NATURALIST'S GUIDE
TO THE AMERICAS
From the collection of the
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THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE
TO THE AMERICAS
NATURALIST'S GUIDE
TO THE AMERICAS
PREPARED BY THE
COMMITTEE on the PRESERVATION of NATURAL CONDITIONS
of THE ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA
with assistance from numerous organizations and individuals
ASSEMBLED AND EDITED BY THE CHAIRMAN
VICTOR E. SHELFORD
University of Illinois and Illinois State
Natural History Survey
PUBLICATION EDITOR
FORREST SHREVE
Desert Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution
ASSOCIATES AND SPECIAL EDITORS
E. LUCY BRAUN CLARENCE F. KORSTIAN
University of Cincinnati Appalachian Forest Experiment Station
Botany Forestry
Assembled and Edited Assembled ana Edited
parts on parts on
National Parks and Monuments National Forests of the
of the United States United States
LEE R. DICE ROBERT B. MILLER
Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan Illinois Natural History Survey
Mammals Forestry
LYNDS JONES HELEN T. GAIGE
Oberlin College Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan
Birds Reptiles
FRANK C. BAKER
Natural History Museum, University of Illinois
Zoology
BALTIMORE
THE WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY
1926
COPYRIGHT 1926
THE WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY
Made in United States of America
Published February, 1926
COMPOSED AND PRINTED AT THE
WAVERLY PRESS
FOR
THE WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY
BALTIMORE, MD., XJ. 8. A.
CHAIRMAN'S PREFACE
The Ecological Society of America is a national organization of approxi-
mately 500 members, the majority of whom are connected with universities,
colleges, and other educational or research institutions. The membership
includes a larger proportion of persons interested in the preservation of
natural conditions for research in pure science and for educational work
than any other of our national scientific societies. It publishes the jour-
nal Ecology, which is largely devoted to contributions on the original
flora and fauna and on their conditions of existence.
In 1917 a committee was charged with the listing of all preserved and
preservable areas in North America in which natural conditions persist.
The original committee included about twenty-five members, scattered
throughout the United States and Canada. The first work was to make
the list and when this had made some progress, to urge the reservation of
such important areas as demanded immediate attention. The whole
problem of securing the preservation of areas, which is one of the objects
of the committee work, is very complex. At the outset the committee
felt the lack of any definite guides in carrying on the work. The organiza-
tion which produced the Naturalist's Guide has been a growth; committee
membership is limited to those willing to do some kind of work, and
includes about seventy-five members. It is a committee on the preserva-
tion of nature. Its efforts are directed toward the preservation of natural
areas with original flora and fauna (or as nearly so as may obtain) and the
maintenance of the natural biotic balance in existing preserves.
During the preparation of the present volume the committee aimed to
have two members in each state (and province of Canada) . These mem-
bers (1) supplied information relative to natural areas, etc. in their terri-
tory and (2) undertook to interest one local organization concerned with
pure science, e.g., a state academy or natural history society, in the preser-
vation of natural areas, commonly indicated by the appointment of a
committee. This constitutes a permanent organization charged, among
other things, with the keeping of the guide up to date. Other members
were engaged in investigating certain topics and writing reports, in interest-
ing pure science organizations to support the work of publication and dis-
tribution of information, and in selecting natural areas within existing
public forests.
The present volume has been prepared with the aid of various institu-
tions and organizations. The National Research Council granted $300
in 1921-1922 which aided greatly in financing the requests for manuscripts
vi CHAIRMAN'S PREFACE
and also increased the interest in the project. The American Society of
Zoologists and the Botanical Society of America contributed $25.00 each
toward the classification of areas as to degree of modification from the
original condition.
The establishment of cooperation with the United States Forest Service
greatly reduced our financial and clerical burdens.
Acknowledgments are due the following institutions for encouraging
their staff members in editing or contributing to the work: United States
Forest Service; United States Biological Survey; University of Michigan
Museum; University of Illinois, Department of Zoology and Natural
History Survey; University of Cincinnati, Department of Botany; Oberlin
College, Department of Ecology; Northwestern University, Department of
Botany; New Hampshire College, Department of Zoology; and the Car-
negie Institution.
The following rendered important service in reading and correcting
manuscripts:
H. A. Gleason, New York Botanic Garden
H. Burrington Baker, University of Pennsylvania
A. H. Wright, Cornell University
C. C. Hamilton, University of Maryland
Vernon Bailey, U. S. Biological Survey
P. L. Kicker, U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry
A. H. Howell, U. S. Biological Survey
W. L. McAtee, U. S. Biological Survey
H. P. Loding, Mobile, Alabama
F. L. Mulford, U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry
W. L. Bray, Syracuse University
W. H. Osgood, Field Museum, Chicago
E. A. Goldman, U. S. Biological Survey
I. H. Blake, University of Maine
Samuel Eddy, James Millikin University
The associate editors did very much to improve the general character of
the work, but credit should be especially given Dr. E. Lucy Braun who read
the entire manuscript on states and provinces, making important general
criticisms. She added greatly to the plant material and verified the
scientific names. Dr. L. R. Dice made a similar careful study of the
manuscript on states and provinces and contributed materially to the
accounts of mammals.
Several questionnaires regarding the nomenclature to be used for the
various communities and concerning the mapping of natural regions were
sent out. The names of the contributors of these subjects are in connec-
tion with the lists of natural regions and maps of them.
The taxonomic nomenclature for plants in the states and provinces
is mainly according to Sudworth's Check List for trees, and for other
CHAIRMAN'S PREFACE vii
plants follows Britton and Brown's Illustrated Flora, Coulter and
Nelson's Manual, Piper's Flora of Washington, and other state floras.
Common usage has been deemed more important than adherence to
supposedly universal codes of nomenclature. The nomenclature on am-
phibians and reptiles in the states and provinces is after L. Stejneger and
T. Barbour: Checklist of North American Amphibians and Reptiles,
second edition. Names of mammals are from G. S. Miller, Jr. : List of
North American Recent Mammals, 1923, U. S. National Museum Bulletin
128; and those of the birds follow the American Ornithological Union
check list. In the case of most animals and plants, scientific name and
common name are used together the first time the name of the species
appears in a state or provincial account, thereafter in the same article, the
common name stands alone. The birds are an exception to this, as scientific
names of species breeding or resident north of Mexico are used only in the
list at the close of the volume. The common names of birds are fully as
well established as the scientific ones.
The absence of data on invertebrate or lower vertebrate life is, of course,
striking all through the guide. This is perhaps unavoidable. The princi-
pal users will be students of mammals, birds, or general ecology including
plants. As a matter of fact, little work has been done on the invertebrates
as regards ecology, excepting in aquatic work, which is seldom mentioned
by the authors. As regards the Mollusca, F. C. Baker states that little
work has been done except in certain states, state lists being usually syste-
matic, and not ecologic. He has added here and there a note on inverte-
brate life, but little can be done at present to strengthen this side of the
zoology.
The data included in the guide had been brought together in the form of
manuscripts during seven years of more or less continuous effort, and when
turned over to the Publication Editor, the principal task appeared to be
rendering of nomenclature and organization somewhat more uniform. The
extent and character of the Publication Editor's work is indicated in the
second preface.
V. E. SHELFORD.
Champaign, May 7,
PUBLICATION EDITOR'S PREFACE
The manuscript of the Naturalist's Guide first came to my hands in an
advanced stage of preparation, after the members of the compiling com-
mittee had given several years and much hard work to the planning of its
scope, the selection of contributors, and the arrangement of the material
secured.
My own part of the production of the Guide has been the small one
of reading the manuscript with reference to the coordination of certain
features of the treatment, and the unification of typographic style. While
many minor changes have been made, it has seemed best to preserve in
each chapter the individuality of style and treatment of each of the various
authors, chosen for their recognized familiarity with the areas which had
been assigned to them. Nothing has been done by way of attempting to
recast into a uniform mould all of the chapters which relate to regions of
such diverse character, known with such varying degrees of completeness.
The latest work of incorporating rewritten and fresh material, as well as
the final revision of the manuscript, has been in the hands of Dr. V. E.
Shelf ord, by whom the project of such a guide was conceived, and to whom
the major share of credit will belong for the hoped-for utility of this
product of many hands.
FORREST SHREVE.
Tucson, January, 1925.
IX
CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION. V. E. SHELFORD <4
II. USES, VALUES, AND MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL AREAS 5
A. Artistic and Literary Uses * 7
1. The Value of Natural Areas to Literature and Art. S. L. WHIT-
COMB, University of Kansas 7
2. The Value of Natural Preserves to the Landscape Architect.
S. H. WHITE, University of Illinois 8
B. Scientific and Practical Uses and Values 10
1. The Value to Silviculture of Reserved Areas of Natural Forest
Types. W. W. ASHE, United States Forest Service 10
2. The Value of Aquatic Preserves to Fisheries. A. S. PEARSE,
University of Wisconsin 11
3. The Importance to Geography of the Preservation of Natural
Areas. S. S. VISHER, Indiana University 12
4. The Importance of Natural Areas to Biology and Agriculture.
V. E. SHELFORD, University of Illinois 13
C. Forces Making for the Destruction or Preservation of Natural Areas. . 15
1. Forest Laws and Regulations and the Preservation of Natural
Conditions. R. B. MILLER, Illinois Natural History Survey. . 15
2. The Preservation of Natural Conditions in the National Forests.
C. F. KORSTIAN, United States Forest Service 17
3. Permanent Sample Plots in the National Forests. C. F. KOR-
STIAN, U. S. Forest Service 19
4. National Parks and National Monuments. E. LUCY BRAUN,
University of Cincinnati 20
5. Museums and Nature. F. C. BAKER, University of Illinois.... 27
6. Game Preserves as Illustrated by Pennsylvania's Experience.
JOHN M. PHILLIPS, Pennsylvania Game Commission 28
7. The Relation of Shrubs and Trees to Wild Birds (.Quoted). F.
SMITH, University of Illinois 31
8. Grazing in the National Forests. C. F. KORSTIAN, United
States Forest Service 33
9. Fires in Relation to the Biota. R. H. WOLCOTT, University of
Nebraska 34
10. The Effect of Pollution on Animal Life. F. C. BAKER, Uni-
versity of Illinois 38
D. Interests and Management 42
1. Union of Interests and Management of Natural Areas. V. E.
SHELFORD, University of Illinois 42
E. Administration of Wild Life 45
1. The Administration of Wild Life in State and National Parks
(Quoted). CHAS. C. ADAMS, New York State College of
Forestry 45
F. Duty of Scientific Men 62
1. The Duty of Scientific Men in Conservation. H. S. GRAVES,
Yale University 52
xi
xii CONTENTS
III. ORIGINAL BIOTA OP THE AMERICAS NORTH OF THE AMAZON ............... 55
A. Introduction. V. E. SHELFORD, University of Illinois ............... 57
B. Descriptive List of North American Biota. V. E. SHELFORD, Uni-
versity of Illinois, L. JONES, Oberlin College, and L. R. DICE, Uni-
versity of Michigan ............................................... 60
C. Life Zones. V. E. SHELFORD, University of Illinois, and G. T. JONES,
Oberlin College ................................................... 76
D. Descriptive list of Middle American Biota. FORREST SHREVE, Desert
Laboratory, and V. E. SHELFORD, University of Illinois ............ 77
, E. Provisional Table of Landscape Aspect and Life Zone Equivalents.
E. A. GOLDMAN, United States Biological Survey .................. 80
F. Bibliography. V. E. SHELFORD, University of Illinois .............. 81
IV. NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS ........................................... 83
A. General Plan. V. E. SHELFORD, University of Illinois .............. 85
B. Natural Regions and Natural Areas ................................. 87
Section 1. Northern North America: Ice Covered Areas, Tundra and
Northern Coniferous Forest ......................................... 87
1. Northwest Greenland. W. ELMER EKBLAW, Clark University. 87
2. Danish Greenland. W. ELMER EKBLAW, Clark University ..... 90
3. The American Arctic Archipelago. W. ELMER EKBLAW, Clark
University ........................................ ' ........... 98
4. Ungava and Labrador. W. ELMER EKBLAW, Clark University. . 102
5. Newfoundland. W. ELMER EKBLAW ........................... Ill
6. The Mackenzie Watershed; Northern Hudson Bay Region,
Upper Yukon Region, and the Arctic Islands. E. A. PREBLE,
U. S. Biological Survey ..................................... 115
7. Alaska. W. H. OSGOOD, Field Museum ...................... 141
8. The National Forests of the Alaskan District. JOHN D.
GUTHRIE, United States Forest Service ..................... 147
Section 2. Southern Canada and the United States ....................... 150
A. States, Provinces and Forest Districts, Chiefly Coniferous Forest ____ 150
1. British Columbia. JOHN DAVIDSON, University of British
Columbia, P. Z. CAVERHILL, Provincial Forest Branch,
EDWARD A. PREBLE, United States Biological Survey, and
A. H. HUTCHINSON, University of British Columbia ........ 150
2. Washington. G. B. RIGG, University of Washington, L. R. DICE,
HELEN T. GAIGE, University of Michigan and HORACE GUN-
THORP, University of Washington .......................... 168
3. Oregon. THORNTON T. MUNGER, United States Forest Service,
WILLIAM E. LAWRENCE, Oregon Agricultural College, and
HOWARD M. WIGHT, Oregon Agricultural College ............ 181
4. California. H. C. BRYANT, University of California ........... 193
5. National Forests of the North Pacific District (6). J. V. HOF-
MANN, Pennsylvania Forest School .......................... 202
6.|National Forests of the Northern District (1). J. A. LARSEN,
Iowa State College .......................................... 208
7. National Forests of California. Vegetational Types. E. N.
MUNNS, United States Forest Service ........................ 216
8. National Forests of the Intermountain District (4). F. S.
BAKER and S. B. LOCKE, United States Forest Service ........ |224
9. National Forests of the Southwestern District (3). G. A.
PEARSON, United States Forest Service ...................... 232
10. National Forests of the Rocky Mountain District (2). C. G.
BATES, United States Forest Service.. . 237
CONTENTS xiii
11. Idaho. R. A. MUTTKOWSKI, University of Idaho 249
12. Alberta. A. B. CONNELL, Dominion Forestry Branch 253
13. Saskatchewan. JOHN SMITH DEXTER, College of Porto Rico.. 258
14. Manitoba. A. B. CONNELL, Dominion Forestry Branch 263
15. Minnesota. C. O. ROSENDAHL, University of Minnesota 267
16. Wisconsin. A. S. PEARSE, University of Wisconsin 284
17. Ontario. C. D. HOWE and J. R. DYMOND, University of Toronto 288
18. The Province of Quebec. G. D. FULLER, University of Chicago,
and BRO. MARIE- VICTORIN, College de Longueuil 293
19. New Brunswick. B. E. CLARIDGE, University of New Brunswick 299
20. Prince Edward Island. Committee Notes 302
21. Nova Scotia. A. H. MACKAY, Nova Scotia, Department of
Education 303
22. Maine. A. O. GROSS, Bowdoin College, and A. H. NORTON,
Portland Society of Natural History 305
B. States Chiefly Deciduous Forest 314
1. New Hampshire. K. W. WOODWARD and C. F. JACKSON, New
Hampshire College 314
2. Vermont. GEO. P. BURNS, University of Vermont 316
3. Massachusetts. ANNA M. STARR, Mount Holyoke College 318
4. Connecticut. GEO. E. NICHOLS, Yale University 326
5. Rhode Island. MARION D. WESTON, Rhode Island College of
Education 330
6. New York. W. L. BRAY, Syracuse University 332
7. Pennsylvania. JOHN W. HARSHBERGER, University of Pennsyl-
vania 338
8. West Virginia. W. E. RUMSEY, West Virginia University 341
9. Tennessee. R. S. MADDOX, Tennessee Bureau of Forestry 347
10. Kentucky. A. R. MIDDLETON, University of Louisville, W. R.
JILLSON, F. T. MCFARLAND and M. A. ANDERSON, JR., Uni-
versity of Kentucky 349
11. Ohio. E. LUCY BRAUN, University of Cincinnati, and LYNDS
JONES, Oberlin College 354
12. Indiana. WILL SCOTT, Indiana University 372
13. Michigan. L. R. DICE, University of Michigan, LYNDS JONES
and HELEN T. GAIGE, University of Michigan 377
14.' National Forests of the Eastern District. E. H. FROTHINGHAM,
r. : , j UnitedJStates Forest Service 387
C. States with Deciduous Forest, Southeastern Coniferous Forest, and
Large Swamp Areas 394
1. New Jersey. T. C. NELSON, Rutgers College 394
2. Delaware. FRANK MORTON JONES 398
3. Maryland. C. C. HAMILTON, N. J. Agricultural Experiment
Station 401
4. Virginia. IVEY F. LEWIS, University of Virginia 410
5. North Carolina. Z. P. METCALF and B. W. WELLS, North
Carolina State College 413
6. South Carolina. PHILIP LUGINBILL, United States Bureau of
Entomology 418
7. Georgia. HENRY Fox, U. S. Bureau of Entomology 422
8. Florida. J. R. WATSON, University of Florida 427
9. Alabama. R. M. HARPER, Alabama Geological Survey, M. S.
JOHNSON, University of Minnesota, and A. H. Ho WELL, United
States Biological Survey 440
xiv CONTENTS
10. Mississippi. GLADYS HOKB, Converse College 454
11. Louisiana. G. W. GOLDSMITH, Carnegie Institution, LENTHALL
WYMAN, United States Forest Service, and H. H. KOPMAN,
Louisiana Department of Conservation 460
12. Arkansas. JOHN T. BUCHHOLZ, University of Arkansas 464
Texas. (See page 502.)
D. States Chiefly Oak Grove Savanna 469
1. Illinois. T. H. FRISON and R. B. MILLER, Illinois Natural
History Survey 469
2. Iowa. L. H. PAMMEL, Iowa State College 480
3. Missouri. A. C. BURRILL, Missouri Resources Museum 485
4. Oklahoma. H. H. LANE, University of Kansas 490
Texas. (See page 502.)
E. States Chiefly Grassland or Steppe 502
1. Texas. A. R. CAHN, University of Illinois 502
2. Kansas. J. W. McCoLLOCH, Kansas State Agricultural College. 515
3. Nebraska. R. H. WOLCOTT, University of Nebraska 519
4. Colorado. F. RAMALEY and W. W. ROBBINS, University of
Colorado 524
5. Wyoming. JOHN W. SCOTT, University of Wyoming 529
6. Montana. M. J. ELROD, University of Montana 537
7. North Dakota. J. T. SARVIS, United States Bureau of Plant
Industry, and J. E. SWITZER, Indiana University 544
8. South Dakota. E. J. PETRY, South Dakota State College, and
S. S. VISHER, Indiana University 548
F. States Chiefly Desert and Semi-Desert 556
Oregon. (See under Coniferous Forest.)
California. (See under Coniferous Forest.)
1. Utah. C. F. KORSTIAN, United States Forest Service 557
2. Nevada. C. F. KORSTIAN, U. S. Forest Service 560
3. Arizona. G. A. PEARSON, U. S. Forest Service, E. A. GOLDMAN,
United States Biological Survey, FORREST SHREVE, Carnegie
Institution, and CHARLES T. Vorhies, University of Arizona 562
4. New Mexico. A. O. WEESE, University of Oklahoma 570
Section 8. The Tropics North of the Equator 574
A. Mexico and Central America 574
1. Mexico. E. W. NELSON and E. A. GOLDMAN, United States
Biological Survey 574
2. Guatemala. WILSON POPENOE, United States Department of
Agriculture 596
3. British Honduras. KARL P. SCHMIDT, Field Museum 600
4. Honduras. KARL P. SCHMIDT, Field Museum 601
5. The Republic of Salvador. PAUL C. STANDLEY, U. S. National
Museum 602
6. Nicaragua. LUDLOW GRISCOM, American Museum of Natural
History 604
7. Costa Rica. LUDLOW GRISCOM, American Museum of Natural
History 607
8. Panama. E. A. GOLDMAN, United States Biological Survey, and
JAMES ZETEK, Custodian of the Barro Colorado Island Labo-
ratory, United States Bureau of Entomology 612
B. Northern South America 623
1. Colombia. FRANCIS W. PENNELL, Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia .623
CONTENTS xv
2. Venezuela. H. PITTIER, Caracas, Ven, and H. B. BAKEB, Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania 637
3. The Guianas. WM. BEEBE, New York Zoological Society, and
H. A. GLEASON, New York Botanical Garden 649
4. Ecuador. WILSON POPENOE, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
and H. E. ANTHONY, American Museum of Natural History. . 662
5. The Amazon Valley. ORLAND E. WHITE, Brooklyn, Botanic
Garden 674
C. Islands in the Atlantic and Adjacent Waters 681
1. Bermudas. (Committee Notes.) 681
2. Bahamas. (Committee Notes.) 682
3. Cuba. BROTHER LEON, Colegio de la Salle, Havana 682
4. Haiti and Santo Domingo. G. KINGSLEY NOBLE, American
Museum of Natural History 695
5. Jamaica. FORREST SHREVE, Carnegie Institution 698
6. Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands. N. L. BRITTON, New York
Botanical Garden, G. N. WOLCOTT, Porto Rico Experiment
Station, and others 700
7. Dutch West Indies. H. B. BAKER, University of Pennsylvania. 707
D. Pacific Islands 709
1. Galapagos Islands. (Committee Notes.) 709
2. Philippine Islands. F. T. MCLEAN, Rhode Island College,
Kingston, Rhode Island 709
V. LIST OF ORGANIZATIONS INTERESTED IN THE PRESERVATION OP NATURAL
CONDITIONS 721
A. List of State and Territorial Representatives. W. G. WATERMAN,
Northwestern University 723
B. Local Organizations. W. G. WATERMAN, Northwestern University. . 727
C. National Organizations. C. F. JACKSON, New Hampshire College... 736
VI. Indices 741
1. Index of Scientific and Common Names of Birds 743
2. Index to Authors and Localities .. 759
I. INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
BY V. E. SHELFORD
Biology has been characterized by
waves of interest in special fields cor-
responding to fads and similar phe-
nomena in human activity generally.
One of these fields of special interest
is, or has been, evolution. One can
hardly help agreeing with writers who
state that it retarded the progress of
biology (botany and zoology). This
was due to the fact that it happened
to turn attention to types of work that
could be done in the museum and in the
laboratory. The doctrine of the sur-
vival of the fittest was accepted with,
none but the crudest ideas of what
constitutes fitness. Most backward of
all was the knowledge of the environ-
ment. This, together with the ease
with which morphological features could
be fitted into the doctrines set forth
by Darwin, led to a period of empirical
speculation concerning adaptation,
coloration, mimicry, etc., which con-
tributed so little of scientific value
that much of it will be quite generally
ignored or forgotten in the near future.
In connection with this work observa-
tions which would show the function
or fitness of the parts of features specu-
lated about, were rare if not wanting.
The uses of the structures or colors were
often entirely assumed. We perhaps
know less about fitness than any other
biological subject. The "survival of
the fittest" as usually employed means
merely the survival of the survivors.
There can be no adequate knowledge of
fitness to environment without knowl-
edge of environment.
Knowledge of habitats and the rela-
tions of organisms to them cannot be
said to have seriously reached the ears
or constituted a part of the training of
more than a few of those engaged in the
older lines of botany and zoology.
Studies of genetics, evolution, physi-
ology, embryology, cytology, parasi-
tology and entomology still proceed
largely or at least far too often without
reference to the habitat relations of
the organisms studied.
Warming, who studied the plants of
the sanddunes of Denmark, discovered
orderly sequences and established the
fact that habitats and environment
may be interpreted by putting the
results of his studies into scientific
order. He thus answered the epithet
of a famous contemporary zoologist
who closed a discussion of habitats with
the words "developing hodge podge."
Modern ecology has shown that the
environment is orderly, proceeding in
a particular direction for long periods.
One of its outstanding and original
features is the study and orderly inter-
pretation of the habitats of organisms
and the organisms themselves. Further
experience has demonstrated what
Warming indicated: That knowledge
of habitats can be organized into science.
A branch of biological science which
obtains its inspiration in the natural
order in original habitats must depend
upon the preservation of natural areas
for the solution of many problems.
It was the conviction of many mem-
bers of the Ecological Society soon
after its organization, that the society
should take steps to make available
for study as much of the original biota
of North America, as possible. An
inventory of available areas and the
extent to which they are modified is
naturally one of the early steps in the
preservation of suitable areas for eco-
logical study.
3
II. USES, VALUES AND MANAGEMENT
OF NATURAL AREAS
A. ARTISTIC AND LITERARY USES
1. THE VALUE OF NATURAL AREAS
TO LITERATURE AND ART
BY SELDEN LINCOLN WHITCOMB
Some few early American poets wrote
of the skylark and the nightingale.
They followed the easy path of inherited
literary tradition, and did not seem to
realize the wealth of new natural ma-
terial at their very doors. Other poets,
however, very soon discovered the
poetic values of the whippoorwill, the
passenger pigeon, and the ruby-throated
humming-bird. Freneau, poet of the
American Revolution, has a well known
poem on the honeysuckle. A little
later Bryant's poem on the yellow violet
almost marks an epoch in the poetic
treatment of American flowers. Alex-
ander Wilson may be considered, in a
sense, as the last of the pioneers among
the American writers on American
nature. In his poetry, as well as in
his letters and his American Ornithol-
ogy, he has left wonderful records of
his personal observations of birds,
plants, and landscapes over a very
large section of the region east of the
Mississippi River. 1
From the days of Wilson to the pres-
ent time, there has been, on the part
of American writers, an alert and
continuous interest in the varied as-
pects of American nature. Perhaps
no literature is richer than ours in the
literary presentation of local nature.
The "nature essay" is a very charac-
teristic and practically indigenous
literary type in this country. As
American territory expanded, our
writers accompanied or soon followed
1 For a fairly extended treatment of "Nature in
Early American Literature," see the writer's article
in The Sewanee Review, 1894.
the pioneers of the new regions. Our
literature now offers us entire volumes
of nature lore from the region Where
Rolls the Oregon (Dallas Lore Sharp)
to that of A Florida Sketch-Book (Brad-
ford Torrey) and from The Maine
Woods (Thoreau) to The Land of Little
Rain (Mary Austin). Dr. Neil E.
Stevens has an interesting article in
The Scientific Monthly for February,
1921, on "The Botany of the New Eng-
land Poets." There is abundance of
material for analogous articles on the
botany or the zoology of writers for
every section, yes, for every state of
the Union.
The student of American literature
welcomes any reasonable movement
to preserve, in as nearly the original
state as possible, as many as possible
of the regions which have been observed,
loved, and described by our authors.
The present writer has visited the site
of Thoreau's famous cabin at Walden
Pond, and has followed the path of
Thoreau, with Cape Cod in his hand,
for miles and miles along the Cape.
(Incidentally, as the writer lay on high
land tracing the route from the book,
an unsuspicious fox came trotting to
within two yards or so of him.) Man-
kato, Minnesota, is a typical and beau-
tiful prairie town and it was the western
limit of Thoreau's only western trip.
Mankato has a wonderful system of
natural parks. The student of litera-
ture hopes that a section of prairie or
woodland, known to have been visited
by Thoreau, may yet be located and
preserved.
Among other places of somewhat
similar interest in American literary
biography, in the Middle West, these
may be suggested : haunts in Wisconsin,
8
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
which inspired James Gates Percival
(poet as well as geologist) ; places in or
near Fort Gibson, Oklahoma, which
stimulated the pen of Washington
Irving; certain environs of Osage and
Clear Lake, Iowa, which were of notable
significance in the development of
Hamlin Garland, etc.
Here and there in the prairie country,
one finds small areas of open ground
still in their natural state. This is
sometimes the case with the railroad
right-of-way. Here may be found
plants, and, to a lesser extent, animals
which seem to have passed from the
neighboring regions. Such areas are
especially welcome to the lover of
literature. If their natural phenomena
are not yet known to our literature
proper, let us not destroy the oppor-
tunity for the writers of the future.
The natural forest edge also let us
preserve as many sections of it as
possible. Here, where the prairie
meets the woods, were the original
haunts of many of our familiar herbs
and shrubs and birds spring migrants :
white-throated sparrow, hermit thrush,
etc.; summer residents: thrasher, cat-
bird, Bell's vireo, etc. ; winter visitants :
juncoes, tree sparrows, the great north-
ern shrike, etc.
We have already destroyed much
which cannot be replaced. No sane
student of literature will deny the
national importance of the lumber
industry or of the greatest possible ex-
tension of grain producing land. But
the same student is anxious to prove to
himself and to the world that America
is not entirely commercial in spirit.
He hopes for and believes in the Ameri-
can artist painters, musicians, and
writers of the near and of the distant
future. For these artists and for those
thousands if not millions of citizens
whose lives are to be enriched by these
works of pen and brush, we should
preserve, all over the country, carefully
selected, representative areas, as nearly
in the primitive condition as is now
possible.
2. THE VALUE OF NATURAL PRE-
SERVES TO THE LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECT
BY STANLEY WHITE
Inasmuch as one of the chief interests
of landscape architecture is the pres-
ervation of beautiful landscapes, noth-
ing can be more evident than the im-
portance to the profession and to those
deriving benefits from its works of
this movement to save various natural
regions from possible injury or de-
struction. Landscape architects have
always maintained a keen interest in
such movements: as private practi-
tioners in urging the development of
organizations interested in natural pre-
serves, and through their national
professional society in formally support-
ing the movements in defence of our
great national reservations against im-
proper exploitation.
Frederick Law Olmsted, in speaking
of our national parks, says:
The National Parks are set apart
primarily in order to preserve to the
people for all time the opportunity of a
peculiar kind of enjoyment and recrea-
tion, not measurable in economic terms
and to be obtained only from the re-
markable scenery which they contain
scenery of these primeval types which
are in most parts of the world rapidly
vanishing for all eternity before the
increased thoroughness of the economic
use of land. In the National Parks
direct economic returns, if any are
wholly secondary to the one dominant
purpose of preserving essential esthetic
qualities of their scenery unimpaired as
a heritage to the infinite numbers of the
generations to come.
One of the most notable achievements
in this direction was the creation of the
Boston Park system, with its rich
natural and semi-natural preserves
largely through the original idea and
subsequently the active work of Mr.
Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect,
concerning which there is an excellent
account in his biography. 1 Many other
instances could be cited, as the design
1 Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect, by C. W.
Eliot.
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
of public areas is a considerable part
of the regular work of the profession.
President Emeritus Charles W. Eliot
of Harvard University, at the meeting
of the American Society of Landscape
Architects, Boston, 1911, made the
following remarks :
If I were asked to mention the most
important public movement of the last
twenty years, I should say it was the
movement to obtain for all classes of
society indeed, for the entire popula-
tion better means of health, rational
enjoyment, and real happiness. Much
sympathy has been expressed in these
later years for the unhappy condition
of large elements of the population.
Something more than economic remedies
must be found for the great evils which
beset modern society, and particularly
for the diseases, physical and moral,
which are caused by congestion of popu-
lation. This profession is called upon
to deal with all these problems of con-
gestion. You must take account of the
desires and hopes, tastes and purposes
of the population to be relieved; and
these sentiments and emotions will all
be found to be closely related to that
pursuit of happiness in which a free
people is always engaged in accordance
with their tastes and inclinations.
. . . The Declaration of Independ-
ence declares that all men have a right
to life, liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness. Now it is the pursuit of
public happiness which, I think, should
be the main standby of this profession
in urging the public to use the landscape
art, to seek its benefits, and to employ
its artists.
But the preservation of natural
beauty is not the only object sought
in saving the untouched tracts. Not
that their beauty is not a sufficient
object in itself, but other factors, not
less important but simply less apparent,
can be justly ascribed. The training
of the landscape architect begins not
only with pictorial composition and
practical design, but also with the
study of plants, of soils, of bodies of
water and of all the great natural forces
and influences that have shaped and
given character to the physiognomy
of the land and its vegetation. Now
the original sources of the literature in
all these vast fields of special sciences
have come from the many investigators
who have utilized the natural areas
not as an accessory to their mode of
study but as the supreme fundamental
basis of all determinations. Unlike the
investigators in other than the so-called
"Natural Sciences" whose laboratories
are often merely specially equipped
ordinary buildings, these workers
must depend on all out-doors for their
laboratories and particularly on the
few portions of the earth's surface still
remaining as an original record of the
earth's history. The plea of this work
is that these original tracts are so
rapidly becoming modified that steps
should be taken to save their destruc-
tion before too late. From the stand-
point of the landscape profession their
loss would be not a mere sentimental
misfortune, but a real catastrophe
reaching into every branch of science
which contributes to the development
of landscape study.
From these great sources of natural
beauty comes all our inspiration; from
them comes the unlimited store of fine
examples teaching us the arrange-
ment of our materials ; from them comes
the lesson of growth, development and
natural strife that shows the way to
a permanent landscape; and finally,
from them comes the suggestion to the
layman of the value of beauty and the
desire for it in the surroundings of
human habitations. It is not enough
that we grow fine floral displays, well-
clipped hedges and smooth lawns. We
must bring to the most humble cottage
in all parts of the land at least a sug-
gestion of nature's charm, power and
delicacy, the inspiration for which,
unless these natural preserves are
secured, will disappear for all times in
spirit and in fact.
B. SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL USES AND VALUES
1. THE VALUE TO SILVICULTURE OF
RESERVED AREAS OF NATURAL
FOREST TYPES
BY W. W. ASHE
The setting aside of vestigial units
of the various forest types has three
important objects in view: First, to
supply the means for studying the
laws which control the distribution
of different species of trees. Second,
to ascertain the factors which deter-
mine forest types. Third, to note the
changes in such types induced by the
artificial conditions which result from
exploitation and silvicultural practice.
The practical silviculturist is princi-
pally concerned with the last named
of these objects. It is his function to
modify natural conditions, often to a
profound degree, in the interest of
increased yields of commercially de-
sirable species. In this, however, he
is constantly taking a chance, since his
crop is a slow growing one and he is
unable to wait for the results of the pains-
taking research, extended through the
life of a stand of timber, needed to sup-
ply the accurate results under which he
could proceed with complete confidence.
By determining these factors of dis-
tribution and using these vestigial
units as check plots, however, it may be
possible for him to prevent mistakes or
to rectify errors which may be made
through deviating too far from the
normal.
It is reasonable to suppose that each
site, the biotic corollary 1 of which is
the forest type, bears in its natural
condition (unless modified by fires)
the heaviest stand which the native
species are capable of producing on
lAshe, W. W. "Forest Types of the Appala-
chians and White Mountains." Journal of the
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, 37: 183-198. 1922.
that site. That is, nature has already
established that species or association
of species which is best suited for grow-
ing under the limiting edaphic and
meteorological conditions which are
termed site, among the most important
of such conditions being soil acidity,
rate of nitrification, maximum mois-
ture content, number and length of
critically dry periods, depth of soil,
and available heat units and their
distribution. The species forming the
type reproduce themselves, not invaria-
bly in a definite proportion, but definite
within a certain latitude, the oscilla-
tion of the type, 2 and utilize the full
resources of the site, which is capable
of producing annually (or on an average)
a fixed amount of wood material (eel
lulose). Silviculture seeks to modify
or increase this natural yield by cul-
tural methods. There may be an at-
tempt to concentrate increment in a
few select individuals or to simplify
the composition of the natural stand
by eliminating from it certain of the
components which are economically
or silviculturally less desirable; or to
replace the native species in whole or
in part with other species or by a single
species which is regarded as more desir-
able economically or silviculturally.
The problems which arise in connec-
tion with such changes can be met in
two ways. They can be solved empir-
ically for each site, as in connection
with the introduction of foreign species,
by experimental planting with a view
to determining what species or combina-
tion of species is more advantageous
than those in the original type. The
establishment of final conclusions by
this method may require many dec-
ades, during which time a portion of
the land might not be producing to
2 Op. cit.
10
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
11
its full capacity or many irreparable
and costly errors may have been made.
This was the method employed in
testing the adaptability of certain
species in the plantations on the Bilt-
more Estate at Asheville, N. O. For
example, wild black cherry (Prunus
serotina) was planted with a view to
its possibly becoming a timber tree.
We now know from a careful study of
the forest types within which this tree
attains commercial proportions that
there is no site on the Biltmore Estate
on which this species can be expected
to attain first size or to be more, in
fact, than a straggling slow growing
tree.
The other method of meeting these
problems is by a study of the funda-
mental factors which control each
forest type within the type itself. Some,
if not all, of these factors should be
determined on sites on which the type
is unmodified or least modified, for
whenever it has been materially modi-
fied, especially for a long period, there
has been an accompanying, though
possibly slight and temporary, modifi-
cation of the site.
When types formed of mixed stands
are cut over it is difficult and at times
impossible to determine their original
composition. For these reasons it is
urgently desirable that such unmodified
units of the different forest types be
located before the silvical conditions
are altered by repeated fellings and
that they be reserved for the study of
their controlling factors. In a few
years such vestigial units purposely
reserved will be the only unmodified
remnants of many of the forest types.
It will be only by the setting aside now
of such unmodified areas that there
can be any assurance of having these
plots of the various forest types availa-
ble for conducting such studies.
As has been stated in a previous paper
on this subject 3 it is eminently unde-
sirable that there should be a possi-
Ashe, W. W. "Reserved areas of principal
forest types as a guide in developing an American
silviculture." Journal of Forestry, 20: 276-283.
bility of the development of American
silviculture being hampered by the
failure to reserve such vestigial units
of the important forest types as fields
for research, and as check plots by
means of which it will be possible to
note the changes which take place in
the same types under the stress of ex-
ploitation and silvical development.
As a prerequisite for making the highest
use of such reserved units and the
studies which may be made in them,
the areas of the different forests' types
should be carefully mapped after the
types have been standardized. Only
this procedure will establish similarity
of conditions and will permit the ex-
tension to them of the laws which are
found to control on the vestigial units.
The study of the unmodified areas,
in connection with those which are
modified, will indicate the extent to
which it will be possible to deviate from
the normal and yet retain the equilib-
rium necessary for maintaining the
factors of the locality. Such studies
will determine whether it will be pos-
sible economically to replace one species
by another; whether it will be advan-
tageous to substitute a pure coniferous
stand for one of mixed hardwoods, or
if not, as to what proportion of the
stand the conifers can occupy. The
natural areas must in large measure
serve as the means of developing our
silviculture; their elimination from
exploitation and their preservation is
essential to that end.
2. THE VALUE OF AQUATIC PRE-
SERVES TO FISHERIES
BY A. S. PEARSE
There are few "natural" environ-
ments for freshwater fishes in the
United States. Artificially stocked
streams, lakes, and ponds seldom pro-
duce such desirable fishes as are found
in localities where the wilderness has
not been disturbed by man. Great
natural preserves like the Great Lakes
and the Mississippi River should be
12
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
kept as near their original condition
as possible.
In general the larger a fish preserve
is, the better. It is highly desirable
to keep the environmental complexes
furnished by great rivers and lakes as
complete as possible. Variety of habi-
tats is necessary because many species
do not carry on their cycles of activities
in the same habitat. The bass feed
largely among plants, but require bare
bottom for spawning. The cisco lives
in the deep cool waters of lakes, but
comes into shallow water on stony
bottoms to breed. Many young fishes
frequent shoals, even though they live
elsewhere as adults.
Attempts to rear fishes in small
bodies of water are often without
success. In general the ecological suc-
cession in ponds eliminates the species
most desirable for man. A pond left
to "run" according to "nature" chokes
with aquatic vegetation and becomes
a swamp, populated by mud minnows,
sticklebacks, and bullheads. If game
fishes are desired, bare bottom is es-
sential. Fishes confined year after
year in a restricted area may be over-
run by parasites. One of the trout
hatcheries of the Wisconsin Conserva-
tion Commission is situated in an ex-
cellent locality and has an adequate
supply of fine spring water, but is of
little value because the trout are heavily
infected with a parasitic copepod.
Pollution may easily destroy the
value of a fish preserve. Poisons may
be introduced from natural sources or
from the byproducts of the industries
of man. Substances which use up oxy-
gen or produce other injurious gases
may be present. Minerals may be
precipitated from or dissolved in the
water by substances not in themselves
injurious to fishes.
If fishing is permitted in a preserve,
it should not be so restricted as to catch
certain fishes and allow others to in-
crease unduly. If angling only is
practised in a lake the game fishes
are most often caught and undesirable
species, like the carp, sucker, and dog-
fish, which seldom take a hook, become
too numerous. The restricted use of
fyke nets or seins for the capture of
the latter fishes is desirable in such a
locality.
It is doubtful if the suitability of a
body of water as a fish preserve can
ever be judged by any single criterion.
Two lakes may be of the same size and
depth. The one may be "plankton
poor," have a scanty bottom fauna,
contain undesirable mineral constit-
uents, lack oxygen, and have barren
shores, while the other furnishes a
favorable environment in all these es-
sentials. A river may change its whole
character as a habitat for fishes on
account of the introduction of factory
wastes, the building of a dam, or some
other apparently unimportant change
in a locality. Rush Lake, Wisconsin,
has abundant food and shelter and
furnishes excellent breeding grounds,
but is so shallow that its oxygen is
used up when it is covered by ice in
winter, hence it contains no large fishes.
The important features for a fish pre-
serve are: (1) sufficient size to permit
variety in habitats and to lessen the
dangers from contamination and rapid
fluctuations in temperature, (2) ade-
quate resources in the way of food,
shelter, and breeding grounds to main-
tain a sufficient number of fishes to
make the preserve profitable.
3. THE IMPORTANCE TO GEOG-
RAPHY OF THE PRESERVATION
OF NATURAL AREAS
BY STEPHEN SARGENT VISHER
At least four of Geography's several
sub-divisions will be aided by the pres-
ervation of natural areas. These are
(1) Descriptive Geography, (2) His-
torical Geography, (3) Ecological Geog-
raphy, and (4) Economic Geography.
Descriptive geography is concerned
not alone with describing relief features
and the cultural additions. It con-
siders likewise the vegetation and
the characteristic animals. Preserved
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
13
areas, where natural conditions can
be studied readily facilitate good geo-
graphic descriptions in two ways. First
they afford examples of natural con-
ditions. Only after type areas have
been studied can a really good descrip-
tion of a region be written. Second,
the setting aside of definite areas for
preservation results indirectly in in-
creased information about the location
of typical areas, the methods of reaching
them, and other significant facts con-
cerning them. Fairly full information
is gathered and made available con-
cerning very few privately owned tracts
partly because the work and expense
entailed may soon have been in vain.
The owner may decide to keep out
even the most worthy scientists, or
else the natural biota may be largely
destroyed as by the cutting of the tim-
ber or otherwise altering the conditions.
Thus _ although many nearly natural
areas still remain, few geographers
know just where to go, how to get there,
and what they will find when they
arrive.
Teachers of descriptive geography
will benefit, also, from the presence
of preserved areas especially near
cities, for in such areas their students
can learn much in a short time about
natural conditions, the conditions the
pioneers encountered.
This leads to the advantage to his-
torical geography of the preservation
of natural areas. The specialists who
interpret the historical development of
any region must have a full appreciation
of conditions as they were in earlier
times. Carefully preserved natural
areas will aid greatly in understanding
primeval conditions.
Ecological geography differs from
plant and animal ecology chiefly in
being more comprehensive, including
both, and as the advantages to each
have been discussed at length elsewhere,
it is not necessary to consider the nu-
merous advantages to this phase of geog-
raphy which would result from the
preservation of numerous typical natural
areas. However, there are many prob-
lems which special students of either
plants or animals have not adequately
investigated but which the geographer,
with his more inclusive view wishes to
study. For example, the influence of
geographic factors which because of
their rareness, have not been considered
significant, such as the "free-air foehn,"
or the hurricane, need to be investi-
gated. The native flora and fauna may
show far plainer adjustments to such
influences than do the recently intro-
duced forms. Since it is probable that
in the future there will be a great in-
crease in the number of ecological
studies carried on by geographers, it
is advantageous to geography that
many areas be preserved now before
it is too late.
Economic geography with its interest
in all products of commercial impor-
tance is interested in the preservation
of natural areas especially because of
the probability that in the future new
uses will be found for native plants and
animals not now very useful. If many
are exterminated, as will surely result
unless numerous natural areas are pre-
served promptly, all possibility of their
ever being of economic importance will
have disappeared. After a form is
extinct, or practically extinct, it will
be very distressing to learn that it had
potentialities of great value had they
been taken advantage of. Until every
living form is well known, none should
be allowed to become extinct. Eco-
nomic geographers join with agricultur-
ists, physicians and students of many
other sorts, therefore, in advocating the
setting aside of areas where the native
forms can continue to live and can be
advantageously studied.
4. THE IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL
AREAS TO BIOLOGY AND
AGRICULTURE
BY V. E. SHELFORD
Some biological subjects are of course
only remotely related to habitat ques-
tions; others can hardly proceed to
certain conclusions without reference
14
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
to habitat relations. An adequate in-
terpretation of evolutionary relations
can hardly be made without knowledge
of environment. This is true even if
natural selection operating on charac-
ters which arise from internal causes,
is assumed to be the only cause of the
origin of new forms. The geneticists
have rarely separated environmental
effects from purely hereditary phenom-
ena. It is safe to assume that a
considerable part of the phenomena
described as hereditary is some form of
environmental effect. The results of
genetical study can hardly have impor-
tant evolutionary bearing until rela-
tions to environment have been brought
into it.
The relations of physiology to ecology
are more intimate under present condi-
tions; the general physiologists are inter-
ested in and are appreciative of ecological
work. The interpretation of physiolog-
ical characters in connection with en-
vironmental relations is a growing field.
Medical physiology is less intimately
related to environmental subjects but is
far from as remote as the present status
of various other biological subjects.
The purpose of pointing out the rela-
tions of the various branches of biology
to ecology and the study of natural
habitats, and of calling attention to
neglected relations is merely to indi-
cate that present interest in the pres-
ervation of natural habitats for scien-
tific purposes is far less than it may be
expected to be in the near future. It
is safe to predict that when the neglected
field of habitat relations comes to
attention a little more, not merely
ecologists, but all biologists will re-
quire preserves of natural conditions
in connection with their various scien-
tific interests. The relations of the pure
science of biology to natural conditions
is believed to be much more important
to future research than is generally
recognized.
Agricultural problems include the
development of new kinds of cultivated
plants and domestic animals, and the
destruction of pests of all kinds. In
understanding conditions which most
favor pests a knowledge of their original
habitat is often very important and
will save years of work on the part of
investigators. For example the chinch
bug was originally found on grasses
in waste places along the coast of the
Carolinas. Rainy, hot seasons similar
to those found in the original area are
favorable to the chinch bug. Knowl-
edge of the climate and other condi-
tions in the original habitat would
have saved much useless speculation
and misinterpretation. Knowledge of
the original conditions under which a
pest lives is usually important. Ac-
cordingly preserves of natural conditions
are important from the standpoint of
insect pests and equally important for
other plant and animal pests.
Domestic animals, especially sheep,
have been studied in relation to climate.
After thousands of years of domestica-
tion sheep still require conditions simi-
lar to those in which they are said to
have originally occurred mountain
grassland and failure to supply these
conditions is one of the causes of diffi-
culty in the sheep industry. A reserva-
tion with sheep of the wild sort in their
natural conditions would have facili-
tated this study greatly. There are
many species now in a wild state which
may be utilized in the near future for
domestication or crossing with domestic
species and they should be preserved
in their native haunts for this purpose.
C. FORCES MAKING FOR THE DESTRUCTION OR PRESERVA-
TION OF NATURAL AREAS
1. FOREST LAWS AND REGULA-
TIONS AND THE PRESERVATION
OF NATURAL CONDITIONS
BY R. B. MILLER
I. POSSIBILITY OP PRESERVING NATURAL
CONDITIONS UNDER PUBLIC AS COM-
PARED WITH PRIVATE OWNERSHIP
While perhaps no state or national
forest laws deal directly with the pres-
ervation of natural conditions, there
are many forces working indirectly
to that end. At least, natural condi-
tions have a much better chance of
being preserved under public than under
private ownership, coupled as it is
with the danger of changing policies,
with fire, grazing and over-cutting.
In fact, the failure of private initiative
to properly protect its holdings is one
of the main reasons given for increasing
our acreage in national, state, county
and municipal forests.
Since the relation of fires to plant and
animal life is discussed by Wolcott
(page 34) and Korstian deals with
grazing on the national forests, (page
33) we may say just a word about
cutting regulations and their effect
upon the preservation of natural con-
ditions. On state forests there are
usually some restrictions as to the size
of trees which may be cut and certain
laws as to brush-disposal, leaving of
seed trees or size of trees to be cut.
Naturally, cutting by the shelterwood
and selection methods do much less
damage to soil and reproduction by too
sudden exposure to the drying effects
of the sun and wind than does clear
cutting, which in some cases may be
the wisest financial policy.
On the national forests, cutting regu-
lations are enforced by a workable
policy- the requiring of the operator
to pay an additional price for his timber
when he does not conform to the pro-
visions of the timber-sale contract,
with the cancelling of the agreement
in extreme cases of violation of the
cutting regulations.
If the purchaser of timber does not
wish to follow Forest Service regula-
tions, he has the choice of doing his
logging elsewhere, probably paying
more for his stumpage while he is not
assured of a perpetual supply of timber
for his mill as he is when he depends
upon government owned timber. As
Korstian 1 points out, the forester will
soon be dealing almost wholly with cut-
over timber lands and to him the great-
est value of preserving natural condi-
tions lies in setting aside the best of
these tracts, which nature has left.
The chief purpose of these natural
areas will be for comparison and stand-
ardization. The chance for having the
greatest number of such tracts for
object lessons lies in national and
state ownership of timber in many
typical regions.
II. EXTENT TO WHICH FOREST LAWS
MAKE POSSIBLE PERMANENT
SAMPLE PLOTS
It is generally recognized that per-
manent sample plots are essential to
good forestry practice, serving not only
as places for carrying on certain lines
of research such as experiments in cut-
1 Korstian, C. F. "The preservation of natural
conditions in the national forests." This volume,
p. 17.
15
16
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
ting by different methods, the study of
succession after fires and the study of
reproduction and growth but also as
demonstration areas having a certain
educational value.
Speaking of the use of school forests
as research centers and the need of pro-
tection Prof. James W. Tourney, of
the Yale Forests School says: "Such
forests cannot perform their best ser-
vice as research stations unless they
are under a management which will
afford the greatest protection to per-
manent sample plots and make it rea-
sonably certain that investigations,
once begun, can be carried through."
The same may be said of private tracts.
While no special provision is made
for the protection of sample plots
outside of the enforcement of the usual
fire laws prevalent on state forests,
the setting aside of certain tracts to
serve as demonstration areas is a part
of the forest policy of many states and
is sometimes carried on in cooperation
with private owners. It stands to
reason that such cooperation under
state control will be a valuable aid in
protecting sample plots within such
demonstration forests from destruction.
These demonstration forests, says
Secretary Wallace, "might be estab-
lished in certain "key areas," where
Federal or state ownership would be of
special value in protecting stream
sources and giving the local people
a practical demonstration of fire pro-
tection and good forest management."
Korstian 2 discusses the permanent
sample plots on the National Forests
(page 17) and their value to the fores-
ter, the biologist and the ecologist. He
divides these into silvicultural plots,
where succession and the effects of
different grades of cutting and thinning
can be studied; and plots which have
been established in connection with
range management to determine the ef-
fect of severity of grazing both upon
* Korstian, C. F. "The preservation of natural
conditions in the national forests." This volume,
page 17.
herbaceous, shrubby and tree repro-
duction.
While the Conservation Commission
of Canada has ceased to function, this
organization must be given great credit
for the establishment of sample plots
in the various provinces under the
leadership of their forester, Mr. Clyde
N. Leavitt, assisted in the supervision
of field parties by Dean C. D. Howe,
of the Faculty of Forestry of the Uni-
versity of Toronto. These plots were
established in cooperation with some
of the provinces, lumber and paper
companies and on military reservations
so that they still have a good chance of
being perpetuated. It can be said
that the Commission went into greater
detail in measuring the individual
trees on these plots and recording the
data than any other organization which
preceded it, affording a stimulus to the
provinces and private companies in
sample plot work which cannot be over-
estimated.
On such plots, by periodically measur-
ing and recording the increase in size
of all specimens, from small saplings up
to mature individuals which have been
numbered and measured, figures can
be obtained which will be of great value
in making yield tables for pure or mixed
forests, while incidental changes taking
place in the life-history of the stand
can be accurately studied and recorded.
It is true that these plots are more or
less exposed to fires and windstorms
but under the frequent inspection of
foresters they stand a very good chance
for permanency.
III. EXTENT TO WHICH FOREST LAWS
AFFECT THE ESTABLISHMENT AND
MAINTENANCE OF GAME PRESERVES
While excellent fishing and game pre-
serves have been established by pri-
vate individuals, such as the Whitney
tract in the Adirondacks and the vari-
ous fishing clubs and game clubs both
in Canada and the United States where
restrictions are made regarding fires
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
17
and poaching, with the land and streams
patrolled by guards and wardens, it
stands to reason that the preservation
of fish and game can best be accom-
plished on a broad scale under state or
national departments, with settled
policies and greater power for law
enforcement.
To what extent game protection shall
be connected with forestry is an unset-
tled question. Foresters may object
because where forests, fish and game
are combined into a large department
they feel that forestry is very likely to
receive secondary consideration. In
some of the states and Canadian prov-
inces, however, forestry and game
interests are associated under one de-
partment, either merged into a large
Department of Conservation, a Depart-
ment of Lands and Mines, or a Forest,
Fish and Game Commission as it was
for a long time in the state of New York,
this, however, having been superseded
by a Conservation Commission. In
the province of New Brunswick, for
example, all registered guides under the
Department of Lands and Mines are
sworn in as deputy fire wardens while
foresters and sealers also report viola-
tions of the game laws of the province.
New Brunswick has set aside about
600 square miles of territory on the
Nepisiguit River not only to serve as an
experimental area where the effects of
different methods of cutting may be
studied but also to serve as an immense
game refuge. Game preserves have
also been established by the state of
Pennsylvania and it has already been
demonstrated that these tracts serve
as breeding grounds whence game
flows over into contiguous areas. The
linking up of the state game preserves
with state forests is of great impor-
tance to lovers of wild life since the
protection of such tracts from fire under
the state forest fire laws will protect
not only animals and birds but fish
since it has been shown that fish have
been killed in large numbers by ashes
washed into streams by heavy rains.
2. THE PRESERVATION OF NATU-
RAL CONDITIONS IN THE
NATIONAL FORESTS
BY C. F. KORSTIAN
No fact in connection with the devel-
opment of our country is more evident
than the tremendous change which has
taken place in the original vegetation.
Many areas once covered with virgin
forests are now either productive farm
lands or are waste and desolate as the
result of lumbering and fire. We still
have left vestiges of the original growth;
but even these are threatened.
It is a trait of mankind to preserve
antiquities. Museums for their safe-
keeping and display are liberally main-
tained. Universities and scientific
schools of today must have them for
research in important fields. It is
just as true of our original forest con-
ditions, including all their biological
implications, as of any other of the
relics of the past, that science as well
as human interest demands the pres-
ervation of these samples. They can-
not be brought to the museum; they
must be their own living museums.
They are as necessary for the sound and
progressive development of the biolog-
ical sciences as they are for the art
and science of forestry. The education
of future generations demands them.
The forester will soon deal almost
wholly with cutover timberlands, yet
as has been clearly pointed out by
Ashe 1 and Pearson 2 if the highest
ideals of silviculture are to be attained
the forester must not be deprived of
the basic facts which Nature records
in the virgin forest. The practicing
forester, in the interest of the highest
use to the public through increased
production of the most valuable species,
often profoundly changes the natural
conditions and, as has been stated else-
where in this volume, these conditions
may also be readily modified by graz-
1 Ashe, W. W. "The value to silviculture of
reserved areas of natural forest types." This vol-
ume, pp. 10.
8 Pearson, G. A. "Preservation of natural areas
in the National Forests." Ecology, 3: 284-287.
1922.
18
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
ing. 8 Timber exploitation also has a
disturbing effect on the animal life of
the forest, but under proper manage-
ment and control of predatory animals
the forester contends that the game
animals will increase. So far as the
forester is concerned, the main reason
for preserving natural areas is to retain
a standard of accomplishment of Nature
alone, to serve as a guide by which the
correctness of the forester's efforts to
improve on Nature may be gauged.
In addition to the justification of
these natural areas as objects of re-
search in forestry and other biological
sciences, there is another valid reason
for the preservation of representative
natural conditions in the National
Forests. This is the rapidly increasing
appreciation of such areas for scenic
and recreational purposes. It is the
aim of the United States Forest Service
in administering the National Forests
to devote every tract of forest land to
its highest use. It is not unduly
stretching the spirit of this announced
purpose to assume that it will embrace
the appropriate treatment of areas
which are chiefly valuable for scientific
study, esthetics or recreation.
For utilitarian reasons it is evident
that the Forest Service cannot be ex-
pected to satisfy every requirement
with natural virgin forest conditions.
The National Parks and National Monu-
ments, on the contrary, do in many
cases meet these requirements. The
forests embraced in them will undoubt-
edly be preserved, and the opportunity
is presented for establishing in them
definitely located study areas, subject
to the policy of administration. A
study of the accompanying map (figs. 1
and 2) will show that the reserved areas
are widely distributed over the country.
Doubtless areas representative of widely
prevailing natural conditions can be
found in them. This will make it pos-
sible to limit the number of such areas
within the National Forests to a scale
consistent with their administrative
8 Korstian, C. F. "Grazing in the National
Forests." This volume, pp. 33-34.
policies, selecting only such locations
as will preserve and maintain typical
virgin conditions, and offer a home to
all forms of wild life within the forest
itself and yet not interfere materially
with important timber sales or other
large commercial developments. Be-
cause of their diversity of conditions
and types, National Forests offer to
ecologists untold opportunities for study.
Within the 157 million acres of
National Forests there are many areas
of wilderness of rugged and diversified
topography which have no great eco-
nomic importance for timber or forage,
but which possess high value both
for recreational and scientific purposes.
The Forest Service policy of best and
most appropriate use includes the
building of trails through these areas,
partly for fire protection and partly
to make them more accessible for just
such purposes as those mentioned. An
important step toward adequate pro-
tection of game would be the legisla-
tion long urged by game conserva-
tionists for the establishment, by
Presidential action, of federal game
refuges in the National Forests. Still
another important list of areas, on
which natural conditions are already
being preserved, are the municipal
watersheds, protected as sources of
city water supply. Furthermore, be-
cause of economic inaccessibility or
other such factors, vestiges of virgin
forest will doubtless remain untouched
indefinitely, although they may not be
formally incorporated in specifically
reserved areas.
With proper cooperation between the
various "wild life" and "natural con-
ditions" advocates the greater part of
their needs could be adequately met
without the reservation of a prohibi-
tively large acreage. The present quota
of National Parks, municipal water-
sheds and other forest areas which are
safeguarded against exploitation and
depredation are not wholly adequate.
There is still need for a few more areas
in each forest region which must be
carefully selected to insure a proper
3FUHW
G3VPL.
I
AREAS WITHIN NATIONAL FORESTS WHERE
NATURAL CONDITIONS ARE PRESERVED
OR ARE PROPOSED FOR PRESERVATION
AREAS NOW IN NATURAL CONDITION UNDER PRESERVATION
AREAS IN NATURAL CONDITION PROPOSED FOR PRESERVATION
FIG. 1
NATIONAL FORESTS
ESS3 STATE. FORESTS
E???3I INDIAN RESERVATIONS
nrnrm NATIONAL PARKS
o NATIONAL MONUMENTS
2 DISTRICT BOUNDARIES
AND NUMBERS
MILELS
100
200
FIG. 2
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
19
representation of all important forest
types. Such areas may now be found
in the National Forests. The longer
their economic use and development is
continued, the further will they depart
from a primeval condition.
The descriptions of the National
Forests in the following pages are
grouped according to the eight adminis-
trative districts. The forest types vary
widely between districts and also within
some of these districts. The accompany-
ing map (figs. 1 and 2) gives a general
idea of the location of the National
Forests and the approximate number of
areas on which the forest conditions are
being preserved in their natural and
semi-natural states. The areas within
the National Forests which are being
preserved in their natural condition are
chiefly those closed to grazing, timber
sales, and other commercial exploitation
because they possess unusual scenic
features, are the sources of important
municipal water supplies, or are for-
esters' permanent sample plots located
in virgin timber as a check on some
artificial cultural operation. The areas
being preserved in a semi-natural con-
dition comprise the federal and state
game preserves, the majority of the
permanent sample plots, experimental
forests, and areas on which some forms
of use are prohibited and others
permitted.
It is greatly to be regretted that, on
account of the prohibitive cost, the
Committee found it absolutely impos-
sible to publish the excellent maps
submitted by some of the contributors.
The map accompanying this paper
(figs. 1 and 2) is necessarily on too small a
scale to show these areas with the pre-
cision and detail of classification they
deserve. Anyone desiring to visit any
of the National Forest areas, whether
for study or for pleasure, should com-
municate with the nearest District
Forester at the address given on the
map, who will gladly supply the desired
information in much more detail than
it could possibly be given here. Many
of the National Forests are reached by
highways, while good mountain roads
are available for extensive trips into
the higher portions. For the regions
inaccessible by automobile, trails are
available which extend throughout the
mountains in such a way as to bring the
greater part of them within reach.
Camping equipment is often necessary
and always desirable. Information re-
garding roads, means of transportaion
and subsistence can always be secured
at the office of the local Forest Super-
visor or from the Forest Rangers at the
ranger stations in the National Forests.
Few restrictions are imposed upon natu-
ralists in the National Forests and the
local Forest Officers are always willing
to give additional information as to
routes and methods of travel.
3. PERMANENT SAMPLE PLOTS IN
THE NATIONAL FORESTS
BY C. F. KORSTIAN
Within a few decades a large part of
our natural wild woods will be cut over
and the forest products needed in every-
day life will be supplied by second-
growth forests. It is, therefore, im-
portant to know what tree species these
lands are capable of growing and how
much timber they will yield. In order
to answer these questions the forester
must determine what kinds of trees are
coming in naturally, how fast they are
growing, the loss due to various causes,
including natural shading out of the
smaller and weaker trees, what may be
expected from those which live, and
whether the natural reproduction is
adequate to insure satisfactory stands
of valuable species of timber trees or
whether it needs to be supplemented by
artificial planting.
Some of the first permanent sample
plots in the National Forests were
established on the Coconino and Tu-
sayan Forests by the Fort Valley Forest
Experiment Station, about 16 years ago,
for the purpose of obtaining basic
scientific data on these questions.
There are now many such plots on the
National Forests throughout the West,
20
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
and also some on the less extensive
eastern Forests. In addition to these
silvicultural sample plots, hundreds of
permanent sample plots have been estab-
lished in the National Forests in con-
nection with the study of range manage-
ment. On these are being recorded the
changes occurring in the herbaceous
and shrubby vegetation and timber
reproduction as a result of total pro-
tection from grazing or the type of
grazing management in practice.
Relatively few of the permanent
sample plots on the National Forests
are in virgin forest and the silviculturist
cannot imagine keeping all of them in
such a condition, even if they are now.
A few plots, however, will be retained
in natural stands as a check on the
cultural operations of the forester.
Such plots in the virgin forest would be
valuable chiefly from the standpoint of
studying the natural succession of forest
vegetation and competition in its broad-
est sense, as between individuals, spe-
cies, and associations. Thus, while
permanent sample plots in the National
Forests will be primarily for silvicultural
purposes, there remains a huge problem
which will require intensive study by
the ecologist on areas left in a natural
condition.
Since the silviculturist is working in
part on such utilitarian problems as
the effects of different methods of
cutting or thinning and slash disposal
on the subsequent growth of the uncut
trees and on natural regeneration, the
reason why his permanent sample plots
must be located largely outside of
virgin forests is apparent. As a matter
of fact, most of these plots are on culled
or cutover lands where the conditions
are at most only semi-natural. In many
cases the original forest type is in time
re-established and in others a sub-climax
replaces it. These plots, however, will
ultimately prove extremely interesting
to the biologist because the forester
maintains a detailed record, through the
periodic measurement and examination
of the trees and the vegetation on the
areas, of all the changes taking place
between the time of the cutting of the
original stand and the maturity of the
subsequent crop. Protection from other
disturbing factors is usually provided.
These plots will give the ecologist the
complete history of the successional
phenomena recorded, which will enable
a more exact analysis and correlation
of the results by eliminating the neces-
sity for much interpolation and specula-
tion concerning some of the intermediate
phases.
It is therefore evident that the per-
manent sample plots in the National
Forests, although they may not all be
important from the standpoint of the
preservation of natural conditions, will
supply the forester, the ecologist, and the
biologist with much valuable scientific
information which cannot be secured in
any other way.
4. NATIONAL PARKS AND NA-
TIONAL MONUMENTS
BY E. LUCY BRAUN
The United States government has,
by the establishment of national parks
and monuments, taken a foremost posi-
tion in the preservation of one of our
great economic and social assets
unusual and superlative natural scenery.
The establishment of Yellowstone Na-
tional Park in 1872 marked the begin-
ning of a project which has grown to
great importance, and which has become
a world-wide influence in the establish-
ment of national reservations in other
parts of the world.
The first effort at conservation was
made in 1832, when Congress set aside
the Hot Springs Reservation, which has
since (in 1921) been made a national
park. From the establishment of Yel-
lowstone to the present time, the na-
tional park system has constantly
grown. It was not, however, until 1916,
that the National Park Service was
established as a separate bureau of the
Department of the Interior. There are
now under its control, 19 parks having a
total area of 11,372 sq. mi., and 29
monuments with total area of about
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
21
1820 sq. mi. In addition to these,
there are 7 national military parks and
3 monuments administered by the War
Department, and 13 national monuments
administered by the Department of
Agriculture .
A national park is created by act of
Congress, and yearly appropriations
made thereafter for its upkeep and
development. A national monument is
set aside by presidential proclamation;
no direct provision is made for its
development. Small yearly appropria-
tions are now granted by Congress for
protection and maintenance of the
national monuments. National monu-
ments are often, though not always, of
lesser importance and smaller area than
national parks. Areas of extreme im-
portance in remote areas are sometimes
set aside as monuments and later the
status changed to park. This was true
of the Grand Canyon and of Zion Can-
yon. The desired object preservation
is accomplished in the establishment of
the monument. A number of the na-
tional monuments have been established
to preserve relics of archaeological and
historical interest, as Montezuma Castle
and Gran Quivira; others, as Muir
Woods and Rainbow Bridge, preserve
natural features.
National monuments administered by
the Department of Agriculture, as
Mount Olympus, are situated in national
forests. That is, they are reservations
within national forests, where natural
conditions are to be preserved.
The integrity of the national parks
has been attacked time and time again.
Desire of commercial 'exploitation of
water resources for power and irrigation
projects, of grazing resources, and of
timber, by local interests more con-
cerned in their own financial advance-
ment than in the interests of the Nation,
must constantly be combated.
The act of Congress in 1916 establish-
ing the National Park Service, was a
distinct step in advance. In this act is
contained the following statement:
The service thus established shall
promote and regulate the use of the
Federal areas known as national parks,
monuments, and reservations herein-
after specified by such means and meas-
ures as conform to the fundamental
purpose of the said parks, monuments,
and reservations, which purpose is to
conserve the scenery and the natural
and historic objects and the wild life
therein and to provide for the enjoy-
ment of the same in such manner and by
such means as will leave them unim-
paired for the enjoyment of future
generations.
As Congress still has the power to
modify park boundaries, and to grant
easements within the park boundaries,
it behooves the citizens of the United
States, to whom the parks belong, to
take an interested part in all questions
relating to our national parks, and to
express their disapproval of any plan
violating the purpose for which the
parks and monuments were created.
Irrigation and water power interests
have made the most insistent demands
for utilization of park resources. Yel-
lowstone, Glacier, and Yosemite have
been attacked. The Sherburne irriga-
tion reservoir at Glacier and the de-
struction of the Hetch Hetchy Valley in
Yosemite, should be an object lesson in
the results of irrigation and water power
developments. The amendment of the
Federal water-power act (March, 1921),
which removed the national parks and
monuments already established from the
operation of the provisions of the water-
power act, makes difficult but not im-
possible, future projects of this sort.
A bill now pending calls for the erection
of a dam across the Yellowstone River,
which will raise the level of Lake Yel-
lowstone, thus flooding surrounding
land.
Grazing concessions present a question
of great importance. While damage
inflicted by grazing is not as irreparable
as that produced by the building of
dams, it is nevertheless very serious.
Natural reproduction of trees and other
plants is hindered or prevented; erosion
is favored. Herbaceous growth is most
affected, which means that the flower
display is curtailed or entirely wiped
out. The fodder of native grazing
22
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
animals, as deer and elk, may be reduced
to the point where survival in periods of
extreme drought or in severe winters
may be difficult. And last, but not
least, sanitation is affected and the
water supply may be impaired. That
grazing has affected the appearance of
the Grand Canyon National Park is
evident from the report of the Director
of National Park Service for 1923.
"The park floral display below the
rims of the canyon is extremely varied
and beautiful in successive seasons, but
the lack of such display on the rims is
largely due to cattle grazing." Sheep
grazing is prohibited in all national
parks; cattle grazing is permitted in
some areas.
The national parks and monuments
comprise only one-third of one per cent
of the total area of our country. "Cer-
tainly as a Nation we are rich enough to
preserve from spoliation such a small
amount of native America intact for the
enjoyment of posterity.' 1
National parks and monuments differ
radically from national forests. The
parks and monuments are intended to be
true preserves, where every effort should
be made to maintain natural conditions.
Timber cutting and grazing are not
permitted except in certain instances
and should be wholly prohibited. Hunt-
ing, except predatory animals, and
removal of any natural object by visitors
is prohibited, except that a certain
amount of angling is permitted. The
addition to any national park of plants
or animals which are not native should
not be permitted, for the addition of
foreign plants or animals would cer-
tainly not be in keeping with one of the
established purposes of the parks and
monuments the conserving of the wild
life therein- which should be inter-
preted to mean native wild life. This
question has been considered by the
Ecological Society of America (see
"Resolutions," Ecology, vol. Ill: 170).
The national forests, on the other hand,
are a valuable measure toward con-
servation, not complete preservation,
except in limited areas. Cutting of
mature timber is permitted, and thus the
composition of the forest is changed.
Tree planting is resorted to improve the
stands, or to increase the percentage of
commercially desirable trees; hunting
is permitted; grazing is general, even to
the point of over grazing. Outside
activities in the national forests are
regulated by the Forest Service. Thus,
while the national forests are great
conservers of our national resources,
it is in our national parks and monu-
ments that natural conditions are best
maintained at present.
The national parks policy, as an-
nounced in 1918, and reaffirmed recently
by Secretary Work, should maintain
our parks as the preserves of wild life
that they now are. Its three funda-
mental prnciples are: "First, that the
national parks must be maintained in
absolutely unimpaired form for the use
of future generations as well as those of
our own time; second, that they are set
apart for the use, observation, health,
and pleasure of the people; and third,
that the national interest must dictate all
decisions affecting public or private en-
terprise in the parks."
Following is a list of national parks
and monuments, arranged in order of
date of establishment. Descriptions of
most of these will be found in the state
accounts; the distinctive features of the
less important are given here. 1
NATIONAL PARKS ADMINISTERED BY THE
NATIONAL PARK SERVICE
Hot Springs, Arkansas; 1832; 1| sq. mi.;
46 hot springs.
Yellowstone, Wyoming, Montana, and
Idaho; 1872; 3348 sq. mi.; Wyo.,
page 532.
Sequoia, California; 1890; 252 sq. mi.;
Calif., page 197.
Yosemite, California; 1890; 1125 sq. mi.;
Calif., page 197.
General Grant, California; 1890; 4 sq.
mi.; Calif., page 197.
Mount Rainier. Washington; 1899; 324
sq. mi. ; Calil., page 175.
Crater Lake, Oregon; 1902; 249 sq.
mi.; Ore., page 191.
1 All quotations from Seventh Annual Report of
Director of National Park Service. 1923.
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
23
Wind Cave, South Dakota, 1903; 17 sq.
mi.; S. D., page 555.
Platt, Oklahoma; 1902, 1904; H sq. mi.
Contains sulphur and other springs
of medicinal value; wooded area with
wild flowers and birds.
Sullys Hill, North Dakota; 1904; H
sq. mi.; N. D., page 547.
Mesa Verde, Colorado; 1906, 1913; 77
sq. mi.; Colo., page 527.
Glacier, Montana; 1910; 1534 sq. mi.;
Mont., page 539.
Rocky Mountain, Colorado; 1915, 1917;
397 sq. mi.; Colo., page 527.
Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands; 1916, 1922;
186 sq. mi., in three separate areas.
Lassen Volcanic, California; 1916; 124
sq. mi.; Calif., page 198.
Mount McKinley, Alaska; 1917, 1922;
2645 sq. mi.
Grand Canyon, Arizona; 1908, 1919; 958
sq. mi.; Ariz., page 568.
Lafayette. Maine; 1916, 1919; 8 sq. mi.;
Me., page 310.
Zion, Utah; 1909, 1918, 1919; 120 sq. mi.;
includes former Mukuntuweap Na-
tional Monument; Utah, page 559.
NATIONAL MILITARY AND OTHER PARKS
ADMINISTERED BY THE WAR
DEPARTMENT
Chickamauga and Chattanooga, Georgia
and Tennessee; 1890; 6543 acres.
"Beautiful natural park. Embraces
battle fields of Chickamauga and
Missionary Ridge and scenes of other
conflicts of the Civil War fought in
the vicinity of Chattanooga during
1863."
Antietam Battle Field, Maryland; 1890;
50 acres. "Scene of one of the greatest
battles of the Civil War."
Shiloh, Tennessee; 1894; 3546 acres.
"Natural park embracing the battle
field of Shiloh near Pittsburg Land-
ing."
Gettysburg, Pennsylvania; 1895; 2451
acres. "Beautiful natural park.
Scene of Civil War combat. Probably
better marked than any other battle-
field in the world."
Vicksburg, Mississippi; 1899; 1323 acres.
"Beautiful natural park. Scene of
the siege and surrender of Vicksburg
in 1863 during the Civil War."
Lincoln's Birthplace, Kentucky; 1916;
"Contains the log cabin and part of
the farm where Lincoln was born."
Guilford Courthouse, North Carolina;
1917; 125 acres. "Near Greensboro.
Scene of one of the great battles of
the Revolution; fought in 1781."
NATIONAL MONUMENTS ADMINISTERED
BY THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE
Devils Tower, Wyoming; 1906; 1152
acres. "Remarkable natural rock
tower, of volcanic origin, 1200 ft. in
height."
Montezuma Castle, Arizona; 1906; 160
acres. "Prehistoric cliff-dwelling
ruin ... of scenic and ethnologic
interest."
El Morro, New Mexico; 1906, 1917; 240
acres. "Enormous sandstone rock
eroded in form of a castle, upon which
inscriptions have been placed by
early Spanish explorers. Contains
cliff-dweller ruins. Of great historic
scenic, and ethnologic interest."
Petrified Forest, Arizona; 1906, 1911;
25, 625 acres. "Abundance of petrified
coniferous trees, one of which forms
a small natural bridge."
Chaco Canyon, New Mexico; 1907;
20,629 acres. "Numerous cliff-dweller
ruins."
Muir Woods, California; 1908, 1921;
426.43 acres. (See Calif.)
Pinnacles, California; 1908, 1923; 2653.46
acres. (See Calif.)
Natural Bridges, Utah; 1908, 1909, 1916;
2740 acres. (See Utah.)
Lewis and Clark Cavern, Montana;
1908, 1911; 160 acres. Temporarily
closed to the public. "Immense lime-
stone cavern of great scientific in-
terest, magnificently decorated with
stalactite formations."
Tumacacori, Arizona; 1908; 10 acres.
Ruin of Franciscan mission.
Navajo, Arizona; 1909, 1912; 360 acres.
"Numerous pueblo or cliff-dweller
ruins, in good preservation."
Shoshone Cavern, Wyoming; 1909; 210
acres. "Cavern of considerable ex-
tent, near Cody."
Gran Quivira, New Mexico; 1909, 1919,
560 acres. Early Spanish mission
ruins and pueblo ruins.
Sitka, Alaska; 1910; 57 acres. "Park of
great natural beauty and historic
interest as scene of massacre of
Russians by Indians. Contains 16
totem poles of best native workman-
ship."
Rainbow Bridge, Utah; 1910; 160 acres.
"Unique natural bridge of great
scientific interest and symmetry.
Height 309 feet above water, and span
is 278 feet, in shape of rainbow."
Colorado, Colorado; 1911; 13,883 acres;
"Many lofty monoliths, and is won-
derful example of erosion, and of
great scenic beauty and interest."
24
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Papago Saguaro, Arizona; 1914, 1922;
1940.43 acres. "Splendid collection
of characteristic desert flora and
numerous pictographs. Interesting
rock formations."
Dinosaur, Utah; 1915; 80 acres. (See
Utah.)
Capulin Mountain, New Mexico; 1916;
681 acres. "Cinder cone of geologi-
cally recent formation.
Verendrye, North Dakota; 1917; 253.04
acres. Includes Crowhigh Butte
SeeN.D.
Casa Grande, Arizona; 1889, 1909, 1918;
480 acres. "These ruins are one of
the most noteworthy relics of a pre-
historic age and people within the
limits of the United States. Dis-
covered in ruinous condition in 1694."
Katmai, Alaska; 1918; 1,088,000 acres.
"Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes."
Scotts Bluff, Nebraska; 1919; 2053.83
acres. "Region of historic and sci-
entific interest. Many famous old
trails traversed by the early pioneers
in the winning of the West passed over
and through this monument."
Yucca House, Colorado; 1919; 9.6 acres.
"Relic of prehistoric inhabitants."
Fossil Cycad. South Dakota; 1922;
320 acres. "Area containing deposits
of plant fossils."
Aztec Ruin, New Mexico; 1923; 4.6
acres. "Prehistoric ruin of pueblo
type containing 500 rooms."
Hovenweep, Utah-Colorado; 1923; 285.8
acres. "Four groups of prehistoric
towers, pueblos and cliff dwellings."
Pipe Spring, Arizona; 1923; 40 acres.
"Old stone fort and spring of pure
water in desert region."
Carlsbad Cave, New Mexico; 1923;
719.22 acres. Immense cavern; see
Nat. Geog. Mag., January, 1924.
NATIONAL MONUMENTS ADMINISTERED
BY THE DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE
Gila Cliff Dwellings, New Mexico; 1907;
160 acres. "Numerous cliff-dweller
ruins of much interest and in good
preservation." In Gila National
Forest.
Tonto, Arizona; 1907; 640 acres; similar
to Gila Cliff Dwellings. In Tonto
National Forest.
Jewel Cave, South Dakota; 1908; 1280
acres. "Limestone cavern of much
beauty and considerable extent, limits
of which are as yet unknown." In
Harney National Forest.
Wheeler, Colorado ; 1908 ; 300 acres. ' 'Of
much interest from geological stand-
point as example of eccentric erosion
and extinct volcanic action. Of much
scenic beauty." In Cochetopa and
Rio Grande National Forests.
Mount Olympus, Washington; 1909,
1912, 1915; 299,370 acres. Contains
many objects of great and unusual
scientific interest, including many
glaciers. Is summer range and breed-
ing ground of the Olympic elk." In
Olympic National Forest.
Oregon Caves, Oregon; 1909; 480 acres.
"Extensive caves in limestone of
much beauty; magnitude not entirely
ascertained." In Siskiyou National
Forest.
Devil Postpile, California; 1911; 800
acres. "Spectacular mass of hexag-
onal basaltic columns, like an immense
pile of posts. Said to rank with
famous Giant's Causeway in Ireland."
In Sierra National Forest.
Walnut Canyon, Arizona; 1915; 960
acres. "Contains cliff-dwellings of
much scientific and popular interest."
In Coconino National Forest.
Bandelier, New Mexico; 1916; 22,075
acres. "Vast number of cliff-dweller
ruins, with artificial caves, stone
sculpture, and other relics of pre-
historic life." In Santa Fe National
Forest.
Old Kasaan, Alaska; 1916; 38.3 acres.
"Abandoned Indian village in which
there are numerous remarkable totem
poles and other objects of historical
interest." In Tongass National
Forest,
Lehman Caves, Nevada; 1922; 593.03
acres. "Limestone caverns of much
beauty and of scientific interest and
importance." In Nevada National
Forest.
Timpanogos Cave, Utah; 1922; 250
acres. Limestone cavern. In Wa-
satch National Forest.
Bryce Canyon, Utah; 1923; 7440 acres.
"Box canyon filled with countless
array of fantastically eroded pin-
nacles. Best exhibit of vivid coloring
of earth's materials." In Powell
National Forest.
Extensions of a number of parks are
advocated by the Director of the Na-
tional Park Service: Crater Lake to
include Diamond Lake; Yellowstone to
include the Teton Country to the south;
Rainier to include Ohanapecosh Hot
Springs, to the southeast ; and the much
discussed extensions of Yosemite and
Sequoia, which involve elimination of
land now park territory, and inclu-
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
25
sion of scenic areas now outside park
limits.
The enlargement of Sequoia National
Park by the creation of Roosevelt-
Sequoia National Park, involves not
alone addition of desirable territory,
but exclusion from the park boundary of
parts of park territory. The addition
includes some of the finest Sierra coun-
try Mt. Whitney, the Kings and Kern
Canyons and Tehipite Valley. The bill,
as it now stands, retains all but a small
part of the 3 southern townships whose
exclusion met with so much opposition
among naturalists. Most of the Sequoia
groves are retained. The inclusion of
the headwaters and canyons of the
Kings River, one of the finest valleys
of the Sierras, is meeting with strong
opposition from local irrigation districts.
The proposed change in Yosemite
National Park also involves the acquir-
ing of a section of the High Sierras, and
the exclusion of certain private lands
(10,959.89 acres) along the western
boundary. These private holdings cause
administrative difficulties, because of
grazing problems and the cutting of the
timber. In both cases, the territory
(not now privately owned) excluded
from the parks comes under the control
of the Forest Service.
Proposals for new parks and monu-
ments are constantly being made. All
must be investigated for availability and
desirability. The area must be one of
national, not merely local interest.
Areas of great local interest should be
taken care of as State parks. Only one
national park, Lafayette, is situated
east of the Mississippi River. It seems
desirable that the park system be in-
creased in this section of the country if
suitable areas can be secured. Among
proposals here, are Sand Dunes, 2 Mis-
sissippi Valley, Appalachia, Everglades,
Mount Katahdin, and Mammoth Cave.
In the West, where scenic features of
merit are more numerous, many propo-
2 "Report on the Proposed Sand Dunes National
Park, Indiana." Stephen T. Mather, Director of
the National Park Service. 1917. 113 pp.
sals have been made prominent among
which is the Glacier Bay region of
Alaska. Many worthy areas have also
been proposed as national monuments.
Proposals presented to the Sixty-
eighth Congress, include the following:
Mount Katahdin (Maine).
Killdeer Mountain (North Dakota).
Roosevelt (North Dakota).
Mammoth Cave (Kentucky).
Mississippi Valley (Wisconsin, Iowa).
Utah (Utah).
Appalachia (Virginia) to include sum-
mit of High Knob Mountain.
Wonderland (South Dakota).
Lincoln (Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee)
to include High Pinnacle Moun-
tain and Cumberland Gap.
Nicolet (Wisconsin) an abandoned
military reservation; 1046 acres.
Battle of Bear's Paw (Montana) as a
national monument.
Grand Coulee (Washington).
Yakima (Washington) to include Mt.
Adams and surrounding territory.
Blue Knob (Pennsylvania).
An area in a National Forest reservation
in Georgia.
Many other bills to establish national
parks and monuments have been pre-
sented. All such areas have been or are
being investigated.
There has recently been appointed by
Secretary Work, a Southern Appalachian
Park Committee. This committee is
"to undertake a thorough study of the
Southern Appalachian Mountains for
the purpose of selecting the most worthy
site in that range as a national park,
in order to conserve the scenery and the
plant and animal life under established
national park policies for the use and
education of our people." They have
since recommended two areas, the
Shenandoah in Virginia and the Great
Smokies in Tennessee and North Caro-
lina.
The national park system will doubt-
less continue to expand, and to increase
in value as its parks and monuments
become increasingly popular as rec-
reational areas, and as natural areas
in which the study of native fauna and
flora may be carried on to advantage.
26
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
LITERATURE
Almost every periodical dealing with
travel or nature contains articles on one
or more of our national parks. The
following are of a more general nature :
A Guide to the National Parks of
America. Edited by Edward Frank
Allen. Robert McBride and Co.,
New York, revised edition, 1918.
338 pp., map and illustrations.
The National Parks Portfolio. Robert
Sterling Yard. 248 pp., 306 ill.
Gov. Pr. Office.
Your National Parks. Enos A Mills.
Glimpses of our National Parks. R. S.
Yard. 72 pp., 31 ill. Gov. Pr. Office.
General Information regarding the
National Monuments. (Contains
descriptions of all national monu-
ments administered by the Depart-
ment of the Interior, the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, and the War
Department.) Gov. Pr. Office.
(Out of print.)
Information Circulars for individual
parks. Free on request to Director,
National Park Service. (Available
for Crater Lake, Grand Canyon,
Hawaii, Hot Springs, Mesa Verde,
Mount Rainier, Rocky Mountain,
Sequoia and General Grant, Wind
Cave, Yellowstone, and Yosemite.
Automobile Road and Trail Maps.
Director, National Park Service.
Annual Reports of the Department of
the Interior and of the National
Park Service.
The Relation of Wild Life to the Public in
National and State Parks. Charles
C. Adams, Proc. 2nd Nat. Conf.,
State Parks, 1922.
Glacier National Park
Flora of Glacier National Park. Paul
C. Standley. Contr. U. S. Natl.
Herb., vol. 22, pt. 5. 1921.
Wild Animals of Glacier National Park.
The Mammals. Vernon Bailey ; The
Birds. Florence Merriam Bailey.
210 pp., 94 fig., 37 pi., 1 map. 1918.
Origin of the Scenic Features of Glacier
National Park. M. R. Campbell.
42pp., 25 ill. 1914. Gov. Pr. Office.
Glaciers of Glacier National Park. W.
C. Alden. 48 pp., 30 ill. 1914.
Gov. Pr. Office.
Some Lakes of Glacier National Park.
M. J. Elrod. 32 pp., 19 ill. 1912.
Gov. Pr. Office.
Glacier National Park. A Popular
Guide to Its Geology and Scenery.
M. R. Campbell. U. S. Geol. Surv.,
Bull. 600. 54 pp., 13 pi., map.
1914. Gov. Pr. Office.
Glacier National Park, Its Trails and
Treasures. Mathilde Edith Holz
and Katherine Isabel Bemis.
Tenting Tonight. Mary Roberts Rine-
hart. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1918.
Yellowstone National Park
Geological History of Yellowstone
National Park. Arnold Hague. 24
pp., 10 ill. 1912. Gov. Pr. Office.
Geysers. Walter Harvey Weed. 32 pp.,
23 ill. 1912. Gov. Pr. Office.
Fossil Forests of Yellowstone National
Park. F. H. Knowlton. 32 pp., 15
ill. 1914. Gov. Pr. Office.
Fishes of the Yellowstone National
Park. W. C. Kendall. 28 pp., 17
ill. 1915.
The Big'Game^Animals T of Yellowstone
National Park. Edmund Heller.
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin, vol. 2,
no. 4: 405-467. 1925.
The Food of Trout in Yellowstone Na-
tional Park. Richard A. Muttkow-
ski. Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin,
vol. 2, no. 4: 471-497. 1925.
The Birds of the Yellowstone National
Park. Milton P. Skinner. Roosevelt
Wild Life Bulletin, vol. 3, no. 1.
192 pp. 1925.
Grand Canyon National Park
The Shinumo Quadrangle, Grand
Canyon district, Arizona. L. F.
Noble, U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. 549.
1914.
Rocky Mountain National Park
Geologic Story of Rocky Mountain
National Park. Willis T. Lee.
Mountaineering in Rocky Mountain
National Park. Roger W. Toll.
Lafayette National Park
The Sieur de Monts National Monu-
ment as a Bird Sanctuary.
The Coastal Setting, Rocks and Woods
of the Sieur de Monts National
Monument.
An Acadian Plant Sanctuary.
The Sieur de Monts National Monument
as commemorating Acadia and early
French influences of Race and Set-
tlement in the United States.
Natural Bird Gardens on Mount Desert
Island.
(All the above from Director of N. P.
Service.)
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
27
Yosemite National Park j
A Yosemite Fora. Hall.
Sketch of Yosemite National Park and
an Account of the Origin of Yose-
mite and Hetch Hetchy Valleys.
F. E. Matthes. Gov. Pr. Office.
Forests of Yosemite, Sequoia, and
General Grant National Parks. C.
L. Hill. Gov. Pr. Office.
The Secret of the Big Trees Yosemite.
Sequoia, and General Grant National
Parks. Ellsworth Huntington.
Mount Rainier National Park
Features of the Flora of Mount Rainier
National Park. J. B. Flett. Gov.
Pr. Office.
Forests of Mount Rainier National
Park. G. F. Allen. Gov. Pr. Office.
Mount Rainier and Its Glaciers. F. E.
Matthes. Gov. Pr. Office.
Mount Rainier, a Record of Explora-
tions. Edmond S. Meany. ^
Crater Lake National Park
Geological History of Crater Lake. J.
S. Diller. Gov. Pr. Office.
Forests of Crater Lake National Park.
J. F. Pernot. Gov. Pr. Office.
5. MUSEUMS AND NATURE
BY FRANK COLLINS BAKER
Many well informed people have
thought that the elaborate habitat
groups in the modern museum can take
the place of first hand contact with the
animals in their natural environment.
These groups are indeed wonderfully
life-like, and in many cases faithfully
portray the life as it may be seen in
nature, and when scientifically accurate
and constructed with due regard to the
psychology of the museum visitor they
have both a value to ecology and an
interest for the visitor. But these
groups, good as they are, only interpret
certain phases of the life of the animals,
giving the average person a birds-eye
view of some of the phenomena which
go to make up the every-day occupation
of wild life. Such groups as the Vir-
ginia deer in the four seasons, on exhibi-
tion in the Field Museum of Natural
History, give the student a good idea
of the changes that take place in the
form and fur of these common animals:
'but this simply interprets these phe-
nomena and cannot take the place of the
wild deer in their native haunts.
These museum groups, however, have
a real ecological value, not only in-
terpreting nature to those who may be
fortunate enough to be able to visit the
national parks and other wild places of
nature, and so make these visits of
more profit and pleasure, but they also
give to those individuals (who unfor-
tunately are in the majority) who cannot
leave the big centers of population and
enjoy wild life at first hand, a glimpse
of wild animal life as it is, or more
often, as it has been, before man took
complete possession of the land, lake,
and forest for his personal, and too often,
selfish use.
The preservation of natural areas for
the maintenance of wild life is emphati-
cally desired by, and necessary for,
the modern museum, for only by a
study of these natural areas can these
wonderful groups be made. It is be-
coming increasingly difficult to find
places near the cities where even the
smaller life can be studied for such
purposes. Lakes and streams adjacent
to towns and small cities (to say nothing
of these near the large metropolitan
cities, where almost everything is de-
spoiled) are either heavily polluted and
the fauna and flora killed or so changed
by modern life of the suburbanite as to
completely destroy all vestiges of origi-
nal wild life. The preservation of small
natural, more or less virgin, areas near
small towns and cities is imperative
and must be accomplished soon, or all
such places will be lost forever.
The large museums of the big cities
as well as the smaller museums of towns,
small cities, and those connected with
universities, are in a position to aid
the movement for the preservation of
wild life sanctuaries by the intelligent
display of their material so that visitors
may become interested in wild life, and
thus be led to add their influence when
constructive legislation is urged by the
many societies fostering this subject.
28
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
The museum habitat group has now
become one of the chief features of in-
terest in all museums, and many very
good examples of this new art are scat-
tered over the country from the Atlantic
to the Pacific, notably at New York,
Pittsburg, Chicago, Milwaukee, Denver,
San Francisco, and other places, and
the tourist may happily visit these
places and later visit the native haunts
of the animals exhibited. The auto-
mobile has brought the city and the
wild places closer together, and one may
often pass in a few hours from the
museum halls to the wilds of a national
or state park. The modern museum
seeks to interpret the lives of wild
animals for the benefit of all people,
rather than to simply store up vast
hordes of material for the specialist,
though the latter work must be carried
on also for the advancement of our
knowledge of life in general. The
museum is now, and always has been,
the champion of the conservation of
wild life.
6. THE GAME REFUGES AND
PUBLIC SHOOTING GROUNDS
OF PENNSYLVANIA
BY JOHN M. PHILLIPS
Member of the Board of Game Commis-
sioners of Pennsylvania, 1905 to 1924
Some 30 years ago, the thinking sports-
men of the State of Pennsylvania be-
coming alarmed at the rapid disap-
pearance of wild game generally in this
State, awoke suddenly to a realization
of the fact that if it was to be saved for
posterity immediate action was neces-
sary to secure its protection and pres-
ervation. It was recognized that in
order to attain results, a head to direct
and guide the efforts of the sportsmen
was necessary. After considerable agi-
tation, in 1895, by an Act of Legislature,
the Game Commission was created,
empowered to collect data and to recom-
mend legislation relating to the subject
of game and wild bird preservation, and
to enforce such laws as might be enacted.
The Commission was to consist of six
sportsmen, appointed by the Governor,
without regard to their political affilia-
tions, as it was intended to keep the
Game Commission a non-partisan body
and out of politics; the Commissioners
were to serve for love of the work and
without remuneration.
The cause was particularly fortunate
in the first Commission, as the men
appointed were enthusiasts on the
subject of wild game conservation;
besides, they had had considerable ex-
perience in protecting birds and animals
upon lands under their control. Soon
after taking office, the Commissioners
realized that in order to accomplish
results something more than good game
laws and their enforcement was neces-
sary, for while this might take care of
the game left in the State, no provision
was made for increasing the supply.
Having in mind the magnificent results
achieved by the Federal Government
through the establishment of National
Parks and Game Refuges in various
parts of the United States, and the
experiences of those in our State who
owned private game preserves, the Com-
missioners, some years later, hit upon
the idea of establishing in various parts
of the State, refuges or sanctuaries
into which game of all kinds and song
and insectivorous birds could retreat
and find safety when harassed by ene-
mies. It was thought that freedom from
disturbance, especially during the breed-
ing season, in an area where predatory
animals and birds could be extermi-
nated, and where a closed season would
be maintained perpetually, would result
in a marked increase in the birds and
animals in those sanctuaries.
A careful investigation of the subject
of game propagation satisfied the Com-
missioners that efforts to raise in cap-
tivity our native game birds, such as wild
turkey, ruffed grouse and quail had not
as yet met with material success. An-
other point that was seriously con-
sidered was that just as the introduction
of the English Sparrow and the German
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
29
Carp had resulted disastrously to the
Nation, so might the importation of
foreign game birds and animals result
in more injury than good to the State.
After considering all phases of the
question, the idea of a game farm was
abandoned, and the Commissioners
turned with renewed conviction to the
refuge or sanctuary idea, by which
our native game birds and game could
multiply without assistance from man,
other than the systematic extermination
of predatory forms and the absolute
protection afforded by a perpetual closed
season.
Happily for the purpose of the Com-
mission, the movement for the conserva-
tion of our forests and water-supply was
well under way. Our State Department
of Forestry had already acquired large
tracts of land, located almost without
exception in our mountain counties,
at the head-waters of streams, consti-
tuting a forest reserve area and rec-
reation ground for our people, which,
at the present time, aggregates over a
million acres distributed over almost half
of the 67 Counties of the State. The
area of these forest reserves vary, ranging
from 1176 acres in Wyoming County to
128,085 acres in Clinton County.
By an Act of Legislature of May 11,
1905, the Game Commission was au-
thorized, with the consent of the Com-
missioner of Forestry, to establish Game
Refuges or sanctuaries upon the State
forest lands. The Legislature of 1907
limited the area of these Preserves to 9
mi. in circumference, while those of
1911 and 1915 increased their size and
provided that the greatest transverse*,
dimension should not exceed 10 mi. nor
should the area of the preserve exceed
| of the total area of the tract of land
of the forestry reservation upon which
the preserve was located. In 1919, an
Act was passed, backed by the sports-
men, authorizing the Game Commission
to purchase with the surplus from the
Resident Hunters License Fund, lands
near our large centers of population,
where the Forestry Commission did not
already possess lands, for the purpose of
establishing game sanctuaries and hunt-
ing grounds, similar to those on State
lands. Also, an Act allowing the Game
Commission to provide auxiliary game
preserves of not less than 250 acres or
more than 4000 acres through the con-
sent of the owners or by lease. These
auxiliary preserves may consist of farm
lands.
These wild cut over and burnt over
lands, although, in the main, unsuit-
able for agriculture, are the natural
homes of the game it was desired to
attract and propagate and possess
the necessary summer and winter
feed, streams and cover for our birds,
bear, deer, squirrels, rabbits, etc.
Chestnuts, beech-nuts, acorns and many
other nuts, wild-grapes, haws and other
fruits, are abundant, together with an
almost endless variety of berries. So
long as the ground remained bare feed
would be plentiful, and with the coming
of the snows and ice many of the birds
could feed upon the buds of the beech,
birch and other trees, and, if necessary,
could be fed by the Preserve keepers.
Besides, some of the tracts possessed
waters upon which wild water-fowl
might find a resting place, at least in
their migratory flight.
Rather than establish a few Refuges
of large dimensions, it was deemed
advisable to create numerous small ones
of about 3000 acres each in extent, and
to locate them, as nearly as possible, in
the center of the forest reserves in
different counties. The purpose of so
locating the sanctuaries was to make
sure that the game propagated therein
would first spread to the State land
or land purchased with the sportsmen's
funds rather than to the property of any
individual or organization which might
be posted to prohibit hunting. In this
way, the game refuges would produce
an unending supply of game which would
naturally and inevitably spread to the
public forest lands from which no hunter
is barred.
It is thought wise to locate the ref-
uges in sections where the game had
formerly been plentiful but had been
30
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
practically exterminated, to gain by
such action the support and assistance
of the hunters in that region, rather
than to locate in territory containing
plenty of game, thereby incurring the
resentment of the hunters who would
feel that their best hunting grounds
has been taken away.
When the location of the Refuge has
been decided upon, the first thing nec-
essary is to exterminate the predatory
species, which destroy more game than
the hunters. The wildcat, weasel, fox,
skunk, mink, crow, hawk, owl, and the
prowling house-cat are, through the care-
ful use of strychnine, and by other
means, killed off. The next step is to
guard against the danger from fire, and
the brush is cleared from a strip of land
15 to 20 ft. wide around the outside of
the Preserve. In some instances, where
the danger from fire is pronounced, it is
also crossed with fire lines, thus creating
open roads where fires may be met and
extinguished.
Predatory animals having been ex-
terminated and provision made for
fighting forest fires, we next surround the
refuge with a single marking wire,
fastened to trees or posts, about waist
high on a man, the object being not to
enclose the game but to define the limits
of the refuge. This wire is usually
nine miles long and is placed inside the
fire lines surrounding the Refuge. At
frequent intervals, notices printed upon
muslin are tacked up along the line of
wire, fastened to trees or posts, calling
attention to the fact that the lands
inside the wire are a State refuge for
game, and asking for the cooperation
of all in seeing that the game is not
disturbed. The sanctity of these Pre-
serves, in almost 15 years, has only been
violated once, and then, it was claimed,
by mistake, showing that our sportsmen
appreciate their value.
The Refuge is now ready for the
game, and if it is not already, sufficiently
stocked, game of various kinds, such as
deer, elk, wild turkeys, fox squirrels,
etc., are purchased and placed in it. A
State Game Keeper is in charge of each
Refuge. His duties are to fight fires,
see that the Game is not molested, keep
the Refuge free from predatory ani-
mals, on which, as an incentive, he is
paid the regular bounties. In order to
supplement the natural feed in the
Refuges and attract and maintain wild
life, he is instructed to plant walnuts,
hickory nuts, mulberries, wild cherries,
mountain ash, apples, wild grapes and
other nut, fruit and berry producing
trees and shrubbery, buckwheat and
other grains. In addition to this, he
plants barberries, spruces, pines, etc.
for shelter and winter cover.
There are no fences around the Pre-
serves and, as stated above, the wire is
intended only as a marker, so that the
game is not confined in any way, but
can enter and leave the Refuge at will,
it being intended to reproduce as nearly
as possible the conditions under which
animals and birds thrive in a wild state.
Naturally, the herds and flocks inter-
mingle at pleasure and there is no in-
breeding with the consequent loss in
stamina that would occur in a fenced
enclosure.
Provided dogs and guns are left out-
side the wire, our Refuges are open to
the public except during the open season
for game when no person, save the officer
in charge, is allowed within the wire,
the purpose of this provision being to
prevent the driving of deer and other
game outside the Preserve onto the
Forest Reserve, where it may be killed
in the open season.
We now have 33 Game Refuges of
about 3000 acres each with a large area
^urrounding them upon which men may
hunt. Ten of these Refuges were pur-
chased by the sportsmen's funds. Owing
to the almost universal posting of farms
against hunting and the hunter being a
tenant-at-will on State lands, the for-
ward-looking sportsmen of Pennsylvania
are now asking for an increase in the
Resident Hunters License Fee. This
increase to be used exclusively for
purchase of Game Refuges and Pub-
lic Shooting Grounds, preferably in
10,000 acre tracts, scattered throughout
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
31
the State, and to be under the absolute
control of the Game Commission, for
the purpose of propagating wild life and
bringing back our forests and waters.
The results attained have been so
evident and so uniformly successful
in all our Refuges as to demonstrate
beyond any question the value of this
idea. Our Preserves are no longer an
experiment. The steady increase in the
supply of game in them, on the large
public hunting-grounds surrounding
them, and in their neighborhood, has
been remarkable. The large northern
deer imported from other States and
placed in these Refuges have thrived
and multiplied so that localities in which
they were formerly plentiful but had
been exterminated are again populated
with these beautiful and useful creatures
of the woods.
Many stories are told regarding the
instinct or sagacity of the deer, espe-
cially old bucks, in eluding their pur-
suers by seeking safety in these refugees.
The grouse and turkeys are quick to
take advantage of these sanctuaries,
especially the former.
To our minds, this system of game
propagation in its habitat and environ-
ment under absolutely natural condi-
tions with protection from hunters and
predatory animals, is infinitely superior
to any plan which involves the breeding
of game in confinement. In fact, the
Pennsylvania Game Commission con-
siders it a patriotic duty to bend all its
energies and apply all its resources to the
conservation and perpetuation of our
native and useful wild life rather than
to import from foreign countries at
great expense birds and animals of
doubtful values.
Through the adoption of Pennsyl-
vania's constructive Game Refuge
policy, the million acres of State Forest
Reserve, on which a few years ago wild
life was almost extinct, are being gradu-
ally made into the greatest hunting
and recreation grounds ever contem-
plated for the benefit of the people of
any State.
7. THE RELATION OF OUR SHRUBS
AND TREES TO OUR WILD
BIRDS 1
BY F. SMITH
Anyone who pays even slight attention
to the citizens of our bird world knows
that they show preferences for certain
kinds of surroundings. For some kinds
of birds one must go to the open fields;
for others, to the woodlands; while
many shore and water birds must be
sought along the water courses and in the
swamps. A somewhat further acquain-
tance leads to the knowledge that birds
of a given species may frequent very
different kinds of situations for feeding,
for nesting, and for refuge. Some spe-
cies, as the robins and grackles which
feed in the open fields, seek refuge and
nesting sites in the woodlands and in
shade trees. Still others, which may
feed and nest on the ground in open
fields, do not get very far from some
protecting shrubbery or hedge to which
they fly when disturbed.
Although certain kinds of birds are
ready to adapt themselves to quite
extensive changes in their surroundings,
others will simply disappear when such
changes occur. The cutting away of
the forests of several northern states is
known to have been followed by a
decrease of some of the forest-loving
species and an increase of those that
prefer the open fields or the shrubby
areas incident to new clearings. Re-
ports on the birds of several different
states are confirmatory of this statement.
When one learns the habits of all the
birds which are to be found during the
year in any one of our ordinary Illinois
localities and then makes a list of those
which are not dependent in any way on
trees or shrubs for food, nesting sites,
1 From "Arbor and Bird Days," Illinois Cir.
No. 83, Springfield, 1915.
W. L. McAtee states that there exists in most parts
of the United States either a superstition, a con-
viction, or a legal requirement that roadsides be
shorn of their vegetation at least once a year. So
far as the effect upon birds is concerned, there can
be no doubt that suppression of roadside vegeta-
tion is a potent factor in restricting their numbers.
"Attracting Birds to Public and Semi-public Reser-
vations," U. S. D. A. Bull. 715.
32
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
or refuge, the list is found to be rela-
tively short, especially if the locality is
distant from a river or lake. From
several locality lists available to the
writer, each including from 85 to 170
species, it is evident that about 75 per
cent of the species listed are in one way
or another dependent on trees or shrubs.
Since, of course, the same ratio may not
hold for the number of individual birds
found, it is desirable to ascertain, if
possible, what share of the bird popula-
tion of an average Illinois locality is
independent in every way of trees and
shrubs. Fortunately a pretty close ap-
proximation to such knowledge is ob-
tainable from the very extensive and
useful data accumulated by Prof. S. A.
Forbes from the work of expert ornitho-
logical assistants in 1906, 1907 and 1909.
Two such observers, traveling in
straight lines and always 30 yards
apart, recorded all the birds flushed on
a strip of land 50 yards wide and those
that crossed the strip within 100 yards
ahead. They recorded also the char-
acter of the fields traversed and the
distances in each. Heavy timber in
which there was little chance of a com-
plete count was disregarded/and the
record was, of course, deficient for water
birds. This work was carried on during
all seasons of the year and was nearly
equally distributed between the north-
ern, central and southern parts of the
state. The results show the numbers
and kinds of birds in samples of the
various sorts of environment in the
state, equivalent to a strip of land fifty
yards wide and over two thousand miles
long. Among these results we have
record of 48,558 birds from 39,940 acres.
There were 9199 English sparrows and
546 birds were not positively identified.
Deducting these latter two classes, we
have record of the identity of 38,813 wild
birds as distributed over farm lands,
orchards, and shrubby areas and open
woodlands. One hundred and seventy
species were represented, 44 of which
may be regarded as independent of
trees and shrubs able, apparently, to
get along perfectly well without them.
Of these latter 24 species are birds of the
open field and the others are shore birds
or water birds. Of the remaining 126
species many will eventually disappear
altogether, and the others will be rep-
resented in reduced numbers in locali-
ties where trees and shrubs are de-
stroyed. About 69 per cent of the
individual wild birds recorded by the
foregoing observers belong to this group.
These ratios correspond very closely
with those from other available records
based on more limited data. Fully two-
thirds of the wild birds of ordinary
Illinois localities are in some way de-
pendent on trees and shrubbery. The
reasons for this dependence differ
greatly for various species. Many, in-
cluding some of the woodpeckers, are
wholly dependent on trees for food,
nesting sites and places of refuge. In
most cases the insects associated with
the trees supply the food, although to
some extent the seeds, buds and even
the cambium layer (in case of trees
visited by the yellow-bellied sapsucker)
may be eaten. Numerous other species,
while getting their food from the ground
or from the flying insects of the air,
depend on trees or shrubbery for nesting
sites or refuge or for lookout stations.
Here, again, there is great diversity,
since some kinds frequent mostly the
upper parts of the trees, others prefer
the lower parts, while still others are
limited to those woods in which the
ground is more or less covered with a
thick undergrowth. Comparatively few
species prefer the interior of the heavy
forest, but many more frequent the
forest margins or open woodlands, es-
pecially those with thickets. Shrubby
fields and hedges are preferred by a
number of species.
A large majority of the birds that pass
the winter with us and of those that
come from the south in the early part
of the spring migration are of the
thicket-and shrubbery-loving kinds. To
find them we must seek them in the
environment they prefer along hedges,
in neglected berry patches, in shrubby
pastures, or in woods with plenty of
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
33
under growth. When such places are
all "cleaned up" the majority of the
winter birds and early spring migrants
disappear.
8. GRAZING IN THE NATIONAL
FORESTS
BY O. F. KOKSTIAN
The policy which governs the adminis-
tration of the National Forests includes
not only the insurance of a perpetual
supply of timber and the preservation
of a forest cover to regulate the flow
of streams, but also the development
of the other resources contained in the
Forests for the greatest permanent good
to the general public. Of all these the
production and harvesting .of the timber
crop is the most important primary
purpose denned by Congress. The for-
age resource, however, is of such im-
portance in many parts of the West that
its development through regulated graz-
ing is one of the necessary functions of
administration of the National Forests.
Its extent is determined by the other
objects of administration. The general
policy therefore involves the develop-
ment of the grazing resource to the
extent compatible with that of the other
National Forest resources and with a
view to maximum production of meat
and other animal products and maximum
stabilization of the livestock industry.
The grazing of livestock obviously
cannot be practiced without some modi-
fication of natural conditions. It may
either retard or promote the develop-
ment of the vegetative cover and cause
either retrogression or progression, but
in any case it tends to modify the types,
depending chiefly upon the closeness
with which the herbage is kept grazed
annually and upon the time of grazing.
In some instances unregulated grazing
has seriously interfered with the regener-
ation of the forests by consuming tree
reproduction along with the shrubby and
associated species. Continued grazing
of the range too early in the season or to
too great an extent not only favors
degeneration of the cover and ultimately
the destruction of the vegetation, but
also tends to impair the fertility of the
soil by favoring erosion. These extreme
adverse modifications of natural con-
ditions, however, are the results of the
abuse of the range.
Under scientific range management
these abuses will be practically elimi-
nated through the proper regulation of
grazing. The writer has reviewed else-
where 1 in some detail the consensus of
opinion of range management specialists
on the trend of grazing practice on the
National Forests in relation to the
preservation of natural conditions. The
composition of the herbaceous plant
associations will not, of course, be quite
the same as though no grazing had
occurred. The effects of grazing upon
plant succession depend not only on the
character and intensity of grazing, but
also upon the type of vegetation. Pro-
gressive succession is favored by the
system known as "deferred-and-rota-
tion" grazing; that is, the grazing of
parts of the depleted range only after
the maturity of the better forage and
the eventual extension of this practice
in rotation to all parts of the range.
This system is practiced in order to
maintain the ranges at their highest
producing capacity, as well as to revege-
tate the depleted ranges, since ordinar-
ily by its use more ready establishment
of valuable vegetation is secured than
by total protection from grazing. The
regulated grazing policy of the Forest
Service is to keep the areas in the climax
type of vegetation from the standpoint
of maximum meat production consistent
with the protection of watersheds and
timber reproduction. This may mean
occasionally a sub-climax ecological
stage of the shrubby and herbaceous
vegetation. Usually in the West, how-
ever, it will mean a climax ecological
stage of the shrubby and herbaceous
vegetation. This should offer little or
no hindrance to the development of the
1 Korstian, C. F. "Grazing practice on the
National Forests and its effect on natural condi-
tions." Scientific Monthly, 13: 275-281. 1921.
34
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
climax forest type or association since,
when necessary, cut-over forest areas
are closed to grazing during the regener-
ation period. Further, grazing has in
many cases aided regeneration of the
forest by improving the seed bed,
trampling the seed into the soil, and
lessening the competition through crop-
ping of associated species. The aid to
more rapid revegetation by properly
regulated grazing has assisted in les-
sening erosion and in improving water-
shed protection.
Regulated grazing in the National
Forests is further supported by the
strong argument that it is beneficial in
the control of forest fires. The value
of grazing as a means of fire protection
is realized in the utilization of the annual
growth of grass which, if not so disposed
of, becomes dry and inflammable and a
serious fire hazard. The extensive work
in forest fire prevention and suppression
on the National Forests is a very im-
portant factor in promoting and main-
taining climax types of forest vegetation.
In rendering the secondary uses com-
patible with the primary uses of the
National Forests, and in harmonizing
the secondary uses, it frequently be-
comes necessary to close areas to graz-
ing as, for example, watersheds which
comprise important sources of munic-
ipal water supply; recreational areas
and those of unusual scenic attractive-
ness, such as the National Monuments;
areas on which the forage on the range
is needed for important game animals;
and some forest areas in the course of
regeneration. Many of the areas shown
on the map of the National Forests
(figs. 1 and 2) are in a semi-natural condi-
tion and fall within this category.
9. FIRES IN RELATION TO THE
BIOTA
BY R. H. WOLCOTT
For a long time previous to the de-
velopment of ecology as a science fires
have been recognized as an important
ecological factor. Many scattered ref-
erences to their effects upon animal
and plant life are found in all kinds of
literature, but few of these are based
upon exact data or represent the results
of continued observations.
A very full discussion of forest fires
as to their kind, occurrence, causes,
and methods of prevention will be
found in Chapter VII of Graves' Prin-
ciples of Handling Woodlands or in Chap-
ter XV of R. C. Hawley's The Practice
of Silviculture. At the end of these
chapters there is given a very excellent
bibliography on forest fires so that an
enumeration of these points seems out
of place here.
The damage caused by forest fires on
this continent is enormous. Plummer 1
makes the statement that
Forest fires in the United States have
caused an annual loss of about seventy
human lives, the destruction of trees
worth at the very least $25,000,000 and
the loss of stock, crops, buildings and
other improvements to the amount of
many millions more. To these must be
added enormous losses from the destruc-
tion of young tree growth, deterioration
of the soil, damage to water courses and
adjacent property by low water and
flood, interruption of business and de-
preciation of property.
When to the loss by forest fires is
added the loss from prairie and other
fires it is seen that the total loss to this
continent from fires up to the present
time amounts to several billions of
dollars.
As to the injuries due to fires, we may
mention first, the destruction of the
plants themselves with whatever loss
that entails; second, the destruction of
the humus in the soil with the resulting
loss of fertility; third, the destruction
of lumber or other valuable products;
and fourth, the accumulation of dry
material which may serve to feed suc-
ceeding fires. In many of the forested
parts of the country the debris which
has accumulated from one fire after
another has resulted in the periodical
burning over of areas for long periods of
time.
1 Plummer, Fred G. Forest Fires, Bull. 117,
U. S. Forest Service, Washington, 1912.
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
35
There are certain benefits which may
be attributed to fires including: first,
favorable effects upon certain plants
which find a greater abundance of
nutrients in burned over tracts, such as
blueberries and huckleberries; second,
the improvement of forage by the re-
moval of the stiff stems of the previous
year's growth, permitting grazing ani-
mals to get at the young and succulent
herbage; and third, improvement of
reproduction by burning off grass or
heavy leaf litter, thus giving a better
chance for the germination of tree seeds.
Even "light burning" which has been
advocated by some in order to keep the
forest floor clean of litter, as a safeguard
against more serious fires, upon investi-
gation has been shown to bring about
injury due to removal of nitrogen from
the soil, change in soil texture, in-
creased evaporation, and the scarring
of trees, which paves the way for the
attacks of fungi and wood-boring in-
sects. It is decidedly a question if
fires can serve any useful purpose in
forestry, while on the other hand they
constitute an ever-present menace.
The relation of fires to plant succession
is obvious, but varies according to many
conditions. If the fire has been such
that the destruction of the vegetative
cover is complete there may occur
stages in its replacement corresponding
to a complete succession beginning with
the pioneer plants, but these are much
condensed if the soil is not destroyed.
This is most often observed after a gen-
eral and a very destructive forest fire.
In the destruction of bogs the soil may
be largely consumed.
Invasion from the adjacent areas may
occur and if the vegetation of these is
similar to that destroyed the result may
be the reestablishment of the former
conditions in a relatively short time. But
actually it must be understood that
any replacement takes many years. If
the destruction is not complete and roots
and seeds remain from which to develop
a new growth, the invaders from sur-
rounding areas may take possession at
first, but these are gradually replaced
by the species which were destroyed
until finally the vegetation assumes the
character which it possessed before the
fire. In the case of forests, these in-
vaders serve to protect the more tender
forest vegetation until it has become
established, when they are replaced
by it.
If the fire affects only the secondary
species such as herbs and shrubs in a
forest in any plant formation then the
succession operates only within those
forms, and as a result the stages are
short and not well defined.
It is possible for the fire to do so little
damage, especially in grassland, as to
destroy none of the members of the
formation and give rise to no succession.
It has been remarked by others that
succession after fires usually operates
within water-content groups, due to
the fact that the alterations of the soil
are slight, except on slopes where the
burning of the vegetation allows erosion
to occur. Grasslands are replaced in
most cases by grasslands and forest
usually by forest.
The immediate effect of fires upon
animal life, as well as upon plant life,
is always destructive. Only those forms
escape that are of large size and have
effective means of rapid locomotion.
Before the advancing flames is driven a
horde of larger animals which under the
influence of terror lose all fear of man
and even invade towns and cities, while
the smaller and weaker forms perish if
exposed to the fire. Aquatic animals
are not exempt from destruction for it
is stated that in the great Miramichi
fire in New Brunswick in 1825 fish in the
streams were killed in such numbers as
to be afterward found in heaps on the
river banks.
The completeness of this destruction
of animal life varies with the character
of the fire. Since fires usually occur
when the soil is dry, earthworms and
moisture-loving forms will have re-
treated below the level affected or will
have resorted to wet places where the
fire is less severe. The numerous forms,
especially insects, which live in the sur-
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
face stratum will be affected in propor-
tion as this stratum is involved, while
those that hide beneath the trash which
litters the ground are almost sure to be
destroyed. In less severe fires, how-
ever, many species and numerous in-
dividuals escape by being hidden within
and beneath fallen logs, where neither
the flames, the heat, nor the poisonous
gases generated in the fire reaches them.
In the case of surface fires these three
agencies (heat, etc.) destroy many forms
in the forest canopy above but also
spare many, especially if these are pro-
tected by being in the crevices of the
bark, beneath it, or in cavities within
the trees.
Fires also affect animal life by remov-
ing the cover behind which they find
concealment, by destroying their nests
and young, or the animals themselves
in early stages of development, and by
eliminating their food supply. At the
same time a limited number of forms
that live upon dead organic matter may
find their opportunity in the half-
destroyed remains of animals killed by
the fire.
Succession operates among animals,
as among plants, and corresponding
invasion occurs. The succession is very
short in the case of grassland, where the
original conditions are more speedily
restored, but in the case of woodland
the succession is more extended and
occurs by several stages. First, in
forest regions, animals of open ground
may invade the burned area, later those
resorting to thickets find congenial sur-
roundings, and last the forest forms
themselves return. Here again, how-
ever, certain of the original species may
have disappeared never to return. For
a short time after a forest fire a fauna
flourishes, the existence of which is due
to the presence of dead standing timber.
This includes wood-boring insects and
the predaceous forms which prey upon
them. Woodpeckers find now both food
and nesting places in the dead trees,
while raptorial birds find the devastated
area a favorable hunting ground.
Not only is animal succession after a
fire dependent upon plant succession,
but in certain respects the latter is
affected by the former. For instance
forest-dwelling mammals such as squir-
rels, and also certain woodland birds,
which feed upon the seeds of coniferous
trees, being excluded, the cones within
the area which have escaped destruction
may open and reproduction begin by
means of the seeds which they have
enclosed and protected, whereas in the
undisturbed forest these would have
been found opened, and the seeds eaten
by the animals. In other cases seeds
buried by rodents are the only ones
left.
To one interested in the conservation
of wild life, forest and prairie fires are
sources of profound regret, not alone
because of the destruction of life, but
also because of the fact that the areas
burned over are rendered incapable for
some time of supporting an abundant
and varied fauna and flora. To the
ecologist fires mean the destruction of
the evidence upon which may be based
conclusions as to the history of the past
succession of both plant and animal
life, and the creation of new conditions,
which, though they present many in-
teresting problems, do not yield data of
general or fundamental value in the
determination of the principles of
ecology.
Fires due to natural causes are un-
avoidable and unpreventable but these
may be limited by constant watchfulness
especially on the part of fire wardens.
Those which are incendiary can only be
reduced in number by the faithful co-
operation of all the members of a com-
munity in the detection and bringing
to punishment of the persons responsible
for them. Those due to carelessness,
which constitute by far the largest
number, can be avoided in the degree
to which the public generally is aroused
to a realization of the damage resulting
from fires and educated to the need of
legislation and of care on the part of
every individual.
It is absolutely essential, if bird and
game refuges and all tracts set aside for
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
37
wild life conservation or for ecological
study are to fulfil the aims of those who
have established them, that fires be
entirely prevented. Aside from the ac-
tual loss of game animals which attends
a fire of any extent, if even a small fire
occur during the breeding season, there
is the destruction of nesting birds,
their eggs and young, the removal of
the grassy or shrubby "cover" upon
which they depend for concealment, and
the elimination of the carpet of decaying
leaves and rotting fallen logs which
create conditions favorable for the
development of a myriad of insects and
lower forms upon which birds and other
higher animals depend more or less
directly for food. Those who resort to
these preserves to satisfy their love of
nature or for scientific investigation
neither need nor desire the construction
of roads, paths, and clearings within the
tract, and such areas should be free from
the intrusions of all others and carefully
safeguarded from the danger of fires.
For the pleasure-loving public gener-
ally which desires opportunity for field
sports and games, picnicking, etc.,
numerous and well distributed parks
should be provided. The National Gov-
ernment is doing a service of inestimable
value to our citizens and of far greater
significance to future generations in the
establishment of large national parks so
situated as to include and preserve areas
of great scenic interest. The states
should supplement this effort by the
establishment of state parks so disposed
as to be accessible to the greatest num-
ber of people. Cities have long since
come to appreciate the economic and
social value of parks and every pro-
gressive community has a system of
public parks with carefully devised plans
for future expansion. Interest in birds,
wild flowers, and all wild life is aroused
and rapidly increasing and all such
parks, whether national, state, county
or municipal should offer opportunities
for the exercise of that interest. All
parks should, therefore, contain a cer-
tain proportion of wild land, which may
well include hill slopes, ravines, creek
valleys, and other tracts difficult to
cultivate. This part should be left in
a strictly natural state, with the native
vegetation, shrubbery, fallen leaves, rot-
ting logs, etc. , undisturbed. With proper
care in landscaping, such areas could be
made very attractive, and would fur-
nish a refuge and breeding place for
birds which are most valuable in the
destruction of tree pests. The more
open portions of parks should never be
burned over and the greatest care should
be taken that fires made for the burning
of refuse or by picnickers be kept at a
safe distance from growing forests.
Liberal posting of notices and constant
watchfulness on the part of attendants
in local parks and by fire wardens in the
state and national parks will be neces-
sary to reduce the number of fires to
the minimum. -.
Earnest and continued efforts should
be made by all persons and associations
interested to educate the public gener-
ally, and especially campers and hunters,
in regard to the destructive results of
fires and the necessity of always ex-
tinguishing camp fires before leaving
them. The Boy Scout organizations can
do effective work here. In any region,
where there are extensive areas of public
lands or lands in a wild state, wise and
effective legislation is necessary, in-
cluding the enactment of proper regula-
tions, the posting of notices and the
development of an efficient fire warden
service.
All citizens should be urged to limit
the burning over of land and to dis-
courage unnecessary burning off of road-
sides, waste areas, groves, and wood-
lands, because of the injury done to
bird life and the damage to the soil
due to the destruction of humus and
consequent exposure to drying. It is
sometimes necessary to burn over grass-
land to destroy pests but in very many
cases at least the result may be more
perfectly attained by ploughing. From
the standpoint of the farmer it would
be well if every bit of the land not
under cultivation were occupied by
grassland, shrubbery, or woodland.
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
While the burning over of land may be
the only practical method of cleaning
it under some circumstances, it should
be recognized that this involves a re-
duction in the future fertility of the
soil and is a method to be avoided so
far as possible. Unless scattering of
brush is necessary to prevent drying
out of the soil or to favor reproduction
it should be collected in piles and burned
in the late fall or winter. Railroads in
timbered country, operators of portable
saw mills and men using power logging
should be induced to adopt such safe-
guards as would prevent the occurrence
of fires or restrict the damage caused by
those which may occur from their
negligence. If necessary the aid of the
law should be invoked to these ends.
In conclusion, attention should be
called to the desirability of careful in-
vestigations on the precise changes in
the ecological conditions due to fires in
various types of habitat; to the need of
exact quantitative as well as qualitative
studies on succession in such habitats;
and especially to the almost untouched
field afforded by studies upon the fauna
in these tracts. Every student of
ecology who has available for study a
burned over area has in it an opportunity
which should not be neglected.
10. THE EFFECT OF POLLUTION ON
ANIMAL LIFE*
BY FRANK COLLINS BAKER
Stream pollution may be broadly
divided into two main divisions: con-
tamination by organic sewage from
cities and towns and by chemical wastes
from factories and mines. Both are
inimical to life but the latter is espe-
cially fatal to animal life, causing wide
stretches of otherwise fertile streams
to become veritable deserts. Organic
sewage, in a crude or highly concen-
trated form, is also very injurious,
effectually eliminating most forms of
life from the polluted body of water.
1 The greater part of this topic is condensed from
a paper read before the Illinois State Academy of
Science, and published in Vol. XIII, of the T.rans-
actions of that Society, pp. 271-279, 1920.
The importance and seriousness of
the problem of stream pollution in its
effect on the life of the rivers and
streams into which the contaminating
material is discharged has not, until
very recently, been given the attention
the subject demands. The diminishing
fish supply, and in many places the
very objectionable physical character
of the polluted waters, have caused the
authorities of several states to pass
laws governing the discharge of these
wastes into streams and the establish-
ment of penalties for disregarding these
laws. New York and Massachusetts
have led in the framing of these laws
and other states are following the good
example set by these two older com-
monwealths, where the conditions seem
to have reached a maximum of harm-
fulness (see Ward, 1918, 1919).
During recent years stream pollution
has enormously increased and the prob-
lems arising from this condition have
been investigated by many biologists
and sanitary engineers. The former
have studied the problem from the
viewpoint of its effect on the useful
animal life, especially fishes and river
mussels, and this phase probably bears
as close a relation to human welfare as
any other. Of course, from the stand-
point of health, the polution problem
is of paramount importance because of
its bearing on such diseases as typhoid
fever which may be caused by a pol-
luted water supply.
Perhaps the worst effect of chemical
pollution is to be found in the streams
of western Pennsylvania, where mine
water heavily loaded with oil or acid
water from coal mines is permitted to
flow into the rivers and streams of this
part of the state. Studies by Ortmann
(1909) show that whole stretches of
the Allegheny, Ohio, and Monongahela
rivers have been made into deserts,
as far as the animal life is concerned, by
the large amount of poisonous sub-
stances discharged into these streams
by the mines, oil industries, and chemi-
cal and other factories that border
these rivers. In the Susquehanna
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
River the same condition prevails in
many places (Leighton, 1904). Such
pollution causes a complete extermina-
tion of the fauna (and largely of the
chlorophyl-bearing flora) and leaves
the stream in such condition that re-
stocking by either natural or artificial
means is practically impossible, and
if attempted is a waste of money.
Pollution by sewage, when the pol-
luting material is of small percentage
as compared with the pure water of
the stream (as 200 to 1), causes little
inconvenience to the animal life and
is doubtless of some benefit because of
the additional food material that is
added (Forbes and Richardson, 1919,
p. 146). But the streams seldom remain
long in this innoxious condition, the
sewage becoming more and more concen-
trated and- less diluted until the whole
stream may be supersaturated with
noxious substances, the amount of
oxygen in saturation reduced, and
the biota finally driven out or killed.
Pollution is worst and usually most
deadly to animal life during periods of
low .water and in winter when the
amount of water in the stream is small
and the decomposing organic material
has less water to deprive of its dis-
solved oxygen. During times of floods
the putrescent material is also carried
down stream for many miles and con-
taminates areas not previously af-
fected.
While all clean-water forms of ani-
mal life are more or less affected by
sewage pollution, the decomposition of
the organic matter abstracting dissolved
oxygen from the water and rendering
it unsuitable for aquatic life, the fish,
river mussels, and crayfish are partic-
ularly affected, most fish being es-
pecially sensitive to contaminated water.
Some fish (as the brook silversides,
Labidesthes sicculus] are notably sensi-
tive, while others (as the black bull-
head, Ameiurus melas) will endure
water that is badly polluted (Shelford,
1918, p. 27; Wells, 1918, pp. 562-567).
Young fish are relatively more sensitive
than adult fish. It is noteworthy that
the more resistant species of fish are
inhabitants of sluggish bodies of water,
as ponds and shallow lakes, while the
least resistant species live in running
streams. It seems to be a question
of the amount of oxygen necessary for
the well being of the fish.
The ill effect of sewage pollution is
most marked on the bottom of bodies
of water, where a sludge is formed,
often of great thickness (as much as
10 ft. in several cases), consisting of
a mass of soft, black, sediment, with
a high content of organic matter, in
which only a few organisms, normally
inhabitants of polluted streams, can
live (e.g., septic Protozoa and Rotifera,
foul-water algae, and slime-worms,
Tubificidae). This effect on the bot-
tom is perhaps the most serious phase
of stream pollution because the septic
condition of this area continues in
operation long after the original source
of contamination ceases to operate.
This sludge formation renders the
bottom unfit for clean-water life upon
which many fish depend for food. The
time necessary for the recovery of the
normal biota of such a stream will in
most cases be of long duration, and in
the case of a stream polluted with
wastes from mines and chemical manu-
facturies, there may never be a return
to the original condition.
In the case of the Genesee River at
Rochester, N. Y., we have a striking
example of the history of a polluted
stream and its effect on one group of
the animal life. Previous to the stage
of great pollution there is a varied
fauna of mollusks very numerous in
individuals. In the course of 11
years the gill-bearing species are forced
out and after a lapse of 14 years
all molluscan life ceases to live in this
part of the river. Seven years later
the greater amount of sewage is diverted
to another outlet. Two years after
this change we find that the mollusks
have returned in as great numbers as
before the maximum stage of pollution.
The significance of all this lies in the
fact of the early return of this life, and
40
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
strikingly indicates that streams may
become restocked with life in a short
period after pollution has ceased to be
of an unfavorable character. At the
present time the sturgeon, which for-
merly resorted to the river to feed and
breed, and had been driven out by the
polluted condition of the stream, has
returned, which is another indication
of improved conditions. It is quite
probable that the large fall in the river,
some 60 feet in height, has had a marked
effect in the return of these favorable
conditions.
A study of the Salt Fork of the Big
Vermilion River, indicates that all
clean water life, including mussels and
crayfishes, has been excluded from this
stream for a distance of fourteen miles,
and a normal fauna of these animals is
not encountered until a distance of
twenty miles has been traversed. The
shallowness of this stream has evidently
provided a sufficient supply of dissolved
oxygen and it is apparent that in a
deeper stream the ill effects of sewage
pollution would be experienced for a
much greater distance.
Ecological reports from different
states show that wherever towns, cities,
mines, or manufacturing plants are
located near a stream, that body of
water sooner or later becomes polluted.
Little definite work has been done to
bring together all of the data concerning
river and stream pollution. That which
is available indicates a truly alarming
condition of affairs.
In South Carolina the fertilizer fac-
tories discharge wastes of many kinds,
including sulphuric acid, into the
streams, and oil-burning steamers per-
mit oil to run into the water of harbors
and bays. The State is taking action
against this practise.
In Idaho and Montana mine water
pollutes some of the streams. In West
Virginia, as in Pennsylvania, the lower
parts of the streams are polluted by
refuse from coal mines, pulp and paper
mills, chemical plants, and sewage
from cities and towns. In Ohio, large
streams are polluted by sewage and
mine wastes. Iowa and Missouri
streams are reported as badly polluted.
In Arkansas, in the Poteau River, fish
are being killed by mine wastes charged
with iron salts, whose rapid oxidation
suffocates the fish. In Minnesota, the
large streams are polluted by sewage
from the large cities. In Wisconsin,
sewage is polluting Lake Winnebago
from which the water supply of Osh-
kosh is derived. Manufacturing wastes
.from match factories and paper mills
also pollute the waters of the Fox River.
These examples might be indefinitely
extended. The survey of present con-
ditions indicates that wherever stream
pollution occurs the clean-water ani-
mals are sooner or later driven out or
killed. Such a condition seriously af-
fects our food and game fishes, which
form so large a part of the meat of our
population, and the situation demands
immediate attention and early remedy.
It is a matter of great satisfaction to
scientific men that the authorities are
awakened to the seriousness of such
conditions and that in many cases they
are providing remedial measures.
LIST OF REFERENCES IN THE TEXT
Baker, Frank Collins
1920. Animal Life and Sewage in the
Genessee River, New York.
American Naturalist, LIV, pp.
152-161.
1922. The Molluscan Fauna of the Big
Vermilion River, Illinois.
With Special Reference to its
Modification as the Result of
Pollution 1 by Sewage and
Manufacturing Wastes. Illi-
nois Biological Monographs.
VII, pp. 1-126, 6 pi.
Forbes, S. A., and Richardson, R. A.
1913. Studies on the Biology of the
Upper Illinois River. Bull.
III. State Lab. Nat. Hist.,
IX, pp. 481-574.
1919. Some recent changes in Illinois
River Biology. Bull. Ill Nat.
Hist. Survey, XIII, pp. 137-156.
Leighton, Marshall O.
1904. Quality of Water in the Susque-
hanna River Drainage Basin.
Water Supply and Irrigation
Paper, No. 108, U. S. Geol.
Surv., pp. 1-76.
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
41
Ortmann, Arnold E.
1909. The Destruction of the Fresh-
water Fauna in Western Penn-
sylvania. Proc. Amer. Phil,
Soc., XLVIII, pp. 90-110.
Shelford, Victor E.
1918. Ways and Means of Measuring
the Dangers of Pollution to
Fisheries. Bull III. Nat.
Hist. Surv., XIII, pp. 23-42.
Ward, Henry B.
1918. The Elimination of Stream Pol-
lution in New York State.
Trans. Amer. Fisheries Soc..
XLVIII, pp. 1-25.
1919. Stream Pollution in New York
State. A Preliminary In-
vestigation of the Problem
from the Standpoint of a
Biologist. Report to N. Y.
Conservation Commission, pp.
1-79.
Whipple, George C.
1913. Report on the Sewage Disposal
System of Rochester, N. Y.
By Edwin A. Fisher, City
Engineer, pp. 179-200.
Wilson, Charles B., and Clark H. Walton,
1912. The Mussel Fauna of the Mau-
mee River. Bureau of Fisher-
ies. Document No. 757.
1912. The Mussel Fauna of the Kan-
kakee River. Bureau of Fish-
eries, Document No. 758.
D. INTERESTS AND MANAGEMENT
1. UNION OF INTERESTS AND
MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL
AREAS
BY V. E. SHELFORD
With the growth of population, the
destruction of forest and other original
types of vegetation, and the modifica-
tion of streams and lakes progresses
rapidly. We have no royalty or nobil-
ity whose hunting and fishing pre-
serves are being withheld from exploita-
tion. Many more reserves are needed,
but each year it becomes more difficult
to secure them. Such reserves as are
already created are continuously threat-
ened with partial exploitation.
Probably the only effective way to
retain all the features of existing re-
serves and secure an adequate number
of new ones is to create and maintain
a public interest in each reserve as well
as in reserves in general. The public's
knowledge of the uses of preserves is
scanty. The interests which may com-
bine in one reserve have been too little
emphasized and may be classified as
follows :
A. INTERESTS IN PRIMEVAL AREAS
7. Scientific interests
1. Biology. There is a growing
tendency to make use of reserves of
original character as a check on various
laboratory operations, and in the study
of ecology, as well as in the older taxo-
nomic and natural history work.
2. Forestry. Natural areas will be
valuable to foresters as object lessons,
for comparison and standardization of
forestry practice. They will serve as
a standard of accomplishment of Nature
alone and as a guide by which the cor-
rectness of the foresters' efforts to
improve on Nature may be gauged.
Permanent sample plots, corresponding
to the "quadrats" of the ecologist, are
left in their original conditions for
comparison with adjacent plots vari-
ously treated, so that changes in the
composition, growth, and history of
natural forest stands, as compared
with modified stands, may be noted.
On some of the National Forests a
number of permanent plots are also
maintained for the study of herbaceous
vegetation and principles of range
management in order to compare con-
ditions on grazed and ungrazed areas.
3. Geography. Geographers require
a knowledge of original vegetation
and animals to interpret existing cul-
tures, to generalize on various climatic
and economic questions.
4. History. Historians require in-
formation similar to that sought by
the geographer, in the interpretation
of historical facts, and especially in
interpreting the events of pioneer
days.
II. Literary and artistic interest
1. Many pieces of literature cannot
be interpreted without a knowledge of
the original vegetation. Bryant's poem
"The Prairies" is an example. Not a
few teachers of literature make use of
preserves.
2. Many artists who are students of
nature use natural subjects.
777. Recreational interests
I. Sportsmen desire to increase the
amount of game and in many states
certain areas are set aside as game
sanctuaries. In Pennsylvania a game
sanctuary has a single wire stretched
around it and is kept carefully guarded
by wardens. No hunting is allowed
inside the wire. The game is allowed
42
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
43
to reproduce unmolested and overflows
into the surrounding territory where
hunting is permitted. The game in
the area is not likely to become very
much more numerous under such condi-
tions than it was originally with its
natural enemies, such as wolves, etc.,
roaming about. Thus perhaps within
the sanctuary the conditions of balance
of animal life is as nearly like the
original one as could be hoped.
2. Ornithologists are interested in
areas which afford protected nesting
places for birds.
3. Wild flower lovers desire to see
the flowers preserved and accordingly
are interested in natural areas, which
may act as seeding centers.
B. INTERESTS IN MODIFIED AREAS
("SECOND GROWTH" OF
ALL KINDS)
1. Camping and related recreation.
2. Hunting.
3. Forestry operations leading to
the production of lumber and other
forest products.
4. Bird and game refuges.
5. Scientific study of succession of
organisms with the development of a
new biota (e.g., natural reforestation).
C. ECONOMIC INTERESTS
There are often watersheds which
supply water to cities and water for
irrigation purposes which will always
be maintained and are available for
scientific study, sample plots, bird
preserves and perhaps game sanctuaries.
Forestry practice retains some of the
natural features. It is often possible
for several interested groups to combine
and make a strong plea for the setting
aside of areas bounded by natural
topographic features as preserves of
natural conditions to serve all the eight
or more purposes enumerated. The
diversity of interest is an asset which
makes the creation of preserves a far
less hopeless task than many of those
interested think.
/. Management of preserves
1. Subdivision. Areas should be sub-
divided into (a) public park, always
open to the public but kept as nearly
natural as possible, (6) tree growing
areas which if large enough may serve
for hunting and fishing, (c) natural
areas which will serve for the study
of biology, geography, history and art
and as wild life sanctuaries.
The accompanying plan (fig. 1) shows
a 60 acre tract designed primarily for
a preserve of natural conditions. The
entire tract is surrounded by a drive
to prevent fires. The drive margin is
set with native shrubs such as grow at
the edges of woods, etc., designed to at-
tract a maximum number of birds.
The front portion adjacent to the public
highway containing about 14 acres, is a
public forest park with 3 circular drive-
ways within which fires may be built.
Behind is the preserve and this is an
area (with the keeper's house at the
center) surrounding it, designed for
silviculture, the chief object of which
is the demonstration of farm woodlot
forestry. This is open to the public
with some restrictions. The central
area is a preserve open only to those with
special interests and designed as a
game sanctuary, center of seeding,
for wild flowers, a bird sanctuary, etc.
Larger tracts may be similarly divided
following topographic features (fig. 2)
and even small city parts may maintain
natural areas.
2. Rotation and policing. Natural
parks are most easily obtained when
the recreational interests support the
project strongly. Two natural parks
in two different states illustrate this
point. The movement to secure them
in each case was started by artists and
nature lovers and only when the recrea-
tional possibilities were realized by
politicians was the project pushed
through the legislature. No plans of
management were suggested and the
parks were practically turned over to
hotel and amusement concessionaires
and naturalists now maintain that the
44
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
original beauty will soon be ruined.
Granting that most reserved areas must
serve either for tree growing or recrea-
tion, or both, all proposed legislation
should provide for management. This
includes subdivision, coupled with a
complete scheme of rotation of natural
areas .
There should be a resident officer
charged with caring for and guarding
the park and instructing the public in
the prevention of fires.
Natural Area B
<4
O
Tree
Growing
5
1
Natural
Area
2
<3
la
c
3
Tree
Growing
j
i
><l
Public Natural Park
Building
PLAN FOR PARK SUBDIVISION INTO TREE
GROWING, RECREATIONAL AND
NATURAL AREAS
A, Open to the public for the year
1920, closed in 1921 and 1922.
B, Open 1921, closed 1922 and 1923.
C, Open 1922, closed 1923 and 1924.
E. ADMINISTRATION OF WILD LIFE
1. THE ADMINISTRATION OF WILD
LIFE IN STATE AND NATIONAL
PARKS 1
BY CHAS. 0. ADAMS
The administrative aspect of the
wild life in our parks is a large and im-
portant subject. The problem of prop-
erly caring for and using wild life to
the best advantage in our parks is be-
coming increasingly more serious and
difficult. With the increasing number
of park visitors new problems are com-
ing up all the time. By decreasing the
congestion by enlarging the parks
or by temporarily closing other parts
as intensive use threatens to wear them
out recovery can be secured, but the
general drift, with increasing popula-
tion, is always to encroach upon the
wilderness. Thus we see that to main-
tain park wildernesses can only be
accomplished by a struggle, and the
eternal vigilance needed to preserve our
liberty is the same price which must
be paid for the free wild nature of the
wilderness. The wilderness, like the
forest, was once a great hindrance to
our civilization, but now the tide has
turned and wildernesses and forests
must be maintained, even at much
expense, because human society needs
them. Not infrequently have I talked
with enthusiastic friends of our parks,
who feel that in this struggle the odds
are so much against the parks and their
wild life, that there is perhaps no use
to continue what they feel to be a losing
fight. But it seems to me that this
is only another aspect of that constant
struggle for any high ideal the only
kind worth striving for; this is not at
1 Extracted from "The Relation of Wild Life to
the Public in National and State Parks." Pro-
ceedings of the Second National Conference of State
Parks. 1922, pp. 129-147, 1923. Revised edition,
Roosevelt Wild Life Bull., Vol. 2, pp. 371-402. 1925.
all a peculiar feature of our park prob-
lems.
European experience furnishes us
with a number of examples of the value
of wild areas because so little of the
original conditions now remain there.
But in spite of the unfavorable condi-
tions the appreciation of these original
conditions has not yet died out. This
is worthy of special mention because
of the fear one hears expressed that this
is a hopeless cause. In several Euro-
pean countries there are active organi-
zations, endowments devoted to this
cause, and even governmental bureaus
devoted exclusively to it (cf. Ahrens,
1921; Conwentz, 1909).
Some of the main administrative prob-
lems concerned with wild life are, the
maintenance of this resource, including
all protective aspects of vegetation and
its animals, the formulation of policies,
the education of the public on wild
life, and the perpetuation of its ideals.
MAINTENANCE
The maintenance of wild life in the
park, in a normal, healthy state, is a
relatively new art in America. This
involves proper protection, by rules,
rangers or police, and by all educational
devices available. But this protection
is not all a question of restrictions, for
there is the productive and construc-
tive aspect. Favorable conditions must
be maintained, so that the animals
will breed normally. If fishing is
permitted, the maintenance of the
stock in the streams must be looked
after continuously, and the supply
maintained. Careful supervision of all
this must be given and definite policies
followed or great blunders will be made,
and much damage will be done. A
competent park official should super-
vise all this fish work.
45
46
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
At present, administrators are in a
difficult position because of the lack of
definite ideas, policies, and public
sentiment to support definite programs,
and the frequent changes of officials
favor a lack of continuity in policies ; and
furthermore, with such a wobbling
policy little is learned from experience.
EDUCATION OF PARK OFFICIALS
At present parks suffer to a large
degree because they are necessarily
in the hands of administrators who,
because of their lack of special training,
we must consider as amateurs. We
have had no profession for this line
of work, and some who have had the
most training are feared to a correspond-
ing degree, because of preconceived,
formal ideals, which they with almost
religious zeal slip into the wilderness
parks. The ideal of a wilderness park
is beyond their ken, because their
approach has been from another
angle. These persons are welcomed
in formal city parks but in our large
National and State parks they are
liable to be a menace. In the training
of such men there has been no adequate
recognition of the wild life problems.
Another source of difficulty is the
lack of trained rangers, and nature
guides in our parks. These men are
needed not only with a special famil-
iarity with a special subject matter,
but as well with the ideals of parks.
Until very recently we have had no
provision for such a training in our
educational system, and not until
adequate provision has been made
can we expect the detailed work in the
parks to be wholly satisfactory. A
whole technical staff is needed for our
parks, but this fact must be generally
appreciated before men will devote
themselves to it, and the public ap-
preciate it fully enough to provide for
it in the appropriations.
NEED OF FORMULATING POLICIES
At present our parks are in great need
of definitely formulated policies, even
if they are of a provisional nature
(cf. Waugh, '18). A broad, general
policy is not enough; it should be com-
prehensive but as well, it should be
worked out in as much detail as is
possible, so that in time we will have
for our National Parks, a manual cor-
responding to the Use Book of the
Forest Service. Each State Park or
park administration should have a
similar policy, which should be pub-
lished and made a part of the educa-
tional data available to the public.
It will then be available for criticism
and improvement. Of course, as many
park executives are without adequate
help, are liable to political interference,
and their tenure short, they are fre-
quently liable to neglect the formula-
tion of these policies, and depend solely
upon the laws establishing these parks.
Without general policies we can not
expect detailed, well-worked-out plans
for wild life. Today we have no such
published program for the wild life of
our National Parks, not even for the
fish, which might be expected to pre-
cede that of other kinds of animals.
The attitude of the U. S. Fish Com-
mission, in the early days, had no con-
ception whatever of the Yellowstone
as a wilderness park, with the fish life
maintained as nature left it and for
this reason the Commission was favor-
able to stocking the waters with a
variety of exotic fish, and of stocking
the streams thoroughly above all falls
uninhabited by fish, and likewise the
isolated lakes. The idea that forests
with big game animals should be main-
tained as a wilderness, and that there
was an advantage in natural wild waters
was beyond their conception. The
attitude o the present U. S. Bureau of
Fisheries, and of the Park Service itself
has improved somewhat, but still it
has in the main adhered to the older
policies and standards of making
angling available everywhere, rather
than to maintaining a wild preserve. I
have no doubt that this has come about
or grown up without much deliberation,
and certainly not after considering the
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
47
value, in the remote future, of large
areas for the educational and scientific
value of true wilderness waters. Some
of the same persons who are very eager
to maintain a wilderness forest about
their homes have never realized that
others are equally interested in an
aquatic wilderness untouched by man.
THE WILDERNESS POLICY
The Council of the American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science,
at the Toronto meeting, December,
1921, passed the following resolutions,
which have a very direct bearing on
the policy of our National and State
Parks in maintaining their native
plants and animals in natural condi-
tions. These resolutions read (Science,
N. S., Vol. 55, p. 63, 1922):
Whereas, One of the primary duties
of the National Park Service is to pass
on to future generations for scientific
study and education, natural areas on
which the native flora and fauna may be
found undisturbed by outside agencies;
and
Whereas, the planting of non-native
trees, shrubs or other plants, the stocking
of waters with non-native fish, or the
liberating of game animals not native
to the region, impairs or destroys the
natural conditions and native wilderness
of the parks;
Be It Resolved, That the American
Association for the Advancement of
Science strongly opposes the introduc-
tion of non-native plants and animals
into the national parks and all other
unessential interference with natural
conditions, and urges the National Park
Service to prohibit all such introduction
and interferences.
If parks are to be managed so as to
pass them on to future generations un-
harmed, they must in the main remain
wild. No one can safely assume that
he is able to tell how valuable these
regions, when properly stocked, will
become in the future. When once a
plant or an animal becomes extinct
it is beyond human power to restore
it.
Although there are considerable areas
of the National Forests which are likely
to remain virgin wilderness this is not
a sufficient guarantee that we will have
all that we need. The chances are that
in the near future foresters will, with
increasing emphasis, strive to retain
valuable examples of representative
virgin forests within our National
Forests and State Forests, in a virgin
condition for special study. These
areas will also act as preserves for
many animals but they will not neces-
sarily provide for the larger animals
unless they coincide, as they well
might, with wild life preserves. Some
foresters have already observed the
need of the forest "wilderness" as a
part of the recreational policy of the
National Forests (Leopold, 1921), and
others for the purpose of teaching and
investigation (Ashe, 1922), and if such
areas give complete protection to both
plants and animals great progress will
be made. The grazing of domestic
animals must be restricted or excluded
from such preserve areas or the her-
baceous vegetation will soon be greatly
modified (Korstian, 1921). The ex-
periences in the National Forests clearly
show just what will certainly happen
in our National Parks if they are not
strictly guarded, from the wilderness
point of view. These experiences also
clearly show the great caution that
must be exerted even with the present
customary grazing in our National
Parks. No doubt this should now be
under the closest supervision of a
forage ecologist. The same ideas apply
even to living and dead trees, that at
any time may be cut in these parks.
At present we have only one official park
forester in any of these great National
Parks, and very few connected with
State Parks and not all of these are
fully alert to the value of virgin forests.
European experience (Oonwentz, 1909,
pp. 118, 131), has clearly shown that
clear cutting of the forests is very harm-
ful to many kinds of native plants,
and this is equally true for many ani-
mals, for we know that the vegetation
exerts a powerful influence upon most
forest animals. (Of. Pearson, 1922.)
In certain State Parks commercial
48
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
forest management is conducted, and
this is very desirable under certain
circumstances, which properly limits
the commercial forests and the pre-
serves, and provides for a corresponding
management. At present great caution
will be needed not to confuse the
management of these two types of for-
ests. A proper balance should be
secured and then the income from the
commercial forest might well be made
a source of revenue for the maintenance
of the whole park. In time the pre-
serves themselves may find it necessary
to charge a small fee for their use, and
a forest park with funds from the tim-
ber and from a fee or license for the
use of the preserve, might secure enough
revenue to do much more constructive
work than one depending solely upon
taxation and gifts. This possibility
is so important that it deserves more
attention than it has received in the
past. The new Allegany State Park
in New York was planned upon such a
program.
The time has come when we must
begin an educational campaign for
large endowments for the educational
and scientific work in our National and
State Parks. Of course, much can be
done by cooperation with various in-
dividuals, the colleges, universities,
and scientific societies, particularly
with some of the State universities,
especially if urgent requests are made
to them for cooperation. They are
likely to respond best when sought.
But it is likely to take some time for
these institutions to become acquainted
with this phase of work, as most of them,
even today, have but a faint realization
of outdoor biological problems, and their
application to parks. Fortunately there
are a few marked exceptions.
The parks need these funds primarily
for three purposes:
1. They need a technical scientific
staff to solve their own scientific prob-
lems as much as they need lawyers and
engineers. The need exists but it is
only slightly realized and in the main
only those who are taking a broad view
of the situation are aware of the con-
ditions.
2. They need an educational staff to
build up their local museum-library,
as nature guides, and to supplement
and aid in the training of rangers
who should also be trained men. This
staff should be the mainstay for popu-
lar lectures, lantern and moving picture
lecturers who will arouse intelligent
appreciation of the resources of the
parks.
In general, the scientific and educa-
tional staffs must be distinct because
the two kinds of work can not be done
at the same time and the staff can not
be expected to divide its attention suc-
cessfully. An executive does not expect
his lawyers or engineers to drop their
work at any moment and give a popu-
lar talk or to conduct other extraneous
work, and the same applies to the scien-
tific staff.
The educational and scientific staff
should be large enough to include cer-
tain men who could devote their whole
time to the practical and technical
problems that demand immediate at-
tention, closely related to the adminis-
trative, rather than to the educational
aspects of park work. The only reason
for advocating this as a distinct group
is that in practice it is rarely that suffi-
cient funds can be obtained to secure
men who are versatile enough to cover
so large a field; it is therefore safer to
plan for a larger staff.
It is generally difficult in adminis-
trative circles to appreciate that first-
class research men can only rarely be
secured, who are willing to have their
work continually interrupted by all
sorts of administrative breaks. These
men must, to get the results, be pro-
tected from such interruptions.
3. The wild life of the parks requires
constant, all-year-round attention. A
great number of our parks will be-
come more and more patronized the
year 'round when the people are edu-
cated to it. With this increasing pat-
ronage there will constantly develop
new problems for solution and supervi-
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
sion. It is only such a staff that can
be expected to present, in the best popu-
lar form, the natural history resources
of the parks. These popular accounts
must be presented from many angles of
approach, if a large public is reached
to advantage. It is a common error
to assume that there is only one popular
form of approach; a multiple approach
should be carefully cultivated by dif-
ferent types of students and authors.
There are certain problems of ad-
ministration that must first be solved
as scientific problems, and then executed
under technical supervision, such as
care of fish, game, birds, mosquito
control and the management of the
forests. These are examples of the
problems, which, with increasing use,
the natural resources will require. This
is a kind of supervision which the
average executive can not be expected
to know, and yet these are just the
points that a special staff will know
about, and their advice and help are
thus necessary.
In concluding these remarks on the
need of endowments it is important
to emphasize that wild life is a more
or less elusive subject for the public
and the administrator to understand,
and cannot be understood merely by
inspection it must be known inti-
mately, and therefore great damage
can be done before it is realized.
The real difficulty is that wild life
suffers just as the human animal does
in our democratic system of environ-
ment. As Walter Lippmann has re-
cently said: "For the troubles of the
press, like the troubles of representative
government, be it territorial or func-
tional, ... go back to a com-
mon source: to the failure of self-
governing people to transcend their
casual experience and their prejudice,
by inventing, creating, and organizing
a machinery of knowledge.
SUMMARY
In concluding this discussion, I wish
to summarize my main points as follows :
1. We will derive benefit from wild
life in our parks in a direct relation to
what we devote to them. We need to
recall that they are living organisms
and respond readily to fair treatment.
2. In general, wild life can only pros-
per with the parks as a whole.
3. Wild life is a very valuable re-
source in any wild park and is generally
so recognized by the public.
4. The National Parks should remain
a virgin wilderness for educational and
scientific purposes.
5. State parks should retain wilder-
ness areas, as well as contain commer-
cial forests, depending somewhat on
local conditions.
6. In relating the wild life to the
public a variety of experimental popu-
lar publications is advocated. Techni-
cal reports are needed for Park officials.
We need a distinctive park literature.
7. Field excursions conducted by
trained guides are advocated, to de-
velop trails and a trail literature.
8. A museum-library, devoted ex-
clusively to the particular park, should
be equipped for exhibits, lectures, dem-
onstrations, lantern slides and moving
pictures, to arouse interest primarily
in the local park. This should be the
headquarters for the guide service.
9. A local zoological garden of the
park animals only should stimulate
interest in those in the park.
10. The maintenance of a virgin
wilderness park is very difficult, but
not a hopeless problem, if proper public
sentiment is developed in its behalf.
11. The education and training of
park officials of all kinds is urgently
emphasized. As a means to this end
park policies should be formulated and
published with a full explanation of
park ideals.
12. The far-reaching importance of
preserving original habitat conditions
for plants and animals from an educa-
tional aesthetic and scientific standpoint
is strongly emphasized. The value of
State Parks in this plan is very impor-
tant.
13. To develop public appreciation
and utilization of parks, large endow-
50
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
ments are needed to supplement public
support. The greatest progress is made
where public and private aid is com-
bined with high and practical idealism.
A movement should be started for en-
dowments for educational and scientific
work in both National and State Parks.
14. Park endowments are perhaps
one of the best means of developing a
technical staff for our parks. The
preservation of wild life requires such
supervision by specialists.
15. The wild life problem suffers
from the major defects of our democratic
system of control, and its welfare de-
pends fundamentally upon improve-
ments in this.
REFERENCES TO LITERATURE
Adams, Charles C.
1908: The Ecological Succession of
Birds. The Auk, Vol. 25, pp.
109-153.
1908a. Some of the Advantages of an
Ecological Organization of a
Natural History Museum.
Proc. Assoc. Museums, Vol. 1,
pp. 170-177.
1910. The Relation of Field Excur-
sions to the Activities of
Local Museums. Proc. Amer.
Assoc. Museums, Vol. 4. pp.
112-124.
1913. "The Value and Method of
Ecological Surveys." Guide
to the Study of Animal Ecol-
ogy, pp. 23-35. N. Y.
1919. An Ecological Survey of the
Palisades Interstate Park.
Empire Forester, N. Y. State
College of Forestry, Syracuse.
Vol. 5, pp. 12-18.
1920. The Relation of Natural History
and Ecology to Public Forest
Parks. N. Y. State College
of Forestry, Syracuse, Bull.
No. 10, pp. 11-14.
1921. Delights of the Wild Forest
Trail. State Service (Maga-
zine), Vol. 5. pp. 100-103.
1921a. Suggestions for the Manage-
ment of Forest Wild Life in
the Allegany State Park, New
York. Roosevelt Wild Life
Bull., Vol. 1, pp. 62-74.
Adams, Charles C., Hankinson, T. L.,
and Kendall, W. C.
1919. A Preliminary Report on a
Fish Cultural Policy for the
Palisades if Interstate Park.
Trans. Amer. Fish Soc. } Vol.
48, pp. 193-04.
Ahrens, Theodor G.
1921. Aims and Status of Plant and
Animal Preserve Work in Eur-
ope, with Special Reference to
Germany including a List of
the Most Important Publica-
tions on These Preserves.
Roosevelt Wild Life Bull.,
Vol. 1, pp. 83-94. *
Ashe, W. W.
1922. Reserved Areas of Principal
Forest Types as a Guide in
Developing an American Silvi-
culture. Jour. Forestry, Vol.
20, pp. 276-283.
Brown, Edward F.
1920. Social Aspects of Park Admin-
istration. N. Y. State College
of Forestry, Syracuse, Bull.
No. 10, pp. 47-66.
1920a. Camping Facilities in the Pali-
sades Interstate Park. N. Y.
State College of Forestry,
Syracuse, Bull. No. 10, pp.
67-79.
Buxton, Edward North
1884. Epping Forest. Pp. 1-147.
London.
Conwentz, H.
1909. The Care of Natural Monuments
with Special Reference to
Great Britain and Germany.
Pp. 1-185. Cambridge, Eng-
land.
Graves, C. Edward
1919. A Plan for a Nature Library.
Library Journal, Vol. 44, pp.
707-710.
Grinnell, Joseph
1914. Bird Life as a Community Asset.
Calif. Fish and Game, Vol. 1,
pp. 1-3.
Grinnell, Joseph, and Storer, Tracy I.
1916. Animal Life as an Asset of
National Parks. Science, N.
S., Vol. 44, pp. 375-380.
Hahn, Walter L.
1913. The Future of the North
American Fauna. Pop. Sci.
Monthly, Vol. 83, pp. 169-177.
Haddon, A. C.
1903. The Saving of Vanishing Data.
Pop. Sci. Monthly, Vol. 62, pp.
222-229.
Heller, Edmund
1925. The Big Game Animals 'of
Yellowstone National Park.
Roosevelt Wild Life Bull, Vol.
3, pp. 405-467.
Jessup, Elon fl
1919. The /Strangest Camp in the
World. Outing, Vol. 75, pp.
155-160.
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
51
Korstian, Clarence F.
1921. Grazing Practice on the Na-
tional Forests and its Effect
on Natural Conditions. Sci.
Monthly, Vol. 13, pp. 275-281.
Leopold, Aldo
1921. The Wilderness and its Place in
Forest Recreational Policy.
Jour. Forestry, Vol. 19, pp.
718-721.
Mills, Enos A.
1920. The Adventures of a Nature
Guide. Pp. 1-271. New York.
Pearson, G. A.
1922. Preservation of Natural Areas
in the National Forests.
Ecology, Vol. 3, pp. 284-287.
Safford, W. E.
1919. Natural History of Paradise Key
and the Near-by Everglades
of Florida. Smithsonian
Report for 1917, pp. 377-434.
Shelford, Victor E.
1920. Preserves of Natural Conditions.
Trans. III. State Acad Sci..
Vol. 13, pp. 37-58.
Silloway, P. M.
1920. Guide to the Summer Birds of
the Bear Mountain and Harri-
man Park Sections of the Pali-
sades Interstate Park. N.
Y. State College of Forestry,
Syracuse, Bull. No. 11, pp.
1-105.
1920a. The Palisades Interstate Park:
A Study in Recreational For-
estry. The N. Y. State Col-
lege of Forestry, Syracuse,
Bull. No. 10, pp. 15-45.
Skinner, M. P.
1925. The Birds of Yellowstone Na-
tional Park. Roosevelt Wild
Life Bull, Vol. 3, pp. 1-189.
Smith, Harlan I.
1914. Handbook of the Rocky Moun-
tains Park Museum, Dept. of
Interior, Canada, Dominion
Parks Branch. Pp. 1-126.
Sumner, Francis B.
1920. The Need for a More Serious
Effort to Rescue a Few Frag-
ments of Vanishing Nature.
Sci. Monthly, Vol. 10, pp. 236-
1921. The Responsibility of the Biol-
ogist in the Matter of Pre-
serving Natural Conditions.
Science, N. S., Vol. 54, pp.
o9 4o.
Waugh, Frank A.
1918. A National Park Policy. Sci.
Monthly, Vol. 6, pp. 305-318.
1922. What is a Forest? Jour. For-
estry, Vol. 20, pp. 209-214.
F. DUTY OF SCIENTIFIC MEN
1. THE DUTY OF SCIENTIFIC MEN
IN CONSERVATION
BYH. S. GRAVES
The conservation movement of a
few years ago crystallized and brought
to public attention a great principle,
one so far reaching that its real sig-
nificance and scope are even today not
generally grasped. Regardless of how
the term may be defined, the problem
of conservation involves the whole
question of the relation of our natural
resources to the economic life and up-
building of the country. We have to
do not merely with the prevention of
waste and economical use of our re-
sources, but also with the problem of
how these resources may render their
highest service in building up local com-
munities, maintaining our industries,
and contributing to a strong civiliza-
tion.
We can point to considerable progress
in certain features of conservation
during the past decade. Scientific men
have conducted research of great value
that already is resulting in new uses of
various raw materials, in more eco-
nomical methods of handling them, and
in improved methods of perpetuating
those resources which are renewable;
engineers are giving more attention
than formerly to the problem of pre-
venting unnecessary losses in the ex-
ploitation of raw resources; the more
far-sighted leaders of industry have an
increasing appreciation of the relation
of natural resources to the permanence
of their own enterprises. And yet, the
conservation principle is making very
slow headway, when viewed from the
larger aspects of the economic needs of
the country. The loss through un-
necessary waste is still appalling, un-
economic methods in the use and de-
velopment of various of the resources
continue, and the interests of industries
and communities are already in many
cases jeopardized by the depletion of
local sources of raw material.
Among the obstacles to the more
rapid application of the principles of
conservation are ignorance and indif-
ference on the part of those engaged
in developing natural resources, un-
willingness to change old methods, and
selfishness of individuals who are will-
ing to sacrifice even the interests of
their own industry to immediate gains.
But there are also obstacles of an
economic and public character, that
are retarding progress. These relate
to the character of ownership and con-
trol of natural resources, to the existing
organization of certain of the industries
to problems of transportation, and in
some cases to questions of taxation
and the relation of the public to
industry.
Scientific research furnishes the foun-
dation of conservation. Education will
solve the problem of ignorance and indif-
ference. The economic and political
obstacles, however, can usually be
overcome only through action by the
public. Thus it is that those who are
engaged in promoting the principles of
conservation in their respective fields
are urging legislation in the federal
Congress and in state legislatures,
seeking public aid for private owners of
resources and for the industries, public
cooperation in marketing and distri-
bution, public action in road building
and other transportation problems,
and in some instances public control
over the basic resources themselves,
over their exploitation, or over the
distribution of their products.
The efforts in conservation today are
scattered among a large number of
52
USES OF NATURAL AREAS
53
institutions, organizations, and in-
dividuals. There is a lack of unified
purpose and direction in the movement.
Workers in separate fields fail to give
adequate consideration to the bearing
of the problems of other resources upon
their own. Oftentimes there is an
actual conflict of interests in the use
and development of two or more re-
sources that is not being adjusted and
is leading to public injury. In the
field of public policy many proposals
are being made, each perhaps with a
good purpose, which are not in harmony
as to principle and often are in conflict,
with resulting confusion to the public
and frequent failure to secure the legis-
lation requested.
Today there is no central agency,
governmental or otherwise, that is
considering our natural resources as a
whole in their relation to our economic,
industrial, and social development.
There is no leadership in conservation in
its larger aspects, that defines objectives,
assembles and interprets | the basic
data regarding our resources, works out
the principles of harmonizing conflict-
ing interests in resource development;
that furnishes, in short, the economic
background for conservation and the
principles that must underlie the public
action necessary to make our natural
resources render their best service, and
there is no agency equipped to organize
the educational work that should be
introduced into our colleges and schools
aside from popular education in conser-
vation.
It must be clear to every student of
the natural resource problem that there
is an undertaking in conservation of
great magnitude awaiting leadership
and organized effort. There is an op-
portunity and, in my opinion, a duty
for the great national organizations of
scientific men to join hands in assuming
this leadership. They are in a position
to bring into harmony the objectives,
the policies, and the efforts of those
working in the several branches of
natural resources. Under their guid-
ance and inspiration there could be
assembled the available information
regarding our natural resources, and
the interpretation of the problems of
conservation from the broad view-
point of the relation of all resources
to our national development. The
scientific organization would thus be
able to contribute to the formulation
of public policies, and to aid in bringing
about their adoption, and finally it
would be possible for them through
existing agencies to carry out an edu-
cational plan for the introduction of
appropriate studies in conservation in
our schools and colleges, and to for-
ward a far-reaching campaign of popu-
lar education.
The appointment of conservation
committees by the National Academy
of Sciences, the National Research
Council, and the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, and
the meeting of these committees for
the consideration of joint action, should
prove to be the first step in a new leader-
ship that will give power to the con-
servation movement, with the promise
of very large achievement.
In my opinion a very great responsi-
bility rests upon scientific men. We
have an opportunity to organize the
intellectual forces of the country in a
movement that will have a profound
influence upon the future well-being
of the country. Our action may de-
termine the direction of that movement,
and whether it will be effective or lag
behind for lack of leadership. A great
public interest depends upon our fore-
sight and vision, upon our ability to
plan with wisdom.
III. ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS
NORTH OF THE AMAZON
A. INTRODUCTION
BY V. E. SHELFORD
The early naturalist travellers de-
scribed the regions which they visited
in terms of the vegetation landscape
aspect. Brehm and others wrote on
tundra, steppe, desert coniferous forest,
etc., and described the behavior charac-
teristics and mode of life of their larger
animals. Of the Arctic fox Brehm
says: "Of the slyness and ingenuity,
the calculating craft, the never failing
presence of mind of his congeners he
evinces hardly a trace. His disposi-
tion is bold and forward, his manner
officious, his behavior foolish." Many
other naturalists made observations
of this type relative to the animals of
natural vegetation landscape aspect
regions.
With the acceptance of evolutionary
doctrine attention turned to the seeking
of facts which supported doctrines of
origin, migration, modification, and
adaptation, and naturalistic observa-
tions relative to behavior, mode of life,
etc., of animals received little attention
from travellers, naturalists, and col-
lectors. The description of vegetation
in relation to climate, etc., however,
received a less serious check. In recog-
nizing natural regions these landscape
aspects still serve as a general guide in
modern ecology but the limits of areas
may be made on the basis of climax
communities whenever investigations
have demonstrated the facts. A cli-
max community may occur only locally,
for example within the coniferous forest
of southeastern United States, which
is commonly regarded as giving way to
a deciduous climax. In this case there
are two landscape aspects and only one
climatic climax. The nature of the
climax communities has been deter-
mined only for a few regions in tem-
perate latitude. Accordingly landscape
aspect must serve as the chief guide
and plant ecologists of necessity ap-
proach the subject of plant geography
from the standpoint of the landscape
aspects and physiological characters
of the plants of the larger plant com-
munities. Animal ecologists recognize
the value of such a viewpoint as applied
to animals, but so far they have made
little progress with it largely because
little investigation has been done. As
a rule zoogeographical discussions have
proceeded along the line of refinements
of Wallace's faunistic ideas, of tracing
paths of migration for particular groups
of species or genera, etc. The point
of view of those using life zones based
largely on temperature is largely de-
scriptive, but has been related to fau-
nistic (i.e., evolutionary) work rather
than physiology. They have made
few or no attempts to find differences
in physiological life histories, habits,
etc., between animals in different re-
gions, or similarities of those in like
regions. The ideas of modern ecologi-
cal geography are known to but few
zoological investigators.
The ecology of animal communities
which is the basis of modern animal
ecology has received little attention.
While much zoological work is referred
to as "ecology," especially among
economic entomologists, analysis shows
that it is largely the ecology of par-
ticular species and individuals (aute-
cology). In other words it is a con-
tinuation of the old natural history
under the new name. Where com-
munity studies are made, too often only
a part of the animals are considered so
that we find such misnomers as "Insect
Associations," etc. Though the es-
sential principles were recognized by
a few early zoologists (Mobius, 1877
57
58
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
and 1880) there is nothing in zoological
literature representing the essence of
modern synecology as do Clements'
two works on plants. (Succession, 1916,
and Plant Indicators, 1920.) Clements
has for some time recognized the im-
portance of considering animals in
plant ecology. Plant ecologists in gen-
eral are prone to describe formations
and associations, often without giving
a comprehensive idea of the nature of
an area as an animal habitat. For
example the combination grassland and
streamside and grove forest of the
Mississippi Valley which, on account
of animal movement, seems best named
savanna, was referred to in several
manuscripts as deciduous forest and
prairie without any statement as to
arrangement and relative area of the
two. Many of the original large and
small animals of this region, charac-
teristically divided their time (usually
seasonally) between the two plant
communities or lived at the shrubby
border between them. Plant ecologists
appear to have recognized the symbiotic
relation of plants and animals in com-
munities only to a small degree. Ani-
mal ecologists have of course not con-
tributed their share of knowledge for
reasons already noted. Movement of
animals from one small plant community
to another may be as important to the
general biota as is number of dominants
or at least secondary considerations
concerning plants in communities.
While faunistic zones agree with
vegetation in some cases, those who use
life zones often divide regions with
similar climate and uniform vegetation
into two or more zones because the
species are different, though physiolog-
ical relations may be supposed to be
similar (Chapman, 1917). It may be
said that floristic and faunistic geog-
raphy including life zone work rests
on a background of evolution and migra-
tion, while ecological plant and animal
geography have a similar relation to
(climatic) conditions and physiology.
No one doubts that the life zones as
used mainly by zoologists are a correct
representation of certain facts of rela-
tionship, and are worthy of scientific
recognition. They do, however, vio-
late two important principles or methods
of modern ecology. In the first place
they fail to separate the local communi-
ties determined by soil, water, etc.,
from the extensive communities which
are commonly regarded as determined
by climate. Life zone index organisms
are as likely to belong to local areas
such as stream margins or other early
stages in succession as otherwise.
Second, the life zones sometimes divide
a uniform climax association into two
or three parts as in the case with de-
ciduous forest and mixed prairie. In
much of the United States life zones
are separated by east and west lines
and plant communities by north and
south lines. To the north in Canada
the two appear to be in better agree-
ment. In the Rocky Mountains they
are sometimes in agreement and some-
times not. In the tropics most of the
life zone studies have been carried on
in mountainous regions. While the
work is largely descriptive, the expres-
sion of the viewpoint is found in Chap-
man's introduction, in which he states
that "To determine the boundaries of
zones and faunas as they are manifest
by birds and mammals is our first aim
. . . and trust that we may throw
some light on laws governing the origin
of species. . . ." This is not the
object of modern ecology, which is on
the contrary concerned with symbiosis
(sense broad) succession, climax types,
and physiological relations to the
physical environment and its rhythmic
phenomena, etc.
However, it is true that the life zones
pointed out by investigators in Central
and South America do consist of one
or more landscape aspect areas. The
investigators along this line possess an
excellent knowledge of the landscape
aspect types. Accordingly, a measure
of agreement has been reached for the
tropics; though starting from two quite
different viewpoints, it is evident that
agreement cannot be general. Parallel
ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS
tables have been developed to show the
relations of the two kinds of regions.
I. NORTH AMERICA NORTH OP MEXICO
The accompanying maps (figs. 1, 2,
and 3) show the more important exten-
sive habitats drawn so far as practicable
on the basis of dominant landscape
aspect conditions. In differentiating
the areas, plants, animals, and climate
were considered.
a. Plants and animals
From the standpoint of the larger
animals the following are of much im-
portance and should tend to outweigh
minor botanical considerations:
Is the forest evergreen or do the
leaves fall, thus accentuating the sever-
ity of adverse seasons?
Are grasses or other plants present
which afford dry food in cold or dry
seasons?
Is the vegetation of such height and
density as to afford shelter for larger
animals, or is it short-stemmed and
inconspicuous, or scattered and non-
shade producing?
b. Climate
The most important question about
climate is probably the character of
the annual march of rainfall, of tem-
perature, and of other factors.
The accompanying maps 1 are very
generalized. Figure 1 is based largely
on Shreve's map for the United States,
on the maps of Schimper and of Hardy
on Koppen's Classification of climate,
and Bartholomew's Atlas. The de-
scriptions of vegetation are modifica-
tions of Shreve's. Some modifications
of the plant regions have been made
because of facts about animals. For
instance, an area like the Snake River
Plains which once supported herds of
bison should hardly be called desert.
1 Submitted to the members of the committee.
Suggestions by B. E. Livingston, F. Shreve, W. E.
Lawrence, H. C. Cowles, G. B. Rigg, G. E. Nichols,
C. D. Howe, E. N. Transeau, J. W. Harshberger,
G. P. Burns, C. O. Rosendahl, E. Lucy Braun, R.
M. Harper (botanists) and J. R. Watson, W. G.
Van Name, A. S. Pearse (zoologists) were adopted
and are as represented in figure 3 and those parts
of the United States shown in figure 4.
B. DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NORTH AMERICAN BIOTA (SOUTH TO
CENTRAL MEXICO)
BY V. E. SHELFORD, L. JONES AND L. R. DICE
1. ARCTIC TUNDRA, OR BARREN GROUND
BIOTA (ARCTIC TUNDRA OP
CLEMENTS)
Extensive areas in the northern part
of the continent have long cold winters
and little rainfall. In the more north-
ern localities the ground thaws only
at the surface and a growth of herba-
ceous plants springs up in the summer.
There are dense growths of grass, many
miniature shrubs, shown in black on
the map, considerable areas of high
tundra, especially in Alaska. Large
areas of perpetual snow are included.
It supports muskoxen (Ovibos mos-
chatus subspp.), barren ground caribou
(Rangifer spp.), arctic hare (Lepus
arcticus group), arctic fox (Alopex spp.).
The chief local conditions are swamps
and ponds, which support hordes of
mosquitoes.
The breeding birds 1 include the fol-
lowing: willow ptarmigan, rock ptar-
migan, white gyrfalcon, gray gyrfalcon,
gyrfalcon, black gyrfalcon, snowy owl,
horned lark, pallid horned lark, Green-
land redpoll, hoary redpoll, greater
redpoll, snow bunting, Lapland long-
spur, Alaska longspur, Smith's longspur,
Alaska yellow wagtail, and pipit.
Breeding birds whose habitat is
limited to the presence of water, gen-
erally a local condition, include the
following: yellow-billed loon, Pacific
loon, red-throated loon, pomarine jae-
ger, parasitic jaeger, long-tailed jaeger,
red-breasted merganser, old-squaw,
Harlequin duck, Steller's eider, spec-
tacled eider, King eider, Pacific eider,
scoter, white winged scoter, snow goose,
white-fronted goose, whistling swan,
1 English names conform strictly to the A. O. U.
Check-list, unless otherwise specifically noted.
red phalarope, northern phalarope,
long-billed dowitcher, stilt sandpiper,
knot, purple sandpiper, pectoral sand-
piper, white-rumped sandpiper, Baird's
sandpiper, least sandpiper, red-backed
sandpiper, semipalmated sandpiper,
western sandpiper, sanderling, Hud-
sonian godwit, yellow-legs, buff-
breasted sandpiper, Hudsonian curlew,
Eskimo curlew, black-bellied plover,
golden plover, Pacific golden plover,
semipalmated plover, turnstone, ruddy
turnstone, and black turnstone.
la. ALPINE STEPPE OR HIGH TUNDRA
(PARAMOS OP PENNELL) (APLINE SUM-
MITS, SHREVE) (APLINE MEADOW CLI-
MAX, CLEMENTS)
Sedge, grass, and herb covered areas
in high mountains. The large mam-
mals include bighorn sheep (Ovis cana-
densis subspp.), and Rocky Mountain
goat (Oreamnos americanus subspp.).
Rosy finches and white-tailed ptarmigan
are characteristic birds.
2. NORTHERN CONIFEROUS FOREST BIOTA
(NORTHERN MESOPHYTIC EVERGREEN
FOREST, SHREVE)
"This extensive region is characterized
throughout by a pure or nearly pure
stand of needle-leaved evergreen trees,
among which deciduous trees are often
present either as minor components of
the forest or else as trees of lower
stature. Virgin stands of this forest
range from 60 to 125 ft. in height and
vary from open park-like formations to
heavy forest with a completely shaded
floor. The heaviest stands are almost
devoid of shrubby undergrowth, but the
more open ones are accompanied by
deciduous shrubs and under-trees. In
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ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS
61
spite of the essential identity of this
forest from the Pacific to the Atlantic
it is nevertheless made up of a large
number of tree species. Very many
extensive areas are formed by a single
species and many others by an admixture
in which not more than three or four
species are involved. In the eastern
portion of the area the white pine
(P. strobus), the hemlock (Tsuga can-
adensis}, the jack pine (P. divaricata} ,
and the balsam fir (Abies balsamea),
are the most common species."
Northern localities with cold wet
winters and usually as much as 50 in.
of snow in winter.
The open marshes and margins of
lakes are the favorite haunts of the
moose. The chief local conditions are
ponds and marshes of various types,
which are important to migratory birds.
The mammals include the moose
(Alces spp.), woodland caribou (Rangi-
fer spp.), elk (Cervus canadensis subspp.),
black bear (Ursus americanus group),
wolverine (Gulo luscus), Canada lynx
(Lynx canadensis group), Canada wood-
chuck (Marmota monax canadensis},
and red squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus
The breeding birds include the fol-
lowing: Hudsonian spruce partridge,
Canada spruce partridge, Canada ruffed
grouse, Nova Scotia ruffed grouse,
passenger pigeon (extinct), turkey vul-
ture (southern), swallow-tailed kite
(formerly), marsh hawk, sharp-shinned
hawk, Cooper's hawk, goshawk, red-
tailed hawk, red-shouldered hawk,
broad-winged hawk, rough-legged hawk,
golden eagle, duck hawk, pigeon hawk,
sparrow hawk, long-eared owl, barred
owl, great gray owl, Richardson's
owl, saw-whet owl, screech owl, great
horned owl (eastern), western horned
owl (central, northerly), arctic horned
owl (northern), pale horned owl (cen-
tral, southerly), Newfoundland horned
owl (Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Lab-
rador), hawk owl, yellow-billed cuckoo
(south part), black-billed cuckoo (south
part), northern hairy woodpecker, New-
foundland woodpecker, downy wood-
pecker, Newfoundland downy wood-
pecker, Arctic three-toed woodpecker,
American three-toed woodpecker, yel-
low-bellied sapsucker, northern pileated
woodpecker, red-headed woodpecker,
northern flicker, whippoorwill, night-
hawk, chimney swift, ruby-throated
hummingbird, kingbird, crested fly-
catcher, phoebe, olive-sided flycatcher,
wood pewee, yellow-bellied flycatcher,
least flycatcher, black-billed magpie,
blue jay, Canada jay, Labrador jay,
crow, cowbird, Baltimore oriole,
bronzed grackle, evening grosbeak,
pine grosbeak, Newfoundland pine gros-
beak, purple finch, crossbill, white-winged
crossbill, white-throated sparrow, chip-
ping sparrow, clay-colored sparrow,
goldfinch, pine siskin, Harris' sparrow,
white-crowned sparrow, slate-colored
junco, song sparrow, Lincoln's sparrow,
fox sparrow, towhee, rose-breasted gros-
beak, black-headed grosbeak, scarlet
tanager, purple martin, cliff swallow,
barn swallow, Bohemian waxwing, cedar
waxwing, red-eyed vireo. Philadelphia
vireo, warbling vireo, yellow-throated
vireo, blue-headed vireo, black and
white warbler, golden-winged warbler,
Nashville warbler, orange-crowned
warbler, Tennessee warbler, northern
parula warbler, Cape May warbler,
black-throated blue warbler, Cairn's
warbler, myrtle warbler, magnolia war-
bler, chestnut-sided warbler,bay-breasted
warbler, black-poll warbler, Black-
burnian warbler, black-throated green
warbler, Kirtland's warbler (central
Michigan), pine warbler, oven-bird,
mourning warbler, Wilson's warbler,
Canada warbler, redstart, catbird,
brown thrasher, house wren, winter
wren, brown creeper, white-breasted
nuthatch, red-breasted nuthatch, chick-
adee, Hudsonian chickadee, Acadian
chickadee (eastern) ,golden-crowned king-
let, ruby-crowned kinglet, wood thrush
(south part),, veery, gray-checked thrush
(western), Bicknell's thrush (east),
olive-backed thrush, hermit thrush,
robin, and bluebird.
Breeding birds whose habitat is
generally limited to the pre-forest or
62
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
other early stages of succession include
the following: tree sparrow, field spar-
row, swamp sparrow, indigo bunting,
northern shrike, white-rumped shrike,
migrant shrike, yellow warbler, pine
warbler, palm warbler, and yellow
palm warbler.
Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or swamp,
include the following: tree swallow,
bank swallow, rough-winged swallow,
northern water-thrush, GrinnelFs water-
thrush, Connecticut warbler, and north-
ern yellow-throat.
Breeding birds whose habitat is
limited to the presence of water,
generally a local condition, include the
following: bald eagle, osprey, belted
kingfisher, and northern raven.
2a. MOUNTAIN CONIFEROUS FOREST
(MONTANE FOREST CLIMAX, THE ROCKY
MOUNTAIN MONTANE FOREST, THE
SIERRAN MONTANE FOREST, CLEMENTS,
(HUDSONIAN AND CANADIAN ZONES)
In the western half of the area the
yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa), the
lodgepole pine (P. murrayana), and the
red fir (Pseudotsuga mucronata) are the
trees which dominate the most exten-
sive stands.
In the montane forests are found such
characteristic mammals as the yellow-
bellied marmot (Marmota flaviventris
subspp.), red squirrel (Subgenus Tamia-
sciurus), deer-mouse (Peromyscus spp.),
red-backed vole (Evotomys), chipmunk
(Eutamias), and flying-squirrel (Glau-
comys sabrinus subspp.).
The breeding birds include the fol-
lowing: dusky grouse (Utah and south),
Richardson's grouse (Wyoming and
north), Alaska spruce grouse (Mt.
McKinley range), Franklin's grouse
(Idaho and north), gray ruffed grouse
(Utah and north), band-tailed pigeon
(Utah and south), sharp-shinned hawk,
Cooper's hawk, western goshawk, western
red-tail, golden eagle, pigeon hawk,
Richardson's pigeon hawk, desert
sparrow hawk (lower mountains), long-
eared owl, Richardson's owl, saw-whet
owl, MacFarlane's screech owl (west
mountain slope), Rocky Mountain
screech owl (east mountain slope),
flammulated screech owl (Colorado
and south), dusky horned owl, hawk
owl, Rocky Mountain pygmy owl,
Rocky Mountain hairy woodpecker,
Batchelder's woodpecker (British Co-
lumbia and south), Nelson's downy
woodpecker (Alberta and north), Arctic
three-toed woodpecker, Alaska three-
toed woodpecker (northerly), Alpine
three-toed woodpecker (southerly), red-
naped sapsucker, Williamson's sap-
sucker, northern pileated woodpecker,
Lewis' woodpecker, red-shafter flicker,
Stephens' whippoorwill (Arizona and
south), western nighthawk, black swift,
white-throated swift, black-chinned
hummingbird, Rivoli's hummingbird
(Arizona and south), blue-throated
hummingbird (Arizona and south),
broad-tailed hummingbird (Idaho and
south), rufous hummingbird, calliope
hummingbird, white-eared humming-
bird (Arizona and south), broad-billed
hummingbird (Arizona and south),
sulphur-bellied flycatcher (Arizona and
south) olivaceous flycatcher (Arizona
and south), olive-sided flycatcher
(Arizona and south), Coues' flycatcher,
western wood pewee, western flycatcher,
Hammond's flycatcher, Wright's fly-
catcher, gray flycatcher (Arizona
and south), buff -breasted flycatcher
(Arizona and south), magpie, long-
crested jay (Wyoming and south),
black-headed jay (Wyoming and north),
Rocky Mountain jay, western crow,
Clarke's nutcracker, pinyon jay, western
evening grosbeak, Rocky Mountain pine
grosbeak, Cassin's purple finch, cross-
bill, white-winged crossbill, pine siskin,
white-crowned sparrow, Gambel's spar-
row, western chipping sparrow, white-
winged junco (Rocky Mountain
region), Shufeldt's junco (northerly),
Montana junco (northerly), pink-
sided junco (southerly), Ridgway's junco
(Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, New
Mexico), Arizona junco (Arizona and
south), red-backed junco (Arizona and
south), gray-headed junco (Wyoming
and south), mountain song sparrow,
ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS
Lincoln's sparrow, slate-colored fox
sparrow, Arctic towhee, green-tailed
towhee, black-headed grosbeak, Lazuli
bunting, western tanager, hepatic
tanager (Arizona and south), purple
martin, cliff swallow, barn swallow,
Bohemian waxwing (northerly), cedar
waxwing (southerly), red-eyed vireo,
(low elevations), western warbling vireo,
Cassin's vireo (north and west), plum-
beous vireo (east and south), Virginia's
warbler (southern), orange-crowned
warbler, Tennessee warbler, olive war-
bler, Hoover's warbler, Audubon's warb-
ler, black-fronted warbler, Grace's
warbler, black-throated gray warbler,
Townsend's warbler, Macgillivray's war-
bler, long-tailed chat, pileolated war-
bler, redstart, painted redstart, red-
faced warbler (Arizona and south), cat-
bird, rock wren, western house wren,
western winter wren, Rocky Mountain
creeper, Rocky Mountain nuthatch, red-
breasted nuthatch, pygmy nuthatch,
gray titmouse, long-tailed chickadee,
Mexican chickadee, mountain chickadee,
Hudsonian chickadee, chestnut-backed
chickadee, lead-colored bush-tit, western
golden-crowned kinglet, ruby-crowned
kinglet, Townsend's solitaire, willow
thrush, olive-backed thrush, Audubon's
hermit thrush, western robin, northern
varied thrush, western bluebird, azure
bluebird, chestnut-backed bluebird,
mountain bluebird.
Breeding birds whose habitat is
generally limited to the preforest or
other early stages of succession include
the following: pale goldfinch, western
tree sparrow, northern shrike (north-
erly), white-rum ped shrike (low eleva-
tions), and yellow warbler.
Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
swamp, include the following : tree swal-
low, northern violet-green swallow,
bank swallow, rough-winged swallow,
Grinnell water-thrush, and western
yellow-throat.
Breeding birds whose habitat is
limited to the presence of water, gener-
ally a local condition, include the fol-
lowing: nothern bald eagle, duck hawk,
osprey, and dipper.
3. NORTHWESTERN MOIST CONIFEROUS
FOREST BIOTA (NORTHWESTERN HYDRO-
PHYTIC EVERGREEN FOREST, SHREVE)
(INCLUDES THE LARCH-PINE FOREST
AND THE CEDAR-HEMLOCK FOREST;
CLEMENTS) (THE COAST FOREST CLI-
MAX, CLEMENTS)
The climate is mild with some rain in
all seasons but especially in winter.
This is "a well-marked type of forest
characterized by density of stand and
by the size of its trees, which commonly
reach 100 to 125 ft. in height and are
often in excess of this. The floor of the
forest is heavily shaded and supports
relatively few deciduous under-trees,
although there is usually a rich growth
of shrubs and of ferns, mosses, and other
herbaceous plants. The trees which
characterize this area are the Douglas
fir (Pseudotsuga mucronata), redwood
(Sequoia sempervirens), western hem-
lock (Tsuga heterophylla) , canoe cedar
(Thuja plicata), grand fir (Abies grandis)
and others."
The mammals include the elk (Cervus
canadensis occidentalism black bear
(Ursus americanus group), bob cat
(Lynx fasciatus group), and black-
tailed deer (Odocoileus columbianus
subspp.).
The breeding birds include the fol-
lowing : mountain quail, California quail,
sooty grouse, Oregon ruffed grouse,
band-tailed pigeon, dusky mourning
dove, marsh hawk, sharp-shinned hawk,
Cooper hawk, western goshawk, western
red-tailed hawk, Alaska red-tail (South-
east Alaska), golden eagle, Peale's
falcon, black pigeon hawk, sparrow
hawk, spotted owl, saw-whet owl (ex-
cept Queen Charlotte), island saw-whet
owl (except Queen Charlotte), Ken-
nicott's screech owl (Oregon and north),
Brewster's screech owl (Oregon and
south), dusky horned owl, Vancouver
pygmy owl (Vancouver Islands), coast
pygmy owl (Washington and south),
California pygmy owl (Montery, etc.),
California cuckoo (Washington and
south), Harris' woodpecker (north),
white-breasted woodpecker (south),
Sitka hairy woodpecker (Southeast Al-
64
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
aska), Gairdner's woodpecker (British
Columbia and south), Valdez downy
woodpecker (British Columbia and
north), red-breasted woodpecker (Cali-
fornia), northern red-breasted sapsucker
(California and north), western pileated
woodpecker, California woodpecker
(Oregon and south), northwestern flicker,
Pacific nighthawk, black swift, Vaux's
swift, white-throated swift, rufous hum-
mingbird, Allen's hummingbird, olive-
sided flycatcher, western flycatcher,
Traill's flycatcher, Hammond's fly-
catcher, Steller's jay (Washington and
north), coast jay (Oregon and south),
California jay (south), Oregon jay,
western crow (Washington and south),
northwestern crow (Washington and
north), Bullock's oriole, Brewer's black-
bird, western evening grosbeak, Kadiak
pine grosbeak, California purple finch,
crossbill, pine siskin, Oregon vesper
sparrow, Nuttall's sparrow (British
Columbia and north), golden-crowned
sparrow (British Columbia and north),
western chipping sparrow, Oregon junco,
Point Pinos junco (Monterey district),
rusty song sparrow (Washington and
north), sooty song sparrow (Alaska
coast), San Diego song sparrow (Mon-
terey region), mendocino song sparrow
(Oregon to San Francisco), Forbush's
sparrow (Alaska coast), sooty fox spar-
row (British Columbia and Washington),
Kadiak fox sparrow (Cross Sound and
north), Townsend's fox sparrow (Cross
Sound and south), Oregon towhee
(British Columbia, Washington, Oregon),
San Francisco towhee (California), black
headed grosbeak, western martin, cliff
swallow, barn swallow, western warbling
vireo, Cassin's vireo, Anthony's vireo,
Calaveras warbler, lutescent warbler,
Alaska yellow warbler (Vancouver
Islands and north), California yellow
warbler (Washington and south), Audu-
bon's warbler, Townsend's warbler
(northerly), hermit warbler (southerly),
Macgillivray's warbler, golden pileo-
lated warbler, rock wren (Oregon to
Vancouver Islands), western house wren,
western winter wren, California creeper,
slender-billed nuthatch, red-breasted
nuthatch, Oregon chickadee, chestnut-
backed chickadee (Sonoma County,
California and north), California chicka-
dee (Sonoma and Marin Counties),
Barlow's chickadee (Monterey region),
bush-tit, coast wren-tit (Oregon to
Humboldt Bay, California), ruddy wren-
tit (Humboldt County and south),
western golden-crowned kinglet, sitka
kinglet (British Columbia and north),
Townsend's solitaire, russet-backed
thrush, Alaska hermit thrush, dwarf
hermit thrush, Monterey hermit thrush,
western robin, varied thrush, northern
varied thrush, western bluebird, moun-
tain bluebird.
Breeding birds whose habitat is
generally limited to the preforest or
other early stages of succession include
the following : western meadowlark, wil-
low goldfinch, and western tree sparrow
(north).
Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
swamp, include the following: north-
western red-wing, bicolored red-wing,
tree swallow, northern violet-green
swallow, bank swallow, rough-winged
swallow, and Pacific yellow-throat
(British Columbia and south').
Breeding birds whose habitat is
limited to the presence of water, gener-
ally local condition, include the fol-
lowing : northwestern coast heron (Wash-
ington and north), California heron
(Washington and south), spotted sand-
piper, bald eagle, northern bald eagle
(north), osprey, northern belted king-
fisher, northern raven, and dipper.
4. XEROPHYTIC CONIFEROUS FOREST
BIOTA (NOT INDICATED ON THE MAP)
(WESTERN XEROPHYTIC EVERGREEN
FOREST, SHREVE) (THE WOODLAND
CLIMAX : PINE JUNIPER FORMATION, CLE-
MENTS) (INCLUDES PINYON CEDAR WOOD-
LAND; OAK-CEDAR WOODLAND ', PINE-
OAK WOODLAND IN PART, CLEMENTS)
This type lies between the northern
coniferous forest and the desert and
semi-desert areas in the United States
and northern Mexico. It does not
cover an extensive area.
ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS
65
It is "an open forest of low stature, the
trees seldom exceeding 40 ft. in height.
The needle-leaved and scale-leaved
evergreens are the dominant trees, but
the forest is everywhere accompanied by
shrubbery and by some succulent or
semi-succulent plants, and is carpeted in
many localities by an open growth of
perennial grasses. Along the Mexican
boundary this forest merges into the
encinal, or evergreen oak type. The
dominant species of the Xerophytic
Evergreen Forest vary from state to
state but are in almost all cases either
junipers or pinyons."
Among the characteristic mammals
are the woodrats (Neotoma spp.), deer-
mice (Peromyscus spp.), and cottontail
rabbit (Sylvilagus audubonii subspp.).
The breeding birds include the fol-
lowing: white-checked goose, plumed
quail (Ventura County and north),
San Pedro quail (San Ber. and San Gab.
Mountains), Sierra grouse, band-tailed
pigeon, western mourning dove, Cali-
fornia vulture (Santa Clara County,
south), turkey vulture, sharp-shinned
hawk, Cooper's hawk, western goshawk,
western red-tailed hawk, golden eagle,
desert sparrow hawk, spotted owl,
Pasadena screech owl, Pacific horned
owl, pygmy owl, Sierra woodpecker,
Cabanis woodpecker, Nuttall's wood-
pecker, white-headed woodpecker, Si-
erra three-toed woodpecker, red-naped
sapsucker, red-breasted sapsucker, Wil-
liamson's sapsucker, northern pileated
woodpecker, Lewis' woodpecker, red-
shafted flicker, western nighthawk,
black swift, white-throated swift, black-
chinned hummingbird, broad-tailed hum-
mingbird, rufous hummingbird, cal-
liope hummingbird, ash-throated fly-
catcher, olive-sided flycatcher, western
wood pewee, Hammond's flycatcher,
Wright's flycatcher, gray flycatcher,
blue-fronted jay, California jay, gray
jay, Clark's nutcracker, pinyon jay,
tricolored blackbird, Bullock's oriole,
Brewer's blackbird, western evening
grosbeak, California pine grosbeak,
Cassin's purple finch, Mexican crossbill,
green-backed goldfinch, pine siskin,
white-crowned sparrow, Thurber's junco,
western chipping sparrow, black-chinned
sparrow, mountain song sparrow, Lin-
coln's sparrow, thick-billed fox spar-
row (northerly), Stephens 1 fox sparrow
(southerly), spurred towhee, green-
tailed towhee, black-headed grosbeak,
Lazule bunting, western tanager, west-
ern martin, western warbling vireo,
Cassin's vireo, gray vireo (Cajon Pass
and south), Calaveras warbler, hermit
warbler, lutescent warbler, Audubon's
warbler, black-throated gray warbler,
Townsend's warbler, Macgillivray's war-
bler, golden pileolated warbler, Cali-
fornia thrasher, rock wren, dotted
canyon wren, western house wren,
western winter wren, Sierra creeper,
slender-billed nuthatch, red-breasted
nuthatch, pygmy nuthatch, gray tit-
mouse, mountain chickadee, lead-col-
ered bush-tit, western golden-crowned
kinglet, ruby-crowned kinglet, Town-
send's solitaire, Sierra hermit thrush,
western robin, western bluebird, moun-
tain bluebird.
Breeding birds whose habitat is gener-
ally limited to the preforest or other
early stages of succession include the
western vesper sparrow and the Cali-
fornia yellow warbler.
Breeding birds whose habitat is
limited to the presence of water, gener-
ally a local condition, include the follow-
ing : merganser, hooded merganser, wood
duck, Harlequin duck, spotted sand-
piper, and dipper.
5. POPLAR GROVE SAVANNA BIOTA
("PARK STEPPE" OF HARDY)
A narrow strip skirting the coniferous
forest on the west and south in Min-
nesota, Wisconsin, Manitoba, Saskat-
chewan and Alberta. It consists of
groves of poplar or low shrubs, the
former with characteristic forest edge
lying in a mesophytic prairie. In
some localities the grassland forms
islands. The mammals include forest
bison (Bison bison athabascae), mule
deer (Odocoileus hemionus*), skunk (Me-
phitis hudsonica), raccoon (Procyon I.
lotor), and red fox (Vulpes fulva).
66
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
6. DECIDUOUS FOREST BIOTA
Occupies areas with rainfall through-
out the year, especially in spring.
"The extensive area chiefly east of the
Mississippi and south of the Great
Lakes, which was formerly occupied by
an almost unbroken forest of a score or
more of deciduous trees. A few prairies
occur in the southern portion of the area
and evergreen needle-leaved trees occupy
bluffs and shallow soil in the mountains.
The commonest trees are species of
oak (Quercus), hickory (Hicoria), chest-
nut (Castanet, beech (Fagus), maple
(Acer), walnut (Juglans), tulip (Lirio-
dendron], and ash (Fraxinus) ."
The mammals include the Virginia
deer (Odocoileus virginianus subspp.),
black bear (Ursus a. americanus) , bob-
cat (Lynx r. ruffus), gray fox (Urocyon c.
cinereoargenteus) , red fox (Vulpes fulva),
opossum (Didelphis v. virginiana), cot-
tontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus
subspp.), and gray squirrel (Sciurus
carolinensis subspp.).
Breeding birds include the following:
ruffed grouse, wild turkey, passenger
pigeon (extinct), mourning dove, turkey
vulture, black vulture (south), swallow-
tailed kite, white-tailed kite, Mississippi
kite (south), marsh hawk, sharp-
shinned hawk, Cooper's hawk, red-tailed
hawk, red-shouldered hawk, broad-
winged hawk, pigeon hawk, sparrow
hawk, barn owl, long-eared owl, barred
owl, saw-whet owl, screech owl, great
horned owl, Carolina paroquet (for-
merly), yellow-billed cuckoo, black-
billed cuckoo, ivory-billed woodpecker
(south), hairy woodpecker (north),
southern hairy woodpecker (south),
southern downy woodpecker (south),
downy woodpecker (north), red-cock-
aded woodpecker, pileated woodpecker
(south), northern pileated woodpecker
(north), red-headed woodpecker, red-
bellied woodpecker, flicker (south),
northern flicker (north), Chuck-will's-
widow (south), whip-poor-will, night-
hawk, chimney swift, ruby-throated
hummingbird, kingbird, crested fly-
catcher, phoebe, wood pewee, Acadian.
flycatcher, blue jay, crow, fish crow
(southeastern), cowbird, orchard oriole,
Baltimore oriole, purple grackle (Atlan-
tic Coast south), chipping sparrow,
Bachman's sparrow, song sparrow, tow-
hee, cardinal, rose-breasted grosbeak,
blue grosbeak (south), painted bunting
(south), scarlet tanager, summer tanager
(southerly), purple martin, cliff swallow,
cedar waxwing, red-eyed vireo, warbling
vireo, yellow-throated vireo, white-
eyed vireo, black and white warbler,
worm-eating warbler, Bachman's war-
bler (south), blue-winged warbler,
golden-winged warbler, parula warbler
(south), northern parula warbler (north)
pine warbler, oven-bird, Kentucky war-
bler, yellow-breasted chat, redstart,
mockingbird, catbird, brown thrasher,
Carolina wren, Bewick's wren, house
wren, white-breasted nuthatch, brown-
headed nuthatch (south), tufted tit-
mouse, chickadee, Carolina chickadee
(south), blue-gray gnatcatcher, wood
thrush, robin, southern robin, and
bluebird.
Breeding birds whose habitat is gener-
ally limited to pre-forest or other early
stages of succession include the follow-
ing: upland plover, killdeer, bob-white,
goldfinch, vesper sparrow, field sparrow,
indigo bunting, loggerhead shrike
(south), migrant shrike (north), yellow-
throated warbler, and prairie warbler.
Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
swamp, include the following: boat-
tailed grackle (southeast), swamp spar-
row, tree swallow, bank swallow, rough-
winged swallow, prothonotary warbler,
Swainson's warbler (south), sycamore
warbler, Louisiana water-thrush, Mary-
land yellow-throat, northern yellow-
throat, hooded warbler, and short-
billed marsh wren.
Breeding birds whose habitat is
limited to the presence of water, gener-
ally a local condition, include the follow-
ing: merganser, wood duck, great blue
heron, egret (south), snowy egret
(south), little blue heron (south), green
heron, black-crowned night heron, yel-
low-crowned night heron (south), sand-
ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS
67
hill crane, king rail, Virginia rail, sora,
yellow rail, black rail, purple gallinule
(south), Florida gallinule, coot, wood-
cock, Wilson's snipe, solitary sandpiper,
spotted sandpiper, piping plover, duck
hawk, osprey northern raven, red-
winged blackbird, and long-billed marsh
wren.
7. OAK GROVE SAVANNA BIOTA (PARK
STEPPE OF HARDY IN PART) GRASSLAND-
DECIDUOUS FOREST TRANSITION,
SHREVE; SUBCLIMAX PRAIRIE, CLE-
MENTS)
An area with little rainfall in winter
and late summer and heavy rainfall
in June.
The rather ill-defined belt in which
the Deciduous Forest emerges from the
flood-plains and river margins and
occupies a portion of the upland. On
the western edge of the belt there is a
high percentage of grassland, while in
the eastern portion the deciduous forest
becomes nearly continuous. The prin-
cipal trees of this region are the bur,
white, and black oaks (Quercus macro-
carpa, Q. alba, Q. velutina); the principal
grasses, beard grass (Andropogen fur-
catus), Indian grass (Sorghastrum
nutans}. and dropseed (Sporobolus cryp-
tandrus).
The forest edge is a very important
habitat for a few mammals, birds and
many insects ranging eastward. The
Franklin ground-squirrel (Citellus frank-
linii}, and many birds and insects are
restricted to it. Steppe animals in-
vaded the grass covered areas while
the wooded parts supported the Vir-
ginia deer (Odocoileus virginanus mac-
rourus), elk (Cervus c. canadensis} ,
raccoon (Procyon I. lotor), gray squirrel
(Sciurus carolinensis leucotis), and cot-
tontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus
mearnsii).
The species that occur in the decidu-
ous forest are, for the most part, also
found in the oak grove savannas. But
a few species that are confined to the
southeastern part and the northeastern
part of the deciduous forest do not find
their way into the oak grove savannas.
The oak grove savanna thus become a
westward extension of the deciduou*
forest like arms into the grasslands.
Breeding birds that occur in the oak
grove savannas are as follows: upland
plover, turkey vulture, black vulture,
swallow-tailed kite, Mississippi kite,
sharp-shinned hawk, Cooper's hawk,
red-tailed hawk, red-shouldered hawk,
broad-winged hawk, bald eagle, duck
hawk, sparrow hawk, great horned owl,
barn owl, long-eared owl, barred owl,
saw-whet owl, screech owl, Carolina
paroquet (formerly), yellow-billed
cuckoo, black-billed cuckoo, hairy
woodpecker, downy woodpecker, yellow-
bellied sapsucker, red-headed wood-
pecker, red-bellied woodpecker, north-
ern flicker, whip-poor-will, nighthawk,
chimney swift, ruby-throated hum-
mingbird, kingbird, Arkansas kingbird
(west), crested flycatcher, wood pewee,
yellow-bellied flycatcher (north), Aca-
dian flycatcher, least flycatcher, blue
jay, raven, crow, cowbird, orchard
oriole, Baltimore oriole, bronzed grackle,
goldfinch, vesper sparrow, chipping
sparrow, field sparrow, song sparrow,
towhee, cardinal, rose-breasted gros-
beak, painted bunting (south), scar-
let tanager, summer tauager, purple
martin, cliff swallow, barn swallow,
cedar waxwing, loggerhead shrike
(south), white-rumped shrike, red-eyed
vireo, warbling vireo, yellow-throated
vireo, black and white warbler (oc-
casionally), worm-eating warbler, blue-
winged warbler (occasionally), cerulean
warbler, chestnut-sided warbler (oc-
casionally), prairie warbler, oven-bird,
yellow-breasted chat, redstart (north),
mockingbird, catbird, brown thrasher,
Carolina wren, Bewick's wren, brown
creeper, white-breasted nuthatch, tufted
titmouse, chickadee, blue-gray gnat-
catcher, woodthrush, veery (east), willow
thrush, robin, and bluebird.
Breeding birds whose habitat is
generally limited to the pre-forest or
other early stages of succession include
the following: prairie chicken, bob-
white, short-eared owl, prairie horned
lark, bobolink, meadowlark, grasshopper
sparrow, Henslow's sparrow, lark spar-
row, dickcissel, and indigo bunting.
68
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
swamp, include the following: green
heron, black-crowned night heron, sand-
hill crane, king rail, Virginia rail, sora,
yellow rail, black rail, purple gallinule
(south), Florida gallinule, marbled god-
wit (north), spotted sandpiper, marsh
hawk, osprey, belted kingfisher, phoebe,
Traill's flycatcher, savanna sparrow,
Nelson's sparrow, swamp sparrow, tree
swallow, bank swallow, rough-winged
swallow, prothonotary warbler, Swain-
son's warbler (south), yellow warbler,
sycamore warbler, Louisiana water-
thrush, Maryland yellow-throat, hooded
warbler, short-billed marsh wren.
Breeding birds whose habitat is
limited to the presence of water, gener-
ally a local condition, include the follow-
ing: bittern, least bittern, great blue
heron, snowy egret, little blue heron,
yellow-headed blackbird, red-winged
blackbird, and long-billed marsh wren.
8. SOUTHEASTERN CONIFEROUS FOREST
(SOUTHEASTERN MESOPHYTIC EVER-
GREEN FOREST, SHREVE) (PROBABLY
INCLUDES THE SOUTHEASTERN EVER-
GREEN-DECIDUOUS TRANSITION, SHREVE)
Copious rain in summer. Frequent
fires an important environmental factor.
The coastal plain forest is of evergreen
needle-leaved trees, with a subordinate
admixture of evergreen broad-leaved
and deciduous species. "Extensive
areas of this forest are pure stands of
longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), or
Cuban pine (P. caribaea} in open forma-
tion, with a clear floor nearly devoid of
shrubs and carpeted with grasses and
herbaceous plants." The mammals are
in part similar to those of the deciduous
forest, which is probably the climax
type over most of the region. For a
list of mammals and reptiles see account
of Alabama.
Breeding birds include the following:
wild turkey, passenger pigeon (extinct),
mourning dove, ground dove, black
vulture, swallow-tailed kite, Mississippi
kite, Cooper's hawk, Florida red-
shouldered hawk, red-tailed hawk, broad
winged hawk, sparrow hawk, barn owl,
Florida barred owl, Florida screech owl,
great horned owl, Carolina paroquet,
yellow-billed cuckoo, southern hairy
woodpecker, southern downy wood-
pecker, red-cockaded woodpecker, pile-
ated woodpecker, red-headed wood-
pecker, red-bellied woodpecker, chuck-
will's widow, flicker, Florida night-
hawk, chimney swift, ruby-throated
hummingbird, kingbird, crested fly-
catcher, wood pewee, blue jay, southern
crow, fish crow, cowbird, orchard oriole,
Baltimore oriole, purple grackle, pine-
woods sparrow, Bachman's sparrow,
chipping sparrow, Alabama towhee,
cardinal, blue grosbeak, summer tana-
ger, purple martin, red-eyed vireo,
warbling vireo, yellow-throated vireo,
white-eyed vireo, black and white
warbler, black-throated green warbler,
pine warbler, Florida yellow-throat,
yellow-breasted chat, Kentucky war-
bler, mockingbird, catbird, brown
thrasher, Carolina wren, Bewick's
wren, Florida white-breasted nuthatch,
brown-headed nuthatch, tufted titmouse,
Carolina chickadee, blue-gray gnat-
catcher, wood thrush, southern robin
and bluebird.
Breeding birds whose habitat is gener-
ally limited to the pre-forest or other
early stages of succession include the
following: bob-white, goldfinch, logger-
head shrike, and prairie warbler.
Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
swamp include the following: indigo
bunting, prothonotary warbler, Swain-
son's warbler, sycamore warbler, Loui-
siana water-thrush, and hooded warbler.
Breeding bird whose habitat is limited
to the presence of water, generally a
local condition, is the bald eagle.
9. GRASSLAND BIOTA (GRASSLAND,
SHREVE) (GRASSLAND CLIMAX, CLE-
MENTS) (INCLUDES TRUE PRAIRIE;
MIXED PRAIRIE; SHORT-GRASS PLAINS;
BUNCH-GRASS PRAIRIE OF THE NORTH-
WEST, CLEMENTS)
Areas with rain chiefly in spring and
early summer. Dry season late in
summer. Winters cold and dry.
The vast plains area, covered ' by a
ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS
more or less closed sod of perennial
grasses, distributed as follows:
Tall grass prairie west to central
Dakotas, eastern third of Nebraska
and central Kansas; tall and short
grasses forming sod in all of grassland
north of central Kansas and Colorado,
west to Rockies, except in sand or where
overgrazed. South of this is mostly
scattered grass steppe; west of it mostly
bunch-grass steppe. Bunch-grass oc-
curs regularly in sand. A scattering
representation of desert forms is present,
particularly in the "bad lands," shrubs
are locally present, in portions of the
area (bush steppe) and the evergreen
forests advance from the west onto
hills and rocky soil, while the Deciduous
Forest encroaches from the east through
the valleys of the largest streams. A
number of species of herbaceous peren-
nials are found in all parts of the Grass-
land, being chiefly Composities. The
leading grasses are the gramas (Boute-
loua), buffalo grass (Bulbilis dacty-
loides], and prairie grass (Koeleria
cristata) .
The mammals included immense herds
of bison, large herds of pronghorn
antelope (Antilocapra americana), wolf
(Canis spp.), coyote (Cam's spp.),
white-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus town-
sendii subspp.), kit fox (Vulpes velox},
and "towns" of prairie-dogs (Cynomys).
Breeding birds include the following:
upland plover, killdeer, bob-white, Flor-
ida bob-white (Florida prairies), prairie
chicken, lesser prairie chicken, prairie
sharp-tailed grouse, western mourning
dove, turkey vulture, marsh hawk,
Swainson's hawk, ferruginous rough-leg,
prairie falcon, duck hawk, sparrow
hawk, desert sparrow hawk, burrowing
owl, poor-will, western nighthawk, Sen-
nett's nighthawk, scissor-tailed fly-
catcher, kingbird, Arkansas kingbird,
phoebe, Say's phoebe, prairie horned
lark, desert horned lark, dusky horned
lark, magpie, cowbird, meadowlark,
western meadowlark, southern meadow-
lark, Bullock's oriole, Brewer's black-
bird, goldfinch, chestnut-collared long-
spur, McCown's longspur, vesper
sparrow, western vesper sparrow, Oregon
vesper sparrow, savanna sparrow, west-
ern savanna sparrow, Baird's sparrow,
grasshopper sparrow, western grass-
hopper sparrow, Florida grasshopper
sparrow, Henslow's sparrow, western
Henslow's sparrow, Leconte's sparrow,
Nelson's sparrow, lark sparrow, western
lark sparrow, western field sparrow,
western chipping sparrow, clay-colored
sparrow, Brewer's sparrow, song spar-
row, Dakota song sparrow, dickcissel,
lark bunting, purple martin, cliff swal-
low, barn swallow, white-rumped shrike,
migrant shrike, Sprague's pipit, western
house wren, robin, western robin, and
bluebird.
Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream, in-
clude the following: tree swallow, bank
swallow, rough-winged swallow, Mary-
land yellow-throat, western yellow-
throat, northern yellow-throat, and
short-billed marsh wren.
Breeding birds whose habitat is
limited to the presence of water, gener-
ally a local condition, include the follow-
ing: sandhill crane, Wilson's phalarope,
avocet, Wilson's snipe, marbled godwit,
solitary sandpiper, western willet, spot-
ted sandpiper, and long-billed curlew,
prairie marsh wren.
10. TEMPERATE DESERT-GRASSLAND
BIOTA (INCLUDES DESERT- GRASS
LAND TRANSITION, SHREVEJ DES-
ERT PLAINS, CLEMENTS; THE NORTH-
ERNMOST EXTENSION OF THE GREAT
BASIN MICROPHYLL DESERT, SHREVE)
A region intermediate in character
between the grassland and the deserts
of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and
Idaho.
An open carpet of perennial grasses
and ephemeral or root-perennial her-
baceous plants, with a more or less
sparing representation of succulent and
semi-succulent forms. The leading
Grassland plants (in southern localities)
are the gramas (Bouteloua) and galleta
grass (Hilaria), and the chief desert
plants are p%lmilla, amole, and a small
group of cacti.
70
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
The Snake River plain with sage-
brush among which grasses grow up in
spring and with local areas of grass,
is included here.
The mammals originally included
bison, pronghorn antelope, badger
(Taxidea taxus subspp.), ground-squir-
rels (Citellus spp.), black-tailed jack-
rabbit (Lepus californicus group),
pocket-mouse (Perognathus), and kan-
garoo-rat (Dipodomys).
Breeding birds include the following:
sage hen, western mourning dove, turkey
vulture, marsh hawk, Swainson's hawk,
ferruginous rough-leg, prairie falcon,
desert sparrow hawk, short-eared owl,
MacFarlane's screech owl, burrowing
owl, California cuckoo, Sierra wood-
pecker, Batchelder's woodpecker, red-
shafted flicker, poor-will, western night-
hawk, black-chinned hummingbird,
broad-tailed hummingbird, kingbird,
Arkansas kingbird, Say's phoebe, west-
ern wood pewee, western flycatcher,
desert horned lark, magpie, Woodhouse's
jay, western crow, cowbird, western
meadowlark, Bullock's oriole, Brewer's
blackbird, house finch, green-backed
goldfinch, western vesper sparrow, Ne-
vada savanna sparrow, western grass-
hopper sparrow, western lark sparrow,
western chipping sparrow, Brewer's
sparrow, desert sparrow, sage sparrow,
MerilPs song sparrow, spurred towhee,
black-headed grosbeak, lazuli bunting,
purple martin, cliff swallow, barn
swallow, California shrike, yellow war-
bler, long-tailed chat, and sage thrasher.
Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
swamp, include the following: raven,
bobolink, northern violet-green swallow,
bank swallow, western yellow-throat,
and tule wren.
11. EXTREME DESERT (CALIFORNIA MI-
CROPHYLL DESERT, SHREVE) (THE
WESTERN DESERT SCRUB IN PART,
CLEMENTS)
"An extremely low and open stand of
microphyllous (small-leafed) shrubs,
chiefly evergreen but partly deciduous;
very poor in grasses and in succulent
plants. The dominant plants are creo-
sote bush (Covillea tridentata), and sand
bur (Franseria dumosa)."
Mammals, small burrowing forms and
diurnal reptiles are present.
For list of mammals see account of
Mexico (Sonoran District) page 592.
Breeding birds 2 include the following:
Gambel's quail, western mourning dove,
desert sparrow hawk, prairie falcon,
road-runner, Texas woodpecker, Gila
woodpecker, poor-will, western night-
hawk, Texas nighthawk, Costa hum-
mingbird, Say's phoebe, vermilion fly-
catcher, Sonora horned lark, western
raven, Sonora red-winged blackbird,
western meadowlark, Scott's oriole,
California purple finch, black-throated
sparrow, desert song sparrow, Abert's
towhee, western blue grosbeak, phaino-
pepla, white-rumped shrike, least vireo,
Lucy's warbler, western mockingbird,
Bendire's thrasher, Leconte's thrasher,
crissal thrasher, cactus wren, rock wren,
verdin, and plumbeous gnatcatcher.
12. SAGEBRUSH DESERT BIOTA (GREAT
BASIN MICROPHYLL DESERT, SHREVE)
(THE SAGEBRUSH CLIMAX, AND IN-
CLUDES THE BASIN SAGEBRUSH AND
POSSIBLY THE COASTAL SAGEBRUSH,
CLEMENTS)
(The northern portion is classed under
$ 10 on account of desert grassland
animals present.)
"An open stand of shrubs, sometimes
nearly closed; varying from place to
place in stature; usually poor in grasses
and succulents. The dominant plant
is sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata),
locally accompanied by other forms."
Among characteristic mammals are
the pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra
americana), black-tailed jackrabbit (Le-
pus californicus subspp.), pygmy rabbit
(Brachylagus idahoensis), cottontail rab-
bits (Sylvilagus spp.), ground-squirrels
2 Aquatic birds have been omitted from the desert
list because of the extreme scarcity of their habitat
in such regions. Many of these birds do not nest
on the ground but in the thinly forested areas along
streams, in canyons, among the rocks, in mesquite
or cacti. No effort is made to distinguish ground
nesting birds from others.
ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS
71
(Citellus spp.), kangaroo-rats (Dido-
domys spp.), and pocket-mice (Perog-
nathus spp.).
Breeding birds include the follow-
ing: upland plover, killdeer, Columbian
sharp-tailed grouse, sage hen, western
mourning dove, turkey vulture, sharp-
shinned hawk, Cooper's hawk, western
red-tail, red-bellied hawk, Swainson's
hawk, ferruginous rough-leg, prairie
falcon, Richardson's pigeon hawk, des-
ert sparrow hawk, short-eared owl,
spotted owl, burrowing owl, California
cuckoo, Sierra woodpecker, Batchelder's
woodpecker, red-shafted flicker, poor-
will, western nighthawk, black-chinned
hummingbird, broad-tailed humming-
bird, kingbird, Arkansas kingbird, cas-
sin kingbird, ash-throated flycatcher,
Say's phoebe, western wood pewee, west-
ern flycatcher, TrailPs flycatcher, desert
horned lark, dusky horned lark, black-
billed magpie, woodhouse jay, raven,
western crow, bobolink, cowbird, yellow-
headed blackbird, San Diego red-wing,
Nevada red-wing, western meadowlark,
Bullock's oriole, Brewer's blackbird,
house finch, green-backed goldfinch,
western vesper sparrow, western sa-
vanna sparrow, western grasshopper
sparrow, western lark sparrow, western
chipping sparrow, desert sparrow, sage
sparrow, mountain song sparrow, Ne-
vada towhee, black-headed grosbeak,
lazuli bunting, western tanager, purple
martin, cliff swallow, barn swallow,
white-rumped shrike, western warbling
vireo, yellow warbler, long-tailed chat,
sage thrasher, western mockingbird,
rock wren, canyon wren, western house
wren, lead-colored bush-tit, western
gnatcatcher, western robin, and western
bluebird.
Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
swamp, include the following: spotted
sandpiper, long-billed curlew, snowy
plover, marsh hawk, belted kingfisher,
tree swallow, bank swallow, northern
violet-green swallow, rough-winged
swallow, western yellow-throat, and
western marsh wren.
13. EASTERN (RIO GRANDE) SUCCULENT
DESERT BIOTA (TEXAS SUCCULENT
DESERT, SHREVE) (EASTERN DESERT
SCRUB, CLEMENTS)
"A mixed stand of microphyllous
shrubs and succulent and semi-succulent
plants. The shrubs are either evergreen
(Cavilled) or deciduous (Acacia, Flour-
ensia). The stem-succulents comprise
many species of cacti, chiefly low in
growth; the commonest leaf-succulent is
lechuguilla (Agave lechuguilla) ; the semi-
succulents include sotol (Dasylirion
texanum), amole, andpalmilla (Yucca)."
For list of mammals see Texas account,
page 502.
Breeding birds include the following:
killdeer, snowy plover, Texas bob-white,
Arizona scaled quail, western mourning
dove, white-winged dove, Mexican
ground dove, Inca dove, black vulture,
turkey vulture, white-tailed kite, Har-
ris' hawk, western red-tail, Texas red-
shouldered hawk, zone-tailed hawk,
Swainson's hawk, Mexican black hawk,
Mexican goshawk, prairie falcon, Aplo-
mado falcon, desert sparrow hawk,
Audubon's caracara, spotted owl, Sa-
haura screech owl, flammulated screech
owl, western horned owl, burrowing
owl, road-runner, California cuckoo,
Texas woodpecker, cactus woodpecker,
Stephens' poor-will, Texas nighthawk,
broad-tailed hummingbird, Cassin's king-
bird, ash-throated flycatcher, dwarf cow-
bird, Rio Grande meadowlark, thick-
billed red-wing, Scott's oriole, Bullock's
oriole, housefinch, Arkansas goldfinch
western lark sparrow, desert sparrow,
rufous-winged sparrow, Scott's sparrow,
Arizona pyrrhuloxia, western blue gros-
beak, varied bunting, barn swallow,
phainopepla, white-rumped shrike, black-
capped vireo, Stephens' vireo, least vireo,
Sonora yellow warbler, western yellow-
throat, long-tailed chat, western mock-
ingbird, curve-billed thrasher, crissal
thrasher, cactus wren, canyon wren,
Texas wren, Sennett's titmouse, verdin,
and plumbeous gnatcatcher.
Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
72
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
swamp, include the following: marsh
hawk, duck hawk, white-necked raven,
rough-winged swallow, and bank
swallow.
14. WESTERN SMALL TREE AND SUC-
CULENT DESERT BIOTA (ARIZONA SUC-
CULENT DESERT, SHREVE) (WESTERN
DESERT SCRUB, IN PART, CLEMENTS)
"A mixed stand of microphyllous
shrubs or small trees, either evergreen
or deciduous, and of succulent forms,
chiefly the stem succulent cacti. The
leading shrubs are creosote bush and
cat-claw (Acacia) ; the commonest small
trees are palo verde (Parkinsonia) and
palo fierro (Olneya). The succulents
comprise large columnar forms (Car-
negiea), branching aborescent forms
(Opuntia), and many smaller types."
Mammals include the black-tailed
deer (Ododoileus), black-tailed jack-
rabbit (Lepus californicus group), cot-
tontail rabbit (Sylvilagus audubonii
group), coyotes (Cam's spp.), badger
(Taxidea), and many species of rodents.
Breeding birds include the following:
killdeer, snowy plover, masked bob-
white, GambeFs quail, western mourn-
ing dove, white-winged dove, Mexican
ground dove, Inca dove, turkey vulture,
Harris' hawk, western red-tail, zone-
tailed hawk, Swainson's hawk, Mexican
black hawk, Mexican goshawk, prairie
falcon, Aplomado falcon, desert sparrow
hawk, Audubon's caracara, Arizona
spotted owl, Mexican screech owl, spot-
ted screech owl, western horned owl,
burrowing owl, road-runner, California
cuckoo, Chihuahua woodpecker, cactus
woodpecker, Gila woodpecker, gilded
flicker, Stephens' poor-will, Texas night-
hawk, Costa hummingbird, broad-billed
hummingbird, Arizona crested fly-
catcher, ash-throated flycatcher, oliva-
ceous flycatcher, buff-breasted fly-
catcher, vermilion flycatcher, beard-
less flycatcher, scorched horned lark,
bronzed cowbird, Sonora red-wing, Rio
Grande meadowlark, Scott's oriole,
orchard oriole, house finch, Arkansas
goldfinch, western lark sparrow, desert
sparrow, botteri sparrow, rufous-winged
sparrow, Scott's sparrow, desert song
sparrow, Arizona cardinal, Arizona
pyrrhuloxia, western blue grosbeak,
beautiful bunting, Mexican cliff swallow,
barn swallow, phainopepla, white-
rumped shrike, Stephens' vireo, least
vireo, Lucy's warbler, Sonora yellow war-
bler, western yellow-throat, western
mockingbird, Palmer's thrasher, Ben-
dire's thrasher, Leconte's thrasher,
crissal thrasher, cactus wren, Baird's
wren, verdin, and plumbeous gnat--
catcher.
Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
swamp, include the following: marsh
hawk, duck hawk, white-necked raven,
rough-winged swallow, and bank
swallow.
15. MESQUITE SEMI-DESERT BIOTA
(TEXAS SEMI-DESERT, SHREVE)
"An open or closed stand of small trees
and shrubs, chiefly deciduous, with
local areas of grassland and a represen-
tation of succulents. The dominant
tree is mesquite (Prosopis glandulosd) ;
the principal shrub, huisache (Acacia
farnesiana)."
Mammals include white-tailed deer
(Odocoileus texanus}, wolf (Cam's rufus~),
opossum (Didelphis marsupialis texen-
szs), peccary (Tayassu), and armadillo
(Dasypus novemcinctus texanus}.
Breeding birds include the following:
killdeer, Mexican jacana, chestnut-
bellied scaled quail, Attwater's prairie
chicken, Rio Grande turkey, chachalaca,
red-billed pigeon, western mourning
dove, white-winged dove, Mexican
ground dove, Inca dove, white-fronted
dove, black vulture, turkey vulture,
Harris' hawk, western red-tail, zone-
tailed hawk, Swainson's hawk, Sennet's
white-tailed hawk, Mexican black hawk,
Mexican goshawk, prairie falcon, Aplo-
mado falcon, desert sparrow hawk,
Audubon's caracara, spotted owl, Texas
screech owl, burrowing owl, groove-
billed ani, road-runner, California
cuckoo, coppery-tailed trogon, Texas
ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS
73
kingfisher, Texas woodpecker, cactus
woodpecker, golden-fronted woodpecker,
Stephens' poor-will, MerriPs parauque,
Texas nighthawk, Reiffer's humming-
bird, buff-bellied hummingbird, Couch's
kingbird, scissor-tailed flycatcher, Mex-
ican crested flycatcher, Derby fly-
catcher, vermilion flycatcher, beardless
flycatcher, Texas horned lark, green
jay, white-necked raven, red-eyed cow-
bird, Vera Cruz red-wing, Rio Grande
meadowlark, Audubon's oriole, Sen-
nett's oriole, Bullock's oriole, great-
tailed grackle, house finch, Arkansas
goldfinch, Texas seaside sparrow, west-
ern lark sparrow, black-throated spar-
row, botteri sparrow, Cassin's sparrow,
Texas sparrow, gray-tailed cardinal,
Texas pyrrhuloxia, western blue gros-
beak, varied bunting, painted bunting,
Sharpe's seedeater, lesser cliff swallow,
gray-breasted martin, rough-winged
swallow, phainopepla, white-rumped
shrike, small white-eyed vireo, Texas
vireo, Sennett's warbler, Florida yellow-
throat, Rio Grande yellow-throat, west-
ern mockingbird, Sennett's thrasher,
curve-billed thrasher, cactus wren, lo-
mita wren, black-crested tit-mouse,
verdin. and plumbeous gnatcatcher.
Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
swamp, include the following: snowy
plover, Wilson's plover, and marsh
hawk.
16. BROAD THICK-LEAVED EVERGREEN
SEMI-DESERT BIOTA (WINTER RAIN
REGION) (PACIFIC SEMI-DESERT,
SHREVE; CALIFORNIA CHAPARRAL, AND
WOODLANDS OF MEDITERRANEAN TYPE,
HARDY; COASTAL CHAPARRAL AND PINE-
OAK WOODLAND IN PART, CLEMENTS)
"A region of great topographic diversi-
ty in which the vegetation varies locally
from encinal (open oak forest, chiefly
evergreen), through chaparral (a closed
scrub of evergreen shrubs), to desert
(ephemeral herbaceous plants, small
perennials, local succulents). . . .
The principal chaparral plants are
chamiso (Adenostoma fasciculatum) and
species of manzanita (Arctostaphylos)."
The mammals include black-tailed
deer (Odocoileus columbianus scaphiotus),
coyote (Canis ochropus), and black-
tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus
subspp.).
17. MAGNOLIA, BAY, HOLLY, "HAM-
MOCKS* (TEMPERATE
RAIN FOREST)
Various correspondents contend that
there is no forest of this type in the
Americas. Various others have mapped
the areas in the states adjacent to the
Gulf of Mexico, especially Florida, as
of this type. Pittier is inclined to con-
sider some of the South American
forests in high altitude as coming under
Schimper's definition. From diagrams
of the distribution of temperature and
rainfall in the Australian and Asiatic
areas commonly called temperate rain
forest localities, there is evidently no
climatic reason why this type should not
occur in some localities in the southern
states. The botanical objections to
considering the magnolia, bay, holly
"hammocks" temperate rain forest
seems to be the sclerophyll character
of the leaves. This may be another
case where more consideration of the
animals and lower plants should be
allowed to dictate. So far as the ani-
mals living under the forest cover are
concerned the failure of the leaves to
fall is more important than the char-
acter of their covering. For lists of
animals see under the Florida account,
page 427.
18. TROPICAL HAMMOCKS (SUBTROPICAL
RAIN FOREST)
Some small areas in southeastern
Florida have sufficient rainfall correctly
distributed to give a tropical rain forest.
Some areas of this type have reached a
climax which may be considered as a
less luxuriant type of rain forest. Their
small size does not permit them to
afford shelter to the larger tropical
animals but the biota is generally taxo-
nomically related to the biota of the
West Indies.
74 NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
For lists of animals and further dis- The swamps composed of evergreen
cussion see the Florida account page 427. and deciduous trees in great variety,
the bald cypress and tupelo gum being
19. LOCAL AND EDAPHic BIOTA tne commonest species. The marshes
are widely varying areas of grasses,
All the waters, sand areas, rock slides, sedges, and immersed aquatic plants,
etc., belong here but swamps and Mangrove swamps border shores in
marshes cover most extensive areas. southern Florida.
C. LIFE ZONES
BY V. E. SHELFORD AND G. T. JONES
In this book an attempt has been made
to use natural features: climate, land-
scape aspects, and the characteristic
plants in designating and describing
areas. Various authors of local ac-
counts use "afe zones" to designate
areas. Without a glossary the names
do not suggest the landscape aspect
types. It is necessary in such a work
that natural features be used in order
that the traveler may identify his loca-
tion. The characteristic plants were
substituted by the compilers for "life
zones" wherever mentioned by contrib-
utors in temperate America. This was
done in accord with the table below.
Approximate correspondence of Vegetation and Merriam's Life Zones
(Prepared by George T. Jones)
Vegetation type
I. Tundra and Alpine Sum-
mits
A. Arctic Tundra
B. Paramos or Alpine
Meadow
II. Coniferous Forest
A. Northern Coniferous
Forest
B. Mountain Coniferous
Forest
1. Rocky Mountain
Forest
2. Sierran Sub-al-
pine Forest
3. Rocky Mountain
Montane For-
est
4. Sierran Montane
Forest
5. Larch-Pine For-
est of North-
west
C. Northwest Moist
Coniferous Forest
III. Eastern Forests
A. Mixed Coniferous and
Deciduous
B. Temperate Deciduous
C. Southeast Coniferous
Forest
D. Gulf Coast Forest
Composition
Lichens and herbs
Sedges, grasses and
herbs, dwarf willows
Red, black and white
spruces, balsam fir
Engelmann spruce and
alpine fir
Mountain hemlock, firs,
white-bark pine
Western yellow pine,
Douglas fir, white fir,
lodgepole pine
Sugar pine, western
yellow pine, incense
cedar, white fir, Doug-
las fir
Western white pine,
western larch, western
hemlock, Engelmann
spruce, giant cedar
Redwood, douglas fir,
western hemlock, giant
cedar, Sitka spruce
Beech, birch, maple,
hemlock, white pine
Beech, maple, oaks,
hickories, tulip tree,
sassafras
Longleaf pine, loblolly
pine, slash pine, mag-
nolia, live oak, bald
cypress
Southeast Coniferous
Forest with under-
growth of Palmetto
75
Merriam's Life
Zone
Arctic-Alpine
Zone
Arctic-Alpine
Zone
Hudsonian
Canadian
and
Hudsonian and
upper Canadian
Hudsonian and
upper Canadian
Canadian and
upper Transition
Canadian
Transition
and
Canadian and
Transition
Canadian and
Humid Transi-
tion
Alleghanian
Carolinian
Austroriparian
Sabalian or Gulf
Strip
76
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
IV. Temperate Rain Forest
V. Sub-tropical Rain Forest
VI. Poplar Savanna
VII. Oak Savanna
VIII. Rocky Mountain Forest
Margin
A. Chaparral
B. Woodland
IX. California region of various
vegetation with Summer
drouth and Winter Rain
A. Chaparral
B. Woodland
C. Coastal sagebrush or
"chaparral"
D. Bunch-grass plains in
valleys (cultivated)
X. Grassland
A. Prairie
B. Steppe (Brush grass-
land in part)
XI. Bush-Steppe
1. Semi-desert
west
2. Semi-desert
west
XII. Temperate Desert
North-
South-
XIII. Subtropical Desert
A. California Microphyll
Desert
B. Succulent Desert
XIV. Thorn Savanna
"Hammock" Country,
Florida
Very rare frost, south tip
of Florida
Mixture of poplars and
tall grasses
Mixture of oaks and tall
grasses
Brush, as dwarf oak
(Quercus undulatus)
and Mountain mahog-
any (Sercocarpus par-
vifolius)
Pinyons and junipers
Brush, as Manzanita and
Buck brush
Evergreen oaks, jun-
ipers, etc.
"Old Man" (Artemisia
californica) and Salvia
Tall grass in bunches
Largely included in
Savanna VI and VII
Grasses in open sod.
Bare ground between
plants, or rather short
grasses forming sod
Mixed grass and sage-
brush
Mixed Grass and desert
shrub
Sagebrush -Atriplex-
rabbit brush
Creosote bush and Sand-
bur
Cacti, mesquite, etc.
Thorn bushes and grass
Sabalian Zone
Tropical Zone
Transition and Al-
leghanian
Alleghanian, Car-
olinian and
Austroriparian
Arid Transition
Upper Sonoran
Arid Transition
Upper Sonoran
Upper Sonoran
Upper and Lower
Sonoran
Arid Transition
and Upper Son-
oran
Upper Sonoran
Upper Sonoran
Upper Sonoran
Lower Sonoran
Lower Sonoran
Lower Sonoran
The maps of Southern North America
and Northern South America are the
results of the circulation of three pre-
liminary maps. The earlier maps were
criticized by T. Barbour, L. Griscom,
G. K. Noble, A. G. Ruthven and others.
A much larger scale map was then
planned with the aid of Dr. W. H. Os-
good, drawn and circulated. Most of
the contributors of tropical accounts
made important suggestions and Mr.
E. P. Killip of the National Museum
added his knowledge of several countries.
Florida may be used to illustrate diffi-
culties in mapping^ the vegetation of
areas. It is covered largely by long-
leaf pine, and is commonly mapped as
coniferous forest. Detailed study
shows, however, that on well-developed
soils in stable physiographic situations
such as the highest terraces of flood
plains, other types occur which indicate
future dominants. Thus Professor Wat-
son shows northwestern Florida to be
deciduous forest, much of central
Florida to be temperate rainforest
(evergreen), southeastern Florida to
be tropical rainforest, and the remain-
ing parts are represented according
to present dominants because neither
the knowledge nor conditions make
possible prediction of the coming type.
1
'
TEMPERATE Deciouous FOREST
;|:|il:li|i|i|!|l S.E CONIFEROUS FOREST
ARID CONIFEROUS FOREST
CONIFEROUS FOREST
MOIST CONIFEROUS FOREST
PARAMOS AMD HIGH MT FOREST
*e* e @ SuceuLtNT DE SERT
ffifiHl SH^TREE SEMI-DESERT
LUXURIANT TROPICAL
RAIN FOREST
SUB ALPINE
EVERGREEN FOREST
TROPICAL RAIN FtRtsT
CLIMAX
Y//////\ DRIER IROPICAL 1 o o \ | A/o DECIDUOUS \ f !':' : >1 ,,
^^ ^^r l:^^d ^r fcgimd ^^*^o
W-/fy%/ty)( M NTAH E M k.* ...'|^| DECIDUOUS THORN I V *o *o* *
Yy^Xy/WA CLOUD FOREST FV. oovol FOREST |^ 4^0/0*0*^
GRASS SWAMP
BROAD-LEAFED
EVERGREEN SEMI-DESERT OF\A!INTER RAIN REGIONS
FIG. 4. BIOTIC AREAS OP SOUTHERN NORTH AMERICA, MEXICO AND
CENTRAL AMERICA
D. DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF MIDDLE AMERICAN BIOTA (CENTRAL
MEXICO TO THE AMAZON)
BY FORREST SHRBVE AND V. E. SHELFORD
(Names in parenthesis are synonyms used in published works or in the manu-
scripts submitted)
1. LUXURIANT TROPICAL RAIN-FOREST
BIOTA (RAIN-FOREST; LOWLAND TROP-
ICAL FOREST; HEAVY FOREST; HEAVY
HUMID FOREST)
This forest occupies regions with
uniform mean monthly temperature and
a heavy and well distributed rainfall.
The forest is composed of a great number
of different species and genera of trees
of different stature and of shrubs and
vines. The dominant trees are ever-
green, or nearly so, and their leaves are
relatively small and thick, while those
of the subordinate trees are broad and
thin.
The animal life is also represented by
a vast number of species. Termites
which build nests on trees, leaf carrying
ants, military ants and gaudy butter-
flies characterize the insect population.
Frogs and lizards are numerous. The
snakes include some of the constrictors
and poisonous coraline and crotaline
species. Most of the birds are of com-
mon neotropical types, many being large,
grotesque or gaudy. Monkeys are most
numerous here many rarely coming to
the ground. Cats large and small,
squirrels, and opossums are plentiful,
Arboreal anteaters and sloths are char-
acteristic. Tapirs are nearly always
present.
2. DRIER TROPICAL RAIN-FOREST BIOTA
(LOWLAND RAIN-FOREST)
This type of forest is similar to the
luxuriant tropical Rain-Forest, but is
not so heavy, the trees are not usually so
tall nor so numerous in species, and the
abundance of epiphytes and lianas
depends upon local conditions, tending
to be less numerous than in the Luxu-
riant Tropical Rain-Forest. The ani-
mal life is similar to that of the luxuriant
forest but poorer in species and with
many species different.
3. ARID DECIDUOUS FOREST BIOTA
(MONSOON FOREST; SEMI-
DECIDUOUS FOREST)
This forest is similar to the drier rain
forest in the wet season, but exhibits
partial leaf fall in the dry season. It
is rich in epiphytes of bromeliad type,
but relatively poor in lianas. The
shrubs are chiefly evergreen.
The monkeys, opossums, and ar-
boreal anteaters drop out or become
much less numerous than in the tropical
rain forest. Peccaries, forest rabbits,
foxes, and deer are more numerous. It
must be borne in mind, however, that
trees adjacent to streams often retain
their leaves and that monkeys, tapirs,
etc., ordinarily found in rain forest
may occur here. In general, however,
the species in the deciduous forest
proper are quite different in the case of
animals.
4. DECIDUOUS THORN FOREST BIOTA
(XEROPHYLOUS FOREST; THORN
FOREST; CAATINGA)
Deciduous Thorn Forest occupies
some of the more arid portions of South
America. It consists of a more or less
close stand of large shrubs, small trees
and succulents. The majority of the
dominant plants are leafless in the dry
77
78
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
season. The animal life is scanty, Rats, mice, and ground-squirrels are
armadillos, forest rabbits, and foxes the dominant animals, though pec-
being dominant mammalian types. caries, deer, and coyotes also occur.
5. GBASSLAND BIOTA (PRAIRIES; LLANOS ;
CAMPOS; PAMPAS; PAJONALES)
The diverse grassland areas of tropi-
cal America are alike in the tall coarse,
character of the grasses and in the
occurrence with them of numerous
shrubs and perennial herbaceous plants.
In some localities the vegetation is low
and open, as on the limestone mesas of
Venezuela ; in others it is more luxuriant
and more nearly perennial in its activity.
Only restricted areas of grassland are
without trees. Little distinction can
be made between the animal life of the
Grassland and Savanna due to the lack
of information, particularly as to the
smaller forms.
6. SAVANNA BIOTA (ARID GRASSLAND;
GALLERY SAVANNA)
The Savannas are tropical grasslands
occupied by greater or less numbers of
trees or shrubs, growing singly or in
groups, and being chiefly deciduous ex-
cept in the case of the palms. The
grasses vary in density and stature, up
to 1 m. in height.
The Savannas of South America are
characterized by two or three species of
savanna deer and brocket, tayra, skunks,
savanna foxes, peccaries, etc. Monkeys
live in groves of trees in some localities
and may move from grove to grove
through bushes when they occur.
7. SEMI-DESERT BIOTA
The principal area of Semi-desert is in
the lower valley of the Rio Grande and
in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas
others occurring on the coast of South
America. Thorny deciduous shrubs and
small trees make up the principal part
of the open vegetation together with
evergreen shrubs, cacti, scattered bunch
grasses, and herbaceous plants of sea-
sonal activity.
8. DESERT BIOTA
The Desert areas of Tropical America
are chiefly in northern Mexico and on
the Pacific Coast of South America.
They are alike in the low stature and
open stand of the vegetation and in the
restriction of its activity to the rainy
seasons. They differ in the density of
their shrubbery and in the relative
abundance of succulent and non-succu-
lent plants. There are both deciduous
and evergreen shrubs; grasses are of
local occurrence.
The Deserts are characterized by
numerous reptiles, usually diurnal and
conspicuous and numerous nocturnal
rodents, particularly small ones able to
hide. Jack-rabbits and coyotes are
common except in extreme deserts.
The following birds breed in the
Mexican Plateau desert: Mearn's quail,
Merriam's turkey, chachalaca, black
vulture, zone-tailed hawk, Sennett's
white-tailed hawk, Mexican black hawk,
Mexican goshawk, flammulated screech
owl. prairie falcon, Aplomado falcon,
Audubon's caracara, Mexican screech
owl, burrowing owl, ferruginous pygmy
owl, thick-billed parrot, grooved-billed
ani, road-runner, California cuckoo,
cactus woodpecker, Arizona woodpecker,
ant-eating woodpecker, Stephen's poor-
will, Texas nighthawk, Rivoli hum-
mingbird, blue-throated hummingbird,
black-chinned hummingbird, Lucifer
hummingbird, white-eared humming-
bird, broad-billed hummingbird, scissor-
tailed flycatcher, Cassin's kingbird,
Derby, flycatcher, sulphur-bellied fly-
catcher, Mexican crested flycatcher, ash-
throated flycatcher. Coues' flycatcher,
gray flycatcher, buff-breasted flycatcher,
vermilion flycatcher, scorched horned
lark, blue-eared jay, Arizona jay, white-
necked raven, San Diego red-wing,
Scott's oriole, Arkansas goldfinch, Wor-
then's sparrow, black-chinned sparrow,
desert sparrow, Cassin's sparrow, Scott's
sparrow, canyon towhee, Abert's towhee,
western blue grosbeak, hepatic tanager,
Cooper's tanager, Mexican cliff swallow,
phainopepla, Stephen's vireo, least vireo,
gray vireo. olive warbler, Sonora yellow
warbler, black-fronted warbler, long-
hlMlililii -S-E CONIFEROUS FOREST
O O + O t o * * I -I
.Vso" ^! TREE
PARAMOS AND HIGH Mr FOREST
LUXURIANT TROPICAL ^y^^J^^-^/
RAIH FOBF.IT W-fr/tf/'.-S.Z'
SUB ALPINE
fvFflffff/V F<ifte$T ::':
MAST GRASSLAND
w///,
DRIER JROPICAL to 0o / o0 o
RAIklFoRFST EOO O O?OO
ARID DECIDUOUS .. '. r. ; . ;-;. >
FOREST '?;' '';".;"
DRY GRASSLAND
$%m!>
MONTANE OR k^o^v"o ?o *
CLDUH FqarsT P.o?o'c- *.o^.
DECIDUOUS THORN B^^- ^ o-s^
p/jf;T I^'.'P-?^-':-'* '-J? ; :;;0
MOIST SAVANNA
' f
EXTREME DESER T ' .* '.* ." . ' :
/?5F/?r ^^/.V
ARID TREE oa
BUSH SAVANNA
Fia. 5. BIOTIC AREAS OF FLORIDA AND NORTHERN SOUTH AMERICA
ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS
79
tailed chat, western mockingbird, Pal-
mer's thrasher, Bendire's thrasher, cris-
sal thrasher, white-throated wren,
bridled titmouse, lead-colored bush-tit,
Lloyd's bush-tit, verdin, plumbeous
gnatcatcher, L. Jones.
9. MONTANE FORESTS BIOTA (CLOUD
FOREST; TEMPERATE RAIN FOREST;
LOWER MOUNTAIN FOREST)
This forest occurs at various eleva-
tions in tropical mountains where
clouds, fog, and heavy rainfall produce
very moist conditions. The trees are
not so tall as in the Luxuriant Tropical
Rain-Forest, but in other respects the
Montaine Forests rival the luxuriance
of the former. Ferns form a conspic-
uous element in the vegetation as
epiphytes, lianes and terrestrial plants,
while tree ferns are conspicuous among
the subordinate trees. The trees are
evergreen, mostly with small leaves;
but solid stands of conifers are also
found, depending upon soil conditions.
In Central America the fauna of
the Montane forest is in part highly
peculiar. Endemic genera of birds are
numerous. North American temperate
zone plants and animals here reach
their limit also. In parts of South
American the conspicuous animals are
about the same as in the rain forest.
10. SUBALPINE EVERGREEN FOREST
BIOTA (UPPER MONTANE FOREST)
The mountains rising above 9000 ft.
are clothed with a temperate and de-
ciduous broad-leaved forest of ever-
green trees or conifers. Monkeys and
other tropical rain forest species are
excluded from this belt. Numerous
small rodents characterize it, however.
11. ANDINE BUSHLAND BIOTA (AN-
DINE BRUSHWOOD)
The Andine Bushlands are just below
timber-line, being frequently broken
by small areas of grassland (paramillos).
Tree shrubs and dwarfed trees form a
low but compact stand, which becomes
lower and more open at still higher
altitudes. Deer, wild-cats, wolves,
bear, and forest rabbit occur in this
belt.
12. ANDINE MEADOW BIOTA (PARAMOSJ
ALPINE MEADOW)
Lying above the uppermost shrubby
vegetation, chiefly over 12,000 ft. ele-
vation, are the Andine Meadows, which
are composed of grasses, sedges, many
species of composites, notably of the
genus Espeletia, and scattering repre-
sentatives of various genera of tem-
perate relationship. Plants with hoary
tomentum are conspicuous in this
vegetation, as are also areas of sphag-
num. Deer, wild-cats, forest rabbit,
and numerous small rodents occur in
this belt.
13. MANGROVE SWAMP BIOTA
The Mangrove Swamps of tropical
America consist of nearly pure stands
of Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia nitida
or A. tomentosa, occupying the coast,
the shallow saline or brackish waters
of bays and lagoons. The interlocking
prop-roots of these trees make the
Mangrove Swamps very difficult to
penetrate from either land or water.
There are characteristic insects, birds,
etc., but the fauna of the swamps varies
in different regions on account of their
wide geographical range.
E. PROVISIONAL TABLE OF LANDSCAPE ASPECTS AND LIFE
ZONE EQUIVALENTS
BY E. A. GOLDMAN
Mangrove Swamps (Tropical Zone as
a whole, but as mangrove swamps are
not dependent upon rainfall, they occur
within the arid or humid divisions of
the Lower Tropical section).
Flood Plain Forest (low altitudes)
Lower Tropical Zone.
Luxuriant Tropical Rain Forest
Humid Lower Tropical Zone.
Drier Tropical Rain Forest Humid
Lower Tropical Zone.
Montane or Cloud Forest Humid
Upper Tropical Zone. It includes
conifers and oaks in Central
America.
Subalpine Evergreen Forest
Temperate Zone. (In Central
America.)
Ecuador and British Honduras, rang-
ing in altitudes from 6000 to 7000 ft. in
the former country and to 1000 to 4000
ft. in the latter.
The areas in British Honduras ex-
tending from 1000 to 4000 ft. altitude
would be within the Lower Tropical
Zone, associated with an immense num-
ber of tropical species. Areas at 6000
to 7000 ft. altitude in Ecuador would
probably be assigned to Sub-tropical
or Upper Tropical.
Partially Deciduous Forest Arid
Lower Tropical Zone.
Deciduous Thorn Forest Arid
Lower Tropical Zone. In Mexico
and in Panama this can not satis-
factorily be separated from the
preceding, as the regions are
coastal plains crossed by streams;
and along the streams the vege-
tation may be only partially
deciduous, or near the water line
evergreen, while it is completely
deciduous away from the water.
(Shrub) Desert Sonora and Lower
California. Lower Austral Zone.
Semi Desert Lower Austral Zone.
Extreme Desert Lower Austral
Zone. Desert District Vizcaino.
Gallery Savanna Arid Lower Trop-
ical Zone. A mixture of mon-
soon forest and savanna. Arid
sometimes corresponds to the
Lower Tropical Zone.
Grassland, Dry Grassland Arid
Lower Tropical Zone.
Andine bushland Paramillos
Paramo Zone.
80
F. BIBLIOGRAPHY
BY V. E. SHELFORD
Adams, O. C.
1920 Zoogeography of Northeastern-
most South America (after
Chapman) . Geog. Rev. , 10 :101-
107.
Brehn, A. E.
1890 North Pole to Equator, London
Batholomew, J. G.
1917 Advanced Atlas of Physical and
Political Geography (Oxford
Press).
Clements, F. E.
1916 Plant Succession. Carnegie Inst.
of Wash., Pub. 242.
1920 Plant Indicators, Cam. Inst.
Wash. Pub. 290.
Chapman, F. M.
1917 Distribution of Bird Life in
Colombia. Bull. Am. Mus.
Nat. Hist., 36: 1-729.
Goldman, E. A.
1920 Mammals of Panama. Smith-
sonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 69,
No. 50: 1-309.
Hall, H. M., and Grinnell, J.
1919 Life Zone Indicators in Califor-
nia. Proc. Cal. Am. Sci., 9:
37-67.
Hardy, M. E.
1920 The Geography of Plants. (Ox-
ford Press)
1913 An introduction to Plant Geog-
raphy. (Oxford Press.)
Livingston, B. E. and Shreve, F.
1921 Distribution of Vegetation in
the U. S. as related to Climatic
Conditions. Carnegie Inst. of
Wash., Pub. 284.
Mobius, K.
1880 The Oyster and Oyster Culture.
U. S. Com. Fisheries Report
1880 (Part VIII): 683-751.
Merriam, C. H.
1898 Life Zone and Crop Zones.
U.S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Biol. Surv.,
Bull. 10.
Sanders, E. M.
1921 The Natural Regions of Mexico.
Geog. Rev., 11: 212-26.
Schimper, A. W.
1903 (Translation by W. R. Fisher.
Plant Geography on a Physio-
logical Basis. Oxford.
Shreve, F.
1917 A Map of the Vegetation of the
United States. Geog. Rev. 3:
119-125.
Ward, R. DeC.
1919 A New Classification of Climates
(Koppen's). Geog. Rev., 8:
188-199.
Van Dyke
1919 Distribution of Insects in West-
ern North America. Ann.
Ent. Soc. of America, 12 : 1-12.
Shelford, V. E.
1911 Physiological Animal Geo-
graphy. Jour. Morph., 22:
551-618.
Strohl, J.
1921 Physiologische Gesichtpunkte
in der Tiergeographi. Vier-
teljahresschrift der Naturforsch.
Ges., Zur. 46: 1-22.
81
IV. NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
A. GENERAL PLAN
BY V. E. SHELFORD
The primary object of this volume is
to locate natural areas so as to make
them available to naturalists. Every-
one who learns the location of a natural
area through this volume should realize
the moral obligation to keep the area
as it is. Using an area described in
this book to satisfy one's selfish desires
for possession is a violation of a trust
placed in the nature-loving public.
Convenience of treatment divided
the territory covered into three sec-
tions: (1) Northern tundra and ice-
covered regions; (2) Temperate America
including the southern tier of Canadian
provinces and the whole of the United
States; (3) Tropical America, including
the areas between the southern bound-
aries of the United States and the
Amazon River and adjacent islands.
In the first and last divisions the great-
est latitude was permitted the authors
and no attempt to map or classify areas
was made. The meagre character of
the available knowledge forbade at-
tempting anything of the kind. The
name of the person preparing the ac-
count for each territory stands at its
head as the one responsible for the
completeness and accuracy.
The materials on the States and
southern tier of Canadian provinces
are divided into (1) a general account
of biotic conditions of the territory,
and (2) specific descriptions of natural
areas.
The general account describes the
territory as it was before modified by
civilization. General physiographic
features are described and geographic
and local plant and animal communities
briefly outlined. The names of Mer-
riam's life zones are used only in paren-
theses following the names of the
plants commonly used to designate
them. The original conditions of the
biota are then contrasted with the
present modified condition; the com-
munities and conspicuous plants and
animals which have been destroyed
are enumerated. Some authors have
enumerated polluted and unpolluted
waters.
In specific descriptions, the existing
natural areas are in part arranged ac-
cording to the natural subdivision
recognized in the general account. All
preserved areas and areas available for
study, in natural condition, preserved
areas in a semi-natural condition, such
as forest preserves, bird and game
sanctuaries, and second growth areas
undergoing succession, are as a rule
included and properly designated in so
far as they were known to the authors.
The National Forest were treated
separately by members of the United
States Forest Service. The National
Parks and Monuments are included in
the state accounts.
ABBREVIATION AND SYMBOLS
a. In locations of areas which appear
abbreviated, words in brackets have
been omitted:
[From] Chicago, [111. go] 12 mi.
west [via] C. B. & Q. R. R. or La Grange
Electric, to Riverside [and walk] (W)
$ mi. N. W. [From] Riverside, III.
b. Modification of areas. As com-
pared with their condition at the time
of the discovery by America by Euro-
peans in the fifteenth century all areas
have doubtless suffered considerable
modification. The degree of modifica-
tion varies greatly in the various natural
reservations, and in those areas avail-
85
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
able for study and proposed for pres-
ervation. It was the opinion of the
committee, that to publish an extensive
list without at least an estimate of the
degree of modification would give an
entirely erroneous idea of what is
available for scientific study and of
desirable policies relative to the im-
provement and maintenance of existing
preserves and the acquirement of more.
The conditions of the vegetation are
indicated by capital letters. The orig-
inal conditions are indicated by A,
and degrees of modification by C, D,
etc.
The conditions of the fauna are in-
dicated by Arabic numerals. The orig-
inal natural conditions are indicated
by 1 (one) and degrees of modification
by other figures, 2, 3, 4, etc.; 10 would
indicate a cultivated field, though the
plan is only carried to H8, e.g., single
trees in parks or pastures.
Symbols, etc.
* (in front of the name of an area) :
Preserved that is, areas held in
a natural state as parks, forest
preserves, etc.
** Preserved for scientific purposes
p (in front of the name of an area)
indicates that it is proposed for
preservation.
Areas not designated by either of
these symbols are available for
study.
J Hotel or boarding-house facilities.
|| Hotel or boarding-house during
tourist season only.
f Especially important; should be
preserved unmodified.
Camp outfit desirable; necessary.
Figures in ft. indicate elevation above
sea level.
Letters in parentheses indicate desir-
able means of reaching the area
as follows: (w) on foot; (a) by
automobile; (h) horseback; (c)
canoe.
M
FIG. 6. PBESEBVED AND AVAILABLE ABEAS IN WESTEBN NOBTH AMEBICA
'fa AREAS
TO SCALE
4- SMALL AVAILABLE
AREAS
AVAILABLE AREAS
TO SCALE
m DOMINION FORESTS
PROPOSED DOMIHIOH
FOREST
p DOMINION PARKS
NATURAL ARID AREA
;'.".'.'.* SAND AREAS
'*** in Mexict
FIG. 7. PRESERVED AND AVAILABLE AREAS IN EASTERN NORTH AMERICA
eM*,JU*A J"-
I
B. NATURAL REGIONS AND NATURAL AREAS
Section 1. Northern North America; Ice Covered Areas, Tundra,
and Northern Coniferous Forest 1
1. NORTHWEST GREENLAND
BY W. ELMER EKBLAW
PHYSIOGRAPHY
Northwest Greenland embraces the
broad peninsular region fronting west-
ward upon Kane Basin, Smith Sound,
and Baffin Bay, between Humboldt
Glacier on the north and Melville Bay
on the south. This peninsular region
extends over 3 latitude, from about
76 to 79 N. and over 8 of longitude,
from about 64 to 72 W.
The high narrow plateau between
the ice-cap and the sea is bisected by
Inglefield Gulf, a deep indentation with
several tributary fjords. Wolstenholme
Sound again bisects the southern half
and Foulke Fjord bisects the northern
half. The northern portion from Foulke
Fjord northward, and the southern
portion from Wolstenholme Sound
southward are Laurentian gneiss and
granite, in places capped by later
sedimentaries; the area between Wol-
stenholme Sound and Foulke Fjord is
Huronian sandstones, limestones, and
shales, intersected by dark traps and
diabases.
The Huronian coastline is much
indented, with narrow beaches at the
mouths of the valleys and along the
gentler slopes; the land-surface is
varied, with high sharp mountains and
deep canyon-like valleys in places, and
lower, rounded hills and broad valleys
in other places. The Laurentian coast
line is smoother, with very few beaches;
the land-surface is more uniformly high
1 This section was not edited as the others were.
All accounts were read by Messrs. Preble and Ek-
blaw and a part by Dr. Osgood. F. C. Baker read
the zoology of the entire section.
and deeply dissected. Everywhere the
topography is comparatively rugged.
The coastal belt between the ice-
cap and the sea which becomes free of
ice and snow in summer is from 2 to 40
mi. wide. It is intersected by numerous
glaciers, most of which reach the sea,
though some do not. Areas separated
by these glaciers vary in size from small
tracts of a few acres, to large regions
several hundred square miles in extent.
CLIMATE
With the large extent of open water
along the coast even in midwinter, the
temperature rarely drops down to more
than 50F. below zero, much higher
than extreme winter temperatures in
Siberia or Canada. Even with an
extensive ice-lay the temperature is
modified by the water, through crevices
and open pools, though if the ice be
deeply and generally covered by heavy
snow the temperature is lowered. The
highest summer temperature is 55 to
60 above zero Fahrenheit. Along some
of the high cliffs the temperature is
raised adiabatically when the air drops
down from the ice-cap, so that in cer-
tain favorable localities the temperature
never falls below 40 below zero Fahren-
heit.
The temperature rises high enough
about mid-June to melt the ice and
snow; melting ceases about mid-August.
By mid-September the sea-ice begins
to form permanently in the fjords and
deeper bays. The bays and fjords are
generally occupied throughout the sum-
mer by drifting fields of ice; rarely
are they free of icebergs.
Snow falls in every month of the
year, but the first snows of summer
87
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
that do not melt are those of late August
or early September. The depth of snow,
even after a winter's accumulation,
is rarely over 2 or 3 ft., because the
relative humidity is frequently so low
that a great deal of snow evaporates
even in the coldest weather. When the
snow begins melting in June under the
continuous sunlight, every canyon and
valley holds a roaring torrential moun-
tain stream which flows with heavy
volume until melting ceases. Rain
rarely falls; yet when the chinook comes
down off the ice-cap, rain may fall
even in January. The region is one of
general low humidity.
The winds are cyclonic in character.
The heaviest storms come from the
southwest with destructive on-shore
winds. In the bays and fjords the
winds invariably blow down to the sea
from the ice-cap, no matter what the
wind may be above the plateau. Sud-
den winds sometimes sweep down off
the plateau or from the ice-cap and
drive the shore-ice out to sea even in
mid-winter.
The period of continuous night be-
gins about mid-October and ends about
mid-February. Continuous sunlight
begins about mid-April and lasts until
mid-August. Between mid-February
and mid-April the days lengthen and
the nights shorten; between mid- August
and mid-October the days shorten
and the nights lengthen. The night
is rarely so dark as to stop traveling
or sledging entirely, and throughout
the moon-lighted periods during which
the moonlight is continuous, all activ-
ities can be carried on without diffi-
culty. During the period of continuous
sunshine, noon and midnight do not
differ greatly in temperature or inten-
sity of light. The air is always fresh
and clean.
BIOTA
Because of the short growing season
and the long dry cold period no trees or
shrubs grow in the homeland of the
Polar Eskimo. The tallest tree is the
Arctic willow, a scant three inches in
height. Over a hundred species of
vascular plants grow in the region.
The sedges, blue grasses, and similar
grassy plants grow luxuriantly. Two
are particularly abundant Poa pra-
tensis and Alopecurus alpinus. On
some of the talus slopes manured by
nesting birds, the mat of grasses is
thick and heavy. Mushrooms are com-
mon and lichens clothe the rocks.
Flowering plants, though small and
relatively inconspicuous, grow in dense
mats on favorable slopes where the sun
shines warmly, and moisture is ample.
Due in large measure to the rich
carbon dioxide content of the water
and the continuous sunlight, the plank-
ton development in the sea is incredibly
rich throughout the summer, and the
heavy growths of laminaria and other
sea weeds on every shoal ledge are
particularly luxuriant.
The bird life is incredibly abundant,
not in species but in individuals. Of
the land birds the ptarmigan and snow-
bunting are the most common. Shore-
birds, ravens, snowy owls and falcons
are rather numerous. The redpolls,
wheat-ear, and Lapland longspur all
nest in the area. The ptarmigan,
ravens, and snowy owls are permanent
residents. Of the sea-birds the dove-
kies are the most numerous. They
nest in suitable slopes of easy gradient
along the entire coast in such numbers
that they cover the sea when feeding
and darken the sky when in flight.
Almost as numerous as the dovekies
are the murres, that nest on the ledges
of the steeper shore cliffs along the
coast. The old squaw is common, the
red-throated loon frequents the inland
pools, and the merganser and green-
winged teal are occasionally seen along
the coast. The eider duck frequents
the coast in thousands, and the black
brant is common. Kittiwakes, guille-
mots, gulls, jaegers and the fulmars are
numerous. All the seabirds find an
abundant supply of food in the small
life of the cold, well-lighted waters off
the shore.
Animal life on land is relatively scarce .
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
The muskox (Ovibos moschatus wardi)
is extinct along the Greenland shores
of Smith Sound though still common
in Ellesmereland, Grantland, and west-
ward. The caribou (Rangifer groelandi-
cus), though still fairly abundant, is
generally restricted to a few isolated
areas not readily accessible. The fact
seems fairly well established that the
caribou migrate across the ice-cap to
Northwest Greenland from the east
coast and the regions to the north.
The Arctic hare (Lepus groenlandicus)
is widely distributed and common.
The blue fox and the white fox (Alopex
groenlandicus') are abundant in the
bird-cliff localities where they feed
upon both the eggs and the birds. They
are color phases of one species, both
occasionally being littered by the same
dam. The Arctic wolf (Cam's tundrarum
is almost extinct, and the lemming and
the ermine do not frequent this part
of the Greenland Coast. Ti e muskox,
caribou and hare feed upon the willows,
grasses, and small herbs; the wolf and
fox feed upon the muskox and the
caribou.
The sea animals, because of the ample
supply of food, are very numerous.
Four species of seal- the ringed seal,
the bearded seal, the hooded seal, and
the harp seal are all rather common,
though the ringed seal is by far the
most abundant. The walrus frequents
the coast during the whole year, es-
pecially when the mussel-shoals furnish
good feeding grounds. The narwhal
and the white whale are numerous.
The killer whale and the bowhead, and
occasionally the right whale, visit the
coast. The sleeper shark feeds over
the deeper bottom. Fish are few.
Salmon are caught along shore and in
some of the inland lakes.
Mollusks are particularly abundant
and number upwards of 72 species.
These are all marine, no land or fresh
water species having been reported from
this part of Greenland. These are all
of Arctic forms, including Buccinum,
Astarte, and Saxicava as leading types.
The polar bear (Thalarctos m. mari-
timus), an animal of both land and
sea, is as much at home out on the
open sea among the icebergs as along
the shore. He avoids all habitations
of man, particularly when, there are
dogs about. Keen of scent and of all
perceptions, as well as of intelligence,
the polar bear is certainly the most
superb animal of the North, though
not nearly so dangerous as the walrus.
NOTES
Northwest Greenland is accessible
almost every year between July 20 and
September 10. The outermost capes
and islands may be reached by ships
as early as July 1, but the innermost
bays and fjords do not open up before
August 1.
The plant life may best be studied
from Etah on Foulke Fjord; Kangerd
luksuah deep within Ingle field Gulf;
Keatek on Northumberland Island at
the mouth of Inglefield Gulf; and at
Umanak on North Star Bay, in Wol-
stenholme Sound.
Of these places Umanak is probably
best, though because of the very loca-
lized occurrence of many species, a
complete collection is impossible from
any one point. For a critical study of
the Arctic Drabae in the field, Umanak
is unexcelled, since nearly every species
of far northern distribution is found
there in abundance. For a study of
the immigration of American species,
Etah is probably most favorably situ-
ated. It is interesting that at Etah,
Pedicularis hirsuta and Pedicularis
capitata are abundant; but Pedicularis
lanata is entirely lacking; at Lifeboat
Cove only 5 mi. north, Pedicularis
hirsuta and Pedicularis lanata are num-
erous, but Pedicularis capitata is quite
absent. The carices may be best
studied at Kangerdluksuah.
The sea-animals may be best studied
from Akpat on Saunders Island or from
Keatek on Northumberland Island.
The land animals may be best studied
from Etah. Umanak affords the most
favorable base for the ornithologist
to study both land- and sea-birds;
90
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
but Etah is better for the study of
the dovekies, the eider, the ptarmigan,
and the snow-bunting. Foulke Fjord,
Inglefield Gulf, and its tributaries, and
Wolstenholme Sound all offer fascina-
ting fields for dredging the bottom life
of the sea.
The entire region offers an interesting
field for the physiographer, but two
tracts are particularly promising; the
shores of Grenville Bay, a tributary
of Wolstenholme Sound, for a com-
parative study of glacier forms and
phenomena; and Prudhoe Land, lying
north of Etah, for a study of the possi-
ble relationships between the oscilla-
tion of the sea level, as shown by coastal
terraces, the recession and advance of
glaciers as indicated by serial terminal
moraine, and the development of the
drainage systems. A careful study of
these two areas might throw much
light on the phenomena and history
of glaciation.
ROUTES OF TRAVEL
Except in rare years of exceptionally
heavy ice-lay, the Northwest Greenland
may readily be reached by well-built
ships with dependable motive power.
The route lies across the lower reaches
of Baffin Bay from the Labrador Coast
to the vicinity of Sukkertoppen, or
Godthaab, Greenland, and thence north-
ward fairly close into shore to avoid the
heavy pack which occupies the middle
portion of Baffin Bay, as far as Uper-
nivik; thence the route must be deter-
mined by the situation of the middle
pack if it lies off-shore the course may
be laid northward inshore to Cape
Seddon, thence northwestward to Cape
York and thence along the coast around
Conical Rock, and Northward; if the
ice lies inshore the course must be
laid out beyond the pack.
The ice is generally not open enough
for navigation in those far northern
waters before mid-July, though the
mid-western Danish Greenland coast
is accessible even in early May. The
southern portion of the west-Greenland
coast is almost continuously barred
by the heavy ice that comes out of the
Arctic Ocean, drifts down along the
east coast, and swings around Cape
Farewell, then sweeps up along the
west coast for some 500 to 600 mi.
By mid-September the ice is again
freezing thick and heavy in the bays
and fjords and along the shores of
Northwest Greeland, so that a ship
may find herself frozen in for the winter
if she remains beyond that time. Navi-
gation is frequently open along the mid-
west Danish Greenland coast until
mid-November.
Northwest Greenland constitutes a
readily accessible, fruitful field for
study of far arctic life and habitats,
and will richly repay further research.
2. DANISH GREENLAND
BY W. ELMER EKBLAW
INTRODUCTION
Greenland, the earth's largest island,
lies just to the northeast of the North
American continent, of which it is a
detached part. North and south it
extends from 60 N. at Cape Farewell,
to 83 37 N. at Cape Bridgeman, about
24 of latitude, or 1650 mi. East and
west it is roughly 650 mi. wide over its
northern three-fifth of extent; its south-
ern two-fifth gradually narrows to a
point at Cape Farewell.
The area of Greenland is 850,000 sq.
mi., of which about three-fourths is
occupied by the ice-cap, a frozen desert
of age-old ice, thousands of feet thick;
while the other one-fourth is comprised
in the narrow coastal belt which becomes
generally free of ice and snow every
summer, so that the terrain itself is
there exposed.
The north coast is washed by Kane
Basin, Kennedy Channel, Hall Basin,
and Robeson Channel, constituting the
straits between Ellesmereland and Green-
land, and the ice-bound Arctic Ocean;
the east coast is washed by the Arctic
Ocean, the Greenland Sea, Denmark
Strait, and the Atlantic Ocean, in all
of which the cold Greenland current
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
91
with its continuous sheet of ice- floes
and bergs sweeps the Greenland coast;
and the west by Davis Strait, Baffin
Bay, and Smith Sound a branch of
the Greenland current sweeps around
Cape Farewell and northward as far
as the Arctic Circle. All these waters
are studded with bergs from the glaciers
and covered with vast fields of pan-ice
from the multitudinous fjords and bays
of the coast.
GEOLOGY
The portion of Greenland lying south
of the seventieth parallel, so far as
known, is composed of pre-Cambrian
granites, gneisses, and schists of which
the gneisses are most widely distrib-
uted with later intrusives, both acidic
and basic, and a few isolated areas of
sedimentaries of doubtful geologic age.
Along both the mid-eastern and mid-
western coasts are widespread areas of
Tertiary basalt, which have locally
preserved from erosion the fossiliferous
Tertiary and Cretaceous sedimentaries
of the west coast, and the Tertiary
sedimentaried of the east coast. This
belt of basalts separates the pre-Cam-
brian area of the south from the north-
ern extent of similar gneisses, granites,
and schists.
This northern area of pre-Cambrian
rocks, like the southern, is the north-
eastward extension of the old Canadian
shield, and though locally affected by
tectonic disturbances at various periods,
is generally quite similar throughout
its extent. It slopes toward the north
and west. Along its northern and north-
western boundaries it is overlapped by
Paleozoic sedimentaries from the Cam-
brian to the Carboniferous, some of
the formations being richly fossiliferous.
PHYSIOGRAPHY
Outline
Throughout its entire length of thou-
sands of miles, the coast-line of Green-
land is almost a continuous series of
long, deep, narrow fjords and bays
separated by long, narrow, peninsulas
and headlands, and bordered by innum-
erable skerries, islets, and islands
probably the most extensive develop-
ment of fjords and skerries in the world.
Generally, these fjords and the sounds
between the islets are bordered by such
high steep cliffs that landing upon them
is impossible, but in some localities the
shore is a low, sloping foreland that in
most places leads rapidly up to steep
slopes or cliffs. Many of the fjords are
so narrow and cliff-walled as to be
veritable canyons, into which the sun can
shine only when they open out toward it.
A barrier of ice lies along most of the
coast of Greenland. The heavy ice of
the Arctic Ocean is swept along the north
and east shores of the island and even
around Cape Farewell, and northward
hundreds of miles along the west coast.
This Arctic ice-pack is of heavy solid
fields and floes, and numerous great
bergs. The Smith Sound Region be-
comes relatively open in summer.
Baffin Bay holds three great fields known
as the south pack, the middle pack, and
the north pack respectively, which bear
in upon the Greenland shore whenever
the wind so drives them.
For ten months of the year, from
September first to July first, practically
the entire coast of Greenland is inac-
cessible because of the ice that freezes
over the sea throughout the entire
extent of the coast. Only for a few
hundred miles along the mid-west coast,
from Godthaab northward to Proven,
is the open season longer, but here it
sometimes begins in May and continues
to November. The entire east coast,
except for a small extent about Sermilik
Fjord, at the mouth of which is situated
the Eskimo village, Angmagssalik, is
often icebound even in summer. From
Cape Farewell northward almost to
Godthaab, and from Upernivik north-
ward to Cape York, the coast is more or
less icebound also, much of the summer.
The Smith Sound region is relatively
free of ice for the two summer months,
and some of the outermost headlands
like Cape Alexander are free of ice
throughout the year.
92
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Four kinds of ice form the barrier
to the coast the Great Ice from the
Arctic Ocean; the West Ice from the
Arctic Archipelago ; the Winter Ice formed
in the fjords, bays and sounds of the
Greenland coast itself; and the ice-bergs,
the discharge of the glaciers debouching
upon the sea from the ice-cap.
Relief
Greenland considered as a whole,
is essentially a plateau, the elevated
surface of an old peneplain, with two
central points of maximum elevation,
from which the ice-cap slopes away on
all sides. The northern center of eleva-
tion, over 9000 ft., lies on the seventy-
third parallel, approximately half-way
between the east and west coasts; the
southern center, 7500 ft., is an elongated
divide half-way between the coasts,
from 64 N. to 68 N. latitude. Both the
northern and the southern portion of the
plateau tilt toward the north, so that
the southern slopes are steeper and
shorter than the northern slopes. The
northern slope of the northern block
extends roughly over ten degrees lati-
tude. Isolated peaks, and tracts of
considerable size, rise above the general
level of the interior plateau, and along
the coast at several points, cordilleran
areas rise far above the average marginal
elevation.
Because the general level of the coastal
belt of ice-free land is very high, except
along the northern shore, and deeply
dissected, the scenery along most of the
coast is exceedingly wild and pictur-
esque. Precipitous cliffs and headlands
rise sheer out of the sea thousands of
feet to form the entrances and walls of
fjords and bays and gulfs of exceeding
grandeur. Deep cleft-like valleys; low
narrow forelands; small deltas at the
mouths of streams; majestic snowcapped
peaks and domes rising above the pla-
teaus; picturesque, rocky skerries and
islets innumerable; satin-white glaciers
discharging colossal bergs into the sky-
blue sea in summer these are the
elements of a landscape^that surpasses
in wild beauty the most scenic spots
of the rest of the world.
The coastal belt is generally rugged
and rough with steep slopes of angular
scree, or precipitous cliffs with narrow
ledges. At places, even where the relief
is highest, broad valleys, probably
carved out by active glaciers when the
ice mantle was more extended than at
present, lie between the table-lands of
the headlands, and along considerable
stretches of coast, forelands of varying
width lie between the sea and the higher
lands behind.
Drainage
Though Greenland is a large land, it
has no streams of any size, and such
streams as there are, are frozen for
almost ten months of the year. In the
short summer every gulch and valley
bears a torrential rushing streamlet, fed
by the rapidly melting snows of the
coastal land-belt, and by the marginal
ice of the ice-cap. The ice-cap does
not melt very far back from its edge,
generally not within the 4500 ft. eleva-
tion in the northern part, and the 6000
ft. contour in the southern part; as a
consequence no great rivers are formed.
The many brooks and smaller stream-
lets are turbulent and impassable after
the summer melting begins, and the
freshets sweep before them great vol-
umes of detritus. Those streams that
have their sources in the ice-cap, and
flow considerable distances across the
coastal border-land, often augmented
by tributaries from local neve on the
marginal plateau-tracts, or from snow-
beds along the valley, may become river-
like in volume and burden of material
carried, and sweep torrentially seaward
the sand, gravel, and boulders that fall
or roll into their currents.
The Ice-cap
The ice-cap, the dominant feature of
the Greenland landscape, as well as the
dominant factor in the environmental
complex, is the largest remnant of the
great mantle of ice that lay over the
northern part of the northern hemi-
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
93
sphere during the maximum develop-
ment of the Pleistocene glaciation.
Here the balance between precipitation
and refrigeration on the one hand, and
evaporation and melting and run-off
on the other, is so nice that in the cen-
turies that the ice-cap has been under
observation, little change in its extent
or volume has been noticed.
The interior of the ice-cap is relatively
level, conforming to the general slope
and elevation of the plateau on which
it lies, but cast into drifts and domes
like sand-dunes by the prevailing winds.
Thus the highest places on the ice-cap
are the two centers of elevation, on the
seventy-third para lei and the sixty-
fifth parallel. The ice-cap in the in-
terior portion is composed of thousands
of feet of thicknesses of ice in the lower
strata, and of recrystaliized snow near
the surface. The surface snow of the
interior portion of the ice-cap does not
melt and become running water, and
then freeze to ice, but recrystallizes
slowly into ice.
Along the margin of the ice-cap, where
the ice annually melts, and forms water
that either freezes again, or runs off
the surface in the thousands of brooks
and streamlets that flow turbulently
and torrentially to the sea in the short
summer season, the surface is exceed-
ingly broken and rough, and isolated
peaks and tracts of bare rock, called
"nunataks" project from the ice. The
very edge of the ice itself may be a
perpendicular wall, revealing the strati-
fication of the ice-mass; a gentle slope
that spreads out over the plateau on the
bed of a valley; or it may be concealed
under some of the local neve of the
outer headlands.
Glaciers, varying in width from a few
hundred feet to hundreds of miles, move
forward from the ice-cap itself along
every valley and cleft. Some of these
glaciers reach the sea and discharge
vast and numerous ice-bergs; others
move so slowly that they melt back as
fast as they advance, and so do not
yield any bergs; others do not reach the
sea at all, and melt away back from the
coast, the so-called "dead" glaciers
Climate
The climate of Greenland is char-
acteristically arctic not only because of
the high latitude, but also because of
the pronounced influence of the ex-
tensive inland ice-cap and the ice-
burdened waters that border the entire
island. The great masses of ice tend
to lower the temperature in both sum-
mer and winter, but along the coast the
tempering influence of open leads and
pools of water in relative proximity to
most of the coast modifies the rigor of
the climate in winter and makes it
more equable in summer.
The seasonal variations in tempera-
ture are not so wide as in a great un-
glaciated land mass like Siberia, but
sudden fluctuations due to varying
winds, and to the combined effect of
wind-direction and topography, are as
great in range as anywhere in the world.
Winds
Whenever the wind blows off the ice-
fields and the cold waters from the north,
west, or east, the temperature falls;
whenever it blows from the south and
southwest off the warm waters of the
Gulf Stream the temperature rises fast.
Whenever the "fohn," that wind pecu-
liar to certain alpine or plateau regions
like Alpine Europe or the western part
of the United States begins to come
down off the plateau heights of Green-
land, the temperature rises incredibly
fast and suddenly; and since both the
east and west coasts of the island are
topographically favorable to the de-
velopment of the "fohn," its char-
acteristic occurrence is frequent and
effective. The "fohn" may continue
for only .a few hours, but it may prevail
for several days. Under the influence
of this warm, drying wind, the tempera-
ture may rise as much as 80 in a day,
or as much as 45 in an hour, sometimes
evaporating several inches of snow
during its continuance.
Temperature
The mean temperature in southern
Greenland is only a half degree above
94
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
freezing; at Umanak, about halfway
between the southernmost and north-
ernmost points, it is 11 below, and
along the northern coast it is probably
35 below freezing. The mean winter
temperature is successively lower along
the coast as the latitude increases, but
this is not true of the mean temperature
of summer. Due to increasing effect of
the continuous sunlight the mid-west
Greenland coast in summer has a higher
mean temperature than Cape Farewell;
thus Holsteinsborg, lying along the
coast in latitude 76 N. has a mean
summer temperature of 45 while Nanor-
talik, on the sixtieth parallel, 7 farther
south, has a mean summer temperature
of 42.
The lowest temperature reported from
the neighborhood of Cape Farewell is
20; from the mid- west coast, 45;
and from the northern portion, 70;
the highest temperature reported from
the southern portion is 75; from the
mid-west coast, 70; and from the
northernmost portion, 65. From year
to year the temperature in any period
may vary widely; for instance the highest
temperature for February, 1891, at Uper-
nivik, in 72 54' was -4; for February,
1892, 57; for February, 1894, 2; and
for February, 1895, 60.
The average number of days below
freezing increases from north to south
successively at Cape Farewell 208; at
the sixty-fifth parallel, 244, at the
seventieth parallel, 257; at the seventy-
fifth parallel, 300. Except in the south-
ernmost portions and at the heads of
the deep fjords between the sixty-
fifth and the seventieth parallels, frost is
likely even in midsummer.
Precipitation
The precipitation varies considerably
in character and amount. The northern
portion has a relatively small precipita-
tion, almost all of which falls as snow,
rain being very exceptional; snow falls
every month of the year. Along the
western coast the precipitation de-
creases from Cape Farewell northward.
At Cape Farewell with about one
hundred days of precipitation, it is
over 45 in. annually; at the sixty-fifth
parallel it is 27 in. in one hundred
seventy days of precipitation; at the
seventieth parallel it is 10 in. in one
hundred days; and thence decreases
slowly northward. The precipitation is
heaviest in summer, next in fall, then in
spring, and least in winter. Snow con-
stitutes about half the precipitation in
the southern portion, about two-thirds
in latitude 73 N. Fog is rather com-
mon, especially along the coast in sum-
mer. In some localities along the
southern coast almost a third of the
days are foggy.
Pressure
The mean barometer for the southern
point of Greenland is 754.7 mm.; for
the mid-western part 759 mm. The
pressure may vary greatly and rapidly.
At Ivigtuk along the southern coast,
the lowest barometer is 709.2 mm.; the
highest is 758.8 mm. The average wind-
velocities are small and calm weather is
frequent. In summer the prevailing
winds along the west coast are souther-
lies and westerlies; in winter easterlies
prevail. In the fjords the winds usually
blow strong from the ice-cap to the sea,
even though at right angles to the
direction of the wind on the plateau
above. Except along the southernmost
stretches of coast the southerly winds
bring the worst storms, from seven to
ten a year; in the southern portion the
north and west winds bring storms, as
many as twenty a year.
The inner reaches of the fjords differ
from the coastal headlands and the
skerries in having a higher summer
temperature and lower winter tempera-
ture; the humidity is considerably less,
so that bright, clear weather often
prevails while the coast is cloudy or
foggy; the days are more often calm;
and the snow melts away earlier.
Day and night
One of the most important factors in
the climate of Greenland is the sue-
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
95
cession of day and night. This factor
is equally important in the character,
distribution, and development of the
plant and animal life. Since all except
the southernmost point of the island
lies within the Arctic Circle, nearly its
whole extent has periods of continuous
sunshine and continuous nighfc. The
period without sunlight is six weeks
long in latitude 70 N.; thirteen weeks
in latitude 75 N.; and eighteen weeks
in 80 N. The period of continuous
sunlight is slightly longer. The sudden
development of the plant life, and the
rich life of the sea are in considerable
measure due, to this period of continuous
light.
BIOTA
Plant life
The plant life of Greenland includes
some 400 species of vascular plants,
600 mosses, 700 fungi, 300 lichens, 500
algae, and 600 diatoms. More of the
lower species will doubtless be dis-
covered, but the list of vascular plants
is probably almost complete. The long
stretch of Greenland coast, through
varying physiographic and climatic con-
ditions, would suggest a richer flora than
that represented by only a few more than
400 species, even with the rigorous
arctic climate; but the flora is quite
post-glacial in origin, and since Green-
land is an island swept almost exclu-
sively by polar currents, and having its
nearest point of approach to other
lands at its northern extremity, where
conditions for plant migration are most
unfavorable, the immigration of plants
since the dispersal of the ice-sheet has
been exceedingly slow.
The flora of Greenland offers some
interesting problems in distribution and
immigration. Some species are highly
localized. Some are European in rela-
tionship, some are American, and a
very few are endemic. Some are cir-
cumpolar high latitude species, some
are from the Canadian zone. How have
they come to Greenland, and how have
they established themselves? The an-
swer has been only partially given, and
many a controversy has raged over the
solution of these problems.
Fifty families of vascular plants are
represented in the Greenland flora, of
which the Cyperaceae, Graminae, Ca-
ryophyllaceae, Cruciferae, and Com-
positae are the largest. The genera
richest in species are Carex, Saxifraga,
Pedicularis, and Draba. Many of the
genera are represented by one species,
the average ratio of genera to species
being 2:5. The southernmost part of
the island about Cape Farewell has a
flora of almost 300 species; the Smith
Sound region almost 20 farther north
and within 15 of the pole, has almost
150 species.
The entire island is beyond the north-
ern limit of true trees, and though
isolated small tracts far within the land
near the head of the fjords of the south-
ern west coast may bear a tree-like
growth of birch, willow, alder, and
conifers, the entire land is unforested,
Even well developed shrubbery is rare.
Generally all tree-growth and shrubbery
are dwarfed to creeping or prostrate
form alder, willow, juniper, vaccinium,
and birch. Even the arctic and alpine
forms are pauperate or dwarfed as the
northern reaches of the coast are
approached.
The "Feldmark" is the most widely
distributed type of vegetation, the
first to appear on moraines from which
the ice has retreated, or wherever new
land appears to afford opportunity for
new plant growth. In this association
the plants are so far apart that the
spaces between are much larger than
the spaces occupied. The struggle is
not among one another, but against the
rigorous conditions. Among the plants
taking their place thus as pioneers are
the arctic poppy, a number of the saxi-
frages and cresses, dryas, some of the
cinquefoils, a number of the cresses,
and a few others.
Where the soil is relatively dry the
heath-association covers the terrain.
It is composed of the small shrubs
junipers, Vaccinium, Salix, Betula, Cas-
siope, Empetrum, Dryas, Rhododendron,
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
and others, and numerous herbs, grasses,
and sedges. Potentilla, Draba, Pyrola,
Arnica, Pedicularis, Campanula, Anten-
naria, Festuca, Poa, Carex, and nu-
merous others belong in this group.
In the moister, damper places a moor-
vegetation frequently establishes itself,
with wet-soil grasses, sedges, cotton-
grasses, and rushes, forming hummocky
turf with mosses, and liverworts grow-
ing all over the soil between. Here
grow Montia, several species of Ranun-
culus, Oxyria, Tofieldia, Licopodium,
Equisetum, and others.
Though almost no high trees or heavy
growth of shrubbery are found, the land
seems rich in plant growth during the
short summer, and wherever a plant can
establish itself on cliff or slope or rocky
ledge, one is usually found.
The plant life of the sea is well de-
veloped, and Laminaria, Agarum, Ala-
ria, and others form a rather rich sea-
growth wherever conditions permit.
The cold seas with their high content of
gases support an incredibly rich plank-
ton life, so dense at times during the
continuous summer sunshine as to color
the water. It is from this abundant
plankton life that the multitudinous
bird and animal life of the Greenland
seas derive their ultimate sustenance.
Animal life
Three thousand species of animal life
have been reported from Greenland and
its adjacent waters of which all except a
very few are lower forms. Of the higher
forms 30 are mammals; 150 are birds,
and 100 are fish.-
The land mammals are the muskox,
" confined to the northern and north-
eastern coasts; the caribou, which,
though once distributed throughout the
coastal lands, is. now rather limited to
certain favorable stretches of coast;
the arctic hare, common along the
entire coast; the lemming, occupying
approximately the same range as the
muskox; these 4 are herbivores, feeding
upon the low, hard vegetation. The
carnivores are 3 in number- the arctic
wolf, now almost extinct except in the
northernmost tracts; the polar fox, both
white and blue phases, rather common
among the whole coast, particularly
where the seabirds nest most numer-
rously; and the ermine, restricted to the
range of the lemming, upon which it
feeds.
The polar bear, frequenting the whole
coast, may be classed as both land-
animal and sea-animal, since he is
equally at home on both, and may bear
his young either on land, or in snow-
drift burrows beside the grounded bergs.
He is generally carnivorous, feeding
chiefly upon the seals that he catches
on the ice or in the sea, but he may, in
times of hunger, feed upon berries
where they are available.
The land-birds nesting in Greenland
are Reinhardt's ptarmigan, common on
every hillside; the Lapland longspur,
frequenting the willow and alder copses;
the snow-bunting, ubiquitous as to
habitat; the Greenland wheat-ear, at
home on the drier, rockier, sunnier
hillsides; the American pipit; the red-
polls (Acanthis hornemanni hornemanni
and Acanthis linaria rostrata) ; the snowy
owl, most common about the haunts of
the lemming; the raven, the gyrfalcon,
and the peregrine falcon, frequenting
the bird-cliffs and the coastal heights.
The ptarmigan, the owl, the raven, may
and often do, remain all year, even in
the northernmost parts of Greenland,
even through the long, dark night.
The gray sea-eagle nests along the
coast; like the polar bear, he frequents
both land and sea, and though preying
largely on the inland salmon, often
captures young seals and sea-birds.
No reptiles are found. Only two
freshwater fish are common Salmo al-
pinus L., and Gasterosteus aculeatus L.
Insects are not numerous, considered
as a group. Four hundred species are
known, of which many have been .in-
troduced. Coleoptera are represented
by about 40 species; Hymenoptera, by
about 70 species, including two bumble-
bees; Lepidoptera, by 50 species, mostly
moths; and the Diptera by about 200
species. Mosquitoes are numerous and
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
97
swarm over both coasts as far north as
75 N. Culex nigripes and Simulium
viltatum swarm over the copses, moors,
and moss-grown slopes and flats; in a
few localities the tiny Ceratopogon
sordidellus is a plague. Six species of
fleas are found. Pediculus capitis, Pedi-
culus corporisj and Phthirius pubis are
probably native, while Pulex irritans
and Cimex lectularius have been in-
troduced. The fur-clad Eskimos are a
paradise for parasites.
The marine fauna is relatively richer
than the land life, and it is largely from
these marine fields that the Eskimos in
large part garner their sustenance
their food from the flesh, their clothing
from the skins and furs, and their fuel
from the blubber of the large sea
animals.
Twenty-two species of mammals fre-
quent the Greenland coastal waters,
not including the polar bear. Of these
the walrus and the seals are most im-
portant. The walrus is found all along
the coast, but is abundant only in a
few restricted localities. Five species
of seal the bearded seal (Erignathus
barbatus), the ringed seal (Phoca foe-
tida), the harbor seal (Phoca vitulina),
the harp seal (Phoca cristata), and the
hooded seal (Cystophora cristata} fre-
quent the coast, the 3 latter being most
common along the southern coast, the
two former along the northern shores.
Of the whale and porpoise families
sixteen species are found in considerable
numbers; the right whale (Balaena
glacialis), and the Greenland whale or
bowhead (Balaena mysticetus), are still
seen along the coast, but are practically
extinct; the humpbacked whale (Megap-
tera nodosa), once fairly common, is no
longer seen; the bottlenose whale,
(Hyperodon restrains) is a rather fre-
quent visitor. The killer whale (Orca
gladiator) is common; the narwhal
(Monodon monoceras) is numerous, and
the beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) mi-
grates up and down the coast in huge
schools, often of many thousands.
Though 150 birds have been recorded
from Greenland, only 52 are known to
nest on the island. Of these, 41 species
are shore-birds or sea-birds, frequenting
either the coastal waters or the sea, or
less frequently the pools of the interior.
The loons, eiders, phalaropes, old-
squaws, snow-geese, and mergansers
are often found in these inland pools;
and the sandpipers, knots, plovers,
sanderlings, turnstones, and others of
the shore-bird group frequent the val-
leys and lowlands as well as the coastal
forelands. The barnacle goose and the
black brent are locally common.
But the wealth of bird-life for which
the Greenland coasts are famous is
made up chiefly of the sea-birds. Most
numerous of these are the dovekies
(Alle alle), which nest along the north-
western coasts in incredible numbers;
the murres (Uria troille troille, and
Uria lomvia lomvia) populating nearly
all the high, precipitous forelands; and
the guillemots (Cepphus grylle and C.
mandtii), the latter most common north-
ward, the former abundant southward.
The cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo)
is found locally along the western coast
from 73 N. southward; the puffins,
(Fratercula arctica arctica and F. a.
naumanni), are fairly common; and the
razor-billed auk is locally abundant.
The gulls are numerous the glaucous
gull, the ivory gull, the black-backed
gull, the herring gull, Kumliens gull,
the kittiwake, and Sabine's gull, are all
native to the coast. The Arctic tern
is common along most of the coast.
The fulmars are likewise common. The
jaegers are all found along the Green-
land coast.
The fish fauna is relatively rich in the
south Greenland waters. The sleeping
shark is generally common; the cod and
rock-cod are found off the southern
coast; the halibut, dab, and the related
"hellefisk" (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides
Watt)} are also common along the south-
ern portion of the coast. The sculpin is
found everywhere. The caplin, as on
the coast of the Labrador, fills the
coastal waters early in summer.
The lower forms of sea-life are locally
so numerous in the ice-free, sunlighted
98
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
summer seas as to color the water.
They furnish food to the myriads of
bird-life, fish, and sea-animals.
THE DANISH AKCTTC SCIENTIFIC STATION
AND THE PORSILD NATURE RESERVE
Morten P. Porsild, Danish geographer
and naturalist, with more than usual
vision and determination, has secured
governmental support for a scientific
station and base for exploration, at
Godhavn on Disko Island. This sta-
tion, of which he is director, is well
equipped with library, laboratory, and
study supplies, the most advantageously
located base for Arctic research in the
world. Here investigators from all
lands are welcome; here young explorers
are trained in the Arctic technique; and
here Science finds its well-guarded
Arctic frontier.
Porsild has also established a preserve
which includes the areas watered by the
warm springs of Disko Island, where an
exceptionally rich and varied flora and
an unusual invertebrate fauna are
preserved from destruction. This pre-
serve, like the warm spring area itself, is
unique. It is the northernmost station
of many plants, like some of the orchis
family, and a number of invertebrates,
among them two species of earthworms.
ROUTES OF TRAVEL
Greenland is maintained by the
Danish Government as a trade monopoly
for the Danish Royal Trading Company,
and stern restrictions are imposed upon
visitors to the country, discouraging
travel to the land.
The mid-west Greenland coast is
readily accessible by means of the
Danish vessels that ply back and forth
from Copenhagen in the summer
months from May to October. Less
frequently, vessels visit the north-
western coast, and the southern coasts.
Occasionally, a vessel from America
goes to Greenland for a cargo of cryolite,
to fish in the southern waters, or to take
an expedition to the Far North.
The monopoly maintained by the
Danish government and the restrictions
imposed upon travelers are wise, and
beneficial to the Eskimo, who are cared
for in a most paternal and unselfish
manner by the Danish authorities; as
a consequence, the Eskimo population
of Danish Greenland has doubled in the
last century. The Danes, by virtue of
their kindly administration of the affairs
of these primitive people, deserve an
undisputed right to the land.
3. THE AMERICAN ARCTIC
ARCHIPELAGO
BY W. ELMER EKBLAW
INTRODUCTION
The American Arctic Archipelago
comprises that island group or polynia
lying to the northward of the American
continent, of which it forms a part in
that it lies on the same portion of the
earth's continental shelf. It does not
include Greenland. Possible islands
northwestward in the Arctic Ocean, as
yet undiscovered, may be included.
North and South it extends from the
south end of Baffin Land in latitude
62 N. to the north end of Ellesmere
Land in latitude 82 N., a latitudinal
extent of 20, or 1400 mi. It is widest
in the south where it extends from the
sixtieth to the one hundred twenty-
fifth meridian, west longitude. It forms
a rough triangle with its east side almost
due north and south from the northeast
point of Ellesmere Land to the southeast
corner of Baffin Land, and its apex at the
westernmost cape of Banks Land.
GEOLOGY
The geology of the entire archipelago
is only imperfectly known, and merely a
general statement of the areal distribu-
tion of the outcropping formations may
be made.
The southeastern portion of the
triangle, and most of the eastern coasts
throughout, are pre-Cambrian, with
scattered patches of sedimentaries,
mostly Silurian. The Silurian lime-
stones, in many places fossiliferous,
are dominant over the southern portion
of the western corner, principally on
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
99
Victoria Island, Prince of Wales Island,
North Somerset Island, and northwest
part of Baffin Land.
On Banks Land and in the Parry
Islands in the northwest part of the
archipelago, the Carboniferous is the
chief formation comprising the terrane.
The Devonian, so far as known, is
restricted to the northwest corner of
North Devon, and the west part of
Ellesmere Land. Triassic formations
constitute the dominant outcrops in the
Sverdrup Islands and, if the so-called
Cape Raws on series are included with
the Triassic, in a belt across the north
part of Ellesmere Land. A few scat-
tered Tertiary deposits have thus far
been noted.
PHYSIOGRAPHY
Outline
The Arctic Archipelago is made up of
numerous large and small islands, sepa-
rated by sounds and straits of varying
size. The land surface exceeds con-
siderably the water surface of the area.
The larger islands, like Baffin Land
and Victoria Land, and Ellesmere Land,
are cut by a number of deep bays and, in
general, the coast lines of all are rather
irregular. All are continuously bor-
dered by heavy ice for ten months of the
year, and many of the sounds and straits
are always unnavigable, because of
heavy ice, or heavy ice and rapid cur-
rents. Some are open for the passage
of a ship some years, closed others.
Navigation is always hazardous and
doubtful.
Relief
The relief is highest at the north, in
the north part of Ellesmere Land and
gradually decreases southward and
southwestward, being generally lowest
toward the southwest corner of the area.
The United States and Grant Mountains
in Ellesmere Land rise high and sharp,
probably 9000 ft. or even more. Elles-
mere Land and Axel Heiberg land are
both high and rugged lands, and the
eastern part of Baffin Land is relatively
high. Westward the topography be-
comes gradually smoother and more
mature. The shores of the eastern
islands are generally steep and high,
but cut by valleys, and bordered by
forelands, both of which are wider and
flatter toward the south. The general
contour of the islands becomes more
rounded and subdued toward the west;
the hills are not so high nor so steep,
and the valleys are wider and flatter.
Relic ice-caps with projecting gla-
ciers, some of which reach the sea and
discharge icebergs, occupy considerable
portions of the Ellesmere Land, North
Devon, and Baffin Land plateaus.
Practically the entire area of the Archi-
pelago was probably heavily covered
during the Pleistocene glaciation,
though most of the evidence has in
places been obliterated.
Drainage
Throughout the archipelago the drain-
age has been profoundly modified by the
morainal deposits of the glacial period.
In the western portion the drainage has
been fairly well restored, or an adequate
new system developed, but in the east-
ern portions the drainage is still un-
developed. A number of large lakes lie
in the interior of Baffin Land; Lake
Hazen in the north part of Ellesmere
Land is a considerable body of water;
and smaller lakes are found on most of
the islands. Many lakes have probably
not yet been discovered or mapped. No
large rivers are found in any of the
islands, though in the melting season
many of the streams are swollen by the
freshets to turbulent, riverlike torrents.
CLIMATE
The climate of the Arctic Archipelago
can be described only in a general way.
The few definite data available are so
scattered in point of time and locality,
that they can be used only as general
indices of the character of the climate.
The entire archipelago is a region of
long, cold winter, and very short sum-
mer, beginning with mid-June and
ending with the first of September.
The climate in winter is almost con-
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NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
tinental since all the water is frozen
over and its modifying effect is negli-
gible; but in summer the climate is
arctic-oceanic, and even with twenty-
four hour sunlight during the summer
months, the temperature does not rise
high because of the depressing chill
off the cold shore waters with their
masses of ice. In northern Ellesmere
Land the lowest winter temperature is
probably 70; the highest tempera-
ture in the interior dales and valleys
sheltered from the sea-winds, probably
rises to + 70. In the southern portion
the temperature does not often drop
below 40, while the interior summer
temperatures do not rise far above +75.
The precipitation is uniformly light.
The rains of summer in the southern
portion and the summer snows of the
northern part are relatively light. The
snowfall over the entire group is not
heavy for the entire winter, but the
accumulation remains until late May or
June, and then the melting furnishes
ample moisture for the rapid growth of
the vegetation through the short,
sunlighted summer. The western coast,
facing the prevalent winds receive the
maximum precipitation. The first frost
comes late in August in the southern
portion, earlier in the same month in the
northern portion. The ground is frozen
throughout the year, except for a thin
surface layer a few inches thick that
opens up for the short summer. Be-
cause of the effect of the twenty-four
hour sunlight, and the protracted inso-
lation, the "summer" period is approxi-
mately the same throughout the whole
north and south extent of the archipel-
ago.
BIOTA
Plant life
The plant life of the Arctic Archi-
pelago has never been thoroughly in-
vestigated. The collections are few,
far scattered, and incomplete. From
none of the islands, except Ellesmere
Land perhaps, has even an approach
been made to an exhaustive and rep-
resentative collection.
The character of the vegetation is
similar to that of Western Greenland,
though in the lower, flatter western
portions of the archipelago, the bog and
moor, or tundra, vegetation spreads
over much greater areas, and the "Feld-
mark" is relatively more restricted.
There are no trees, and few shrubs of
any size, most of the vegetation being
confined to creeping or dwarfed shrubs
and vascular plants particularly grasses
and sedges.
The paucity of the flora of the Silurian
siliceous limestone areas is character-
istic, and seems due principally to the
lack of fine particles in the detritus
resulting from the disintegration of the
limestone. There is no true soil; even
in the flatter expanses of the Silurian
the limestone is riven by frost into sharp
angular fragments that do not afford
proper foothold for plants or for the
absorption and capillary retention of the
necessary water supply. The purer or
more argillaceous limestones of the
other sedimentaries give rise to a more
favorable soil, and on this, as on the
soil derived from the pre-Cambrian, the
vegetation is abundant and more gener-
ally distributed, apparently little
affected by the composition of the soil.
The flora, so far as known, is made up
of slightly more than 200 species, repre-
senting 31 families, of which the largest
are the Graminae, Cyperaceae, Cruci-
ferae, and Compositae, in the order
named. The genera richest in species
are Carex with 12, Saxifraga with 12, Salix
with 10, and Pedicularis with 7. Sixty-
two species are distributed throughout the
archipelago; 18 species extend over the
southern portion; 35 are confined to the
south-western islands; 28 species are
decidedly western in origin and range;
and 23 are distinctively eastern. The
proportion of monocotyledonae increases
northward. The distribution of these
genera and species over the archipelago
raises interesting questions of origin,
migration, and relationship which have
been the cause of much controversy,
involving the extent and continuity of
the Pleistocene glaciation; former land
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
101
connections now submerged, among the
islands themselves and with the main-
land, Asia, and Europe; variations of
the climate in the past; the rise of
endemic species, and modifications of
immigrants; and the effect of trans-
porting agencies.
In the warmer, drier niches of the
rockier slopes where sufficient soil has
accumulated, small heath-growths of
Campanula uniflora, Pyrola rotundifolia,
Arnica alpina, Antennaria alpina, Fes-
tuca alpina, Trisetum spicatum, Carex
incurva, Potentilla Vahliana, and Cala-
magrostis purpurascens are set among
a basic growth of Cassiope tetragona and
Dryas integrifolia, which are distributed
over all the drier tracts.
The seepage-swales along the moss-
grown streamlets of ice-cold water from
melting streamlets are well carpeted
with grasses, sedges, Luzula and Juncus,
with here and there patches of white-
furred Eriophorum and timothy-like
Alopecurus alpinus. In these seepage-
swales the drier margins have scattered
beds of Rhododendron lapponicum, Saxi-
fraga oppositifolia, Oxyria digyna, Ceras-
tium alpinum, the several species of
Draba, Ranunculus nivalis, and Melan-
drium affine.
Silene acaulis, Bray a purpurascens,
Papaver radicatum, Poa, Salix arctica,
Potentilla nivea, Statice maritima, Erige-
ron compositus, Taraxacum, Lesquerella
arctica, and Stellaria longipes, grow over
the windswept, gravely reaches, not
too dry.
The grass- and sedge-grown moors
with an "undergrowth" of moss and
marchantia, hold scattered plants of
Pedicularis hirsuta, Eriophorum Poly-
stachium, Ranunculus sulfureus, Carda-
mine bellidofolia, Equisetum arvense,
Eutrema edwardsii, Ranunculus hyper-
boreus and R. pygmaeus, Tofieldia palus-
tris, and many other moisture-loving
plants.
Cystopteris fragilis, Woodsia, and
Aspidium fragrans are among the ferns
of the archipelago. Hippuris vulgaris,
Dupontia fischeri, Pleuropogon sabinei,
Batrachium paucistamineus, and several
carices grow in the pools or long the
margins.
These are but part of the species that
go to make up the vegetation of the
islands.
Animal life
Except for the mammals and the birds,
the animal life of the archipelago is
most imperfectly known. The lower
forms have been relatively neglected by
the explorers and investigators who have
collected in the polynia.
The muskox (Ovibos moschatus) finds
on the more remote lands of these
islands, notably in Banks Land, Axel
Heiberg Land, and Ellesmere Land, his
last extensive range. Here the last
large herds have thus far been preserved;
on the broad valley-pastures and slopes
of Ellesmere Land, several thousand
still persist, finding there food and safety
from slaughter.
The barren-ground caribou (Rangifer
spp.) ranges over the southern islands,
while in Axel Heiberg Land and in
Ellesmere Land a small species, Rangifer
pearyi finds its home. These small
northern caribou do not gather in large
herds, nor do they migrate extensively.
Along all the coastal stretches and
far out upon the frozen reaches of the
Arctic Sea the polar bear (Thalarctos) ,
the arctic wolf (Cam's tundrarum),
and the polar fox (Alopex spp.) wander
restlessly about, still relatively numer-
ous. The Arctic hare (Lepus arcticus
group) is rather widely distributed.
The lemmings (Lemmus and Dicrostonyx)
and the weasel (Mustela a. arctica}
frequent the grassgrown plains and
moors.
The sea-life is relatively abundant.
Walrus, ring-seal, bearded seal, harp
seal, hooded seal, and harbor seal are
found in the sounds and off the islands.
Narwhal and beluga are common. In
places, several species of whale are
found. The Big Finner, the Little
Finner, the Humpback, the Right
whale, the Greenland whale, and the
Killer are found locally.
The bird-life is numerous, but little
102
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
is definitely known about the distribu-
tion and northern habits of some of the
species.
The pipit and the horned lark are
common among the southern islands.
The lapland longspur, the snow-bunting,
and the redpolls are widely distributed.
The northern raven, the snowy owl,
Reinhardt's ptarmigan, the duck hawk
and the gyrfalcon are rather common
throughout the archipelago.
The Greenland and American eiders
are common toward the east, the Pacific
and Steller's eiders toward the west,
and the king-eider is found in small
numbers throughout the polynia. The
Hutchin's goose, the blue goose, the
Canada goose, the swans, and the snow
geese probably nest on the islands
bordering Hudson Bay on the north.
The hooded merganser, the green-
winged teal, the old squaws, and casu-
ally, other ducks, frequent these islands.
The black-throated loon toward the
west, and the red-throated loon through-
out the archipelago, are rather common.
Shorebirds are numerous. At least
two species of phalaropes breed in the
islands. A number of the sandpipers
and the plovers, the sanderJings and
turnstones, all these frequent the low,
flat valleys, the damp plateaus, with
myriad pools and ponds, and the broad,
shingly shore-land. Even the little
brown crane is found on the southern
islands.
The sea-birds are numerous. Ful-
mars, terns, kittiwakes, Sabine's gull,
Ross's gull, the herring gull, the great
black-backed gull, the glaucous gull,
and the ivory gull nest in the archi-
pelago. Three jaegers course over the
islands and the sounds. The dovekies
are found in the North. Brunnick's
murre, Mandt's guillemot, the puffin,
and the razor-billed auk are other
representatives of the sea-bird group.
Both the plant-life and the animal-
life of the archipelago are relatively
little known. These islands offer a
fascinating field for exploration and
study.
ROUTES OF TRAVEL
The arctic archipelago is generally
difficult of approach. The entire east-
ern coast from Hudson Strait to the
Arctic Ocean is more or less barred by
ice, and accessible only with favorable
ice-conditions, winds, and tides. A
rare fur-trading ship or whaler may
afford passage, but generally a special
ship is necessary for transportation to
the region.
The south side of the archipelago is
more easily accessible in summer by way
of Hudson Bay. The west side is even
more difficult of approach than the east
side. A special ship must be engaged
for the trip, unless a whaler or fur-
trader happens to be bound for those
far arctic waters.
4. UNGAVA AND LABRADOR
BY W. ELMER EKBLAW
INTRODUCTION
Because the great peninsula of Labra-
dor and Ungava offers to the naturalist
one of the most promising fields for
exploration and study, considerable
attention to the geography of the area
is well worth while.
It comprises a great triangular, penin-
sular territory forming the major north-
eastern portion of the North American
Continent. This triangle, broken only
by Ungava Bay, is bounded roughly on
the west by James Bay and Hudson Bay;
on the northeast by Ungava Bay, Hud-
son Strait, and the Atlantic Ocean;
on the south by the Rupert River and
its tributaries to Lake Mistassini, the
Saguenay and its tributaries to the
St. Lawrence, and the St. Lawrence
River and Gulf, and the straits of Belle
Isle. Only that portion lying north of
the 52nd parallel is included within this
account, and in general it does not include
any of the territory drained by the
rivers that flow into the St. Lawrence
system.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
103
GEOLOGY
Over the greater part of the Labrador
Peninsula, probably nine-tenths the
area, the Laurentian gneisses and
schists form the country rock. These
consist of highly metamorphosed and
foliated clastic and igneous rocks of
great geologic age, all, with a few ex-
ceptions, Pre-Cambrian. More or less
interfolded with these aged Laurentian
rocks are several widely separated areas
of Huronian clastic and volcanic rocks,
and many basic eruptives schists, con-
glomerates, breccias, and others. Rest-
ing unconformably upon these aged
Laurentian and Huronian rocks, sand-
stones, argillites, shales, and lime-
stones, of doubtful age, with bedded
traps and other basic or volcanic rocks,
may constitute an early Cambrian
deposition.
In the long period between the folding
of the Laurentian and Huronian rocks
and the submergence when these sedi-
ments were laid down, the peninsula was
profoundly sculptured and denuded to
the fundamental basic form and physi-
ography it has today the great central
plateau, the lake and valley basins,
and the fjords and inlets.
In relatively recent geologic times this
old original land surface has been con-
siderably modified by glaciation through-
out its entire extent except the highest
mountain areas along the northeastern
coast of the peninsula. The central
neve" from which this glaciation pro-
ceeded, moved progressively northward
in three distinct successive periods of
ice accumulation, with intervening pe-
riods of diminished glaciation. The
earliest ice-flow radiated from a central
gathering-ground between the 50th and
51st parallels near the center of the
peninsula; the second from a point to
the northwest beyond the 54th parallel;
and the latest from a center about a
hundred miles inland from the east coast
of Hudson Bay, between the 55th and
56th parallels.
In the areas of these central neve
the rocks and boulders rest upon rocks
of the same kind and evidently have not
been transported far. As the distance
from these central areas of neve in-
creases, the sculpturing by the ice
becomes more distinct; but in general
the amounts of erosion and change
wrought upon the general surfaces have
not been so great as is generally thought.
Though the ice certainly did erode in
one place and deposit in another to
reduce the surface to a general uniform
level over the most of the plateau, the
evidence does not show that it ever
trenched or plucked out such deep
depressions as it apparently did farther
south along the peripheral edges and
lobes of the ice-sheet.
PHYSIOGRAPHY
Outline
The west coast of the peninsula,
running nearly due north and south for
800 mi. is remarkably straight and un-
broken by any deep indentations,though
bordered by numbers of long groups of
low narrow islands paralleling the shore-
line; the south side of the area covered
in this report corresponds roughly to the
divide between the rivers flowing into
the St. Lawrence and those emptying
westward, eastward, and northward to
Hudson Bay, Ungava Bay, and the
Atlantic. The Atlantic coast is ex-
ceedingly irregular, cut by many deep,
narrow fjords and bays, of which Hamil-
ton Inlet, the southernmost, is the
largest and deepest; and bordered by
islets and skerries innumerable. The
coast of Hudson Strait and Ungava
Bay are relatively regular, bordered by
many islets. The passages between the
islets and the mainland, and between
the islets themselves are locally des-
ignated as "tickles."
Relief
The Labrador peninsula is a gently
undulating plateau which rises abruptly
within a short distance from the coast
line to a general elevation of about
2000 ft., and which slopes rather gently
westward, northward, and eastward to
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NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
the rim of the plateau, from a central
crest lying approximately along the
53rd parallel between the 65th and
70th meridians, west longitude. The
plateau is bordered in the northeastern
portion, along the Atlantic seaboard by
ranges of sharp, unglaciated mountains,
beginning about latitude 55 N. and
extending northward to Cape Chidley,
with maximum altitudes of 6000 ft.
inland from Saglek Bay; but elsewhere
the rim of the plateau does not rise
above the general level of the plateau.
The entire inland area of the plateau is
comparatively level, traversed only by
low, rounded, roughly parallel ridges of
crystalline rocks, so that except for a
very few places, there is not in the entire
plateau area 200,000 sq. mi., a difference
of level of more than 400 ft. The general
surface is further modified by low
moraines extending in a general way the
same direction as the slope of the
country, yet appreciably modifying the
preglacial drainage system of the terrain.
Soil
Most of the soil of the peninsula is a
boulder-studded, infertile, glacial till,
derived from the Archean rocks. Over
wide areas it is very sandy. The soil
along the river valleys has been modified
and enriched by redeposition and with a
consequent heavier growth of vegeta-
tion. The richest soils bearing the
best development of vegetation are the
alluvial-topped soils along the coast
and the inlets, and the areas of limestone
and shale outcrops of the supposed early
Cambrian rocks.
Drainage
As a consequence of the damming of
the valleys and basins of the streams
of the Labrador plateau by the masses
of glacial till and moraines, the whole
area is dotted with myriads of lakes and
pools, that occupy at least a fourth of
the entire area. They vary in size from
small narrow ponds to large extensive
lakes hundreds of square miles in area,
most of them relatively shallow, some
deep. In addition to the great lake
areas, large portions of the plateau
are occupied by damp, boggy, tundra
with defective drainage, almost lake-
like in character.
A perfect network of streams connects
these lakes and ponds, all interlocking so
closely that no great distances separate
the headwaters; and since above the
rapids near the coast, the streams and
lakes are generally navigable by canoes,
water travel is relatively easy through-
out the plateau, with few portages more
than 2 or 3 mi. long.
Three principal watersheds comprise
the peninsular north of the Height of
Land. The eastern is drained prin-
cipally by the tributaries of Hamilton
Inlet' the northern is drained by the
Koksoak, the largest and longest river
of Labrador, the George, the Whale,
and the Leaf; the western, the most
extensive of the peninsula, is drained
by the Nastapoka to the north, the
Little Whale and the Great Whale about
the middle, and the Big and East Main
to the south.
The water in the pools, lakes, and
streams is remarkably clear, quite
different from the dark-brown waters
of the Laurentian basin. Because the
summer season is short, the swamps and
tundra from which most of the streams
and lakes drain their water are thawed
only to a depth of 12 to 18 in., and
vegetable decomposition, particularly of
the sphagnum mosses, is negligible.
CLIMATE
The climate of the plateau of Labrador
is generally and distinctly Arctic. Ex-
cept at the heads of the deeper fjords
and inlets of the southern portion of the
east coast, where the diurnal range of
temperature is from 45 to 90, and the
average temperature in summer is
above 50, the temperatures for the
year are characteristically sub-Arctic.
Though situated in the same latitude
as some of the most pleasant and most
productive lands of Europe, Labrador
is chilled by the cold waters of the
Greenland current along its eastern
shore, and^by the prevailing westerly
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
105
winds which come off the cold expanses
of Hudson Bay, and the frigid, icebound
islands of the Arctic Archipelago,
instead of being warmed by the balmy
winds that blow off the temperate Gulf
Stream, as in northwestern Europe.
Temperature
The temperature depends greatly on
the direction of the winds. During the
summer the prevailing winds in the
interior are southerly and southwesterly,
bringing higher temperature and cloudy
skies, often with drizzling rain. The
prevailing westerly and northwesterly
winds of winter are accompanied by
lower temperatures and clear skies.
The northerly and northeasterly winds
accompany heavy storms of rain and
snow, with damp, chilly weather. Clear,
pleasant weather usually comes with
easterly and southeasterly winds, though
fogs along the coast are then most
common.
The temperature in the interior,
even in the southern part of the area,
rarely rises above 80 during the middle
of the day, on more than a few days
during the warm season. The summer
temperature of the Atlantic coast
region is considerably lower than inland,
or along the western coast. The lowest
winter temperatures inland are 55;
along the coast 45, at the head of
Ungava Bay; and at the mouth of
Hamilton Inlet -40.
The interior plateau has but two
seasons, winter from mid-September to
mid-June, and summer rather spring
from mid-June to mid-September. The
summer season begins almost simulta-
neously throughout the interior, with
a suddenness that is surprising. In
the first two weeks of June the snow
disappears, the ice melts off all the
lakes except the larger, the temperature
rises rapidly every day, the trees and
shrubs burst into leaf and early bloom,
and the birds arrive to mate, and to
begin nesting almost immediately. Un-
til the first of July frosf/s are likely to
occur every night and flurries of snow
may come even later. Summer ends
about the middle of September when the
first fall snow falls and the ice forms in
the small lakes. From early in October
the snow remains permanently, and all
the smaller lakes are solidly frozen.
Precipitation
The precipitation over the interior is
relatively light. The summer precipi-
tation is fairly constant though very
light, with few days without drizzles or
thunder-showers. The winter snowfall
varies from 3 to 6 ft., of which the most
is brought by the north and notheast
winds. Three-fourths of the winter
season is clear and crisp with brisk
northwest winds blowing.
BIOTA
Plant life
The vegetation along the coast of the
Labrador Peninsula is distinctly tundra,
with no trace of forests except at the
heads of the deeper inlets, while the
interior is more or less forested according
to the latitude and topography.
The tundra of the coast is almost
continuous over the islands, capes, prom-
ontories, and forelands, being broken
only by ledges of outcropping rock
with no soil covering; pools and lakes;
the low depressions which form moors;
the high rocky summits of the coastal
mountains where broken masses of rock
(typical "Felsenmeer") constitute the
surface; and scattered moist sunny
slopes and protected niches where the
same plants as those of the less favored
localities attain a most luxuriant growth.
In these coastal tundras, the essential
element is the sphagnum moss which
grows in all the damper portions.
Arctic grasse, sedges, rushes, and cot-
ton-grasses form turfy patches where
conditions are favorable. Northern Sa-
liceae and Ericaceae are the common
shrubs, all low-growing Empetrum nig-
rum, Vaccinium uliginosum and V.
Vitis-Idaea, Betula nana, Rubus cha-
maemorus and R. arctica, Ledum, Loise-
luria, Bryanthus that grow in the
tundra and tundra moor. Viola palus-
tris, Diapensia lapponica, Cerastium,
106
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Draba, Saxifraga, Papaver, Epilobium,
Drosera, Pinguicula, Silene, Pedicularis,
and numerous other arctic vascular
plants constitute the more prominent
flowers. On the drier slopes Linnaea
borealis, Rhododendron lapponicum, Py-
rola grandiflora, Campanula, Arnica,
Antennaria, Festuca, Trisetum, and
Calamagrostis characterize an almost
heath-like association of plants.
The interior plateau as a whole is
quite different from the coastal belt,
though large areas within the limit of
the plateau are composed of similar
tundra and tundra-moor vegetation.
The forest is practically continuous
over the southernmost edge of the area
described in this report, only the sum-
mits of the highest, rockiest hills being
bare; but from the 53rd parallel north-
ward, all the higher hills are treeless,
the size and number of barren areas
rapidly increase, and the trees them-
selves grow smaller. In latitude 55
N. more than half the surface is without
trees, forested areas being found only
in narrow belts along the streams and
lakes, and in moist, sheltered recesses
among the hills. The northern limit
of trees extends from the mouth of the
Nastapoka River on Hudson Bay, to
the mouth of Leaf River on Ungava
Bay, thence along the south shore of
Ungava Bay to the mouth of the George
River, thence along the foothills of the
Atlantic coast range to Hebron, just
north of Cape Mugford and south of
Saglek Bay.
The arborescent flora comprises the
following species:
1. Black spruce (Picea mariana'), the
most widely distributed and abundant
tree of Labrador, extends to the northern
limit of trees and constitutes nine-
tenths of the forest. It flourishes on the
sandy soils of the Archean complex and
grows equally as well on the dry hills
of the southern portion as in the boggy
land between the ridges. Farther north
it grows rank and slim in the valleys,
btit on the uplands where it forms open
glades, it spreads out like the white
spruce.
2. Balsam fir (Abies balsamea} is a
more southerly tree than the black
spruce. It grows only along the edges
of the waterways and the shores of the
larger lakes. Its northern limit is the
Great Whale River, and then roughly
eastward across the plateau to Hamilton
Inlet.
3. White spruce (Picea alba} is dis-
tributed throughout the wooded area
but is not so abundant. It is confined
to the scattered areas of rearranged
drift of the river valleys, the marine
deposits of the coast, and to the heavier
soils of the interior. Its size and num-
ber are thus more dependent upon the
soil factor than upon the climate, lati-
tude, or altitude. Its northern limit
approximates the forest limit.
4. Tamarack (Larix laricina], the
largest and the hardiest tree of the sub-
arctic forest belt, grows everywhere
over the Labrador Peninsula, next in
abundance to black spruce. It fre-
quents all the cold bogs; and even to the
northern limit of the forest, where the
black spruce is a mere shrub, the tama-
rack retains its arboreal form and size,
though somewhat diminished.
5. Banksian pine (Pinus divaricata]
occupies the southwestern portion of
the Labrador Peninsula, south of the
Great Whale River and west of a line
that roughly corresponds with the
seventy-first meridian. It grows on dry
sandy ridges and hills, where it is often
combined with black spruce to form the
second growth on fire-swept reaches.
6. Canoe birch (Betula papyrifera)
grows commonly over the southern
portion of the peninsula but is rare and
small toward the north. Its northern
limit lies to the south of the forest
limit, though scattered groups of the
trees are found even in the valley of the
Koksoak river a few miles above its
mouth.
7. Aspen (Populustremuloides^is found
in clumps in the original coniferous
forest, and in company with white birch,
as second growth in many burned-over
areas. It seems most abundant and
widely distributed in the western portion
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
107
of the peninsula on the undisturbed
original till of the drift ridges. Its
northern limit approximates the fifty-
fourth parallel.
8. Balsam poplar (Populus balsami-
fera) grows farther north than the
aspen but it thrives only on the heavy
clay soil of the river valleys or that
derived from limestone and shale rocks.
Its extreme northern limit is near the
head of Ungava Bay, thence south-
eastward to the mouth of Hamilton
Inlet, and southwestward to Bishop
Roggan river on the shore of Hudson
Bay.
At least one-half of the original forest
cover has been burned off, and a second-
ary growth of black spruce, Banksian
pine, aspen, and white birch replaces
the former forest. In many places
only blackened stumps and small second
growth extend for miles over the plateau
and up the river valleys, with here and
there a large thrifty tract of the original
forest to indicate the character of the
former pristine forest covering.
Throughout the forest belt, the low-
lands fringing the streams are covered
over with thickets of low willows and
alders. Toward the semi-barrens north-
ward, these fringes of shrubbery become
wider, and with dwarf birch occupy
much of the open glades. The willows
and birches grow on the hillsides above
the tree-line up to the "Felsenmeer"
and its patches of Sphagnum or Cla-
donia tundra, and form low thickets
through which it is difficult to pass.
North of the tree-limit similar thickets
of Arctic willow, birch, and alder grow
over the lower reaches, but on the hills
they attain only a carpet-like form.
Ledum and Kalmia in tangled masses
form the undergrowth of the southern
forest region, but die out in the semi-
barrens. Sphagnum is the ground car-
pet of the southern regions, being re-
placed by Cladonia to the north, a rich
growth everywhere throughout the
semi-barrens and barren regions.
The semi-barrens and barren moun-
tain-tops and northern tracts are either
areas of "Felsenmeer" with little vegeta-
tion, or tundra or tundra-moor vegeta-
tion such as is found along the coast.
Over 450 species of vascular plants have
been reported, including about 35 Com-
positae, 30 Ericaceae, 30 Cruciferae,
30 Rosaceae, 30 Cyperaceae, 30 Gra-
mineae, 25 Caryophyllace; 20 Saliceae,
20 Saxifragaceae, 20 Ranunculaceae,
and 15 Scrophulariaceae.
During the short summer season the
open places of the peninsula become
dotted with the blossoms of berry-
bearing shrubs and flowering plants.
Nearly all vernal in character, they
burst into bloom abruptly, just as breaks
the summer. Their flowering and grow-
ing season is brief, and they hasten
through their vegetative and reproduc-
tive processes in a rapid, continuous
succession by which the aspect of the
landscape seems often to change over
night. Grassy, sedgy, swales are dotted
with the plants of the moor; gravelly,
clayey slopes become colored with the
heath-plants in every warm sheltered
nook; and every niche and ledge among
the rocks bears a flower, or a bit of fern,
or sedge, or grass. The subarctic land-
scape during the all too brief summer
is far from monotonous.
ANIMAL LIFE
Mammals
Of the land-mammals the barren-
ground caribou is the most significant
form in the whole fauna of the peninsula.
The woodland caribou once abundant,
and the chief reliance for food of the
Nascaupee and Montaignais Indians,
has been almost exterminated, with the
result that a large portion of these
tribes has perished from starvation.
The barren-ground caribou ranges
immense herds over the barren and
semi-barren grounds. These animals
spend the summer season on the barren
highlands near the coast where the
strong winds reduce the number of
flies and mosquitoes that plague all
life. In the autumn they migrate in-
land and southward into the semi-
barrens of the lower lands, * and [re-
108
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
turn to the high barrens in April and
May.
Three distinct herds browse over the
north part of the peninsula. One, on
the Atlantic coast occupies in summer
the mountainous area between the
56th and 59th parallels, and migrates
almost as a unit southwestward toward
the semi-barrens of the inland valleys
and forested lowlands beyond Lake
Michikimau. Hundreds are killed by
the Indians while crossing the George
River about 100 mi. below the lake.
The spring migration is more desultory
in small bands. Another of the herds
frequents in summer the point of the
peninsula between Ungava Bay and the
Atlantic, and migrates to the point
west of Ungava Bay and Hudson Strait,
crossing the lower regions of Koksoak
River. The third herd winters about
Clearwater Lake, and migrates north-
ward for summer pasturage to the high-
lands along the divide of the north-
western part of the peninsula.
With irregular periodicity the caribou
remain on the barrens throughout the
winter, not migrating back to the for-
ested inland valleys and lake shore
tracts. Whenever this happens the
Indians are likely to face stress and
starvation and death.
With diminution in number of the
Indian hunters, there is a corresponding
increase in the number of furbearing
animals. Of these the most abundant
are the pine marten (Maries) ranging
through the forested regions, but not
found on the semi-barrens of the high-
lands, or north of the tree-limit; the
wolverine (Gulo) common throughout
the entire extent of Labrador to its
northernmost point; the otter (Lutra)
common throughout the wooded regions
and ranging northward into the barren
grounds; the beaver (Castor), numerous
throughout the forested lands, and rang-
ing into the semi-barrens wherever
the food-supply permits; the weasel
(Mustela), distributed throughout the
wooded regions; the mink (Mustela
vison), rare even in the southernmost
portion of the peninsula; the red fox
(Vulpes) and its variant color phases,
relatively abundant throughout the
peninsula; and the arctic fox (Alopex)
both blue and white forms found most
abundantly in the barren ground to the
north, and ranging farther south along
the coast to the 52nd parallel.
The arctic hare (Lepus arcticus) is
confined to the barren and semi-barren
lands, but the common rabbit (Lepus
americanus) is found in great numbers
throughout the wooded regions, except
that periodically it is almost extermi-
nated by an epidemic infection that
rages through the species. This rabbit
is an essential element in the Labrador
fauna, for many of the carnivoran species
depend upon it for their basic food
supply. The Canada lynx (Lynx cana-
densis), the gray wolf, and many of the
fur-bearing carnivores find the rabbit
the ultimate source of sustenance. It
is said that whenever the rabbits die
from disease, the lynx faces such difficult
food conditions that it does not breed
during the shortage of rabbits. The
gray wolf (Cam's lycaon) preys chiefly
upon the caribou (Rangifer spp.), and
since the woodland form has become
almost extinct, the range of the gray
wolf has been largely limited to the
barrens and semi-barrens, the haunts
of the barren-ground caribou. The
arctic wolf (Cam's tundrarum) is rare,
and found only in the barrens and along
the coast.
Three species of bears are found in
Labrador, the barren-ground bear, the
black bear, and the polar bear. The
barren-ground bear (Ursus sp.), as its
name implies, is northerly in its range,
and is very rare. The black bear (Ursus
americanus group) is common through-
out the wooded country, frequenting
the coast when the great shoals of caplin
are swept in on the beaches; the rapids
and falls of the streams when the salmon
and other fish are "shoaling;" and the
burnt-over areas in the fall when the
berries are ripe. The polar bear (77m-
larctos) is common along all the coast
of Labrador, but most abundant in the
northern portion where it finds seals in
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
109
abundance. It frequents the ice-fields
and bergs, and rarely travels inland
except in winter when the fjord and
inlets are frozen over. The polar bear
is essentially a shore-loving animal,
spending much of its time at sea.
The smaller mammals that frequent
the northern barrens and semi-barrens
include the Labrador deer-mouse (Pero-
myscus} common as far south as the
52nd parallel, particularly about build-
ings and huts; the small and large yel-
low-faced Phenacomys of rather far
northern distribution; the Ungava red-
backed mouse (Euvotomys ungava) re-
stricted to these northern barren and
semi-barren areas; the small Labrador
vole (Microtus); two species of lem-
ming (Lemmus and Dicrostonyx), most
common about the grassy, sedgy moors
and bogs; and the Labrador shrew (So-
rex), found from Fort Chimo 'south.
The small mammals that are of more
southern range, found principa llyin
the wooded lands are as follows: the
porcupine (Erethizon), ranging north-
ward into the semi-barrens; the north-
ern red squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus)
of the same range; the Labrador flying
squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus makkovi-
kensis), rare even in the southernmost
portions; the large Labrador vole com-
mon throughout the wooded regions and
penetrating into the semi-barrens; the
Labrador rock vole and Labrador jump-
ing mouse (Zapus), rare along the
coast; the Hamilton Inlet red-backed
mouse and the northern jumping mouse,
common in the woodlands to the edge
of the semi-barrens; the Labrador musk-
rat (Ondatra) becoming progressively
less numerous from the heavily-wooded
tracts in the south to the semi-barrens
as far north as Fort Chimo, where it is
very rare; and the little brown bat and
Say's bat (Myotis L. Lucifugus and
M. subulatus), that may occasionally
be found in the extreme southern
portion.
In the waters off the coast the walrus
is found along the whole coast, its former
usual range, but now it is common only
along the northern reaches. Six species
of seal frequent the coast; the harbor
seal, common to the coast and low parts
of the rivers all around Labrador, and
plentiful in a number of northern fresh-
water lakes in which they breed and rear
their young, and from which apparently
they never go, having acquired a fresh-
water habit; the ringed seal and harp-
seal, common along the whole coast;
the bearded seal, the gray seal, and the
hooded seal, everywhere and always
rare. The white porpoise or beluga,
and the narwhal, are fairly common.
The humpbacked, the little-piked, the
finback, the sulphur bottom, the killer,
and the bottle-nosed whales are locally
relatively common; while the right
whale, the bowhead, the Pollock whale,
and the sperm whale are rare. The
porpoises and dolphins are common.
Birds
The bird life of Labrador, both inland
and coastal, is numerous and varied,
the number of species of the seabirds
being relatively small, though the num-
ber of individuals in many cases is in-
credibly large; while of the land birds
the number of species is relatively large,
the number of individuals relatively
small.
Of the sea-birds, two species once
common, the great auk and the Labrador
duck, have been quite exterminated.
The puffin, the black, guillemot, and
the Mandt's guillemot, the common
murre and the Brunnich's murre, and the
razor-billed auk, are common summer
residents in the waters off the coasts,
and the dovekies are numerous during
the winter. The skuas, and jaegers,
many gulls and terns, petrels and shear-
waters, fulmars, gannets and cormorants
frequent the coast. The mergansers
and many species of ducks and geese
including the eiders, brant, and the
whistling swan populate the coastal
inlets, fjords, and lagoons.
Along the shores, the fast vanishing
curlew may still be found, though the
oyster-catcher has been exterminated;
the sandpipers, the phalaropes, the
plovers, the ruddy turnstone, the sand-
110
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
erling, and the godwit, all help to make
the coastal skerries and lowlands along
the inlets interesting and lively.
On the inland plateau the loons, the
grebes, the coots, and the Canada geese
nest in numbers about the lakes and
pools, a few herons and rails, harlequin
ducks, and sandpipers frequent the
shores of the streams and ponds, some-
times nesting. In the woods and timber
lands of the interior the northern rang-
ing species of woodpeckers hairy,
downy, black-backed, three-toed, and
the yellow-shafted flicker; the Canada
blue jay, and the Labrador jay; the
yellow-bellied fly-catcher, the raven,
the pine grosbeak, the white-winged
crossbill; the tree sparrow, the waxwing,
the warblers Tennessee, yellow, myrtle
magnolia, black-poll, black-capped yel-
low, the water-thrush, and rarely, a
few others; the northern shrike; the
Hudsonian chickadee; the kinglets;
the live-backed and hermit thrushes;
the American robin; the ruffed grouse
and the Canada grouse; and transient
or casual visitors of other species; all
these form the interior woodland
avifauna.
In the more open glades and on the
barrens and semi-barrens, the willow
ptarmigan and Reinhardt's ptarmigan
are common, the latter migrating north-
ward about mid-April to the northern
barrens, and the islands to the north of
Labrador; the yellow-legs, Wilson's
snipe, and the inland sandpipers are
found on the moorlands; the cow-birds
and rusty blackbirds frequent the
shrubby fringes of the open places; the
red-polls, the longspur, the savannah
sparrow, Lincoln's sparrow, the white-
sparrow, the white-crowned and white-
throated sparrow, the junco, the pipit,
and the horned lark, flit about the
semi-barrens, and the shrub-carpeted
stretches of the barrens; while the snow-
bunting commonly, and the rare wheat-
war, occasionally, make their home
among the rocky ledges and Felsenmeer
of the whole region of barrens and semi-
barrens. The gyrfalcon, the duck hawk,
the bald eagle, and the American gos-
hawk course over the plateau; the osprey
frequents the waters of the southern
portion; the kingfisher darts along the
wooded streams; a number of owls
short-eared, saw-whet, dusky, horned,
and American hawk owls prey on the
small life; and the snowy owl sweeps
down over the plateau in winter,
coming from the high-arctic lands to
the north.
Insects
About 300 species of insects are known
from Labrador. The diptera, many
circumpolar in distribution, and an
almost intolerable feature of the short
Labrador summer, include two species
of botfly that infest the caribou; deer-
flies and horseflies of 10 or 12 species of
which the larvae are aquatic or sub-
aquatic and of which the adult flies are
the torment of the larger land life of
the peninsula; mosquitoes, beyond cred-
ible enumeration, that rise in cloudlike
swarms from the moors and tundra
and hover about the woodlands equally
densely; the minute midges, that help
to make human existence during summer
almost worthless in the woods; and a
few other species "that do not bite."
The hymenoptera number less than
30 species, of which 11 or 12 are leaf-
eaters or saw-flies; two are ants, con-
fined to the southernmost wooded
valleys; two are wasps; and 5 are bum-
ble bees. The bumblebees are far north-
ern species.
One hundred and fifteen species of
lepidoptera have been listed; 18 butter-
flies, including 4 small Fritillaries;
Argynnis atlantis; Papilio turnus; Pon-
tia napi v. frigida; 4 Eurymus; Eugonia
j-album; Oeneis norma v. semidea;
Agriades aquilo; and Lycaena ladon.
Two species of skippers, Pamphila
comma and Hesperia centaureae, have
been collected. Of the moths the
Arctiidae include 4 species; the Noc-
tuidae, 40 species; the Geometridae, 20
species; the Lipariidae one species;
the Hepialidae, two species; the Pyral-
idae, 8 species; the Crambidae, 6 species;
the Tortricidae, 20 species; the Tineidae,
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
111
10 species; and the Trichoptera (caddis-
flies) 5 species.
The Hemiptera include only 4 species;
the Orthoptera number one. Eight On-
donata (dragon-flies) have been found in
Labrador; one Ephemeris, or May-fly;
3 Plecopterids ; several Thysanura or
spingtails; and the snow-flea; all these
have been recorded. Sixty species of
beetles and 11 spiders have been de-
scribed from the peninsula.
fish
The inland waters of Labrador are well
stocked with fish. The sturgeon is
common in many streams; the northern
sucker and the red sucker are common
throughout the peninsula in all the lakes
and streams; the whitefish is everywhere
abundant; the Atlantic salmon enter
all the streams opening on the Atlantic
and Hudson Straits watersheds; the
Great Lake trout, the brook trout, and
the pike are found in most of the
streams; the ling, an important fish
for the Indians because it will take bait
freely during the winter months when
other fish can not be caught and food is
scarce, is abundant in all the deeper
lakes.
The most important fish of the coastal
salt-water is the cod, which comes to the
coast to feed on the immense schools
of caplin that run inshore to feed. The
cod comes to the Labrador coast about
June twentieth, and moves northward
along the coast at the rate of about a
degree of latitude a week, but from
August to September they are spread
along the entire coast. The smaller
cod begin leaving the coast about the
first of October, but the larger remain
until well into November.
The mackerel left the Labrador coast
about the middle of the nineteenth
century and is rarely found there now.
The herring is again abundant after a
long period of relative absence. The
halibut, dab, and rock-cod are common.
The sleeper shark is abundant in all the
inlets and near the coast, a scavenger of
the sea-floor.
Crustacea of many species frequent
the Labrador coast. Crabs, lobsters,
shrimps, amphipods, isopods, copepods,
and barnacles are numerous. The mol-
luscan fauna is distinctly Arctic, largely
of circumpolar species, both lacustrine
and littoral. Land molluscs are rare.
The plankton life, seasonally, is ex-
ceedingly rich.
CONCLUSION
The Labrador is relatively unexplored.
It offers one of the most promising
fields for the explorer and the pioneer
naturalist. The coast may be readily
visited during the summer months by
mail-steamers from St. Johns and by
fishing vessels from Gloucester, Pro-
vincetown, and the Atlantic coastal
fishing towns, where the cod-fleets
have their bases. The interior may be
traversed only by well-organized and
well-equipped expeditions with expe-
rienced guides and leaders.
5. NEWFOUNDLAND
BY W. ELMER EKBLAW
INTRODUCTION
Newfoundland, an island of some
42,000 sq. mi. off the mouth of the Gulf of
St. Lawrence, lies between the parallels
of 46 36' 50" and 51 39' north latitude,
and between the meridians 53 37' and
59 24' 50" west longitude. It forms
an equilateral triangle, the distances
between Cape Bauld at the north angle,
Cape Spear at the southeast angle, and
Cape Ray at the southwest angle, being
each approximately 320 mi.
GEOLOGY
Except for a belt composed of the
highest portion of the Long Range
Hills, the entire island has been glac-
iated. Possibly two-thirds of the area
is occupied by Laurentian granites and
gneisses, with considerable tracts of
serpentine; Huronian gneisses and
schists predominate in the eastern
portion; considerable belts of Carboni-
ferous sandstones and shales and scat-
tered tracts of Silurian and Devonian
112
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
limestones are found along the western
coast and in a few places over the pla-
teau. The distribution of the soils
resulting from the disintegration of
these different rocks influences to a
considerable degree the flora and vege-
tation of the island.
PHYSIOGRAPHY
Outline
The northwest coast of the island,
paralleling the fold known as the Long
Range, is fairly regular; the south coast
is much more broken by bays and fjords,
particularly toward the east end; and the
northeast coast is exceedingly broken
and irregular throughout its entire
extent, like the west coast of Norway,
or Greenland. These bays and fjords
occupy the valleys and lowlands of a
peninsular continuation of the eastern
Canadian coast prior to the post-glacial
submergence which left Newfoundland
an island. Numerous islets and islands
occupy the bays and gulfs. Avalon
Peninsula, almost detached from the
main island by Trinity Bay and Pla-
centia Bay, is connected only by a
narrow isthmus.
Relief
The relief, like the shore line, is an
expression of the geologic structure of
the terrain, the ridges and valleys
paralleling the direction of the folds,
N.N.E. to S.S.W. Seen from the sea,
the coast rises steep, 200 to 300 ft. or
even more, like a broad rocky wall,
bleak and apparently barren, to a
plateau dissected to form a rugged
hilly landscape.
Back of this dissected coastal belt,
the plateau is extensive and undulating,
with parallel ranges of hills and moun-
tains, of which the Long Range along
the west coast, with heights of 2000 ft.
or more, is the most important. Avalon
peninsula is rather rugged and rough,
but the highest hills here are not over
1200 ft. in height. Throughout the
region of the interior rolling plateau,
scattered sharp peaks called "tolts,"
serve to identify the various localities
of the island.
Drainage
Consequent upon the disturbance of
the original drainage system by the
general glaciation of the area, New-
foundland is characterized by innu-
merable lakes, pools, ponds, and
marshes, of such extent that one-third
the island is thus occupied by small
bodies of water, lying along the flood
plains of the streams, in hollows along
the slopes of the valleys, in depressions
between the moraines and ridges, and
even in hollows in the tops of the hills.
Three rivers of considerable size
the Humber running west into the Bay
of Islands; and the Gander and Exploits
running northeast into the Hamilton
Sound and Notre Dame Bay respec-
tively and a number of smaller streams
drain the island; but because of nu-
merous falls and rapids, and shallow
riffles they are unnavigable except for
canoes. Extensive bogs occupy much
of the valley areas and the plateau
slopes and levels.
CLIMATE
The climate of Newfoundland does
not merit designation as an oceanic
climate, but it is so modified by the
waters bathing its shores that it is
distinctly more equable and uniform
than that of the neighboring mainland.
The temperature rarely falls below
zero even in mid-winter, and rarely rises
above 80 in summer. The mean tem-
perature for the year, except in the
extreme northern portion where it is
lower, is from 40 to 45. The average
precipitation, about evenly divided
between rain and snow, is less than
60 in.
The average barometer is 29.37 in.
The storms are mildly cyclonic, with
winds varying with the seasons in
general direction and velocity. Winter
sets in late in November and continues
until mid-April. During this period
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
113
a general covering of snow keeps the
frost from penetrating deep. The first
frosts are rather early in places as
early as mid-August and spring is
often tardy, particularly when the ice-
floes and ice-bergs have accumulated
unduly off the coast. July in New-
foundland is like May in New York.
The north, east, and south coasts are
chilly and damp and foggy, because of
the meeting of the cold Greenland-
Labrador current with the warm air
and water of the Gulf stream. There
where the warm, moisture-laden air
off the Gulf stream encounters the
chill air off the cold waters of the Green-
land current, with its fleets of floes and
bergs, the vapor is condensed into
clouds and fogs and mists that charac-
terize the region. The interior and the
west coast, however, have a pleasant,
relatively mild and equable climate,
generally clear and invigorating.
BIOTA
Plant life
The vegetation of the island varies
with the topography of the soil, and the
drainage. The greater part of the
island has been heavily forested, the
dominant type of forest being coni-
ferous, with interspersed areas of decid-
uous woods but great tracts have
been destroyed by fire.
The white pine, once abundant over
the island, has been almost all cut,
surviving only in isolated groves where
it has been intentionally preserved, or
in small tracts remote or difficult of
access. The most abundant coniferous
tree is black spruce, though the balsam
fir or spruce is also common; the tama-
rack is abundant in the bog or tundra;
and white spruce and cedar (low-growing
juniper) are widely distributed. Arbor-
vitae, rather common in New Brunswick
and Nova Scotia, is absent.
Scattered about among the coniferous
woods are large tracts of rather pure
growths of deciduous trees, balsam,
poplar, aspen, white and red maple,
birch, elm, mountain ash, alder and a
few others. In places, particularly on
the burned tracts, these are also scat-
tered promiscuously among the new
stands of coniferous trees.
As a rule the forests are found in belts
from two to 10 mi. wide along the
streams and about the shores of the
lakes. The most extensive areas of
timber left standing are in the basins
of the Exploits, Gander, and Humber
Rivers. It is estimated that the acreage
of marketable timber left standing in
Newfoundland is 6,500,000, of which no
small portion is well established second
growth on cut-over or fire-swept areas.
The forests rarely extend above the
1000 ft. elevation and generally cease
considerably lower. The crests and the
rolling tops of the hills are bare of trees,
in many places quite destitute of vegeta-
tion the so-called barrens; in others,
where the soil and moisture are more
favorable the barrens are covered with
scrub willow, alder, and birch and low
evergreens. Thus from east to west,
Newfoundland is a succession of parallel
barren ridges, and forested valleys.
On the plateaus and in the valleys
where the drainage is incomplete, lie
extensive bogs; some of them are for-
ested with black spruce, tamarack,
willow, and alder as dominant trees,
and Labrador tea, dwarf birch, an-
dromeda, kalmia and other low shrubs
forming a rather dense undergrowth on
the wet floor of sphagnum, sedge, and
cotton grass; others are shrubby; but
many of them are open, grassy, and
sedgy moors, with a wealth of flowering
plants and ferns.
The vascular plants of Newfoundland
are many and varied, comprising over
1000 species, some of general distribu-
tion, others confined to certain limited
types of soil, or physiographic divisions.
Berry-bearing plants Rubus, V actinium
Empetrum, and Viburnum are numer-
ous. Flowering plants, both shrubs,
and herbs, and ferns grow in profusion,
except in the driest, windswept portions
of the barrens. Grasses, sedges and
mosses carpet the wet open places.
Reindeer moss (Cladonia) clothes the
114
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
rockier slopes and crests, particularly
in the northwest part.
The flora seems to possess definite
affinity with the sub-alpine life of
Labrador, and with the flora of New
England and New Jersey, but forms
related to those of New Brunswick,
Quebec, and Nova Scotia, are rela-
tively few, probably due to a barrier of
unfavorable soils prior to the post-
glacial submergence of the connecting
lands.
Animal life
The most important feature of the
fauna of Newfoundland is the woodland
caribou, which migrates in March from
the valleys and the more wooded por-
tions of the southern half of the island,
to the Cladonia-covered barrens of the
northwest, there to bear rts young in
May and June, and to browse through
the summer until the first heavy frosts
of October, when it again moves south-
ward. The large herds of this animal
thus moving annually back and forth
over the island are the dominant feature
in the animal life of the land, as the cod
is of the sea.
The gray wolf (Cam's ly'caori), now
very scarce, and the black bear (Ursus
americanus group), frequent the interior.
The red fox and its variants are common.
Beaver, otter, weasel, arctic hare, musk-
rat and bats abound. No reptiles are
indigenous. Frogs have been intro-
duced and thrive well. The moose and
porcupine of the neighboring Canadian
coast are absent. Salmon and trout,
but no pike or pickerel, or other pre-
daceous fish, are found in the inland
streams or lakes.
Bird life, both on land and sea, is rich
and varied. Over 300 species have been
recorded eagles, hawks, owls, wood-
peckers, swallows, king fishers, fly
catchers, thrushes, warblers, ravens,
jays, sparrows, and others inland;
golden plover, sandpipers, curlews and
other shore-birds, but no woodcock;
ducks, geese, loons, coot and others
frequent the many lakes and the coast;
dovekies, gannets, gulls, guillemots,
puffins, murres, and razorbill auks
are abundant in the waters that wash
the shore; on the lower lands the willow
ptarmigan is one of the most distinctive
birds and on the uplands, the rock
ptarmigan. The great auk once fre-
quented the shores and the outlying
islands but has been extinct these many
years.
Insect life is abundant. Mosquitoes
and deerflies are apparently omnipresent
throughout much of the summer. Gay
butterflies flit over the open vales and
barrens; moths of many species frequent
both open and woodland.
And in the sea adjacent to Newfound-
land, particularly on the Grand Banks
to the south and southeast, the aquatic
fauna is one of the richest in the world.
In this meeting ground of the Green-
land current with the Gulf Stream, both
bearing heavy loads of pelagic algae
and other minute forms, sea life is most
abundant. Echinoderms, molluscs, an-
nelids, and coelenterates innumerable,
feed upon this rich plankton growth,
and in turn yield sustenance to the fish
and larger forms.
About the first of June the caplin,
a small fish, appears on the banks in
incredible millions, and preying upon
them appear the cod. When the caplin
disappear, the squid comes to take its
place as cod-food, and when the squid
leaves the herring appear, thus furnish-
ing the cod with an abundance of food
until mid-October, when it too leaves.
Lobsters are abundant in the off-shore
waters. Mackerel once frequented the
coast in large numbers but disappeared
about the middle of the nineteenth
century, and have not returned.
In spring thousands of harp and a few
hooded seal float south from the Arctic
regions on pan-ice borne by the Green-
land Current, to bear their young on the
floes. They are killed by hundreds of
thousands, both young and old, during
the month of April. Hundreds of whales
are also killed annually, many of them
sulphur-bottoms, finbacks, and hump-
backs. The white whale, or beluga,
one of the porpoises, is occasionally
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
115
common. The narwhal once abundant
along the coast is now disappearing.
The killer whale is abundant, as are the
grampus and porpoise.
ROUTES OF TRAVEL
Newfoundland is readily accessible
as a field for study, either by the Inter-
Colonial Railway or by steamers from
America and Europe. The island itself
is difficult of traverse, particularly
toward the northwest, because of the
bogs, rocky hills, and barrens, without
roads or even trails. The rivers are
navigable only by canoes. Most parts
of the island are accessible only by boat
from the sea; the southern half may be
studied fairly well from the main railway
and the spurs built out from it. Mos-
quitoes and deerflies are so annoying
as to hinder field work and special pre-
cautions for comfort and relief are
necessary.
6. THE MACKENZIE WATERSHED;
NORTHERN HUDSON BAY REGION,
UPPER YUKON REGION, AND THE
ARCTIC ISLANDS
BY EDWARD A. PREBLE
I. GENERAL CONDITIONS
1. General topography of the entire region
The region treated in the present
sketch includes a vast area in the north-
ern interior of North America, between
latitude 50 and 78 N., and extending
from longitude 85 west to 115 at the
south, and from 80 west to 141 at the
north. The Arctic Ocean washes its
northern shores and islands; Hudson
Bay marks its eastern limit, and its
western border includes the headwaters
of streams which enter the Pacific from
middle British Columbia to Bering Sea.
Its physiography is very much varied.
At the south grassy plains, interspersed
with small patches and tongues of forest,
are succeeded as one goes northward by
a forest that is almost unbroken save
by the rivers and the lakes, which are
numerous and sometimes very large.
Because of differences in geology, the
lakes are more numerous in the eastern
portion. North of the great forest lies
a large area which for climatic reasons is
treeless, but still has a rich and varied
flora. The southern and eastern parts
of the region are rolling, with only a few
hilly areas. At the extreme northwest,
however, it includes the northern part
of the Rocky Mountain chain, here lower
than farther south, and its foothill
ranges. These are forested on their
lower slopes but hold large alpine areas,
the flora and fauna of which have close
affinities with the treeless Arctic.
North and northeast of the continen-
tal portion of the region, above briefly
described, lies the Arctic Archipelago,
including a number of large islands
similar in topography, flora, and fauna
to the treeless part of the mainland.
The region is exceptionally well-
watered, mainly by the great Mackenzie,
which ranks second in size of basin, and
third in actual volume, among North
American rivers. Northwestwardly, the
region includes areas watered by streams
which enter the Pacific Ocean and Bering
Sea, this lying, of course, west of the
Continental divide.
For transportation, the naturalist
must depend largely on boats of some
kind, supplemented by dog sled if it is
desired to enter the region before the
opening of navigation, or if the freeze-
up should overtake him en route. To
reach the northward flowing streams
several rail routes are possible. For
most direct access to the lower Atha-
baska and the Mackenzie, the Alberta
and Great Waterways Railway, running
north-northeastward from Edmonton,
Alberta, takes one to navigable water
on the lower Clearwater. From here
steamboat travel, interrupted only at
one point, the 16-mi. Smith portage, is
afforded to the mouth of the Mackenzie.
From many points on this 1500-mi.
route a great number of canoe routes
lead to all parts of the immense region
now treated, to thousands of lakes,
streams, and mountains unknown ex-
cept to the wandering native. Alter-
native railroad lines leading to the north
116
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
are the Athabaska Landing branch of the
Canadian Northern, running 100 mi.
northward from Edmonton, and the E.
D. and B. C. railway running to Peace
River by way of Lesser Slave Lake.
The latter line affords access to the
Mackenzie by way of the lower Peace
and Slave River, or to the upper tribu-
taries of Peace River, in the interior of
northern British Columbia. Another
route to the latter section is by canoe
northward from various points on the
Canadian National railway, which
crosses central British Columbia from
the head of Fraser River to the Pacific
in about latitude 54.
2. Climate of entire region
The climate of a region of such magni-
tude as the one under discussion is so
varied that it seems best to take up this
subject in the account of the various
areas. In general it may be said that
the winters are long and cold, and the
summers short and comparatively warm.
There is a very wide yearly range of
temperature especially over the Conti-
nental portion of the region, the greatly
increased number of hours of sunlight
enjoyed in summers in high latitudes
making up in a measure for the increase
in latitude. This enables the smaller
shrubs and other plants to complete
their reproductive processes within a
comparatively short time.
8. Original biotic divisions
A. Poplar forest and savanna of south-
ern portion (Canadian Zone). This
division occupies most of a broad strip
extending north-northwestward from
Edmonton, passing west of Athabaska
(on the river), thence, including the
basin of Lesser Slave Lake, on to Peace
River, northward down its valley on
either side, and northward nearly to
Great Slave Lake. In a modified form,
it stretches westward to include much
of the Peace River valley, in northeast-
ern British Columbia.
This is the region of transition from
the grassy and treeless Great Plains to
the great northern Forest. Its principal
tree is the aspen poplar (Populus tremu-
loides) which forms groves of greater
or lesser extent on the slopes of the rol-
ling hills. In low areas where the
drainage is imperfect, mossy swamps or
muskegs where the black spruce (Picea
mariana} is dominant are frequent.
Farther north these become more
numerous and become a dominant
feature.
Originally this area was the habitat
of the bison (Bison b. athabascae) and
the elk (Cervus canadensis), but the
latter is long since extirpated here, and
the bison remains only in small numbers
near its northern part. Other mammals
presumably here were the moose (Alces
americanus), Franklin ground squirrel
(Citellus franklinii), thirteen-lined
ground-squirrel (C. tridecemlineatus)
(these two not north of Athabaska
River), Saskatchewan pocket-gopher
(Thomomys talpoides) (southerly), nor-
thern plains skunk (Mephitis hudsonica),
and several mice and voles. Birds are
numerous; a few notable breeders in-
clude the sharp-tailed grouse, upland
plover, and the western solitary sand-
piper.
The only reptile, the northern garter
snake (Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis),
which enters any part of the region is
confined mainly to the savannas of this
subdivision. Scarcely less strictly con-
fined to it are the western toad (Bufo
lentiginosus woodhousei), and the leopard
frog (Rana pipiens). The northern
wood frog (Rana cantabrigensis latire-
mis) and the northern chorophilus (Cho-
rophilus septentrionalis) also are found
in it, but extend their ranges far be-
yond to the limit of trees.
B. Transcontinental coniferous area.
1. Southern heavy timber (Canadian
Zone): Covering most of the region
under discussion is the great transcon-
tinental conifer forest. Its principal
trees are the white and black spruces
(Picea alba and P. mariana), whose
ranges are coextensive with its limits,
and the canoe birch (Betula papyrifera),
tamarack (Larix laricina), aspen and
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
117
balsam poplars (Populus tremuloides
and P. balsamifera), Banksian pine
(Pinus divaricata) (replaced in British
Columbia and Yukon by lodge-pole
pine (Pinus contorta)), and balsam fir
(Abies balsamea), which are common in
the southern part of the belt, and which
terminate, counting from the north,
in about the order given. With these
are associated, generally in the form of
undergrowth, a variety of shrubs, some
of which, also, have a continuous dis-
tribution through the forest zone, while
others are more or less restricted in
range. Some of the more conspicuous
of these are the following: creeping
juniper (Juniperus sabina), low juniper
(J. nana), a large variety of willows
(Salix), one (S. bebbiana) attaining the
dignity of a tree, but most being creeping
shrubs or low bushes, sweet gale (Myrica
gale), two hazels (Corylus americana
and C. rostrata) (southerly), dwarf
birches (Betula glandulosa and B. nana),
alders (Alnus), several currants and
gooseberies (Ribes), red raspberry (Rubus
strigosus), shrubby cinquefoil (Dasi-
phora fruticosa), wild rose (Rosa acicu-
laris), service berry (Amelanchier alni-
folia), cherries (Prunus pennsylvanica
and P. virginiana) crowberry (Empet-
rum nigrum), silverberry (Elaeagnus
argentea) buffalo berry (Lepargyrea
canadensis), dwarf cornel (Cornus cana-
densis), red-osier cornel (Cornus stolo-
nifera), Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandi-
cum), swamp laurel (Kalmia glauca),
wild rosemary (Andromeda polifolia),
leatherleaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata),
red bearberry (Arctostaphylos uvaursi),
mountain cranberry (Vitisidaea vitisi-
daea), small cranberry (Oxy coccus oxy-
coccus), bog blueberry (Vaccinium uligi-
nosum), cranberry tree (Vivurnum
americanuni) (southerly), few-flowered
viburnum (V. pauciflorum), and
snowberry (Symphoricarpos racemosus)
(southerly). With these are associated
a great variety of herbaceous plants,
many of which bear flowers of great
beauty, a number of ferns, and a great
variety of mosses and lichens.
The more common and characteristic
mammals of the great forest include
the following: 1
Eastern moose (Alces americanus}
Eastern woodland caribou (Rangifer
caribou)
Wood bison (Bison bison athabascae)
Canadian woodchuck (Marmota monax
canadensis)
Liard River chipmunk (Eutamias
borealis)
Hudson Bay red squirrel (Sciurus hud-
sonicus)
Hudson Bay flying squirrel (Glaucomys
sabrinus)
Arctic white-footed mouse (Peromyscus
m. borealis)
Mackenzie phenacomys (Phenacomys
mackenzii)
Athabaska red-backed mouse (Evotomys
gapperi athabascae)
Northern lemming vole (Synaptomys
borealis)
Drummond vole (Microtus drummondi)
Chestnut-cheeked vole (Microtus xan-
thognathus)
Northwest muskrat (Fiber zibethicus
spatulatus)
Canadian beaver (Castor canadensis)
Hudson Bay jumping mouse (Zapus
hudsonius)
Canada porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)
Hudson Bay snowshoe hare (Lepus
americanus)
Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis)
Gray wolf (Canis occidentalis)
British Columbia red fox (Vulpes
alascensis abietorum)
Black bear (Ursus americanus)
Canadian otter (Lutra canadensis)
Western mink (Lutreola vison energu-
menos)
Richardson weasel (Mustela cicognanii
richardsoni)
Least weasel (Mustela rixosa)
Alaska marten (Martes americana ac-
tuosa)
Fisher (Martes pennantii)
Hudson Bay wolverene (Gulo luscus)
Common eastern shrew (Sorex per-
sonatus)
Richardson shrew (Sorex richardsoni)
Marsh shrew (Neosorex palustris)
Alaska microsores (Microsorex eximius)
Little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus)
Hoary bat (Nycteris cinereus)
Among birds the following may be
noted:
Horned grebe
Loon
1 These lists do not include certain West Coast
and Rocky Mountain species occurring in British
Columbia and Yukon, and which are listed under
those subdivisions.
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NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Pacific loon
Herring gull
California gull
Short-billed gull
Bonaparte gull
Common tern
American merganser
Mallard
Baldpate
Green-winged teal
Pintail
Lesser scaup duck
Ring-necked duck
American golden-eye
Bufflehead
Canada goose
Little brown crane
Sora rail
Yellow rail
American coot
Wilson snipe
Greater yellowlegs
Yellowlegs
Western solitary sandpiper
Spotted sandpiper
Hudsonian spruce grouse
Gray ruffed grouse
Sharp-tailed grouse
Marsh hawk
Sharp-skinned hawk
Goshawk
Western red-tailed hawk
Golden eagle
Bald eagle
Duck hawk
Pigeon hawk
American sparrow hawk
American osprey
Long-eared owl
Short-eared owl
Great gray owl
Richardson owl
Arctic horned owl
American hawk owl
Belted kingfisher
Northern hairy woodpecker
Nelson downy woodpecker
Arctic three-toed*woodpecker
Banded-backed three-toed woodpecker
Yellow-bellied sapsucker
Northern flicker
Nighthawk
Kingbird
Phoebe
Olive-sided flycatcher
Western wood pewee
Alder flycatcher
Least flycatcher
Canada jay
Northern raven
Crow
Cowbird
Northern redwing
Rusty blackbird
Bronzed grackle
Eastern pine grosbeak
White-winged crossbill
Redpoll
Western Savanna sparrow
Intermediate sparrow
White-throated sparrow
Western chipping sparrow
Slate-colored junco
Lincoln sparrow
Swamp sparrow
Fox sparrow
Louisiana tanager
Cliff swallow
Tree swallow
Bank swallow
Bohemian waxwing
Northern shrike
Red-eyed vireo
Western warbling viree
Blue-headed vireo
Black and white warbler
Orange-crowned warbler
Tennessee warbler
Yellow warbler
Myrtle warbler
Magnolia warbler
Bay-breasted warbler
Black-poll warbler
Palm warbler
Ovenbird
Grinnell water-thrush
Wilson warbler
Redstart
Red-breasted nuthatch
Long-tailed chickadee
Hudsonian chickadee
Golden-crowned kinglet
Ruby-crowned kinglet
Olive-backed thrush
Eastern hermit thrush
Robin
2. Northern stunted timber (Hudso-
nian Zone) : Included in the great coni-
ferous forest and bordered on the north
by the Barren Grounds, there is a strip
of country from 100 to 200 mi. wide,
which is covered by forest somewhat
stunted and dwarfed (Hudsonian Zone).
In some places, where areas of fertile
soil, usually the valleys of northward-
flowing rivers, impinge closely on more
exposed areas of rocky ground, the tran-
sition from one type to another is well-
marked, while in others the change is
more gradual.
In the Mackenzie region this belt has
no strictly characteristic mammals,
though the range of a red-backed vole
(Evotomys dawsoni) is practically con-
fined within its limits. Most of the
woodland mammals necessarily have
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
119
their northern limit within it. Such
comprise the following: Rangifer cari-
bou, Alces, Sciuropterus, Sciurus, Castor,
Evotomys, Fiber, Erethizon, Lepus ameri-
canus, Lynx, Lutra, Lutreola, Mustela,
and others. Among birds, the pigeon
hawk, great gray owl, hawk owl, pine
grosbeak, Harris sparrow, tree sparrow
and gray-cheeked thrush breed princi-
pally within it. Its trees are not pecu-
liar, though the Banksian pine (Pinus
divaricata) and balsam poplar (Populus
balsamifera) barely enter its borders.
Its shrubs are mainly species that over-
lap from the adjoining zones. Among
those which seem to reach their greatest
perfection in the belt of stunted trees
may be mentioned Empetrum nigrum,
Ledum palustre, Vaccinium uliginosum,
Vitisidaea vitisidaea, Oxycoccus oxycoc-
cus, Arctous alpina, and Betula nana.
On the southwest shores of Hudson
Bay this zone occupies a strip about 200
mi. in width. Thence its southern
boundary extends inland, passing
through Athabaska Lake, and then
bending northward crosses Great Slave
Lake just east of the mouth of Slave
River. Practically all of the northern
shore of Great Slave Lake lies within
its limits. Beyond here its lower boun-
dary is very uncertain. It is bounded
by a strip of well wooded country,
probably only a few miles in width,
extending northward along the Macken-
zie. This southern influence ceases .to
be effective near the mouth of Bear
River, and the southern limit of the
zone may be considered to cross the
Mackenzie near latitude 65. Thence
it bends southward, following the west-
ern border of the Canadian strip. Here,
as on the eastern side, the position of
the boundary is unknown, but because
of the great altitude of most of the
country west of the Mackenzie and north
of the Liard the southern heavy timber
(Canadian Zone) can not extend far
from the river and the stunted timber
(Hudsonian) must cover nearly the
entire area, exclusive of the alpine sum-
mits of the mountains. A large area
to the south of the Liard, including most
of the country drained by its southern
tributaries, and practically all the
country about its headwaters in north-
eastern British Columbia and south-
eastern Yukon below the timberline,
are also in this class. The latter area
will be considered more fully later.
C. Barren grounds (Arctic Zone}.
North of the Trans-continental Forest
lies an immense area usually called the
Barren Grounds, from its treeless con-
dition, which results from a summer so
short that reproduction can not be
effected. This condition, however, does
not prevent the perpetuation of many
species of shrubby and herbaceous plants
and a rich insect fauna, which together
support a great variety of vertebrate
life.
Shrubby plants are common, Rhodo-
dendron lapponicum, Cassiope tetragona,
Dryas integrifolia, and several dwarf
willows being perhaps the most charac-
teristic. Many other less strictly rep-
resentative plants also are abundant.
The area is further characterized by the
presence of certain mammals, as the
lemmings of the genera Lemmus and
Dicrostonyx, the Arctic fox (Alopex
lagopus innuitus), musk-ox (Ovibos mo-
schatus), Barren Ground caribou (Ran-
gifer arcticus), and Arctic hare (Lepus
arcticus canus). Most of the birds
which characterize this area are mi-
gratory, spending only the breeding
season within its boundaries. They
comprise, among the Anatidae, the
various species of the genus Chen, the
brent geese, and one or two genera of
maritime ducks; and among the Limi-
colae, the genera Lobipes, Phalaropus,
Macrorhamphus, Pisobia and related
genera, Crocethia, Tryngites, Numenius
(hudsonicus and borealis), Squatarola,
Pluvialis and Arenaria. The Gallinae
are represented by willow and rock
ptarmigans, the Raptores by the gyr-
falcons, and the Passeres by the Snow-
flakes, Lapland and painted longspurs
and the pipits.
D. Local conditions. 1. The larger
rivers, the Athabaska, Peace, Slave,
Mackenzie, and Liard, have a moder-
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NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
ately swift current and are usually
muddy, especially in spring and at times
of high water, when the clay banks are
cut down by the flood. Their courses
are characterized by a series of long
alternating curves, with cut banks on
the concave sides, and gravel bars
opposite. Spruce trees usually line
the high banks, and willows, alders and
poplars the lower younger shores.
Many islands usually wooded, occur.
2. Lakes are numerous especially in
the area of primitive rocks, and are of
course bordered by rocky and sandy
shores, and contain many islands.
The principal ones form a more or less
connected system, part of a series
extending from Lake Superior to the
Arctic Sea. These lie along the junction
of the primitive or granitic and the
newer limestone formations, usually
heading in the primitive belt and out-
letting in the limestone district. They
are of irregular shape, usually sending
long arms eastward into the primitive
formation and north and south along
the junction of the two systems, though
in some cases the southern arms have
been filled by the sediment-bearing
streams which enter them. In addition
to the large lakes thousands of smaller
ones are scattered over the entire region.
3. Marshes are numerous and in
several cases very extensive. The more
important of these will receive detailed
attention in the proper places.
4. Fire-swept areas are all too com-
mon. In the case of coniferous woods,
a growth of deciduous woods usually
succeeds.
II. PRESENT BIOTA
Apart from the general reduction in
numbers of the game and fur bearing
animals, and the game birds, due to
partial settlement, the changes in the
fauna of the wooded parts of the region
are mainly chargeable to fire, which has
profoundly changed large areas. Some
sections have been reburned, sometimes
repeatedly, and in such the forest cover-
ing may be entirely destroyed, and
grassy prairie may succeed. Coniferous
areas which are burned usually change
to the deciduous type, and this change
in type of forest is of course accompanied
by the ingression of certain birds and
mammals which were originally absent.
The most conspicuous mammalian ex-
amples are the mule deer (Odocoileus
hemionus}, which, within the past
century, has extended its range north-
ward for several hundred miles. The
coyote also (Cam's latrans), aided per-
haps by partial settlement within its
former habitat, has effected an extension
of its range even more notable. Among
birds, it is certain that the rose-breasted
grosbeak (Hedymeles ludoviciana) , has
traveled northwestward upwards of 500
mi., and there is reason to suspect that
several other species of small birds
have entered the region of the lower
Athabaska within historic times. This
ingression, probably caused in part at
least, by the changes referred to, has
not been accompanied by the loss of
any species excepting the elk (Cervus
canadensis), although many mammals,
notably the larger game animals and
especially the fur-bearers, have suffered
great reduction in numbers, and two
others, the northern bison (Bison b.
athabascae} , and the musk-ox (Ovibos
moschatus}, have had their ranges
greatly reduced. These reductions and
losses, however, it should be emphasized,
can not be charged to changes in the
character of the forest cover, but are
rather in line with the usual reduction
of the large animals which follow partial
settlement and the exploitation of the
natural resources of a region.
Along the Arctic coast of Alaska and
Canada, the presence of whaling and
trading ships has resulted in great
diminution of the game animals. Since
about 1896, when the whalers begun to
winter at Herschel Island and Baillie
Island, and a few years later at Langton
Bay and in Coronation Gulf, the effect
has been serious. These vessels depend
largely on the game resources of the
country for subsistence, hiring the
natives as hunters. This has resulted
in the practical extermination of the
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
121
caribou along the entire coast of north-
ern Alaska and Yukon, and great reduc-
tion in their numbers east to the region
of the Coppermine. During the same
period the musk-ox has been extirpated
from most of its former range from Coro-
nation Gulf westward.
III. NATURAL DRAINAGE AREAS AND
PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS
1. The Mackenzie and Upper Yukon
Basins
In any description of northern North
America from the standpoint of the
traveler one must be guided in his
method of treatment by its waterways,
which now, and which probably will for
many years to come, afford almost the
only means available for visiting its most
interesting sections. Thus considered,
the valley of the Mackenzie is by far
the largest and most important of the
natural divisions. Broadened to in-
clude certain areas not actually drained
by this great river system, but which can
most readily be reached by its help, it
comprises a vast region in the northern
part of Canada, with an area of nearly
700,000 sq. mi., bounded roughly as
follows: On the north by the Arctic
Ocean; on the east by the valleys of the
Great Fish, Thelon, Telzoa, and
Churchill rivers; on the south by the
Churchill and Saskatchewan valleys;
and on the west by the main range of
the Rocky Mountains.
For convenience of reference the
Mackenzie basin may be divided into
several areas: The Athabaska Valley;
the basin of Athabaska Lake; the Peace
River Valley, including the Slave; the
basin of Great Slave Lake; the Macken-
zie Valley proper; the basin of Great
Bear Lake; the region to the north of
that body of water, and drained *by the
Anderson and smaller rivers which enter
the Arctic Ocean, and the Liard River
Valley. The areas will be considered in
the order given. These accounts will
be followed by a description of north-
eastern British Columbia and Yukon,
comprising the drainage areas of the
Upper Liard and Yukon rivers, and of
the Stikine and other rivers which reach
the Pacific in middle British Columbia.
A. The Athabaska Valley. The Atha-
baska River rises in the Rocky Moun-
tains near Mount Brown, at an altitude
of about 5700 ft., and pursues a north-
easterly and northerly course for nearly
600 mi. to Athabaska Lake, falling in this
distance some 5000 ft., and being in-
terrupted by several series of rapids.
In the first 300 mi. of its course it falls
about 4000 ft., and receives in succession
Baptiste River from the west, the Mc-
Leod and Pembina from the south, and
the Lesser Slave from the west. Below
its confluence with the last-named stream
the Athabaska turns southeastward for
some 50 mi. and then resumes its north-
erly course. In the course of the next 150
mi. it receives in succession La Biche
River, Quito or Calling River; Big
Mouth Brook; Pelican River; and House
River. Just below the mouth of the last
river the Athabaska strikes a range of
low hills, and in forcing a passage
through them is deflected eastward, and
for a distance of about 75 mi. contains
many rapids, falling in this distance
some 400 ft. At the lower end of this
stretch it receives the waters of Clear-
water River, its principal tributary below
Lesser Slave River. The Clearwater
rises on the height of land between
the Churchill and the Athabaska, and
30 or 40 mi. above its mouth it is joined
by the Pembina, a stream of about equal
volume.
The country drained by the Athabaska
is mainly a rolling plain, and with the
exception of a few areas of semiprairie
land is well wooded with a forest com-
posed mainly of spruce, fir, pine, tama-
rack, poplar, birch, and willow. A large
part of its surface is occupied by mossy
swamps, called muskegs, and hundreds
of lakes, of which Lesser Slave, 70 mi.
in length is by far the largest, occupy its
shallow valleys.
The country lying between the Atha-
baska and Peace rivers, and drained in
part by the latter stream, may be best
characterized by quoting in part the
122
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
account by McConnell, who examined it
in the summer of 1889 :
The country between the Peace and
Athabasca rivers north of Lesser Slave
Lake, comprising an area of about
44,000 sq. mi., . . . may be de-
scribed as a gently undulating wooded
plain, diversified with numerous shallow
lakes, muskegs and marshes. Small
Erairie patches, manifestly due to forest
res, occur north of the west end of
Lesser Slave Lake, at several points
along the Loon and Wabiscaw rivers,
. . . but their total area is relatively
insignificant.
The rolling plains between Peace
River and the Athabasca are relieved
by several high ridges or plateaus, all
of which owe their origin to a differential
denudation of the soft rocks on which
the plains are based. Of these Marten
Mountain is situated northeast of Lesser
Slave Lake, above which it rises to the
height of about 1000 ft. The Buffalo
Head Hills commence abruptly about
50 mi. above the mouth of the Loon
River, with an elevation of about 2500
ft. above the Sea, and running in a
south-southwesterly direction die away
opposite the mouth of Battle River,
while Birch Mountain extends for nearly
90 mi. along the lower part of the
Athabasca, from which it is separated
by a plain 15 to 20 mi. wide. Among
the smaller elevations are Trout Moun-
tain, which is situated north of the
Wabiscaw River, and the Thickwood
Hills, which lie south of Birch Moun-
tain. The uplands of the district, like
the lowlands, are all wooded, and are
dotted everywhere with lakes and
marshes. (Ann. Rept. Geol. Surv.
Canada, V, pp. 6D, 7D, 1893.)
Climatology: The climate of the
Athabaska Valley in common with most
of the country included in the Mackenzie
basin, is characterized by a wide range
of temperature. In winter the mercury
frequently reaches 40, while summer
temperatures of between 80 and 90 are
not infrequent. Its western portion is
subject to Chinook winds, which periodi-
cally temper the climate.
Of vital interest to the traveler, who
must depend so largely on water trans-
portation, are data on the freezing and
breaking up of the rivers. In all
northern rivers navigation is inter-
rupted, before the actual closing of the
stream, by drift ice. This is mainly ice
which has formed in the eddies and
which, by a slight rise of water, the
usual result of its formation, or from the
accumulation of snow upon it, becomes
detached and descends the current, con-
tinually adding to its own volume. This
continues until the increasing cold causes
the mass to jam and become solidly
cemented. After the breaking up of
the rivers in spring the ice, of course,
continues to run for a longer or shorter
period.
The following table shows the dates of
the opening and closing of the Athabaska
at Fort McMurray during a series of
years:
Table showing condition of Athabaska at
Fort McMurray
YEAR
RIVER
OPENED
ICE DRIFTING
RIVER CLOSED
1878
Apr. 18
Oct. 27
1879
Oct. 26
Nov. 1
1880
May 2
Nov. 14
1881
Apr. 21
Oct. 14
Nov. 12
1882
Apr. 24
Nov. 1
Nov. 8
1883
Apr. 25
Oct. 30
Nov. 10
1884
Apr. 27
Oct. 18
Oct. 28
1885
Apr. 9
Oct. 23
Nov. 13
1886
Apr. 16
Nov. 4
Nov. 14
1887
1888
Apr. 27
May 4
Oct. 22
Nov. 3
Oct. 24
Nov. 9
B. Athabaska Lake Region. Atha-
baska Lake is long and narrow and lies
in a general easterly and westerly direc-
tion. Its greatest length is about 195
mi.; greatest width, 35 mi.; and area,
approximately 2850 sq. mi. Its eleva-
tion above the sea is about 690 ft.
The principal tributary of Athabaska
Lake is the river of the same name, just
described. Its capacity for deposition
is so great that, assisted by the Peace,
it has filled up a large portion of what
was originally the western part of
Athabaska Lake, and has isolated several
good-sized sheets of water, the largest of
which, Lake Claire, is some 35 mi. in
length.
The north shore of Athabaska Lake is
mainly rocky and sparsely wooded, and
is broken by the mouths of a number of
insignificant streams, which help to
drain the unexplored country to the
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
123
northward. On its southern side, whose
shores are mainly low and sandy, Atha-
baska Lake receives the waters of Wil-
liam, Grand Rapid, and several smaller
rivers.
Black River, draining a very large area
of rocky, sparsely wooded country,
flows into the extreme eastern end of
Athabaska Lake. Black Lake, the
principal expansion in its lower portion,
receives the waters of Chipman and
Cree Rivers.
The climate of Athabaska Lake is not
radically different from that of other
parts of the Mackenzie region which are
practically removed from the influence
of the warm Pacific winds. Though it
lies at a low altitude, the proximity of
the lake to the Barren Grounds, from
which winds are frequent, keeps its
average temperature rather low. An
occasional warm west wind slightly
tempers the winter climate. The Peace
and Athabaska break up at their mouths
about the 1st of May, but the neigh-
boring part of the lake usually does not
open until about the middle of May, and
the eastern part probably not before
June. The lake usually closes at Fort
Chipewyan some time in November.
C. The Peace River Valley. Peace
River is the largest of the affluents of
the Athabaska-Mackenzie system, and
being in fact much larger than the
Athabaska, may be considered the main
river. It rises on the western side of
the Rocky Mountains and is already a
a good-sized stream when it breaks
through that range.
From the confluence of the Finlay and
the Parsnip, the Peace flows in a general
easterly direction for some 300 mi. to its
junction with the Smoky, falling in this
distance a little less than 800 ft. The
country through which it flows east of
the mountains may be considered as a
plateau, in which it has excavated a
rather deep valley. Back from the
river the country is mainly level or
rolling, and is thinly wooded.
Smoky River is the largest tributary
of the Peace. Its principal branches
rise on the eastern slope of the Rocky
Mountains, and it drains a large extent
of thinly wooded and prairie country.
Below the mouth of the Smoky, the
Peace turns and pursues a winding
though general northerly course nearly
to Fort Vermilion. It is bordered at first
by steep sandstone cliffs, but its valley
gradually becomes wider and shallower.
Extensive plains, comparatively level
and clothed with grass or a sparse growth
of poplars, border it on both sides.
North of Fort Vermilion this character
of country is said to extend to the valleys
of Hay and Buffalo rivers.
Between Fort Vermilion and the
Peace-Athabaska Delta the Peace is
very broad and contains many wooded
islands. Vermilion Falls, a formidable
rapid, interrupts navigation a short
distance above the mouth of Red
River, and another, usually called the
"Little Rapid," occurs at some distance
below.
The Quatre Fourches, an offshoot of
the Peace, connects that stream with
Athabaska Lake, and few miles below,
Rocher River also joins the Peace.
These streams traverse the Peace-Atha-
baska Delta, and their currents run to or
from Peace River, being dependent on
the relative heights of the water in
Peace River and Athabaska Lake. The
delta is a vast marsh, partially wooded
with poplars and willows and studded
with hundreds of reedy lakes. This
marsh is one of the most important
breeding areas of waterfowl in North
America, and is also one of the principal
resting and feeding places for migratory
wildfowl on their semi-annual journeys.
Of the breeding birds, the following
may be noted: Holboells grebe, horned
grebe, black tern, American merganser,
mallard, baldpate, green-winged teal,
shoveler, pintail, canvasback, lesser
scaup, ringneck, American goldeneye,
bufflehead, Canada goose, little brown
crane, sora, Wilson snipe, yellowlegs,
alder flycatcher, yellow-headed black-
bird, northern redwing, rusty grackle,
Leconte's sparrow, Nelson's sparrow,
Lincoln's sparrow, swamp sparrow,
Alaska yellow warbler, Grinnell's water
124
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
thrush, redstart, and olive-backed
thrush.
Below the delta the combined stream,
here called the Slave, turns abruptly
northward and flows for a distance of
about 70 mi. in a general northerly direc-
tion to the Smith Rapids. It is a broad,
rather deep stream with a moderate cur-
rent, and its low banks are well wooded.
In latitude 60 it cuts through "a gneissic
spur from the Luarentian district to the
east," forming the Smith Rapids, some
16 mi. in length. Below here it flows in a
rather irregular manner for about 175
mi. in a general northwesterly direc-
tion to Great Slave Lake. In this
stretch it has an average width of about
half a mile, and its banks are high at
first, but gradually diminish. The coun-
try bordering it is level and mainly
well wooded, but to the west are exten-
sive tracts of prairie, especially in the
region of Salt River, its principal tribu-
tary. Slave River enters Great Slave
Lake through an extensive delta, in
forming which it has silted up an ex-
tensive arm of the lake. Its breeding
birds are practically the same as those -
of the Athabaska delta.
The Peace River Valley, as here con-
sidered, exhibits the greatest diversity
of climatic conditions at the same
season of any of the regions now under
discussion. Its extreme upper portion,
lying at a comparatively low altitude
and near the Pacific, has a relatively
mild winter climate, while its lower
part at the same season is surrounded by
almost Arctic conditions. Its middle
part, just east of the mountains, seems
to be characterized by violent extremes
of temperature.
Preserved areas: Wood Buffalo Park:
An area lying west of Slave River, partly
in Alberta and partly in Mackenzie,
known by this name, was set aside in
December, 1922, as a Preserve for the
resident herds of the northern race,
known as the wood buffalo, which now
constitute the only wild specimens of
this race in existence. This area, which
includes the entire ranges of the two
aggregations of herds, covers an area of
about 10,000 sq. mi. It covers that part
of the primitive range of this northern
race, formerly much more wide-spread,
on which it has been able longest to
maintain itself against the persecution
attendant on the partial settlement of
the country, and which therefore may be
considered as the most favorable portion
of that range under modern conditions.
It contains considerable wooded and
swampy country, but is mainly charac-
terized by its areas of meadow and
prairie and sparsely-wooded glades.
The number of the animals now remain-
ing is not definitely known, but prob-
ably numbers several hundred. Many
moose, a few woodland caribou, and
many fur-bearers, besides grouse, ducks,
and the usual birds of the country,
abound on this area. These may still be
hunted by the natives.
The buffalo has been protected on this
area for about 20 years, but the estab-
lishment of this preserve, with its attend-
ant warden service, should ensure the
continued increase of these unique
herds, which under the inadequate
protection which has heretofore been
possible, have not increased as they
should.
Slave River Preserve : This area, which
contains about 2200 sq. mi., includes a
broad strip of country bordering the
lower part of Slave River, and adjoining
the Wood Buffalo Park for some dis-
tance. The country is mostly low and
swampy, and comprises the delta of
Slave River and the area between that
and the Taltson, and is the breeding
ground of thousands of geese, ducks,
rails, cranes, and other water birds, and
is also the resort in spring and autumn
of vast numbers of the same and other
species, where they linger to rest and
feed while on their migrations to and
from their more northern breeding
grounds. Natives only are allowed to
hunt on this area.
D. Great Slave Lake. Great Slave
Lake is said by McConnell to have a
superficial area, including islands, of
about 10,400 sq. mi., and thus to
rank fifth among the great lakes of the
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
125
continent. 2 It has a total length of
nearly 300 mi., and is over 60 mi. wide
in its broadest part. Its shore lines
have remained unexplored, especially
as regards its eastern arm, until recent
years. Maps issued in 1923 by the Topo-
graphical Surveys branch show details
of this portion, excepting a few com-
paratively short stretches.
The eastern part of the lake is much
deeper than the western part, and its
water is very clear, as is also that of the
northern arm. The main or western
part of the lake, which receives the
sediment-laden flood of Slave River,
never becomes so clear, although it is
fairly so at its outlet. Its southern
shores are very low; its northern borders
higher. It has few islands, and the rocks
on its shores are largely limestone.
Great Slave Lake lies wholly within
the forested region, though some of its
eastern affluents drain large areas of
treeless country. Its southwestern
shores are well wooded, while the
northern shores, exposed for most of
the year to cold winds from the north
and watered by colder streams, are
poorly wooded. The soil conditions
are more favorable on the southern side
of the lake, exerting a marked influence
on the foresting. In general it divides
the southern heavy timber from the
northern stunted forest.
On the Eastern Arm of the lake, how-
ever, the conditions in this respect are
more nearly uniform. Several streams,
the courses of some of which are practi-
cally unknown, enter this arm on the
southern side. Hoarfrost River, drain-
ing Walmsley Lake, and Lockhart
River, carrying the waters of Mackay,
Aylmer, Clinton-Golden, and Artillery
lakes, which lie almost wholly in the
Barren Grounds, fall into this arm near
its eastern extremity. The country
bordering its northern shore is rocky and
sparsely wooded, and contains a great
many lakes.
The Northern Arm of Great Slave Lake
* It is exceeded in size by Superior (31,500), Huron
(23,000), Michigan (22,300), and Great Bear (11,400).
IMcConnell.]
lies along the junction of the primitive
and the newer formations. Its eastern
shore, therefore, is mainly composed of
granite, while its western border is of
limestone. Yellowknife River enters
this arm on its eastern side. At the head
of the Northern Arm, in an expansion
named Lake Marian, or Lac du Brochet,
Grandin River discharges its waters.
To the westward of the Northern Arm
and north of the main body of Great
Slave Lake lies a low, broad plateau,
dotted with many lakes and muskegs.
It contains no rivers of consequence and
is mainly rather thinly wooded, though
a number of large prairies occur in the
western part, north of the outlet of
Great Slave Lake.
The country south of the main part of
Great Slave Lake is mainly flat and
swampy. Eagle Mountain, a low, iso-
lated range, lies a short distance south
of the extreme western end of the lake.
The principal stream is Hay River,
which rises close to the height of land
between the Nelson and the Peace, far
to the southwest. The region drained by
it is practically unknown, but is reported
to be low and swampy and mainly well
wooded, though it contains much grassy
prairie, Hay River being said to mark
the northern limit of this character of
country.
Ice forms in the bays and along the
shores of Great Slave Lake in late
October, and the whole lake, though
kept open later by the violent winds, is
usually closed by mid-November. The
ice, which attains a thickness of 6 or
8 ft., usually breaks up in the main or
western part about the first of July,
but sometimes remains in the eastern
part until late July.
Yellow Knife Preserve: An immense
area estimated to contain 70,000 sq. mi.,
extending from Great Bear Lake and the
Coppermile River, south to Great Slave
Lake and Marten Lake, and thus in-
cluding much of the hunting grounds of
the Yellow Knife and the Dogrib In-
dians, is now closed to hunting by others
than natives. Its principal large game
are the moose and caribou. Formerly
126
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
large numbers of musk oxen inhabited
the northern and eastern part of this
area, but few, if any, of this notable
species now remain. Large numbers
of a few species of geese and ducks breed
within this area, but it does not abound
in large marshy tracts which form the
favorite nesting places of waterfowl.
E. The Mackenzie Valley proper. The
Mackenzie (taken in a restricted sense
as comprehending only that part of the
river known under this name) has a
course of over 900 mi. from Great Slave
Lake to the Arctic Sea. It averages
over a mile in width and is usually deep,
with a current of from 2 to 6 mi. an hour.
Its general course is to the northwest.
It is bordered mainly by sandy or grav-
elly beaches and occupies a narrow, com-
paratively shallow valley, through which
it flows in a succession of gentle curves.
Many low islands, usually well wooded,
occur throughout its course. Its rocks
are chiefly Devonian.
Issuing from Great Slave Lake, the
Mackenzie first follows a general west-
erly course for nearly 300 mi. The tribu-
taries which it receives in this stretch,
with the exception of the Liard, are of
minor importance. The Horn Moun-
tains, a long low ridge lie at some dis-
tance north of the middle of the stretch.
To the southward occur other lower
ranges, the principal one being Trout
Mountain. These mountains are very
imperfectly known, but they are too low
to support a fauna and flora differing
appreciably from that of the surrounding
country. A large part of the country
bordering this part of the Mackenzie is
swampy, and it is all well wooded.
Nearly all the species of trees of the
great subarctic forest are represented.
A short distance north of latitude 62
the Mackenzie strikes a spur of the
Rocky Mountain system, the Nahanni
Mountains, is deflected toward the
north, and for some distance flows close
to their bases. At the point where the
Mackenzie first approaches them the
nearest peaks are from 200 to 2500 ft.
in height and are sparsely wooded to
their summits. Farther back they rise
much higher, and above an altitude of
2500 ft. are treeless. In early summer
these mountains are capped with snow,
but this disappears entirely beneath the
almost continuous sunlight of mid-
summer.
Near this point the fauna receives an
infusion of Rocky Mountain types.
Among mammals, these include a chip-
munk (Eutamias borealis caniceps) com-
mon in northern British Columbia and
southern Yukon. The Rocky Mountain
shrew (Sorex obscurus] also occurs, but
has reached also the middle Athabaska
and Great Slave Lake, farther south.
The white mountain sheep (Ovis dalli]
occurs in the Nahanni Mountains at
some distance back from the river and
also farther north, but is not found near
the Mackenzie. Among birds the blue
grouse (Dendragapus obscurus), and the
Townsend solitaire (Myadestes town-
sendi) seem to reach their northeastern
limit on the mountains near the mouth
of the North Nahanni. The northern
varied thrush (Ixoreus naeviusmeruloides)
also reaches the Mackenzie near this
point, and follows its valley to the delta.
Continuing northward, the Mackenzie
is bordered on the west by a broad ex-
panse of mountain country, mainly un-
explored. A few low spurs of the same
system cross the river and appear in
the form of isolated peaks or discon-
nected ranges to the eastward of its
valley. The principal western tribu-
taries between latitude 62 and 65 are
the Red Rock and Gravel rivers. In the
same interval the Mackenzie received
several small streams which drain the
country east of the river. One of the
largest of these is the Blackwater
Mount Clark, which is visible from the
river at some distance below the mouth
of this stream, has an estimated altitude
of 3500 ft., and is the highest of the
mountains east of the Mackenzie. The
most conspicuous landmark in the im-
mediate valley is Roche Trempe-Peau,
a limestone mass which rises abruptly
from the water's edge a short distance
north of latitude 63. Bear River,
the principal eastern tributary of the
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
127
Mackenzie, joins it just south of latitude
65. Below its mouth, on the north side
of the Mackenzie, is Bear Rock, 1400
ft. in height.
Below here the Mackenzie resumes
its general northwesterly course. Wol-
verene Rock, 100 mi. below Bear Rock,
is formed, like that eminence, by an
uplight of the Devonian limestone,
and is about 1000 ft. in height. Twenty-
five miles below here a rocky ridge
crosses the river, forming the Sans
Sault Rapid. The next important fea-
ture in the valley of the Mackenzie is
the defile called the "Ramparts."
Here the river contracts from a width
of 2 mi. to about 500 yds., and flows for
about 7 mi. between precipitous lime-
stone cliffs, which in places rise to a
height of 250 ft.
Below Sans Sault Rapid the Mac-
kenzie recedes from the mountains,
and they are not again visible until the
delta is reached. Hareskin River enters
the Mackenzie from the east a short
distance north of the Ramparts. It
drains a large extent of rocky wooded
country between- Great Bear Lake and
the Mackenzie. For a long distance
below here the Mackenzie maintains a
general northwesterly course. In about
latitude 67 40' it turns rather abruptly
at right angles, and for about 50 mi.
follows a course considerably south of
west. It is here bordered, especially
on the north, by high clay banks,
through which several good-sized
streams cut their way. The river then
turns northward again and maintains a
northwesterly direction to the delta.
The defile called the "Narrows" or
"Lower Ramparts" is encountered near
67 40', and at its lower end Arctic Red
River, from the south, discharges its
muddy waters. As far as known the
country bordering this part of the
Mackenzie on both sides is rolling, well
watered, and fairly well wooded. A
few miles below Arctic Red River the
high banks of the Mackenzie gradually
become lower and the river spreads
out into the delta.
The Mackenzie Delta occupies a
triangular area nearly 100 mi. in length
and 50 mi. broad at its widest part.
To the westward of the delta lies a
range of high hills, the northern ex-
tremity of the Rocky Mountains. They
rise to a height of from 1200 to 1500 ft.,
and their lower slopes only are wooded.
The Caribou Mountains, apparently a
continuation of the ridge which crosses
the Mackenzie at the Lower Ramparts,
lie to the eastward of the delta. They
rise to a height of 700 to 800 ft. and are
less rugged than the mountains west
of the delta.
Climatology : The climate of the Mac-
kenzie Valley is fairly indicated by the
tables of temperature which follow.
They were taken in 1900, which seems
to have been a year of about average
conditions.
Summaries of temperatures taken at Fort
Simpson, Mackenzie, during
the year 1900
EXTK
EMES
IB
a
MONTH
3
P 5
*l
a
|
s
a
fc*
a
s
B
^
w S
i
1
o
S
a
X
i
January
-16.2
-33 5
5
-51.0
-24.8
February
-9.2
-33 5
14
-50.5
-21 4
March
12.8
-17.4
39
-50
-2 3
r'l
41.2
52 6
17 8
35.2
60
66
5.0
27
29 5
43.9
...
June
69.3
45 3
80
27.0
57.3
July
69 4
45.7
79 5
31.5
57.6
August
65.0
44.1
78.0
27.0
54.5
September
October
56.8
29.0
34.7
19.2
71.0
40.0
23.0
3.0
45.7
24.1
5 4
8 7
23
-29
1.7
December
-7.3
-20.1
13.0
-48.0
-13.7
Year
80
-51
20.7
The temperatures of the extreme
upper Mackenzie are undoubtedly
slightly lower than those recorded for
Fort Simpson, but comparable data are
not at hand.
Comparable figures for points in the
valley of the lower Mackenzie and for
Herschel Island show that the winter
climate of the upper and lower Macken-
zie varies but slightly, while the summer
climate is considerably cooler to the
northward.
As has been stated, the warm winds
128
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
from the Pacific sometimes exert a
decided though temporary influence
on the climate of the Mackenzie, and
the Liard, opening early, disrupts the
Mackenzie ice below the confluence.
The removal of the icy covering of an
immense river and the blending with its
flood of the waters of a warmer tributary
necessarily affect conditions along its
banks. The ice in the Liard, having
broken its bonds, is forced against that
of the Mackenzie, through which it
opens a passage, and urged on by the
immense pressure behind it breaks its
way seaward, occasionally becoming
dammed and raising the level of the
water until the increased pressure again
clears a channel. At Fort Simpson,
near latitude 62, the ice continues to
drift in quantity for some days after
its disruption. About ten days, on
the average, after the Mackenzie opens
at this point, or about the time that the
breaking ice has reached latitude 65,
the upper Mackenzie opens and the
channel is filled again with floating ice.
Sometimes a third consignment of
floes, from the "Little Lake" or from
Great Slave Lake, fills its current.
Records of the opening and closing
of the Mackenzie at Fort Simpson, kept
between 1876 and 1906 (but not con-
tinuously) show that the river usually
broke up between May 5 and 10 (ex-
treme dates April 29 and May 14),
and closed usually about November 20
v extreme dates November 17 and No-
vember 28). At the mouth of Bear
River the Mackenzie usuall}' opens
between May 15 and 20 (extreme dates
May 9 and May 28;, and closes about
November 10 (extreme dates November
2 and November 18).
Seasonal phenomena in Mackenzie
Valley, 1903-1904: Following is a brief
account of the progress of the seasons
and attendant phenomena as observed
by the writer from October 1, 1903,
to July, 1904. The first three weeks in
October were spent in ascending the
Mackenzie from Fort Norman, at the
mouth of Bear River, to Fort Simpson,
at the mouth of the Liard. The fact
that these notes were taken while the
party was traveling detracts but little
from their value, since the conditions
in different parts of this stretch of river
were nearly uniform at that time. The
period from October 20, 1903, to June 1,
1904, was spent at Fort Simpson, and
the month of June in descending the
Mackenzie to its delta.
When the Mackenzie was reached, on
September 30, 1903, by descending Bear
River, a marked contrast was noted
between the conditions left behind at
Great Bear Lake and those encountered
on the Mackenzie. The temperature
was considerably higher, and several
species of small birds which had practi-
cally disappeared from Great Bear Lake
were common. The high mountains to
the west of the Mackenzie were covered
with snow.
During the first few days of October,
as we were ascending the Mackenzie,
the weather was mostly fine, with south-
erly winds part of the time. The nights
were frosty and ice formed on still
water. The blue flowers of a gentian
(apparently Gentiana acuta\ the latest
flowers observed, were seen on October
3. During the night of October 7 (above
Blackwater River) a little snow fell,
but it disappeared during the following
day. On the night of October 12 (above
Fort Wrigley) 4 in. of snow fell, and on
the night of October 14 another fall of
snow occurred. Some ice was seen
drifting on the west side of the Mac-
kenzie on October 15 (above mouth
Nahanni River). 3 On the following day
the drifting ice had greatly increased in
quantity, and on October 17 our progress
by canoe was arrested. At this time
the last of the tree sparrows and a few
other hardy species left for the South.
Fort Simpson: The Liard was par-
tially closed at its mouth on October
21, but broke away once or twice before
it finally set fast. The weather from
October 21 to 25 was considerably milder
than it had been during the previous
8 It should be noted that the appearance of
drifting ice at this early date was almost unprece-
dented.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
129
week, and on the 26th and 27th it became
still warmer and the ice practically
ceased running. On October 28, how-
ever, the weather became colder and the
ice again appeared. From this date it
continued to run and the snow steadily
accumulated. The thermometer did not
rise above the freezing point, and con-
sequently there was no thawing, except
to a very slight extent in sheltered
spots directly exposed to the sun. While
the river remained open its expanse of
ice-laden water added greatly to the
intensity of the cold. From the same
cause the trees and shrubs were nightly
loaded with ice crystals. On the night
of November 7 the minimum tempera-
ture recorded was 10, and on the
night of November 15 a temperature of
27 was registered.
During the night of November 18 the
river finally set fast. In this process
the drifting ice accumulates until it
has so filled the river that it jams in
some place where it has partially bridged
the channel. Against this barrier the
oncoming floes, laden with saturated
snow, are pushed by the current, and
becoming lodged in all possible positions
are almost instantly cemented together
by the intense cold. This process con-
tinues upstream, usually without inter-
ruption, until the whole river is closed.
During November and December the
cold steadily increased in intensity and
the snow gradually accumulated. When
no thaw occurs the snow remains so
light and powdery that it does not settle
appreciably. On the shortest days the
sun rose in the southeast about 9.30
a.m. and, after describing a low arc
over the tree tops, set about 2.30 p.m.
Even at midday its heat was scarcely
appreciable. After the middle of De-
cember the thermometer scarcely ever
rose above zero. From January 1 to
March 12, 1904, it rose above zero on
only eight occasions. The lowest tem-
perature recorded was 54, on January
20 and 21. During the third week in
January the average daily maximum
was 30; the average daily minimum
-45.
A grave which was dug on February
26, 1904, afforded an opportunity to
ascertain the depth to which frost had
penetrated. The location was a sandy
knoll somewhat sheltered on the north
by a thick growth of young trees and
open to the south. Snow lay to a depth
of about 3 ft. The frost had reached a
depth of only 20 in., but the excavation
was not carried to a sufficient depth to
reach the permanently frozen sub-
stratum.
On March 26 the temperature first
rose above the freezing point and from
that date did not descend below zero.
When the spring thaw set in the snow
had attained a depth of nearly 4 ft.
The progress of the season at Fort
Simpson from March to June, 1904, as
indicated by the temperatures of suc-
cessive weeks, is shown in the following
table:
Temperatures of successive weeks, spring
of 1904, at Fort Simpson,
Mackenzie River
*g
s
P
M
H
H
FOURTH
WEEK*
Average of daily maxima:
March
-2.8
-2.7
9.5
30.7
April
39.4
42.7
46 4
57.9
Mav
46.0
50.8
59.7
53 2
June
Average of daily minima:
March
62.1
25.4
63.1
-26.8
60.0
-16.0
70.4
3 3
April
May
11.8
30.6
23.4
33.2
23.4
38.8
33.5
34 5
June
39.7
44.4
43.8
48.6
*The "fourth week" includes the last nine or
ten days of the month.
On March 19 a flock of white-winged
crossbills, evidently migrants, was seen.
On March 28 the first hawk owl of the
spring was observed, and snow fleas
(Achorutes) appeared. About the same
time several species of small birds,
which had been seen rarely during the
winter, appeared in larger numbers.
On March 30 the buds and catkins on
the willows and alders imparted a
brown tinge to the hillsides where these
shrubs were common . On the same date
snow buntings, which had been absent
since the middle of December, reap-
130
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
peared. On April 2 many small grayish
moths were seen in the woods. On
April 17 a mourning-cloak butterfly
(Euvanessa) was seen. By April 18 the
snow had nearly disappeared from the
fields. Mosquitoes (Culex annulatus)
first appeared on April 20, and were
biting on April 24, but did not become
troublesome until over a month later.
The sap of the white birches began to
flow freely on April 20. On April 23 a
small space of open water was seen near
the mouth of the Liard. Frogs (Rana
cantabrigensis latiremis) were first ob-
served on April 28.
On April 29 Liard River broke up. Its
advancing flood first opened a channel
nearly straight across the Mackenzie,
forcing the ice with irresistible power
up on the opposite bank in immense
piles. At the same time a mound 60
or 70 ft. in height was formed at the
mouth of one of the channels of the
Liard, several immense cracks opened
in the white expanse before the post,
and the huge sheets were soon broken
up. The stupendous amount of force
exerted by the river upon the broad
expanse of ice, 5 ft. in thickness, as with
a grinding roar it folds and crushes the
mighty sheets like cardboard, reducing
them to powder and forcing them aloft
in great mounds, impresses the beholder,
who is likewise occupied in considering
the possibility of the river being dammed
sufficiently to overflow the ground on
which he stands. Such a catastrophe
has destroyed more than one post on
the Mackenzie in years past.
At this time a few ducks appeared in
open places on the river. On May 6 a
small quantity of snow fell. The leaves
of Ribes oxyacanthoides began to appear
on May 8. By this time the river was
nearly clear of ice below the mouth of
the Liard, but above its mouth the ice
in the Mackenzie was still intact. On
May 10 large sheets of the Mackenzie
ice broke away and floated down, but
the river did not open from above until
May 13. The water then rose and
became filled with ice, but on the fol-
lowing day was nearly clear again and
had fallen. On May 10 the leaves on
aspens and birches were half an inch in
length. About the middle of May blue
violets (Viola albertina) blossomed.
The weather continued warm and vege-
tation advanced steadily. On May 18
Virburnum pauciflorum and Populus
balsamifera put forth their leaves,
and mountain cranberry (Vitisidaea)
was in flower. Birds were now coming
fast and additional species were noted
daily, but on May 21 the weather turned
cold and stormy. This had the effect
of retarding the advance of vegetation
and the tide of bird migration. On May
22 Ribes oxycanthoides and Calypso
bulbosa were in flower. The weather
remained cold and stormy during the
remainder of the month and the condi-
tions of vegetation and of bird migration
remained almost at a standstill. On
May 29 several inches of snow fell.
Mackenzie below Fort Simpson: On
June 1, 1904, 1 left Fort Simpson, and
spent the remainder of the month de-
scending the Mackenzie, my rate of
travel keeping pace in general with the
advance of spring. The weather during
the first few days of June was favorable
and vegetation made good progess.
On June 2, a few miles below Fort Simp-
son, the leaves of the tamaracks were
just coming out. All along the river
more or less ice still lay on the banks,
but a few miles above Fort -Norman
the quantity was astounding. Many of
the stranded cakes were upward of 20
ft. in thickness. On June 17, below
Fort Norman, a small quantity of snow
fell. On June 21, at Fort Good Hope,
the leaves on most of the trees were
about half grown. On the same date
the sun was visible at midnight from a
low hill near the post, and many birds
were in full song at that hour. For
the next three weeks, north of this
point, the sun was continually above
the horizon. Vegetation now advanced
rather faster than our rate of travel
northward, but was not at its height
when we reached the delta of the Mac-
kenzie on June 30.
Preserved areas: Peel River Preserve:
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
131
This recently established preserve, on
which natives only are allowed to hunt,
includes a rather long and narrow area
lying between Arctic Red River and the
Peel River divide north to the Mackenzie
delta, being entirely in the Mackenzie
district. It contains about 3300 sq.mi.
Its principal game animal is the moose.
Many ducks of several species nest
here, but the area is not especially nota-
ble as a wild fowl resort.
F. The Basin of Great Bear Lake.
A short account of Great Bear Lake may
begin with a portion of the description
by Richardson, who examined most of
its shore line in 1825 and 1826. He says:
Great Bear Lake is an extensive sheet
of water, of a very irregular shape,
being formed by the union of five arms
or bays in a common center. The
greatest diameter of the lake, measuring
about 150 mi., runs from the bottom of
Dease Bay, which receives the principal
feeding stream, to the bottom of Keith
Bay, from whence the Bear Lake River
issues, and has a direction of N.E. to
S.W. The transverse diameter has a
direction from N.W. by W. to S.E. by
E., and is upwards of 120 mi. in length.
The light bluish-coloured water of Great
Bear Lake is everywhere transparent,
and is particularly clear near some
primitive mountains, which exist in
M'Tavish Bay. A piece of white rag,
let down there, did not disappear until
it descended fifteen fathoms. The depth
of water, in the center of the lake, was
not ascertained; but it is known to be
very considerable. Near the shore, in
M'Tavish Bay, forty-five fathoms of
line did not reach the bottom. (Narr.
Second Exp'd to Polar Sea, Appendix,
p. ii, 1828.)
Great Bear Lake, according to the
Canadian Geological Survey, has an
area of approximately 11,400 sq. mi.
and lies 391 ft. above the level of the sea.
Its shores, with the exception of parts of
MacTavish Bay, are rather low. Its
southern and western shores are well
wooded, while its northern and eastern
borders are more thinly forested. The
immediate shores are mainly of sand or
gravel and are usually devoid of trees,
but are well clothed with willows and
various ericaceous shrubs and herba-
ceous plants. In most places along the
south shore this treeless stretch is only
a few hundred yards in width, and in the
bays the forest extends to the water's
edge. In the vicinity of Leith Point,
however, a treeless area stretches from
near MacTavish Bay to Me Vicar Bay,
and extends inland for several miles.
On this area the faunal and floral con-
ditions are practically those of the
Barren Grounds.
The junction between the primitive
or granitic rocks and the limestone
formation crosses Great Bear Lake
near its eastern extremity. To the
eastward of the dividing line the shores
are higher, especially around Mac-
Tavish Bay, where the mountains ap-
proach closely to the shore. The Griz-
zly Bear Mountain, which occupies the
peninsula between Keith and McVicar
bays, is upwards of 900 ft. high and
several hundred feet of its upper portion
are devoid of trees. On the opposite
side of the lake, between Smith and
Keith bays, a broad peninsula is oc-
cupied by the Scented Grass Hills, of
about the same height and similar in
structure to the Grizzly Bear Mountain.
The mountains which border Mac-
Tavish Bay are so rocky that it is diffi-
cult to trace the limit of timber on their
sides.
The northern shores of Great Bear
Lake are described as mainly low and
thinly forested, although the country
at some distance inland is better
wooded.
The tributaries of Great Bear Lake
are comparatively few in number.
Dease River, which discharges into the
northeastern extremity of the lake, is
probably the best known of its feeders.
It rises on the treeless height of land
between Dease Bay and the lower Cop-
permine. Several important streams
enter the lake from the north. Several
others, draining a very large extent of
country to the southward, enter Mac-
Tavish and McVicar bays. The latter
receives also the waters of a chain of
large lakes lying north of Marten Lake
(which discharges into Great Slave
Lake). The country drained by the
132
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
southern tributaries is very rough and
rocky, though fairly well wooded, and is
traversed in various directions by
ranges of low mountains.
G. Region north of Great Bear Lake.
North of Great Bear Lake lies an area
of considerable size bounded on the
west by the Mackenzie, on the east by
the lower Coppermine and Coronation
Gulf, and on the north by the Arctic
Ocean, into which flow most of its
rivers. Its southern portion is sparsely
wooded; its barren northern part re-
ceives narrow tongues of forest along
the northward flowing rivers. Its fauna
and flora, therefore, are those of the
northern stunted forest and the Barren
Grounds, about equally divided. Its
surface is mainly rolling with some
ranges of low hills, and many lakes.
Its climate is essentially Arctic.
H. The Liard River Valley. TheLiard
River has its sources west of the Rocky
Mountains, one of its branches rising
within 150 mi. of the Pacific.
In its upper portion the Liard bears a
strong superficial resemblance to the
upper Peace, being formed by large
north and south trending branches which
unite west of the mountains and, like
the Peace, cut eastward through the
main range of the Rocky Mountains.
Fort Nelson River, entering the Liard
from the south, is its principal branch
east of the mountains. It rises near
the headwaters of Pine River (north),
and pursues a very tortuous northerly
course to the Liard. Below the junction
the Liard flows northerly and then
northeasterly, still being bordered on
the western side by spurs of the Rocky
Mountain range. The country east of
the lower Liard is mainly low and
swampy in character. The valley of
the lower Liard is heavily wooded, the
largest tree being the balsam poplar
(Populus balsamifera), which here attains
perfection of habit, and from which the
river is said to take its name. The
other forest trees also are those common
to the whole region.
The upper reaches of the Liard are
most readily reached from the Pacific
side, by ascending the Stikine, and
crossing the low height of land.
The climate of the Liard River Valley,
like that of the Peace, varies widely in
the different sections. The upper part
of the river, lying west of the main
divide, enjoys a climate much tempered
by the warm Pacific winds. The upper
Nelson River also, the principal tribu-
tary of the Liard east of the mountains,
lies far to the southward and sufficiently
near the Pacific to come within its
modifying influence. Unfortunately no
exact data regarding the temperature
of the upper Liard or the Nelson are at
hand; hence the conditions there can not
be compared directly with those on its
lower course. The average temperature
conditions on the lower Liard may be
fairly represented by those taken at
Fort Simpson in 1900. The warm west-
erly winds which reach the valley of the
Liard extend their influence as far as
its mouth and have been known to cause
a pronounced thaw there even in Janu-
ary, the coldest month. This modifying
influence is apparent in the character
and progress of vegetation, the migra-
tion of birds, and in other phenomena.
It is especially manifest, however, in
its relation to the breaking up of the
river and the attendant effect on the
conditions along the banks. Further-
more, the disruption of the Liard ice
starts that in the Mackenzie also, which
thus opens considerably earlier than
would be the case were it not affected
by its warmer tributary. This, of
course, has its natural effect in accelerat-
ing the progress of vegetation on the
banks of the Mackenzie below the Liard.
At Fort Liard, the river freezes up
between the last of October and the
middle of November and usually opens
about the first of May.
/. Northeastern British Columbia and
Yukon. Reference has already been
made to the fact that both Peace and
Liard rivers rise west of the main ranges
of the Rocky Mountains which farther
south form a strict watershed, but which
are here traversed by these great
streams. There results a large area in
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
133
British Columbia which faunally and
florally resembles the Mackenzie Basin,
but which naturally has derived many
of its species from the Pacific slope and
the Rocky Mountains. Northwest-
wardly this area extends to include the
valley of the Upper Yukon, whose upper
branches interlock with those of the
Liard.
The valleys of the Parsnip and the
Finlay, which unite to form the Peace,
lie in the valley referred to in another
account as the Rocky Mountain Trench,
which extends in a general north-north-
west direction from near the northern
boundary of the United States to Yukon
Territory. This great valley was
plainly formed at a time when the
drainage of the region was very different
from the present system. The various
northward and southward flowing
streams which now occupy it are long
and comparatively slow-flowing, so that
one may travel from latitude 49 north-
ward to the Yukon without encountering
any extraordinary differences in alti-
tude. Most of the side tributaries of
these streams, however, are compara-
tively short and swift. Farther north
the ancient valley holds tributaries of
the Liard and the Yukon.
To the west of these rivers lies an
elevated region which besides forming
a nursery for these eastward-flowing
rivers, gives rise to several others enter-
ing the Pacific. The mountains of this
area comprise many single mountain
masses and short ranges disposed in
irregular systems, and the numerous
streams which drain them flow in all
directions. The principal ones on the
upper courses occupy broad valleys
through which they meander over shal-
low gravelly beds, but lower down they
cut canyons as they approach the main
rivers, which occupy deep valleys, some-
times gorge-like in character. This
region, lying between the Rocky Moun-
tains and the coast ranges, is considered
by Dawson (1891) to be an ancient
plateau which has been dissected by
glacial action into a region traversed
by broad level valleys flanked by moun-
tains which are often steep and craggy.
It is evident to the most casual observer
that these wide flat valleys must have
been excavated by some more formidable
forces than the comparatively small
and shallow streams which now meander
through thtm.
The trees and shrubs of this region are
largely those common to the great
transcontinental conifer forest, enumer-
ated on earlier pages. The lodge-pole
pine here replaces the Banksian pine,
however, and certain other trees and
shrubs characteristic of the coast region
or of the Rocky Mountains are present.
Some of these will be noted in the de-
scriptions of the various topographic
features. These may best be considered
under the several river valleys.
Stikine River Valley: The Stikine
River rises in a large irregular mountain
mass in about latitude 57 from which
flow also head tributaries of the Finlay,
flowing to Peace River and the Arctic,
and the Skeena, flowing to the Pacific.
Disregarding its smaller head feeders,
the Stikine may be considered as rising
from a string of three lakes, from which
it flows eastward, or directly away from
its final destination. Traversing valleys
flanked by high mountains it is soon
joined by numbers of small branches,
and in the first one hundred miles of its
course has attained a considerable size,
has turned a half-circle northward and
westward, and is now started fairly
toward its final goal. Here it joins
the Ispatseeza which has risen near
the same place and has flowed north-
ward and eastward. These streams are
of about equal size and divide honors as
the head tributary. From their junc-
tion the combined river turns to the
westward, and receives in succession
the Ketatsil or Pitman from the east,
the Kilicho from the north, the Klappan
from the south, the Tanzilla from the
north, and the Klastline or Second
South Fork and the Mestua, or First
South Fork, from the south. The north-
erly streams mentioned take their rise
close to tributaries of the Liard, while
those from the south rise in ranges which
134
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
give birth also to branches of the Nass,
the Skeena, and the Finlay.
A typical valley, that of the Upper
Ispatseeza, may be described in some
detail. It varies from a mile or less to
several miles in width. Long stretches,
perfectly level, having a gipvelly soil
covered with a good growth of grass,
are frequent, and these often succeed
each other as terraces, with altitudinal
differences of only a few feet, or may
alternate with gently undulating mea-
dows clothed with patches of willows
and dwarf birches, or with stunted white
spruces, which merge gradually into the
fairly well grown forest which covers
the sides of the bordering mountains.
These valleys though largely treeless
correspond to the stunted forest belt
of the Mackenzie and most of their
woody plants are the same. With them
are found also certain Rocky Mountain
plants, including the large blue larkspur
(Delphinium menziesii), western ane-
mone (Pulsatilla occidentalis] , and the
yellow paint brush (Castilleja pallida).
Mammals more or less characteristic
of these broad valleys are the Osborn
caribou (Rangifer osborni), the hoary
marmot (Marmota caligata oxytona],
the Yukon ground squirrel (Citellus
plesius), and the British Columbia
lemming (Lemmus helvolus). The most
characteristic birds are the willow
ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus) which
breeds almost entirely on these brushy
meadows, the golden-crowned sparrow
(Zonotrichia coronata), and the western
tree sparrow (Spizella monticola
ochracea).
In these valleys, usually at the sources
of streams, sometimes in the forest, and
sometimes above the timberline, lakes
of clear water occur. About these nest
Barrow's goldeneye.
Bordering the valleys a zone of spruce
usually covers the lower slopes of the
mountains, which are treeless above an
altitude of about 5000 ft. The summits
of the mountains are usually rocky,
sometimes craggy and precipitous, but
hold many gently sloping meadows and
hanging valleys, well-watered and sup-
porting an alpine flora of great beauty.
The fauna of the peaks include the
mountain sheep (Ovis d. stonei) and
the mountain goat (Oreamnos m. colum-
bianus} which usually, but not in-
variably, choose different mountains,
the hoary marmot, the white-tailed and
rock ptarmigan, the pipit, the Alaska
horned lark, and the Hepburn rosy
finch.
Below the level of these broad valley
meadows, where the streams cut their
way down to the deeper canyons of the
main valleys, the trees are those of the
main transcontinental forest, with an
infusion of west coast types. Populus
trichocarpa replaces Populus balsami-
fera, and the red-berried elder is occa-
sional in the damper situations. The
plants, however, are virtually the same
as those of the great interior forest as
far down the Stikine as the Little Can-
yon, below which the flora and fauna
changes abruptly to that characteristic
of the coast region, elsewhere con-
sidered. In these lower valleys and the
adjacent slopes up to about 2000 ft.
(Canadian Zone), certain birds of the
Athabaska-Mackenzie region are com-
mon, including gray ruffed grouse, yel-
low-bellied sapsucker, eastern night-
hawk, Say's phoebe, alder flycatcher,
rusty grackle, Gambel's sparrow, west-
ern chipping sparrow, junco, cliff swal-
low, barn swallow, western warbling
vireo, Tennessee warbler, redstart, olive-
backed thrush, hermit thrush, with
many others. With these are found the
following which are mainly confined to
the Rocky Mountain region: Hammond
flycatcher, Wright flycatcher, violet-
green swallow, Macgillivray warbler,
Myadestes towns endi, and Ixoreus naevius
meruloides.
Yukon: Yukon, stretching through
nearly ten degrees of latitude, and
extending from the Arctic Ocean nearly
the Pacific, lies between Mackenzie,
British Columbia, and Alaska, and sends
rivers of considerable size to all of these
adjacent regions. Its affinities are close
to Alaska, owing to its contributions
to the Yukon, Alaska's main waterway.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
135
All of the main head tributaries of this
great stream, the Stewart, Pelly, Lewes,
and White, together with the Porcupine,
rise either within Yukon's borders, or
close to them, and drain about four-
fifths of its territory. Most of the area
remaining contributes to the Liard and
Peel.
As might be inferred from the fore-
going discussion of its drainage, the
Yukon River affords the principal
means of access to most parts of Yukon
Territory. From Skagway, at the head
of navigation on Lynn Canal, the White
Pass and Yukon Railway takes one to
Whitehorse at the head of steamboat
navigation on the Yukon, which may, of
course, be easily descended with or
without power. From their junctions
with the Yukon, the Pelly, Stewart,
and many smaller streams may be
ascended by small power boats or by
tracking well toward the main divide,
affording access to alpine areas of large
extent. The Frances Lake region, which
is drained by Frances River and other-
tributaries of the Liard, may be reached
by canoe from the upper Pelly, or from
the Dease Lake region of British
Columbia.
Faunally and florally, Yukon has close
affinities with both Mackenzie and
Alaska. Comparison of lists of plants
of the three sections show very few
differences. Their mammal and bird
faunas are also strikingly alike.
Of the large game animals of Yukon
the mountain sheep, found on both the
eastern (Mackenzie) and the western
slopes of the main Rocky Mountain
range, here generally referred to as the
Mackenzie Mountains, as well as in many
of the ranges to the westward, from
southern Yukon north to the Arctic
watershed, is probably the most interest-
ing. This animal (Ovis dalli), is found
in its typical form in many of the ranges
of northern Yukon. To the south it
gradually becomes darker, finally merg-
ing into the dark race named Ovis stonei
of northern British Columbia. Moose,
caribou, black and grizzly bears, and
(in extreme southeastern Yukon) moun-
tain goats, are also found in some
numbers.
Most of the small mammals show
affinities with both Mackenzie and
British Columbia, in varying degrees.
The chestnut-cheeked meadow mouse
(Microtus xanthognathus) , the Hudson
Bay jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius),
the Rocky Mountain shrew (Sorex
obscurus), and the Yukon chipmunk
(Eutamias b. caniceps) are found in both
the Mackenzie and Yukon regions.
The British Columbia wood rat (Neo-
toma c. saxamans) is a Rocky Mountain
type, extending northward from British
Columbia into southern Yukon.
The avifauna of Yukon, especially as
regards the smaller land birds, shows
close affinities with the Mackenzie
Valley. Conspicuous are the following
species, most of which probably have a
breeding range which is continuous from
Mackenzie to Yukon by way of the low
valleys tributary to the upper Liard
and thus including northeastern British
Columbia. A partial list follows: Co-
laptes a. borealis, Chordeiles virginianus,
Empidonax trailli alnorum, Euphagus
carolinus, Passerculus sandwichensis al-
audinus, Zonotrichia leucophrys gambeli,
Junco hyemalis, Petrochelidon lunifrons,
Hirundo erythrog aster, Tachycineta bi-
color, Vermivora celata orestera, V.
peregrina, Dendroica aestiva rubiginosa,
D. coronata, D. striata, Seiurus auroca-
pillus, S. noveboracensis notabilis, Wil-
sonia pusilla, Sitta canadensis, Pen-
thestes atricapillus septentrionalis, Hylo-
cichla aliciae, H. ustulata swainsoni, H.
a. pallasi, and Ixoreus n. meruloides.
Species which extend northward from
western British Columbia include the
following: Selasphorus rufus, Pica p.
hudsonica, Dendroica townsendi, Empi-
donax hammondi, Zonotrichia coronata,
and Tachycineta thalassina lepida.
Most of these reach the upper Yukon
(Canadian Zone) only.
2. The Barren Grounds (Arctic Zone)
Under this heading will be considered
the great area lying to the north and
northeast of Great Bear and Great
136
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Slave lakes. It is watered by the
Anderson, Coppermine, Great Fish,
Thelon or Ark-i-linik, and many smaller
rivers. With the exception of Great
Fish River all those named are wooded
to some extent on their upper portions,
but by far the greater part of the area
drained by them is treeless. It may be
well to trace the northern boundary of
the great transcontinental forest from
the western shore of Hudson Bay to the
mouth of the Mackenzie.
Starting from the mouth of Churchill
River, Hudson Bay, the tree line follows
the shore closely for a few miles and
then curves gently inland. Thence it
extends northwesterly, crossing Nueltin,
or Island Lake; Ennadai Lake on Kazan
River; and Boyd Lake on the Dubawnt.
Just north of 60 on Artillery Lake is
the next point where we have a definite
dividing line. Between the Dubawnt
and Artillery Lake is the valley of the
upper Thelon, or Ark-i-linik, along
whose banks the forest extends in a
narrow line far into the general treeless
area. This northward extending tongue
of forest will be more fully described
beyond.
From Artillery Lake the line extends
northwestward to Point Lake, curving
toward the southwest in the interval
and crossing Lake Mackay south of
latitude 64. From Point Lake, whose
shores are practically devoid of trees,
nearly to latitude 67, the banks of the
Coppermine are so thinly wooded that
the river may be taken as the approxi-
mate boundary of the woods. Spruces
occur on the Coppermine as far north
as the mouth of Kendall River, but are
absent from the summit of the divide
between there and Great Bear Lake and
reappear on lower Dease River. The
north shore of Great Bear Lake is thinly
wooded and tongues of timber follow
the northward-flowing rivers well into
the Barren Grounds, on the Wilmot
Horton to latitude 69. The tree line
crosses the Anderson north of the same
parallel, and thence extends northwest
to the mouth of the Mackenzie, probably
dipping to the south in the interval, as
is usually the case in the areas between
rivers. West of the timbered delta of
the Mackenzie a considerable area ot
treeless country occurs.
In general the surface of the Barren
Grounds may be described as rolling.
The greater part of its area lies within
the region of the primitive rocks, and
many low granitic hills, some of them
with precipitous cliffs, are found.
Thousand of lakes, many of consider-
able extent, and abounding in lake
trout, dot its surface. There are vast
areas of grassy plains and gentle slopes,
on which, during the short summer, the
bright flowers of a profusion of shrubby
and herbaceous plants lend their beauty
to the landscape, and prove the appella-
tion "Barren Grounds" to be a mis-
nomer, though in many parts, from the
nature of the soil, there is little plant
life. Alders (Alnus alnobetula) occur
in a more or less dwarfed condition in
favorable places well into the treeless
area, and several species of willows,
some of which here attain a height of
5 or 6 ft., border some of the streams
as far north as the Arctic Ocean. These
are the only trees which occur even in a
dwarfed state on the Barren Grounds
proper.
The northward extension of the coni-
ferous forest along the banks of north-
ward-flowing rivers has already been
referred to. The most remarkable ex-
ample of this phenomenon is found on
the Thelon, or Ark-i-linik, a stream
tributary to Hudson Bay. From a
point near latitude 62|, which is as far
south as the river has been explored,
and is within the main area of the Bar-
ren Grounds, a more or less continuous
belt of spruce borders the river as far
north as latitude 64|, a distance of
over 200 mi. by the river. A few species
of woodland-breeding birds follow these
extensions of the forest to their limits.
Climatology: No tables of tempera-
ture taken throughout the year at any
point in the Barren Grounds are avail-
able. The winters are, of course, very
long and the summers short, with the
intervening seasons practically wanting.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
137
Winter sets in soon after the 1st of
September and persists until May,
with only a short season of spring.
During the short summer the progress
of vegetation is very rapid, but the
seeds and berries are scarcely ripened
before winter again asserts its sway.
Owing to the great thickness of their
icy covering, some of the lakes of the
Barren Grounds are not clear of ice in
backward seasons until July, or even
August, when new ice has usually begun
to form in still water. They generally
break up in late June or early July.
The rivers, having the advantage of a
current, open earlier than the lakes.
During a residence of about five years
at Fort Anderson, on Anderson River,
MacFarlane observed the river to set
fast on two occasions as early as Sep-
tember 10, though once it remained open
until October 10. In 1857 the Anderson
broke up at the mouth of the Lockhart
on June 12. At Fort Anderson the
dates of the opening of the river were
as follows: 1861, about May 15; 1862,
May 19; 1863, May 30; 1864, May 31;
1865, June 2. During the last days of
June, 1864, MacFarlane found nearly all
the lakes on the Barren Grounds still
covered with ice, though the rivers
were open.
In 1821, when Franklin's party started
to descend the Coppermine on July 1,
the lakes on its upper course were still
covered with ice. Apparently the river
had opened only a short time before.
In 1849 Doctor Rae noted the breaking
up of the same river near its mouth on
June 28. At this time the leaves of the
dwarf birches were out, and the leaf
buds of the willows had begun to de-
velop. The lower part of the river
remained blocked with ice until July 13.
Preserved areas: Backs River Pre-
serve: This great area containing up-
wards of 65,000 sq. mi., includes most of
the valley of Backs River and north to
the Arctic Coast, from Bathurst Inlet
east to Backs Inlet. Its natives, chiefly
Eskimo, retain the sole right to hunt.
This area is the breeding ground of great
numbers of the Barren Ground caribou,
some of which remain in winter, though
many migrate southward at that sea-
son. Many musk oxen also are found
here, this being the only one of the
several preserves recently established
which harbors this notable species in
any numbers.
S. The region northwest of Hudson Bay
This section of country has already
been described, in effect, in the account
of the Barren Grounds of the Mackenzie
region. Its rivers excepting those emp-
tying into Chesterfield Inlet, are not
readily navigable. Those parts border-
ing on Hudson Bay can be reached, of
course, most readily by means of that
great inland sea, which is itself reached
either by way of Hudson Strait, or by
means of the several rivers, navigable by
canoes only, which enter it from the
south and southwest. Railroads,
branches of the Canadian National, now
take the traveler several hundred miles
nearer Hudson Bay than formerly, and
as projected will ultimately reach its
shores, but at present the journey must
be completed by canoe or dog-sled. The
waters of Hudson Bay, furthermore, are
scarcely nagivable by means of the frail
canoes by which the passage of these
rapid and shallow streams must be
effected, so that access to the region is
very difficult. Parts of the country
draining into northwestern Hudson Bay,
however, can be reached by canoe from
Great Slave Lake, though the shortness
of the season of open water makes such
a journey a very hurried one.
4. The Arctic Islands (Arctic Zone}
The Arctic Islands, lying to the north-
ward of the continent of North America,
are closely related faunally and florally
to the neighboring mainland. Being
more northerly and surrounded by an
ocean which is frozen over from 6 to 9
months of the year, it follows that both
animal and vegetable life include fewer
species. They are of course treeless,
and their shrubs comprise only a few
creeping species, some indeed, the same
that inhabit more favorable habitats to
138
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
the southward, but which here, in defer-
ence to the influence of the chilling winds
and hard-packed snow against which
they must struggle, cling closely to their
parent earth.
The mammalian inhabitants of the
Arctic Islands are few in number. The
musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) occurs only
on certain ones, the reasons for its choice
being in many cases difficult or impossi-
ble of explanation. Its habitat includes
the peninsulas and islands northward
from the eastern part of its main conti-
nental range northeastward to northern
Greenland. Another island area com-
prises Banks Land, the adjacent part of
Victoria Island, and the southern part of
Melville Island, this aggregate area
being isolated from the remainder of its
present range . The only other ruminant
is the Barren Ground caribou (Rangifer
arcticus and related forms), which
inhabits practically all the islands, for-
saking some of them in winter, but being
a year-long inhabitant of most of the
area in question. The other land mam-
mals include the polar bear (Thalarctos
maritimus], Arctic fox (Alopex lagopus
innuitus), Arctic weasel (Mustela
arctica), an occasional wolverene (Gulo
luscus), the Arctic hare (Lepus arcticus},
pied lemming (Dicrostonyx} , and the
brown lemming (Lemmus). All these
are either circumpolar species, or close
relatives of such.
The birds of the Arctic Islands are
more numerous in species, including
most of the genera already listed as
breeding on the continental Barren
Grounds, and a few which are practically
confined as breeders to these uttermost
insular lands.
Most of the Arctic Islands are accessi-
ble only by sea-going vessels, and can
be reached practicably only by way of
Baffin Bay and Lancaster Sound, and its
various connecting channels. In this
category may be included all the islands
and peninsulas lying to the north and
east of McClintock Channel and McClure
Strait, and the northern and eastern
shores of Victoria Land and Banks Land.
The southern and western shores of these
latter insular masses may be reached in
ordinary seasons from the west by way of
the Arctic Ocean, and Dolphin and Union
Strait. The reason for this strict divi-
sion is the drift ice that usually chokes
the western entrance to McClure Strait,
which prevented the accomplishment of
the Northwest passage when it was first
attempted in 1819, and has since almost
invariably forbidden the passage of
vessels in either direction. In winter
and early spring, by Eskimo methods of
traveling, these islands are accessible
from the west and south, but this method
is seldom practicable for expeditions
having for their main objective the
collecting of natural history specimens.
Plants. Excluding the ferns, grasses,
and sedges, the plants of the Arctic
Islands include the following:
Tofieldia palustris
Salix arctica
Salix glauca
Salix richardsonii
Salix alaxensis
Salix reticulata
Polygonum viv parum
Oxyria digyna
Silene acaulis
Lychnis apetala
Lychnis affinis
Stellaria longipes
Stellaria humifusa
Cerastium alpinum
Helianthus peploides
A isine verna rubella
Caltha palustris radicans
Anemone richardsonii
Ranunculus hyperboreus
Ranunculus pygmaeus
Ranunculus sulphureus
Ranunculus nivalis
Ranunculus affinis
Ranunculus sabinii
Papaver nudicaule
Draba alpina
Draba nivalis
Draba fladnizensis
Draba hirta
Braya purpurascens
Eutrema edwardsii
Hesperis pallasii
Cardamine digitata
Cardamine pratensis
Parrya arctica
Chrysosplenium tetrandrum
Saxifraga rivularis
Saxifraga cernua
Saxifraga hirculus
Saxifraga nivalis
Saxifraga hieraciifolia
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
Saxifraga decipiens groenlandica
Saxifraga tricuspidata
Saxifraga aizoides
Saxifraga flagellaris
Saxifraga oppositifolia
Dryas octopetala
Dry as integrifolia
Potentilla pulchella
Potentilla nivea
Potentilla rubricaulis
Potentilla vahliana
Potentilla emarginata
Rubus chamaemorus
Lupinus arcticus
Astragalus alpinus
Astragalus aboriginorum
Oxytropis campestris
Oxytropis nigrescens
Oxytropis arctobia
Hedysarum mackenzii
Hedysarum alpinum
Empetrum nigrum
Epilobium latifolium
Epilobium angustifolium
Hippuris vulgaris
Pyrola grandi 'flora
Ledum palustre
Rhododendron lapponicum
Loiseleuria procumbens
Cassiope tetragona
Arctostaphylos alpina
Vaccinium uliginosum microphylla
Primula borealis
Androsace chamaejasme
Androsace septentrionalis
Statice armeria sibirica
Phlox richardsonii
Polemonium boreale
Mertensia maritima
Castilleja pallida
Pedicularis lapponica
Pedicularis hirsuta
Pedicularis sudetica
Pedicularis arctica
Pedicularis lanata
Pedicularis capitata
Campanula uniflora
Erigeron uniflorus
Erigeron compositus
Artennaria alpina
Matricaria inodora grandijlora
Chrysanthemum integrifolium
Petasites frigida
Arnica alpina
Senecio palustris
Senecio frigidus
Taraxacum ceratophorum
Crepis nana
Preserved areas. Within the area here
classed under the term Arctic Islands,
two preserved areas have recently been
created by the Canadian Government.
These cover the entire areas of Banks
Island and Victoria Island respectively.
Like the areas established at the same
time in the Mackenzie Basin and along
Backs River, hunting and trapping by
natives is allowed, but the areas are
closed against hunting by white men.
This will exclude sportsmen but will
still allow the natives to make legitimate
use of the game, a vital necessity since
the areas in question comprise the
hereditary hunting grounds of either
Indians or Eskimo, who are almost
entirely dependent on the chase for their
subsistence, clothing, and equipment.
Banks Island: Banks Island contains
an area of about 26,000 sq. mi. It was
formerly the home of large numbers of
musk oxen, but these are believed to be
now extirpated. Many caribou are still
found, while the Arctic fox is the only
fur bearer of importance. The island
is also the breeding ground of large
numbers of geese, principally snow geese,
several species of the more northerly-
breeding ducks, large numbers of shore-
birds of several species, and ptarmigan.
Victoria Island: The principal large
game of Victoria Island is the caribou.
The muskox appears not to have inhab-
ited the island, at least within historic
times, excepting limited areas near its
northern shores where it is still found.
Victoria Island has an area of over 74,000
sq. mi., and like Banks Island is the
summer home of great numbers of geese,
ducks, and shorebirds.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following list includes a few of the
more important titles referring to
northern North America, excluding
Alaska, Greenland, eastern Franklin,
and the Ungava Peninsula, with special
reference to topography and natural
history. In titles by the author here
listed (1902, 1908), may be found fuller
lists of publications relating to most of
the areas therein treated.
1795. HEARNE, SAMUEL. A Journey
from Prince of Wales's Fort in
Hudson's Bay to the Northern
Ocean. Undertaken by Order
of the Hudson's Bay Company,
for the Discovery of Copper
140
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Mines, a North West Passage,
etc., in the years 1769, 1770,
1771 and 1772. 4to, pp. i-xliv,
1-458. London, 1795. There is
also a Dublin edition, 8vo, 1796,
and another London edition,
1807.
Contains, scattered through-
out the narrative, many notes
on the mammals and birds of
the region; Chapter X, pp. 358-
458, treats exclusively of the
natural history of the Barren
Grounds, and the Great Slave
Lake and Hudson Bay regions.
1801 MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER. Voy-
ages from Montreal, on the
River St. Laurence, through
the Continent of North Amer-
ica, to the Frozen and Pacific
Oceans; in the years 1789 and
1793. With a preliminary ac-
count of the rise, progress and
present state of the Fur Trade
of that country. 4to, pp. 412.
London.
Mackenzie was the first trav-
eler to descend the Mackenzie
River; and the first to cross
the continent north of Mex-
ico, which he accomplished by
ascending the Peace and de-
scending the rivers west of the
divide. His narratives of these
voyages contain many notes
on natural history.
1826 PARRY, WILLIAM EDWARD; AND
Ross, JAMES CLARK. Journal
of a Third Voyage for the Dis-
covery of a Northwest Passage
from the Atlantic to the Pacific ;
performed in the years 1924r-25,
in His Majesty's Ships Hecla
and Fury, under the orders of
Captain William Edward Parry.
4to, pp. i-xxvii, 1-186; 1-151.
(Appendix on Zoology, Ross,
pp. 1-151.)
The zoological appendix
refers mainly to the natural
history of Port Bowen, where
the expedition wintered, and
other points about Prince
Regent Inlet. A few notes on
natural history occur in the
narrative.
1829 RICHARDSON, J. Fauna Boreali-
Americana. Part First. Quad-
rupeds. 4to, pp. i-xlvi, 1-300.
London.
This work, in which the
material accumulated on the
first two journeys of Franklin
and the early voyages of Ross
and Parry is elaborated, con-
tains a great deal of informa-
tion on the mammals of the
Athabaska and Mackenzie
region.
1831 SWAINSON, W., AND RlCHARDSON,
J. Fauna Boreali-Amencana.
Part Sec9nd. The Birds. 4to,
pp. i-lxvi, 1-524. London.
This publication was for many
years the standard work on the
birds of British America.
1875 PETITOT, E. Geographic de
L' Athabaskaw-Mackenzie et des
Grands Lacs du Bassin Arctique.
Bulletin de la Societe de Geog-
raphic. Pp. 5-42 (July); pp.
126-183 (August); pp. 242-290
(September) ; with a map of the
region from Great Slave Lake
northward.
A geographical and general
description of the region , based
mainly on the explorations of
the author, for many years a
missionary in the Mackenzie
region. Traveling mainly on
snowshoes, he visited many
remote districts never before
explored. The present account
and map may be considered the
official announcement of some
of his geographical discoveries.
1888 GREELY, ADOLPHUS W. Report
on the Proceedings of the
United States Expedition to
Lady Franklin Bay, Grinnell
Land. [Report of International
Polar Expedition.] 2 vols.;
pp. 545, 738. Washington.
This expedition left the
United States in the Proteus in
the summer of 1881 and returned
in 1884. Headquarters were
established at Fort Conger.
In Appendix 129 (Vol. II, pp.
1-10) and App. 131 (Vol. II,
pp. 19-37, are given the reports
on mammals and birds, respec-
tively. In connection with the
notes recorded on this expedi-
tion, many recorded by other
northern expeditions are given.
This is particularly true in the
case of birds (Vol. II, pp. 30-37)
where the principal notes made
by several Arctic observers
are summarized in tabular form.
1890 MACFARLANE, RODERICK Ross.
Land and Sea Birds nesting
within the Arctic Circle in the
Lower Mackenzie District.
Transaction 39, Historical and
Scientific Society of Manitoba,
season 1888-9 (1890).
An annotated list of the birds
observed and taken in the
Anderson River region, from
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
141
April, 1862, to June, 1865, in-
clusive; annotations mainly in
reference to nesting habits,
nests, and eggs.
1893 WICKHAM, H. F. Report on an
Entomological Reconnaissance
of Southern Alaska and adjacent
portions of British Columbia.
Bulletin from the Laboratories
of Natural History, Univ. of
Iowa, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 202-233
with 2 maps.
Comparison of the lists of
Coleoptera of the Little Canyon,
and Glenora, on the Stikine,
with those found at the mouth
of the river, and at Fort Simp-
son on the Mackenzie and other
interior points.
1900 OSGOOD, W. H., AND BISHOP, L. B.
Results of a Biological Recon-
naissance of the Yukon River
Region (North American Fauna
No. 19, 100 pages). General
Account of the Region; Anno-
tated List of Mammals, by
Wilfred H. Osgood; Annotated
List of Birds, by Louis B.
Bishop.
Relates to a natural history
expedition made along the
Yukon in 1899.
1902 PREBLE, EDWARD A. A Biological
Investigation of the Hudson
Bay Region (North American
Fauna No. 22, 140 pages).
Annotated lists of the mam-
mals, birds, and reptiles and
batrachians of the country bor-
dering Hudson Bay on the west
and northwest. Account of a
natural history expedition con-
ducted in 1900. Bibliography.
1908 PREBLE, EDWARD A. A Biological
Investigation of the Athabaska-
Mackenzie Region (North
American Fauna, No. 27, 574
pages).
Topographic and historic
description of the region, with
special reference to its natural
history. Annotated lists of
mammals, birds, reptiles, and
amphibians, fishes, and trees
and shrubs; extensive bibli-
ography. Bibliography.
1922 HOLM, THEODOR. Contributions
to the Morphology, Synonymy,
and Geographical Distribution
of Arctic Plants. Report of the
Canadian Arctic Expedition,
1913-18, part B, vol. 5, pp. 4B-
139B.
Includes list of species found
in Arctic North America with
distribution indicated.
1922 SWARTH, H. S. Birds and mam-
mals of the Stikine River region
of northern British Columbia
and southeastern Alaska.
Univ. of Calif. Pub. in Zool.,
Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 125-314.
Results of a somewhat in-
tensive study of the fauna of
the Stikine Valley from its
mouth to Telegraph Creek,
including discussion of zooge-
ography.
1923 DALL, WILLIAM H. Land and
Fresh water Mollusks. Harri-
man Alaska Expedition. Vol.
XIII.
List of land and fresh water
mollusks of Mackenzie, Alaska,
and whole northern part of
British America.
7. ALASKA
BY W. H. OSGOOD
I. GENERAL
Alaska has an area of 590,000 sq. mi.
or about one-fifth that of the United
States. The main part of it lies between
the same parallels of latitude as the
Scandinavian Peninsula. Its shores are
washed on the north by the Arctic Ocean
on the west by Bering Sea, and on the
south by the Pacific. Its coastline is
very long and much indented, and there
are many outlying islands. It is largely
a mountainous region, although flat-
lands of considerable area are found on
its northern coast and about the deltas
and in parts of the valleys of its larger
rivers. In general, the mountains are
in two series, northerly extensions of
the main continental systems. The
Pacific or Coast system follows the coast
and curves southward to include the
Aleutian Islands . The Rocky Mountain
system, continuous from Canadian terri-
tory, is parallel in general trend with the
coast system but separated from it by
a wide plateau through which course
Alaska's two greatest rivers, the Yukon
and the Kuskokwim.
Notwithstanding its great area and
its complex topographic features, in-
cluding the highest mountains in North
America, the greatest glaciers, and
some of the largest rivers and forests,
142
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
it is easily divisible into a few general
regions in which biological conditions
are broadly similar. At least four
primary divisions are necessary: (1) the
humid and relatively warm southeastern
or Sitkan region; (2) the intermediate
glacial region lying next to the coast
just northwestward; (3) the wooded
plateau and mountains of the interior,
and (4) the treeless coast of the Arctic
and Bering Sea.
II. REGIONAL ACCOUNTS
1. Southeastern region
A. Topography. This is the so-called
panhandle of Alaska extending from the
British Columbian boundary to the
vicinity of Lynn Canal and including
a narrow strip of wholly mountainous
coast and numerous adjacent islands,
some of considerable size and also moun-
tainous. The mainland is only 20 mi.
in average width and is much dissected
by long fjords bounded on either side by
mountains rising sheer from the water.
These fjords and smaller channels are
very deep and usually navigable for large
vessels. The mountains rise to heights
from 5000 to 8000 ft . with timberlines from
2000 to 3000 ft., the higher elevations
mostly to the northward. One large navi-
gable river, the Stikine, breaks through
the mountain wall. In the northern part
of the region, another river of consider-
able size is the Taku, but although other
streams are numerous, they are all of
small size. At the head of some of the
inlets and on the higher slopes are gla-
ciers of some size, although small as
compared to those found farther north.
The evergreen forests, snow-crowned
mountains and narrow waterways com-
bine to make the region exceedingly
picturesque. The islands of the Alex-
ander Archipelago lie close to the main-
land and are similar to it in character,
but the relief is generally lower and in
many cases the mountains are fully
timbered. Some of the islands are
quite large, Prince of Wales, the largest,
being about 140 mi. long and 40 mi. wide.
B. Climate. The climate of south-
eastern Alaska is relatively mild and,
in general, is similar to that of the Puget
Sound region. In ordinary winters but
little snow falls, and severe cold is
almost unknown. At Sitka, the mean
for February, the coldest month, is 33
and for August, the warmest, it is 57.2.
The region is subject to much rain and
cloudy weather. At Sitka and Juneau,
the annual precipitation is about 90 in.
and at stations farther southeast, annual
rainfall may be as much as 130 in. The
greatest fall is during the months from
September to January and the pleasant-
est months as well as the warmest are
May, June and July. The rains are
usually of the soft gentle variety but
often continuous for many days and
nights at a time.
C. Original biota. Vegetation: Al-
though the region has been inhabited for
many years and has been exploited to
some extent, its general biological condi-
tions are not greatly changed. The
forests are so vast that the consumption
of lumber for local purposes has had
little effect and no great amount of
exporting has yet taken place. This is
partly due to the bringing of over 1000
sq. mi. under federal control in the
Tongass National Forest. The entire
region below an altitude of 2000 ft. is
heavily grown with coniferous forest.
This consists of the giant cedar (Thuja] ,
which is generally distributed; the yel-
low cedar (Chamaecyparis}, mostly scat-
tered except in a few fine stands; the
Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis} , com-
mon throughout; the western hemlock
(Tsuga heterophylla] , very abundant;
the yew (Taxus vrevifolia), locally abun-
dant; and the mountain hemlock (Tsuga
mertensiana) , scarce and local. The
important timber tree, the Douglas
Spruce (Pseudotsuga'), does not occur,
its northern limit being reached in
British Columbia. Underbrush and her-
baceous plants are everywhere very
luxuriant, The principal shrubs are
Alnus, Ribes, V actinium, Viburnum,
Menziezia, Gaultheria, and Echinopanax.
At higher elevations on the mountains
is an alpine flora.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
143
Animals: A characteristic large mam-
mal is the Sitka deer, generally distrib-
uted and very abundant except where
reduced by market hunting. Other
mammals are brown and black bears,
timber wolves, beaver, otters, mink, red
squirrels, voles, white-footed mice and
shrews. The mountain goat is common
on the heights of the mountains of the
mainland, but not on the islands.
Moose, caribou, mountain sheep, and
typical grizzly bears do not occur in this
part of Alaska. The sea otter, formerly
abundant, is now practically extinct and
is the only important element of the
fauna of which this can be said. A
conspicuous and characteristic bird is
the Alaskan bald eagle, recently much
reduced in numbers through a bounty
directed against it. Water birds, loons,
gulls, ducks, and shorebirds are well
represented, and among common land
birds are the rufous hummingbird, the
varied thrush, sooty grouse, Steller's
jay, northern raven, pine siskin, rusty
song sparrow, and golden-crowned spar-
row. Ptarmigan occur in the mainland
mountains but only rarely on the islands.
Fish are abundant in the waters, and
besides several varieties of salmon, there
are important fisheries of halibut, her-
ring, candlefish and others. Marine
invertebrates abound and in much
greater variety than in similar latitudes
on the Atlantic coast.
D. Travel conditions. Southeastern
Alaska is easily reached by comfortable
steamers from Seattle, operating on
regular schedules and calling at the
ports of Ketchikan, Juneau and Skagway
from which connections are often possi-
ble with small steamers running to vari-
ous points among the islands. Inde-
pendent excursions are made best with
power launches or with canoes as sailing
is impractical on account of tidal cur-
rents. There are no roads and few
trails, so all but foot travel is by water.
2. Glacial coast region
A. Topography. This region em-
braces the coast and seaward slopes of
the mountains from Lynn Canal to the
Kenai Peninsula. The dominating fea-
ture is found in the numerous live
glaciers debouching directly into the
sea, and numbering nearly 200, including
some of very large size, as the Malaspina
Glacier which has an ice area of some
1200 sq. mi. with a front of not less than
60 mi. Behind these glaciers and the
plain of some 20 mi. width on which they
lie, rise some of the highest peaks on the
continent, Mt. St. Elias (about 18,000
ft.) and Mt. Logan (about 19,500 ft.),
being the best known. The eastern
coast is mostly icebound and forbidding,
but there are harbors and settlements in
Yakutat Bay and at Katalla where there
is petroleum in Controller Bay. The
Copper River, a very large and impor-
tant stream, has its delta in the western
part where the higher mountains recede
from the coast. Beyond this is Prince
William Sound, an irregular bay of great
beauty with several large islands guard-
ing its entrance and the Kenai Peninsula
forming its western boundary.
B. Climate. In this region, which also
has a relatively equable but colder
climate, there is a greater precipitation
and more cloudy weather even than in
southeastern Alaska. Cold mists or
steady downpours are the rule, and
bright fine weather is not long sus-
tained at any season. At stations about
Prince William Sound, the annual rain-
fall is from 130 to 190 in. In summer, the
temperature is moderate, usually ranging
from 40 to 70 and scarcely reaching a
maximum of 90; while in winter, the
recorded minimum is 0.
C. Biota. The biological features of
this region are mainly negative and it
is to some extent connectant between
the southeastern region and the Arctic
region. Some of the southern forms of
life do not continue into it and others
which were found in the south on the
mountains, are here found coming to the
coast.
Vegetation : At altitudes below 1500 ft.
where soil conditions permit, there is
heavy forest growth largely consisting
of Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis) , but
also including giant cedar (Thuja),
144
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
and considerable quantities of Alpine
hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) , Alders,
willows, and cottonwoods also occur and
the Devil's Club (Echinopanax) and
some of the Salmon berries and other
small shrubs persist in diminishing num-
bers as one proceeds westward. In the
eastern part of the region, these forests
grow in close juxtaposition to the
glaciers and are frequently uprooted and
displaced by the slow moving ice.
About Prince William Sound, there is con-
siderable good forest consisting mainly,
of Sitka Spruce and Alpine Hemlock.
Non-arborescent alpine vegetation occu-
pies its usual place above the coniferous,
but in much of the heights among the
great glaciers there are vast areas with-
out the slightest vegetable growth, only
rocks and ice fields.
Animals: The Sitka deer does not ex-
tend to the glacial region nor do any of
the large game animals of the interior.
The only important large mammals are
the mountain goat, the great brown bear,
and the black and glacier bears. The
last is peculiar to the region but is possi-
bly not a true species but only a color
phase of the black bear. Small mam-
mals are principally the red squirrel,
meadow voles (Microtus), red-backed
voles (Evotomys) and shrews (Sorex}.
Birds include some Arctic types of water-
birds, as murrelets, puffins, etc. Land
birds include sooty grouse, ptarmigan,
Steller's jay, northern raven, golden-
crowned sparrow, and representative
subspecies of the song sparrow and fox
sparrow. There are no reptiles nor
amphibians.
D. Travel Conditions. Regular
steamers from Seattle touch at Yakutat,
Katulla, Cordova and various points in
Prince William Sound. A railroad runs
inward from Cordova to mines on the
Copper River and a government trail
for pack horses leads to the interior from
Valdez. The government railroad to
the interior has its terminus at Seward on
the south side of the Kenai Peninsula.
3. Interior region
A. Topography. This region embraces
the vast territory lying beyond the coast
barrier ranges, being too irregular for
exact measurement but probably cover-
ing at least two-thirds of the total area of
Alaska. It comprises mountain, plateau
and valley. The great Yukon River
with its important tributaries, the
Tanana and the Koyukuk, course
through it and three other large rivers,
the Copper, the Sushitna and the
Kuskokwim belong mainly to it. Be-
tween the rivers are more or less defined
mountain ranges, the most important
being the so-called Alaskan Range in
which Mt. McKinley rises to the height
of 20,464 ft. North of the Yukon is
another range, the Endicott Mountains,
bordering on the Arctic Region, while
east of the Copper River is the group
known as the Nutzotin Mountains.
Elsewhere there are many lower less-
defined ranges and much rolling or
broken relief. The principal extensive
areas of relatively flat surface are found
in the central Copper River valley, the
south side of the Tanana River along the
base of the Alaskan Range, and about
the great bend of the Yukon where it
touches the Arctic Circle in the region
of the Yukon Flats. In other parts,
level land is easily found but not in
great uninterrupted areas. In all this
region there are scarcely any large lakes
although countless ponds and small
swamps are found. The large lakes,
Iliamna and Clark are too near the edge
of the region to be classified as properly
belonging to it.
B. Climate. The climate of the in-
terior is relatively dry with great annual
extremes of temperature a long cold
winter and a short hot summer. The
annual precipitation may be no more
than 12 in. and as much as 25 in. is
exceptional. Much of this is in showers
coming principally in August and
September. Snowfall during the winter
is not heavy and February, one of the
coldest months, is also one of those of
least precipitation. The summer cli-
mate is delightful, although in certain
seasons there may be two or three weeks
when it is very hot. Official records,
however, indicate that temperatures
above 90 are very rare. From Octo-
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
145
her to May, there is no month in
which temperatures below zero are not
recorded. The minimum recorded
is 80, and temperatures from 40
to 60 are frequent. For the month
of January, the mean for a typical
northerly interior station is about 30.
For the same station the mean for July
would be about 65.
C. Biota. Practically the whole re-
gion is in virgin condition. About the
small settlements and the few larger
towns, the timber has been cut, but in
comparison with the whole, these areas
are infinitesimal. The game and es-
pecially the fur-bearing animals, as
beaver and marten, have been much re-
duced in some parts, but is not seriously
threatened while federal regulations
are enforced.
Vegetation: Along all watercourses
in the interior, there is practically con-
tinuous forest consisting of a very small
number of species of trees, none of which
grow to large size . The principal conifer
is the white spruce (Picea canadensis)
which is generally distributed, some-
times in pure stands, but frequently
associated with deciduous trees which
nearly or quite equal the conifers in
numbers. The black spruce (Picea
mariana] is abundant, but confined
mainly to swampy ground. These are
the only conifers in the entire region,
except the larch (Larix) which has been
recorded at a few stations. The balsam
poplar (Populus balsamifera) and the
aspen (Populus tremuloides) are the
common deciduous trees, but the paper
birch (Betula papyrifera) is numerous.
Alders and willows also are abundant.
This forest usually extends only a short
distance away from the water courses
and the small divides are but sparsely
timbered and especially to the north-
ward the timber is restricted to a thin
line of trees on the actual banks of the
rivers. In the mountains, timber as-
cends to 1500 ft. or more in central
Alaska and gradually drops down as it
goes northward until finally it dwindles
to its limit at practical sea-level. The
areas above timber have Alpine floras
including plants not found in the low-
lands and these areas gradually merge
with the Arctic tundra.
Animals: Large mammals include the
moose, caribou, white mountain sheep,
grizzly bear, black bear, lynx, gray wolf,
red fox, marten, mink, weasel, wolverine.
Small mammals are mostly Palaearctic
types, as voles (Microtus, Evotomys,
Synaptomys), lemmings (Lemmus) and
ground squirrels (Citellus}. The num-
ber of species is small, but individuals
are often excessively abundant. The
birds, likewise, are largely of genera and
frequently of species which have a
transcontinental range from Labrador to
Alaska. They include as breeders the
common ducks, geese and shorebirds
which pass through the United States
as migrants. Northern forms of the
ruffed grouse and the Canada grouse
are generally distributed and smaller
birds include Canada jay, three-toed
woodpecker, pine siskin, slate-colored
junco, fox sparrow, hermit thrush, and
robin. The fauna is almost entirely
distinct from that of the coast region
although in one place (Cook Inlet), the
interior fauna extends to the coast.
D. Travel conditions. The interior is
accessible by regular rail and steamship
transportation from three principal
points. From Skagway, there is rail
connection with navigable waters of the
upper Yukon in Canadian territory
whence the whole Yukon system can be
traversed. From Cordova, by rail, and
from Valdez, by government trail, the
Copper River valley is reached. From
Seward on the Kenai Peninsula there is
rail connection with Fairbanks and the
Tanana Valley.
Flat-bottomed river steamers ply on
the Yukon and at least to certain points
on its larger tributaries. Canoe travel
is largely practiced, and for downstream
work, rafts and roughly made wooden
boats are successful. There are some
trails, but no roads, and overland travel
in summer is done with horses or on foot
with Indian packers who are available
in some places. Winter travel is by
dog sled and, aside from other considera-
146
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
tions, this method is preferred for con-
venience, economy and speed.
4. Arctic coast region
A. Topography. This is the treeless
coast region of northern and western
Alaska, including the Alaska Peninsula
and the Aleutian Islands which, at least
biologically, belong with it. For practi-
cal purposes, it may be denned on the
east and south by the irregular line
formed by the extreme limit of tree
growth, but its general conditions ex-
tend, with interruptions, throughout
much of the interior region in the ele-
vated areas above timber and in scat-
tered parts of the interior lowlands
which, for local reasons, are without
trees. It is flat or slightly rolling
ground, including the deltas of the
Yukon, Kuskokwim, Kobuk and some
other rivers of fair size. Elsewhere it
is traversed by small meandering
streams and dotted with lagoons and
small ponds. Its average width is
scarcely more than 100 mi., but in the
north it is continuous with treeless
mountains which lie between it and the
timbered interior. The Alaska Penin-
sula and Aleutian Islands consist largely
of volcanic mountains.
B. Climate. From the Arctic coast
at Point Barrow to the Aleutian Islands,
there is considerable range in climatic
conditions. The Arctic coast proper is
not so warm in summer and not so cold
in winter as the interior forested region.
The maximum for July and August is
about 65 and the minimum for January
and February is about 55. Neverthe-
less, nearly every month in the year may
be subject to light frost, and in early
June or late August frost is usual.
Temperatures on the coast of Bering
Sea average somewhat higher, and on
the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian
Islands they never go to extremes.
Nevertheless, the means for the four
warmest months, effective in controlling
the distribution of life, are substantially
the same at Unalaska in the Aleutian
Islands and at St. Michael on the cen-
tral coast of Bering Sea.
The precipitation on the Arctic coast
is the least of any part of Alaska, averag-
ing only 6 to 8 in. per annum, almost
comparable to that of a desert region.
The Bering Sea coast has more, 20 to 30
in., and the Aleutian Islands still more,
perhaps 80 in., and more rainy daj^s
(250) than any other part of the terri-
tory.
C. Biota. Vegetation: Although en-
tirely non-arborescent and including
relatively few species, the vegetation is
profuse. It forms a thick continuous
mat over the surface of the ground, in-
cluding depauperate willows, Vaccinium,
Cassiope, Ledum, Arctos, Dryas, and
Empetrum. With these are mixed a few
grasses and sedges and various mosses
and lichens. There are many saxifrages
and bright flowered poppies and butter-
cups.
Animals: The animals are strictly
Arctic types. Mammals include the
Arctic fox, wolverine, weasel, polar
bear, barren-ground caribou, lemming,
Arctic hare, walrus, and various seals.
The birds comprise many migrating
shorebirds, ducks and geese, including
the eider ducks. Ptarmigan are gen-
erally distributed, and small land birds
are reduced to few species, as snow
bunting, redpolls, and longspurs. The
invertebrate marine fauna is Arctic in
character, but quite varied and em-
braces at least 200 species.
D. Travel conditions. Regular steamers
during the summer season from June to
September run to Unalaska and Nome.
Yukon River steamers also come to the
coast at St. Michael, but the Arctic
coast northward is reached only by
chartered vessel or by special arrange-
ment with a trading or whaling ship or
with the government revenue cutter
which makes one trip per annum to
Point Barrow.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
147
8. THE NATIONAL FORESTS OF THE
ALASKAN DISTRICT
BY JOHN D. GUTHRIE
Although there are over 20,000,000
acres of National Forest land within the
Alaskan District, it is at present divided
between only two National Forests, the
Tongass and the Chugach.
*TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST
Area 15,443,000 acres of coniferous
forest, in southeastern Alaska, con-
sisting of a bewildering assortment of
islands, surrounded by channels, straits,
canals and bays. These islands vary
from those containing thousands of
acres, whose interiors have never been
explored, much less surveyed and map-
ped, such as Prince of Wales, Baranoff,
Chicagof, down to mere green specks
projecting above high tide. Generally
speaking, the land rises abruptly from
the water's edge up to elevations of
several thousand feet, timber line being
approximately at 2000 ft. and the
heaviest stands of timber being found
near sea level. The country is charac-
terized by a very heavy rainfall but with
general climatic conditions similar to
the Puget Sound region. The forest
consists of approximately 60% western
hemlock (Tsugaheterophylla'), 20% Sitka
spruce (Picea sitchensis), the other 20%
being made up of western red cedar,
(Thuja plicata}, yellow cypress (Chamae-
cyparis nootkatensis} , some lodgepole
pine (Pinuscontorta] and a small amount
of cottonwood and white birch (Betula
alaskana) . There are glacier-fed lakes on
these islands, the outlets of which drop
in many cases almost precipitously into
the sea. The higher peaks are usually
snow covered from about October until
May; the lower elevations in the forest,
however, have a comparatively light
snowfall. Navigation is open through-
out the year. The conditions prevailing
on the Tongass Forest, located as it is
in extreme southeastern Alaska, must
not be confused with conditions to be
found elsewhere within Alaska. The
region is one of great interest to the
ecologist, to scientists generally, and
to travelers. Copper mines, canneries
(salmon, shrimp, crab, etc.), lumbering
operations, whaling stations, totem
poles, water power plants, marble quar-
ries, are abundant and are of extreme
interest in addition to the very large
number of readily accessible glaciers
as well as the interesting relics of the
Russian occupation and of the earlier
Indian inhabitants. The surface condi-
tions of the Tongass region are charac-
terized by abundant rock, with little
or no soil but a vast amount of moss and
very heavy undergrowth, with a very
dense stand of coniferous forest with
swamps or muskegs on bench lands.
Magnificent scenery characterizes this
entire "pan handle" of Alaska.
The forest is reached by regular boat
lines from Seattle and Prince Rupert
and has a number of thriving towns in
which comfortable hotel accommoda-
tions can be found. Supervisor's head-
quarters at Ketchikan.f
*CHUGACH NATIONAL FOREST
Area 5,129,544 acres, lying in the
Prince William Sound, Cook Inlet and
Kenai Peninsula. This forest has not the
timber resources of the Tongass and is
broken up into several distinct units.
Its forest types are practically the same
as found on the Tongass although the
climatic conditions are somewhat differ-
ent. The rainfall, however, is some-
what less. On the northern edge of the
Chugach are found several species which
do not occur on the Tongass namely,
white spruce (Picea canadensis) , black
spruce (Picea mariana) and white birch,
species characteristic of the great in-
terior basins of Alaska. Scenically,
the Chugach is characterized by tre-
mendous mountain masses, glaciers,
large rivers, many lakes and especially
on the Kenai Peninsula abundant big
game.
The Chugach Forest is reached by
regular steamers from either Seattle or
Prince Rupert and its principal towns
are Cordova, | Sewardf and Anchorage. {
148
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
The new government railroad also
traverses a portion of the Forest. Su-
pervisor's headquarters at Cordova. J
*MOUNT MCKINLEY NATIONAL PARK
Situated in South Central Alaska.
Reached from the Cook Inlet country.
Area 2200 sq. mi. A snow-clad
mountain 20,300 ft. high, rising from
a rolling plateau peopled with cari-
bou and mountain sheep. Glaciers
on southern and eastern slopes. North
and west sides drop abruptly to
grassy valleys only 3000 ft. in altitude.
Park created principally to protect
wild animals.
The park includes treeless plateaus
rich in mosses and grasses, and fertile
valleys rich in flowers.
For more complete information apply
to director of National Park Service,
Washington, D. C., or to Chamber of
Commerce, Seattle, Wash. G. B. Rigg.
*THE KATMAI NATIONAL MONUMENT
More than a million acres at the base
of the Alaska peninsula, largely devasted
by the eruption of 1912, presenting un-
paralleled opportunity for study of
colonization of volcanic areas by plants
and animals (a) the invasion of ordinary
pumice plains at air temperature, (6)
colonization of hot deposits around
fumaroles.
Around the devasted areas are many
square miles of undisturbed country.
The reservation is located at the
geographical edge of the forest. Such
animals as the moose, elk, lynx and wolf
reach the edge of their range in this
district. The northern end of the park
is heavily covered with a forest domi-
nated by white spruce (Picea canadensis) ,
with alder, birch, poplar and willow as
subordinate trees. Beyond the forest
is typical tundra.
It is a lake country with several large
and very deep lakes and many small
ponds and swamps. These are the
breeding grounds of innumerable water-
fowl such as ducks, geese, swans,
gulls, cormorants, and so forth. The
lakes are among the most famous
spawning grounds for sockeye salmon
in the world.
Reached at present either from
Kodiak, 100 mi. southeast, or from
Naknek, 75 mi. northwest.
At present it is necessary to outfit
one's own expedition, which involves
considerable expense. The whole coun-
try can, however, be made readily
accessible by the construction of about
60 mi. of automobile road from Geo-
graphic Harbor, which lies in the middle
of the reservation at the head of Ama-
lik Bay. Robert F. Griggs.
AVAILABLE AREAS
The Copper River Valley (available).
Including Arctican and Alpine lands, ice
fields, lakes, ponds, streams, conifer
forest, inland from the rivers. One
finds active and decadent glacier
tongues, new made lands and all stages
of incoming vegetation from that to the
fully established conditions. Most of
the large game is gone. Lake Klutina
region has splendid beaver colonies.
We put a canoe over 20 beaver dams in
one-half day. The Copper Valley is
easily reached from Cordova by the
Copper River and Northwestern Rail-
way. This line runs along the coastal
plain 30,1m. east from Cordova, follows
the river north with frequent crossings
to Chitina and then a branch river of
the same name to the east 60 mi. to
Kennicott. Stops can be made almost
anywhere. Henry B. Ward.
Glacier Bay\ p. Many-branched fjord
60 mi. long, surrounded by lofty ice-
covered mountains. Nine tidewater
glaciers discharging icebergs (the Muir
being the largest) and hundreds of
others. Extensive areas laid bare by
retreat of ice, the history of which is
accurately known ; every stage in plant
succession from pioneers through alder
thicket to spruce-hemlock forest; also
areas of very old forest which antedate
last glacial advance. Valuable relics
(stumps, trunks, lower vegetation) of
interglacial forest exposed by erosion
of gravels. Subarctic fauna well de-
veloped: goat, bear, ptarmigan; abun-
dant salmon in streams. ' See John Muir :
Travels in Alaska.
JuneauJlf, 70 mi. west, gas-boat.
William S. Cooper.
Holkham Bay. Typical narrow fiord,
with two branches, Endicott Arm and
Tracy Arm, each 25 mi. long and termi-
nated by glaciers discharging icebergs.
Mountains 600 ft. high immediately
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
149
adjacent; many fine waterfalls. Ford's
Terror, a branch of Endicott Arm, five
miles long, a quarter-mile wide, with
entrance 300 ft. wide; at its head a
glacier, recently tidal, now ending on
land, also several fine cataracts. Shores
of lower bay densely clothed with
spruce-hemlock forest; upper portions,
especially Ford's Terror, show all
successipnal stages. See John Muir:
Travels in Alaska, chapter on "Sum Dum
Bay."
JuneautlF, 45 mi. south, gas-boat.
William S. Cooper.
Knyg Lake. Lake, H nii. long, mi.
wide, draining into Stikine River by
outlet stream 3 mi. long; surrounded by
cliffs 3000 ft. high, with several water-
falls; a glacier enters upper end and dis-
charges very large icebergs. All stages
in plant succession following glacial
retreat; fine display of wild flowers
around lower end in early summer.
Along outlet stream may be seen all
stages of flood-plain succession, from
willow-cottonwood. through alder
thicket to spruce-nemlock forest.
WrangellJ IT, 25 mi. up Stikine River,
gas-boat and row-boat. William S.
Cooper.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cooper, W. S. The recent ecological
history of Glacier Bay, Alaska. I.
The interglacial forests of Glacier
Bay. Ecology, Vol. 4, pp. 93-128,
1923. II. The present vegetation
cycle, Ecology, Vol. 4, pp. 223-245.
III. Permanent quadrants at Glacier
Bay : An initial report upon a long-
study period. Ecology, Vol. 4,
pp. 355-365, 1923. (The first paper
cites papers dealing with the geology
of the Glacier Bay region.)
Dice, L. R. The land vertebrate com-
munities of Interior Alaska. Univ.
of Mich., occ. papers Mus. Zool.,
no. 86, 1920.
Osgood, W. H. 1909 Biological in-
vestigations in Alaska and Yukon
Territory (North American Fauna
No. 30, 96 pages). I. East Central
Alaska; II. The Ogilvie Range,
Yukon; III. The MacMillan River,
Yukon. With special reference to
explorations made in 1903 and 1904.
Section 2. Southern Canada and the United States
A. States, Provinces and Forest Districts, Chiefly Coniferous Forest
Few or none of the states or provinces
are covered exclusively by coniferous
forest, and classification is accordingly
difficult on any basis. Several types of
coniferous forest are included; northern,
northwestern mesophytic, southwestern
xerophytic, and the montane of the
Rockies, Sierras, and Cascades. In
addition to coniferous forests Idaho,
Oregon, and California include a desert,
sage brush, semi-desert, grassland, and
considerable areas above timber line;
Washington and British Columbia, sage-
brush, semi-desert, and grassland, and
large areas above timber line, Alberta,
Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Minne-
sota include popular savanna, and
steppe; Ontario, deciduous forest and
tundra; Quebec, tundra. The state,
national, provincial, and dominion for-
ests included in this section are almost
entirely coniferous. V. E. S.
1. BRITISH COLUMBIA 1
BY JOHN DAVIDSON, P. Z. CAVERHILL,
EDWARD A. PREBLE AND A. H.
HUTCHINSON
I. GENERAL CONDITIONS (P. Z. C.)
A. TOPOGRAPHY
British Columbia occupies the north-
central portion of the Pacific slope of
North America, which is regarded as the
greatest forest region of the continent
and the greatest coniferous forest of the
world. The Province is a quadrangle
about 760 mi. long and 470 mi. wide. It
extends from the 49th to the 60th
parallels of latitude and from the crest
of the Rocky Mountains westward to
1 Where there was no cooperation between the
authors their names are given in the order of the
receipt of their manuscripts and parts written by
each are indicated in the body of the text.
the Pacific. Its eastern boundary fol-
lows the axis of the Rockies north from
49 to 54, and from there to latitude 60
it follows longitude 120. On the west
between latitudes 55 and 60 it is shut
off from the Coast by the long narrow
strip sometimes called the "Pan-handle"
of Alaska.
The topography is prevailingly moun-
tainous except in the northeast corner,
which includes a triangular area of the
eastern foot-hills and the great plains
east of the Rocky Mountains. The
main physiographic features are the
series of parallel mountain ranges and
intermontane trenches or valleys which
extend with a general northwest trend
along both the east and west sides of the
Province, separated by a central belt of
plateau and minor mountain ranges.
The Rocky Mountains on the east are
the northern end of the Cordilleran belt
which forms the backbone of the con-
tinent from Mexico to Alaska. It con-
sists of the upturned edges of the strata
underlying the Great Plains on the east,
chiefly alluvial and carboniferous lime-
stone. In the southern half of the
Province the average height of the peaks
is around 8000 ft., and the higher peaks
range from 10,000 to 13,500 ft.; north-
ward the mountains become progres-
sively lower. The average width of the
range is 60 mi.
Along the western base of the Rockies
is the Rocky Mountain trench, a large
U-shaped trough from 2 to 15 mi. wide,
extending 900 mi. through the whole
length of the Province.
Forming the western rim of the trench
is the Columbia system of mountains ex-
tending from the United States bound-
ary north to the Fraser River, latitude
53 45', with an average width of 80 mi.
150
FIG. 8. GRASSLANDS OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
151
In the south it includes the Purcell and
the Selkirk Trenches, each of which is
threaded by large rivers and lakes
North of these are the Cariboo Range,
the Peace and the Stikine Mountains.
Geologically the Columbia system repre-
sents an earlier upheaval and is formed
of an entirely different series of rocks
than the Rockies. The average height
is almost that of the Rockies.
Within the Rocky Mountain Trench is
found the headwaters of most of our im-
portant river systems. The Kootenay,
Columbia, Fraser; the Parsnip, and
Finlay, which unite to form the Peace;
and the Kachika and Frances, which
form (with the Dease) the Liard, either
rise in or flow for some distance through
this trench. These streams are mostly
glacier-fed and therefore subject to
rapid variations in run-off, while their
tributaries flowing from the stepper
side-valleys are turbulent mountain
torrents. These systems, therefore,
are not important for log transporta-
tion except when diverted and used in
conjunction with log flumes. In the
lower courses, however, numerous lake
expansions become of prime importance
for transportation.
The central regions of the plateau and
low mountains, 200 mi. wide, merge into
the Columbia and Rocky Mountain sys-
tems on the east and Coast Mountains
on the west. Originally it was a table-
land elevated about 3500 ft. above sea-
level, but it has been so dissected and
eroded that from the valley-bottoms it
now appears mountainous. Much of the
soil is composed of disintegrated lava,
which once overflowed large areas, and
glacial drift. This plateau is largely
drained by the central portion of the
Fraser River system. The Skeena and
Stikine Rivers drain the northern sec-
tion, while the south-eastern section is
drained by the Okanagan and Kettle
Rivers. The characteristic topography
is of two types: First, the deep-cut U-
shaped valleys with elevation ranging
from, 1000 to 2000 ft. above sea-level and
occupying one-third of the area; second,
the rolling upland plateau, 3500 to 5000
ft. in elevation, dissected with V-shaped
valleys where the rivers debouch from
the uplands into the main valleys. The
plateau is generally found covered with
glacial drift, while the valleys show dis-
tinct evidence of glaciation. The fauna
and flora of the greater part of this
region resembles closely that of the
interior of Canada to the eastward and
is discussed in connection with that
area. (See pp. 288, 293.)
The coast range forms a barrier between
the Interior Plateau and the ocean, 6000
to 7000 ft. high and averaging about 100
mi. in width. The mountains are com-
posed of massive crystalline rocks of
an ancient period. Lying to the west of
the Mainland is a partially submerged
mountain range the Island Range or
insular system now represented by an
archipelago of islands, of which Van-
couver and Queen Charlotte are the
largest. Between this system and the
Mainland is the deep submerged Coastal
Trench.
The Coastal Trench, like the Rocky
Mountain Trench, extends the entire
length of the Province. It was formerly
a land trench and still appears as such
south from Puget Sound. Pre-glacial
submergence, however,, sunk the main
trench and the lower reaches of its tribu-
tary valleys far below sea-level, thus
forming that remarkable system of
straits and fiords which penetrate into
the very heart of the Coast Range and
which characterizes the British Colum-
bia Coast.. Twelve per cent of produc-
tive timber area of the Province, con-
taining 65 per cent of the standing
timber, is tributary to this trench, which
becomes of the greatest economic im-
portance because these submerged val-
leys form navigable sheltered waterways
for the transportation of this timber to
mills. Eighty per cent of the timber
cut of the Province is derived from tim-
ber tributary to the Coast Trench.
During the glacial period the whole
Province, except the highest peaks, was
covered by a continuous ice-sheet. The
152
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
glaciation and subsequent stream ero-
sion has considerably modified the
topography. Valleys were enlarged and
lowered, soil deposited, and lakes formed
all matters of importance to forestry,
agriculture, and transportation today.
The soil is largely formed of these
deposits of glacial drift. It is estimated
that of the total area about 47 per cent
is suitable for agriculture, grazing or
the production of timber, while 53 per
cent is above merchantable timber-line,
is water surface or swamp land, or is
incapable of growing timber of any com-
mercial value on account of ruggedness.
B. CLIMATE
The chief factors for consideration in
relation to climate area: Influence of
Japan Current; the 11 degrees of latitude
through which the Province extends; the
extremes of altitude from sea level to
13,500 feet (Mount Robson).
The principal topographic features
have a general trend at right angles to
the prevailing winds. Warm moisture-
laden air-currents sweep inland from
across the Japan Current, to be chilled
as they ascend the western slope of the
mountain ranges and are forced to
deposit their moisture. As they cross
the summit to the warm eastern slope
they become comparatively dry, to be
again chilled as they cross the next
range. The result is alternating wet and
dry belts, the wet belts occurring again
and again on the main Rockies, while
the Interior plateau and the east slope
of the Selkirks are comparatively dry.
These winds also moderate extremes of
temperature. The main climatic re-
gions are as below:
Lower Coast Belt. Characterized by
mild, even temperature and a variation
of only 30 between summer and winter
mean. The summer isotherm on which
the region is situated would pass through
Quebec, Edinburgh, and Southern
Norway; the winter through New York
and London. The precipitation aver-
ages 60 to 70 in., of which one third
occurs during the summer season; the
record of bright sunshine averaging
about 2000 hours per year.
North Coast Belt. Averages some 5
lower in mean temperature throughout
the year and has an increased precipita-
tion, this being 110 in., one-quarter of
which falls during the summer season.
A part of the winter precipitation falls
in the form of snow.
Interior Plateau or Dry Belt. Charac-
terized by greater variations of tempera-
ture and a relatively limited precipita-
tion. Typical Stations show:
STATION
MEAN JANUARY
TEMPERATURE
tf
g
gg
n p,
55 S
< w
W H
a
&
o
ll
U
inches
11
11
15
Penticton
degrees
26
22
14
degrees
67
69
62
Kamloops
Quesnel
This region is on the same isotherm as
Toronto and Central Europe, Warsaw,
during January; New York or Paris
during July. The record of bright sun-
shine is 200 and 2200 hrs.
Second Wet Belt. This has relatively
the same temperature range as the Dry
Belt, but greater precipitation.
gg
8
o
STATION
< w
II
rh ^
5 S
* H
S M
W^
w ^
8
s
<
degrees
degrees
inches
Nelson
25
66
27
Revelstoke
20
64
43
Barkerville
18
57
35
Glacier
14
52
60
The first two stations are valley sta-
tions and the last two hill stations; the
elevation of Barkerville being 4180 ft.
and Glacier 3778 ft.
Second or Columbia Dry Belt. This
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
153
forms the western rim of the Rocky
Mountain Trench:
MS
H
g
p
p
^
&H
2
STATION
fc
II
i
O w
II
58
W H
s
a
1
degrees
degrees
inches
Cranbrook
18
62
16
Wilmer
12
62
13
Golden
12
64
17
Northern Belt. This is subject
to greater extremes, but less data are
available. Liard varies from 40 to
50 below zero during extreme winter
weather to 90 and above, during the
summer. These periods, however, are
of short duration, and generally it may
be stated that this region is in the same
isotherm as Quebec or Central European
Russia during January and that of
Edinburgh or Christiana, Norway, dur-
ing summer. The precipitation is from
16 to 20 in., nearly half of which falls
during the growing season.
II. ORIGINAL BIOTA
A. NORTHWESTERN MOIST CONIFEROUS
FOREST (COAST FORESTS)
1. General
The coast forests are characterized by
the giant size of the trees. These tower
200 to 300 ft. high and often reach 25 to
30 ft. in girth. The underbrush consists
chiefly of salal (Gaultheria shallon), in
drier situations, especially in Douglas
fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), with devil-
club (Echinopanaxhorridum), and salmon
berry (Rubus spectabilis} in the lower
and wetter situations. P. Z. C.
Here the humid atmosphere favors a
luxuriant growth of ferns including
sword fern (Polystichum munitwri),
maiden hair fern (Adiantum pedatum),
oak fern (Phegopteris dryopteris), the
latter often carpeting large areas of the
forest floor; while the western polypody
(Polypodium vulgare, var. occidentale) ,
clothes the large trunks and branches
of the soft maples (Acer macrophyllum) .
The combined effect of these ferns, to-
gether with an abundance of mosses and
lichens hanging in festoons from the
branches, is to impart to the coast forest
a close resemblance to a tropical jungle.
Near the margin of such an environ-
ment the cascara tree (Rhamnus pur-
shiana), is found at its best. The bark
of this tree is the Cascara Sagrada of
commerce, and in recent years British
Columbia has been called on to furnish a
very large proportion of the world's
needs of this valuable medicine. /. D.
Mammals and birds 2 E. A. P. The
mammals include the coast long-tailed
shrew (Sorex obscurus longicauda] ;
Rhoads deer-mouse (Peromyscus manicu-
latus macrophinus) northerly; Bangs
deer-mouse (P. m. oreas) southerly;
Wrangell lernming-vole (Synaptomys
borealis wrangeli) northerly; Wrangell
red-backed vole (Evotomys wrangeli}
northerly; coast red-backed vole (Evot-
omys caurinus] southerly; long-tailed
vole (Microtus mordax macrurus), Sitka
deer (Odocoileus columbianus sitkensis) ;
elk (Cervus canadensis roosevelti] south-
erly; black bear (Ursus americanus).
The so-called white bear (Ursus ker-
modei} from Gribble Island, is probably
only an instance of albinism. Several
forms of brown and grizzly bears (Ursus
chelidonias, U. atnarko, U. quakiutl, U.
warburtoni, and U. pervagor) are de-
scribed from the coast forests, but their
ranges are not well defined. The
northwest wolf (Canis occidentalis gigas},
preys on the deer. The northwest coast
skunk (Mephitis o. spissigrada] , and the
Pacific raccoon (Procyon psora pacified},
and the British Columbia Seweelek
(Apoldontia v. columbiana) , extend only
a short distance northward along the
coast; while the British Columbia mink
(Mustela v. energumenos} , and the north-
west marten (Martes a. caurina} range
farther north and into the interior.
B'f ds more or less characteristic of the
crast forests include the following:
Sika grouse, red-breasted sapsucker,
Oregon junco, lutescent warbler, Stellers
jay, Townsend's warbler, piliolated
warbler, chestnut-backed chickadee,
russet-backed thrush, varied thrush.
* See page 181 (Oregon) for note on Mollusc*.
154
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
The northwest painted turtle
(Chrysemys marginiata belli}, and the
northwest garter snake (Thamnophis
sirtalis concinnus}, inhabit southeastern
British Columbia near the coast.
2. Forest types (P. Z. C.)
The climatic factors previously de-
scribed largely determine the main forest
types, of which a brief description fol-
lows :
a. Lower coast or Douglas fir-cedar type.
This is the prevalent type at the lower
altitude in southern, eastern, and
central portions of Vancouver Island
and along the Mainland and adjacent
islands to Knight Inlet. In general it
may be said that this type occurs in
sections where the annual precipitation
is less than 75 in., reaching its best
development when precipitation is be-
tween 50 and 60 in. The type extends
from sea-level up to 2000 ft. and occa-
sionally to 3000 ft. This is one of our
chief commercial types. Stands of
50,000 ft. B.M. per acre extend over
large areas and sometimes stands reach
200,000 or even 300,000 ft. B.M. per acre.
Typical stands show in south and east
Vancouver Island: Douglas fir 70%;
giant cedar (Thuja plicata} 17%; western
hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla} 6%; and
white fir or "balsam" (Abies amabilis}
2%. Other species, including western
white pine (Pinus monticola}, Sitka-
spruce, etc., 5%.
b. Giant cedar-hemlock type. This
type occupies a zone immediately above
or just north of the lower coast type.
The mean temperature is slightly lower
and rainfall heavier, ranging from 90
to 100 in., where optimum growth is
obtained. This type centres around
Broughton Island, Smith and Seymour
Inlets, but also extends down the Coast
where it forms a belt above the Douglas
fir-cedar type up to an elevation of some-
times 4000 ft. Commercially giant
cedar is the most important species
and forms the principal part of the stand.
Associated therewith are western hem-
lock, white fir, sitka spruce and yellow
cypress (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) .
The species run in percentages:
Giant cedar 60%; western hemlock
22%; white fir 11%; sitka spruce (Picea
sitchensis) 4%; others 3% at Seymour
Inlet; while typical stands on slopes at
Capilano give 31,000 ft. per acre; giant
cedar 57%; western hemlock 17%; white
fir 9%; Douglas fir 8%; yellow cedar
(Chamaecyparis nootkatensis} 8%; and
western white pine (Pinus monticola) 1%.
c. Western hemlock-sitka spruce type.
This type centres on Queen Charlotte
Islands where Sitka spruce attains its
maximum growth. On the Mainland
the type occupies the lower slopes of the
North Coast and especially the valley-
bottoms, being found in isolated stands
at the head of inlets as far south as
Vancouver.
The temperature averages 5 colder
than in the Douglas fir type and rain-
fall varies from 45 to 120 in. On the
Queen Charlottes, where the best spruce
is found, the rainfall averages 52 in.
In this type hemlock represents 25 to
40% of the stand. Sitka spruce averages
about 30%, associated species being
giant cedar, yellow cypress and white
fir, except on Queen Charlotte Islands
where white fir is not found.
d. Hemlock-white fir type. This type
occupies the more exposed sites and
higher altitudes. It is the prevailing
type on Vancouver Island around
Quatsino Sound and generally extends
in a belt along western slopes just
below the sub-alpine type reaching
an elevation of 4000 ft. on the lower
coast. The species are chiefly western
hemlock and white fir. Associated with
these, however, are Sitka spruce, giant
cedar and lodgepole pine (Pinus con-
torta}. Typical stands of this type run
at Quatsino Sound: hemlock 50%; white
fir 23%; giant cedar 17%; sitka spruce
10%. At Kitimat, at an elevation of
1700 ft: hemlock 60%; white fir 39%;
the stand averaging 2,000 to 15,000 ft.
B.M. per acre. On the Naas River
this is the prevailing type. Species
represented are: hemlock 45% or over;
white fir 15 to 20%; sitka spruce 15 to
30%, giant cedar 2 to 15%. Stands
average 15,000 to 20,000 ft. per acre,
reaching 40,000 to 50,000 ft. per acre.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
155
Above the hemlock-white fir type and
below cold timber-line is the sub-alpine
type of no commercial value, the species
consisting of mountain hemlock (Tsuga
Mertensiana), alpine fir (Abies lasio-
carpa), lodgepole pine, and with some
spruce and western hemlock. As a
rule a considerable portion of this type is
treeless and tundra in character, the
soil being wet and covered with a thick
growth of moss.
B. TEMPERATE SEMI-DESERT BROKEN AND
BUSH COVERED GRASSLAND (DRY-
BELT) (J. D.)
1. General
The semi-desert regions of British
Columbia are characterized by the
scarcity or absence of trees and the pre-
dominance of sagebrush (Artemisia
tridentala and A. frigida} ; rayless golden
rod (Bigelovia dracunculoides}', balsam
root (Balsamorhiza sagittata) ; and other
white-pubescent xerophytic plants.
(For a discussion of grasses, etc., see
page 156.)
There are three main drybelt regions:
(1) the Columbia-Kootenay semi-arid
area, in the valley between the Rocky
Mountains and the Purcell Range, com-
prising the Windermere Valley and the
region to the south; (2) the Okanagan-
Similkameen area; between the Gold
Range and the Cascade or Coast Range ;
(3) The Fraser area including the
Thompson Valley, extending north
through the Interior plateau to latitude
53. In each of these areas may be
found noteworthy variations in the
flora which may be summarized by se-
lecting two characteristic drybelt genera
Purshia tridentata (locally known as
"Greasewood")? and Opuntia poly a-
cantha, (Cactus) and noting their
distribution:
AREAS
PURSHIA
OPUNTIA
1. Columbia.
Kootenay
2. Okanagan-
Similkameen.. .
3. Fraser-
Thompson
Present
Present
Absent
Absent
Present
Present
As Purshia is one of the characteristic
members of the Sonoran life zone, it is
interesting to note its presence in the
southern valleys which ultimately drain
into the Columbia River.
Taken as a whole, the semi-desert
flora is found only in the valleys and
adjacent benches; although Artemisia
tridentata is most frequently given as
the characteristic sage brush, Artemisia
frigida is the species most widely dis-
tributed in the drybelt regions of this
Province. Where Artemisia tridentata
is found, the Cactus (Opuntia polya-
cantha var. borealis) is usually very
prolific. Associated with these may
be found large clumps of milkweed
(Asclepias speciosa), and stickweed
(Mentzelia laevicaulis ) .
The flora of such a region in spring and
early summer differs greatly from that
found later in the year. For a short
season after the melting of the winter's
snow, when the soil is warm and moist,
the desert region is ablaze with many
annuals and perennials which send up
their flowers and hurry through with
the production and dispersal of seeds
before the soil becomes hot and dry.
Spring flowers include the yellow fritil-
lary (Fritillaria pudica)', Mariposa lily
(Calochortus macrocarpus) ; Menzies Pha-
celia (Phacelia Menziesii)', balsam root
(Balsamorhiza sagittata) ; clematis (C.
ligusticifolia) ; bitter-root (Lewisia re-
diviva). The fritillary, Mariposa lily,
balsam-root, and bitter-root grow in
such abundance that the bulbs or roots
are dug and used as food by the Indians
of these regions.
In the numerous gulches caused by
erosion, may be found thickets of June-
berry (Amelanchier alnifolia), moun-
tain maple (Acer glabrum), and sumach
(Rhus glabra).
Mammals, birds, and reptiles (E.A.P.).
Mammals of the sagebrush area include
a pocket gopher (Thomomys fuscus),
Lord's pocket mouse (Perognathus lordi),
and western white-tailed jackrabbit
(Lepus townsendii townsendii). These
enter British Columbia only in this
area.
Birds found almost exclusively in this
156
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
area include: Sage grouse, Arkansas
kingbird, western lark sparrow, Brewer
sparrow, Lazuli bunting, poorwill and
rock wren.
According to Fannin, the western
spadefoot toad (Scaphiopus hammondii)
is found in southern British Columbia.
The northwestern rattlesnake (Crotalus
oreganus) also inhabits its sagebrush
areas.
*. Grasslands (A. H. H.)
The natural grasslands of British
Columbia are limited to the Dry Belt
areas; where the precipitation is abun-
dant, particularly in the coast region,
the tree growth is so dense that grasses
are eliminated, because of insufficient
sunlight. The principal natural grass-
lands or grazing areas are: The Fraser
valley, and the plateau neighboring
thereon from its confluence with the
Nicola River northward to its confluence
with the Quesnel River, particularly
in the regions about the Nicola, Bridge,
Thompson, and Chilcotin basins; the
Okanagan and Similkameen basins from
the United States border northward
toward the extremity of Okanagan
Lake; the lowlands bordering the south-
ern part of the Kettle River. In the
valleys of the southern parts of the
Arrow and Kootenay Lakes, to a limited
extent; and the Columbia basin north-
ward to Lake Windermere particularly
in the region of the St. Mary's River.
Natural grasslands occur to a com-
paratively limited extent along the
southeastern coast of Vancouver Island.
In addition, undoubtedly, there are
large unexplored areas, particularly in
the north; the regions mentioned con-
stitute the better known and more
generally used grazing lands of the
Province.
Although one kind of grazing area
merges into another, several rather
distinct types of grasslands may be
distinguished, namely: the open grass-
land including those areas where grasses
predominate (indicated on fig. 1 by
the mark "o"), also those areas where
the sagebrush is predominant and the
wooded grasslands including those areas
where western yellow pine (indicated
by "X"), jack pine (indicated by
"P"), poplars and willows (indicated
by "W"); Douglas fir (indicated by
"D"); or oaks (indicated by "T")j
are the respective dominant tree forms
associated with the forage plants of
the region.
Open grasslands may be classified
as: first, those where grasses predomi-
nate, and second, those where sagebrush
is predominant. The two types are not
strictly separable by any hard and
fast line; ordinarily however the latter
occupies the comparatively level low-
lands particularly where the yearly
precipitation is very low ordinarily
not exceeding 3.5 in., and where the
temperature is high the average sum-
mer temperature approximating 70F.;
in contrast, the open grassland domi-
nated by grasses is found on the slopes
where there is more available water,
due to seepage; where the yearly pre-
cipitation may be greater, from 3 to
10 in., and where the temperature may
be considerably lower.
The so-called "meadows" may also
be included among the open grasslands.
They occur in the undrained basins
where water stands at least during the
earlier part of the growing season.
Although included under grasslands,
sedges are the dominant forage plant
belonging to this plant association.
Many of the plants found in the sage-
brush areas have stout rootstocks in
which food is stored during the early
growing season in provision for the dry
summer months and they obtain suffi-
cient water by means of an extensive
root system which penetrates the soil
to a great depth and not infrequently
to the lowest water level. Most con-
spicuous among the number are the
sagebrush (Artemisia frigida)', balsam-
root or wild sunflower (Balsamorhiza
sagittata}; and southward from Dog
Lake "Greasewood" (Purshia triden-
tata). The broad leaves of the balsam-
root afford good forage until the latter
part of June. These plants are not
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
157
only drought resistant but also, be-
cause of their underground food supply
and deep roots, are able to withstand
the ravages of over-grazing and fires.
When conditions are adverse they are
often the sole survivors.
Annual plants which grow early in the
spring and which produce large quanti-
ties of seeds early in the season are also
associated with the sagebrush, namely;
stickseed (Lappula occidentalis and L.
echinata) ; fleabane or wild aster (Erige-
ron linearis, or E. caespitosus and E.
peucophyllus) ; tumbling mustard (Si-
symbrium altissimum, S. incisum var.
Hartwegianum) ; everlasting (Antenna-
ria microphylla) .
Grasses even in the sagebrush areas
constitute the most stable forage; they
are mostly of the tufted, perennial
deep rooted varieties such as: Tufted
wheat grass, or bunch grass (Agropyron
biflorum and A. tenerum)', big bunch
grass (Agropyron spicatum); shining
spike grass (Koeleria crislata), tufted
(Festuca hallii, and F. ovina}; needle
grass, (Stipa viridula and S. comatd);
triple awned grass (Aristida purpurea),
and little blue grass (Poa Sandbergi).
On the open grazing lands where
grasses predominate the forms enumer-
ated above make up the greater propor-
tion of the covers ; associated with them
are short-awned brome grass (Bromus
marginatus) ; tall bunch grass (Agropy-
ron caninum and A. richardsonii) , and
tufted lyme or wild rye (Elymus con-
densatus), also annual leguminous
plants; lupine (Lupinus argenteus}]
hairy milk vetch (Astragalus stenophyl-
lus), and other plants of little or no
forage value as wild geranium or crane-
bill (Geranium viscosissimum) ; woolly
plantain (Plantago purshii) and rushes
(Juncus spp.).
Many of the plants named above as
belonging to the open grasslands are
also found in the yellow pine grasslands,
especially in the more open stands; to
this list may be added a number of the
grasses known as "Pine Grass" such
as narrow-leaved pine grass (Calama-
grostis Suksdorfii), shining spike grass
(Koeleria cristala}; tall wheat grass
(Agropyron Occident ale] ; spear grass
(Poa glauca) little blue grass (Poa
sandbergii), and Nevada spear grass
(Poa nevadensis) . Many of these grasses,
in contrast with the bunch grasses
characteristic of the open grasslands,
have creeping rootstocks sending up a
number of shoots from buds which ap-
pear at intervals along the rootstock.
Because of this character the grass
cover has a matted appearance. The
possession of these budding rootstocks
make the production of seeds less im-
perative in order that the grass may
be maintained.
Leguminous plants, of considerable
forage value, are also more abundant:
Milk vetch (Astragalus campestris) ;
bird-foot clover (Hosackia denticulata) ;
and so-called loco-weed (Oxytropis mon-
ticola), are among the most common.
Poisonous plants, however, are more
numerous also; for instance poison
camas (Zygademus venenosus)', larkspur
(Delphinium bicolor} ; lupines (L. argen-
teus). It is doubtful however, whether
Oxytropis may justly be called Loco-
weed in this region since evidence is
wanting to prove that it has poisoned
stock while grazing on British Columbia
grasslands.
The plants growing on the Douglas
fir grassland areas include those already
indicated as belonging to the forage
plants of wooded regions. The bunch
grasses become still less conspicuous and
the pine grasses more predominant.
To the list may be added another wheat
grass (Agropyron caninum); fescue
grass (Festuca ovina, and F. octiflora) ;
melick or sweet grass (Melica striata);
brome grass (Bromus Pumpellianus) ,
also such legumes as milk vetches
(Astragalus americanus), and pea-
vine (Lathyrus Nuttallii, and L.
ochroleucus) .
With jack pines are found plants whose
palatability and food value are gener-
ally lower especially where the stand is
closed as the result of frequent burns:
Pine grass and shining spike grass are
the chief forms, while in more open
158
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
stands needle grass (Stipa spp.), is of
common occurrence.
The cottonwood grassland plants do
not differ essentially from those of the
Douglas fir or jack pine grasslands, when
the region is arid. In the transition
region, however, the common pine grass
gives place to marsh pine grass (Calama-
groslis canadensis), and the following
become conspicuous forms; foul meadow
grass (Poa triflora), short awned brome
grass (Bromus marginatus), and wheat
grass (Agropyron caninum). In the
same region leguminous forage plants
are abundant and grow to great size.
In the "Pea- vine Country" masses of
pea-vine associated with milk vetches
grow to a height of 5 ft. or more.
There is abundant evidence that the
grasses, at least of the dry belt regions,
are pioneer forms; that they constitute
the first cover of the soil; that they pre-
cede trees in the succession of plant
associations. In the wooded regions
bordering upon open grasslands, areas
are common where the undeveloped
soil of a recently formed ridge is covered
with grasses while the surrounding
country is wooded. It is also significant
that in British Columbia the largest
open grassland areas are located upon
the most recent geological formations
(Miocene) .
Dry Belt and mountain forests
1. Yellow pine. On the slopes of the
benches, which rise to an altitude of
2000 or 3000 ft. one may see a gradual
transition from the semi-desert to the
plateau flora, passing through the west-
ern yellow pine zone to Douglas fir,
lodgepole pine and in places Engelmann
spruce. Red cedar (Juniperus scopulo-
rum) and buckbush (Ceanolhus velutinus
and C. sanguineus) and the shrubby
Pentstemon (P. scoulerii) are sometimes
found in great masses at approximately
2500 ft. altitude. J. D.
The western yellow pine (Pinus
ponderosa) type is found in almost pure
stands on lower benches within its
range, but mixed with Douglas fir as
it approaches the upper limit at 3000
ft. These species come much lower
down on northern slopes to where soil-
moisture is more readily available.
The commercial stands in this type
average 5000 to 10,000 ft. per acre;
occasionally more. As a type western
yellow pine in British Columbia is con-
fined to dry, well-drained sites where
the precipitation is from 10 to 15 in.
and in a belt between 1500 and 3000 ft.
in elevation. P. Z. C.
2. Mixed forest. In the Kootenay
district western larch (Larix occidenta-
lis) is a common tree in mixture with
Douglas fir, the Douglas fir-western
larch forming a type between the west-
ern yellow pine on the one hand and the
spruce-lodgepole on the other in the
same relation as the Douglas fir type
in the Dry Belt. Apparently climatic
requirements are about the same as
described for the latter. P. Z. C.
3. Montane forest. On the open park-
like slopes, at an altitude of from 3000
feet to 6000 ft. within the dry belt
area, may be seen a most gorgeous array
of color; yellows contributed by mil-
lions of Dog-tooth lilies (Erythronium
grandiflorum) , balsam-root, Arnica (A.
cordifolia), tiger lilies (Liliwn par-
viflorum); stonecrop (Sedum stenope-
talum) ; fleabane (Erigeron aureus) ; blues
by tall ''forget-me-nots" (Lappula flori-
bunda) ; larkspur (Delphinum bicolor) ;
Jacob's ladder (Polemonium humile};
Pentstemon (P. confertus var. coerulea
purpureus), Brodieas (B. Douglasii),
reds by Indian paint-brush (Castilleja
spp), columbine (Aquilegia formosa)',
whites by tall specimens of cow-parsnip
(Heracleum lanatum) ; death camas (Zy-
gadenus venenosus)} Indian Tatuan
(Claytonia lanceolata) ; Spiraea (S. lu-
cida), with many other colored flowers
in profusion. The field botanist who
visits the semi-desert regions of British
Columbia in the months of May and
June will reap a rich harvest in the
great variety of species to be obtained
then. J. D.
4. Subalpine forest and meadow. The
timber line subalpine forest here con-
sists of mountain meadows interspersed
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
159
with stunted tree growth of lodgepole
pine, white-bark pine (Pinus albicaulis]
and alpine fir. Among the grasses are
Agrostis humilis, Phleum alpinum, Dan-
thonia intermedia, Trisetum spicatum,
Koeleria cristata, and several species of
Fescues, while in the moister meadows
and swales Valeriana sitchensis, Castil-
lejas, Senecios and other herbaceous
plants occur. P. Z. C.
C. NORTHERN AND MOUNTAIN
CONIFEROUS FOREST
1. Second Wet Belt
The forests in the second wet belt
resemble those on the coast and we have
the same transition in types. Giant
cedar and hemlock ranging from almost
pure cedar on the river-bottoms, where
the water-table is near the surface,
to a mixture of cedar and western hem-
lock on the lower mountain slopes, and
finally changing into hemlock-spruce
(here Engelmann) cedar type on the
higher benches or into the subalpine
(or spruce-lodgepole) type, which occurs
on the mountains at an elevation of
4000 and 6000 ft. Stands in the Second
Wet Belt will reach 20,000 to 30,000 ft.
B.M. per acre over considerable areas.
Much, however, depends on the age of
the stand and defect, which is sometimes
conspicuous, especially in cedar and
hemlock throughout the type.
2. Northern sub-arctic or spruce-pine
type
This is a continuation of the great
forest area that sweeps across Canada,
lying between the tundra on the one
hand and the plains or the pine-hard-
wood forests on the south.
In British Columbia pine is repre-
sented by lodgepole. In the north both
white spruce (Picea canadensis) and
black spruce (Picea mariana) occur,
but farther south they are replaced by
the Engelmann spruce. This type occu-
pies the northern plateau, spreads over
the Rocky Mountains, and out across the
foot hills to the north-east corner of the
Province, where it joins the sub-arctic
forests of Alberta. Extending northward
along the mountains it forms a belt, just
below the sub-alpine type, usually
occuring between the 4000 and 6000 ft.
contours. The type has been greatly
modified by fire and in many cases con-
verted into pure lodgepole pine, which
acts as an intermediary or nurse crop
for the spruce which subsequently comes
in under the pine. Islands of black
spruce swamp are frequently encoun-
tered or stands of pure cottonwood on
southern exposures. The average stand
per acre in mature forest is from 5000
to 10,000 ft., occasionally reaching 20,000
ft. or over near the lower limits of its
range.
Typical cruises show. Elk River,
elevation 4500 to 6000 ft., average stand
20,000 ft. per acre: Engelmann spruce
75%; lodgepole pine 15%; alpine fir
10% ; Douglas fir 2%. Clearwater River,
plateau 4000 to 6000 ft. above sea-level;
average stand 8500 ft. per acre: spruce
65%; balsam 20%; lodgepole pine 5%.
While stands in Northern British Co-
lumbia, elevation 1000 to 2000 ft. will
run: spruce 70%; lodgepole pine 25%;
fir 5%. This type is of great commercial
importance from the standpoint of pulp-
manufacturing. P. Z. C.
Fauna (E. A. P.). The northern part
of the area covered with this type of
forest is considered in the discussion of
the transcontinental coniferous forest
of central Canada of which it forms a
part.
The commoner and more characteris-
tic mammals of its southern portion in-
clude the following : Dusky shrew (Sorex
obscurus obscurus)', Rocky Mountain
marsh shrew (Neosorex palustris navi-
gator] ; northwestern bat (Myotis longic-
rus) ; black and grizzly bears of several
races (distribution not worked out);
northwest marten (Martes a. caurina);
British Columbia mink (Mustela v.
energumenos) ; Bonaparte weasel (Mus-
tela cicognanii cicognanii); northern
deer mouse (Peromyscus m. borealis");
western bushy-tailed wood rat (Neotoma
c. occidentalis); heather vole (Phena-
comys intermedius intermedius) ; British
160
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Columbia red-backed vole (Evotomys
g. saturatus} ; Rocky Mountain vole
(Microtus mordax mordax}', British Co-
lumbia muskrat (Fiber z. osoyoosensis) ;
Rocky Mountain jumping-mouse (Zapus
princeps) ; Okanagan marmot (Marmota
c. okanagana) ; northern mantled ground-
squirrel (Callospermophilus I. tescorum) ;
Canadian mountain chipmunk (Euta-
mias amoenus ludibundus) ; Streator's
red squirrel (Sciurus h. streatori);
British Columbia snowshoe hare (Lepus
a. columbiensis) ; Rocky Mountain pika
(Ochotona princeps} ; bighorn sheep (Om
canadensis}] Rocky Mountain goat
(Oreamnos montanus}} mule deer (Odo-
coileus hemionus')', mountain caribou
(Rangifer montanus) . Some of the more
notable of the birds are the following:
dusky grouse, Franklin's grouse, Canada
ruffed grouse, red-necked sapsucker,
western piliated woodpecker, Rocky
Mountain jay, Clark's nutcracker, long-
tailed chickadee, Louisiana tanager,
red-eyed vivio, Audubon's waibler,
mountain chickadee, Hudsonian chick-
adee, willow thrush, olive-backed
thrush, and mountain bluebird.
D. ALPINE REGIONS
Alpine conditions are to be found on
most of the British Columbia moun-
tains above an altitude of 5500 ft.,
especially on those mountains situated
within the "wet belts" where the pre-
cipitation ensures an abundant snowfall
during winter.
At an altitude of 4500 ft., is found
moist meadow-like land containing much
humus, and abounding in ericaceous
shrubs such as White Rhododendron
(R. albiflorum) ; red heather (Phyllodoce
empetriformis") ; creamy yellow heather
(P. glanduliflorus) } white heather (Cas-
siope Mertensiana}} copper-bush (Cla-
dothamnus pyrolceflorus) , blue-berries
(V actinium, various species). Much
of the moist land is carpeted with the
beautiful alpine Spiraea (Eriogynia
pectinata) so frequently mistaken for
a saxifrage, associated with marsh mari-
gold (Caltha leptosepala} ; globe flower
(Trollius albiflorus), and numerous
saxifragaceous plants. In this zone
small subalpine lakes are abundant.
These are frequently stocked with yel-
low water lilies (Nuphar polysepalum) ;
while spongy Sphagnum areas in the
vicinity have mountain laurel (Kalmia
polifolia) ; gentians (G. sceptrum) ; grass
of Parnassus (Parnassia palustris}\
deer cabbage, and bogbean (Menyanthes
crista-galli and M. trifoliata) . This
subalpine association ranges, according
to locality, from 4000 ft. altitude to
approximately 6000 ft. At the former
elevation the supply of moisture is
maintained by seepage from the melting
snow in the adjacent wooded slopes;
at the latter elevation, seepage is from
the snowfields or glaciers on the exposed
mountain sides, timber line ranging in
the "wet belts" from 5500 ft. to approxi-
mately 6500 ft. altitude. Here, the
last trees are alpine fir, white bark pine
(Pinus albicaulis') , and mountain hem-
lock, all of which are low and stunted,
forming dense tangle thickets from 1
to 3 ft. high, the older trees often spread-
ing over a large area, due chiefly to the
great weight of snow which buries
them for the greater part of the year.
The snowfall during the winter, at that
altitude varies from 30 to 50 ft. in depth.
The soil of the Arctic Alpine belt
(Arctic-alpine zone) contains little
humus, and is largely composed of silt
from the weathered rocks. The type
of vegetation varies in accordance with
this soil, whether formed from rocks
of sedimentary or volcanic origin; the
latter, as a rule, producing the greatest
variety of species.
The characteristic plants of this belt
are moss campion (Silene acaulis}}
northern wormwood (Artemisia norve-
gica var. pacifica) ; silky phacelia (P.
serica); Douglas' Phlox (P. Douglasii);
crowberry (Empetrum nigrum) ; creeping
Azalea (Loiseleuria procumbens) ; blue-
green gentian (Gentiana glauca); west-
ern Anemone (A. occidentalis) ; Tolmie's
saxifrage (S. Tolmiea'), often growing
within a few feet of glaciers, and many
other low growing tufted flowering
plants.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
161
Between this Alpine belt and the sub-
alpine vegetation is found a great
variety of habitats bearing different
associations of plants. On Rock slides
are stone crop (Sedum divergens) ; juniper
(/. communis) ; lupine (L. arcticus)',
Jacob's ladder (Polemonium confertum).
Cold gravelly creek banks bear great
masses of dark crimson Mimulus (M.
Lewisii), while sand bars or islands in
the middle of shallow streams are
covered with the golden yellow alpine
Mimulus (M. alpinus} ; butter-bur (P eta-
sites frigidus)] or fireweed (Epilobium
latifolium) .
Alpine slopes are bedecked with lu-
pines, Indian paint-brush, of all shades
from pale pink to fiery scarlet, moun-
tain heliotrope (Valeriana sitchensis),
louseworts (Pedicularis bracteosa, and
others), columbines, alpine speedwell
(Veronica alpina), numerous tall sedges,
and rushes, but compartively few species
of grasses.
To see the vegetation of alpine regions
in British Columbia as above described
one should visit them sometime between
the latter part of July and the end of
August. (J. D.)
Mammals and birds (E. A. P.). The
hoary marmots (Marmota c. okanagana
and M. c. cascadensis] , races of a species
which farther north ranges down to
sea level, are confined in southern
British Columbia practically to the
treeless mountain summits. Rangifer
montanus and Ovis canadensis are also
generally found there.
Birds breeding on the Alpine summits
include the following: Rock ptarmigan,
white-tailed ptarmigan, pallid horned
lark, Hepburn's rosy finch, and pipit.
E. LOCAL OR EDAPHIC COMMUNITIES
(j. D. AND E. A. P.)
1. Muskeg and ^peatbogs
The principal muskeg and bog areas
are to be found in the northern parts
of the Province, especially in the Liard
and Peace River basins, others occur at
various points along the Grand Trunk
Railway system in central British Co-
lumbia, Prince Rupert, Queen Charlotte
Islands, the northern part of Vancouver
Island, and in the southwest part of
the mainland.
In the north-eastern regions tamarack
(Larix laricina), and black spruce
encroach on these areas, whereas in the
southern and western bog areas these
are replaced by the coast form of lodge-
pole pine (Pinus contorta) which is also
found on rocky bluffs and on well drained
sandy soil along the coast.
Excellent opportunities for the study
of bog evolution are found within a few
miles of Vancouver, B. C., where one
may find every transition from the open
lake to the mature bog. The margin
flora of yellow water lilies, cat-tails
(Typha latifolia); bogbean (Menyanthes
trifoliata) ; cinquefoil (Comarum pa-
lustre'), is followed by a floating Sphag-
num layer with approximately ten or
twelve feet of water or liquid muck
underneath. On this sphagnum layer
the bog flora develops somewhat in the
following order: Sedges and rushes,
clumps of sweet gate (Myrica gale), and
Spiraea (S. Douglasii), followed by the
usual western bog association : Labrador
tea (Ledum groenlandicum) , mountain
or bog laurel (Kalmia polifolia), and
cranberry (Vaccinium Oxycoccus). Into
this ericaceous association the lodgepole
pine encroaches, and sometimes succeeds
in establishing a dense stand of low
stunted trees, often badly affected by
mistletoe (Arceuthobium americanum),
and lodgepole pine blister rust.
One interesting feature is the frequent
occurrence of stranded or isolated
pioneers, water lilies which have sur-
vived for ages, cut off from their con-
freres in the lakes, and separated from
them by several hundreds of yards of
bog. These stranded lilies have suc-
cessfully competed with the Sphagnum
and ericaceous shrubs by sending up
their leaves on long petioles thus mo-
nopolizing the light over an area 6 or 8
ft. in diameter. This results in a kind
of "pot-hole" in the bog, and in some
places, where the water lilies have
succumbed, these "pot-holes" take the
162
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
unwary traveller by surprise. Tests
made in the vicinity of these isolated
pioneers, showed a depth of 22 ft. of
muck with blue clay underlying.
In the spring, the bogs are ablaze
with the flowers of the laurel and Labra-
dor tea, the latter being considered by
apiarists as a useful bee plant. Later
in the year such bogs yield great crops
of cranberries, blueberries (Vaccinium
canadensis, V. uliginosum being the most
common species here), and cloud berries
(Rubus chamcemorus) .
Although bog land is generally clas-
sified as agricultural land, little has
been done in this Province to raise crops
suited for cultivation on this type of
soil. Promising results have been ob-
tained by ranchers on Queen Charlotte
Islands where experimental plantations
of spearmint and peppermint have
yielded luxuriant crops, but the absence
of an oil distillation outfit to handle the
crop hinders the development of what
might prove a profitable industry.
Mammals and birds. While the peat
bogs, usually referred to in the north as
muskegs, offer advantageous habitats
for many species of mammals and birds,
no species inhabit them to the exclusion
of other areas. The moose finds in the
willow thickets which border many of
them a favorite food, and the bears
feast in autumn on the berries which
grow in their drier parts. Within its
range the Dall lemming-vole (Synapto-
mys borealis dalli) is perhaps as charac-
teristic as any species. Long-tailed
shrews (Sorex obscurus and S. personatus)
also find congenial homes in such bogs.
The birds which especially favor
muskegs as breeding places include the
lesser yellow legs, and in south-central
British Columbia the greater yellow
legs; Holboell's grebe northerly; pied-
billed grebe southerly; and the Virginia
rail southerly. In places where ponds
of sufficient size occur the loon often
nests on their borders.
2. Seashores
It has been estimated that British
Columbia has approximately 7000 ffii,
of coast line, most of this is rocky but
there are a few good stretches of beauti-
ful sandy sea-shore the most note-
worthy being found near Barkley Sound
on the west coast of Vancouver Island,
at Qualicum on the east coast, and at
Savary Island. Smaller beaches are
scattered here and there along the coast
but from an ecological point of view,
the above offer the best facilities for
the study of the sandy sea-shore
vegetation.
A. Sand areas. Sand-dune regions,
such as occur on the eastern part of
the continent, are rare here; but where
they do exist, Lyme grass (Elymus
mollis\ and the large headed sedge
(Car ex macrocephala) , associated with
sea purslane (Arenaria peploides var.
major), and sea pea- vine (Lathyrus
maritimus) are the pioneers; lupine
(L. littoralis] } wormwood (Artemisia
canadensis}] and sand-bur (Franseria
bipinnatifida) , often take a conspicuous
place in the sandy sea-shore association.
Amongst the noteworthy pants of the
Sandy Sea-Shores here, may be found
the beautiful sand Convolvulus (Con-
volvulus soldanella] ; the yellow and pink
Abronias (A. latifolia, and umbellata),
with their sweet scented flowers. The
Abronias frequently have large mangel-
like roots whose food store is protected
by cells containing needle shaped crys-
tals or raphides. When a small portion
of the root is chewed, these raphides
painlessly pierce the mucous membranes
of the mouth and produce the same
numbness or loss of sensation as is pro-
duced by several members of the Aracese
which possess similar raphides.
A species of broom-rape (Orobanche
fasciculata) is often found parasitic on
the roots of the wormwood. This is
also found on roots of Artemisia on sand
hills in the interior of British Columbia.
6. Rocky shores. The Madrona tree
(Arbutus Menziesii) reaches its northern
limit in this Province and many beauti-
ful specimens may be seen on the margin
of the sand dune areas, as well as on the
rocky bluffs of the southern part of the
mainland and on the adjacent islands.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
163
These rocky bluffs near the sea generally
have their ledges covered with a layer
of mossy soil which supports a wealth
of spring flowering species mostly
annuals and bulbous plants, including
banks of lobelia-like Collinsia (C.
grandiflora) ; sea-blush (Valerianella con-
gesta); Bongard's saxifrage (Saxifraga
Bongardi) ; and other saxifrages, white
dog-tooth lilies, Indian camas (Camas-
sia quamash}] (Brodiea grandiflora) ,
brown fritillary, (Fritillaria lanceolata) ;
wild onions (Allium cernuum and A.
acuminatum) and where sufficient soil
has accumulated in crevices or pockets
in the rocks are found flowering shrubs
such as flowering currant (Ribes sangui-
neum)\ mock orange (Philadelphus Le-
wisii), Saskatoon (Amelanchier alni-
folia); barberries (Berberis aquifolium
and B. nervosa), manzanita (Arctos-
taphylos tomentosa) ; with flowering trees
such as western dogwood (Cornus
Nuttallii); and wild cherry (Prunus
emarginata), so that although much
of the coast line is rocky it is by no
means barren, especially in spring when
all the above species come into flower.
Later on, however, the ledges become
brown and dried up, and the visitor to
this Province in the summer or autumn
gets no conception of the floral wealth
of the land adjacent to the sea.
Mammals and birds (E. A. P.). The
only mammals which are especially
characteristic of the shores are the seals
and sea lions, listed under marine mam-
mals, which have their young on rocky
ledges just above the surf, usually on
islands.
The more common sea birds which
breed on cliffs include the following:
tufted puffin; horned puffin; rhinoceros
auklet; California murre; and violet-
green cormorant.
During migration many species of
shore birds and plovers use the beaches
as migration routes, and a few hardy
species spend the winter there.
3. Salt marshes
On the south west coast of British
salt marshes probably the best on the
Pacific Coast, if not on this continent.
In area they extend over many square
miles and may be seen in all stages from
their origin at the edge of the water,
where eel grass, ditch grass (Ruppia
maritima) ; samphire or glasswort (Sali-
cornia ambigua) and sea blite (Suseda
maritima) are the pioneers, until they
"come under the plow" and become
fertile agricultural land.
As the salt marsh develops one finds
the usual association of halophytes:
sea milkwort (Glaux maritima); sea
plantain (Plantago maritima). In most
of the salt marshes here dodder (Cuscuta
salina) may be found primarily attack-
ing Salicornia but spreading to other
members of this association.
Later on, salt grass (Distichlis spi-
cata), makes its appearance, and aids
greatly in retaining the accumulated
silt. It is quite a common occurrence
to see cattle and even horses grazing
on salt marshes, and the owners of the
stock consider salt grass good fodder.
Naturally, as a result of grazing, many
weeds are introduced and we soon find,
yarrow (Achillea millefolium) ; velvet
grass or Yorkshire fog (Holcus lanatus) ;
and other weeds overrunning the grazed
areas.
Through the growth of countless gener-
ations of halophytic plants the soil
becomes very rich in humus, forming a
kind of peat and, by ditching and dyk-
ing, parts of this land have been sepa-
rated from the main marsh areas and
cultivated. On this reclaimed land
farmers have to contend with the same
weeds as prevail on newly reclaimed
bogs, namely lesser sorrel (Rumex aceto-
sella), and several species of smart weed
(Polygonum) together with the dainty
little mud-button (Cotula coronopifolia) .
The abundant rainfall during the winter
soon leaches out the salt, and in a short
time good crops can be raised on this
rich, dark brown silt.
4. Marine areas
The marine flora along the coast of
Columbia may be seen some very fine the Gulf of Georgia between Vancouver
164
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Island and the mainland differs in many
respects from that found on the West
Coast of Vancouver Island, and on the
northern part of the mainland. The
Gulf receives great quantities of fresh
water from many rivers draining the
western slopes of the Coast Range.
The mighty Fraser River, which drains
the largest river basin in the Interior of
British Columbia, debouches here, car-
rying thousands of tons of sand and silt,
discoloring the sea water for miles, and
leaving a deposit of fine silty mud on
the adjacent sea-shores. This muddy
deposit is absent from the shores of the
west coast of Vancouver Island and
northern mainland; these shores, facing
the Ocean, are frequently lashed by
the full force of gales and storms of the
Pacific.
The rocky parts of the coast abound
with a great variety of brown and red
seaweeds, giant kelps occasionally oc-
cupying large areas. The most con-
spicuous kelp in these waters is the
"Sea-pear" (Nereocystis luetkeana)
whose huge thalli, each with a large
pear-shaped float attached to a stipe
often more than forty feet in length,
may be seen in great profusion. This
kelp, and Macrocystis which is not so
abundant here, was collected on a com-
mercial scale during the period of the
"world war," and prepared as a ferti-
lizer to overcome the shortage of potash
for agricultural purposes.
In shallow brackish bays, the inter-
tidal area is often covered with eel grass
(Zostera marina) ; while on rocky shores,
this is replaced by its larger relative
false eel grass (Phyllospadix scouleri).
The sheltered waters of the Gulf, the
diminished salinity, and the deposition
of beds of silt in bays and at the estuaries
of rivers, are all conducive to the building
up of salt marshes with their characteris-
tic halophytic flora.
Marine mammals (E. A. P.). The
sea otter (Latax lutris] formerly common
along the entire coast is now nearly
extirpated. The fur seal (Callorhinus
alascanus), which breeds only on the
Pribilof Islands, Alaska, is found in
migration along the entire coast, but is
not known to land. The spotted harbor
seal (Phoca richardii) is rather common
and breeds in certain favorable places.
The southern sea lion (Zalophus calif or-
nianus) barely enters our southern coast
waters, while the northern sea lion
(Eumetopias jubata) breeds in consid-
erable colonies in many places along
the coast.
The cetaceans known to inhabit the
coast waters include the killer whale
(Orcinus rectipinna); Pacific right whale
(Balaena seiboldii)', California gray
whale (Rhachianectes glaucus) ; Pacific
humpback whale (Megaptera versabilis) ;
Davidson's finback whale (Balaenoptera
davidsoni) ; Pacific sulphur-bottom whale
(Balaenoptera sulfur eus) ; Pacific finback
whale (Balaenoptera velifera) ; sperm
whale (Physeter macrocephalus] ; Pacific
blackfish (Globiocephala scammoni], and
common porpoise (Phocaena phocaena).
III. PRESENT BIOTA (E. A. P.)
Data regarding changes in the dis-
tribution of British Columbia birds and
mammals within historic times concern
mainly the larger game and predatory
mammals. These may be given under
species.
The moose (Alces americanus), within
the past 50 years has made a notable
addition to its range, extending west-
ward and southwestward several hun-
dred miles. In the Stikine region it
has moved its frontier from the region
of Dease Lake to the mouths of the
Stikine and Taku rivers. Farther south
it has reached the vicinity of Chilcotin
River and 83 mi. House only during
recent years.
The elk or wapiti (Cervus canadensis
occidentalis} originally ranged over that
portion of the Province east of the Rocky
Mountains north nearly to Liard River.
Here it is now entirely extirpated. In
southern British Columbia also, where
it formerly ranged practically across
the Province, it has suffered great loss
in range, and is now confined mostly to
the Kootenay District and to Vancouver
Island.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
165
The caribou' (Rangifer montanus and
related forms) originally occupied suita-
ble areas, including the barren summits
and more sparsely wooded elevated
sections, and excepting the humid coast
region, practically over the entir%
Province. Excessive pursuit has practi-
cally extirpated it from most of its range
in the southern half of the Province,
but it remains in numbers in most of
the country drained by the Stikine and
Peace rivers, and northward. A few
still persist, apparently, on Graham
Island, the largest of the Queen Char-
lotte group, which furnishes a number of
examples of mammalian distribution
which are difficult to understand.
The mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus)
confined to the dry interior forests, has
extended its range northward several
hundred miles during recent years, being
now frequently seen in the Skeena and
Peace River, and occasionally in the
upper Stikine valleys.
The mountain goat is found in suitable
places practically all over British Colum-
bia, barring the islands, on which, ex-
cepting Pitt Island, it was never known.
The coyote (Canis lestes) originally
found only in the southern part of the
Province, has pushed northward through
the central valleys nearly to the north-
ern boundary within the past 25 years.
IV. AREAS AVAILABLE FOR BIOLOGICAL
STUDY
A. PROVINCIAL FORESTS (P. Z. C.)
The officials of both the Dominion
and Provincial Forest Branches en-
courage proper use of the forest and are
always prepared to give advice on how
best to reach any locality, equipment
necessary, etc., to anyone entering any
region. Definite boundaries have not
been established for the forests.
*Coast Forest South. Area 23,000,000
acres. A region of mountain and forest
intersected by deep sheltered fjords.
Game is plentiful in woods.
Vancouver, } C.N.R., G.N.R.
Headquarters, District Forester.
Victoria t (80 mi. south west) C.P.R.
* Provincial Headquarters. Forest Ser-
vice, Auto service to most points Van-
couver Island, south, Nanaimo J 40
mi. west C.P.R.
Supervisor, Nanaimo, headquarters
for Vancouver Island.
*North Coast. Area 22,000,000 acres.
Interesting region of coniferous forests,
mountains and inlets. Here Sitka
spruce reaches its best development.
Prince Rupert, { C.N.R., U.S.S. Co.
Headquarters, District Forester.
Gasoline launches available to visit
many interesting spots or for more
extended cruises along the Coast.
*East Kootenay Area. Area 7,500,000
acres. Embraces southern end of main
Rocky Mountains and Rocky Moun-
tain Trench. Altitude 3000 to 9000 ft.
Vegetation zone changes from Dry Belt
types to Alpine type as we ascend the
mountains. Western larch attains its
best development here.
Cranbrook, J C.P.R.
Headquarters, District Forester.
Outfits may be obtained at Cranbrook
for visiting any section of district.
*West Kootenay Area. Area 7,950,000
acres. A region of lakes and mountains.
Very interesting since it embraces
changes from Dry to Wet Belt vegeta-
tion. Lakes abound in fish and forest
in game.
Nelson, } C.P.R, & G.N.R.
Headquarters, District Forester.
*0kanagan. Area 6,000,000 acres.
The typical Dry Belt region.
Vernon, J C.P.R.
Headquarters, District Forester.
Penticton, C.P.R., K.V.R., Princeton,
t K.V.R., G.N.R., Merrit, J C.P.R.
* Thompson Region. The area em-
braces northern border of Dry Belt
and the western slope of Gold Range.
Kamloops, t C.P.R., C.N.R.
Headquarters, Dominion Forest
Branch for British Columbia, and
District Forester.
*Big Bend. Central part of Rocky
Mountain Trench and Selkirk Moun-
tains, a region of rigid mountains and
steep wooded slopes and especially
noted for its bear hunting.
166
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
*Revelstoke. | C.P.R.
Outfitting points for trips into ad-
joining district which can be made
readily with pack animals.
*Cariboo. Area 14,000,000 acres, Cen-
tral section of Interior plateau. Good
hunting and fishing. Forests have
suffered extremely from fires original
Douglas fir has been converted into
lodgepole pine.
Williams Lake, J P.G.E. Railway.
Headquarters, District Forester.
Quesnel, t P.G.E. Railway, outfitting
point for prospectors and others.
*Northern. The great northern hin-
terland, including the valleys of Parsnip,
Peace, Nelson, Liard rivers, has been
scarcely explored except by prospectors
and trappers, and offers an attractive
opportunity for naturalists.
*Prince George. J C.N.R. Railway.
Headquarters, District Forester.
Outfitting point for parties going
further north.
B. DOMINION FORESTS (p. Z. C. AND .
D. G. CAMERON)
The Dominion Government owns and
controls what is known as the Railway
Belt. This Belt was granted to the
Dominion by the Province to aid in the
building of the Canadian Pacific Railway
through British Columbia, the title of
conveyance being executed in 1883. It
includes the land within 20 mi. on each
side of the Canadian Pacific Railway
from the Alberta Boundary to a western
limit bounded by the Meslilloet River
and the North Arm of Burrard Inlet.
To compensate for lands within this
Belt which the Province had disposed of
prior to the transfer the Dominion
Government was also granted some
3| million acres which was selected by
them in 1907 in a block comprising
73| sq. mi. adjoining the Alberta Bound-
ary in the Peace River Valley.
As the Railway Belt stretches east
and west across the Province it is subject
to all the changes in forest types as
described for the Province, that is,
The Coast or Wet Belt, Dry Belt, The
Second Wet Belt and the Rocky Moun-
tain section. Of the 16,700 sq. mi.
in the Belt it is estimated that 10,000
is forest land but only 3000 bears timber
of commercial quantity which is esti-
mated at 22 billion feet.
A number of small forest reserves
have been created on the headwaters of
the streams throughout the Dry Belt.
These reserves including the Yoho and
Glacier parks by the same names are
representative of the Rocky Mountain
District.
The reserves of the drybelt district
are: Larch Hills, Mount Ida, Fly Hill,
Martin Mountain, Monte Hills, Niskon-
lith, Long Lake, Tranquille, Nicola,
Arrowstone, and Hat Creek cover about
If million acres. They serve more as
watershed protection than for the
production of timber, although some 82
sq. mi. is held under timber berth within
these reserves. The timber types on
the reserves are typical of those of the
Dry Belt and the Lodgepole Pine result-
ing from burn on the higher mountains.
The timber conditions on these forest
reserves are similar to those described
in detail in the book entitled "The
Forests of British Columbia," published
by the Conservation Commission of
Canada, 1918, authors H. N. Whitford
and R. D. Craig. See particularly
pages 63 to 68. The bulk of the forest
reserve area is in the Dry Belt proper
where the timber on the lower slopes is
western yellow pine and Douglas fir.
The plateau areas above are largely
covered by lodgepole pine. This lodge-
pole type is temporarj' as a result of
forest fires. The climax type will be
Engelmann spruce and Alpine fir.
There is, of course, an altitudinal
progression toward these types, the
yellow pine merging into the Douglas
fir and the latter into the Engelmann
spruce as altitude increases. The timber
line type is pure Alpine fir.
The reserves bordering on Shuswap
Lake are in a transition area between
the Dry Belt proper and the interior
Wet Belt of the Columbia valley. The
south and southwestern slopes exhibit
Dry Belt characteristics and the opposite
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
167
slopes verge to Wet Belt species. The
climax forest growth in the lower eleva-
tions is Douglas fir, western larch (L.
occidentalis), western white pine, giant
cedar, western hemlock. Higher up
there is Engelmann spruce, Alpine fir
and white bark pine. The westerly
reserves have been largely fire swept,
particularly on the elevated plateaus.
Fair stands of Douglas fir and yellow
pine remain on the lower slopes. The
summits of the Fly Hills and Niskonlith
Forest Reserves have large areas of the
original climax type spruce-alpine fir
forests. The Fly Hills particularly is
very accessible by Forest Service trails.
The Larch Hills Reserve has also large
areas of second growth and mature
mixed forest.
These reserves are readily accessible
from any point along the line of the
Canadian Pacific Railway, but particu-
larly as follows:
Larch Hills Reserve Sicamous
Niskonlith east side Chase, west side
Kamloops
Martin Mountain )
Tranquille
Nicola
Hat Creek Ashcroft
Arrowstone
The administrative headquarters of
the reserves is at Kamloops where the
Forest Supervisor is located, while
New Westminster is the headquarters
of the Timber Branch for the coast
section.
c. PARKS
*Mt. Robson Park. (A3.) About
409,600 acres of alpine peaks ranging
up to 13,000 ft. in the Rocky Mountains
of British Columbia. Lower slopes clad
with sub-alpine forests and associated
flora, grading upwards through alpine
belt to regions of perpetual snow. Open
country with talus slopes, ravines and
canyons.
Mt. Robson Station, British Columbia
(G. T. P. R.), near Yellow Head Pass.
John Davidson.
*Strathcona Park. (A 3.) Area
530,566 acres. Situated in the center
of Vancouver Island, a provincial Park
Reserve; comprising mountain ranges
up to between 6000 and 7000 ft. altitude.
Slopes under 5000 ft. altitude timbered
with northwestern and subalpine trees;
subalpine plateaus, ravines and canyons.
Buttle Lake, a large freshwater Lake,
drains the central part of the Park,
flows north and east to Campbell Lake,
thence via Campbell River to the East
Coast of the Island.
Campbell River, B.C., 30 mi. walk.
Good trail through western mesophytic
forest. Camp outfit necessary. John
Davidson.
*Yoho Park, B. C. Dominion Park
Reserve 560 sq. mi. of peaks and passes
in the Canadian Rockies, with charac-
teristic northwestern arctic-alpine flora
on mountain slopes and meadows.
Canyons, glaciers, fossil-beds 2000 ft.
thick. Deer, big-horn sheep and Rocky
Mountain goats.
Passes 6000 to 7000 ft. altitude.
Peaks up to 11,000 ft.
Field, J(4060 ft.) or Yoho Park, B.C.
(C. P. R.). Coaches and saddle ponies
for hire. John Davidson, and Dominion
Park Branch.
*Glacier Park, B. C. (A3.) Domin-
ion Park Reserve of 460 sq. mi. of moun-
tains and valleys in the heart of the
Selkirk Range. Peaks up to 10,808 ft.
Northwestern mountain forest, subal-
pine meadows with rich flora. Glaciers,
caves.
Glacier, B. C. (C. P. R.) t4086 ft.
Ponies and alpine guides to hire.
John Davidson, and Dominion Park
Branch.
*Revelstoke Park, B. C. (A2 I.)
Dominion Park Reserve of 9559 sq. mi.
of coniferous and northwestern moun-
tain forest. Rainbow, Dolly Varden,
cut-throat, gray and "Nipigon" trout
in streams in vicinity. Rocky and
glacial situations.
Revelstoke (C. P. R.), (1492 ft. alti-
tude) 18 mi. (a) . Pack horses for hire.
John Davidson.
*(Stanley Park. (B3.) Near City of
168
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Vancouver, B. C., Dominion Militia
Reserve, 1000 acres of northwestern,
mesophytic, semi-natural, coniferous
forest; cedar, fir and hemlock formation
with great variety of thallophytes and
bryophytes. Marsh and pond with
natural hygrophytic and hydrophytic
flora.
Vancouver, B. C. Electric Car 1 mi.
west. John Davidson.
*Garibaldi Park. (A3.) Provincial
Park Reserve of approximately 360 sq.
mi. of mountains of volcanic origin (to
9000 ft.). Several young lakes of which
Garibaldi Lake 3 mi. long by 1 mi. wide
is the largest. Many torrential and
swift creeks, splendid facilities to study
the movement and action of several
large glaciers.
Extensive subalpine slopes and mea-
dows, rich and varied arctic-alpine flora,
great variety of habitats and corre-
sponding plant associations.
Grizzly bear, timber wolves, goats,
marmots, grouse ptarmigan.
Vancouver, B. C., 45 mi. north,
steamer to Squamish, P. G. E. R. R. to
Brew Station, walk 10 mi. mountain
trail to good camping grounds on Black
Tusk Meadows (5100 ft.). Mountain-
eering outfit desirable. John Davidson.
Savary Island. (A3.) Five and one-
half miles by approximately one mile of
lowland coniferous forest and semi-
desert flora, broad-leaved evergreen
forest, sand dunes at west, and sandy
and rocky bluffs at east end. Beautiful
illustration of succession, in transition
from sandy sea-shore to luxuriant meso-
phytic forest. Many western sapro-
phytic and parasitic spermatophytes
(Monotropaceae, Orobanchaceae, and
Loranthaceae,'. Marine Littoral (Zos-
tera).
Vancouver, B. C., by steamer 82 mi.
north to Savary Island. Hotel accom-
modation during season. John David-
son, and R. S. Sherman.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Whitford, H. N., and Craig, Roland D.
Forests of British Columbia. Com-
mission of Conservation, Canada.
Ottawa, 1918. (A book of 409 pp.
with pictures and distribution
maps.)
2. WASHINGTON
BY GEO. B. RIGG
(ACCOUNTS OF ANIMALS BY L. R. DICE,
HELEN T. GAIGE, AND HORACE
GUNTHORP)
I. GENERAL DESCRIPTION
A. PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS
The State of Washington has a great
variety of conditions as to topography
and climate, resulting in a great diversity
of plant and animal communities. The
state is divided north and south by the
Cascade Mountains. They form a
general elevation 100 mi. wide in places,
and throughout much of their extent
they are 5000 ft. or more in elevation.
In or near this range are 5 notable moun-
tains: Rainier (14,526ft.), Adams (12,470
ft.), Baker (10,827 ft.), Glacier Peak
(10,436 ft.) and St. Helens (9750 ft.).
The area of perpetual snow is extensive
on all of these and glaciers are numerous
on most of them. At the south side of
the state along the Columbia River, the
lowlands of western Washington are
continuous with those of eastern Wash-
ington.
A good many places in the Cascades
are accessible by train, stage and private
conveyance. Other portions are acces-
sible only by horse trail, while still others
can be reached only by rather strenuous
trips on foot.
East of the mountains the region tends
to be semi-arid, while on the west the
conditions are much more humid. West
of the mountains the climate tends to be
equable, while on the east side the differ-
ences between the summer temperatures
and those of the winter are greater.
East of the mountains there are elevated
plains of considerable area, the soil of
which is in some places of volcanic ash
and in other places is of basaltic origin.
West of the mountains the characteristic
soil is largely glacial till or gravelly out-
wash. The Blue Mountains in the
southeastern portion of the state have
an elevation of 5000 ft. The north-
eastern portion of the state is also some-
what mountainous.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
The Pacific Ocean borders the state on
the west, forming in many places, long,
straight beaches of sand behind which
sand dunes are often extensive. Such
dune areas are found in the vicinity of
Willapa Bay and Grays Harbor. These
dune regions may be reached from Aber-
deen, Hoquiam, South Bend or Ilwaco.
The mouth of the Columbia River
forms a broad navigable indentation
between Washington and Oregon. A
little north of this river is Willapa Bay
which forms an extensive harbor, largely
enclosed by a long peninsula of sand
extending north from the rocks at the
north side of the mouth of the Columbia
River. There are extensive sand dunes
on' this peninsula. Grays Harbor, also
enclosed partially by sandy peninsulas,
lies to the north of Willapa Bay.
In some places, notably toward the
north the coast of this state is rocky.
There is a considerable extent of rocky
coast in the vicinity of Cape Flattery.
The most extensive indentation of the
coast is that formed by Puget Sound and
the Strait of Juan de Fuca. This
indentation begins with the Strait, which
forms the northern boundary of the state
for about 100 mi. and is extended by the
Sound, which continues south about 80
mi. The shores of Puget Sound as well
as those of the numerous islands that it
contains are very irregular. High bluffs
of glacial till and of rock are common
along these shores, though in some places
there are sandy beaches and in others
salt marshes are common.
The Olympic peninsula lies between
Puget Sound and the Pacific Ocean. It
is largely mountainous. Mount Olym-
pus (8150 ft.) has extensive glaciers.
The peninsula contains several large
lakes.
The San Juan Islands lying between
the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Gulf
of Georgia are so attractive from the
standpoint of their natural features as
to deserve special mention. The rain
fall in these islands is scanty usually
about 20 inches contrasting with an
average of about 34 inches in Seattle and
over 100 at Cape Flattery and other points
on the west coast of the state. There
are considerable exposures of bare rock
on these islands, and the soil where
present is usually thin. There is glacial
till in some depressions and on some
slopes, especially on north slopes. Lime
is abundant at several places on San
Juan Island. Some of the smaller
islands of the group are flat topped and
extremely dry. Mount Constitution
(2500 ft.) is situated on Orcas Island and
is the highest point in the islands. It
commands a view of the whole group of
the San Juan Islands as well as of some
of the mainland and Vancouver
Island.
B. LAND AND FRESHWATER PLANT AND
ANIMAL COMMUNITIES
The plant communities of the state,
considered in the larger sense, may be
grouped under seven heads. In prepar-
ing the following account of them free
use has been made of the chapter on
Zonal Distribution of Washington Plants
in Piper's Flora of Washington. The
names of the Merriam life zones are
used in parentheses. (The section on
sagebrush vegetation was written by
Ellis B. Harris.)
1. Northwestern moist coniferous forest
(see also British Columbia, page
153, and Oregon, page 181 )
A. Plants. 1 The great luxuriant for-
ests of Douglas fir (Humid Transition
zone), are continuous over all of western
Washington that is not included in the
following belts. Characteristic trees in
addition to the Douglas fir, which often
forms 90% of the forest, are giant cedar
western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla),
red alder (Alnus oregona), broadleaf
maple (Acer macrophyllum) , and vine
maple (A. circinatum). Large areas of
virgin forest are still found in this belt.
They are extremely damp and their
i Scientific names of plants and animals men-
tioned in the British Columbia account do not
occur here. (See page 150.)
170
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
undergrowth is luxuriant. The ground
is in many places covered with fallen,
partially decayed tree trunks overgrown
with mosses, lichens and liverworts.
Ferns and large-leaved herbs are com-
mon. This zone is composed largely of
evergreens. The large trees are mostly
evergreen conifers, the number of decid-
uous trees being relatively small.
Broad-leaved evergreens are common.
The madrona (Arbutus menziesii) is a
tree. Among the shrubs are salal, two
species of Oregon grape (Berberis nervosa
and B. aquifolium), the sticky balm
(Ceanothus velutinus), the rhododendron
(Rhododendron calif ornicum) , a manza-
nita and Kinnikinnick (A. uva-ursi}.
Many herbs such as wild ginger (Asarum
caudatum) and others remain green all
winter.
B. Animals. 1 The notable mammals
are the shrews (Sorex trowbridgii) , Ben-
dire water shrew (Neosorex bendirii),
black bear, bob-cat, deer-mouse, chip-
munk (Eutamias townsendii), Douglas
squirrel, silver-gray squirrel (Sciurus
griseus), flying-squirrel (Glaucomys sa-
brinus oregonensis) , sewellel (Aplodontia
rufa), Washington hare (Lepus washing-
tonii), black-tailed deer, and wolf
(Cam's gig as}. L. R. D.
In this forest salamanders abound
(Triturus torosus, Ambystoma macrodac-
tylum, A. paroticum, Dicamptodon ensa-
tus, Rhyacolriton olympicus, Plethodon
intermedius , P. vandykei, and Ensatina
eschscholtzii) and the tree-frog (Hyla re-
gilla.) The two frogs, Rana aurora and
R. pretiosa, are common, as also is the
western toad. The discoglossoid toad
(Ascaphus truei) is numerous locally in
streams. Of snakes the garter-snakes
(Thamnophis sirtalis concinnus and T. o.
ordinoides) are common; the lizard
(Gerrhonolus principis) is fairly numer-
ous, especially in clearings.
Seven rather distinct associations are
obvious in this area.
a. Uplands, characterized by salal,
Oregon grape (Berberis nervosa), the
Scouler willow (Salix scouleriana) , red
huckle berry (Vaccinium parvifolium) ,
thimble berry (Rubus parviflorus), red-
flowered currant (Ribes sanguineum),
sword fern and bracken fern (Pteris
aquiliana) .
b. Bottom lands in which are found
grand fir broadleaf maple, Oregon ash
(Fraxinus oregona), cotton wood (Populus
trichocarpa) , western dogwood (Cornus
occidentalism, crab apple (Pyrus rivu-
Zan's), vine maple, devil's club (Fatsia
horrida), salmon berry and red-berried
elder (Sambucus callicarpa) .
c. Gravelly prairies (see also Oregon
account) on which are found scattered
oaks (Quercus garryana) mixed with
Douglas fir at the borders of the areas.
Western yellow pine is also found.
These areas are found between Tacoma
and Olympia and southward. In spring
and early summer they are carpeted with
flowers among which are violets, lupines,
dog-tooth violet (Erythroniumgiganteum)
shooting star (Dodecatheon latifolium) ,
and many others. In late summer these
areas are dry and appear very barren.
d. Sphagnum bogs, whose surface is
composed mainly of living sphagnum,
which is underlaid with soft, partially
decayed organic matter. They occur in
undrained places frequently bordering
swamps or lakes. Their most charac-
teristic flora is Labrador tea, swamp
laurel (Kalmia polifolia), cranberry
(Vaccinum) sundew (Drosera rotundi-
folid) and cotton grass (Eriophorum
russeolum). Sweet gale is common on
the borders of these bogs in the interior,
and the wax myrtle (Myrica californica)
is found around those near the coast.
Dwarf birch (Betula glandulosa) also
occurs around these bogs in the vicinity
of Seattle and elsewhere. The bunch-
berry and crow-berry are found in some.
In the later stages of succession these
bogs are invaded by trees, usually
stunted. The western hemlock is usu-
ally the first invader and grows best in
them, though almost pure stands of
western white pine or of lodgepole
pine are found in some. Cedar is com-
mon. Douglas fir invades these bogs
last and grows most poorly in them.
Deciduous trees are rare in these bogs,
though the aspen (Populus tremuloides),
the crab apple (Pyrus rivularis) and some
willows are common in the very wet
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
171
zone (marginal ditch), found around
nearly all spha'gnum bogs.
e. Salt marshes are common along the
shores of Puget Sound and elsewhere
along salt water. Many of them are lo-
cated near the mouths of streams or
behind high sea beaches. Nearly all of
them are inundated by salt water at ex-
treme high tide, and many of them are
under water at even ordinary high tides.
Glass-wort and saltgrass are the most
abundant species. The former is com-
monly infested with dodder (Cuscuta
squamigera). Other species frequently
found in these marshes are seaside
atriplex (Atriplix littoralis), a fleshy
composite (Jaumea carnosa), black slat
wort (Glaux maritima), and seaside ar-
row grass (Triglochin maritima). The
higher sea beaches fronting many of
these marshes commonly have a charac-
teristic seaside flora which does not
extend much into the salt marsh proper.
Among the plants occurring on these
beaches are the beach pea (Lathyrus
maritimus), sand spurry (Tissa marina),
sand-bur and a hog-fennel (Lomatium
nudicaule) .
f. Sand dunes are abundant on the
ocean coast but do not occur on Puget
Sound. They shift rapidly, over-
whelming forests, many of which are
almost pure stands of lodgepole pine.
Among the plants characteristic of these
dunes and other shifting sand along the
shore are two abronias (Abronia acuta-
lata, and shaggy pea (Lathyrus littoralis),
a lupine (Lupinus littoralis), a sedge
(Car ex macropcephala) , Glehnia littoralis
and many others.
g. There may also be distinguished a
coastal strip of forest in which Sitka
spruce largely replaces Douglas fir.
Lodgepole pine is also common in places,
especially around sand dunes and bogs.
Among the other plants characteristic of
this strip are fool's huckleberry, a currant
and the single beauty (Moneses uniflora) .
#. Arid coniferous forest (western yellow
pine forest]
a. Plants. These forests occupy the
lower portion of the eastern slope of
the Cascades, the lower levels of the
Blue mountains, and nearly all of the
northern portion of eastern Washing-
ton, including considerable portions of
Okanogan, Ferry, Stevens and Pend
Oreille counties. Western yellow pine
is the dominant tree, though some
Douglas fir occurs. Among its shrubs
are nine bark (Opulaster pauciflorus) ,
buck brush (Ceanothus sanguineus) and
rose (Rosa gymnocarpa) . In the higher
altitudes huckleberry (V actinium macro-
phyllum) and pine grass are common in
these forests.
b. Animals. The mammals of the
yellow pine forests of eastern Washing-
ton are to a considerable extent an
admixture of elements from the montane
forests and from the bunch grass.
Among the more conspicuous forms are
the coyote (Canis lestes), deer-mouse,
pocket-gopher, ground-squirrel (Citel-
lus), chipmunk (Eutamias), golden-
mantled ground-squirrel (Callospermo-
philus), and pine squirrel.
In the yellow pine forests of the
eastern part of the state the bull-snake
(Pituophis catenifer catenifer) and the
racer both occur while garter-snakes
are found chiefly along streams and the
rattle-snake (Crotalus or eg anus) chiefly
in rocky places.
3. Mixed mountain forest (Canadian
Zone)
This ecotone type extends upward
from the dense mesophytic coniferous
forest to about 6000 ft. This belt is
poorly defined, since few species are
confined to it alone. It forms a continu-
ous area in the Olympics and the Cas-
cades and is also found adjacent to the
subalpine belt where it occurs in eastern
Washington, as well as in a considerably
area in Ferry County. Among the
trees found in this belt in western
Washington are western white pine
lodgepole pine (murrayana), grand fir,
western hemlock, Douglas fir, silver
fir (Abies amabalis) and noble fir (A.
nobilis), while in eastern Washington.
Engelmann spruce and western larch
replace the last two species. Among the
172
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
shrubs of this belt are blue huckleberry
(Vaccinum ovalifolium) , fool's huckle-
berry (Menziesia ferruginea), mountain
box (Pachistima myrsinites), blackberry
(Rubus nivalis), and dwarf cornel or
bunch-berry, (Cornus canadensis).
Among the herbs are Clintonia (C.
uniflora), fairy-bells (Disporum ore-
ganum) and two species of wood-sorrel
(Oxalis oregana and 0. trillifolia) .
Mammals. The following species of
mammals occur more or less generally
in the montane forests over the state:
raccoon (Procyon psora pacifica), marten
(Martes americana group), black bear,
cougar (Felis concolor group), bob-cat
(Lynx fasciatus group), Cascade redfox
(Vulpes cascadensis, in Cascades), yel-
low-haired porcupine (Erethizon epixan-
thum), deer-mouse (Peromyscus manicu-
latus group), woodrat (Neotoma cinerea
occidentalis), red-backed vole (Evotomys),
jumping-mouse (Zapus), chipmunk
(Eutamias towns endii) , snowshoe hare
(Lepus bairdii group), black-tailed deer
(Odocoileus columbianus) , and elk (Cer-
vus canadensis occidentalis) . In the
Cascade and Olympic mountains the
Douglas squirrel (Sciurus douglasii)
is common, while in the mountains of
eastern Washington it is replaced by the
pine squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus
richardsonii) . L. R. D.
^ Among the characteristic reptiles
and amphibians of the montane forests
in the eastern parts of the state are the
rubber-snake (Charina bottae), the racer
(Coluber constrictor mormon}, and
especially along streams the garter-snake
(Thamnophis ordinoides ordinoides), the
western toad (Bufo boreas boreas) and
the western frog (Rana pretiosa).
4. Sub alpine forest (Hudsonian Zone)
The Hudsonian Zone is characterized
by alpine trees tending to become pros-
trate at their extreme limitst This is found
largely in the Cascades and the Olym-
pics, though there is a considerable area
of it in the Blue Mountains in the south-
eastern corner of the state, and a line
of it in the extreme northeastern corner
in the Kaniksu National Forest. There
are also five isolated patches of it on
mountain peaks of the northeast-
ern portion of the state (Bonaparte,
Tonk, Baldy, Calispell, and Chewaiah).
The trees found in it are alpine fir,
Alaska cedar, Chamaecyparis-nootka-
tensis, mountain hemlock, white-bark
pine. Among the shrubs of this zone
are a juniper (Juniperus communis si-
berica), the white rhododendron, a cur-
rant, and the western mountain ash.
Bear grass is conspicuous and abundant
in places.
5. Alpine meadow (Arctic Zone)
a. Plants. This belt is sharply de-
fined and is similar in conditions and to
a certain extent in species to the arctic
meadows of the extreme northern regions
of North America, many of the species
found in this belt in Washington being
common at or near sea level in western
and northern Alaska. This belt is
confined to the higher portions of the
Cascades and the Olympics, and is not
continuous, consisting largely of isolated
patches. Among the plants charateris-
tic of this region are a low bush huckle
berry (Vaccinum deliciosum) producing
delicious fruit in late summer, a butter-
cup (Ranunculus suksdorfii), a marsh
marigold, a shooting star (Dodecatheon
jefferyi), a pasque flower (Pulsatilla
occidentalis) , two lupines (Lupinus sub-
alpinus and L. Lyallii), a painted cup
(Castillejaoreopola), a cinquefoil (Poten-
tilla flabellifolia), red heather, white
heather, a blue gentian (Gentiana caly-
cosa), a crimson monkey flower (Minulus
lewisii), several arnicas (Arnica spp.),
a saxifrage, partridge foot (Lutkea
pectinata) and three grasses (Festuca
viridula, Poa arctica, and Argosteris
rossae).
b. Animals. Alpine summits. Char-
acteristic mammals of the treeless
alpine summits of the Cascade Moun-
tains are the hoary marmot (Marmota
caligata cascadensis), pika (Ochotona
princeps brunnescens) , bighorn sheep
(Ovis canadensis calif orniana) , and
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
173
Rocky Mountain goat (Oreamnos ameri-
canus). The extensive talus slopes are
the habitat of the marmot and pika.
The marmot (Marmota olympus) is also
found in the higher altitudes of the
Olympic Mountains.
6. BUNCH GRASS PRAIRIE
(The bunch grass community with
the western yellow pine community
makes up Merriam's Arid Transition
Zone.)
a. Plants. The bunch grass area is
quite extensive and is bordered above
by the western yellow pine forest and
below by the sagebrush area. It oc-
cupies portions of Okanogan, Douglas,
Lincoln, Spokane, Adams, Whitman,
Walla Walla, Columbia, Garfield and
Asotin counties. It is grass covered
and mostly treeless. Willows (Salix
spp.), haw (Crataegus brevispina), aspen
and cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa)
are the principal trees and are found
mostly along streams and around
springs. Undershrubs are snowberry
(Symphoricarpos racemosus), roses (Rosa
nutkana and R. pisocarpa), gooseberries
(Ribes inerma and R. irriguum} and
a low birch (Betula microphylla) .
Bunch grass (Agropyron spicatum) is
the most characteristic plant of this
community. Other plants are June
grass (Poa sandbergii), lupines (Lupinus
ornatus, L. sericeus and L. wyethii),
sunflowers (Helianthella douglasii and
Balsamorhiza sagittatd), and Indian
paint brush (Castilleja miniota). The
vegetation in this area is frequently
more luxuriant on north slopes than on
south.
6. Animals. Some of the characteris-
tic forms of the bunch-grass of eastern
Washington are the coyote, mountain
weasel (Mustela arizonensis) , skunk
(Mephitis occidentalis major), badger
(Taxidea taxus neglecta), pocket-mouse
(Perognathus), pocket-gopher, ground-
squirrels, and white-tailed jackrabbit
(Lepus townsendii). In the willow and
cottonwood timber along the streams
occur a number of other forms, such as
the shrew (Sorex vagrans dobsoni),
mink (Mustela vison energumenos) , har-
vest-mouse (Reithrodontomys megalotis
nigrescens), deer-mouse, muskrat (Onda-
tra zibethica osoyoosensis), and beaver
(Castor) L.R.D.
The bull-snake is the most conspicuous
reptile of the bunch grass areas. Here
also occur the racer and the skink
(Eumeces skiltonianus) . The garter-
snake (Thamnophis o. ordinoides) the
western toad, the leopard-frog (Rana
pipiens), the western tree-frog (Hyla
regilla), and the pond-turtle (Chrysemys
bellii bellii) occur chiefly along streams.
H. T. G.
7. Sagebrush semi desert (see also in
British Columbia and Oregon
accounts) (Upper Sonoran Zone)
a. Plants. This community is almost
wholly included within a line surround-
ing the Columbia basin below an eleva-
tion varying from 1200 to 1700 ft. depend-
ing upon slope and precipitation.
Where the elevation exceeds 1700 ft.
or the rainfall about 12 in. sagebrush
gives way to bunch grass. The annual
precipitation of this basin, as is typical
of such districts, is low, ranging from
6 to 12 in.
Sagebrush is the most conspicuous
plant of the area, though according to
Piper, there are frequently found rabbit
brush, hop sage (Grayia spinosa),
antelope brush (Kunzia tridentata), and
in alkaline situations, greasewood.
There also occur frequent and character-
istic patches of prickly pear (Opuntia
polycantha). The sagebrush often
reaches a height of from 8 to 12 ft., and
becomes a veritable thicket, though in
some localities it does not become more
than a few inches high. The appearance
of an extensive sagebrush plain is that
of a desert waste. Another feature of
the sagebrush district is the occurrence
here and there of dunes of drifting sand.
In some places these dunes practically
wipe out all forms of vegetation as they
march on their age-long journey. In
their march, however, they are closely
followed by the ever-present sagebrush.
Along the coulees, on the hills which
174
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
reach an elevation too great to be ir-
rigated, on the basalt stab lands and
along the bluffs bordering the Columbia
river are extensive tracts which must
remain permanently sagebrush.
b. Animals. In the sagebrush of the
Columbia River basin occur such typical
forms as the coyote, badger, pocket-
mouse, kangaroo-rat (Dipodomys ordii
columbianus) , ground-squirrel, black-
tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus
waJlawalla) , and cottontail rabbit. In
the willows along the smaller streams
are found the shrew, harvest-mouse,
deer-mouse, muskrat, beaver and o+her
riparian species. L. R. D.
In the sagebrush occur the rattlesnake,
bull-snake, racer, two small lizards
(Scelopors occidentalis occidentalis and
S. graciosus gracilis), the horned toad
(Phrynosoma d. douglassii] and spade-
foot toad (Scaphiopus hammondii).
Along streams occur the garter-snake
and the leopard-frog.
C. MARINE VEGETATION
The bladder kelp (Nereocystisluetke-
ana] forms the most conspicuous feature
of the marine vegetation of Puget
Sound. The huge size of the individual
plants, the fact that the bladder-like
float is always at the surface of the
water, and the fact that it forms such
dense beds covering large areas, bring
it to the attention of every observer
who crosses the waters of Puget Sound.
A good bed may be seen at Lincoln
Beach, Seattle, and another at Point
Defiance, Tacoma. Especially good
beds are found in the vicinity of the
Puget Sound Biological Station (Friday
Harbor) and at other points in the San
Juan Islands.
Another kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera)
forms beds of considerable size near
Neah Bay and Cape Flattery. The
sea palm (Postelsia palmaeformis) grows
in the same region, forming dense clus-
ters in the littoral zone on rocks that
are exposed to violent waves. Ptery-
gophora californica, a perennial kelp
with thick, stout stems, grows in the
same region and is commonly washed up
on the beaches. The feather boa kelp
(Egregia menziesii) is also common in
this region and also around San Juan
Island.
Leaf-like kelps of the following genera
are common in the waters of Puget
Sound : Laminaria, Cymathaere, Agarum
Alaria and Costaria. Several other
kelps are also found in certain places.
Rockweed (Fucus sp.) is common along
many of the rocky shores.
The sea lettuce (Ulva sp.) and other
green algae are also common in the lit-
toral zone. Red algae, both filamentous
and thalloid, are found in the littoral
zone and are also commonly dredged at
the Biological Station at Friday Harbor.
Many of the filamentous forms are
unusually beautiful. Some blue-green
algae (e.g. Nostoc) are also found.
Mineral-encrusted red algae (Ampiroa
and Corallina) are abundant in some
places.
Three species of seed plants are found
in salt water along the shores of this
state, especially in Puget Sound. Eel-
grass forms dense growths in shallow
waters, and two species of sea basket-
grass (Phyllospadix scouleri and P.
torreyi) grow on rocks exposed to wave
action.
Pollution
In general the waters of the Pacific
Ocean, the Strait of Juan de Fuca,
and Puget Sound, where they border
the State of Washington, are not badly
polluted. There is considerable pol-
lution, however, in the vicinity of the
salmon canneries during the summer.
The sewage from some of the cities
(e.g. Seattle) is also discharged into the
Sound. At times oil from boats covers
the surface of the water in places, and
there is more or less of general refuse
near cities and along lines of travel of
boats. Fortunately the sea gulls act
as scavengers and take care of a good
deal of the refuse.
Many of the fresh water lakes are
practically free from pollution, though
those in or near the cities are commonly
more or less polluted. For example,
Green Lake in Seattle is badly polluted,
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
175
but measures have now been taken to
stop pollution and improve conditions
by running pure water through the lake.
Some small lakes are badly polluted with
saw mill waste.
Mountain streams in their upper
courses are mostly unpolluted except
occasional instances where concentrator
water or other material from mines is
allowed to run into a small stream. In
their lower courses many of them receive
the sewage from the towns along their
banks, and considerable refuse is also
thrown into them. The amount of this
sewage, however, is small relative to
the volume of flow in the rivers and the
pollution is so soon taken care of that
the water supply for some of the towns
is taken from the rivers. The Skyko-
mish River is an illustration of the con-
ditions mentioned.
II. NATIONAL PARK
*MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK (A3)
Area 207,360 acres. Elevation of
summit 14,526 ft. Has 28 glaciers, 6 of
which appear to originate at the very
summit of the mountain. The glaciers
and snow fields give rise to numerous
precipitous mountain streams. Fairly
dense forest, mostly coniferous, up to
4000 ft. Among the conifers are Doug-
las fir, western red cedar, hemlock, grand
fir, silver fir, noble fir, and western white
pine. Among the deciduous trees are
maple, alder, and cotton wood. Gradual
decrease in density of forest up to
5000 ft. At and above that elevation
the trees are scattered and stunted.
Many rocky ridges and pumice fields
above timber line. Large meadows
above forests, characterized by rich
subalpine flower gardens, containing
heathers, daisies, anemones, columbines,
Erythroniums, larkspurs, lupines and
other flowers. The park has 150 mi.
of trail including one encircling the
mountain.
Tacoma Seattle. Distance by auto
road from Tacoma 58 miles, from
Seattle 88 miles. Daily stages from
both places to south side of mountain.
Tacoma Eastern R. R. from Tacoma to
Ashford. Stage from Ashford (6 mi.)
to south side of park. Guides and pack
animals also available.
Auto road to north side of mountain
from Enumclaw. North side also
reached by trail from Fairfax (R. R
station). Pack animals available at
Fairfax. Automobile road from Fairfax
up the Carbon River extending several
miles within the park.
III. STATE PARKS AND RESERVED PARK
SITES
A. PARKS
1. *Chuckanut State Park. (B4.) A
tract of 20 acres situated 6 mi. south of
Bellingham on Chuckanut Drive. It
fronts on salt water, part of the shore
being sandy beach and part rocky. It
has some virgin timber, mostly fir,
with some alder. Bellmghamt, 6 mi.
south (a).
2. Jackson State Park. (D4.) A half
acre not in a state of nature, preserved
for historical reasons. Toledo. Also
reached from WinlockJ, which is on
Nor. Pacific Ry. 5 mi. s.e. (a).
5. *M or an State Park. (B3.) A tract
of 2600 acres on the south side of Mount
Constitution on Orcas Island in San
Juan County. The elevation of the
summit of the mountain is 2400 ft.
and the park extends almost to the
summit. This park includes some fine
stands of Douglas fir and of western
hemlock, as well as some lodgepole
pine. Practically all has been burned
over within the last 25 years, and in
places a pure stand of lodgepole pine
has occupied the burns. The large
firs and hemlocks were not killed by
these fires. Some untimbered rather
xerophytic areas in this park will be
valued by naturalists on account of their
flora of ferns, Selaginella and other
plants. The park includes a lake li mi.
long and | mi. wide. Deer are numer-
ous. A careful estimate puts the num-
ber in the park and the 2000 acre game
preserve adjoining it, at 1500.
Seattle!, 75 mi. north by Steamer; 5
mi. north (h) or (w) from OlgaJ or East
SoundJ.
It is hoped and expected that the
176
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
State Parks committee may secure also
the tract including the summit of the
mountain, a sphagnum bog and some
water-front on salt water.
4. *Deception Pass State Park. (D3.)
This comprises 2000 acres lying on both
sides of Deception Pass. The park
includes four islands two in the pass
and two east of it. There is a very
strong tide through the pass and it
changes suddenly. It is passable for
small boats at slack tide only. Large
beds of bladder kelp occur in the tide-
ways around the pass. There are several
fine sandy beaches and numerous rocky
cliffs with sparse timber and other vege-
tation in the crevices. The timber of
this park is mostly fir, of the stunted
and distorted sort commonly found in
poor soil in exposed situations along
salt water.
Seattle!, 70 mi. north (or Everett! 50
mi. north) Great Northern Ry. 14 mi.
south (a) from AnacortesJ. Ferry ser-
vice across the pass.
5. *Crawford State Park. (A4.) A tract
of 40 acres including the entrance to
Gardner Cave. The cave is extensive and
is not fully explored. The park is hilly
and is in the western yellow pine zone.
Spokane!, 40 mi. n.e. to Newport!,
thence 50 mi. n. to Metaline Falls! from
which the park is 6 mi. n.e. by trail.
6. Money Creek Park. (D4.) A tract
of 18 acres near the Skykomish River
among the Cascade mountains. It is on
the Cascade Scenic Highway, and is
privately owned. Heavily timbered,
tall, beautiful Douglas firs and some fine
cedar, plenty of vine maple; devil's club
and other plants of rich coniferous forest.
Everett!, 50 mi. east by Gr. Nor. Ry.
or stage, 1 mi. s.e. (w) or (a) from Miller
River!.
7. *Lewis and Clark State Park. (A4.)
An area of 520 acres of virgin coniferous
timber with the undergrowth practically
undisturbed. The smaller animals are
also practically undisturbed. The tract
is nearly level and has a small stream
flowing through it. On Pacific Highway
between Chehalis and Toledo (12 mi.
north of Chehalis). Chehalis is 50 mi.
by rail or auto south of Tacoma.
B. RESERVED PARK SITES
The following park sites have been
selected, although formal reservation
has not, in all cases, been made. These
areas are of interest at present, mainly
to automobile tourists only. Local
inquiries will be necessary in most cases
in order to find them.
*Clarke County. (B4.) Five acres,
located just north of Amboy. Portland,
Oregon! 30 mi. north Nor. Pac-Ry. to
Woodland! Wash., thence 15 mi. east (a).
Grays Harbor County. (B4.) (Sec-
tion 36, township 19 north, range 7 west.)
South and east of the county road.
Montesano! or Satsop!.
*Five acres bordering on Boone Street,
Aberdeen. On Westport Highway Aber-
deen!, or Hoquiam!.
*King County. (B4.) Five acres on
the Sunset Highway, east of Issaquah.
*Five acres bordering road on east side
of tract. Vashon Island. Seattle! 15
mi. southwest by stage and ferry to
Vashon Heights!.
3.92 acres, on south side of main
traveled highway from Seattle! to North
Bend!, near Redmond!.
Mason County. (B4.) Located east
of the state road and including all tide
lands in front of lot 1. On Olympic
Highway. Lilliwaup!.
*Three acres bordering on Hood Canal
and on the Navy Yard Highway.
Union!.
Okanogan County. (B4.) Located in
lot 3, on Whitestone Lake. Sixteen
miles s.w. of Oroville!.
*Pierce County. (B4.) Section 36,
township 18 north, range 3 east. A
strip of land lying on each side of the
county road (now National Park High-
way). Twenty-five miles south of
Tacoma!.
Spokane County. (B4.) Section 16,
township 24 north, range 45 east; on a
county road and creek. On paved high-
way 22 mi. from Spokane!.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
177
IV. BIRD AND GAME SANCTUARIES
A. FEDERAL
All islands on the west coast of the
state from Cape Flattery to the mouth
of the Columbia River are federal bird
reservations. The birds on these islands
are mostly sea birds. No game birds
nest on these islands.
B. STATE
A game preserve one mi. wide is estab-
lished all around Lake Washington.
This closes an area of about 75 sq. mi.
Mercer Island in the lake is also closed
to hunting. The island is about 6 mi.
long and two miles wide. There are
deer on the island. Lake Washington
is over 20 mi. long and has an irregular
shore line.
c. COUNTIES
1. King County
a. Foss River Valley. (B2.) Sno-
qualmie National Forest, virgin except
trails. Skykomisht (w), Tonga (w).
6. Lake Dorothy. (Al.) Closed to
fishing. It is about two mi. long and f
mi. wide. It is in the Cascade moun-
tains south of Skykomish. Inquire at
office of King County Game Commission,
Court House, Seattle, for method of
reaching the lake.
8. Chelan County. (H8)
a. Four areas aggregating 151,000
acres on which no mammals or birds can
be killed for an indefinite period, and
no grazing permits can be issued. Set
aside by county Game Commissioner
with assistance of forest officials.
V. OTHER PRESERVED AREAS
A. SPOKANE J
1. *Up River Park. (B3.) Area 464
acres. Situated along both sides of
Spokane River. On north side, rugged
hills whose southern slopes are barren
except scattering western yellow pine.
Many vernal plants such as Ranunculus
glaberrimus, Olsynium grandiflorum,
Frittilaria pudica, Tellima tenella, and
Draba verna; later Balsamorhiza sagit-
tata, Sedum douglasii, Piperia sp., and
various lupines and composites are
found. This park is characteristic of
the semi-arid region in which Spokane is
situated. Ellis B. Harris.
2. *Hangman Park. (B3.) Area 294
acres. Situated in a deep canyon in
Hangman Creek valley. Bordered on
both sides by high, sandy hills or rocky
cliffs. More moist than Up River Park
because subirrigated from the creek.
Has much the same flora as Up River
Park, but has also willows, dogwoods
(Corn-its stolonifera and C. occidentalis),
alder, elderberry roses (Rosa nutkana
and R. pisocarpa). The park is in a
totally wild state and is likely to remain
so for several years. Ellis B. Harris.
3. *Indian Canyon Park. (B3.) Is
in a deep gorge. Besides the plants
mentioned in the preceding descriptions
it has also Philadelphus lewisii, Ber-
beris aquifolium, B. repens, Holodiscus
discolor, Spiraea mensiesii, S. corym-
bosa, Opulaster pauciflorus, amelanchier
florida, A. cusickii, Rubus pauciflorus,
R. leucodermis, Arctostaphylos uvu-
ursi, Vagnera amplexicaulis, V. stellata,
and Veratrum calif ornicum. Ellis B.
Harris.
4. *Mount Spokane. (B4.) A tract
of 220 acres, including the summit of the
mountain and a 60 ft. roadway from its
base. The conifers on this tract include
grand fir, alpine fir, Engelmann spruce,
western larch, western white pine, lodge-
pole pine, giant cedar, Rocky Mountain
juniper (Juniperus scopulorum), and
Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia). The
orchids include Cypripedium parvi-
folium, Corallorhiza striata, and Pera-
mium decipiens. Many of the plants
listed under the city parks of Spokane
are also found on this tract. Ellis B.
Harris.
B. TACOMAt
1. * Point Defiance Park. (B3.) Area
over 600 acres. Largely coniferous
forest with some deciduous trees.
178
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Broad-leaved evergreens, native shrubs,
flowers, ferns, and mosses, marine water
front. Good kelp bed (Nereocystis)
easily accessible by rowboat.
8. *Spanaway Park. (B4.) Area 477
acres. Borders on Spanaway Lake,
about 20 miles south of the city. Prairie
vegetation. Oak trees. Reached by
electric car.
8. *Green River Water Shed. (B3.)
A tract 27 miles long and 13 miles wide
along the Green River in King County.
Hunting and fishing prohibited. Confer
with city officials of Tacoma before
visiting.
4. * Little Nisqually Watershed. (B3.)
Area 24,000 acres. Located in Pierce
County.
5. *Lake Cushman Power Site. (B3.)
Area 7500 acres. Situated at Lake
Cushman, Mason County. Part of it
will be flooded, but the rest will be left
in a state of nature.
C. BELLINGHAMt
1. *Whatcom Falls Park. (B4.) Area
about 100 acres. Coniferous forest with
ravine and creek.
2. Cornwall Park. (B4.) Area 150
acres. Coniferous trees, natural water-
fall, ravine and meandering creek.
3. *Pairhaven Park. (B4.) Area 10
acres. Coniferous trees, ravine and
small creek.
D. SEATTLE!
1. *Roosevelt Park. Area 50 acres.
A deep ravine with some level, higher
land on each side. Fir, hemlock and
cedar predominate. Alder, maple and
yew also found. Undergrowth of salal,
Oregon grape and huckleberry. Flow-
ers, ferns and mosses abundant. Some
liverworts. Situated f mile north of
campus of University of Washington.
Trails.
2. *Schmitz Park. (B4.) Area 45
acres. Native forest with dense under-
growth. Ravines and brook. Natural
vegetation undisturbed. Trails.
8. *Seward Park. (B4.) Area 193
acres. Consists of a peninsula extend-
ing into Lake Washington. Native for-
est with dense undergrowth. Trails.
4. "Lincoln Beach Park. (B4.) Area
2.8 acres. Consists of about 500 feet of
water front on Puget Sound and a
wooded ravine extending up the steep
slope to the street car line. Abundance
of marine algae accessible at low tide.
Good kelp bed (Nereocystis} about 100
ft. from shore.
5. * Cedar River Watershed. (C2.) A
tract 25 mi. long and 8 mi. wide in-
cluding the Cedar River, its valley and
Cedar Lake, located in King County.
Hunting and fishing prohibited. Log-
ging has been carried on, but much natu-
ral vegetation is still undisturbed. Con-
fer with city authorities before visiting.
6. *The Skagit Power Site. (C2.)
When the upper dam is completed the
Skagit River as far back as the Canadian
boundary (some 25 mi. or more) will
become a lake. This will be an oppor-
tunity to study the colonization of
plants at a new water level. The entire
drainage basin tributary to this power
site is about 1200 sq. mi., the northern
portion of it being in Canada.
E. KITSAP LODGE (C2)
Area 70 acres. Located in Kitsap
County. Owned by the Mountaineers.
Coniferous forest with some deciduous
trees. Hills, ravines and stream. Soil
of hills very gravelly, supporting xero-
phytic vegetation. Pine trees, rho-
dodendron, manzanita, kinnikinnick,
mountain box, flowers, ferns, and
mosses. Confer with officers of the
Mountaineers in Seattle in regard to
visiting.
*P. BUNCH GRASS VEGETATION (B4)
Area 3 acres. On the farm of the
Washington State College, PullmanJ.
Splendidly representative of the condi-
tions that are rapidly disappearing from
Eastern Washington. F. L. Pickett.
*G. QUINATJLT LAKE AREA (A3)
Seven thousand acres bordering on
Lake Quinault in the Olympic peninsula.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
179
It includes about three-fourths of the
shore line of the lake (though the lake
itself is a part of the Quinault Indian
Reservation) and extends to the moun-
tain summits on the north and east.
It lies entirely in the Olympic National
Forest, except that 40 acres of privately
owned land is included. It has been set
aside by the district forester as a recrea-
tion area whose scenic features are not
to be disturbed. It is under the super-
vision of the United States Forest Serv-
ice. A summer cottage area has been
established along the lake where a
limited amount of cutting is permitted
under supervision.
A large part of the 7000 acres is covered
with virgin forest, much of it very dense
and consisting largely of enormous trees
of Douglas fir. There is also some cedar.
Ferns and other undergrowth are abun-
dant, and lichens and moss cover many
of the tree trunks and branches pro-
fusely. The original animal communi-
ties are practically undisturbed. Deer,
bear, cougars and bob-cats are common.
TacomaJ, 60 mi. west, Nort. Pac. Ry.
to HoquiamJ, State 35 mi. north from
there to Olsonf, on Lake Quinault.
Roads (a) to some parts. Trails (w) or
(h) to some others. Guides usually
available.
Marine preserve
A marine preserve was created by the
1923 legislature of the State of Washing-
ton. It is composed entirely of the
shores of certain islands and the waters
lying between these islands. It com-
prises San Juan County and also Cypress
Island which is in Skagit County. The
act provides that with the exception of
bladder kelp (Nereocystis Luetkena)
and of articles used for food, there shall
be no collecting of plants or animals
below the high tide line, except by per-
mission of the director of the Puget
Sound Biological Station. The object
is to prevent the depletion of the plants
and animals of the sea in the region
about the Station. The reason for
excepting the bladder kelp is that it
often interferes with fish traps. The
station has 485 acres of land mostly
cutover timber land which is held as a
wild life preserve. One mile northeast
from Friday Harbor, Wash. G. B. R.
VI. OTHER AREAS THAT SHOULD BE
PRESERVED
1. Wooded area. (H8.) Area 3 acres;
deciduous trees ; includes a flooded plain;
has typical vegetation of a stream mar-
gin of the region. Much frequented by
birds. Walla Walla. H. S. Brode.
2. Steppe area. (B3.) Of 160 acres
or more in Walla Walla County. Hills
and river; cottonwood and willow;
native grass land. Prescottt, Waits-
burg:}:. Lee R. Dice.
S. Area along Snake River. (C3.) In
Walla Walla County; area two square
miles or more, extends one mile along
the river, including the river bank, and
south two miles; includes river valley,
high basaltic cliff, canyon walls, and a
good area of bunch grass on top of hill.
Utilized at present for grazing only.
Lyon's Ferry. Lee R. Dice.
4. Sage Brush. (C3.) An area of one
square mile about two miles east of
Wallulaf and extending north from the
Walla Walla River. Typical sagebrush.
Area should include a small portion of
the Walla Walla River in order to preserve
the native willow conditions along the
stream. Walla Walla*, Walla Walla
County, 30 mi. west via O. W. Ry. to
Wallula. Lee. R. Dice.
5. A forested area of about 50 acres
around Baker Lake in Whatcom County.
Coniferous and deciduous trees; flood
plains; talus slopes and swamps; moun-
tains, canyons and lake shore; beaver,
deer. Seattle. Great Northern Ry.
100 mi. NE. to Concrete!, thence 20 mi.
north by trail (w) or (h). H. B. Ward.
6. A sphagnum bog (cranberry marsh),
including a bog lake. One hundred and
sixty acres should be preserved. This
includes about 50 acres of typical
sphagnum bog with lake in center; in-
cludes also about 30 acres of hard hack
180
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
swamp, some logged off land and a large
portion of Graham Lake which borders
the bog. Bog flora: Labrador tea,
swamp laurel, cranberry, sundew, lodge-
pole pine. Seattlef, 20 miles N. E.,
N.P.R.R., 1 mi. south (w) Maltbyt
7. Salt Marsh. (B4.) Central por-
tion covered with such salt marsh plants
as Salicornia, Atriplex, Distichlis, Tri-
glochin and Glaux. Dodder is parasitic
on several of these. Along each shore is
a gravelly, wave-built ridge with a flora
of Gaertneria, Lomatium and grasses.
Vegetation not likely to be disturbed at
present. There are numerous other salt
marshes in the region. One outside of
the city could be obtained much cheaper,
but no others seen show all of the plant
communities found in and around this
one. Situated in the Gity of Seattle
between Fort Lawton and the West
Point Light house.
8. Wooded ravines on the campus of the
University of Washington, Seattle. (B4.)
About 10 acres of forest. Conifers,
deciduous trees, broadleaf evergreens,
native flowers, ferns (7 species), mosses,
liverworts.
9. Swamp and ravine on the south side
of Liberty Lake in Spokane County. This
includes very characteristic swamp and
ravine vegetation. The ravine is deep,
and has a mountain stream in it. Ellis
B. Harris.
VII. LITERATURE LIST
Botany
1. Allen. Forests of Mount Rainier
National Park, 1916, 32 pages, in-
cluding 27 illustrations, 20 cents.
Contains descriptions of the forest
cover and of the principal species.
2. Document 190, Sixty-second Con-
gress, second session, Washington,
D. C., 1912. Contains several
papers on kelps of this region.
3. Flett. Features of the flora of
Mount Rainier National Park.
1916, 48 pages, including 40 illus-
trations, 25 cents. Contains de-
scriptions of the flowers, trees
and shrubs in the park.
4. Frye and Rigg. Northwest Flora,
University Book Store, Seattle,
(Out of print, but may be con-
sulted at libraries.)
5. Frye, Rigg and Crandall. The size
of kelps on the Pacific Coast of
North America. Bot. Gaz. Vol.
60, pp. 473-482, 1915.
6. Hotson. Sphagnum as a Surgical
Dressing. Northwest Division
Red Cross. Copies of this may be
had free, from Prof. Hotson,
Univ. of Wash., Seattle.
7. Piper and Beattie. Flora of the
Northwest Coast. State College,
Pullman, Wash.
8. Publications of the Puget Sound
Biological Station, Friday Harbor,
Wash. Dr. T. C. Frye, Director,
Univ. of Wash., Seattle. Many
of the papers in these volumes deal
with plants and animals of the
Puget Sound region.
9. Report 100, U. S. Dept. of Agricul-
ture. Contains papers on kelp of
the West Coast and Alaska.
10. Weaver. A study of the root sys-
tems of prairie plants of south-
eastern Washington. PI. World,
Vol. 14, pp. 227. 1915.
Fauna
Bovard, J. F., and Osterud, H. L.
Partial list of the animals yielding
embryological material at the
Puget Sound Biological Station.
Publ. Puget Sound Biol. Sta.,
2: 127-137. 1918.
Bush, Mildred. Key to the Echino-
derms of Friday Harbor, Wash-
ington. Publ. Puget Sound Biol.
Sta., 2: 17-44, 58 figs. 1918.
Dawson, William Leon, and Bowles,
John Hooper. The birds of Wash-
ington. 2 vols., 997 pp., numerous
illust. Seattle, 1909.
Dice, Lee Raymond. The Mammals of
Southeastern Washington. Jour.
Mamm., 1: 10-22, pis. 1-2. 1919.
Johnson, Herbert Perlin. The P9ly-
chaeta of the Puget Sound region.
Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 29:
381-437. 1901.
Jordan, David Starr, and Starks, Ed-
ward Chapin. The fishes of Puget
Sound. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci.,
2nd- ser., 5: 785-855, pis. 74-104.
1896.
Kincaid, Trevor. An annotated list of
Puget Sound fishes. Dept. of
Fisheries, State of Wash., 51 pp.,
114 figs. 1919.
Oldroyd, Ida S. The marine shells
of Puget Sound and vicinity.
Publ. Puget Sound Biol. Sta.,
4:1, illus. 1924.
Taylor, Walter P. A distributional and
ecological study of Mount Rainier,
Washington. Ecology, 3 : 214-236,
4 figs. 1922.
Way, Evelyn. Brachyura and crab-like
Anomura of Friday Harbor, Wash-
ington. Publ. Puget Sound Biol.
Sta., 1: 349-382, 28 figs. 1917.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
181
3. OREGON'
BY THORNTON T. MUNGER, WILLIAM E.
LAWRENCE AND HOWARD M.
WIGHT
I. GENERAL CONDITIONS (T. T. M.)
1. Topography
The state borders on the Pacific
Ocean, it is traversed by coast ranges of
mountains near the ocean, and by a much
higher range, the Cascade Range, far-
ther inland, between which is a trough-
like series of valleys of low altitude and
less humidity than the westward slopes of
each range. East of the Cascade Range
is a plateau of arid or semi-arid condition
intersected by deep canyons on which are
scattered detached mountain masses.
The altitudes in Oregon range from sea
level on the west to 11,253 ft. on Mt.
Hood. The prevailing altitude of most
of eastern Oregon is over 3500 ft.
The ocean strip has salt marshes, and
sand dunes; the interior has every type
of flood plain, valley floor, ravine, can-
yon, swamp, hillside and bluff; the high
mountains have talus slopes, old and
fresh moraines, alpine meadows and
wastes, mountain meadows or bogs, re-
cent and old lava flows, waterfalls,
natural lakes and uncontaminated
streams; and the Eastern Oregon plateau
has deserts, alkali and fresh lakes and
swamps, and mountains and valleys of
every description.
Soils. There is a wide range in soils
over the state. Pure sand on the dunes
of the Coast and Columbia River, great
areas of loess in eastern Oregon, glacial
deposits in the mountains, river de-
posits, peats, and of special interest,
great areas of fresh volcanic ash and
pumice which blanket parts of the
Cascade Range and eastern Oregon, to-
gether with lava flows upon which soil
formation has hardly started.
2. Climate
Precipitation. West of the Coast
Range and on the western slopes of the
1 Where there was no Cooperation between the
authors their names stand in the order of the receipt
of their manuscripts and the authorship of the
different parts is indicated.
Cascades the annual precipitation is
over 100 in. The valleys between the
Coast and Cascade Ranges have about 40
in. per year, well distributed except dur-
ing a two months' summer drought.
East of the Cascade Range the climate is
dry, ranging as low as 7 in. and averaging
perhaps 20 in.
Temperature. West of the Cascade
Range the climate is very equable, ex-
treme heat and cold being rare. The
diurnal range is small. It is an insular
climate. Along the ocean strip a mini-
mum winter temperature as cold as 20F.
is uncommon. East of the Cascade
Range the climate is continental and
extremes of both heat and cold are ex-
perienced. Cold nights (frosts at the
higher altitudes) are the rule throughout
the year. Much cloudy weather is
usual west of the Cascades while clear
skies and considerable wind are the rule
east of the mountains. On the moun-
tains an alpine climate prevails.
8. Original biota
A. Plant* communties (W. E. L.}. A
summary of the plant associations of
western Oregon follows:
Douglas fir forest (Hygrophytic conif-
erous forest)
Spruce forest (Hygrophytic coniferous
forest)
Cedar-hemlock forest (Hygrophytic
coniferous forest)
Redwood forest
Siskiyou chaparral
Hill prairie (or grassland)
Valley prairie (or grassland)
The Cascade Range of Mountains ex-
tending from the California line to the
Columbia river, divides the state of Ore-
gon into an eastern dry and a western
humid section. This long mountain
range serves as an effective barrier to the
moisture laden winds from the ocean.
The natural flora of the two sections,
therefore, differs in the principal species
of plants and the landscape aspect.
Western Oregon. Western Oregon is
characterized by a moister climate due to
the Cascade barrier. The Coast Range
2 Scientific names of plants mentioned in British
Columbia and Washington do not occur here.
182
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
in the western half also serves as a
secondary barrier, producing a still
more humid coastal strip. In south-
western Oregon the Cascade and Coast
ranges merge into the Siskiyou moun-
tains. This region is somewhat drier.
The Willamette, Umpqua, and Rogue
River valleys are the principal low
areas between the two mountain ranges.
Elsewhere the western part of Oregon is
broken into numerous mountain peaks
and ridges with small and often long,
narrow valleys between.
The bulk of the mountain and foothill
area is covered by a heavy forest of
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga mucronatd).
Western cedar (Thuja plicata), and
western hemlock Tsuga heterophylla may
replace the Douglas fir on the moister
slopes and in the v-shaped valleys. The
lowland white fir (Abies grandis) on the
low lands, the noble fir (Abies nobilis)
silver fir (Abies amabilis), and mountain
hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) on the
higher elevations, and Sitka spruce
(Picea silchensis) near the coast may
occur as conspicuous associates if not
occasional dominants in the Douglas fir
forest. The Sitka spruce characterizes
the moist coastal strip along the north-
ern half of the state, while the Port
Orford Cedar, Chamaecyparis lawsoniana
is an important Coastal species in the
southwestern part of Oregon. A small
stand of very fine redwood (Sequoia
sempervirens) is found in the fog belt
in the extreme southwestern corner of
the state. Elsewhere the lodgepole
pine (Pinus contortd) occupies the sandy
coastal area.
In the drier mountains of southwestern
Oregon, the western yellow pine,
Douglas fir, and incense cedar (Liboce-
drus decurrens) make, up the coniferous
forest.
A dense undergrowth occurs through-
out much of the humid coniferous forest
in western Oregon. Salal, vine maple
(Acer circinatum), salmon berry (Rubus
spectabilis) , Devil's club (Fatsia horrida)
and other shrubs often grow so profusely
that it is difficult to travel on foot.
Along the forested streams in the
northern part of western Oregon nu-
merous species of deciduous shrubs
and trees are always seen. Oregon ash
(Fraxinus oregona), broadleaf maple
(Acer macrophyllum) , choke cherry
(Prunus demissa), western flowering
dogwood, and alders (Alnus oregona) are
common. Willows, black cottonwood
(Populus trichocarpa), hazel (Corylus
calif arnica) , chittim or cascara (Rham-
nus purshiana), and Oregon grape
(Berberis aquifolium) are more common
along the more open streams.
The original forest was composed of
Douglas fir, but in the more mature
stands western cedar and western
hemlock will take the place of Douglas
fir. Extensive lumbering operations,
and great fires in the past have destroyed
large stands of this one time magnificient
and valuable timber. It is a real fight
to preserve these forests from fire, and
the United States Forest Service is doing
a great work in preserving the remainder
of this wonderful national asset. Ore-
gon has more standing merchantable
timber than any other state in the Union,
and it behooves every citizen to assume
personal responsibility for his part in the
prevention of fire and to further re-
forestation.
Fires have probably been recurrent
for an indefinite period in the past so
that the bulk of the forest has probably
always been composed of the Douglas fir.
Under normal conditions these burned
areas will reforest. On the west slope
of the Coast mountains and elsewhere
are large areas that are not reforesting.
These old burns are covered by a dense
growth of the bracken fern (Pteris
aquilinum pubescens) and the accom-
panying herbaceous flora. The bracken
fern is also common on burns and cut
over lands that are restocking. How-
ever in the latter situations the fern is
quickly overtopped by the vine maple,
service berry (Amelanchier florida),
thimble berry (Rubus parviflorus) , red
flowering currant (Ribes sanguineum),
blue elder berry (Sambucus glauca),
ocean spray (Holodiscus discolor) and
young Douglas fir.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
183
Wherever this western mesophytic
coniferous forest borders on the prairie
it is bounded by the Garry or Oregon oak
(Quercus garryana), in the northern part
of the state and by the black oak (Quer-
cus calif ornica) , madrona and manzanita
in the southern portion.
The Willamette valley is the largest
of the important valley sections in
western Oregon. It differs from the
Umpqua and Rogue river valleys chiefly
in its size and the more northerly loca-
tion. It is therefore a cooler valley.
A study of the floras of these valleys
shows that the southern floras extend
northward into the Rogue and Umpqua
valleys, while the northern plants may
be found southward into these sec-
tions. Intercepting transverse mountain
divides serve in part as climatic barriers
to the northward and southward migra-
tion of plants. These intercepting
ranges are neither high enough nor com-
plete enough to serve as effective bar-
riers in themselves. Their true signifi-
cance seems to be in the alteration of
the temperature and moisture condi-
tions, which in turn controls the charac-
ter of the vegetation. The numerous
smaller valleys take on the character of
the larger valleys. The Coos Bay, and
Tillamook sections are more humid,
whereas the Hood River Valley which
drains into the Columbia on the north
is more like the Willamette Valley.
The floor of the Rogue river valley was
originally a sagebrush desert surrounded
by grassland. The prairie may be seen
on the higher ground and lower slopes.
Between the hill-prairie and the forest
is a zone of chaparral. There may be a
question regarding the occurrence of
typical chaparral, in Oregon. The name
Siskiyou chaparral may be used to
distinguish the brush lands of South-
western Oregon from chaparral of Cali-
fornia and elsewhere in the Southwest.
However, at present, there is much
ground occupied by manzanita (Arcto-
staphylos spp.), antelope bush (Purshia
tridentata} , young madrona, scrub oaks,
and young yellow pine.
In the Umpqua valley and corre-
sponding situations the black oak is
intermixed with the Garry or Oregon
oak and replaces it to some extent on the
exposed hill slopes. Alder, broadleaf
maple, service berry, chinquapin (Cas-
tanopsis chrysophylla) , Oregon or Coos
Bay myrtle (Umbellularia calif ornica) ,
and black cottonwood are characteristic
hardwoods. The Oregon or Coos Bay
myrtle is found more abundantly in the
coast sections of southern Oregon.
There are two types of prairie in the
Willamette, Umpqua, and other north-
ern valleys in western Oregon hill
prairie and valley prairie. These are
not always distinct. The hill slopes
are drier early in the season. At present
weedy bromes and fescues are the
dominant hill prairie grasses. The
grasses of the valley are almost all
introduced. One of the original grasses
(Deschampsia caespitosa) may still be
seen along the roadside places.
Eastern Oregon. The eastern section
is a high plateau that rises rapidly from
the Columbia river southward to 4000 and
5000 ft. in altitude on the interior high
desert. Deep canyons are cut through
the plateau and in the mountains.
Rising above the plateaus are numerous
buttes and mountain ranges varying in
altitude from a few hundred feet above
the plateau to over 9000 ft., above sea
level in the Blue Mountains.
All of the area lies in the Cool Zone of
Livingston and Shreve, 3 so that the
character of the flora is determined by
this and the low average rainfall, which
is especially true during the growing
season. Local differences are affected
chiefly by slope exposure and altitude.
The eastern plant communities may
be given as follows:
Sagebrush desert, or (Great Basin Micro-
phyll desert)
Bunch grass prairie, or grassland
Juniper forest, or (Xerophytic Conif-
erous forest)
Yellow pine forest, or (Xerophytic
Coniferous forest)
Mesophytic coniferous forest
'Livingston, B. E., and Shreve, Forrest. "The
distribution of vegetation in the United States, as
related to climate conditions." Carnegie Inst.
Publ.284;
184
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Sub-Alpine forest
Alpine meadow
The largest single area is known
locally as the ''high desert." This area
is characterized by the sagebrush and
the rabbit brush (Chrysothamnus spp.)
on the slopes and well drained bottom
lands. Extensive alkaline lake beds,
river bottoms, and poorly drained flats
are characterized by the dominance of
the greasewood (Sarcobatus vermicula-
tus) and saltgrass (Distichlis spicata).
Sage brush may be associated with the
above plants in the transition zone.
Originally the western wheat grass
(Agropyron spicatum) and other bunch
grasses grew abundantly throughout the
entire desert area. The overstocking of
this sagebrush desert has largely de-
stroyed the grass as an abundant associ-
ate plant. The main desert area lies
south of the Blue Mountains and east of
the Cascade timbered slopes. It ex-
tends northward to the bunchgrass
prairie on the upper reaches and down
the river canyons to the Columbia.
Extensive desert lands also lie along
the Columbia in Gilliam and Umatilla
counties and in Baker county. The
sagebrush desert is called the Great
Basin Microphyll desert by Livingston
and Shreve although it extends beyond
the physiographic limits of the Great
Basin. Lava outcrops as "rim rock" in
frequent places where erosion has cut
through the great lava outpourings.
Along streams and under the rim rock
may be found various herbs and shrubs
that require more soil moisture. Con-
spicuous among these plants are the
western choke cherry (Prunus demissa),
service berry (Amelanchier) , squaw cur-
rant (Ribes cereum], golden currant
(Ribes aureum), mock orange (Phila-
delphus lewisii), willows and others.
Within the area of the desert plateau
and in Klamath County are large lakes
and marshes, which range from fresh to
alkaline. The lake borders and marshes
of the fresher waters are characterized
by the tule (Scirpus validus), cattail
(Typha latifolia), water hemlock (Cicuta
occidentalis) and others.
Between the high desert and the tim-
bered area on the south slope of the Blue
Mountains and other similar climatic
situations is a transition belt of western
juniper (Juniperus occidentalis} , moun-
tain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius},
and antelope bush.
Perhaps the largest juniper forest in
the world is found as a transition be-
tween the sagebrush desert on the south
and the bunchgrass prairie on the north,
and lying between the Cascade and Blue
Mountains. Sagebrush and also an-
telope bush, are abundantly associated
with the juniper. Originally the west-
ern wheat grass and other grasses were
abundantly found in this area.
The present wheat growing sections
of eastern Oregon were originally bunch-
grass prairie. It lies mainly on the high
rolling lands to the north of the Blue
Mountains. Small remnants of this one
time extensive prairie may be seen in
protected places. Western wheat grass
is the dominant grass. More or less
abundantly associated with it are the
prairie June grass (Koeleria cristata},
and other species of Agropyron, lupines,
prairie sunflower (Balsamorrhiza
sagittata), geranium, and others.
Stream borders are characterized by the
alder (Alnus tenuifolia), hawthorn
(Crataegus brevispina}, snowberry, sym-
phoricarpos and clematis.
Within the Blue Mountains proper and
on isolated peaks and small chains,
where the altitude may be responsible
for the supply of sufficient moisture, the
slopes are timbered. Western yellow
pine is the dominant tree throughout all
of the lower mountain slopes. The
same may be said for the east slope of
the Cascade Range and the Mountains of
Klamath county. Yellow pine may be
intermixed with sugar pine (Pinus
lambertiana) and a few other scattered
conifers to the south and with western
larch (Larix occidentalism, and Douglas
fir to the north. Western white pine,
lodgepole pine, Engelmann spruce,
white fir, alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa),
and other conifers are found in increas-
ing abundance with the rise in altitude
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
185
and the corresponding increase in
moisture.
The yellow pine forest is the semi-
desert or xerophytic coniferous forest.
The forest floor is characterized by
snow bush (Ceanothus velutinus), ante-
lope bush, manzanita, and Idaho fescue
(Festuca idahoense).
It is well known that the herbaceous
and shrubby vegetation varies with the
type of forest. On account of the large
territorial area and the varying climatic
and soil conditions, it is impossible to
accurately picture the smaller vegeta-
tion that accompanies the larger. The
mesophytic coniferous forest is the
habitat of the following: Snowbush,
thimble berry, huckleberries (V ac-
tinium), naked rose (Rosa gymnocarpa),
twin berry (Lonicera involucrata) ,
Prince's pine (Chimaphila umbellata),
twin flower (Linnaea americana), colum-
bine (Aquilegia formosa), false bugbane
(Trautvetteria grandis) and species of
currants and gooseberries.
Alpine meadows in both the Blue and
Cascade Mountains may be found at or
near timber line on the gentle slopes
and valleys. But the rocky ridges and
peaks are more or less covered with
scattered white bark pine (Pinus albi-
caulis), mountain hemlock, and various
shrubs. Following the recession of
snow, alpine erythroniums, and anem-
ones may be found.
B. Animal communities illustrated by
mammals (H. M. W.). The divide of
the Cascade Mountains separates Oregon
into two areas, Western and Eastern
Oregon. Western Oregon is again cut
by the Coast Range Mountains leaving
the big valleys of the Willamette, the
Umpqua and Rogue Rivers, lying be-
tween the two ranges.
The areas of Western Oregon recog-
nized in this paper are, the Moist coni-
ferous forests of two slopes of the Coast
Range Mountains; the Valley prairie
areas of the Willamette, Umpqua and
the Rogue River, the Hill prairie areas
comprising the foothills of the two
mountain ranges rising out of the val-
leys; and the moist coniferous forests
situated throughout the west slope of
the Cascade Mountains.
The areas of Eastern Oregon con-
sidered are, the Semi-desert coniferous
forests of the Eastern slope of the
Cascades; the Coniferous forests of the
Blue Mountains; the Bunch grass prairie
lying between the Blue Mountains and
the Cascades in the North, and drained
by the Deschutes, John Day and Umatilla
rivers; and the big Sage brush desert
lying south of the Blue Mountains and
Bunch grass prairie.
The flora of Oregon is not as greatly
changed from its original condition as
is its fauna. Few mammals 4 have been
entirely exterminated, but the distribu-
tion of many has become restricted, and
the numbers of nearly all show evidence
of decrease. Within the great conifer-
ous forests of Oregon and throughout the
arid section of the Sagebrush desert in
the southeastern corner of the state, and
extending into Idaho and Nevada, the
biota has been remarkably well preserved.
The west slope of the Coast Range
Mountains. Luxuriant open valleys
within this stand of timber furnished
forage for thousands of western wapiti
or elk (Cervus c. occidentalis) . The
black-tailed deer (Odocoileus columbi-
anus) fed within the jungles of Salal,
which carpeted this virgin forest. The
black bear stripped the huckleberry, and
the chittim (Cascara) berries, and
caught the fish from the numerous
streams which drain the west slope into
the Pacific Ocean. These streams were
followed by the western raccoon
(Procyon psora pacifica), the Pacific
mink, the Pacific otter (Lutra canadensis
pacifica). The Pacific beaver (Castor
canadensis pacifica) were abundant as
were in some sections, the Oregon coast
muskrat (Fiber zibethica occipitalis) .
The Puget Sound skunk and the spotted
skunk (Spilogale phenax latifrons) were
present. The hillsides were pentrated
by the mountain beaver (Aplodontia
rufa pacifica).
4 Scientific names of mammals mentioned in Brit-
ish Columbia and Washington do not occur in
Oregon account.
186
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Throughout the entire area the cougar
(Felis o. oregonensis} preyed upon the
young elk and deer. The Douglas pine-
squirrel (Sciurus douglassii}, the fuscus
bushy-tailed woodrat (Neotoma cinerea
fusca) and the deer-mouse (Peromyscus
maniculatus rubidus), were constantly
pursued by the bobcat (Lynx fasciatus
pallescens} the Pacific fisher (mustela
pennonti pasific) and the Pacific marten.
This area is also inhabited by the
Bachman flying-squirrel (glaucomys sa-
brinus oregonensis) . The bald eagle and
the band-tailed pigeon nested within
this region, while the coast wren built
its home in no other place.
All of these species are still present
in varying degrees of abundance. The
elk is no longer, however, a game animal
and the bear are becoming limited.
The east slope of the Coast Range Moun-
tains. The East slope of the Coast
Range Mountains, characterized by the
Douglas fir, meets the Hill prairie area
in its foothills rising out of the valleys
on the eastern side.
The fauna of the west slope is quite
generally carried to the east slope, and
while several species are now mapped
for the west side, a more detailed study
might show that their range could be
extended.
The western bushy-tailed woodrat was
found throughout this area. The Cali-
fornia skunk (Mephitis occidentalis}
probably extended his range well into
the valleys of the east slope, as did the
timber wolf (Canis gigas) as he pursued
both the black-tailed deer and the
western white-tailed deer (Odocoileus
leucurus) .
The Hill Prairie area. The Hill
Prairie area was characterized by open
grass land and Oregon oak which covered
the foothills on either side of the
Willamette Valley. These groves of
Garry oak afford a natural home for the
beautiful silver-gray squirrel (SciuriifS
griseus griseus} which, however, extends
its range far back into the coniferous
forest on both sides of the valley and in
the southern section to the Coast.
Especially numerous in this area were
the Douglas ground squirrel (Citellus
beecheyi douglasii), the white-tailed deer
formerly bedded among these hills, and
the sooty grouse were numerous.
The Valley Prairie area. This was
the original home of the western white-
tailed deer. The main streams and their
many tributaries wooded by Douglas fir,
maple, oak, willow and numerous shrubs,
afforded an ideal home for the mink,
otter, raccoon and skunk. Especially
numerous were the beaver of this area,
feeding upon the cottonwood and willow
which grew close to the water's edge.
The Puget Sound muskrat found an
ideal habitat in the numerous sloughs
caused by the annual flooding. Along
these streams the abundant thorn-
bearing shrubs formed an excellent
location for the dusky-footed woodrat
(Neotoma fuscipes] to build its nest.
The wild rose, Spiraea, and snowberry
associations afforded covers for the
Pacific Coast brush rabbit (Sylvilagus
bachmani ubericolor) and the California
black-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus calif orni-
cus) fed upon the luxuriant vegetation of
the open grass land. In the wooded
areas of this section were found the silver
gray and Douglas pine-squirrels and
Bachman flying-squirrel. The gray fox
(Urocyon californicus townsendi) and
the coyote made their dens within the
foothills and sought their prey through-
out the valleys, as did the cougar and
bobcat. The covers along the streams
of service berry, red-twigged dogwood,
hawthorn, and numerous other fruit and
seed bearing shrubs, furnished feeding
grounds for the Oregon ruffed grouse.
The numerous sloughs and streams
furnished natural breeding conditions
for many duck and shore birds.
Probably no section of Oregon has lost
a greater share of its abundant wild life
than the Willamette valley. This has
been brought about through rather in-
tensive grazing and cultivation, but
factors of greater importance have been
the rifle and trap.
The wolf, coyote, and white-tailed
deer have practically disappeared. The
beaver, under protection showed indica-
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
187
tions of reestablishing themselves in
their old haunts, but the open trapping
season of 1923 and 1924 has reduced
their numbers to such an extent that
their extermination seems imminent.
The introduction of the ring-necked
pheasant and bob-white (quail) has
replaced the other game birds which
have become too scarce to any longer be
considered game.
The west slope of the Cascades. This
great area lies entirely within the moist
coniferous forest. It is composed
largely of magnificent stands of Douglas
fir. At higher altitudes are found areas
of lodge pole pine, noble fir and Engle-
mann spruce. Interspersed among these
trees are beautiful mountain meadows
filled with a luxuriant growth of flower-
ing plants. The highest sections of the
timbered areas are marked by the pres-
ence of the mountain hemlock and white-
bark pine, above which the bare moun-
tain peaks rise.
About the numerous rock tumbles
could be heard the cry of the little cony,
or pika (Ochotona), and within these
tumbles the western bushy-tailed wood-
rat, mountain beaver, Apoldontia rufa,
and the yellow-bellied marmot (Marmota
ftaviventris) whistled from his mound.
The black bear extended throughout
the area while the grizzly remained in
the south.
The Cascade flying-squirrel (Sciu-
ropterus alpinus fuliginosus) and the
Cascade tree squirrel (Sciurus douglasii
cascadensis] were typical of the west
slope, while the silver gray squirrel was
present in the lower elevations.
Both the Washington snowshoe hare
(Lepus w. washingtonii) in the north and
the Oregon snowshoe hare (Lepus w.
klamathensis} in the south were pursued
by the timber wolf, the coyote, and the
Cascade fox (Vulpes cascadensis) . The
bobcat and the Canada lynx (Lynx
canadensis) reluctantly shared their
hunting area with the marten, fisher
(Mustela pennanti) and the wolverine
(Gulo luscus] . The cougar ranged freely
from the side of the divide to the other
in pursuit of the deer. Below, the otter
and mink shared the stream with the
beaver; the former probably the first to
enjoy the excellent fishing of the Cascade
streams. The porcupine, more at home
on the eastern slope, nevertheless fre-
quented the western slope as well, and
in the south the basserisk or ringtail cat
(Bassariscus astutus oregonus) made his
home. The pacific elk crossed the
valley and entered the valleys of the
west slope of the Cascades.
The mountain chicadee, red-breasted
nuthatch, mountain blue-bird and Ore-
gon jay are found breeding at an eleva-
tion of 3700 to 6000 ft. From this eleva-
tion to timber line is the breeding area
of Clarke nutcracker, the arctic three-
toed woodpecker and the alpine three-
toed woodpecker.
Above timber line the Hepburn rosy
finch has been observed, feeding its
young at an elevation of 9000 to 10,000 ft.
The eastern slope of the Cascade Moun-
tains. The eastern slope of the Cascades
lies within the semi-desert coniferous
forest. The predominant tree of this
area is the western yellow pine which
extends throughout the entire length
of this slope of the Cascades and follows
the higher cliffs o the rivers well into
the floor of the plateau below.
Many of the western forms were pres-
ent on this eastern slope but of very
great interest is the rather marked
tendency of the black-tailed deer to
remain on the western slope and of the
mule deer to remain on the eastern slope
of the Cascades.
Among those animals present upon
both sides of the divide are the bobcat,
Canada lynx, coyote, wolf, porcupine,
pika, gray fox, mink, beaver, wolverine,
fisher, marten, otter, basserisk, and
snowshoe hare.
The porcupine was exceptionally
abundant within the yellow pine forests
of the eastern slope, and the limit of
the badger's (Taxidea taxus neglecta)
western distribution is here reached.
In the north occurred the Cascade
skunk (Mephitis occidentalis notata).
The two jackrabbits of eastern Oregon,
the western white-tailed and the Wash-
188
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
ington black-tailed (Lepus californicus
wallawalla) probably made the limit
of their westward distribution in the
lower areas of the east slope of the
Cascades. The black bear was present
throughout this area, while the grizzly
bear inhabited the southern section
only. The bobcat, coyote and cougar
were present in large numbers, and while
the Canada lynx occurred here, its
abundance is uncertain. Undoubtedly
the prong horn antelope (Antilocapra
americana) made this the limit of its
westward migrations.
The bunchgrass prairies. This was
the typical coyote and sharp-tailed
grouse country. The many rivers which
drained the interior of this area coupled
with the rugged foothill country of the
Cascade and Blue Mountain ranges,
transformed this otherwise monotonous
country of bunchgrass prairie into a
rugged and interesting area.
In the south it overlapped and inter-
mingled with the sagebrush country in
such a way as to make any definite
southern boundary impossible.
While there was a marked difference
between this bunchgrass prairie and the
forests of the eastern slope of the Cas-
cades, nevertheless the fauna of each
was very similar; however, due to the
difference in the animals upon which
they preyed, their habits varied con-
siderably. The following were present
throughout the range mentioned: ante-
lope, mule deer, coyote, cougar, Cascade
skunk, mink, otter, beaver, and the
Rocky Mountain muskrat (Fiber z
osoyoosensis) . The black bear, cougar
and both lynxes inhabited the timbered
areas. The badger was numerous within
the big fertile areas, now turned into
wheat ranches, where he dug for the
plentiful pocket-gophers, mice, and
ground-squirrels. The most numerous
animals were the jackrabbits, the more
common at that time being the white-
tailed.
The Blue Mountains. The Blue Moun-
tains are a rather extensive range massed
in the north-eastern section of the
state. It was the home of the mule
deer, the marten (Martes pennantii
pacifica), the fisher, the wolverine, the
coyote, the grizzly and black bears,
and Great Basin skunk. (Mephitis occiden-
talis major} were probably common
mammals within this section, while
the pika (Ochotona schisticeps jewetti)
is typical of the talus slopes.
The sagebrush desert. The sagebrush
desert of eastern Oregon comprises
that area extending from the Blue
Mountains and bunch grass prairie to
the California and Nevada line and lying
between Idaho in the east and the Cas-
cade Mountains in the west.
This big area affords a great variety
in types of conditions. It possesses
mountains, deeply worn and treeless
gulches, rolling sagebrush plains, lakes,
swamps, and timbered areas.
It is the home of several animals that
have with difficulty survived, among
which the most interesting, owing to its
present pending extinction, is the prong-
horn antelope, which originally num-
bered into the thousands and moved in
immense bands instead of the few flocks
of today.
The bighorn sheep (Ovis) was a very
abundant animal and probably before
being molested ranged considerably
throughout the higher areas. The mule
deer inhabited this entire area, as did
both the white-tailed and black-tailed
jackrabbits, the badger, the bobcat,
cougar, Great Basin skunk, and spotted
skunk (Spilogale gracilis saxatalis}.
Within the hills were found the pallid-
bellied marmot (Marmota flaviventris
avara), the western bushy-tailed wood-
rat, the Washington cottontail rabbit
(Sylvilagus nuttallii) and the Idaho
pigmy rabbit (Brachylagus idahoensis).
The lakes and streams were the homes
and hunting grounds of the otter, mink,
beaver and Nevada muskrat (Ondatra z.
mergens}. The cougar probably preyed
upon the jackrabbits, deer, and antelope,
and the bobcats and coyotes pursued
the jackrabbits and smaller game
throughout this area. The grizzly and
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
189
black bear were both inhabitants of
this country and the American bison
(Bison bison} penetrated well into its
interior from the east.
The Great Sagebrush Desert was and
is today a paradise for birds and bird
lovers. Birds too abundant to attempt
any enumeration nested within and
around the many lakes and marshes of
this section. The number of species
and individuals found in this area are
beyond all comprehension of the average
nature student. Among those of special
interest are the egret, white-faced glossy
ibis, black-necked stilt, white pelican,
sandhill crane, and many species of
duck; grebes, gulls, terns, herons,
bitterns, cranes, sandpipers and other
shore birds.
A discussion of the mammals of Oregon
would not be complete without mention
of the islands lying within the Pacific
and off the coast of Oregon. Some of
these islands are notable as breeding
grounds for thousands of sea birds.
It furnished also a resting place for the
Pribilof fur seal, and was the breeding
grounds of the Steller sea lion and the
harbor seal.
Mention should be made particularly
of the south-western section of Oregon,
comprising the Rogue River Valley
and its surrounding hills and mountains.
It is apparently the meeting grounds
of species from the east and west and
the north and south. Present knowl-
edge will not permit an accurate state-
ment regarding this area.
Mollusca (F. C. .). Binney divided
the United States into regions and
gave the name Pacific Province to that
territory lying between the Cascade
and the Sierra Nevada mountains on the
east and the Pacific Ocean on the west.
The great majority of the land snails
are peculiar to this region and are
largely distinct, even as to genera, from
those of eastern North America. Of
about 100 species 65 per cent are peculiar
to this region. The region is further
divided into the Oregonian W. Meso-
phytic coniferous forest extending from
Humboldt Bay northward to Alaska,
and containing some 15 peculiar species.
The dominant groups are Ephiphragmo-
phora, Glyptostona, Binneya, Hemphil-
lia, Ariolimax, Hesperarion. There are
features of vertical distribution which
coincide with distribution of vegetation,
subalpine, alpine, arctic, etc.
II. PRESENT BIOTA (SEE "NATIONAL
FORESTS OF THE PACIFIC
DISTRICT")
Hofmann's account of forests of District 6
Most of western Oregon was originally
all timbered with northwestern co-
niferous type of forest. Patches of
deciduous forest occurred here and there.
In the valleys a considerable acreage
of the original forest has been cut and
the land cleared. In western Oregon
there still remains in practically its
virgin forested condition an enormous
area, about half of which is in the
National Forests. Here the plant life
is practically undisturbed except as
fires have increased in severity since the
advent of man. The animal life has
been somewhat affected by the proximity
to settlement and hunters, but not
fundamentally changed. In Eastern
Oregon the semi-desert coniferous forest
occupied originally only a small per-
centage of that part of the state and was
confined to the east slope of the Cas-
cades and to such independent moun-
tain groups as the Blue Mountains. It
is still practically in its virgin condition
as the area logged is small, though
affected so far as its lesser vegetation and
fauna are concerned by man through
fires, hunters and stock grazing. There
is here a large acreage of sagebrush
desert, some alkali country and a
variety of plant and animal com-
munities about such local formations
as springs, lakes, swamps, hot low
altitude canyons and cold high altitude
mesas. T. T. M.
The forests have encroached upon
the original prairie lands throughout
western Oregon. This is due to the
stopping of extensive prairie fires since
190
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
the advent of the white man. The
prairie areas were burned by the Indian
as a part of his system of hunting the
larger game animals.
Except as specifically mentioned the
flora as described in this paper is today
much the same as originally found by the
early settlers. However, it has not
been practicable to discuss all of the
floristic changes in the state due to
settlement. W. E. L.
III. NATURAL AREAS
1. Federal Preserves (T. T. M.}
A large part of the state is likely to
remain in its present virgin condition
for many years to come. The virgin
forest both east and west of the Cascades
is being cut relatively slowly, and much
of the desert and semi-arid country will
remain in its natural state for an in-
definite time. It may be said that every
type of natural condition that originally
occurred in the state is still to be found.
In certain types, definite steps to
preserve natural conditions are now de-
sirable. Certain areas are now ade-
quately safeguarded, such as the Bull
Run division of the Mount Hood Na-
tional Forest, and Crater Lake National
Park; and there may easily be segre-
gated for preservation by administrative
action as much more of the National
Forests as it may be deemed best to
leave in a natural condition.
There are in Oregon 13,178,023 acres
of National Forest land distributed
over the mountainous timbered portions
of the state. Most of these lands are
in their natural condition, except in so
far as accidental fires, stock grazing
and the slight occupancy of man have
changed them. They are subject to
timber cutting, as the economic demand
requires, except that where conditions
of such scientific interest exist that they
should be left in their natural condition
action can readily be secured to preserve
such areas. Several such areas have
already been preserved when timber
sales were being made in the neigh-
borhood, primarily because of their
aesthetic or recreational value. Fur-
thermore, at least half the National
Forest acreage of the state is so inac-
cessible on the high mountains that
commercial exploitation (except for
stock grazing) is practically out of the
question. It seems assured, therefore,
that every set of natural conditions
which occurs within the timbered por-
tions of the state may be perpetuated
under Government control on the
National Forests.
Federal game and bird refuges in Oregon
*Cold Springs of 2520 acres, created
in 1909 on a Reclamation Service project
to protect waterfowl.
*Klamath Lake of 81,619 acres in
Klamath County created in 1908 on a
Reclamation Service project to protect
waterfowl, pelicans, gulls, waders and
shorebirds.
*Lake Malheur of 88,960 acres in
Harney County created in 1908 on
federal land to protect waterfowl and
marsh birds. This is recognized as
one of the most remarkable places in
the United States for study of water
and marsh bird life.
*Three Arch Rocks off the coast of
northwestern Oregon reserved in 1907
as a breeding place for seabirds and
regarded as a very wonderful place for
ornithologists' study.
*A dune region on the Oregon coast.
(In the Sinslaw National Forest.)
Sand dunes border the ocean continu-
ously for a distance of about 50 mi.
from Marshfield on Coos Bay northward.
The area of most active dunes is from
one to four miles wide, and the transition
is gradual through less active dunes to
the very old inactive ones now covered
with forest. On the newer dunes the
following plants were found: A rush
that holds small areas of sand by means
of its abundant rhizomes and roots, a
wild strawberry, a beach pea, and
scattered willows and lodge pole pine.
The willows grow fast enough to keep
their tips above the incoming sand,
and the pines live even when almost
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
191
covered. Sand loving plants observed
in the vicinity of Marshfield are: Poly-
gonum paronycia, Abronia latifolia,
Cakile californica, Fragaria chiloensis,
Lupinus littoralis, Glehnia littoralis,
Godetia quadrivulnera, Gaertneria bipin-
natifida, Anaphalis occidentalis, Arcto-
staphylos uva-ursi.
Dunes which represent a stage inter-
mediate between the very young active
stage and the very old inactive stage
are usually occupied by lodgepole pine
(Pinus contorta), Douglas fir (Pseudo-
tsuga taxifolia), manzanita (Arctostaphy-
los tomentosa), rhododendron (Rhododen-
dron calif ornicum) , salal (Gaultheria
shallori), kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos
uva-ursi), common brake (Pteris aqui-
lina), mosses (Polytrichum juniperinum,
Hylocomnium splendens).
The forest that covers the very old
dunes is the ordinary coniferous forest
of the region. The following trees
make up the forest in the vicinity of
Marshfield: Douglas fir, western hem-
lock, Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis),
lowland white fir (Abies grandis), west-
ern red cedar, and Port Orford cedar
(Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana) . Under-
growth includes Myrica californica,
Ribes sanguineum, and Gaultheria
shallon.
Plants occurring in dune meadows
in the vicinity of Marshfield are: Lyco-
podium inundatum, Eriophorum chamis-
sonis, Carex pausa, C. mirata, C. magni-
fica, C. Hindsii, Juncus falcatus, J.
oreganus, Hookera pulchella, Hydostylus
brachypus, Spiranthes stricta, Ranuncu-
lus flammula unalaskensis, Argentina
(Potentilla) anserina, Hosackia parvi-
flora, Trifolium fimbriatum, Viola adunca,
Gentiana sceptrum, Mimulus Langsdorfii,
Plantago maritima, Orthocarpus castil-
leoides, Aster Douglasii.
Sphagnum bogs occur in or adjacent
to the dune area at Florence, Westlake,
Clear Lake, and Houser. Their flora
comprises peat mosses (Sphagnum spp.),
Labrador tea (Ledum columbianum and
L. groenlandicum) , sundew (Drosera
rotundifolia) , cotton grass (Eriophorum
sp.), buck bean (Menyanthes trifoliata).
The government had put in large
areas of grass on the dunes near the
mouth of the Siuslaw River about 1917
in an effort to keep the sand from blow-
ing into the river. Some of this grass
still flourishes, but much of it has been
blown out and the sand still blows into
the river. The Forest Service has
stopped the grazing and the sand move-
ment has been slowed up.
Near Florence, Glenada, Clear Lake,
West Lake, Houser, and Marshfield on
the S. P. R. R. G. B. Rigg and T. T.
Munger.
*Summit and upper slopes of Straw-
berry Butte. (Malheur National Forest,
Grant County.) Shows typical altitu-
dinal succession in Blue Mountains of
Oregon. Forest of western yellow pine,
Douglas fir and spruce, with species of
Abie near top, alpine meadows, and
scattered white-bark pine, characteris-
tic rock and alpine flora as well as flora
of the lower forest. See sonnet by C.
H. Sholes on "The White-bark pine"
in Mazama, vol. 3, p. 30, March, 1907.
The mountain has been grazed but
not over grazed. Characteristic Blue
Mountain fauna.
Take John Day Highway east from
Prairie to Blue Mountain Hot Springs.
W . E. L.
*Crater Lake National Park (A3).
This area of about 249 sq. mi. lies on the
summit of the Cascade Range, about the
wonderful lake of that name. It is
surrounded by National Forest lands.
It is covered chiefly with the type of
forest characteristic of the upper slopes
in the Cascades. A few exposed peaks
have alpine conditions. Much of the
Park is in its absolutely virgin condition
and is likely to remain so. Trapping,
timber cutting, hunting and grazing of
stock are forbidden.
It may be reached during the summer
months by stage from Medford or
Klamath Falls, Ore. T 7 . T. M.
2. State reserves and available natural
areas
*Reed College Reserve. One-half sq.
mi. deciduous and northwestern conif-
192
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
erous forest with ravine, canyons,
hills, swamps, marshes, ponds, plains.
Original vegetation and animals. Lo-
cated in Mulnomah Co., Portland,
Ore. H. B. Torrey.
Rock Creek Forest. A long stretch of
Douglas fir forest. Along Rock Creek, a
branch of the North Umpqua River in
the central part of Douglas County,
northeast of Hoaglin. W. G. Van Name.
Spencer Creek Forest. A long stretch
of unlogged forest, with quite large trees
in many places. Along the highway
between Klamath Falls and Ashland
(Klamath and Jackson Counties), from
Spencer Creek (some miles west of Kla-
math Falls) to Pinehurst. W. G. Van
Name.
Juniper Forest. (Deschutes County.)
Typical mature juniper forest with
sagebrush, and antelope bush as the
desert underscrub. About 10 mi. north-
east of Be,nd, and lying to the east of
the Besnd-Powell Butte road. W. E. L.
High Desert and Sagebrush Desert.
(Lake County.) Large area of typical
sagebrush desert lying east of Butte;
has been grazed for many years. The
traveler ant hills are common, other
animals are the jackrabbit and other
desert associates.
On road between Burns and Silver
Lake via Wagontire mountain, no
water except at distant ranch wells.
W. E. L.
Yellow Pine Forest and Forest Floor
Vegetation. (Northern Lake County.)
(Deschutes National Forest.) Typical
yellow pine forest with undisturbed
shrub associations also shows lodge-
pole pine areas. Location almost any-
where around China Hat or north of it
or on Sand Spring road. About 30 mi.
north of Fort Rock. W. E. L.
Fort Rock Crater. A large amphi-
theatre shaped volcanic cylinder the
south side of which is open allowing
typical desert vegetation and rock bor-
der vegetation to come in. Has been
grazed. Situated about two mi. north
of town of Fort Rock in Lake County.
W. E. L.
Forest and Desert Tension Areas.
(Lake County.) Typical desert and
forest border shows succession from
sagebrush to yellow pine and Cerco-
carpus. About one mi. south of town of
Silver Lake just outside of the Fremont
National Forest. W. E. L.
Sycan Marsh. (Lake County.) Typi-
cal central Oregon marsh of Typha,
Scirpus, etc., shows succession from
marsh to meadow to desert to scrub to
forest of yellow pine, also Cercocarpus
and Juniperus. About 20 mi. south of
town of Silver Lake. W. E. L.
Silver Creek Falls and mountain stream,
glens and canyons in Marion County, Ore.
There are four beautiful falls ranging
from 65 to 180 ft. high on north and south
forks of Silver Creek. Typical mesophy-
tic canon and stream flora to the hill top.
Douglas fir forest.
About 32 mi. east of Salem via Silver-
ton. See "Silver Creek Falls as seen
by the Mazamas" by W. P. Hardestyin
Mazama, vol. 4: 32-33, December. 1915.
W. E. L.
Climax Forest in Clatsop County.
Typical climax forest of cedar hemlock
Douglas fir Thuja Tsuga Pseudo-
tsuga, undisturbed, situated on Inland
Double Loop Highway about 15 mi.
southeast of Astoria, Clatsop County,
Ore. IP. E. L.
Clear Lake and Big Spring, formed by
the filling in of lower end of valley by a
lava flow submerging the forest. Tree
trunks are still standing on the lake
bottom. Lake surrounded by a typical
Douglas fir forest of the Cascades.
About two mi. from Fish Lake on the
Santiam Road over the Cascade Moun-
tains. W. E. L.
"Hanging Valley." A beautiful
mountain valley on north slope of Mt.
Jefferson. Shows typical mountain
meadow and forest border, with groups
of trees throughout the park. Located
in Santiam National Forest. Hanging
Valley is partially protected by the
United States Forest Service.
Reached by pack trail about 24 mi.
from Detroit. W. E. L.
Mary's Peak in western Benton County,
Ore. Highest peak in the Coast Range,
typical coast range sub-climax forest of
Douglas fir and Noble fir. Shows forest
edge succession from alpine prairie,
protected and exposed slopes. The
alpine meadow has been grazed for a
long time and timber cutting is in prog-
ress, altitude ranges from 570 to 4097
ft. Pure mountain streams.
Take autos for 12 mi. south of Philo-
math, thence trail west to base of peak.
W. E. L.
Lost Falls in Coast Range of Coos
County, Ore. Typical primitive Coast
forest of fir and cedar along Lost River.
See Scientific American, vol. 130, page 1,
4 figs., January 4, 1919, for further in-
formation and reference to Cape Horn
Falls on the Coquille River, where grows
the myrtle and the "Toe Head Falls"
on Camas Creek, all in Coos County,
Ore. W. E. L.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
193
Sphagnum bog and typical sub-climax
forest. In Lincoln County south of
Yaquina Bay and about one-half mi.
from the ocean; typical sphagnum bog
and lodgepole pine forest with salal,
huckleberries and rhododendron, shows
succession from water level to sub-
climax forest.
Take ferry from Newport to South
Beach, walk down railroad for about
one mi. W. E. L.
Sand dunes. The sand dunes of Coos
County are the most extensive. See
"The sand dunes of Coos Bay, Oregon"
by H. D. House, Plant World, 17: 238-
243, August, 1914. W. E. L.
State game and bird refuges in Oregon
(T. T. M.)
Multnomah County Pheasant Reserva-
tion of 80,640 acres in Multnomah and
Clackamas counties.
Deschutes Game Reservation of 829,440
acres in Crook and Lake counties.
Steens Mt. Game Reservation of 414,720
acres in Harney County.
Sturgeon Lakes Game Reservation of
22,000 acres in Multnomah and Colum-
bia Counties.
Grass Mt. Reservation of 34,560 acres
in Lane County.
Umatilla Bird Reservation of 500 acres
in Umatilla County.
Antelope reserve
(From information furnished by Mr.
George Orr, Jordan Valley, Ore.)
"The estimated number of antelope
in this locality, at present, is about 300."
The land is owned by the United States
government. "The sheep are crowding
out the ante:lope very fast. It is also
reported that there is a band of about 30
bighorn sheep in this locality."
Note: This is in a section little fre-
quented by man. The traveler almost
never goes in this section. The automo-
bile is the best method of travel on
account of the great distance. Gasoline
and other supplies should be procured
at Jordan Valley.
' 'Southeastern end of Malheur County,
Ore., south of Jordan Valley, Ore."
W. E. L.
Antelope reserve no. 2
"Northeast of Jordan Valley, Ore.,
near the Cow Lakes." This is about
15 mi. from Jordan Valley. The land
and antelope are "owned by Sam Scott,
postmaster at Jordan Valley, Ore."
I believe Mr. Orr said this man was
doing all he could to preserve this band
of antelope. W. E. L.
4. CALIFORNIA
BY H. C. BRYANT
I. GENERAL FEATURES AND ORIGINAL
BIOTA
Physiographic regions
California is a state of unusual clima-
tic and topographic diversity. The
northern two-thirds of the state is
characterized by mountains on the
coast and mountains near the eastern
border. These come together in the
extreme northern part of the state
and again in the southern third of the
state enclosing a great central valley
which opens to the west centrally
through San Francisco Bay to the
Pacific Ocean. Southeast of this wall
lie the Mohave and Colorado deserts
and those arid portions which require
the use of such guides to watering places
as have been published by the Depart-
ment of Interior. The west coast of
the southern third of the state is a plain
with low hills; this leads back to a series
of mountain ranges some 50 mi. east of
the coast. The paths across these
mountains lie to the east of Los Angeles.
II. GEOGRAPHIC AND LOCAL PLANT AND
ANIMAL COMMUNITIES
1. Vegetation
The vegetation is very diversified.
The moist Pacific Coast coniferous
forest which is a luxuriant growth of
conifers with deciduous trees beneath
extends southward to a short distance
south of San Francisco along the western
portion of the Coast Range. The
Great Central Valley (Sacramento-San
Joaquin) was originally grass land,
probably similar to the Russian steppes.
The southern coastal plain is charac-
terized by a type of vegetation similar
to that in the region of the Mediter-
ranean, which is called broad-leafed
Schlerophyll forest. In central Califor-
nia the foothill country appears to have
been a scattered tree savanna, the trees
being live oaks. In the higher portions
the evergreen oaks and associated
194
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
trees (broadleaf sclerophyll) origi-
nally occurred in rather dense stands.
Farther south this type of vegetation
is found at a higher altitude. About
San Diego the country is commonly
classed as semi-desert. Farther back
the live oaks occur at higher altitudes.
The southeastern desert portion of
California includes the Mohave and
Colorado deserts, the former including
Death Valley. Here are some of the
most arid areas in the West, charac-
terized by moving sand dunes, almost
barren tracts covered largely with
creosote bush (Covillea tridentata) and
with only occasional watering places.
Characteristic trees of the various
timber belts of the Sierra are a.s follows: 1
1. Foothill belt, 500 to 3000 ft.: digger
pine (Pinus sabiniana), blue oak
(Quercus douglasii), interior live
oak (Quercus wislizenii).
2. Main timber belt, 3000 to 6500 ft.:
yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa),
black oak (Quercus kelloggii), sugar
pine (Pinus lamb erti ana) , white fir
(Abies concolor), incense cedar
(Libocedrus decurrens), big tree
(Sequoia gigantea}.
3. Upper portion of main timber belt,
6500 to 9000 ft.: red fir (Abies
magnified], tamarac pine (Pinus
murrayana}, Jeffrey pine (Pinus
Jeffrey i).
4. Timber-line belt, 9000 to 11,000 ft.:
white-bark pine (Pinus albicaulis),
Sierra juniper (Juniperus occiden-
talis), mountain hemlock (Tsuga
mertensiana) , tamarac pine, foxtail
pine (Pinus balfouriapia) .
The southern and eastern portion of
California is geographically separated
from the northern two-thirds by differ-
ences in climate and location of moun-
tains. This area includes the semi-
desert low country south of Bakersfield,
the Mohave Desert, and Death Valley,
and the Colorado Desert (including
Coachella Valley and Imperial Valley)
and the low mountains which separate
the two areas. These mountains are
characterized by the broad leaf sclero-
phyll type of vegetation in the upper
1 From Jepson, W. L., 1909, The Trees of Cali-
fornia (Cunningham, Curtis and Welch, S. F.),
228 pp.
reach of the western slopes and conifers
on their highest peaks. Numerous
valleys, very nearly enclosed, with a
flat floor covered with scattered live
oaks and characterized by grasslands,
are common in the foothills. The
east slope of the mountains is quite
different in the character of the vegeta-
tion and these differences have been
used by Shreve to suggest the inade-
quacy of the theory of temperature
control and distribution.
2. Fauna, especially larger vertebrates*
The broken topography, lofty eleva-
tions, and the long coast line extending
from the latitude of Sitka, to the lower
latitudes of Lower California, constitute
some of the important factors which
lead to great diversification locally in
temperature and humidity. Within the
single state of California the effects of
this climatic diversity on the animal
life are abundantly illustrated. Terres-
trial vertebrate animals at home within
the boundaries of the state are represen-
tative of the life of the far North and
of that of portions of Mexico. Marine
life, of both cold and warm waters, is also
abundantly represented. The result is a
very large number of species and higher
groups in proportion to the size of the
area. Within this state alone there
have been detected up to 1915 a total of
361 species of mammals, 539 of birds, 76
of reptiles, and 24 species of amphibians.
It may be stated with confidence that no
other state in the Union, or even a
contiguous pair of states, possesses so
many species as California, unless Texas
proves more prolific than present knowl-
edge indicates.
Dr. Grinnell states that the plants,
most of the birds and some of the mam-
mals which are found restricted to the
chaparral belt "are of relatively ancient
origin and that they are quite certainly
indigenous." He continues:
Among these are to be counted the
huge grizzly bear of California, now
exterminated, and the nearly extinct
condor. Of the smaller mammals pecu-
liar to the same belt we may mention the
diminutive brush rabbit, the parasitic
white-footed mouse, . . . and cer-
1 From Grinnell, Joseph, 1915, "The vertebrate
fauna of the Pacific Coast," (pp. 104-112) in Nature
and Science on the Pacific Coast (Paul Elder & Co.,
S. F.), 302 pp.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
195
tain species of 5-toed kangaroo rats.
Of the birds, we must call particular
attention to the California thrasher,
. . . the California brown towhee,
the California bush-tit, the rufous-
crowned sparrow, the Bell sparrow, the
California jay, and the wren-tit. . . .
Birds and mammals in the northern
coast belt are, relatively to adjacent
districts, more plentiful in individuals
than they are in species. Of the more
interesting kinds may be mentioned the
Columbian black-tailed deer, . . .
the Roosevelt elk. . . . The strange
rodent called Aplodontia or mountain
beaver, which lives in burrows in wet
hillsides overgrown with rank clumps of
sword fern; the peculiar shrewmole;
. . . the varied thrush, . . .
south even to the Humboldt redwoods
and in winter generally over west-central
and southern California; and the diminu-
tive western winter wren whose creaking
song greets one from dense tangles in
ravine bottoms or from mossy logs in the
deepest shade of the redwoods. There
are, in addition, a number of other mam-
mals and birds, of more or less wide
general range elsewhere, though pre-
senting local species or subspecies in
different parts of the humid coast belt.
While reptiles are very few in species
and individuals in the coast belt, amphib-
ians are correspondingly numerous in
both respects, and include some species
of exclusively Pacific distribution. The
big, slug-eating salamander (Chrondro-
tus) is one of these.
The author calls attention to the fact
that the mammals are nearly all of
nocturnal habits whereas the reptiles
are more active during daylight hours.
This accounts for the fact that the rep-
tiles are the most conspicuous of the
vertebrates on the desert. Few reptiles
can be seen abroad during the cool days
of the midwinter season on the western
deserts, but by April they appear in
considerable numbers. Of the poison-
ous reptiles found on the deserts of the
Southwest, only the rattlesnakes occur
in California. Several lizards are com-
mon, including the chuckwalla (Sauro-
malus), the fleet-footed lizards (Scelopo-
rus) and the whiptails (Cnemidophorus) .
Of these, the chuckwalla (S. ater) of
black and orange coloring is the largest,
attaining a length of 15 in. and having a
proportionately stout body. The desert
tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) is found
excavating its burrows in sandy places
and wandering about over the great
stretches of the Mohave. That there is
a sufficient food supply for the numerous
reptiles of the deserts is accounted for
by the fact that nearly all parts of the
southwestern deserts are visited at
irregular intervals by heavy rains fol-
lowed by luxuriant growths of herbs
which produce an abundance of seeds.
These seeds, lasting over periods of
drouth, support great numbers of in-
sects and rodents, and these in turn
furnish the food supply of the reptiles.
Notwithstanding that reptiles are
more conspicuous, due to their daylight
habits, Grinnell believes that indi-
vidually, mammals outnumber the com-
bined birds and reptile population on
many parts of the Mohave and Colorado
deserts. Among these the seed-gather-
ing rodents, Dipodomys and Perogna-
thuS) known as the kangaroo-rats and
pocket-mice are the commonest. The
deer-mice, the carnivorous grasshopper-
mice (Onychomys) and the desert wood-
rats are other night-roaming rodents.
Three species, the antelope ground-
squirrel (Ammospermophilus leucurus),
the round-tailed ground-squirrel (Citel-
lus tereticaudus), and the desert jack-
rabbit (Lepus californicus deserticola),
are found abroad during the early morn-
ing and evening hours of daylight.
Two carnivorous mammals are present:
the big-eared kit fox (Vulpes arsipus)
and a species of coyote (Cam's ochropus
estor), small and pale in color. There
are also quite a large number of different
kinds of bats which feed upon the abun-
dant insect life of these deserts.
Birds of the deserts
are few in individuals save on the bot-
tomlands along such streams as the Gila,
Colorado and Mohave. Here, where the
deciduous mesquite, cottonwood and
willow furnish directly or indirectly
abundance of food and shelter, birds are
plentiful. . . . The tit-mouse-like
verdin, Abert towhee and crissal
thrasher are resident the year through,
while the Lucy warbler, plumbeous
gnatcatcher, Cooper tanager, white-
winged dove, Sonora yellow warbler,
and a score of other species are but
196
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
summer visitants. Out on the desert
proper, far from water, one may find
here and there a pair of Say phoebes
nesting in some rocky ravine or mine
tunnel; rock wrens associate with the
chuckwallas in the bare broken rock
masses; cactus wrens build their con-
spicuous covered nests in clumps of the
most prickly cactus. . . .
The Le Conte thrasher which, owing
to his wary nature and sand-toned color
was formerly "considered the rarest of
southwestern birds," is heard in the
cool morning hours on the desert, while
pairs of ravens and several species of
woodpeckers are also to be noted.
Very few typical animals of the
chaparral belt extend their range above
an elevation of 4000 ft. in the Sierras.
At this altitude one finds blue-fronted
jays, western robins, the sierra junco
and several species of woodpeckers.
In the red fir forests above elevations
of 7000 ft. will be found ruby-crowned
and golden-crowned kinglets, nuthatches
of three species, two species of sap-
suckers, the Townsend solitaire and near
timberline, the famous Clarke nut-
cracker. Characteristic mammals in-
clude certain species of chipmunks
(Eutamias), the Sierra red squirrel
(Sciurus douglasii albolimbatus), Sierra
marmot (Marmota flaviventris subsp.),
porcupine (Erethizon epixanthum} and
bushy-tailed wood-rat (Neotoma cinerea
subsp.).
Above timberline, at about 10,000 ft.
altitude and for some 1000 or 2000 ft.
farther, plant life of dwarfed types con-
tinues, and here the rosy finch and rab-
bit-like cony find their permanent
abode. They, with other similarly
restricted species characterize the Al-
pine-Arctic Zone.
III. PRESENT BIOTIC CONDITIONS
Much of the Pacific Coast mesophytic
forest of which the redwood (Sequoia
semper vir ens) is the characteristic tree,
is still in its natural state though there
has been much cutting. As the redwood
stump sprouts, a second growth rapidly
appears.
The great central valleys which were
once steppe or grassland areas are now
largely under cultivation. Much is now
irrigated farm land and the remainder
is heavily grazed.
The great chaparral belt of the foot-
hills of the Sierras is little disturbed
except for areas cleared for fruit land
and the modification due to extensive
grazing.
There has been extensive lumbering
in the main forest belt, inroads having
been made especially on the sugar pine
and western yellow pine, the trees of
greatest commercial value. Most of
the mountain districts have been grazed
by cattle and many mountain meadows
have been modified due to extensive
grazing of sheep. Exotic forage plants
are to be found in unlocked for places.
Perhaps the least modified areas in the
northern part of the state are to be found
in Del Norte County and in eastern
Siskiyou and western Modoc counties
in the area known as the "lava beds"
or "devils garden." Even these areas
are frequented by hunters and cattle-
men.
The streams of the southern and
eastern portions of the Sierras and of
southern California have been diverted
for irrigation purposes. Pollution of
many streams by sawdust and mine
refuse and to some extent by sewerage
is only partly checked by laws. As
a consequence the fauna of some of
them is quite completely changed.
The Pacific slope of southern Califor-
nia is largely under cultivation and
fauna and flora greatly modified. The
deserts of the southwest are cultivated
wherever water is available. How-
ever, large areas of the desert are still
unmodified except as the result of
grazing.
The grizzly bear, burro deer, Colum-
bian sharp-tailed grouse, and trumpeter
swan are now extinct in California and
the elk, pronghorn antelope and bighorn
sheep are candidates for extinction.
The sturgeon has practically disap-
peared from streams, and many game
species are greatly reduced in numbers.
There has been extensive planting of
exotic plants and trees in southern
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
197
California. Perhaps the most con-
spicuous trees are various species of
Eucalyptus and Acacia from Australia
and the pepper tree (Schoenus molle)
from South America. A wide variety
of forage plants have been introduced
and many of them are now considered
weed pests, for example Johnson grass
(Sorghum halapense) and Bermuda grass
(Cynodon dactylon),
Among exotic vertebrates now thor-
oughly acclimated are three species of
rats, the house mouse, Tennessee opos-
sum, English sparrow, and ring-necked
pheasant, the latter purposely intro-
duced as a game bird. The opossum
introduced by accident in both south-
ern and central California is already
becoming a serious pest. Many at-
tempted introductions of game species
have proved failures.
In the streams and lakes are to be
found many introduced species of
fishes, including two kinds of black bass,
the striped bass, calico bass, crappie,
ringed perch, blue-gilled sunfish, shad,
carp, two kinds of catfish and four kinds
of trout eastern brook, mackinaw,
lock leven and brown. Topminnows
have been widely distributed in recent
years as a means of controlling mos-
quitos. Many predatory insects have
been introduced as controls on insect
pests of citrus groves. The accidentally
introduced Argentine ant is proving
one of the worst of pests.
The areas within the national parks
probably come nearest to being pre-
served in a natural state for no hunting
is allowed, grazing and flower picking is
restricted and there is but a slight
amount of timber cut.
The National Forests of the State
furnish considerable protection to fauna
and flora. (See accounts in National
Forests of California, page 216.)
IV. NATURAL AREAS
Middle Eastern California
*Yosemite National Park (B2 I).
Area, 1125 sq. mi.; elevations 2000 to
13,090 ft.; includes granite-walled Yo-
semite Valley of world-famed beauty;
lofty cliffs; romantic vistas; many water-
falls of extraordinary height; glacial
evidences; ravines, canyons, mountains;
coniferous and mountain forest, chapar-
ral; three groves of big trees (Sequoia
gigantea), including the Mariposa Grove.
Mule deer and black bear commonly
seen. Includes type locality of Yo-
semite toad (Bufo canorus}, Mt. Lyell
salamander (Hydromantes platycephala) ,
Yosemite pocket gopher (Thomomys
alpinus awahnee), Yosemite vole (Micro-
tus montanus yosemite), Yosemite cony,
Yosemite mole, High Sierra bat, Yo-
semite fox sparrow.
190 mi. east of San Francisco by Big
Oak Flat Road and 225 mi. east of San
Francisco by Wawona Road. Southern
Pacific R. R. or Sante Fe R. R. to
Merced; Yosemite R. R. to El Portal
and Yosemite Transportation Company
stages to Yosemite Valley. W. F.
Bade.
* Devil Post Pile National Monument
(B2) . Area of 800 acres at the upper end
of the San Joaquin canyon containing a
spectacular mass of hexagonal basaltic
columns like an immense pile of posts.
Administered by the United States
Forest Service. Madera County, South-
ern Pacific R. R. to Laws thence by
stage to Mammoth, thence by trail.
Also reached by trail from Yosemite
Valley. E. N. Munns.
* Sequoia National Park (B2). Cre-
ated 1890. Area, 252 sq. mi. 12,000
sequoia trees over 10 ft. in diameter,
some 25 to 36 ft. in diameter; towering
mountain ranges; steep precipices; cave
of considerable size.
72 mi. east of Visalia, California,
Southern Pacific R. R. Good auto-
mobile roads.
*General Grant National Park (B2).
Area, 4 sq. mi. Created to preserve
the celebrated General Grant Tree, 35
ft. in diameter 6 mi. from Sequoia
National Park.
71 mi. east of Fresno, California,
Southern Pacific R. R.
49 mi. east of Visalia, California,
Southern Pacific R. R.
198
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
*Lassen Volcanic National Park (B2).
Area, 124 sq. mi. Only active volcano
in United States proper Lassen Peak
10,465 ft.; Cinder Cone 6879 ft.; Hot
Springs; mud geysers. Lakes, streams,
forests of western yellow and white
pine and lodgepole pine.
Southern Pacific R. R. to Red Bluff
or Western Pacific R. R. to Paxton.
West Central California
*Pinnacles National Monument (B2).
Area, 2080 acres; mountain coniferous
forest, chaparral; waterfall, mountain-
ous and rocky conditions; caves, spring,
excellent canyon. Deer present. In-
cluded in State Game Refuge 3 B.
Entrance via Hollister, California,
91 mi. south of San Francisco, or Sole-
dad, Monterey Co., 140 mi. south of
San Francisco. Eliot Blackwelder.
*Mount Diablo State Park (B2).
Mountain 4000 ft. high giving a com-
manding view of the entire center of the
state, embracing mountains, rivers,
valleys, bays and cities. 320 acres have
been set aside ; the purchase of 4000 more
is contemplated. Typical sample of
California foothill country including
groves of live oak, California laurel,
chaparral, and so forth. The region
and fauna little disturbed by civilizing
influences save that deer and other
larger mammals are less abundant than
under original conditions.
West base of mountain reached by
branch of San Francisco-Sacramento
R. R. at Walwood, or by Southern Pacific
Railroad at Walnut Creek. San Fran-
cisco 35 mi. west. Reached by auto
over paved roads. E. N. Munns.
Spring Valley Water Company Proper-
ties (C3). Typical humid coast flora
and fauna, including redwoods; modified
by storage reservoirs and predatory
mammal control with some grazing.
No hunting allowed.
San Mateo County. 30 mi. south of
San Francisco. Southern Pacific R. R.
or over good roads.
Redwood Preserves. 3 (The Redwood
3 Information from N. B. Drury, Sec., Save the
Redwoods League, July, 1923, Annual Report of the
League for 1922 and publicity material issued by the
League in July, 1923.
Belt is a strip of forest which averages
20 mi. in width and extends some 450
mi. from Monterey County, California,
to just above the Oregon line.)
California State Redwood Park (B2).
An area of 2500 acres of redwood in the
region known as "The Big Basin."
In addition to the redwood forest,
scattered areas surrounding the park
have been purchased by the state and
set aside by the National Government,
making a total of some 9000 acres in the
entire reservation. Facilities have been
provided for campers in the park, and a
central dining hall and cabins have been
erected which are run as a hotel. As
far as possible, the park is to be main-
tained in a state of nature. Santa
Cruz County.
33 mi. southwest of San Jose on high-
way. Stages from Boulder Creek, 11 mi.
25 mi. northwest of Santa Cruz on
highway.
*Muir Woods National Monument
(B2). Area, 295 acres. Virgin stand of
Sequoia sempervirens and associated
vegetation. The whole Mt. Tamalpais
region is a game refuge and all life is
protected inside the monument.
Marin County. 8 mi. north of San
Francisco; reached by Northwestern
Pacific R. R. and Mt. Tamalpais R. R.
*Armstrong Grove. An area of 419
acres of Sequoia sempervirens, located
near Guerneville and owned and ad-
ministered by Sonoma County. A care-
taker is in charge and all life is
preserved.
Guerneville, 3 mi. south on county
road. Guerneville reached by North-
western Pacific R. R. from San Francisco.
* Bohemian Grove (B2). A stand of
redwoods preserved and owned by the
Bohemian Club of California.
Sonoma County. 85 mi. north of
San Francisco on N. W. P. R. R.
* Edward R. Rickey Memorial Grove
(B2). An area of 40 acres of redwoods.
Mendocino County.
On State Highway, north of Willits.
N. W. P. R. R.
*Humboldt State Redwood Park (B2)
An area of 2216 acres of virgin redwood
in Humboldt County bordering the
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
199
State Highway for 14 mi. between
Miranda and Dyerville in the basin of
the South Fork of the Eel River. The
park is administered by the State Board
of Forestry. Camp facilities are pro-
vided at various points.
230 mi. north of San Francisco.
Reached either by automobile via the
main State Highway to Eureka, or via
Northwestern Pacific Railroad to South
Fork Station or to Eureka, and thence
to the park by automobile.
*Humboldt County Pioneer Memorial
(B2). An area of 166 acres of giant
erdwoods on the California State High-
way near Orick, Humboldt Co. Some
of the largest trees in the redwood belt
are found in this tract; these with the
massive firs, maples, spruce, and oaks ;
together with the giant ferns and other
undergrowth, make it an area of unusual
beauty. It is still in a primeval state
and the deed stipulates that it shall be
kept in a natural condition. The grove
is crossed by Prairie Creek which adds
to the beauty of the grove and its ad-
vantages from a park and recreational
standpoint.
About 60 mi. north of Eureka on the
California State Highway.
V. PEOPOSED AREAS
Proposed Redwood National Park
1. It is hoped that eventually a Red-
wood National Park, consisting of a
tract of primeval forest possessing the
scenic features most characteristic of the
region, will be established in the north-
ern limit of the redwood belt (Del Norte
County). It should be truly represen-
tative of the redwoods in their maturity,
and should be of adequate size prob-
ably not less than 20,000 acres, should be
accessible, and should present adequate
opportunities for recreation. In accord-
ance with a resolution passed by Con-
gress in 1920 , surveys have been made
and the problem studied extensively.
The groves along the approach to this
national park will be preserved through
private donation and through state and
county appropriations, ultimately mak-
ing a "Highway of the Giants/' extend-
ing from their southernmost limit to
their northernmost, and connecting the
various groves and parks.
2. The redwood region of Humboldt
and Del Norte Counties (along and near
the Trinidad-Crescent City Highways).
In view of the efforts being made to
save areas of the coast redwoods and of
the good information that is available
regarding them from other sources,
attention is called merely to the impor-
tance, from an ecological point of view,
of preserving not only areas of pure
stands of redwoods (to which the efforts
of the Save the Redwoods League
will doubtless be chiefly directed), but
also of the several very different types of
mixed forest of redwoods and other trees,
and especially of the covering forest
(largely Sitka spruce and lowland white
fir) which intervenes between the red-
wood belt and the ocean shore, and is
necessary to protect the redwoods from
the ocean winds unless hills intervene.
Along the old Trinidad-Crescent City
Highway, much of the forest is of the
mixed type and contains magnificent
examples of Douglas firs, hemlocks and
white firs. Firs 250 to 260 ft. high are
common in these forests.
The forest consists in some places of
almost pure Sitka spruce, sometimes of
large size and great height. Much of it
has already been destroyed. It is easily
killed by fire and exposure to wind and
sun. Prompt efforts should be made
for the permanent protection of some
of this tract of spruce and lowland
fir.
There are magnificent stands of Sitka
spruce in the vicinity of Requa, Del
Norte County, and Orick, Humboldt
County (some of them are probably 280
ft. tall). The finest lowland white fir
along the highway is in two rather small
tracts of mixed redwood forest between
Orick and Trinidad. There is little
forest anywhere in the United States
more worth saving from a scientific
and aesthetic point of view than some
of the tracts along this highway and in
its immediate vicinity, especially from
the Del Norte-Humboldt County line
to near Orick, although so far as the red-
woods themselves are concerned, better
stands can be found elsewhere, especially
near Smith River and South Fork.
3. Monterey Coniferous Forest.
Northwestern coniferous forest, sand
areas, ravines, canyons, sand and rocky
shores, and marshes. Fine stand of
Monterey pine and coast redwood.
Monterey cypress along the shore
line.
Monterey County. Pacific Grove or
Monterey, California, 3 to 10 mi. north.
Prof. Lynds Jones, Oberlin College,
Oberl'in, Ohio.
200
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Northeastern California
*The Me Arthur Burney Falls Park
(B2). An area of 160 acres in Shasta
County, including original forests of
pine with various species of game pres-
ent. Includes Burney Falls and Burney
Creek, the falls being 187 ft. high. Five
mi. from the highway between Redding
and Alturas.
Redding 75 mi. southwest. Stephen
Mather, Memorandum on State Parks.
Southwestern California
*Torrey Pines Park (B3). An area
of about 700 acres in San Diego
Co. including the rare Torrey pines
(Pinus torreyana) and an association of
typical semi-desert vegetation. Owned
by the city of San Diego and set aside
as a wild life reservation. Important as
the habitat of the mainland group of
Torrey pines, a prostrate form of Arcto-
staphylos, and other shrubs of botanical
interest and of certain birds and small
animals. Guy Fleming.
San Diego 22 mi. south on State
Highway.
Los Angeles Summer Camp (B3).
Los Angeles County has purchased
property with Jeffrey pine and pinon
timber west of Cajon Pass, San
Bernardino County for summer camp
ground. It will be kept in a semi-
natural state. For further particulars,
address County Forester, Los Angeles,
California. H. C. Bryant.
Mt. Pisgah Lava Field. A very irregu-
lar area covering about 15 sq. mi. An
old lava field, or rather a series of fields
of varying ages, but without evidences of
very recent volcanic activity. Is ex-
tremely rugged and difficult of passage;
crossed by jagged ridges and yawning
fissures; sand has drifted in from the sur-
rounding desert and become deposited
in the cracks and depressions afford-
ing soil for the support of scattered
shrubs and annuals for a mile or more
from its nearest border. Area for obser-
vation of white-footed mice, by Scripps
Institution.
San Bernardino County. Adjacent
to (south of) the main line of Santa Fe
R. R. at Lavic and Pisgah stations.
Ludlow 12 mi. east. F. B. Sumner (see
Journal of Mammalogy, vol. II).
Southeastern California
Lankershim Semi-Desert. Twelve
acres semi-desert, San Fernando Valley
in Los Angeles County, with cacti and
level plain and with sand areas. Mam-
mals: pocket-mice, kangaroo-rats and
grasshopper mice; such birds as: black-
tailed gnatcatcher, cactus wren, Bell
sparrow, and rufous sparrow.
Lankershim, California, is 6 mi. north-
west direction from Hollywood.
Near "Toluca," on Santa Monica
Quadrangle, U. S. G. S. J. Grinnell.
Tujunga Wash. Five square miles of
semi-desert, chaparral and cacti, flood
wash, and sand area. Few spots of wild
desert left in the rapidly developing
San Fernando Valley.
Los Angeles County. Burbank, Cali-
fornia, 5 mi. northwest; north of
Newhall Division of S. P. R. R. /. E.
Law.
Los Angeles Live Oak. Two acres of
deciduous forest, chaparral, mountain
ravine, and canyon; a narrow strip
between Los Angeles River and steep
slope of mountains just south contain-
ing a magnificent grove of gigantic live
oak, fern-filled, well-wooded, steep
canyon.
Los Angeles County. Los Angeles,
adjacent to Griffith Park. J. E. Law.
Big Prospector Meadow. An area of
500 acres of steppe, 10,500 ft. altitude,
sagebrush, alpine meadow on the moun-
tain top. Threatened by sheep; almost
tramped out now. Home of Merrill
horned lark, sage grouse, sage thrasher,
Brewer sparrow, short-tailed meadow
mouse, and white-tailed jackrabbit.
Inyo County in White Mountains.
Laws, California, 13 mi. northeast.
Shown on U. S. G. S. map of "Bishop"
Quadrangle. /. Grinnell.
Oro Grande Rock Area. Consisting of
hills, covered with large masses of igne-
ous rock of pale buff and pinkish hues,
interspersed with sand and gravel.
The vegetation is of the usual type of
the western Mohave desert region. Se-
lected as a trapping station for white-
footed mice, as control for Pisgah Lava
Field (see above), the object being to
test the alleged effect of color of back-
ground upon color of these rodents.
Altitude 2700 ft.
Barstow 31 mi. north, San Bernardino
50 mi. south on Santa Fe R. R. San
Bernardino County. F. B. Sumner.
Kelso Desert. Hundreds of square
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
201
miles of creosote bush desert showing a
scattered stand under extreme arid
conditions, the brush supporting two
species of grasshoppers that are common
in autumn; scorpions and lizards numer-
ous; horned rattler present. Providence
Mountains 10 mi. southeast with moun-
tain sheep present. Kelso, California,
immediate environs; Salt Lake Route
Railway; water station with a restaurant
for railroad men and probability of
lodgings among the few residents. Con-
venient points for study of Mohave
Desert. V. E. Shelf ord.
Desert Moving Dunes. An area of 25
sq. mi. of desert moving dunes just south
of the L. A. & S. L. R. R., between Flynn
and Kerrens. Kelso. California; 5 mi.
west to Flynn, California. V. E.
Shelford.
Mohave Yucca Forest. An area of
about 720 sq. mi. including one of the
finest of tree yucca forests and the un-
settled parts of the Tehachapi Moun-
tains, Antelope Valley, and the Sierra
de la Liebre, the pine-clad slopes of Mt.
Frazier, and finally, the arid desert at
the mouth of Jawbone Canyon. The
fauna includes a few antelope (1914),
black-tailed deer, black bear, cougar,
and bighorn sheep together with the
smaller mammals, birds, and reptiles,
commonly associated with these animals.
The geological features are interesting.
The San Francisco earthquake rift with
springs and lakes along it, runs through
Fort Tejon, Elizabeth Lake, and Palm-
dale. There are important fossil beds
at Ricardo, in Red Rock Canyon.
Los Angeles and Kern counties. Teha-
chapi, adjacent to the mountains. S. F. &
S.P.R.R. Mohave-Inyo R.R. gives access
to northeastern portions in the regions
of Jawbone Canyon and El Paso Moun-
tains. Saugus, Southern Pacific, adja-
cent to the southern portion. Bakers-
field-Los Angeles Highway crosses
through Tejon Pass near the base of Mt.
Frazier. Chas. L. Camp (1922).
California's game sanctuaries
California is assured a perpetual sup-
ply of game by having set aside areas
where no hunting is allowed and where
game is allowed to breed unmolested.
The state is responsible for the creation
of most of them, the Federal Govern-
ment for others. Certain areas known
as Game Refuges have been set aside by
legislative enactment. Others known
as State Game Preserves have been
created by the Fish and Game Com-
mission after the owner of the property
has ceded all hunting privileges to the
state for a period of not less than ten
years. The Federal Government has set
aside three Bird Reservations and pro-
tects all of the wild life within the Na-
tional Parks and National Monuments.
As a consequence, game is now abso-
lutely protected on nearly 3,000,000
acres within the State of California, an
area roughly equivalent to three per cent
of the total area of the state. On these
areas fishing is allowed.
Game refuges (C3)
Q
W
8
NAME
COUNTY
AREA
m
i
acres
1 A
Siskiyou
22,540
1917
1 B
Modoc
83,060
1917
1C
Modoc
21, 760
1917
1 D
Trinity
82, 560
1915
1 E
Shasta
37, 760
1917
1 F
Lassen
46, 720
1917
1 G
Tehama
33, 920
1917
1 H
Plumas
37, 760
1917
1 I
El Dorado, Cala-
67, 840
1917
veras
1 J
Amador
58, 320
1917
1 K
Fresno
34,240
1917
1 L
Tulare and Kern
35, 520
1917
1 M
Kern
81,920
1919
2 A
Mendocino, Lake
35, 200
1917
and Butte
3 A
Santa Cruz
4,480
1915
3 B
San Bani to and Mon-
14, 080
1909
terey
3 C
Santa Barbara
41, 600
1917
3 D
Ventura
125, 760
1917
3 E
Santa Clara
3,600
1919
3 F
Contra Costa
10, 240
1921
4 A
Los Angeles
293, 120
1915
4B
4C
Los Angeles
Orange
325, 120
99. 840
1915
1913
4 D
Riverside
69, 120
1917
4E
4 F
San Diego
Los Angeles and
51, 840
46,080
1917
1919
Kern
Mount
Marin
28,000
1917
Tamalpais
Lake Merritt
Alameda County
1869
(Oakland)
1, 792, 000
State game preserves (G7)
No. 5
Monterey and San
8,570
1916
Benito
No. 6
No. 7
Santa Barbara!
Santa Barbara/
42,000
1918
50,570
Federal bird reservations (H8)
Klamath
Lake
Clear Lake
Farallon
Islands
Siskiyou
Modoc
Pacific Ocean, near
San Francisco
22, 400
1,600
1908
1911
1909
24, 000
Approximate.
H. C. Bryant.
202
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grinnell, J.
1908. The Biota of the San Bernardino
Mountains. Univ. Calif. Publ.,
vol. 5, pp. 1-170, pis. 1-24.
1913. A Distributional List of the
Mammals of California. Proc.
Calif. A cad. Sci., 4th ser., vol.
3, pp. 265-390 pis. 15, 16.
1914. An account of the Mammals and
Birds of the Lower Colorado
Valley, with Especial Refer-
ence to the Distributional
Problems Presented. Univ.
Calif. Publ. Zool., vol. 12, pp.
51-294, pis. 3-13, 9 figs, in
text.
1914. Barriers to Distribution as Re-
gards Birds and Mammals.
American Naturalist, vol.
xlviii, April, 1914.
1915. A Distributional List of the
Birds of California. Pac.
Coast Avifauna (Cooper Or-
nithological Club), no. 11,
217 pp., 3 pis. (maps).
1917. Field Tests of Theories Concern-
ing Distributional Control.
American Naturalist, vol. li,
Feb., 1917.
Grinnell, J., and Storer, T. I.
1924. Animal Life in the Yosemite.
An account of the mammals,
birds, reptiles and amphibians
in a cross section of the Sierra
Nevada. (Univ. Calif. Press),
750 pp., 12 colored pis., 48
pis.. 2 maps. 65 figs, in text.
Hall, H. M.
1902. A Botanical Survey of San
Jacinto Mountain. Univ.
Calif. Publ. Bot., vol. 1, pp.
1-140, pis. 1-14. '
Hall, H. M., and Grinnell, J.
1919. Life-zone Indicators in Cali-
fornia. Proc. Calif. Acad.
Sci., 4th ser., vol. ix, no. 2,
pp. 37-67, June, 1919.
Jepson, Willis Linn
1909. The Trees of California. (Cun-
ningham, Curtis & Welch,
San Francisco), 228 pp., 125
figs, in text.
Merriam, C. Hart
1898. Life Zones and Crop Zones of the
United States. U. S. Dept.
Agric., Div. Biol. Surv., Bull,
no. 10, 79 pp., 1 map (colored).
1899. Results of a Biological Survey
of Mount Shasta, California.
U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. Biol.
Surv., N. Amer. Fauna, no.
16, 179 pp., 5 pis., 46 figs, in
text.
Smiley, F. J.
1921. A report upon the boreal flora
of the Sierra Nevada of Cali-
fornia. Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot.
9, pp. 1-423, pis. 1-7.
1915. Nature and Science on the
Pacific Coast. Edited under
auspices of the Pacific Coast
Comm. of the A. A. A. S.
(Paul Elder & Co., San Fran-
cisco), 302 pp., 19 figs, in text,
29 pis., 14 maps.
5. NATIONAL FORESTS OF THE
NORTH PACIFIC DISTRICT (6)
BY J. V. HOFMANN
The National Forests of Oregon and
Washington include large areas of moun-
tainous country and some of the most
gigantic forests of the world. The total
National Forest area covers nearly
52,000,000 acres of which about 15,000,000
are in Oregon, and 10,000,000 acres in
Washington. 1
The wide variety of conditions exist-
ing in these forests affords a mecca for
the nature lover and scientist alike.
These regions provide fertile fields for
the pursuit of studies in biology, geology
and any of the botanical sciences.
The preservation of natural conditions
in the Pacific Northwest for purely
ecological or biological purposes, or for
keeping intact some of the forest forma-
tions that exist at the present time and
which will not be reproduced under
forest management, can best be served
by considering the region as a whole.
The present economic conditions are
such that there will undoubtedly be
regions left untouched in this section
for several decades, and large areas of
types will be preserved without any
special effort. This will apply to this
region more than to various other
sections because the National Forest
land covers practically all the types and
conditions of the region, and portions
of these forests will be left untouched
until the lumber industry advances to
the stage where the last areas of the
present mature stands of timber are
1 The national forest areas mentioned in this and
the following accounts are as of July 1, 1923.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
203
logged. For these reasons types that
are included in such forests need not be
designated at the present time because
the future development of these large
bodies of timber can not be foreseen,
and the selection of the areas should be
made in accordance with conditions at
the time any special type is being cut.
Conditions arise under which areas can
be set aside very easily during the prog-
ress of logging without any special
effort or inconvenience to the operators
or any great financial sacrifice by the
Government.
To consider the different types of the
Pacific Northwest, it appears best to
divide the region into its natural areas
or types. This would divide Washington
and Oregon into three distinct areas;
namely, the Eastern Oregon or Blue
Mountain division, the Cascade Moun-
tain division and the Coast division
including the Olympic Peninsula. The
range of elevation in each division
divides it again into forest types. The
species in the Coast and Cascade divi-
sions are similar at similar elevations
and form the following types:
1. Lower slope type, sea level to about
3500 ft. forms the Douglas fir-hemlock-
cedar type, including Douglas fir;
western red cedar; western hemlock,
sitka spruce, in the coast region; sugar
pine in southern Oregon; Port Orford
cedar, in southwestern Oregon; western
yellow pine, in the Willamette Valley
and the east side of the Cascade Moun-
tains; western white pine, lowland white
fir, lodgepole pine, in isolated occur-
rence; western larch, on the east side
of the Cascade Mountains, and Alaska
cedar in northern Washington. Minor
hardwood species are scattered through-
out the region.
2. Upper slope type, 3500 to 4500 ft.,
forms the true fir type including noble
fir, silver fir, Englemann spruce, white
fir, Douglas fir, western hemlock, west-
ern red cedar, lodgepole pine, western
yellow pine, western white pine, Alaska
cedar in northern Washington, and
sugar pine, knobcone pine, and Shasta
red fir in southern Oregon.
3. Subalpine type, 4500 ft. to timber
line at 5000 to 6000 ft., including moun-
tain hemlock, alpine fir, white-bark pine,
dwarf juniper, Rocky Mountain juniper,
western juniper, lodgepole pine, white
fir, noble fir, silver fir, Englemann
spruce, western white pine, Shasta red
fir in southern Oregon, and Alaska cedar
in northern Washington.
The Blue Mountain group of forests
consists largely of western yellow pine
and includes also Douglas fir, western
hemlock, white fir, lodgepole pine, and
western larch.
The conditions included within each
of these regions are so similar that any
convenient locality may be selected to
preserve a representative area of the
general type of vegetation. The selec-
tion of any area for ecological or scien-
tific purposes should contain the optimum
conditions for the type of vegetation
concerned, consequently such mixtures
as occur in eastern Washington, where
the loogepole pine, western larch,
western white pine, Douglas fir, white
fir and other species are in mixture,
would not be representative of any one
species. The same condition prevails
in southern Oregon where the sugar
pine, knobcone pine, and the Shasta
red fir occur in mixture with the typical
species of Oregon. In other words,
areas should be selected in the region
in which the species develops not neces-
sarily to its optimum growth, but at
least the average or better, and where it
forms the greatest per cent of the stand.
At present there are no areas in the
western yellow pine type of Oregon and
Washington that are more permanently
preserved than that they are a part of a
National Forest. The large areas of
yellow pine within the National Forests
gives adequate assurance of the preser-
vation of the western yellow pine type
for a long time to come. The only
factor concerned is grazing, and there
are extensive ungrazed areas on which
studies may be made where natural
conditions are desired.
The Cascade forests vary in elevation
from 100 ft. to timber line at between
204
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
5000 and 6000 ft. Vegetation does not
extend far above timber line, although
at the higher elevations the beautiful
mountain meadows occur among the
scattered stands of the subalpine species.
The next lower zone is occupied by the
noble and silver firs, some alpine fir and
mountain hemlock, below which occurs
the Douglas fir forest, which is the pre-
dominating forest of the region. The
Douglas fir forest varies from a pure
stand to a mixture with western hem-
lock, western red cedar, lowland white
fir, and some other minor species. In
these various zones of the Cascade
Mountains the greater per cent of the
area is in its natural condition. All
stages of the forest may be found in
various localities.
Where the forest has been reburned
several times the large huckleberry
fields occur, and where two or more fires
have occurred at varying intervals, or
in patches, the mixed succession forest
occurs, and on areas where single forest
fires have destroyed mature forests the
typical succession forest consisting of the
species of the original forest is present.
The Olympic Peninsula is of special
interest because it contains some of the
largest Douglas fir in mixture with
Sitka spruce, western hemlock and
western red cedar. This is probably the
best region for preserving some of the
largest timber of the Pacific Northwest.
At present, very little logging is being
done in regions that would destroy the
last remnants of this type, and it will
probably be a long time before this area
is opened up for general logging. It
would be difficult at this time to desig-
nate any special area that would be
suitable for preservation because the
development of the peninsula is uncer-
tain, and during the process of cutting
it will be more feasible to determine
what areas should be selected.
The situation on the southwestern
coast of Oregon is somewhat different.
In this region the Port Orford cedar
occurs in a very limited range. The
Port Orford cedar is at present the most
valuable individual tree of the entire
region, and it is being cut in regions
where logging was not considered even
a few years ago. The selective logging,
by which Port Orford cedar is being cut,
is threatening the extinction of this
species. This calls for action if this
type of forest is to be preserved. For-
tunately, some of the best stands of
Port Orford cedar are included in the
Siskiyou National Forest on the Sixes
River watershed. This region possibly
may be cut, at least in part, in the near
future, and some definite action should
be taken to preserve a part of this type
of forest. The Port Orford cedar merits
attention and preservation equally as
much as the redwoods. It appears that
this species is a remnant of the forests
of the bygone ages. The Port Orford
cedar is re-producing very well, and
various age classes may be found. The
area mentioned ranges from sea level to
about 2000 ft. and is located from 10
to 15 mi. from Port Orford, Oregon.
The Port Orford cedar is the only species
of this region that is in immediate danger
of being exploited to the point that will
leave none of the mature forests.
In the Cascade Mountains there are
at present several areas that are per-
manently preserved, and no doubt there
will be future selections for various
purposes that will add to these areas.
Areas already preserved are : The Crater
Lake National Park, The Rainier Na-
tional Park, The Bull Run Water-
Shed on the Oregon National Forest
which supplies the water for the city of
Portland, The Sultan River Water-
Shed on the Snoqualmie National Forest
which supplies the water to the city of
Everett, and the game preserve on the
Stilaguamish River above Silverton,
Washington on the Snoqualmie National
Forest and a similar preserve around
Lake Chelan on the Chelan National
Forest. There is also a reservation
surrounding the Government Mineral
Springs in the Wind River Valley on the
Columbia National Forest.
Areas that are set aside for such
purposes as these are usually left intact.
Such areas are also valuable for the
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
205
study of natural conditions, for scien-
tific research, and for biological purposes.
There are other mineral springs, natural
camp sites, recreation grounds, and
other localities that will undoubtedly
be set aside in the near future. This
selection of areas is distributed along
the Cascade Range and includes practi-
cally all of the types of vegetation of
the region.
The sagebrush region in eastern
Oregon and Washington may not receive
attention, although no doubt there
always will be sections available for
study if left as it is. It includes the
region on the east side of the Cascade
Mountains. This is a border type
between the forest and desert and is an
interesting type from both ecological
and biological standpoints.
Wild animal life abounds throughout
this northwestern region and varies
very little in the different sections.
The black bear and grizzly bear are
found throughout the region. Timber
wolf and coyote are found throughout
the region, especially on the east side
of the Cascades. Deer are plentiful
throughout the region, and elk are also
found. Bands of elk are known at
present around Mt. St. Helens in North-
ern Washington; on the Siskiyou Na-
tional Forest; in the Southern Cascades
of Oregon, and in the Olympic Peninsula.
Cougar, fox, marten, fisher, and numer-
ous smaller animals are found through-
out these forests. Good fishing is
found in all of the streams, many of
them being restocked periodically.
NATIONAL FORESTS
Cascade National Forest (Oregon}.
The Cascade National Forest has an
area of 1,022,312 acres. It ranges in
elevation from 1000 ft. along the Mc-
Kenzie River to over 10,000 ft. where the
boundary reaches the Three Sisters
Mountains. These three peaks are
covered with perpetual snow, and the
melting snow from the Cascade Range
feeds the many scenic waterfalls and
cascades from which the forest derives
its name. Most noted among the falls
are the Salt Creek Falls with a perpen-
dicular drop of over 275 ft., and the
McKenzie Falls.
The forest consists of a dense stand of
Douglas fir estimated to contain 20
billion board feet of merchantable
timber. The higher ridges contain the
upper slope and the alpine species.
The headquarters of the forest are at
Eugene on the Southern Pacific Railway.
The southern part of the forest is reached
on the branch to Oak Ridge, and the
northern part of the forest is reached
over the McKenzie Highway.
Chelan National Forest (Washington}.
The Chelan Forest covers an area of
1,997,988 acres and ranges in elevation
from about 3000 to nearly 7000 ft. This
forest includes the famous Lake Chelan
which is a rival of the world famed Lake
Brienz of Switzerland. This forest
contains western yellow pine on dry soil
at lower altitudes good stands of Doug-
las fir at the lower elevation, and has
the typical upper slope and subalpine
types at the higher, also the beautiful
mountain meadows near timber line.
An area around Lake Chelan has been
set aside as a game preserve and this
area harbors the mountain goat and
sheep as well as deer, bear and other
game.
The headquarters are at OkanoganJ
and the forest is accessible by stage and
boat on Lake Chelan.
Columbia National Forest (Washing-
ton). Includes an area of 785,224 acres.
It lies in the southcentral part of the
state and includes the Cascade Range.
The elevation varies from 100 to over
12,000 ft. at Mt. Adams.
The forest includes Mt. Adams and
Mt. St. Helens; the latter is the youngest
of the glacier peaks of the Cascade
Range. The range in elevation makes it
possible for all forest types to be found
on the Columbia Forest. In the low-
lands are the heavy, mature stands of
Douglas fir and associated species.
On the higher slopes is the upper slope
type of true firs, above which is the
true subalpine type which adjoins the
mountain meadows at timber line.
206
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
On the Columbia National Forest
the Wind River Forest Experiment
Station is located in the Wind River
Valley, eleven miles from Carson on the
S. P. & S. Ry. This Station is the head-
quarters for research on the forests of
the Pacific Northwest.
The headquarters of the Columbia
Forest are at Portland, i and the forest
is reached by the S. P. & S. Ry. to points
along the Columbia River.
Colville National Forest (Washington).
The Colville Forest covers an area of
754,737 acres and ranges in elevation
from 950 to over 7000 ft. Within the
Colville Forest are the Kettle Falls
at which point the Columbia River
falls nearly 100 ft.
The forest type ranges from the
Douglas fir type in the lower elevation
to the subalpine type and mountain
meadows. It also includes large areas
of lodgepole pine forests.
The headquarters are at Republic
from which point the forest is reached
by stage.
Crater National Forest (Oregon). The
Crater Forest is divided into two sepa-
rate tracts aggregating 852,158 acres.
The larger tract includes the southern
slope of the Umpqua Range of mountains
and the other is in the Siskiyou Moun-
tains. The elevation ranges from 1500
ft. to over 9000 ft. on Mt. McLoughlin.
On the Crater Forest the traveller
will see 5 forest types: western yellow
pine, lodgepole pine, Douglas fir, white
fir, and the alpine species.
Within the Crater Forest lies Crater
National Park which includes Crater
Lake.
The headquarters of the forest are at
Medford, J and the Cascade division of
the forest is reached over the highway
to Crater Lake. The Siskiyou division
is also accessible by auto road from
Medford.
Deschutes National Forest (Oregon).
The Deschutes National Forest is
located entirely on the east side of the
Cascade Range in central Oregon. It
includes 1,283,808 acres and ranges
from about 4000 ft. in elevation to over
10,000 ft. The boundary of the Deschu-
tes joins the Cascade and includes a
part of the Three Sisters. This forest
contains Mt. Jefferson which is one of
the picturesque peaks of the Cascade
Range and, due to its almost perpendicu-
lar summit, is a peak that is of special
interest to mountain climbers.
The forest is typical western yellow
pine and lodgepole with some of the
subalpine species. , .
The headquarters are at BendJ which
is reached by a branch of the O. S. L.
R. R.
Fremont National Forest (Oregon).
The Fremont National Forest is located
in south central Oregon and is on the
east side of the Cascade Range. It is
a typical western yellow pine forest.
It includes 849,526 acres and ranges in
elevation from 4200 to 7000 ft.
The headquarters are at LakeviewJ
which is reached by stage from Bend or
Klamath Falls.
Malheur National Forest (Oregon).
The Malheur Forest is one of the group
of forests located in the Blue Mountain
region of Eastern Oregon. It has a total
area of 1,043,777 acres. Its elevation
ranges from 200 to 8000 ft. The forest
surrounds Strawberry Mountain which
is one of the highest peaks in the Blue
Mountains.
The forest is like all of the Blue Moun-
tain group of forests and contains
western yellow pine on the south slopes
and white fir, larch and Douglas fir on
the north slopes. Areas of lodgepole
pine also occur in places that have
been burned several times.
The headquarters are at John DayJ
which is reached by stage from Burns. J
Ochoco National Forest (Oregon). The
Ochoco Forest is another of the Blue
Mountain group. It contains 717,994
acres and ranges in elevation from 3000
to 7400 ft. It is a typical western yellow
pine forest with the white fir-larch-
Douglas fir type on the north slopes.
The supervisor's headquarters are at
PrinevilleJ which is reached by the
O. S. L. R. R.
Olympic National Forest (Washington).
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
207
The Olympic Forest covers an area of
1,535,503 acres and ranges in elevation
from near sea level to over 8000 ft. at
Mt. Olympus. The Olympic Forest con-
tains some of the heaviest stands of Doug-
las fir, Sitka spruce and western hemlock
of any of the north Pacific forests. Al-
most pure stands of Sitka spruce may be
found, and large areas of western hem-
lock, as well as Douglas fir. On the
higher altitudes are the upper slope
types merging into the subalpine types
and mountain meadows. Within the
forest are found Quiniault and Crescent
lakes.
The headquarters are at OlympiaJ
and the forest may be reached by stage
or by boat on Puget Sound.
Oregon National Forest (Oregon) . The
Oregon Forest ir eludes the famous
Columbia Gorge on the Oregon side and
is traversed by the Columbia Highway
which makes it very accessible from
Portland.! It contains 1,053,820 acres
and ranges in elevation from about 100
ft. at Cascade Locks to over 11,000 ft. at
the summit of Mt. Hood.
The Eagle Creek Camp Ground along
the Columbia Highway is a large camp
site maintained by the Forest Service.
The Oregon Forest contains heavy
stands of Douglas fir in the lower alti-
tudes and includes some of the best
upper slope types of the true firs, and
also the subalpine stands.
The headquarters are at Portland! and
the forest is reached principally by stage,
although the north end is very accessible
by the O. W. R. & N. R. R. and Columbia
River boats.
Rainier National Forest (Washington).
The Rainier Forest covers an area of
1,316,517 acres. It is located in south-
central Washington along the Cascade
Range, and the elevation varies from
200 ft. to over 14,000 ft. on Mt. Rainier.
On the Rainier may be found all of the
forest types from the heavy timber
types of the lowlands to the subalpine
species and the extensive mountain
meadows.
The headquarters are at TacomaJ and
the forest is reached over the Tacoma &
Eastern R. R. to Morton or by stage line
to various points.
Santiam National Forest (Oregon).
The Santiam Forest covers an area of
607,097 acres and ranges in elevation
from 1500 to over 10,000 ft. on Mt. Jeffer-
son. The lower slopes are covered by
heavy Douglas fir forests, and there are
also large areas of the upper slope types.
The headquarters of the forest are at
AlbanyJ on the S. P. R. R., and a branch-
line to Detroit! takes one into the heart
of the forest.
Siskiyou National Forest (Oregon}.
The Siskiyou Forest is one of the coast
forests in southwestern Oregon and
northwestern California covering an
area of 1,346,901 acres. It ranges in
elevation from sea level to about 6000 ft.
On this forest are a variety of types
changing from the Port Orford cedar
of the northern and the redwoods of the
southern lowlands, to the Douglas fir-
hemlock types at the higher elevations.
On this forest are located the Oregon
Caves which are the most beautiful caves
in the western United States. These caves
are reached by stage from Grants Pass!.
The headquarters of the forest are at
Grants Pass!, from which point any part
of the forest may be reached by stage.
Siuslaw National Forest (Oregon}.
The Siuslaw is another of the coast for-
ests, covering an area of 545,750 acres.
It ranges in elevation from sea level to
about 4000 ft.
On the Siuslaw, Forest the Douglas
fir produces very heavy timber, and
some of the best young stands of this
species may be found there.
The headquarters of the forest are at
Eugene!, from which point the forest
may be reached by stage.
Snoqualmie National Forest (Washing-
ton). The Snoqualmie Forest includes
693,733 acres. It is located in the cen-
tral part of the state along the Cascade
Mountains and varies in elevation from
300 ft. in the foot hills to over 10,000 ft.
Some of the most scenic areas of the
Cascades may be found within the forest
because of its perpendicular canyons and
picturesque mountain peaks.
208
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
All of the types of forest typical of the
Cascade Range may be found. The Sun-
set Highway is the main channel of
travel from the Puget Sound region to
Spokane and makes this forest accessi-
ble. Along the Highway is the Denny
Creek Camp ground.
The headquarters are at Seattle! from
which point the forest is accessible by
stage or over the N. P. R. R. to Darring-
ton or Monte Cristo, also points on the
main line of the G. N. R. R.
Umatilla National Forest (Oregon and
Washington). The Umatilla is another
of the Blue Mountain group which covers
an area of 1,228,793 acres and ranges in
elevation from 3000 to 7000 ft. This
is a typical western yellow pine forest.
The headquarters are at Pendleton,
Oregon! and the forest is accessible by
stage from this point.
Umpqua National Forest (Oregon).
The Umpqua Forest is one of the west
side forests in the Cascade Range and
includes 1,229,060 acres. The elevation
ranges from about 1000 to nearly 9000 ft.
on the summit of Diamond Peak.
This is one of the heaviest timbered
forests and contains large, untouched
tracts of mature Douglas fir.
The headquarters are at Roseburg!
and the forest may be reached by stage.
Wallowa National Forest (Oregon).
The Wallowa is one of the Blue Mountain
group comprising 957,419 acres. The
forest contains some of the finest scenery
in Oregon along the Snake and Imnaha
Rivers. The elevation ranges from 1000
ft. in the canyons to nearly 10,000 ft. in
the peaks.
The timber is typical of the Blue
Mountain group of western yellow pine
forests.
The headquarters are at Wallowa! and
the forest is reached from there by stage.
Washington National Forest (Washing-
ton). The Washington Forest includes
and area of 1,461,193 acres. It covers
the Cascade Range along the Canadian
boundary and ranges in elevation from
500 to over 10,000 ft. on the summit of
Mt. Baker. The rugged country and the
wide range in elevation makes possible
all of the forest types and combines them
with the scenic beauty of the country.
The headquarters are at Bellingham!
and the forest is reached by stage.
Wenatchee National Forest (Washing-
ton). The Wenatchee Forest includes
an area of 818,334 acres. The elevation
varies from about 1000 ft. to over 10,000
ft. on Glacier Peak, consequently all of
the forest types and mountain meadows
are included within the forest.
Three transcontinental railroads, the
G. N., the C. M. & St. P., and the N. P.
cross the forest, and the remainder of
the forest is accessible by stage.
The headquarters are at Wenatchee.!
Whitman National Forest (Oregon).
The Whitman Forest completes the Blue
Mountain group. It contains an area
of 1,313,523 acres and ranges in elevation
from about 3000 to over 8000 ft.
On the high plateaus are some of the
best western yellow pine forests of the
Blue Mountain region, and the north
slopes contain the typical white fir-larch-
Douglas fir type.
The headquarters are at Baker! and
the forest is accessible by stage.
6. NATIONAL FORESTS OF THE
NORTHERN DISTRICT (1)
BY J. A. LARSEN
In Montana and Idaho north of the
Salmon River, the natural forest types
fall into altitudinal belts, the boundaries
of which vary according to aspect, de-
gree of slope and drainage courses. The
same forest type does not always occupy
corresponding elevations east and west
of the main mountain chains or principal
divides. It is therefore necessary to
treat this subject according to the differ-
ent topographic divisions, as follows:
(1) The section west of the Bitterroot
mountains in Washington and Idaho;
(2) Flathead and Bitterroot valleys
lying between the Bitterroot Divide and
the Continental range; (3) the Montana
section of the Great Plains culminating
in the high Yellowstone Plateau and the
main Rocky mountains.
The lower forest line borders on the
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
209
prairies in each of these sections, at
2000 ft. in altitude on the western, at
3000 ft. in the central and 4000 to 4500 ft.
in the eastern section. The high points
along the Bitterroot range and in south-
western Montana reach 8000 ft. while the
principal high ridges vary between 6000
and 7000 ft. Ridge elevations in the
northern Rockies on the Flathead Na-
tional Forest and in Glacier National
Park vary between 8000 and 9000 ft. in
altitude, the peaks frequently rise to
10,000 and 11,000 ft. and have permanent
glaciers. This is also true of the forests
bordering the Yellowstone Park on the
northeast and east. Topography in
western Montana and northern Idaho is
characterized by very steep canyon
slopes and easier grades at the higher
levels, indicating a recent uplift. Else-
where the general slopes from mountain
tops to creek bottoms are more regular
and uniform. The southeastern Mon-
tana forests center around remnants of
an old tableland which rises 1000 to
3000 ft. above the rolling plains.
Aside from the occasional grassland
and upper barrens six broad natural
forests types exist. These are in their
order of altitudinal occurrence, begin-
ning with the lowest; western yellow
pine ; cedar-hemlock-grand fir-white pine
in Idaho; replaced by Douglas fir-western
larch in western Montana; Douglas-fir-
lodgepole pine in central and eastern
Montana; isolated bodies of Englemann
spruce in northwestern Montana; and
subalpine forests of mountain hemlock-
white bark pine, alpine fir and lodgepole
pine.
GRASSLANDS AND PRAIRIES
The prairies or natural grasslands oc-
cur generally below 2000 ft. elevation
in Idaho, below 3000 ft. in western
Montana and below 4000 ft. in central
Montana. The vegetative communities
on different 'parts of the Palouse plain
in Idaho have been well described by
Piper 1 and by Weaver. 2 For description
1 Piper, Chas. V. "Flora of the State of Washing-
ton." Contributions U. S. National Herbarium, XI:
38-40. 1906.
of plant communities in Montana see
Harshberger's Phytogeography of the
United States. The air temperature over
the prairies in summer averages higher
than for the lowest forest type. The
mean annual temperature for the former
in Washington-Idaho is 49.7 and that
for the western yellow pine type 47.3.
At the same time the prairies show
greater extremes of air temperature,
lower snowfall, and lower relative
humidity than the western yellow pine
forests. Precipitation in the western
yellow pine type varies between 15 and
22 in. per year while that for the prairies
averages below 15 in. The total snowfall
on the prairies is 17 in. while in the
western yellow pine type it is 52 in.
FOREST TYPES
Yellow pine type (Transition Zone)
Western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa)
grows in pure stands at the lower eleva-
tion border of the forest: from 1000 ft.
altitude up to 4500 ft. in the Clearwater
drainage; from 2000 to 4000 ft. in North
Idaho generally; and from 3000 to 4000
ft. in western Montana. In central
Montana the elevations are generally
too high for the development of this
species. The characteristic open stands,
the clear trunks and sparse undergrowth
give this forest a park-like appearance.
There is more air movement, more sun-
light, more heat and less precipitation
in yellow pine forests than in the other
forest types and therefore more evapora-
tion. These conditions, combined with
scant humus and litter, result in a soil
poor in loam and water-holding capacity.
There is invariably more rock and gravel
in the soil which causes it to heat by day
and cool at night in much greater degree
than in other forest types. Deer, coy-
otes, squirrels, ground squirrels, pocket
gophers, rabbits, pack rats and pheasants
are found in this type. 8
2 Weaver, J. E. "A study of the Vegetation of
Southeastern Washington and Adjacent Idaho."
Univ. ofNebr. Studies, 17, No. 1, 1917.
3 For some of the more common plants see: Lar-
sen, J. A., "Association of Trees, Shrubs and other
Vegetation in the Northern Idaho Forests." Ecol-
ogy 4: 63-67, 1923.
210
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
It is not possible to give with any
degree of certainty a distinct bird life
for the various forest types since most
of the birds inhabit several types. A list
of these is given under the cedar-hem-
lock-grand fir type.
Western yellow pine, Pinus ponderosa
scopulorum, is the only coniferous tree
occurring in southeastern Montana on
the Sioux and Custer National Forests.
This type represents outposts of the
Black Hills Yellow Pine type.
The western yellow pine occurs in
largest bodies on the following National
Forests :
NATIONAL
FOREST
SUPERVISOR'S
HEADQUARTERS
RAILROAD
Bitterroot
Missoula, Mont.
N. P.
Missoula
Missoula, Mont.
N. P.
Kootenai
Libby, Mont.
G. N.
Selway
Nexperze
Sioux
Kooskia, Mont.
Grange ville, Mont.
Miles City, Mont.
N. P.
N. P.
N. P.
Cedar -hemlock grand fir-western white
pine type
The Thuja plicata-Tsuga heterophylla-
Abies grandis-Pinus monticola type
occurs chiefly in northern Idaho be-
tween 2000 and 4500 ft. elevation.
This type is not necessarily confined to
higher elevations than the western yel-
low pine but marks a region of much
heavier rainfall. Air temperatures are
lower than those observed in the western
yellow pine forests. The cedar-hem-
lock-white pine forests have a mean
annual air temperature of 42.4 and an
annual precipitation up to 40 in. Snow-
fall, which is 112 in. per year is also
much heavier and the humidity greater
here than in the western yellow pine
type. This type is found on more
protected slopes and aspects over
broken topography where the extremes
of climate are tempered by greater pre-
cipitation and cloudiness, and where the
texture and moisture holding qualities
of the soil are improved and maintained
by a dense stand, deep shade and rapid
accumulation of humus. This type of
forest, therefore, shows a wealth of
herbaceous species, shrubs and conifers.
The fauna is also rich in species of
birds and of fur-bearing mammals. The
following birds and animals have been
observed: Woodpeckers (pileated, flicker,
red-headed, hairy, downy, andsapsucker),
screech owl and great horned owl, mourn-
ing dove, swallow, kingbird, ruby-throat-
ed humming bird, bronzed grackle, junco,
winter wren, chickadee, songsparrow,
vesper sparrow, ruffed grouse, occasional
quail, pine grosbeak, American crossbill,
varied thrush, Steller's jay, and Canada
jay. 4
Among the important animals may be
mentioned the mule and white-tailed
deer (Odocoileus hemionus and 0. sp.),
elk (Cervus canadensis occidentalis) ,
black bear (Ursus americanus), cougar
(Felis concolor group), lynx and bob-cat
(Lynx spp.), coyote and timber wolf
(Cam's spp.), skunk (Mephitis), weasel
(Mustela), porcupine (Erethizon), pine
squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus rich-
ardsoni), snowshoe hare (Lepus bairdii),
flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus
subspp.), pack rat (Neotoma cinerea
subspp.), jumping-mouse (Zapus), beaver
(Castor), muskrat (Ondatra zibethica
osoyoosensis) , mink (Mustela vison ener-
gumenos), and rarely otter (Lutra)
occur along the streams.
Forest fires have been frequent and
destructive in this t} r pe of forest and
have greatly limited the distribution
of the species, which are moisture-
loving, tolerant of shade and less fire
resistant than larch and Douglas fir.
Because of prolific seeding and the ease
with which lodgepole pine and western
white pine reproduces on burns these
species, particularly the latter, are much
in evidence. In fact the Idaho forests
are known for areas of stately virgin
forests of almost pure white pine. These
trees reach 180 and 200 ft. in height and
are found up to 50 and occasionally 60 in.
in diameter. The highest cut on record is
one million board feet of lumber on 10
acres. This type, therefore, marks the
greatest activity of the lumbering indus-
try in the Inland Empire. Virgin stands
* I am indebted to Ranger G. Kempff for help in
preparing the list of birds.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
211
of this species are rapidly yielding to
lumbering and not a few to fire.
The cedar-hemlock-grand-firwhite
pine type occurs on the following
National Forests in Idaho :
NATIONAL
FOREST
SUPERVISOR'S
HEADQUARTERS
RAILROAD
Kaniksu
Sandpoint,
G. N.
Idaho
Pend O'Reille
Sandpoint,
G. N.
Idaho
Couer d'Alene
Couer d'Alene,
C. M. & St. P.,
Idaho
N. P., G. N.
via Spokane
St. Joe
Couer d'Alene,
C. M. & St. P.,
Idaho
N. P., G. N.
via Spokane
Clearwater
Orofino, Idaho
N. P. via Spo-
kane
Douglas fir western larch type
This type prevails in Flathead and
Bitterroot valleys in western Montana.
The larch (Larix occidentalism is really
not a climax species but since it is so
prevalent everywhere, having gained by
repeated fires, its name has become
linked with Douglas fir in the designa-
tion of this association. These species
are of much less commercial value and
have therefore been less exploited than
western yellow pine and western white
pine. The larch grows on moist soils
from the lower edge of the forest up to
an altitude of 5000 ft. Douglas fir has a
much wider altitudinal range. The
mean annual air temperature in this type
is 40.9F., and the annual precipitation
is 18 to 25 in., snowfall 70 in. and over.
Bird and animal life is similar to that of
the cedar-hemlock-grand fir type but
less varied and not so plentiful.
The Douglas fir western larch type
occurs on the following National
Forests :
NATIONAL
FOREST
SUPERVISOR'S
HEADQUARTERS
RAILROAD
Kootenai
Blackfeet
Flathead
Cabinet
Lolo
Missoula
Libby, Mont.
Kalispell, Mont.
Kalispell, Mont.
Thompson Falls,
Mont.
Missoula, Mont.
Missoula, Mont.
G. N.
G. N.
G. N.
N. P.
N. P., C. M. &
St. P.
N. P., C. M. &
St. P.
THE ENGELMANN SPRUCE TYPE
This is characterized by Picea Engle-
manii. Solid areas of this type are
relatively rare in Montana and northern
Idaho. This species is not plentiful
around the headwaters of the Clearwater
drainage nor generally in Montana. It
is confined to the cool northern aspects
and canyons where the snow is deep and
lingers late in summer, particularly in
northeastern Montana on the Blackfeet
and Kootenai National Forests. In-
dividuals or grouped specimens line all
the principal mountain streams. There
is also considerable spruce at higher
elevations on the forests surrounding
Yellowstone Park. Repeated forest
fires in the past have no doubt greatly
restricted the spruce type. This forest
has not been exploited. Bird and
animal life is much the same as that
noted in the Cedar-Hemlock-Grand fir
type. Grizzly bear and moose (Alecs')
should be added for northwestern
Montana.
The Engelmann spruce type may be
studied in the following National forests ;
NATIONAL
FOREST
SUPERVISOR'S
HEADQUARTERS
RAILROAD
Pend O'Reille
Kootenai
Blackfeet
Flathead
Sandpoint, Idaho
Libby, Mont.
Kalispell, Mont.
Kalispell, Mont.
G. N.
G. N.
G. N.
G. N.
(Also Glacier National Park, Belton, Montana.)
Douglas fir Lodgepole Pine Type
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) and
Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) occur
on all of the National forests in Montana
and northern Idaho. It is however in
the higher forests of central and southern
Montana, where climatic conditions are
unsuitable for the previously described
types, that these two species occur in
greatest abundance. These species are
invariably found at the lower tree line
at 2000 ft. in Idaho, 3000 ft. in western
Montana and 4000 ft. in central and
southern Montana. In Idaho this type
attains an elevation from 7000 to SOOO ft.
Repeated fires greatly increase the
proportion of lodgepole pine, often
212
NATURALISTS GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
resulting in dense impenetrable thickets
which show very slow growth. This
forest is composed of trees of small
diameter and has a low volume produc-
tion compared with the Idaho forests,
thereby reflecting the lesser annual
precipitation in Montana than in Idaho.
This type grows under a mean annual
air temperature ranging from 35 to 40
and annual precipitation of 20 in., while
the snowfall is about 150 in. The flora
and fauna are quite similar to those
found in the Douglas fir-western larch
type. Since this type embraces the
major portions of the forests of central
and southern Montana there is quite a
local demand for the timber for mines,
railroads and for building material, but
there is no immediate danger of excessive
cutting such as would eliminate natural
virgin areas. Grazing is very important
in this part of the state, especially on
the open grasslands at lower elevations.
The Douglas fir-lodgepole pine type
occurs on most of the National Forests
in northern Idaho and Montana but
may be studied to best advantage on the
following :
NATIONAL
FOREST
SUPERVISOR'S
HEADQUARTERS
RAILROAD
Deerlodge
Helena
Jefferson
Madison
Beartooth
Gallatin
Anaconda, Mont.
Helena, Mont.
Helena, Mont.
Sheridan, Mont.
Billings
Bozeman
C.M.&St.
P., N.P.
N. P.
N.P.
N. P.
N. P.
N. P.
SUBALPINE FORESTS
Above 5500 ft. in altitude in Idaho
most of the forest trees mentioned in
the cedar-hemlock-grand fir type give
way to mountain hemlock (Tsuga merten-
siana), whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis),
alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) } Douglas fir
and lodgepole pine continue upward
above 5500 ft. Engelmann spruce
usually lines the water courses on north
aspects. Alpine fir is more generally
distributed but prefers northern and
eastern aspects. Mountain hemlock is
the climax species on the broad ridge
tops in the Clearwater basin while white-
bark pine and lodgepole pine are most
abundant on the upper sunny aspects.
At these elevations the summer is
short but warm and much clear weather
prevails. The mean annual air tempera-
ture at Roosevelt in the Thunder Moun-
tains of Idaho at 7000 ft. averages 36.4;
the annual precipitation is 26.5 in.
Wherever the mountain hemlock holds
sway on high ridges, as in the Clearwater
drainage, Engelmann spruce is largely
wanting. Perhaps the dry summer
winds coming from the Snake River
desert limits it to the more northern
and eastern forests. In the subalpine
forest to the east of the Bitterroot
range, limber pine (Pinus flexilis}
replaces whitebark pine (Pinus albi-
caulis) .
In this type or belt the vegetation
varies greatly according to soil moisture
and aspect. The fauna does not differ
greatly from that of the cedar-hemlock-
grand-fir type. Blue grouse, fool hen,
grosbeak, hawk are found, in addition.
This type of forest may be studied to
advantage on the following National
forests :
NATIONAL
FOREST
SUPERVISOR'S
HEADQUARTERS
RAILROAD
Clearwater
Selway
Bitterroot
Lolo
Orofino, Idaho
Kooskia, Idaho
Hamilton
Missoula
N. P.
N. P.
N. P.
N. P.
ALPINE FORESTS AND BARRENS
Points above 8000 ft. elevation repre-
sent alpine conditions. Such areas are
marked by permanent glaciers and bar-
rens and are found in the northern sec-
tion of the main Rocky mountains, and
on the Beartooth National Forest. The
forest at these high elevations is repre-
sented by more or less dwarfed Engel-
mann spruce and Lyall larch (Larix
Lyallii), the latter not occurring east of
the main Continental Divide in northern
Montana. The alpine flora of the
Yellowstone National Park has been
listed by F. Tweedy. This list shows
several species also found in similar
situations in Europe and Asia. The
NATURAL AREAS AJND REGIONS
213
highest weather station from which
records are available is Yellowstone
Park, 7733 ft. which shows a mean annual
air temperature of 31.4, an annual pre-
cipitation of 24.5 in. and an average
snowfall of 178 in.
The alpine conditions may be studied
on the following National Forests:
NATIONAL FOREST
SUPERVISOR'S
HEADQUARTERS
RAIL-
ROAD
Flathead
Glacier National Park
Beartooth
Kalispell, Mont.
Kalispell, Mont.
Billings, Mont.
G. N.
G. N.
N. P.
In different places within these forest
areas are smaller units of considerable
interest for study of characteristic flora
and fauna under natural conditions.
The Yellowstone and Glacier National
Parks offer a great variety of typical
conditions from low prairie to alpine and
glaciers with a great variety of lakes and
streams. These two parks contain typi-
cal forests of western yellow pine,
Douglas fir, Engelmann spruce, white-
bark pine, limber pine, lodgepole pine
and juniper. The fauna within these
two parks is rich, embracing many
species of bear, goat, sheep, elk, moose,
and fur-bearing mammals, as well as
birds, and fishes. 6
The future may demand the preserva-
tion of additional natural areas within
Montana and northern Idaho. Areas
are desirable for the study of the hydro-
phytic and mesophytic forests of western
white pine, western red cedar, western
hemlock and grand fir in Idaho. For
this purpose three areas are listed in
northern Idaho in the Priest Lake region,
one of which, the Roosevelt Grove of
Giant cedar, has already been preserved.
The other two represent some of the best
and oldest stands of the rapidly vanish-
ing western white pine and associates.
In addition to these three areas which
lie outside the National Parks another
area of western white pine occurs in the
Capt. Mullan park near Coeur d'Alene
5 For Glacier National Park, see: Wild Animals of
Glacier National Park; U. S. Department of the
Interior, National Park Service (1918); and Flora of
Glacier National Park; Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 22:
Pt. 5 (1921).
and a mesophytic formation is repre-
sented by the Heyburn park on Coeur
d'Alene Lake. The Rocky Mountain
National Monument near Helena should
also prove valuable. Some action will
be needed to have this last one preserved.
The area near Anaconda where the
trees and vegetation for many miles
around have been killed by smelter
fumes is listed; also an area in western
yellow pine representative of the Black
Hills type in the Ouster National Forest
in southeastern Montana.
The region generally is rich in al-
pine and subalpine conditions. These
abound within the two national parks.
There are listed a few places at high
elevations lying in the Clearwater Na-
tional Forest along the Lolo trail be-
cause it is doubtful whether similar
areas can be found within the parks.
These are flat alpine meadows like the
one near Cook Mountain. The old
mountain hemlock stands and the
heavy burns of 1910 and 1919 may also
be studied along the Lolo Trail and near
Cook Mountain in the Clearwater
National Forest. Alpine larch occurs
on the Kootenai-Priest River Divide in
northern Idaho. Alpine larch occurs
also within Glacier National Park but
mountain hemlock may be seen to best
advantage and best development along
the Bitterroot Divide and the Clear-
water Mountains in Idaho.
In Carbon County, Montana, are
typical high altitude forests, timberline
conditions, glacial lakes and glaciers.
One of these glaciers has numerous grass-
hoppers imbedded in the ice. Elevations
5000 to 10,000 ft., precipitous.
The burned areas near Cook Mountain
and the older burns near Upper Priest
Lake, will probably remain undisturbed
for many years, and the alpine areas will
remain in a natural state indefinitely.
NATURAL AREAS
Roosevelt Grove of Giant Red Cedar
^[Coniferous Forests, Northwestern. In
Bonner Co., northern Idaho, within
Kaniksu National Forest. About 100
214
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
acres on Forks of Granite Creek. Typi-
cal hydrophytic forest of western red
cedar up to 12 ft. in diameter said to be
over 1000 years old. Characteristic
flora of mosses, lycopods, ferns, ever-
greens. 4000 ft.
Priest Rivert G. N. Ry. CoolinJ (auto),
motor boat to Reeder Creek, trail (h) 12
mi.
Priest Lake
\Fresh Water Lake surrounded by north-
western coniferous forests. Fresh water
vegetation, swamps, marshes and ponds.
In Bonner Co., Idaho, within the
Kaniksu National Forest. On govern-
ment land a strip along this lake will
be preserved or at least cut very spar-
ingly.
Priest Rivert, G. N. Ry. Coolin| on
Priest Lake (a) . Motor boats and Evin-
rudes. See more particularly "The
Thoroughfare."
"The Thoroughfare" Priest Lake, Idaho
^Coniferous Forest, Northwestern.
About 640 acres in Bonner County,
northern Idaho, within Kaniksu Na-
tional Forest in Sees. 4 and 9 T. 62 and
Sec. 33 T. 63 N. R. 4 W. Boise M.
along "Thoroughfare," a channel which
connects upper and lower Priest Lake;
typical mesophytic mature forest of
western white pine, western red cedar,
western hemlock, western larch, lowland
grand fir, alpine fir, Engelmann spruce,
with characteristic northern Idaho vege-
tation of shrubs, grasses, evergreens and
annuals. 2300 ft. Recommendation to
preserve in a natural state will be made
by the U. S. Forest Service.
Priest River| G. N. Ry. CoolinJ 25
miles by auto; motor boat on lake 20 mi.
to Forest Lodge hotel| close by area.
Grove of Virgin White Pine Forest 6
t Coniferous Forest, Northwestern. 120
acres in Bonner Co., Idaho, in Sec. 22 T.
64 N. R. 5 W. B. Mer. within Kaniksu
National Forest in northern Idaho,
6 Name tentatively given; not yet approved; will
be recommended as such; name for E. C. Rogers,
deceased, one of the first Forest Research men in
this region./. A. L.
north of upper Priest Lake. Typical
mesophytic virgin forest of western
white pine, western red cedar, western
hemlock, grand fir, alpine fir, western
larch, Engelmann spruce, and charac-
teristic northern Idaho vegetation.
3000ft.
Priest River J G. N. Ry. CoolinJ (a) ;
motor boat to Forest Lodge; to area (h)
20 mi.
Mullan Park
Coniferous Forest, Northwestern.
About 50 acres in Kootenai Co., Idaho,
Sec. 6, T. 49 N., R. 1 W. within Coeur
d'Alene National Forest. Burns sum-
mit 20 mi. from Coeur d'Alene, 40 mi.
from Wallace on Yellowstone Trail.
Typical forest of western white pine,
Douglas fir, western larch, some western
red cedar, western hemlock, characteris-
tic vegetation. 3000 ft.
Coeur d'Alene J N. P. Ry. (a) 20 mi.
Wallace! N. P. (a) 40 mi.
Heyburn Park (Idaho)
Coniferous Forest, Northwestern. In
Kootenai Co., Idaho, on southern end of
Coeur d'Alene Lake about 2 sections.
Typical mesophytic forest of western
larch, Douglas fir, some western j^ellow
pine, riverside and hillside flora. 2000-
3000 ft.
Coeur d'AleneJ N. P. Ry. and C. M.
& St. P. Ry. via Spokane.
Steamer to hotel j| in park.
"Montana State Game Preserve"
(Northern Rockies)
Coniferous Forest Prairie and Aspen.
In Lewis and Clark Co., Mont., within
Lewis and Clark National Forest and
Montana State Game Preserve. Also
valuable for study of forest succession
after fires. Forests of Douglas fir,
lodgepole pine, Engelmann spruce, west-
ern yellow pine, aspen, zerophytic
prairie, open range and forest border.
Fauna-elk, deer, moose, grizzly bear,
black bear, beaver, otter, mink, marten,
muskrat, squirrels, gophers. 5000-
10,000 ft.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
215
Great Falls! G. N. Ry. local to Cho-
teauf, 20 mi. (a) to Allen's hotel! 5 mi.
from game preserve.
' "Rocky Mountain National Monument"
(near Helena, Mont.}
Coniferous Forest, Northwestern. In
Teton Co., in T. 12 and 13 N., R. 3 W.,
Montana P. Meridian, within Helena
National Forest, Montana, along Hauser
Lake and the upper Missouri River.
Typical xerophytic forest, Douglas fir,
western yellow pine and lodgepole pine
and xerophytic vegetation. Principally
limestone rock which in places is jagged
and pinnacled with sheer cliffs. 4500 ft.
HelenaJ. N. P. Ry. and C. M. & St.
P. Ry. Electric to lake, 18-20 mi.
Recommendation made for a preserve
by U. S. Forest Service, and by Montana
Legislature. See Substitute for House
Bill No. 3 introduced by committee on
Federal Relations, 1921. Proclamation
pending. Depends also upon purchase
of additional land by government.
Bear tooth National Forest (Mont.)
Ice Caves and Glaciers Timberline
Lakes. In Carbon Co., Mont., within
Beartooth National Forest. The ice
caves are on Pryor Mountain division,
the glaciers on the main part of the
forest. Typical high altitude forests;
vegetation and fauna not much different
from Yellowstone National Park. In-
teresting from standpoint of small
glaciers, glacial lakes, timberline condi-
tions. 5000-1 1,000 ft.
Billings!, N. P. Ry. Burlington Ry.
Local train to Bridger for Pryor
Mountain.
Local train to Redlodge for main part
of forest (h).
Along Lolo Trail
Coniferous Forest, Northwestern,
heavily burned. In Clearwater Co.,
Idaho, within Clearwater National For-
est. Typical single and double burn by
two of the worst forest fires known in
the Northwest, 1910 and 1919. One may
observe the effects of the 1910 fire alone,
both fires or only the 1919 fire. Excel-
lent chance for study of succession of
forest vegetation and influence of fire on
site.
Elev. 5000-7000 ft., mountainous.
Missoula, Mont.f N. P. Ry., C. M. &
St. P. Ry. 35 miles; to Lolo Hot Springs
(a) Lolo Trail to Cook Mountain 30 mi.
(&)**.
Alpine Meadow. In Clearwater Co.,
Idaho, within Clearwater National For-
est along Lolo Trail. Typical hydro-
phytic alpine meadow; alpine and sub-
alpine vegetation, and fauna at 6575 ft.
level.
Missoula, Mont.t, N. P. Ry., C. M. St.
P. Ry. Lolo Hot Springs 35 mi. || . Cook
Mountain 30 mi. (h)**.
Subalpine Forest, Northwestern. In
Clearwater Co., Idaho, within Clear-
water National Forest along Lolo Trail
near Cook Mountain. Typical sub-
alpine forest of mountain hemlock, very
old climax stand, and characteristic
subalpine vegetation; xerophytic, meso-
phytic and hydrophytic. 7000 ft.
Missoula!, N. P. Ry. and C. M. & St.
P. Ry. Lolo Hot Springs, (a) 35 mi. (h)**.
Smelter Fume'Damage
Coniferous Forest, Northwestern. In
Deerlodge Co., Mont., within Deerlodge
National Forest. Typical mesophytic
lodgepole pine forest. Excellent oppor-
tunity to observe effect of smelter fumes
on forest and vegetation.
Anaconda!, Mont., N. P. Ry., C. M. &
St. P. Ry., (a) 5 to 10 mi.
Alpine Forest, Northwestern
Alpine Larch, Larix Lyallii. In Bon-
ner County, northern Idaho, within
Kaniksu National Forest. About 200
acres of alpine larch, mature trees and
reproduction on summit of divide be-
tween Kootenai and Priest Rivers at
Roman Nose Lookout. Subalpine flora
of alpine fir, Engelmann spruce, white-
bark pine, heather, sedges and grasses.
6000-7000 ft. Precipitous.
216
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Priest River}, G. N. Ry. 25 mi. to
Coolin} 12 mi. by trail to Lookout (h).
Old Burns
Coniferous Forest, Northwestern. In
Bonner Co., Idaho, north end of upper
Priest Lake in Kaniksu National Forest.
About one township of forestland
burned over at different times now show-
ing succession of vegetation and amount
of restocking of the forest trees after the
fires. Flora shows great variety of
evergreens, deciduous shrubs and an-
nuals, mosses, lichens, lycopods. 3000-
4000 ft.
Priest River}. G. N. Ry. Cooling
motor boat to Forest Lodge!. Evin-
rudes.
Priest River Experimental Forest
Subalpine Meadow. In Bonner Co.,
northern Idaho, within Kaniksu Na-
tional Forest. About 45,000 acres on
west slopes of Selkirk Range. Typical
subalpine meadow, and associated vege-
tation, the result of repeated fires.
Forest extending from 2300 to 6000 ft.
elevation. Subalpine meadow and for-
est of alpine fir, whitebark pine, and
Engelmann sprutfe. 6000 ft.
Priest River}, G. N. Ry., (a) 15 mi. to
Priest River Forest Experiment Sta-
tion^
7. NATIONAL FORESTS OF CALI-
FORNIA. VEGETATIONAL
TYPES
BY E. N. MUNNS
The vegetation of California is prob-
ably more diverse than that to be found
in any other state, ranging from the
deserts of the southeastern part to the
rich mesophytic forests of redwood
and spruce along the northwest coast
through various kinds of brushland
growths, woodlands, pine, fir and sub-
alpine forests. Because of the range in
latitude, the forests have different alti-
tudinal levels, and the lower tree limit
of 6500 ft. near the Mexican boundary is
reduced to 1000 near the Oregon line.
' 'Deserts" occur in the northeast at
elevations of 3000 ft. while in the south,
they run below sea-level; the optimum
of the redwood region is reached but a
few feet above sea-level along the north-
west coast.
Such a bewildering complexity of
plant life is due to the great variation in
climate brought about by latitude,
altitude and topography. The state is
characterized by a wet cold winter and a
hot dry summer, the winter storms us-
ually descending down the Pacific Coast,
the farther south the path of the storm,
the heavier the precipitation. Con-
versely, during the summer, the farther
north the storm crosses the coast-line,
the hotter and drier is the summer, the
convectional thunderstorm is common
in the high mountains during the sum-
mer. The southern part of the state
receives less precipitation than the
northern, and having a greater insola-
tion, is much warmer. The storm
clouds passing over the region deposit
most of their moisture on the mountains,
leaving the bulk of it on the seaward
slopes, the inland slopes and high
plateaus receiving comparatively very
little moisture. Precipitation increases
with altitude to an optimum in the
Sierras and then tapers off, but because
of lower temperatures, snow banks last
longer giving the appearance of greater
moisture. Along the northern coast,
summer fogs are frequent and result in
a rather even temperature and a general
high atmospheric moisture.
The principal vegetative types of the
state include the desert, grassland,
chaparral, oak and juniper woodlands,
western yellow pine, mixed conifer, fir,
alpine, Douglas fir, and redwood forests.
In addition, there are minor types such
as the Torrey pine, localized on the
southern coast, the Monterey pine of the
central coast, and the big cone spruce of
the southern mountains. These types
are all influenced by the climate, and
altitudinal limits vary greatly with soil
and exposure.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
217
DESERT (LOWER SONORAN)
The desert region embraces the eastern
side of the major mountain masses in the
south and includes the local deserts of
the Colorado River, Mojave Desert and
Death Valley. Vegetation is scanty or
absent and is usually simple. The
Yucca and palm are the largest plants,
with the cacti and creosote bush as
typical. Rainfall varies from practically
nothing to 10 in., with temperatures from
20 to 132, the summer maximum run-
ning well above 100. Evaporation is
tremendous and winds blow more or
less constantly. The humidity often
remains around 5 per cent during the
summer season.
The fauna of the desert region exclud-
ing reptiles is as scanty as the vegeta-
tion but includes the desert coyote, the
Kit fox, Arizona fox, Arizona skunk,
grasshopper mouse, desert jack-rabbit,
Arizona cottontail, desert bighorn sheep
and burro deer. Bird life is represented
by the Gambel partridge, white-winged
dove, elf owl, cactus woodpecker, west-
ern nighthawk, Abert towhee, hooded
oriole, LeConte thrasher, cactus wren.
GRASSLAND (SONORAN)
The former grassland region of Cali-
fornia is now practically under cultiva-
tion except for those areas too rough or
dry for agriculture. Over-grazing has
resulted in the practical extermination
of the native grasses which formerly
covered the plains of the Sacramento and
San Joaquin River valleys which form
a trough between the Coast Ranges and
the Sierras proper. Rainfall varies from
10 to 20 in. with no rain for 3 to 7 months
during the summer. The temperature
varies between an average summer
maximum of 90 and an average winter
minimum of about 40.
In the grassland region, the demands
of agriculture have forced the animal life
to inhabit other life zones, or caused
them to change their mode of life or to
disappear. The most typical of the
larger animals are the dwarf elk, San
Joaquin fox, Valley coyote, Fisher
ground squirrel, San Joaquin jack and
cottontail rabbits. Bird life includes
the prairie falcon, the Swain son hawk,
ferruginous rough-leg, towhee, yellow
warbler, road-runner, burrowing owl,
Texas nighthawk, crow, bicolored black-
bird and San Joaquin wren.
CHAPARRAL (UPPER SONORAN)
The chaparral is found as a climax
type with a great variety of sub-types
below the lower limit of the forests. It
forms a practical cover for all areas
where tree growth is unable to exist, or
in the forest belt where poor soil condi-
tions make local "islands." On the
poorer sites, chamise or greasewood
(Adenostema fasciculatum) takes full
possession, giving way under better con-
ditions of soil or climate to the scrub
oaks (Quercus dumosa, Q. wislizenii'),
ceanothi (Ceanothus cuneatus, C. cordu-
latus and C. divericatus] and manzanitas
(Arctostaphyllos patula, A. manzanita
and A. glauca}. Along the coast, under
the influence of fogs, chaparral growth
becomes ranker, and stands where the
brush reaches 30 ft. or more are not un-
common. Here other species enter the
stand, which still retains its brushy
characteristic. On moister sites, tree
growth such as the laurel (Umbellularia
Calif ornica), madrona (Arbutus men-
ziesii) and the woodland oaks, enters
the stands. In the transition to grass-
land, the digger pine (Pinus sabiniana]
is found, while in the transition to forest,
the Coulter pine (Pinus coulteri) occurs
in southern California and the knobcone
pine (Pinus attenuata) in the north. In
the moister and cooler canyons, of south-
ern California, the big cone spruce (Pseud-
otsuga macrocarpa) occurs as a pure type.
None of these trees are of commercial
value except the Coulter pine, because of
the lack of large stands, of large size, or
of good form. Along the streams is a for-
est of alder (Alnus rhombifolia) , syca-
more (Platanus californica) and poplar
(Populus fremontii).
As a type, the chaparral is of little
economic value except as a soil cover in
preventing erosion and retarding floods.
218
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
In this field it is of primary importance
and to protect the watersheds of south-
ern California, large areas of chaparral
are included in three National Forests.
Most of species sprout readily and there
is little danger of the stands being
obliterated. Some grazing occurs in the
chaparral and the larger stems are cut
locally for fuel.
In the chaparral region proper, which
may extend from sea-level to 7000 ft. in
southern California, the precipitation
varies from 10 to 25 in. annually, most of
it being received in the period from
December to March, inclusive. Snow
falls occasionally but seldom lasts.
The temperature extremes vary from 10
to 120, the mean summer maximum
temperature being about 85, with a
mean minimum temperature for the win-
ter of about 35. The mean annual
temperature is around 50.
The mammals of the chaparral region
include the California ring-tailed cat
(Bassariscus astutus raptor), California
raccoon (Procyon psora), California
weasel (Mustela xanthogenys), California
spotted skunk (Spilogale phenax), Cali-
fornia jackrabbit (Lepus calif ornicas) ,
brush rabbit (Sylvilagus bachmani
group), and wood rat (Neotoma spp.).
Among the bird life in this region are
the owl, sparrow, hawk, California
towhee, spurred towhee, black-headed
grosbeak, titmouse, grasshopper spar-
row, several song sparrows, while many
birds of the transition zone and from
farther north, winter in this belt.
WOODLAND (UPPER SONORAN)
The woodland types include the oaks
and the juniper. The oaks are charac-
teristic of the better sites and moister
soils in the valley region and the rolling
hills in the grassland and chaparral belt
along the coast where the precipitation
ranges from 10 to 20 in. and the maximum
temperatures in summer do not exceed
110 but average about 85. In this
belt, the mean temperatures do not fall
low enough to preclude growth the year
round. Three species of oaks are usually
found (Quercus douglasii, Quercus lobata
and Quercus agrifolia). Because of
their presence near the agricultural and
urban population, these oaks, which
reach heights of 60 ft. and diameters of
36 in. are being rapidly cut for firewood
and it is but a question of time till the
old stands are completely cut out.
Many places which once boasted exten-
sive areas of this type can now show only
scattered trees and pasture land. City
parks in various places will preserve
some usually ragged and open remnants
of a once continuous woodland.
The juniper woodland is found in the
northeastern part of the state with a
similar rainfall, but lower winter and
summer temperatures on the lava soils.
The juniper (Juniperus occidentalis and
Juniperus utahensis) merges into pure
western yellow pine on better soils and
at higher elevations, while at lower
elevations and on poorer soils this type
merges into the Nevada desert. The
stands are more or less open and are
now being cut for fence posts and pencil
stocks. Along with this juniper wood-
land type on the edge of the desert re-
gion is also the piny on pine (Pinus mono-
phylld) which in places forms extensive
stands. It is not now being exploited
commercially except locally and many
stands will remain in a virgin condition
for a long time.
In the woodland type, bird life is
similar to that of the chaparral and
grassland and many mammals use one
locality as their home while foraging
over the adjacent region. The Cali-
fornia jay, red-shafted nicker, Lewis
woodpecker, road-runner,cuckoo, screech
owl, California thrasher, western mock-
ingbird, western bluebird, and California
towhee are often seen in this belt.
YELLOW PINE (TRANSITION)
The western yellow pine (Pinus pon-
derosa) and Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi)
form extensive forests at the lower eleva-
tions in the Sierra and Coast Mountains
and on the extensive plateau lands of the
lava flows of the northeastern part of the
state. At the lower limits 7000 ft. in
the extreme south and 1000 ft. in the
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
219
north the yellow pine forest merges
with the chaparral growth, and at the
upper limit, mingles with the firs and
cedars in a complex coniferous forest.
The yellow pine type covers a greater
area than any other in the state and
furnishes a large amount of the pine
lumber manufactured. The forests are
utilized as far as desirable as a sum-
mer pasture for sheep and cattle. The
precipitation varies from 18 to 30 in.
Temperatures in summer reach a maxi-
mum of 95F. with an average summer
maximum of 85F. and an average winter
minimum of 30F. The average annual
temperature is about 45F. The period
of rest ranges from two weeks to four
months, and up to 30 per cent of the
precipitation occurs as rain.
MIXED CONIFEROUS TYPE (TRANSITION)
The yellow pine type merges gradually
at higher elevations into a mixed conif-
erous type which includes the western
yellow pine as a dominant member but
with the sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana)
as its companion. With these white fir
(Abies concolor), Douglas fir (Pseudo-
tsuga taxifolia) and incense cedar (Liloce-
drus decurrens) are also found. In
scattered groves, occurs also the big
tree (Sequoia giganted) famous because
of its tremendous size. In the central
part of the Sierras, the pines, cedar and
Sequoia reach their optimum develop-
ment, and the forest, without the gloom
that usually characterizes dense forests,
are light and airy, and offer excellent
recreational possibilities. The bulk of
this type, as the preceding, lies inside
the boundaries of the National Forests.
In addition, several National parks are
maintained in this type, chief of which is
the Yosemite.
These pine forests include the really
valuable commercial pine forests of the
state and are being exploited to the ut-
most. On private lands, natural con-
ditions are quite often badly upset
through destructive lumbering and fire,
and too often become brushfields until
succession can reestablish a forest. On
government lands, exploitation is possi-
ble, but under restrictions that do not
permit the destruction of the stand
through careful marking of trees for
cutting, fire protection, and supervised
lumbering. All of this forest area is not
accessible now for logging so that small
patches will exist for a long time in a
virgin condition, but these areas are
quite often not typical stands, and are
being grazed by both sheep and cattle.
The Forest Service is now setting aside
small areas of timber which will not be
cut or touched in so far as is possible, to
serve as miniature virgin forests, as
demonstration and experimental areas.
Several have already been established
and more will be set aside from time to
time. In addition, the National Parks
maintain natural conditions in forest
types typical of those being lumbered.
Precipitation varies from 30 to 70 in.
mostly coming as snow, which remains
on the ground from November to April
or May. The mean annual tempera-
ture is around 45 with a mean sum-
mer temperature of 65. In this belt,
which runs up to an average elevation of
6000 ft., is the zone of maximum precipi-
tation in the Sierra region.
DOUGLAS FIR (TRANSITION OR CANADIAN)
The Douglas fir type is characterized
by almost pure stands of the Douglas
fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia} associated
with the white fir (Abies concolor) in-
cense cedar (Libocedrus decurrens), and
occasionally with other species. The
Douglas fir forms rather dense pure
stands in the northern part of the state
particularly along the coast range at
elevations from 1000 to 4000 ft. In the
Sierras proper it is a tree of the mixed
forest. Pure stands are confined to
north slopes, and cool moist bottom
lands, and the coast ranges. The
average monthly temperatures do not
vary greatly from winter to midsummer.
The precipitation is heavy, occurring
mainly as rain, though some areas
receive considerable snow. Atmos-
pheric moisture is high and often forms
fogs. The average summer temperature
220
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
is about 80 and the average winter
temperature is around 30.
Cutting is not extensive because of
the rather poor quality of the timber.
Grazing is not an important factor.
Fire is the only seriously damaging
agent.
FAUNA OF THE YELLOW PINE AND
DOUGLAS FIR FORESTS
(TRANSITION ZONE)
In the yellow pine and Douglas fir
forests the fauna is so intermingled that
it is impossible to separate out those
species characteristic of one locality.
This region is the home of the black and
grizzly bears, mountain coyote (Cams
lestes), mountain weasel (Mustela arizo-
nensis), pine marten (Martes caurina),
Pacific raccoon (Pyocyon psora}, Cali-
fornia gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargen-
teus group), bushy-tailed wood rat
(Neotoma cinerea subspp.). Douglas
ground squirrel (Citellus beecheyi group),
many chipmunks (Eutamias) , Sierra
flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus
group), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus),
black-tailed deer (0. columbianus
subspp.). Bird life in this region in-
cludes the western red-tailed hawk,
golden eagle, Pacific horned owl, spotted
owl, California woodpecker, nighthawk,
Sierra woodpecker, Lewis woodpecker,
flicker, blue-fronted jay, western and
mountain bluebird, Sierra cross-bill,
sierra junco, tree swallow, dipper,
mountain chickadee, mountain quail
and Sabine ruffed grouse.
FIR TYPE (CANADIAN)
Altitudinally, the true fir type is just
above the mixed coniferous. It includes
the forests of white fir (Abies concolor)
and red fir (Abies magnified] , both pure
and in mixture. The altitudinal limits
vary widely with the latitude, but
average from 6000 to 8000 ft. The stands
are often dense and few annuals or
grasses prevail except in meadows
where heavy grazing by sheep and cattle
is permitted. The stands, because of
their relative inaccessibility, and low
value for commercial lumber, are not
being exploited to any extent and proba-
bly will not be for some time to come.
The precipitation is chiefly in the
form of snow, and varies between 30
and 50 in. annually. Average minimum
temperatures during the winter do not
exceed 25, and the mean summer tem-
perature is not over 65, the average
annual temperature is not above 40.
Because of low temperature and depth
of snowfall, the snow lasts till late in
the summer season. The growing season
is from June to October.
In the fir type are found the mountain
weasel, Cascade red fox and high Sierra
red fox (Vulpes cascadensis and V.
necator), Pacific fisher, bob-cat (Lynx
rufus calif or nicus), bushy-tailed wood-
rat (Neotoma cinerea subspp.), alpine
chipmunk (Eutamias alpinus), golden-
mantled ground squirrel (Callospermo-
philus chrysodeirus) , yellow-haired por-
cupine, chickadee. In this region is
also the Sierra sooty grouse, the gos-
hawk, Sierra nighthawk, Hammond
flycatcher, Lincoln sparrow, and varied
thrush.
SUBALPINE (HUDSONIAN)
The sub-alpine forests include a
variety of species at elevations where
the growing season is short and tem-
peratures are not excessive even in
summer. Included in this forest are
the mountain hemlock (Tsuga merten-
siana*), white bark pine (Pinus albicau-
lis), foxtail pine (Pinus balfouriana) ,
western white pine (Pinus monticola}
and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta).
The forests are not extensive, and are
utilized to some extent by grazing. No
lumbering of consequence will be carried
on in this region because of the relatively
poor quality and inaccessibility of the
stands. The trees of this zone exist
chiefly only on the higher mountain-
peaks and ridges.
Climatic conditions are usually severe;
the minimum temperature during the
winter is not known, but probably is
not below that of the fir type, while the
precipitation is probably not over 30
or 40 in. annually, practically all coming
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
221
in the form of snow. The average sum-
mer temperature is about 53, maximum
temperatures do not exceed 70, while
the average maximum is probably not
over 63. The daily range is slight, not
over 30, and frosts occur throughout
the summer.
This high mountain country is the
home of the wolverine (Gulo luscus
luteus), Belding ground-squirrel (Citel-
lus beldingi), alpine chipmunk, pika
(Ochotona) and the rare Sierra sheep
(Ovis canadensis sierrae). In addition
to the visitors from the lower zones,
occur also the Arctic three-toed wood-
pecker, Clark nutcracker, western even-
ing grosbeak, pine grosbeak, white-
crowned sparrow and Sierra hermit
thrush.
REDWOOD TYPE (HUMID TRANSITION)
The redwood region is restricted to the
coastal area of northern California and
is characterized by the coast redwood
(Sequoia sempervirens) , and the Sitka
spruce (Picea sitchensis). Douglas fir,
white fir, and the prickle-cone pine
(Pinus muricata) are found in certain
areas. The redwood is rapidly being
exploited. All of the forests are pri-
vately owned, though there are small
areas being set aside as parks in which
the type will be preserved in its virgin
condition. As redwood sprouts readily,
there is little chance of the area remain-
ing unforested. Some of the region
after being cut over has been badly
burned, but a dense undergrowth soon
springs up and forest reappears.
In the redwoods, the annual march
of the temperature is even, the average
annual temperature being about 50
with a heavy rainfall during the six
coldest months of the year. Freezing
temperatures are unusual, and though
snows are occasional the snow seldom
lies long on the ground. Fogs are heavy
and frequent and keep the forests more
or less moist throughout the year.
The redwood region, because of its
very humid climate, has a characteristic
fauna of its own, differing from the
Sierra transition. Many of the Sierra
species are found in this belt and many
similar species occur as sub-species.
Native to this region is the Columbia
black-tailed deer (Odocoileus columbi-
anus), redwood chipmunk (Eutamias
townsendii ochrogenys} (redwood brush
rabbit (Sylvilagus bachmani ubericolor),
redwood weasel (Mustela xanthogeny
munda), redwood gray fox (Urocyon
calif ornicus sequoiensis) , and coast
flying-squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus
stephensi). Among the bird life are
the Harris woodpecker, dusky horned
owl, California pigmy owl, varied thrush,
northwest flicker, red-breasted sap-
sucker, and coast jay.
The National Forests of California
are chiefly in the pine and fir region of
the state and include practically every
vegetational type except the redwood,
though there are large private holdings
within the exterior boundaries of the
National Forests.
The tremendous increase in the uti-
lization of the forest lands of the state
and of the National Forests in the past
few years should be emphasized as in-
dicating the necessity for at once setting
aside some natural areas. The in-
dividual descriptions of the National
Forests follow.
NATURAL AREAS
Angeles National Forest
1. Area 826,331 acres.
2. Present condition approximately
one-fifth of total area has been burned
within the last 20 years. Large numbers
of campers and recreationists use the
forest annually. Some portions of the
area are inaccessible and will probably
remain so for many years. The Forest
Service will probably set aside between
600 and 1000 acres in the timber type
as an experimental area.
3. Succession is shown to good
advantage.
4. Very little grazing except in the
higher elevations and that by cattle.
5. Forest types include low and high
chaparral, western yellow pine, Jeffrey
222
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
pine, mixed conifers, lodgepole pine,
pinyon and desert.
6. Two game refuges in the Forest
cover practically the entire area. Pred-
atory animal work carried on by the
Biological Survey. The chief wild mam-
mals are deer, cougar, wild-cat, fox.
7. Elevation from 500 to 11,500 ft.
average elevation 6000 ft.
8. Supervisor's office at Los Angelest
is 15 mi. from Forest. Other important
towns are PasadenaJ, 8 mi.; Pomona!,
8 mi.; San Bernardino!, 6 mi.
California National Forest
1. Area 818,459 acres.
2. Present condition much of area
natural state. Area to be set aside
by the Forest service about 1200 acres.
3. Forest heavily grazed, especially
by sheep.
4. Types low and high chaparral,
yellow pine, mixed conifers, fir.
5. Small game refuge on forest. Deer
very abundant, cougar, coyote, fox,
bear.
6. Elevation from 1200 to 8000 ft.
average elevation about 5500 ft.
7. Distance from Willows!, 30 mi.
Cleveland National Forest
1. Area 549,271 acres.
2. Present condition many recrea-
tionists visiting forest annually and in
increasing numbers. Most of the forest
readily accessible to large centers of
population. About 600 acres to be set
aside as experimental forest.
3. Slight amount of grazing cattle,
sheep and horses.
4. Types low and high chaparral,
yellow pine, mixed coniferous forest.
5. Three game refuges on the Forest
cover approximately one-tenth the area.
Deer plentiful.
6. Elevation from 200 to 10,500 ft.
average about 4000 ft.
7. Distance from San Diego f, about
8 mi.; from Riverside!, 12 mi.
Eldorado National Forest
1. Area 552,918 acres.
2. Forest being heavily cut; it is
doubtful if any experimental areas
will be set aside on the Forest.
3. Moderate grazing by sheep and
cattle.
4. Forest types yellow and sugar
pine, sugar pine and fir, mixed fir, sub-
alpine.
5. Small game refuge on the Forest
6. Elevation from 3000-9000 ft.
average 6200 ft.
7. Distance from Placervillet, 12 mi.
Klamath National Forest
1. Area 1,533,980 acres.
2. The forest has been very little
known and is practically inaccessible.
No forest activities at the present time.
1000 or more acres will be set aside as
an experimental area.
3. Grazing to a moderate degree by
sheep and cattle.
4. Types Douglas fir, yellow pine,
mixed conifers, brushfields.
5. Small game refuge on the forest.
6. Elevation ranges from 500 to 7500
ft. average 4000 ft.
7. Distance from Yreka|, 6 mi.
Lassen National Forest
1. Area 943,197 acres.
2. Present condition semi-natural
state, large cutting operations now in
progress. Small areas will be set aside
as experimental areas.
3. Forest is heavily grazed by sheep.
4. Important types yellow pine,
mixed conifers, lodgepole pine.
5. Elevation ranges from 2500 to
10,000 ft., average elevation about
4500 ft.
6. Distance from Red Bluff, 25 mi.
Modoc National Forest
1. Area 1,461,599 acres.
2. Present condition semi-natural,
some cutting now in progress; heavy
grazing.
3. Forest grazed by sheep, cattle and
horses.
4. Types sagebrush, desert, pinyon,
juniper, western yellow pine and mixed
conifers.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
223
5. Elevation from 3500 to 8000 ft.,
average elevation 6500 ft.
6. Distance from AlturasJ, 10 mi.
Plumas National Forest
1. Area 1,153,044 acres.
2. Present condition semi-natural;
forest being very heavily cut. Several
areas will be set aside for experimental
purposes.
3. Moderate amount of grazing by
cattle and sheep.
4. Types include brushfields, western
yellow pine, yellow and sugar pine,
mixed conifers, fir.
5. Elevation from 3000 to 8000 ft.
average elevation 4500 ft.
6. Distance from QuincyJ, 3 mi.
Santa Barbara National Forest
1. Area 2,017,398 acres.
2. Present condition semi-natural;
area has been badly burned in the last
ten years approximately one-fourth of
area has been burned since 1910.
3. Area is grazed by sheep, cattle
and goats to a moderate amount.
4. Forest types include chaparral,
western yellow pine, Jeffrey pine, mixed
conifers.
5. Wild animals include deer, cougar,
wild-cat, coyote.
6. Elevation ranges from 500 to 8000
ft. average elevation about 4000 ft.
7. Distance from Santa Barbara^,
4 mi.
Sequoia National Forest
1. Area 1,879,779 acres.
2. Area very largely natural, rela-
tively inaccessible. Includes within its
boundaries National Parks and Monu-
ments.
3. Forest grazed, by sheep and cattle.
4. The important types are sugar
pine and yellow pine, sugar pine and fir,
and fir.
5. Elevation from 300 to 15,000 ft.
average elevation about 7000 ft.
6. Distance from Portervillef, 30 mi.
Shasta National Forest
1. Area 849,656 acres.
2. Present condition forest badly
burned and heavily cut. Some areas
will be withdrawn for experimental
purposes, probably 2000 acres in all.
3. Forest grazed by sheep and cattle;
in places heavily.
4. Types brushfields, western yellow
pine, mixed conifers, fir, alpine.
5. Elevation from 2500 to 14,500 ft.;
average elevation 4000 ft.
6. Distance from Sissonf, 5 mi.
Sierra National Forest
1. Area 1,493,400 acres.
2. Forest in a semi-natural condition;
much of the area obligated to timber
operators and being logged at a rapid
rate. Some areas to be preserved for
experimental purposes.
3. Grazing to a moderate amount by
sheep and cattle.
4. Important types are sugar and
yellow pine, sugar pine and fir, and fir.
5. Range in elevation about 3000 to
10,000 ft. average elevation 6500 ft.
6. Distance from FresnoJ, 40 mi.
Supervisor's headquarters at North-
forkj.
Stanislaus National Forest
1. Area 810,802 acres.
2. Forest being rapidly cut over or
obligated to timber operators. Areas
to be set aside for experimental purposes.
3. Moderate amount of grazing by
cattle, sheep and horses.
4. Types yellow and sugar pine,
sugar pine and fir, and fir.
5. Range in elevation from 3000 to
10,000 ft. average 6000 ft.
6. Distance from Sonorat, about 12
mi., Stockton 50 mi.
Tahoe National Forest
1. Area 512,748 acres.
2. Present condition very badly cut
and burned over. Some areas will be
withdrawn for experimental purposes.
3. Heavy grazing by cattle and sheep.
224
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
4. Important types yellow pine, yel-
low and sugar pine, Jeffrey pine, red
fir, and sugar pine and fir.
5. Elevation from 3000 to 8000 ft.
average 4500 ft.
6. Distance from Nevada Cityf, 10 mi.
Trinity National Forest
1. Area 1,409,490 acres.
2. Present condition practically in-
accessible. Experimental area will be
established.
3. Forest heavily grazed by sheep,
and to moderate extent by cattle.
4. Important types include yellow
pine, mixed conifers.
5. Elevation from 2500 to 7500 ft.
average 4000 ft.
6. Distance from Reddingf, 30 mi.
Supervisor's headquarters at Weaver-
villet
8. NATIONAL FORESTS OF THE
INTERMOUNTAIN DISTRICT (4)
BY F. S. BAKER AND S. B. LOCKE
The national forests of the Inter-
mountain Region (Utah, Nevada and
Southern Idaho) cover practically all
the forested land which bears tree
growth other than pinyon (Pinus edulis),
juniper (Juniperus utahensis and J.
monosperma) , within the states of Utah,
Nevada and the portion of Idaho south
of the Salmon River. The only notable
exception in western Idaho is where
considerable areas of western yellow
pine (Pinus ponderosa and Pinus pon-
derosa scopulorum) timber land are held
in private ownership. Ecologically,
however, this area contains nothing not
found within the national forests ad-
joining. These forests lie within an
area of varying climatic conditions and
present very different appearances in
different portions. In every region
there is a typical altitudinal zonation of
forest types on the mountains, but
within the Intermountain Region the
zonation is quite variable from north
to south, while in many places it is
further modified by the fact that the
high plains of the Snake River valley
further modify the lower lying alti-
tudinal types on account of the
topography.
In western and southwestern Idaho
the plains are covered with sagebrush
(Artemisia tridentata} and present nearly
unmodified ecological conditions, and
will do so for a great many years to come
as irrigation at best is only a local
possibility and vast areas of this land
will remain in a virgin condition. Win-
ter grazing of sheep is practiced to
a certain extent and has modified the
herbaceous vegetation (to that degree).
The lower slopes of the foothills are
usually covered with grasses, largely 6
weeks grass (Bromus tectorvm) which is
in itself evidence of greatly modified
vegetational conditions. It is safe to
say that the flora and fauna in this
zone have been very greatly modified
by grazing and fires.
This grassy belt extends into the
yellow pine type which in the mountain
valleys usually extends directly to the
agricultural lands, although in the main
Snake River valley it is separated by
the grass land on the foothills mentioned
above. At elevations almost as low as
where the yellow pine first appears,
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), is
found on north slopes. As altitude in-
creases the Douglas fir increases in
proportion to the yellow pine, becoming
more extensive on the north slopes
than on the flats, finally occupying all
the ground except rugged knobs and
ridge tops. This occurs at fairly high
elevations, however, where the potential
Douglas fir type is covered very largely
with the temporary lodgepole pine type
(Pinus murrayand) which has come in
as a result of fires.
Still higher, lodgepole pine, alpine
fir (Abies lasiocarpa}, and Engelmann
spruce (Picea engelmannii) predomi-
nate. Through all the timber types,
fairly natural conditions exist, except
around the outermost edges of the
National forests, and around mining
camps. Grazing is and has been gener-
ally moderate and the herbaceous flora
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
225
is only moderately affected. Absolutely
virgin conditions in this respect can be
found on the more remote parts of the
Idaho, Salmon, and Challis National
Forests. Hunting and trapping have
gone on for many decades and game
conditions are consequently below nor-
mal. The same is true of fishing.
The foregoing description applies to
the region west of the Sawtooth Range
and along the Salmon River eastward as
far as Salmon City. To the west of
the Salmon Mountains in the region
covered by the greater part of the
Salmon, Challis, and Lemhi National
Forests the western yellow pine type
disappears, its place being taken by a
grass formation. Farther eastward the
Snake River plains become more and
more elevated and carry their sagebrush
formation directly to the lodgepole
pine and aspen (Populus tremuloides)
types in the mountains, virtually crowd-
ing out the grass type which appears
farther west. In the Targhee National
Forest of Idaho as well as in the Teton
and Wyoming National Forests of
Wyoming, virgin stands of lodgepole
pine characterize the mountains. These
extend to the lowest slopes of the moun-
tains. The higher elevations are cov-
ered with stands of alpine fir and Engel-
mann spruce, the same being true indeed
of all the forests throughout this region.
Very little cutting has been done in any
of these and grazing is generally light to
moderate. In the Teton National for-
est especially in the neighborhood of
the Yellowstone National Park game
conditions are practically unaffected
by the activities of man. In the Cari-
bou National Forest a change begins
to appear. The timber types become
broken and scattered, interspersed with
large areas of open country and the
aspen begins to assume a prominent
place. The valleys between the ranges
are high, so that lodgepole pine and
aspen extend to the foot of the moun-
tains. The higher summits and north-
ern slopes bear stands of alpine fir and
Engelmann spruce. Conditions are
similar on the Cache National Forest in
Utah, although here in main valleys
become lower and a brush type made up
largely of mountain mahogany (Cer co-
carpus partifolius} , dwarf oak (Quercus
utahensis), skunk-bush (Rhus trilobata)
and chokecherry (Prunus demissa), is
found between the lower parts of the
lodgepole pine and Douglas fir types and
the agricultural valleys. Farther south
this brush belt becomes wider, and is
largely dominated by scrub oak (Quercus
utahensis). Lodgepole pine is less prom-
inent and aspen becomes more con-
spicuous. South of the headwaters of
the Provo River on the Uinta National
Forest lodgepole pine drops out entirely.
On the Manti National Forest the
altitudinal succession of types is ex-
tended by the appearance of a well
developed pinyon-juniper type below
the brush belt and above the agricul-
tural valleys, making the succession;
sagebrush (largely under cultivation),
pinyon-juniper, brush, aspen-Douglas
fir, and lastly spruce-fir. On the higher
elevations are many open grassy mea-
dows. Eastward from the Wasatch
and Uinta National Forests, on the
Uinta Mountains conditions again be-
come somewhat different. On the Ash-
ley and parts of the Uinta National
Forest, lodgepole pine is prominent at
high elevations. Toward the east end
of the Ashley National Forest at lower
elevations, adjoining the sagebrush, the
western yellow pine type reappears.
Southward from the Manti National
Forest in Utah, the Fishlake and Fill-
more National Forests present similar
aspects. On the Powell and Dixie
National Forests, the western yellow
pine again reappears taking the place
of the brush type farther north. The
pinyon-juniper type is very well de-
veloped at the lower elevations. The
Kaibab National Forest in northern
Arizona consists of a plateau covered
primarily with western yellow pine
encircled by an escarpment bearing an
open stand of pinyon and juniper. On
the National Forests of Nevada the
pinyon-juniper and brush types are
common and the arborescent flora is
226
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
generally scattering, both as to numbers
and species. Throughout Utah and
Nevada the wild life is decidedly below
normal and herbaceous vegetation has
been considerably affected by grazing
in many places by decided over-grazing.
NATURAL AREAS
Ashley National Forest (Utah and
Wyoming}
The Ashley Forest (980,135 acres)
is located upon the east end of the Uinta
Range and consists of a broad mountain
range with a high barren east and west
backbone. The whole central part is
in a nearly virgin condition due to
light grazing that results from very
dense timber and the high barren alpine
region. The leading types in order of
extent are: Lodgepole pine 45%, Engel-
mann spruce 14%, barren 13%, grass
6%, western yellow pine 5%, sagebrush
5%.
Deer, elk, and bighorn sheep range in
the northeastern part of the Forest.
At high elevations there are many
glacial lakes of considerable interest
from a geological standpoint. The
streams in the high mountains contain
a pure stock of native trout.
' Vernal, Utahf. Supervisor's head-
quarters.
Boise National Forest (Idaho)
The Boise Forest (1,062,698 acres)
lies in central Idaho upon a granite
uplift deeply cut by canyons. It is
largely a virgin Forest. Grazing is
general although not heavy. Timber
cutting is mostly around the edges and
in the vicinity of several mining camps
on the Forest. The chief types are:
subalpine 37%, Douglas fir 24%, western
yellow pine 19%, grass 10%, lodgepole
pine 4%.
The game preserve in the northeastern
part of the Forest on the South Fork
of the Payette River is well stocked with
deer, mountain goat, and elk.
BoiseJ. O. S. L. R. R. Supervisor's
headquarters.
Bridger National Forest (Wyoming)
The Bridger Forest (698,325 acres)
lies upon the west slope of the Wind
River Range, which is high and rugged
and is largely virgin. At the south tip
of the Forest and also at the north end
are State Game Preserves. Grazing is
general. Timber cutting is very limited.
There are considerable numbers of
big game such as bighorn sheep, elk,
and grizzly bear well distributed over
the Forest. Geologically this area is
very interesting, containing fully 500
lakes formed principally by glacial
action. At the head of the streams
rising in the Wind River Range there
are a few living glaciers.
KemmererJ. O. S. L. R. R. Super-
visor's headquarters.
Cache National Forest (Utah and Idaho)
The Cache Forest (770,131 acres)
lies mainly on the north extension of the
Wasatch Mountains with minor divi-
sions upon other small north and south
ranges in northern Utah and southern
Idaho. The Forest has an absolutely
protected area of about 15 sq. mi. in
the lower part of Logan Canyon. The
Forest is completely grazed, except
for about 25 sq. mi. in the Pocatello
Division where grazing is prohibited
upon the Pocatello municipal water-
shed; and is all cut over except for a
small area at the north end now under
sale. In this Forest are three 5-acre per-
manent sample plots one of which is to
be maintained in its natural condition
except that grazing is not restricted.
The south end of the Forest is within
a State Game Preserve. The major
types are: brush 34%, sage 20%, aspen
18%, Douglas fir 11%, subalpine 5%,
lodgepole pine 4%, Engelmann spruce
3%, juniper 3%. The northern limit
of the range of Abies concolor is on this
Forest.
Logan, Utah|. O. S. L. R. R. and
U. I. C. R. R. Supervisor's head-
quarters.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
227
Caribou National Forest (Idaho and
Wyoming)
The Caribou Forest (703,858 acres)
lies upon a series of mountain ranges of
moderate elevation in eastern Idaho.
Timber bodies are not extensive and
are largely limited to north slopes.
Cutting has been general especially
toward the south end of the Forest.
Grazing is general throughout the
Forest. The major types in order of
abundance are: sagebrush 29%, aspen
26%, lodgepole pine 14%, brush 11%,
Douglas fir 10%, grass 9%.
Montpelier, Idahot O. S. L. R. R.
Supervisor's headquarters.
Challis National Forest (Idaho)
The Challis Forest (1,253,856 acres)
is located upon a broken mountainous
uplift marked by high rugged major
ridges, which are barren and rocky.
There is a state game preserve on the
Middle Fork of Salmon River and one
area in the north part of the Forest is
protected from grazing by domestic
stock in order to furnish fall and winter
game range. A larger area adjoining is
virtually ungrazed because of the den-
sity of the timber. High ridges are
barren and not grazed. Timber cutting
is unrestricted, but is limited so far
chiefly to one area around Bonanza.
The major types in order of abundance
are: lodgepole pine 50%, subalpine 28%,
Douglas fir 7%, sagebrush 6%.
Inaccessible parts of this Forest con-
tain many deer, mountain goats, and
bighorn sheep. There are abundant
spawning grounds for migratory fish
within the Forest, several species com-
ing from the Pacific Ocean to these
grounds.
Challis|. Supervisor's headquarters.
Dixie National Forest (Arizona, Nevada
and Utah)
The Dixie Forest (795,000 acres) lies
in southern Utah upon two uplifts,
the Markagunt Plateau and the Pine
Mountains, both largely composed of
igneous rocks in their higher forested
parts. Small isolated units occur in
Arizona and Nevada. Grazing is un-
restricted and fairly heavy, the only
ungrazed parts are the extensive lava
beds of the Sevier Forest proper. Much
of the timber in the upper mountains is
virgin. Cutting is nowhere prohibited.
The entire Dixie division is a game
preserve together with a small area in
the north part of the Sevier division.
On the Dixie division the main types are:
pinyon-juniper 57%, brush 25%, western
yellow pine 9%, sage 7%. On the Sevier
division they are: western yellow pine
39%, pinyon-juniper 19%, brush 9%,
Engelmann spruce 8%, barren 8%.
Navajo or Duck Lake is interesting,
since it discharges through sinks and
is probably a solution lake. Occa-
sionally the water becomes sufficiently
low that the sinks are exposed.
Cedar City, Utahf. Supervisor's
headquarters.
Fillmore National Forest (Utah)
The Fillmore Forest (701,696 acres)
lies upon the Tushar Range (high,
volcanic) and the Pahavnt Plateau
(lower, sedimentary). It is not ex-
ceptionally well forested and is all cut-
over to some degree, except three virgin
areas, two in Beaver Creek drainage and
one in Chalk Creek drainage. The
major types in order are: pinyon-
juniper 35%, Douglas fir 26%, brush
19%, Engelmann spruce 8%, sage 5%.
Richfieldt D. & R. G. R. R.
Supervisor's headquarters.
Fishlake National Forest (Utah)
The Fishlake Forest (665,275 acres)
lies upon the Fishlake Plateau and a
part of the Sevier Plateau in central
Utah. The Forest has been heavily
culled and grazing is general throughout
its area. There are no permanently
protected areas on the Forest, although
there is one area of virgin timber on
Thousand Lake Mountain. A small
area at Fish Lake has almost complete
protection from grazing. Nearly the
228
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
whole forest lies within a State Game
Preserve, and in the lower Salina Canyon
watershed a small herd of elk has been
introduced. Fish Lake has a remark-
able growth of vegetation and accom-
paning water life. It has a large pro-
duction of trout maintained principally
by fish cultural activities. The major
types of vegetation are pinyon-juniper
31%, brush 23%, aspen 15%, sage 9%,
grass 7%, Engelmann spruce 7%.
Richfieldf . D. & R. G. R. R. Super-
visor's headquarters.
Humboldt National Forest (Nevada)
The Humboldt Forest (1,332,450 acres)
is located upon three widely separate
mountain ranges in Nevada. Many
portions are slightly forested, but rep-
resent interesting conditions. There
is one limited area with absolute per-
manent protection near Jarbidge, but
a more general policy is now in effect
on the Santa Rosa division whereby
periodic protection is practiced to
secure aspen reproduction and range
revegetation. Elsewhere, grazing is
generally heavy. Cutting is limited in
extent. Upon the Ruby Division of
this Forest, is an unexplored cave of
apparently large dimensions. The
major types are: grass 48%, aspen 12%,
pinyon-juniper 10%, sage 7%, subalpine
3%, barren 3%.
Elkot So. Pac. R. R. Supervisor's
headquarters.
Idaho National Forest (Idaho)
The Idaho Forest (1,864,321 acres)
lies upon a deeply eroded broad granite
uplift characterized by deep canyons
and a generally level horizon seen in
looking across the ridgetops. On ac-
count of its general inaccessibility it
will remain virgin for a long time.
Although grazing is unrestricted about
\ of the area is virtually ungrazed due
to inaccessibility. There is almost no
logging done upon the Forest. Forest
fires are frequent and there are many
burned over areas. The major types
in order of abundance are (excluding
Thunder Mountain region): lodgepole
pine 54%, western yellow pine 15%,
Engelmann spruce 13%, subalpine 11%.
A few specimens of the western red
cedar (Thuya plicata) are found along
the main tributaries to the Salmon
River.
McCallJ. O. S. L. R. R. Supervisor's
headquarters.
Kaibab National Forest (Arizona}
This Forest (752,217 acres) is located
upon the Kaibab Plateau just north of
the Grand Canyon. The entire Na-
tional Forest is a National Game Pre-
serve and faunal conditions are not
greatly disturbed, although predatory
animals are hunted diligently. It is
the home of the Kaibab squirrel. The
grazing of game and domestic stock is
general and heavy and the herbaceous
cover is not generally in a virgin state.
The grazing of domestic stock has been
greatly restricted. Game animals are
heavily overgrazing certain forage
classes and action has been necessary to
reduce the number of deer to the capac-
ity of the range. The timber is virgin.
Cuttings are small at present, but the
whole area is open to sale. All natural
conditions as represented within this
Forest are found also within the Grand
Canyon National Park under complete
protection. The major types are west-
ern yellow pine 32% i , barren 33%, pinyon-
juniper 20%, grass 7%.
Kanab, Utah. Supervisor's head-
quarters. The Forest may be reached
from the south with a pack outfit by
crossing the Colorado River and gorge
at the town of Grand Canyon (A. T. &
S. F. R. R.), or by automobile from
Flagstaff, Arizona, crossing the river at
Lees Ferry. It may also be reached
from the north by way of Marysvale
or Cedar City, Utah. For description of
the Kaibab Forest, see Hough, Emer-
son. The President's Forest. Saturday
Evening Post, January 14 and 21, 1922.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
229
La Sal National Forest (Colorado and
Utah}
The La Sal Forest (538,717 acres)
lies upon two isolated mountain masses
in southeast Utah. They are generally
poorly timbered, although local bodies
of considerable extent may be found.
Three areas (unforested) are being
protected from grazing as a measure of
watershed protection upon overgrazed
range. There are also two areas of
considerable extent in the Abajo Moun-
tains inaccessible to stock together with
local areas of cliff and slide rock in
many parts of the Forest. The major
types are: brush 45%, pinyon-juniper
32%, western yellow pine 16%, Engel-
mann spruce 3%.
Moab, Utah|. Supervisor's head-
quarters.
Lemhi National Forest (Idaho}
The Lemhi Forest (1,109,779 acres)
is located mainly upon the Lost River
Mountains of south central Idaho, high
rugged narrow ranges. Natural con-
ditions obtain in many places on account
of natural obstacles. Considerable
areas in both the Lost River and Lemhi
Ranges are inaccessible to stock (about
60 sq. mi. in three main areas). Else-
where, grazing is general. Timber cut-
ting is very local, largely in the vicinity
of Mackay. The Big Lost River State
Game Preserve covers the southwest
portion of the Forest. The major types
are: grass 34%, subalpine 24%, Douglas
fir 19%, barren 16%, lodgepole pine 6%.
One of the few remaining bands of
antelope range on the Lost River and
Pahsimroi River.
Mackeyt O. S. L. R. R. Super-
visor's headquarters.
Manti National Forest (Utah)
The Manti Forest (778,651 acres) is
located upon a plateau of sedimentary
rocks (Wasatch Plateau) in central
Utah. The whole Forest has been cut
over with the exception of a few scat-
tered areas rather difficult of access
located mostly in the heads of tributaries
of Huntington Canyon. Grazing is
general and heavy. The only inacces-
sible areas being the "breaks" of cliffs
and talus slopes on the east edge. Such
areas are usually barren or covered with
the pinyon-juniper type. There are a
number of permanent sample plots
established by the Forest Service on this
Forest in the aspen type. They are not
absolutely protected, as normal grazing
is allowed upon them. Cutting, how-
ever, is prohibited. The major types
are: aspen 26%, sage 17%, brush 16%,
grass 14%, Engelmann spruce 11%,
pinyon-juniper 11%. Fish and game
are rare.
Ephraim}. D. & R. G. R. R. Super-
visor's headquarters.
Minidoka National Forest (Utah and
Idaho]
The Minidoka Forest (590,485 acres)
lies in southern Idaho and northern
Utah upon a number of small mountain
ranges. It is not heavily timbered. It
is generally grazed. There are practi-
cally no areas of virgin timber, the whole
Forest being cut over. The chief types
are: sage 65%, aspen 15%, pinyon-
juniper 15%, Douglas fir 4%.
Burley, Idaho}. O. S. L: R. R.
Supervisor's headquarters.
Nevada National Forest (Nevada)
The Nevada Forest (1,175,355 acres)
is located upon several mountains
ranges in east central Nevada. These
ranges are generally poorly timbered,
although locally there are considerable
bodies of several types. A considerable
area upon the rocky range crests and in
localities without water which are
inaccessible to stock and are ungrazed
so that botanically, these areas are
natural. Tree growth is rare on these
sites. There have been extensive cut-
tings upon this Forest, but in the higher
country there are still many limited
areas representing natural timber con-
ditions. The major types are: pinyon-
juniper 55%, sage 27% subalpine 6%,
Engelmann spruce 5%.
230
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Elyf. Nev. Nor. R. R. Supervisor's
headquarters.
Payette National Forest (Idaho)
The Payette Forest (1,202,451 acres)
lies upon an extensive granite uplift
in central Idaho. There is no general
structural trend to the ridges which
are products of erosion. The canyons
are steep sided and frequently very rock} 1 -.
Much of the Forest lies in a country
difficult of access and is practically
virgin in every respect. There are
practically no areas closed to stock or
inaccessible to them, although grazing
is very light on the Middle Fork of the
Salmon River and will probably be
entirely stopped within a few years,
the State having established a game
preserve there. Timber cutting is light.
The major types in order of abundance
are: western yellow pine 29%, Douglas
fir 20%, subalpine 20%, lodgepole pine
16%, brush 8%, grass 6%.
Permanent sample plots in the yellow
pine type have been established by the
Forest Service on this Forest. These
plots are grazed, and are to be cut over
under different methods (check plots
reserved). Abies grandis and Larix
occidentdlis find their southern limits
on this Forest.
There are extensive game areas within
the Payette Forest where deer, bighorn
sheep and mountain goats are abundant.
There is a great variety of fish and con-
siderable numbers of migratory species
spawn within the boundaries of the
Forest. In some of the inaccessible
regions practically virgin conditions
are found in the streams. The introduc-
tion of various fish species will, within
a few years bring about an adjustment
.of the native species.
Emmettt O. S. L. R. R. Super-
visor's headquarters.
Powell National Forest (Utah)
The Powell Forest (about 1,046,000
acres) lies upon the Aquarius, Sevier
and Paunsagunt Plateaus, which bear
on their tops, stands of spruce, fir,
and pine, breaking off into pine and
juniper slopes. Grazing is heavy and
general, except where the topography is
locally precipitous. Little logging has
been done in the yellow pine type.
Forest conditions are essentially virgin.
The major types (Powell Division only)
run: western yellow pine 28%, Engel-
mann spruce 27%, pinyon-juniper 27%,
aspen 8%, grass 7%.
Widtsoef. Supervisor's headquar-
ters.
Salmon National Forest (Idaho)
The Salmon Forest (1,620,265 acres)
lies in central Idaho upon several moun-
tain ranges. It is generally rough and
in the higher and more remote sections
natural conditions are generally found.
There are no completely protected areas
on the Forest. Grazing is general, but
a large area on the Middle Fork of the
Salmon River and the northwest corner
of the Forest is too rocky and steep to
be accessible to domestic stock, while
an area near Salmon City is protected on
account of the municipal watershed and
a small area in the north end (Ditch
Creek) is preserved from grazing as a
huckleberry patch. A State Game Pre-
serve occupies a part of the area inac-
cessible to domestic stock and about two
townships of the accessible area ad-
joining. Cut-over areas are small. The
major types are: lodgepole pine 37%,
Douglas fir 31%, western yellow pine
10%, sage 6%, subalpine 6%. The
southeastern limits of western yellow
pine in Idaho are found on this Forest.
Salmon!. Gilmore and Pittsburg R.
R. Supervisor's headquarters.
Sawtooth National Forest (Idaho)
The Sawtooth Forest (1,159,339 acres)
consists of a broken mountainous coun-
try characterized by main ridges of
great height and ruggedness. The types
in order of extent are grass 41%, Douglas
fir 23%, brush 8%, barren 8%, lodgepole
pine 6%, subalpine 6%, aspen 2%, west-
ern yellow pine 2%, miscellaneous small
types making up the balance. Graz-
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
231
ing is general all over the Forest except
in areas around the Redfish and Alturas
Lakes region where there is full protec-
tion. This preserved area is covered
largely with virgin lodgepole pine.
Interesting experiments in fish stocking
and fish food productions are being
undertaken. Logging is permitted
except in this region. Cut-over areas
are limited largely to the Wood River
drainage.
Haileyt O. S. L. R. R. Supervisor's
headquarters.
Targhee National Forest (Idaho and
Wyoming)
The Targhee Forest (1,357,297 acres)
lies largely upon a lava plateau in east-
ern Idaho and western Wyoming. The
Forest consists principally of lodgepole
pine. The whole Forest is naturally
ecologically similar to the Yellowstone
National Park adjoining. Grazing is
general but not heavy. Both cut-over
and virgin areas of timber are well
represented. The major forest types
in order of importance are: lodgepole
pine 34%, grass 21%, Douglas fir 15%,
brush (incl. sage) 14%, subalpine 8%.
St. Anthony, Idahot O. S. L. R. R.
Supervisor's headquarters.
Teton National Forest (Wyoming)
The Teton Forest (1,880,825 acres)
is located in a mountainous country
immediately to the south of Yellowstone
National Park. The Forest as a whole
is slightly used. It contains large areas
of virgin lodgepole pine type which is
slightly grazed and although there are
no protected areas there are large areas
in a natural condition. The Grand
Teton peak, 13,747 ft. high, extends far
above timberline. There is a great deal
of game on this Forest and the north
part above the latitude of Jackson Lake
is a State Game Preserve. The major
types are: lodgepole pine 29%, grass
21%, barren (high rocky) 21%, sub-
alpine 16%, brush 5%, Engelmann
spruce 5%.
JacksonJ. Supervisor's headquarters.
Toyabe National Forest (Nevada)
The Toyabe Forest (1,883,837 acres)
lies upon several mountain ranges in
central Nevada. These are generally
poorly timbered. Grazing is unre-
stricted. There are, however, certain
high rocky areas inaccessible to domestic
stock used primarily by mountain sheep
and deer. Cutting has been heavy
locally (in the vicinity of old mining
camps), but most of the Forest is virgin
as to timber. The major types are:
pinyon-juniper 51%, brush 36%, aspen
10%, subalpine 3%.
Austin!. Nevada Cent. R. R. Super-
visor's headquarters.
Wasatch National Forest (Utah)
The Wasatch Forest (609,576 acres)
lies mainly upon the Wasatch and
Uinta Mountain Ranges of central Utah,
although two minor divisions lie farther
west upon small isolated ranges.
Nearly the whole Forest has been cut
over and is generally grazed. Several
watersheds near Salt Lake City are
closed to grazing. There is also a
State Game Preserve in this region. In
the most easterly part of the Forest is
a considerable area (about 35 sq. mi.)
of virgin lodgepole pine forest. The
major types in order of abundance are:
lodgepole pine 23%, barren 13%, sub-
alpine 11%,, brush 11%, grass 11%, sage
10%, aspen 8%, Douglas fir 6%, pinyon-
juniper 4%, Engelmann spruce 3%. The
northern limit of Pinus ponderosa
scopolorum in Utah is on this Forest.
Salt Lake Cityt D. & R. G. R. R.,
O. S. L. R. R. and W. Pac. R. R. Super-
visor's headquarters.
Weiser National Forest (Idaho)
The Weiser Forest (566,002 acres) is
located in western Idaho upon a moun-
tainous highland which becomes very
rugged in the northwestern part. Two
burns (Sec. 3 and 4, T. 21 N., R. 1 W.
and Sec. 8 and 9, T. 20 N., R. 1 W.,
Boise Mer.) of about one sq. mi. each
are protected from grazing. In the
232
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
northwest corner about three townships
lie in a State Game Preserve. Graz-
ing is general. Timber cutting is very
localized and the greater part of the
Forest is virgin. The major types are:
western yellow pine 30%, grass 24%,
Douglas fir 17%, larch-fir 12%, sub-
alpine 10%.
WeiserJ. O. S. L. R. R. Supervisor's
headquarters.
Wyoming National Forest (Wyoming)
The Wyoming Forest (966,954 acres)
lies upon a mountain range of a plateau-
like character, becoming more rugged
northward. This Forest contains large
areas of lodgepole pine which are being
widely cut over at the present time.
The Swift Creek watershed near Afton
is closed to sheep, however, as a protec-
tion to the Afton water supply. At the
north end of the Forest in high moun-
tainous country is a game refuge. Graz-
ing is general and timber cutting is not
restricted on any areas. The major
types in order of abundance are: brush
25%, lodgepole pine 21%, Douglas fir
15%, aspen 9%, sage 8%, grass 6%.
Kemmerer, WyomingJ. O. S. L. R.
R. Supervisor's headquarters.
9. NATIONAL FORESTS OF THE
SOUTHWESTERN DISTRICT (3)
BY G. A. PEARSON
The National Forests of Arizona and
New Mexico cover about 22 million
acres and comprise approximately 65%
of the forest area in the two States.
They are situated in high mountain
regions ranging from 2000 to 13,000 ft.
in altitude. Although the forest boun-
daries occasionally take in desert and
brush lands down to 2000 ft. in elevation,
the true forests, as distinguished from
brush and woodland, rarely occur below
7000 ft. The upper altitudinal limit
of tree growth is around 11,500 ft. Four
distinct forest associations or forest
types are recognized. They are, in
order of altitudinal occurrence, begin-
ning with the lowest, the woodlands,
the yellow pine type, the Douglas fir
type and the Engelmann spruce type.
The altitudinal limits vary with soil,
climate, aspect and other local condi-
tions. Other factors being equal, any
given forest type occurs roughly 1000
ft. higher on southerly than on north-
erly aspects. Since the same forest
type varies but little on different Na-
tional Forests in the Southwest, the
following descriptions will apply in a
general way over the entire region.
WOODLANDS (UPPER SONORAN ZONE)
Woodland areas are not, strictly
speaking, classed as forests because the
trees do not attain saw timber size.
The woodlands occur mostly between
the altitudinal limits of 5000 and 7000
ft., though in some localities they extend
above or below these extremes. The
average annual precipitation seldom
exceeds 17 in. and falls as low as 12 in.
Mean annual temperatures range from
50 to 55.
Two distinct types of woodland occur.
In the one most commonly encountered,
the dominant trees are the junipers
(Juniperus monosperma, J. utahensis,
J. pachyphloea and /. scopulorum),
and the pinon, (Pinus edulis}. In
southern Arizona, notably the Coronado
National Forest, is a woodland composed
mainly of oaks, (Quercus emoryi and Q.
arizonica).
Woodland stands are usually open
and the space between the trees is
generally occupied by short grasses.
Cutting for fuel and posts removes
most of the mature and overmature
trees, but provision is always made for
seed trees to restock cut-over areas.
Because of the accessibility of the wood-
lands to settled communities and the
demand for their wood and grazing
resources, it is probable that they will
be exploited to the limit of their capac-
ity. The pinon jay, scaled partridge,
Woodhouse's jay, wild turkey, white-
tailed deer (Odocoileus), mule deer
(Odocoileus hemionus group), coyote
(Canis sp.), rock squirrel (Otospermo-
philus), prairie dog (Cynomys), cotton-
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
233
tail rabbit (Sylvilagus audubonii group),
and black-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus cali-
fornicus group) and woodrat (Neotoma
sp.) inhabit this zone, but are not
confined to it.
YELLOW PINE TYPE (TRANSITION ZONE)
Western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa
scopulorum) forms stately forests on the
tablelands and lower mountain slopes
between altitudes of 7000 and 8500 ft.
The park] ike character of the stands,
the ease with which travel is accom-
plished, the delightful summer climate
and the wealth of plant and animal life,
give these forests a peculiar charm.
The mean annual precipitation totals
between 20 and 25 in. and the mean
annual temperature is around 45.
Grasses dominate the herbaceous vege-
tation, but brilliant flowered plants lend
color to the landscape during the sum-
mer rainy period of July and August.
Birds are represented by the pigmy
nuthatch, long-crested jay, western
robin, chestnut -backed bluebird, Mearns
quail and wild turkey. Among the
characteristic mammals are Abert squir-
rel (Sciurus aberti group), white-tailed
deer, mule deer, coyote, wolf (Canis
mexicanus), and black bear (Ursus
americanus group). Since this forest
is the main source of saw timber in the
Southwest, natural conditions will be
disturbed by lumbering, though not to
the extent of destroying forest con-
ditions. Extensive areas exist which,
because of the lack of transportation
facilities, will probably remain unex-
ploited for fifty years. Grazing inter-
feres with the normal development of
herbaceous vegetation, but this in turn
aids in the control of fires which other-
wise would endanger the forest itself.
DOUGLAS FIR TYPE (CANADIAN ZONE)
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia),
associated with white fir (Abies con-
color}, limber pine (Pinus flexilis), and
several minor species, forms dense stands
on cool slopes between altitudes of
8000 and 10,000 ft. Undergrowth is
usually light and consists mainly of
shrubs and broad-leaved herbs. Natu-
ral reproduction of forest trees is usually
abundant. Extensive areas in this
forest type have been burned over and
have grown up to aspen. In many cases
the aspen thickets are being invaded by
conifers which will eventually replace
the aspen. The mean annual tempera-
ture is about four degrees lower, and the
precipitation about five inches higher
than in the yellow pine type. Cutting
is progressing rapidly in certain locali-
ties; in others rugged topography or
distance from lines of transportation
will bar the lumberman for many years
to come. Grazing is less intensive than
in the Yellow Pine type. Characteris-
tic birds and mammals are the Clarke
nutcracker, blue grouse, wild turkey,
porcupine (Erethizon epixanthum) , red
fox (Vulpes fulva group), and spruce
squirrel (Sciurus fremonti group).
ENGELMANN SPRUCE TYPE (UPPER
CANADIAN AND LOWER HUD-
SONIAN ZONES)
The densest forests of this region are
composed of Engelmann spruce (Picea
engelmanni), associated in varying de-
grees with alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa),
corkbark fir (Abies arizonica), and
bristle-cone pine (Pinus aristata). As
in the Douglas fir type, extensive areas
have been burned and have grown up to
aspen which will eventually give way to
the conifers. Since the highest slopes
are above the range of aspen, burns in
such situations remain bare until re-
stocked by coniferous trees. Exploita-
tion has been limited usually to the re-
moval of ties and poles. Much of this
forest will remain undisturbed by cut-
ting for an indefinite period because of
the difficulties encountered in transport-
ing the timber to market. The Engel-
mann spruce type extends to the upper
limit of tree growth which is encountered
at around 11,500 ft. Precipitation is
little, if any, higher than in the Douglas
fir type, but the temperature is lower.
Snow lies on north exposures until
July. Undergrowth is usually sparse,
234
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
but forest reproduction is often dense.
The fauna is very similar to that of the
Douglas fir type.
ALPINE ZONE
This term is applied to the areas lying
above the upper limit of normal tree
growth, which is not, strictly speaking, a
forest type. Engelmann spruce, bristle-
cone pine and alpine fir, where present,
assume a bushy or trailing posture. The
trailing juniper (Juniperus communis)
is characteristic. Some of the grasses
and other herbs whose usual habitat is
several thousand feet below, occur here
in a dwarfed form. This is the home of
the ptarmigan, the pipit, the marmot
(Marmota flaviventris group) and the
pika (Ochotona}.
PARKS
Within all of the forest types are tree-
less areas known as parks, prairies and
mountain meadows. The parks and
prairies occur mainly within the yellow
pine forests, and their existence is at-
tributed to various causes. They are
occupied by grama grass (Bouteloua)
or bunch grass (Muhlenbergia), or in
some cases by shrubs such as sagebrush
(Artemisiatridentata) or shadscale (Atri-
plex canescens). The term mountain
meadow as usually understood applies
to wet valleys or other comparatively
flat lands in the high mountains. They
bear a luxuriant growth of grasses,
sedges, and often of showy flowering
plants such as the iris and gentian.
FOREST RESEARCH
A research organization is maintained
by the Forest Service for the purpose of
solving problems in forest and range
management. Forest research is con-
centrated to a large extent at the South-
western Forest Experiment Station lo-
cated near Flagstaff, Arizona, but
studies are being conducted on a number
of National Forests. Permanent sta-
tions for the study of range problems are
maintained on the Santa Rita Range
Reserve near Tucson, Arizona, and the
Jornado Range Reserve near Las Cruces,
New Mexico. So-called permanent sam-
ple plots for the study of forest reproduc-
tion and growth are being maintained on
several National Forests. They vary
in size from 5 to 480 acres. On all but
one of these plots, cutting has removed
from 40 to 75% of the original stand of
timber, and all are subject to further
cutting in from 50 to 75 years. Some of
the plots are fenced against all grazing,
but present plans do not contemplate
exclusion of grazing more than from 20 to
25 years, or until natural restocking is
completed. In short, the purpose of
the sample plots is not to create natural
conditions, but rather to demonstrate
various methods of forest management.
Similar plots are maintained for the
study of herbaceous vegetation and
methods of range management. Fur-
ther information regarding these plots
can be obtained from the District Fores-
ter, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
The present administration of Na-
tional Forests, though safeguarding
against devastation, does not insure the
preservation of any areas in a natural
state. Extensive tracts, because of
inaccessibility, will remain relatively
free from industrial development for
many years, but this status cannot be
regarded as permanent. From the for-
ester's point of view, as well as that of
the botanist and zoologist, the reserva-
tion of typical forest areas under dis-
tinct provisions for keeping them in a
natural state is desirable.
The Forest Service invites scientific
workers to avail themselves of the
opportunities for research afforded by
the National Forests. It is possible in
summer to travel by automobile over
considerable portions of all the Forests.
Sections which are inaccessible by
automobile can usually be reached by
wagon roads or trails. Camping equip-
ment is often necessary and always
desirable. Information regarding roads,
means of transportation and subsistence
can always be secured at the office of
the local Forest Supervisor.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
235
NATURAL AREAS
Apache National Forest (Arizona)
Area 1,185,512 acres, mainly coniferous
forest representing the woodland, yellow
pine, Douglas fir and Engelmann spruce
types, almost entirely in the virgin state.
The topography varies from level table-
lands to rugged peaks, and altitudes
range from 4000 to 12,000 ft.
Holbrookt, 100 mi. north, A. T. & S.
F. R. R.; auto stage to SpringervilleJ,
Supervisor's headquarters.
Carson National Forest (New Mexico)
Area 869,320 acres. All of the conifer-
ous forest types of the Southwest are
represented; altitudes 5000 to 13,000 ft.;
fine streams, numerous prehistoric ruins.
Taosf, Supervisor's headquarters.
Reached by way of Santa Fe and Taos
Junction, D. &. R. G. R. R. ; auto stage,
25 mi. to Taos.
Coconino National Forest (Arizona)
Area 1,637,052 acres, mainly conif-
erous forest representing all the forest
types. Altitudes range from 3000 ft. on
the Verde River to 12,700 ft. on the San
Francisco Mountains. The topography
is mostly level or gently rolling mesas
intersected by occasional deep canyons
and dotted by volcanic cones. Prehis-
toric ruins occur in several localities.
This Forest and the Tusayan which
adjoins it on the west, are the scene of
the most extensive lumbering operations
in the Southwest. Five permanent
sample plots, three fenced.
Flagstaff}:, A. T. & S. F. R. R., Super-
visor's headquarters.
Coronado National Forest, Arizona and
New Mexico)
Area 1,430,043 acres. This Forest is
made up of several "islands" rising out
of the desert. Altitudes range from 3000
to 9000 ft., and vegetation zones from the
scrub and woodland to the Douglas fir
forest. Emory oak and Arizona oak
attain their best development here.
Desert mountain sheep have been re-
ported in the woodlands.
Tucson, Arizonaf, E. P. &. S. W. and
S. P. railroads, Supervisor's head-
quarters.
Crook National Forest (Arizona)
Area 889,939 acres. This Forest con-
sists of four small units or separate
mountain masses which rise to a suffi-
cient height above the desert to support
coniferous forests. The forest types
range from the woodland to Engelmann
spruce. Altitudes range from about
4000 to 10,500 ft.
Saffordf, A. E. R. R., Supervisor's
headquarters.
Datil National Forest (New Mexico)
Area 2,641,521 acres, coniferous forest,
woodland to spruce type; altitudes 4000
to 10,000 ft. ; little cutting. A large por-
tion of the timbered area will probably
remain inaccessible for many years.
Ten game refuges, averaging 21,000 acres
each are located within this Forest.
MagdalenaJ, Supervisor's headquar-
ters, A. T. &. S. F. R. R.
Gila National Forest (New Mexico)
Area 1,596,296 acres; coniferous forest,
woodland to spruce; altitudes 5000 to
11,000 ft.; little cutting; large areas
relatively inaccessible. Two permanent
sample plots; four small game refuges.
Silver CityJ, Supervisor's headquar-
ters. A. T. & S. F. R. R.
Lincoln National Forest (New Mexico)
Area 1,123,868 acres; desert, scrub and
coniferous forest, the latter representing
all forest types, including the alpine
above 11,000 ft. The forest is made up
of several small mountain masses rising
abruptly out of the desert. A fine sum-
mer resort is located in the heart of the
fir forest at CloudcroftJ, 9000 ft. Desert
Mountain sheep have been reported on
this Forest.
Alamogordot, Supervisor's headquar-
ters, E. P. &. S. W. R. R.
236
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Manzano National Forest (New Mexico}
Area 702,208 acres. Coniferous for-
est, including woodland, yellow pine,
Douglas fir and Engelmann spruce, up
to 11,000 ft. ; small lumbering operations.
AlbuquerqueJ, Supervisor's headquar-
ters, A. T. & S. F. R. R.
Prescott National Forest (Arizona}
Area 1,447,024 acres, coniferous forest
with some oak woodland. Only the
forest types below the Engelmann
spruce are represented. Altitudes
range from 2000 to 8000 ft.
Prescottt, A. T. & S. F. R. R., Super-
visor's headquarters.
Santa Fe National Forest (New Mexico}
Area 1,364,585 acres. Coniferous for-
est, including all forest types to timber
line; altitudes 6000 to 13,000 ft.; very
rugged topography, 'well watered; six
small sample plots. Famous prehistoric
ruins of Rito de los Frijoles near Santa
Fe.
Santa FeJ, Supervisor's headquarters,
A. T. & S. F. and D. & R. G. Railroads.
Sitgreaves National Forest (Arizona}
Area 631,474 acres, mainly virgin
western yellow pine, though small areas
of Douglas fir may be found. Alti-
tudes range between 5000 and 9000 ft.
The topography is characterized by
high, comparatively level tablelands
dissected by deep, precipitous canyons.
Holbrookt, A. T. & S. F. R. R. Super-
visor's headquarters, 35 mi. by automo-
bile stage.
Tonto National Forest (Arizona}
Area 2,112,888 acres. Relatively small
areas bear a true forest, the greater
portion being desert brush or woodland,
which are included because of their
watershed value. The famous Roose-
velt Dam and Reservoir and the Natural
Bridge are located on this Forest.
Roosevelt Lake is a game preserve.
Roosevelt!, 38 mi. from Globe, A. E.
R. R., and 60 mi. from Phoenix, A. E.
and A. T. & S. F. R. R., reached from
either place by automobile stage. Super-
visor's headquarters, Phoenix.
Tusayan National Forest (Arizona)
Area 1,289,351 acres. This Forest is
generally similar to the Coconino which
it adjoins on the west. To the north
lies the Grand Canyon National Park.
One permanent sample plot.
Williamsf, A. T. & S. F. R. R., Super-
visor's headquarters.
Jornada Range Reserve (New Mexico)
Area about 200,000 acres; desert
plains and foothill country, ranging
from 4000 to 7000 ft. in altitude. No
forest occurs within the reserve. The
prevailing vegetation includes grama
grasses, tobosa (Hilaria mutica), drop
seed (Sporobolus), creosote bush (Covil-
lea tridentata) and mesquite (Prosopis
glandulosa). The area is maintained
for the purpose of carrying on experi-
ments and demonstrations in range
management.
Las Crucesf, headquarters of Grazing
Examiner in charge; A. T. & S. F. R. R.
Santa Rita Range Reserve (Arizona)
About 49 sq. mi. of desert and semi-
desert, fenced against cattle from 1903
to 1915. Since the latter year it has
been handled by the Forest Service as an
experimental range for livestock. Much
research work has been done on the
succession of natural types of vegeta-
tion. Altitudes 3000 to 5000 ft.
TucsonJ, S. P. R. R., headquarters
of Grazing Examiner in charge.
Sample plots within National Forests
(Arizona)
Coconino and Tusayan National For-
ests. Sample plots S-l to S-6 inclusive.
The areas vary from 120 to 480 acres.
All are in pure yellow pine stands at
altitudes around 7000 ft. All but plot
S-6 have been cut, removing 40 to 70%
of the timber. Topography: gently roll-
ing; soil clay loam derived from basalt.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
237
Within each area are several plots of
from 4 to 12 acres on which all trees are
numbered and located on a map.
Diameter and height measurements
are made every 5 years. Progress of
reproduction is checked annually. A
few of these small plots are fenced
against all grazing, but this condition
will be maintained only until reproduc-
tion is established. All but S-6 are
subject to future cutting in 50 to 75
years. Established 1909-1913.
Flagstaff*, A. T. & S. F. R. R., 10
to 30 mi. Detailed information at
Southwestern Forest Experiment Sta-
tion. G. A. Pearson.
Sample plots wilhin National Forests
(New Mexico}
Datil National Poorest. Sample plots
S1A, SIB, S2A. Area about 10 acres
each. S1A and SIB are in a canyon at
about 8300 ft. elevation. The composi-
tion is western yellow pine, Douglas
fir and limber pine. Plot S2A is com-
paratively level, pure western yellow
pine. All plots logged and established
1910; all are grazed. Trees numbered
and mapped, diameters and heights
measured every 5 years.
MagdalenaJ, A. T. & S. F. R. R.,
Supervisor's headquarters.
Gilo, National Forest. Sample plots
S1A and S2B. Area 6 acres each, practi-
cally pure western yellow pine, about
70% cut. Plots established 1911. Trees
measured every 5 years. Both plots
are grazed.
Silver CityJ, A. T. & S. F. R R.,
Supervisor's headquarters.
Santa Fe National Forest. Sample
plots, Pecos S1A and SIB and Jemez
S1A and S2A and S3A. Area 6 acres
each; western yellow pine with varying
mixture of Douglas fir and limber pine.
Altitudes around 7500 ft. All plots cut,
removing 60 to 70%, and all grazed.
Established 1911.
Santa Fe}, A. T. & S. F. and D. &
R. G., Supervisor's headquarters.
G. A. Pearson.
10. NATIONAL FORESTS OF THE
ROCKY MOUNTAIN
DISTRICT (2)
BY C. G. BATES
There are 26 National forests in this
district, Colorado having 15, Wyoming
5, South Dakota 2, Nebraska 1, Michigan
1 and Minnesota 2.
Owing to the extremely diverse clima-
tic conditions found in going from South
Dakota to the Rocky mountains, from
the southern border of Colorado to Min-
nesota, and from the western to the
eastern slope of the Rockies it has been
thought best to give a detailed account
of each forest rather than to attempt
a general description for the entire
district.
For the sake of brevity and to avoid
monotony, a tabulation is given be-
low showing the name and area of
the forest, the supervisor's headquarters
and the directions for reaching it.
Under each description there is given a
brief account of the plant and animal
life, the special physiographic features
and the natural areas reserved or suita-
ble for reservation.
NATIONAL FOREST
HEADQUARTERS TOWN
DIRECTIONS FOR REACHING HEADQUARTERS
ACREAGE
OF THE
FOREST
Colorado (15)
Arapaho
Hot Sulphur
D. & S. L. R. R. from Denver
634,284
Springs
Cochetopa
Salida
D. & R. G. W. R. R.
907,000
Colorado
Ft. Collins
C. & S. R. R. and U. P. R. R. from
853,641
Denver or Cheyenne
Grand Mesa
Grand Junction
D. & R. G. W. R. R.
660,823
Gunnison
Gunnison
D. & R. G. W. R. R. (narrow gauge
905,382
from Grand Junction or Salida)
238
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
NATIONAL, FORESTS
HEADQUARTERS TOWN
DIRECTIONS FOR REACHING HEADQUARTERS
ACREAGE
OF THE
FOREST
Colorado (15)
Holy Cross
Glenwood
D &R G. W. R. R.
1,171,921
Leadville
Springs
Leadville
D. & R. G. W. R. R. and C. & S.
930,568
R.R.
Montezuma
Mancos
R. G. S. R. R. from Durango or
697,742
Montrose
Pike
Colorado
R. I. : D. & R. G. W. R. R. ; Sante Fe ;
1,093,073
Rio Grande
Springs
Monte Vista
C.&S.R.R.
D.&R.G.W.R.R.
1,135,728
Routt
Steamboat
D. & S. L. R. R. from Denver
744,856
San Isabel
Springs
Pueblo
D. & R. G. W. R. R.; Sante Fe;
599,096
M. P. R. R.
San Juan
Durango
D. & R. G. W. R. R. from Alamosa
1,240,141
or Denver and R. G. So. Ry. from
Montrose
Uncompahgre
Delta
D. & R. G. W. R. R. (narrow gauge
778,291
from Grand Junction or Salida)
White River
Glenwood
D. & R. G. W. R. R.
845,104
Springs
Wyoming (5)
Medicine Bow
Shoshone
Washakie
Laramie
Cody
Lander
TT T> T> T>
C.' B*. & Q.' R. R. from Frannie on
Billings-Casper Line
C.&N.W.R.R.
477,701
1,583,489
852,315
South Dakota (2).
Black Hills
Harney
Deadwood
Custer
C. B. & Q. and C. & N. W. R. R.
C. B.&Q.Ry.
620,556
508,514
Minnesota (2)
Superior
Minnesota
Ely
Cass Lake
D. & I. R. R. from Duluth
G. N. R.R. ;Soo Line
857,339
190,602
Michigan
Michigan
East Tawas
D.&M.R.R.
123,647
Nebraska
Nebraska
Halsey or Nenzil
C. B. &Q. orC. &N.W. R. R.
205,944
NATURAL AREAS
Arapaho National Forest (Colorado)
The forest forms the headwaters of
the Colorado River and also North
Platte River, with numerous small
lakes at heads of streams.
514,653 acres of lodgepole pine (Pinus
contorta) and Engelmann spruce (Picea
engelmannii] ; small amount of Douglas
fir (Pseudotsuga tarifolia) ; two small
isolated areas of Western yellow pine
(Pinus ponder osa Scopulorum); nu-
merous open un-timbered land above
areas of aspen. There are 120,202 acres
timber-line, and sagebrush.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
Deer, elk, and black bear are found
over a large portion of the forest. Cou-
gar occur in small numbers and bighorn
sheep occasionally. Trout are found
in most streams and lakes.
Fraser, D. & S. L. R. R., is center of
lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce
areas and several sawmill operations.
Ranger at Idlewild R. S., 5 mi. SE.
Small hotel at Fraser.
Grand Lake is one of largest in state;
reached by stage from Granby, 20 mi.,
or from Estes Park. Summer resort;
ample accommodations. Center for num-
ber small mountain lakes and peaks.
Monarch Lake, 20 mi. from Granby
by auto road or 12 mi. from Tabernash
by trail.
Plots 20 ft. square have been fenced
against grazing to study effect of grazing
on forage species. One is near Gilsonite
R. S., auto from Granby and two more
near Hot Sulphur Springs, walk.
Winter range of deer and elk near Hot
Sulphur Springs. Williams Fork State
Game Refuge (1923) lies back of this
and extends to timber-line. 400 deer
and 400 elk in vicinity.
Cochetopa National Forest (Colorado)
Contains extensive areas of lodgepole
pine in northern portion, which is the
southern limit of lodgepole pine; Engel-
mann spruce at high elevations; mixed
stands of Douglas fir and yellow pine
at lower altitudes. Extensive burns in
spruce type on Saguache, Mineral and
Spring Creek drainages, 1893. Typical
burns may be seen at Marshall Pass
(D. & R. G. W. narrow-gauge) as well
as anywhere. Burns also in the lodge-
pole pine type during the last 35 or 40
years; probably entire type has followed
fires which occurred in the last 200 years,
and original type on northerly slopes in
present lodgepole pine stands was
largely Douglas fir.
Bighorn sheep range, an area of 3200
acres, lies between the cattle range on
Spring and Mineral Creeks and the high
sheep range, so rough and inaccessible
that it is not grazed by domestic stock.
Reached by few miles on foot, snow-
shoes, or horseback from Cathedral
after 40-mile stage from Gunnison.
(D. & R. G. W. R. R.) Ranger at Cathe-
dral entire year.
Poncha Pass State Game Refuge
(1923) lies near Salida and is bounded on
the north by the transcontinental auto-
highway over Monarch Pass. Similarly
the Cochetopa State Game Refuge
(1923) may be reached from Salida or
Saguache over the Cochetopa Pass high-
way, the area lying to the south of this
road and east of the Continental Divide.
Both highways are main routes of travel
to Gunnison and the west.
Sargents (D. & R. G. W. R. R. from
Salida) is in the center of the lodgepole
pine forest. Eight sample plots have
been established in this vicinity, 7 of
which are f acre and one 1 acre in area.
Designed to show the results of thin-
nings in lodgepole pine timber which
matures at mine-prop size. For further
details of location see ranger stationed
either at Sargent's or at Long Branch
ranger station 3 mi. distant.
Sample plot of acre on overgrazed
range badly infested with pingue (Hy-
menoxys). The original grama-grass
type has been largely replaced by pingue.
Grazing has been excluded from the
sample area by fence to determine
whether grama grass will recover and
dominate the pingue. Reached from
Moffat (D. & R. G. W. R. R.) by an 18-
mi. stage trip to Saguache, thence 17
mi. by auto to the area. Ranger at
Carnero R. S. can be reached by phone
from Saguache.
Colorado National Forest (Colorado)
The Forest covers portions of the
North and South Platte watersheds and
bounds the Rocky Mt. Nat. Park on
3 sides. Forests of lodgepole pine,
Engelmann spruce and alpine fir (Abies
lasiocaria) cover large areas in the higher
elevations. The type in the foothills
embraces yellow pine, with an admixture
of Douglas fir. About 20% burred and
cut-over.
The Colorado State Game Refuge
(1921) covers a large part of the Forest.
240
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Portions of the area are accessible by
auto from Boulder, Loveland, Long-
mont, Lyons, Ft. Collins and other
R. R. points. The NW. portion may
be approached via mail stage from
Laramie, Wyo. (U. P. R. R.) to Glen-
devey P. O., 55 mi., thence about 10
miles to Refuge. Rangers at Boulder,
Bellvue (near Ft. Collins) and 2 miles
from Glendevey. At west edge of
Refuge in Boulder district are Arapaho,
Isabel and St. Vrain glaciers.
Trail End. A licensed game preserve
of 200 acres for the propogation of west-
ern animals. Reached by auto from
Ft. Collins, 43 mi., or Tie Siding Wyo.
(U. P. R. R.) 33 mi.
West Lakes. A reserve of 2560 acres
containing lakes which are used by State
for trout-spawning purposes. Reached
via stage from Ft. Collins to Log Cabin,
thence 7 mi. west.
Proposed Red Rock Lake botanical
area, of about 20 acres, should be fenced
to exclude stock and perpetuate the
great variety of plants to be found in a
restricted area. Reached by auto stage,
Boulder to Ward, thence distant 1\ mi.
Grand Mesa National Forest (Colorado)
Grand Mesa, which forms the main
unit of the Forest, is a table-like moun-
tain with a top area of 53 sq. mi. and a
perimeter of 60 mi . The sides are abrupt
and rise over 6000 ft. above the floor of
the valley, the top being comparatively
level meadow-land interspersed with
groves of spruce and fir. The moun-
tain owes its existence to a huge lava
flow which capped the soft sedimentary
formations. Erosion has exposed large
cross-sections of the underlying strata,
making over 100 lakes just under the
volcanic rim or on top of the mesa.
The flora and fauna characteristic
of the altitudinal zones can be very
conveniently studied as good roads
have been built from the floor of the
Colorado and Gunnison Rivers to the
top of Grand Mesa, and a range in
altitude from 4500 ft. to 10,500 can be
traversed in less than three hours. The
characteristic vegetation of the desert
extends to the base of the Grand Mesa;
from there up timber is present from the
pinyon type up through the oak and
aspen to the spruce-balsam. The aspen
and spruce belts are rich in plant growth
and elk, deer and bear are plentiful,
besides a variety of smaller mammals.
Beaver are found in every stream upon
the Mesa; bird life is abundant; the
lily-pad lakes furnish nesting places
for waterfowl.
Forty lakes have been made accessible
to automobiles.
Hotels have been built at three prin-
cipal groups. Horses, boats and private
cabins are available. Grand Mesa
reached by 25-mi. stage from Delta,
56 mi. from Grand Junction and 28
mi. from Debeque. (All on D. & R.
G. W. R. R.)
Gunnison National Forest (Colorado)
The forest consists of 43% productive
timberland, 19% woodland, chiefly as-
pen, 6% brushland, 14% grass or sage-
brush, 1% burn not restocking, 17%
barren and above timber-line. It is
further characterized by extensive burns
and large areas of lodgepole pine.
Crater Lake, an unstocked fresh-
water lake lies near the summit of Mt.
Gunnison at an elevation of approxi-
mately 10,500 ft. Area 40 acres. Sur-
rounded on the east, south and west by
dense stands of Engelmann spruce and
alpine fir. Approached by saddle and
pack 17 mi. from Paonia, Colo. (D. &
R. G. W. R. R. from Delta) where are
good accommodations and ranger. Four
miles from end of pack trip to Lake.
Storm Range Game Refuge is an area
of 21 sq. mi. from which grazing is
excluded by Forest Service policy.
Mostly barren of timber, on a high mesa,
bounded on three sides by high cliffs.
Forage on the mesa is of alpine type.
Reached by horse or on foot, 6 mi.
from Baldwin, Colo. (C. & S. R. R.
from Gunnison) where there is a
ranger.
Gunnison State Game Refuge (1923)
a large area to the north of Sapinero
and west of Crested Butte, may be
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
241
reached from either of these towns or
from Gunnison.
About 100 acres permanent sample
plots in lodgepole pine illustrating re-
production after clear-cutting and vari-
ous degrees of thinning, established in
1911. Reached from Pitkin (D. & R.
G. W. R. R.) or from Gunnison (a),
thence one mi. S.W. ranger at PitkinJ.
Holy Cross National Forest (Colorado)
The greater part of this forest was
burned over in connection with early
settlement and mining operations. It
is characterized by extensive areas of
rugged mountainous country, support-
ing scattered bodies of Engelmann
spruce and lodgepole pine. Douglas
fir and an occasional yellow pine occur
along the lower reaches of several
streams.
Two Elk and Battle Mountain Game
Protection Area. 7680 acres closed to
grazing of domestic stock and used by
game animals for winter range, mainly
on south slopes along Eagle River Canyon
adjoining an extremely rugged range
country. Reached by leaving D. &
R. G. train at Minturn or Red Cliff,
whence Eagle River Canyon may be
traversed by auto in a few miles.
Ranger at Red Cliff, hotels at either
place.
Woody Game Refuge. An area of
11,600 acres in high country between
Roaring Fork and Frying Pan Rivers,
characterized by scattered stands of
Engelmann spruce with open grassy
parks. Not used for grazing domestic
stock and has become a sanctuary for
game animals during the summer.
Reached from Aspen (D. & R. G. W.
R. R. from Glenwood) 10 mi. by saddle
horse. Hotel and ranger at Aspen.
Capitol Peak Game Refuge. (By
Colo, statute, 1923, this area included in
Snowmass State Game Refuge.) An
area of 12,120 acres, including Avalanch.
Comprises extremely rough high moun-
tains between Crystal River and Roar-
ing Fork. Serves the same purpose as
the Woody Refuge. Reached (h) from
either Aspen or Carbondale (D. & R.
G. W. R. R.) distance 15 mi. Ranger at
Carbondale.
Permanent sample plots of 3 acres
established 1914 in heavy spruce forest,
illustrating different weights of cutting
with resultant growth and reproduction.
No virgin area retained. Two other
plots established 1924. Both areas
reached from Red Cliff (D. & R. G.
W. R. R.) (h) about 7 mi. up Wearyman
Creek. Ranger at Red CliffJ.
Leadville National Forest (Colorado)
Approximately 2590 acres have been
burned and 1590 cut-over. Extensive
areas of lodgepole pine and Engelmann
spruce at high elevations, Douglas fir
and yellow pine remnants on border of
Arkansas valley.
Gore Range, 12,000 acres (higher
portions on east side) is of special in-
terest because so rugged and precipitous
that along its higher portion no cattle
or domestic sheep graze, and it is almost
inaccessible even on foot. Deer, elk,
and bighorn sheep; small, clear lakes;
abundant trout. Reached from Dillon
(C. & S. Ry.) by horse, finally reverting
to foot travel. Ranger 1^ mi. south of
Dillon. Hotel at Dillon
Twin Lakes, 2000 acres. Two fresh-
water lakes joined by narrow neck
at an altitude of 9000 are set back in
rugged mountains with spruce and pine
timber along their shores. Reached by
Ocean-to-Ocean highway, 20 mi. by
auto from Leadville, or 9 mi. by stage
from Granite (D. & R. G. W. R. R.).
Proposed Game Preserve. 189,000
acres in Buffalo Peaks and adjoining
country down to Arkansas River. All
forest types; comparatively low; parts
free of snow year round; small portion
above timberline; mountain grasses,
herbs and shrubs; ideal summer and
winter range. Adjacent to Buena Vista
(D. & R. G. W. R. R.) Hotel and ranger.
Montezuma National Forest (Colorado)
Most of the southern and western
parts of the forest support yellow pine
242
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
timber. The north and east parts sup-
port mixed Engelmann spruce and alpine
fir timber. About 10% burned over
and many burned areas support aspen.
There are a few deer and elk and many
bear and also a few bighorn sheep.
Silver Creek Watershed for town of
Rico is closed to grazing. Area 6 sq.
mi. Timber growth consists of aspen,
Engelmann spruce and alpine fir.
Pike National Forest (Colorado}
Practically all parts of the Forest,
including some areas above timberline
are accessible by good auto roads, and
during summer fair accommodations may
be had at nearly all towns and resorts.
The land is 78% timbered, 2% aspen,
1% brush lands (oak), 2% grassland,
5% burns not restocking and 12% bar-
ren and grassland above timber-line.
Elevations below 9000 ft., characterized
by open stands of western yellow pine
and Douglas fir. Limber pine occurs
on the ridge crests and exposed sites.
From 9000 ft. to timber-line, Engel-
mann spruce is the principal species,
with a mixture of Douglas fir and limber
pine at the lower elevations, and on the
exposed ridges, bristle-cone pine (Pinus
aristata}. The spruce forms stands with
an unusually light mixture of alpine '
fir. In the north half of the Forest,
lodgepole pine occurs, the southern
limits of lodgepole east of the Continen-
tal Divide being near the South Platte
River.
Successful elk plants were made in
1916 in the vicinity of Idaho Springs
and Pikes Peak.
Sample plots 4 acres in extent estab-
lished 1920 for study of thinning in a
40-year Douglas fir sapling stand
through commercial sales of Christmas
trees, to shorten the rotation for tie and
saw-timber production. Accessible (a)
from Denver or Sedalia; 8 mi. from
Sedalia over Decker Springs road.
Auto service and fair accommodations at
Sedalia.
Grazing Planting Erosion Sample
Plots, involves 30 acres of fenced land
from which grazing is excluded with
similar area adjacent and unfenced
and subject to usual grazing by cattle
and horses. Planted and implanted
areas both within and without enclosure.
Vegetation quadrats for the study of
effects of erosion are established on each
plot. Forest type is essentially yellow
pine. Vegetation characterized by
mountain mahogony, deer bush and
grama grass. Reached from Denver
via C. & S. Ry. to South Platte. Thence
two mi. SW. via old abandoned wood
road. Local residents familiar.
Planted areas of several thousand
acres in vicinity of Pikes Peak, Cascade
and Monument, some dating from 1909,
illustrate possibilities of artificial re-
forestation. Forest Service Nursery for
production of tree stock at Monument.
Leave any local train between Denver
and Colorado Springs; or auto from
Colorado Springs.
The Denver Mountain Parks State
Game Refuge, 500,000 acres, ranging in
elevation from 6000 to 14,000 ft. Vege-
tative types very diverse. Accessible
from Denver (a).
Pikes Peak State Game Refuge,
129,000 acres, covers a range of from
6250 to 14,000 ft. Deer, elk, bighorn
sheep, beaver, coyote, bear, cougar,
ptarmigan, and grouse are found.
Accessible from Colo. Springs and Mani-
tou by rail and (a). Towns on all
sides, Rangers at Colo. Springs and
Cascade.
Watershed, City of Colorado Springs
and Town of Manitou. This area
includes some 60,000 acres, closed to
grazing, and mostly within the game
preserve described above. One of the
most readily accessible spots of the
United States in which to gain an in-
timate knowledge of practically all
forms of plant and animal life character-
istic of the region. Within the area are
the Fremont Forest Experiment Station
of the U. S. Forest Service, and the
Alpine Laboratory of the Carnegie
Institution.
The City of Denver Watershed, con-
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
243
sists of Lake Cheesman and 10,000 acres
of land. The area is fenced to exclude
stock and owned by the City of Denver.
Forests of yellow pine and Douglas
fir. Accessible (a) from Denver, via
Sedalia-Decker Springs Road. Fair ac-
commodations at Decker's.
Rio Grande National Forest (Colorado)
This is an enormous basin forming the
headwaters of the Rio Grande river and
including vegetative types from practi-
cally desert at the edge of the San Luis
Valley to vast areas of almost perpetual
snow-fields and alpine meadows above
the line of spruce timber. A very large
part of the area is used for grazing,
especially of sheep, which winter on
ranches in the Valley. The yellow pine
type is sparsely represented in the foot-
hills, while lodgepole pine is entirely
absent. A peculiar feature of the
forest is the occurrence of blue spruce
(Picea pungens) in mixture with Douglas
fir, far removed from the usual stream-
bed habitat.
Pole Mtn. Bighorn Sheep Breeding
Ground. About 3000 acres closed to
sheep-grazing to permit development of
bighorn sheep. Reached by pack trip
of about 50 mi. from Creede (D. & R.
G. W.).
Elk Mountain and Goose Creek Elk
Ranges. These two separate areas
cover about 10,000 acres, and are closed
to grazing of domestic stock. Several
hundred elk range here. Both are
reached from Wagon Wheel Gap. (D. &
R. G. W.) by saddle horse, about 15
mi. Summer hotel only at Wagon
Wheel Gap.
Wheeler National Monument. An
area of 400 acres containing unusual
"toad-stools" and other peculiar erosion
forms of interest to geologists. Reached
by saddle-horse from Creede (D. &
R. G. W. R. R.) about 15 mi.
Wagon Wheel Gap Streamflow Ex-
perimental Area. The two watersheds
which have been under study since 1910
comprise 400 acres. After preliminary
study one was denuded in 1919-20 to
determine the effect of forest removal
on streamflow. This will also present
excellent opportunity for the study of
plant succession. Only limited sheep
grazing is to be permitted on denuded
watershed; none on other. Expected
visitors may usually be cared for at
Station headquarters, 2 mi. from Wagon
Wheel Gap. (D. & R. G. W.) Ref:
"First Results in Streamflow Experi-
ment, Wagon Wheel Gap. Colo., Carlos
G. Bates, Jour. Forestry, Vol. XIX,
No. 4, pp. 402 to 408.
Routt National Forest (Colorado]
Comprises a forest of which the lower
portions, once occupied by Douglas fir,
have been so badly ravaged by fire as
to result in extensive stands of aspen.
Large areas at higher elevations are
covered by lodgepole pine and Engel-
mann spruce which has been little ex-
ploited. The herbaceous and shrubby
vegetation is very diverse and charac-
teristic of western slope conditions.
Deer, bear, elk and bighorn sheep
occur in unusual numbers, owing to the
undeveloped nature of the country.
Elk winter within a few miles of Steam-
boat Springs. Whitefish are found in all
branches of Bear River.
San Isabel National Forest (Colorado]
The accessible timber was cut in the
early days. Fires have left scars over
the entire forest. A large part of the
Sangre de Cristo Range contains virgin
timber types, as well as remarkable
alpine lakes and rugged scenery.
Most lakes are stocked with fish.
Good accommodations can be found at
various towns adjacent and several
summer hotels located within the For-
est. The D. & R. G. W. R. R. passes
along the north end, with branches into
Wet Mountain Valley and on the west
and south sides into San Luis Valley.
Rangers at Wetmore, Rye, Gardner,
Westcliffe, Mirage and La Veta.
Reserved areas: City of Florence
Watershed, 8000 acres on Newlin Creek,
244
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
extending from yellow pine to Engel-
mann spruce. Grazing is limited upon
the area. Reached by auto from Flor-
ence. (D. & R. G. W. R. R.) 10 mi.
Spanish Peaks State Game Refuge.
Contains 75,416 acres, extending from
the foothills type up to the Spanish Peaks
elevation 13,600 ft. Game is also being
protected upon the Sangre de Cristo
Grant just west of the Refuge; large
herd of bison under enclosure. Reached
from La Veta by auto. * Summer hotels
within the Refuge.
City of Trinidad Watershed. 10,000
acres on North Fork of the Purgatory,
and within the Spanish Peaks Game
Refuge. Heavy fires occurred in early
days. Wild turkeys are found. Graz-
ing limited. Reached from La Veta (a)
25 mi. Summer hotel 5 mi. from
watershed.
San Juan National Forest (Colorado')
The forest is 5% burned and 5% cut-
over. The pine timber near Pagosa
Springs has for years been the center
of an important lumber industry.
Animals consist of deer, bear, bighorn
sheep; grouse are fairly plentiful;
native trout in nearly all streams.
The Needle Mountains are very rough
and inaccessible. The summits of four
of the peaks are over 14,000 ft. in eleva-
tion, while 6000 ft. below Animas River
rushes through a canyon which separates
the West Needles from the main group.
A large portion of these mountains is
above timber-line. The area is so
broken that domestic stock cannot be
profitably grazed on it, and the timber,
consisting principally of Engelmann
spruce, may be preserved in its natural
condition without sacrifice or expense.
Reached from Needleton, a station 35
mi. north of Durango on Silverton
branch of D. & R. G. W. All arrange-
ments should be completed before
leaving Durango.
The Durango Reservoir Grant, 3050
acres of natural forest land is approxi-
mately 32 mi. northeast of Durango
on the headwaters of the Florida River.
This area can be reached only by saddle
horse or on foot, this inaccessibility
comprising its principal virtue for
purposes of nature study. Information
should be obtained and arrangements
made at Durango.
Uncompahgre National Forest (Colorado}
The larger part of the forest is on the
Uncompahgre Plateau, which rises
gently to the south from the Uncom-
pahgre-Gunnison valley, then breaks
off more abruptly to the San Miguel-
Dolores valley on the south.
The plateau changes gradually from a
pinyon-juniper or desert type on the
north edge to a fair yellow pine forest
with increasing elevation, then through
Douglas fir to very excellent spruce.
The fir forest, however, is represented
only by remnants and occupied largely
by aspen. A striking characteristic
of the middle-lower zone, especially on
the south escarpment, is the prevalence
of oak-brush.
The Ouray Mountain Sheep and Elk
Refuge (1923) covers 40 sq. mi. Several
hundred mountain sheep are fed by the
people of Ouray each winter. Arrange-
ments made to plant elk during 1922-23.
Ouray (D. & R. G. W. R. R.) from
Montrose, is in center of area. Travel
from Ouray by horseback; stables,
hotels, ranger.
White River National Forest (Colorado}
The forest is 1% cut-over and 5%
burned. There is a heavy belt of
Engelmann spruce under rim of flat-
tops, with some lodgepole pine at lower
elevations. Small bodies of Douglas
fir are found in gulches and a body of
yellow pine on South Derby Mesa.
The following game refuges are such
only by exclusion of domestic stock:
Elk range of about 5000 acres around
Sleepy Cat Peak. Elk on this range
throughout the summer. Reached via
Yampa, also from Meeker, inland town,
45 mi. from Rifle (D. & R. G. W. R. R.)
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
245
daily stage or Craig (D. & S. L. Ry.)
tri-weekly stage.
Deer refuge areas, in Trapper's Lake
region, four of about 1000 acres each.
Black-tailed deer during July, August
and September. Best seen July 15 to
August 15. Best areas west of Trapper's
Lake. Reached by saddle and pack,
30 mi. from Yampa (D. & S. L. Ry.).
Outfit at Yampa; hotel, ranger.
Mountain sheep refuge of about 2000
acres on Sheep Mountain. Bighorn
sheep can be easily seen throughout
summer. Big open country surrounded
by rim rock. Can be connected with
trip to deer refuges. Outfit at Yampa.
Bighorn National Forest (Wyoming)
This forest covers the Bighorn Moun-
tains in north central Wyoming. The
lower portions of the uplift are mainly
sedimentary rocks, while the upper
belongs to the Archean.
The forest on the slopes up to 7500 ft.
is western yellow pine, Douglas fir,
limber pine and some juniper in mixed
stands. The upper portions are covered
with extensive bodies of lodgepole pine
and Engelmann spruce. Open grass and
sagebrush parks are extensive and are
grazed by domestic stock. Grassy
meadows and willow thickets are
frequent.
Game animals are elk, deer, bighorn
sheep, black and grizzly bear. Original
elk herd reinforced by artificial stocking
in 1912; have increased so that they are
again plentiful on north end of Forest.
Bighorn sheep scarce; only few bands
remain around the peaks in central
part of Forest. A few grizzly bear on
the north end. Fur-bearing animals
include coyote, beaver, lynx, fox, mar-
ten, and weasel. Wolf and cougar are
scarce.
Winter Elk Range on Horse Creek in
Tongue River Canyon. Includes approx-
imately 1600 acres. Domestic stock is
excluded by natural barriers and fenc-
ing. 500 elk use it as a winter feeding-
ground. Reached by (a) from Sheridan
to Dayton, 25 mi. thence 8 mi. (w) or (h).
Hayden National Forest (Wyoming}
The Forest lies astride the Sierra
Madre Range in southern Wyoming,
extending a few miles into Colorado.
The formation is almost wholly granitic.
It is estimated that lodgepole pine
occupies 135,000 acres, Engelmann
spruce 30,000 acres and aspen 100,000
acres of this forest, the last on the west
slope. During the mining boom most
of the north end was burned and cut-
over. A large part of this area is re-
stocking naturally with lodgepole pine.
On Big Creek watershed some virgin
lodgepole is to be found.
Native trout in streams on west side
of the Forest. Elk and black-tail deer
are present but not abundant. Big-
horn sheep not seen in recent years.
Antelope present on sheep range north
of Forest. Black bear, coyotes, bob-
cats, cougar, beaver, marten, mink and
fox are fairly abundant. Sheep and
cattle graze almost the entire Forest.
In 1924 small fenced areas have been
set aside to determine effect of grazing
on the forage types and on progress of
pine reproduction. Obtain details of
location from Supervisor.
Between the Hayden and Medicine
Bow Forest lies the broad and beautiful
valley of the North Platte, abandoned
ages ago when that stream found a new
channel well back in the mountains to
the east. The remarkable situation can
best be viewed on the Rocky Mt. high-
way from Laramia, by which Encamp-
ment may also be reached.
Medicine Bow National Forest (Wyoming]
Nearly this entire area is accessible
to stock and is grazed by cattle and
sheep. 85% of entire area is timber-
producing, and of this 95% is lodgepole
forest, mostly virgin though this Forest
has been center of tie-producing region
for many years. 9% of area has been
burned within 30 to 50 years and bears
dense stands lodgepole reproduction.
Forpark is center of tie industry, on
C. W. & E. Ry. from Laramie, which
reaches other points within Forest.
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NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Cinnabar Park Range Rotation Area.
A semi-permanent fenced area of 160
acres in which for several years the
development of the forage plants by
natural reseeding has been assisted by
careful study of the proper season for
grazing. A dry grassy park at 9600 ft.
surrounded by timber. Reached by
stage from Albany (C. W. & E. Ry.)
to Holmes, where Forest Ranger will
furnish accommodations and directions.
Foxpark Permanent Sample Plots,
an area of 5 acres in lodgepole forest on
which various methods of cutting were
practiced in 1909, one-fourth also being
left in virgin condition. Permanently
fenced. Presents interesting reproduc-
tion study. On outskirts of Foxpark
where ranger and fair accommodations
may be had. Within a mile are also
thinning experiments in lodgepole sap-
ling stands.
Shoshone National Forests (Wyoming)
The elevation is 7000 to 13,000 ft.;
rock formations are granite, limestone
and conglomerate. Extensive areas of
open grassland, mountain meadows,
lodgepole pine, Engelmann spruce, lim-
ber pine and Douglas fir forests.
Common animals are elk, deer, big-
horn sheep, pronghorn antelope, moose,
bear (grizzly and black), cougar, coyote,
lynx, and bobcat. Very large areas are
closed to or inaccessible to domestic
stock. Practically all points of interest
are reached from Cody but a number
may be approached from the Yellow-
stone National Park, which adjoins on
the west.
Hoodoo State Game Preserve, 120,000
acres, used as summer range for deer,
elk and bison. Reached from Cody;
15 miles auto to Two Dot ranch, thence
30 mi. by horse or wagon to Painter
Ranch or Sunlight R. S., thence by pack
outfit up North Fork Shoshone River.
Can also be reached by pack outfit from
Cooke, Montana or through Yellow-
stone Park.
Shoshone Game Preserve. 500,000
acres of summer and winter range for
elk and deer. (Elk Fork is main winter
elk range.) Accessible from Cody via
auto. Good auto road to Wapiti,
Canyon Cr. R. S., Wapiti R. S., Holm
Lodge and Pahaska Tepee. From these
places pack outfit is necessary. Also
reached from Cody to Valley by fair auto
road and pack outfit from that place.
Carter Mountain Game Preserve,
150,000 acres of summer and winter
range for elk, deer, and bighorn sheep.
From Cody by auto and pack outfit via
Valley, Wyoming, Belknap R. S., South
Fork R. S. and Ishawooa.
U. S. Bird Refuge, 10,000 acres, in-
cluding Shoshone Reservoir and a nar-
row fringe of shore. Reached from
Cody (a) 9 mi.
Washakie National Forest (Wyoming)
Two blocks of land east of Continental
Divide at headwaters of Popo Agie and
Wind Rivers, the latter forming a large
basin.
The prevailing forest type is lodgepole
pine, yellow pine being only poorly
developed at low elevations, the Douglas
fir forest represented by remnants only,
while at high elevations are large bodies
of spruce almost wholly inaccessible.
Very large lodgepole cutting operations
on Wind River, using river for transport
to the railroad.
There are no reserves of interest but
three trios of sample plots have been
established in lodgepole cutting areas,
to show effects of thinning. Near
Sheridan Creek and Dunoir ranger
stations 20 mi. (a) from Dubois, 100 mi.
from Riverton, 100 mi. from Lander.
Dubois is on Rocky Mt. Highway to
southern entrance of Yellowstone.
Black Hills and Harney National Forests
(South Dakota)
An isolated range of mountains ap-
proximately 100 mi. long by 60 mi.
wide, rising to 7000 ft., surrounded by
semi-arid plains. Intensely interesting
geological structure. Within a range
of a few miles one may pass from fossil-
iferous sedimentary deposits through
gypsum, limestone, sandstone, con-
glomerate, quartzite, porphyries,
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
247
schists, and slates to the igneous granite
core of the Black Hills uplift. Nearly
all parts of Forests are accessible by
auto from towns on the two railroads
and good accommodations may be had.
Rangers scattered throughout the Hills
Western yellow pine constitutes 95%
of the forest. Has a habit of growth
resembling lodgepole pine in the char-
acter and density of stands. Forest
50% cut-over and 15% burned. Meeting
ground of eastern and western floral
and faunal species.
Mt. Roosevelt State Game Refuge of
approximately 50,000 acres is easily
reached from Deadwood. Affords abun-
dant food for deer, elk, and game birds,
good cover and also open feeding
grounds. Contains the beautiful Spear-
fish Canyon summer resort, where the
game is seen by tourists. Beaver
colonies are numerous in Canyon and
other fur-bearing animals present (musk-
rat, mink, marten, skunk), are all
protected.
Several small permanent sample plots
representing natural and thinned yellow
pine 25 to 200 years old, in vicinity of
Nemo, Merritt and Benchmark, furnish
examples of forestry practice. All
reached most quickly by auto from
Deadwood.
The So. Dakota State Park represents
one of the best State Forest properties
and game preserves in the country. A
portion has been fenced as a game pre-
serve in which are herds of deer, elk,
buffalo and antelope; an attempt is
being made to stock it with moose.
Topography and forest cover similar
to rest of Black Hills region: a well
timbered and very picturesque locality
developed by the State for recreational
purposes as well as a game preserve.
An extension of its boundaries takes in
Harney Peak and the Sylvan Lake
region, the latter purchased by the
State and run as a summer resort.
Reached from C. & N. W. R. R. at
Fairburn, or C. B. & Q. R. R. at Custer.
Most accessible from Custer. Excel-
lent hotel facilities at State Park lodge
and at Sylvan Lake||.
Custer Federal Game Sanctuary, an
area of 30,000 acres around Harney Peak
and Sylvan Lake. Practically entire
area covered by virgin forest. Most of
it inaccessible to lumber operations
owing to the roughness of the country.
Wind Cave National Monument, ap-
proximately 11,000 acres, adjoins Harney
Forest on the southeast corner. Princi-
pal feature is Wind Cave, containing
over 100 mi. of cavern. The park con-
tains bison, elk, pronghorn antelope
and deer. Very little timber, most of
the area being prairie. Nearest town
Hot Springs, good hotel accommodation
(Branch lines of C. B. & and C. & N.
W. R. R., from Minnekahta and Buffalo
Gap, respectively). Auto roads to Cave
from Hot Springs, passenger bus twice
daily in the summer months.
Jewel Cave National Monument.
Limestone caves of large extent; un-
developed. Forests of western yellow
pine and an occasional limber pine.
Reached (a) from Custer over passable
road.
Nebraska National Forest (Nebraska}
The two divisions are the Bessey and
the Niobrara. The Bessey Division is
in very rough sandhills with scant
vegetation. Niobrara Division more
rolling with better soil and vegetation.
There are some native hardwoods,
also yellow pine and red cedar; largely
grassland. 10,000 acres have been artifi-
cially afforested, principally with jack
and western yellow pines.
Small number of native deer on Bessey
Division. Prairie chickens, sharp-tailed
grouse, and quail. Entire Forest set
aside as a State Bird and Game refuge.
The following reserves in Nebraska
have no connection with the National
Forest:
Niobrara Game Preserve, 20,000 acres,
along scenic Niobrara River, 4 mi.
east of Valentine, a city of 2000 popula-
tion on C. & N. W. R. R. Preserve
formerly Fort Niobrara, U. S. Biological
Survey protecting native birds and
animals and breeding herds of elk and
bison numbering about fifty of each.
248
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
Native yellow pine and hardwood timber
in canyons; balance grass-covered sand-
hills and tableland.
Scottsbluff National Monument, ap-
proximately 1900 acres. Central attrac-
tion is mountain 4667 ft. above the sea
and 800 ft. above the river. Most of
area is of rugged nature. "The bad
lands" consist of twisted and corrugated
rocks of the White River period, several
hundred acres lying between the moun-
tain and the river. Fossils of the
Eocene and Oligocene are quite abun-
dant. Historically the mountain has
great interest. Reached from Scotts-
bluff (C. B. & Q. Ry. from Sterling or
Alliance or Gering) (U. P. R. R. from
No. Platte) approximately 2 mi.
Fontenelle Forest, about 2000 acres,
5 mi. south of Omaha. Native hard-
wood timberland, oaks, hickory, elm,
sycamore, etc. About the only native
hardwood forest being preserved in its
natural state for use of nature lovers
and citizens of the state. A rich field
for botanists and also has interesting
archeological history. Fontenelle For-
est Association, Omaha, owner. Reached
(a) or trolley from Omaha.
Minnesota National Forest (Minnesota}
The characteristics of the area are
best shown by the following typical
reserves :
Star Island Game Refuge, 1200 acres
(entire island). Lake Helen about 200
acres in extent, lies within this island.
Virgin stand of timber, chiefly white and
Norway pine, with some jack pine and
hardwoods. Reached from Cass Lake
by motor boat.
Ten sections of virgin forest, com-
prising the shore line of Cass Lake,
Pike Bay and connecting lakes. A
virgin stand of timber 200 years old, to
be cut only as it dies or is blown down;
consists of chiefly white and Norway
pine, some jack pine and hardwoods, and
swamp species.
Itasca State Park (Game Refuge)
20,000 acres, a virgin stand of timber,
chiefly white and Norway pine, some
jack pine and hardwoods. Lake Itasca
is the accepted source of the Mississippi
River. Reached from Arago by bus
from Park Rapids (G. N. Ry.) or Bemidji
(G. N. R., Soo Line and N. P.).
Superior National Forest (Minnesota]
Ely, centrally located for western
half of Forest. Grand Marais, port on
Lake Superior (east or Lake Superior
entrance), good accommodations, no
railroad on North Shore Drive (auto
road). Forest ranger. Travel after
leaving railroad mainly by boat, canoe or
launch, or by auto and boat. Boats
necessary for all or parts of every trip.
80% burned, 10% cut-over.
Characterized by a network of thou-
sands of lakes and streams, mixed conif-
erous and broad-leaved forests, swamps
and rock ridges. The forest consists
of white, Norway and jack pines, white
and black spruce, tamarack, cedar,
birch, poplar and maples. Game
Refuges.
Superior Game Preserve covers a
large part of the Forest and extends
beyond its boundaries, with acreage of
1,290,000. Principal game animals are
moose, caribou, white tailed deer, black
bear, snowshoe hare, red, gray, and
flying squirrels, and grouse (ruffed,
pin-tailed, spruce hens). Fur-bearing
animals are marten, fisher, weasel,
muskrat, mink, wolf (timber), coyote,
red fox, beaver, lynx, and bobcat.
Principal fish are pike, pickerel, bass,
and trout (lake and brook) .
Michigan National Forest (Michigan]
An extensive area, mostly of sand
"plains" 100 to 200 ft. above Lake level,
once bearing excellent forests of Norway
pine (Pinus resinosa) and some white
pine (Pinus strobus).
It has been cut-over and repeatedly
burned in past years so that there
remains only a few scattered clumps of
Norway pine, largely failing to re-
produce, but with much of the ground
occupied by jack pine (Pinus divaricata)
and scrub oak. Ecologically most in-
teresting for observations of vegeta-
tional succession following establish-
ment of forests by planting.
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
249
11. IDAHO
BY R. A. MUTTKOWSKI
I. GENERAL FEATURES AND ORIGINAL
BIOTA
1. Physiographic regions
Idaho might be compared to a chair,
the back and seat of which consist of
mountain ranges along the eastern
border. The area between the upper
and lower rung of the chair is occupied
by a great plateau, the Snake River
Plains.
In the northern panhandle the moun-
tains are relatively low, chiefly of the
round top type. Toward the middle
of the state, the "seat of the chair,"
the mountains grow very rugged and
precipitous.
Throughout the state the bases of the
mountains lie in volcanic lava, upon
which are heaped the aeolian soils.
This is seen in the Snake River Plain
which is a built-up plain formed by out-
pouring sheets of tertiary lava inter-
bedded with accumulated sediments of
the tertiary Lake Payette, which two
processes of upbuilding were contem-
poraneous within the basin, out of which
this plain was formed. Through this
plain the Snake River eroded a canyon,
and finally drained this geologic lake.
Except for the extreme southeastern
part.
2. Plant and animal communities
All of the original types of communi-
ties are still available for study. Orig-
inally, two-fifths of Idaho comprised
the forests and mountains, two-fifths
the arid plains, and one-fifth the fer-
tile prairies. These proportions have
changed somewhat in regard to the
extent of the forests and the arid plains,
due to lumbering, grazing, irrigation
and reclamation.
a. Forests. There are two types of
forests in Idaho, the western white pine
forests of the north (see page 210) ex-
tending from the Canadian boundary
to the Clearwater Preserve; and the
western yellow pine forests in the central
and southern parts of the state. In
central and southern Idaho especially
the forests were interspersed with great
fertile prairies, called Camas Prairies,
by the early travellers, from their con-
tinuous Camas blue.
In the montane forests of the northern
part of the state are found character-
istically the black bear (Ursus america-
nus group), grizzly bear, wolverine
(Gulo luscus), marten (Martes americana
group), fisher (Martes pennanti group),
weasel (Mustela sp.), marsh shrew
(Neosorex), masked shrew (Sorex per-
sonatus group), red-backed vole (Evoto-
mys), mountain lemming-vole (Phena-
comys orophilus], chipmunks (Eutamias
spp.), pine squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus
richardsoni), flying squirrel (Glaucomys
sabrinus group), yellow-haired porcu-
pine (Erethizon epixanlhum group),
snowshoe hare (Lepus bairdii), moose
(alces americana group), and black-
tailed deer (Odocoileus}.L. R. D.
Among the reptiles and amphibians
occurring in the Montane are the rubber-
snake (Charina bottae], a garter-snake
(Thamnophis), the western frog (Rana
pretiosa), the western toad (Bufo b.
boreas), and a salamander (Ambystoma
macrodactylum) . H. T. G.
Idaho and Utah are filled with small
mountain ranges which are for the most
part isolated by stretches of arid ter-
ritory. Each range usually contains a
group of species peculiar to itself and
in many cases certain species are
apparently confined to some one of
these ranges. The genus Oreohelix here
reaches its greatest development in
species. While little study has been
given to the ecological features of dis-
tribution, a good idea of the distri-
bution of the genus Oreohelix among
the mountain ranges may be obtained
from the paper by Henderson and
Daniels, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil,
1916, pp. 315-339. F. C. B.
b. Yellow pine forests. (See page 209.)
c. Alpine tundra. The central peaks
carry snow and ice fields the year round.
The vegetation is typically alpine.
250
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
The principal mammals of the Alpine
summits above timbeiiine are the Rockly
Mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus
subsp.), bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis
group), hoary marmot (Marmota caligata
group), and pika (Ochotona).
d. Prairies. (See under Oregon.)
e. Sagebrush semi desert. The great
sagebrush region of Idaho is traversed
by the Snake river. It is a lava desert,
with great extinct craters, solidified lava
flows, canyons, crevices, caves with ice,
super-chilled springs.
They have as characteristic mammals
the coyote (Cams lestes), grasshopper-
mouse (Onychomys leucogaster subspp.),
pocket-mouse (Perognathus), kangaroo-
rat (Dipodomys*) , ground-squirrel (Citel-
lus spp.), sage chipmunk (Eutemias
minimus pictus)> pigmy rabbit (Brachy-
lagus idahoensis), white-tailed jack-
rabbit (Lepus townsendii), black-tailed
jackrabbit (Lepus californicus group),
cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus muttallii
group), and pronghom antelope (Anti-
locapra americana). L. R. D.
Reptiles include the collar lizard
(Crotaphytus collaris baileyi), the leop-
ard-lizard (Crotophytus wislizenii), the
swifts (Sceloporus graciosus gracilis
and S. occidentalis biseriatus), the
rattle-snakes (Crotolus oreganus and C.
confluentus), the bull-snake (Pituophis C.
catenifer), the racer (Coluber constrictor
mormon), and the horned toad (Phyrn-
osoma d. douglassii and P. platyrhi-
nos).H. T. G.
In the mountains there are innumer-
able small lakes, cascades, and falls.
Along these streams there are springs
both hot and cold, notably so in the
central and southern regions. Larger
lakes are Payette, Coeur d'Alene, Pend
Oreille, Priest and Bose. Idaho grows
higher from north to south, with an ele-
vation of about 1800 ft., in the north to
about 5000 ft., in the south. The only
"low" spot is at Lewiston (west-
central, near the Washington boundary),
lying in a canyon of 700 ft. elevation.
The Snake River Plains also slope down
from east to west, so that Idaho slopes
down from southeast to northwest,
from 5000 to 1800 ft.
/. Aquatic communities. The aquatic
communities present perhaps the great-
est variety of all. In the mountains
there are innumerable alpine lakes which
form the headwaters of precipitous
creeks. The creeks have dug deep
canyons, through which they tumble
in rapids, falls, cascades, with occasional
placid stretches. Such lakes and
streams are most numerous in the
Salmon River and Clearwater River
drainage. Swamps are found in a
number of the valleys throughout Idaho,
although none of them occupy more
than a few square miles of area.
The fresh water mollusca are abun-
dant, especially in the northern part of
Idaho, in Lake Pend Oreille, and the
rivers and streams flowing into and from
this lake. Nearly all are related to
those of eastern North America, and
include the genera Lymnaea, Planorbis,
Rhysa, Amnicola, Valvata, Fluminicola,
Ferrissia, Hydrobia, Pisidium, Sphae-
rium. Only a few Naiades are found nor
are the Pleuroceridae abundant, as both
of these groups are in the central part
of the United States. A few species are
peculiar to the region. For the ecologi-
cal distribution of the Lymnaediae, see
Baker, Monograph of Lymnaediae,
1911. F. C. B.
II. PRESENT BIOTIC CONDITIONS
Except for the American bison and
perhaps the prong-horned antelope,
the original biota of Idaho are found in
at least a part of Idaho, chiefly in the
mountain fastnesses and the Snake
River Desert.
Along the border of Washington and
in the central valleys of northern Idaho
three factors have tended to alter the
biota, or at least to diminish their
extent. These are, first, the great
fires which from time to time have swept
over millions of acres and left barren
wastes which are slow in reforesting
themselves. The second factor was the
discovery of gold and other precious
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
251
ores. This, with its need for clearings
for the settlements, timber for build-
ings, fuel, and the mines, has thinned
the forests, while the sewage from the
settlements, the wastes from the mines
and the fumes of the smelters polluted
land and stream and killed plant and
animal life for miles around. Lumbering
has been the third factor in the with-
drawal of the biota in the north. In the
wake of cutting has followed agriculture
which has still further restricted the
natural areas. In the same areas in
central and southern Idaho irrigation
and reclamation have gone hand in hand
and turned many arid sage-brush prai-
ries into fertile farms and orchards.
III. POLLUTION
On the whole Idaho streams have
suffered relatively a slight pollution.
There are streams, notably in the mining
regions of the north, east and southwest,
that receive considerable waste and
refuse from the mines. Thus, the Coeur
d'Alene and Clearwater Rivers of
noirthern Idaho, before they pass into
Washington, receive both sewage and
mine refuse from the small cities along
the lower stretches of the streams.
IV. NATURAL AREAS
1. Idaho State Game Preserves
The Idaho State Game Preserves are 7
in number and cover an area of over 2000
sq. mi. or approximately 1,500,000 acres.
In these preserves all game animals are
protected. Hunting is prohibited ex-
cept by the game wardens and duly
authorized persons.
*Preserve on South Fork of Payette
River. (B2.) About 456 sq. mi.
292,000 acres. Located in northern
portion of the Boise National Forest
at the base of the Saw tooth Range.
All hunting, trapping, and killing of
any species of game and birds is for-
bidden.
Game animals protected: bear, lynx,
wolverine, fox, otter, beaver, marten,
mink, and fisher.
Predatory animals permitted to be
destroyed by game wardens: mountain
lion, timber wolf, coyote, wild cat.
* Black Lake Game Preserve. (A3.)
About 350 sq. mi. 225,000 acres. Lo-
cated in north portion of Snake River
Section of the Nez Perce National
Forest. Since it is very inaccessible,
this promises to continue as a perma-
nent preserve. All animals protected
here. Beaver, otter, marten, fisher, fox,
mink, wolverine.
Predatory animals; cougar, bear, lynx,
wolf, coyote, and wild cat may be
destroyed by game wardens only.
*Lewiston Orchards Preserve. (C3.)
About 19 sq. mi. 12,000 acres. Located
in Nez Perce, and covering the depres-
sion in which the Lewiston Orchards lie.
In this preserve birds of all kinds are
protected, including game birds, water
fowl, and song birds.
*Big Lost River Game Preserve. (B2.)
About 432 sq. mi. 290,000 acres. Lo-
cated in north and northeastern portion
of Sawtooth National Forest.
Birds include grouse, wild geese, wild
ducks, pheasant, partridges, quail,
prairie chicken, sage hen, swan, snipe,
plover, eagle, mourning dove, hawks,
crow, and magpy.
Mammals include: deer, elk, caribou,
moose, mountain goat, bighorn sheep,
pronghorn antelope, beaver, otter, mar-
ten, fisher, fox, and mink, cougar, black
bear, lynx, wolverine, wolf, coyote, wild
cat, rabbits, badger, weasel, and skunk.
*Selway State Game Preserve. (A2.)
About 725 sq. mi. 460,000 acres. Lo-
cated in northern part of Selway Na-
tional Forest.
*Big Creek Game Preserve. (B2.)
About 192 sq. mi. 125,000 acres. Lo-
cated in Salmon National Forest.
*Pocatello Game Preserve. (B2.) 49.5
sq. mi. 61,680 acres. Located south-
east of Pocatello in Cache National
Forest.
Owyhee County. (Cl.) (Bl.) An
available Game Preserve, of about 5000
sq. mi.
This county constitutes the south-
western corner of Idaho, comprising
252
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
nearly 8000 sq. mi. It has recently been
much mentioned as a possible game
preserve, especially for antelopes. Ore-
gon Short Line to Nampa, a spur to
Silver City, then by wagon road to Rid-
dle, near the Indian Reservation, or by
road along Bruneau River.
2. Springs
Idaho has literally hundreds of thou-
sands of springs.
Thousand Springs Valley. (B4.) Lie
in East Fork Basin of East Fork of
Salmon River. Innumerable hot and
cold springs here. There are several
"Warm Springs Creek." On road from
Ketchum to Stanley, then Salmon
River Highway to Springs.
Guyer Hot Springs. (D5.) Huge
mineral springs, and Warm Springs
Creek near Ketchum Springs commer-
cialized. Piped to houses for heat.
Oregon Short Line R. R. to Ketchum.
Scenery here marvelous, the "saw
teeth" of the Sawtooth Range con-
spicuous.
H ailey Hot Springs. (D5.) Near
Hailey, Blaine County. Somewhat com-
mercialized. Piped to Hailey for heat.
Hot Springs in Elmore County. (B4.)
Within 8 mi. northeast of Moun-
tain Home. 103 to 167F. Mud spring
northwest of Mountain Home. Fairly
large. Also natural cave of consider-
able size. Near good auto roads. E. F.
Mason.
South Fork of Boise River between Pine
and Featherbille has half a dozen large
hot springs along road (D4). One piped
for a large outdoor bathing pool. Fish
spring flows hot from small islet in Boise
River.
Soda Springs and Vicinity. (B5.)
Originally famous for its Soda springs,
has been commercialized to a large ex-
tent. The region "was a miniature
Yellowstone Park."
Lava Hot Springs. (B5.) In Bannock
County, a state reserve. On Oregon
Short Line R. R.
3. Caves
Among other attractions, Idaho has a
large number of caves. Unfortunately,
very little is known of most of them, as
they have been little explored. A
number of caves are found in Caribou
County, in Franklin County (perpetual
ice), Elmore County. Gooding County
(perpetual ice), and Valley of the Moon
in Blaine County.
4- Sand dunes
Sand dunes covering considerable
area are found in Freemont County north
of St. Anthony. These adjoin some old
lava fields and craters, and are inter-
mingled with good grazing prairie. At
least 20 sq. mi. Local roads from St.
Anthony north.
5. Lava flows
a. The Sinks. (B4.) The lava flow
in the region of the Snake River Desert
has produced a phenomenon called the
"Sinks" where considerable streams
appear from the surface and continue
their way underground to the Snake
River miles away. Located in Butte
County some miles below and east of the
Howe at the edge of Snake River desert.
There the Big Lost River and Little
Lost River disappear into the ground , to
reappear at intervals. Further up the
Birch Creek Sinks can be found. These
streams here go under the lava to the
depth of hundreds of feet and emerge
finally as gigantic springs on the sides
and bottom of the Snake River Canyon
60 mi. away. Reached best from Arco
on the Oregon Short Line, then by auto
road through Howe to the various sinks.
6. Lava Fields. (B2.) Fields of roll-
ing or broken lava are found in a number
of places in southern Idaho; in Free-
mont, Minidoka, Bingham, Owyhee,
Bonneville Counties.
c. Craters. (A3.) May be found in
most of the southern counties, also in
the central counties northward to
Idaho County.
d. Buffalo Hump. (A3.) A lone
butte in the middle of Idaho County,
active in 1866, with lava flow accom-
anied by tremors. Active in August-
eptember, 1881. Reached from
Grangeville, then by road to Concord.
e. Snake River Desert. (B3.) (B2.)
About 3400 sq. mi. Available. Occu-
pies middle center of Idaho, particularly
the region north of the Snake River
extending from Wood River northeast
past the Sinks of the Big Lost River.
Lava fields partly covered with sage-
brush, with patches of small trees.
Sagebrush fauna most abundant. Big
Lost River, Little Lost River, Camas
Creek and Birth Creek enter the desert
in the north, but soon become lost in the
"sinks;" these are fissured areas where
shallow lakes form in spring, which later
disappear. According to geologists
there is a subterranean bed in which the
streams flow hundreds of miles south-
west and west and reappear as gigantic
springs from the north wall of the Snake
River Canyon, in the 18 mi. between
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
253
Shoshone Falls and Bliss. Smaller
streams than those mentioned also dis-
appear.
A particular feature are the crevices
which interline the lava fields in the
desert, from two to fifty feet wide, from
thirty to hundreds of feet in depth, and
extending for long distances. In the
larger crevices there is a distinct fauna of
snakes, lizards, insects, and other
animals.
Between Blackf oot and Big Lost River
there is a Juniper forest of 175 sq. mi.
From Arco south a belt 15 mi. wide and
50 long, at least 800 sq. miles of pine and
fir, extends to Cinder Buttes. Smaller
patches at many points. Area adj oining
forest with bunch grass, not sagebrush,
forming splendid pasture land.
Sand dunes occur in a great many
places and great stretches of recent flows
of lava in many parts of Plains.
/. Big Butte, 5600 ft., and Pillar Butte,
5300 ft., are famous land-marks on the
plains and rise directly from rolling
plain. Big Butte is unscalable. Ap-
proach from many points. Short trips
inward easily arranged by automobile,
but better with pack-horses. (See ' 'Val-
ley of the Moon.")
''The latest evidence shows molten
rocks in recent historical times, perhaps
not over one hundred years ago. It
came up through volcanic cones, out of
which highly liquid lava in vast quanti-
ties flowed away in all directions where
it hardened in a horizontal position.
There are scores of vents, cones, and
craters within this area, Big, Middle,
and East Buttes being conspicuous
examples." Russell.
6. "Valley of the Moon"
t About 100 sq. mi. a proposed Na-
tional Monument. Comprises a portion
of the western end of the Snake River
Desert, named "Valley of the Moon,"
especially the northwest region known
as the "Craters," because of its marked
resemblance to the conventional as-
tronomers pictures of the moonscape.
Topography of barren lava fields,
canyons, hills, craters. Area is exceed-
ingly rough, in places utterly depressing
through its somber coloration, in others
startling, through the brilliant blues and
vermilions. One crater known as Echo
crater 700 ft. deep. Close by 63 craters
can be seen from one spot. An extinct
volcanic and lava flow. Ice caves plen-
tiful, icy springs, and short streams.
A dwarf bear of special interest.
Pines, some sagebrush, and a nearly
white "pigmy buckwheat."
This region has never been explored
and was virtually rediscovered by R. W.
Limbert, of Boise. After a trip into the
desert in 1917 he made several expedi-
tions. Reported that in Summer, 1921,
an expedition of the National Geo-
graphic Society entered the desert. It
is proposed to create a national monu-
ment of the whole or a portion of this
area.
Approach from many points : from the
south from a number of towns between
Idaho Falls and Minidoka on the Oregon
Short Line R. R. west from Shoshone to
Hailey, north from Arco. The highway
from Hailey to Arco passes within four
miles of the lava fields, where some of the
craters can be seen. R. A. M., after
R. W. Limbert.
V. REFERENCES
Bancroft, H. H. History of Washington,
Idaho, and Montana. In Vol. 10
of Collected works, Idaho, pp. 393-
588, 1889.
Bailey, F. M. Handbook of the Birds
of the Western United States. Hough-
ton, Mifflin Co., 1921, pp. 590, 33
plates, 601 text figures.
Fountain, Paul. The Eleven Eaglets of
the West. New York (Dutton &
Co. ) . 1906. Snake or ' 'Mad' ' River,
pp. 91-99. Idaho, pp. 125-153. De-
scription of journey made in late
seventies.
Rees, John E. Idaho: Chronology, No-
menclature, Bibliography, pp. 125.
Published by the author, Salmon,
Idaho.
Merriman, C. H., and Stejineger, L.
Biological Reconnoissance of South
Central Idaho. W. A. Fauna, no. 5,
1891.
Limbert, R. W. The Valley of the Moon,
in Nat. Geogr. Mag., 1924.
12. ALBERTA
BY A. B. CONNELL
I. GENERAL
The Province of Alberta, the western-
most of the prairie provinces of Canada,
extends from the Montana boundary
north to the 60th parallel of north
latitude. The 110th meridian of longi-
tude forms the eastern boundary and
the province extends west from this
line to the crest of the Rocky Mountains
in the south and to the 120th meridian
in the north. The area is approximately
260,000 sq. mi.
254
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
II. PHYSIOGRAPHY
The province may be divided into
four physiographic regions.
1. The Rocky Mountain region: In
the south of the province the mountains
occupy a narrow zone some 25 mi. in
width extending from the front ranges
westward to the British Columbia
boundary upon the Continental divide.
The mountains trend sharply to the
northwest until the 120th meridian is
reached near the 54th parallel of lati-
tude. At this point the provincial
boundary turns northward and the
Rockies continue northwesterly into
British Columbia. The montane region
of Alberta broadens to the north with
a decrease in elevation. The higher
peaks reach an elevation of over 11,000
ft. The passes vary from 7000 ft. at
the South Kootenay pass in the south
to 3700 ft. at the Yellowhead pass in
the north.
2. The Foothill region: The foothills
are extremely narrow or almost lacking
near the International boundary in
the south. As they follow the moun-
tains northward, however, they broaden
out forming an extensive area of low
rolling ridges with a general northwest
and southeast trend.
S. The Alberta plateau: The Cretace-
ous plains extend eastward from the
foothills forming a high shelf-like pla-
teau which sinks gradually from an
elevation of 3500 ft. in the southwest
to 1500 ft. in the northeast. Along
the eastern boundary of the province
south of the North Saskatchewan River
the elevation averages 2000 ft. The
larger rivers have cut broad and deep
valleys in crossing the plateau eastward
from the mountains. The valley of the
Peace River in the north of the prov-
ince is in places upwards of 700 ft.
in depth and over two miles in width
from rim to rim.
4. The northeastern portion of the
province: This is occupied by a com-
paratively low flat plain having an
average elevation of 800 ft. above sea
level. The western portion of Lake
Athabaska and the lower course of the
Peace River lie within this area.
III. BIOTIC CONDITIONS
The vegetation of Alberta may be
divided broadly into five climatic
formations.
1. The Alpine belt extends along the
higher mountains above timber line.
Climatic conditions are severe with low
temperatures, a short growing season,
high and dry winter winds and low
atmospheric pressure. The climatic cli-
max is meadow-like and characterized
by heaths and saxifrages.
2. The Montane belt occupies the
slopes of the mountains from timber
line to the eastern border of the foot-
hills. The precipitation varies between
20 and 30 in. and occurs mainly in the
spring and summer. The climatic cli-
max is a xeromesophytic coniferous
forest characterized by Engelmann
spruce (Picea Engelmannii) , western
larch (Larix Lyallii], lodgepole pine
(Pinus murrayana), white spruce (Picea
canadensis) and Douglas fir (Pseudot-
suga mucronatd). Limber pine (Pinus
Hexilis} and whitebark pine (Pinus
albicaulis] are found on the upper slopes
of the higher foothills and outer ranges
in the south.
Engelmann spruce gives place to the
white spruce toward the north. West-
ern larch occurs well up to timber line
south of the Crow's Nest pass. Lodge-
pole pine in pure stands is very
extensive.
3. The great plains in the south of the
province are occupied by a xerophytic
grassland climax which is an extension
northwards of the mixed Prairie Asso-
ciation of Montana. The precipitation
is in the neighborhood of 15 in., mainly
in the summer. The winters are dry
with little snow and marked by many
"Chinook winds." This condition ex-
tends north from the Montana boundary
to and beyond the Red Deer River.
Buffalo grass, grama grass and wire
grass are present, together with tumble
weed and sage brush. (The northern
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
255
portion of the grassland becomes a
more mesophytic turf grass prairie
association in which wheat grass, wild
rye and red top are dominant. G. D.
Fuller.}
4. A transition belt of poplar-savanna
fringes the northern border of the grass-
land region. This belt extends from
the foothills eastward across the south
central portion of the province to the
Saskatchewan boundary. The south
boundary of this region runs eastward
from a point a short distance south of
the town of Red Deer on the C. P.
railway between Calgary ancl Edmonton.
The north boundary extends from
Whitecourt west of Edmonton north-
easterly to the great bend of the Atha-
basca river some ten miles north of the
town of Athabasca, thence southeast-
erly south of Lake La Biche to the
Saskatchewan boundary line a few miles
north of the Saskatchewan river. This
region has a width north and south of
from 100 to 150 mi. The characteristic
trees are the aspen and balsam poplar.
(In the south the trees become smaller
and the small aspens in turn give way
to willows from 3 to 12 ft. in height.
This aspen and willow scrub occurs
continuously over considerable areas
but more frequently exists as scattered
clumps and groves in the rather meso-
phytic prairie. G. D. F.)
Northwards the trees become more
dense and as the southern boundary
of the northern coniferous forest is
approached more or less dense forests
of poplar occur with occasional large
areas of meadow and prairie land.
5. The northern coniferous forest
extends from the transition region
northward to the northern boundaries
of the province. The climax is a meso-
phytic coniferous type. The precipita-
tion is not high but the summers are
short and cool and the saturation deficit
low. The predominant trees are the
white spruce, balsam (Abies balsamea),
poplar, paper birch (Betula papyri/era),
jack pine (Pinus banksiana), and tama-
rack (Larix laricina). An interesting
condition occurs along the southwestern
border of the coniferous forest where it
approaches the foothills of the Rockies
in the region of the Peace River Valley.
Large areas of open prairie land are
found here together with a preponder-
ance of poplar in the surrounding for-
ested areas. Some of these openings,
such as that known as Grande Prairie,
contain upwards of 1000 sq. mi.
The fauna of the province has been
modified considerably in the south but
comparatively little in the north. Bison
(Bison bison), once very plentiful, are
extinct in the southern portion of the
province with the exception of a large
herd in the Buffalo Park Reserve near
Wainwright. Several herds of wild
wood bison (Bison bison athabascae) ,
however, are still in existence in north-
ern Alberta and have been reported
west and south of Fort Smith. Prong-
horn antelope (Antilocapra americana)
are in existence on some of the smaller
preserves. Coyotes are numerous on
the open plains. In the northern forest
fur-bearing animals and moose (Alces
americana) are plentiful. Bighorn
sheep (Oviscanadensis), goats (Oreamnos
montanus group), grizzly and black
bear are found in the mountains. 1
IV. PRESERVED NATURAL AREAS
*Rocky Mountain National Park (A2)
Area 2750 sq. mi. This area extends
along the eastern slopes of the Rockies
from the Kananaskis Lakes on the
south to the Clearwater river on the
north. It includes the Sawback, Ver-
million, Palliser, Goat and Kananaskis
ranges. The peaks range from 9000 to
12,000 ft. in altitude. The forest is of
the Rocky Mountain coniferous type.
Bison, deer, elk, bear, sheep, and goat
are found. The main line of the C. P.
R. R. west from Calgary traverses the
Park. Banfff is the central outfitting
point. Guides, ponies and camp equip-
ment can be obtained there.
1 For further information on the fauna of the for-
ested part of the province, see under MacKenzie
Watershed, page 116,
256
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
"Jasper National Park (A2)
Area 4400 sq. mi. Eastern slope of
the Rocky Mountains. Extends from
the Brazeau River on the south north
to the Smoky river divide and from the
Continental divide on the west to the
foothills on the east. The main trans-
continental line of the Canadian Na-
tional Railway passes through the park.
Jasper is the central outfitting point.
Good hotel accommodation, camp equip-
ment and supplies can be obtained
there. C. N. R. R. from Edmonton.
For information and maps write Superin-
tendent, Jasper Park, Jasper, Alberta.
*Waterton Lake National Park (A2)
Area 423 sq. mi. Adjoins Glacier
National Park at extreme southwestern
extremity of the province. Eastern
slope of the Rocky Mountains. Reached
from CardstonJ on the C. P. Ry. 20
mi. by motor.
Buffalo Park (A2)
Area 150 sq. mi. Located in the
plains in the eastern portion of the
province. Poplar-savanna with much
open rolling grassland. The largest
herd of bison in Canada is located here.
One mi. from WainwrightJ on the C. N.
Ry. east from Edmonton.
*Rocky Mountains Forest Reserve (B2)
Area 12,000 sq. mi. This Dominion
Forest extends along the entire eastern
slope of the Rockies from Waterton
Lake National Park in the south to the
54th meridian in the north. The eastern
boundary coincides approximately with
the eastern limits of the foothills.
Both the Rocky Mountains National
Park and Jasper National Park are
within the boundaries of this forest.
The southern portion of the forest
south of the main line of the C. P. Ry.
is easily accessible from any point
along the MacLeod branch of the C. P.
Ry. south from Calgary, notably High
River, Nanton and Claresholm. Along
the Crow's Nest branch Pincher Creek
and Coleman are excellent outfitting
centers. There is hotel accommodation
at all of these points and wagon or motor
roads lead to the forest. Travel by
wagon along the outskirts of the forest
in the south is quite feasible. The
interior trails are usually open for
pack and saddle animals only. North
of the main line of the C. P. Ry. travel
is generally by means of pack ponies
only. A branch of the C. N. Ry. from
Red Deer penetrates the forest along
the valley of the Saskatchewan river
to Brazeau. Rocky Mountain House
is the most suitable outfitting center
in this part. The Coal Spur branch of
the C. N. Ry. from the main line near
Edson enters the northern part of the
reserve. The portion of the reserve
lying north of the main line of the C.
N. Ry. may be easily reached with pack
ponies from Entrance. In this case
supplies should be taken from Edmonton
and ponies obtained locally. The forest
is administered by the Dominion
Forestry Branch from Calgary. Super-
visors' offices are located at Pincher
Creek, Rocky Mountain House and
Entrance.
*Lesser Slave Forest Reserve (A2)
Area 4000 sq. mi. The Lesser Slave
Reserve lies northwest from Edmonton.
It is upon the Alberta plateau beyond
the foothill zone. It is a rough residual
elevation rising some 2000 ft. above the
general level of the plains to elevations
of 4000 ft. or more. It is underlain by
soft shale and heavily mantled with
drift. The northern coniferous forest
extends over these hills. There is a
considerable amount of lodgepole pine
with scattered areas of muskeg in the
depressions. The bulk of the area is
well drained and supports an association
of spruce and poplar. Lesser Slave
Lake at the northern base of this high-
land supports a considerable fishing
industry. Camp outfit required. Out-
fit at Edmonton. C. P. Ry. to Sawridge.
Pack trails over which pack animals
can be taken extend into the hills from
this point. A detached portion of this
forest lies northeast of the lake and
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
257
may be reached from Sawridge whence
a pack trail runs north to Wabiscaw.
Hotel at Sawridge. The Forest is ad-
ministered by the Dominion Forestry
Branch from Calgary.
*Cooking Lake Forest Reserve (B3)
Area 40 sq. mi. The Cooking Lake
Forest is a small area of wasteland 20
mi. east from Edmonton. It is acces-
sible by motor from Edmonton and is
a popular resort.
*Cypress Hills Forest Reserve (C3)
Area 50 sq. mi. This area lies in the
southeastern portion of the province
upon the boundary between Alberta
and Saskatchewan. It is a rough
elevated tract rising to a considerable
elevation above the surrounding plains.
The hills are covered with a forest of
lodgepole pine and surrounded by the
short grass plains. This is the most
easterly point reached by the lodgepole
pine in western Canada. The hills are
20 mi. south of Walsh on the C. P. Ry.
and southeast from Medicine Hat which
is the nearest large outfitting center.
They may be reached by motor and
camp outfit is desirable.
*Foremost Antelope Reserve (A3)
Area 9 sq. mi. A small area in the
short grass plains of southeastern
Alberta. The topography is rough and
the soil sandy in places. Sagebrush is
common. Both pronghorn antelope and
bison are reported on this area. The
altitude is 2900 ft. The reserve lies
west of the Cypress Hills and is 3 mi.
north of Nemiskam on the C. P. Ry.
Hotel at Foremost 10 mi. west. Roads
are good and the reserve is easily reached
by automobile.
*Elk Island Park (A3)
This small area of 16 sq. mi. lies north-
east from Edmonton and adjoins the
Cooking Lake Forest on the north.
Spruce swamps and bogs are frequent
with poplar on the higher ground.
Bison, beaver, elk, deer, moose and
pronghorn antelope are reported here.
Altitude 2196 ft. Lamontt on the
C. N. Ry. 30 mi. from Edmonton is
close to the Park. Hotel accommoda-
tion and equipment may be obtained
there.
*Buffalo Lake Bird Sanctuary (B3)
Area 51 sq. mi. Altitude 2536 ft.
Located close to BashawJ on the C. N.
Ry. between Calgary and Edmonton.
*Pakoiwki Lake Bird Sanctuary (B3)
Area 44 sq. mi. Altitude 2,893 ft.
Located in southeastern Alberta 8
mi. southeast from EtzikomJ on the
C. P. Ry. Pronghorn antelope is
reported here.
*Birch Lake Bird Sanctuary (B3)
Area 15 sq. mi. Altitude 2228 ft.
Located two mi. from Innisfreet on
the C. N. Ry. east from Edmonton.
*Lac La Biche Bird Sanctuary (B3)
Area 92 sq. mi. Altitude 1788 ft.
Lac La BicheJ station on C. P. Ry. north-
east from Edmonton.
*Ministik Lake Bird Sanctuary (B3)
Area 25 sq. mi. Located 25 mi.
southeast from Edmonton near TofieldJ
on the C. N. Ry. Reserve 12 mi. dis-
tant may be reached (a).
*Miquelon Lake Bird Sanctuary (B3)
Area 11 sq. mi. Altitude 2427 ft.
Located 14 mi. north from Camrose.t
on the C. N. Ry. May be reached (a).
*Many Islands Lake Bird Sanctuary (B3)
Area 21 sq. mi. Altitude 2448 ft.
Located in the plains of southeastern
Alberta 12 mi. north of WalshJ on the
C. P. Ry.
Proposed Forest Reservations
Proposed Athabasca Forest Reserve.
(B2.) Area 7000 sq. mi. This area
forms an extension of the Rocky Moun-
tains Forest upon the north. It lies
between the present boundary of the
Forest and the Grande Prairie settle-
ments to the north and the Lesser Slave
Forest to the northeast. The average
elevation is over 2000 ft. The surface
258
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
is undulating. The forest cover is
fairly open with many p'atches of prairie
and meadow land. The forest is an
extension of the Rocky Mountains
coniferous forest but is mingled to a
certain extent with the Northern Conif-
erous forest which extends southwards
from the Lesser Slave Lake region.
May be reached from Edsonf or En-
trance on the C. N. Ry. west from
Edmonton** (h).
Proposed Embarras Forest Reserve.
(B2.) Area 700 sq. mi. A proposed
extension to the Rocky Mountains
Forest in the Coal Spur district south
of Edson on the main line of the C. N.
Ry. west of Edmonton. Rocky Moun-
tain coniferous forest. Outfit at Edson. J
Proposed Lac La Biche Forest Reserve.
(B2.) Area 1400 sq. mi. This area lies
northeast from Lac La Biche and is
traversed by the A. & G. W. Ry. from
Edmonton to McMurray. The country
is rolling with an average elevation of
1800 ft. Northern coniferous forest.
Good hotel at Lac La Biche. Camp
outfit and pack ponies required.
Proposed Pelican Mountain Forest
Reserve. (B2.) Area 700 sq. mi. Situ-
ated at the east end of the north block
of the Lesser Slave Forest. A rough
highland reaching elevations of 3000 ft.
Northern coniferous forest. May be
reached by pack trail from Athabasca! or
by canoe by means of the Athabasca and
Pelican rivers. The canoe route is
very interesting and not difficult with
the exception of the portage at Pelican
Settlement.
Proposed Peace River Forest Reserve.
(B2.) Area approximately 1000 sq. mi.
This tract is in three blocks which lie
immediately south of the Peace River
at the western boundary of Alberta.
The country is a high rolling plateau
averaging 2500 ft. in elevation. North-
ern coniferous forest. May be reached
from Spirit Riverf on the Grande Prairie
branch of the C. P. Ry. from Edmon-
ton** (h) or (c). Also by boat up the
Peace River from Peace River Crossing:}:.
Proposed Clear Hills Forest Reserve.
(A2.) This is a large area comprising
over 1000 sq. mi. lying north of the
Peace River at the western boundary of
the Province. The hills form a rough
rolling elevation rising to 3500 ft.
Northern coniferous forest with patches
of open country. Peace River Crossing!
C. P. Ry. from Edmonton. Pack ponies
and camp outfit required. Trails are
rough and poor. Little travel in this
region.
Proposed Wapiti River Forest Reserve
(B2.) Area 200 sq. mi. A small area
of northern coniferous forest at the junc-
tion of the Wapiti and Smoky Rivers
and south of the Grande Prairie settle-
ment. Four miles south of the town of
Grande Prairie! on the C. P. Ry. north
from Edmonton. The northern bound-
ary of the area may be reached by(w)
or (a), but the interior is accessible with
pack ponies only.
Available areas
North of the Athabasca River and Lac
La Biche Alberta is very thinly settled
with the exception of the Peace River
settlements west from Peace River
Crossing, f The bulk of this immense
area is little travelled except along the
main waterways.
Lake Athabasca is easily reached from
Edmonton to McMurray over the A. &
G. W. Ry. and thence by boat down the
river to Fort Chipewyan. The country
about the western end of Lake Atha-
basca is very low and marshy. It is
one of the notable localities for water-
fowl in the north. The eastern portion
of the lake lies within the boundaries
of the Laurentian plateau.
The Peace River is reached from
Edmonton via C. P. Ry. to Peace River
Crossing!. Regular steamboat service
down the river to Fort Vermilion, Lake
Athabasca and Fort Smith on the Slave
river. Hay River may be reached with
pack ponies north from Vermilion.
Fort Vermilion may also be reached
from Athabasca by way of the Wabisca
and Loon rivers.
13. SASKATCHEWAN
BY JOHN SMITH DEXTER
Saskatchewan, the middle one of the
three "Prairie Provinces" of Canada,
lies between the 49th and the 60th
parallels of latitude, and between ap-
proximately the 102nd and the 110th
meridians west of Greenwich. It is
more than 750 mi. from north to south;
and along the southern boundary, its
width from east to west is some 388 mi.
The surface is comparatively level,
though gently rolling. The altitude is
markedly higher in the southwest
corner, where the Province approaches
the foothills of the Rockies. In that
region (the Cypress Hills) its highest
elevation is 4243 ft. Wood Mountain,
150 mi. farther east, reaches 3371 ft.
The average elevation in the southwest
part of the province is above 3000 ft.,
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
259
and this region is a portion of the Mis-
souri Coteau.
At the southeastern corner of the
province, and north along the eastern
boundary to the 52nd parallel, the
average elevation is 1700 ft., and ascends
to about 2500 ft. in the Porcupine Hills
between the 52nd and 53d parallels.
From this point the descent is fairly
rapid until a low point of 870 ft. is
reached where the Saskatchewan River
crosses the boundary. North of this
point, the ascent is gradual to about
1250 ft. at the northeast corner. Lake
Athabasca, in the northwest corner,
has a level of 700 ft., the lowest point
in the province. Numerous hills of
glacial origin occur in various parts of
the province, and rise in some cases
nearly a thousand feet above the sur-
rounding territory.
The chief rivers drain into Hudson
Bay. The Qu'Appelle, running east-
ward at about 50 30' north latitude, is
a tributary of the Assiniboine River
which joins the Red at Winnipeg. The
Saskatchewan has two great branches
which rise in the Rocky Mountains
west of Alberta. The Churchill River,
crossing the Province still farther north,
drains a great part of the northern
forest, and has its source in central
Alberta. Among the lesser rivers, two
of special interest are (1) Frenchman
River, arising in the Cypress Hills,
which empties into the Gulf of Mexico,
via the Missouri; and (2) Clearwater, a
strong tributary of the Athabasca,
that drains to the Arctic Ocean.
The direction of the isothermal lines
shows markedly the influences of the
Rocky Mts., and of Hudson Bay, for
they have a well-defined dip from north-
east to southwest. The range of tem-
perature is great, occasionally reaching
above 90 in summer, and below -50 in
winter.
The annual rainfall in the southwest
is from 10 to 13 in. in the forested north-
ern half, it is frequently more than 20 in.
South of a line drawn across the
Province from 52 30' on the western
boundary to 51 45' on the eastern, the
vegetation is typically that of the
prairies, with few trees or none, and with
grasses predominating. (In its western
part, a continuation of the plains of
Alberta, page 254; toward the east,
passes into the true prairie. North of
this line, a belt perhaps 50 to 75 mi.
wide is called "the park country," and
in this belt, dense thickets of aspen and
willow are interspersed with typical
grassy plains.) (The transition zone
of poplar-savanna; see Alberta, page
255, and Manitoba, page 263.)
The forested area includes the rest
of the Province (for description, see
northern coniferous forest of Alberta,
page 255, and Manitoba, page 264).
North of a line drawn through the south-
west extremities of Athabasca, Cree,
Reindeer Lakes, the forest becomes
thin, and at the extreme northeast
corner of the Province, almost vanishes
into the Barren Grounds (see Manitoba,
page 264).
Aside from considerable collecting of
plants, insects, and birds in the prairie
region, a very little collecting of birds
in the north by numerous naturalists,
and some work on life histories of
insects by Prof. A. E. Cameron of the
University of Saskatchewan, the prov-
ince is virgin territory to the naturalist.
As for bird life, the southwest corner
has been described by F. M. Chapman
in Camps and Cruises, and by A. C. Bent
in the Auk for 1907 and 1908. P. A.
Taverner of the Victoria Museum,
Ottawa, Mr. H. H. Mitchell, Provincial
Naturalist, Regina, Sask. and others,
have collected birds in many parts of
the prairies. Still earlier work in this
field is well digested in Macoun's Cata-
logue of Canadian Birds. Cap't, Angus
Buchanan, whose book on his 1914 trip
through northern Saskatchewan has
been published by John Lane, collected
birds as he travelled, and his collection
has been described by J. H. Fleming
in the Canadian Field-Naturalist.
A rich hunting-ground for the natural-
ist is offered in the prairie pools. At
Saskatoon, within 5-minute walk of the
biological laboratories of the University,
260
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
the evanescent pools still standing in
May from the melted snows of April
swarm with all sorts of invertebrates.
There are various tiny turbellarians,
some of which are filled with Zoochlorel-
lae. Especially abundant are the small
Crustacea ns. including Branchipus,
Lepidurus, Estheria, and countless
daphnids. Some of the pools are tinged
red by myriads of Canthocamptus sp.
and by the huge Diaptomus shoshone.
Forest reserves and game sanctuaries
have been set aside to a fairly satisfying
extent. These regions are almost un-
touched by civilization, except in the
form of local forest fires. They cannot
be advantageously studied without a full
camp equipment. They are, naturally,
located on land ill-suited to agriculture
in regions of hills or of marshes or both,
and all of them have abundant supplies
of water in the form of sloughs or lakes.
(For information regarding animals of
the northern part of the province see
index account of Mackenzie Watershed
page 116, and Seton's Life Histories of
Northern Animals (Scribner's).)
NATURAL AREAS
The Forest Reserves
The Dominion Government has set
aside in Saskatchewan, Forest Reserves
totalling in area some 9000 sq. mi.
In the following descriptions, the areas
are only approximately estimated in
most cases. Two parallel lines, thus ||,
indicate "camp outfit necessary."
*Cypress Hills, No. 1. (A4, 1.) 54
sq. mi. (Described with *Cypress Hills,
No. 2. 3200-3700 ft.)
Maple Creeki, on the C. P. R., with
Post Office, stores, is 25 mi. (a).
Cypress Hills, No. 2. (A4.) 18 sq.
mi. The two Cypress Hills Reserves
are rather- inaccessible, being in the arid
sandhills of southwestern Sask. Lodge-
pole pine, white spruce, birch, aspen,
black poplars make up the forest.
Small cacti occur. Antelope, cougar,
elk, lynx, and timber wolves are found,
though not abundantly. The first two
named, are found nowhere else in the
Province save in this corner. Hawks,
coyote, beaver, ground-squirrel, badger,
rabbit, prairie chicken, and water-
fowl are common. 3200-3700 ft.
Maple CreekJ, on the C. P. R., with
Post Office, stores, is 15 mi. (a).
*Moose Mountain. (B2.) 156 sq. mi.
Poplars, willows, birch, box elders and
ash are the principal trees. Hawks,
weasel, coyote, beaver, owls, and water-
fowl, are the chief animals. Large
game are rare. 2000 ft.
Carlylel, on the C. P. R., with Post
Office, stores, is 12 mi. (a).
*Beaver Hills. (B2.) ** 99 sq. mi.
Poplars and willows are the chief trees.
Large game are rare. "Moose Mountain
and Beaver Hills are two small Reserves
with much slough land. . . . Both
have the usual history stripped of
timber and overrun by fire, and now
carrying a reproduction of poplar,
mostly immature." (1915 Report of
Canadian Commission of Conservation)
1800 ft.
Itunat, on the G. T. P., with Post
Office and stores, is 6 miles (a).
*Elbow. (B2.) 115 sq. mi. In two
parts, one along the west shore of the
South Saskatchewan River at the
"Elbow;" the other among the head
waters of the Qu'Appelle River, ten
miles further east. 1800 ft.
ElbowJ, on the C. P. R., with Post
Office and stores, is two mi. (a).
*Dundurn. (B2.) 63 sq. mi. Sandy
soil, drifting in some localities. 1750 ft.
DundurnJ, on the C. N. R., with Post
Office and stores, is 5 mi. (a).
*Duck Mountain, No. 2. (B2.) 81
sq. mi. A rolling country on the eastern
boundary line of the Province. Jack
pine, tamarack, balsam fir, black spruce,
white spruce, aspen, balsam poplar,
and birch are common. Skunk, coyote,
weasel, muskrat, beaver, ground-squir-
rel, moose, deer, and bear, are charac-
teristic of the fauna. 1400-2500 ft.
Kamsacki, on the C. N. R., with Post
Office and stores, is 8 mi. (a).
Porcupine, No. 2. (A4.) 3220 sq.
mi. This is another large area of waste
land, very similar to that of the Duck
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
261
Mountain Reserve, and with a similar
fauna and flora. Its eastern end has
been set aside as a Game Preserve.
1000-2500 ft.
Hudson Bay Junction^, on the C. N. R.,
with Post Office and stores, is 3 mi.
distant by wagon,' (h), or (w).
*Pasquia Hills. (A4.) 2592 sq. mi.
Similar in character to the last two
described. All three contain elevations
of land rising to approximately 2500 ft.,
which with Riding Mountain and Turtle
Mountain in Manitoba, make up a range,
of which Pembina Mountain at the
boundary of Manitoba, Minnesota, and
North Dakota, is the southern member.
900-2500 ft.
Hudson Bay Junction!, on the C.
N. R., with Post Office and stores,
is two mi. distant (h) or (w), over a
muskeg trail .
*Manitou Lake. (B2.) 180 sq. mi.
On the western border of the Province,
south and west of the alkali lake of the
same name. It lies in the so-called
"park country" in which prairie and
aspen associations alternate. Coyote,
ground-squirrel, and crane, abound.
The Reserve contains many small
lakes, many without outlet. 2000 ft.
Yonker, on the G. T. P., with Post
Office and stores, but no hotel, is one-
half mi. (a) from the Reserve .
*Keppel. (B2.)** Some 85 sq. mi.
in three small patches of brush-covered
country in the prairies south of Battle-
ford. Hawks, ground-squirrel, and coy-
ote are plentiful. 1700 ft.
Perduet, on the C. P. R., with Post
Office and stores, is seven miles (a) from
the Reserve.
*The Pines. (B2.) 165 sq. mi. A
particularly interesting Reserve, being
readily accessible and on the * very
boundary between park country and
dense northern forest. It is heavily
forested on its northern parts with
spruce-aspen associations, while in the
southern portion aspen thickets alter-
nate with typical prairie grass-lands.
It touches both the north and south
branches of the Saskatchewan River,
and contains numerous sloughs and
lakes. 1500 ft.
Duck Laket, on the C. N. R, with
Post Office and stores, is 6 mi. (a).
*Nisbet. (B2.) 150 sq. mi. A re-
serve of irregular outline, north of the
North Saskatchewan River at Prince
Albert, which is two miles distant by
auto. There is a good deal of spruce
bog, and the forest is extremely dense.
The winter wrens and Canada jay
("whiskey jack") are common, and the
pine siskin, ruby-crowned kinglet and
olive-sided flycatcher are not rare.
Prince Albert, which may be reached
by various branches of the C. N. R.,
is one of the chief commercial centers
of the Province.
*Steep Creek. (B2.) 7 sq. mi. A
spruce bog 16 mi. distant (a) east from
Prince Albert, and situated on the south
shore of the North Saskatchewan.!
*Fort a la Corne. (A4, 1.) 506 sq. mi.
At the juncture of the two main branches
of the Saskatchewan, and lying chiefly
on the north shore. Not notably
different in character from the Nisbet
Reserve at Prince Albert. 1200 ft.
(a), 30 mi. from Prince Albert, or
20 mi. from Kinistinot, on the C. N. R.,
where there are stores and Post Office .
*Big River. (A4.) 1250 sq. mi. A
large tract of densely forested land, with
much spruce-poplar vegetation, and a
good deal of large game, as well as
water-fowl in abundance. Some areas
have been forested, some have been
burned over, but much is still primitive.
1600 ft.
Big Rivert, on the C. N. R., with
Post Office and stores, is one-half mi.
by road from the Reserve .
*Sturgeon River. (A4.) 708 sq. mi.
A little-known tract, (a) by a 30-mi.
ride either from Prince Albert, or from
Canwoodi (C. N. R., Post Office, stores).
This Reserve is heavily forested and its
sand hills rise to a height of over 2300 ft.
The Sturgeon River is a tributary of the
North Saskatchewan. Waskesiu Lake,
in the northeast corner of the Reserve
is more than fifteen miles long, and is
262
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
more than five miles broad at its widest
place. 1600-2300 ft..
Bird Sanctuaries in Saskatchewan
Cabri Lake. Covers 3^ sq. mi. of
prairie, sagebrush, cactus, and alkali
area with a ravine and rocky situations,
lake and spring. Altitude 2300 ft.
Located 5 mi. south of Mantario,t
Saskatchewan on the Canadian National
Railroad. Canadian National Parks
J. B. H.-L. H.
Crane Lake. Covers 23 sq. mi. of lake
and islands with prairie, sagebrush and
cactus, marshes. Located 5 mi. east of
PiopotJ Station on the Canadian Pacific
Railroad. Canadian National Parks,
J. B. H.-L. H.
Lenore Lake. Includes 37^ sq. mi. of
lake, shore and islands, deciduous forest,
Erairie and swamp. Altitude 1865 ft.
ocated 18 mi. north of HumboldtJ on
the Canadian National Railway.
Canadian National Parks. J. B. H.-
L.H.
*Last Mountains Lake. Embraces 92
sq. mi. of lake with marshes, shores, and
some prairie. Located 10 mi. west of
Govan| on the Canadian Pacific Rail-
way. This is probably the first bird
sanctuary in North America. It was
reserved in 1887. Canadian National
Parks. J. B. H.-L. H.
Quill Lake. Covers 250 sq. mi. of
shore, water and islands. Deciduous
forest, prairie, marsh. Located at Quill
LakeJ Station on the Canadian National
8 mi. north of Wynyard| on the Cana-
dian Pacific. Canadian National
Parks, J. B. H.-L. H.
Big Stick Lake. Includes 20 sq. mi. of
prairie, sage brush, sand areas, marshes
with antelope present. Altitude 2500
ft. Located 20 mi. north of Maple
Creek on the Canadian Pacific Rail-
road. Canadian National Parks. J. B.
H.-L. H.
White Bear Lake. This is 3 sq. mi. OJL
steppe, semi-desert, sage brush, and
cactus, with some ravines. Valuable
duck breeding ground. Altitude 2050
ft., located 5 mi. south of Elrose.
Canadian National Parks. J. B. H-
L.H.
Chapin Lake. Includes 73 sq. mi. of
which 18 are water, prairie, sagebrush,
and cactus, sand areas, shore, marsh, and
lake. Located at Chapin, Canadian
Pacific Railway. The lake is strongly
alkaline. Canadian National Parks, J.
B. H.-L. H.
Redberry Lake. Embraces 30 sq.
mi. chiefly water, but with deciduous
forest, prairie, marsh, and shore. Alti-
tude is 1700 it. Located at ^Redberry
Station, Canadian National Railway.
No hotels available.** Canadian Na-
tional Parks, J. B. H.-L. H.
Basin Lake. Includes 28 sq. mi. of
water and island, deciduous forest,
prairie, some marsh. Altitude 1865 ft.
Is 24 mi. northwest of Humboldt J on the
Canadian National Railway. Cana-
dian National Parks, J. B. H.-L. H.
Johnston Lake. Covers 125 sq. mi.
with prairie, sagebrush, cactus, marsh
and the lake. Altitude 2189 ft. Located 2
mi. north of Expanse} on the Canadian
Pacific Railway, 25 mi. south of Moose
Jaw, Canadian Pacific Railway, can be
reached from Moose Jaw by automobile.
Canadian National Parks, J. B. H.-
L.H.
Game preserves set aside by the provincial
Government
The Provincial Government has set
aside as Game Preserves the three
following areas:
The water and shores of the north and
south branches of the Saskatchewan
River from the Alberta boundary to the
point where the two branches unite at
Fort a la Corne.
The water and shores of Wascana
Lake, in the city of Regina, Sask.
The Isle of Bays, a small rocky island
in Lake Johnston, 25 mi. south of Moose
Jaw, Sask. (See account of Lake Johnston
Bird Sanctuary.) On this island, white
pelicans, double-crested cormorants, and
other birds breed. John Smith Dexter.
Miscellaneous areas not elsewhere
described
The Churchill River Basin. Includes
1000 mi. of river, wet spruce forest, and
broad, marshy hay -meadows. Birds
abundant, including grebes, ducks,
cranes, rails, herons, pelicans, cormo-
rants, gulls, terns, snipe, etc. Bear,
moose, and smaller mammals abound,
with muskrat and porcupine prominent
among them. The breeding season for
birds begins in May. Ducks hatch in
June and July. In spite of many forest
fires in various portions of it, the country
could hardly be more primitive. Alti-
tude, 1200-1500 ft.
The region may be entered by the
Canadian National Railway to Big
River Sask., Prince Albert Sask., or
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
263
The Pas, Man. Camp outfit necessary,
but may be obtained at any of the three
towns named. Indian guides are ad-
visable, Cree Indians being probably
preferable to Chipewyan. (The Angli-
can or Catholic Missionaries are excel-
lent advisers with reference to the
selection of a guide.) John Smith
Dexter.
14. MANITOBA
BY A. B. CONNELL
I. GENERAL
The province of Manitoba is the
easternmost of the three prairie prov-
inces of Canada. It extends from the
northern boundary of Minnesota and
North Dakota north to -the 60th parallel
of latitude a distance of 750 mi. The
west boundary follows the 102nd merid-
ian of longitude. The Ontario bound-
ary on the east runs northwards near
the 95th meridian for a distance of 275
mi. and then swings northeast to the
shore of Hudson Bay. The width of the
province in the south is approximately
300 mi.
II. PHYSIOGRAPHY
Manitoba is divided into four distinct
physiographic regions.
1. The Cretaceous plains, entering
the Province from the west, terminate
abruptly in an escarpment which ex-
tends from the Pembina Mountain upon
the International boundary northwest-
erly to the Porcupine Hills. The surface
of this region is rolling and the elevation
averages 1400 ft. above sea level. The
line of the escarpment is marked by a
series of drift-covered elevations rising
in places to 2500 ft . The most important
of these are the Duck and Riding Moun-
tains. The Cretaceous plains occupy
the southwestern portion of the
Province.
2. A relatively narrow structural plain
of undisturbed Paleozoic strata extends
eastwards from the line of the escarp-
ment to Lake Winnipeg. This plain
has an average elevation of 800 ft. above
sea level. It is upwards of 100 mi. in
width east and west and extends from
the international boundary north
beyond the Saskatchewan river. The
Winnipeg system of lakes, the residue
of the glacial Lake Agassiz, occupies a
portion of this area. Soils are deep and
drainage in the northern part is poor.
3. East and north of Lake Winnipeg
the Laurentian Peneplain stretches to
within 100 mi. of Hudson Bay. The
surface is rolling and the soils thin.
The rocks are of a disorganized crystal-
line character. The elevation is gener-
ally less than 1000 ft. especially in the
valleys of the Nelson and Churchill
rivers. The region is one of low relief,
disorganized drainage and innumerable
lakes. The general slope of the plains
from the Rocky Mountains to Hudson
Bay seems to be continuous across this
Laurentian section of Northern Mani-
toba.
4. A level plain underlain by lime-
stone borders the shore of Hudson Bay
in the vicinity of York Factory.
III. BIOTA
The vegetation of the Province may
be separated into four climatic for-
mations.
1. The Prairies
The extreme southwestern portion of
the Province is characterized by a grass-
land formation composed of tall, deep-
rooted mesophytic grasses. Typical
flood plain forests of ash, Manitoba
maple, poplar and willow occur along
the stream courses. Alkali sloughs are
frequent.
Antelope (Antilocapra americana) and
bison (Bison bison), once plentiful,
are now extinct. The region is well
developed agriculturally.
2. The transition zone of grassland and
deciduous forest (poplar-savanna)
This condition covers an area varying
in width from 50 to over 100 mi. It
extends eastwards from the prairie
country to the vicinity of South Junction
on the C. N. R. near the south boundary
264
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
of the province. Thence the boundary
with the northern coniferous forest
follows roughly a line north through
Molson on the C. P. R. to Ft. Alexander
at the mouth of the Winnipeg river.
From this point the line crosses Lake
Winnipeg to Washow Bay on the west
shore and continues north and west
around the north of Lake St. Martin to
the foot of Lake Winnipegosis. Cross-
ing Winnipegosis near Red Deer Point
the base of the Porcupine highland is
reached near Norva on the C. N. R.
The trees are mainly aspen and balsam
poplar. Scrub white oak is sometimes
found. This area together with the
prairies is the agricultural section of the
Province and contains the bulk of the
population.
8. The Northern Coniferous Forest
North of the transitional area the
northern coniferous forest formation
appears and occupies the northern part
of the province practically to Hudson
Bay. The climax trees are the white
spruce (Picea canadensis), black spruce
(Picia mariana), balsam (Abies bal-
samia), paper birch (Betula papyrifera),
aspen (Populus tremuloides), and balsam
poplar (Populus balsamifera) . Along
the southern border flood plains are
characterized by the green ash (Fraxinus
lanceolata), Manitoba maple, American
elm (Ulmus americana), and willows.
Jack pine (Pinus divaricata), is found
on sand plains and areas of poor soils.
Larch (Larix laricina), and black spruce
occur in the swamps. Outlying areas
of this forest occur along the Manitoba
escarpment upon the Riding, Duck, and
Porcupine Mountains. These areas
have been incorporated into forest
reserves and are easily accessible.
The characteristic mammals of the
northern forest are the moose (Alces
americana), black and cinnamon bear
(Ursus americanus) , timber wolf (Cam's
occidentalis), red fox (Vulpes fulva),
beaver (Castor canadensis), muskrat
(Ondatra zibethica), mink (Mustela vison
group), lynx (Lynx canadensis), otter
(Lutra canadensis), -fisher (M dries pen-
nanti), marten (Maries americana),
snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), red
squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus), skunk
(Mephitis hudsonica), and weasel (Mus-
tela cicognanii). For further informa-
tion see Seton's Life Histories of North-
ern Animals (Scribner's). Waterfowl
are still plentiful in the valley of the
lower Saskatchewan river and in the
level plain about the Winnipeg system
of lakes. Hawks, owls, and partridge
are numerous. Deer are not numerous
except along the south border of the
forest country. Whitefish and lake
trout occur in most of the larger lakes.
Sturgeon are fairly plentiful. Pike,
pickerel, and suckers abound.
4. Tundras
The extreme northern portion of the
province extends beyond the coniferous
forest into the Arctic tundra. The
barren ground caribou (Rangifer) are
plentiful, ranging south to Reindeer,
South Indian and Split lakes.
IV. NATURAL AREAS
* Riding Mountain Forest Reserve.
(B2.) Area 1000 sq. mi. A rolling
drift-covered plateau. The sharply dis-
sected eastern slopes rise steeply from
the Agassiz plain at 900 ft. to elevations
of 2500 ft. The western slopes fall
gently to the level of the Cretaceous
plain at 1400 ft. The elevation is
covered by northern coniferous forest
and is surrounded at the base by poplar
savanna. In addition to the climax
trees mountain maple (Acer spicatum),
hazel (Corylus americana), alder, pin
cherry (Prunus pennsylvanica) and
mountain ash ({Sorbus sp.) are found
as an understory usually in the poplar
and spruce association. Glacial pot-
holes and poorly drained depressions
are occupied by sphagnum swamps.
Meadows and sloughs are frequent.
Elk are present in this area in addition
to moose, deer, and bear. Natural
conditions have been interfered with to
some extent by fire and lumbering.
The reserve is administered by the
Dominion Forestry Branch with office
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
265
at Dauphin. There have been set aside
1161 sq. mi. as a game preserve by the
Manitoba provincial government.
Dauphin!. Canadian National Rail-
way from Winnipeg. Outskirts of
reserve can be reached by motor car,
interior by wagon. Flies are bad in
June and July normally.
*Duck Mountain Forest Reserve. (B2.)
Area 1500 sq. mi. This elevation is
similar to the Riding Mountain from
which it is separated by a broad valley
upon the south. Elevations reach ap-
proximately 2500 ft. Eastern slopes
are steep and sharply dissected while
the western slope is long and gentle.
The plateau is covered by northern
coniferous forest and is surrounded by
poplar savanna. Elk, moose, and deer
are present. Madge lake in the west
of the reserve is a popular summer
resort. 432 sq. mi. have been estab-
lished by the Provincial Government
as a game preserve. Wagon trails have
been opened through the reserve and the
outskirts can be reached by motor car.
Administration is by the Dominion
Forestry Branch from the Dauphin!
office. C. N. R. from Winnipeg.
*Porcupine Forest Reserve. (B2.)
Area 1000 sq. mi. The Porcupine hills
extend across the western boundary of
Manitoba from Saskatchewan just south
of the 53rd parallel of latitude. They
are separated from the Duck Mountain
on the south by a broad valley 20 mi.
in width through which the Preeceville
branch of the C. N. R. runs. The
Prince Albert branch of the C. N. R.
skirts their eastern base from Swan
river to Westgate.
The highland is similar to the Duck
and Riding Mountains but is higher and
rougher. The eastern slopes rise steeply
some 2000 ft. from the level of the
Agassiz plain, to a total elevation of
nearly 3000 ft. Westward in Saskatche-
wan the fall is gentle. The plateau
is underlain by soft shales and is heavily
mantled with drift. A series of beach
lines can be traced around the eastern
base. The area lies upon the south-
western border of the northern conif-
erous forest. The forest extends with-
out a break from the north and east
over these hills but ends abruptly upon
the south slopes where it gives way to
poplar savanna. The deep well drained
soils of the upland are occupied by a
typical climax association of spruce,
balsam fir, poplar and white birch.
Muskegs are not extensive. Lumbering
and fires have interfered to some extent
with natural conditions.
Bison which formerly ranged into
these hills are now extinct. Woodland
caribou and elk have been noted.
Moose and deer are plentiful.
Swan RiverJ is the nearest outfitting
center. C. N. R. from Winnipeg.
Wagon trails extend to the boundary
of the reserve from Bowsman and
Birch river. Interior accessible (h)
only. No hotel accommodation at flag
stops upon the railway between Bows-
man and Hudson Bay Junction. Ad-
ministration by Dominion Forestry
Branch.
* Spruce Woods Forest Reserve. (C3.)
108 sq. mi., southwestern Manitoba.
An area of sand dunes and light soils
surrounded by developed agricultural
lands. Scattered natural spruce.
Some artificial plantations. Game
Preserve.
Reached from Carberry, C. P. R. (a).
The Canadian National railway crosses
the tract. Administered by Dominion
Forestry Branch, Customs Building,
Winnipeg.
* Turtle Mountain Forest Reserve.
(B3.) Area 100 sq. mi. Located on the
International Boundary in southwestern
Manitoba. A low rolling drift-covered
upland surrounded by agricultural
prairie land. Covered with small poplar
with many areas of typical mesophytic
prairie. Sloughs and ponds are numer-
ous. Game Preserve. Administered by
Federal Forestry Branch, Winnipeg.
Reached from Waukopa or Adepha,
C. N. R. Boisevain or Deloraine
nearest outfitting center. Accessible
by wagon.
*Cedar Lake and Winnipegosis Game
Preserves. (A2.) Area 3600 sq. mi.
266
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
These two adjacent areas are in north-
ern Manitoba extending from the head
of Lake Winnipegosis north to the
Hudson Bay railway. The tract lies
upon the level plain of Paleozoic lime-
stones which stretches from the Mani-
toba escarpment to Lake Winnipeg.
The soils are stratified lake clays mainly
with scattered areas of drift deposits.
The elevation averages 800 ft. The
Saskatchewan river flows through Cedar
lake in the southern part of the preserve.
The tract is typical of the northern
coniferous forest formation as modified
by a low terrain and lack of drainage.
Open muskegs and black spruce and
tamarack swamps occupy the bulk of
the area. Upon ridges and well drained
areas the climax association of white
spruce, balsam fir, birch and poplar
appears but is greatly restricted in
extent and has often suffered from fire.
The lakes are shallow and surrounded
by broad zones of carex and willow.
They are filling rapidly. An opportu-
nity is offered upon this area for study-
ing the successional relationships of
drained and undrained swamps and
flood plains. The area has been slightly
modified by fire but not by lumbering.
Occasional woodland caribou are found
here. Moose are fairly plentiful. Deer
few. Wolves, foxes, mink, muskrat
and beaver are numerous. Ducks, geese
and other waterfowl are exceptionally
plentiful especially during the fall.
White fish, lake trout, sturgeon, pike
and pickerel are caught in the lakes.
The Pas on the Canadian National
railway 400 mi. north of Winnipeg is
the most convenient outfitting center.
Cedar or Moose lake can be reached
down the Saskatchewan river by steam-
boat, (c). They may also be reached
from Winnipeg by steamer to Grand
Rapids over Lake Winnipeg . Take
supplies from Winnipeg or The Pas for
duration of trip. Maps can be obtained
from the Game Branch at Winnipeg or
Natural Resources Intelligence Branch
at Ottawa.
Birch Island Game Preserve. (A3.)
Area 57 sq. mi. An island in Lake
Winnipegosis underlain by limestone.
Northern coniferous forest. Outfit at
Winnipegosis, C. N. R. (c).
Red Deer Point Game Preserve. (A3.)
Area 39 sq. mi. In Lake Winnipegosis
15 mi. north of Winnipegosis, C. N. R.
(c). Northern coniferous forest.
Peonan Point Game Preserve. (A3.)
Area 72 sq. mi. Northern end of Lake
Manitoba. Northern coniferous forest
Outfit at Winnipeg. C. N. Ry. Gypsum-
ville branch, to Fairford. (c).
Lake St. Martin Game Preserve. (A3.)
Area 240 sq. mi. Northern coniferous
forest. Much muskeg. Outfit at Winni-
peg. C. N. Ry. to Fairford. This area
has also been set aside as a proposed
forest reserve.
Grindstone Point Game Preserve. (A3.)
Area 42 sq. mi. Southern part of Lake
Winnipeg. Drift underlain by un-
disturbed limestones. Northern coni-
ferous forest. Outfit at Winnipeg.
Steamer from Selkirk. (c).
Dog Head Point Game Preserve. (A3.)
Area 225 sq. mi. Narrows of Lake
Winnipeg. Level limestone strata over-
lain by drift and lake clays. Northern
coniferous forest. Much muskeg. Out-
fit at Winnipeg. Steamer from Sel-
kirk.! (c). This is also a proposed
forest reserve.
Reindeer Island Game Preserve. (A3)
Area 65 sq. mi. Island in Lake Winni-
peg. Northern coniferous forest. Out-
fit at Winnipeg. Steamer from Selkirk .
(c).
Whitemouth Proposed Forest Reserve.
(A2.) Area 200 sq. mi. Southeastern
Manitoba. Northern coniferous forest.
Large proportion is muskeg. Outfit in
Winnipeg. Go to Bedford or Sandilands
on C. N. Ry. Wagon (c).
Manigotagan Proposed Forest Reserve.
(A2.) Area 2000 sq. mi. This area lies
east of Lake Winnipeg between the
Wanipigou River on the north and the
English River on the south. It extends
eastwards to the Ontario boundary and
is within the Laurentian area of eastern
Manitoba. The country is rolling and
rocky with thin soils. Lakes and
streams are numerous. The forest is of
the northern coniferous type with con-
siderable muskeg and burn.
C. P. Ry. from Winnipeg to Lac du
Bonnet; also by steamboat from Selkirk
to Manigotagon. Outfit at Winnipeg.
Camp outfit and canoes required. Small
hotel at Lac du Bonnet.
Available areas
The settled area of Manitoba is re-
stricted largely to the south. Northern
Manitoba, comprising the bulk of the
province, is still very largely in a virgin
:,*
\ / / __S.W. Boundary of
coniferous forest
Boundary between decld
uous forest &' prairie
...... ....*.. Boundary of groves
mostly oaks & poplars
State Parks, State and
National Forests.
Areas which should
be preserved
FIG. 9. MAP OF MINNESOTA
Showing original distribution of forest and grassland; location of National and
state forests and state parks, and game and wild life refuges. (The latter from State
Game and Fish Commission.)
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
267
condition. It lies mainly within the
boundaries of the Laurentian plateau
and is covered with the northern coni-
ferous forest. Travel is by canoe in
summer and dog team in winter. The
Pas, a town of 2000 people, is the usual
outfitting center for travel in the north.
Hotel accommodations are good and
camp equipment, canoes and supplies can
be obtained there. C. N. R. from Win-
nipeg. The Hudson Bay Railway has
been completed from The Pas to within
90 mi. of Port Nelson on Hudson Bay.
Regular boat service is available from
The Pas up the Saskatchewan River to
Cumberland House and Sturgeon Lake.
Thence the Churchill River can be
reached easily (c) . Northeastern Mani-
toba is generally reached by steamer
from Winnipeg to Norway House at the
north of Lake Winnipeg. From here
the old Hudson Bay canoe route runs
to York Factory on Hudson Bay by
way of the Hayes River.
16. MINNESOTA
BY CARL OTTO ROSENDAHL
I. GENERAL FEATURES
1. Physiography
The whole state of Minnesota with the
exception of the extreme southeastern
corner has been heavily glaciated and
a typical glacial topography is therefore
characteristic of most of the state.
The glacial soil or drift varies from a
few feet to 300 ft. in thickness and occurs
mainly as unmodified till plains or
ground moraines, as gravelly and sandy
outwash plains, and as terminal mo-
raines. The generally level surface of
the main body of the state is due to the
predominance of the two first mentioned
types of drift. The four corners of the
state, drained each in its own direction
from the central portion, exhibit con-
siderable variations from the typical
sheet of till which covers the rest.
The southeast corner is characterized
by a broken and hilly surface where high
uplands alternate with numerous deeply
eroded valleys running in various direc-
tions. These valleys have been cut in
the generally level strata to a depth of
300 to 500 ft. through the bygone ages
and have undergone very little sub-
sequent disturbance by the glacial
period. Both the glaciated and un-
glaciated portions of this part of the
state are overlaid with a sheet of loess,
varying in thickness from a few inches
to 30 ft . or more. In general this deposit
shows the greatest depth on the uplands
but in some valleys, where subsequent
erosion has not been too extensive, a
depth of twenty feet is not uncommon.
From some areas the loess has been
completely washed away.
The northeast corner of the state is
rough and rugged and may be said to be
semi-mountainous in places. Eleva-
tions of 1200 to 1500 ft. above Lake
Superior are attained in the Sawteeth,
Mesabi, and Giant's Ranges. This
part of the state was heavily glaciated
and much of the area is covered with
an uneven deposit of drift. In the
region north and east of Vermillion
Lake the rocks for the most part are
bare or only thinly mantled with soil
formed in situ.
In the northwest part of Minnesota,
embracing part of the Red River Valley
of the North, the surface is very flat and
even. Over this part of the state once
stood glacial Lake Agassiz and the level
nature of the land is due to lacustrine
deposits laid down evenly and to a
considerable depth over the till sheet.
The southwest corner has a gently
rolling to flat surface but the plain is
interrupted by a height of land known as
the Coteau des Prairies, running from
northwest to southeast and rising 400
to 500 ft. above the general level. Near
the extreme corner occur large outcrops
of quartzite rocks.
Extensive moraines, marking either
the limits of advance of the various ice
sheets or places where they rested in
their retreats, form belts of low hills,
isolated knobs, or ranges which rise
above the general plain. These mo-
raines are found in many parts of the
state but the most extensive are those
which occur in the west-central portion
through Kandiyohi, Pope, Douglas,
Otter Tail and Becker counties, the
region of the upper Mississippi River
and the region surrounding Minneapolis
268
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
and St. Paul. They give to these
portions of the state a rolling or even
hilly aspect.
A very striking feature of the Minne-
sota landscape is the numerous glacial
lakes estimated to number about 10,000
and ranging in size from a few acres in
area to large bodies of water 15 to 35
mi. in expanse. Together with the
streams and rivers these lakes give
Minnesota a greater fresh water area
than any other state in the Union,
amounting to approximately 5637 sq.
mi., without including Lake Superior.
These lakes can be divided into three
classes as follows, depending upon the
nature of the topography of the region
in which they are situated:
1. Lakes of morainic till areas.
2. Lakes of modified drift areas.
3. Lakes of bare rock areas.
The first class is the most numerous
embracing about three-fourths of the
total number. The most remarkable
of these areas is that of the Leaf Hills
of Becker and Otter Tail counties
where nearly half of the surface is cov-
ered by water. This area extends in a
southerly direction to Douglas, Carver,
Hennepin and Le Sueur counties and
northward to Clearwater, Beltrami, and
Itasca counties. The second class em-
braces the largest lakes of the state
including Red, Mille Lacs, Leech,
Winnibigoshish, and Cass Lakes. They
are for the most part shallow and are
situated on extensive outwash plains or
otherwise modified drift. The third
class embraces the lakes of rocky basins
and are mostly confined to the north-
east corner of the state which was
subjected to the severest glaciation.
These lakes are very numerous. They
are usually long and narrow with tor-
tuous and bold shores. Many are of
considerable depth and they are fre-
quently connected by swift flowing
streams.
Drainage systems and elevations
It is a remarkable fact that the state
of Minnesota, although possessing no
great elevation above sea-level, gives
rise to three of the great drainage sys-
tems of the North American continent.
Within its borders arise the Mississippi
River system, draining about 45,000 sq.
mi. of the area of the state; the St.
Lawrence system, arising in the north-
east and draining approximately 8500
sq. mi.; the Red River of the North
system, arising in the northwest and
draining 15,000 sq. mi. The remaining
area of the state is drained by four other
rivers which reach the three main
systems beyond the borders of the state.
Approximately 4730 sq. mi. of the south-
western and south-central parts are
drained by the Rock, the Des Moines,
and Cedar Rivers into the Mississippi;
and 10,300 sq. mi. of the northeastern
part by the Rainy River into the Hudson
Bay outlet.
Relative elevations of different parts of
the state
The lowest part of the state is the
land bordering on Lake Superior whose
elevation is 602 ft. Where the Missis-
sippi River leaves the state it has an
elevation of 620 ft. and the lowlands
bordering the main stream and its
tributaries in this region rise only a few
feet above that level. The flat land
adjoining the Red River of the North
where it enters Manitoba is approxi-
mately 770 ft. The highest elevation in
the state is attained in the Mesabi Range
north of Lake Superior which rises 2200
ft. above sea level. It is thus seen that
the lowest and the highest elevations
are in close proximity to each other.
2. Geographic and local plant and animal
communities
Minnesota occupies a strategic posi-
tion in a biological sense since diagonally
across it from northwest to southeast
runs the dividing line between the
coniferous forest type (Canadian Zone
of the Boreal Region) on the one hand
and the grassland and deciduous forest
(Transition Zone of the Austral Region),
on the other. The northeastern part of
the state is occupied by the Coniferous
Forest Formation which originally ex-
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
tended in a somewhat irregular line from
about longitude 96 W., near the north-
west corner, to about latitude 45 45' N.
on the eastern border. All of the south-
western part, and including the Red
River valley of the North, belongs to the
Grassland Formation, all of which was
originally treeless except for fringes of
forest along certain lake shores and
stream borders. Between these two
great formations stretched a belt of
varying width of deciduous forest which
might properly be designated the Decid-
uous Forest Formation since it is fairly
sharply marked out from the other two.
Originally the state had about 31,800
sq. mi. of prairie and 52,200 sq. mi. of
forest.
The nature and extent of the five main
vegetation areas of Minnesota are deter-
mined mainly by climatic factors. It
is probable, however, that the original
border line between the forest and the
grassland was to some extent determined
by prairie fires periodically started by
the Sioux Indians, partly to increase the
extent of their hunting grounds, and
partly to keep back their woods enemies
the Ojibwas or Chippewa Indians.
The five plant formations, deciduous
forest, coniferous forest, oak grove
savanna, poplar savanna and grassland
or steppe, although in the main well
delimited naturally showed considerably
overlapping along their borders. Thus
in the coniferous forest area numerous
outposts of hardwood timber, mostly
hard maple, oak and elm occurred and
in the southeast irregular tongues of the
prairie extend into the deciduous forest
formation. Similarly in the southwest
and the west hardwood timber formed
scattered groves oat on the prairie, and
followed up along some of the main river
valleys like the Minnesota, the Cedar,
the Des Moines and the Rock. In each
of the five areas the climax stages, of
development had probably been reached
and each one was characterized by a
goodly host of important species.
1. Coniferous forest. Thus in the
coniferous forest area the principal
species of trees were white pine (Pinus
strobus}, Norway pine (Pinus resinosa},
Jack pine (Pinus banksiana}, white
spruce (Picea canadensis], black spruce
(Picea mariana), tamarack (Larix lari-
cina}, balsam fir (Abies balsamea),
white cedar (Thyja occidentalis), to-
gether with some intermixture of paper
birch (Betula papyrifera}, aspen (Populus
tremuloides) , red oak (Quercus rubra),
bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa}, black
ash (Fraxinus nigra}, green ash (Fraxi-
nus lanceolata), yellow birch (Betula
lutea) and mountain ash (Pyrus ameri-
cana). The characteristic shrubs are:
yew (Taxus canadensis}, juniper (Juni-
perus communis), willow (Salix dis-
color, S. lucida, S. balsamifera, S.
Candida}, beaked hazel (Corylus ro-
strata), dwarf birch (Betula pumila var.
glandulifera') , hoary alder (Alnus incana],
meadow sweet (Spiraea salicifolia),
red raspberry (Rubus idaeus aculeatis-
simus), pin cherry (Prunus pennsylva-
nica), choke cherry (Prunus virginiana},
wild rose (Rosa acicularis), northern
gooseberry (Ribes oxyacanthoides}, wild
black currant (Ribes floridum}, leather-
wood (Dirca palustris), mountain maple
(Acer spicatum}, red osier dogwood
(Cornus stolonifera}, Labrador tea
(Ledum groenlandicum), leather leaf
(Chamaedaphne calyculata) , bearberry
(Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi), trailing arbu-
tus (Epigaearepens), wintergreen (Gaul-
theria procumbens), bog rosemary
(Andromeda polifolia), blueberry (Vac-
cinium pennsylvanicum, V. canadense},
cranberry (Vaccinium Oxy coccus, V.
macrocarpon] , pipsissewa (Chimapbila
umbellata), snowberry (Symphoricarpos
racemosus), bush honeysuckle (Diervilla
Lonicera}, mountain fly honeysuckle
(Lonicera caerulea}, swamp fly honey-
suckle (Lonicera oblongifolia} , red
berried elder (Sambucus racemosa},
downy arrow- wood (Viburnum pubes-
cens}, highbush cranberry (Viburnum
americanum} .
The predominant herbaceous plants of
the coniferous forest of the state aside
from numerous species of grasses, sedges
and rushes, are bracken fern (Pteris
aquilina), shield fern (Aspidium spin-
270
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
ulosum, A. cristatum), beech fern
(Phegopteris Dryopteris), club moss
(Lycopodium obscurum, L. clavatum, L.
annotinum, L. complanatum} , horsetail
(Equisetum pratense, E. sylvaticum),
Clintonia (Clintonia borealis), false
lily-of-the-valley (Maianthemum cana-
dense), lady's slipper (Cypripedium
hirsutum, C. parviflorum C. acaule), rein
orchis (Habenaria hyperborea, H. obtu-
sata, H. dilatata, H. Hookeri, H. orbicu-
lata), coral root (Corallorrhiza trifida,
C. maculata), ladies' tresses (Spiranthes
gracilis S. cernua), Hepatica (Hepatica
triloba), northern strawberry (Frag aria
americana}, running swamp blackberry
(Rubue triflorus}, sundew (Drosera ro-
tundifolia), pitcher plant (Sarracenia
purpurea), dwarf cornel (Cornus cana-
densis), wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudi-
caulis), shin leaf (Pyrola secunda, P.
minor, P. chlorantha, P. asarifolia, P.
americana}, lungwort (Mertensia pani-
culata), twin flower (Linnaea borealis),
bedstraw (Galium trifidum, G. boreale,
G. triflorum}, Aster (Aster macrophyllus,
A. puniceus, A. junceus, etc.), golden-
rod (Solidago juncea, S. bicolor, S.
nemoralis etc.) and sweet coltsfoot
(Petasites palmatus, P. sagittatus).
Within this formation soil factors
determined largely the plant communi-
ties. On the clayey moraines, which
constitute the best soil of the region,
were developed either pure stands of
white pine or mixed communities of
white pine with a few species of decidu-
ous trees like hard maple, bur oak, red
oak and occasionally basswood. Where
the soil is gravelly or sandy occurred
forests of Norway pine, while over all
the sandy barrens Jack pine held un-
disputed sway. All the low areas which
had reached the tree stage of their
succession, were either muskegs with
Sphagnum and heath undergrowth or
characteristic tamarack and spruce
swamps.
In a similar way the distribution of
the shrubby and herbaceous under-
growth was largely determined by soil
and moisture conditions except in the
case of a few species like the dwarf
cornel, twin flower, wild sarsaparilla,
the northern strawberry and the running
swamp blackberry, all of which seem to
grow equally well in the spruce-tamarack
swamps, and in the pine forests of the
moraines and gravelly outwash plains.
A study of the fauna of the different
parts of Minnesota reveals a rather
striking correlation in regard to the
distribution of its various elements and
the principal vegetation areas. Aside
from a number of adaptable and wide
ranging species, belonging to several of
the major classes of the animal kingdom,
there are numerous forms which are
mainly and in some cases wholly con-
fined to the principal plant formations.
Within the coniferous forest area
there occurred originally the following
species of mammals : Canada lynx (Lynx
canadensis), wolverine (Gulo luscus},
marten (Martes americana}, fisher
(Martes pennanti}, least weasel (Mustela
rixosa}, short-tailed weasel (Mustela
cicognanii}, skunk (Mephitis mephitis},
woodland caribou (Rangifer caribou)
moose (A Ices americana), northern,
Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginianus
borealis), long-tailed chipmunk
(Eutamias minimus neglectus}, Canada
woodchuck (Marmota monax cana-
densis), deer-mouse (Peromyscus
maniculatus gracilis}, Canada porcupine
(Erithizon dorsatum), snowshoe hare
(Lepus americanus phaeonotus}.
The following northern birds occurred
as permanent residents of the coniferous
formation although straying further
south as winter visitants: Canada
spruce partridge, Richardson's owl,
Arctic three-toed woodpecker, American
three-toed woodpecker, Canada jay
northern raven, purple finch, red
crossbill, pine siskin, and Hudsonian
chickadee.
Most of the following species are
mainly summer residents of the northern
wooded area of the state : Loon or great
northern diver, herring gull, red-
breasted merganser, golden-eye, north-
ern hairy woodpecker, Nelson's downy
woodpecker, northern pileated wood-
pecker, white-winged crossbill, white-
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
271
throated sparrow, slate colored junco,
Bohemian waxwing, Philadelphia vireo,
blue-headed vireo, northern parula war-
bler, Tennessee warbler, pine warbler,
myrtle warbler, mourning warbler,
magnolia warbler, black-throated blue
warbler, Blackburnian warbler, palm
warbler, Grinnell's water-thrush, Con-
necticut warbler, Wilson's warbler,
Canada warbler, Louisiana water-
thrush, olive-backed thrush, hermit
thrush, winter wren, brown creeper,
red-breasted nuthatch, Hudsonian
chickadee, and golden-crowned kinglet.
A considerable number of animal
species were not so strictly confined to
the Coniferous area but ranged farther
southward and westward into the ad-
joining deciduous forest formation. Of
these the principal ones were: elk
(Cervus canadensis], northern flying-
squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus), Min-
nesota red squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus
minnesota) , red-backed vole (Evotomys
gapperi), bog-lemming (Synaptomys co-
open'), black bear (Ursus americanus) ,
eastern cougar (Felis couguar), red fox
(Vulpes fulva), timber wolf (Cam's
nubilus], short-tailed weasel (Mustela
cicognanii), marsh shrew (Neosorex
palustris), Canada beaver (Castor cana-
densis}, and the muskrat (Ondatra
zibethica).
Among the more notable fishes of this
region might be mentioned the fol-
lowing: Lake sturgeon (Acipenser rubi-
cundus), common whitefish (Coregonus
clupeiformis), lake herring (Argyroso-
mus artedi), tullibee (Argyrasomus tulbi-
bee), Great Lake trout (Cristimover
namaycush), brook trout (Salvelinus
fontinalis), muskallunge (Lucius
masquinonqy) .
2. Deciduous forest. The deciduous
forest formation, interposed between
the coniferous forest and the western
grassland formed an almost continuous
belt from the southeastern to north-
western corner of the state except for
an irregular tongue of prairie extend-
ing from middle northern Iowa north-
eastward almost to the Mississippi river
through Freeborn, Mower, Steele, Dodge,
Rice, Dakota and part of Goodhue coun-
ties. The portion of this formation
stretching northward from the big bend
of the Minnesota River as far as Otter
Tail County was named the "Big
Woods" by the early explorers and was
a hardwood forest of imposing propor-
tions. Along the 45 parallel of latitude
it was nearly 100 mi. in width but from
the 46 parallel northwestward it nar-
rowed down to an average width of
about 25 mi. with frequent deep indenta-
tions of the prairie formation.
The dominant trees of this forest
were hard maple (Acer saccharum),
slippery elm (Ulmus fulva}, white elm
(Ulmus, americana), basswood (Tilia
americana), bur oak (Quercus macro-
car pa}, red oak (Quercus rubra) and
ironwood (Ostrya virginiana). Other
species occurring less typically were
coarse toothed aspen (Populus grandi-
dentata), black cherry (Prunus serotina'),
green ash, black ash, hackberry (Celtis
occidentalis), pignut hickory (C'arya
cordiformis) and butternut (Juglans
cinered} .
The characteristic shrubs of this
formation were: prickly gooseberry
(Ribes Cynosbati}, Missouri gooseberry
(Ribes gracile}, thorn apple (Crataegus
punctata}, choke cherry, juneberry
(Amelanchier canadensis), prickly ash
(Xanthoxylum americanum}, stag-horn
sumac (Rhus typhina}, alternate-leaved
dogwood (Cornus alternifolia) , round-
leaved dogwood (Cornus circinata},
black haw (Viburnum lentaga} and
honeysuckle (Lonicera dioica). A few
climbers occurred in this forest such as
bitter sweet (Celastrus scandens), wild
grapevine (Vitis vulpina), Virginia
creeper (Psedera quinquefolia) and
moonseed (Menispetrmum canadense).
In the southeastern corner of the
state along the Mississippi River and
the lower portions of its tributaries
existed originally a deciduous forest of
very similar nature to the "Big Woods."
This forest, being rather sharply sepa-
rated from the latter by the above men-
tioned extension of the prairie formation
differed in some important respects and
272
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
was very interesting as marking the
northern limits of some of the character-
istic species of the Ohio-Kentucky-
Tennessee forest. Prominent among
these are honey locust (Gleditsia Iria
canthos), black oak (Quercus velutina),
shell-bark hickory (Carya ovata), river
birch (Betula nigra), chinquapin oak
(Quercus prinoides) and black maple
(Acer saccharum var. nigrum). A few
other species, occurring typically in
this southeastern hardwood forest of
the state, had migrated up the main
Mississippi Valley and had established
outposts as far northwestward as the
vicinity of Minneapolis. These are:
black walnut (Juglans nigra), swamp
white oak (Quercus bicolor), Kentucky
coffee tree (Gymnocladus dioica), wild
crab apple (Pyrus ioensis), red mulberry
(Morus rubra), and lastly the white oak
(Quercus alba} which apparently found
congenial conditions in the sour soil
of the red Wisconsin drift and penetrated
as far as the eastern shores of Lake
Mille Lacs.
A few shrubs and vines also occurred
in this forest which did not reach the
Big Woods. They were witch hazel
(Hamamelis virginiana), Sullivant's
honeysuckle (Lonicera Sullivantii), but-
ton bush (Cephalanthus occidentalis) ,
and blue grape (Vitis bicolor)
The herbaceous undergrowth of the
deciduous forest formation was so rich
and varied that only a few of the more
striking and characteristic species can
be enumerated here. In the rich soil
of densely shaded slopes occurred
Virginia grape fern (Botrychium vir-
ginianum), interrupted fern (Osmunda
clay toni ana) , maiden-hair fern (Adian-
tum pedatum), Jack-in-the-pulpit (Ari-
saema triphyllum) , bellwort (Uvularia
grandiflora), Solomon's seal (Polygona-
tum commutatum) , false Solomon's seal
(Smilacina racemosa), wake robin (Tril-
lium cernuum, T. declinatum), showy
orchis (Orchis spectabilis), wild ginger
(Asarum canadense), Hepatica (Hepa-
tica acutiloba), baneberry (Actaea rubra,
A. alba), blue cohosh (Caulophyllum
thalictroides), May apple (Podophyllum
peltalum), bloodroot (Sanguinaria cana-
densis), Dutchman's breeches (Dicentra
Cucullaria), mitrewort (Mitella diphylla),
ginseng, (Panax quinquefolia) , wild
spikenard (Aralia racemosa) and Greek
valerian (Polemonium reptans).
On the rich wooded bottomlands
and in the lower portions of ravines
abounded ostrich fern (Onoclea struthi-
opteris), shield fern (Aspidium spinu-
losum), lady fern (Asplenium augus-
tum), green dragon (Arisaema dracon-
tium), dog's-tooth violet (Erythronium
albidum), water leaf (Hydrophyllum
virginianum) , touch-me-not (Impatiens
pallida, I. biflora), golden glow (Rud-
beckia laciniata) and others. In the
upland portions of the forests the species
more commonly met with are yellow
lady's slipper (Cypripedium pubescens),
rattlesnake plantain (Epipactis pubes-
cens), rein orchis (Habenaria bracteata),
columbine (Aquilegia canadensis), en-
thanter's nightshade (Circaea lutetiana),
snakeroot (Sanicula marilandica S.
gregaria), shin leaf (Pyrola elliptica),
lopseed (Phryma leptostachya) .
The deciduous forest formation in
Minnesota is embraced within the
Alleghanian Faunal area and as is the
case with many plant species a con-
siderable number of animals reached the
northwestern limits of their range in
this formation. Some of the typical
species are: southern flying squirrel
(Glaucomysvolans), fox squirrel (Sciurus
niger rufiventer), gray squirrel (Sciurus
carolinensis hypophaeus), rufescent
woodchuck (Marmota monax rufescens),
Mearns cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus
floridanus mearnsii), long-tailed weasel
(Mustela longicauda spadix), Wisconsin
gray fox (Urocoyon cinereoargenteus ocy-
thous), prairie mole (Scalopus aquaticus
machrinus). Some species like the rac-
coon (Procyon lotor) and the eastern
red fox (Vulpes fulva), although most
typical of this area, ranged considerably
beyond the hardwood forest, while
others belonging to the coniferous and
prairie areas were, and are, fairly com-
mon in parts of the hardwoed forest.
Representatives of this class are the
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
273
coyote (Cam's latrans}, mink (Mustela
vison letifera}, otter (Lutra canadensis},
wild cat (Lynx rufus}, Hudsonian skunk
(Mephitis hudsonicus}, badger (Taxidea
taxus), Missouri Valley mole (Scalopus
aquaticus machrinoides} .
Since the area of Minnesota under
discussion lies mainly within the path
of the great mid-continental spring and
fall migrations and furthermore because
of the great numbers of fresh water lakes
and streams, it is obvious that numerous
species and vast hordes of birds fre-
quented the region for longer or shorter
periods. To enumerate only a small
portion of the species which originally
were encountered would require too
much space in this brief survey and it
must suffice to list only such as are more
or less permanent or summer residents
of the main natural areas already out-
lined. Accordingly the avian fauna
more strictly limited to the southeast-
ern deciduous forest area embraced
the following species : Red-bellied wood-
pecker, field sparrow, prothonotary
warbler, blue-winged warbler, and Louis-
iana water-thrush. The egret (Hero-
dias egretta} and snowy egret (Egretta
candidissima candidissima} have both
been recorded from the extreme south-
eastern corner of the state. Among
species which ranged somewhat farther
north (up to Lat. 46N.) are to be men-
tioned the king rail and the Florida
gallinule.
Fishes of southeastern Minnesota;
mainly occurring in the Mississippi
River and its principal tributaries:
Spoonhill (Polyodon spathulata}, shovel
nosed sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus plaio-
rynchus), gar pike (Lepiosteus osseus},
great cat fish (Ameiurus lacustris},
common buffalo fish (Ictichus cypri-
nella}, carp sucker (Carpioides carpio},
eel (Anguilla chrysypa}, hickory shad
(Dorosonia cepedianum} . Many other
species also abound in this area but
they range much farther northward and
westward.
Of the large classes of animals the
Reptilia show the smallest representa-
tion in the Minnesota fauna. A few
species like the garter-snake (Thamno-
phis s. sirtalis and T. radix}, the snap-
ping turtle (Chelydra serpentina}, and
the painted turtle (Chrysemys marginata
bellii) range pretty well over the entire
state. The southeastern and southern
parts have in addition the timber rattler
(Crotalus horridus), bull-snake (Pituo-
phis sayi), blue racer (Coluber c. constric-
tor}, water-snake (Natrix s. sipedon},
hog-nose (Heterodon contortrix}, black-
snake (Elaphe o. obsoleta}, fox-snake
(E. vulpina}, red-bellied snake (Storeria
occipitomaculata) and possibly a few
other species. Records on the occur-
rence and the distribution of reptiles
of the state are largely wanting.
3. Oak grove and (4} poplar savanna.
The latter is poorly developed except
in the two extreme northwestern coun-
ties, hence the two are treated together.
(See map, unshaded portion.) With
the exception of narrow strips of timber
along the streams or on the north slopes
of protected bluffs or in the ravines
leading down into the main river valleys
all of western and southwestern Min-
nesota is typical prairie and steppe or
dry grassland.
a. Where timber occurred it was made
up of the following species of trees:
American elm, slippery elm, bur oak,
cottonwood (Populus deltoides}, hack-
berry, ironwood, box elder (Acer ne-
gundo}, silver maple (Acer sacchariuum} ,
basswood, green ash and willow (Salix
amygdaloides) . Occurring with the trees
or more often along the borders of
thickets were found the following
shrubs: wild plum (Prunus americana},
choke cherry, black haw, .downy arrow-
wood, burning bush (Evonymus atropur-
pureus}, red osier dogwood, June berry
(Amelanchier oblongifolia} , smooth rose
(Rosa blanda}, shining willow (Salix
lucida}, heart-leaved willow, buffalo
berry (Shepherdia argentea} and wolf-
berry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis} .
Most of these trees and shrubs are
typically eastern and are an important
constituent of the deciduous forest
formation already described. They suc-
ceeded in penetrating the prairie region
274
NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS
only along the principal water courses
where sufficient moisture was present
the year around for them to maintain a
foothold.
The characteristic grassland vegeta-
tion of this savanna region may best be
considered under a few sub-headings
as follows:
(a) High Rolling Grassland Flora:
The principal species of this association
were: slender wheat grass (Agropyron
tenerum), awned wheat grass (A. cani-
num), western wheat grass (A. Smithii),
rye grass (Elymus canadensis), crested
hair grass (Koeleria cristata), porcupine
grass (Stipa spaitea), forked beard grass
(Andropogon furcatus), brown "beard-
grass (A. scoparius), Indian grass
(Sorghastrum nutans), purple love-grass
(Eragrostis pectinacea) , Pursh's love-
grass (Eragrostis Purshii), switch grass
(Panicum virgatum), hairy mes quite
grass (Bouteloua hirsuta), grama grass
(B. oligostachya), tall grama grass (B.
curtipendula) , buffalo grass (Buchloe
dactyloides) , sedges (Car ex pennsylvanica
C. festucacea) , blue-eyed grass (Sisyrin-
chium campestre), yellow star grass
(Hypoxis hirsuta), Pasque flower (Anem-
one patens var. Wolfgangiana), Anem-
one (Anemone cylindrical, prairie
larkspur (Delphinium Penardi), prairie
crowfoot (Ranunculus rhomboideus) ,
prairie rose (Rosa arkansana), tall
cinquefoil (Potentilla arguta), alum root
(Heuchera hispida), ground plum (Astra-
galus caryocarpus) , milk vetch (Astra-
galus canadensis) , prairie apple (Psoralea
escunlenta), prairie clover (Petalostemum
purpureum, P. candidum, P. villosum),
lead plant (Amorpha canescens), tick-
trefoil (Desmodium canadense), prairie
violet (Viola pedatifida), birdsfoot violet
(Viola pedata), flowering spurge (Euphor-
bia corollata), Phlox (Phlox pilosa),
ground cherry (Physalis longifolia),
puccoon (Lithospermum canescens},
lady's tobacco (Antennaria plantagini-
folia), ox-eye (Heliopsis scabra), sun-
flower (Helianthus scaberrimus), blazing
star (Liatris scariosa), golden-rods (Soli-
dago missouriensis, S. nemoralis, S.
rigida, S. canadensis), Asters (Aster
multiflorus, A. commutatus, A. azureus).
(b) The prairie meadow: In these
situations occurred a limited number of
species, mostly grasses, demanding a
moister habitat than that of the high
rolling prairie. The characteristic
plants were: holy grass (Hierochloe
odorata), Scribner's panicum (Panicum
Scribnerianum) , red top (Agrostis alba),
Canada blue grass (Poa compressa),
fowl meadow grass (Poa tri/lora), tall
marsh grass (Spartina cynosuroides)
and wild onion (Allium canadense).
(c) Wet meadow and marsh flora:
In the wet meadows, marshes and
sloughs flourished sedges, rushes, and
bulrushes, together with a considerable
number of other hydrophytic species
and shallow water forms of which the
principal ones were: arrowhead (Sagit-
taria latifolia), cat-tail (Typha lati-
folia), bur-reed (Sparganium eurycar-
pum), reed (Phragmites communis),
sedges (Carex vulpinoidea, C. gravida,
C. cephaloidea) , bulrushes (Scirpus
fluviatiiis, S. polyphullus, S. americanus,
etc.), spike-rush (Eleocharis palustris,
E. acicularis), yellow water crowfoot
(Ranunculus delphinifolius) , white water
crowfoot (R. aquatilis), water persicaria
(Polygonum amphibium), yellow water
cress (Radicula palustris), swamp milk-
weed (Asclepias incarnata), water hem-
lock (Cicuta maculata), water parsnip
(Sium cicutaefolium) , tufted loosestrife
(Lysimachia thrysiftora), mare's tail
(Hippurus vulgaris), begger-ticks
(Bidens frondosa), and stick-tight
(Bidens cernua).
(d) Fauna of the Savannas: Forest
animals frequenting small groves, open
spaces, and stream skirting forest: elk,
mule deer (Odocoilus hemionus) (extreme
western part only, now wanting), rac-
coon, chipmunk, skunk, red fox.
Forest edge (thicket) species.
Franklin ground squirrel (Citellus
franklinii), jumping-mouse (Zapus hud-
sonius), rose-breasted grosbeak, yellow
warbler, indigo bunting, yellow-billed
cuckoo, house wren, mourning dove,
NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS
275
song sparrow, migrant shrike, catbird,
goldfinch, and many insects.
Mesophytic grassland species.
Prairie chicken, prairie jumping-
mouse (Zapus hudsonius campestris) ,
badger (occasionally).
4- Grassland or Steppe. For a short
distance east of the western border,
especially in the S.W. over what is
known as the Coteau des prairies and
to a lesser extent on dry slopes and
along the bluffs of the river valleys
the flora assumed a more typical western
aspect since it was in these habitats
that many of representatives of the
great plains flora found congenial sur-
roundings. Here flourished beard-
tongues (Pentstemon grandiflorus, P.
albidus, P. gracilis}, puccoons (Lithos-
permum canescens, L. Gmelini, L.
augustifolium) , purple avens (Geum
triflorum), several milk vetches (Astraga-
lus adsurgens, A. lotiflorus, A. mis-
souriensis, A. flexuosus}, loco weed
(Oxytropis Lambertii), evening prim-
roses (Oenthera serrulata, Oe. pallida,
Oe. rhombipetala) , yellow flax (linum
rigidum, L. sulcaium), blazing stars
(Liatris scariosa, L. cylindracaea, L.
punctata), cone flowers (Lepachys pin-
nata, L. columnaris, Brauneria pur-
purea), numerous wormwoods (Artemisia
longifolia, A. dracunculoides,A.frigida\
golden aster (Chrysopsis villosa) and
several others.
The pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra
americana) was a characteristic form;
vast herds of Bison (Bison bison} ex-
ceeded in size the eastward extension;
ground-squirrel (Citellus richardsonii) ,
pocket-gopher (Geomys bursarius),
badger, white-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus
townsendii campanius}. Even the griz-
zly bear is reported to have extended as
far east as the Red River in the region
of the Pembina Hills. Other species
which were common throughout the
greater extent of this area were : prairie
red fox (Vulpes regalis), coyote (Cam's
latrans), badger, pocket-gopher, white-
tailed jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii
companius).
The avian fauna of the prairie region
in the early days was even more impres-
sive than the mammalian. The in-
numerable lakes, ponds, sloughs, and
marshes offered ideal feeding and nest-
ing grounds to a large number of water
birds. No less than 25 species of ducks
are known to have occurred and 17 of
these used to breed in the state. Most
of these occurred in greatest abundance
in the prairie region. Four species of
geese, the snow goose, the blue goose,
the white-fronted goose and the Canada
goose, used to be very common and the
whistling and trumpeter swans alighted
on the lakes and streams in great num-
bers during their migrations.
Among the bird species more strictly
confined to th 
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