ; no tarsal tubercle ; tongue
round Pleurodema.
Vomerine teeth ; a tarsal and two sharp
metatarsal tubercles ; tongue subcylin-
drical Oompliohates.
aa. No inguinal glands.
h. Tongue sub cylindrical.
No vomerine teeth or tarsal tubercle . . Liuperus.
bh. Tongue round.
c. Ethmoid plate well developed, produced be-
tween the prefrontals more or less exten-
sively.
Vomerine teeth in two short oblique rows Sorboroccetes.f
Vomerine teeth in one long transverse row ;
prefrontals well separated Lyjnnodynastes.
cc. Ethmoid plate entirely cartilaginous.
Prefrontals separate Eusophus.X
VII. Toes free, terminal phalanges simple. A fronto-parietal fon-
tanelle. Prefrontals slightly or not in contact. Xiphisternum
narrow, weak, cartilaginous throughout ; sacral diapophyses
usually directed upwards, and often slightly dilated.
* This genus embraces the Cystignathus ceneus of ' Gay's Chili,' which is pro-
bably the same as Htjlorhhia sylvatica of Bell.
t This genus will, as at present understood, include Cystignathus rosens of
Gay's ' Chili,' where the superior plate of the ethmoid is remarkably produced
beyond the separated prefrontals between the external nares, to the end of the
muzzle, forming, as in Atelopica Jiavescens, a spade-shaped vizier. The only speci-
mens of Borboroccetcs do not allow of a comparison in this respect.
X Type, Cystignathus nodosus of the 'Erp. Generale.'
N.H.K.— 18G5. I
114 THE NATURAL HTSTOET EETIEW.
Tongue oval or narrow oval ; vomerine teeth
present or absent Crinia.*
Characters are occasionally introduced into the above synopsis
which will not always be found to be generic or even specific, such
as some of the conditions of the xiphisternal cartilage and prefrontal
bones. The fontanelle probably disappears in very old specimens of
Cyclorhamphus fuliginosns, and it will perhaps be found to vary in
another genus ; among species of the same genus the condition in
this respect is generally the same.
Batrachyla, in its strong cranium, arched front, and short muzzle,
resembles PitJiecopsis ; the prefrontals will probably be found to be
in contact and transverse, as in that genus. The parallelogrammic
fibro-cartilaginous basal xiphisternal piece resembles Cyclorhamplius,
and differs from Hylodes ; but the free toes and transverse processes
of the terminal phalanges separates it from the genera of Section IV.
With the special structure of Plectromantis, Tarsopterus, and
IBlafyplectrum I am unacquainted. Strabomantis (Peters) has a
physiognomy between Ceratoplirys and JPitliecopsis, with digital
dilatations.
The Australian genera of this family are Limnodynastes, JPlaty-
plectriim^ and Crinia. The others are Neotropical ; and none are
found in any other quarter of the globe. f Lhmiodynastes dorsalis
is interesting, as having the atlas and first vertebra confluent, and
in having the intervertebral fibro-cartilage not attached to its cen-
trum, sometimes as readily adhering to that posterior as that anterior
— the nearest approach to a biconcave type that is at present known
in the order.
EANIFORMIA.
This suborder, though represented by numerous types, is much
more homogeneous than any of the others, and constitutes but one
family, the
EATs'IDiE.
Sacral diapophyses cylindrical ; simple coccyx, attached by two
cotyloid cavities. Manubrium with a strong bony style ; the xiphi-
• Includes Pterophryne R. & L., and CaviarioHus, Peters {vide Gunther,
Ann. Mag. N.H., 1864, p. 312).
•j- Lwpehna, Fitz., the only New Zealand form known, possibly belongs here.
I am also unable to state the position of Ncobnfrachus, Peters, and Heiniphractus,
Wagler.
COPE Olf THE BATRACniA SALIENTIA. 115
sternum similar (with one exception).* Pronto -parietal bones never
embracing a fontanelle. Tongue extensively free, more or less deeply
notclied.f Ear perfectly developed, no paratoids.
Members of the Banidce existed during the miocene period. The
remains of Rana merianiX indicate a species as large as R. esculenfa.
Bana noeggeratlii, also from the Braunkohle near Boim, was a small
species, of which I have not been able to learn the form of the xiphi-
sternum. If the species was not a Bana, it did not belong to any other
existing genus of the family. The genus Asphcermm^ (found in the
Oeningen bed) was apparently of inferior organization, as indicated
by a humerus without terminal condyle; it represents possibly
another family in this suborder.
The skeletal modifications in this family are those of the ethmoid
and prefrontal bones and of the posterior extremity.
Group I. External metatarsi bound together. Digital dilatations
present or absent ; the terminal phalanges short, simple. Ossa
prefrontalia extensively in contact, typically for their whole
length. II
In Sylamhates, Halophila vltiana, and Cassina senegalensis, the
proximal portion of the manubrium consists of two limbs, which rest
upon the epicoracoidi, enclosing a foramen. This does not occur in
Arthroleptis ivahlbergii, or any other nearly allied species. I have
observed it elsewhere in Hgperoliiis marmoratus and H. guttulatus,
Ixalus variabilis^ Hijlarana macularia, and Dicroglossiis adolplii.
a. Digital dilatations wanting.
Cassina, Girard \% Arthroleptis, Smith. Both African.
aa. Digital dilatations present.
Semimantis, Peters ; Hglaonhafes, Dumeril : African. Halophila,
Gird., and Cornufer, Tschudi: from the East Indian and Pacific
Islands.
Group II. External metatarsi bound together. Digital dilatations
present, supported by short phalanges, which are swollen at the
* Hylainhatett, where it is shorter and moi'C disciform.
f Except ill Thelodenna and Dicro(jlossm, where there is a median instead of
lateral production,
\ Von Meyer, Palteontographica, iii. p. 127.
§ A. reussii, Von Meyer, l. c. ii. p. 68.
II I hove not seen them in Ilemimantu and Arthroleptis,
\ Includes Cystignathxis argT/reivittis and C. seneijalensis.
I 2
116 ^fATUEAL IIISTOET REVIEW.
base ; the remaining portion slender, claw-like. Fronto-nasals
separated by tlie superior plate of the ethmoid, which is broad
and anteriorly produced.
Leptopelis, Griinther: African. This interesting genus is the only
one out of the family of Hylidce which presents a similar structure
of the terminal phalanges.
Geoup III. External metatarsi separated by a groove or web. Digital
dilatations present, supported by short phalanges, which are
either obtuse depressed or more or less bifurcate at tip. Pre-
frontals slightly or not in contact ; superior ethmoidal plate
or its cartilage extensively developed anteriorly, usually entirely
separating the prefrontals. Abdominal integument areolate.*
a. Terminal phalanges obtuse, simple.
Syperolius, Eapp., Africa; Grumenifera, Cope, Africa. (This
genus repeats one essential character of Cassina in the same region,
— i. e. a large posteriorly produced vocal vesicle, with an introverted
exterior pouch on each side.) Ixalus, Dum, et Bibr., East Indies.
These genera are without vomerine teeth, according to general accep-
tation ; but it has been assertedf that they occasionally exist in the
last named. In that case the undivided terminal phalanges continue
to distinguish it from Folypedates, though it must then embrace two
species which constantly possess vomerine teeth, so far as is known —
P. (J.) microtympanum and P. reticulatus of Giinther. The tongue,
with its rudimentary posterior inferior process, will always dis-
tinguish it from Syperolius.
cia. Terminal phalanges bifurcate ; prefrontals, narrow, entirely
separated.
Thelodermaj TschudiiJ Bhacoplwriis, Kuhl; Chiromantis^ Peters ;
Polypedates, Tsch. The first two East Indian, the second African,
the third from the East Indies and Madagascar.
Gkoup IV. External metatarsi webbed to the base. § Terminal pha-
langes elongate, slender, || acute, or with a transverse dilatation
or limb. Abdominal integument smooth.
* Except in Htjperolius fornassinii.
t By Peters. See Monatsberichte Preuss. Acad. 1864, p. 455.
X This genus I only know from external characters.
$ Not completely in Heteroglossa.
II Except in Amolcps.
COPE ON THE BATBACniA SALIENTIA. 117
a. Tongue deeply emarginate posteriorly.
Terminal phalanges short ; transverse limb long ;
tongue without median inferior prominence ;
no dorso-lateral glandular dermal folds ; vo-
merine teeth Amolops*
Terminal phalanges slender with short transverse
limb ; tongue without median process. No
dorso-lateral folds nor vomerine teeth. Pre-
frontals entirely in contact with each other and
with frontoparietals Heteroglossa.
Terminal phalanges slender, with short transverse
limb ; tongue with median inferior prominence ;
no dorso-lateral folds nor vomerine teeth ; eth-
moid widely separating prefrontals, and these
from frontoparietals Sfaiirois,f
Phalanges as above ; tongue with median inferior
prominence or thickening;): ; a longitudinal glan-
dular fold on each side of the back ; vomerine
teeth Hylarana,
Phalanges elongate, acute, or slightly dilated at tip ;
glandular folds present or absent ; voraeriae
teeth Bana.
Closely following Rana is Dicroglossus, Grthr. which wants vo-
merine teeth. This leads at once to Oxyglossus, Tschudi, also with-
out teeth on the vomer, and further characterized by its having —
aa. Tongue elongate, entire posteriorly, in one species pointed ;
a structure foreshadowed by the strong median inferior prominence
of that of Dicroglossus adolphi.§ Nearly allied to Hana (in Sect, a
again) is Soplohafrachus, Peters, which is provided with a fossorial
metatarsal spur, and immediately precedes the genus Pyxiceplialus,\\
the burrowing type in this family.
* The only species is Polypedates afcjlianus of Giinther, which is a Hylarana
with the physiognomy of a Polypedates.
t Embraces I.xahis nafotor, I. gtcttaf us, a,nd HyperoUiis 'plicatus oi Giinther.
X Very slight in H. macularia and H. albolahris.
§ It appears to me that Sterjiorhynchus natalensis, Smith {{DicToglossus angtis-
tirostns, Cope), belongs to this genus. In case it does not, it must receive
Giinther's name Phri/nobatracJiux, and not the later Leptoparius, Peters, given
on account of the preoccupation of Sfenorhynchus.
II In a skeleton of P. adspersns, in the Mus. Brit., the o. iliaca are anomalously
attached to a tenth A^ertebra, which is attached by tsvo cotyloid cavities to the ninth,
and by two condyles to the coccygeal style.
THE NATTJEAL HISTORY REVIEW.
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COPE ON THE BATEACHIA SALIENTIA. 119
The relations of the prefrontal and ethmoid bones are very various
in this group, and especially in the genus Hana^ furnishing us with
illustrations of most of the types found throughout the order, which
are usually characteristic of higher groups. The names of the faunae
in the accompanying Table (p. 118) refer to the species of Ranidce,
Group lY.
A coincidence between the condition of these prefrontal bones
and the regions inhabited by the genus Bana is evident, as well as a
certain succession in the latter ; Neotropical first, Paheotropical last.
The Cystignatliidce, occupy nearly the territory which is want-
ing in Manidce, just as Marsupialia do not trench on the domains of
the Insectivora. This family possesses in its arciferous type of
sternum one which may be called lower than that of the Eaniformia,
i.e. less specially peculiar and divergent among tailless Batrachia, as
compared with that of other reptiles. In its family capacity its often
undeveloped fronto-parietal bones are also an element of inferiority.
See then the distribution of its genera as regards these peculiarities.
a. Fontanelle.
Prefrontals little developed . . Group VII. . . . Australian.
Groups YI. & Y. Australian and
S. Neotropical.
Prefrontals much developed . Cyclorhamphus . . South and Middle
Neotropical.
aa. No fontanelle.
Prefrontals little developed Groups II. & III. Neotropical in gen.
Prefrontals much developed* Group I North Neotropical.
The least-developed Australian ; the most, so those nearest to the
Nearctic.
As regards the fronto-parietal fontanelle, which has not hitherto
been looked upon as an important character, it may be said it does
not exist in any species of the ' Hegio Palaeotropica :' the Australian
representatives of the various families always possess it, excepting
where it is wanting in those families elsewhere. As the nearest ap-
proach to an exception to the latter statement, the genus Litoria,
among the Sylidce, may be examined. I have found the fontanelle
closed in an old specimen of L. aurea, and nearly so in L. jaclcsoni-
ensis and L. punctata. This form is throughout the least specialized
in this family in the direction of Hyline peculiarities.
* One species only ( Calyptocephalus gayi)^ inhabiting the western slope of the
Andes, extends into ChiU.
120 THE ITATUEAL HISTOET EEYIEW.
Finally, the nature of the supports of the terminal digital dilata-
tions, which adapt the Tree-Frogs to their mode of life, may be
compared.
I. Claw-like, with globular t)ase . Htlid^.
Leptopelis.
II. Simple, obtuse-depressed at tip . Eanidje, 1. aa & III. a.
III. With a terminal transverse limb . EANiniE, Hylarana et aif.
CaloJiyla.
BracJiymerus.
Sylodes,
IV. Bifurcate Batracliyla.
Dendrohates.
Polypedates.
Rhacophorus.
A glance at what precedes will show that there is no complete-
ness of generic diagnosis anywhere attempted. My object having
been to point out the importance of characters hitherto much over-
looked, I have dwelt but lightly upon those now sufficiently well
known, especially through the labours of Giinther, in whose memoirs*
will be found explained also the relations between such and the geo-
graphical distribution of the species.
The arrangement and definitions of the higher groups differ con-
siderably from those hitherto adopted. There are two of the four
families of Dumeril and Bibron accepted as suborders ; but those
authors had not completely investigated many important types, at
the time their system was proposed. A complete and practically
useful system is that of Giinther. I have already f demurred to the
recognition of the Tree-Frogs as a natural division, accepted by this
author as well as by the preceding ; and while agreeing with him in
attaching less value to the condition of the cavum tympani than did
Miiller, I find it even less frequently characteristic of otherwise ho-
mogeneous groups of genera. Thus, while accepting some of his
families, others are rejected.
My thanks are due to Prof. Dumeril and Dr. Giinther for the
great advantages I have enjoyed from the examination of the speci-
mens under their respective charges.
* Proc. Zool. Soc, 1858, pp. 339, 390.
t Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1S63, p. 50. Similar conclusions have been
aiTived at by Prof. Peters, Monatsber. Preuss. Acad. 1864, p. 455.
121
XII. — On Cranial Deformities. — Trigonocephaltts. By W.
Turner, M. B. (London), E.E/.S.E. Senior Demonstrator of Ana-
tomy, University of Edinburgh. (Read before the British Associa-
tion at Bath, September 16th, 1864.)
In the number of this Journal for January, 1864, 1 communicated
an article on cranial deformities, in which I discussed the influence
exercised on their production by the premature closure of the cranial
sutures. And I illustrated the effects of premature synostosis, by
describing and figuring several examples of a peculiarly elongated
and laterally compressed form of skull, termed ScaphocephaHc, the
characteristic shape of which was evidently due to a premature
closure of the sagittal suture. On this occasion, I am desirous of
directing attention to another very remarkable form of head, in which
whilst the sides of the forehead are compressed, the middle line is
projected forward in a beak-like manner, and which apparently owes
its peculiar shape to a premature closure of the frontal suture.
The case I shall adduce in illustration of this kind of cranial de-
formity, the only one I have as yet met with, occurred in the person
of a boy, between five and six years old, the son of Irish parents.*
When a full or three-quarter face view of the head of this child
was taken, the peculiar form of the frontal region was very apparent ;
* For the opportunity of examining and obtaining photographs of this boy, I am
indebted to my friends. Dr. Joseph Bell and ilr. David Young.
122 THE NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW.
the lateral bulgings indicative of the position of the frontal eminences
were altogether absent, and the forehead instead of being rounded
off on each side to the temporal regions, was flattened, or even con-
cave above the orbits and eyebrows, the hollowing out of the sides
of the forehead, extending upwards as far even as the line of the
hair. The middle line of the forehead on the other hand, presented
a very different appearance, for it projected forwards forming a sort
of beak, narrow below at the root of the nose, but gradually swelling
out laterally and becoming more prominent as it approached the line
of the hair, the bulging being necessarily more strongly brought
out by the concavities on each side, above the eyebrows. Examined
from the front, this beak-like bulging had a triangular form, its apex
and most receding part being at the nose, its base at the line of the
hair. On a profile view the forward projection of the middle of the
forehead came out very decidedly, so that this part of the cranium
somewhat overlapped the face. The appearance presented by the
head when looked at from above, was very characteristic. Between
Fig. 2.— Owing to the head inclining slightly to one side, a portion of the right
eyebrow a is seen.
the parietal eminences, it possessed a breadth of 5*7 inches, which
was the broadest part of the head ; traced backwards to the occiput,
its transverse diameter slightly diminished, and the head had a
rounded form posteriorly ; traced forwards its transverse diameter
diminished much more considerably, and at the middle line of the
forehead, corresponding to the beak seen on a front or side view, it
came almost to a point. The object it most resembled in form from
TURNER ON CRANIAL DErORMITIES. 123
this aspect, was a broadly shaped egg, the narrow end of which was
directed forwards ; or it might be compared to a triangle with a
rounded base.
The boy was a well grown healthy looking child, and exhibited
an amount of intelligence, quite equal to that usually possessed by
children of his age or condition of life. The mother told me that
his head was noticed, immediately after birth, to possess a peculiar
form, and she particularly states that he had no opening (anterior
fontanelle) on the top of his head. In all other respects he was
perfectly well formed. Her labour was natural. She has had four
other children, but their heads were without any special peculiarity.
The following are a few of the principal measurements : — greatest
length from the most projecting part of the beak, to the most pro-
minent part of the occiput 7*2 inches. — Longitudinal arc to the
occipital protuberance 12'5.— Intermeatoid arc 13"7. — Horizontal
circumference round the most projecting part of the beak 20*5:
round the root of the nose 19"5. — From these measurements, as well
as from an inspection of the head, it is evident that the general
capacity of the cranium is good, the space lost in the frontal region
by its lateral compression being compensated for by increased growth
in the parietal and occipital regions.
I have had no opportunity of anatomizing this or any other
specimen of a similarly formed skull, so that I cannot speak from
personal observation of the exact condition of the cranial bones and
their sutural margins, but so far as one can judge from an external
inspection of the living head, I have no doubt that this boy's skull
corresponds closely with those crania which have been described and
figured by Professor "Welcker of Halle, by the name of Trigono-
cephaly* The skulls of this form, which Welcker has personally
examined, are those of two new-born children, two children about five
years old, and one adult male probably between 50 and 60 years of
age ; but he has in addition seen a plaster cast of the head of a new-
born Trigonocephalus, in the Medico- Chirui'gical academy at Dresden,
and he refers to a case described by Von Ammon, and to a specimen
described by Meissner in the Museum at Breslau, of apparently the
same form, and these seem to be the only cases which have been
recorded of this description of cranial deformity. In all of them,
the peculiar beaked form of the middle of the frontal region, the
absence of frontal eminences, and consequent hollowness of the sides
* Untersuchungen iiber die Menschlichen Schadeln. Leipzig, 1862. Ueber
Zwei seltnere DifFormitaten des menschlichen Schadels. Halle, 1863.
124 THE NATIJEAL HISTORY REVIEW.
of the forehead above the eyebrows and orbits, the comparative
breadth across the parietal region, so that the norma verticalis ap-
proached the triangular form, (the apex at the forehead, the rounded
base at the occiput,) were well marked, and showed their close alli-
ance to the boy's head I have just described. The two new-born
children examined by Welcker, had both hare lips and cleft palates,
but in none of the other cases did such malformations exist. In
several of the cases also he noticed that the eyes, owing to the
diminished breadth of the inter-orbital space, were more closely set
together than is usual. In my case this peculiarity was but slightly
marked.
Two theories may be advanced, to explain the production of this
description of cranial malformation. 1st. That the frontal bone had
only possessed a single ossific centre, situated in the middle line.
2nd. That it had in the usual manner two primary ossific centres,
but that these, instead of remaining distinct and separated from each
other, had very early become blended together, so as to form in the
middle line the projecting beak, so characteristic of this form of
cranium. Along with Welcker I am inclined to support the latter
theory. Eor I believe, that, if the first named mode of develop-
ment had occurred, a much greater amount of deformity would have
been occasioned, than is exhibited by these crania, and that a Cyclo-
pian or other monstrous form of head would have been produced.
If the second of these two theories be accepted, then these Trigone -
cephali are, as regards the principle which regulates their mode of
production, closely allied to those Scaphocephali already alluded to,
in which, as has been contended by Yirchow, Welcker, and myself,
the lateral compression of the cranium in the parietal region, is due
to a premature blending of the ossific centres of the two parietal
bones, and a consequent obliteration of the sagittal suture. The
head of the boy whose case I have detailed, supports the view that
this premature blending of the two originally distinct halves of the
frontal bone, took place at a period of foetal life, some time before
the termination of intra- uterine existence, for if the statement of the
mother is to be trusted, there was a complete absence of the fonta-
nelle at the time of birth. It does not necessarily follow, however,
that this intra-uterine closure of the anterior fontanelle is a constant
occurrence in these cases, for in the heads of the two new born
children, figured by "VVelcker, the anterior fontanelle is open, and in
the head of one of the 5-year old children, a distinct anterior fonta-
nelle bone existed.
125
XIII.— PeoceedinCtS of the Scientific Societies of Londoi^.
1. Ethnological Society. (4, St. Martin's Place.)
Novemler Stli, 1864.
Some skulls exhumed in 1863 in the province of Spiti, a part of
Ladak, or Chinese Thibet, were presented to the Society by Mr.
Philip Egerton, of the Bengal Civil Service. These skulls were inter-
esting as comiDg from a region where the Caucasian and Mongolian
families meet. — Mr. S. J. Mackie exhibited a fine series of eighteen
flint implements from a gravel drift of Bedford, collected by J. Wyatt.
— A note from Count Marschall was read, giving an account of the
researches of Prof. Jeitteles in the peat-bogs of Olmiitz, where
human bones and works of primitive art had been found in association
with remains of ox, boar, and horse. — Mr. T. "Wright, Hon. Secretary,
gave an account of the proceedings in the Ethnological Section of the
British Association at Bath, which were deemed highly satisfactory.
— An account by Dr. Shortt, was read, " of some rude Tribes, sup-
posed Aborigines, of Southern India." These tribes were the
Tenadies of Ireehuree Cottah, a flat, sandy island on the Coromandel
coast, the Yillees met with in the outskirts of every village of the
district ; the Iroolers residing for the most part around the village
of Nagalapooram, at the foot of the Eamagherry Hills; and the
Dombers. The Tenadies were described as having Mongolian
features, and speaking a slightly corrupted dialect of Teloogoo ; the
Villees, too, have the Mongolian type strongly marked ; the Iroolers
are seemingly of the same caste. " Dommari" and " Dombari" are
applied to a certain low caste of natives, supposed to be one of the
great aboriginal races, whose chief occupation at the present time is
the performance of acrobatic feats. They are tall, tolerably well
made, with complexions varying from bamboo to copper colour, and
in some merging into black. The predominant type of countenance
is stated as Mongolian. — A second paper was read, " On the Eixity
of Type," by the E.ev. H. Parrar, in which the author contended
that an extraordinary fixity of type had characterized the races and
varieties of mankind since the earliest dawn of history, and quoted
numerous examples, including the Egyptians, Jews, Negroes, and
Assyrians, to prove his point. — Mr. Phillips exhibited a series of
126 THE NATFEAL niSTORT ItEVIEW.
exquisite water-colour sketches, and finished paintings in oil, of
various personages representative of races to be met with in Upper
Egypt. One portrait of a modern Copt excited great attention,
Mr. Phillips having painted the mask of an ancient Egyptian head-
dress, with a vacant sj)ace for the face to cover the picture. The
resemblance of the modern Coptic face to the features presented by
the ancient Egyptian statues, was thus rendered strikingly apparent.
November 22nd, 1864.
The first paper read was " On the Present State of Dahome," by
Capt. E.. Burton. — The second paper read was " On the Principles
of Ethnology," by Mr. J. S. Prideaux. As a provisional arrange-
ment till our knowledge enables us to adopt one founded on a more
philosophical basis, the author arranges the types of the British Isles
and "Western Europe according to their noses — first, convex ; second,
concave; third, straight, or intermediate. Each group capable of
being sub-divided into three, according as the features are, first,
dejined and shsiYi^ly cut ; second, Heshy and faintli/ outlined; third,
inter?nediate in definition. And again susceptible of being sub-
divided into three, as the complexion is, first, li^Jit; second, dark;
third, intermediate.
December IWiy 1864,
A very interesting collection of human remains, stone imple-
ments, and other articles was exhibited, which have recently been
obtained by Mr. S. Laing in some extensive excavations which he
has been carrying on in Caithness, and which are believed to date
from a very remote period in the history of man. Mr. Laing gave
an account of his operations, and described the various articles which
had been found, and a lively discussion followed. Mr. Laing said he
had long been of opinion that important evidence in respect to the
antiquity of man might be discovered in this country by searches
something resembling those which had been carried on in Denmark,
by opening what were called the " Kitchen-middens" there, and last
summer he had caused several large mounds to be opened near Kiess,
in Caithness, about eight miles north of Wick. On removing the
green turf at the top these mounds were discovered to consist
chiefly of large masses of periwinkle and limpet shells, mixed with
bones, flint splinters, and bone instruments of the rudest kind. In
two there were remains of ancient buildings, and in one they came
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SCIEIs'TIFIC SOCIETIES OF LOKDON. 127
upon a buildiDg with eolid massive walls, and three separate pave-
ments one over the other, showing evidence of successive occupation
either by successive races or by the same races at successive periods
of time. In the lowest strata stone implements of the rudest
kind had been discovered, but in the instruments found in the upper
strata a greater finish of workmanship was distinctly traceable. In
one case a pair of shears with the blades of bronze and handle of
iron, and bone implements of various descriptions had been found
mixed up with a mass of shells and bones of animals which had been
used for food. Among these bones, too, had been discovered part of
the jaw of a child, with the teeth attached to it, broken across as if
to get at the marrow, affording ground for a presumption that can-
nibalism was prevalent, or at least occasionally resorted to, among
the race to which the remains refer. The specimens of pottery
varied according to the strata in which they were found. In the
lower strata they were rude and of a very poor character ; in the
upper they showed an improved manufacture and had occasionally
a blue glaze. None of the stone implements showed the mark of a
tool ; nor did the stones of which the buildings were formed ; but
the sandstone of the district, which was chiefly used — there being no
flint in the neighbourhood — split naturally so regularly that there
was little necessity for this. Among the animal remains which had
been identified were the bones of a small whale, which had probably
been driven ashore and eaten, dolphins and cod, the ox, horse, red
deer in large quantities and of gigantic size, wild boar, and goat. No
sheep bones had been discovered, which was an indication of great an-
tiquity, as no signs of the sheep had ever been discovered in the Swiss
lake dwellings. Eemains of the dog and fox, both as articles of food,
of the cormorant, the solan goose, and the great awk {Alca imprennis)
had been found, but nine-tenths of the food of these people was
shell-fish. They had no fishing tackle, nor was there anything to
intimate that they had any notion of fishing or boating, though they
lived on the sea-shore. Their notions of art were of the rudest and
most primitive description, but their architecture was more respect-
able, and a spinning-wheel which had been dug out seemed to show
that they had some notion of manufactures. Mr. Laing also des-
cribed the result of opening a long burial mound by the sea-shore,
which he found full of stone coffins at regular intervals of about 15
feet apart. The mode of sepulture was an additional proof of the
128 THE NATURAL HISTOET REVIEW.
extreme antiquity of the people. The corpse was extended at full length
on the ground, the stone cist was built up round it, with flat blocks
of flagstone, and the whole was covered with a light mound of stone
and earth. There were no traces of habitation about this mound ; it
had been used solely as a place of sepulture. About the centre of it
w^as found the coffin of one who appeared by the care bestowed on
his burial to be the chief of the tribe, and close by his hand were
discovered 15 stone weapons of rude manufacture — a hatchet, sundry
spearheads, and knives or scrapers. Mr. Laing concluded that these
remains belonged to the early stone period, and that the race to
whom they belonged were part of the primitive population of these
islands, who in that remote corner of the coointry had long preserved
the simplicity and rudeness of their modes of life.
Professor Huxley then pointed out with elaborate minuteness the
peculiarities of the human bones, from which he concluded that they
were the remains of two separate and distinct races. The first was
typified by a skull which, as the members would see, was large, capacious,
and well arched. In fact, there were few of the able men present,
the Professor said, who had a better developed cranium, and it closely
resembled that type which was described in the Crania Bi'itannica of
Davis and Thurnham as the " ancient British" skull. The pelvis
belonging to this skull was such as might be possessed by any well-
grown muscular Englishman of the present day. The skulls belong-
ing to the second race were of a much lower order — narrow, low-
formed, sloping upwards towards the vertex, and then downwards
again, with a great occipital protuberance, and a remarkably pro-
truding upper lip. The pelvis, too, of this race was most peculiar,
its proportions being diametrically opposite to those of the present
European type, and the extraordinary development of the muscular
ridges showed a rude and wild character. These skulls were com-
parable to what the Professor in a former paper had called " the river-
bed type," and came closer than any others to the skull of the
Australian native. One skull which the Professor pointed to was
a woman's, and was as degraded and villanous in its form as any he
had seen. The tibia an-d the forearm, too, of this woman were out of
the ordinary proportion, which was a further sign of degradation.
The Professor, ia conclusion, said the remains aff'orded no ground
for the theory that a " round-headed" had preceded the " long-headed"
race in the occupation of these islands.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES OF LONDON. 129
2. Geological Society, .(Somerset House).
Mveinher 9th, 1864.
The following communications were read : —
1. " Notes on the Geology of Jamaica ; with Descriptions of New
Species of Cretaceous, Eocene, and Miocene Corals." By P. Martin
Duncan, M.B., Sec. G.S., and G. P. Wall, Esq., P.G.S. The authors
first referred to the Miocene age of the Corals that have hitherto
been described from the "West Indies, and then stated that in this
paper conclusive evidence was brought forward, for the first time,
of the existence of an Eocene formation in Jamaica. They next
noticed successively the lithological characters of the different
members of the Jamaican fossiliferous rocks, and then described two
new species of Corals from the Lower Cretaceous beds, and six from
the Miocene, besides giving notices of additional known forms from
all the strata. The conclusion was drawn, that the facies of these
Cretaceous Corals was suggestive of a close alliance having existed
between this fauna and that of Gosau in the Eastern Alps. The
question of the existence of Lower Cretaceous strata in other West
Indian islands having been discussed, attention was drawn to the
character of the Eocene Corals, as being confirmatory of Mr. Barrett's
views on the existence of that formation in the island, and the paper
was concluded by some additional remarks on the Miocene beds, and
their probable correlation with those of Trinidad, Antigua, &c.
2. " On the Correlation of the Irish Cretaceous Strata." By
Ealph Tate, Esq., E.G.S. The non-existence in Ireland of the forma-
tions between the Lower Lias and the Upper Greensand having been
stated, Mr. Tate first showed that the Cretaceous formations occurring
near Belfast are referable to the so-called Upper Greensand
(Hibernian Greensand of the author), and to the Upper Chalk, the
latter consisting chiefly of a "White Limestone" with flints, and
containing species known to occur in the Upper Chalk of Norwich
and Meudon, with others allied to Maestricht forms. The basement-
beds forming lithologically a passage to the Hibernian Greensand,
are (1) chloritic limestone with Sponge-remains belonging to about
thirty species, and (2) a calcareo-chloritic sandstone with three species
of Echinoderms, the dormant from being Ananchytes gihha. These
passage-beds are only locally developed, and when they are absent
the junction of the Greensand and the White Limestone is very
abrupt. The Hibernian Greensand was considered by Mr. Tate to
N.H.R.— 1865. K
130 THE NATTTRAL HISTOKY EETIEW.
represent the Upper Greensand, the Chalk-marl, and the lower part
of the Lower Chalk of England, and to be the miniature counterpart
of D'Orbigny's Etage Cenomanien. It nowhere exceeds 55 feet in
thickness ; but it nevertheless contains the following beds: — (1)
Chloritic sands and sandstones of Colin Glen, or the Zone of Exogyra
columha; (2) Chloritic sandstones of Woodburn, or the Zone of
Inoceramus Crispi; (3) Yellow-sandstones and Marls with Chert,
or the Zone of Ostrea carinata; and (4) Glauconitic sands, or the
Zone of Exogyra conica. The authors concluded by giving descrip-
tions of several new species of fossils, chiefly from the " White
Limestone" and the Sponge-bearing zone.
3. " On the Eecent Earthquake at St. Helena." By Governor
Sir C. Elliot, K.C.B. Communicated by the Colonial Secretary
through Sir C. Lyell, Bart., E.E.S., E.G.S. This earthquake, which
is stated to be the fourth that has occurred during the two centuries
that we have been in the occupation of the island, occurred at about
4h. 10m. A.M. on July 15th, and in this paper Sir C. Elliot described
the nature of the shock and the circumstances attending it.
November 2Srd, 1864.
The following communications were read : —
1. " On the occurrence of Organic Eemains in the Laurentian
Eocks of Canada." By Sir W. E. Logan, LLD., E.E.S., E.G.S.,
Director of the Geological Survey of Canada. The oldest known
rocks of North America, composing the Laurentide Mountains in
Canada, and the Adirondacks in the State of New York, have been
divided by the Geological Survey of Canada into two unconformable
groups, which have been called the Upper and Lower Laurentian
respectively. In both divisions zones of limestones are known to
occur, and of them at least three have been ascertained to belong to
the Lower Laurentian. Erom one of these limestone-bands, occurring
at the Grand Calumet on the Eiver Ottawa, Mr. J. McCulloch
obtained, in 1858, specimens apparently of organic origin, which were
exhibited as such by the author in 1859 ; and other specimens have
also been obtained from Grenville and Burgess. These specimens
consist of alternating layers of calcareous spar, and a magnesian
silicate (either serpentine, white pyroxene, pyrallolite, or Loganite)
— the latter minerals, instead of replacing the skeleton of the organic
form, really filling up the interspaces of the calcareous fossil, as was
discovered by Dr. Dawson, to whose paper, and to that by Mr. Sterry
Hunt, Sir "William refers for further details.
2. "On the Structure of certain Organic Eemains found in the
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES OF LONDON. 131
Laurentian Eocks of Canada." By J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.E.S.,
r.a.S. "With a Note bj W. B. Carpenter, M.D., F.E.S., E.G.S.
At the request of Sir Wm. Logan, Dr. Dawson carefully examined
the laminated material thought by Sir William to have an organic
origin, and he found it to consist of the remains of an organism
which grew in large sessile patches, increasing at the surface by the
addition of successive layers of chambers separated by calcareous
lamina. Slices examined microscopically showed large irregular
chambers with numerous rounded extensions, and bounded by walls
of variable thickness, which are studded with septal orifices irregularly
disposed ; the thicker parts of the walls revealed the existence of
bundles of fine branching tubuli. Dr. Dawson therefore concludes
that this ancient organism, to which he gave the name of Eozoon
Canadensdj was a Foraminifer allied to Carpenteria in its habits of
growth, but of more complex structure, as indicated by the compli-
cated systems of tubuli. It attained an enormous size, and, by the
aggregation of individuals, assumed the aspect of a coral reef.
In a note, Dr. Carpenter corroborated Dr. Dawson's observations
on the structure and affinities of Eosodn, but stated also that, as he
considered the characters furnished by the intimate structure of the
shell to be of primary importance, and the plan of growth to have a
very subordinate value, he did not hesitate to express his belief in its
affinities to Numonulina.
3. " On the Mineralogy of certain Organic Eemains found in the
Laurentian Eocks of Canada." By T. Sterry Hunt, Esq., M.A.,
E.E.S., of the Greological Survey of Canada. Communicated by Sir
W. E. Logan, LL.D., F.E.S., E.G-.S. Mr. Sterry Hunt first referred
to the structure of Eozodn as made out by Dr. Dawson, and then
stated that the mineral silicates occurring not only in the chambers,
cells, and canals left vacant by the disappearance of the animal
matter, but in many cases in the tubuli, filling even their smallest
ramifications, are a white pyroxene, a pale-green serpentine and
pyrallolite, and a dark-green alumino-magnesian mineral which the
author referred to Loganite. The calcareous septa in the last case
are dolomitic, but in the other instances are composed of nearly pure
carbonate of lime. The author then gave the results of a chemical
analysis of specimens from the difi'erent localities, and dedaced there-
from the composition and affinities of Loganite. This mineral he
considered to be allied to chlorite and to pyrosclerite in composition,
but to be distinguished from them by its structure. In conclusion,
K 2
132 TUE NATUEAL HISTOET EEVIEW.
the author showed that the various silicates already mentioned were
directly deposited in waters in the midst of which the Eozoon
was still growing, or had only recently perished, and that they
penetrated, enclosed and preserved the structure of the organisms
precisely as carbonate of lime had done ; and he cites these and
other facts in support of his opinion that these silicated minerals
were formed, not by subsequent metamorphism in deeply buried
sediments, but by reactions going on at the earth's surface.
December Itl, 1864.
The following communications were read: — 1. " On the Geology
of Otago, New Zealand." By James Hector, M.D., E.G.S. In a
letter to Sir E. I. Murchison, K.C.B., E.RS., E.a.S.— The south-
western part of the province of Otago is composed of crystalline rocks
forming lofty and rugged mountains, and intersected by deeply cut
valleys which are occupied by arms of the sea on the w^est, and by the
great lakes on the east. These crystalline rocks comprise an ancient
contorted gneiss, and a newer (probably not very old) series of
hornblende- slate, gneiss, quartzite, &c. Eastwards they are suc-
ceeded by well bedded sandstones, shales, and porphyritic conglo-
merates, with greenstone-slates, &c., in patches, all probably of
Lower Mesozoic age. Then follow the great auriferous schistose
formations, which comprise an Upper, a Middle, and a Lower por-
tion ; and upon these occur a series of Tertiary deposits, the lowest
of which may, however, possibly be of Upper Mesozoic date, while
the upper, consisting of a Ereshwater and a Marine series, are uncon-
formable to it, and are decidedly much more recent. In describing
the auriferous formations, Dr. Hector stated that the quartz -veins
occurring in the schists were not often true " fissure-reefs'* (that is,
reefs that cut the strata nearly vertically and have a true back, or
wall, independent of the foliation-planes), but are merely concretionary
laminae that conform to the planes of foliation. The gold occurs
segregated in the interspaces of this contorted schist, but is rarely
found in situ. — Dr. Hector concluded with some remarks on the early
Tertiary volcanic rocks, observing that the period of their eruption
must have been one of upheaval, and that the great depth of the
valleys, which have been excavated by glacier-action since the close
of that period, proves that the elevation of the island, at least in the
mountain-region, must once have been enormously greater than it
now is.
PBOCEEDINGS OF THE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES OF LONDON. 133
2. " Note on communicating tlie Notes and Map of Dr. Julius
Haast, upon the Grlaciers and Eock-basius of New Zealand." By-
Sir E. I. Murchison, K.C.B., E.E.S., F.aS.— In this note Sir Eo-
derick Murchison states that Dr. Haast has informed him in a letter
that he has for the last five years attentively follovsred the discussions
on Grlacier-theories, that in March. 1862, he came, independently of
other authors, to the same conclusions in New Zealand that Professor
Eamsay did in Europe, and that his views have been printed in his
Colonial Eeports as Geologist of the Province of Canterbury. Sir
Eoderick also stated that the constant field and other occupations of
Dr. Haast have hitherto prevented his carrying out his intention of
writing a paper for the G-eological Society ; but he has sent the
following notes as a resume of his views. Though opposed to the
theory of the excavation of basins in hard rocks by the action of ice.
Sir Eoderick commended the researches of Dr. Haast as showing the
mutations of the surface in successive geological periods.
3. " Notes on the Causes which have led to the Excavation of
deep Lake-basins in hard Eocks in the Southern Alps of New Zea-
land." By Julius Haast, Ph.D., F.G.S. Communicated by Sir E. I.
Murchison, K.C.B.,E.E.S.,E.Gr.S. — Eeferring first to the submergence
of New Zealand during the Pliocene period, and to its subsequent
elevation, the author stated that the chief physical feature of the
country after that elevation was a high mountain- range, from which
glaciers of enormous volume, owing to peculiar meteorological condi-
tions, descended into the plain below, removing in their course the
loose Tertiary strata, and thus widening and enlarging the pre-
existing depressions, the occurrence of which had at first determined
the course of the glaciers. — The author then observes that, the
country having acquired a temporary stability, the glaciers became
comparatively stationary, and therefore formed moraines, the mate-
rials of which were cemented together by the mud deposited from
the water issuing from the glaciers ; new moraine matter would then
raise the bed of the outlet and dam up the water below the glacier,
and from this moment, he believes, the formation and scooping out
of the rock-basin begins ; for the ice being pressed downwards, and
prevented by the moraine from descending, its force would be ex-
pended in excavating a basin in the rock below.
4. " Note on a Sketch 3Iap of the Province of Canterbury, New
Zealand, showing the glaciation during the Pleistocene and Eeceut
times, as far as explored." By Julius Haast, Ph.D., F.G.S. Com-
134 THE NATURAL HISTOET EETIEW.
municated by Sir E. I. Murchison, K.C.B., E.E.S., F.a.S.— This
paper contained a general explanation of a Sketch Map, illustrating
the past and present distribution of the glaciers on the eastern side
of the Southern Alps of New Zealand, as well as the author's views
on the excavation of Lake-basins in hard rocks, as shown by the
coincidence between the positions of the lakes and the terminations
of the ancient glaciers.
3. LiNKEAN Society, (Burlington House).
Novemler 17th, 1864.
The following papers were read: — 1. "Facts relative to the
Movements of Insects on Polished Vertical Surfaces," by Mr. J.
Blackwall. — 2. *' On a Skeleton of Dinornis 7'obicstus, Owen, in the
York Museum," by Mr, T. Allis. — 3. " Account of a huge Banyan
Tree of S. India," by John Shortt, M.D. — 4. *' On Pceciloneuron,
a new genus of Ternstrcejniacice,^' by Captain Beddome. — 5. " On the
^Naturalized Weeds of British Kaffraria," by Mr. D'Urban. — Dr.
Hooker laid before the Society a plate of a gigantic species of Aris-
tolocliia from the forests of Old Calabar, where it had been discovered
by the Eev. W. Thomson, of the United Presbyterian Church
Mission, who had transmitted a flower in spirits to Kew. At
Mr. Thomson's request it had been named A. Goldieana, after the
Eev. H. Goldie of the same mission. Dr. Hooker hoped to make
further observations on it at the forthcoming meeting of the Society.
Dr. Hooker also exhibited some hazel-nuts, said to have been taken
from a closed cavity of a large oak-tree at Llanelly in South "Wales,
and which were supposed to have lain there for many years. The
nuts presented a curious striped appearance, and the kernels were
quite sound and fleshy, though discoloured. They had been sent to
Dr. Hooker by Mr. J. Douglas, the proprietor of the saw-mills in
which the tree was cut up.
Beeemler 1st, 1864.
The following papers were read : — 1. *' On the Free Nematodes,
Marine and Fresh Water," by Dr. Bastian.— 2. "Brief Notices
of Eesults obtained by Experiments with Eutozoa," by Dr. Cobbold.
— o. " On Tubicolous Annelids from the Collection in the British
Museum," by Dr. Baird.
PJIOCEEDINGS OF THE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES OF LONDON. 135
4. Zoological Society, (Hanover Square).
JS^ovember Sth, 1864.
The Secretary announced to the meeting the Head Keeper's safe
return from Calcutta in July last ^ith a valuable collection of
animals, brought together for the Society by the Baboo Kajendra
Mullick, Mr. A. G-rote, Dr. John Squire, and Mr. W. Dunn, amoDgst
wliich were a pair of Ehiuoceroses and several species of Birds new
to the collection. The Secretary also called the attention of the
meeting to several interesting additions to the Society's Menagerie.
—The Secretary exhibited a collection of Birds* Eggs made in India
and presented to the Society by Lieut. E. C. Beavan. — Mr. Gould
exhibited a specimen of the Emheriza pusilla of Pallas, which had
been lately captured in a clap-net near Brighton, being the first
instance of its occurrence in the British Islands, also a specimen of
the Anthus campestris of the Continent, caught in the same locality.
— The Eev. H. B. Tristram, Corresponding Member, exhibited a pair
of Sanderlings from Grimsey Island, Iceland, and three Eggs, sup-
posed to be those of that Bird, received at the same time. — A Letter
was read from Dr. W. Peters, Eoreign Member, in reference to some
remarks made by Dr. G-ray, in a paper recently published in the
Society's proceedings. — Professor Huxley read a memoir on the
structure of the skull of Man, the Goriilla, the Chimpanzee, and the
Orang-Utan, during the period of the first dentition. Professor
Huxley's deductions were based upon materials contained in the
British Museum, the E-oyal College of Surgeons, and in particular
upon the original specimen of Tyson's " Pigmy,'^ which had been
submitted to his examination by the Directors of the Museum at
Cheltenham. — The Eev. H. B. Tristram read a Eeport on the Birds
collected during his recent expedition in Palestine. Mr. Tristram
enumerated 322 species as having been ascertained to occur in that
country, of which twenty-seven, so far as our present knowledge
extended were peculiar to Palestine, and the districts immediately
adjacent. Nine of these were now described for the first time, and
several others had not been previously brought to England. — Mr. "W.
H. Eiower read some Notes on the skeletons of the BalcenidcBy as
observed by him during a recent visit to the principal Museums of
Holland and Belgium. Mr. Eiower also characterised a new species
of Grampus, from Tasmania, under the name of Orca meridionalis. —
Mr. A. Newton read a Paper, entitled, " Notes on the Zoology of
136 THE NATTJEAL HISTOET EEYIEW.
Spitzbergen," made during a recent visit to that country. — A Eeport
was read by Dr. Giinther on the Reptiles and Fislies collected during
Mr. Tristram's recent expedition in Palestine. The most interesting
part of Mr. Tristram's collection was perhaps the series of Fishes
from the Lake of Galilee, of which the greater part proved to be new
to science. Amongst the most remarkable of these were several species
of the African genera Chromis and Semicliromis. — Dr. Giinther
also described some new species of Batrachians from "Western Africa.
—Four Papers were read by Dr. Gray. The first of these was
entitled " Notes on a Eevision of the Specimens of Yiverrine Animals
in the collection of the British Museum, with descriptions of some
new genera and species," by which it appeared that about 102
species of this family were known to science, of which upwards of
eighty were represented in the British Museum. Dr. Gray's second
Paper was a notice of a new variety of Galago from Quillimane, pro-
posed to be called Otagale crassicauclata var. Kirkii. The third was
a note on the Clawed Toads {Dactylethrd) of Africa, and the fourth
a general revision of the genera and species of the Lizards of the
family Cliameleonidce. — Mr. Sclater pointed out the characters of
the new Duck from Madagascar, proposed to be called after its dis-
coverer. Dr. Meller, Anas melleri. — A Paper was read by Mr. E.
Blyth, entitled " Notes on sundry Mammaha." — Mr. 0. Salvin cha-
racterised nineteen new species of Birds lately received from Costa
Eica, amongst which was a new form of the family Cotingidce, pro-
posed to be called Carpodectes nitidus. — A communication was read
from Dr. J. C. Cox, of Sydney, New South "Wales, describing two
new species of Land Shells, proposed to be called Helix Mackleayi
and Siiccinea eucalypti. — Extracts were read from some Letters
addressed by Mr. R. Swinhoe, H.M. Consul in Formosa, to Dr. Gray,
describing several recent additions to the Mammal-fauna of Formosa,
JVovemher 22ndf 1864.
The Secretary called the attention of the meeting to some recent
important additions to the Society's Menagerie, amongst which was
a young female Chimpanzee, just received from West Africa. — A
Paper was read by Dr. P. P. Carpenter, entitled " Contributions
towards a Monograph of the Pandoridce.'" — Mr. St. George Mivart
read a Communication " On the Crania and Dentitipn of the Le-
muridce'^ giving the results of his investigations of the specimens of
this group of animals contained in the British Museum, and the
PEOCEEDINGS OF THE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES OP LONDON. 137
Museum of the Eoyal College of Surgeons. According to the
author's views the Leonuridce were divisable into four natural sub-
families, the IndrisincB, Lemurince, Nycticehince, and Galaginince. —
A Communication was read from Dr. J. C. Cox, of Sydney, New
South "Wales, giving the descriptions of four new species of Australian
Land Shells, lately received from Port Clarence. — Mr. P. L. Sclater
pointed out the characters of some new species of Birds discovered in
Brazil by the late Dr. John batterer, of which he had lately obtained
duplicate specimens from the Imperial Collection of Vienna. The
most noticeable of these was a new species of the genus Granatellus,
proposed to be called O. pehelnii, and a new Tanager, the Tanagra
olivina of ISTatterer's MS. — A Communication was read from Dr. L.
Pfeiffer describing seven new species of Laud Shells from the
Cumingian collection. — Dr. J. E. Gray communicated a notice of the
atlas and cervical vertebrae of a Eight "Whale in the Sydney Museum
New South "Wales, which appeared to indicate the existence of a new
form of this group distinguished by the complete separation of the
atlas from the other vertebrae, and by other characters. Dr. Gray
proposed for this "Whale the name of Macleayius australiensis.
December ISth, 1864.
Professor Owen, P.E.S., read a further Memoir on Dinornis,
being the ninth of a Series of Contributions to the Society's " Trans-
actions" on this subject. The present section contained the
description of the skull, atlas, and scapulo-coracoid bone of Dinornis
rohustus Owen. It was founded partly on materials submitted to his
examination by Dr. D. S. Price, consisting of a mutilated cranium,
and other bones, which had been obtained from the bottom of a
crevice, about 50 feet deep, in a limestone rock, situated a few miles
south of Timarn, in the Middle Island of New Zealand, and partly
on a skull found with a skeleton, almost entire, in the valley of
Manuherikia, Otago. The skeleton last referred to had been disin-
terred by gold-miners from one of the large basins of ancient tertiary
date, which characterise the auriferous region of the interior of the
province of Otago, and had been transmitted to the Museum of the
Yorkshire Philosophical Society at York, the Council of which had
placed it at Professor Owen's disposition for the purpose of descrip-
tion. — Mr. Gould exhibited and described the egg of 'Parra gallinacea,
from Eastern Australia, of which he had lately received two speci-
mens from ]Mi\ Hills, to whom they had been forwarded by his
138 THE NATUEAL HISTOEY EEVIEW.
relative, Sir Daniel Cooper. — A Paper was read by Mr. C. Spence
Bate and Mr. J. K. Lord, containing descriptions of new species o-f
crustaceans discovered by the latter gentleman on the coasts of Yan-
couver's Island. — A Communication was read fron Mr. "W. Harpur
Pease, containing remarks on the species of genus Succinea, inhabit-
ing the Tahitian Archipelago, with description of a new species. — A
second Communication was likewise read from Mr, Harpur Pease,
entitled " Descriptions of new species of Land Shells from the islands
of the Central Pacific."— A Paper was read by Dr. J. E. Grray,
entitled ** A revision of the genera and species of Ursine animals,
{Ursidcs) founded on the specimens contained in the collection of the
British Museum." This family, as arranged by Dr. Grray, was stated
to embrace ten genera and twenty-two species — nine of which were
inhabitants of the Old, and twelve of the New World, while one was
common to the arctic portions of both hemispheres. — Dr. John Kirk
communicated a list of mammalia met with in the Zambezi region of
Eastern Tropical Africa. The total number of mammals enumerated
by Dr. Kirk was sixty-seven. Amongst these were a bat and an
antelope considered to be new to science, and proposed to be called
respectively Nycticejus nidicola and ITesot7'agus Living stonianus. —
Mr. P. L. Sclater read a list of the collection of monkeys living in
the Society's menagerie. The series now exhibited in the lately
erected monkey-house was stated to consist of seventy-four indi<-
viduals, belonging to forty-three different species, amongst which
were several of great rarity. — Mr. Bartlett exhibited a curious variety
of the common partridge, Ferdix cinerea, from the collection of Mr.
J. Gatcombe. The specimen was stated to be one of three similar
individuals lately obtained, in a wild state, in the neighbourhood of
Paris.
XV. — Miscellanea.
1. DlMOKPHISM 1^ THE GeNUS CyNIPS.
The Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia, for
March last, contain an interesting paper by Mr. B. D. Walsh, on Di-
morphism in the genus Cynips. His observations relate principally
to C. q. spongifica and C. q. aciculake, which have hitherto been
MISCELLANEA. 139
regarded as distinct species, but whicli Mr. Walsh looks upon as
merely two forms of one and tlie same insect.
That the two forms are distinct enough is evident. Mr. "Walsh
calls attention particularly to nine points of difference.
" 1. The fovea at the base of the scutel is twice or thrice as deep
in spongifica, and the longitudinal carina which bisects it is twice or
thrice as lofty."
*' 2. In spongijica there are three deep and wide, transversely
corrugated, longitudinal striae or sutures in front of the scutel, one
central one extending nearly to the collare, but becoming narrower
as it approaches it, and two divergent lateral ones fading out as they
approach the humerus. In aciculata, it is only in particular lights
that traces of these striae are discoverable, and they do not extend
nearly so far forwards.'*
" 3. In aciculata, on each side of the notum, beginning at the
collare and terminating suddenly about half way to the scutel, is an
almost invariably conspicuous, obtuse, glabrous carina, each parallel
with the other, and distant from the other about as far as the two
posterior ocelli are. In spongijica it is only in two or three
specimens and in certain lights, that faint traces of these two carinas
are discoverable."
" 4. In aciculata, the mesonotum is very finely aciculate,or covered
with fine regularly parallel rugas before the scutel, except in two or
three specimens, where it is somewhat irregularly, but very finely
rugose. In spongijica it is very coarsely rugose. There is some
little variation in both these two forms, but comparing the most
coarsely sculptured aciculata with the most finely sculptured
spongijica, the rugosities are at least twice as coarse in the latter, i.e.
each rugosity is twice as wide."
** 5. The sculpture of the rest of the thorax, and also of the head,
is about twice as coarse in spongijica as in aciculata."
" 6. The body of aciculata is uniformly black, except that the
abdomen is sometimes piceous below. In two $ spongijica the
thorax is almost rust red, (as observed in a single $ C. q. coccinece
by Osten Sacken, Proc. Ent. Soc. Phila. J., p. 244,) and the abdomen
piceous red ; in another 9 the thorax is tinged with rust red and the
abdomen piceous ; and in the fourth ? the thorax is black, and the
abdomen is piceous red ; the remaining ? specimen being uniformly
black, as are also both 6 $. In the closely allied or identical species
g. inanisj however, one of my two (^ $ has a piceous red abdomen,
and all my 9 $ ? have a black thorax and a piceous red abdomen."
140 THE Is^ATURAL niSTORT EEYIEW.
" 7. Viewed laterally, tlie upper edge of the second abdominal
joint (counting the peduncle as the first joint) describes a circular
arc of about 60°, in both forms. Taking the chord of this arc as a
definite and permanent basis of measurement, in spongijlca P the
lower or ventral edge proceeds straight downwards, exactly at right
angles with this chord, for a distance equal to half or one-third the
length of the chord, before it curves gradually backwards, to form the
ventral arch. In aciculata $ on the contrary, instead of being at
right angles (90°) with the chord, it forms with it an angle of about
11.0°, so as to exhibit a most extraordinary bulge in front, and it
curves much farther downwards from the peduncle, and in a more
compressed and knife-edged form, so that the abdomen is vertically
at least as wide as long, and almost always much wider, whereas
in spongiJiGa j it is always longer than wide, generally much
longer. The above variation in each form is caused by the terminal
abdominal joints being more or less telescopically drawn out in
difierent specimens, so that in each form the second abdominal joint
sometimes occupies dorsally half the entire length of the abdomen,
exclusive of the peduncle, and sometimes almost two-thirds. St.
Eargeau has observed the same thing of the genus MegachilCy
(Hymenopt II., p. 338,) and I only notice it here because Osten
Sacken, having only a few specimens of each form on hand, supposes
the relative length of the second abdominal joint with regard to the
terminal joints to be a terminal character of each (Proc. Ent. Soc.
Phil. I., p. 246.)"
" 8. In consequence of the above bulge on the anterior abdomen
in aciculata, (see Appendix, Pig. 1) the distance from the " ventral
valve" (Fig. 1, v.) to the "dorsal valve" (Pig. 1, 7) is proper*
tionately twice as long as in spongijica, and consequently the sheaths
of the ovipositor (Pig. 1, s.s.) are also proportionally twice as long,
though their proportional breadth in both forms is nearly the same."
" 9. With the exception of a single specimen, my 30 $ aciculata
are one quarter broader and longer than my 5 P spongijica and my
9 P inanis, all 14 of which are remarkably uniform in size, save a
single >? inanis which is a little smaller than the rest."
" These nine differences are sufiiciently remarkable, and, but for
"the evidence of dimorphism, would," as Mr. "Walsh truly observes,
" undoubtedly be viewed by every entomologist as of specific value."
Mr. AValsh's reason for regarding these two forms as belonging
to the same species is as follows: — In May and June, 1863, he
gathered a niy&iber of galls from a black oak (Q. tincforia), some of
MISCELLAIfEA. 141
them " had the terminal nipple attributed to the gall of spongijica
"by Osten Sacken, some were smoothly spherical as the gall of
" aciculata is described by the same author, many had several nipples
" scattered irregularly over their surface, and two or three had as
"many as 12 or 14," During the month of June, 26 of these
galls, and what is very interesting, some of all types, produced
images 6 $ and 20 ^ all of C. spongifica. After the 18th June, no
more w^ere produced until October, when from 50 to 60 specimens
made their appearance, all $ and all belonging to the form known as
C. aciculata.
Mr. Walsh supposes that 0. q^. aciculata, O.S. is a dimorphous
form of Q. q. spo'ngijica, O.S., that it occurs exclusively in the ? sex
and exclusively on Q. tinctoria, and emerges from the last of September
to the middle of November, and many of them not till the folio wiDg
Spring, from galls that commenced their growth in the preceding
May, which are undistinguishable from those which produce G, q.
spongifica, the same kinds of gall from the same lot of trees, gathered
at the same time, producing spongifica ^^ $ in June and aciculata %
in October and November, and nothing whatever but a solitary
parasite in the intervening period.
We cannot but think that Mr. Walsh has been a little hasty in
this conclusion. It is quite possible that two species may produce
very similar galls.
Nevertheless, the conditions of life among the CynipidsB are so
abnormal and so interesting, that we hail with pleasure every
attempt to penetrate the mystery by which they are surrounded.
J. L.
2. Eettjen" op Dr. E,. Spruce — the Botanical Traveller.
We extract from the deader of the 12th of November last,
the following account of the South-American Exploitations of
Eichard Spruce, who has lately returned to this country after many
years absence.
" A short time ago there returned amongst us, after an absence of
fifteen years, and much broken in health, a traveller whose explora-
tions in South America are more extensive and of greater scientific
value than any that have of late years been recorded. Their value
will doubtless be as fully appreciated by the public at large when
142 THE NATUEAL HISTORY EEYIEW.
tlieir results shall have become more generally accessible as they are
now by those scientific men who have never lost sight of the enter-
prising explorer from the moment he left our shores till his happy
return a few weeks ago. In G-ermany his services have been
promptly recognised by the oldest scientific body of that country,
the Imperial Academy Naturae Curiosorum, which has conferred
upon him the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, the highest honour
it was in their power to bestow.
Dr. Spruce left Liverpool on the 7th of June, 1849, and reached
Para on the 12th of July. After spending three months in
exploring the environs of that city, he ascended the Amazon to
Santarem, at the mouth of the Tapajoz, and in November of the same
year went seventy miles farther up, to Obydos, where the Amazon is
at its narrowest and deepest. Starting from Obydos, he explored
the Trombetas and its tributary the Aripecurii, as far as the cataracts
of the latter, in lat. 0° 47' N,, fixing five latitudes by astronomical
observations, and making a map of those previously unknown rivers.
E-eturning to Santarem in January, 1850, he remained there ex-
ploring the lower part of the Tapajoz and adjacent parts of the
Amazon until October, when he started up the Amazon for the
Barra do liio Negro, where he arrived after a voyage of sixty-three
days, thirty whereof were spent in the channels to the south of the
great island of Tupinambarana.
The greater part of the year 1851 was occupied in studying and
collecting the rich vegetation of the lower part of the Eio Negro and
of the Amazon for a few days' journey up ; and in November he
started for the head- waters of the Eio Negro, in a boat of about nine
tons burthen, which he had fitted up expressly for the object. Early
in January, 1852, Dr. Spruce reached the village of Sao Gabriel,
situated about midway between the CacTioeiras, or cataracts, of the
Eio Negro ; and, after remaining there some seven months, he pro-
ceeded up the large river Uaupes, which had been scarcely known to
Europeans even by name until Mr. "Wallace's adventurous exploration
of it in the preceding year. Dr. Spruce found the Uaupes to possess
a more novel and beautiful forest-vegetation than any other part of
South America which he visited ; and his collections include several
undescribed genera, besides many species notable for their beauty
and the value of their products. Dr. Spruce remained on the Uaupes
until March, 1853, when he sailed out of it into the Eio Negro and
up the latter river, beyond the Brazilian frontier, to San Carlos del
MISCELLAJTEA. 143
Eio Negro. This village was his head-quarters during his stay-
in Venezuela, which extended to November, 1854, or more than a
year and a half. During that time he made two expeditions to the
Orinoco — one by the way of the Casiquiari, and the other by the
portage of Pinichin and the Atabapo. On the former of these?
besides examining the Casiquiari, both ascending and descending, he
explored its tributary, the Pacimoni, to its source, among the lofty
and picturesque mountains called Imei and Tibiali, as also the river
Cunucuuuma, which bathes the western foot of the immense granite
mass of Dinda, and enters the Orinoco a little below the bifurcation
of the Casiquiari. On his second visit to the Orinoco he went as far
down as the cataracts of Maypures, rendered famous by the narrative
of Humboldt and Bonpland. There and elsewhere, in the region of
the Upper Orinoco and Eio Negro, he gathered many of the plants
discovered by those illustrious travellers, and which had not been
seen since by any botanist. He also constructed maps of the hitherto
unsurveyed rivers Cunucuntima and Pacimoni.
Leaving Venezuela, Dr. Spruce descended the Eio Negro, and
reached the Barra do Eio Negro about the end of 1854, after an
absence of above three years. Having reposed there over two months,
he took'advantage of the steamers which had been lately established
on the Amazon to ascend that river beyond the Brazilian frontier to
Nauta in Peru, near the mouth of the Ucayali, and thence went
in canoes up the Maraiion, and its tributary the Huallaga, to
Tarapoto, a large and thriving town in the ancient province of
Maynas. In the lovely valley of Tarapoto — which, like many
similar ones in the eastern roots of the Andes, will one day be the
site of a magnificent city, when the immense resources of the
Amazon valley, and its unrivalled fluvial system shall have been fully
developed— he remained nearly two years, and collected there,
besides a vast variety of other plants, no fewer than 250 species of
ferns in an area of only fifty miles in diameter.
In March, 1857, Dr. Spruce left Tarapoto for Ecuador, descending
the Huallaga to its confluence with the Maranon, and then ascending
the latter river and its affluents the Pastasa and Bombonasa to Cane-
los ; :finally, through the forest of Canelos on foot to the village of
Banos, at the foot of the volcano of Tunguragua, In this disastrous
journey, which occupied a hundred days, he had to abandon all
his goods in the forest to escape perishing of hunger at the passage
of swollen rivers. Making Bailos his head- quarters, he devoted above
144i THE NATURAL HISTOllT EEYIEW.
six months to the exploration of the forests and paramos of its
huge volcano, and of the upper part of the valley of the Pastasa.
In January, 1858, he removed to Ambato, which, for more than
two years was his point of departure for excursions to Quito,
Eiobamba, &c., and to various points in the eastern and western Cor-
dilleras of the Quitenian Andes, although his movements were much
harassed and restricted by the revolutionary state of the country
during nearly the whole of that period. In 1860 Dr. Spruce com-
municated a valuable paper to the Eoyal Geographical Society on
the mountains of Llanganati, in the eastern cordillera of the
Quitenian Andes (J.E.G-.S. for 1861, p. 163-84). He has also
communicated numerous important papers to the Linnean Society.
In 1860 he was occupied for some months in procuring seeds and
plants of the Chinchona succirubra, or Red Bark plant, for cultivation
in India — a task which was confided to him by Mr. Clements
R. Markham, on behalf of Her Majesty's Government. Dr. Spruce
displayed great zeal and resolution in performing this arduous
service while suffering from the effects of rheumatic fever, and his
labours received the unqualified approbation of the Secretary of
State for India. His elaborate report on the expedition conducted
by him to procure these seeds and plants (accompanied by a meteor-
ological journal and a complete sketch of the vegetation of the
Chinchona forests) is by far the best that has appeared on this
subject in any language, and has been invaluable as a guide to the
cultivation of these precious plants in India. It covers 111 printed
pages. Afterwards, his broken health seeming to require a return to
a warm climate, he removed to the plain of Guayaquil ; and his active
labours as a botanist may be said to have closed with the picking
up of a few plants in that neighbourhood during the year 1861 and
during 1862 at Chanduy, on the coast, near Punta Santa Elena, where
an exceptional rainy season, coming after an interval of fifteen rainless
years, enabled him to make a small but interesting collection of the
ephemeral plants, which, under the influence of the rains, sprang up
on the desert, and also of several curious trees and shrubs, whose
blackened stems had not for some years past put forth even a leaf.
The results of this long course of travel (the objects of which
were at first purely botanical) comprise from 6000 to 7000 species of
flowering plants and ferns, whereof a very large proportion were
entirely new to science, especially among the trees, of which the timber
and other products were also ascertained to be in many cases of great
MISCELLANEA. 145
value. Several new species may be instanced, and one entirely new
genus, of trees producing the best kind ©f caoutchouc, which is now
extracted from them in large quantities by the Brazilians, but which
was not in use until Dr. Spruce pointed the trees out on the
Eio Negro and elsewhere. His specimens of all these plants are
preserved in the principal public and private collections in the world,
and are, therefore, perfectly accessible for the purposes of science.
A very large collection of cryptogamic plants — perhaps the largest
ever made by any single collector — still remains to be worked up.
Dr. Spruce's MSS. contain, besides notes on all the plants
collected, vocabularies of twenty-one native languages of the Amazon
valley, meteorological observations, barometric levellings, &c.,
throughout the regions visited, maps of three rivers which had
not previously been surveyed, notes of the aspects and capabilities of
the various countries, of the customs, food, trade, and agriculture of
their inhabitants."
3. Natural Histoey in Natal.
We have received the following letter : —
4, Corah Terrace, Port Elizaheth,
Algoa Bay, Cape of Good Hope, \Uh October j 1864.
G-ENTLEMEN, — I have been resident in this colony two years,
during which time I have given a good deal of time and attention to
the Natural History of the country. The nucleus of a small
museum is now being increased, and I hope, before many years, it
will become a flourishing institution. We have upwards of fifty
species of reptiles, a considerable collection of insects, aud a small
one of plants. This institution was originally set on foot by Dr.
Kubidge of this town, who has devoted a good deal of attention to
the Geology of this colony.
Mr. E. Pinchin, resident engineer, has made an excellent map of
a section of this colony, fi'om this Port to Somerset East, through
the Zuurberg Mountains.
I write this letter to you with the hopes of drawing the atten-
tion of such men as Messrs. Darwin and Wallace to some interesting
caves, which have been discovered here latel}^ some in the George
District, and some in the Transvaal Eepublic, a thorough examination
N.H.R.— 1865. L
146 THE NATURAL HISTOllT EETIEW.
of whicli, I believe, would prove of much value to science. Mr.
Colman, of Q-rahamstown, who has visited these latter caves, situated
on the Yaal Kiver, has brought down several specimens of minerals,
Bome of which I have seen, but have missed the opportunity of
talking with that gentleman himself.
I am now making a tour into the 'Free State, but fear my time
will not permit my visiting the Transvaal. I purpose, as I go along,
collecting, to make notes on the various points of interest, and will
visit any caves I may hear of When I left England I had not
the pleasure of personally seeing Professor Huxley, but have endea-
voured in vain to obtain for him specimens of Bushmen's crania.
I may be more successful now, and should I meet with any will cer-
tainly forward them.
I may mention to you, that there is, to the south of Port Eliza-
beth, and a few miles from the town, a considerable deposit of sand,
filled with shells, all apparent Jy of recent species. In these beds are
some fragments of a very coarse kind of crockery, containing quartz
and sand, but principally formed of clay. I have not had time, as
yet, to investigate them thoroughly, but think they will prove
interesting.
There are few persons here who interest themselves in science,
but a garden of acclimatization and botany, improperly called a park,
is being started, and we are very desirous to obtain tea and chinchona
plants, in order to give them a trial.
I may mention, that I have several times noticed dun-coloured
foals in this colony with stripes ; and only two Sundays ago, saw a
very young one with the slightest possible trace of them on its legs.
If you could, in any way, give our small efforts publicity, I may,
speaking in the name of our committee, say that we should feel much
obliged. Por, unless we get some sort of recognition at home, the
work of pushing ourselves forward here is rather disheartening.
Apologising for thus writing at length,
I am, Gentlemen,
Tour obedient servant,
J. P. Mansel Weale, B.A.,
Late of Trinity College, Oxon., and Curator of the
Department of Practical Science Museum, P.E.
To the Editors of the " Natural Historv Eeview."
miscellanea. 147
4. Pjsogeessiye Extinction of the Natia^e Eauna in
New Zealand.
The following extract from a letter, from Jolm Webster, Esq.»
dated Hokianga, New Zealand, l7tli December, 1863, addressed to
Mr. E. L. Layard, of Cax^e Town, relates to a subject already alluded
to in this Journal : —
" The box sent contains the Kiwi's egg, and a few birds'-skins,
which may, or may not, be new to you. I am sorry New Zealand
is so poor a country for ornithological specimens, otherwise I might
have made up a box more worthy of your acceptance.
It is being remarked by the natives and old settlers that many of
the native birds are getting scarcer, and a few varieties have all but
disappeared. This has been brought more under my notice since I
began collecting for you. Of birds that were formerly common, I
have failed in getting even a single specimen. Early navigators and
visitors to New Zealand speak with raptures of the melody in early
morn, of the birds in the woods. It was so on my first arrival in the
country. I can now say, from personal knowledge, that it is a fact
that the native birds are rapidly disappearing, and the question is —
what is the cause ?
I think it is owing to the ravages of the common rat. The bush
and country is swarming with them ; they are found in the trees, on
the ground, by the water, and in the \\ater. Indeed rat-life is
rampant at the present moment in New Zealand. Birds' nests
are found empty every where, where they ought to have been
tenanted, and nests under my own eye have almost invariably been
robbed by the vermin. I speak feelingly — the silence of our summer
mornings is like a note struck out of natural melody."
5. Notice oe a Mule Breeding.
Mr. A. Eonblanque, of the British Consulate at Alexandria, has
communicated to Mr. Darwin a notice of a "curious birth" which
has lately taken place at Cairo — that of a foal produced by a mule.
Mr. Eonblanque says, so great was the excitement at this unheard of
event amongst the native population that it produced an official en-
quiry — a copy of which, together with a certificated translation, Mr.
148 THE NATURAL HISTORY EEYIEW.
Ponblanque has forwarded along with his letter announcing the
prodigium. The latter consists of the deposition of one Mohained
Effendi Ashmani — a veterinary surgeon— before the police at Cairo
on the 27th June, 1864, and states that, on the previous day, the said
Mohamed had proceeded, "in pursuance of instructions received, to
"the house of one Ibrahim, a master marbler, situate at Darb el
"Ahraar, to examine a mule, which had given an offspring. It
" appears that the said mule had been covered by an ass, as the off-
" spring is a jennet. The mule is twenty-two years of age, and as
" she has no milk, which is indispensable to maintain the jennet,
" directions were given for feeding it,"
Although Mr. Fonblanque has no personal knowledge of this
case, he does not believe that " any intentional deception has been
practised." " No attempt has been made to turn the affair to profit
by exhibition or otherwise — in fact, it furnished considerable annoy-
ance to the owner of the animal."
6. The Dentition of the Aye-Aye.
The anatomy of the Aye- Aye {Cliiromys maJagascariensis) formed
the subject of a paper read by Dr. W. Peters, before the Berlin Aca-
demy, on the 14th of April last, in the course of which he gave some
interesting particulars relative to the milk-teeth of this animal.
Professor Owen's valuable essay on this genus has made us acquainted
with several new points in which it approaches the Lemurs, whilst,
-on the other hand, the structure of its incisor teeth, which are
covered with enamel at the front only, and are not, as BlainviUe has
stated, entirely surrounded by it, shows an important relation to the
Eodents. It is, therefore, a point of some interest to study the milk-
dentition of the genus, and to ascertain whether Blainville's supposi-
tion as to the presence of teeth between the molars and incisors during
the primary dentition be true or not. No teeth are found between
the two large incisors, where, according to Blainville's conjecture, there
should be another pair of smaller incisors during immaturity. On
each side, however, behind, and at some little distance from them,
nearly in front of the upper maxillary, is a very small deciduous incisor;
and, at the front end of the upper maxillary, a somewhat stronger but
shorter canine, further backwards in the upper jaw are two molars,
the first of which is small and 4eciduous, but the second precisely
MISCELLANEA, 149
resembles both in form and size the false molar of the adult animal.
It is not, however, permanent, as Professor Owen has supposed,
since there is above it an alveolus containing the germ of a new tooth.
No traces of teeth corresponding to the posterior upper incisor and
the canine are found in the lower jaw ; but on the left side the two
corresponding molars, and on the right side the posterior molar only,
are present. The latter tooth had been previously noticed by Ger-
vais. The space between these molars and the incisors is covered with
smooth membrane ; so that if teeth had previously existed there, they
must have been exceedingly small. As regards the upper and lower
true molars, the crowns only are partly developed. The deciduous
2 1 1-1-1-1 1 2
formula of this genus is therefore as follows: — j, 5' \]{ ^ 5? 2,
which exhibits a close relation to that of the Insectivora, in which the
lateral incisors, the canines, and the teeth in the diastema often be-
come obliterated owing to the increased development of the anterior
incisors. Another distinction between this genus and the Glires is
that, in the female, the distance between the anal and genital aper-
tures is very considerable, and the two-horned uterus differs in shape
from that of the E/odents. The internal structure differs from
that of the genus Lemur and Microcelus in the fundus of the gall-
bladder being, as is usual, directed forwards, and not backwards. If
we are not prepared to make a separate order for this genus, to be
placed between the Quadrumana and the Rodentia, as Brandt has
proposed, it would, on the whole, be the most natural to regard it as
an aberrant family of the Lemurs, according to Isidore Qeoffroy's
suggestion. Besides the form of the soles, and the opposable
thumb of the hinder extremity, the principal characters to be con-
sidered are the formation of the skull and of the brain. As regards
the dentition, it would be of much interest to investigate wdiether
at any period of the foetal life of the Glires, there exist teeth cor-
responding to the milk-teeth of the Chiromys.
7. Calltjna tulgaeis in Cape Beeton, in Noeth Ameeica,
Notices respecting the existence of the Calluna in Massachusetts
and Newfoundland have appeared in former numbers of this Eeview,
namely, No. YII. page 346, No. XIII. page 151, and No. XIY.
page 313. It is worth while to add to those two former records an
intermediate habitat, as a link of connection, which fixes the Ame-
1^0 THE iS^ATUEAL HISTORY EEYIEW.
rican shrub in a latitude only about four degrees to tbe northward of
Massachusetts. Professor George Lawson, of Halifax, Nova Scotia,
has favoured me with a flowering specimen of -the Calluna, sent
through the post, and located by its accompanying label at " St.
Ann's Bay, County of Inverness, Cape Breton Island, August 30,
1864." I do not detect any constant difference between this example
from Cape Breton and the Calluna of Europe and its islands.
Among two score specimens in my herbarium, varying somewhat
among themselves, I find some of similar slender growth, and with
the flowers equally large as in this American example ; also seem-
ingly vnth the flowers equally globular, through the curling inwards
of the coloured calyx, although that alleged difference between the
European and Massachusetts flowers is not so readily judged of in a
dried example. The flowers on the little specimen from Cape Breton
are few and distant, comparatively with the European examples in
my own herbarium ; but I believe to have seen them quite as
sparingly scattered on liviug English plants of the Calluna.
Hewett C. Watson.
8. DiSCOYEEY OF AsPLENIUM YIEIDE, IN NeW BeUNSWICK.
I have just received a specimen of Aspleniiim viride from G. E.
Matthew, Esq., of the Natural History Society, St. John's, New Bruns-
wick, gathered on sea-clifls, Taylor's Island. This discovery is a most
interesting one in connection with the glacial migration of Scandina-
vian plants over the North American continent ; the plant being
common in the subalpine regions of Europe, and also found in the
Eocky Mountains, but not occurring in Greenland or in any other
part of North America.
J. D. HOOKEE.
9. The Taetaeian Antelope alive in ENaLAND..
A recent interesting addition to the Zoological Society's series of
living Mammals is a young male example of the Tartarian Antelope
(Saiga tartarica), an inhabitant of the Steppes of Central Asia, which
MISCELLANEA. 151
has, we believe, never before been brought alive to "Western Europe,
and is a rare animal even in museums. In its outward appearance
the Saiga is certainly very different from the Gazelles {Gazella),
with which it is structurally not very distantly allied, and gives one
more the idea of a Sheep than one of the elegant group of Antelopes,
although its singular swollen nose renders it very distinguishable
from every other known Euminant. It will be recollected that the
Saiga is the only true Antelope that has a high northern range —
nearly the whole species of this numerous division of the Eovidse
being confined to Africa and South-western Asia.
10. List of Publications Eeceived.
(1.) Entozoa : An Introduction to the Study of Helminthology,
with reference, more particularly, to the Internal Parasites of
Man. By T. Spencer Cobbold, M.D., E.E.S., London.
Groombridge and Sons. 1864.
(2.) Die menschlichen Parasiten und die von ihnen herriihrenden
Krankheiten. Ein Hand- und Lehrbuch fur Naturforscher und
Aerzte. Yon Eudolf Leuckart. Leipzig und Heidelberg. 1863.
(3.) Homes without Hands, &c. By the Eev. J. G, Wood, M.A.,
E.L.S. Parts VII.— XI. Longman and Co. 1864.
(4.) Oversigt over det Kongelige, danske Videnskabernes Sels-
kabs Eorhandlinger, og det Meddlemmers Arbeider i Aaret
1862. Kjobenhaven. 1863.
(5.) Ofversigt af Kongl. Yetenskaps-Akademiens Eorhandlingar.
1863. Nos. 9, 10. 1864. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4. Stockholm.
(6.) Mittheilungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Bern.
aus dem Jahre 1863. Hft. 631—552. Bern. 1863.
(7.) Die Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Eeichs, wissenschaffc-
Uch dargostellt in Wort und Bild. Yon Dr. H. G. Bronn.
Band I. Amorphozoa. Leipzig und Heidelberg. 1860. Band
ir. Actinozoa. 1860. Band III. Part 1. Malacozoa. 1863.
(8.) Abhandlungen des zoologisch-mineralogischen Yereines in Ee-
gensburg. Heft IX. Eegensburg, 1864.
(9.) The Dublin Quarterly Journal of Medical Science. No.LXXYI.
November, 1864. Dublin, Fannin and Co,
152 NATURAL HISTORY REYIEW.
i'lO.) The Canadian Naturalist and G-eologist. Vol. I. Nos. 3, 4.
Montreal, 1864.
(11.) On the Growtli of the Jaws. By G-. M. Humphry, M.D.
E.E.S. (rrom the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical
Society, Vol. XI.)
(12.) The Anthropological Eeview. No. 7. November, 1864.
London, Triibner and Co.
(13.) Harmonic Maxims of Science and Eeligion. By the Eev. "W.
Baker, M.A. London, Longman and Co. 1864.
(14.) Our House and Garden : "What we see, and what we do not
see, in them. By Cuthbert Johnson, P.E.S. London, Eidg-
way. 1864.
(15.) Eeport on the Government Central Museum, and on the
Agricultural and Horticultural Society of Western India, for
1863. By E. Birdwood, M.D. Bombay. 1864.
(16.) Neu-Guinea, und seine Bewohner. Von Otto Einsch. Bre-
men. 1865.
(17.) The Neanderthal Skull. By Joseph B. Davis, M.D. London,
Taylor and Francis. 1864.
THE
NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW
A
QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE.
XV. — The Zoology op British India.
(1.) Catalogue of the Mammalia in the MrsEUM of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal. By Edward Blyth, Curator,
Calcutta, 1863.
(2.) The Birds of India, being a Natural History of all
Birds known to inhabit Continental India. By T. C.
Jerdon, Surgeon- Major, Madras Array, 3 vols. 8vo. Calcutta,
1862-4.
(3.) The Eeptiles of British India. By Dr. Albert Giinther.
London, 1864. Published for the Eay Society, by Eobert Hard-
wicke.
In our last number we called attention to the recent publication of
three works relating to the Zoology of British India, the titles of
which are again given at the heading of the present article. We
also endeavoured to furnish our readers with a general outline of the
principal features of the Mammal-fauna of India, as deducible from
an examination of the first of these works. On the present occasion,
taking the second of these publications as our chief text, we shall
attempt to give some sort of general account of the principal forms
of the second great class of Vertebrates — that of Birds — which in-
habit the same country.
In Dr. Jerdon's volumes we have to deal with a work of much
greater pretensions, and indeed of quite a different character from
Mr. Blyth's " Catalogue of Mammals." Dr. Jerdon's aim, as he has
told us in his prospectus, was to issue a '* Manual, which should
" comprise all available information, in sufficient detail for the dis-
" crimination and identification of such objects as might be met
** with, without being rendered cumbrous by minutise of synonymy or
N.H.R.~186.'>. M
154 THE NATURAL HTSTOET REYIEW.
" of history." And so far as regards the Ornithology of India —
taking the difficulties and the novelty of the task into due considera-
tion, we think he has very fairly carried out the object he has had
in view in the present volumes, which are the first of a series of
similar Manuals intended ultimately to embrace all the vertebrate
classes of Indian Zoology.
Of the great want of such a series of Manuals we think there can
be no question. There is no work at present in existence which can
supply the information on such subjects required by the many resi-
dents in India, who now devote more or less of their spare time to
the cultivation of some branch of Natural History. To obtain any
acquaintance with what is already known on these subjects, it is ne-
cessary, as Dr. Jerdon well observes, to wade through the volumi-
nous Transactions of learned Societies (such as those of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal and the Zoological Society of London), besides
divers scientific journals, wherein the records of the numerous Indian
observers and describers of such objects are scattered piecemeal.
These are of course perfectly inaccessible to the majority of the re-
sidents in the up-country stations in India, and even the Natu-
ralist who dwells in one of the great capitals of Europe, will often
be at a loss when he has occasion to refer to some of them. No one
can deny, therefore, that Dr. Jerdon has achieved a good work in
having brought to a successful conclusion his first Manual, relating
to the Birds of India, contained in the three solid volumes now before
us. And although we have heard a report that his labours in
continuation of his present task are likely to be interrupted by
orders from head-quarters to return to his ordinary duties as Surgeon-
Major in the l^Iadras Presidency, we trust that the approbation
universally bestowed by the reviewers of Natural History works
upon the present earnest of his labours, may induce the rulers of
British India to continue the exercise of their unwonted liberality,
until the final termination of his self-imposed task.
Before commencing our general survey of the Indian Ornis, as
deducible from Dr. Jerdon's work, it may be as well to give an out-
line of the principal authorities which have heretofore dealt with this
subject, and upon which Dr. Jerdon, with the assistance of his own
prolonged personal investigations in the same field, has founded his
work.
Prom the older writers on Natural History we can glean Little
special concerning the birds of the Indian peninsula, and coun-
THE ZOOLOGY OP EETTTSH IXDIA. 155
tries immediately adjoining — indeed much of the territory now sub-
ject to British rule was terra incognita in the days of Linnaeus and his
immediate followers, at any rate, as far as its Natural products are
concerned. " It is only within a very recent period," says the late
Mr. Strickland, writing in 18i4, " that any really original and
" trustworthy researches have been made into Indian Ornithology.
*' Twenty years ago, the utmost that was done by the numerous
" British officers in that country to illustrate this science, was to
" collect drawings of the species which attracted their notice. These
" drawings were in most cases made by native artists, who, be-
" ing utterly ignorant of any scientific principles, executed them in
" a stiff mechanical style, and neglected the more minute but often
" highly important characters. Such designs are useful as aids to
" scientific research, but ought not to usurp its place ; yet, from
" these materials the too undiscriminating Latham described, and
" named a great number of so-called species, many of which have
" not yet been identified in nature. The largest collection of these
" drawings was made by the late General Hardwicke, a selection of
" which were engraved and published in 1830 ; but though care-
" fully edited by Dr. T. E. Gray, the number of nominal species
" there introduced, shows the danger of founding specific characters
" on the sole authority of drawings."
About the year 1830, however, several British officers resident in
India became interested in the subject of Ornithology. The first
contribution from these gentlemen to our scientific literature, was
Major Franklin's " Catalogue of Birds, collected on the Ganges be-
tween Calcutta and Benares, and on the Yindhyan HiUs," pub-
lished in the Zoological Society's " Proceedings" for 1831. Tliis was
shortly followed by Col. Sykes' " Catalogue of Birds observed in the
Dukhun," issued in the following volume of the same journal. About
the same time also the " Journal" of the " Asiatic Society of Ben-
gal" — a well-known scientific institution, of the merits of which we
have already spoken in our last number — was started, and a third
officer in the East Indian service, Lieut.-Col. S. E. Tickell, w-hose
name is also well known to Science — published in it, " a list of the
birds of Borabhum and Dholbum." In the succeeding volumes of
that " valuable repertory of Oriental Literature," will be found
numerous Ornithological papers of these and other Indian Natural-
ists — such as Hodgson, Hutton, Pearson, McClelland, Elliot, and
Blyth, who have all worked long and laboriously in the same good
M 2
15G THE NATUKAL niSTORT RETIEW.
cause. In 1832, Mr. Gould's celebrated series of illustrated Orni-
tliological works was commenced by the publication of bis " Century
of Birds from the Himalaya Mountains," — in which 100 of the
many remarkable forms that people the southern slopes of the Hi-
malayas were first pourtrayed. About the same period also Mr.
Brian H. Hodgson, for many years British resident at the Court of
Nepal, began his labours. This gentleman — it may be fairly said
— has distinguished himself far beyond all his fellow-workers, by
the great extent of his collections, and the numerous observations he
has given to the public on almost every branch of Natural Science.
Before Mr. Hodgson commenced his residence in Nepal, the Zoo-
logy of that country and of the high ranges of the great adjacent
mountain-chain was almost unknown in Europe — and the novelties,
which it fell to his lot to discover and describe were conse-
quently both striking and numerous. With the utmost liberality
Mr. Hodgson has from time to time presented the whole of his
enormous collections to the British Museum, and to other scientific
institutions in this country — and though it is much to be regretted
that he has never collected the whole of his scattered writings into
one connected series, this deficienc-y has been to some extent sup-
plied by two catalogues of Mr. Hodgson's collections, published by
the Trustees of the British Museum in 1846 and 1863. Eeferring
to the list of Birds in the second edition of this catalogue, (prepared,
we believe, by Mr. Q-. E. Grray,) it will be seen that the species of
this class of Vertebrates obtained by Mr. Hodgson, in Nepal, Sikim,
and Tibet, number no less than 658. Nearly the whole of these are
represented in our National Collection, through Mr. Hodgson's
munificence, by several specimens in skins, as well as by drawings
made from life, and in many instances, by skeletons or portions of
skeletons.
Of the impulse given to the study of Natural History generally
in India, by the appointment of Mr. Eward Blyth to the post of
Curator of the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Caloitta in 1841,
we have already spoken in our previous article on the Mammals of
India. Besides very numerous contributions to the pages of the
Asiatic Society's Journal, in the shape of reports on the additions
made to the Museum,* original papers and notices contributed by
* ReferrJng to these reports Mr. StricklaDd has remarked :— "The reports which
Mr. Blyth pre^ents to the Asiatic Society, contain a mass of interesting observa-
tions, and present an example which the curators of European museums would do
THE 200LOG1 OF BEITISH INDIA. 157
correspondents, Mr. Blyth prepared and published in 1849, a " list
of the specimens of birds" in the Society's Museum, which is of great
scientific value, and for some years remained the only available guide
for students to the scattered records of Indian Ornithology.
Although the Presidency of Madras has no Scientific Institution
to compare with the Asiatic Society of Bengal, it produced for some
years a " Journal of Literature and Science," to which Dr. Jerdon
himself and Mr. Walter Elliot, lately member of the Supreme
Council of that Presidency, contributed various memoirs relating to
the characters and habits of the birds of that country. Dr. Jer-
don's " Catalogue of the Birds of Southern India," with its two
Supplements, published in that Journal in 1839, and the following
years, still remains our best authority on the Ornithology of that
district. In 1844, Dr. Jerdon made another valuable contribution
to our knowledge of the birds of this part of India, by the issue of
his " Illustrations of Indian Ornithology," in which fifty, chiefly
before-unfigured birds of Southern India, are pourtrayed in a style
which has generally been allowed to be very creditable, considering
the circumstances under which the work was produced.
In 1839, the late Dr. John M'Clellan published in the Zoological
Society's Proceedings, a catalogue of a small collection of Mammals
and Birds, which he had collected in Assam, during his service with
an expedition sent by the East India Company into that country.
Little has been done, as far as we know, since that period, towards
the further investigation of the Birds of Assam, and there is no
doubt that the extreme frontiers of the British dominions in that
direction, which now embrace a portion of the water-shed of the
great rivers of Burmah, contain a promising field of investigation
for future naturalists.
Of several minor contributions to the Ornithology of India, Dr.
Jerdon, in his Introduction, speaks as follows : —
" Burgess has given an account of the habits, and nidification of
" many of the Birds of Western India (Proc. Zool. Soc, 1854-55) ;
" and Dr. Adams (Proc. Zool. Soc, 1859-60), has published two
" lists, one of the Birds of Cashmere, and the other of the N. AY.
■R-ell to imitate. By comparing complete lists of the species comprised in each
successive accession to the museum, accompanied by critical remarks on the more
novel and interesting specimens, previous to then* being incorporated into the general
collection, a number of important observations on structiu-e, habits, and geograpliical
distribution are preserved from oblivion."— i?e?;or^ of the Brit. Ass. 1844, p. 187.
158 THE NATURAL HTSTOKY REVIEW.
" Proviuces, and Bombay, both containing some most instructive
" details on the habits of the birds mentioned."
" Captain (now Lieutenant- Colonel) Tytler has given in the
" Annals of Natural History, two highly interesting articles on the
" Paunas of Barrack pore and Dacca. Kelaart and Layard have
" written extensively on the Ornithology of Ceylon. Hutton has,
" in various papers, given some interesting notes on the habits of
" several birds, and their nidification ; and Tickell (Journ. As. Soc,
" 1848), and Theobald (J. A. S. 1854), have also contributed to our
" knowledge of the Ornithology of India. The notes of the Eev.
" Mr. Phillips, on the habits of some of the birds of the N. W.
" Provinces (P. Z. S. 1857), and Pearson's notes on the Birds of
*' Bengal (J. A. S.) also deserve notice."
To supplement this we may add that the weU-known work of
Sir J. Emerson Teunent, on " Ceylon," contains a well written sum-
mary of the Ornithology, as of the other branches of Natural His-
tory of this Island, to which such of our readers as have occasion to
require information on this subject would do well to refer.
Two more important works relating to the Ornithology of India
remain to be noticed, before we terminate our remarks on this sub-
ject. The first of these is the " Catalogue of the Birds in the
Museum of the Hon. East India Company, by Thomas Horsfield,
and Erederick Moore," two parts of which have been issued ; the
first in 1854, the second in 1858. This work, unfortunately, remains
and probably will remain, incomplete, owing to the removal of the
old Museum from Leadenhall Street to Eife House, and the dissolu-
tion of the Company, to which it formerly belonged ; but the two
volumes already published, for which, we believe. Science is mainly
indebted to the exertions of Mr. E. Moore, are of great value, and
contain the whole of the Eapacious, and Insessorial groups. The
East India Museum has been made the resting place of the speci-
mens and drawings of a long series of Indian Naturalists and Col-
lectors, from the beginning of the present century. In the List of
these we find the names of Hamilton, Eaffles, Dr. Horsfield himself,
Colonel Sykes, M'Clelland, Ealconer, G-riffith, Strachey and Cantor,
all of whom have made large contributions to the Ornithological
branch of the East India House Museum. A well drawn up cata-
logue of the collections amassed from these and other sources, con-
taining so many types of descriptions and authenticated specimens,
could not fiiil to be an important work. And the present catalogue
THE ZOOLOGY OF BRITISH INDIA. 159
Las been rendered of greater importance from the way it lias been
prepared, not only full synonyms and explanatory remarks being
given, but copious extracts, relating to the habits of the species,
having been added, selected either from the MSS. of the collec-
tors, or from their published notes in various Journals, and other
publications. The Catalogue of the East India Company's Museum
must, therefore, although now to a certain extent superseded by Dr.
Jerdon's volumes, ever remain an important work of reference for
the Indian Ornithologist.
Lastly, Mr. Gould's great work, " The Birds of Asia," although
not specially devoted to the Ornithology of India, claims our atten-
tion, as containing full-sized and life-like illustrations of many of the
rarer Indian birds, and destined ultimately, as we believe, to furnish
us with similar figures of all the principal forms. Mr. Gould com-
menced the issue of this work in 1850, and has hitherto proceeded
but slowly with it, publishing usually but one number in the year.
Now that some of the other portions of his magnificent series have
been brought to a conclusion, we trust that more rapid progress will
be made with the "Birds of Asia" — as the importance of good
coloured illustrations, for the ready identification of species in orni-
thology cannot well be over-estimated.
In concluding this rapid sketch of the principal authorities, upon
which our knowledge of Indian ornithology is based, it wiU be
noticed, that, as might have been expected, the work has been nearly
entirely performed by our countrymen. One or two French natu-
ralists, such as Jacquemont and Delessert, have, it is true, made
some contributions to the same subject, in the reports of their
several expeditions into the East. The well-known Swedish Orni-
thologist Sundevall also published in 1838 a valuable memoir upon
the birds, collected and observed by himself, in the neighbourhood of
Calcutta, during a three months' residence in that capital, which was
translated into English by the late Mr. Strickland. With these
exceptions, as we have already stated, the special work relating to the
Indian Ornithology has mostly been performed by our compatriots.
Having said thus much about Dr. Jerdon's predecessors in the
same field, let us now turn our attention to the summary of their
labours he has prepared, with the advantage of great personal
experience gained during many years' hard work on this and kindred
subjects in difierent parts of British India.
Dr. Jerdon commences his work in orthodox fashion, with the
160 THE NATURAL HISTOET REYIEW.
Birds of Prey, which, in India, are very numerous, being represented
by no less than 81 species. Including the aberrant form, Gypaetus,
there are seven "Vultures, and amongst these most of the finest and
largest species of this group of Birds, of which India may be
considered to be the head- quarters. The Falconidae are likewise
abundant throughout India ; nearly the whole of our well-known
European species extending their range through Southern Asia over
the Indian Peninsula. Among these, are three, if not more, species
of typical Falco, which are highly prized by the natives for hawking
purposes. These are the Sliahin {F. peregrinator) the Laggar {F.
jugger), and our well-known Peregrine {F, peregrinus), called the
Bhyri by the Indian falconers, although there are stated to be some
small differences between the Indian and European examples of this
bird. Of the third family of rapacious birds, the Owls, twenty-one
species are enumerated by Dr. Jerdon as occurring in British India.
Two of these, the fine large, naked-footed Ketupa Ceylonensis and K.
Jiavipes, have the somewhat extraordinary habit of feeding chiefly, if
not entirely, on fish. Mr. Tristram has recently made the interesting
discovery,* that the former of these two species extends its range
into Southern Palestine, where he found it exhibiting the same par-
tiality for a fish-diet.
The very numerous group of Inscssores, which follows next in
Dr. Jerdon' s pages, occupies the remaining portion of the first, and
the whole of the second volume. The Avifauna of this part of the
great Indian region, although not to be compared for variety of form
and brilliancy of colour with that of the corresponding portion of the
New World, still embraces a large and varied series of forms,
belonging to this predominant section of the class Aves. Eollowing
the time-honoured, though we cannot say, the very natural arrange-
ment of Cuvier, as modified by Swainson, Vigors and Gray, Dr.
Jerdon divides his Insessores into five tribes, Dentirostres, Coni-
rostres, Tenuirostres, Eissirostres, and Scansores, each of which
contains, according to the arrangement adopted by our author,
several families belonging to the Indian Ornis. Beginning with the
Eissirostres, Dr. Jerdon commences his series of this group rather
unhappily, as we think, by uniting the Swallows and Swifts in the
same family. "We are not indeed surprised that he should be able to
quote " some strong remarks" by Dr. Kaup, as well as the opinions
♦ See P. Z S. 1864, p. 430,
THE ZOOLOGY OF BRITISH INDIA. IGl
of Gray and Horsfield, in defence of this most unnatural combination
but we regret that he should be able to adduce the respectable
authority of Van Der Hoeven on the same side. When will our orni-
thologists begin to trouble themselves to study internal characters as
well as external ? A very slight acquaintance with the anatomy and
osteology of the two groups in question serves to settle this (amongst
ornithologists) much disputed point. Indeed, it is not necessary
for them, in the present instance, to examine anything more than
the feathers of one of their much-loved skins. Already, thirty years
ago, Mtzsch had shown that the Swallows and Swifts are as distinct
in pterylographic characters as in every other essential point of
structure.
The Swallows are represented in India by some twelve or thirteen
sj)ecies, our familiar Swallow of this country {Hirundo rustica)
standing at the head of the list, and the common Sand Martin and
House Martin being also included in it. The Swifts of India Belong
to four well-marked types of structure, including, besides our two
well-known European species, representatives of the Tree Shifts
(Den drochelidon), the Spine- tailed Swifts (Acanthylis) jSmd. the genus
Collocalia, so celebrated as containing the birds which form edible
nests from the inspissated product of their highly developed salivary
glands. One widely distributed member of the last-named group is
found in several parts of our Indian dominions, and about a hundred
weight of its much -prized nests is stated to be taken annually from
its breeding places on the Malabar coast.
The next family treated of by Dr. Jerdon is the Groat-suckers, or
Kight-jars (Caprimulgidse) — represented in Europe by two species
only, but in India by not less than ten species, belonging to several
different genera, all of strictly insectivorous habits, and destined in
this, as in other tropical climates, to keep in check the superabun-
dance of insect-life. The Trogonidae, which now follow, are a still
more strictly tropical group, being exclusively confined to the hot
countries of Asia, Africa, and America. In the Indian peninsula
they are represented only by two species of Harpactes — a genus
apparently exclusively insectivorous, although the more typical
American members of the group feed, it is believed, nearly alto-
gether on fruit. In the Bee-eaters and Eollers (Meropidae and
Coraciidse), which now succeed, we meet with two allied families of
insect-eating birds, peculiar to the Old World — and represented
but feebly in Europe, but each of them containing several species
162 THE NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW.
which form well-known features in Indian Ornithology. The Indian
Bee-eater (3ferops viridis) is, as Dr. Jerdon tells ns, '' a very common
" bird, and is a most characteristic adjunct of Indian scenery. It
" generally hunts, like the Fly-catchers, from a fixed station, which
" may be the top branch of a high tree, or a shrub, a hedge, a bare
" pole, a stalk of gi'ain or grass, some old building, very commonly
" the telegraph-wires, or even a mound of earth on the plain,
" Here it sits looking eagerly around, and on spying an insect, which
*' it can do a long way oft', starts rapidly, and captures it on the wing
" with a distinctly audible snap of its bill, it then returns to its perch,
" generally slowly sailing with outspread wings, the copper burnish
" of its head and wings shining conspicuously, like gold, in the sun-
" beams. The Indian Eoller {Ooracias indica) is also a widely-
" distributed and well-known bird — not quite so active as the last-
" named species, but of somewhat similar habits. It generally takes
" its perch on the top, or outermost branch, of some high tree, and,
" on spying an insect on the ground, which it can do at a very great
" distance, it flies direct to the spot, seizes it, and returns to its perch
" to swallow it."
To the east of the bay of Bengal the Indian Eoller is replaced by
an allied form, the Coracias affinis of McLelland. Comparing spe-
cimens from distant localities these two generally-recognized species
are quite distinct. But it is a noteworthy fact, that in the district
where the two so-called species inosculate — that is in the neigh-
bourhood of Calcutta — intermediate forms occur. In the Asiatic
Society's Museum are specimens, procured by Mr. Blyth, " which
" present every gradation of plumage from one to the other." Dr.
Jerdon seems to believe that these are hybrids produced by the
interbreeding of two originally distinct forms. Those who accept
the doctrine of the derivative origin of species will prefer a much
simpler and more easy solution of the problem.
Our well-known Kingfisher is the sole representative in this
country of a very numerous group of fissirostral birds distributed all
over the world, but especially abundant in the warmer portions,
where, however, a large section of them are widely divergent in their
habit from the Linnean Alcedo ispida. The King-hunters {HaU
ct/o?i, ^'c), as they are called, so far from generally aftecting the
vicinity of water, are many of them denizens of the driest parts of
the forest, and dart forth into the an- " upon land-crabs, mice, lizards,
and insects." But some of the Indian species of this group appear
THE ZOOLOGY OF BKITISH INDIA. 163
rather to follow the fish-eatiug practices of the Alcedines and their
allies, which are also well represented in India.
The Eurylaemidse or Broad-bills, which Dr. Jerdon, following
Gray and Bonaparte, arranges next to the Kingfisher, have, we be-
lieve, nothing to do in this place. M. Blanchard has bhown this
conclusively, as we believe, in his recently published observations
on the sternum of this group, and we are, therefore, inclined to
accept Mr. "Wallace's views on this subject, that the Eurylsemidae
are the Paleogean representatives of the American Truit-eaters
(Cotingidse). However this may be, they must certainly be arranged
among the typical Passerinse, As regards the next family, however,
which Dr. Jerdon enters upon, we congratulate him on having eman-
cipated himself in this instance from the arrangement he usually
follows. It would be impossible, we think, to find a more unnatural
place for the Hornbills than among the Conirostres, with which they
seem to have no single character in common, and there can be no
doubt that their nearest allies are among the Fissirostres, with which
Dr. Jerdon arranges them. The breeding habits of the Hornbills
are, as is now well known, eccentric in the highest degree. As we
learn from the records of experienced observers, the male builds the
female into her nest, by covering the hole in the tree where she incu-
bates, with mud, leaving only room for her bill to protrude, and to
receive food from his. In the " Ibis" for 1861*, will be found some
extended notes by Lieut.- Colonel Tickell, who was, we believe, the
first scientific discoverer of this fact, upon these curious habits of the
Bucerotidse. Dr. Livingstone has noted similar facts, concerning
certain species of the same family in x\.frica, and Mr. "Wallace has
confirmed them by his personal observations in the Eastern Archi-
pelago.
With the Hornbills we close the list of Indian Eissirostres, ac-
cording to Dr. Jerdon's arrangements, and enter upon the Scansorial
or Zygodactyle groups— four families of which are well represented
in the Indian Ornis, whilst several others are found in other parts of
the world. The Parrots (Pc>ittacid8e), which Dr. Jerdon takes first
in order, are not very numerous in India, embracing only seven
species, chiefly belonging to the genus Falceornis of Vigors — so
characteristic of the Indian Eauna. Amongst them is the Palceornis
Alexcmdri supposed, not without reason, to be the species first intro-
duced into Europe by the great conqueror whose name it bears,
164! THE JTATUEi-L HISTOEY KEVIEW.
and likewise that commemorated by tlie Latin poet in tlie pathetic
elegy commencing: —
" Psittacus eois imitatrix ales ab oris,
Occidit — exequias ite frequenter aves."
Next to the Parrots, Dr. Jerdon places the "Woodpeckers— a
group well developed in all the forests of the world, excepting
those of Australia, and numbering in the well-wooded Indian
dominions of our Gracious Sovereign, some 35 species. To them
succeed theBarbets (Megalaemidse) — curious Eastern representatives
of the Toucans of the New World, and feeding, like the latter,
principally on fruit, though occasionally, more or less, carnivorous.
The Cuckoos (Cuculidse) which close the ranks of the Scansores
are again a very numerous family — not by any means all agreeing
with our single European representative of this group, either in
form or in habits — but presenting in India, as in most other parts of
the Tropics, several divergent sections of varying structure and with
habits adapted thereto. The Indian species of this family are, ac-
cording to Dr. Jerdon, some twenty-four in number.
Under the term Tenuirostres — the next tribe of the great order
Insessores— Dr. Jerdon arranges three families with Indian repre-
sentatives, the Sun-birds (Nectarinidse), the Creepers (Certhiidae)
and the Hoopoes (Upupidse). The first two of these are certainly
typical Passerine groups — the last, although isolated in many points
of its structure, it is now well known can be only satisfactorily
located in the neighbourhood of JBuceros and Alcedo. The " Sun-
" birds of India and Africa comprise a large number of mostly very
" beautiful birds, which in the brilliancy of their hues and the general
" style of their decoration quite remind one of the Humming-birds,
" and they are popularly known in India as Humming-birds'^ —
with which, however, we may add, they have not the sHghtest
natural relationship. Under the head of Creepers (Certhiidse) Dr.
Jerdon arranges the Tree-creepers and Nuthatches — the different
genera of which embrace in India some eleven species. Of the
Hoopoes (TJpupidae), besides our European Upupa epops^ a second
nearly allied form is found in Southern India and Ceylon, apparently
hardly separable from the typical species.
We now enter upon the great group of insect-eating birds which
form the tribe Dentirostres of English Ornithologists— and which
from their uniformity of structure and intimate relations of the different
THE ZOOLOGY OF BRITISH IXDIi.. 165
^arts inter se are excessively difficult to classify in a satisfactory
manner — Dr. Jerdon, following nearly the ordinary English arrange-
ment, divides the numerous Indian representatives of this tribe into
six families — LaniidaB, Muscicapidas, Merulidse, Brachypodidaa,
Sylviidae, and AmpelidsB. Each of these families is again sub-divided
into several sub-families. The limits of this Journal, will, we fear,
hardly allow us to follow Dr. Jerdon into the discussion of all these
divisions. "We shall merely observe therefore that the Indian
Dentirostres, recorded in the present work, are no less than 202 in
number, and that there is no doubt that, while future researches
may lead to the abolition of some of the so-called species, numerous
others still undiscovered await the researches of future Onitho-
logists, particularly in the less explored districts of our Indian
possessions.
In the like manner of the tribe Conirostres, embracing the
families Corvidae, Sturnidae, and Eringillidae, altogether numbering
some 110 species, we shall say but little. As regards the two first
of these families they are both well-marked groups, and there can
be little doubt about their limits. The Finches (Fringillidse) taken
per se are likewise a very natural family, but before considering
them in this light, we must isolate the anomalous Larks (Alaudidae)
which Dr. Jerdon, not without formidable precedents in his favour,
annexes to them, and give them the rank of a very distinct family
of Insessorial birds.
Dr. Jerdon' s third and last volume, which we now enter upon,
commences with the Order Gemitores — more familiarly known to us
under Latham's name Columbse. Following Bonaparte — much too
closely for our taste — our author divides the Indian members of this
group into three families. The Fruit-pigeons (Carpophagidse), the
Typical Pigeons (Columbidse), and the Ground Pigeons (PhapidsB),
The Fruit-pigeons of the Eastern Tropics form — there can be no
doubt — a well-marked section of the Columbine Order — distin-
guished by their frugivorous habits and fourteen tail-feathers. Of
this group there are eleven representatives in India. Of the true
Pigeons, Dr. Jerdon enumerates sixteen Indian species, dividing
them, according to our ideas, as also the Fruit-pigeons, into far too
many generic sections. But in this, as in other cases, he has
been misled by Bonaparte, who in the latter years of his life
strove to solace the paroxysms of the fierce disease under which
he laboured by coining new and unnecessary scientific terms in
IGG THE NATURAL niSTORY RETIEAV,
the most barbarous Latiu. Of the Phapida3 or Grround-pigeons we
find only a single species in Dr. Jerdon's work — the ChalcopJiaps
indica — hardly separable from its nearly allied forms of the great
Eastern Islands and Australia.
The Grallinaceous order, which succeeds to the Pigeons, contains,
as is well known, some of the largest and finest forms of the whole
class of birds, and is that from which nearly all our domesticated
fowls have been derived. In India we meet with the head-quarters
of this group. "We find the Jungle-fowls and Pea-fowls still in-
habiting the woods, whence the parents of the present inhabitants of
our poultry-yards were derived ages ago — ^besides numerous other
game-birds of kindred nature well known to the sportsman of the
East. Dr. Jerdon rightly begins his order Easores with the Sand-
grouse, Pteroclidae, w^hich, as betrayed by their ordinary name of
Bock-pigeons, show in some points evident traces of an alliance with
the Columb^e. Of this beautiful group, which is essentially African
in its origin, not extending further eastward into Southern Asia than
the plains of India, there are four Indian species. Next to the Sand-
grouse, Dr. Jerdon places his family JPliasianidce, which, as here
restricted, comprises the Pea-fowls, Pheasants, Jungle-fowls and
Spurfowls, and forms a group particularly characteristic of the Indian
region. Eourteen species of this family are contained in Dr. Jerdon's
work, and amongst them, the splendid Monaul, or Impeyan Pheasant,
the Tragopans, the Pukras, the Cheer, and the two Kaleeges, the
magnificent game-birds of the favoured sportsmen of the Himalayas.
The next familyj the Tetraonidse, likewise contains several species of
not less interest to the large class of Indian sportsmen. At the head
of Dr. Jerdon's list of this family stands the Jer-moonal or G^reat
Snow-partridge, which inhabits the higher parts of the Himalayas, in
the vicinity of perpetual snow. Those who penetrate into Ladak
will, if fortunate, meet with a second species of this fine genus, the
Tetraogallus Tibetanus of Gould, which, although mentioned by
Dr. Jerdon, hardly comes within the scope of his work. Several
genera of true partridges have representatives scattered over diff'erent
parts of India, amongst which we may particularly note the Franco-
lin, formerly abundant in Southern Europe, but now, as shown by
Lord Lilford,* apparently extinct within the limits of our continent.
Dr. Jerdon's account of this family as well as of the rest of the
* Ibis, 1862, p. 352.
THE ZOOLOGY OP ERITISH INDIA.. IG7
Gallinaceous group is, we think, very satisfactory, and will, without
doubt, be of the utmost interest to the numerous sportsmen of the
East, who have been hitherto utterly without a guide to a knowledge
of the numerous varieties of Indian game-birds. At the end of the
Gallinaceous group, Dr. Jerdon rightly places the four Indian
members of the aberrant family Turniciclce, which, however, we
believe, can hardly be associated with the American Tinamoos. The
latter birds, as recently shown by Mr. Parker, offer a still more
remarkable approximation to the Struthiones.
Dr. Jerdon rightly commences his account of the Grallatorial
order, which we now enter upon, with the Bustards {Otis). Two
fine species of these noble birds frequent the bare open plains of
India, and two others, commonly known by the Anglo-Indian name
of " Plorikin," resort to the grassy tracks which intersperse the
jungles of the peninsula. Our author then proceeds to discuss the
numerous Indian species of Plovers, separating from them as distinct
families, rather unnecessarily, we think, the Couriers (Ctcrsorius)
and the Pratincoles (Glareola). These three groups together em-
brace about twenty Indian species. Next to the Plovers, Dr. Jerdon
arranges the cosmopolitan Turnstone {^trepsiJas), the remarkable
form Dromas, and the Oyster- catcher {Hamafopus), each of which
has a single Indian representative. Dromas, we, however, may
remark wiU, we are of opinion, when everything is brought into its
correct position, be removed into a different order of birds, and
placed, as Bl}i:h has already located it, next to the Terns {Sterna).
The Cranes (Gruidas), which now succeed, have four representatives
in India. Amongst them is our European Grus cinerea, a visitant
to India during the cold season, arriving in flocks and committing
great havoc among the wheat and rice crops of Central India and
Bengal. Certamly, no mistake could have been greater than to
have associated these grain-feeding birds with the carnivorous Herons
or Storks, and we are glad to see Dr. Jerdon fully alive to the errors
of former naturalists upon this subject.
The ScolopacidaB, which are next treated of in Dr. Jerdon's work,
are numerous in India as in other parts of the world. Some thirty
species, amongst which we recognize almost all our well-known
friends of the woods and marshes of Europe, occur within the limits
to which our author confines his attention, and keen observation
will doubtless increase the list of this wandering group of birds.
The Stilt and the Avocet, which succeed, are regarded as belonging
IBS THE XATUEAL HISTOUT EEVIEW.
to a separate family, but the distinctious are in reality mucli too
sliglit to be insisted upon. The next two birds treated of by Dr.
Jerdon, on the other hand, are members of a very easily recogniz-
able and independent type of the Grallatorial order, which has not
yet been satisfactorily located by naturalists. There can be little
doubt, indeed, that the association of the Jacanas {Parra) with the
American form Palamedea is erroneous, and unless we adopt Mr.
Parker's views of placing them near the Plovers, perhaps the safest
plan is to leave them, where Dr. Jerdon arranges them, next to the
Gallinules. Two species of Jacana are met with in India, and of the
next succeeding family, the EallidsB (embracing the "Water-hens,
Coots, and Eails), of very similar general habits, thirteen species.
With them we conclude the list of those families of the Grrallatorial
Order that produce their young clothed and able to run immediately
on their exclusion from the egg^ according to the orthodox fashion of
the great sub-class " Prsecoces." The Storks, Herons, and Ibises,
which Dr. Jerdon places at the end of the Grallatores, under the
Bonapartean term " Cultrirostres," hatch their young helpless
and dependent on their parents' care, like those of the sub-class
" Altrices," although we think it still remains to be seen that the
condition of the young in these two cases is exactly of the same
character.
The Storks (CiconidaB) have some six representatives in India,
amongst which are to be counted two species of Adjutant {Lepto-
pliilos) — one of them we believe very well known to all dwellers in
Indian cities, where it acts as a common scavenger. The Herons
(Ardeidse) are more numerous. Seventeen species of this group
are treated of by Dr. Jerdon, amongst which are nearly all our
European species — several of them very rare in the west — will be
found to recur. Lastly the TantalidsB, under which head our author
unites the Ibises, Spoonbills, and the anomalous form AnastomuSf
number six species, and close the category of Indian Grallatores.
With the final order of Natatores or Swimmers, which Dr.
Jerdon now enters upon, we shall not detain our readers long. In
this branch of Ornithology we may remark the British Naturalist
has a larger field of work than his Indian brother. YarreU's Birds,
gives upwards of 100 Swimming-birds as met with wdthin +he
limits of the British Isles, while Dr. Jerdon's work only contains
65. About one half of these are common to the two Faunas. The
Anatidse, a very natural group, w^hich Dr. Jerdon unnecessarily
THE ZOOLOGY OF BRITISH INDIA. 169
divides into four families, muster some 30 species, most of wliicli also
occur in Europe. Of the Grebes and Divers (Colymbidae), which are
mostly Arctic forms and numerous in more northern regions, two
only have been hitherto recorded as Indian. Two species of Petrel
have been observed in the Bay of Bengal, and are at present the
only Indian representatives of the family Procellariidse. The Gulls
and Terns forming the family Laridas are, however, more numerous.
Dr. Jerdon includes 19 species in his list, not more than half of
which are identical with European forms. Lastly, the Pelicanidse,
under which term we should include the five families of Mr. Blyth's
tribe " Piscatores," include 13 Indian species, amongst which are two
species of Tropic-bird {Fhdethon) and a Darter {Plotus).
Thus we find that the Avifauna of India, as treated of by Dr.
Jerdon — that is the peninsula and adjacent lands up to the sky-line
of the Himalayas, excluding, however, Ceylon and the countries on the
further side of the Bay of Bengal — contain, according to the present
state of our knowledge, about 1008 species of birds. To show how
the Ornithology of India contrasts with that of Europe, we add the
corresponding numbers of each Order, as given in the lately-published
list of the Birds of Europe by Professor Blasius.*
India.
Europe.
Accipitres . .
. . 81
52
Clamatores
. . 129
21
O seines . . .
. . 560
163
Columbae . .
. . 28
5
GallinsB . . .
. . 37
16
Grail* . . .
. . 108
73
Natatores . .
. . 65
90
1008 420
With this comparison we take leave of Dr. Jerdon's work, cor-
dially recommending it again to the especial attention of those of our
readers in India who have any taste for Natural History. To re-
lieve the dull monotony of the up-country station, no pursuit can
be imagined more attractive than the charming study of Ornitho-
logy. Aided by Dr. Jerdon's hand-book the student will experience
little difficulty in making himself acquainted with what is already
known concerning the ornithic life of India, and by assisting to fill
• A List of the Birds of Europe. By Professor J. H. Blasius. London, Triibner
& Co., 1862.
N.H.R.— 1865. N
170 THE NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW.
up the numerous gaps in this branch of knowledge may materially
contribute to the promotion of science.
So much for the Birds of India.. In our next number we hope
to be able to find space to discuss Dr. Griinther's volume on the
Eeptiles of the same country.
XVI. — The Bats of North America.
Monograph oe the Bats or North America. By H. Allen, M.D.,
Assistant Surgeon, U. S. A. "Washington, Smithsonian Institution,
June, 1864.
A few years since Professor Baird, the well-known Naturalist who
fills the office of Assistant Secretary in the Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, published the elaborate review of the Land-mammals
of North America, which forms the eighth volume of the Pacific
Bail way Be port.* Prom this review, which is very complete as re-
gards the greater part of the Mammal-fauna, the Chiroptera were
altogether omitted, as the materials then in hand did not appear to
be sufficient for the working out of this difficult group. This deficiency
in our knowledge of the Mammals of North America is now filled up
by the memoir of which we give the title above. Dr. Allen, its
author, is one of a number of young and rising naturalists who have
grown up under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution — an
Institution, we may remind our readers, dedicated entirely to the ad-
vancement of human knowledge, an object which has been worthily
carried out by those to whom its direction has been entrusted. The
materials employed by Dr. Allen have been priQcipally the specimens
in the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, to which the care of
the objects of Natural History, collected by the numerous exploring
expeditions sent out by the U. S. Government (each of them
invariably accompanied by a competent staff of professed naturalists)
is entrusted. The collections of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences
and of the Museum of Comparative Geology of Cambridge have also
* Reports of Explorations and Surveys, to ascertain the most practicable and
economical route for a railroad fi-om the INIississippi River to the Pacific Ocean.
Made under the direction of the Secretary at War in 1853-6. Vol. viii. Washing-
ton. 1857.
THE BATS OP NORTH AMEEICA. 171
been consulted by Dr. Allen for tlie purposes of this Memoir, so that
he may be fairly said to have had at his disposal all the materials of
the three chief Zoological collections of North America.
Dr. Allen commences his Memoir by an introduction, in which the
various types of modification assumed by the vertebrate skeleton,
with the object of adapting the animal to flight are discussed, and
diagrams are given, showing the bony structure of the wings in the
Bat, the Pterodactyle, the typical Bird, and the Archseopteryx.
He then proceeds to describe shortly the general structure of the
Chiroptera, and gives some particulars of their habits, of which, how-
ever, at present, our knowledge is very small. Dr. Allen then enters
upon the general subject of his work, heading it by an " artificial
Key to the Genera" of the Bats found within the limits of America,
north of Mexico, concerning which we may say a few words. As
in Europe, the Chiroptera met with in the northern parts of the New
"World mentioned, all belong to the insectivoroiis families of the
order. The true frugivorous Bats of the family Pteropodidse are,
we need hardly remind our readers, strictly confined to tropics of the
Old "World. There are found, however, within the limits to which
our author extends his work, representatives of three insect-eating
families of Chiroptera, which are here termed, MegadermatidcSy Noc-
tilionidw, and Vespertilionidce.
The family with which Dr. Allen begins his Memoir has only one
representative in the North American Fauna. This is the Macrotus
Californicusy Baird, stated to be nearly allied to M. Waterhoimi,
Gray, of Cuba, Hayti, and the other "West Indian Islands. The
alliances of this genus appear to be rather obscure. Dr. Allen
refers it to the Megadermatidae, with which, however, it has probably
but a very remote connection. The Megadermatidse are a family of
Bats confined entirely to the Old "World. Although Macrotus has its
ears united together by a connecting membrane, there can be little
doubt that its true place is in the family PhyllostomatidsB — a group
peculiar to the tropics of the New AYorld, of which it forms a
northern outlier.
The next family containing the naked-tailed Noctilionidse is like-
wise very feebly represented in the Nearctic Begion — one species only
— the Nyctinomus nasutus, a well-known and wide-ranging South
American form, occurring in different parts of the southern frontier
of the United States. The remaining Chiroptera treated of by Dr.
Allen — 18 in number, all belong to the insectivorous fjimily Yesperti-
N 2
172 THE NATURAL HISTOET REVIEW.
lionidae — which is likewise the most extensively developed group in
the corresponding parts of the Old World.
The differentiation and description of these 20 species of Bats has,
we think, been effected by Dr. Allen in a fairly satisfactory way.
The characters of the genera and species are well drawn up and precise,
and are accompanied by numerous woodcuts illustrating the dentition,
the form of the ears and tragus, the outlines of the interfemoral mem-
brane, and other characteristic parts of the structure of the different
species. Dr. Allen has certainly not erred on the side of creating too
many species — nay, if any fault is to be found with our author on this
subject, it should probably be just the other way. It is certainly re-
markable that only 20 species of Chiroptera should occur within the
whole of the large area of America north of Mexico, when even little
Europe produces upwards of 25 species. If we are not much mis-
taken future researches are destined to add not immaterially to our
knowledge of the North American Chiroptera.
XVII. — The Eatjna of Spitsbergeis^.
(1.) Anteckningar till Spetsbergens Fogel-Fauxa. Af A.
J. Malmgren. (Efversigt af Kongl. Vetenskaps-Akademiens
Forhandlingar. 1863. p. 87.
(2.) Iakttagelser och at^teckntngar till Finmarkens och
Spetsbeegens D^ggdjtjrsfatjna. Af A. J. Malmgren. Ibidem,
p. 127.
Spitsbergen is a "No-man's land" — to which of the Powers of
Europe it rightly belongs is probably beyond the knowledge of
the most profound international lawyer to decide. We, therefore,
need not be surprised that hitherto Zoologists have had but a very
incorrect notion of its animal productions, and are accordingly
greatly indebted to Mr. Malmgren for his carefully drawn up lists
of the Beasts and Birds, which throng the deeply recessed fjords,
or the precipitous shores of this horribly inhospitable country.
At least four expeditions have been sent out by our own Govern-
ment, within the last ninety years, with the- object of taking a start
from Spitsbergen, and then sailing to the North Pole, or as far in
that direction as circumstances would allow. Our business is not
THE FAUNA OF SPITSBEEGEN. 173
with what they accomplished, or with what they failed to effect.
The skill and bravery displayed, alike by commanders and crews,
are written in the annals of the British Navy. But it is akin to
our purpose here to observe that not one of these expeditions can
be said to have been properly equipped. Not one of them was
accompanied by a competent Naturalist — unless, indeed, we may
except the earliest, under Commodore Phipps, afterwards Lord
Mulgrave, with whom sailed Mr. Israel Lyons, a botanist of some
note. But it remains a fact that not much more has been added to
our knowledge of Zoology from these expeditions, than we might
have expected from amateurs, — adventurous yachtsmen, like Lord
Dufferin or Mr. Lamont — and the only Englishman who has
materially assisted our special branches of science, was an energetic
north country whaling-skipper, — William Scoresby, of pious
memory.
In 1838 and 1839, the French Corvette, La BecJierche, bearing
on board a distinguished company of savans of various nations,
visited two districts on the w^est coast of Spitsbergen. But it is vain
to seek in the multitude of volumes — thickly printed octavos, brist-
ling with tabulated figures, showing the results of all sorts of
magnetic and meteorological observations — or ponderous folios,
whei'ein we see displayed through Gallic spectacles the whole Arctic
world, from Magdalena Bay to Godthaab, which record the pro-
gress of President Gaimard's ' Commission Scientifique du Nord,'
more zoology than is contained in a few anecdotes respecting
Whales and Eider Ducks.
Some few years ago it occurred to the leading men of science
in Sweden that a plan, long projected and talked of in other countries,
might be carried out by their means. This was no less than the
measurement of an arc of the meridian in Spitsbergen, between
the parallels of 76« and 81°. Not much time was lost in putting the
-plan into execution. We believe that the Swedish Government
have had no hand in the matter. The expenses have been defrayed
by the ancient Universities of that country. But much of the
success already achieved is owing rather to the unselfish nature of
the explorers themselves — who, aware of the scanty supply of funds
forthcoming, have been content to carry on their researches on a
system the most economical — and to put up with no inconsiderable
amount of personal discomfort, by doing without many accessories
which by most persons in their situation would be regarded as absolute
174 THE NATUEAL HISTOET BETIEW.
necessaries. In 1858 the first expedition in pursuit of this object
started. In 1861, a second expedition was sent out, to which
Mr. Malmgren was attached ; and, we understand, that last year
a third sailed, of which this gentleman was again a member.
The zoological results of the Toyage of 1861, were by him com-
municated to the Boyal Swedish Academy of Sciences on the
11th February, 1863, and form the papers quoted at the head of
this article, which we may mention, for the benefit of those of
our readers who are unacquainted with the Swedish language, have
fortunately been translated into German, one by Dr. C. F. Trisch,
and published in the ' Journal fur Omithologie' ibr 1863, while the
other is printed in first part of the ' Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte*
for 1864.
To each of these papers Mr. Malmgren prefixes a summary of
the information that has already been recorded, respecting the sub-
ject of which it treats, though it will be gathered from what we
have already said this is not much. With respect to the ornithology
of Spitsbergen it is no exaggeration to say that nearly a third of the
observations of his predecessors has been founded on error — but,
though not blind to their faults, our author deals gently with them,
as well becomes a man of science. This is particularly the case in
regard to two species of birds, which the officers of Parry's celebrated
expedition believed they had recognised. Mr. Malmgren even goes
out of his way to explain how the mistakes originated, and his ex-
planation is natural enough. He proves, at any rate to our own satis-
faction, that Spitsbergen is not the abiding place of either Larus
sdbinii or Larus rossi — the latter being certainly one of the very
rarest of known birds. It is extremely probable, as he says, that
Parry's officers mistook the young of Larus tridactylus for the one,
and Sterna arctica for the other.
The following twenty-two species are considered by Mr. Malm-
gren to be the proper inhabitants of, or regular breeders in, Spits-
bergen : —
Emberiza nivalis Anser bernicla
Lagopus hyperboreus „ leucopsis [?]
Charadrius hiaticula „ segetum [?]
Tringa maritima Harelda glacialis
Phalaropus fulicarius Somateria moUissima
Sterna arctica „ spectabilis
Larus eburneus Colymbus septentrionalis
THE FAUNA OF SPITSBERGEN. 175
Larus tridactylus Uria grylle
„ glaucus Alca bruennichii
Lestris parasitica Mergulus alle
Procellaria glacialis Mormon arcticus [?]*
That is to say there is no bird of prey domiciled in the country ;
only one Passerine, one Easorial, three G-rallse, and seventeen
Swimmers. Of these all occur, more or less frequently, in other
parts of Europe, excepting only the Lagopus, which appears to be
pecuKar to Spitsbergen, though Mr. Malmgren does not speak very
positively as to its specific distinction. Of the stragglers, or un-
authenticated species, we need not here say anything.
In Mammals the Spitsbergen Fauna is proportionately richer,
the Seals and Cetaceans, as might be expected, predominating. It
is pretty nearly certain that no E/odent inhabits the country, and
whence the single specimen — a skeleton only — of Arvicola hudsonius,
which was found by Parry's expedition on a floe of ice, in latitude
81° 45', came, must remain a matter of conjecture. Mr. Malmgren
is inclined to take old Frederick Martens' second sort of *' Butskopf "
— but with a back fin three times as high as that of a " Bottle-head'*
— ^for Orca gladiator, a species said to be sometimes seen between
the coasts of Norway and Spitsbergen, but which was not
observed about the latter by the Swedish expedition. Cystophora
cristata has been obtained on Bear Island, but not further north,
though it is considered that it may occasionally wander to the lati-
tude of 76° — the scarcity of large fish, on which it chiefly feeds,
being the probable cause of its absence. The Mammals of Spits-
bergen, which appear certain to our critical author, are these : —
Ursus maritimus Cervus tarandus
Canis lagopus Delphinapterus leucas
Odobsenus rosmarus Monodon monoceros
Phoca barbata Chaenocetus rostratus
„ groenlandica Balaenoptera gigas
„ hispida „ rostrata
Balcena mysticetus, which in former days was so numerous, now
never shows itself on these coasts. How long will it be before the
Walrus, in like manner, disappears ?
* We preserve Mr. Malmgren's nomenclature ; but we have appended a query
to the names of three species, about the identification of which, we think, some doubts
may yet exist.
176 THE NATUEAL HISTORY REVIEW.
We trust soon to have to congratulate our author on the appear-
ance of other treatises from his pen. At present all the knowledge
we have of the Ichthyology of Spitsbergen is contained in Sir James
Eoss' Appendix to Parry's ' Fourth Voyage,' wherein four species
only of fishes are enumerated. The lower forms of life, also, require
much more attention than they have as yet, judging from published
records, received, l^o doubt we shall have our wishes gratified.
Meantime we tender our warmest thanks to Mr. Malmgren, for the
careful papers we have here been noticing, whicli are exactly of the
kind that the present state of Zoological Science needs respecting the
Pauna of every country from one Pole to the other.
XVIII. — Hall's Esquimaux.
Life with the Esquimaux : the Narrative of Capt. C. F. Hall, of
the whaling-barque ' G-eorge Henry,' from the 29th May, 1860,
to the 13th Sept. 1862. Two vols. 8vo. London, Sampson
Low, & Co. 1864.
There is perhaps no race of men who are more curious in their
habits, and less affected, as yet, by the influence of civilization, than
the Esquimaux. Capt. Sherard Osborn has recently recalled the
attention of the public to the interesting problems which, after all
that has been accomplished, are still unsolved, and might perhaps be
determined by another ArcMc expedition ; but even without this
stimulus, Capt. Hall's book would certainly have been read with
much interest.
The author is an American gentleman, living at Cincinnati, and of
a decidedly enthusiastic and religious turn of mind. Strongly im-
pressed with the belief that some, at least, of Franklin's unfortunate
companions might perhaps be still alive, " it seemed tome," he says,
" as if I had been called, if I may so speak, to try and do the
" work. My heart felt sore at the thought of so great a mystery in
connection with any of our fellow- creatures, especially akin to
" ourselves, yet remaining unsolved. "Why could not their true fate
" be ascertained ? Why should not attempts be made, again and
" again, until the whole facts were properly known?"
Capt. Hall's idea was that the Esquimaux must be perfectly well
aware of the fate which had befallen the remnant of Franklin's ex-
pedition, and the present whereabouts of the survivors, should any
such exist. He proposed, therefore, to make friends with the Esqui-
HALLOS ESQUIMAUX. 177
maux, to live among them, and to share their hardships and dangers,
hoping, in this manner, to obtain the wished for information. In
this, the main object of his voyage, he has, unfortunately, been un-
successful ; but he has accumulated a number of interesting facts,
and has produced a work which, although far from faultless, will be
read with pleasure, and is deserving of warm commendation. The
manners and customs of the Esquimaux, and their extraordinary
peculiarities, have already been well described by previous travellers
in the Arctic regions ; but there are few who have so completely
identified themselves with this remarkable people, and have enjoyed
such favourable opportunities of making friends with them, as
appears to have been the case with Capt. Hall.
It is impossible not to admire the determination and energy of a
man who could conceive and carry out such a scheme. Certainly
the dangers of Arctic travel are not in reality so great as they are
generally supposed to be. After the great storm of 1830, a thou-
sand shipwrecked sailors had to make their way over the ice, from
Baffin's Bay to the Danish settlement, a distance of 600 miles, and
yet they all arrived safely at their destination, except two, who died
from drinking. Still the hardships and discomforts are very great,
though Capt. Hall, with the true spirit of a traveller, makes light of
them, and dwells rather on the bright side of affairs. " Becording,"
he says, " my own experience of igloo life at this time, I may here say
" that, ha^dng then spent twenty nights in a snow-house, I enjoyed
*' it exceedingly. JSow, as I look back at the past, I find no reason
" to utter anything different. I was as happy as circumstances
-' permitted, even though with Innuits only for my companions.
" Life has charms everywhere, and I must confess that Innuit life
" possesses those charms, to a great degree, for me."
The foundation, if we may so say, of life in the far north, appears
to consist, on the one hand of seaweed, and on the other of moss.
The seaweed supports an infinite number of minute Crustacea and
mollusca, which in their turn afford abundant nourishment to fish,
which again are preyed upon by seals. The fish, the seals, and the
walrus, supply the principal part of their nourishment to the Es-
quimaux. On land, the most important vegetables appear to be the
reindeer moss, and a small species of Andromeda ; the latter of
which serves as bedding, while the former supports numerous herds
of reindeer, the prey of the wolves, the bears, and the Esquimaux.
Thus both series culminate in the Esquimaux ; but although this
voracious people make up for the almost entire absence of vegetable
178 THE NATURAL HISTORY REYIEW.
food by devouring nearly everytMng animal tliat comes in their
way, still it is mainly to the seal that they owe the possibility
of existence. They have, in fact, been described " as singular
" composite beings, a link between Saxons and seals, hybrids, putting
" the seals' bodies into their own, and then encasing their skins in
" the seals' ; thus walking to and fro, a compound formation. A
" transverse section would discover them to be stratified, like a roly-
" poly pudding, only, instead of jam and paste, if their layers were
" noted on a perpendicular scale, they would range after this fashion,
" first of all seal, then biped, seal in the centre."
Every part of the seal is eaten by the Esquimaux. Nothing
comes amiss to them, "We will spare our readers any description of
an Esquimaux dinner. In this respect Capt. Hall appears to have
become entirely one of themselves. He describes, almost usque ad
nauseam J the things which he ate, and ate even with pleasure.
" To say that I enjoyed this food," he tells us, "would only be to
** repeat what I have before said, though no doubt many will feel
" surprised at my being able to eat, as I so frequently did, raw
" meat ," and other things, the enumeration of which we will
avoid. It is hardly necessary to state that the Esquimaux eat most
of their food in a raw state ; from this practice, indeed, their name is
derived — Tfshhe in the Chippeway language meaning raw, and
TTmwaUy he eats. One great reason for this, no doubt, consists in
the scarcity of fuel. In fact, the Esquimaux have no fires, in the
ordinary acceptation of the term, though each woman has a little
lamp of lapis ollaris, in which she burns seal-oil with a wick of moss,
and which she uses sometimes for cooking, but mainly to dry clothes
and to melt the snow in order to obtain water. In fact, the
Esquimaux in the north, like the Euegian in the south, has but little
idea of warming himself at a fire. In winter, the small snow igloo,
or hut, in which he lives, is so close that the difficulty is to keep it
cool, rather than to warm it. If the temperature is allowed to
rise too high, the hut melts away ; and the most trying time to
the Esquimaux is in the spring, when it is still too cold for tents,
and yet when the snow huts are giving way before the increasing
power of the sun. Of all the remarkable points connected with the
Esquimaux, the little use which they make of fire, and, surrounded as
they are with water in a solid form, the difficulty which they
experience in obtaining enough to drink, are perhaps the most
striking. Again, the analogies between the chemical actions which
hall's ESQUIMAUX. 179
take place in the human body, and the ordinary processes of com-
bustion are remarkably brought out by the above-mentioned facts.
The same substance, namely, the oil of the seal, serves botb as food
and as fuel : it raises the temperature of the Esquimaux, and enables
him to maintain an internal warmth, perhaps even greater than that
of an ordinary Englishman, while the thermometer stands far below
zero ; and it does this, whether burnt in the lamp as fuel, or in the
Esquimaux as food.
Capt. Hall gives some interesting particulars as to the habits of
Arctic animals. The seal, for instance, forms for itself an igloo, in
which it brings forth its young, and which has apparently served as
a model for those used by the Esquimaux. This happens about
the 1st of April. The prospective mother works her way upwards
through the ice, on the surface of which she scoops out a semi-
circular excavation in the snow, scraping it away witb her forefeet,
and carrying it down beneath the thick ice. None but very sharp
scented animals, such as the polar bear, the fox, and the seal dog,
can find these igloos. " By the time the sun melts off the covering
" snow, exposing and destroying the dome of the igloo, the young
" seal is ready to take care of itself." Although a popular writer
has recently assured us that the seal can remain for a whole winter
below the water, we need hardly remind our readers that this is not
the case. The seal, like the whale, and all other mammalia, must
come up to the surface from time to time for the purpose of respira-
tion. Each seal, therefore, has at least one breathing hole in the ice.
When an Esquimaux, by the aid of his dog, has found one of these
breathing holes, he thrusts his spear down through the hard snow to
ascertain the exact locality of the hole, '' which is not more than one
" or two inches in diameter. After, perhaps, a dozen attempts, he
" finally strikes the hole. Now, he carefully withdraws his spear, and
" marks with his eye the hole which leads down through perhaps 18
" to 24 inches depth of snow. When now he hears the seal, he raises
" his spear, and strikes unerringly through the snow to the seal's head.
" The animal at once dives and runs out to the full length of the line,
" one end of which is fast in the hand of the sealer. He proceeds to
" cut away the deep snow, and to chisel the ice, so as to enlarge the
" top of the seal hole, from which he soon draws forth his prize."
This mode of sealing requires great patience, and the Esquimaux
has sometimes to wait two or three days and nights, in constant
expectation, before he secures his prey.
180 THE NATURAL HISTOEY EETIEW,
The Innults or Esquimaux have a great respect for the polar bear,
and tell many interesting anecdotes of its sagacity. " In August," they
say, " every fine day, the walrus makes its way to the shore, draws his
" huge body up on the rocks, and basks in the sun. If this happens
" near the base of a cliif, the ever watchful bear takes advantage of
" the circumstance to attack this formidable game in this way. The
" bear mounts the clijEF, and throws down upon the animal's head a
" large rock, calculating the distance and the curve with astonishing
" accuracy, and thus crushing the thick, bullet proof skuU. If the
" walrus is not instantly killed — simply stunned, — the bear rushes
" down to it, seizes the rock, and hammers away at the head till the
" skull is broken. A fat feast follows. Unless the bear is very
" hungry, it eats only the blubber of the walrus, seal, and whale."
Capt. Hall gives an excellent figure of a large bear, sitting on its
haunches, and having in its fore-paws a great mass of rock which
it is in the act of throwing down upon the head of an unsuspi-
cious walrus. This will, no doubt, prove conclusive to many of
his readers, and remove any doubts which they might otherwise
have felt about the story. Moreover, Dr. Eae heard a very similar
account from an Esquimaux in whom he had good reason to feel
great confidence, and who declared that he had actually seen a bear
throw a mass of ice on to the head of a walrus. "We confess that we
are hardly prepared to give the bear credit for so much sagacity,
though we cannot altogether reject a statement which appears to
rest on good authority.
The following story is more satisfactory : — Capt. Hall had killed a
young bear, and thought that the Esquimaux would rejoice in his suc-
cess. He soon discovered this to be a mistaken idea. They always,
he found, avoided killing the young of a bear, until the old one was
dead, because the death of the olFspring *' made the mother a hun-
" dred-fold more terrible than she would otherwise be." They
feared, therefore, that the old bear would return and attack them in
the night, in order to avoid which they prudently took to flight.
" After making a distance of some ten miles from where the bear
" was killed, and as we were making good progress homeward directly
" down the bay, all at once the dogs were turned by the driver
" sharply to the left, nearly, but not quite, half round, and directed
*' towards the south termination of Pugh Island, where we made our
" eighteenth encampment. Before we retired for the night, the
■ ' sledge was stuck up on end in an ice crack, and the guns and
hall's ESQUIMAUX. 181
" spears were put in order, at the head of our couch, for immediate
" use, if occasion should require it. As I needed an explanation of.
" some of these movements of my Innuit companions, so my readers
" may require one of me. I thus give it. The reason of going to
" such a distance from the scene of the bear-hunt before making our
*' encampment has already been given. The sharp turn — nearly re-
" versing our course — was designed, as the Esquimaux explained it,
" for a safeguard against pursuit by the enraged old bear. If she
*' should attempt to pursue on our sledge track, her movements
" would be rapid ; and, finding the track nearly in a straight line
'*for so long a distance, she would become somewhat confident,
" ' thinking' that the same undeviating course had been kept till the
*' end : therefore, on her reaching the place of the sharp turn, it
" might be unnoticed and unscented, and she would continue her
" course sometime longer before discovering her mistake. But in
*' case she should track us to our igloo (our sixteenth, seventeenth,
"and eighteenth encampments were igloos or snowhouses), then the
" first thing she would do would be to throw down the sledge (one
" of many things that Polar bears do not like to see standing), and
" thus we should be awakened and put on our guard against the
" ferocious beast."
Next to the walrus and the seals, the bear is the animal of
greatest importance to the northern Esquimaux. Its fur is largely
used for clothing, and the flesh, with the exception of the liver, which
they regard, and apparently with reason, as poisonous, is a staple
article of diet. It is surprising indeed, according to our notions,
how largely carnivora are used as food by different nations. The
dog was kept for the purposes of the table by many of the South Sea
Islanders, and was even preferred to pork by our early voyagers.
But, as in this instance, the animals were fed entirely on vegetable
food, it is perhaps hardly a case in point. Among the northern
travellers, however, the fox seems to have been quite a favourite
article of food. Hoss found it a very good dish. McClintock pre-
ferred it to preserved meat, and Lyon thought it very good eating.
So again, as regards the bear, Capt. Hall assures us, though we
confess that in the matter of food we should not ourselves be much
guided by his opinion, that its flesh is excellent, " appearing and
tasting like veal." Kane became quite a connoisseur in bears.
Those in a " lean condition," he says, " are much the most palatable
" food. The impregnation of fatty oil through the cellular tissue
182 THE NATURAL HISTOEY REVIEW.
" makes a well fed bear nearly uneatable. The flesh of a famished
/' beast, although less nutritious as a fuel diet,* is rather sweet and
" tender than otherwise."
Like other Arctic travellers, Capt. Hall frequently mentions the
quantity of bones which were to be seen lying about upon the
surface of the ground. Those who are surprised by the absence
of human remains in the drift-gravels, might turn with advantage to
those passages (for instance, Yol. ii. pp. 83, 90, and 154) in which he
mentions numerous bones of reindeer, walrus, seals, and other ani-
mals, without any belonging to man. In our own country, and still
more in hotter regions, any bones which are occasionally left upon
the surface of the ground soon perish. A hundred different kinds
of animals, and the action of our comparatively rapid vegetation,
combine to ensure their destruction ; but in the frozen regions
of the North, these influences are absent, or at least, highly in-
efficient. It has often been a matter of surprise that our bone-
caves appear to belong almost exclusively to the glacial epoch. On
the other hand, it has been also difficult to understand how it should
come to pass that, in those caves which appear to have received
their stores of bones from the action of floods, in opposition to those
which were evidently the dens of wild beasts, the bones bear so
large a proportion to the inorganic materials. May we not find, in
the accounts given by Arctic travellers, an explanation, perhaps, of
these two phenomena ? Bones in the far north, are, as we have
seen, far more frequent than in our temperate clime. They lie, not
upon the soil, but in many cases, at least, upon ice. The caves
would be filled up, not by bones with sand, and gravel or loam,
but by bones and ice. The ice, gradually melting away, would
continually make room for fresh accumulations of bones. In his
description of a glacier in North Greenland, Dr. Kane expresses
himself as follows : — " AVithin the area of a few acres f we found
" seven skeletons, and numerous skulls : these all occupied the snow
" streams, or gullies, that led to a gorge opening on to the ice belt,
" and might thus be gathered in time to one spot, by the simple
" action of the watershed."
The abundance of life in the far north, is indeed surprising. No
better evidence of this can be given than, the fact that the northern
Esquimaux are entirely carnivorous ; the only vegetable food they
♦Arctic Explorations, vol. I., p. 360. f Kane, 1. c. p. 95.
hall's ESQUIMAUX. 183
ever taste being that which they obtain in a digested state from
the inside of the reindeer, and which is regarded by them as a great
delicacy. Nevertheless, we must remember that by tbe conditions of
the case, the life which does exist there is not uniformly spread over
the whole area, but is confined to certain limited oases. Thus, it
has occasionally happened, that our countrymen have been reduced
almost to tbe verge of starvation, or have suffered terribly from
scurvy, and from the want of fresh meat, while the Esquimaux, at
a distance of perhaps not more than thirty or forty miles, have been
luxuriating in the abundance of wholesome food. "We have been
too apt to judge of the real, from the apparent, profusion of life in
different countries. South America, for instance, has been described
as singularly deficient in this respect. Yet it is surely, a priori,
very improbable that this should be the case, in a country with a
vegetation so luxuriant. And we should remember that the Bra-
^zilian forests, while they could feed an almost unlimited number of
animals, must tend to conceal them in a manner almost as com-
plete. It is mentioned in Mr. Bates's excellent work upon the
Amazons, that on one occasion, when he had shot a parrot, sud-
denly, and although up to that moment the forest had been silent, and
apparently deserted, he was surrounded by a large flock of parrots,
belonging to the same species, not one of which had at the previous
moment been in sight.
It is customary, on the other hand, to quote Southern Africa, as
a striking instance of the marvellous development of animal life. If,
however, we judge by the ear, rather than the eye, and compare the
nocturnal chorus of a South American forest with the comparative
silence of the African desert, broken only by the occasional roar of
the lion, or the scream of its terrified victim, we should probably
come to a very different conclusion as to the relative fertility of
these two continents in animal life. Moreover, we must remember
that in Africa, not only can the eye often range at once over a
large extent of ground, but also that, owing to the scarcity and
partial distribution of water, the sportsman may often take up his
position at the side of some piece of water, confident that, during
the night, every animal for miles round must come under his ob-
servation.
Something of the same kind happens in the far north. Deserts
of ice take the place of those of sand, and the herds of seals
and walrus are driven to the pools of open water, not indeed to
184 THE NATURAL HISTORY RETIEW.
drink, but to breathe. The bear follows the seals ; the Arctic
fox follows the bear almost as the jackal the lion ; and where
blubber is, there will the Esquimaux be gathered together. Thus
we find oases of animal life, if we may use the expression, here
and there enlivening the frozen deserts of snow and ice.
Of the Esquimaux themselves, Capt. Hall speaks very favourably.
They are, indeed, a singular people, and in one sense any thing but
savages. Their implements are made with the greatest skill and
ingenuity ; their clothes would pass muster, even with the Ladies'
Dressmaking Association. Yet they have no chief, no laws, no govern-
ment, and no form of religion. Although with a vague belief in
the immortality of the soul they have no idea of prayer ; yet they
are dimly apprehensive of sorcery, and are conscious apparently
that there is some such thing as supernatural power. This feeling
is worked upon by a class of conjurors, who take advantage of
it to secure more food, more clothes, and more wives, than w^ould
otherwise fall to their lot. Tattooing, among the Esquimaux, as
among the Eijians, is regarded as a religious ceremony, a kind of
baptism ; nor do they believe that any one will be happy in the next
world who has not been tattooed in the orthodox manner in this.
As, however, many of the Esquimaux are untattooed, this belief can-
not be general amongst them, or must be as little realized as some
which are generally professed in civilized countries. Capt. Hall,
moreover, speaks of course only of those who inhabit the neigh-
bourhood of Erobisher Bay.
They have many other curious customs, and prejudices. Like
all savages, they are anything but free, being slaves to superstition
and to habit — which we call precedent. A woman must not eat by
herself for a jesir after the birth of a child. At certain periods the
women are compelled to live by themselves. At certain times again,
certain food is forbidden to them. After walrus-hunting has begun,
no one may work on reindeer skins. Women are not allowed to
taste the first seal of the season. Many other similar prohibi-
tions might be mentioned, most of which, as usual, apply to women.
Li hunting, the Esquimaux are very skilful. AVith their bone and
stone weapons they kill seals, walrus, and reindeer, where, even with
the assistance of the rifle, we should fail utterly. In fact, most of
our northern expeditions have derived large supplies of fresh meat
from the natives.
"War is entirely unknown among the Esquimaux. Capt. Hall does
hall's ESQUIMAUX. 185
not allude to the subject, but other travellers have tried in vain to
make the natives comprehend the idea of war. Nor does crime ap-
pear to prevail among them. Polygamy is permitted, but even their
best hunters cannot obtain and retain more than two or three wives.
In the far north boats are unknown, but the Southern Esquimaux
show wonderful ingeuuity in the construction and management of
their boats or kayacks. Some of them are even able to turn, boat
and all, head over heels in the water.
Capt. Hall found them " a kind, generous people," and to some of
them, indeed, he seems to have been sincerely attached. Too Koolito
was a special favourite. Capt. Hall " could not help admiring the
" exceeding gracefulness and modesty of her demeanour. Simple
" and gentle in her way, there was a degree of calm intellectual
" power about her that more and more astonished me." Still, he
condemns strongly their inattention to the sick and dead. No kind
friends and aiFectionate relations soothe the last moments of the
dying Innuit. When life is despaired of, they are left alone, the
snow hut or the tent is closed up, a few simple implements and
a small store of food are placed by their side, and thus they are left
to their fate. At first sight this certainly appears to say little in
their favour. Nevertheless, if the picture which has been drawn of
them, both by Capt. Hall and by previous observers, — their strong
affection for one another, their readiness to share the last piece of
meat, the last drop of oil, be not very inaccurate, we should be dis-
posed to look for some explanation of the apparently heartless
custom to which we have alluded. Among the many Esquimaux ob-
served by Capt. Hall, one was a blind man, who must have been de-
pendent upon the affections of his relatives. Another was a very old
woman, who could certainly have done but little to supply herself
with food. Among a small community who were often on the very-
verge of starvation, the presence of such individuals as these is incom-
patible with the cold selfishness which the custom of leaving the dying
to their fate would appear to indicate. I should, therefore, almost
be disposed to account for this, in our eyes, unnatural practice by
the existence of some curious superstition ; and this is certainly-
encouraged by the idea that no implements nor dresses which are
present in a dwelling which has been the scene of death ought ever
to be used again. Thus, their inutility to the living, rather than any
notion that they could be useful to the dead, accounts for the various
objects generally found in an Esquimaux grave,
N.H.R.— 1865. O
186 THE NATURAL niSTOKY JlEYIEW.
Like some previous writers, Capt. Hall thinks that the Esquimaux
are rapidly dying out. " Not many years more," he says, " and the
" Innuits will be extinct." It may seem presumptuous to differ from
Capt. Hall on such a question as this, but he has certainly given no
sufficient reason for such a belief It has arisen, we think, from the
numerous ruins of old huts, and vestiges of ancient occupation which
are every where to be found on the shores of the Arctic Ocean, and
which at first sight certainly appear to indicate a much larger popu-
lation than that now in existence. But we must remember that the
Esquimaux are essentially a nomad people, whose huts are the work of
a few hours, and when a locality has been occupied for a few weeks,
the traces of it would remain almost unaltered, for years and years
afterwards.
Capt. Hall appears to have been greatly impressed with the
beauty and magnificence of tlie Aurora Borealis. He ranges him-
self on the side of those who maintain that this glorious phenomenon
is unaccompanied by noise: and he gives, we think, a probable
illustration of the manner in w^hich the contrary opinion may have'
originated. " Hark, hark," he says, " such a display ! almost as if
" a warfare was going on among the beauteous lights above, so
" palpable, so near, seems impossible without noise. But no noise
" accompanied this wondrous display. All was silence."
It is evident that a less careful and accurate observer would have
supposed that he heard thoie sounds which Capt, Hall as evidently
expected, and at the absence of which he seems to have been almost
disappointed.
There are some few cases, however, in which we are compelled
to call in question the accuracy of Capt. Hall's observations, or at
l«ast, the manner in which they are expressed. Thus he tells us,
that on one occasion, the cold wind " froze the water of the eyes,
" locking them up in ice, so that it was only by vigilance and eftbrt
" that I could keep myself in seeing order." If, however, the water
of his eyes had really been frozen, no vigilance or care would ever
have brought them into " seeing order" again. Probably, however,
he only means the moisture on his eye-brows, and eye-lashes. Again
he tells us that having inadvertently touched his bi^ss sextant with
the bare hand, " the eftect was precisely the same as if I had touched
" red hot iron. The ends of my finger nails were like burnt bone
" or horn, and the fleshy part of the tips of m}^ fingers and thumbs
*' were, in appearance and feeling, as if suddenly burnt by fire." It
hall's DSQunrAtx. 187
is certainly curious liow the effect of great cold on tlie flesli resem-
bles that of heat, but surely our author must have been mistaken as to
the effect on his nails, which would not have suffered from the cold
more than the fur gloves which he had on this occasion forgotten to
use.
When we read of such extreme cold as this, of the thermometer
75^, 80°, and even more, below the freezing point, of reindeer, seals,
Esquimaux, and other Arctic animals, it is astonishing to find that
Capt. Hall never went farther than 64° north, just the latitude of
Trondeim, where an electric telegraph, cathedral, churches, banks,
and all the appliances of modern comfort and civilisation are to be
found. In spite of isothermal lines, and Prof. Dove's maps, we are
apt to forget hovr exceptionally favourable is the present climate of
Western Europe.
Capt. Hall is an American, and writes from an American point of
view. Thus, he always speaks of " London, England." This ex-
pression sounds peculiarly odd, in some cases where he is explaining
names given to particular localities. Thus he talks of " Sabine Bay,
" named after Edward Sabine, of London, England," lest we should
not recognize the President of the Eoyal Society. And again, Cape
Murchison, " named after Sir Eoderick I. Murchison, of London,
" England," for fear, we presume, that we might suppose it to be
called after any Eoderick I. Murchison of London, America. On
his return home, he met with a great rebuff. When the pilot came
on board, at St. John's, Newfoundland, he asked, naturally enough,
" Who is the President of the United States ?" " But so little did
"our affairs trouble this Newfoundlander, that he could give us no
" information. I put the leading names to him, but still without
" effect ; he did not know." " This," adds Capt. Hall, " was mortify-
*^ ing." But a still more painful surprise was in store for him.
" The North and the South," he was afterw^ards told, " are fighting
" against each other." " What ! " I exclaimed, in utter amazement,
" what, loar? ivar in the United States, and among ourselves ? " No
wonder he was astonished, but even he can hardly have realized the
full horror implied by those w^ords.
One of the most interesting results of Capt. Hall's voyage, was
the discovery, if indeed it be the discovery, of relics of Erobisher's
expedition. Erobisher left England in June, 1576. On the 11th of
July, he was within sight of Greenland, and after various misfortunes,
returned to England in the following October. He brought with him
o 2
188 THE NATURAL IIISTOET IIEYIEW.
many pieces of black stone, some of wliicli, " being accidentally put
" in tbe fire, presented an appearance something like gold. Certain
" refiners of London expressed tbe opinion tliat tlie specimens
" submitted to tliem contained gold, and a second expedition was
" quickly set on foot." This s'econd expedition sailed in May, 1577.
Capt. Hall rests his opinion as to his discovery of remains of
it partly on the traditions preserved among the Esquimaux and
partly on the objects which he discovered. These consisted of
" coal, flint stone, fragments of tile, glass, and pottery ; an excava-
" tion, which I have called an abandoned mine, a trench made by
" the shore, on an inclined plane, such as is used in building a
" ship on the stocks ; the ruins of three stone houses, one of which
" was 12 feet in diameter, with palpable evidence of its having been
" erected on a foundation of stone, cemented together with lime
" and sand, and some chips of wood, which I found on digging
" at the base of the ship's trench. Upon this evidence, then,
" coupled with Esquimaux tradition, as given to me by several
" persons, apart from each other, and at different times, I founded
" my opinions respecting Erobisher's expedition, as I have already
" stated them."
We confess that this interesting discovery does not appear to us
so well established as Capt. Hall seems to think. Nor do the illus-
trations shown in the plate, page 295, of " Erobisher relics," throw
much light upon the question. As far as we can judge from the
figure, they might just as well be the relics of any other expedition.
This plate, however, is an exception to the rest, which show that
Capt. Hall can use his pencil as well as his pen.
The Author's preface is dated " June 30, 1861, on board the bark
" Monticello, bound for the Arctic regions." We trust that by this
time he has rejoined his friends in the North, and that he is rejoic-
ing in an abundance of seal's blubber, and walrus flesh. We need
not say that we wish him success in the main object of his journey ;
and if, alas ! we can feel little hope that in this he will be successful,
we trust, at least, that he himself will meet with no more than the
unavoidable hardships of Arctic life, that he may return safely to
his family and friends, and that, as his first return was darkened by
the news that his country was plunged in war, on his next he may
be rejoiced by finding that she is again at peace.
ISO
XIX. — The Linnean Society's Thajs-sactions.
Tbajs'sactioxs of the Lin]s^ean Society or Londoj^. Vol. XXIV.
4to. London, 1863-4.
The Linnean Society stands confessedly at the head of all English
institutions for the promotion of Biological researches. In thus
saying, we reproach no other scientific body. The objects of the
Eoyal Society are of a more general, those of the Geological and
Zoological Societies, of a more special character. All these Societies
issue quarto volumes of ' Transactions.' But the Transactions of
the Linnean Society alone are wholly devoted to the two great
departments of Biological Science, Botany and Zoology.
The volume of ' Linnean Transactions,' just brought to a con-
clusion, includes three separate Parts, published during the years
1863-4. The first volume of Transactions appeared in 1791 ; the
twenty-fourth, and last, at the close of the past year. On an aver-
age, therefore, three years has been the period of gestation for
each volume. Henceforward, we may expect one every alternate
year.
The present volume numbers 532 pages and 59 plates. There
are, in all, 27 separate communications. But, as one of these is
merely a note to its predecessor, and two others form successive
portions of the same series of records, the real number of papers
may be estimated at 25. Looking through these papers, we find an
absence of any on Vertebrate or Coelenterate animals, while Crypto-
gamic Botany is represented solely by Mr. Currey's * Notes on
British Fungi.' With these restrictions, the volume displays a
considerable diversity of subject-matter. Of the 25 papers, 15 are
zoological and 10 botanical. The former include 388 pages, the
latter 142. But this discrepancy is chiefly caused by the excessive
dimensions of one zoological memoir, Mr. A. Murray's ' Monograph
of the Eamily of Nitidulariae,' which extends to 204 pages, and
was originally designed as one of the Catalogues of the British
Museum.
In the following comments we shall refer to many of the papers
under abbreviated titles. Of the ten on Botany, six may be set
down as purely descriptive or nearly so, and the remaining four as
morphological and physiological, namely, —
1. Hooker — On Welwitschia.
2. Saltee — On certain Monstrous Passion-flowers.
3. Haeley — On the parasitism of the Mistletoe.
19(J THE :NATU11AL UlSTOlir EEYIEW.
4. Oliter — On the contractile tissues of tlic pods of Fcnfa-
clethra.
The above have all received due notice in our pages, more
especially Dr. Hooker's Essay on Welwitschia. This essay may
justly be regarded as the most important special addition to the
literature of phsenogamic botany since the appearance of the classic
memoirs of Bobert Brown. Thus, whatever the botanical moiety
of this volume wants in quantity, it more than gains in the quality
of its contents. And this meed of praise its zoological contribu-
tors may, without disparagement of their own claims, courteously
accord.
The six papers on descriptive botany are as follows : —
1. CuKEEY — Notes on British Fungi.
2. Hanbury — On Cassia onoschata.
3. Mann and Wendlanj> — On the Palms of "Western tropical
Africa.
4. Hanburt — On the Siam Gamboge-tree.
5. KiiiK — On WaUeria.
0. MiERS — On the Conantlierece.
Mr. Currey's ' Notes,' so far as published, contain diagnoses
and more detailed accounts of thirty-eight species of Fungi, one half
of which are new to science. Ten others are mentioned as new to
the British Flora, while the nine remaining forms display peculiari-
ties of structure, either previously unnoticed or interesting because
of their bearing on most questions touching the nature and relations
of this anomalous group of plants. Thus, the *cystidia,' or vesicles,
organs of doubtful function, to which reference was made in the last
number of this Eeview, (pp. G5-67), are described and figured as
they occur on the gills of Agaric us esculent us. Again, in Cribraria
Intricata, one of the Myxogasteres, Mr. Currey has observed a mode
of germination of the spores similar to that which takes place in
Spliceria lierharum and other undoubted Fungi. And in Badhamia,
true spore-sacs, like those of the ascigerous Fungi, occur. Tliese
and other facts militate against the view of De Bary that the
Myxogasteres should be removed to the animal kingdom. As various
matters of general import in connection with the organization of
the Fungi are referred to in these ' Notes,* they may be looked
upon a.s effecting a transition between the two classes of botanical
memoirs indicated above.
THE TKANSACTIONS OF THE LINKEAN SOCIETY. 191
Of the papers devoted to descriptions of plisenogamic plants,
that hj Grustav Mann and Hermann AVendland, " on the Pahns of
AVestern tropical Africa," is the most striking. From this exten-
sive region only five species of Palms had previously been recorded.
Twelve new Palms are here described, besides one other collected
by Dr. "Welwitsch. " The group of ArecinecB have, up to the present
" time, been quite unknown on the mainland of Africa ; now, however,
•' two species have been discovered, they constitute two new genera,
" viz. JPodococcus and Sclerosperma.'''' Of the remaining species, old and
new, to which the memoir refers, five belong to Baphla and eight to
Calamus. The others are I^hoenix spinosa, Borassus jEtliiopum and
Wodis Guineensis, the palm-oil plant, the economic importance of
which may be inferred from the statement " that during the last
*' three years 130,381 tons of palm oil, of the value of ^5,605,913,
** have been imported into Great Britain."
Mr. ITanbury has two papers, both on medicinal plants. In his
' Note on Cassia moscliata^ he shows that this species, closely
allied to ^ C. hrasiliensis, yields pods which have been confounded
with those of the true C.fititula. C. moscliata had previously been
noticed by Kunth, and Humboldt and Bonpland, though now for the
first time adequately described and figured.
All the gamboge " found in European commerce is produced in
" Siam or in regions contiguous to that country," and it would seem,
by a single species, Garcinia morella, Desrousseaux ; of which G,
elliptica, "Wallich, G. gutta, Wight, and Hebradendron Camhogioides,
Graham, are synonyms. Other species of the same genus yield,
however, a similar substance. Mr. Hanbury describes a variety of
G. morella, with pedicellate male-flowers, from specimens supplied
him by the Messrs. D' Almeida of Singapore, who have long culti-
vated on their estate several examples of "the real gamboge-tree,"
originally transported from Siam. Messrs. D' Almeida state " that
*' the trees, of which they have twenty-eight (but which might have
" been increased to thousands had any pains been taken to do so),
" are from 35 to 50 feet in height, the largest with a circumference
*' of about 3 feet ; and that they grow very luxuriantly, without any
" attention, on the slope of a low hillock." Mr. Thwaites of Ceylon
where G. morella is indigenous, aided in the determination of these
plants, and the sam^e specimens afforded Mr. Oliver an opportunity of
investigating anew the peculiar circumscissile anthers of Hebraden-
dron, the structure of which he explains in an addendum to Mr.
Hanbury's paper.
102 THE NATURAL HISTORY REYIEW.
Mr. Miers reviews the genera and species of a tribe of Liliacece,
to whieli Don, in 1832, gave tlie name of Conantherece. From this
group Miers excludes the genus PasifJiea, while, on the other hand,
he would refer to it Teco^liilea of Colla, which Dr. Leybold makes
the type of a new order, between Liliacew and Iridacece. Bistrepta,
Miers (1825), Poppigia, Kunze (1828), non Bert, nee PresL, and
PhygmUhus, Popp (1838), are shown to be synonyms oi Tecophilea.
The other genera are Zephyr a, Conantliera, Cmmningia, and Cyanella.
The floral characters of all these are represented on a single plate.
To the same group probably belongs the new genus Walleria, of
which Dr, Kirk describes two species. The structure of its fruit
is unknown. The ovary is free or very slightly immersed : in other
characters the flowers resemble those of the Conantlierece^ the stamens
opening just as in OonantJiera itself. Dr. Kirk adds the following
" diagnostic table of
Genera of the Conantheroijs Liliace^.
I. Ovary semi-adherent ; stamens unequal.
1. Zephyr a^ Dav. Stamens 2 abortive; anthers opening by a
terminal pore, spurred at base.
2. Cyanella^ Linn. Stamens all fertile, one enlarged, pen-
dulous.
II. Ovary semi-adherent ; stamens equal.
3. Conunthera, Euiz and Pav. Perianth 6-parted ; anthers
connate, opening by pores, ending in a single arista.
4. Cummingia, Dav. Perianth campanulate ; anthers connate,
opening by pores, ending in a double arista.
5. Pasithea, Dav. Stamens free, opening by longitudinal valves
the length of the anther.
III. Ovary free ; stamens equal.
6. Walleria, Kirk. Stamens opening by pores ; perianth
6-parted."
The geographical distribution of these genera is interesting.
Walleria is from the mountains of Eastern tropical Africa ; Cyanella,
known to Linneus, from the Cape of Grood Hope. The remaining
Conantherece are South American.
An arrangement of the zoological memoirs contained in this
volume under two heads, the descriptive and the more abstract,
would appear arbitrary. More nalurally do those papers fall into
THE TRANSACTIONS OP THE LI^NEAN SOCIETY. 193
groups, according as they afiect the classes of the animal kingdom.
To these they bear the following proportion —
Astomatoits Protozoa .... 1
Rotifers 1
Scolecids 1
Annelids 2
Crustaceans 3
Insects 4
LaniellibrancJis 1
Piilmo-gasteropods 1
PrancMo-gasteropods .... 1
Other classes (about 1(3) . .
— or one paper on Khizopods, four on 'Woi'ms, seven on Arthro-
pods, and three on Molluscs : in all fifteen papers, representing nine
of the twenty-five ' classes' of animals.
Mr. Brady, in his Essay ' On the Ehizopodal Fauna of the
Shetlands,' demonstrates an evident affinity between the Foramini-
fera of this district and those of the opposite Norwegian coast.
He also, we think rightly, inchnes to the opinion that the Grulf-
stream has Little or no direct influence on the animal population of
these northern shores. And, in common with Mr. Jeff'reys, he
questions the hona fide occurrence of Peneroplis and Vertehralina
(Mediterranean and tropical forms) in such high latitudes. Mr.
Brady has met with all the species figured in Williamson's Mono-
graph, with the exception of ten (of which about half are doubtftd) .
In a useful table he records the relative frequency of these forms
and the depths at which they were obtained, adding references to
"Williamson's figures and to the nomenclature of other writers. The
study of the minor modifications of type presented by the Foramini-
fera, in relation to the external conditions under which they occur,
discloses an almost unworked subject of great interest. We are
glad to find our author bearing practical testimony to the truth of
the "views advocated in Dr. Carpenter's work;* and the easy way
" in which the various members of the group faU into their places
" when treated with reference to this system."
New facts of undoubted value are brought forward by Dr. Moxon
• Koticcd in N. II. R. July, 1S63, \x 323.
194 THE JfATURAL HISTOllY REVIEW.
in his ' Notes ou some points in tlie Anatomy of Rotatoria,^ refer-
ring chiefly to the water-vascnlar apparatus, alimentary canal and
' feelers,' or supposed organs of sense, in these animals.
Limnias is here said to possess a water- vascular system agreeing
with that of Botifers in general. A similar system exists also in
Floscularia, but its " vessels" are very small in diameter " when com-
" pared with the bulk of the creature's body." There is no other
circulatory apparatus, albeit that Mr. Gosse has described such,
apart from the general cavity of the body. Dr. Moxon has seen
ciliated appendages of the usual kind in connection with the lateral
vessels of Pterodlna, in Avhich genus they could not be detected by
Leydig. The true structure of these organs, ' tags' or ' cilium-
funnels,' is still an open question. By careful observation of
Euchlanis dilatata in several distinct aspects Dr. Moxon shows that
the ' candle-flame like appearance' which the tags often exhibit is
not due to the presence of a single long ' flickering ciHum,' as many
have supposed, but of numerous short cilia, clothing the (inner)
surface of the tag. " Whether [he adds] this is a triangular flattened
" ampulla, or whether the tube opens, and one side of its orifice is
" produced and expanded into the triangle, so that the latter is a
" single plane, I cannot make out ; but I believe the cilia must be on
" two opposed surfaces." In support of this last conclusion the author
further states, " that an identical appearance of flickering cilia is pro-
" duced by the same conditions in the tube-valve of the crop of Flos-
" cularia,'' a characteristic structure, which he describes as " a thin-
*' walled, flattened, cilium-lined lube," wa^dng loosely about in the
manducatory cavity, or crop, with the pharyngeal margin of which its
attached edges are continuous. " This tube-valve has often been seen
" by describers, but its nature has been entirely mistaken ; it has been
" viewed as a ' sht-like opening fringed with vibratile cilia' [Dobie],
" as ' many plates or filaments' [Dujardin], as two delicate mem-
"branes [Huxley], and as a stream of water trickling into the
" gizzard." In three instances the author has seen the tube com-
pletely everted along with the anterior third of the alimentary
canal of the Floscularia. The cilia were plainly observed to vibrate on
the surface of what thus became the tube's exterior. " I have thus,"
he concludes, " fully described this structure, as I believe the em-
" ployment of a long, lax, ciliated tube as an intestinal valve is not on
" record." The ' feelers,' or tactile organs, of the Itotifers are either
THE TliANSACTIOKS Of THE LINNEAN SOClETi'. 195
stalked or sessile, and are median or lateral in position. Lateral
feelers occur in Floscularia and Limnias, as well as in Melicerfa,
' and it is tdghly probable that they exist in all the stationary genera."
rhese also possess the median feeler of other Botifera, which would
appear to be seldom absent. The lateral feelers are symmetrically
situated " towards the ventral aspect, and close to the part which
' forms the upper end when the lobes are retracted." In Floscularia
fchey are very small, and, as in Limnias, " placed on slight conical
slevations." The conspicuously stalked lateral feelers of Melicerta
strikingly contrast with the obscure median feeler, " sessile on the
back of the head," and homologous with the single stalked feeler of
Philodina and Motif er. The median feeler is always ' dorsal,' as is,
also, the opening of the cloaca. Thus, when other characters fail,
\N<d may determine with accuracy the principal aspects of the body.
Dr. Moxon seeks to remove the obscurity, in this regard, which has
too often involved the writings of his predecessors.
Mr. Bastian's paper ' On the Structure and Nature of the Dra-
mnculus, or Guinea-vrorm,' is worthy of a more detailed notice than
ive can here afford it. "We hope afterwards to present an analysis
of it to our readers, when we come to review the same writer's ob-
servations on the free Nematoidea, which will appear in the next
Part of the ' Transactions.'
Dr. Baird describes a new species of Ampliinome {A. didymo-
hrancliiatct) from Ascension Island and, in a second paper, Cli(stop-
lerus insignis from the British seas. Mr. Williams adds a note
containing additional particulars on the structure and habits of this
gurious Annehd.
The seven papers on Arthropod animals are as follows : —
1. Hais^cock and IsTorma^^ — On Splaiichnotrophits.
2. M'Intosh — On the hairs of Carcinus vicenas.
3. Lubbock — Notes on Entomostraca.
4. On the development of Chloebn.
5. On two aquatic Hymenoptera.
6. Haliday— On lapyx.
7. MuERAT — Monograph of the Nitidularics.
Splanchnoti'ophus, no v. gen., is a parasite of Nudibranchiate
Molluscs, and is closely aUied to Cliondr acanthus, but the body is
much more distinctly segmented. There are two species, 8. gracilis
and *S'. hrevipes. The males of the latter are unknown. Those of
196 TKE XATl'RAL HISTORY REVIEW.
the former, or wliat would seem to be sucli, are distinguished from
all other Lerneoid Crustacea by their well developed thorax, ex-
hibiting distinct traces of five somites. Each is about one-fourth
the length of the female, and is furnished with a median rudimentary
eye, wanting in the other sex.
The parasitic relations of this genus are peculiar. In the case
of both species only a single female inhabits the same Nudibranch,
within the visceral cavity of which she dwells ; the minute extremity
of the abdomen and the ovigerous sacs being the only parts pro-
jecting beyond the integument of the mollusc selected. S. gracilis
" invariably occupies the same position, resting upon the under sur-
" face of the hver-mass and embracing two-thirds of it with its long,
" attenuated lateral processes." S. Irevipes was always found " im-
" mediately below the dorsal skin in the neighbourhood of the heart."
Several males of S. gracilis accompanied each female and attached
themselves to its body, as in Chondr acanthus, or to the surface of
contiguous viscera. Like many other internal parasites they
seem to cause little injury to their host, notwithstanding their great
comparative size. " >S^. gracilis is not very much shorter than the
" length of the liver upon which it lies, and which it almost encircles
" with its arm-hke processes ; while S. hrevipes nearly occupies one-
" third of the visceral cavity of JDoto coronata, and lives in a position
" where it might be thought to interfere with the central organs of
" circulation ; and in the case of Holis rufihrancMalis, before alluded
"to, the parasite must have been in contact with the cerebral
" ganglions. Tet these animals seemed perfectly unconscious of the
" presence of the insidious foe that was feeding upon their hfe's
" blood. They moved about apparently quite at their ease, and were
" in no way distinguishable from unafflicted individuals, except by
"the presence of the protruding ovigerous sacs of the parasite.
" They had mostly attained their full growth, and there seemed every
" probability of their living the usual time allotted to the life of the
" species. When they perish, the contained parasite must perish
" also ; for it is an inert, helpless creature, quite incapable of any
" active exertion in search of food or for self-preservation."
We commend Dr. M'Intosh's paper to those naturalists who
complain of the want of materials for investigation. What can be
a more accessible ' subject' than the common shore- crab, yet to a
competent and painstaking observer we see how readily it displays
new and interesting features. It would not be easy to offer a con-
THE TRAKSACTIOj!fS OF THE LTNXEAN SOCIETY. 197
densed account of the various hair-like organs which clothe the
body of this animal, all of which are here described in connection
with the several regions and appendages to which they were found
attached. Not only do they occur on most parts of the exterior,
but even the stomach of this crab is seen to be supplied with a rich
diversity of similar structures. They are not, however, continuous
with those of the integument, since none could be found along the
course of the intestine or oesophagus.
Mr. Lubbock's ' Notes on some new or little-known species of
Fresh- water Entomostraca' refer to seven species of Oy clops, two of
Diaptomus and one of Lepidurus, "We select the last by way
of sample. Lepiduriis productus is a near ally of Apus, type of
the Branchiopoda 'phyllopoda — which, excepting the Trilohita, are
the only Crusta<?ea possessing more than the typical number of
somites. This simple fact, in no wise subversive of the doctrine of
common plan, has proved a stumbling-block to so distinguished a
carcinologist as Prof. Dana, who, with perverse ingenuity, has de-
vised what we must term an uncalled-for explanation of it. • Mr.
Lubbock courteously points out the futility of such "sdews, in a note
on the homologies of the Branchiopod group ; the irrelative repeti-
tion of whose somites is paralleled among air-breathing Arthropoda
by the Myriapods, which exhibit a similar divergence. Apus is also
remarkable for the scarcity of its males, first described in 1857,
more than a century after the discovery of the genus, by Kozu-
bowski, who counted only 16 among 160 females. Mr. Lubbock,
in stagnant pools near Eouen, found the males of LepiduruSt
hitherto undetermined, very abundantly, though the females ap-
peared to preponderate. The males, unlike those of Apus, were as
large as, or larger than the females, but Mr. Lubbock lays no stress
on this circumstance, since the species which he obtained were pro-
bably not adult and, therefore, did not rightly display the true
proportions, as to size, of the two sexes.
But if the males of Apus be zoological wonders, how much more
marvellous is an Ilymenopterous insect " actually swimming by
"means of its wings?" Mr. Lubbock has been the first to witness
Ihis strange sight ; nor has he, like the too susceptible Eedi, making
wndue application of the maxim of his great compatriot :
Sempre a quel ver ch'ba faccia di menzogna
De' I'uom chiuder le labbre finch' ei iiuote,
Pero che senza colpa fa vergogna ;
IBS The ^\\Tuim itistoi'cY ntxir^.
hesitated to put the discovery upon record. Moreover the fact has
been conlirined by the observations of others. Polynema natans, the
insect which exhibited so unlooked-for a phenomenon, was found " in
a basin of pond-water," together with another member of the same
order, of which no truly aquatic species had previously been noted.
This second form is referred to a new genus, Presfwichia. Its
wings closely resemble those of Polynema, though it holds these
organs " motionless, and uses its legs as oars." Both these insects
afford the text for a number of suggestive considerations on the
varying reliitions of animals to the elem^ents in which they live,
which we forbear to abridge, referring our readers to the paper itself.
No branch of natural history is more interesting or less technical
than this, yet how few are the methodised contributions made to its
annals by those who have leisure and ability to become constant
observers. But the mind sees what it brings mth it the means of
seeing. Mr. Lubbock's opportunities for the quiet contemplation of
living organisms in their native habitats are well known to be few
and far between, and we rejoice, therefore, at his success, — a success,
however, at which eoc-professo entomologists should blush. They
have described about 12,000 Hymenopterous species, of which one-
fourth are British, transfixing with pins some millions of individuals
and detailing, with painful minuteness, their most obscure and tran-
sient characters ; yet, in spite of all this trouble, they have allowed
the most curious member of the entire group to escape them.
Mr, Lubbock contributes a third paper, ' On the development of
Chheon {Ephemera) dimidiatum.'' Its main object is to show that the
terms by which we seek to define the metamorphoses of insects need
revision, if we wouldhenceforthemploy them Avith scientific accuracy.
AVe are accustomed to resolve the life of insects into three or four de-
finite stages, but facts prove that in several insects, " there is no such
" well-marked, threefold division ; and that, in the Ephemeridfe at
"least, the young insect gradually attains its perfect condition
" through a series of more than twenty moultings, each accompanied
" by a slight change of form." In support of this proposition Mr.
Lubbock describes seventeen successive states in the development of
Chloeon. These details are introduced by some striking prefatory
remarks on the metamorphoses of insects in general, their causes,
and the external conditions to which they are adapted, and which,
in turn, modify their occurrence.
lapyx is a new genus of Thysanura, allied to Campodea^ "West-
THE TEAKSAOTIONS OP THE LTNXEAN SOCIETY. 199
wood. It has been found in various parts of France and Italy, also
in Algeria. Mr. Ilaliday proposes to make it tlie type of a separate
family between Lepismidcd and JPoduridce. We could wisli that this
experienced entomologist would more frequently print for our in-
struction his notes on similar aberrant or interesting forms.
Mr. Andrew Murray's ' Monograph of the Eamxily of Nitidularioi
is one of those miraculous accumulations of industry which none but
an entomologist could raise. It almost takes one's breath away to
read the list of foreign cabinets which Mr. Murray examined by way
of preparation for his task, and Mr. Herbert Spencer himself could
not frame even a ' symbolic conception ' of the hundreds, we might
say thousands, of drawings and dissections executed during its prose-
cution. Mr. Murray avowedly undertook " no journey of a Sabbath
day," and if, as he somewha.t mournfully anticipated, there are few
from whom he "could expect an intelligent appreciation " of his work,
he should remember that the estimation of one of these must, in
any just allowance, overweigh a whole theatre of others. Labour of
this kind is not lost, though no man can hope to achieve it who will
not rise up early, and late take rest, and eat the bread of carefulness ;
as all genuine workers know. It would be tedious, though far from
unprofitable, to analyze the great body of facts which this Mono-
graph includes. The Nitidularice are a group of beetles, including
Nitidula of Fabricius with its subsequently discovered allies, now
amounting to we are afraid to say what number of genera and
species, whose figured representations, to the non-entomological eye,
look terribly like one another as, in artistic guise, they sprawl grace-
fully over the surface of numerous plates, the intermediate blankness
of which is usefully relieved by a crowd of outline sketches, showing
in detail the characters of their several parts. Yet, as loyal subjects,
we may boast that our national collection, thanks to Mr. Murray's
exertions, possesses the most complete series of these creatures
known to students.
As might have been expected from the careful study of so ex-
tensive an assemblage of forms, Mr. Murray has been led to re-
cognise the general conclusion that the minor groups of systematists
are " to a greater or less extent artificial." He is not here speaking
of the larger, or Linnean, genera which may possibly have " boun-
'' daries laid do^\-n by nature and not by man," but of the genera
and sub-genera established by modern entomologists. " If genera
" reallv did exist in nature, we ought to be able to find positive and
200 TtiE katural htstout review.
" defined characters by whicli to distinguisli them. Tliat we do not
" find any limiting boundaries, goes far to prove that there are no
" such things as genera in nature, and that what we call so are
" neither more nor less than artificial aids to memory and classifica-
*' tion. In no family which I have studied have I been more struck
^' with this than in the Nitidularice. The affinities which we find
" constantly appearing in unexpected places, and the gradual shading
" off" which we see in others, show that the whole group is a perfect
*' network of relationship, and that, with a few exceptional breaks,
" the boundaries of the genera, or subsections, into which for con-
*' venience sake we divide them, have no real existence."
Of papers on Mollusca we have three, viz. : — -
1. AYright — On Naiisitora.
2. Blanford — On Tanalia, PJiilopotamu and Paludomus,
3. Hancock — On the Eenal organ in the Nudibranchs,
Nausitora is a new sub-generic form, related to Teredo, and is
worthy of note because of its fresh-water habit, thus diff'ering
from all previously known members of its group. The specimens
here described were taken from trees which had been immersed in
the river Comer, a remote tributary of the Granges.
Mr. Blanford considers Tanalia and Philopotamis as sub-sections
of the old genus Melania. This opinion he demonstrates in the first
part of his paper. In the second he describes the Cingalese species
of Fhilapotamis and Paliidomus.
"We have seen that the best Essay in the volume before us was
also the first, and discussed a botanical subject. By a curious con-
trast, what we must consider the memoir next in order of merit
concludes the volume, and is zoological. We refer to Mr. Hancock's
paper ' On the Structure and Homologies of the Eenal organ in the
Nudibranchiate Mollusca,' of which we hope to ofi"er an analysis in
our next number. It would be impossible to give it adequate notice
within the brief space remaining at our disposal.
Of the plates which accompany this volume we have said but
little. All its memoirs are illustrated, those on Botany, with few
exceptions, by Fitch. Excellent, also, are the illustrations appended
to the papers of Mr. Murray and Mr. Hancock, though differing as
much in style as in subject matter from one another.
In truth it is a pleasing task to take up a richly-varied volume
like this, and glance, as we have done, through its contents. Thus
may the naturalist, putting aside for a time more special studies,
TUE TEANSACTTOXS OV THE LTXXEAX SOCIETY. 201
refresh his owu mind while he contemplates the labours of others
and enjoy a series of new and vivid impressions. As in a carriage-
drive through an agreeably diversified country, we feel the rapid
movement which we do not cause, and gaze, reposing, on the
changing prospect. Such relaxation exerts a healthful influence ;
nor can it be rightly enjoyed by those who do not themselves labour
for science, so that, indirectly, it serves to stimulate research.
Some there are who would denounce all pleasures of this kind as
tending to excite desultory habits, forgetting that it is one thing,
after work-hours, to vary our moments of leisure, — another to waste
our whole time in multiple pursuits. They forget, also, that for want
of a wider acquaintance with previous investigations, many discoverers
have brought little aid to science, because the true import of what they
have seen has but dimly revealed itself to their ill-trained powers
of apprehension. These miss much which the more accomplished
student of nature is ever ready to secure. Opportunity offers new
objects of study, of which they are slow to avail themselves, and their
restricted habit of mind, if it does not engender positive errors, tends
at least to beget the evils that accompany an inadequate method.
For what is the real use of special investigations ? Others, of course,
wiU value them in so far as they increase the general stock of know-
ledge, but to the investigator himself they are mainly serviceable
as a means of mental culture — as affording him, so to speak, a key
wherewithal to unlock the treasures which his fellow- workers have
collected. Thus is he enabled to make their experience his own.
Many expend their hours in going over the old ground of their pre-
decessors, forgetting how impossible it is that each should study
everything for himself. If this were so, why print books or papers,
except to promote self-glorification ? The man whose illogical mind
will not teach him when he can trust what has been done by others
should be expelled the threshold of science, neck and heels. How
little in the way of direct observation is even the best of us able to
effect ! " The greatest genius," wrote Goethe, " will never be worth
" much if he pretends to draAv exclusively from his own resources.
" What is genius, but the faculty of seizing and turning to account
" everything that strikes us ?" — let us call it the faculty of appropria-
tion. Edward Eorbes, in a well-known passage, advocating the study
of our native fauna, has made eloquent reference to " the glorious
variety of Nature," which those only will contemn as an empty-
sounding phrase, who have neglected to cultivate the varied faculties
N.H.R.— 1865. P
202 THE NATURAL ItrSTOTlT HKTIEW.
of mind on whose exercise the genial interpretation of Nature depends.
Yet, in spite of the example which Linnaeus has set, do we still find
botanists ignorant of zoology, and zoologists equally ignorant of
botany, to the great detriment of both. Is not the healthy observa-
tion of living animals, the best preliminary study for every young
zoologist, too often wantonly divorced from systematic zoology on
the one hand, and from embryology and anatomy on the other ?
Persons educated in other respects, but unacquainted with Biology,
are deterred from its pursuit by such unnatural isolations. Why is
it made to assume this forbidding aspect to those without the gate,
who very willingly would come in, were they graciously invited ?
"Everything in science," now, as in Goethe's time, "is become too
" much divided into compartments." On this account a Society,
embracing Biological inquiry in all its aspects, deserves the fullest
recognition. Linnaeus himself owed to the diversity of his studies, no
less than to his mental endowments, that extraordinary influence
which, during the lifetime of their master, inspired his pupils with
such zeal, that it might be truly said they would have compassed sea
and land to make one addition to the ' Systema.' The spirit of the
great Swede, loath to leave his collections, still survives, and beholds,
unseen, the substantial progress of the Linnean Society.
XX. — The Ancient and Modeen Floras of Montpellier.
Etude des Tufs de Montpellier af point de tue Geologiqfe
et Paleontologique, par G. Planchon, Docteur-des-Sciences.
Montpellier: 1864^ 4to.
Des Modifications de la Flore de Montpellier depuis le
seizieme siecle jusqu'a nos jours. By the same.
These are, as far as we know, the first productions of a young natu-
ralist, and we hail them with satisfaction as evincing great ability, and
doing credit to a name already eminent in systematic and structural
botany through the labours of his distinguished brother. From their
form we conclude that the tAvo memoirs constitute the author's
thesis on taking his degree of Doctor of Science, and he justifies the
presenting them together, notwithstanding the diff'erence of their
titles, as being closely connected, each one forming as it were the
complement of the other. The two tend to the solution of one and
the same problem, the one in investigating the state of the Montpel-
THE ANCIENT AXU M013EKX FLOTAS OE MONTPELLIER. 2C3
lier vegetation before any probable intervention of man, the other in
indicating the modifications which the flora has undergone within a
determinate historical period. Both of them furnish data of con-
siderable interest towards the general history of vegetation, as we
shall endeavour to show, taking first into consideration the second
memoir relating to the recent historical period.
The Montpellier district has some peculiar advantages for
researches into this branch of its history during the last three centu-
ries — a minute portion of time it is true when compared with that
which it must have taken to establisb its present flora, but yet
sufficient to test the value of several of the opposing theories recently
propounded on the introduction, dispersion, and extinction of
species. Its rich and varied vegetation has been carefully observed
and repeatedly described by eminent botanists from the eighteenth
century to the present day, during which period also various eftorts
to introduce new plants have been recorded, accidental importations
have been observed, and the real or supposed disappearance of others
more than once commented on.
Eondelet, professor at the University of Montpellier towards the
middle of the eighteenth century, was the first great promoter of
botanical studies in that country. He did not himself publish any-
thing on its Flora, but the works of the period describe him as
exploring the region at the head of his numerous pupils and directing
them into the true scientific paths for the study of its vegetable
treasures. Amongst these pupils are reckoned Eabelais, Dalechamp,
Clusius, Jean Bauhin, Pena, and Lobel, and many of these, espe-
cially Lobel and Pena have, in their various works, left numerous
indications of the precise localities of plants in the neighbourhood of
Montpellier. In 1596 Bicher de Belleval founded the celebrated
Jardin des Plantes in the suburbs of the town, which has ever
since been kept up as a great centre of botanical research. He also
drew up some " Herborisations autour de Montpellier," which, how-
ever, were never published. In the latter half of the seventeenth
century Magnol published his " Botanicon Monspeliense," of wdiich
Dr. Planchon says : " under its modest exterior, this little book of
Magnol's, the first catalogue of our species, is an important work,
revealing the qualities of a conscientious observer and a really scien-
tific mind. It is yet in the present day the best local Flora we
possess, it is deserving of full confidence, and would perhaps be the
guide the most consulted by explorers, had it not been that its now
antiquated nomenclature renders its practical use very difficult" — an
p 2
204 THE NATTJllAL IIISTORT REVIEW.
approbation wliich we can fully endorse from personal experience.
In the eighteenth century the Linnean nomenclature was first applied
to the Montpellier Flora, by Nathhorst, in a dissertation, entitled,
"Flora Monspeliensis," maintained inUpsala under the presidency of
Linnaeus, but which is a mere catalogue of species. And during the
whole of the latter half of that century and the first years of the
present one, the botanical sceptre at Montpellier was in the hands of
the celebrated Grouan, the steady and favoured correspondent of
Linnaeus, whose devotion to the science only increased with age, and
whom we still remember, some years above 80, and perfectly blind,
yet enjoying nothing more than being led to feel his favourite trees
and plants. His regular herborisations were attended, amongst
other pupils, by Commerson, Dombey, Bruguiere, Olivier, E-iche, and
Labillardiere, and his several works on the surrounding Flora,
embodying most valuable information, are well known to all northern
botanists, although, as observed by Planchon, they must be used
with caution, for they are far from possessing the reliable precision of
Magnol's little book. Stations are occasionally set down from
memory, subalpine plants from the Cevennes are sometimes con-
founded with the low vegetation of the plains, and thus facts met
with in Gouan's works which may appear startling, cannot be
admitted without confirmation from other observers.
Since Gouan's time no special work on the Montpellier Flora has
appeared, but De CandoUe and Delile, who respectively occupied the
botanical chair, Duval, Salzmann, Eoubieu, Pouzin, Bouchet-
Doumenq, Cambessedes, etc., besides numerous botanists yet living,
have amassed extensive materials or published numerous notes scat-
tered through their works, from which very accurate details of the
present vegetation of the country may be obtained. Gouan and
Amoreux have left detailed lists of the exotic plants they attempted
to introduce, chiefly by sowing, in the last century, and in the present
one, the adventitious plants which spring up at the Port Juvenal, the
place where foreign wools are landed and washed, first adverted to in
the supplemental volume of De Candolle's Flore Francaise, have
more especially occupied the attention of Delile, Touchy, Godron,
Cosson, Lespinasse, and others. These and other sources from
which Dr. Planchon, independently of personal observation, has
collected his facts, are critically reviewed in a preliminary intro-
duction.
In sketching out the plan of his work Dr. Planchon distinguishes
two questions, the research into the facts observed relating to the
THE AXCIENT AXD MODERN ELORAS OE MONTPELLIEE. 205
modifications of the Flora, and tlie inquiry into the various causes
which have produced these changes. In the following chapters, how-
ever, the two questions are combined, and the subject matter
divided into two parts, 1. the destruction or disappearance of old
species, and, 2. the introduction of new ones. The region which he
takes as the field of his observations is defined as limited by the
Herault on the west, and the Yidourle on the east, a breadth of
about 30 miles, and as extending between 40 and 50 in length
from the seaboard on the south, to the mountains of Esperou and
Aigoual on the ridge of the Cevennes, which bound on the north that
hot, botanically rich, district known under the name of the region
of Olives.
The causes of destruction the most striking to the casual
observer, and which would a priori appear to be the most effective in
a region like that of Montpellier, where the cultivator and the bota-
nist have been equally at work during the three centuries in ques-
tion, are the defrichements or breaking up and bringing under culti-
vation of old woods, pastures, and wastes, and the extirpation of rare
species by the collecting zeal or wanton rapacity of botanists and
dealers ; but a closer observation shows that neither of these causes
have had the effects popularly attributed to them. Cultivation,
observes Dr. Planchon, can only be a cause of destruction to species
occupying a very limited area. " It is a difficult matter," he continues,
" to extirpate a plant from a country where it is well established.
"Wherever it occupies an area of any extent, it always finds some
points which suit it, where it can maintain itself, and from whence it
can take advantage of the first favourable opportunity for reinvading
its ancient possessions."
These observations, applied generally by Dr. Planchon, are more
peculiarly applicable to the Montpellier districts. That the advance
of agriculture during the last three centuries has been comparatively
slow, is proved by the study of Olivier de Serres' Theatre d'Agricul-
ture, published at the close of the eighteenth century, and still a
standard work for that country. Deep ploughing, rotation of crops,
drill sowing, clearing the banks and borders of fields, and other
devices, practised in central and northern Europe, for giving to the
objects of cultivation exclusively the beneficial possession of the soil,
are scarcely yet brought into bearing on the arable lands of Lower
Languedoc ; and nowhere else, perhaps, do the cornfields teem with
such a variety of De CandoUe's " plantes cultivees malgTe la volonte
de I'homme." The draining of large tracts of bog, to which [>o much
20(3 THE NATUEAL HISTORY REVIEW.
effect is attributed in the nortli, in causing the disappearance of rare
plants, has none at Montpellier, for there are no bogs to drain ; and
the vast lagoons and marshes which border the Mediterranean still
occupy at least as great an extent as they did some centuries back.
When waste lands are broken up they are rarely enclosed, and from
the broken, rocky nature of the country, scattered spaces are usually
left undisturbed, quite sufficient to perpetuate the previous wild
vegetation. If the conversion of the forest of Gramont, below the
town, or of the greater part of the rocky hill of Cette, with vine-
yards and olive-grounds, the disappearance of the few meadows of
Boutonnet, or the reduction of the once extensive woods of Pinits
lialepensisj around Montferrier, may have spoiled some of the best
herborising grounds of the botanists of the sixteenth or seventeenth
centuries ; on the other hand, a few miles further north, from Mont-
ferrier to beyond the Pic St. Loup, many a ruin of cottage or castle,
barn or enclosure, many an ancient track of the spade or plough in
what is now the open garrigue, or wild barren pasture of the coun-
try, show the extent of land, or at least the numerous patches, once
under cultivation, but now again left to the operations of Nature,
checked only by the ravages of the real enemies of scarce plants
— the flocks of sheep and goats that roam over them, and the
countless swarms of the insect tribe.
Cultivation alone has, therefore, had but very little effect in
destroying established species, and still less the wanton efforts of
botanical collectors. Montpellier has indeed had her dealers or
even amateurs who, after having supplied themselves with what they
conceived a sufficient stock of specimens of some of the rarer
species, have used every exertion to destroy the remainder; but
they have not succeeded. Lavatera onaritima, Pastinaca Opopanax^
Diplotaxis JivmiliSj etc., are still to be met with. Even the exertions
of gardeners to collect for planting all the roots they could find of
Pancratium maritimum, and some other Liliacese and OrchidesB, from
their very limited stations, have not yet effected their extirpation.
Dr. Planchon finally alludes to another cause of destruction, in
a manner which shows how steadily, although gradually, thinking
naturalists on the Continent, in spite of opposition, are adopting one
of the important principles laid down by Lyell and Darwin, that of
gradual change through countless ages versus sudden catastrophes.
" This cause," he says, "is the action slow but sure of the thousand
oflen inappreciable modifications, by which nature gradually substi-
tutes new species for the preexisting ones. This succession of vegetable
THE A^X'IENT AND MODERN FLOEAS OF MONTPELLIEE. 207
forms, in one and tlie same region, is a well-establislied law, and
without going back to geological periods, when it presents itself to
US on an immense scale, we can recognise its effects in the present
period." After alluding to the substitution of one tree for another
as the prevailing essence of forests, as observed in other countries,
and to the disappearance of trees and shrubs common in former
ages about Montpellier, as more especially considered in the memoir
we shall revert to further on, he further observes : —
" But if the operations of Nature are carried on with a certainty
that our feeble means never obtain, it is also with the slowness of a
power that has ages at its disposal. iN^othing, therefore, is more
difficult to establish than this gradual progress of certain species
towards destruction during periods when the action of physical
causes can be leisurely exercised without being disturbed by human
intervention.
•' To such a cause may, perhaps, be attributed the local disap-
pearance of trees formerly common in some of our woods : the
Nut tree and the Holly, much less frequent in the low grounds than
they used to be ; the Sycamore indicated by Magnol and Gouan
at the Capouladoux, but which, to our knowledge, has not been found
there in our days. These are, however, probabilities only; man
may have at^sisted nature and hastened the loss of these species in
restricted localities. At all events it will require much time yet
before the work of their destruction is completed over oiu' whole
region ; and before these species, scattered here and there in the
Cevennes, can be entered in the list of our extinct species." We
may suggest in addition, that these three trees, as well as the wild
gooseberry, alluded to by Planchon as disappearing also from the
low ground, all thrive best in a more temperate climate, and that the
additional exposui'e, occasioned by the destruction of woods, may
have been the last stroke that disabled them from resisting the
difficulties they had to contend with during the burning Montpellier
summer.
As the general result of physical causes, combined with human
action, Dr. Planchon can only establish the loss from the region of
Montpellier of five species since the sixteenth century. Five
species, however, in three centiu-ies, might be considered as a large
number in proportion to what has been observed elsewhere, if all five
liad been really old well-established species. But two of them,
Zupinus luteus and L. varius, from the details he gives further on,
can scarcely have been more than weeds of cultivaLion, hikI should
208 THE NATURAL HISTOET REVIEW.
probably have been classed with the more or less temporary intru-
ders, spoken of under the head of introduced plants. The three
others, Clematis recta, Coronilla juncea, and Arum arisarum, are
still not uncommon in some parts of Provence to the east, and in
Catalonia to the south-west, and are most probably species which in
fact are slowly but steadily losing ground.
In investigating the causes of introduction and dispersion of new
species, Dr. Planchon has been unable to trace any results within
the last three centuries to the action of purely physical causes, such
as curreuts of water or wind, or to the action of animals independ-
ently of man. The Montpellier seaboard is not exposed to any
extensive maritime currents, which, on some of our own and other
Atlantic coast:^, bring seeds from great distances rapidly enough to
preserve their powers of germination, and if, as is most likely, some
are brought from smaller distances, and germinate and grow, they are
the same which have done so repeatedly during tens or hundreds of
centuries, and cannot be distinguished from those raised from native
seeds. Fresh water currents can still less have introduced foreign
plants, for every stream of the region rises within it. All that they can
do is occasionally to bring down mountain plants into the valleys, or
to disperse along their banks species otherwise introduced. The action
of winds and that of animals, always independently of human
agency, take effect chiefly within limited distances ; and in this
respect the same observation applies to them as to that of the sea,
that the present conformation and condition of the country has
lasted so long, that their force has long since had its full effect, and
they have no new plants to act upon, unless brought within their
influence by other means. The only new species which the author
thinks may possibly have been introduced by these means, is the
Erigeron canadense, which the winds may have brought into the
region from other parts of France, where it had previously established
itself It must, however, be recollected, that whatever be the means
by which a plant is first introduced into a region, it is, according to
the definition of the term, by the action of physical causes alone
that it can be naturalized — that is, maintained, propagated, and dis-
persed without human protection or aid.
All means of introduction, independently of the above-mentioned
regular physical causes, are, unless some great change takes place in
the physical conformation, climate, or other condition of the country,
reduced to the direct or indirect influence of human agency.
THE ANCIEIS'T AND MODEEN FLOEAS OF MONTPELLIEE. 209
The most important and direct influence of man is by cultivation.
'' Wherever lie has established himself, he has deeply modified the
aspect of vegetation ; he has broken up large tracts, covered them
with plants foreign to the country, and, by his constant care, pro-
tected against the attacks of the indigenous vegetation, those plants
necessary for his wants or his industry. But this introduction of
cultivated plants does not enter within the scope of our essay ; we
only take into consideration those species which, once confided to
the soil, are abandoned to their own resources, and must maintain
themselves, without other aid, against the enemies of all kinds which
surround them."
But direct efforts have not been wanting on the part of botanists
really to naturalize exotic plants in various parts of the region by
sowing and planting them in localities where they were supposed to
be likely to succeed. Nissole in the seventeenth century, Gouan and
Amoreux in the eighteenth, and Moquin-Tandon in the present one,
carried on the operation on a large scale. Gouan and Amoreux
especially have left records of about 900 species so treated ; but after
a careful research, Dr. Planchon cannot discover that a single one
has established itself, or is now to be found in the localities indicated,
if it was not already naturally there. It is true that, on examining
the lists, there appears to have been very little discernment on the
part of the experimenters in the selection of species or of stations.
" They have taken into account neither the favourite stations of these
species, nor the aspects which they usually prefer, nor the chemical
or physical condition of the soil, nor the association of the vegeta-
tion which surrounds or shades them." It is probable also that the
number of seeds sown, or of roots planted, was always very limited.
" It is, therefore, not surprising that the rare individuals which suc-
ceeded in germinating, isolated amidst the rightful possessors of the
soil, should rapidly have been smothered by them " But it is ob-
served, " notwithstanding the imperfection of these attempts, it
must be admitted that some species amongst the number must have
met with the conditions favourable for their development. Why
have they not spread and established themselves in the country ?
It is evidently because the naturalization of a plant meets with many
more difficulties than one would suppose without experience. There
are indeed very few that triumph over all the obstacles opposed to
their establishment. If a species does not early show its tendency
to naturalization, if it decs not sow or multiply itself on its arrival
210 THE Is^ATURAL HISTORY RETIEW.
in the country, one mu«t inevitably expect a failure in endeavouring
to introduce it."
In recent days, a few attempts, made with more judgment and
perseverance, have met with rather better success, but only in the
case of aquatic plants propagated by their rhizomes. Three of these
appear to be more or less established : Aponogeton distacliyon in the
Lez at Lavalette, planted in 18B8 ; Acorus calamus in the pool of
Grramont, planted in 1849 ; and Jussieua grandiflora, thrown into the
Lez many years since, and now spread all along its course from
Pont Juvenal 
