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Full text of "Naturalist's guide to the Americas"

NATURALIST'S GUIDE 
TO THE AMERICAS 



From the collection of the 
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San Francisco, California 
2006 



THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE 
TO THE AMERICAS 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE 
TO THE AMERICAS 



PREPARED BY THE 

COMMITTEE on the PRESERVATION of NATURAL CONDITIONS 

of THE ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 
with assistance from numerous organizations and individuals 

ASSEMBLED AND EDITED BY THE CHAIRMAN 

VICTOR E. SHELFORD 

University of Illinois and Illinois State 
Natural History Survey 



PUBLICATION EDITOR 
FORREST SHREVE 

Desert Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution 

ASSOCIATES AND SPECIAL EDITORS 
E. LUCY BRAUN CLARENCE F. KORSTIAN 

University of Cincinnati Appalachian Forest Experiment Station 

Botany Forestry 

Assembled and Edited Assembled ana Edited 

parts on parts on 

National Parks and Monuments National Forests of the 

of the United States United States 

LEE R. DICE ROBERT B. MILLER 

Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan Illinois Natural History Survey 

Mammals Forestry 

LYNDS JONES HELEN T. GAIGE 

Oberlin College Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan 

Birds Reptiles 

FRANK C. BAKER 

Natural History Museum, University of Illinois 
Zoology 




BALTIMORE 

THE WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY 
1926 



COPYRIGHT 1926 
THE WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY 

Made in United States of America 

Published February, 1926 



COMPOSED AND PRINTED AT THE 

WAVERLY PRESS 

FOR 

THE WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY 
BALTIMORE, MD., XJ. 8. A. 



CHAIRMAN'S PREFACE 

The Ecological Society of America is a national organization of approxi- 
mately 500 members, the majority of whom are connected with universities, 
colleges, and other educational or research institutions. The membership 
includes a larger proportion of persons interested in the preservation of 
natural conditions for research in pure science and for educational work 
than any other of our national scientific societies. It publishes the jour- 
nal Ecology, which is largely devoted to contributions on the original 
flora and fauna and on their conditions of existence. 

In 1917 a committee was charged with the listing of all preserved and 
preservable areas in North America in which natural conditions persist. 
The original committee included about twenty-five members, scattered 
throughout the United States and Canada. The first work was to make 
the list and when this had made some progress, to urge the reservation of 
such important areas as demanded immediate attention. The whole 
problem of securing the preservation of areas, which is one of the objects 
of the committee work, is very complex. At the outset the committee 
felt the lack of any definite guides in carrying on the work. The organiza- 
tion which produced the Naturalist's Guide has been a growth; committee 
membership is limited to those willing to do some kind of work, and 
includes about seventy-five members. It is a committee on the preserva- 
tion of nature. Its efforts are directed toward the preservation of natural 
areas with original flora and fauna (or as nearly so as may obtain) and the 
maintenance of the natural biotic balance in existing preserves. 

During the preparation of the present volume the committee aimed to 
have two members in each state (and province of Canada) . These mem- 
bers (1) supplied information relative to natural areas, etc. in their terri- 
tory and (2) undertook to interest one local organization concerned with 
pure science, e.g., a state academy or natural history society, in the preser- 
vation of natural areas, commonly indicated by the appointment of a 
committee. This constitutes a permanent organization charged, among 
other things, with the keeping of the guide up to date. Other members 
were engaged in investigating certain topics and writing reports, in interest- 
ing pure science organizations to support the work of publication and dis- 
tribution of information, and in selecting natural areas within existing 
public forests. 

The present volume has been prepared with the aid of various institu- 
tions and organizations. The National Research Council granted $300 
in 1921-1922 which aided greatly in financing the requests for manuscripts 



vi CHAIRMAN'S PREFACE 

and also increased the interest in the project. The American Society of 
Zoologists and the Botanical Society of America contributed $25.00 each 
toward the classification of areas as to degree of modification from the 
original condition. 

The establishment of cooperation with the United States Forest Service 
greatly reduced our financial and clerical burdens. 

Acknowledgments are due the following institutions for encouraging 
their staff members in editing or contributing to the work: United States 
Forest Service; United States Biological Survey; University of Michigan 
Museum; University of Illinois, Department of Zoology and Natural 
History Survey; University of Cincinnati, Department of Botany; Oberlin 
College, Department of Ecology; Northwestern University, Department of 
Botany; New Hampshire College, Department of Zoology; and the Car- 
negie Institution. 

The following rendered important service in reading and correcting 
manuscripts: 

H. A. Gleason, New York Botanic Garden 

H. Burrington Baker, University of Pennsylvania 

A. H. Wright, Cornell University 

C. C. Hamilton, University of Maryland 

Vernon Bailey, U. S. Biological Survey 

P. L. Kicker, U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry 

A. H. Howell, U. S. Biological Survey 

W. L. McAtee, U. S. Biological Survey 

H. P. Loding, Mobile, Alabama 

F. L. Mulford, U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry 

W. L. Bray, Syracuse University 

W. H. Osgood, Field Museum, Chicago 

E. A. Goldman, U. S. Biological Survey 

I. H. Blake, University of Maine 

Samuel Eddy, James Millikin University 

The associate editors did very much to improve the general character of 
the work, but credit should be especially given Dr. E. Lucy Braun who read 
the entire manuscript on states and provinces, making important general 
criticisms. She added greatly to the plant material and verified the 
scientific names. Dr. L. R. Dice made a similar careful study of the 
manuscript on states and provinces and contributed materially to the 
accounts of mammals. 

Several questionnaires regarding the nomenclature to be used for the 
various communities and concerning the mapping of natural regions were 
sent out. The names of the contributors of these subjects are in connec- 
tion with the lists of natural regions and maps of them. 

The taxonomic nomenclature for plants in the states and provinces 
is mainly according to Sudworth's Check List for trees, and for other 



CHAIRMAN'S PREFACE vii 

plants follows Britton and Brown's Illustrated Flora, Coulter and 
Nelson's Manual, Piper's Flora of Washington, and other state floras. 
Common usage has been deemed more important than adherence to 
supposedly universal codes of nomenclature. The nomenclature on am- 
phibians and reptiles in the states and provinces is after L. Stejneger and 
T. Barbour: Checklist of North American Amphibians and Reptiles, 
second edition. Names of mammals are from G. S. Miller, Jr. : List of 
North American Recent Mammals, 1923, U. S. National Museum Bulletin 
128; and those of the birds follow the American Ornithological Union 
check list. In the case of most animals and plants, scientific name and 
common name are used together the first time the name of the species 
appears in a state or provincial account, thereafter in the same article, the 
common name stands alone. The birds are an exception to this, as scientific 
names of species breeding or resident north of Mexico are used only in the 
list at the close of the volume. The common names of birds are fully as 
well established as the scientific ones. 

The absence of data on invertebrate or lower vertebrate life is, of course, 
striking all through the guide. This is perhaps unavoidable. The princi- 
pal users will be students of mammals, birds, or general ecology including 
plants. As a matter of fact, little work has been done on the invertebrates 
as regards ecology, excepting in aquatic work, which is seldom mentioned 
by the authors. As regards the Mollusca, F. C. Baker states that little 
work has been done except in certain states, state lists being usually syste- 
matic, and not ecologic. He has added here and there a note on inverte- 
brate life, but little can be done at present to strengthen this side of the 
zoology. 

The data included in the guide had been brought together in the form of 
manuscripts during seven years of more or less continuous effort, and when 
turned over to the Publication Editor, the principal task appeared to be 
rendering of nomenclature and organization somewhat more uniform. The 
extent and character of the Publication Editor's work is indicated in the 
second preface. 

V. E. SHELFORD. 

Champaign, May 7, 



PUBLICATION EDITOR'S PREFACE 

The manuscript of the Naturalist's Guide first came to my hands in an 
advanced stage of preparation, after the members of the compiling com- 
mittee had given several years and much hard work to the planning of its 
scope, the selection of contributors, and the arrangement of the material 
secured. 

My own part of the production of the Guide has been the small one 
of reading the manuscript with reference to the coordination of certain 
features of the treatment, and the unification of typographic style. While 
many minor changes have been made, it has seemed best to preserve in 
each chapter the individuality of style and treatment of each of the various 
authors, chosen for their recognized familiarity with the areas which had 
been assigned to them. Nothing has been done by way of attempting to 
recast into a uniform mould all of the chapters which relate to regions of 
such diverse character, known with such varying degrees of completeness. 

The latest work of incorporating rewritten and fresh material, as well as 
the final revision of the manuscript, has been in the hands of Dr. V. E. 
Shelf ord, by whom the project of such a guide was conceived, and to whom 
the major share of credit will belong for the hoped-for utility of this 
product of many hands. 

FORREST SHREVE. 

Tucson, January, 1925. 



IX 



CONTENTS 

I. INTRODUCTION. V. E. SHELFORD <4 

II. USES, VALUES, AND MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL AREAS 5 

A. Artistic and Literary Uses * 7 

1. The Value of Natural Areas to Literature and Art. S. L. WHIT- 

COMB, University of Kansas 7 

2. The Value of Natural Preserves to the Landscape Architect. 

S. H. WHITE, University of Illinois 8 

B. Scientific and Practical Uses and Values 10 

1. The Value to Silviculture of Reserved Areas of Natural Forest 

Types. W. W. ASHE, United States Forest Service 10 

2. The Value of Aquatic Preserves to Fisheries. A. S. PEARSE, 

University of Wisconsin 11 

3. The Importance to Geography of the Preservation of Natural 

Areas. S. S. VISHER, Indiana University 12 

4. The Importance of Natural Areas to Biology and Agriculture. 

V. E. SHELFORD, University of Illinois 13 

C. Forces Making for the Destruction or Preservation of Natural Areas. . 15 

1. Forest Laws and Regulations and the Preservation of Natural 

Conditions. R. B. MILLER, Illinois Natural History Survey. . 15 

2. The Preservation of Natural Conditions in the National Forests. 

C. F. KORSTIAN, United States Forest Service 17 

3. Permanent Sample Plots in the National Forests. C. F. KOR- 

STIAN, U. S. Forest Service 19 

4. National Parks and National Monuments. E. LUCY BRAUN, 

University of Cincinnati 20 

5. Museums and Nature. F. C. BAKER, University of Illinois.... 27 

6. Game Preserves as Illustrated by Pennsylvania's Experience. 

JOHN M. PHILLIPS, Pennsylvania Game Commission 28 

7. The Relation of Shrubs and Trees to Wild Birds (.Quoted). F. 

SMITH, University of Illinois 31 

8. Grazing in the National Forests. C. F. KORSTIAN, United 

States Forest Service 33 

9. Fires in Relation to the Biota. R. H. WOLCOTT, University of 

Nebraska 34 

10. The Effect of Pollution on Animal Life. F. C. BAKER, Uni- 
versity of Illinois 38 

D. Interests and Management 42 

1. Union of Interests and Management of Natural Areas. V. E. 

SHELFORD, University of Illinois 42 

E. Administration of Wild Life 45 

1. The Administration of Wild Life in State and National Parks 
(Quoted). CHAS. C. ADAMS, New York State College of 
Forestry 45 

F. Duty of Scientific Men 62 

1. The Duty of Scientific Men in Conservation. H. S. GRAVES, 

Yale University 52 

xi 



xii CONTENTS 

III. ORIGINAL BIOTA OP THE AMERICAS NORTH OF THE AMAZON ............... 55 

A. Introduction. V. E. SHELFORD, University of Illinois ............... 57 

B. Descriptive List of North American Biota. V. E. SHELFORD, Uni- 

versity of Illinois, L. JONES, Oberlin College, and L. R. DICE, Uni- 
versity of Michigan ............................................... 60 

C. Life Zones. V. E. SHELFORD, University of Illinois, and G. T. JONES, 

Oberlin College ................................................... 76 

D. Descriptive list of Middle American Biota. FORREST SHREVE, Desert 

Laboratory, and V. E. SHELFORD, University of Illinois ............ 77 

, E. Provisional Table of Landscape Aspect and Life Zone Equivalents. 

E. A. GOLDMAN, United States Biological Survey .................. 80 

F. Bibliography. V. E. SHELFORD, University of Illinois .............. 81 

IV. NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS ........................................... 83 

A. General Plan. V. E. SHELFORD, University of Illinois .............. 85 

B. Natural Regions and Natural Areas ................................. 87 

Section 1. Northern North America: Ice Covered Areas, Tundra and 

Northern Coniferous Forest ......................................... 87 

1. Northwest Greenland. W. ELMER EKBLAW, Clark University. 87 

2. Danish Greenland. W. ELMER EKBLAW, Clark University ..... 90 

3. The American Arctic Archipelago. W. ELMER EKBLAW, Clark 

University ........................................ ' ........... 98 

4. Ungava and Labrador. W. ELMER EKBLAW, Clark University. . 102 

5. Newfoundland. W. ELMER EKBLAW ........................... Ill 

6. The Mackenzie Watershed; Northern Hudson Bay Region, 

Upper Yukon Region, and the Arctic Islands. E. A. PREBLE, 

U. S. Biological Survey ..................................... 115 

7. Alaska. W. H. OSGOOD, Field Museum ...................... 141 

8. The National Forests of the Alaskan District. JOHN D. 

GUTHRIE, United States Forest Service ..................... 147 

Section 2. Southern Canada and the United States ....................... 150 

A. States, Provinces and Forest Districts, Chiefly Coniferous Forest ____ 150 

1. British Columbia. JOHN DAVIDSON, University of British 

Columbia, P. Z. CAVERHILL, Provincial Forest Branch, 
EDWARD A. PREBLE, United States Biological Survey, and 
A. H. HUTCHINSON, University of British Columbia ........ 150 

2. Washington. G. B. RIGG, University of Washington, L. R. DICE, 

HELEN T. GAIGE, University of Michigan and HORACE GUN- 
THORP, University of Washington .......................... 168 

3. Oregon. THORNTON T. MUNGER, United States Forest Service, 

WILLIAM E. LAWRENCE, Oregon Agricultural College, and 
HOWARD M. WIGHT, Oregon Agricultural College ............ 181 

4. California. H. C. BRYANT, University of California ........... 193 

5. National Forests of the North Pacific District (6). J. V. HOF- 

MANN, Pennsylvania Forest School .......................... 202 

6.|National Forests of the Northern District (1). J. A. LARSEN, 

Iowa State College .......................................... 208 

7. National Forests of California. Vegetational Types. E. N. 

MUNNS, United States Forest Service ........................ 216 

8. National Forests of the Intermountain District (4). F. S. 

BAKER and S. B. LOCKE, United States Forest Service ........ |224 

9. National Forests of the Southwestern District (3). G. A. 

PEARSON, United States Forest Service ...................... 232 

10. National Forests of the Rocky Mountain District (2). C. G. 

BATES, United States Forest Service.. . 237 






CONTENTS xiii 

11. Idaho. R. A. MUTTKOWSKI, University of Idaho 249 

12. Alberta. A. B. CONNELL, Dominion Forestry Branch 253 

13. Saskatchewan. JOHN SMITH DEXTER, College of Porto Rico.. 258 

14. Manitoba. A. B. CONNELL, Dominion Forestry Branch 263 

15. Minnesota. C. O. ROSENDAHL, University of Minnesota 267 

16. Wisconsin. A. S. PEARSE, University of Wisconsin 284 

17. Ontario. C. D. HOWE and J. R. DYMOND, University of Toronto 288 

18. The Province of Quebec. G. D. FULLER, University of Chicago, 

and BRO. MARIE- VICTORIN, College de Longueuil 293 

19. New Brunswick. B. E. CLARIDGE, University of New Brunswick 299 

20. Prince Edward Island. Committee Notes 302 

21. Nova Scotia. A. H. MACKAY, Nova Scotia, Department of 

Education 303 

22. Maine. A. O. GROSS, Bowdoin College, and A. H. NORTON, 

Portland Society of Natural History 305 

B. States Chiefly Deciduous Forest 314 

1. New Hampshire. K. W. WOODWARD and C. F. JACKSON, New 

Hampshire College 314 

2. Vermont. GEO. P. BURNS, University of Vermont 316 

3. Massachusetts. ANNA M. STARR, Mount Holyoke College 318 

4. Connecticut. GEO. E. NICHOLS, Yale University 326 

5. Rhode Island. MARION D. WESTON, Rhode Island College of 

Education 330 

6. New York. W. L. BRAY, Syracuse University 332 

7. Pennsylvania. JOHN W. HARSHBERGER, University of Pennsyl- 

vania 338 

8. West Virginia. W. E. RUMSEY, West Virginia University 341 

9. Tennessee. R. S. MADDOX, Tennessee Bureau of Forestry 347 

10. Kentucky. A. R. MIDDLETON, University of Louisville, W. R. 

JILLSON, F. T. MCFARLAND and M. A. ANDERSON, JR., Uni- 
versity of Kentucky 349 

11. Ohio. E. LUCY BRAUN, University of Cincinnati, and LYNDS 

JONES, Oberlin College 354 

12. Indiana. WILL SCOTT, Indiana University 372 

13. Michigan. L. R. DICE, University of Michigan, LYNDS JONES 

and HELEN T. GAIGE, University of Michigan 377 

14.' National Forests of the Eastern District. E. H. FROTHINGHAM, 

r. : , j UnitedJStates Forest Service 387 

C. States with Deciduous Forest, Southeastern Coniferous Forest, and 

Large Swamp Areas 394 

1. New Jersey. T. C. NELSON, Rutgers College 394 

2. Delaware. FRANK MORTON JONES 398 

3. Maryland. C. C. HAMILTON, N. J. Agricultural Experiment 

Station 401 

4. Virginia. IVEY F. LEWIS, University of Virginia 410 

5. North Carolina. Z. P. METCALF and B. W. WELLS, North 

Carolina State College 413 

6. South Carolina. PHILIP LUGINBILL, United States Bureau of 

Entomology 418 

7. Georgia. HENRY Fox, U. S. Bureau of Entomology 422 

8. Florida. J. R. WATSON, University of Florida 427 

9. Alabama. R. M. HARPER, Alabama Geological Survey, M. S. 

JOHNSON, University of Minnesota, and A. H. Ho WELL, United 
States Biological Survey 440 



xiv CONTENTS 

10. Mississippi. GLADYS HOKB, Converse College 454 

11. Louisiana. G. W. GOLDSMITH, Carnegie Institution, LENTHALL 

WYMAN, United States Forest Service, and H. H. KOPMAN, 
Louisiana Department of Conservation 460 

12. Arkansas. JOHN T. BUCHHOLZ, University of Arkansas 464 

Texas. (See page 502.) 

D. States Chiefly Oak Grove Savanna 469 

1. Illinois. T. H. FRISON and R. B. MILLER, Illinois Natural 

History Survey 469 

2. Iowa. L. H. PAMMEL, Iowa State College 480 

3. Missouri. A. C. BURRILL, Missouri Resources Museum 485 

4. Oklahoma. H. H. LANE, University of Kansas 490 

Texas. (See page 502.) 

E. States Chiefly Grassland or Steppe 502 

1. Texas. A. R. CAHN, University of Illinois 502 

2. Kansas. J. W. McCoLLOCH, Kansas State Agricultural College. 515 

3. Nebraska. R. H. WOLCOTT, University of Nebraska 519 

4. Colorado. F. RAMALEY and W. W. ROBBINS, University of 

Colorado 524 

5. Wyoming. JOHN W. SCOTT, University of Wyoming 529 

6. Montana. M. J. ELROD, University of Montana 537 

7. North Dakota. J. T. SARVIS, United States Bureau of Plant 

Industry, and J. E. SWITZER, Indiana University 544 

8. South Dakota. E. J. PETRY, South Dakota State College, and 

S. S. VISHER, Indiana University 548 

F. States Chiefly Desert and Semi-Desert 556 

Oregon. (See under Coniferous Forest.) 
California. (See under Coniferous Forest.) 

1. Utah. C. F. KORSTIAN, United States Forest Service 557 

2. Nevada. C. F. KORSTIAN, U. S. Forest Service 560 

3. Arizona. G. A. PEARSON, U. S. Forest Service, E. A. GOLDMAN, 

United States Biological Survey, FORREST SHREVE, Carnegie 
Institution, and CHARLES T. Vorhies, University of Arizona 562 

4. New Mexico. A. O. WEESE, University of Oklahoma 570 

Section 8. The Tropics North of the Equator 574 

A. Mexico and Central America 574 

1. Mexico. E. W. NELSON and E. A. GOLDMAN, United States 

Biological Survey 574 

2. Guatemala. WILSON POPENOE, United States Department of 

Agriculture 596 

3. British Honduras. KARL P. SCHMIDT, Field Museum 600 

4. Honduras. KARL P. SCHMIDT, Field Museum 601 

5. The Republic of Salvador. PAUL C. STANDLEY, U. S. National 

Museum 602 

6. Nicaragua. LUDLOW GRISCOM, American Museum of Natural 

History 604 

7. Costa Rica. LUDLOW GRISCOM, American Museum of Natural 

History 607 

8. Panama. E. A. GOLDMAN, United States Biological Survey, and 

JAMES ZETEK, Custodian of the Barro Colorado Island Labo- 
ratory, United States Bureau of Entomology 612 

B. Northern South America 623 

1. Colombia. FRANCIS W. PENNELL, Academy of Natural Sciences 

of Philadelphia .623 



CONTENTS xv 

2. Venezuela. H. PITTIER, Caracas, Ven, and H. B. BAKEB, Uni- 

versity of Pennsylvania 637 

3. The Guianas. WM. BEEBE, New York Zoological Society, and 

H. A. GLEASON, New York Botanical Garden 649 

4. Ecuador. WILSON POPENOE, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 

and H. E. ANTHONY, American Museum of Natural History. . 662 

5. The Amazon Valley. ORLAND E. WHITE, Brooklyn, Botanic 

Garden 674 

C. Islands in the Atlantic and Adjacent Waters 681 

1. Bermudas. (Committee Notes.) 681 

2. Bahamas. (Committee Notes.) 682 

3. Cuba. BROTHER LEON, Colegio de la Salle, Havana 682 

4. Haiti and Santo Domingo. G. KINGSLEY NOBLE, American 

Museum of Natural History 695 

5. Jamaica. FORREST SHREVE, Carnegie Institution 698 

6. Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands. N. L. BRITTON, New York 

Botanical Garden, G. N. WOLCOTT, Porto Rico Experiment 
Station, and others 700 

7. Dutch West Indies. H. B. BAKER, University of Pennsylvania. 707 

D. Pacific Islands 709 

1. Galapagos Islands. (Committee Notes.) 709 

2. Philippine Islands. F. T. MCLEAN, Rhode Island College, 

Kingston, Rhode Island 709 

V. LIST OF ORGANIZATIONS INTERESTED IN THE PRESERVATION OP NATURAL 

CONDITIONS 721 

A. List of State and Territorial Representatives. W. G. WATERMAN, 

Northwestern University 723 

B. Local Organizations. W. G. WATERMAN, Northwestern University. . 727 

C. National Organizations. C. F. JACKSON, New Hampshire College... 736 
VI. Indices 741 

1. Index of Scientific and Common Names of Birds 743 

2. Index to Authors and Localities .. 759 



I. INTRODUCTION 



INTRODUCTION 



BY V. E. SHELFORD 



Biology has been characterized by 
waves of interest in special fields cor- 
responding to fads and similar phe- 
nomena in human activity generally. 
One of these fields of special interest 
is, or has been, evolution. One can 
hardly help agreeing with writers who 
state that it retarded the progress of 
biology (botany and zoology). This 
was due to the fact that it happened 
to turn attention to types of work that 
could be done in the museum and in the 
laboratory. The doctrine of the sur- 
vival of the fittest was accepted with, 
none but the crudest ideas of what 
constitutes fitness. Most backward of 
all was the knowledge of the environ- 
ment. This, together with the ease 
with which morphological features could 
be fitted into the doctrines set forth 
by Darwin, led to a period of empirical 
speculation concerning adaptation, 
coloration, mimicry, etc., which con- 
tributed so little of scientific value 
that much of it will be quite generally 
ignored or forgotten in the near future. 

In connection with this work observa- 
tions which would show the function 
or fitness of the parts of features specu- 
lated about, were rare if not wanting. 
The uses of the structures or colors were 
often entirely assumed. We perhaps 
know less about fitness than any other 
biological subject. The "survival of 
the fittest" as usually employed means 
merely the survival of the survivors. 
There can be no adequate knowledge of 
fitness to environment without knowl- 
edge of environment. 

Knowledge of habitats and the rela- 
tions of organisms to them cannot be 
said to have seriously reached the ears 
or constituted a part of the training of 
more than a few of those engaged in the 



older lines of botany and zoology. 
Studies of genetics, evolution, physi- 
ology, embryology, cytology, parasi- 
tology and entomology still proceed 
largely or at least far too often without 
reference to the habitat relations of 
the organisms studied. 

Warming, who studied the plants of 
the sanddunes of Denmark, discovered 
orderly sequences and established the 
fact that habitats and environment 
may be interpreted by putting the 
results of his studies into scientific 
order. He thus answered the epithet 
of a famous contemporary zoologist 
who closed a discussion of habitats with 
the words "developing hodge podge." 
Modern ecology has shown that the 
environment is orderly, proceeding in 
a particular direction for long periods. 
One of its outstanding and original 
features is the study and orderly inter- 
pretation of the habitats of organisms 
and the organisms themselves. Further 
experience has demonstrated what 
Warming indicated: That knowledge 
of habitats can be organized into science. 

A branch of biological science which 
obtains its inspiration in the natural 
order in original habitats must depend 
upon the preservation of natural areas 
for the solution of many problems. 

It was the conviction of many mem- 
bers of the Ecological Society soon 
after its organization, that the society 
should take steps to make available 
for study as much of the original biota 
of North America, as possible. An 
inventory of available areas and the 
extent to which they are modified is 
naturally one of the early steps in the 
preservation of suitable areas for eco- 
logical study. 



3 



II. USES, VALUES AND MANAGEMENT 
OF NATURAL AREAS 



A. ARTISTIC AND LITERARY USES 



1. THE VALUE OF NATURAL AREAS 
TO LITERATURE AND ART 

BY SELDEN LINCOLN WHITCOMB 

Some few early American poets wrote 
of the skylark and the nightingale. 
They followed the easy path of inherited 
literary tradition, and did not seem to 
realize the wealth of new natural ma- 
terial at their very doors. Other poets, 
however, very soon discovered the 
poetic values of the whippoorwill, the 
passenger pigeon, and the ruby-throated 
humming-bird. Freneau, poet of the 
American Revolution, has a well known 
poem on the honeysuckle. A little 
later Bryant's poem on the yellow violet 
almost marks an epoch in the poetic 
treatment of American flowers. Alex- 
ander Wilson may be considered, in a 
sense, as the last of the pioneers among 
the American writers on American 
nature. In his poetry, as well as in 
his letters and his American Ornithol- 
ogy, he has left wonderful records of 
his personal observations of birds, 
plants, and landscapes over a very 
large section of the region east of the 
Mississippi River. 1 

From the days of Wilson to the pres- 
ent time, there has been, on the part 
of American writers, an alert and 
continuous interest in the varied as- 
pects of American nature. Perhaps 
no literature is richer than ours in the 
literary presentation of local nature. 
The "nature essay" is a very charac- 
teristic and practically indigenous 
literary type in this country. As 
American territory expanded, our 
writers accompanied or soon followed 

1 For a fairly extended treatment of "Nature in 
Early American Literature," see the writer's article 
in The Sewanee Review, 1894. 



the pioneers of the new regions. Our 
literature now offers us entire volumes 
of nature lore from the region Where 
Rolls the Oregon (Dallas Lore Sharp) 
to that of A Florida Sketch-Book (Brad- 
ford Torrey) and from The Maine 
Woods (Thoreau) to The Land of Little 
Rain (Mary Austin). Dr. Neil E. 
Stevens has an interesting article in 
The Scientific Monthly for February, 
1921, on "The Botany of the New Eng- 
land Poets." There is abundance of 
material for analogous articles on the 
botany or the zoology of writers for 
every section, yes, for every state of 
the Union. 

The student of American literature 
welcomes any reasonable movement 
to preserve, in as nearly the original 
state as possible, as many as possible 
of the regions which have been observed, 
loved, and described by our authors. 
The present writer has visited the site 
of Thoreau's famous cabin at Walden 
Pond, and has followed the path of 
Thoreau, with Cape Cod in his hand, 
for miles and miles along the Cape. 
(Incidentally, as the writer lay on high 
land tracing the route from the book, 
an unsuspicious fox came trotting to 
within two yards or so of him.) Man- 
kato, Minnesota, is a typical and beau- 
tiful prairie town and it was the western 
limit of Thoreau's only western trip. 
Mankato has a wonderful system of 
natural parks. The student of litera- 
ture hopes that a section of prairie or 
woodland, known to have been visited 
by Thoreau, may yet be located and 
preserved. 

Among other places of somewhat 
similar interest in American literary 
biography, in the Middle West, these 
may be suggested : haunts in Wisconsin, 



8 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



which inspired James Gates Percival 
(poet as well as geologist) ; places in or 
near Fort Gibson, Oklahoma, which 
stimulated the pen of Washington 
Irving; certain environs of Osage and 
Clear Lake, Iowa, which were of notable 
significance in the development of 
Hamlin Garland, etc. 

Here and there in the prairie country, 
one finds small areas of open ground 
still in their natural state. This is 
sometimes the case with the railroad 
right-of-way. Here may be found 
plants, and, to a lesser extent, animals 
which seem to have passed from the 
neighboring regions. Such areas are 
especially welcome to the lover of 
literature. If their natural phenomena 
are not yet known to our literature 
proper, let us not destroy the oppor- 
tunity for the writers of the future. 
The natural forest edge also let us 
preserve as many sections of it as 
possible. Here, where the prairie 
meets the woods, were the original 
haunts of many of our familiar herbs 
and shrubs and birds spring migrants : 
white-throated sparrow, hermit thrush, 
etc.; summer residents: thrasher, cat- 
bird, Bell's vireo, etc. ; winter visitants : 
juncoes, tree sparrows, the great north- 
ern shrike, etc. 

We have already destroyed much 
which cannot be replaced. No sane 
student of literature will deny the 
national importance of the lumber 
industry or of the greatest possible ex- 
tension of grain producing land. But 
the same student is anxious to prove to 
himself and to the world that America 
is not entirely commercial in spirit. 
He hopes for and believes in the Ameri- 
can artist painters, musicians, and 
writers of the near and of the distant 
future. For these artists and for those 
thousands if not millions of citizens 
whose lives are to be enriched by these 
works of pen and brush, we should 
preserve, all over the country, carefully 
selected, representative areas, as nearly 
in the primitive condition as is now 
possible. 



2. THE VALUE OF NATURAL PRE- 
SERVES TO THE LANDSCAPE 
ARCHITECT 

BY STANLEY WHITE 

Inasmuch as one of the chief interests 
of landscape architecture is the pres- 
ervation of beautiful landscapes, noth- 
ing can be more evident than the im- 
portance to the profession and to those 
deriving benefits from its works of 
this movement to save various natural 
regions from possible injury or de- 
struction. Landscape architects have 
always maintained a keen interest in 
such movements: as private practi- 
tioners in urging the development of 
organizations interested in natural pre- 
serves, and through their national 
professional society in formally support- 
ing the movements in defence of our 
great national reservations against im- 
proper exploitation. 

Frederick Law Olmsted, in speaking 
of our national parks, says: 

The National Parks are set apart 
primarily in order to preserve to the 
people for all time the opportunity of a 
peculiar kind of enjoyment and recrea- 
tion, not measurable in economic terms 
and to be obtained only from the re- 
markable scenery which they contain 
scenery of these primeval types which 
are in most parts of the world rapidly 
vanishing for all eternity before the 
increased thoroughness of the economic 
use of land. In the National Parks 
direct economic returns, if any are 
wholly secondary to the one dominant 
purpose of preserving essential esthetic 
qualities of their scenery unimpaired as 
a heritage to the infinite numbers of the 
generations to come. 

One of the most notable achievements 
in this direction was the creation of the 
Boston Park system, with its rich 
natural and semi-natural preserves 
largely through the original idea and 
subsequently the active work of Mr. 
Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect, 
concerning which there is an excellent 
account in his biography. 1 Many other 
instances could be cited, as the design 

1 Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect, by C. W. 
Eliot. 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



of public areas is a considerable part 
of the regular work of the profession. 

President Emeritus Charles W. Eliot 
of Harvard University, at the meeting 
of the American Society of Landscape 
Architects, Boston, 1911, made the 
following remarks : 

If I were asked to mention the most 
important public movement of the last 
twenty years, I should say it was the 
movement to obtain for all classes of 
society indeed, for the entire popula- 
tion better means of health, rational 
enjoyment, and real happiness. Much 
sympathy has been expressed in these 
later years for the unhappy condition 
of large elements of the population. 
Something more than economic remedies 
must be found for the great evils which 
beset modern society, and particularly 
for the diseases, physical and moral, 
which are caused by congestion of popu- 
lation. This profession is called upon 
to deal with all these problems of con- 
gestion. You must take account of the 
desires and hopes, tastes and purposes 
of the population to be relieved; and 
these sentiments and emotions will all 
be found to be closely related to that 
pursuit of happiness in which a free 
people is always engaged in accordance 
with their tastes and inclinations. 
. . . The Declaration of Independ- 
ence declares that all men have a right 
to life, liberty, and the pursuit of 
happiness. Now it is the pursuit of 
public happiness which, I think, should 
be the main standby of this profession 
in urging the public to use the landscape 
art, to seek its benefits, and to employ 
its artists. 

But the preservation of natural 
beauty is not the only object sought 
in saving the untouched tracts. Not 
that their beauty is not a sufficient 
object in itself, but other factors, not 
less important but simply less apparent, 
can be justly ascribed. The training 
of the landscape architect begins not 
only with pictorial composition and 
practical design, but also with the 
study of plants, of soils, of bodies of 
water and of all the great natural forces 
and influences that have shaped and 



given character to the physiognomy 
of the land and its vegetation. Now 
the original sources of the literature in 
all these vast fields of special sciences 
have come from the many investigators 
who have utilized the natural areas 
not as an accessory to their mode of 
study but as the supreme fundamental 
basis of all determinations. Unlike the 
investigators in other than the so-called 
"Natural Sciences" whose laboratories 
are often merely specially equipped 
ordinary buildings, these workers 
must depend on all out-doors for their 
laboratories and particularly on the 
few portions of the earth's surface still 
remaining as an original record of the 
earth's history. The plea of this work 
is that these original tracts are so 
rapidly becoming modified that steps 
should be taken to save their destruc- 
tion before too late. From the stand- 
point of the landscape profession their 
loss would be not a mere sentimental 
misfortune, but a real catastrophe 
reaching into every branch of science 
which contributes to the development 
of landscape study. 

From these great sources of natural 
beauty comes all our inspiration; from 
them comes the unlimited store of fine 
examples teaching us the arrange- 
ment of our materials ; from them comes 
the lesson of growth, development and 
natural strife that shows the way to 
a permanent landscape; and finally, 
from them comes the suggestion to the 
layman of the value of beauty and the 
desire for it in the surroundings of 
human habitations. It is not enough 
that we grow fine floral displays, well- 
clipped hedges and smooth lawns. We 
must bring to the most humble cottage 
in all parts of the land at least a sug- 
gestion of nature's charm, power and 
delicacy, the inspiration for which, 
unless these natural preserves are 
secured, will disappear for all times in 
spirit and in fact. 



B. SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL USES AND VALUES 



1. THE VALUE TO SILVICULTURE OF 

RESERVED AREAS OF NATURAL 

FOREST TYPES 

BY W. W. ASHE 

The setting aside of vestigial units 
of the various forest types has three 
important objects in view: First, to 
supply the means for studying the 
laws which control the distribution 
of different species of trees. Second, 
to ascertain the factors which deter- 
mine forest types. Third, to note the 
changes in such types induced by the 
artificial conditions which result from 
exploitation and silvicultural practice. 

The practical silviculturist is princi- 
pally concerned with the last named 
of these objects. It is his function to 
modify natural conditions, often to a 
profound degree, in the interest of 
increased yields of commercially de- 
sirable species. In this, however, he 
is constantly taking a chance, since his 
crop is a slow growing one and he is 
unable to wait for the results of the pains- 
taking research, extended through the 
life of a stand of timber, needed to sup- 
ply the accurate results under which he 
could proceed with complete confidence. 
By determining these factors of dis- 
tribution and using these vestigial 
units as check plots, however, it may be 
possible for him to prevent mistakes or 
to rectify errors which may be made 
through deviating too far from the 
normal. 

It is reasonable to suppose that each 
site, the biotic corollary 1 of which is 
the forest type, bears in its natural 
condition (unless modified by fires) 
the heaviest stand which the native 
species are capable of producing on 

lAshe, W. W. "Forest Types of the Appala- 
chians and White Mountains." Journal of the 
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, 37: 183-198. 1922. 



that site. That is, nature has already 
established that species or association 
of species which is best suited for grow- 
ing under the limiting edaphic and 
meteorological conditions which are 
termed site, among the most important 
of such conditions being soil acidity, 
rate of nitrification, maximum mois- 
ture content, number and length of 
critically dry periods, depth of soil, 
and available heat units and their 
distribution. The species forming the 
type reproduce themselves, not invaria- 
bly in a definite proportion, but definite 
within a certain latitude, the oscilla- 
tion of the type, 2 and utilize the full 
resources of the site, which is capable 
of producing annually (or on an average) 
a fixed amount of wood material (eel 
lulose). Silviculture seeks to modify 
or increase this natural yield by cul- 
tural methods. There may be an at- 
tempt to concentrate increment in a 
few select individuals or to simplify 
the composition of the natural stand 
by eliminating from it certain of the 
components which are economically 
or silviculturally less desirable; or to 
replace the native species in whole or 
in part with other species or by a single 
species which is regarded as more desir- 
able economically or silviculturally. 

The problems which arise in connec- 
tion with such changes can be met in 
two ways. They can be solved empir- 
ically for each site, as in connection 
with the introduction of foreign species, 
by experimental planting with a view 
to determining what species or combina- 
tion of species is more advantageous 
than those in the original type. The 
establishment of final conclusions by 
this method may require many dec- 
ades, during which time a portion of 
the land might not be producing to 

2 Op. cit. 



10 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



11 



its full capacity or many irreparable 
and costly errors may have been made. 
This was the method employed in 
testing the adaptability of certain 
species in the plantations on the Bilt- 
more Estate at Asheville, N. O. For 
example, wild black cherry (Prunus 
serotina) was planted with a view to 
its possibly becoming a timber tree. 
We now know from a careful study of 
the forest types within which this tree 
attains commercial proportions that 
there is no site on the Biltmore Estate 
on which this species can be expected 
to attain first size or to be more, in 
fact, than a straggling slow growing 
tree. 

The other method of meeting these 
problems is by a study of the funda- 
mental factors which control each 
forest type within the type itself. Some, 
if not all, of these factors should be 
determined on sites on which the type 
is unmodified or least modified, for 
whenever it has been materially modi- 
fied, especially for a long period, there 
has been an accompanying, though 
possibly slight and temporary, modifi- 
cation of the site. 

When types formed of mixed stands 
are cut over it is difficult and at times 
impossible to determine their original 
composition. For these reasons it is 
urgently desirable that such unmodified 
units of the different forest types be 
located before the silvical conditions 
are altered by repeated fellings and 
that they be reserved for the study of 
their controlling factors. In a few 
years such vestigial units purposely 
reserved will be the only unmodified 
remnants of many of the forest types. 
It will be only by the setting aside now 
of such unmodified areas that there 
can be any assurance of having these 
plots of the various forest types availa- 
ble for conducting such studies. 

As has been stated in a previous paper 
on this subject 3 it is eminently unde- 
sirable that there should be a possi- 

Ashe, W. W. "Reserved areas of principal 
forest types as a guide in developing an American 
silviculture." Journal of Forestry, 20: 276-283. 



bility of the development of American 
silviculture being hampered by the 
failure to reserve such vestigial units 
of the important forest types as fields 
for research, and as check plots by 
means of which it will be possible to 
note the changes which take place in 
the same types under the stress of ex- 
ploitation and silvical development. 
As a prerequisite for making the highest 
use of such reserved units and the 
studies which may be made in them, 
the areas of the different forests' types 
should be carefully mapped after the 
types have been standardized. Only 
this procedure will establish similarity 
of conditions and will permit the ex- 
tension to them of the laws which are 
found to control on the vestigial units. 
The study of the unmodified areas, 
in connection with those which are 
modified, will indicate the extent to 
which it will be possible to deviate from 
the normal and yet retain the equilib- 
rium necessary for maintaining the 
factors of the locality. Such studies 
will determine whether it will be pos- 
sible economically to replace one species 
by another; whether it will be advan- 
tageous to substitute a pure coniferous 
stand for one of mixed hardwoods, or 
if not, as to what proportion of the 
stand the conifers can occupy. The 
natural areas must in large measure 
serve as the means of developing our 
silviculture; their elimination from 
exploitation and their preservation is 
essential to that end. 



2. THE VALUE OF AQUATIC PRE- 
SERVES TO FISHERIES 

BY A. S. PEARSE 

There are few "natural" environ- 
ments for freshwater fishes in the 
United States. Artificially stocked 
streams, lakes, and ponds seldom pro- 
duce such desirable fishes as are found 
in localities where the wilderness has 
not been disturbed by man. Great 
natural preserves like the Great Lakes 
and the Mississippi River should be 



12 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



kept as near their original condition 
as possible. 

In general the larger a fish preserve 
is, the better. It is highly desirable 
to keep the environmental complexes 
furnished by great rivers and lakes as 
complete as possible. Variety of habi- 
tats is necessary because many species 
do not carry on their cycles of activities 
in the same habitat. The bass feed 
largely among plants, but require bare 
bottom for spawning. The cisco lives 
in the deep cool waters of lakes, but 
comes into shallow water on stony 
bottoms to breed. Many young fishes 
frequent shoals, even though they live 
elsewhere as adults. 

Attempts to rear fishes in small 
bodies of water are often without 
success. In general the ecological suc- 
cession in ponds eliminates the species 
most desirable for man. A pond left 
to "run" according to "nature" chokes 
with aquatic vegetation and becomes 
a swamp, populated by mud minnows, 
sticklebacks, and bullheads. If game 
fishes are desired, bare bottom is es- 
sential. Fishes confined year after 
year in a restricted area may be over- 
run by parasites. One of the trout 
hatcheries of the Wisconsin Conserva- 
tion Commission is situated in an ex- 
cellent locality and has an adequate 
supply of fine spring water, but is of 
little value because the trout are heavily 
infected with a parasitic copepod. 

Pollution may easily destroy the 
value of a fish preserve. Poisons may 
be introduced from natural sources or 
from the byproducts of the industries 
of man. Substances which use up oxy- 
gen or produce other injurious gases 
may be present. Minerals may be 
precipitated from or dissolved in the 
water by substances not in themselves 
injurious to fishes. 

If fishing is permitted in a preserve, 
it should not be so restricted as to catch 
certain fishes and allow others to in- 
crease unduly. If angling only is 
practised in a lake the game fishes 
are most often caught and undesirable 
species, like the carp, sucker, and dog- 



fish, which seldom take a hook, become 
too numerous. The restricted use of 
fyke nets or seins for the capture of 
the latter fishes is desirable in such a 
locality. 

It is doubtful if the suitability of a 
body of water as a fish preserve can 
ever be judged by any single criterion. 
Two lakes may be of the same size and 
depth. The one may be "plankton 
poor," have a scanty bottom fauna, 
contain undesirable mineral constit- 
uents, lack oxygen, and have barren 
shores, while the other furnishes a 
favorable environment in all these es- 
sentials. A river may change its whole 
character as a habitat for fishes on 
account of the introduction of factory 
wastes, the building of a dam, or some 
other apparently unimportant change 
in a locality. Rush Lake, Wisconsin, 
has abundant food and shelter and 
furnishes excellent breeding grounds, 
but is so shallow that its oxygen is 
used up when it is covered by ice in 
winter, hence it contains no large fishes. 

The important features for a fish pre- 
serve are: (1) sufficient size to permit 
variety in habitats and to lessen the 
dangers from contamination and rapid 
fluctuations in temperature, (2) ade- 
quate resources in the way of food, 
shelter, and breeding grounds to main- 
tain a sufficient number of fishes to 
make the preserve profitable. 

3. THE IMPORTANCE TO GEOG- 
RAPHY OF THE PRESERVATION 
OF NATURAL AREAS 

BY STEPHEN SARGENT VISHER 

At least four of Geography's several 
sub-divisions will be aided by the pres- 
ervation of natural areas. These are 
(1) Descriptive Geography, (2) His- 
torical Geography, (3) Ecological Geog- 
raphy, and (4) Economic Geography. 

Descriptive geography is concerned 
not alone with describing relief features 
and the cultural additions. It con- 
siders likewise the vegetation and 
the characteristic animals. Preserved 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



13 



areas, where natural conditions can 
be studied readily facilitate good geo- 
graphic descriptions in two ways. First 
they afford examples of natural con- 
ditions. Only after type areas have 
been studied can a really good descrip- 
tion of a region be written. Second, 
the setting aside of definite areas for 
preservation results indirectly in in- 
creased information about the location 
of typical areas, the methods of reaching 
them, and other significant facts con- 
cerning them. Fairly full information 
is gathered and made available con- 
cerning very few privately owned tracts 
partly because the work and expense 
entailed may soon have been in vain. 
The owner may decide to keep out 
even the most worthy scientists, or 
else the natural biota may be largely 
destroyed as by the cutting of the tim- 
ber or otherwise altering the conditions. 
Thus _ although many nearly natural 
areas still remain, few geographers 
know just where to go, how to get there, 
and what they will find when they 
arrive. 

Teachers of descriptive geography 
will benefit, also, from the presence 
of preserved areas especially near 
cities, for in such areas their students 
can learn much in a short time about 
natural conditions, the conditions the 
pioneers encountered. 

This leads to the advantage to his- 
torical geography of the preservation 
of natural areas. The specialists who 
interpret the historical development of 
any region must have a full appreciation 
of conditions as they were in earlier 
times. Carefully preserved natural 
areas will aid greatly in understanding 
primeval conditions. 

Ecological geography differs from 
plant and animal ecology chiefly in 
being more comprehensive, including 
both, and as the advantages to each 
have been discussed at length elsewhere, 
it is not necessary to consider the nu- 
merous advantages to this phase of geog- 
raphy which would result from the 
preservation of numerous typical natural 
areas. However, there are many prob- 



lems which special students of either 
plants or animals have not adequately 
investigated but which the geographer, 
with his more inclusive view wishes to 
study. For example, the influence of 
geographic factors which because of 
their rareness, have not been considered 
significant, such as the "free-air foehn," 
or the hurricane, need to be investi- 
gated. The native flora and fauna may 
show far plainer adjustments to such 
influences than do the recently intro- 
duced forms. Since it is probable that 
in the future there will be a great in- 
crease in the number of ecological 
studies carried on by geographers, it 
is advantageous to geography that 
many areas be preserved now before 
it is too late. 

Economic geography with its interest 
in all products of commercial impor- 
tance is interested in the preservation 
of natural areas especially because of 
the probability that in the future new 
uses will be found for native plants and 
animals not now very useful. If many 
are exterminated, as will surely result 
unless numerous natural areas are pre- 
served promptly, all possibility of their 
ever being of economic importance will 
have disappeared. After a form is 
extinct, or practically extinct, it will 
be very distressing to learn that it had 
potentialities of great value had they 
been taken advantage of. Until every 
living form is well known, none should 
be allowed to become extinct. Eco- 
nomic geographers join with agricultur- 
ists, physicians and students of many 
other sorts, therefore, in advocating the 
setting aside of areas where the native 
forms can continue to live and can be 
advantageously studied. 

4. THE IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL 

AREAS TO BIOLOGY AND 

AGRICULTURE 

BY V. E. SHELFORD 

Some biological subjects are of course 
only remotely related to habitat ques- 
tions; others can hardly proceed to 
certain conclusions without reference 



14 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



to habitat relations. An adequate in- 
terpretation of evolutionary relations 
can hardly be made without knowledge 
of environment. This is true even if 
natural selection operating on charac- 
ters which arise from internal causes, 
is assumed to be the only cause of the 
origin of new forms. The geneticists 
have rarely separated environmental 
effects from purely hereditary phenom- 
ena. It is safe to assume that a 
considerable part of the phenomena 
described as hereditary is some form of 
environmental effect. The results of 
genetical study can hardly have impor- 
tant evolutionary bearing until rela- 
tions to environment have been brought 
into it. 

The relations of physiology to ecology 
are more intimate under present condi- 
tions; the general physiologists are inter- 
ested in and are appreciative of ecological 
work. The interpretation of physiolog- 
ical characters in connection with en- 
vironmental relations is a growing field. 
Medical physiology is less intimately 
related to environmental subjects but is 
far from as remote as the present status 
of various other biological subjects. 

The purpose of pointing out the rela- 
tions of the various branches of biology 
to ecology and the study of natural 
habitats, and of calling attention to 
neglected relations is merely to indi- 
cate that present interest in the pres- 
ervation of natural habitats for scien- 
tific purposes is far less than it may be 
expected to be in the near future. It 
is safe to predict that when the neglected 
field of habitat relations comes to 
attention a little more, not merely 
ecologists, but all biologists will re- 
quire preserves of natural conditions 
in connection with their various scien- 
tific interests. The relations of the pure 



science of biology to natural conditions 
is believed to be much more important 
to future research than is generally 
recognized. 

Agricultural problems include the 
development of new kinds of cultivated 
plants and domestic animals, and the 
destruction of pests of all kinds. In 
understanding conditions which most 
favor pests a knowledge of their original 
habitat is often very important and 
will save years of work on the part of 
investigators. For example the chinch 
bug was originally found on grasses 
in waste places along the coast of the 
Carolinas. Rainy, hot seasons similar 
to those found in the original area are 
favorable to the chinch bug. Knowl- 
edge of the climate and other condi- 
tions in the original habitat would 
have saved much useless speculation 
and misinterpretation. Knowledge of 
the original conditions under which a 
pest lives is usually important. Ac- 
cordingly preserves of natural conditions 
are important from the standpoint of 
insect pests and equally important for 
other plant and animal pests. 

Domestic animals, especially sheep, 
have been studied in relation to climate. 
After thousands of years of domestica- 
tion sheep still require conditions simi- 
lar to those in which they are said to 
have originally occurred mountain 
grassland and failure to supply these 
conditions is one of the causes of diffi- 
culty in the sheep industry. A reserva- 
tion with sheep of the wild sort in their 
natural conditions would have facili- 
tated this study greatly. There are 
many species now in a wild state which 
may be utilized in the near future for 
domestication or crossing with domestic 
species and they should be preserved 
in their native haunts for this purpose. 



C. FORCES MAKING FOR THE DESTRUCTION OR PRESERVA- 
TION OF NATURAL AREAS 



1. FOREST LAWS AND REGULA- 
TIONS AND THE PRESERVATION 
OF NATURAL CONDITIONS 

BY R. B. MILLER 

I. POSSIBILITY OP PRESERVING NATURAL 
CONDITIONS UNDER PUBLIC AS COM- 
PARED WITH PRIVATE OWNERSHIP 

While perhaps no state or national 
forest laws deal directly with the pres- 
ervation of natural conditions, there 
are many forces working indirectly 
to that end. At least, natural condi- 
tions have a much better chance of 
being preserved under public than under 
private ownership, coupled as it is 
with the danger of changing policies, 
with fire, grazing and over-cutting. 
In fact, the failure of private initiative 
to properly protect its holdings is one 
of the main reasons given for increasing 
our acreage in national, state, county 
and municipal forests. 

Since the relation of fires to plant and 
animal life is discussed by Wolcott 
(page 34) and Korstian deals with 
grazing on the national forests, (page 
33) we may say just a word about 
cutting regulations and their effect 
upon the preservation of natural con- 
ditions. On state forests there are 
usually some restrictions as to the size 
of trees which may be cut and certain 
laws as to brush-disposal, leaving of 
seed trees or size of trees to be cut. 
Naturally, cutting by the shelterwood 
and selection methods do much less 
damage to soil and reproduction by too 
sudden exposure to the drying effects 
of the sun and wind than does clear 
cutting, which in some cases may be 
the wisest financial policy. 



On the national forests, cutting regu- 
lations are enforced by a workable 
policy- the requiring of the operator 
to pay an additional price for his timber 
when he does not conform to the pro- 
visions of the timber-sale contract, 
with the cancelling of the agreement 
in extreme cases of violation of the 
cutting regulations. 

If the purchaser of timber does not 
wish to follow Forest Service regula- 
tions, he has the choice of doing his 
logging elsewhere, probably paying 
more for his stumpage while he is not 
assured of a perpetual supply of timber 
for his mill as he is when he depends 
upon government owned timber. As 
Korstian 1 points out, the forester will 
soon be dealing almost wholly with cut- 
over timber lands and to him the great- 
est value of preserving natural condi- 
tions lies in setting aside the best of 
these tracts, which nature has left. 
The chief purpose of these natural 
areas will be for comparison and stand- 
ardization. The chance for having the 
greatest number of such tracts for 
object lessons lies in national and 
state ownership of timber in many 
typical regions. 

II. EXTENT TO WHICH FOREST LAWS 

MAKE POSSIBLE PERMANENT 

SAMPLE PLOTS 

It is generally recognized that per- 
manent sample plots are essential to 
good forestry practice, serving not only 
as places for carrying on certain lines 
of research such as experiments in cut- 

1 Korstian, C. F. "The preservation of natural 
conditions in the national forests." This volume, 
p. 17. 



15 



16 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



ting by different methods, the study of 
succession after fires and the study of 
reproduction and growth but also as 
demonstration areas having a certain 
educational value. 

Speaking of the use of school forests 
as research centers and the need of pro- 
tection Prof. James W. Tourney, of 
the Yale Forests School says: "Such 
forests cannot perform their best ser- 
vice as research stations unless they 
are under a management which will 
afford the greatest protection to per- 
manent sample plots and make it rea- 
sonably certain that investigations, 
once begun, can be carried through." 
The same may be said of private tracts. 

While no special provision is made 
for the protection of sample plots 
outside of the enforcement of the usual 
fire laws prevalent on state forests, 
the setting aside of certain tracts to 
serve as demonstration areas is a part 
of the forest policy of many states and 
is sometimes carried on in cooperation 
with private owners. It stands to 
reason that such cooperation under 
state control will be a valuable aid in 
protecting sample plots within such 
demonstration forests from destruction. 
These demonstration forests, says 
Secretary Wallace, "might be estab- 
lished in certain "key areas," where 
Federal or state ownership would be of 
special value in protecting stream 
sources and giving the local people 
a practical demonstration of fire pro- 
tection and good forest management." 

Korstian 2 discusses the permanent 
sample plots on the National Forests 
(page 17) and their value to the fores- 
ter, the biologist and the ecologist. He 
divides these into silvicultural plots, 
where succession and the effects of 
different grades of cutting and thinning 
can be studied; and plots which have 
been established in connection with 
range management to determine the ef- 
fect of severity of grazing both upon 

* Korstian, C. F. "The preservation of natural 
conditions in the national forests." This volume, 
page 17. 



herbaceous, shrubby and tree repro- 
duction. 

While the Conservation Commission 
of Canada has ceased to function, this 
organization must be given great credit 
for the establishment of sample plots 
in the various provinces under the 
leadership of their forester, Mr. Clyde 
N. Leavitt, assisted in the supervision 
of field parties by Dean C. D. Howe, 
of the Faculty of Forestry of the Uni- 
versity of Toronto. These plots were 
established in cooperation with some 
of the provinces, lumber and paper 
companies and on military reservations 
so that they still have a good chance of 
being perpetuated. It can be said 
that the Commission went into greater 
detail in measuring the individual 
trees on these plots and recording the 
data than any other organization which 
preceded it, affording a stimulus to the 
provinces and private companies in 
sample plot work which cannot be over- 
estimated. 

On such plots, by periodically measur- 
ing and recording the increase in size 
of all specimens, from small saplings up 
to mature individuals which have been 
numbered and measured, figures can 
be obtained which will be of great value 
in making yield tables for pure or mixed 
forests, while incidental changes taking 
place in the life-history of the stand 
can be accurately studied and recorded. 
It is true that these plots are more or 
less exposed to fires and windstorms 
but under the frequent inspection of 
foresters they stand a very good chance 
for permanency. 

III. EXTENT TO WHICH FOREST LAWS 
AFFECT THE ESTABLISHMENT AND 
MAINTENANCE OF GAME PRESERVES 

While excellent fishing and game pre- 
serves have been established by pri- 
vate individuals, such as the Whitney 
tract in the Adirondacks and the vari- 
ous fishing clubs and game clubs both 
in Canada and the United States where 
restrictions are made regarding fires 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



17 



and poaching, with the land and streams 
patrolled by guards and wardens, it 
stands to reason that the preservation 
of fish and game can best be accom- 
plished on a broad scale under state or 
national departments, with settled 
policies and greater power for law 
enforcement. 

To what extent game protection shall 
be connected with forestry is an unset- 
tled question. Foresters may object 
because where forests, fish and game 
are combined into a large department 
they feel that forestry is very likely to 
receive secondary consideration. In 
some of the states and Canadian prov- 
inces, however, forestry and game 
interests are associated under one de- 
partment, either merged into a large 
Department of Conservation, a Depart- 
ment of Lands and Mines, or a Forest, 
Fish and Game Commission as it was 
for a long time in the state of New York, 
this, however, having been superseded 
by a Conservation Commission. In 
the province of New Brunswick, for 
example, all registered guides under the 
Department of Lands and Mines are 
sworn in as deputy fire wardens while 
foresters and sealers also report viola- 
tions of the game laws of the province. 
New Brunswick has set aside about 
600 square miles of territory on the 
Nepisiguit River not only to serve as an 
experimental area where the effects of 
different methods of cutting may be 
studied but also to serve as an immense 
game refuge. Game preserves have 
also been established by the state of 
Pennsylvania and it has already been 
demonstrated that these tracts serve 
as breeding grounds whence game 
flows over into contiguous areas. The 
linking up of the state game preserves 
with state forests is of great impor- 
tance to lovers of wild life since the 
protection of such tracts from fire under 
the state forest fire laws will protect 
not only animals and birds but fish 
since it has been shown that fish have 
been killed in large numbers by ashes 
washed into streams by heavy rains. 



2. THE PRESERVATION OF NATU- 
RAL CONDITIONS IN THE 
NATIONAL FORESTS 

BY C. F. KORSTIAN 

No fact in connection with the devel- 
opment of our country is more evident 
than the tremendous change which has 
taken place in the original vegetation. 
Many areas once covered with virgin 
forests are now either productive farm 
lands or are waste and desolate as the 
result of lumbering and fire. We still 
have left vestiges of the original growth; 
but even these are threatened. 

It is a trait of mankind to preserve 
antiquities. Museums for their safe- 
keeping and display are liberally main- 
tained. Universities and scientific 
schools of today must have them for 
research in important fields. It is 
just as true of our original forest con- 
ditions, including all their biological 
implications, as of any other of the 
relics of the past, that science as well 
as human interest demands the pres- 
ervation of these samples. They can- 
not be brought to the museum; they 
must be their own living museums. 
They are as necessary for the sound and 
progressive development of the biolog- 
ical sciences as they are for the art 
and science of forestry. The education 
of future generations demands them. 

The forester will soon deal almost 
wholly with cutover timberlands, yet 
as has been clearly pointed out by 
Ashe 1 and Pearson 2 if the highest 
ideals of silviculture are to be attained 
the forester must not be deprived of 
the basic facts which Nature records 
in the virgin forest. The practicing 
forester, in the interest of the highest 
use to the public through increased 
production of the most valuable species, 
often profoundly changes the natural 
conditions and, as has been stated else- 
where in this volume, these conditions 
may also be readily modified by graz- 

1 Ashe, W. W. "The value to silviculture of 
reserved areas of natural forest types." This vol- 
ume, pp. 10. 

8 Pearson, G. A. "Preservation of natural areas 
in the National Forests." Ecology, 3: 284-287. 
1922. 



18 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



ing. 8 Timber exploitation also has a 
disturbing effect on the animal life of 
the forest, but under proper manage- 
ment and control of predatory animals 
the forester contends that the game 
animals will increase. So far as the 
forester is concerned, the main reason 
for preserving natural areas is to retain 
a standard of accomplishment of Nature 
alone, to serve as a guide by which the 
correctness of the forester's efforts to 
improve on Nature may be gauged. 

In addition to the justification of 
these natural areas as objects of re- 
search in forestry and other biological 
sciences, there is another valid reason 
for the preservation of representative 
natural conditions in the National 
Forests. This is the rapidly increasing 
appreciation of such areas for scenic 
and recreational purposes. It is the 
aim of the United States Forest Service 
in administering the National Forests 
to devote every tract of forest land to 
its highest use. It is not unduly 
stretching the spirit of this announced 
purpose to assume that it will embrace 
the appropriate treatment of areas 
which are chiefly valuable for scientific 
study, esthetics or recreation. 

For utilitarian reasons it is evident 
that the Forest Service cannot be ex- 
pected to satisfy every requirement 
with natural virgin forest conditions. 
The National Parks and National Monu- 
ments, on the contrary, do in many 
cases meet these requirements. The 
forests embraced in them will undoubt- 
edly be preserved, and the opportunity 
is presented for establishing in them 
definitely located study areas, subject 
to the policy of administration. A 
study of the accompanying map (figs. 1 
and 2) will show that the reserved areas 
are widely distributed over the country. 
Doubtless areas representative of widely 
prevailing natural conditions can be 
found in them. This will make it pos- 
sible to limit the number of such areas 
within the National Forests to a scale 
consistent with their administrative 

8 Korstian, C. F. "Grazing in the National 
Forests." This volume, pp. 33-34. 



policies, selecting only such locations 
as will preserve and maintain typical 
virgin conditions, and offer a home to 
all forms of wild life within the forest 
itself and yet not interfere materially 
with important timber sales or other 
large commercial developments. Be- 
cause of their diversity of conditions 
and types, National Forests offer to 
ecologists untold opportunities for study. 

Within the 157 million acres of 
National Forests there are many areas 
of wilderness of rugged and diversified 
topography which have no great eco- 
nomic importance for timber or forage, 
but which possess high value both 
for recreational and scientific purposes. 
The Forest Service policy of best and 
most appropriate use includes the 
building of trails through these areas, 
partly for fire protection and partly 
to make them more accessible for just 
such purposes as those mentioned. An 
important step toward adequate pro- 
tection of game would be the legisla- 
tion long urged by game conserva- 
tionists for the establishment, by 
Presidential action, of federal game 
refuges in the National Forests. Still 
another important list of areas, on 
which natural conditions are already 
being preserved, are the municipal 
watersheds, protected as sources of 
city water supply. Furthermore, be- 
cause of economic inaccessibility or 
other such factors, vestiges of virgin 
forest will doubtless remain untouched 
indefinitely, although they may not be 
formally incorporated in specifically 
reserved areas. 

With proper cooperation between the 
various "wild life" and "natural con- 
ditions" advocates the greater part of 
their needs could be adequately met 
without the reservation of a prohibi- 
tively large acreage. The present quota 
of National Parks, municipal water- 
sheds and other forest areas which are 
safeguarded against exploitation and 
depredation are not wholly adequate. 
There is still need for a few more areas 
in each forest region which must be 
carefully selected to insure a proper 





3FUHW 
G3VPL. 

I 






AREAS WITHIN NATIONAL FORESTS WHERE 

NATURAL CONDITIONS ARE PRESERVED 

OR ARE PROPOSED FOR PRESERVATION 



AREAS NOW IN NATURAL CONDITION UNDER PRESERVATION 



AREAS IN NATURAL CONDITION PROPOSED FOR PRESERVATION 




FIG. 1 




NATIONAL FORESTS 

ESS3 STATE. FORESTS 

E???3I INDIAN RESERVATIONS 

nrnrm NATIONAL PARKS 

o NATIONAL MONUMENTS 
2 DISTRICT BOUNDARIES 
AND NUMBERS 



MILELS 
100 



200 



FIG. 2 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



19 



representation of all important forest 
types. Such areas may now be found 
in the National Forests. The longer 
their economic use and development is 
continued, the further will they depart 
from a primeval condition. 

The descriptions of the National 
Forests in the following pages are 
grouped according to the eight adminis- 
trative districts. The forest types vary 
widely between districts and also within 
some of these districts. The accompany- 
ing map (figs. 1 and 2) gives a general 
idea of the location of the National 
Forests and the approximate number of 
areas on which the forest conditions are 
being preserved in their natural and 
semi-natural states. The areas within 
the National Forests which are being 
preserved in their natural condition are 
chiefly those closed to grazing, timber 
sales, and other commercial exploitation 
because they possess unusual scenic 
features, are the sources of important 
municipal water supplies, or are for- 
esters' permanent sample plots located 
in virgin timber as a check on some 
artificial cultural operation. The areas 
being preserved in a semi-natural con- 
dition comprise the federal and state 
game preserves, the majority of the 
permanent sample plots, experimental 
forests, and areas on which some forms 
of use are prohibited and others 
permitted. 

It is greatly to be regretted that, on 
account of the prohibitive cost, the 
Committee found it absolutely impos- 
sible to publish the excellent maps 
submitted by some of the contributors. 
The map accompanying this paper 
(figs. 1 and 2) is necessarily on too small a 
scale to show these areas with the pre- 
cision and detail of classification they 
deserve. Anyone desiring to visit any 
of the National Forest areas, whether 
for study or for pleasure, should com- 
municate with the nearest District 
Forester at the address given on the 
map, who will gladly supply the desired 
information in much more detail than 
it could possibly be given here. Many 
of the National Forests are reached by 



highways, while good mountain roads 
are available for extensive trips into 
the higher portions. For the regions 
inaccessible by automobile, trails are 
available which extend throughout the 
mountains in such a way as to bring the 
greater part of them within reach. 
Camping equipment is often necessary 
and always desirable. Information re- 
garding roads, means of transportaion 
and subsistence can always be secured 
at the office of the local Forest Super- 
visor or from the Forest Rangers at the 
ranger stations in the National Forests. 
Few restrictions are imposed upon natu- 
ralists in the National Forests and the 
local Forest Officers are always willing 
to give additional information as to 
routes and methods of travel. 

3. PERMANENT SAMPLE PLOTS IN 
THE NATIONAL FORESTS 

BY C. F. KORSTIAN 

Within a few decades a large part of 
our natural wild woods will be cut over 
and the forest products needed in every- 
day life will be supplied by second- 
growth forests. It is, therefore, im- 
portant to know what tree species these 
lands are capable of growing and how 
much timber they will yield. In order 
to answer these questions the forester 
must determine what kinds of trees are 
coming in naturally, how fast they are 
growing, the loss due to various causes, 
including natural shading out of the 
smaller and weaker trees, what may be 
expected from those which live, and 
whether the natural reproduction is 
adequate to insure satisfactory stands 
of valuable species of timber trees or 
whether it needs to be supplemented by 
artificial planting. 

Some of the first permanent sample 
plots in the National Forests were 
established on the Coconino and Tu- 
sayan Forests by the Fort Valley Forest 
Experiment Station, about 16 years ago, 
for the purpose of obtaining basic 
scientific data on these questions. 
There are now many such plots on the 
National Forests throughout the West, 



20 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



and also some on the less extensive 
eastern Forests. In addition to these 
silvicultural sample plots, hundreds of 
permanent sample plots have been estab- 
lished in the National Forests in con- 
nection with the study of range manage- 
ment. On these are being recorded the 
changes occurring in the herbaceous 
and shrubby vegetation and timber 
reproduction as a result of total pro- 
tection from grazing or the type of 
grazing management in practice. 

Relatively few of the permanent 
sample plots on the National Forests 
are in virgin forest and the silviculturist 
cannot imagine keeping all of them in 
such a condition, even if they are now. 
A few plots, however, will be retained 
in natural stands as a check on the 
cultural operations of the forester. 
Such plots in the virgin forest would be 
valuable chiefly from the standpoint of 
studying the natural succession of forest 
vegetation and competition in its broad- 
est sense, as between individuals, spe- 
cies, and associations. Thus, while 
permanent sample plots in the National 
Forests will be primarily for silvicultural 
purposes, there remains a huge problem 
which will require intensive study by 
the ecologist on areas left in a natural 
condition. 

Since the silviculturist is working in 
part on such utilitarian problems as 
the effects of different methods of 
cutting or thinning and slash disposal 
on the subsequent growth of the uncut 
trees and on natural regeneration, the 
reason why his permanent sample plots 
must be located largely outside of 
virgin forests is apparent. As a matter 
of fact, most of these plots are on culled 
or cutover lands where the conditions 
are at most only semi-natural. In many 
cases the original forest type is in time 
re-established and in others a sub-climax 
replaces it. These plots, however, will 
ultimately prove extremely interesting 
to the biologist because the forester 
maintains a detailed record, through the 
periodic measurement and examination 
of the trees and the vegetation on the 
areas, of all the changes taking place 



between the time of the cutting of the 
original stand and the maturity of the 
subsequent crop. Protection from other 
disturbing factors is usually provided. 
These plots will give the ecologist the 
complete history of the successional 
phenomena recorded, which will enable 
a more exact analysis and correlation 
of the results by eliminating the neces- 
sity for much interpolation and specula- 
tion concerning some of the intermediate 
phases. 

It is therefore evident that the per- 
manent sample plots in the National 
Forests, although they may not all be 
important from the standpoint of the 
preservation of natural conditions, will 
supply the forester, the ecologist, and the 
biologist with much valuable scientific 
information which cannot be secured in 
any other way. 

4. NATIONAL PARKS AND NA- 
TIONAL MONUMENTS 

BY E. LUCY BRAUN 

The United States government has, 
by the establishment of national parks 
and monuments, taken a foremost posi- 
tion in the preservation of one of our 
great economic and social assets 
unusual and superlative natural scenery. 
The establishment of Yellowstone Na- 
tional Park in 1872 marked the begin- 
ning of a project which has grown to 
great importance, and which has become 
a world-wide influence in the establish- 
ment of national reservations in other 
parts of the world. 

The first effort at conservation was 
made in 1832, when Congress set aside 
the Hot Springs Reservation, which has 
since (in 1921) been made a national 
park. From the establishment of Yel- 
lowstone to the present time, the na- 
tional park system has constantly 
grown. It was not, however, until 1916, 
that the National Park Service was 
established as a separate bureau of the 
Department of the Interior. There are 
now under its control, 19 parks having a 
total area of 11,372 sq. mi., and 29 
monuments with total area of about 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



21 



1820 sq. mi. In addition to these, 
there are 7 national military parks and 
3 monuments administered by the War 
Department, and 13 national monuments 
administered by the Department of 
Agriculture . 

A national park is created by act of 
Congress, and yearly appropriations 
made thereafter for its upkeep and 
development. A national monument is 
set aside by presidential proclamation; 
no direct provision is made for its 
development. Small yearly appropria- 
tions are now granted by Congress for 
protection and maintenance of the 
national monuments. National monu- 
ments are often, though not always, of 
lesser importance and smaller area than 
national parks. Areas of extreme im- 
portance in remote areas are sometimes 
set aside as monuments and later the 
status changed to park. This was true 
of the Grand Canyon and of Zion Can- 
yon. The desired object preservation 
is accomplished in the establishment of 
the monument. A number of the na- 
tional monuments have been established 
to preserve relics of archaeological and 
historical interest, as Montezuma Castle 
and Gran Quivira; others, as Muir 
Woods and Rainbow Bridge, preserve 
natural features. 

National monuments administered by 
the Department of Agriculture, as 
Mount Olympus, are situated in national 
forests. That is, they are reservations 
within national forests, where natural 
conditions are to be preserved. 

The integrity of the national parks 
has been attacked time and time again. 
Desire of commercial 'exploitation of 
water resources for power and irrigation 
projects, of grazing resources, and of 
timber, by local interests more con- 
cerned in their own financial advance- 
ment than in the interests of the Nation, 
must constantly be combated. 

The act of Congress in 1916 establish- 
ing the National Park Service, was a 
distinct step in advance. In this act is 
contained the following statement: 

The service thus established shall 
promote and regulate the use of the 



Federal areas known as national parks, 
monuments, and reservations herein- 
after specified by such means and meas- 
ures as conform to the fundamental 
purpose of the said parks, monuments, 
and reservations, which purpose is to 
conserve the scenery and the natural 
and historic objects and the wild life 
therein and to provide for the enjoy- 
ment of the same in such manner and by 
such means as will leave them unim- 
paired for the enjoyment of future 
generations. 

As Congress still has the power to 
modify park boundaries, and to grant 
easements within the park boundaries, 
it behooves the citizens of the United 
States, to whom the parks belong, to 
take an interested part in all questions 
relating to our national parks, and to 
express their disapproval of any plan 
violating the purpose for which the 
parks and monuments were created. 

Irrigation and water power interests 
have made the most insistent demands 
for utilization of park resources. Yel- 
lowstone, Glacier, and Yosemite have 
been attacked. The Sherburne irriga- 
tion reservoir at Glacier and the de- 
struction of the Hetch Hetchy Valley in 
Yosemite, should be an object lesson in 
the results of irrigation and water power 
developments. The amendment of the 
Federal water-power act (March, 1921), 
which removed the national parks and 
monuments already established from the 
operation of the provisions of the water- 
power act, makes difficult but not im- 
possible, future projects of this sort. 
A bill now pending calls for the erection 
of a dam across the Yellowstone River, 
which will raise the level of Lake Yel- 
lowstone, thus flooding surrounding 
land. 

Grazing concessions present a question 
of great importance. While damage 
inflicted by grazing is not as irreparable 
as that produced by the building of 
dams, it is nevertheless very serious. 
Natural reproduction of trees and other 
plants is hindered or prevented; erosion 
is favored. Herbaceous growth is most 
affected, which means that the flower 
display is curtailed or entirely wiped 
out. The fodder of native grazing 



22 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



animals, as deer and elk, may be reduced 
to the point where survival in periods of 
extreme drought or in severe winters 
may be difficult. And last, but not 
least, sanitation is affected and the 
water supply may be impaired. That 
grazing has affected the appearance of 
the Grand Canyon National Park is 
evident from the report of the Director 
of National Park Service for 1923. 
"The park floral display below the 
rims of the canyon is extremely varied 
and beautiful in successive seasons, but 
the lack of such display on the rims is 
largely due to cattle grazing." Sheep 
grazing is prohibited in all national 
parks; cattle grazing is permitted in 
some areas. 

The national parks and monuments 
comprise only one-third of one per cent 
of the total area of our country. "Cer- 
tainly as a Nation we are rich enough to 
preserve from spoliation such a small 
amount of native America intact for the 
enjoyment of posterity.' 1 

National parks and monuments differ 
radically from national forests. The 
parks and monuments are intended to be 
true preserves, where every effort should 
be made to maintain natural conditions. 
Timber cutting and grazing are not 
permitted except in certain instances 
and should be wholly prohibited. Hunt- 
ing, except predatory animals, and 
removal of any natural object by visitors 
is prohibited, except that a certain 
amount of angling is permitted. The 
addition to any national park of plants 
or animals which are not native should 
not be permitted, for the addition of 
foreign plants or animals would cer- 
tainly not be in keeping with one of the 
established purposes of the parks and 
monuments the conserving of the wild 
life therein- which should be inter- 
preted to mean native wild life. This 
question has been considered by the 
Ecological Society of America (see 
"Resolutions," Ecology, vol. Ill: 170). 
The national forests, on the other hand, 
are a valuable measure toward con- 
servation, not complete preservation, 
except in limited areas. Cutting of 



mature timber is permitted, and thus the 
composition of the forest is changed. 
Tree planting is resorted to improve the 
stands, or to increase the percentage of 
commercially desirable trees; hunting 
is permitted; grazing is general, even to 
the point of over grazing. Outside 
activities in the national forests are 
regulated by the Forest Service. Thus, 
while the national forests are great 
conservers of our national resources, 
it is in our national parks and monu- 
ments that natural conditions are best 
maintained at present. 

The national parks policy, as an- 
nounced in 1918, and reaffirmed recently 
by Secretary Work, should maintain 
our parks as the preserves of wild life 
that they now are. Its three funda- 
mental prnciples are: "First, that the 
national parks must be maintained in 
absolutely unimpaired form for the use 
of future generations as well as those of 
our own time; second, that they are set 
apart for the use, observation, health, 
and pleasure of the people; and third, 
that the national interest must dictate all 
decisions affecting public or private en- 
terprise in the parks." 

Following is a list of national parks 
and monuments, arranged in order of 
date of establishment. Descriptions of 
most of these will be found in the state 
accounts; the distinctive features of the 
less important are given here. 1 

NATIONAL PARKS ADMINISTERED BY THE 
NATIONAL PARK SERVICE 

Hot Springs, Arkansas; 1832; 1| sq. mi.; 

46 hot springs. 
Yellowstone, Wyoming, Montana, and 

Idaho; 1872; 3348 sq. mi.; Wyo., 

page 532. 
Sequoia, California; 1890; 252 sq. mi.; 

Calif., page 197. 
Yosemite, California; 1890; 1125 sq. mi.; 

Calif., page 197. 
General Grant, California; 1890; 4 sq. 

mi.; Calif., page 197. 
Mount Rainier. Washington; 1899; 324 

sq. mi. ; Calil., page 175. 
Crater Lake, Oregon; 1902; 249 sq. 

mi.; Ore., page 191. 

1 All quotations from Seventh Annual Report of 
Director of National Park Service. 1923. 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



23 



Wind Cave, South Dakota, 1903; 17 sq. 

mi.; S. D., page 555. 
Platt, Oklahoma; 1902, 1904; H sq. mi. 

Contains sulphur and other springs 

of medicinal value; wooded area with 

wild flowers and birds. 
Sullys Hill, North Dakota; 1904; H 

sq. mi.; N. D., page 547. 
Mesa Verde, Colorado; 1906, 1913; 77 

sq. mi.; Colo., page 527. 
Glacier, Montana; 1910; 1534 sq. mi.; 

Mont., page 539. 
Rocky Mountain, Colorado; 1915, 1917; 

397 sq. mi.; Colo., page 527. 
Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands; 1916, 1922; 

186 sq. mi., in three separate areas. 
Lassen Volcanic, California; 1916; 124 

sq. mi.; Calif., page 198. 
Mount McKinley, Alaska; 1917, 1922; 

2645 sq. mi. 
Grand Canyon, Arizona; 1908, 1919; 958 

sq. mi.; Ariz., page 568. 
Lafayette. Maine; 1916, 1919; 8 sq. mi.; 

Me., page 310. 
Zion, Utah; 1909, 1918, 1919; 120 sq. mi.; 

includes former Mukuntuweap Na- 
tional Monument; Utah, page 559. 



NATIONAL MILITARY AND OTHER PARKS 

ADMINISTERED BY THE WAR 

DEPARTMENT 

Chickamauga and Chattanooga, Georgia 
and Tennessee; 1890; 6543 acres. 
"Beautiful natural park. Embraces 
battle fields of Chickamauga and 
Missionary Ridge and scenes of other 
conflicts of the Civil War fought in 
the vicinity of Chattanooga during 
1863." 

Antietam Battle Field, Maryland; 1890; 
50 acres. "Scene of one of the greatest 
battles of the Civil War." 

Shiloh, Tennessee; 1894; 3546 acres. 
"Natural park embracing the battle 
field of Shiloh near Pittsburg Land- 
ing." 

Gettysburg, Pennsylvania; 1895; 2451 
acres. "Beautiful natural park. 
Scene of Civil War combat. Probably 
better marked than any other battle- 
field in the world." 

Vicksburg, Mississippi; 1899; 1323 acres. 
"Beautiful natural park. Scene of 
the siege and surrender of Vicksburg 
in 1863 during the Civil War." 

Lincoln's Birthplace, Kentucky; 1916; 
"Contains the log cabin and part of 
the farm where Lincoln was born." 

Guilford Courthouse, North Carolina; 
1917; 125 acres. "Near Greensboro. 
Scene of one of the great battles of 
the Revolution; fought in 1781." 



NATIONAL MONUMENTS ADMINISTERED 
BY THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE 

Devils Tower, Wyoming; 1906; 1152 
acres. "Remarkable natural rock 
tower, of volcanic origin, 1200 ft. in 
height." 

Montezuma Castle, Arizona; 1906; 160 
acres. "Prehistoric cliff-dwelling 
ruin ... of scenic and ethnologic 
interest." 

El Morro, New Mexico; 1906, 1917; 240 
acres. "Enormous sandstone rock 
eroded in form of a castle, upon which 
inscriptions have been placed by 
early Spanish explorers. Contains 
cliff-dweller ruins. Of great historic 
scenic, and ethnologic interest." 

Petrified Forest, Arizona; 1906, 1911; 
25, 625 acres. "Abundance of petrified 
coniferous trees, one of which forms 
a small natural bridge." 

Chaco Canyon, New Mexico; 1907; 
20,629 acres. "Numerous cliff-dweller 
ruins." 

Muir Woods, California; 1908, 1921; 
426.43 acres. (See Calif.) 

Pinnacles, California; 1908, 1923; 2653.46 
acres. (See Calif.) 

Natural Bridges, Utah; 1908, 1909, 1916; 
2740 acres. (See Utah.) 

Lewis and Clark Cavern, Montana; 
1908, 1911; 160 acres. Temporarily 
closed to the public. "Immense lime- 
stone cavern of great scientific in- 
terest, magnificently decorated with 
stalactite formations." 

Tumacacori, Arizona; 1908; 10 acres. 
Ruin of Franciscan mission. 

Navajo, Arizona; 1909, 1912; 360 acres. 
"Numerous pueblo or cliff-dweller 
ruins, in good preservation." 

Shoshone Cavern, Wyoming; 1909; 210 
acres. "Cavern of considerable ex- 
tent, near Cody." 

Gran Quivira, New Mexico; 1909, 1919, 
560 acres. Early Spanish mission 
ruins and pueblo ruins. 

Sitka, Alaska; 1910; 57 acres. "Park of 
great natural beauty and historic 
interest as scene of massacre of 
Russians by Indians. Contains 16 
totem poles of best native workman- 
ship." 

Rainbow Bridge, Utah; 1910; 160 acres. 
"Unique natural bridge of great 
scientific interest and symmetry. 
Height 309 feet above water, and span 
is 278 feet, in shape of rainbow." 

Colorado, Colorado; 1911; 13,883 acres; 
"Many lofty monoliths, and is won- 
derful example of erosion, and of 
great scenic beauty and interest." 



24 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



Papago Saguaro, Arizona; 1914, 1922; 
1940.43 acres. "Splendid collection 
of characteristic desert flora and 
numerous pictographs. Interesting 
rock formations." 

Dinosaur, Utah; 1915; 80 acres. (See 
Utah.) 

Capulin Mountain, New Mexico; 1916; 
681 acres. "Cinder cone of geologi- 
cally recent formation. 

Verendrye, North Dakota; 1917; 253.04 
acres. Includes Crowhigh Butte 
SeeN.D. 

Casa Grande, Arizona; 1889, 1909, 1918; 
480 acres. "These ruins are one of 
the most noteworthy relics of a pre- 
historic age and people within the 
limits of the United States. Dis- 
covered in ruinous condition in 1694." 

Katmai, Alaska; 1918; 1,088,000 acres. 
"Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes." 

Scotts Bluff, Nebraska; 1919; 2053.83 
acres. "Region of historic and sci- 
entific interest. Many famous old 
trails traversed by the early pioneers 
in the winning of the West passed over 
and through this monument." 

Yucca House, Colorado; 1919; 9.6 acres. 
"Relic of prehistoric inhabitants." 

Fossil Cycad. South Dakota; 1922; 
320 acres. "Area containing deposits 
of plant fossils." 

Aztec Ruin, New Mexico; 1923; 4.6 
acres. "Prehistoric ruin of pueblo 
type containing 500 rooms." 

Hovenweep, Utah-Colorado; 1923; 285.8 
acres. "Four groups of prehistoric 
towers, pueblos and cliff dwellings." 

Pipe Spring, Arizona; 1923; 40 acres. 
"Old stone fort and spring of pure 
water in desert region." 

Carlsbad Cave, New Mexico; 1923; 
719.22 acres. Immense cavern; see 
Nat. Geog. Mag., January, 1924. 

NATIONAL MONUMENTS ADMINISTERED 

BY THE DEPARTMENT OF 

AGRICULTURE 

Gila Cliff Dwellings, New Mexico; 1907; 
160 acres. "Numerous cliff-dweller 
ruins of much interest and in good 
preservation." In Gila National 
Forest. 

Tonto, Arizona; 1907; 640 acres; similar 
to Gila Cliff Dwellings. In Tonto 
National Forest. 

Jewel Cave, South Dakota; 1908; 1280 
acres. "Limestone cavern of much 
beauty and considerable extent, limits 
of which are as yet unknown." In 
Harney National Forest. 

Wheeler, Colorado ; 1908 ; 300 acres. ' 'Of 
much interest from geological stand- 
point as example of eccentric erosion 



and extinct volcanic action. Of much 
scenic beauty." In Cochetopa and 
Rio Grande National Forests. 

Mount Olympus, Washington; 1909, 
1912, 1915; 299,370 acres. Contains 
many objects of great and unusual 
scientific interest, including many 
glaciers. Is summer range and breed- 
ing ground of the Olympic elk." In 
Olympic National Forest. 

Oregon Caves, Oregon; 1909; 480 acres. 
"Extensive caves in limestone of 
much beauty; magnitude not entirely 
ascertained." In Siskiyou National 
Forest. 

Devil Postpile, California; 1911; 800 
acres. "Spectacular mass of hexag- 
onal basaltic columns, like an immense 
pile of posts. Said to rank with 
famous Giant's Causeway in Ireland." 
In Sierra National Forest. 

Walnut Canyon, Arizona; 1915; 960 
acres. "Contains cliff-dwellings of 
much scientific and popular interest." 
In Coconino National Forest. 

Bandelier, New Mexico; 1916; 22,075 
acres. "Vast number of cliff-dweller 
ruins, with artificial caves, stone 
sculpture, and other relics of pre- 
historic life." In Santa Fe National 
Forest. 

Old Kasaan, Alaska; 1916; 38.3 acres. 
"Abandoned Indian village in which 
there are numerous remarkable totem 
poles and other objects of historical 
interest." In Tongass National 
Forest, 

Lehman Caves, Nevada; 1922; 593.03 
acres. "Limestone caverns of much 
beauty and of scientific interest and 
importance." In Nevada National 
Forest. 

Timpanogos Cave, Utah; 1922; 250 
acres. Limestone cavern. In Wa- 
satch National Forest. 

Bryce Canyon, Utah; 1923; 7440 acres. 
"Box canyon filled with countless 
array of fantastically eroded pin- 
nacles. Best exhibit of vivid coloring 
of earth's materials." In Powell 
National Forest. 

Extensions of a number of parks are 
advocated by the Director of the Na- 
tional Park Service: Crater Lake to 
include Diamond Lake; Yellowstone to 
include the Teton Country to the south; 
Rainier to include Ohanapecosh Hot 
Springs, to the southeast ; and the much 
discussed extensions of Yosemite and 
Sequoia, which involve elimination of 
land now park territory, and inclu- 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



25 



sion of scenic areas now outside park 
limits. 

The enlargement of Sequoia National 
Park by the creation of Roosevelt- 
Sequoia National Park, involves not 
alone addition of desirable territory, 
but exclusion from the park boundary of 
parts of park territory. The addition 
includes some of the finest Sierra coun- 
try Mt. Whitney, the Kings and Kern 
Canyons and Tehipite Valley. The bill, 
as it now stands, retains all but a small 
part of the 3 southern townships whose 
exclusion met with so much opposition 
among naturalists. Most of the Sequoia 
groves are retained. The inclusion of 
the headwaters and canyons of the 
Kings River, one of the finest valleys 
of the Sierras, is meeting with strong 
opposition from local irrigation districts. 

The proposed change in Yosemite 
National Park also involves the acquir- 
ing of a section of the High Sierras, and 
the exclusion of certain private lands 
(10,959.89 acres) along the western 
boundary. These private holdings cause 
administrative difficulties, because of 
grazing problems and the cutting of the 
timber. In both cases, the territory 
(not now privately owned) excluded 
from the parks comes under the control 
of the Forest Service. 

Proposals for new parks and monu- 
ments are constantly being made. All 
must be investigated for availability and 
desirability. The area must be one of 
national, not merely local interest. 
Areas of great local interest should be 
taken care of as State parks. Only one 
national park, Lafayette, is situated 
east of the Mississippi River. It seems 
desirable that the park system be in- 
creased in this section of the country if 
suitable areas can be secured. Among 
proposals here, are Sand Dunes, 2 Mis- 
sissippi Valley, Appalachia, Everglades, 
Mount Katahdin, and Mammoth Cave. 
In the West, where scenic features of 
merit are more numerous, many propo- 

2 "Report on the Proposed Sand Dunes National 
Park, Indiana." Stephen T. Mather, Director of 
the National Park Service. 1917. 113 pp. 



sals have been made prominent among 
which is the Glacier Bay region of 
Alaska. Many worthy areas have also 
been proposed as national monuments. 
Proposals presented to the Sixty- 
eighth Congress, include the following: 

Mount Katahdin (Maine). 

Killdeer Mountain (North Dakota). 

Roosevelt (North Dakota). 

Mammoth Cave (Kentucky). 

Mississippi Valley (Wisconsin, Iowa). 

Utah (Utah). 

Appalachia (Virginia) to include sum- 
mit of High Knob Mountain. 

Wonderland (South Dakota). 

Lincoln (Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee) 
to include High Pinnacle Moun- 
tain and Cumberland Gap. 

Nicolet (Wisconsin) an abandoned 
military reservation; 1046 acres. 

Battle of Bear's Paw (Montana) as a 
national monument. 

Grand Coulee (Washington). 

Yakima (Washington) to include Mt. 
Adams and surrounding territory. 

Blue Knob (Pennsylvania). 

An area in a National Forest reservation 
in Georgia. 

Many other bills to establish national 
parks and monuments have been pre- 
sented. All such areas have been or are 
being investigated. 

There has recently been appointed by 
Secretary Work, a Southern Appalachian 
Park Committee. This committee is 
"to undertake a thorough study of the 
Southern Appalachian Mountains for 
the purpose of selecting the most worthy 
site in that range as a national park, 
in order to conserve the scenery and the 
plant and animal life under established 
national park policies for the use and 
education of our people." They have 
since recommended two areas, the 
Shenandoah in Virginia and the Great 
Smokies in Tennessee and North Caro- 
lina. 

The national park system will doubt- 
less continue to expand, and to increase 
in value as its parks and monuments 
become increasingly popular as rec- 
reational areas, and as natural areas 
in which the study of native fauna and 
flora may be carried on to advantage. 



26 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



LITERATURE 

Almost every periodical dealing with 
travel or nature contains articles on one 
or more of our national parks. The 
following are of a more general nature : 

A Guide to the National Parks of 
America. Edited by Edward Frank 
Allen. Robert McBride and Co., 
New York, revised edition, 1918. 
338 pp., map and illustrations. 

The National Parks Portfolio. Robert 
Sterling Yard. 248 pp., 306 ill. 
Gov. Pr. Office. 

Your National Parks. Enos A Mills. 

Glimpses of our National Parks. R. S. 
Yard. 72 pp., 31 ill. Gov. Pr. Office. 

General Information regarding the 
National Monuments. (Contains 
descriptions of all national monu- 
ments administered by the Depart- 
ment of the Interior, the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, and the War 
Department.) Gov. Pr. Office. 
(Out of print.) 

Information Circulars for individual 
parks. Free on request to Director, 
National Park Service. (Available 
for Crater Lake, Grand Canyon, 
Hawaii, Hot Springs, Mesa Verde, 
Mount Rainier, Rocky Mountain, 
Sequoia and General Grant, Wind 
Cave, Yellowstone, and Yosemite. 

Automobile Road and Trail Maps. 
Director, National Park Service. 

Annual Reports of the Department of 
the Interior and of the National 
Park Service. 

The Relation of Wild Life to the Public in 
National and State Parks. Charles 
C. Adams, Proc. 2nd Nat. Conf., 
State Parks, 1922. 

Glacier National Park 

Flora of Glacier National Park. Paul 

C. Standley. Contr. U. S. Natl. 

Herb., vol. 22, pt. 5. 1921. 
Wild Animals of Glacier National Park. 

The Mammals. Vernon Bailey ; The 

Birds. Florence Merriam Bailey. 

210 pp., 94 fig., 37 pi., 1 map. 1918. 
Origin of the Scenic Features of Glacier 

National Park. M. R. Campbell. 

42pp., 25 ill. 1914. Gov. Pr. Office. 
Glaciers of Glacier National Park. W. 

C. Alden. 48 pp., 30 ill. 1914. 

Gov. Pr. Office. 
Some Lakes of Glacier National Park. 

M. J. Elrod. 32 pp., 19 ill. 1912. 

Gov. Pr. Office. 
Glacier National Park. A Popular 

Guide to Its Geology and Scenery. 



M. R. Campbell. U. S. Geol. Surv., 
Bull. 600. 54 pp., 13 pi., map. 
1914. Gov. Pr. Office. 

Glacier National Park, Its Trails and 
Treasures. Mathilde Edith Holz 
and Katherine Isabel Bemis. 

Tenting Tonight. Mary Roberts Rine- 
hart. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1918. 

Yellowstone National Park 

Geological History of Yellowstone 
National Park. Arnold Hague. 24 
pp., 10 ill. 1912. Gov. Pr. Office. 

Geysers. Walter Harvey Weed. 32 pp., 
23 ill. 1912. Gov. Pr. Office. 

Fossil Forests of Yellowstone National 
Park. F. H. Knowlton. 32 pp., 15 
ill. 1914. Gov. Pr. Office. 

Fishes of the Yellowstone National 
Park. W. C. Kendall. 28 pp., 17 
ill. 1915. 

The Big'Game^Animals T of Yellowstone 
National Park. Edmund Heller. 
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin, vol. 2, 
no. 4: 405-467. 1925. 

The Food of Trout in Yellowstone Na- 
tional Park. Richard A. Muttkow- 
ski. Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin, 
vol. 2, no. 4: 471-497. 1925. 

The Birds of the Yellowstone National 
Park. Milton P. Skinner. Roosevelt 
Wild Life Bulletin, vol. 3, no. 1. 
192 pp. 1925. 

Grand Canyon National Park 

The Shinumo Quadrangle, Grand 
Canyon district, Arizona. L. F. 
Noble, U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. 549. 
1914. 

Rocky Mountain National Park 

Geologic Story of Rocky Mountain 

National Park. Willis T. Lee. 

Mountaineering in Rocky Mountain 

National Park. Roger W. Toll. 

Lafayette National Park 

The Sieur de Monts National Monu- 
ment as a Bird Sanctuary. 

The Coastal Setting, Rocks and Woods 
of the Sieur de Monts National 
Monument. 

An Acadian Plant Sanctuary. 

The Sieur de Monts National Monument 
as commemorating Acadia and early 
French influences of Race and Set- 
tlement in the United States. 

Natural Bird Gardens on Mount Desert 

Island. 
(All the above from Director of N. P. 

Service.) 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



27 



Yosemite National Park j 

A Yosemite Fora. Hall. 

Sketch of Yosemite National Park and 
an Account of the Origin of Yose- 
mite and Hetch Hetchy Valleys. 
F. E. Matthes. Gov. Pr. Office. 

Forests of Yosemite, Sequoia, and 
General Grant National Parks. C. 
L. Hill. Gov. Pr. Office. 

The Secret of the Big Trees Yosemite. 
Sequoia, and General Grant National 
Parks. Ellsworth Huntington. 

Mount Rainier National Park 

Features of the Flora of Mount Rainier 
National Park. J. B. Flett. Gov. 
Pr. Office. 

Forests of Mount Rainier National 
Park. G. F. Allen. Gov. Pr. Office. 

Mount Rainier and Its Glaciers. F. E. 
Matthes. Gov. Pr. Office. 

Mount Rainier, a Record of Explora- 
tions. Edmond S. Meany. ^ 

Crater Lake National Park 

Geological History of Crater Lake. J. 

S. Diller. Gov. Pr. Office. 
Forests of Crater Lake National Park. 

J. F. Pernot. Gov. Pr. Office. 

5. MUSEUMS AND NATURE 
BY FRANK COLLINS BAKER 

Many well informed people have 
thought that the elaborate habitat 
groups in the modern museum can take 
the place of first hand contact with the 
animals in their natural environment. 
These groups are indeed wonderfully 
life-like, and in many cases faithfully 
portray the life as it may be seen in 
nature, and when scientifically accurate 
and constructed with due regard to the 
psychology of the museum visitor they 
have both a value to ecology and an 
interest for the visitor. But these 
groups, good as they are, only interpret 
certain phases of the life of the animals, 
giving the average person a birds-eye 
view of some of the phenomena which 
go to make up the every-day occupation 
of wild life. Such groups as the Vir- 
ginia deer in the four seasons, on exhibi- 
tion in the Field Museum of Natural 
History, give the student a good idea 
of the changes that take place in the 
form and fur of these common animals: 



'but this simply interprets these phe- 
nomena and cannot take the place of the 
wild deer in their native haunts. 

These museum groups, however, have 
a real ecological value, not only in- 
terpreting nature to those who may be 
fortunate enough to be able to visit the 
national parks and other wild places of 
nature, and so make these visits of 
more profit and pleasure, but they also 
give to those individuals (who unfor- 
tunately are in the majority) who cannot 
leave the big centers of population and 
enjoy wild life at first hand, a glimpse 
of wild animal life as it is, or more 
often, as it has been, before man took 
complete possession of the land, lake, 
and forest for his personal, and too often, 
selfish use. 

The preservation of natural areas for 
the maintenance of wild life is emphati- 
cally desired by, and necessary for, 
the modern museum, for only by a 
study of these natural areas can these 
wonderful groups be made. It is be- 
coming increasingly difficult to find 
places near the cities where even the 
smaller life can be studied for such 
purposes. Lakes and streams adjacent 
to towns and small cities (to say nothing 
of these near the large metropolitan 
cities, where almost everything is de- 
spoiled) are either heavily polluted and 
the fauna and flora killed or so changed 
by modern life of the suburbanite as to 
completely destroy all vestiges of origi- 
nal wild life. The preservation of small 
natural, more or less virgin, areas near 
small towns and cities is imperative 
and must be accomplished soon, or all 
such places will be lost forever. 

The large museums of the big cities 
as well as the smaller museums of towns, 
small cities, and those connected with 
universities, are in a position to aid 
the movement for the preservation of 
wild life sanctuaries by the intelligent 
display of their material so that visitors 
may become interested in wild life, and 
thus be led to add their influence when 
constructive legislation is urged by the 
many societies fostering this subject. 



28 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



The museum habitat group has now 
become one of the chief features of in- 
terest in all museums, and many very 
good examples of this new art are scat- 
tered over the country from the Atlantic 
to the Pacific, notably at New York, 
Pittsburg, Chicago, Milwaukee, Denver, 
San Francisco, and other places, and 
the tourist may happily visit these 
places and later visit the native haunts 
of the animals exhibited. The auto- 
mobile has brought the city and the 
wild places closer together, and one may 
often pass in a few hours from the 
museum halls to the wilds of a national 
or state park. The modern museum 
seeks to interpret the lives of wild 
animals for the benefit of all people, 
rather than to simply store up vast 
hordes of material for the specialist, 
though the latter work must be carried 
on also for the advancement of our 
knowledge of life in general. The 
museum is now, and always has been, 
the champion of the conservation of 
wild life. 

6. THE GAME REFUGES AND 

PUBLIC SHOOTING GROUNDS 

OF PENNSYLVANIA 

BY JOHN M. PHILLIPS 
Member of the Board of Game Commis- 
sioners of Pennsylvania, 1905 to 1924 

Some 30 years ago, the thinking sports- 
men of the State of Pennsylvania be- 
coming alarmed at the rapid disap- 
pearance of wild game generally in this 
State, awoke suddenly to a realization 
of the fact that if it was to be saved for 
posterity immediate action was neces- 
sary to secure its protection and pres- 
ervation. It was recognized that in 
order to attain results, a head to direct 
and guide the efforts of the sportsmen 
was necessary. After considerable agi- 
tation, in 1895, by an Act of Legislature, 
the Game Commission was created, 
empowered to collect data and to recom- 
mend legislation relating to the subject 
of game and wild bird preservation, and 
to enforce such laws as might be enacted. 



The Commission was to consist of six 
sportsmen, appointed by the Governor, 
without regard to their political affilia- 
tions, as it was intended to keep the 
Game Commission a non-partisan body 
and out of politics; the Commissioners 
were to serve for love of the work and 
without remuneration. 

The cause was particularly fortunate 
in the first Commission, as the men 
appointed were enthusiasts on the 
subject of wild game conservation; 
besides, they had had considerable ex- 
perience in protecting birds and animals 
upon lands under their control. Soon 
after taking office, the Commissioners 
realized that in order to accomplish 
results something more than good game 
laws and their enforcement was neces- 
sary, for while this might take care of 
the game left in the State, no provision 
was made for increasing the supply. 

Having in mind the magnificent results 
achieved by the Federal Government 
through the establishment of National 
Parks and Game Refuges in various 
parts of the United States, and the 
experiences of those in our State who 
owned private game preserves, the Com- 
missioners, some years later, hit upon 
the idea of establishing in various parts 
of the State, refuges or sanctuaries 
into which game of all kinds and song 
and insectivorous birds could retreat 
and find safety when harassed by ene- 
mies. It was thought that freedom from 
disturbance, especially during the breed- 
ing season, in an area where predatory 
animals and birds could be extermi- 
nated, and where a closed season would 
be maintained perpetually, would result 
in a marked increase in the birds and 
animals in those sanctuaries. 

A careful investigation of the subject 
of game propagation satisfied the Com- 
missioners that efforts to raise in cap- 
tivity our native game birds, such as wild 
turkey, ruffed grouse and quail had not 
as yet met with material success. An- 
other point that was seriously con- 
sidered was that just as the introduction 
of the English Sparrow and the German 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



29 



Carp had resulted disastrously to the 
Nation, so might the importation of 
foreign game birds and animals result 
in more injury than good to the State. 

After considering all phases of the 
question, the idea of a game farm was 
abandoned, and the Commissioners 
turned with renewed conviction to the 
refuge or sanctuary idea, by which 
our native game birds and game could 
multiply without assistance from man, 
other than the systematic extermination 
of predatory forms and the absolute 
protection afforded by a perpetual closed 
season. 

Happily for the purpose of the Com- 
mission, the movement for the conserva- 
tion of our forests and water-supply was 
well under way. Our State Department 
of Forestry had already acquired large 
tracts of land, located almost without 
exception in our mountain counties, 
at the head-waters of streams, consti- 
tuting a forest reserve area and rec- 
reation ground for our people, which, 
at the present time, aggregates over a 
million acres distributed over almost half 
of the 67 Counties of the State. The 
area of these forest reserves vary, ranging 
from 1176 acres in Wyoming County to 
128,085 acres in Clinton County. 

By an Act of Legislature of May 11, 
1905, the Game Commission was au- 
thorized, with the consent of the Com- 
missioner of Forestry, to establish Game 
Refuges or sanctuaries upon the State 
forest lands. The Legislature of 1907 
limited the area of these Preserves to 9 
mi. in circumference, while those of 
1911 and 1915 increased their size and 
provided that the greatest transverse*, 
dimension should not exceed 10 mi. nor 
should the area of the preserve exceed 
| of the total area of the tract of land 
of the forestry reservation upon which 
the preserve was located. In 1919, an 
Act was passed, backed by the sports- 
men, authorizing the Game Commission 
to purchase with the surplus from the 
Resident Hunters License Fund, lands 
near our large centers of population, 
where the Forestry Commission did not 
already possess lands, for the purpose of 



establishing game sanctuaries and hunt- 
ing grounds, similar to those on State 
lands. Also, an Act allowing the Game 
Commission to provide auxiliary game 
preserves of not less than 250 acres or 
more than 4000 acres through the con- 
sent of the owners or by lease. These 
auxiliary preserves may consist of farm 
lands. 

These wild cut over and burnt over 
lands, although, in the main, unsuit- 
able for agriculture, are the natural 
homes of the game it was desired to 
attract and propagate and possess 
the necessary summer and winter 
feed, streams and cover for our birds, 
bear, deer, squirrels, rabbits, etc. 
Chestnuts, beech-nuts, acorns and many 
other nuts, wild-grapes, haws and other 
fruits, are abundant, together with an 
almost endless variety of berries. So 
long as the ground remained bare feed 
would be plentiful, and with the coming 
of the snows and ice many of the birds 
could feed upon the buds of the beech, 
birch and other trees, and, if necessary, 
could be fed by the Preserve keepers. 
Besides, some of the tracts possessed 
waters upon which wild water-fowl 
might find a resting place, at least in 
their migratory flight. 

Rather than establish a few Refuges 
of large dimensions, it was deemed 
advisable to create numerous small ones 
of about 3000 acres each in extent, and 
to locate them, as nearly as possible, in 
the center of the forest reserves in 
different counties. The purpose of so 
locating the sanctuaries was to make 
sure that the game propagated therein 
would first spread to the State land 
or land purchased with the sportsmen's 
funds rather than to the property of any 
individual or organization which might 
be posted to prohibit hunting. In this 
way, the game refuges would produce 
an unending supply of game which would 
naturally and inevitably spread to the 
public forest lands from which no hunter 
is barred. 

It is thought wise to locate the ref- 
uges in sections where the game had 
formerly been plentiful but had been 



30 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



practically exterminated, to gain by 
such action the support and assistance 
of the hunters in that region, rather 
than to locate in territory containing 
plenty of game, thereby incurring the 
resentment of the hunters who would 
feel that their best hunting grounds 
has been taken away. 

When the location of the Refuge has 
been decided upon, the first thing nec- 
essary is to exterminate the predatory 
species, which destroy more game than 
the hunters. The wildcat, weasel, fox, 
skunk, mink, crow, hawk, owl, and the 
prowling house-cat are, through the care- 
ful use of strychnine, and by other 
means, killed off. The next step is to 
guard against the danger from fire, and 
the brush is cleared from a strip of land 
15 to 20 ft. wide around the outside of 
the Preserve. In some instances, where 
the danger from fire is pronounced, it is 
also crossed with fire lines, thus creating 
open roads where fires may be met and 
extinguished. 

Predatory animals having been ex- 
terminated and provision made for 
fighting forest fires, we next surround the 
refuge with a single marking wire, 
fastened to trees or posts, about waist 
high on a man, the object being not to 
enclose the game but to define the limits 
of the refuge. This wire is usually 
nine miles long and is placed inside the 
fire lines surrounding the Refuge. At 
frequent intervals, notices printed upon 
muslin are tacked up along the line of 
wire, fastened to trees or posts, calling 
attention to the fact that the lands 
inside the wire are a State refuge for 
game, and asking for the cooperation 
of all in seeing that the game is not 
disturbed. The sanctity of these Pre- 
serves, in almost 15 years, has only been 
violated once, and then, it was claimed, 
by mistake, showing that our sportsmen 
appreciate their value. 

The Refuge is now ready for the 
game, and if it is not already, sufficiently 
stocked, game of various kinds, such as 
deer, elk, wild turkeys, fox squirrels, 
etc., are purchased and placed in it. A 
State Game Keeper is in charge of each 



Refuge. His duties are to fight fires, 
see that the Game is not molested, keep 
the Refuge free from predatory ani- 
mals, on which, as an incentive, he is 
paid the regular bounties. In order to 
supplement the natural feed in the 
Refuges and attract and maintain wild 
life, he is instructed to plant walnuts, 
hickory nuts, mulberries, wild cherries, 
mountain ash, apples, wild grapes and 
other nut, fruit and berry producing 
trees and shrubbery, buckwheat and 
other grains. In addition to this, he 
plants barberries, spruces, pines, etc. 
for shelter and winter cover. 

There are no fences around the Pre- 
serves and, as stated above, the wire is 
intended only as a marker, so that the 
game is not confined in any way, but 
can enter and leave the Refuge at will, 
it being intended to reproduce as nearly 
as possible the conditions under which 
animals and birds thrive in a wild state. 
Naturally, the herds and flocks inter- 
mingle at pleasure and there is no in- 
breeding with the consequent loss in 
stamina that would occur in a fenced 
enclosure. 

Provided dogs and guns are left out- 
side the wire, our Refuges are open to 
the public except during the open season 
for game when no person, save the officer 
in charge, is allowed within the wire, 
the purpose of this provision being to 
prevent the driving of deer and other 
game outside the Preserve onto the 
Forest Reserve, where it may be killed 
in the open season. 

We now have 33 Game Refuges of 
about 3000 acres each with a large area 
^urrounding them upon which men may 
hunt. Ten of these Refuges were pur- 
chased by the sportsmen's funds. Owing 
to the almost universal posting of farms 
against hunting and the hunter being a 
tenant-at-will on State lands, the for- 
ward-looking sportsmen of Pennsylvania 
are now asking for an increase in the 
Resident Hunters License Fee. This 
increase to be used exclusively for 
purchase of Game Refuges and Pub- 
lic Shooting Grounds, preferably in 
10,000 acre tracts, scattered throughout 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



31 



the State, and to be under the absolute 
control of the Game Commission, for 
the purpose of propagating wild life and 
bringing back our forests and waters. 
The results attained have been so 
evident and so uniformly successful 
in all our Refuges as to demonstrate 
beyond any question the value of this 
idea. Our Preserves are no longer an 
experiment. The steady increase in the 
supply of game in them, on the large 
public hunting-grounds surrounding 
them, and in their neighborhood, has 
been remarkable. The large northern 
deer imported from other States and 
placed in these Refuges have thrived 
and multiplied so that localities in which 
they were formerly plentiful but had 
been exterminated are again populated 
with these beautiful and useful creatures 
of the woods. 

Many stories are told regarding the 
instinct or sagacity of the deer, espe- 
cially old bucks, in eluding their pur- 
suers by seeking safety in these refugees. 
The grouse and turkeys are quick to 
take advantage of these sanctuaries, 
especially the former. 

To our minds, this system of game 
propagation in its habitat and environ- 
ment under absolutely natural condi- 
tions with protection from hunters and 
predatory animals, is infinitely superior 
to any plan which involves the breeding 
of game in confinement. In fact, the 
Pennsylvania Game Commission con- 
siders it a patriotic duty to bend all its 
energies and apply all its resources to the 
conservation and perpetuation of our 
native and useful wild life rather than 
to import from foreign countries at 
great expense birds and animals of 
doubtful values. 

Through the adoption of Pennsyl- 
vania's constructive Game Refuge 
policy, the million acres of State Forest 
Reserve, on which a few years ago wild 
life was almost extinct, are being gradu- 
ally made into the greatest hunting 
and recreation grounds ever contem- 
plated for the benefit of the people of 
any State. 



7. THE RELATION OF OUR SHRUBS 

AND TREES TO OUR WILD 

BIRDS 1 

BY F. SMITH 

Anyone who pays even slight attention 
to the citizens of our bird world knows 
that they show preferences for certain 
kinds of surroundings. For some kinds 
of birds one must go to the open fields; 
for others, to the woodlands; while 
many shore and water birds must be 
sought along the water courses and in the 
swamps. A somewhat further acquain- 
tance leads to the knowledge that birds 
of a given species may frequent very 
different kinds of situations for feeding, 
for nesting, and for refuge. Some spe- 
cies, as the robins and grackles which 
feed in the open fields, seek refuge and 
nesting sites in the woodlands and in 
shade trees. Still others, which may 
feed and nest on the ground in open 
fields, do not get very far from some 
protecting shrubbery or hedge to which 
they fly when disturbed. 

Although certain kinds of birds are 
ready to adapt themselves to quite 
extensive changes in their surroundings, 
others will simply disappear when such 
changes occur. The cutting away of 
the forests of several northern states is 
known to have been followed by a 
decrease of some of the forest-loving 
species and an increase of those that 
prefer the open fields or the shrubby 
areas incident to new clearings. Re- 
ports on the birds of several different 
states are confirmatory of this statement. 

When one learns the habits of all the 
birds which are to be found during the 
year in any one of our ordinary Illinois 
localities and then makes a list of those 
which are not dependent in any way on 
trees or shrubs for food, nesting sites, 

1 From "Arbor and Bird Days," Illinois Cir. 
No. 83, Springfield, 1915. 

W. L. McAtee states that there exists in most parts 
of the United States either a superstition, a con- 
viction, or a legal requirement that roadsides be 
shorn of their vegetation at least once a year. So 
far as the effect upon birds is concerned, there can 
be no doubt that suppression of roadside vegeta- 
tion is a potent factor in restricting their numbers. 
"Attracting Birds to Public and Semi-public Reser- 
vations," U. S. D. A. Bull. 715. 



32 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



or refuge, the list is found to be rela- 
tively short, especially if the locality is 
distant from a river or lake. From 
several locality lists available to the 
writer, each including from 85 to 170 
species, it is evident that about 75 per 
cent of the species listed are in one way 
or another dependent on trees or shrubs. 
Since, of course, the same ratio may not 
hold for the number of individual birds 
found, it is desirable to ascertain, if 
possible, what share of the bird popula- 
tion of an average Illinois locality is 
independent in every way of trees and 
shrubs. Fortunately a pretty close ap- 
proximation to such knowledge is ob- 
tainable from the very extensive and 
useful data accumulated by Prof. S. A. 
Forbes from the work of expert ornitho- 
logical assistants in 1906, 1907 and 1909. 
Two such observers, traveling in 
straight lines and always 30 yards 
apart, recorded all the birds flushed on 
a strip of land 50 yards wide and those 
that crossed the strip within 100 yards 
ahead. They recorded also the char- 
acter of the fields traversed and the 
distances in each. Heavy timber in 
which there was little chance of a com- 
plete count was disregarded/and the 
record was, of course, deficient for water 
birds. This work was carried on during 
all seasons of the year and was nearly 
equally distributed between the north- 
ern, central and southern parts of the 
state. The results show the numbers 
and kinds of birds in samples of the 
various sorts of environment in the 
state, equivalent to a strip of land fifty 
yards wide and over two thousand miles 
long. Among these results we have 
record of 48,558 birds from 39,940 acres. 
There were 9199 English sparrows and 
546 birds were not positively identified. 
Deducting these latter two classes, we 
have record of the identity of 38,813 wild 
birds as distributed over farm lands, 
orchards, and shrubby areas and open 
woodlands. One hundred and seventy 
species were represented, 44 of which 
may be regarded as independent of 
trees and shrubs able, apparently, to 
get along perfectly well without them. 



Of these latter 24 species are birds of the 
open field and the others are shore birds 
or water birds. Of the remaining 126 
species many will eventually disappear 
altogether, and the others will be rep- 
resented in reduced numbers in locali- 
ties where trees and shrubs are de- 
stroyed. About 69 per cent of the 
individual wild birds recorded by the 
foregoing observers belong to this group. 
These ratios correspond very closely 
with those from other available records 
based on more limited data. Fully two- 
thirds of the wild birds of ordinary 
Illinois localities are in some way de- 
pendent on trees and shrubbery. The 
reasons for this dependence differ 
greatly for various species. Many, in- 
cluding some of the woodpeckers, are 
wholly dependent on trees for food, 
nesting sites and places of refuge. In 
most cases the insects associated with 
the trees supply the food, although to 
some extent the seeds, buds and even 
the cambium layer (in case of trees 
visited by the yellow-bellied sapsucker) 
may be eaten. Numerous other species, 
while getting their food from the ground 
or from the flying insects of the air, 
depend on trees or shrubbery for nesting 
sites or refuge or for lookout stations. 
Here, again, there is great diversity, 
since some kinds frequent mostly the 
upper parts of the trees, others prefer 
the lower parts, while still others are 
limited to those woods in which the 
ground is more or less covered with a 
thick undergrowth. Comparatively few 
species prefer the interior of the heavy 
forest, but many more frequent the 
forest margins or open woodlands, es- 
pecially those with thickets. Shrubby 
fields and hedges are preferred by a 
number of species. 

A large majority of the birds that pass 
the winter with us and of those that 
come from the south in the early part 
of the spring migration are of the 
thicket-and shrubbery-loving kinds. To 
find them we must seek them in the 
environment they prefer along hedges, 
in neglected berry patches, in shrubby 
pastures, or in woods with plenty of 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



33 



under growth. When such places are 
all "cleaned up" the majority of the 
winter birds and early spring migrants 
disappear. 

8. GRAZING IN THE NATIONAL 
FORESTS 

BY O. F. KOKSTIAN 

The policy which governs the adminis- 
tration of the National Forests includes 
not only the insurance of a perpetual 
supply of timber and the preservation 
of a forest cover to regulate the flow 
of streams, but also the development 
of the other resources contained in the 
Forests for the greatest permanent good 
to the general public. Of all these the 
production and harvesting .of the timber 
crop is the most important primary 
purpose denned by Congress. The for- 
age resource, however, is of such im- 
portance in many parts of the West that 
its development through regulated graz- 
ing is one of the necessary functions of 
administration of the National Forests. 
Its extent is determined by the other 
objects of administration. The general 
policy therefore involves the develop- 
ment of the grazing resource to the 
extent compatible with that of the other 
National Forest resources and with a 
view to maximum production of meat 
and other animal products and maximum 
stabilization of the livestock industry. 

The grazing of livestock obviously 
cannot be practiced without some modi- 
fication of natural conditions. It may 
either retard or promote the develop- 
ment of the vegetative cover and cause 
either retrogression or progression, but 
in any case it tends to modify the types, 
depending chiefly upon the closeness 
with which the herbage is kept grazed 
annually and upon the time of grazing. 
In some instances unregulated grazing 
has seriously interfered with the regener- 
ation of the forests by consuming tree 
reproduction along with the shrubby and 
associated species. Continued grazing 
of the range too early in the season or to 
too great an extent not only favors 



degeneration of the cover and ultimately 
the destruction of the vegetation, but 
also tends to impair the fertility of the 
soil by favoring erosion. These extreme 
adverse modifications of natural con- 
ditions, however, are the results of the 
abuse of the range. 

Under scientific range management 
these abuses will be practically elimi- 
nated through the proper regulation of 
grazing. The writer has reviewed else- 
where 1 in some detail the consensus of 
opinion of range management specialists 
on the trend of grazing practice on the 
National Forests in relation to the 
preservation of natural conditions. The 
composition of the herbaceous plant 
associations will not, of course, be quite 
the same as though no grazing had 
occurred. The effects of grazing upon 
plant succession depend not only on the 
character and intensity of grazing, but 
also upon the type of vegetation. Pro- 
gressive succession is favored by the 
system known as "deferred-and-rota- 
tion" grazing; that is, the grazing of 
parts of the depleted range only after 
the maturity of the better forage and 
the eventual extension of this practice 
in rotation to all parts of the range. 
This system is practiced in order to 
maintain the ranges at their highest 
producing capacity, as well as to revege- 
tate the depleted ranges, since ordinar- 
ily by its use more ready establishment 
of valuable vegetation is secured than 
by total protection from grazing. The 
regulated grazing policy of the Forest 
Service is to keep the areas in the climax 
type of vegetation from the standpoint 
of maximum meat production consistent 
with the protection of watersheds and 
timber reproduction. This may mean 
occasionally a sub-climax ecological 
stage of the shrubby and herbaceous 
vegetation. Usually in the West, how- 
ever, it will mean a climax ecological 
stage of the shrubby and herbaceous 
vegetation. This should offer little or 
no hindrance to the development of the 

1 Korstian, C. F. "Grazing practice on the 
National Forests and its effect on natural condi- 
tions." Scientific Monthly, 13: 275-281. 1921. 



34 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



climax forest type or association since, 
when necessary, cut-over forest areas 
are closed to grazing during the regener- 
ation period. Further, grazing has in 
many cases aided regeneration of the 
forest by improving the seed bed, 
trampling the seed into the soil, and 
lessening the competition through crop- 
ping of associated species. The aid to 
more rapid revegetation by properly 
regulated grazing has assisted in les- 
sening erosion and in improving water- 
shed protection. 

Regulated grazing in the National 
Forests is further supported by the 
strong argument that it is beneficial in 
the control of forest fires. The value 
of grazing as a means of fire protection 
is realized in the utilization of the annual 
growth of grass which, if not so disposed 
of, becomes dry and inflammable and a 
serious fire hazard. The extensive work 
in forest fire prevention and suppression 
on the National Forests is a very im- 
portant factor in promoting and main- 
taining climax types of forest vegetation. 

In rendering the secondary uses com- 
patible with the primary uses of the 
National Forests, and in harmonizing 
the secondary uses, it frequently be- 
comes necessary to close areas to graz- 
ing as, for example, watersheds which 
comprise important sources of munic- 
ipal water supply; recreational areas 
and those of unusual scenic attractive- 
ness, such as the National Monuments; 
areas on which the forage on the range 
is needed for important game animals; 
and some forest areas in the course of 
regeneration. Many of the areas shown 
on the map of the National Forests 
(figs. 1 and 2) are in a semi-natural condi- 
tion and fall within this category. 

9. FIRES IN RELATION TO THE 
BIOTA 

BY R. H. WOLCOTT 

For a long time previous to the de- 
velopment of ecology as a science fires 
have been recognized as an important 
ecological factor. Many scattered ref- 
erences to their effects upon animal 



and plant life are found in all kinds of 
literature, but few of these are based 
upon exact data or represent the results 
of continued observations. 

A very full discussion of forest fires 
as to their kind, occurrence, causes, 
and methods of prevention will be 
found in Chapter VII of Graves' Prin- 
ciples of Handling Woodlands or in Chap- 
ter XV of R. C. Hawley's The Practice 
of Silviculture. At the end of these 
chapters there is given a very excellent 
bibliography on forest fires so that an 
enumeration of these points seems out 
of place here. 

The damage caused by forest fires on 
this continent is enormous. Plummer 1 
makes the statement that 

Forest fires in the United States have 
caused an annual loss of about seventy 
human lives, the destruction of trees 
worth at the very least $25,000,000 and 
the loss of stock, crops, buildings and 
other improvements to the amount of 
many millions more. To these must be 
added enormous losses from the destruc- 
tion of young tree growth, deterioration 
of the soil, damage to water courses and 
adjacent property by low water and 
flood, interruption of business and de- 
preciation of property. 

When to the loss by forest fires is 
added the loss from prairie and other 
fires it is seen that the total loss to this 
continent from fires up to the present 
time amounts to several billions of 
dollars. 

As to the injuries due to fires, we may 
mention first, the destruction of the 
plants themselves with whatever loss 
that entails; second, the destruction of 
the humus in the soil with the resulting 
loss of fertility; third, the destruction 
of lumber or other valuable products; 
and fourth, the accumulation of dry 
material which may serve to feed suc- 
ceeding fires. In many of the forested 
parts of the country the debris which 
has accumulated from one fire after 
another has resulted in the periodical 
burning over of areas for long periods of 
time. 

1 Plummer, Fred G. Forest Fires, Bull. 117, 
U. S. Forest Service, Washington, 1912. 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



35 



There are certain benefits which may 
be attributed to fires including: first, 
favorable effects upon certain plants 
which find a greater abundance of 
nutrients in burned over tracts, such as 
blueberries and huckleberries; second, 
the improvement of forage by the re- 
moval of the stiff stems of the previous 
year's growth, permitting grazing ani- 
mals to get at the young and succulent 
herbage; and third, improvement of 
reproduction by burning off grass or 
heavy leaf litter, thus giving a better 
chance for the germination of tree seeds. 

Even "light burning" which has been 
advocated by some in order to keep the 
forest floor clean of litter, as a safeguard 
against more serious fires, upon investi- 
gation has been shown to bring about 
injury due to removal of nitrogen from 
the soil, change in soil texture, in- 
creased evaporation, and the scarring 
of trees, which paves the way for the 
attacks of fungi and wood-boring in- 
sects. It is decidedly a question if 
fires can serve any useful purpose in 
forestry, while on the other hand they 
constitute an ever-present menace. 

The relation of fires to plant succession 
is obvious, but varies according to many 
conditions. If the fire has been such 
that the destruction of the vegetative 
cover is complete there may occur 
stages in its replacement corresponding 
to a complete succession beginning with 
the pioneer plants, but these are much 
condensed if the soil is not destroyed. 
This is most often observed after a gen- 
eral and a very destructive forest fire. 
In the destruction of bogs the soil may 
be largely consumed. 

Invasion from the adjacent areas may 
occur and if the vegetation of these is 
similar to that destroyed the result may 
be the reestablishment of the former 
conditions in a relatively short time. But 
actually it must be understood that 
any replacement takes many years. If 
the destruction is not complete and roots 
and seeds remain from which to develop 
a new growth, the invaders from sur- 
rounding areas may take possession at 
first, but these are gradually replaced 



by the species which were destroyed 
until finally the vegetation assumes the 
character which it possessed before the 
fire. In the case of forests, these in- 
vaders serve to protect the more tender 
forest vegetation until it has become 
established, when they are replaced 
by it. 

If the fire affects only the secondary 
species such as herbs and shrubs in a 
forest in any plant formation then the 
succession operates only within those 
forms, and as a result the stages are 
short and not well defined. 

It is possible for the fire to do so little 
damage, especially in grassland, as to 
destroy none of the members of the 
formation and give rise to no succession. 

It has been remarked by others that 
succession after fires usually operates 
within water-content groups, due to 
the fact that the alterations of the soil 
are slight, except on slopes where the 
burning of the vegetation allows erosion 
to occur. Grasslands are replaced in 
most cases by grasslands and forest 
usually by forest. 

The immediate effect of fires upon 
animal life, as well as upon plant life, 
is always destructive. Only those forms 
escape that are of large size and have 
effective means of rapid locomotion. 
Before the advancing flames is driven a 
horde of larger animals which under the 
influence of terror lose all fear of man 
and even invade towns and cities, while 
the smaller and weaker forms perish if 
exposed to the fire. Aquatic animals 
are not exempt from destruction for it 
is stated that in the great Miramichi 
fire in New Brunswick in 1825 fish in the 
streams were killed in such numbers as 
to be afterward found in heaps on the 
river banks. 

The completeness of this destruction 
of animal life varies with the character 
of the fire. Since fires usually occur 
when the soil is dry, earthworms and 
moisture-loving forms will have re- 
treated below the level affected or will 
have resorted to wet places where the 
fire is less severe. The numerous forms, 
especially insects, which live in the sur- 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



face stratum will be affected in propor- 
tion as this stratum is involved, while 
those that hide beneath the trash which 
litters the ground are almost sure to be 
destroyed. In less severe fires, how- 
ever, many species and numerous in- 
dividuals escape by being hidden within 
and beneath fallen logs, where neither 
the flames, the heat, nor the poisonous 
gases generated in the fire reaches them. 
In the case of surface fires these three 
agencies (heat, etc.) destroy many forms 
in the forest canopy above but also 
spare many, especially if these are pro- 
tected by being in the crevices of the 
bark, beneath it, or in cavities within 
the trees. 

Fires also affect animal life by remov- 
ing the cover behind which they find 
concealment, by destroying their nests 
and young, or the animals themselves 
in early stages of development, and by 
eliminating their food supply. At the 
same time a limited number of forms 
that live upon dead organic matter may 
find their opportunity in the half- 
destroyed remains of animals killed by 
the fire. 

Succession operates among animals, 
as among plants, and corresponding 
invasion occurs. The succession is very 
short in the case of grassland, where the 
original conditions are more speedily 
restored, but in the case of woodland 
the succession is more extended and 
occurs by several stages. First, in 
forest regions, animals of open ground 
may invade the burned area, later those 
resorting to thickets find congenial sur- 
roundings, and last the forest forms 
themselves return. Here again, how- 
ever, certain of the original species may 
have disappeared never to return. For 
a short time after a forest fire a fauna 
flourishes, the existence of which is due 
to the presence of dead standing timber. 
This includes wood-boring insects and 
the predaceous forms which prey upon 
them. Woodpeckers find now both food 
and nesting places in the dead trees, 
while raptorial birds find the devastated 
area a favorable hunting ground. 

Not only is animal succession after a 



fire dependent upon plant succession, 
but in certain respects the latter is 
affected by the former. For instance 
forest-dwelling mammals such as squir- 
rels, and also certain woodland birds, 
which feed upon the seeds of coniferous 
trees, being excluded, the cones within 
the area which have escaped destruction 
may open and reproduction begin by 
means of the seeds which they have 
enclosed and protected, whereas in the 
undisturbed forest these would have 
been found opened, and the seeds eaten 
by the animals. In other cases seeds 
buried by rodents are the only ones 
left. 

To one interested in the conservation 
of wild life, forest and prairie fires are 
sources of profound regret, not alone 
because of the destruction of life, but 
also because of the fact that the areas 
burned over are rendered incapable for 
some time of supporting an abundant 
and varied fauna and flora. To the 
ecologist fires mean the destruction of 
the evidence upon which may be based 
conclusions as to the history of the past 
succession of both plant and animal 
life, and the creation of new conditions, 
which, though they present many in- 
teresting problems, do not yield data of 
general or fundamental value in the 
determination of the principles of 
ecology. 

Fires due to natural causes are un- 
avoidable and unpreventable but these 
may be limited by constant watchfulness 
especially on the part of fire wardens. 
Those which are incendiary can only be 
reduced in number by the faithful co- 
operation of all the members of a com- 
munity in the detection and bringing 
to punishment of the persons responsible 
for them. Those due to carelessness, 
which constitute by far the largest 
number, can be avoided in the degree 
to which the public generally is aroused 
to a realization of the damage resulting 
from fires and educated to the need of 
legislation and of care on the part of 
every individual. 

It is absolutely essential, if bird and 
game refuges and all tracts set aside for 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



37 



wild life conservation or for ecological 
study are to fulfil the aims of those who 
have established them, that fires be 
entirely prevented. Aside from the ac- 
tual loss of game animals which attends 
a fire of any extent, if even a small fire 
occur during the breeding season, there 
is the destruction of nesting birds, 
their eggs and young, the removal of 
the grassy or shrubby "cover" upon 
which they depend for concealment, and 
the elimination of the carpet of decaying 
leaves and rotting fallen logs which 
create conditions favorable for the 
development of a myriad of insects and 
lower forms upon which birds and other 
higher animals depend more or less 
directly for food. Those who resort to 
these preserves to satisfy their love of 
nature or for scientific investigation 
neither need nor desire the construction 
of roads, paths, and clearings within the 
tract, and such areas should be free from 
the intrusions of all others and carefully 
safeguarded from the danger of fires. 
For the pleasure-loving public gener- 
ally which desires opportunity for field 
sports and games, picnicking, etc., 
numerous and well distributed parks 
should be provided. The National Gov- 
ernment is doing a service of inestimable 
value to our citizens and of far greater 
significance to future generations in the 
establishment of large national parks so 
situated as to include and preserve areas 
of great scenic interest. The states 
should supplement this effort by the 
establishment of state parks so disposed 
as to be accessible to the greatest num- 
ber of people. Cities have long since 
come to appreciate the economic and 
social value of parks and every pro- 
gressive community has a system of 
public parks with carefully devised plans 
for future expansion. Interest in birds, 
wild flowers, and all wild life is aroused 
and rapidly increasing and all such 
parks, whether national, state, county 
or municipal should offer opportunities 
for the exercise of that interest. All 
parks should, therefore, contain a cer- 
tain proportion of wild land, which may 
well include hill slopes, ravines, creek 



valleys, and other tracts difficult to 
cultivate. This part should be left in 
a strictly natural state, with the native 
vegetation, shrubbery, fallen leaves, rot- 
ting logs, etc. , undisturbed. With proper 
care in landscaping, such areas could be 
made very attractive, and would fur- 
nish a refuge and breeding place for 
birds which are most valuable in the 
destruction of tree pests. The more 
open portions of parks should never be 
burned over and the greatest care should 
be taken that fires made for the burning 
of refuse or by picnickers be kept at a 
safe distance from growing forests. 
Liberal posting of notices and constant 
watchfulness on the part of attendants 
in local parks and by fire wardens in the 
state and national parks will be neces- 
sary to reduce the number of fires to 
the minimum. -. 

Earnest and continued efforts should 
be made by all persons and associations 
interested to educate the public gener- 
ally, and especially campers and hunters, 
in regard to the destructive results of 
fires and the necessity of always ex- 
tinguishing camp fires before leaving 
them. The Boy Scout organizations can 
do effective work here. In any region, 
where there are extensive areas of public 
lands or lands in a wild state, wise and 
effective legislation is necessary, in- 
cluding the enactment of proper regula- 
tions, the posting of notices and the 
development of an efficient fire warden 
service. 

All citizens should be urged to limit 
the burning over of land and to dis- 
courage unnecessary burning off of road- 
sides, waste areas, groves, and wood- 
lands, because of the injury done to 
bird life and the damage to the soil 
due to the destruction of humus and 
consequent exposure to drying. It is 
sometimes necessary to burn over grass- 
land to destroy pests but in very many 
cases at least the result may be more 
perfectly attained by ploughing. From 
the standpoint of the farmer it would 
be well if every bit of the land not 
under cultivation were occupied by 
grassland, shrubbery, or woodland. 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



While the burning over of land may be 
the only practical method of cleaning 
it under some circumstances, it should 
be recognized that this involves a re- 
duction in the future fertility of the 
soil and is a method to be avoided so 
far as possible. Unless scattering of 
brush is necessary to prevent drying 
out of the soil or to favor reproduction 
it should be collected in piles and burned 
in the late fall or winter. Railroads in 
timbered country, operators of portable 
saw mills and men using power logging 
should be induced to adopt such safe- 
guards as would prevent the occurrence 
of fires or restrict the damage caused by 
those which may occur from their 
negligence. If necessary the aid of the 
law should be invoked to these ends. 
In conclusion, attention should be 
called to the desirability of careful in- 
vestigations on the precise changes in 
the ecological conditions due to fires in 
various types of habitat; to the need of 
exact quantitative as well as qualitative 
studies on succession in such habitats; 
and especially to the almost untouched 
field afforded by studies upon the fauna 
in these tracts. Every student of 
ecology who has available for study a 
burned over area has in it an opportunity 
which should not be neglected. 

10. THE EFFECT OF POLLUTION ON 
ANIMAL LIFE* 

BY FRANK COLLINS BAKER 

Stream pollution may be broadly 
divided into two main divisions: con- 
tamination by organic sewage from 
cities and towns and by chemical wastes 
from factories and mines. Both are 
inimical to life but the latter is espe- 
cially fatal to animal life, causing wide 
stretches of otherwise fertile streams 
to become veritable deserts. Organic 
sewage, in a crude or highly concen- 
trated form, is also very injurious, 
effectually eliminating most forms of 
life from the polluted body of water. 

1 The greater part of this topic is condensed from 
a paper read before the Illinois State Academy of 
Science, and published in Vol. XIII, of the T.rans- 
actions of that Society, pp. 271-279, 1920. 



The importance and seriousness of 
the problem of stream pollution in its 
effect on the life of the rivers and 
streams into which the contaminating 
material is discharged has not, until 
very recently, been given the attention 
the subject demands. The diminishing 
fish supply, and in many places the 
very objectionable physical character 
of the polluted waters, have caused the 
authorities of several states to pass 
laws governing the discharge of these 
wastes into streams and the establish- 
ment of penalties for disregarding these 
laws. New York and Massachusetts 
have led in the framing of these laws 
and other states are following the good 
example set by these two older com- 
monwealths, where the conditions seem 
to have reached a maximum of harm- 
fulness (see Ward, 1918, 1919). 

During recent years stream pollution 
has enormously increased and the prob- 
lems arising from this condition have 
been investigated by many biologists 
and sanitary engineers. The former 
have studied the problem from the 
viewpoint of its effect on the useful 
animal life, especially fishes and river 
mussels, and this phase probably bears 
as close a relation to human welfare as 
any other. Of course, from the stand- 
point of health, the polution problem 
is of paramount importance because of 
its bearing on such diseases as typhoid 
fever which may be caused by a pol- 
luted water supply. 

Perhaps the worst effect of chemical 
pollution is to be found in the streams 
of western Pennsylvania, where mine 
water heavily loaded with oil or acid 
water from coal mines is permitted to 
flow into the rivers and streams of this 
part of the state. Studies by Ortmann 
(1909) show that whole stretches of 
the Allegheny, Ohio, and Monongahela 
rivers have been made into deserts, 
as far as the animal life is concerned, by 
the large amount of poisonous sub- 
stances discharged into these streams 
by the mines, oil industries, and chemi- 
cal and other factories that border 
these rivers. In the Susquehanna 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



River the same condition prevails in 
many places (Leighton, 1904). Such 
pollution causes a complete extermina- 
tion of the fauna (and largely of the 
chlorophyl-bearing flora) and leaves 
the stream in such condition that re- 
stocking by either natural or artificial 
means is practically impossible, and 
if attempted is a waste of money. 

Pollution by sewage, when the pol- 
luting material is of small percentage 
as compared with the pure water of 
the stream (as 200 to 1), causes little 
inconvenience to the animal life and 
is doubtless of some benefit because of 
the additional food material that is 
added (Forbes and Richardson, 1919, 
p. 146). But the streams seldom remain 
long in this innoxious condition, the 
sewage becoming more and more concen- 
trated and- less diluted until the whole 
stream may be supersaturated with 
noxious substances, the amount of 
oxygen in saturation reduced, and 
the biota finally driven out or killed. 

Pollution is worst and usually most 
deadly to animal life during periods of 
low .water and in winter when the 
amount of water in the stream is small 
and the decomposing organic material 
has less water to deprive of its dis- 
solved oxygen. During times of floods 
the putrescent material is also carried 
down stream for many miles and con- 
taminates areas not previously af- 
fected. 

While all clean-water forms of ani- 
mal life are more or less affected by 
sewage pollution, the decomposition of 
the organic matter abstracting dissolved 
oxygen from the water and rendering 
it unsuitable for aquatic life, the fish, 
river mussels, and crayfish are partic- 
ularly affected, most fish being es- 
pecially sensitive to contaminated water. 
Some fish (as the brook silversides, 
Labidesthes sicculus] are notably sensi- 
tive, while others (as the black bull- 
head, Ameiurus melas) will endure 
water that is badly polluted (Shelford, 
1918, p. 27; Wells, 1918, pp. 562-567). 
Young fish are relatively more sensitive 
than adult fish. It is noteworthy that 



the more resistant species of fish are 
inhabitants of sluggish bodies of water, 
as ponds and shallow lakes, while the 
least resistant species live in running 
streams. It seems to be a question 
of the amount of oxygen necessary for 
the well being of the fish. 

The ill effect of sewage pollution is 
most marked on the bottom of bodies 
of water, where a sludge is formed, 
often of great thickness (as much as 
10 ft. in several cases), consisting of 
a mass of soft, black, sediment, with 
a high content of organic matter, in 
which only a few organisms, normally 
inhabitants of polluted streams, can 
live (e.g., septic Protozoa and Rotifera, 
foul-water algae, and slime-worms, 
Tubificidae). This effect on the bot- 
tom is perhaps the most serious phase 
of stream pollution because the septic 
condition of this area continues in 
operation long after the original source 
of contamination ceases to operate. 
This sludge formation renders the 
bottom unfit for clean-water life upon 
which many fish depend for food. The 
time necessary for the recovery of the 
normal biota of such a stream will in 
most cases be of long duration, and in 
the case of a stream polluted with 
wastes from mines and chemical manu- 
facturies, there may never be a return 
to the original condition. 

In the case of the Genesee River at 
Rochester, N. Y., we have a striking 
example of the history of a polluted 
stream and its effect on one group of 
the animal life. Previous to the stage 
of great pollution there is a varied 
fauna of mollusks very numerous in 
individuals. In the course of 11 
years the gill-bearing species are forced 
out and after a lapse of 14 years 
all molluscan life ceases to live in this 
part of the river. Seven years later 
the greater amount of sewage is diverted 
to another outlet. Two years after 
this change we find that the mollusks 
have returned in as great numbers as 
before the maximum stage of pollution. 
The significance of all this lies in the 
fact of the early return of this life, and 



40 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



strikingly indicates that streams may 
become restocked with life in a short 
period after pollution has ceased to be 
of an unfavorable character. At the 
present time the sturgeon, which for- 
merly resorted to the river to feed and 
breed, and had been driven out by the 
polluted condition of the stream, has 
returned, which is another indication 
of improved conditions. It is quite 
probable that the large fall in the river, 
some 60 feet in height, has had a marked 
effect in the return of these favorable 
conditions. 

A study of the Salt Fork of the Big 
Vermilion River, indicates that all 
clean water life, including mussels and 
crayfishes, has been excluded from this 
stream for a distance of fourteen miles, 
and a normal fauna of these animals is 
not encountered until a distance of 
twenty miles has been traversed. The 
shallowness of this stream has evidently 
provided a sufficient supply of dissolved 
oxygen and it is apparent that in a 
deeper stream the ill effects of sewage 
pollution would be experienced for a 
much greater distance. 

Ecological reports from different 
states show that wherever towns, cities, 
mines, or manufacturing plants are 
located near a stream, that body of 
water sooner or later becomes polluted. 
Little definite work has been done to 
bring together all of the data concerning 
river and stream pollution. That which 
is available indicates a truly alarming 
condition of affairs. 

In South Carolina the fertilizer fac- 
tories discharge wastes of many kinds, 
including sulphuric acid, into the 
streams, and oil-burning steamers per- 
mit oil to run into the water of harbors 
and bays. The State is taking action 
against this practise. 

In Idaho and Montana mine water 
pollutes some of the streams. In West 
Virginia, as in Pennsylvania, the lower 
parts of the streams are polluted by 
refuse from coal mines, pulp and paper 
mills, chemical plants, and sewage 
from cities and towns. In Ohio, large 
streams are polluted by sewage and 



mine wastes. Iowa and Missouri 
streams are reported as badly polluted. 
In Arkansas, in the Poteau River, fish 
are being killed by mine wastes charged 
with iron salts, whose rapid oxidation 
suffocates the fish. In Minnesota, the 
large streams are polluted by sewage 
from the large cities. In Wisconsin, 
sewage is polluting Lake Winnebago 
from which the water supply of Osh- 
kosh is derived. Manufacturing wastes 
.from match factories and paper mills 
also pollute the waters of the Fox River. 
These examples might be indefinitely 
extended. The survey of present con- 
ditions indicates that wherever stream 
pollution occurs the clean-water ani- 
mals are sooner or later driven out or 
killed. Such a condition seriously af- 
fects our food and game fishes, which 
form so large a part of the meat of our 
population, and the situation demands 
immediate attention and early remedy. 
It is a matter of great satisfaction to 
scientific men that the authorities are 
awakened to the seriousness of such 
conditions and that in many cases they 
are providing remedial measures. 

LIST OF REFERENCES IN THE TEXT 

Baker, Frank Collins 

1920. Animal Life and Sewage in the 
Genessee River, New York. 
American Naturalist, LIV, pp. 
152-161. 

1922. The Molluscan Fauna of the Big 
Vermilion River, Illinois. 
With Special Reference to its 
Modification as the Result of 
Pollution 1 by Sewage and 
Manufacturing Wastes. Illi- 
nois Biological Monographs. 
VII, pp. 1-126, 6 pi. 
Forbes, S. A., and Richardson, R. A. 

1913. Studies on the Biology of the 
Upper Illinois River. Bull. 
III. State Lab. Nat. Hist., 
IX, pp. 481-574. 

1919. Some recent changes in Illinois 
River Biology. Bull. Ill Nat. 
Hist. Survey, XIII, pp. 137-156. 
Leighton, Marshall O. 

1904. Quality of Water in the Susque- 
hanna River Drainage Basin. 
Water Supply and Irrigation 
Paper, No. 108, U. S. Geol. 
Surv., pp. 1-76. 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



41 



Ortmann, Arnold E. 
1909. The Destruction of the Fresh- 
water Fauna in Western Penn- 
sylvania. Proc. Amer. Phil, 
Soc., XLVIII, pp. 90-110. 

Shelford, Victor E. 
1918. Ways and Means of Measuring 
the Dangers of Pollution to 
Fisheries. Bull III. Nat. 
Hist. Surv., XIII, pp. 23-42. 

Ward, Henry B. 

1918. The Elimination of Stream Pol- 

lution in New York State. 
Trans. Amer. Fisheries Soc.. 
XLVIII, pp. 1-25. 

1919. Stream Pollution in New York 

State. A Preliminary In- 



vestigation of the Problem 
from the Standpoint of a 
Biologist. Report to N. Y. 
Conservation Commission, pp. 
1-79. 
Whipple, George C. 

1913. Report on the Sewage Disposal 

System of Rochester, N. Y. 

By Edwin A. Fisher, City 

Engineer, pp. 179-200. 

Wilson, Charles B., and Clark H. Walton, 

1912. The Mussel Fauna of the Mau- 
mee River. Bureau of Fisher- 
ies. Document No. 757. 

1912. The Mussel Fauna of the Kan- 
kakee River. Bureau of Fish- 
eries, Document No. 758. 



D. INTERESTS AND MANAGEMENT 



1. UNION OF INTERESTS AND 

MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL 

AREAS 

BY V. E. SHELFORD 

With the growth of population, the 
destruction of forest and other original 
types of vegetation, and the modifica- 
tion of streams and lakes progresses 
rapidly. We have no royalty or nobil- 
ity whose hunting and fishing pre- 
serves are being withheld from exploita- 
tion. Many more reserves are needed, 
but each year it becomes more difficult 
to secure them. Such reserves as are 
already created are continuously threat- 
ened with partial exploitation. 

Probably the only effective way to 
retain all the features of existing re- 
serves and secure an adequate number 
of new ones is to create and maintain 
a public interest in each reserve as well 
as in reserves in general. The public's 
knowledge of the uses of preserves is 
scanty. The interests which may com- 
bine in one reserve have been too little 
emphasized and may be classified as 
follows : 

A. INTERESTS IN PRIMEVAL AREAS 

7. Scientific interests 

1. Biology. There is a growing 
tendency to make use of reserves of 
original character as a check on various 
laboratory operations, and in the study 
of ecology, as well as in the older taxo- 
nomic and natural history work. 

2. Forestry. Natural areas will be 
valuable to foresters as object lessons, 
for comparison and standardization of 
forestry practice. They will serve as 
a standard of accomplishment of Nature 
alone and as a guide by which the cor- 
rectness of the foresters' efforts to 
improve on Nature may be gauged. 



Permanent sample plots, corresponding 
to the "quadrats" of the ecologist, are 
left in their original conditions for 
comparison with adjacent plots vari- 
ously treated, so that changes in the 
composition, growth, and history of 
natural forest stands, as compared 
with modified stands, may be noted. 
On some of the National Forests a 
number of permanent plots are also 
maintained for the study of herbaceous 
vegetation and principles of range 
management in order to compare con- 
ditions on grazed and ungrazed areas. 

3. Geography. Geographers require 
a knowledge of original vegetation 
and animals to interpret existing cul- 
tures, to generalize on various climatic 
and economic questions. 

4. History. Historians require in- 
formation similar to that sought by 
the geographer, in the interpretation 
of historical facts, and especially in 
interpreting the events of pioneer 
days. 

II. Literary and artistic interest 

1. Many pieces of literature cannot 
be interpreted without a knowledge of 
the original vegetation. Bryant's poem 
"The Prairies" is an example. Not a 
few teachers of literature make use of 
preserves. 

2. Many artists who are students of 
nature use natural subjects. 

777. Recreational interests 

I. Sportsmen desire to increase the 
amount of game and in many states 
certain areas are set aside as game 
sanctuaries. In Pennsylvania a game 
sanctuary has a single wire stretched 
around it and is kept carefully guarded 
by wardens. No hunting is allowed 
inside the wire. The game is allowed 



42 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



43 



to reproduce unmolested and overflows 
into the surrounding territory where 
hunting is permitted. The game in 
the area is not likely to become very 
much more numerous under such condi- 
tions than it was originally with its 
natural enemies, such as wolves, etc., 
roaming about. Thus perhaps within 
the sanctuary the conditions of balance 
of animal life is as nearly like the 
original one as could be hoped. 

2. Ornithologists are interested in 
areas which afford protected nesting 
places for birds. 

3. Wild flower lovers desire to see 
the flowers preserved and accordingly 
are interested in natural areas, which 
may act as seeding centers. 

B. INTERESTS IN MODIFIED AREAS 

("SECOND GROWTH" OF 

ALL KINDS) 

1. Camping and related recreation. 

2. Hunting. 

3. Forestry operations leading to 
the production of lumber and other 
forest products. 

4. Bird and game refuges. 

5. Scientific study of succession of 
organisms with the development of a 
new biota (e.g., natural reforestation). 

C. ECONOMIC INTERESTS 

There are often watersheds which 
supply water to cities and water for 
irrigation purposes which will always 
be maintained and are available for 
scientific study, sample plots, bird 
preserves and perhaps game sanctuaries. 
Forestry practice retains some of the 
natural features. It is often possible 
for several interested groups to combine 
and make a strong plea for the setting 
aside of areas bounded by natural 
topographic features as preserves of 
natural conditions to serve all the eight 
or more purposes enumerated. The 
diversity of interest is an asset which 
makes the creation of preserves a far 
less hopeless task than many of those 
interested think. 



/. Management of preserves 

1. Subdivision. Areas should be sub- 
divided into (a) public park, always 
open to the public but kept as nearly 
natural as possible, (6) tree growing 
areas which if large enough may serve 
for hunting and fishing, (c) natural 
areas which will serve for the study 
of biology, geography, history and art 
and as wild life sanctuaries. 

The accompanying plan (fig. 1) shows 
a 60 acre tract designed primarily for 
a preserve of natural conditions. The 
entire tract is surrounded by a drive 
to prevent fires. The drive margin is 
set with native shrubs such as grow at 
the edges of woods, etc., designed to at- 
tract a maximum number of birds. 
The front portion adjacent to the public 
highway containing about 14 acres, is a 
public forest park with 3 circular drive- 
ways within which fires may be built. 
Behind is the preserve and this is an 
area (with the keeper's house at the 
center) surrounding it, designed for 
silviculture, the chief object of which 
is the demonstration of farm woodlot 
forestry. This is open to the public 
with some restrictions. The central 
area is a preserve open only to those with 
special interests and designed as a 
game sanctuary, center of seeding, 
for wild flowers, a bird sanctuary, etc. 
Larger tracts may be similarly divided 
following topographic features (fig. 2) 
and even small city parts may maintain 
natural areas. 

2. Rotation and policing. Natural 
parks are most easily obtained when 
the recreational interests support the 
project strongly. Two natural parks 
in two different states illustrate this 
point. The movement to secure them 
in each case was started by artists and 
nature lovers and only when the recrea- 
tional possibilities were realized by 
politicians was the project pushed 
through the legislature. No plans of 
management were suggested and the 
parks were practically turned over to 
hotel and amusement concessionaires 
and naturalists now maintain that the 



44 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



original beauty will soon be ruined. 
Granting that most reserved areas must 
serve either for tree growing or recrea- 
tion, or both, all proposed legislation 
should provide for management. This 
includes subdivision, coupled with a 



complete scheme of rotation of natural 
areas . 

There should be a resident officer 
charged with caring for and guarding 
the park and instructing the public in 
the prevention of fires. 





Natural Area B 




<4 




O 


Tree 
Growing 


5 

1 


Natural 
Area 


2 

<3 

la 

c 

3 


Tree 
Growing 




j 




i 




><l 


Public Natural Park 
Building 





PLAN FOR PARK SUBDIVISION INTO TREE 

GROWING, RECREATIONAL AND 

NATURAL AREAS 

A, Open to the public for the year 

1920, closed in 1921 and 1922. 

B, Open 1921, closed 1922 and 1923. 

C, Open 1922, closed 1923 and 1924. 



E. ADMINISTRATION OF WILD LIFE 



1. THE ADMINISTRATION OF WILD 

LIFE IN STATE AND NATIONAL 

PARKS 1 

BY CHAS. 0. ADAMS 

The administrative aspect of the 
wild life in our parks is a large and im- 
portant subject. The problem of prop- 
erly caring for and using wild life to 
the best advantage in our parks is be- 
coming increasingly more serious and 
difficult. With the increasing number 
of park visitors new problems are com- 
ing up all the time. By decreasing the 
congestion by enlarging the parks 
or by temporarily closing other parts 
as intensive use threatens to wear them 
out recovery can be secured, but the 
general drift, with increasing popula- 
tion, is always to encroach upon the 
wilderness. Thus we see that to main- 
tain park wildernesses can only be 
accomplished by a struggle, and the 
eternal vigilance needed to preserve our 
liberty is the same price which must 
be paid for the free wild nature of the 
wilderness. The wilderness, like the 
forest, was once a great hindrance to 
our civilization, but now the tide has 
turned and wildernesses and forests 
must be maintained, even at much 
expense, because human society needs 
them. Not infrequently have I talked 
with enthusiastic friends of our parks, 
who feel that in this struggle the odds 
are so much against the parks and their 
wild life, that there is perhaps no use 
to continue what they feel to be a losing 
fight. But it seems to me that this 
is only another aspect of that constant 
struggle for any high ideal the only 
kind worth striving for; this is not at 

1 Extracted from "The Relation of Wild Life to 
the Public in National and State Parks." Pro- 
ceedings of the Second National Conference of State 
Parks. 1922, pp. 129-147, 1923. Revised edition, 
Roosevelt Wild Life Bull., Vol. 2, pp. 371-402. 1925. 



all a peculiar feature of our park prob- 
lems. 

European experience furnishes us 
with a number of examples of the value 
of wild areas because so little of the 
original conditions now remain there. 
But in spite of the unfavorable condi- 
tions the appreciation of these original 
conditions has not yet died out. This 
is worthy of special mention because 
of the fear one hears expressed that this 
is a hopeless cause. In several Euro- 
pean countries there are active organi- 
zations, endowments devoted to this 
cause, and even governmental bureaus 
devoted exclusively to it (cf. Ahrens, 
1921; Conwentz, 1909). 

Some of the main administrative prob- 
lems concerned with wild life are, the 
maintenance of this resource, including 
all protective aspects of vegetation and 
its animals, the formulation of policies, 
the education of the public on wild 
life, and the perpetuation of its ideals. 

MAINTENANCE 

The maintenance of wild life in the 
park, in a normal, healthy state, is a 
relatively new art in America. This 
involves proper protection, by rules, 
rangers or police, and by all educational 
devices available. But this protection 
is not all a question of restrictions, for 
there is the productive and construc- 
tive aspect. Favorable conditions must 
be maintained, so that the animals 
will breed normally. If fishing is 
permitted, the maintenance of the 
stock in the streams must be looked 
after continuously, and the supply 
maintained. Careful supervision of all 
this must be given and definite policies 
followed or great blunders will be made, 
and much damage will be done. A 
competent park official should super- 
vise all this fish work. 



45 



46 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



At present, administrators are in a 
difficult position because of the lack of 
definite ideas, policies, and public 
sentiment to support definite programs, 
and the frequent changes of officials 
favor a lack of continuity in policies ; and 
furthermore, with such a wobbling 
policy little is learned from experience. 

EDUCATION OF PARK OFFICIALS 

At present parks suffer to a large 
degree because they are necessarily 
in the hands of administrators who, 
because of their lack of special training, 
we must consider as amateurs. We 
have had no profession for this line 
of work, and some who have had the 
most training are feared to a correspond- 
ing degree, because of preconceived, 
formal ideals, which they with almost 
religious zeal slip into the wilderness 
parks. The ideal of a wilderness park 
is beyond their ken, because their 
approach has been from another 
angle. These persons are welcomed 
in formal city parks but in our large 
National and State parks they are 
liable to be a menace. In the training 
of such men there has been no adequate 
recognition of the wild life problems. 

Another source of difficulty is the 
lack of trained rangers, and nature 
guides in our parks. These men are 
needed not only with a special famil- 
iarity with a special subject matter, 
but as well with the ideals of parks. 
Until very recently we have had no 
provision for such a training in our 
educational system, and not until 
adequate provision has been made 
can we expect the detailed work in the 
parks to be wholly satisfactory. A 
whole technical staff is needed for our 
parks, but this fact must be generally 
appreciated before men will devote 
themselves to it, and the public ap- 
preciate it fully enough to provide for 
it in the appropriations. 

NEED OF FORMULATING POLICIES 

At present our parks are in great need 
of definitely formulated policies, even 



if they are of a provisional nature 
(cf. Waugh, '18). A broad, general 
policy is not enough; it should be com- 
prehensive but as well, it should be 
worked out in as much detail as is 
possible, so that in time we will have 
for our National Parks, a manual cor- 
responding to the Use Book of the 
Forest Service. Each State Park or 
park administration should have a 
similar policy, which should be pub- 
lished and made a part of the educa- 
tional data available to the public. 
It will then be available for criticism 
and improvement. Of course, as many 
park executives are without adequate 
help, are liable to political interference, 
and their tenure short, they are fre- 
quently liable to neglect the formula- 
tion of these policies, and depend solely 
upon the laws establishing these parks. 
Without general policies we can not 
expect detailed, well-worked-out plans 
for wild life. Today we have no such 
published program for the wild life of 
our National Parks, not even for the 
fish, which might be expected to pre- 
cede that of other kinds of animals. 
The attitude of the U. S. Fish Com- 
mission, in the early days, had no con- 
ception whatever of the Yellowstone 
as a wilderness park, with the fish life 
maintained as nature left it and for 
this reason the Commission was favor- 
able to stocking the waters with a 
variety of exotic fish, and of stocking 
the streams thoroughly above all falls 
uninhabited by fish, and likewise the 
isolated lakes. The idea that forests 
with big game animals should be main- 
tained as a wilderness, and that there 
was an advantage in natural wild waters 
was beyond their conception. The 
attitude o the present U. S. Bureau of 
Fisheries, and of the Park Service itself 
has improved somewhat, but still it 
has in the main adhered to the older 
policies and standards of making 
angling available everywhere, rather 
than to maintaining a wild preserve. I 
have no doubt that this has come about 
or grown up without much deliberation, 
and certainly not after considering the 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



47 



value, in the remote future, of large 
areas for the educational and scientific 
value of true wilderness waters. Some 
of the same persons who are very eager 
to maintain a wilderness forest about 
their homes have never realized that 
others are equally interested in an 
aquatic wilderness untouched by man. 

THE WILDERNESS POLICY 

The Council of the American Asso- 
ciation for the Advancement of Science, 
at the Toronto meeting, December, 
1921, passed the following resolutions, 
which have a very direct bearing on 
the policy of our National and State 
Parks in maintaining their native 
plants and animals in natural condi- 
tions. These resolutions read (Science, 
N. S., Vol. 55, p. 63, 1922): 

Whereas, One of the primary duties 
of the National Park Service is to pass 
on to future generations for scientific 
study and education, natural areas on 
which the native flora and fauna may be 
found undisturbed by outside agencies; 
and 

Whereas, the planting of non-native 
trees, shrubs or other plants, the stocking 
of waters with non-native fish, or the 
liberating of game animals not native 
to the region, impairs or destroys the 
natural conditions and native wilderness 
of the parks; 

Be It Resolved, That the American 
Association for the Advancement of 
Science strongly opposes the introduc- 
tion of non-native plants and animals 
into the national parks and all other 
unessential interference with natural 
conditions, and urges the National Park 
Service to prohibit all such introduction 
and interferences. 

If parks are to be managed so as to 
pass them on to future generations un- 
harmed, they must in the main remain 
wild. No one can safely assume that 
he is able to tell how valuable these 
regions, when properly stocked, will 
become in the future. When once a 
plant or an animal becomes extinct 
it is beyond human power to restore 
it. 

Although there are considerable areas 
of the National Forests which are likely 
to remain virgin wilderness this is not 



a sufficient guarantee that we will have 
all that we need. The chances are that 
in the near future foresters will, with 
increasing emphasis, strive to retain 
valuable examples of representative 
virgin forests within our National 
Forests and State Forests, in a virgin 
condition for special study. These 
areas will also act as preserves for 
many animals but they will not neces- 
sarily provide for the larger animals 
unless they coincide, as they well 
might, with wild life preserves. Some 
foresters have already observed the 
need of the forest "wilderness" as a 
part of the recreational policy of the 
National Forests (Leopold, 1921), and 
others for the purpose of teaching and 
investigation (Ashe, 1922), and if such 
areas give complete protection to both 
plants and animals great progress will 
be made. The grazing of domestic 
animals must be restricted or excluded 
from such preserve areas or the her- 
baceous vegetation will soon be greatly 
modified (Korstian, 1921). The ex- 
periences in the National Forests clearly 
show just what will certainly happen 
in our National Parks if they are not 
strictly guarded, from the wilderness 
point of view. These experiences also 
clearly show the great caution that 
must be exerted even with the present 
customary grazing in our National 
Parks. No doubt this should now be 
under the closest supervision of a 
forage ecologist. The same ideas apply 
even to living and dead trees, that at 
any time may be cut in these parks. 
At present we have only one official park 
forester in any of these great National 
Parks, and very few connected with 
State Parks and not all of these are 
fully alert to the value of virgin forests. 
European experience (Oonwentz, 1909, 
pp. 118, 131), has clearly shown that 
clear cutting of the forests is very harm- 
ful to many kinds of native plants, 
and this is equally true for many ani- 
mals, for we know that the vegetation 
exerts a powerful influence upon most 
forest animals. (Of. Pearson, 1922.) 
In certain State Parks commercial 



48 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



forest management is conducted, and 
this is very desirable under certain 
circumstances, which properly limits 
the commercial forests and the pre- 
serves, and provides for a corresponding 
management. At present great caution 
will be needed not to confuse the 
management of these two types of for- 
ests. A proper balance should be 
secured and then the income from the 
commercial forest might well be made 
a source of revenue for the maintenance 
of the whole park. In time the pre- 
serves themselves may find it necessary 
to charge a small fee for their use, and 
a forest park with funds from the tim- 
ber and from a fee or license for the 
use of the preserve, might secure enough 
revenue to do much more constructive 
work than one depending solely upon 
taxation and gifts. This possibility 
is so important that it deserves more 
attention than it has received in the 
past. The new Allegany State Park 
in New York was planned upon such a 
program. 

The time has come when we must 
begin an educational campaign for 
large endowments for the educational 
and scientific work in our National and 
State Parks. Of course, much can be 
done by cooperation with various in- 
dividuals, the colleges, universities, 
and scientific societies, particularly 
with some of the State universities, 
especially if urgent requests are made 
to them for cooperation. They are 
likely to respond best when sought. 
But it is likely to take some time for 
these institutions to become acquainted 
with this phase of work, as most of them, 
even today, have but a faint realization 
of outdoor biological problems, and their 
application to parks. Fortunately there 
are a few marked exceptions. 

The parks need these funds primarily 
for three purposes: 

1. They need a technical scientific 
staff to solve their own scientific prob- 
lems as much as they need lawyers and 
engineers. The need exists but it is 
only slightly realized and in the main 
only those who are taking a broad view 



of the situation are aware of the con- 
ditions. 

2. They need an educational staff to 
build up their local museum-library, 
as nature guides, and to supplement 
and aid in the training of rangers 
who should also be trained men. This 
staff should be the mainstay for popu- 
lar lectures, lantern and moving picture 
lecturers who will arouse intelligent 
appreciation of the resources of the 
parks. 

In general, the scientific and educa- 
tional staffs must be distinct because 
the two kinds of work can not be done 
at the same time and the staff can not 
be expected to divide its attention suc- 
cessfully. An executive does not expect 
his lawyers or engineers to drop their 
work at any moment and give a popu- 
lar talk or to conduct other extraneous 
work, and the same applies to the scien- 
tific staff. 

The educational and scientific staff 
should be large enough to include cer- 
tain men who could devote their whole 
time to the practical and technical 
problems that demand immediate at- 
tention, closely related to the adminis- 
trative, rather than to the educational 
aspects of park work. The only reason 
for advocating this as a distinct group 
is that in practice it is rarely that suffi- 
cient funds can be obtained to secure 
men who are versatile enough to cover 
so large a field; it is therefore safer to 
plan for a larger staff. 

It is generally difficult in adminis- 
trative circles to appreciate that first- 
class research men can only rarely be 
secured, who are willing to have their 
work continually interrupted by all 
sorts of administrative breaks. These 
men must, to get the results, be pro- 
tected from such interruptions. 

3. The wild life of the parks requires 
constant, all-year-round attention. A 
great number of our parks will be- 
come more and more patronized the 
year 'round when the people are edu- 
cated to it. With this increasing pat- 
ronage there will constantly develop 
new problems for solution and supervi- 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



sion. It is only such a staff that can 
be expected to present, in the best popu- 
lar form, the natural history resources 
of the parks. These popular accounts 
must be presented from many angles of 
approach, if a large public is reached 
to advantage. It is a common error 
to assume that there is only one popular 
form of approach; a multiple approach 
should be carefully cultivated by dif- 
ferent types of students and authors. 

There are certain problems of ad- 
ministration that must first be solved 
as scientific problems, and then executed 
under technical supervision, such as 
care of fish, game, birds, mosquito 
control and the management of the 
forests. These are examples of the 
problems, which, with increasing use, 
the natural resources will require. This 
is a kind of supervision which the 
average executive can not be expected 
to know, and yet these are just the 
points that a special staff will know 
about, and their advice and help are 
thus necessary. 

In concluding these remarks on the 
need of endowments it is important 
to emphasize that wild life is a more 
or less elusive subject for the public 
and the administrator to understand, 
and cannot be understood merely by 
inspection it must be known inti- 
mately, and therefore great damage 
can be done before it is realized. 

The real difficulty is that wild life 
suffers just as the human animal does 
in our democratic system of environ- 
ment. As Walter Lippmann has re- 
cently said: "For the troubles of the 
press, like the troubles of representative 
government, be it territorial or func- 
tional, ... go back to a com- 
mon source: to the failure of self- 
governing people to transcend their 
casual experience and their prejudice, 
by inventing, creating, and organizing 
a machinery of knowledge. 

SUMMARY 

In concluding this discussion, I wish 

to summarize my main points as follows : 

1. We will derive benefit from wild 



life in our parks in a direct relation to 
what we devote to them. We need to 
recall that they are living organisms 
and respond readily to fair treatment. 

2. In general, wild life can only pros- 
per with the parks as a whole. 

3. Wild life is a very valuable re- 
source in any wild park and is generally 
so recognized by the public. 

4. The National Parks should remain 
a virgin wilderness for educational and 
scientific purposes. 

5. State parks should retain wilder- 
ness areas, as well as contain commer- 
cial forests, depending somewhat on 
local conditions. 

6. In relating the wild life to the 
public a variety of experimental popu- 
lar publications is advocated. Techni- 
cal reports are needed for Park officials. 
We need a distinctive park literature. 

7. Field excursions conducted by 
trained guides are advocated, to de- 
velop trails and a trail literature. 

8. A museum-library, devoted ex- 
clusively to the particular park, should 
be equipped for exhibits, lectures, dem- 
onstrations, lantern slides and moving 
pictures, to arouse interest primarily 
in the local park. This should be the 
headquarters for the guide service. 

9. A local zoological garden of the 
park animals only should stimulate 
interest in those in the park. 

10. The maintenance of a virgin 
wilderness park is very difficult, but 
not a hopeless problem, if proper public 
sentiment is developed in its behalf. 

11. The education and training of 
park officials of all kinds is urgently 
emphasized. As a means to this end 
park policies should be formulated and 
published with a full explanation of 
park ideals. 

12. The far-reaching importance of 
preserving original habitat conditions 
for plants and animals from an educa- 
tional aesthetic and scientific standpoint 
is strongly emphasized. The value of 
State Parks in this plan is very impor- 
tant. 

13. To develop public appreciation 
and utilization of parks, large endow- 



50 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



ments are needed to supplement public 
support. The greatest progress is made 
where public and private aid is com- 
bined with high and practical idealism. 
A movement should be started for en- 
dowments for educational and scientific 
work in both National and State Parks. 

14. Park endowments are perhaps 
one of the best means of developing a 
technical staff for our parks. The 
preservation of wild life requires such 
supervision by specialists. 

15. The wild life problem suffers 
from the major defects of our democratic 
system of control, and its welfare de- 
pends fundamentally upon improve- 
ments in this. 

REFERENCES TO LITERATURE 

Adams, Charles C. 

1908: The Ecological Succession of 
Birds. The Auk, Vol. 25, pp. 
109-153. 

1908a. Some of the Advantages of an 
Ecological Organization of a 
Natural History Museum. 
Proc. Assoc. Museums, Vol. 1, 
pp. 170-177. 

1910. The Relation of Field Excur- 
sions to the Activities of 
Local Museums. Proc. Amer. 
Assoc. Museums, Vol. 4. pp. 
112-124. 

1913. "The Value and Method of 
Ecological Surveys." Guide 
to the Study of Animal Ecol- 
ogy, pp. 23-35. N. Y. 

1919. An Ecological Survey of the 

Palisades Interstate Park. 
Empire Forester, N. Y. State 
College of Forestry, Syracuse. 
Vol. 5, pp. 12-18. 

1920. The Relation of Natural History 

and Ecology to Public Forest 
Parks. N. Y. State College 
of Forestry, Syracuse, Bull. 
No. 10, pp. 11-14. 

1921. Delights of the Wild Forest 

Trail. State Service (Maga- 
zine), Vol. 5. pp. 100-103. 

1921a. Suggestions for the Manage- 
ment of Forest Wild Life in 
the Allegany State Park, New 
York. Roosevelt Wild Life 
Bull., Vol. 1, pp. 62-74. 
Adams, Charles C., Hankinson, T. L., 
and Kendall, W. C. 

1919. A Preliminary Report on a 
Fish Cultural Policy for the 
Palisades if Interstate Park. 
Trans. Amer. Fish Soc. } Vol. 
48, pp. 193-04. 



Ahrens, Theodor G. 

1921. Aims and Status of Plant and 

Animal Preserve Work in Eur- 
ope, with Special Reference to 
Germany including a List of 
the Most Important Publica- 
tions on These Preserves. 
Roosevelt Wild Life Bull., 
Vol. 1, pp. 83-94. * 
Ashe, W. W. 

1922. Reserved Areas of Principal 

Forest Types as a Guide in 
Developing an American Silvi- 
culture. Jour. Forestry, Vol. 
20, pp. 276-283. 
Brown, Edward F. 

1920. Social Aspects of Park Admin- 
istration. N. Y. State College 
of Forestry, Syracuse, Bull. 
No. 10, pp. 47-66. 

1920a. Camping Facilities in the Pali- 
sades Interstate Park. N. Y. 
State College of Forestry, 
Syracuse, Bull. No. 10, pp. 
67-79. 

Buxton, Edward North 
1884. Epping Forest. Pp. 1-147. 

London. 
Conwentz, H. 

1909. The Care of Natural Monuments 
with Special Reference to 
Great Britain and Germany. 
Pp. 1-185. Cambridge, Eng- 
land. 

Graves, C. Edward 
1919. A Plan for a Nature Library. 
Library Journal, Vol. 44, pp. 
707-710. 

Grinnell, Joseph 

1914. Bird Life as a Community Asset. 
Calif. Fish and Game, Vol. 1, 
pp. 1-3. 

Grinnell, Joseph, and Storer, Tracy I. 
1916. Animal Life as an Asset of 
National Parks. Science, N. 
S., Vol. 44, pp. 375-380. 
Hahn, Walter L. 

1913. The Future of the North 
American Fauna. Pop. Sci. 
Monthly, Vol. 83, pp. 169-177. 
Haddon, A. C. 

1903. The Saving of Vanishing Data. 
Pop. Sci. Monthly, Vol. 62, pp. 
222-229. 
Heller, Edmund 

1925. The Big Game Animals 'of 
Yellowstone National Park. 
Roosevelt Wild Life Bull, Vol. 
3, pp. 405-467. 
Jessup, Elon fl 

1919. The /Strangest Camp in the 
World. Outing, Vol. 75, pp. 
155-160. 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



51 



Korstian, Clarence F. 
1921. Grazing Practice on the Na- 
tional Forests and its Effect 
on Natural Conditions. Sci. 
Monthly, Vol. 13, pp. 275-281. 

Leopold, Aldo 

1921. The Wilderness and its Place in 

Forest Recreational Policy. 

Jour. Forestry, Vol. 19, pp. 

718-721. 
Mills, Enos A. 
1920. The Adventures of a Nature 

Guide. Pp. 1-271. New York. 
Pearson, G. A. 

1922. Preservation of Natural Areas 

in the National Forests. 
Ecology, Vol. 3, pp. 284-287. 
Safford, W. E. 

1919. Natural History of Paradise Key 

and the Near-by Everglades 
of Florida. Smithsonian 
Report for 1917, pp. 377-434. 
Shelford, Victor E. 

1920. Preserves of Natural Conditions. 

Trans. III. State Acad Sci.. 
Vol. 13, pp. 37-58. 
Silloway, P. M. 

1920. Guide to the Summer Birds of 
the Bear Mountain and Harri- 
man Park Sections of the Pali- 
sades Interstate Park. N. 
Y. State College of Forestry, 
Syracuse, Bull. No. 11, pp. 
1-105. 



1920a. The Palisades Interstate Park: 
A Study in Recreational For- 
estry. The N. Y. State Col- 
lege of Forestry, Syracuse, 
Bull. No. 10, pp. 15-45. 

Skinner, M. P. 

1925. The Birds of Yellowstone Na- 
tional Park. Roosevelt Wild 
Life Bull, Vol. 3, pp. 1-189. 

Smith, Harlan I. 

1914. Handbook of the Rocky Moun- 
tains Park Museum, Dept. of 
Interior, Canada, Dominion 
Parks Branch. Pp. 1-126. 

Sumner, Francis B. 

1920. The Need for a More Serious 

Effort to Rescue a Few Frag- 
ments of Vanishing Nature. 
Sci. Monthly, Vol. 10, pp. 236- 

1921. The Responsibility of the Biol- 

ogist in the Matter of Pre- 
serving Natural Conditions. 
Science, N. S., Vol. 54, pp. 
o9 4o. 

Waugh, Frank A. 

1918. A National Park Policy. Sci. 
Monthly, Vol. 6, pp. 305-318. 

1922. What is a Forest? Jour. For- 

estry, Vol. 20, pp. 209-214. 



F. DUTY OF SCIENTIFIC MEN 



1. THE DUTY OF SCIENTIFIC MEN 
IN CONSERVATION 

BYH. S. GRAVES 

The conservation movement of a 
few years ago crystallized and brought 
to public attention a great principle, 
one so far reaching that its real sig- 
nificance and scope are even today not 
generally grasped. Regardless of how 
the term may be defined, the problem 
of conservation involves the whole 
question of the relation of our natural 
resources to the economic life and up- 
building of the country. We have to 
do not merely with the prevention of 
waste and economical use of our re- 
sources, but also with the problem of 
how these resources may render their 
highest service in building up local com- 
munities, maintaining our industries, 
and contributing to a strong civiliza- 
tion. 

We can point to considerable progress 
in certain features of conservation 
during the past decade. Scientific men 
have conducted research of great value 
that already is resulting in new uses of 
various raw materials, in more eco- 
nomical methods of handling them, and 
in improved methods of perpetuating 
those resources which are renewable; 
engineers are giving more attention 
than formerly to the problem of pre- 
venting unnecessary losses in the ex- 
ploitation of raw resources; the more 
far-sighted leaders of industry have an 
increasing appreciation of the relation 
of natural resources to the permanence 
of their own enterprises. And yet, the 
conservation principle is making very 
slow headway, when viewed from the 
larger aspects of the economic needs of 
the country. The loss through un- 
necessary waste is still appalling, un- 
economic methods in the use and de- 



velopment of various of the resources 
continue, and the interests of industries 
and communities are already in many 
cases jeopardized by the depletion of 
local sources of raw material. 

Among the obstacles to the more 
rapid application of the principles of 
conservation are ignorance and indif- 
ference on the part of those engaged 
in developing natural resources, un- 
willingness to change old methods, and 
selfishness of individuals who are will- 
ing to sacrifice even the interests of 
their own industry to immediate gains. 
But there are also obstacles of an 
economic and public character, that 
are retarding progress. These relate 
to the character of ownership and con- 
trol of natural resources, to the existing 
organization of certain of the industries 
to problems of transportation, and in 
some cases to questions of taxation 
and the relation of the public to 
industry. 

Scientific research furnishes the foun- 
dation of conservation. Education will 
solve the problem of ignorance and indif- 
ference. The economic and political 
obstacles, however, can usually be 
overcome only through action by the 
public. Thus it is that those who are 
engaged in promoting the principles of 
conservation in their respective fields 
are urging legislation in the federal 
Congress and in state legislatures, 
seeking public aid for private owners of 
resources and for the industries, public 
cooperation in marketing and distri- 
bution, public action in road building 
and other transportation problems, 
and in some instances public control 
over the basic resources themselves, 
over their exploitation, or over the 
distribution of their products. 

The efforts in conservation today are 
scattered among a large number of 



52 



USES OF NATURAL AREAS 



53 



institutions, organizations, and in- 
dividuals. There is a lack of unified 
purpose and direction in the movement. 
Workers in separate fields fail to give 
adequate consideration to the bearing 
of the problems of other resources upon 
their own. Oftentimes there is an 
actual conflict of interests in the use 
and development of two or more re- 
sources that is not being adjusted and 
is leading to public injury. In the 
field of public policy many proposals 
are being made, each perhaps with a 
good purpose, which are not in harmony 
as to principle and often are in conflict, 
with resulting confusion to the public 
and frequent failure to secure the legis- 
lation requested. 

Today there is no central agency, 
governmental or otherwise, that is 
considering our natural resources as a 
whole in their relation to our economic, 
industrial, and social development. 
There is no leadership in conservation in 
its larger aspects, that defines objectives, 
assembles and interprets | the basic 
data regarding our resources, works out 
the principles of harmonizing conflict- 
ing interests in resource development; 
that furnishes, in short, the economic 
background for conservation and the 
principles that must underlie the public 
action necessary to make our natural 
resources render their best service, and 
there is no agency equipped to organize 
the educational work that should be 
introduced into our colleges and schools 
aside from popular education in conser- 
vation. 

It must be clear to every student of 
the natural resource problem that there 
is an undertaking in conservation of 
great magnitude awaiting leadership 
and organized effort. There is an op- 
portunity and, in my opinion, a duty 
for the great national organizations of 
scientific men to join hands in assuming 



this leadership. They are in a position 
to bring into harmony the objectives, 
the policies, and the efforts of those 
working in the several branches of 
natural resources. Under their guid- 
ance and inspiration there could be 
assembled the available information 
regarding our natural resources, and 
the interpretation of the problems of 
conservation from the broad view- 
point of the relation of all resources 
to our national development. The 
scientific organization would thus be 
able to contribute to the formulation 
of public policies, and to aid in bringing 
about their adoption, and finally it 
would be possible for them through 
existing agencies to carry out an edu- 
cational plan for the introduction of 
appropriate studies in conservation in 
our schools and colleges, and to for- 
ward a far-reaching campaign of popu- 
lar education. 

The appointment of conservation 
committees by the National Academy 
of Sciences, the National Research 
Council, and the American Association 
for the Advancement of Science, and 
the meeting of these committees for 
the consideration of joint action, should 
prove to be the first step in a new leader- 
ship that will give power to the con- 
servation movement, with the promise 
of very large achievement. 

In my opinion a very great responsi- 
bility rests upon scientific men. We 
have an opportunity to organize the 
intellectual forces of the country in a 
movement that will have a profound 
influence upon the future well-being 
of the country. Our action may de- 
termine the direction of that movement, 
and whether it will be effective or lag 
behind for lack of leadership. A great 
public interest depends upon our fore- 
sight and vision, upon our ability to 
plan with wisdom. 



III. ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS 
NORTH OF THE AMAZON 



A. INTRODUCTION 



BY V. E. SHELFORD 



The early naturalist travellers de- 
scribed the regions which they visited 
in terms of the vegetation landscape 
aspect. Brehm and others wrote on 
tundra, steppe, desert coniferous forest, 
etc., and described the behavior charac- 
teristics and mode of life of their larger 
animals. Of the Arctic fox Brehm 
says: "Of the slyness and ingenuity, 
the calculating craft, the never failing 
presence of mind of his congeners he 
evinces hardly a trace. His disposi- 
tion is bold and forward, his manner 
officious, his behavior foolish." Many 
other naturalists made observations 
of this type relative to the animals of 
natural vegetation landscape aspect 
regions. 

With the acceptance of evolutionary 
doctrine attention turned to the seeking 
of facts which supported doctrines of 
origin, migration, modification, and 
adaptation, and naturalistic observa- 
tions relative to behavior, mode of life, 
etc., of animals received little attention 
from travellers, naturalists, and col- 
lectors. The description of vegetation 
in relation to climate, etc., however, 
received a less serious check. In recog- 
nizing natural regions these landscape 
aspects still serve as a general guide in 
modern ecology but the limits of areas 
may be made on the basis of climax 
communities whenever investigations 
have demonstrated the facts. A cli- 
max community may occur only locally, 
for example within the coniferous forest 
of southeastern United States, which 
is commonly regarded as giving way to 
a deciduous climax. In this case there 
are two landscape aspects and only one 
climatic climax. The nature of the 
climax communities has been deter- 
mined only for a few regions in tem- 
perate latitude. Accordingly landscape 



aspect must serve as the chief guide 
and plant ecologists of necessity ap- 
proach the subject of plant geography 
from the standpoint of the landscape 
aspects and physiological characters 
of the plants of the larger plant com- 
munities. Animal ecologists recognize 
the value of such a viewpoint as applied 
to animals, but so far they have made 
little progress with it largely because 
little investigation has been done. As 
a rule zoogeographical discussions have 
proceeded along the line of refinements 
of Wallace's faunistic ideas, of tracing 
paths of migration for particular groups 
of species or genera, etc. The point 
of view of those using life zones based 
largely on temperature is largely de- 
scriptive, but has been related to fau- 
nistic (i.e., evolutionary) work rather 
than physiology. They have made 
few or no attempts to find differences 
in physiological life histories, habits, 
etc., between animals in different re- 
gions, or similarities of those in like 
regions. The ideas of modern ecologi- 
cal geography are known to but few 
zoological investigators. 

The ecology of animal communities 
which is the basis of modern animal 
ecology has received little attention. 
While much zoological work is referred 
to as "ecology," especially among 
economic entomologists, analysis shows 
that it is largely the ecology of par- 
ticular species and individuals (aute- 
cology). In other words it is a con- 
tinuation of the old natural history 
under the new name. Where com- 
munity studies are made, too often only 
a part of the animals are considered so 
that we find such misnomers as "Insect 
Associations," etc. Though the es- 
sential principles were recognized by 
a few early zoologists (Mobius, 1877 



57 



58 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



and 1880) there is nothing in zoological 
literature representing the essence of 
modern synecology as do Clements' 
two works on plants. (Succession, 1916, 
and Plant Indicators, 1920.) Clements 
has for some time recognized the im- 
portance of considering animals in 
plant ecology. Plant ecologists in gen- 
eral are prone to describe formations 
and associations, often without giving 
a comprehensive idea of the nature of 
an area as an animal habitat. For 
example the combination grassland and 
streamside and grove forest of the 
Mississippi Valley which, on account 
of animal movement, seems best named 
savanna, was referred to in several 
manuscripts as deciduous forest and 
prairie without any statement as to 
arrangement and relative area of the 
two. Many of the original large and 
small animals of this region, charac- 
teristically divided their time (usually 
seasonally) between the two plant 
communities or lived at the shrubby 
border between them. Plant ecologists 
appear to have recognized the symbiotic 
relation of plants and animals in com- 
munities only to a small degree. Ani- 
mal ecologists have of course not con- 
tributed their share of knowledge for 
reasons already noted. Movement of 
animals from one small plant community 
to another may be as important to the 
general biota as is number of dominants 
or at least secondary considerations 
concerning plants in communities. 

While faunistic zones agree with 
vegetation in some cases, those who use 
life zones often divide regions with 
similar climate and uniform vegetation 
into two or more zones because the 
species are different, though physiolog- 
ical relations may be supposed to be 
similar (Chapman, 1917). It may be 
said that floristic and faunistic geog- 
raphy including life zone work rests 
on a background of evolution and migra- 
tion, while ecological plant and animal 
geography have a similar relation to 
(climatic) conditions and physiology. 

No one doubts that the life zones as 
used mainly by zoologists are a correct 



representation of certain facts of rela- 
tionship, and are worthy of scientific 
recognition. They do, however, vio- 
late two important principles or methods 
of modern ecology. In the first place 
they fail to separate the local communi- 
ties determined by soil, water, etc., 
from the extensive communities which 
are commonly regarded as determined 
by climate. Life zone index organisms 
are as likely to belong to local areas 
such as stream margins or other early 
stages in succession as otherwise. 
Second, the life zones sometimes divide 
a uniform climax association into two 
or three parts as in the case with de- 
ciduous forest and mixed prairie. In 
much of the United States life zones 
are separated by east and west lines 
and plant communities by north and 
south lines. To the north in Canada 
the two appear to be in better agree- 
ment. In the Rocky Mountains they 
are sometimes in agreement and some- 
times not. In the tropics most of the 
life zone studies have been carried on 
in mountainous regions. While the 
work is largely descriptive, the expres- 
sion of the viewpoint is found in Chap- 
man's introduction, in which he states 
that "To determine the boundaries of 
zones and faunas as they are manifest 
by birds and mammals is our first aim 
. . . and trust that we may throw 
some light on laws governing the origin 
of species. . . ." This is not the 
object of modern ecology, which is on 
the contrary concerned with symbiosis 
(sense broad) succession, climax types, 
and physiological relations to the 
physical environment and its rhythmic 
phenomena, etc. 

However, it is true that the life zones 
pointed out by investigators in Central 
and South America do consist of one 
or more landscape aspect areas. The 
investigators along this line possess an 
excellent knowledge of the landscape 
aspect types. Accordingly, a measure 
of agreement has been reached for the 
tropics; though starting from two quite 
different viewpoints, it is evident that 
agreement cannot be general. Parallel 



ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS 



tables have been developed to show the 
relations of the two kinds of regions. 

I. NORTH AMERICA NORTH OP MEXICO 

The accompanying maps (figs. 1, 2, 
and 3) show the more important exten- 
sive habitats drawn so far as practicable 
on the basis of dominant landscape 
aspect conditions. In differentiating 
the areas, plants, animals, and climate 
were considered. 

a. Plants and animals 

From the standpoint of the larger 
animals the following are of much im- 
portance and should tend to outweigh 
minor botanical considerations: 

Is the forest evergreen or do the 
leaves fall, thus accentuating the sever- 
ity of adverse seasons? 

Are grasses or other plants present 
which afford dry food in cold or dry 
seasons? 

Is the vegetation of such height and 
density as to afford shelter for larger 
animals, or is it short-stemmed and 



inconspicuous, or scattered and non- 
shade producing? 

b. Climate 

The most important question about 
climate is probably the character of 
the annual march of rainfall, of tem- 
perature, and of other factors. 

The accompanying maps 1 are very 
generalized. Figure 1 is based largely 
on Shreve's map for the United States, 
on the maps of Schimper and of Hardy 
on Koppen's Classification of climate, 
and Bartholomew's Atlas. The de- 
scriptions of vegetation are modifica- 
tions of Shreve's. Some modifications 
of the plant regions have been made 
because of facts about animals. For 
instance, an area like the Snake River 
Plains which once supported herds of 
bison should hardly be called desert. 

1 Submitted to the members of the committee. 
Suggestions by B. E. Livingston, F. Shreve, W. E. 
Lawrence, H. C. Cowles, G. B. Rigg, G. E. Nichols, 
C. D. Howe, E. N. Transeau, J. W. Harshberger, 
G. P. Burns, C. O. Rosendahl, E. Lucy Braun, R. 
M. Harper (botanists) and J. R. Watson, W. G. 
Van Name, A. S. Pearse (zoologists) were adopted 
and are as represented in figure 3 and those parts 
of the United States shown in figure 4. 



B. DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NORTH AMERICAN BIOTA (SOUTH TO 

CENTRAL MEXICO) 

BY V. E. SHELFORD, L. JONES AND L. R. DICE 



1. ARCTIC TUNDRA, OR BARREN GROUND 

BIOTA (ARCTIC TUNDRA OP 

CLEMENTS) 

Extensive areas in the northern part 
of the continent have long cold winters 
and little rainfall. In the more north- 
ern localities the ground thaws only 
at the surface and a growth of herba- 
ceous plants springs up in the summer. 
There are dense growths of grass, many 
miniature shrubs, shown in black on 
the map, considerable areas of high 
tundra, especially in Alaska. Large 
areas of perpetual snow are included. 

It supports muskoxen (Ovibos mos- 
chatus subspp.), barren ground caribou 
(Rangifer spp.), arctic hare (Lepus 
arcticus group), arctic fox (Alopex spp.). 
The chief local conditions are swamps 
and ponds, which support hordes of 
mosquitoes. 

The breeding birds 1 include the fol- 
lowing: willow ptarmigan, rock ptar- 
migan, white gyrfalcon, gray gyrfalcon, 
gyrfalcon, black gyrfalcon, snowy owl, 
horned lark, pallid horned lark, Green- 
land redpoll, hoary redpoll, greater 
redpoll, snow bunting, Lapland long- 
spur, Alaska longspur, Smith's longspur, 
Alaska yellow wagtail, and pipit. 

Breeding birds whose habitat is 
limited to the presence of water, gen- 
erally a local condition, include the 
following: yellow-billed loon, Pacific 
loon, red-throated loon, pomarine jae- 
ger, parasitic jaeger, long-tailed jaeger, 
red-breasted merganser, old-squaw, 
Harlequin duck, Steller's eider, spec- 
tacled eider, King eider, Pacific eider, 
scoter, white winged scoter, snow goose, 
white-fronted goose, whistling swan, 

1 English names conform strictly to the A. O. U. 
Check-list, unless otherwise specifically noted. 



red phalarope, northern phalarope, 
long-billed dowitcher, stilt sandpiper, 
knot, purple sandpiper, pectoral sand- 
piper, white-rumped sandpiper, Baird's 
sandpiper, least sandpiper, red-backed 
sandpiper, semipalmated sandpiper, 
western sandpiper, sanderling, Hud- 
sonian godwit, yellow-legs, buff- 
breasted sandpiper, Hudsonian curlew, 
Eskimo curlew, black-bellied plover, 
golden plover, Pacific golden plover, 
semipalmated plover, turnstone, ruddy 
turnstone, and black turnstone. 

la. ALPINE STEPPE OR HIGH TUNDRA 
(PARAMOS OP PENNELL) (APLINE SUM- 
MITS, SHREVE) (APLINE MEADOW CLI- 
MAX, CLEMENTS) 

Sedge, grass, and herb covered areas 
in high mountains. The large mam- 
mals include bighorn sheep (Ovis cana- 
densis subspp.), and Rocky Mountain 
goat (Oreamnos americanus subspp.). 
Rosy finches and white-tailed ptarmigan 
are characteristic birds. 

2. NORTHERN CONIFEROUS FOREST BIOTA 
(NORTHERN MESOPHYTIC EVERGREEN 
FOREST, SHREVE) 

"This extensive region is characterized 
throughout by a pure or nearly pure 
stand of needle-leaved evergreen trees, 
among which deciduous trees are often 
present either as minor components of 
the forest or else as trees of lower 
stature. Virgin stands of this forest 
range from 60 to 125 ft. in height and 
vary from open park-like formations to 
heavy forest with a completely shaded 
floor. The heaviest stands are almost 
devoid of shrubby undergrowth, but the 
more open ones are accompanied by 
deciduous shrubs and under-trees. In 



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ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS 



61 



spite of the essential identity of this 
forest from the Pacific to the Atlantic 
it is nevertheless made up of a large 
number of tree species. Very many 
extensive areas are formed by a single 
species and many others by an admixture 
in which not more than three or four 
species are involved. In the eastern 
portion of the area the white pine 
(P. strobus), the hemlock (Tsuga can- 
adensis}, the jack pine (P. divaricata} , 
and the balsam fir (Abies balsamea), 
are the most common species." 

Northern localities with cold wet 
winters and usually as much as 50 in. 
of snow in winter. 

The open marshes and margins of 
lakes are the favorite haunts of the 
moose. The chief local conditions are 
ponds and marshes of various types, 
which are important to migratory birds. 

The mammals include the moose 
(Alces spp.), woodland caribou (Rangi- 
fer spp.), elk (Cervus canadensis subspp.), 
black bear (Ursus americanus group), 
wolverine (Gulo luscus), Canada lynx 
(Lynx canadensis group), Canada wood- 
chuck (Marmota monax canadensis}, 
and red squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus 



The breeding birds include the fol- 
lowing: Hudsonian spruce partridge, 
Canada spruce partridge, Canada ruffed 
grouse, Nova Scotia ruffed grouse, 
passenger pigeon (extinct), turkey vul- 
ture (southern), swallow-tailed kite 
(formerly), marsh hawk, sharp-shinned 
hawk, Cooper's hawk, goshawk, red- 
tailed hawk, red-shouldered hawk, 
broad-winged hawk, rough-legged hawk, 
golden eagle, duck hawk, pigeon hawk, 
sparrow hawk, long-eared owl, barred 
owl, great gray owl, Richardson's 
owl, saw-whet owl, screech owl, great 
horned owl (eastern), western horned 
owl (central, northerly), arctic horned 
owl (northern), pale horned owl (cen- 
tral, southerly), Newfoundland horned 
owl (Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Lab- 
rador), hawk owl, yellow-billed cuckoo 
(south part), black-billed cuckoo (south 
part), northern hairy woodpecker, New- 
foundland woodpecker, downy wood- 



pecker, Newfoundland downy wood- 
pecker, Arctic three-toed woodpecker, 
American three-toed woodpecker, yel- 
low-bellied sapsucker, northern pileated 
woodpecker, red-headed woodpecker, 
northern flicker, whippoorwill, night- 
hawk, chimney swift, ruby-throated 
hummingbird, kingbird, crested fly- 
catcher, phoebe, olive-sided flycatcher, 
wood pewee, yellow-bellied flycatcher, 
least flycatcher, black-billed magpie, 
blue jay, Canada jay, Labrador jay, 
crow, cowbird, Baltimore oriole, 
bronzed grackle, evening grosbeak, 
pine grosbeak, Newfoundland pine gros- 
beak, purple finch, crossbill, white-winged 
crossbill, white-throated sparrow, chip- 
ping sparrow, clay-colored sparrow, 
goldfinch, pine siskin, Harris' sparrow, 
white-crowned sparrow, slate-colored 
junco, song sparrow, Lincoln's sparrow, 
fox sparrow, towhee, rose-breasted gros- 
beak, black-headed grosbeak, scarlet 
tanager, purple martin, cliff swallow, 
barn swallow, Bohemian waxwing, cedar 
waxwing, red-eyed vireo. Philadelphia 
vireo, warbling vireo, yellow-throated 
vireo, blue-headed vireo, black and 
white warbler, golden-winged warbler, 
Nashville warbler, orange-crowned 
warbler, Tennessee warbler, northern 
parula warbler, Cape May warbler, 
black-throated blue warbler, Cairn's 
warbler, myrtle warbler, magnolia war- 
bler, chestnut-sided warbler,bay-breasted 
warbler, black-poll warbler, Black- 
burnian warbler, black-throated green 
warbler, Kirtland's warbler (central 
Michigan), pine warbler, oven-bird, 
mourning warbler, Wilson's warbler, 
Canada warbler, redstart, catbird, 
brown thrasher, house wren, winter 
wren, brown creeper, white-breasted 
nuthatch, red-breasted nuthatch, chick- 
adee, Hudsonian chickadee, Acadian 
chickadee (eastern) ,golden-crowned king- 
let, ruby-crowned kinglet, wood thrush 
(south part),, veery, gray-checked thrush 
(western), Bicknell's thrush (east), 
olive-backed thrush, hermit thrush, 
robin, and bluebird. 

Breeding birds whose habitat is 
generally limited to the pre-forest or 



62 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



other early stages of succession include 
the following: tree sparrow, field spar- 
row, swamp sparrow, indigo bunting, 
northern shrike, white-rumped shrike, 
migrant shrike, yellow warbler, pine 
warbler, palm warbler, and yellow 
palm warbler. 

Breeding birds preferring a moist 
habitat, generally near a stream or swamp, 
include the following: tree swallow, 
bank swallow, rough-winged swallow, 
northern water-thrush, GrinnelFs water- 
thrush, Connecticut warbler, and north- 
ern yellow-throat. 

Breeding birds whose habitat is 
limited to the presence of water, 
generally a local condition, include the 
following: bald eagle, osprey, belted 
kingfisher, and northern raven. 

2a. MOUNTAIN CONIFEROUS FOREST 

(MONTANE FOREST CLIMAX, THE ROCKY 
MOUNTAIN MONTANE FOREST, THE 
SIERRAN MONTANE FOREST, CLEMENTS, 
(HUDSONIAN AND CANADIAN ZONES) 
In the western half of the area the 
yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa), the 
lodgepole pine (P. murrayana), and the 
red fir (Pseudotsuga mucronata) are the 
trees which dominate the most exten- 
sive stands. 

In the montane forests are found such 
characteristic mammals as the yellow- 
bellied marmot (Marmota flaviventris 
subspp.), red squirrel (Subgenus Tamia- 
sciurus), deer-mouse (Peromyscus spp.), 
red-backed vole (Evotomys), chipmunk 
(Eutamias), and flying-squirrel (Glau- 
comys sabrinus subspp.). 

The breeding birds include the fol- 
lowing: dusky grouse (Utah and south), 
Richardson's grouse (Wyoming and 
north), Alaska spruce grouse (Mt. 
McKinley range), Franklin's grouse 
(Idaho and north), gray ruffed grouse 
(Utah and north), band-tailed pigeon 
(Utah and south), sharp-shinned hawk, 
Cooper's hawk, western goshawk, western 
red-tail, golden eagle, pigeon hawk, 
Richardson's pigeon hawk, desert 
sparrow hawk (lower mountains), long- 
eared owl, Richardson's owl, saw-whet 
owl, MacFarlane's screech owl (west 



mountain slope), Rocky Mountain 
screech owl (east mountain slope), 
flammulated screech owl (Colorado 
and south), dusky horned owl, hawk 
owl, Rocky Mountain pygmy owl, 
Rocky Mountain hairy woodpecker, 
Batchelder's woodpecker (British Co- 
lumbia and south), Nelson's downy 
woodpecker (Alberta and north), Arctic 
three-toed woodpecker, Alaska three- 
toed woodpecker (northerly), Alpine 
three-toed woodpecker (southerly), red- 
naped sapsucker, Williamson's sap- 
sucker, northern pileated woodpecker, 
Lewis' woodpecker, red-shafter flicker, 
Stephens' whippoorwill (Arizona and 
south), western nighthawk, black swift, 
white-throated swift, black-chinned 
hummingbird, Rivoli's hummingbird 
(Arizona and south), blue-throated 
hummingbird (Arizona and south), 
broad-tailed hummingbird (Idaho and 
south), rufous hummingbird, calliope 
hummingbird, white-eared humming- 
bird (Arizona and south), broad-billed 
hummingbird (Arizona and south), 
sulphur-bellied flycatcher (Arizona and 
south) olivaceous flycatcher (Arizona 
and south), olive-sided flycatcher 
(Arizona and south), Coues' flycatcher, 
western wood pewee, western flycatcher, 
Hammond's flycatcher, Wright's fly- 
catcher, gray flycatcher (Arizona 
and south), buff -breasted flycatcher 
(Arizona and south), magpie, long- 
crested jay (Wyoming and south), 
black-headed jay (Wyoming and north), 
Rocky Mountain jay, western crow, 
Clarke's nutcracker, pinyon jay, western 
evening grosbeak, Rocky Mountain pine 
grosbeak, Cassin's purple finch, cross- 
bill, white-winged crossbill, pine siskin, 
white-crowned sparrow, Gambel's spar- 
row, western chipping sparrow, white- 
winged junco (Rocky Mountain 
region), Shufeldt's junco (northerly), 
Montana junco (northerly), pink- 
sided junco (southerly), Ridgway's junco 
(Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, New 
Mexico), Arizona junco (Arizona and 
south), red-backed junco (Arizona and 
south), gray-headed junco (Wyoming 
and south), mountain song sparrow, 



ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS 



Lincoln's sparrow, slate-colored fox 
sparrow, Arctic towhee, green-tailed 
towhee, black-headed grosbeak, Lazuli 
bunting, western tanager, hepatic 
tanager (Arizona and south), purple 
martin, cliff swallow, barn swallow, 
Bohemian waxwing (northerly), cedar 
waxwing (southerly), red-eyed vireo, 
(low elevations), western warbling vireo, 
Cassin's vireo (north and west), plum- 
beous vireo (east and south), Virginia's 
warbler (southern), orange-crowned 
warbler, Tennessee warbler, olive war- 
bler, Hoover's warbler, Audubon's warb- 
ler, black-fronted warbler, Grace's 
warbler, black-throated gray warbler, 
Townsend's warbler, Macgillivray's war- 
bler, long-tailed chat, pileolated war- 
bler, redstart, painted redstart, red- 
faced warbler (Arizona and south), cat- 
bird, rock wren, western house wren, 
western winter wren, Rocky Mountain 
creeper, Rocky Mountain nuthatch, red- 
breasted nuthatch, pygmy nuthatch, 
gray titmouse, long-tailed chickadee, 
Mexican chickadee, mountain chickadee, 
Hudsonian chickadee, chestnut-backed 
chickadee, lead-colored bush-tit, western 
golden-crowned kinglet, ruby-crowned 
kinglet, Townsend's solitaire, willow 
thrush, olive-backed thrush, Audubon's 
hermit thrush, western robin, northern 
varied thrush, western bluebird, azure 
bluebird, chestnut-backed bluebird, 
mountain bluebird. 

Breeding birds whose habitat is 
generally limited to the preforest or 
other early stages of succession include 
the following: pale goldfinch, western 
tree sparrow, northern shrike (north- 
erly), white-rum ped shrike (low eleva- 
tions), and yellow warbler. 

Breeding birds preferring a moist 
habitat, generally near a stream or 
swamp, include the following : tree swal- 
low, northern violet-green swallow, 
bank swallow, rough-winged swallow, 
Grinnell water-thrush, and western 
yellow-throat. 

Breeding birds whose habitat is 
limited to the presence of water, gener- 
ally a local condition, include the fol- 
lowing: nothern bald eagle, duck hawk, 
osprey, and dipper. 



3. NORTHWESTERN MOIST CONIFEROUS 
FOREST BIOTA (NORTHWESTERN HYDRO- 
PHYTIC EVERGREEN FOREST, SHREVE) 
(INCLUDES THE LARCH-PINE FOREST 
AND THE CEDAR-HEMLOCK FOREST; 
CLEMENTS) (THE COAST FOREST CLI- 
MAX, CLEMENTS) 

The climate is mild with some rain in 
all seasons but especially in winter. 

This is "a well-marked type of forest 
characterized by density of stand and 
by the size of its trees, which commonly 
reach 100 to 125 ft. in height and are 
often in excess of this. The floor of the 
forest is heavily shaded and supports 
relatively few deciduous under-trees, 
although there is usually a rich growth 
of shrubs and of ferns, mosses, and other 
herbaceous plants. The trees which 
characterize this area are the Douglas 
fir (Pseudotsuga mucronata), redwood 
(Sequoia sempervirens), western hem- 
lock (Tsuga heterophylla) , canoe cedar 
(Thuja plicata), grand fir (Abies grandis) 
and others." 

The mammals include the elk (Cervus 
canadensis occidentalism black bear 
(Ursus americanus group), bob cat 
(Lynx fasciatus group), and black- 
tailed deer (Odocoileus columbianus 
subspp.). 

The breeding birds include the fol- 
lowing : mountain quail, California quail, 
sooty grouse, Oregon ruffed grouse, 
band-tailed pigeon, dusky mourning 
dove, marsh hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, 
Cooper hawk, western goshawk, western 
red-tailed hawk, Alaska red-tail (South- 
east Alaska), golden eagle, Peale's 
falcon, black pigeon hawk, sparrow 
hawk, spotted owl, saw-whet owl (ex- 
cept Queen Charlotte), island saw-whet 
owl (except Queen Charlotte), Ken- 
nicott's screech owl (Oregon and north), 
Brewster's screech owl (Oregon and 
south), dusky horned owl, Vancouver 
pygmy owl (Vancouver Islands), coast 
pygmy owl (Washington and south), 
California pygmy owl (Montery, etc.), 
California cuckoo (Washington and 
south), Harris' woodpecker (north), 
white-breasted woodpecker (south), 
Sitka hairy woodpecker (Southeast Al- 



64 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



aska), Gairdner's woodpecker (British 
Columbia and south), Valdez downy 
woodpecker (British Columbia and 
north), red-breasted woodpecker (Cali- 
fornia), northern red-breasted sapsucker 
(California and north), western pileated 
woodpecker, California woodpecker 
(Oregon and south), northwestern flicker, 
Pacific nighthawk, black swift, Vaux's 
swift, white-throated swift, rufous hum- 
mingbird, Allen's hummingbird, olive- 
sided flycatcher, western flycatcher, 
Traill's flycatcher, Hammond's fly- 
catcher, Steller's jay (Washington and 
north), coast jay (Oregon and south), 
California jay (south), Oregon jay, 
western crow (Washington and south), 
northwestern crow (Washington and 
north), Bullock's oriole, Brewer's black- 
bird, western evening grosbeak, Kadiak 
pine grosbeak, California purple finch, 
crossbill, pine siskin, Oregon vesper 
sparrow, Nuttall's sparrow (British 
Columbia and north), golden-crowned 
sparrow (British Columbia and north), 
western chipping sparrow, Oregon junco, 
Point Pinos junco (Monterey district), 
rusty song sparrow (Washington and 
north), sooty song sparrow (Alaska 
coast), San Diego song sparrow (Mon- 
terey region), mendocino song sparrow 
(Oregon to San Francisco), Forbush's 
sparrow (Alaska coast), sooty fox spar- 
row (British Columbia and Washington), 
Kadiak fox sparrow (Cross Sound and 
north), Townsend's fox sparrow (Cross 
Sound and south), Oregon towhee 
(British Columbia, Washington, Oregon), 
San Francisco towhee (California), black 
headed grosbeak, western martin, cliff 
swallow, barn swallow, western warbling 
vireo, Cassin's vireo, Anthony's vireo, 
Calaveras warbler, lutescent warbler, 
Alaska yellow warbler (Vancouver 
Islands and north), California yellow 
warbler (Washington and south), Audu- 
bon's warbler, Townsend's warbler 
(northerly), hermit warbler (southerly), 
Macgillivray's warbler, golden pileo- 
lated warbler, rock wren (Oregon to 
Vancouver Islands), western house wren, 
western winter wren, California creeper, 
slender-billed nuthatch, red-breasted 



nuthatch, Oregon chickadee, chestnut- 
backed chickadee (Sonoma County, 
California and north), California chicka- 
dee (Sonoma and Marin Counties), 
Barlow's chickadee (Monterey region), 
bush-tit, coast wren-tit (Oregon to 
Humboldt Bay, California), ruddy wren- 
tit (Humboldt County and south), 
western golden-crowned kinglet, sitka 
kinglet (British Columbia and north), 
Townsend's solitaire, russet-backed 
thrush, Alaska hermit thrush, dwarf 
hermit thrush, Monterey hermit thrush, 
western robin, varied thrush, northern 
varied thrush, western bluebird, moun- 
tain bluebird. 

Breeding birds whose habitat is 
generally limited to the preforest or 
other early stages of succession include 
the following : western meadowlark, wil- 
low goldfinch, and western tree sparrow 
(north). 

Breeding birds preferring a moist 
habitat, generally near a stream or 
swamp, include the following: north- 
western red-wing, bicolored red-wing, 
tree swallow, northern violet-green 
swallow, bank swallow, rough-winged 
swallow, and Pacific yellow-throat 
(British Columbia and south'). 

Breeding birds whose habitat is 
limited to the presence of water, gener- 
ally local condition, include the fol- 
lowing : northwestern coast heron (Wash- 
ington and north), California heron 
(Washington and south), spotted sand- 
piper, bald eagle, northern bald eagle 
(north), osprey, northern belted king- 
fisher, northern raven, and dipper. 

4. XEROPHYTIC CONIFEROUS FOREST 
BIOTA (NOT INDICATED ON THE MAP) 
(WESTERN XEROPHYTIC EVERGREEN 
FOREST, SHREVE) (THE WOODLAND 
CLIMAX : PINE JUNIPER FORMATION, CLE- 
MENTS) (INCLUDES PINYON CEDAR WOOD- 
LAND; OAK-CEDAR WOODLAND ', PINE- 
OAK WOODLAND IN PART, CLEMENTS) 

This type lies between the northern 
coniferous forest and the desert and 
semi-desert areas in the United States 
and northern Mexico. It does not 
cover an extensive area. 



ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS 



65 



It is "an open forest of low stature, the 
trees seldom exceeding 40 ft. in height. 
The needle-leaved and scale-leaved 
evergreens are the dominant trees, but 
the forest is everywhere accompanied by 
shrubbery and by some succulent or 
semi-succulent plants, and is carpeted in 
many localities by an open growth of 
perennial grasses. Along the Mexican 
boundary this forest merges into the 
encinal, or evergreen oak type. The 
dominant species of the Xerophytic 
Evergreen Forest vary from state to 
state but are in almost all cases either 
junipers or pinyons." 

Among the characteristic mammals 
are the woodrats (Neotoma spp.), deer- 
mice (Peromyscus spp.), and cottontail 
rabbit (Sylvilagus audubonii subspp.). 

The breeding birds include the fol- 
lowing: white-checked goose, plumed 
quail (Ventura County and north), 
San Pedro quail (San Ber. and San Gab. 
Mountains), Sierra grouse, band-tailed 
pigeon, western mourning dove, Cali- 
fornia vulture (Santa Clara County, 
south), turkey vulture, sharp-shinned 
hawk, Cooper's hawk, western goshawk, 
western red-tailed hawk, golden eagle, 
desert sparrow hawk, spotted owl, 
Pasadena screech owl, Pacific horned 
owl, pygmy owl, Sierra woodpecker, 
Cabanis woodpecker, Nuttall's wood- 
pecker, white-headed woodpecker, Si- 
erra three-toed woodpecker, red-naped 
sapsucker, red-breasted sapsucker, Wil- 
liamson's sapsucker, northern pileated 
woodpecker, Lewis' woodpecker, red- 
shafted flicker, western nighthawk, 
black swift, white-throated swift, black- 
chinned hummingbird, broad-tailed hum- 
mingbird, rufous hummingbird, cal- 
liope hummingbird, ash-throated fly- 
catcher, olive-sided flycatcher, western 
wood pewee, Hammond's flycatcher, 
Wright's flycatcher, gray flycatcher, 
blue-fronted jay, California jay, gray 
jay, Clark's nutcracker, pinyon jay, 
tricolored blackbird, Bullock's oriole, 
Brewer's blackbird, western evening 
grosbeak, California pine grosbeak, 
Cassin's purple finch, Mexican crossbill, 
green-backed goldfinch, pine siskin, 



white-crowned sparrow, Thurber's junco, 
western chipping sparrow, black-chinned 
sparrow, mountain song sparrow, Lin- 
coln's sparrow, thick-billed fox spar- 
row (northerly), Stephens 1 fox sparrow 
(southerly), spurred towhee, green- 
tailed towhee, black-headed grosbeak, 
Lazule bunting, western tanager, west- 
ern martin, western warbling vireo, 
Cassin's vireo, gray vireo (Cajon Pass 
and south), Calaveras warbler, hermit 
warbler, lutescent warbler, Audubon's 
warbler, black-throated gray warbler, 
Townsend's warbler, Macgillivray's war- 
bler, golden pileolated warbler, Cali- 
fornia thrasher, rock wren, dotted 
canyon wren, western house wren, 
western winter wren, Sierra creeper, 
slender-billed nuthatch, red-breasted 
nuthatch, pygmy nuthatch, gray tit- 
mouse, mountain chickadee, lead-col- 
ered bush-tit, western golden-crowned 
kinglet, ruby-crowned kinglet, Town- 
send's solitaire, Sierra hermit thrush, 
western robin, western bluebird, moun- 
tain bluebird. 

Breeding birds whose habitat is gener- 
ally limited to the preforest or other 
early stages of succession include the 
western vesper sparrow and the Cali- 
fornia yellow warbler. 

Breeding birds whose habitat is 
limited to the presence of water, gener- 
ally a local condition, include the follow- 
ing : merganser, hooded merganser, wood 
duck, Harlequin duck, spotted sand- 
piper, and dipper. 

5. POPLAR GROVE SAVANNA BIOTA 

("PARK STEPPE" OF HARDY) 

A narrow strip skirting the coniferous 
forest on the west and south in Min- 
nesota, Wisconsin, Manitoba, Saskat- 
chewan and Alberta. It consists of 
groves of poplar or low shrubs, the 
former with characteristic forest edge 
lying in a mesophytic prairie. In 
some localities the grassland forms 
islands. The mammals include forest 
bison (Bison bison athabascae), mule 
deer (Odocoileus hemionus*), skunk (Me- 
phitis hudsonica), raccoon (Procyon I. 
lotor), and red fox (Vulpes fulva). 



66 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



6. DECIDUOUS FOREST BIOTA 

Occupies areas with rainfall through- 
out the year, especially in spring. 

"The extensive area chiefly east of the 
Mississippi and south of the Great 
Lakes, which was formerly occupied by 
an almost unbroken forest of a score or 
more of deciduous trees. A few prairies 
occur in the southern portion of the area 
and evergreen needle-leaved trees occupy 
bluffs and shallow soil in the mountains. 
The commonest trees are species of 
oak (Quercus), hickory (Hicoria), chest- 
nut (Castanet, beech (Fagus), maple 
(Acer), walnut (Juglans), tulip (Lirio- 
dendron], and ash (Fraxinus) ." 

The mammals include the Virginia 
deer (Odocoileus virginianus subspp.), 
black bear (Ursus a. americanus) , bob- 
cat (Lynx r. ruffus), gray fox (Urocyon c. 
cinereoargenteus) , red fox (Vulpes fulva), 
opossum (Didelphis v. virginiana), cot- 
tontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus 
subspp.), and gray squirrel (Sciurus 
carolinensis subspp.). 

Breeding birds include the following: 
ruffed grouse, wild turkey, passenger 
pigeon (extinct), mourning dove, turkey 
vulture, black vulture (south), swallow- 
tailed kite, white-tailed kite, Mississippi 
kite (south), marsh hawk, sharp- 
shinned hawk, Cooper's hawk, red-tailed 
hawk, red-shouldered hawk, broad- 
winged hawk, pigeon hawk, sparrow 
hawk, barn owl, long-eared owl, barred 
owl, saw-whet owl, screech owl, great 
horned owl, Carolina paroquet (for- 
merly), yellow-billed cuckoo, black- 
billed cuckoo, ivory-billed woodpecker 
(south), hairy woodpecker (north), 
southern hairy woodpecker (south), 
southern downy woodpecker (south), 
downy woodpecker (north), red-cock- 
aded woodpecker, pileated woodpecker 
(south), northern pileated woodpecker 
(north), red-headed woodpecker, red- 
bellied woodpecker, flicker (south), 
northern flicker (north), Chuck-will's- 
widow (south), whip-poor-will, night- 
hawk, chimney swift, ruby-throated 
hummingbird, kingbird, crested fly- 
catcher, phoebe, wood pewee, Acadian. 



flycatcher, blue jay, crow, fish crow 
(southeastern), cowbird, orchard oriole, 
Baltimore oriole, purple grackle (Atlan- 
tic Coast south), chipping sparrow, 
Bachman's sparrow, song sparrow, tow- 
hee, cardinal, rose-breasted grosbeak, 
blue grosbeak (south), painted bunting 
(south), scarlet tanager, summer tanager 
(southerly), purple martin, cliff swallow, 
cedar waxwing, red-eyed vireo, warbling 
vireo, yellow-throated vireo, white- 
eyed vireo, black and white warbler, 
worm-eating warbler, Bachman's war- 
bler (south), blue-winged warbler, 
golden-winged warbler, parula warbler 
(south), northern parula warbler (north) 
pine warbler, oven-bird, Kentucky war- 
bler, yellow-breasted chat, redstart, 
mockingbird, catbird, brown thrasher, 
Carolina wren, Bewick's wren, house 
wren, white-breasted nuthatch, brown- 
headed nuthatch (south), tufted tit- 
mouse, chickadee, Carolina chickadee 
(south), blue-gray gnatcatcher, wood 
thrush, robin, southern robin, and 
bluebird. 

Breeding birds whose habitat is gener- 
ally limited to pre-forest or other early 
stages of succession include the follow- 
ing: upland plover, killdeer, bob-white, 
goldfinch, vesper sparrow, field sparrow, 
indigo bunting, loggerhead shrike 
(south), migrant shrike (north), yellow- 
throated warbler, and prairie warbler. 

Breeding birds preferring a moist 
habitat, generally near a stream or 
swamp, include the following: boat- 
tailed grackle (southeast), swamp spar- 
row, tree swallow, bank swallow, rough- 
winged swallow, prothonotary warbler, 
Swainson's warbler (south), sycamore 
warbler, Louisiana water-thrush, Mary- 
land yellow-throat, northern yellow- 
throat, hooded warbler, and short- 
billed marsh wren. 

Breeding birds whose habitat is 
limited to the presence of water, gener- 
ally a local condition, include the follow- 
ing: merganser, wood duck, great blue 
heron, egret (south), snowy egret 
(south), little blue heron (south), green 
heron, black-crowned night heron, yel- 
low-crowned night heron (south), sand- 



ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS 



67 



hill crane, king rail, Virginia rail, sora, 
yellow rail, black rail, purple gallinule 
(south), Florida gallinule, coot, wood- 
cock, Wilson's snipe, solitary sandpiper, 
spotted sandpiper, piping plover, duck 
hawk, osprey northern raven, red- 
winged blackbird, and long-billed marsh 
wren. 

7. OAK GROVE SAVANNA BIOTA (PARK 
STEPPE OF HARDY IN PART) GRASSLAND- 
DECIDUOUS FOREST TRANSITION, 
SHREVE; SUBCLIMAX PRAIRIE, CLE- 
MENTS) 

An area with little rainfall in winter 
and late summer and heavy rainfall 
in June. 

The rather ill-defined belt in which 
the Deciduous Forest emerges from the 
flood-plains and river margins and 
occupies a portion of the upland. On 
the western edge of the belt there is a 
high percentage of grassland, while in 
the eastern portion the deciduous forest 
becomes nearly continuous. The prin- 
cipal trees of this region are the bur, 
white, and black oaks (Quercus macro- 
carpa, Q. alba, Q. velutina); the principal 
grasses, beard grass (Andropogen fur- 
catus), Indian grass (Sorghastrum 
nutans}. and dropseed (Sporobolus cryp- 
tandrus). 

The forest edge is a very important 
habitat for a few mammals, birds and 
many insects ranging eastward. The 
Franklin ground-squirrel (Citellus frank- 
linii}, and many birds and insects are 
restricted to it. Steppe animals in- 
vaded the grass covered areas while 
the wooded parts supported the Vir- 
ginia deer (Odocoileus virginanus mac- 
rourus), elk (Cervus c. canadensis} , 
raccoon (Procyon I. lotor), gray squirrel 
(Sciurus carolinensis leucotis), and cot- 
tontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus 
mearnsii). 

The species that occur in the decidu- 
ous forest are, for the most part, also 
found in the oak grove savannas. But 
a few species that are confined to the 
southeastern part and the northeastern 
part of the deciduous forest do not find 
their way into the oak grove savannas. 
The oak grove savanna thus become a 
westward extension of the deciduou* 



forest like arms into the grasslands. 
Breeding birds that occur in the oak 
grove savannas are as follows: upland 
plover, turkey vulture, black vulture, 
swallow-tailed kite, Mississippi kite, 
sharp-shinned hawk, Cooper's hawk, 
red-tailed hawk, red-shouldered hawk, 
broad-winged hawk, bald eagle, duck 
hawk, sparrow hawk, great horned owl, 
barn owl, long-eared owl, barred owl, 
saw-whet owl, screech owl, Carolina 
paroquet (formerly), yellow-billed 
cuckoo, black-billed cuckoo, hairy 
woodpecker, downy woodpecker, yellow- 
bellied sapsucker, red-headed wood- 
pecker, red-bellied woodpecker, north- 
ern flicker, whip-poor-will, nighthawk, 
chimney swift, ruby-throated hum- 
mingbird, kingbird, Arkansas kingbird 
(west), crested flycatcher, wood pewee, 
yellow-bellied flycatcher (north), Aca- 
dian flycatcher, least flycatcher, blue 
jay, raven, crow, cowbird, orchard 
oriole, Baltimore oriole, bronzed grackle, 
goldfinch, vesper sparrow, chipping 
sparrow, field sparrow, song sparrow, 
towhee, cardinal, rose-breasted gros- 
beak, painted bunting (south), scar- 
let tanager, summer tauager, purple 
martin, cliff swallow, barn swallow, 
cedar waxwing, loggerhead shrike 
(south), white-rumped shrike, red-eyed 
vireo, warbling vireo, yellow-throated 
vireo, black and white warbler (oc- 
casionally), worm-eating warbler, blue- 
winged warbler (occasionally), cerulean 
warbler, chestnut-sided warbler (oc- 
casionally), prairie warbler, oven-bird, 
yellow-breasted chat, redstart (north), 
mockingbird, catbird, brown thrasher, 
Carolina wren, Bewick's wren, brown 
creeper, white-breasted nuthatch, tufted 
titmouse, chickadee, blue-gray gnat- 
catcher, woodthrush, veery (east), willow 
thrush, robin, and bluebird. 

Breeding birds whose habitat is 
generally limited to the pre-forest or 
other early stages of succession include 
the following: prairie chicken, bob- 
white, short-eared owl, prairie horned 
lark, bobolink, meadowlark, grasshopper 
sparrow, Henslow's sparrow, lark spar- 
row, dickcissel, and indigo bunting. 



68 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



Breeding birds preferring a moist 
habitat, generally near a stream or 
swamp, include the following: green 
heron, black-crowned night heron, sand- 
hill crane, king rail, Virginia rail, sora, 
yellow rail, black rail, purple gallinule 
(south), Florida gallinule, marbled god- 
wit (north), spotted sandpiper, marsh 
hawk, osprey, belted kingfisher, phoebe, 
Traill's flycatcher, savanna sparrow, 
Nelson's sparrow, swamp sparrow, tree 
swallow, bank swallow, rough-winged 
swallow, prothonotary warbler, Swain- 
son's warbler (south), yellow warbler, 
sycamore warbler, Louisiana water- 
thrush, Maryland yellow-throat, hooded 
warbler, short-billed marsh wren. 

Breeding birds whose habitat is 
limited to the presence of water, gener- 
ally a local condition, include the follow- 
ing: bittern, least bittern, great blue 
heron, snowy egret, little blue heron, 
yellow-headed blackbird, red-winged 
blackbird, and long-billed marsh wren. 

8. SOUTHEASTERN CONIFEROUS FOREST 
(SOUTHEASTERN MESOPHYTIC EVER- 
GREEN FOREST, SHREVE) (PROBABLY 
INCLUDES THE SOUTHEASTERN EVER- 
GREEN-DECIDUOUS TRANSITION, SHREVE) 

Copious rain in summer. Frequent 
fires an important environmental factor. 
The coastal plain forest is of evergreen 
needle-leaved trees, with a subordinate 
admixture of evergreen broad-leaved 
and deciduous species. "Extensive 
areas of this forest are pure stands of 
longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), or 
Cuban pine (P. caribaea} in open forma- 
tion, with a clear floor nearly devoid of 
shrubs and carpeted with grasses and 
herbaceous plants." The mammals are 
in part similar to those of the deciduous 
forest, which is probably the climax 
type over most of the region. For a 
list of mammals and reptiles see account 
of Alabama. 

Breeding birds include the following: 
wild turkey, passenger pigeon (extinct), 
mourning dove, ground dove, black 
vulture, swallow-tailed kite, Mississippi 
kite, Cooper's hawk, Florida red- 
shouldered hawk, red-tailed hawk, broad 
winged hawk, sparrow hawk, barn owl, 



Florida barred owl, Florida screech owl, 
great horned owl, Carolina paroquet, 
yellow-billed cuckoo, southern hairy 
woodpecker, southern downy wood- 
pecker, red-cockaded woodpecker, pile- 
ated woodpecker, red-headed wood- 
pecker, red-bellied woodpecker, chuck- 
will's widow, flicker, Florida night- 
hawk, chimney swift, ruby-throated 
hummingbird, kingbird, crested fly- 
catcher, wood pewee, blue jay, southern 
crow, fish crow, cowbird, orchard oriole, 
Baltimore oriole, purple grackle, pine- 
woods sparrow, Bachman's sparrow, 
chipping sparrow, Alabama towhee, 
cardinal, blue grosbeak, summer tana- 
ger, purple martin, red-eyed vireo, 
warbling vireo, yellow-throated vireo, 
white-eyed vireo, black and white 
warbler, black-throated green warbler, 
pine warbler, Florida yellow-throat, 
yellow-breasted chat, Kentucky war- 
bler, mockingbird, catbird, brown 
thrasher, Carolina wren, Bewick's 
wren, Florida white-breasted nuthatch, 
brown-headed nuthatch, tufted titmouse, 
Carolina chickadee, blue-gray gnat- 
catcher, wood thrush, southern robin 
and bluebird. 

Breeding birds whose habitat is gener- 
ally limited to the pre-forest or other 
early stages of succession include the 
following: bob-white, goldfinch, logger- 
head shrike, and prairie warbler. 

Breeding birds preferring a moist 
habitat, generally near a stream or 
swamp include the following: indigo 
bunting, prothonotary warbler, Swain- 
son's warbler, sycamore warbler, Loui- 
siana water-thrush, and hooded warbler. 

Breeding bird whose habitat is limited 
to the presence of water, generally a 
local condition, is the bald eagle. 

9. GRASSLAND BIOTA (GRASSLAND, 

SHREVE) (GRASSLAND CLIMAX, CLE- 
MENTS) (INCLUDES TRUE PRAIRIE; 
MIXED PRAIRIE; SHORT-GRASS PLAINS; 
BUNCH-GRASS PRAIRIE OF THE NORTH- 
WEST, CLEMENTS) 

Areas with rain chiefly in spring and 
early summer. Dry season late in 
summer. Winters cold and dry. 

The vast plains area, covered ' by a 



ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS 



more or less closed sod of perennial 
grasses, distributed as follows: 

Tall grass prairie west to central 
Dakotas, eastern third of Nebraska 
and central Kansas; tall and short 
grasses forming sod in all of grassland 
north of central Kansas and Colorado, 
west to Rockies, except in sand or where 
overgrazed. South of this is mostly 
scattered grass steppe; west of it mostly 
bunch-grass steppe. Bunch-grass oc- 
curs regularly in sand. A scattering 
representation of desert forms is present, 
particularly in the "bad lands," shrubs 
are locally present, in portions of the 
area (bush steppe) and the evergreen 
forests advance from the west onto 
hills and rocky soil, while the Deciduous 
Forest encroaches from the east through 
the valleys of the largest streams. A 
number of species of herbaceous peren- 
nials are found in all parts of the Grass- 
land, being chiefly Composities. The 
leading grasses are the gramas (Boute- 
loua), buffalo grass (Bulbilis dacty- 
loides], and prairie grass (Koeleria 
cristata) . 

The mammals included immense herds 
of bison, large herds of pronghorn 
antelope (Antilocapra americana), wolf 
(Canis spp.), coyote (Cam's spp.), 
white-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus town- 
sendii subspp.), kit fox (Vulpes velox}, 
and "towns" of prairie-dogs (Cynomys). 

Breeding birds include the following: 
upland plover, killdeer, bob-white, Flor- 
ida bob-white (Florida prairies), prairie 
chicken, lesser prairie chicken, prairie 
sharp-tailed grouse, western mourning 
dove, turkey vulture, marsh hawk, 
Swainson's hawk, ferruginous rough-leg, 
prairie falcon, duck hawk, sparrow 
hawk, desert sparrow hawk, burrowing 
owl, poor-will, western nighthawk, Sen- 
nett's nighthawk, scissor-tailed fly- 
catcher, kingbird, Arkansas kingbird, 
phoebe, Say's phoebe, prairie horned 
lark, desert horned lark, dusky horned 
lark, magpie, cowbird, meadowlark, 
western meadowlark, southern meadow- 
lark, Bullock's oriole, Brewer's black- 
bird, goldfinch, chestnut-collared long- 
spur, McCown's longspur, vesper 



sparrow, western vesper sparrow, Oregon 
vesper sparrow, savanna sparrow, west- 
ern savanna sparrow, Baird's sparrow, 
grasshopper sparrow, western grass- 
hopper sparrow, Florida grasshopper 
sparrow, Henslow's sparrow, western 
Henslow's sparrow, Leconte's sparrow, 
Nelson's sparrow, lark sparrow, western 
lark sparrow, western field sparrow, 
western chipping sparrow, clay-colored 
sparrow, Brewer's sparrow, song spar- 
row, Dakota song sparrow, dickcissel, 
lark bunting, purple martin, cliff swal- 
low, barn swallow, white-rumped shrike, 
migrant shrike, Sprague's pipit, western 
house wren, robin, western robin, and 
bluebird. 

Breeding birds preferring a moist 
habitat, generally near a stream, in- 
clude the following: tree swallow, bank 
swallow, rough-winged swallow, Mary- 
land yellow-throat, western yellow- 
throat, northern yellow-throat, and 
short-billed marsh wren. 

Breeding birds whose habitat is 
limited to the presence of water, gener- 
ally a local condition, include the follow- 
ing: sandhill crane, Wilson's phalarope, 
avocet, Wilson's snipe, marbled godwit, 
solitary sandpiper, western willet, spot- 
ted sandpiper, and long-billed curlew, 
prairie marsh wren. 

10. TEMPERATE DESERT-GRASSLAND 

BIOTA (INCLUDES DESERT- GRASS 
LAND TRANSITION, SHREVEJ DES- 
ERT PLAINS, CLEMENTS; THE NORTH- 
ERNMOST EXTENSION OF THE GREAT 
BASIN MICROPHYLL DESERT, SHREVE) 

A region intermediate in character 
between the grassland and the deserts 
of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and 
Idaho. 

An open carpet of perennial grasses 
and ephemeral or root-perennial her- 
baceous plants, with a more or less 
sparing representation of succulent and 
semi-succulent forms. The leading 
Grassland plants (in southern localities) 
are the gramas (Bouteloua) and galleta 
grass (Hilaria), and the chief desert 
plants are p%lmilla, amole, and a small 
group of cacti. 



70 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



The Snake River plain with sage- 
brush among which grasses grow up in 
spring and with local areas of grass, 
is included here. 

The mammals originally included 
bison, pronghorn antelope, badger 
(Taxidea taxus subspp.), ground-squir- 
rels (Citellus spp.), black-tailed jack- 
rabbit (Lepus californicus group), 
pocket-mouse (Perognathus), and kan- 
garoo-rat (Dipodomys). 

Breeding birds include the following: 
sage hen, western mourning dove, turkey 
vulture, marsh hawk, Swainson's hawk, 
ferruginous rough-leg, prairie falcon, 
desert sparrow hawk, short-eared owl, 
MacFarlane's screech owl, burrowing 
owl, California cuckoo, Sierra wood- 
pecker, Batchelder's woodpecker, red- 
shafted flicker, poor-will, western night- 
hawk, black-chinned hummingbird, 
broad-tailed hummingbird, kingbird, 
Arkansas kingbird, Say's phoebe, west- 
ern wood pewee, western flycatcher, 
desert horned lark, magpie, Woodhouse's 
jay, western crow, cowbird, western 
meadowlark, Bullock's oriole, Brewer's 
blackbird, house finch, green-backed 
goldfinch, western vesper sparrow, Ne- 
vada savanna sparrow, western grass- 
hopper sparrow, western lark sparrow, 
western chipping sparrow, Brewer's 
sparrow, desert sparrow, sage sparrow, 
MerilPs song sparrow, spurred towhee, 
black-headed grosbeak, lazuli bunting, 
purple martin, cliff swallow, barn 
swallow, California shrike, yellow war- 
bler, long-tailed chat, and sage thrasher. 

Breeding birds preferring a moist 
habitat, generally near a stream or 
swamp, include the following: raven, 
bobolink, northern violet-green swallow, 
bank swallow, western yellow-throat, 
and tule wren. 

11. EXTREME DESERT (CALIFORNIA MI- 
CROPHYLL DESERT, SHREVE) (THE 
WESTERN DESERT SCRUB IN PART, 

CLEMENTS) 

"An extremely low and open stand of 
microphyllous (small-leafed) shrubs, 
chiefly evergreen but partly deciduous; 
very poor in grasses and in succulent 



plants. The dominant plants are creo- 
sote bush (Covillea tridentata), and sand 
bur (Franseria dumosa)." 

Mammals, small burrowing forms and 
diurnal reptiles are present. 

For list of mammals see account of 
Mexico (Sonoran District) page 592. 

Breeding birds 2 include the following: 
Gambel's quail, western mourning dove, 
desert sparrow hawk, prairie falcon, 
road-runner, Texas woodpecker, Gila 
woodpecker, poor-will, western night- 
hawk, Texas nighthawk, Costa hum- 
mingbird, Say's phoebe, vermilion fly- 
catcher, Sonora horned lark, western 
raven, Sonora red-winged blackbird, 
western meadowlark, Scott's oriole, 
California purple finch, black-throated 
sparrow, desert song sparrow, Abert's 
towhee, western blue grosbeak, phaino- 
pepla, white-rumped shrike, least vireo, 
Lucy's warbler, western mockingbird, 
Bendire's thrasher, Leconte's thrasher, 
crissal thrasher, cactus wren, rock wren, 
verdin, and plumbeous gnatcatcher. 

12. SAGEBRUSH DESERT BIOTA (GREAT 
BASIN MICROPHYLL DESERT, SHREVE) 
(THE SAGEBRUSH CLIMAX, AND IN- 
CLUDES THE BASIN SAGEBRUSH AND 

POSSIBLY THE COASTAL SAGEBRUSH, 
CLEMENTS) 

(The northern portion is classed under 
$ 10 on account of desert grassland 
animals present.) 

"An open stand of shrubs, sometimes 
nearly closed; varying from place to 
place in stature; usually poor in grasses 
and succulents. The dominant plant 
is sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), 
locally accompanied by other forms." 

Among characteristic mammals are 
the pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra 
americana), black-tailed jackrabbit (Le- 
pus californicus subspp.), pygmy rabbit 
(Brachylagus idahoensis), cottontail rab- 
bits (Sylvilagus spp.), ground-squirrels 

2 Aquatic birds have been omitted from the desert 
list because of the extreme scarcity of their habitat 
in such regions. Many of these birds do not nest 
on the ground but in the thinly forested areas along 
streams, in canyons, among the rocks, in mesquite 
or cacti. No effort is made to distinguish ground 
nesting birds from others. 



ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS 



71 



(Citellus spp.), kangaroo-rats (Dido- 
domys spp.), and pocket-mice (Perog- 
nathus spp.). 

Breeding birds include the follow- 
ing: upland plover, killdeer, Columbian 
sharp-tailed grouse, sage hen, western 
mourning dove, turkey vulture, sharp- 
shinned hawk, Cooper's hawk, western 
red-tail, red-bellied hawk, Swainson's 
hawk, ferruginous rough-leg, prairie 
falcon, Richardson's pigeon hawk, des- 
ert sparrow hawk, short-eared owl, 
spotted owl, burrowing owl, California 
cuckoo, Sierra woodpecker, Batchelder's 
woodpecker, red-shafted flicker, poor- 
will, western nighthawk, black-chinned 
hummingbird, broad-tailed humming- 
bird, kingbird, Arkansas kingbird, cas- 
sin kingbird, ash-throated flycatcher, 
Say's phoebe, western wood pewee, west- 
ern flycatcher, TrailPs flycatcher, desert 
horned lark, dusky horned lark, black- 
billed magpie, woodhouse jay, raven, 
western crow, bobolink, cowbird, yellow- 
headed blackbird, San Diego red-wing, 
Nevada red-wing, western meadowlark, 
Bullock's oriole, Brewer's blackbird, 
house finch, green-backed goldfinch, 
western vesper sparrow, western sa- 
vanna sparrow, western grasshopper 
sparrow, western lark sparrow, western 
chipping sparrow, desert sparrow, sage 
sparrow, mountain song sparrow, Ne- 
vada towhee, black-headed grosbeak, 
lazuli bunting, western tanager, purple 
martin, cliff swallow, barn swallow, 
white-rumped shrike, western warbling 
vireo, yellow warbler, long-tailed chat, 
sage thrasher, western mockingbird, 
rock wren, canyon wren, western house 
wren, lead-colored bush-tit, western 
gnatcatcher, western robin, and western 
bluebird. 

Breeding birds preferring a moist 
habitat, generally near a stream or 
swamp, include the following: spotted 
sandpiper, long-billed curlew, snowy 
plover, marsh hawk, belted kingfisher, 
tree swallow, bank swallow, northern 
violet-green swallow, rough-winged 
swallow, western yellow-throat, and 
western marsh wren. 



13. EASTERN (RIO GRANDE) SUCCULENT 
DESERT BIOTA (TEXAS SUCCULENT 
DESERT, SHREVE) (EASTERN DESERT 
SCRUB, CLEMENTS) 

"A mixed stand of microphyllous 
shrubs and succulent and semi-succulent 
plants. The shrubs are either evergreen 
(Cavilled) or deciduous (Acacia, Flour- 
ensia). The stem-succulents comprise 
many species of cacti, chiefly low in 
growth; the commonest leaf-succulent is 
lechuguilla (Agave lechuguilla) ; the semi- 
succulents include sotol (Dasylirion 
texanum), amole, andpalmilla (Yucca)." 
For list of mammals see Texas account, 
page 502. 

Breeding birds include the following: 
killdeer, snowy plover, Texas bob-white, 
Arizona scaled quail, western mourning 
dove, white-winged dove, Mexican 
ground dove, Inca dove, black vulture, 
turkey vulture, white-tailed kite, Har- 
ris' hawk, western red-tail, Texas red- 
shouldered hawk, zone-tailed hawk, 
Swainson's hawk, Mexican black hawk, 
Mexican goshawk, prairie falcon, Aplo- 
mado falcon, desert sparrow hawk, 
Audubon's caracara, spotted owl, Sa- 
haura screech owl, flammulated screech 
owl, western horned owl, burrowing 
owl, road-runner, California cuckoo, 
Texas woodpecker, cactus woodpecker, 
Stephens' poor-will, Texas nighthawk, 
broad-tailed hummingbird, Cassin's king- 
bird, ash-throated flycatcher, dwarf cow- 
bird, Rio Grande meadowlark, thick- 
billed red-wing, Scott's oriole, Bullock's 
oriole, housefinch, Arkansas goldfinch 
western lark sparrow, desert sparrow, 
rufous-winged sparrow, Scott's sparrow, 
Arizona pyrrhuloxia, western blue gros- 
beak, varied bunting, barn swallow, 
phainopepla, white-rumped shrike, black- 
capped vireo, Stephens' vireo, least vireo, 
Sonora yellow warbler, western yellow- 
throat, long-tailed chat, western mock- 
ingbird, curve-billed thrasher, crissal 
thrasher, cactus wren, canyon wren, 
Texas wren, Sennett's titmouse, verdin, 
and plumbeous gnatcatcher. 

Breeding birds preferring a moist 
habitat, generally near a stream or 



72 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



swamp, include the following: marsh 
hawk, duck hawk, white-necked raven, 
rough-winged swallow, and bank 
swallow. 

14. WESTERN SMALL TREE AND SUC- 
CULENT DESERT BIOTA (ARIZONA SUC- 
CULENT DESERT, SHREVE) (WESTERN 

DESERT SCRUB, IN PART, CLEMENTS) 

"A mixed stand of microphyllous 
shrubs or small trees, either evergreen 
or deciduous, and of succulent forms, 
chiefly the stem succulent cacti. The 
leading shrubs are creosote bush and 
cat-claw (Acacia) ; the commonest small 
trees are palo verde (Parkinsonia) and 
palo fierro (Olneya). The succulents 
comprise large columnar forms (Car- 
negiea), branching aborescent forms 
(Opuntia), and many smaller types." 

Mammals include the black-tailed 
deer (Ododoileus), black-tailed jack- 
rabbit (Lepus californicus group), cot- 
tontail rabbit (Sylvilagus audubonii 
group), coyotes (Cam's spp.), badger 
(Taxidea), and many species of rodents. 

Breeding birds include the following: 
killdeer, snowy plover, masked bob- 
white, GambeFs quail, western mourn- 
ing dove, white-winged dove, Mexican 
ground dove, Inca dove, turkey vulture, 
Harris' hawk, western red-tail, zone- 
tailed hawk, Swainson's hawk, Mexican 
black hawk, Mexican goshawk, prairie 
falcon, Aplomado falcon, desert sparrow 
hawk, Audubon's caracara, Arizona 
spotted owl, Mexican screech owl, spot- 
ted screech owl, western horned owl, 
burrowing owl, road-runner, California 
cuckoo, Chihuahua woodpecker, cactus 
woodpecker, Gila woodpecker, gilded 
flicker, Stephens' poor-will, Texas night- 
hawk, Costa hummingbird, broad-billed 
hummingbird, Arizona crested fly- 
catcher, ash-throated flycatcher, oliva- 
ceous flycatcher, buff-breasted fly- 
catcher, vermilion flycatcher, beard- 
less flycatcher, scorched horned lark, 
bronzed cowbird, Sonora red-wing, Rio 
Grande meadowlark, Scott's oriole, 
orchard oriole, house finch, Arkansas 
goldfinch, western lark sparrow, desert 



sparrow, botteri sparrow, rufous-winged 
sparrow, Scott's sparrow, desert song 
sparrow, Arizona cardinal, Arizona 
pyrrhuloxia, western blue grosbeak, 
beautiful bunting, Mexican cliff swallow, 
barn swallow, phainopepla, white- 
rumped shrike, Stephens' vireo, least 
vireo, Lucy's warbler, Sonora yellow war- 
bler, western yellow-throat, western 
mockingbird, Palmer's thrasher, Ben- 
dire's thrasher, Leconte's thrasher, 
crissal thrasher, cactus wren, Baird's 
wren, verdin, and plumbeous gnat-- 
catcher. 

Breeding birds preferring a moist 
habitat, generally near a stream or 
swamp, include the following: marsh 
hawk, duck hawk, white-necked raven, 
rough-winged swallow, and bank 
swallow. 

15. MESQUITE SEMI-DESERT BIOTA 

(TEXAS SEMI-DESERT, SHREVE) 

"An open or closed stand of small trees 
and shrubs, chiefly deciduous, with 
local areas of grassland and a represen- 
tation of succulents. The dominant 
tree is mesquite (Prosopis glandulosd) ; 
the principal shrub, huisache (Acacia 
farnesiana)." 

Mammals include white-tailed deer 
(Odocoileus texanus}, wolf (Cam's rufus~), 
opossum (Didelphis marsupialis texen- 
szs), peccary (Tayassu), and armadillo 
(Dasypus novemcinctus texanus}. 

Breeding birds include the following: 
killdeer, Mexican jacana, chestnut- 
bellied scaled quail, Attwater's prairie 
chicken, Rio Grande turkey, chachalaca, 
red-billed pigeon, western mourning 
dove, white-winged dove, Mexican 
ground dove, Inca dove, white-fronted 
dove, black vulture, turkey vulture, 
Harris' hawk, western red-tail, zone- 
tailed hawk, Swainson's hawk, Sennet's 
white-tailed hawk, Mexican black hawk, 
Mexican goshawk, prairie falcon, Aplo- 
mado falcon, desert sparrow hawk, 
Audubon's caracara, spotted owl, Texas 
screech owl, burrowing owl, groove- 
billed ani, road-runner, California 
cuckoo, coppery-tailed trogon, Texas 



ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS 



73 



kingfisher, Texas woodpecker, cactus 
woodpecker, golden-fronted woodpecker, 
Stephens' poor-will, MerriPs parauque, 
Texas nighthawk, Reiffer's humming- 
bird, buff-bellied hummingbird, Couch's 
kingbird, scissor-tailed flycatcher, Mex- 
ican crested flycatcher, Derby fly- 
catcher, vermilion flycatcher, beardless 
flycatcher, Texas horned lark, green 
jay, white-necked raven, red-eyed cow- 
bird, Vera Cruz red-wing, Rio Grande 
meadowlark, Audubon's oriole, Sen- 
nett's oriole, Bullock's oriole, great- 
tailed grackle, house finch, Arkansas 
goldfinch, Texas seaside sparrow, west- 
ern lark sparrow, black-throated spar- 
row, botteri sparrow, Cassin's sparrow, 
Texas sparrow, gray-tailed cardinal, 
Texas pyrrhuloxia, western blue gros- 
beak, varied bunting, painted bunting, 
Sharpe's seedeater, lesser cliff swallow, 
gray-breasted martin, rough-winged 
swallow, phainopepla, white-rumped 
shrike, small white-eyed vireo, Texas 
vireo, Sennett's warbler, Florida yellow- 
throat, Rio Grande yellow-throat, west- 
ern mockingbird, Sennett's thrasher, 
curve-billed thrasher, cactus wren, lo- 
mita wren, black-crested tit-mouse, 
verdin. and plumbeous gnatcatcher. 

Breeding birds preferring a moist 
habitat, generally near a stream or 
swamp, include the following: snowy 
plover, Wilson's plover, and marsh 
hawk. 

16. BROAD THICK-LEAVED EVERGREEN 
SEMI-DESERT BIOTA (WINTER RAIN 
REGION) (PACIFIC SEMI-DESERT, 
SHREVE; CALIFORNIA CHAPARRAL, AND 
WOODLANDS OF MEDITERRANEAN TYPE, 
HARDY; COASTAL CHAPARRAL AND PINE- 
OAK WOODLAND IN PART, CLEMENTS) 

"A region of great topographic diversi- 
ty in which the vegetation varies locally 
from encinal (open oak forest, chiefly 
evergreen), through chaparral (a closed 
scrub of evergreen shrubs), to desert 
(ephemeral herbaceous plants, small 
perennials, local succulents). . . . 
The principal chaparral plants are 
chamiso (Adenostoma fasciculatum) and 
species of manzanita (Arctostaphylos)." 



The mammals include black-tailed 
deer (Odocoileus columbianus scaphiotus), 
coyote (Canis ochropus), and black- 
tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus 
subspp.). 

17. MAGNOLIA, BAY, HOLLY, "HAM- 
MOCKS* (TEMPERATE 
RAIN FOREST) 

Various correspondents contend that 
there is no forest of this type in the 
Americas. Various others have mapped 
the areas in the states adjacent to the 
Gulf of Mexico, especially Florida, as 
of this type. Pittier is inclined to con- 
sider some of the South American 
forests in high altitude as coming under 
Schimper's definition. From diagrams 
of the distribution of temperature and 
rainfall in the Australian and Asiatic 
areas commonly called temperate rain 
forest localities, there is evidently no 
climatic reason why this type should not 
occur in some localities in the southern 
states. The botanical objections to 
considering the magnolia, bay, holly 
"hammocks" temperate rain forest 
seems to be the sclerophyll character 
of the leaves. This may be another 
case where more consideration of the 
animals and lower plants should be 
allowed to dictate. So far as the ani- 
mals living under the forest cover are 
concerned the failure of the leaves to 
fall is more important than the char- 
acter of their covering. For lists of 
animals see under the Florida account, 
page 427. 

18. TROPICAL HAMMOCKS (SUBTROPICAL 
RAIN FOREST) 

Some small areas in southeastern 
Florida have sufficient rainfall correctly 
distributed to give a tropical rain forest. 
Some areas of this type have reached a 
climax which may be considered as a 
less luxuriant type of rain forest. Their 
small size does not permit them to 
afford shelter to the larger tropical 
animals but the biota is generally taxo- 
nomically related to the biota of the 
West Indies. 



74 NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 

For lists of animals and further dis- The swamps composed of evergreen 
cussion see the Florida account page 427. and deciduous trees in great variety, 

the bald cypress and tupelo gum being 

19. LOCAL AND EDAPHic BIOTA tne commonest species. The marshes 

are widely varying areas of grasses, 

All the waters, sand areas, rock slides, sedges, and immersed aquatic plants, 
etc., belong here but swamps and Mangrove swamps border shores in 
marshes cover most extensive areas. southern Florida. 



C. LIFE ZONES 



BY V. E. SHELFORD AND G. T. JONES 



In this book an attempt has been made 
to use natural features: climate, land- 
scape aspects, and the characteristic 
plants in designating and describing 
areas. Various authors of local ac- 
counts use "afe zones" to designate 
areas. Without a glossary the names 
do not suggest the landscape aspect 



types. It is necessary in such a work 
that natural features be used in order 
that the traveler may identify his loca- 
tion. The characteristic plants were 
substituted by the compilers for "life 
zones" wherever mentioned by contrib- 
utors in temperate America. This was 
done in accord with the table below. 



Approximate correspondence of Vegetation and Merriam's Life Zones 



(Prepared by George T. Jones) 



Vegetation type 



I. Tundra and Alpine Sum- 
mits 

A. Arctic Tundra 

B. Paramos or Alpine 

Meadow 
II. Coniferous Forest 

A. Northern Coniferous 

Forest 

B. Mountain Coniferous 

Forest 

1. Rocky Mountain 

Forest 

2. Sierran Sub-al- 

pine Forest 

3. Rocky Mountain 

Montane For- 
est 

4. Sierran Montane 

Forest 



5. Larch-Pine For- 
est of North- 
west 

C. Northwest Moist 
Coniferous Forest 

III. Eastern Forests 

A. Mixed Coniferous and 

Deciduous 

B. Temperate Deciduous 

C. Southeast Coniferous 

Forest 



D. Gulf Coast Forest 



Composition 



Lichens and herbs 

Sedges, grasses and 
herbs, dwarf willows 

Red, black and white 
spruces, balsam fir 



Engelmann spruce and 
alpine fir 

Mountain hemlock, firs, 
white-bark pine 

Western yellow pine, 
Douglas fir, white fir, 
lodgepole pine 

Sugar pine, western 
yellow pine, incense 
cedar, white fir, Doug- 
las fir 

Western white pine, 
western larch, western 
hemlock, Engelmann 
spruce, giant cedar 

Redwood, douglas fir, 
western hemlock, giant 
cedar, Sitka spruce 

Beech, birch, maple, 
hemlock, white pine 

Beech, maple, oaks, 
hickories, tulip tree, 
sassafras 

Longleaf pine, loblolly 
pine, slash pine, mag- 
nolia, live oak, bald 
cypress 

Southeast Coniferous 
Forest with under- 
growth of Palmetto 

75 



Merriam's Life 
Zone 



Arctic-Alpine 

Zone 
Arctic-Alpine 

Zone 

Hudsonian 
Canadian 



and 



Hudsonian and 
upper Canadian 

Hudsonian and 
upper Canadian 

Canadian and 
upper Transition 



Canadian 
Transition 



and 



Canadian and 
Transition 



Canadian and 

Humid Transi- 
tion 

Alleghanian 
Carolinian 

Austroriparian 



Sabalian or Gulf 
Strip 



76 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



IV. Temperate Rain Forest 
V. Sub-tropical Rain Forest 
VI. Poplar Savanna 
VII. Oak Savanna 



VIII. Rocky Mountain Forest 
Margin 
A. Chaparral 



B. Woodland 

IX. California region of various 
vegetation with Summer 
drouth and Winter Rain 

A. Chaparral 

B. Woodland 

C. Coastal sagebrush or 

"chaparral" 

D. Bunch-grass plains in 

valleys (cultivated) 
X. Grassland 

A. Prairie 

B. Steppe (Brush grass- 

land in part) 



XI. Bush-Steppe 

1. Semi-desert 

west 

2. Semi-desert 

west 
XII. Temperate Desert 



North- 
South- 



XIII. Subtropical Desert 

A. California Microphyll 

Desert 

B. Succulent Desert 

XIV. Thorn Savanna 



"Hammock" Country, 

Florida 
Very rare frost, south tip 

of Florida 
Mixture of poplars and 

tall grasses 
Mixture of oaks and tall 

grasses 



Brush, as dwarf oak 
(Quercus undulatus) 
and Mountain mahog- 
any (Sercocarpus par- 
vifolius) 

Pinyons and junipers 



Brush, as Manzanita and 
Buck brush 

Evergreen oaks, jun- 
ipers, etc. 

"Old Man" (Artemisia 
californica) and Salvia 

Tall grass in bunches 



Largely included in 
Savanna VI and VII 

Grasses in open sod. 
Bare ground between 
plants, or rather short 
grasses forming sod 

Mixed grass and sage- 
brush 

Mixed Grass and desert 
shrub 

Sagebrush -Atriplex- 
rabbit brush 

Creosote bush and Sand- 
bur 

Cacti, mesquite, etc. 
Thorn bushes and grass 



Sabalian Zone 
Tropical Zone 

Transition and Al- 
leghanian 

Alleghanian, Car- 
olinian and 
Austroriparian 

Arid Transition 



Upper Sonoran 

Arid Transition 
Upper Sonoran 
Upper Sonoran 

Upper and Lower 
Sonoran 



Arid Transition 
and Upper Son- 
oran 



Upper Sonoran 
Upper Sonoran 
Upper Sonoran 

Lower Sonoran 

Lower Sonoran 
Lower Sonoran 



The maps of Southern North America 
and Northern South America are the 
results of the circulation of three pre- 
liminary maps. The earlier maps were 
criticized by T. Barbour, L. Griscom, 
G. K. Noble, A. G. Ruthven and others. 
A much larger scale map was then 
planned with the aid of Dr. W. H. Os- 
good, drawn and circulated. Most of 
the contributors of tropical accounts 
made important suggestions and Mr. 
E. P. Killip of the National Museum 
added his knowledge of several countries. 

Florida may be used to illustrate diffi- 
culties in mapping^ the vegetation of 
areas. It is covered largely by long- 



leaf pine, and is commonly mapped as 
coniferous forest. Detailed study 
shows, however, that on well-developed 
soils in stable physiographic situations 
such as the highest terraces of flood 
plains, other types occur which indicate 
future dominants. Thus Professor Wat- 
son shows northwestern Florida to be 
deciduous forest, much of central 
Florida to be temperate rainforest 
(evergreen), southeastern Florida to 
be tropical rainforest, and the remain- 
ing parts are represented according 
to present dominants because neither 
the knowledge nor conditions make 
possible prediction of the coming type. 



1 






' 






































TEMPERATE Deciouous FOREST 
;|:|il:li|i|i|!|l S.E CONIFEROUS FOREST 

ARID CONIFEROUS FOREST 

CONIFEROUS FOREST 

MOIST CONIFEROUS FOREST 

PARAMOS AMD HIGH MT FOREST 
*e* e @ SuceuLtNT DE SERT 



ffifiHl SH^TREE SEMI-DESERT 



LUXURIANT TROPICAL 
RAIN FOREST 



SUB ALPINE 
EVERGREEN FOREST 




TROPICAL RAIN FtRtsT 
CLIMAX 



Y//////\ DRIER IROPICAL 1 o o \ | A/o DECIDUOUS \ f !':' : >1 ,, 

^^ ^^r l:^^d ^r fcgimd ^^*^o 

W-/fy%/ty)( M NTAH E M k.* ...'|^| DECIDUOUS THORN I V *o *o* * 

Yy^Xy/WA CLOUD FOREST FV. oovol FOREST |^ 4^0/0*0*^ 



GRASS SWAMP 



BROAD-LEAFED 

EVERGREEN SEMI-DESERT OF\A!INTER RAIN REGIONS 



FIG. 4. BIOTIC AREAS OP SOUTHERN NORTH AMERICA, MEXICO AND 
CENTRAL AMERICA 



D. DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF MIDDLE AMERICAN BIOTA (CENTRAL 
MEXICO TO THE AMAZON) 

BY FORREST SHRBVE AND V. E. SHELFORD 

(Names in parenthesis are synonyms used in published works or in the manu- 
scripts submitted) 



1. LUXURIANT TROPICAL RAIN-FOREST 
BIOTA (RAIN-FOREST; LOWLAND TROP- 
ICAL FOREST; HEAVY FOREST; HEAVY 
HUMID FOREST) 

This forest occupies regions with 
uniform mean monthly temperature and 
a heavy and well distributed rainfall. 
The forest is composed of a great number 
of different species and genera of trees 
of different stature and of shrubs and 
vines. The dominant trees are ever- 
green, or nearly so, and their leaves are 
relatively small and thick, while those 
of the subordinate trees are broad and 
thin. 

The animal life is also represented by 
a vast number of species. Termites 
which build nests on trees, leaf carrying 
ants, military ants and gaudy butter- 
flies characterize the insect population. 
Frogs and lizards are numerous. The 
snakes include some of the constrictors 
and poisonous coraline and crotaline 
species. Most of the birds are of com- 
mon neotropical types, many being large, 
grotesque or gaudy. Monkeys are most 
numerous here many rarely coming to 
the ground. Cats large and small, 
squirrels, and opossums are plentiful, 
Arboreal anteaters and sloths are char- 
acteristic. Tapirs are nearly always 
present. 

2. DRIER TROPICAL RAIN-FOREST BIOTA 

(LOWLAND RAIN-FOREST) 

This type of forest is similar to the 
luxuriant tropical Rain-Forest, but is 
not so heavy, the trees are not usually so 
tall nor so numerous in species, and the 



abundance of epiphytes and lianas 
depends upon local conditions, tending 
to be less numerous than in the Luxu- 
riant Tropical Rain-Forest. The ani- 
mal life is similar to that of the luxuriant 
forest but poorer in species and with 
many species different. 

3. ARID DECIDUOUS FOREST BIOTA 
(MONSOON FOREST; SEMI- 
DECIDUOUS FOREST) 

This forest is similar to the drier rain 
forest in the wet season, but exhibits 
partial leaf fall in the dry season. It 
is rich in epiphytes of bromeliad type, 
but relatively poor in lianas. The 
shrubs are chiefly evergreen. 

The monkeys, opossums, and ar- 
boreal anteaters drop out or become 
much less numerous than in the tropical 
rain forest. Peccaries, forest rabbits, 
foxes, and deer are more numerous. It 
must be borne in mind, however, that 
trees adjacent to streams often retain 
their leaves and that monkeys, tapirs, 
etc., ordinarily found in rain forest 
may occur here. In general, however, 
the species in the deciduous forest 
proper are quite different in the case of 
animals. 

4. DECIDUOUS THORN FOREST BIOTA 

(XEROPHYLOUS FOREST; THORN 
FOREST; CAATINGA) 

Deciduous Thorn Forest occupies 
some of the more arid portions of South 
America. It consists of a more or less 
close stand of large shrubs, small trees 
and succulents. The majority of the 
dominant plants are leafless in the dry 



77 



78 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



season. The animal life is scanty, Rats, mice, and ground-squirrels are 
armadillos, forest rabbits, and foxes the dominant animals, though pec- 
being dominant mammalian types. caries, deer, and coyotes also occur. 



5. GBASSLAND BIOTA (PRAIRIES; LLANOS ; 
CAMPOS; PAMPAS; PAJONALES) 

The diverse grassland areas of tropi- 
cal America are alike in the tall coarse, 
character of the grasses and in the 
occurrence with them of numerous 
shrubs and perennial herbaceous plants. 
In some localities the vegetation is low 
and open, as on the limestone mesas of 
Venezuela ; in others it is more luxuriant 
and more nearly perennial in its activity. 
Only restricted areas of grassland are 
without trees. Little distinction can 
be made between the animal life of the 
Grassland and Savanna due to the lack 
of information, particularly as to the 
smaller forms. 

6. SAVANNA BIOTA (ARID GRASSLAND; 
GALLERY SAVANNA) 

The Savannas are tropical grasslands 
occupied by greater or less numbers of 
trees or shrubs, growing singly or in 
groups, and being chiefly deciduous ex- 
cept in the case of the palms. The 
grasses vary in density and stature, up 
to 1 m. in height. 

The Savannas of South America are 
characterized by two or three species of 
savanna deer and brocket, tayra, skunks, 
savanna foxes, peccaries, etc. Monkeys 
live in groves of trees in some localities 
and may move from grove to grove 
through bushes when they occur. 

7. SEMI-DESERT BIOTA 

The principal area of Semi-desert is in 
the lower valley of the Rio Grande and 
in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas 
others occurring on the coast of South 
America. Thorny deciduous shrubs and 
small trees make up the principal part 
of the open vegetation together with 
evergreen shrubs, cacti, scattered bunch 
grasses, and herbaceous plants of sea- 
sonal activity. 



8. DESERT BIOTA 

The Desert areas of Tropical America 
are chiefly in northern Mexico and on 
the Pacific Coast of South America. 
They are alike in the low stature and 
open stand of the vegetation and in the 
restriction of its activity to the rainy 
seasons. They differ in the density of 
their shrubbery and in the relative 
abundance of succulent and non-succu- 
lent plants. There are both deciduous 
and evergreen shrubs; grasses are of 
local occurrence. 

The Deserts are characterized by 
numerous reptiles, usually diurnal and 
conspicuous and numerous nocturnal 
rodents, particularly small ones able to 
hide. Jack-rabbits and coyotes are 
common except in extreme deserts. 

The following birds breed in the 
Mexican Plateau desert: Mearn's quail, 
Merriam's turkey, chachalaca, black 
vulture, zone-tailed hawk, Sennett's 
white-tailed hawk, Mexican black hawk, 
Mexican goshawk, flammulated screech 
owl. prairie falcon, Aplomado falcon, 
Audubon's caracara, Mexican screech 
owl, burrowing owl, ferruginous pygmy 
owl, thick-billed parrot, grooved-billed 
ani, road-runner, California cuckoo, 
cactus woodpecker, Arizona woodpecker, 
ant-eating woodpecker, Stephen's poor- 
will, Texas nighthawk, Rivoli hum- 
mingbird, blue-throated hummingbird, 
black-chinned hummingbird, Lucifer 
hummingbird, white-eared humming- 
bird, broad-billed hummingbird, scissor- 
tailed flycatcher, Cassin's kingbird, 
Derby, flycatcher, sulphur-bellied fly- 
catcher, Mexican crested flycatcher, ash- 
throated flycatcher. Coues' flycatcher, 
gray flycatcher, buff-breasted flycatcher, 
vermilion flycatcher, scorched horned 
lark, blue-eared jay, Arizona jay, white- 
necked raven, San Diego red-wing, 
Scott's oriole, Arkansas goldfinch, Wor- 
then's sparrow, black-chinned sparrow, 
desert sparrow, Cassin's sparrow, Scott's 
sparrow, canyon towhee, Abert's towhee, 
western blue grosbeak, hepatic tanager, 
Cooper's tanager, Mexican cliff swallow, 
phainopepla, Stephen's vireo, least vireo, 
gray vireo. olive warbler, Sonora yellow 
warbler, black-fronted warbler, long- 



hlMlililii -S-E CONIFEROUS FOREST 




O O + O t o * * I -I 

.Vso" ^! TREE 

PARAMOS AND HIGH Mr FOREST 





LUXURIANT TROPICAL ^y^^J^^-^/ 
RAIH FOBF.IT W-fr/tf/'.-S.Z' 


SUB ALPINE 

fvFflffff/V F<ifte$T ::': 


MAST GRASSLAND 










w///, 


DRIER JROPICAL to 0o / o0 o 

RAIklFoRFST EOO O O?OO 


ARID DECIDUOUS .. '. r. ; . ;-;. > 
FOREST '?;' '';".;" 


DRY GRASSLAND 


$%m!> 


MONTANE OR k^o^v"o ?o * 

CLDUH FqarsT P.o?o'c- *.o^. 


DECIDUOUS THORN B^^- ^ o-s^ 

p/jf;T I^'.'P-?^-':-'* '-J? ; :;;0 


MOIST SAVANNA 










' f 


EXTREME DESER T ' .* '.* ." . ' : 


/?5F/?r ^^/.V 


ARID TREE oa 
BUSH SAVANNA 











Fia. 5. BIOTIC AREAS OF FLORIDA AND NORTHERN SOUTH AMERICA 



ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS 



79 



tailed chat, western mockingbird, Pal- 
mer's thrasher, Bendire's thrasher, cris- 
sal thrasher, white-throated wren, 
bridled titmouse, lead-colored bush-tit, 
Lloyd's bush-tit, verdin, plumbeous 
gnatcatcher, L. Jones. 

9. MONTANE FORESTS BIOTA (CLOUD 

FOREST; TEMPERATE RAIN FOREST; 
LOWER MOUNTAIN FOREST) 

This forest occurs at various eleva- 
tions in tropical mountains where 
clouds, fog, and heavy rainfall produce 
very moist conditions. The trees are 
not so tall as in the Luxuriant Tropical 
Rain-Forest, but in other respects the 
Montaine Forests rival the luxuriance 
of the former. Ferns form a conspic- 
uous element in the vegetation as 
epiphytes, lianes and terrestrial plants, 
while tree ferns are conspicuous among 
the subordinate trees. The trees are 
evergreen, mostly with small leaves; 
but solid stands of conifers are also 
found, depending upon soil conditions. 

In Central America the fauna of 
the Montane forest is in part highly 
peculiar. Endemic genera of birds are 
numerous. North American temperate 
zone plants and animals here reach 
their limit also. In parts of South 
American the conspicuous animals are 
about the same as in the rain forest. 

10. SUBALPINE EVERGREEN FOREST 
BIOTA (UPPER MONTANE FOREST) 

The mountains rising above 9000 ft. 
are clothed with a temperate and de- 
ciduous broad-leaved forest of ever- 
green trees or conifers. Monkeys and 
other tropical rain forest species are 
excluded from this belt. Numerous 
small rodents characterize it, however. 



11. ANDINE BUSHLAND BIOTA (AN- 
DINE BRUSHWOOD) 

The Andine Bushlands are just below 
timber-line, being frequently broken 
by small areas of grassland (paramillos). 
Tree shrubs and dwarfed trees form a 
low but compact stand, which becomes 
lower and more open at still higher 
altitudes. Deer, wild-cats, wolves, 
bear, and forest rabbit occur in this 
belt. 

12. ANDINE MEADOW BIOTA (PARAMOSJ 
ALPINE MEADOW) 

Lying above the uppermost shrubby 
vegetation, chiefly over 12,000 ft. ele- 
vation, are the Andine Meadows, which 
are composed of grasses, sedges, many 
species of composites, notably of the 
genus Espeletia, and scattering repre- 
sentatives of various genera of tem- 
perate relationship. Plants with hoary 
tomentum are conspicuous in this 
vegetation, as are also areas of sphag- 
num. Deer, wild-cats, forest rabbit, 
and numerous small rodents occur in 
this belt. 

13. MANGROVE SWAMP BIOTA 

The Mangrove Swamps of tropical 
America consist of nearly pure stands 
of Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia nitida 
or A. tomentosa, occupying the coast, 
the shallow saline or brackish waters 
of bays and lagoons. The interlocking 
prop-roots of these trees make the 
Mangrove Swamps very difficult to 
penetrate from either land or water. 
There are characteristic insects, birds, 
etc., but the fauna of the swamps varies 
in different regions on account of their 
wide geographical range. 



E. PROVISIONAL TABLE OF LANDSCAPE ASPECTS AND LIFE 
ZONE EQUIVALENTS 

BY E. A. GOLDMAN 



Mangrove Swamps (Tropical Zone as 
a whole, but as mangrove swamps are 
not dependent upon rainfall, they occur 
within the arid or humid divisions of 
the Lower Tropical section). 

Flood Plain Forest (low altitudes) 

Lower Tropical Zone. 
Luxuriant Tropical Rain Forest 

Humid Lower Tropical Zone. 
Drier Tropical Rain Forest Humid 

Lower Tropical Zone. 
Montane or Cloud Forest Humid 
Upper Tropical Zone. It includes 
conifers and oaks in Central 
America. 

Subalpine Evergreen Forest 
Temperate Zone. (In Central 
America.) 

Ecuador and British Honduras, rang- 
ing in altitudes from 6000 to 7000 ft. in 
the former country and to 1000 to 4000 
ft. in the latter. 

The areas in British Honduras ex- 
tending from 1000 to 4000 ft. altitude 
would be within the Lower Tropical 
Zone, associated with an immense num- 
ber of tropical species. Areas at 6000 
to 7000 ft. altitude in Ecuador would 



probably be assigned to Sub-tropical 
or Upper Tropical. 

Partially Deciduous Forest Arid 
Lower Tropical Zone. 

Deciduous Thorn Forest Arid 
Lower Tropical Zone. In Mexico 
and in Panama this can not satis- 
factorily be separated from the 
preceding, as the regions are 
coastal plains crossed by streams; 
and along the streams the vege- 
tation may be only partially 
deciduous, or near the water line 
evergreen, while it is completely 
deciduous away from the water. 

(Shrub) Desert Sonora and Lower 
California. Lower Austral Zone. 

Semi Desert Lower Austral Zone. 

Extreme Desert Lower Austral 
Zone. Desert District Vizcaino. 

Gallery Savanna Arid Lower Trop- 
ical Zone. A mixture of mon- 
soon forest and savanna. Arid 
sometimes corresponds to the 
Lower Tropical Zone. 

Grassland, Dry Grassland Arid 
Lower Tropical Zone. 

Andine bushland Paramillos 
Paramo Zone. 



80 



F. BIBLIOGRAPHY 



BY V. E. SHELFORD 



Adams, O. C. 

1920 Zoogeography of Northeastern- 
most South America (after 
Chapman) . Geog. Rev. , 10 :101- 
107. 
Brehn, A. E. 

1890 North Pole to Equator, London 
Batholomew, J. G. 

1917 Advanced Atlas of Physical and 
Political Geography (Oxford 
Press). 
Clements, F. E. 

1916 Plant Succession. Carnegie Inst. 

of Wash., Pub. 242. 
1920 Plant Indicators, Cam. Inst. 

Wash. Pub. 290. 
Chapman, F. M. 

1917 Distribution of Bird Life in 

Colombia. Bull. Am. Mus. 

Nat. Hist., 36: 1-729. 
Goldman, E. A. 

1920 Mammals of Panama. Smith- 

sonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 69, 

No. 50: 1-309. 
Hall, H. M., and Grinnell, J. 

1919 Life Zone Indicators in Califor- 

nia. Proc. Cal. Am. Sci., 9: 
37-67. 
Hardy, M. E. 

1920 The Geography of Plants. (Ox- 

ford Press) 

1913 An introduction to Plant Geog- 
raphy. (Oxford Press.) 
Livingston, B. E. and Shreve, F. 

1921 Distribution of Vegetation in 

the U. S. as related to Climatic 
Conditions. Carnegie Inst. of 
Wash., Pub. 284. 



Mobius, K. 

1880 The Oyster and Oyster Culture. 
U. S. Com. Fisheries Report 
1880 (Part VIII): 683-751. 
Merriam, C. H. 

1898 Life Zone and Crop Zones. 
U.S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Biol. Surv., 
Bull. 10. 
Sanders, E. M. 

1921 The Natural Regions of Mexico. 

Geog. Rev., 11: 212-26. 
Schimper, A. W. 

1903 (Translation by W. R. Fisher. 
Plant Geography on a Physio- 
logical Basis. Oxford. 
Shreve, F. 

1917 A Map of the Vegetation of the 
United States. Geog. Rev. 3: 
119-125. 
Ward, R. DeC. 

1919 A New Classification of Climates 
(Koppen's). Geog. Rev., 8: 
188-199. 
Van Dyke 

1919 Distribution of Insects in West- 
ern North America. Ann. 
Ent. Soc. of America, 12 : 1-12. 
Shelford, V. E. 

1911 Physiological Animal Geo- 
graphy. Jour. Morph., 22: 
551-618. 
Strohl, J. 

1921 Physiologische Gesichtpunkte 
in der Tiergeographi. Vier- 
teljahresschrift der Naturforsch. 
Ges., Zur. 46: 1-22. 



81 



IV. NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



A. GENERAL PLAN 

BY V. E. SHELFORD 



The primary object of this volume is 
to locate natural areas so as to make 
them available to naturalists. Every- 
one who learns the location of a natural 
area through this volume should realize 
the moral obligation to keep the area 
as it is. Using an area described in 
this book to satisfy one's selfish desires 
for possession is a violation of a trust 
placed in the nature-loving public. 

Convenience of treatment divided 
the territory covered into three sec- 
tions: (1) Northern tundra and ice- 
covered regions; (2) Temperate America 
including the southern tier of Canadian 
provinces and the whole of the United 
States; (3) Tropical America, including 
the areas between the southern bound- 
aries of the United States and the 
Amazon River and adjacent islands. 
In the first and last divisions the great- 
est latitude was permitted the authors 
and no attempt to map or classify areas 
was made. The meagre character of 
the available knowledge forbade at- 
tempting anything of the kind. The 
name of the person preparing the ac- 
count for each territory stands at its 
head as the one responsible for the 
completeness and accuracy. 

The materials on the States and 
southern tier of Canadian provinces 
are divided into (1) a general account 
of biotic conditions of the territory, 
and (2) specific descriptions of natural 
areas. 

The general account describes the 
territory as it was before modified by 
civilization. General physiographic 
features are described and geographic 
and local plant and animal communities 
briefly outlined. The names of Mer- 
riam's life zones are used only in paren- 
theses following the names of the 



plants commonly used to designate 
them. The original conditions of the 
biota are then contrasted with the 
present modified condition; the com- 
munities and conspicuous plants and 
animals which have been destroyed 
are enumerated. Some authors have 
enumerated polluted and unpolluted 
waters. 

In specific descriptions, the existing 
natural areas are in part arranged ac- 
cording to the natural subdivision 
recognized in the general account. All 
preserved areas and areas available for 
study, in natural condition, preserved 
areas in a semi-natural condition, such 
as forest preserves, bird and game 
sanctuaries, and second growth areas 
undergoing succession, are as a rule 
included and properly designated in so 
far as they were known to the authors. 

The National Forest were treated 
separately by members of the United 
States Forest Service. The National 
Parks and Monuments are included in 
the state accounts. 

ABBREVIATION AND SYMBOLS 

a. In locations of areas which appear 
abbreviated, words in brackets have 
been omitted: 

[From] Chicago, [111. go] 12 mi. 
west [via] C. B. & Q. R. R. or La Grange 
Electric, to Riverside [and walk] (W) 
$ mi. N. W. [From] Riverside, III. 

b. Modification of areas. As com- 
pared with their condition at the time 
of the discovery by America by Euro- 
peans in the fifteenth century all areas 
have doubtless suffered considerable 
modification. The degree of modifica- 
tion varies greatly in the various natural 
reservations, and in those areas avail- 



85 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



able for study and proposed for pres- 
ervation. It was the opinion of the 
committee, that to publish an extensive 
list without at least an estimate of the 
degree of modification would give an 
entirely erroneous idea of what is 
available for scientific study and of 
desirable policies relative to the im- 
provement and maintenance of existing 
preserves and the acquirement of more. 

The conditions of the vegetation are 
indicated by capital letters. The orig- 
inal conditions are indicated by A, 
and degrees of modification by C, D, 
etc. 

The conditions of the fauna are in- 
dicated by Arabic numerals. The orig- 
inal natural conditions are indicated 
by 1 (one) and degrees of modification 
by other figures, 2, 3, 4, etc.; 10 would 
indicate a cultivated field, though the 
plan is only carried to H8, e.g., single 
trees in parks or pastures. 



Symbols, etc. 

* (in front of the name of an area) : 

Preserved that is, areas held in 

a natural state as parks, forest 

preserves, etc. 

** Preserved for scientific purposes 
p (in front of the name of an area) 

indicates that it is proposed for 

preservation. 
Areas not designated by either of 

these symbols are available for 

study. 

J Hotel or boarding-house facilities. 
|| Hotel or boarding-house during 

tourist season only. 
f Especially important; should be 

preserved unmodified. 
Camp outfit desirable; necessary. 
Figures in ft. indicate elevation above 

sea level. 

Letters in parentheses indicate desir- 
able means of reaching the area 
as follows: (w) on foot; (a) by 
automobile; (h) horseback; (c) 
canoe. 





















M 




























FIG. 6. PBESEBVED AND AVAILABLE ABEAS IN WESTEBN NOBTH AMEBICA 



'fa AREAS 

TO SCALE 
4- SMALL AVAILABLE 

AREAS 

AVAILABLE AREAS 

TO SCALE 
m DOMINION FORESTS 



PROPOSED DOMIHIOH 
FOREST 
p DOMINION PARKS 



NATURAL ARID AREA 
;'.".'.'.* SAND AREAS 

'*** in Mexict 




FIG. 7. PRESERVED AND AVAILABLE AREAS IN EASTERN NORTH AMERICA 




eM*,JU*A J"- 









I 




















B. NATURAL REGIONS AND NATURAL AREAS 



Section 1. Northern North America; Ice Covered Areas, Tundra, 
and Northern Coniferous Forest 1 



1. NORTHWEST GREENLAND 
BY W. ELMER EKBLAW 

PHYSIOGRAPHY 

Northwest Greenland embraces the 
broad peninsular region fronting west- 
ward upon Kane Basin, Smith Sound, 
and Baffin Bay, between Humboldt 
Glacier on the north and Melville Bay 
on the south. This peninsular region 
extends over 3 latitude, from about 
76 to 79 N. and over 8 of longitude, 
from about 64 to 72 W. 

The high narrow plateau between 
the ice-cap and the sea is bisected by 
Inglefield Gulf, a deep indentation with 
several tributary fjords. Wolstenholme 
Sound again bisects the southern half 
and Foulke Fjord bisects the northern 
half. The northern portion from Foulke 
Fjord northward, and the southern 
portion from Wolstenholme Sound 
southward are Laurentian gneiss and 
granite, in places capped by later 
sedimentaries; the area between Wol- 
stenholme Sound and Foulke Fjord is 
Huronian sandstones, limestones, and 
shales, intersected by dark traps and 
diabases. 

The Huronian coastline is much 
indented, with narrow beaches at the 
mouths of the valleys and along the 
gentler slopes; the land-surface is 
varied, with high sharp mountains and 
deep canyon-like valleys in places, and 
lower, rounded hills and broad valleys 
in other places. The Laurentian coast 
line is smoother, with very few beaches; 
the land-surface is more uniformly high 

1 This section was not edited as the others were. 
All accounts were read by Messrs. Preble and Ek- 
blaw and a part by Dr. Osgood. F. C. Baker read 
the zoology of the entire section. 



and deeply dissected. Everywhere the 
topography is comparatively rugged. 

The coastal belt between the ice- 
cap and the sea which becomes free of 
ice and snow in summer is from 2 to 40 
mi. wide. It is intersected by numerous 
glaciers, most of which reach the sea, 
though some do not. Areas separated 
by these glaciers vary in size from small 
tracts of a few acres, to large regions 
several hundred square miles in extent. 

CLIMATE 

With the large extent of open water 
along the coast even in midwinter, the 
temperature rarely drops down to more 
than 50F. below zero, much higher 
than extreme winter temperatures in 
Siberia or Canada. Even with an 
extensive ice-lay the temperature is 
modified by the water, through crevices 
and open pools, though if the ice be 
deeply and generally covered by heavy 
snow the temperature is lowered. The 
highest summer temperature is 55 to 
60 above zero Fahrenheit. Along some 
of the high cliffs the temperature is 
raised adiabatically when the air drops 
down from the ice-cap, so that in cer- 
tain favorable localities the temperature 
never falls below 40 below zero Fahren- 
heit. 

The temperature rises high enough 
about mid-June to melt the ice and 
snow; melting ceases about mid-August. 
By mid-September the sea-ice begins 
to form permanently in the fjords and 
deeper bays. The bays and fjords are 
generally occupied throughout the sum- 
mer by drifting fields of ice; rarely 
are they free of icebergs. 

Snow falls in every month of the 
year, but the first snows of summer 



87 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



that do not melt are those of late August 
or early September. The depth of snow, 
even after a winter's accumulation, 
is rarely over 2 or 3 ft., because the 
relative humidity is frequently so low 
that a great deal of snow evaporates 
even in the coldest weather. When the 
snow begins melting in June under the 
continuous sunlight, every canyon and 
valley holds a roaring torrential moun- 
tain stream which flows with heavy 
volume until melting ceases. Rain 
rarely falls; yet when the chinook comes 
down off the ice-cap, rain may fall 
even in January. The region is one of 
general low humidity. 

The winds are cyclonic in character. 
The heaviest storms come from the 
southwest with destructive on-shore 
winds. In the bays and fjords the 
winds invariably blow down to the sea 
from the ice-cap, no matter what the 
wind may be above the plateau. Sud- 
den winds sometimes sweep down off 
the plateau or from the ice-cap and 
drive the shore-ice out to sea even in 
mid-winter. 

The period of continuous night be- 
gins about mid-October and ends about 
mid-February. Continuous sunlight 
begins about mid-April and lasts until 
mid-August. Between mid-February 
and mid-April the days lengthen and 
the nights shorten; between mid- August 
and mid-October the days shorten 
and the nights lengthen. The night 
is rarely so dark as to stop traveling 
or sledging entirely, and throughout 
the moon-lighted periods during which 
the moonlight is continuous, all activ- 
ities can be carried on without diffi- 
culty. During the period of continuous 
sunshine, noon and midnight do not 
differ greatly in temperature or inten- 
sity of light. The air is always fresh 
and clean. 

BIOTA 

Because of the short growing season 
and the long dry cold period no trees or 
shrubs grow in the homeland of the 
Polar Eskimo. The tallest tree is the 
Arctic willow, a scant three inches in 



height. Over a hundred species of 
vascular plants grow in the region. 
The sedges, blue grasses, and similar 
grassy plants grow luxuriantly. Two 
are particularly abundant Poa pra- 
tensis and Alopecurus alpinus. On 
some of the talus slopes manured by 
nesting birds, the mat of grasses is 
thick and heavy. Mushrooms are com- 
mon and lichens clothe the rocks. 
Flowering plants, though small and 
relatively inconspicuous, grow in dense 
mats on favorable slopes where the sun 
shines warmly, and moisture is ample. 

Due in large measure to the rich 
carbon dioxide content of the water 
and the continuous sunlight, the plank- 
ton development in the sea is incredibly 
rich throughout the summer, and the 
heavy growths of laminaria and other 
sea weeds on every shoal ledge are 
particularly luxuriant. 

The bird life is incredibly abundant, 
not in species but in individuals. Of 
the land birds the ptarmigan and snow- 
bunting are the most common. Shore- 
birds, ravens, snowy owls and falcons 
are rather numerous. The redpolls, 
wheat-ear, and Lapland longspur all 
nest in the area. The ptarmigan, 
ravens, and snowy owls are permanent 
residents. Of the sea-birds the dove- 
kies are the most numerous. They 
nest in suitable slopes of easy gradient 
along the entire coast in such numbers 
that they cover the sea when feeding 
and darken the sky when in flight. 
Almost as numerous as the dovekies 
are the murres, that nest on the ledges 
of the steeper shore cliffs along the 
coast. The old squaw is common, the 
red-throated loon frequents the inland 
pools, and the merganser and green- 
winged teal are occasionally seen along 
the coast. The eider duck frequents 
the coast in thousands, and the black 
brant is common. Kittiwakes, guille- 
mots, gulls, jaegers and the fulmars are 
numerous. All the seabirds find an 
abundant supply of food in the small 
life of the cold, well-lighted waters off 
the shore. 

Animal life on land is relatively scarce . 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



The muskox (Ovibos moschatus wardi) 
is extinct along the Greenland shores 
of Smith Sound though still common 
in Ellesmereland, Grantland, and west- 
ward. The caribou (Rangifer groelandi- 
cus), though still fairly abundant, is 
generally restricted to a few isolated 
areas not readily accessible. The fact 
seems fairly well established that the 
caribou migrate across the ice-cap to 
Northwest Greenland from the east 
coast and the regions to the north. 
The Arctic hare (Lepus groenlandicus) 
is widely distributed and common. 
The blue fox and the white fox (Alopex 
groenlandicus') are abundant in the 
bird-cliff localities where they feed 
upon both the eggs and the birds. They 
are color phases of one species, both 
occasionally being littered by the same 
dam. The Arctic wolf (Cam's tundrarum 
is almost extinct, and the lemming and 
the ermine do not frequent this part 
of the Greenland Coast. Ti e muskox, 
caribou and hare feed upon the willows, 
grasses, and small herbs; the wolf and 
fox feed upon the muskox and the 
caribou. 

The sea animals, because of the ample 
supply of food, are very numerous. 
Four species of seal- the ringed seal, 
the bearded seal, the hooded seal, and 
the harp seal are all rather common, 
though the ringed seal is by far the 
most abundant. The walrus frequents 
the coast during the whole year, es- 
pecially when the mussel-shoals furnish 
good feeding grounds. The narwhal 
and the white whale are numerous. 
The killer whale and the bowhead, and 
occasionally the right whale, visit the 
coast. The sleeper shark feeds over 
the deeper bottom. Fish are few. 
Salmon are caught along shore and in 
some of the inland lakes. 

Mollusks are particularly abundant 
and number upwards of 72 species. 
These are all marine, no land or fresh 
water species having been reported from 
this part of Greenland. These are all 
of Arctic forms, including Buccinum, 
Astarte, and Saxicava as leading types. 

The polar bear (Thalarctos m. mari- 



timus), an animal of both land and 
sea, is as much at home out on the 
open sea among the icebergs as along 
the shore. He avoids all habitations 
of man, particularly when, there are 
dogs about. Keen of scent and of all 
perceptions, as well as of intelligence, 
the polar bear is certainly the most 
superb animal of the North, though 
not nearly so dangerous as the walrus. 

NOTES 

Northwest Greenland is accessible 
almost every year between July 20 and 
September 10. The outermost capes 
and islands may be reached by ships 
as early as July 1, but the innermost 
bays and fjords do not open up before 
August 1. 

The plant life may best be studied 
from Etah on Foulke Fjord; Kangerd 
luksuah deep within Ingle field Gulf; 
Keatek on Northumberland Island at 
the mouth of Inglefield Gulf; and at 
Umanak on North Star Bay, in Wol- 
stenholme Sound. 

Of these places Umanak is probably 
best, though because of the very loca- 
lized occurrence of many species, a 
complete collection is impossible from 
any one point. For a critical study of 
the Arctic Drabae in the field, Umanak 
is unexcelled, since nearly every species 
of far northern distribution is found 
there in abundance. For a study of 
the immigration of American species, 
Etah is probably most favorably situ- 
ated. It is interesting that at Etah, 
Pedicularis hirsuta and Pedicularis 
capitata are abundant; but Pedicularis 
lanata is entirely lacking; at Lifeboat 
Cove only 5 mi. north, Pedicularis 
hirsuta and Pedicularis lanata are num- 
erous, but Pedicularis capitata is quite 
absent. The carices may be best 
studied at Kangerdluksuah. 

The sea-animals may be best studied 
from Akpat on Saunders Island or from 
Keatek on Northumberland Island. 
The land animals may be best studied 
from Etah. Umanak affords the most 
favorable base for the ornithologist 
to study both land- and sea-birds; 



90 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



but Etah is better for the study of 
the dovekies, the eider, the ptarmigan, 
and the snow-bunting. Foulke Fjord, 
Inglefield Gulf, and its tributaries, and 
Wolstenholme Sound all offer fascina- 
ting fields for dredging the bottom life 
of the sea. 

The entire region offers an interesting 
field for the physiographer, but two 
tracts are particularly promising; the 
shores of Grenville Bay, a tributary 
of Wolstenholme Sound, for a com- 
parative study of glacier forms and 
phenomena; and Prudhoe Land, lying 
north of Etah, for a study of the possi- 
ble relationships between the oscilla- 
tion of the sea level, as shown by coastal 
terraces, the recession and advance of 
glaciers as indicated by serial terminal 
moraine, and the development of the 
drainage systems. A careful study of 
these two areas might throw much 
light on the phenomena and history 
of glaciation. 

ROUTES OF TRAVEL 

Except in rare years of exceptionally 
heavy ice-lay, the Northwest Greenland 
may readily be reached by well-built 
ships with dependable motive power. 
The route lies across the lower reaches 
of Baffin Bay from the Labrador Coast 
to the vicinity of Sukkertoppen, or 
Godthaab, Greenland, and thence north- 
ward fairly close into shore to avoid the 
heavy pack which occupies the middle 
portion of Baffin Bay, as far as Uper- 
nivik; thence the route must be deter- 
mined by the situation of the middle 
pack if it lies off-shore the course may 
be laid northward inshore to Cape 
Seddon, thence northwestward to Cape 
York and thence along the coast around 
Conical Rock, and Northward; if the 
ice lies inshore the course must be 
laid out beyond the pack. 

The ice is generally not open enough 
for navigation in those far northern 
waters before mid-July, though the 
mid-western Danish Greenland coast 
is accessible even in early May. The 
southern portion of the west-Greenland 
coast is almost continuously barred 



by the heavy ice that comes out of the 
Arctic Ocean, drifts down along the 
east coast, and swings around Cape 
Farewell, then sweeps up along the 
west coast for some 500 to 600 mi. 

By mid-September the ice is again 
freezing thick and heavy in the bays 
and fjords and along the shores of 
Northwest Greeland, so that a ship 
may find herself frozen in for the winter 
if she remains beyond that time. Navi- 
gation is frequently open along the mid- 
west Danish Greenland coast until 
mid-November. 

Northwest Greenland constitutes a 
readily accessible, fruitful field for 
study of far arctic life and habitats, 
and will richly repay further research. 

2. DANISH GREENLAND 

BY W. ELMER EKBLAW 

INTRODUCTION 

Greenland, the earth's largest island, 
lies just to the northeast of the North 
American continent, of which it is a 
detached part. North and south it 
extends from 60 N. at Cape Farewell, 
to 83 37 N. at Cape Bridgeman, about 
24 of latitude, or 1650 mi. East and 
west it is roughly 650 mi. wide over its 
northern three-fifth of extent; its south- 
ern two-fifth gradually narrows to a 
point at Cape Farewell. 

The area of Greenland is 850,000 sq. 
mi., of which about three-fourths is 
occupied by the ice-cap, a frozen desert 
of age-old ice, thousands of feet thick; 
while the other one-fourth is comprised 
in the narrow coastal belt which becomes 
generally free of ice and snow every 
summer, so that the terrain itself is 
there exposed. 

The north coast is washed by Kane 
Basin, Kennedy Channel, Hall Basin, 
and Robeson Channel, constituting the 
straits between Ellesmereland and Green- 
land, and the ice-bound Arctic Ocean; 
the east coast is washed by the Arctic 
Ocean, the Greenland Sea, Denmark 
Strait, and the Atlantic Ocean, in all 
of which the cold Greenland current 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



91 



with its continuous sheet of ice- floes 
and bergs sweeps the Greenland coast; 
and the west by Davis Strait, Baffin 
Bay, and Smith Sound a branch of 
the Greenland current sweeps around 
Cape Farewell and northward as far 
as the Arctic Circle. All these waters 
are studded with bergs from the glaciers 
and covered with vast fields of pan-ice 
from the multitudinous fjords and bays 
of the coast. 

GEOLOGY 

The portion of Greenland lying south 
of the seventieth parallel, so far as 
known, is composed of pre-Cambrian 
granites, gneisses, and schists of which 
the gneisses are most widely distrib- 
uted with later intrusives, both acidic 
and basic, and a few isolated areas of 
sedimentaries of doubtful geologic age. 

Along both the mid-eastern and mid- 
western coasts are widespread areas of 
Tertiary basalt, which have locally 
preserved from erosion the fossiliferous 
Tertiary and Cretaceous sedimentaries 
of the west coast, and the Tertiary 
sedimentaried of the east coast. This 
belt of basalts separates the pre-Cam- 
brian area of the south from the north- 
ern extent of similar gneisses, granites, 
and schists. 

This northern area of pre-Cambrian 
rocks, like the southern, is the north- 
eastward extension of the old Canadian 
shield, and though locally affected by 
tectonic disturbances at various periods, 
is generally quite similar throughout 
its extent. It slopes toward the north 
and west. Along its northern and north- 
western boundaries it is overlapped by 
Paleozoic sedimentaries from the Cam- 
brian to the Carboniferous, some of 
the formations being richly fossiliferous. 

PHYSIOGRAPHY 

Outline 

Throughout its entire length of thou- 
sands of miles, the coast-line of Green- 
land is almost a continuous series of 
long, deep, narrow fjords and bays 
separated by long, narrow, peninsulas 



and headlands, and bordered by innum- 
erable skerries, islets, and islands 
probably the most extensive develop- 
ment of fjords and skerries in the world. 

Generally, these fjords and the sounds 
between the islets are bordered by such 
high steep cliffs that landing upon them 
is impossible, but in some localities the 
shore is a low, sloping foreland that in 
most places leads rapidly up to steep 
slopes or cliffs. Many of the fjords are 
so narrow and cliff-walled as to be 
veritable canyons, into which the sun can 
shine only when they open out toward it. 

A barrier of ice lies along most of the 
coast of Greenland. The heavy ice of 
the Arctic Ocean is swept along the north 
and east shores of the island and even 
around Cape Farewell, and northward 
hundreds of miles along the west coast. 
This Arctic ice-pack is of heavy solid 
fields and floes, and numerous great 
bergs. The Smith Sound Region be- 
comes relatively open in summer. 
Baffin Bay holds three great fields known 
as the south pack, the middle pack, and 
the north pack respectively, which bear 
in upon the Greenland shore whenever 
the wind so drives them. 

For ten months of the year, from 
September first to July first, practically 
the entire coast of Greenland is inac- 
cessible because of the ice that freezes 
over the sea throughout the entire 
extent of the coast. Only for a few 
hundred miles along the mid-west coast, 
from Godthaab northward to Proven, 
is the open season longer, but here it 
sometimes begins in May and continues 
to November. The entire east coast, 
except for a small extent about Sermilik 
Fjord, at the mouth of which is situated 
the Eskimo village, Angmagssalik, is 
often icebound even in summer. From 
Cape Farewell northward almost to 
Godthaab, and from Upernivik north- 
ward to Cape York, the coast is more or 
less icebound also, much of the summer. 
The Smith Sound region is relatively 
free of ice for the two summer months, 
and some of the outermost headlands 
like Cape Alexander are free of ice 
throughout the year. 



92 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



Four kinds of ice form the barrier 
to the coast the Great Ice from the 
Arctic Ocean; the West Ice from the 
Arctic Archipelago ; the Winter Ice formed 
in the fjords, bays and sounds of the 
Greenland coast itself; and the ice-bergs, 
the discharge of the glaciers debouching 
upon the sea from the ice-cap. 

Relief 

Greenland considered as a whole, 
is essentially a plateau, the elevated 
surface of an old peneplain, with two 
central points of maximum elevation, 
from which the ice-cap slopes away on 
all sides. The northern center of eleva- 
tion, over 9000 ft., lies on the seventy- 
third parallel, approximately half-way 
between the east and west coasts; the 
southern center, 7500 ft., is an elongated 
divide half-way between the coasts, 
from 64 N. to 68 N. latitude. Both the 
northern and the southern portion of the 
plateau tilt toward the north, so that 
the southern slopes are steeper and 
shorter than the northern slopes. The 
northern slope of the northern block 
extends roughly over ten degrees lati- 
tude. Isolated peaks, and tracts of 
considerable size, rise above the general 
level of the interior plateau, and along 
the coast at several points, cordilleran 
areas rise far above the average marginal 
elevation. 

Because the general level of the coastal 
belt of ice-free land is very high, except 
along the northern shore, and deeply 
dissected, the scenery along most of the 
coast is exceedingly wild and pictur- 
esque. Precipitous cliffs and headlands 
rise sheer out of the sea thousands of 
feet to form the entrances and walls of 
fjords and bays and gulfs of exceeding 
grandeur. Deep cleft-like valleys; low 
narrow forelands; small deltas at the 
mouths of streams; majestic snowcapped 
peaks and domes rising above the pla- 
teaus; picturesque, rocky skerries and 
islets innumerable; satin-white glaciers 
discharging colossal bergs into the sky- 
blue sea in summer these are the 
elements of a landscape^that surpasses 



in wild beauty the most scenic spots 
of the rest of the world. 

The coastal belt is generally rugged 
and rough with steep slopes of angular 
scree, or precipitous cliffs with narrow 
ledges. At places, even where the relief 
is highest, broad valleys, probably 
carved out by active glaciers when the 
ice mantle was more extended than at 
present, lie between the table-lands of 
the headlands, and along considerable 
stretches of coast, forelands of varying 
width lie between the sea and the higher 
lands behind. 

Drainage 

Though Greenland is a large land, it 
has no streams of any size, and such 
streams as there are, are frozen for 
almost ten months of the year. In the 
short summer every gulch and valley 
bears a torrential rushing streamlet, fed 
by the rapidly melting snows of the 
coastal land-belt, and by the marginal 
ice of the ice-cap. The ice-cap does 
not melt very far back from its edge, 
generally not within the 4500 ft. eleva- 
tion in the northern part, and the 6000 
ft. contour in the southern part; as a 
consequence no great rivers are formed. 

The many brooks and smaller stream- 
lets are turbulent and impassable after 
the summer melting begins, and the 
freshets sweep before them great vol- 
umes of detritus. Those streams that 
have their sources in the ice-cap, and 
flow considerable distances across the 
coastal border-land, often augmented 
by tributaries from local neve on the 
marginal plateau-tracts, or from snow- 
beds along the valley, may become river- 
like in volume and burden of material 
carried, and sweep torrentially seaward 
the sand, gravel, and boulders that fall 
or roll into their currents. 

The Ice-cap 

The ice-cap, the dominant feature of 
the Greenland landscape, as well as the 
dominant factor in the environmental 
complex, is the largest remnant of the 
great mantle of ice that lay over the 
northern part of the northern hemi- 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



93 



sphere during the maximum develop- 
ment of the Pleistocene glaciation. 
Here the balance between precipitation 
and refrigeration on the one hand, and 
evaporation and melting and run-off 
on the other, is so nice that in the cen- 
turies that the ice-cap has been under 
observation, little change in its extent 
or volume has been noticed. 

The interior of the ice-cap is relatively 
level, conforming to the general slope 
and elevation of the plateau on which 
it lies, but cast into drifts and domes 
like sand-dunes by the prevailing winds. 
Thus the highest places on the ice-cap 
are the two centers of elevation, on the 
seventy-third para lei and the sixty- 
fifth parallel. The ice-cap in the in- 
terior portion is composed of thousands 
of feet of thicknesses of ice in the lower 
strata, and of recrystaliized snow near 
the surface. The surface snow of the 
interior portion of the ice-cap does not 
melt and become running water, and 
then freeze to ice, but recrystallizes 
slowly into ice. 

Along the margin of the ice-cap, where 
the ice annually melts, and forms water 
that either freezes again, or runs off 
the surface in the thousands of brooks 
and streamlets that flow turbulently 
and torrentially to the sea in the short 
summer season, the surface is exceed- 
ingly broken and rough, and isolated 
peaks and tracts of bare rock, called 
"nunataks" project from the ice. The 
very edge of the ice itself may be a 
perpendicular wall, revealing the strati- 
fication of the ice-mass; a gentle slope 
that spreads out over the plateau on the 
bed of a valley; or it may be concealed 
under some of the local neve of the 
outer headlands. 

Glaciers, varying in width from a few 
hundred feet to hundreds of miles, move 
forward from the ice-cap itself along 
every valley and cleft. Some of these 
glaciers reach the sea and discharge 
vast and numerous ice-bergs; others 
move so slowly that they melt back as 
fast as they advance, and so do not 
yield any bergs; others do not reach the 
sea at all, and melt away back from the 
coast, the so-called "dead" glaciers 



Climate 

The climate of Greenland is char- 
acteristically arctic not only because of 
the high latitude, but also because of 
the pronounced influence of the ex- 
tensive inland ice-cap and the ice- 
burdened waters that border the entire 
island. The great masses of ice tend 
to lower the temperature in both sum- 
mer and winter, but along the coast the 
tempering influence of open leads and 
pools of water in relative proximity to 
most of the coast modifies the rigor of 
the climate in winter and makes it 
more equable in summer. 

The seasonal variations in tempera- 
ture are not so wide as in a great un- 
glaciated land mass like Siberia, but 
sudden fluctuations due to varying 
winds, and to the combined effect of 
wind-direction and topography, are as 
great in range as anywhere in the world. 

Winds 

Whenever the wind blows off the ice- 
fields and the cold waters from the north, 
west, or east, the temperature falls; 
whenever it blows from the south and 
southwest off the warm waters of the 
Gulf Stream the temperature rises fast. 
Whenever the "fohn," that wind pecu- 
liar to certain alpine or plateau regions 
like Alpine Europe or the western part 
of the United States begins to come 
down off the plateau heights of Green- 
land, the temperature rises incredibly 
fast and suddenly; and since both the 
east and west coasts of the island are 
topographically favorable to the de- 
velopment of the "fohn," its char- 
acteristic occurrence is frequent and 
effective. The "fohn" may continue 
for only .a few hours, but it may prevail 
for several days. Under the influence 
of this warm, drying wind, the tempera- 
ture may rise as much as 80 in a day, 
or as much as 45 in an hour, sometimes 
evaporating several inches of snow 
during its continuance. 

Temperature 

The mean temperature in southern 
Greenland is only a half degree above 



94 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



freezing; at Umanak, about halfway 
between the southernmost and north- 
ernmost points, it is 11 below, and 
along the northern coast it is probably 
35 below freezing. The mean winter 
temperature is successively lower along 
the coast as the latitude increases, but 
this is not true of the mean temperature 
of summer. Due to increasing effect of 
the continuous sunlight the mid-west 
Greenland coast in summer has a higher 
mean temperature than Cape Farewell; 
thus Holsteinsborg, lying along the 
coast in latitude 76 N. has a mean 
summer temperature of 45 while Nanor- 
talik, on the sixtieth parallel, 7 farther 
south, has a mean summer temperature 
of 42. 

The lowest temperature reported from 
the neighborhood of Cape Farewell is 
20; from the mid- west coast, 45; 
and from the northern portion, 70; 
the highest temperature reported from 
the southern portion is 75; from the 
mid-west coast, 70; and from the 
northernmost portion, 65. From year 
to year the temperature in any period 
may vary widely; for instance the highest 
temperature for February, 1891, at Uper- 
nivik, in 72 54' was -4; for February, 
1892, 57; for February, 1894, 2; and 
for February, 1895, 60. 

The average number of days below 
freezing increases from north to south 
successively at Cape Farewell 208; at 
the sixty-fifth parallel, 244, at the 
seventieth parallel, 257; at the seventy- 
fifth parallel, 300. Except in the south- 
ernmost portions and at the heads of 
the deep fjords between the sixty- 
fifth and the seventieth parallels, frost is 
likely even in midsummer. 

Precipitation 

The precipitation varies considerably 
in character and amount. The northern 
portion has a relatively small precipita- 
tion, almost all of which falls as snow, 
rain being very exceptional; snow falls 
every month of the year. Along the 
western coast the precipitation de- 
creases from Cape Farewell northward. 



At Cape Farewell with about one 
hundred days of precipitation, it is 
over 45 in. annually; at the sixty-fifth 
parallel it is 27 in. in one hundred 
seventy days of precipitation; at the 
seventieth parallel it is 10 in. in one 
hundred days; and thence decreases 
slowly northward. The precipitation is 
heaviest in summer, next in fall, then in 
spring, and least in winter. Snow con- 
stitutes about half the precipitation in 
the southern portion, about two-thirds 
in latitude 73 N. Fog is rather com- 
mon, especially along the coast in sum- 
mer. In some localities along the 
southern coast almost a third of the 
days are foggy. 

Pressure 

The mean barometer for the southern 
point of Greenland is 754.7 mm.; for 
the mid-western part 759 mm. The 
pressure may vary greatly and rapidly. 
At Ivigtuk along the southern coast, 
the lowest barometer is 709.2 mm.; the 
highest is 758.8 mm. The average wind- 
velocities are small and calm weather is 
frequent. In summer the prevailing 
winds along the west coast are souther- 
lies and westerlies; in winter easterlies 
prevail. In the fjords the winds usually 
blow strong from the ice-cap to the sea, 
even though at right angles to the 
direction of the wind on the plateau 
above. Except along the southernmost 
stretches of coast the southerly winds 
bring the worst storms, from seven to 
ten a year; in the southern portion the 
north and west winds bring storms, as 
many as twenty a year. 

The inner reaches of the fjords differ 
from the coastal headlands and the 
skerries in having a higher summer 
temperature and lower winter tempera- 
ture; the humidity is considerably less, 
so that bright, clear weather often 
prevails while the coast is cloudy or 
foggy; the days are more often calm; 
and the snow melts away earlier. 

Day and night 

One of the most important factors in 
the climate of Greenland is the sue- 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



95 



cession of day and night. This factor 
is equally important in the character, 
distribution, and development of the 
plant and animal life. Since all except 
the southernmost point of the island 
lies within the Arctic Circle, nearly its 
whole extent has periods of continuous 
sunshine and continuous nighfc. The 
period without sunlight is six weeks 
long in latitude 70 N.; thirteen weeks 
in latitude 75 N.; and eighteen weeks 
in 80 N. The period of continuous 
sunlight is slightly longer. The sudden 
development of the plant life, and the 
rich life of the sea are in considerable 
measure due, to this period of continuous 
light. 

BIOTA 

Plant life 

The plant life of Greenland includes 
some 400 species of vascular plants, 
600 mosses, 700 fungi, 300 lichens, 500 
algae, and 600 diatoms. More of the 
lower species will doubtless be dis- 
covered, but the list of vascular plants 
is probably almost complete. The long 
stretch of Greenland coast, through 
varying physiographic and climatic con- 
ditions, would suggest a richer flora than 
that represented by only a few more than 
400 species, even with the rigorous 
arctic climate; but the flora is quite 
post-glacial in origin, and since Green- 
land is an island swept almost exclu- 
sively by polar currents, and having its 
nearest point of approach to other 
lands at its northern extremity, where 
conditions for plant migration are most 
unfavorable, the immigration of plants 
since the dispersal of the ice-sheet has 
been exceedingly slow. 

The flora of Greenland offers some 
interesting problems in distribution and 
immigration. Some species are highly 
localized. Some are European in rela- 
tionship, some are American, and a 
very few are endemic. Some are cir- 
cumpolar high latitude species, some 
are from the Canadian zone. How have 
they come to Greenland, and how have 
they established themselves? The an- 
swer has been only partially given, and 



many a controversy has raged over the 
solution of these problems. 

Fifty families of vascular plants are 
represented in the Greenland flora, of 
which the Cyperaceae, Graminae, Ca- 
ryophyllaceae, Cruciferae, and Com- 
positae are the largest. The genera 
richest in species are Carex, Saxifraga, 
Pedicularis, and Draba. Many of the 
genera are represented by one species, 
the average ratio of genera to species 
being 2:5. The southernmost part of 
the island about Cape Farewell has a 
flora of almost 300 species; the Smith 
Sound region almost 20 farther north 
and within 15 of the pole, has almost 
150 species. 

The entire island is beyond the north- 
ern limit of true trees, and though 
isolated small tracts far within the land 
near the head of the fjords of the south- 
ern west coast may bear a tree-like 
growth of birch, willow, alder, and 
conifers, the entire land is unforested, 
Even well developed shrubbery is rare. 
Generally all tree-growth and shrubbery 
are dwarfed to creeping or prostrate 
form alder, willow, juniper, vaccinium, 
and birch. Even the arctic and alpine 
forms are pauperate or dwarfed as the 
northern reaches of the coast are 
approached. 

The "Feldmark" is the most widely 
distributed type of vegetation, the 
first to appear on moraines from which 
the ice has retreated, or wherever new 
land appears to afford opportunity for 
new plant growth. In this association 
the plants are so far apart that the 
spaces between are much larger than 
the spaces occupied. The struggle is 
not among one another, but against the 
rigorous conditions. Among the plants 
taking their place thus as pioneers are 
the arctic poppy, a number of the saxi- 
frages and cresses, dryas, some of the 
cinquefoils, a number of the cresses, 
and a few others. 

Where the soil is relatively dry the 
heath-association covers the terrain. 
It is composed of the small shrubs 
junipers, Vaccinium, Salix, Betula, Cas- 
siope, Empetrum, Dryas, Rhododendron, 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



and others, and numerous herbs, grasses, 
and sedges. Potentilla, Draba, Pyrola, 
Arnica, Pedicularis, Campanula, Anten- 
naria, Festuca, Poa, Carex, and nu- 
merous others belong in this group. 

In the moister, damper places a moor- 
vegetation frequently establishes itself, 
with wet-soil grasses, sedges, cotton- 
grasses, and rushes, forming hummocky 
turf with mosses, and liverworts grow- 
ing all over the soil between. Here 
grow Montia, several species of Ranun- 
culus, Oxyria, Tofieldia, Licopodium, 
Equisetum, and others. 

Though almost no high trees or heavy 
growth of shrubbery are found, the land 
seems rich in plant growth during the 
short summer, and wherever a plant can 
establish itself on cliff or slope or rocky 
ledge, one is usually found. 

The plant life of the sea is well de- 
veloped, and Laminaria, Agarum, Ala- 
ria, and others form a rather rich sea- 
growth wherever conditions permit. 
The cold seas with their high content of 
gases support an incredibly rich plank- 
ton life, so dense at times during the 
continuous summer sunshine as to color 
the water. It is from this abundant 
plankton life that the multitudinous 
bird and animal life of the Greenland 
seas derive their ultimate sustenance. 

Animal life 

Three thousand species of animal life 
have been reported from Greenland and 
its adjacent waters of which all except a 
very few are lower forms. Of the higher 
forms 30 are mammals; 150 are birds, 
and 100 are fish.- 

The land mammals are the muskox, 
" confined to the northern and north- 
eastern coasts; the caribou, which, 
though once distributed throughout the 
coastal lands, is. now rather limited to 
certain favorable stretches of coast; 
the arctic hare, common along the 
entire coast; the lemming, occupying 
approximately the same range as the 
muskox; these 4 are herbivores, feeding 
upon the low, hard vegetation. The 
carnivores are 3 in number- the arctic 
wolf, now almost extinct except in the 



northernmost tracts; the polar fox, both 
white and blue phases, rather common 
among the whole coast, particularly 
where the seabirds nest most numer- 
rously; and the ermine, restricted to the 
range of the lemming, upon which it 
feeds. 

The polar bear, frequenting the whole 
coast, may be classed as both land- 
animal and sea-animal, since he is 
equally at home on both, and may bear 
his young either on land, or in snow- 
drift burrows beside the grounded bergs. 
He is generally carnivorous, feeding 
chiefly upon the seals that he catches 
on the ice or in the sea, but he may, in 
times of hunger, feed upon berries 
where they are available. 

The land-birds nesting in Greenland 
are Reinhardt's ptarmigan, common on 
every hillside; the Lapland longspur, 
frequenting the willow and alder copses; 
the snow-bunting, ubiquitous as to 
habitat; the Greenland wheat-ear, at 
home on the drier, rockier, sunnier 
hillsides; the American pipit; the red- 
polls (Acanthis hornemanni hornemanni 
and Acanthis linaria rostrata) ; the snowy 
owl, most common about the haunts of 
the lemming; the raven, the gyrfalcon, 
and the peregrine falcon, frequenting 
the bird-cliffs and the coastal heights. 
The ptarmigan, the owl, the raven, may 
and often do, remain all year, even in 
the northernmost parts of Greenland, 
even through the long, dark night. 

The gray sea-eagle nests along the 
coast; like the polar bear, he frequents 
both land and sea, and though preying 
largely on the inland salmon, often 
captures young seals and sea-birds. 

No reptiles are found. Only two 
freshwater fish are common Salmo al- 
pinus L., and Gasterosteus aculeatus L. 

Insects are not numerous, considered 
as a group. Four hundred species are 
known, of which many have been .in- 
troduced. Coleoptera are represented 
by about 40 species; Hymenoptera, by 
about 70 species, including two bumble- 
bees; Lepidoptera, by 50 species, mostly 
moths; and the Diptera by about 200 
species. Mosquitoes are numerous and 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



97 



swarm over both coasts as far north as 
75 N. Culex nigripes and Simulium 
viltatum swarm over the copses, moors, 
and moss-grown slopes and flats; in a 
few localities the tiny Ceratopogon 
sordidellus is a plague. Six species of 
fleas are found. Pediculus capitis, Pedi- 
culus corporisj and Phthirius pubis are 
probably native, while Pulex irritans 
and Cimex lectularius have been in- 
troduced. The fur-clad Eskimos are a 
paradise for parasites. 

The marine fauna is relatively richer 
than the land life, and it is largely from 
these marine fields that the Eskimos in 
large part garner their sustenance 
their food from the flesh, their clothing 
from the skins and furs, and their fuel 
from the blubber of the large sea 
animals. 

Twenty-two species of mammals fre- 
quent the Greenland coastal waters, 
not including the polar bear. Of these 
the walrus and the seals are most im- 
portant. The walrus is found all along 
the coast, but is abundant only in a 
few restricted localities. Five species 
of seal the bearded seal (Erignathus 
barbatus), the ringed seal (Phoca foe- 
tida), the harbor seal (Phoca vitulina), 
the harp seal (Phoca cristata), and the 
hooded seal (Cystophora cristata} fre- 
quent the coast, the 3 latter being most 
common along the southern coast, the 
two former along the northern shores. 
Of the whale and porpoise families 
sixteen species are found in considerable 
numbers; the right whale (Balaena 
glacialis), and the Greenland whale or 
bowhead (Balaena mysticetus), are still 
seen along the coast, but are practically 
extinct; the humpbacked whale (Megap- 
tera nodosa), once fairly common, is no 
longer seen; the bottlenose whale, 
(Hyperodon restrains) is a rather fre- 
quent visitor. The killer whale (Orca 
gladiator) is common; the narwhal 
(Monodon monoceras) is numerous, and 
the beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) mi- 
grates up and down the coast in huge 
schools, often of many thousands. 

Though 150 birds have been recorded 
from Greenland, only 52 are known to 



nest on the island. Of these, 41 species 
are shore-birds or sea-birds, frequenting 
either the coastal waters or the sea, or 
less frequently the pools of the interior. 
The loons, eiders, phalaropes, old- 
squaws, snow-geese, and mergansers 
are often found in these inland pools; 
and the sandpipers, knots, plovers, 
sanderlings, turnstones, and others of 
the shore-bird group frequent the val- 
leys and lowlands as well as the coastal 
forelands. The barnacle goose and the 
black brent are locally common. 

But the wealth of bird-life for which 
the Greenland coasts are famous is 
made up chiefly of the sea-birds. Most 
numerous of these are the dovekies 
(Alle alle), which nest along the north- 
western coasts in incredible numbers; 
the murres (Uria troille troille, and 
Uria lomvia lomvia) populating nearly 
all the high, precipitous forelands; and 
the guillemots (Cepphus grylle and C. 
mandtii), the latter most common north- 
ward, the former abundant southward. 
The cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) 
is found locally along the western coast 
from 73 N. southward; the puffins, 
(Fratercula arctica arctica and F. a. 
naumanni), are fairly common; and the 
razor-billed auk is locally abundant. 

The gulls are numerous the glaucous 
gull, the ivory gull, the black-backed 
gull, the herring gull, Kumliens gull, 
the kittiwake, and Sabine's gull, are all 
native to the coast. The Arctic tern 
is common along most of the coast. 
The fulmars are likewise common. The 
jaegers are all found along the Green- 
land coast. 

The fish fauna is relatively rich in the 
south Greenland waters. The sleeping 
shark is generally common; the cod and 
rock-cod are found off the southern 
coast; the halibut, dab, and the related 
"hellefisk" (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides 
Watt)} are also common along the south- 
ern portion of the coast. The sculpin is 
found everywhere. The caplin, as on 
the coast of the Labrador, fills the 
coastal waters early in summer. 

The lower forms of sea-life are locally 
so numerous in the ice-free, sunlighted 



98 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



summer seas as to color the water. 
They furnish food to the myriads of 
bird-life, fish, and sea-animals. 

THE DANISH AKCTTC SCIENTIFIC STATION 
AND THE PORSILD NATURE RESERVE 

Morten P. Porsild, Danish geographer 
and naturalist, with more than usual 
vision and determination, has secured 
governmental support for a scientific 
station and base for exploration, at 
Godhavn on Disko Island. This sta- 
tion, of which he is director, is well 
equipped with library, laboratory, and 
study supplies, the most advantageously 
located base for Arctic research in the 
world. Here investigators from all 
lands are welcome; here young explorers 
are trained in the Arctic technique; and 
here Science finds its well-guarded 
Arctic frontier. 

Porsild has also established a preserve 
which includes the areas watered by the 
warm springs of Disko Island, where an 
exceptionally rich and varied flora and 
an unusual invertebrate fauna are 
preserved from destruction. This pre- 
serve, like the warm spring area itself, is 
unique. It is the northernmost station 
of many plants, like some of the orchis 
family, and a number of invertebrates, 
among them two species of earthworms. 

ROUTES OF TRAVEL 

Greenland is maintained by the 
Danish Government as a trade monopoly 
for the Danish Royal Trading Company, 
and stern restrictions are imposed upon 
visitors to the country, discouraging 
travel to the land. 

The mid-west Greenland coast is 
readily accessible by means of the 
Danish vessels that ply back and forth 
from Copenhagen in the summer 
months from May to October. Less 
frequently, vessels visit the north- 
western coast, and the southern coasts. 
Occasionally, a vessel from America 
goes to Greenland for a cargo of cryolite, 
to fish in the southern waters, or to take 
an expedition to the Far North. 

The monopoly maintained by the 
Danish government and the restrictions 



imposed upon travelers are wise, and 
beneficial to the Eskimo, who are cared 
for in a most paternal and unselfish 
manner by the Danish authorities; as 
a consequence, the Eskimo population 
of Danish Greenland has doubled in the 
last century. The Danes, by virtue of 
their kindly administration of the affairs 
of these primitive people, deserve an 
undisputed right to the land. 

3. THE AMERICAN ARCTIC 
ARCHIPELAGO 

BY W. ELMER EKBLAW 

INTRODUCTION 

The American Arctic Archipelago 
comprises that island group or polynia 
lying to the northward of the American 
continent, of which it forms a part in 
that it lies on the same portion of the 
earth's continental shelf. It does not 
include Greenland. Possible islands 
northwestward in the Arctic Ocean, as 
yet undiscovered, may be included. 
North and South it extends from the 
south end of Baffin Land in latitude 
62 N. to the north end of Ellesmere 
Land in latitude 82 N., a latitudinal 
extent of 20, or 1400 mi. It is widest 
in the south where it extends from the 
sixtieth to the one hundred twenty- 
fifth meridian, west longitude. It forms 
a rough triangle with its east side almost 
due north and south from the northeast 
point of Ellesmere Land to the southeast 
corner of Baffin Land, and its apex at the 
westernmost cape of Banks Land. 

GEOLOGY 

The geology of the entire archipelago 
is only imperfectly known, and merely a 
general statement of the areal distribu- 
tion of the outcropping formations may 
be made. 

The southeastern portion of the 
triangle, and most of the eastern coasts 
throughout, are pre-Cambrian, with 
scattered patches of sedimentaries, 
mostly Silurian. The Silurian lime- 
stones, in many places fossiliferous, 
are dominant over the southern portion 
of the western corner, principally on 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



99 



Victoria Island, Prince of Wales Island, 
North Somerset Island, and northwest 
part of Baffin Land. 

On Banks Land and in the Parry 
Islands in the northwest part of the 
archipelago, the Carboniferous is the 
chief formation comprising the terrane. 
The Devonian, so far as known, is 
restricted to the northwest corner of 
North Devon, and the west part of 
Ellesmere Land. Triassic formations 
constitute the dominant outcrops in the 
Sverdrup Islands and, if the so-called 
Cape Raws on series are included with 
the Triassic, in a belt across the north 
part of Ellesmere Land. A few scat- 
tered Tertiary deposits have thus far 
been noted. 

PHYSIOGRAPHY 

Outline 

The Arctic Archipelago is made up of 
numerous large and small islands, sepa- 
rated by sounds and straits of varying 
size. The land surface exceeds con- 
siderably the water surface of the area. 
The larger islands, like Baffin Land 
and Victoria Land, and Ellesmere Land, 
are cut by a number of deep bays and, in 
general, the coast lines of all are rather 
irregular. All are continuously bor- 
dered by heavy ice for ten months of the 
year, and many of the sounds and straits 
are always unnavigable, because of 
heavy ice, or heavy ice and rapid cur- 
rents. Some are open for the passage 
of a ship some years, closed others. 
Navigation is always hazardous and 
doubtful. 

Relief 

The relief is highest at the north, in 
the north part of Ellesmere Land and 
gradually decreases southward and 
southwestward, being generally lowest 
toward the southwest corner of the area. 
The United States and Grant Mountains 
in Ellesmere Land rise high and sharp, 
probably 9000 ft. or even more. Elles- 
mere Land and Axel Heiberg land are 
both high and rugged lands, and the 
eastern part of Baffin Land is relatively 
high. Westward the topography be- 



comes gradually smoother and more 
mature. The shores of the eastern 
islands are generally steep and high, 
but cut by valleys, and bordered by 
forelands, both of which are wider and 
flatter toward the south. The general 
contour of the islands becomes more 
rounded and subdued toward the west; 
the hills are not so high nor so steep, 
and the valleys are wider and flatter. 
Relic ice-caps with projecting gla- 
ciers, some of which reach the sea and 
discharge icebergs, occupy considerable 
portions of the Ellesmere Land, North 
Devon, and Baffin Land plateaus. 
Practically the entire area of the Archi- 
pelago was probably heavily covered 
during the Pleistocene glaciation, 
though most of the evidence has in 
places been obliterated. 

Drainage 

Throughout the archipelago the drain- 
age has been profoundly modified by the 
morainal deposits of the glacial period. 
In the western portion the drainage has 
been fairly well restored, or an adequate 
new system developed, but in the east- 
ern portions the drainage is still un- 
developed. A number of large lakes lie 
in the interior of Baffin Land; Lake 
Hazen in the north part of Ellesmere 
Land is a considerable body of water; 
and smaller lakes are found on most of 
the islands. Many lakes have probably 
not yet been discovered or mapped. No 
large rivers are found in any of the 
islands, though in the melting season 
many of the streams are swollen by the 
freshets to turbulent, riverlike torrents. 

CLIMATE 

The climate of the Arctic Archipelago 
can be described only in a general way. 
The few definite data available are so 
scattered in point of time and locality, 
that they can be used only as general 
indices of the character of the climate. 

The entire archipelago is a region of 
long, cold winter, and very short sum- 
mer, beginning with mid-June and 
ending with the first of September. 
The climate in winter is almost con- 



100 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



tinental since all the water is frozen 
over and its modifying effect is negli- 
gible; but in summer the climate is 
arctic-oceanic, and even with twenty- 
four hour sunlight during the summer 
months, the temperature does not rise 
high because of the depressing chill 
off the cold shore waters with their 
masses of ice. In northern Ellesmere 
Land the lowest winter temperature is 
probably 70; the highest tempera- 
ture in the interior dales and valleys 
sheltered from the sea-winds, probably 
rises to + 70. In the southern portion 
the temperature does not often drop 
below 40, while the interior summer 
temperatures do not rise far above +75. 
The precipitation is uniformly light. 
The rains of summer in the southern 
portion and the summer snows of the 
northern part are relatively light. The 
snowfall over the entire group is not 
heavy for the entire winter, but the 
accumulation remains until late May or 
June, and then the melting furnishes 
ample moisture for the rapid growth of 
the vegetation through the short, 
sunlighted summer. The western coast, 
facing the prevalent winds receive the 
maximum precipitation. The first frost 
comes late in August in the southern 
portion, earlier in the same month in the 
northern portion. The ground is frozen 
throughout the year, except for a thin 
surface layer a few inches thick that 
opens up for the short summer. Be- 
cause of the effect of the twenty-four 
hour sunlight, and the protracted inso- 
lation, the "summer" period is approxi- 
mately the same throughout the whole 
north and south extent of the archipel- 
ago. 

BIOTA 
Plant life 

The plant life of the Arctic Archi- 
pelago has never been thoroughly in- 
vestigated. The collections are few, 
far scattered, and incomplete. From 
none of the islands, except Ellesmere 
Land perhaps, has even an approach 
been made to an exhaustive and rep- 
resentative collection. 



The character of the vegetation is 
similar to that of Western Greenland, 
though in the lower, flatter western 
portions of the archipelago, the bog and 
moor, or tundra, vegetation spreads 
over much greater areas, and the "Feld- 
mark" is relatively more restricted. 
There are no trees, and few shrubs of 
any size, most of the vegetation being 
confined to creeping or dwarfed shrubs 
and vascular plants particularly grasses 
and sedges. 

The paucity of the flora of the Silurian 
siliceous limestone areas is character- 
istic, and seems due principally to the 
lack of fine particles in the detritus 
resulting from the disintegration of the 
limestone. There is no true soil; even 
in the flatter expanses of the Silurian 
the limestone is riven by frost into sharp 
angular fragments that do not afford 
proper foothold for plants or for the 
absorption and capillary retention of the 
necessary water supply. The purer or 
more argillaceous limestones of the 
other sedimentaries give rise to a more 
favorable soil, and on this, as on the 
soil derived from the pre-Cambrian, the 
vegetation is abundant and more gener- 
ally distributed, apparently little 
affected by the composition of the soil. 

The flora, so far as known, is made up 
of slightly more than 200 species, repre- 
senting 31 families, of which the largest 
are the Graminae, Cyperaceae, Cruci- 
ferae, and Compositae, in the order 
named. The genera richest in species 
are Carex with 12, Saxifraga with 12, Salix 
with 10, and Pedicularis with 7. Sixty- 
two species are distributed throughout the 
archipelago; 18 species extend over the 
southern portion; 35 are confined to the 
south-western islands; 28 species are 
decidedly western in origin and range; 
and 23 are distinctively eastern. The 
proportion of monocotyledonae increases 
northward. The distribution of these 
genera and species over the archipelago 
raises interesting questions of origin, 
migration, and relationship which have 
been the cause of much controversy, 
involving the extent and continuity of 
the Pleistocene glaciation; former land 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



101 



connections now submerged, among the 
islands themselves and with the main- 
land, Asia, and Europe; variations of 
the climate in the past; the rise of 
endemic species, and modifications of 
immigrants; and the effect of trans- 
porting agencies. 

In the warmer, drier niches of the 
rockier slopes where sufficient soil has 
accumulated, small heath-growths of 
Campanula uniflora, Pyrola rotundifolia, 
Arnica alpina, Antennaria alpina, Fes- 
tuca alpina, Trisetum spicatum, Carex 
incurva, Potentilla Vahliana, and Cala- 
magrostis purpurascens are set among 
a basic growth of Cassiope tetragona and 
Dryas integrifolia, which are distributed 
over all the drier tracts. 

The seepage-swales along the moss- 
grown streamlets of ice-cold water from 
melting streamlets are well carpeted 
with grasses, sedges, Luzula and Juncus, 
with here and there patches of white- 
furred Eriophorum and timothy-like 
Alopecurus alpinus. In these seepage- 
swales the drier margins have scattered 
beds of Rhododendron lapponicum, Saxi- 
fraga oppositifolia, Oxyria digyna, Ceras- 
tium alpinum, the several species of 
Draba, Ranunculus nivalis, and Melan- 
drium affine. 

Silene acaulis, Bray a purpurascens, 
Papaver radicatum, Poa, Salix arctica, 
Potentilla nivea, Statice maritima, Erige- 
ron compositus, Taraxacum, Lesquerella 
arctica, and Stellaria longipes, grow over 
the windswept, gravely reaches, not 
too dry. 

The grass- and sedge-grown moors 
with an "undergrowth" of moss and 
marchantia, hold scattered plants of 
Pedicularis hirsuta, Eriophorum Poly- 
stachium, Ranunculus sulfureus, Carda- 
mine bellidofolia, Equisetum arvense, 
Eutrema edwardsii, Ranunculus hyper- 
boreus and R. pygmaeus, Tofieldia palus- 
tris, and many other moisture-loving 
plants. 

Cystopteris fragilis, Woodsia, and 
Aspidium fragrans are among the ferns 
of the archipelago. Hippuris vulgaris, 
Dupontia fischeri, Pleuropogon sabinei, 
Batrachium paucistamineus, and several 



carices grow in the pools or long the 
margins. 

These are but part of the species that 
go to make up the vegetation of the 
islands. 

Animal life 

Except for the mammals and the birds, 
the animal life of the archipelago is 
most imperfectly known. The lower 
forms have been relatively neglected by 
the explorers and investigators who have 
collected in the polynia. 

The muskox (Ovibos moschatus) finds 
on the more remote lands of these 
islands, notably in Banks Land, Axel 
Heiberg Land, and Ellesmere Land, his 
last extensive range. Here the last 
large herds have thus far been preserved; 
on the broad valley-pastures and slopes 
of Ellesmere Land, several thousand 
still persist, finding there food and safety 
from slaughter. 

The barren-ground caribou (Rangifer 
spp.) ranges over the southern islands, 
while in Axel Heiberg Land and in 
Ellesmere Land a small species, Rangifer 
pearyi finds its home. These small 
northern caribou do not gather in large 
herds, nor do they migrate extensively. 

Along all the coastal stretches and 
far out upon the frozen reaches of the 
Arctic Sea the polar bear (Thalarctos) , 
the arctic wolf (Cam's tundrarum), 
and the polar fox (Alopex spp.) wander 
restlessly about, still relatively numer- 
ous. The Arctic hare (Lepus arcticus 
group) is rather widely distributed. 
The lemmings (Lemmus and Dicrostonyx) 
and the weasel (Mustela a. arctica} 
frequent the grassgrown plains and 
moors. 

The sea-life is relatively abundant. 
Walrus, ring-seal, bearded seal, harp 
seal, hooded seal, and harbor seal are 
found in the sounds and off the islands. 
Narwhal and beluga are common. In 
places, several species of whale are 
found. The Big Finner, the Little 
Finner, the Humpback, the Right 
whale, the Greenland whale, and the 
Killer are found locally. 

The bird-life is numerous, but little 



102 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



is definitely known about the distribu- 
tion and northern habits of some of the 
species. 

The pipit and the horned lark are 
common among the southern islands. 
The lapland longspur, the snow-bunting, 
and the redpolls are widely distributed. 
The northern raven, the snowy owl, 
Reinhardt's ptarmigan, the duck hawk 
and the gyrfalcon are rather common 
throughout the archipelago. 

The Greenland and American eiders 
are common toward the east, the Pacific 
and Steller's eiders toward the west, 
and the king-eider is found in small 
numbers throughout the polynia. The 
Hutchin's goose, the blue goose, the 
Canada goose, the swans, and the snow 
geese probably nest on the islands 
bordering Hudson Bay on the north. 
The hooded merganser, the green- 
winged teal, the old squaws, and casu- 
ally, other ducks, frequent these islands. 
The black-throated loon toward the 
west, and the red-throated loon through- 
out the archipelago, are rather common. 

Shorebirds are numerous. At least 
two species of phalaropes breed in the 
islands. A number of the sandpipers 
and the plovers, the sanderJings and 
turnstones, all these frequent the low, 
flat valleys, the damp plateaus, with 
myriad pools and ponds, and the broad, 
shingly shore-land. Even the little 
brown crane is found on the southern 
islands. 

The sea-birds are numerous. Ful- 
mars, terns, kittiwakes, Sabine's gull, 
Ross's gull, the herring gull, the great 
black-backed gull, the glaucous gull, 
and the ivory gull nest in the archi- 
pelago. Three jaegers course over the 
islands and the sounds. The dovekies 
are found in the North. Brunnick's 
murre, Mandt's guillemot, the puffin, 
and the razor-billed auk are other 
representatives of the sea-bird group. 

Both the plant-life and the animal- 
life of the archipelago are relatively 
little known. These islands offer a 
fascinating field for exploration and 
study. 



ROUTES OF TRAVEL 

The arctic archipelago is generally 
difficult of approach. The entire east- 
ern coast from Hudson Strait to the 
Arctic Ocean is more or less barred by 
ice, and accessible only with favorable 
ice-conditions, winds, and tides. A 
rare fur-trading ship or whaler may 
afford passage, but generally a special 
ship is necessary for transportation to 
the region. 

The south side of the archipelago is 
more easily accessible in summer by way 
of Hudson Bay. The west side is even 
more difficult of approach than the east 
side. A special ship must be engaged 
for the trip, unless a whaler or fur- 
trader happens to be bound for those 
far arctic waters. 



4. UNGAVA AND LABRADOR 

BY W. ELMER EKBLAW 

INTRODUCTION 

Because the great peninsula of Labra- 
dor and Ungava offers to the naturalist 
one of the most promising fields for 
exploration and study, considerable 
attention to the geography of the area 
is well worth while. 

It comprises a great triangular, penin- 
sular territory forming the major north- 
eastern portion of the North American 
Continent. This triangle, broken only 
by Ungava Bay, is bounded roughly on 
the west by James Bay and Hudson Bay; 
on the northeast by Ungava Bay, Hud- 
son Strait, and the Atlantic Ocean; 
on the south by the Rupert River and 
its tributaries to Lake Mistassini, the 
Saguenay and its tributaries to the 
St. Lawrence, and the St. Lawrence 
River and Gulf, and the straits of Belle 
Isle. Only that portion lying north of 
the 52nd parallel is included within this 
account, and in general it does not include 
any of the territory drained by the 
rivers that flow into the St. Lawrence 
system. 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



103 



GEOLOGY 

Over the greater part of the Labrador 
Peninsula, probably nine-tenths the 
area, the Laurentian gneisses and 
schists form the country rock. These 
consist of highly metamorphosed and 
foliated clastic and igneous rocks of 
great geologic age, all, with a few ex- 
ceptions, Pre-Cambrian. More or less 
interfolded with these aged Laurentian 
rocks are several widely separated areas 
of Huronian clastic and volcanic rocks, 
and many basic eruptives schists, con- 
glomerates, breccias, and others. Rest- 
ing unconformably upon these aged 
Laurentian and Huronian rocks, sand- 
stones, argillites, shales, and lime- 
stones, of doubtful age, with bedded 
traps and other basic or volcanic rocks, 
may constitute an early Cambrian 
deposition. 

In the long period between the folding 
of the Laurentian and Huronian rocks 
and the submergence when these sedi- 
ments were laid down, the peninsula was 
profoundly sculptured and denuded to 
the fundamental basic form and physi- 
ography it has today the great central 
plateau, the lake and valley basins, 
and the fjords and inlets. 

In relatively recent geologic times this 
old original land surface has been con- 
siderably modified by glaciation through- 
out its entire extent except the highest 
mountain areas along the northeastern 
coast of the peninsula. The central 
neve" from which this glaciation pro- 
ceeded, moved progressively northward 
in three distinct successive periods of 
ice accumulation, with intervening pe- 
riods of diminished glaciation. The 
earliest ice-flow radiated from a central 
gathering-ground between the 50th and 
51st parallels near the center of the 
peninsula; the second from a point to 
the northwest beyond the 54th parallel; 
and the latest from a center about a 
hundred miles inland from the east coast 
of Hudson Bay, between the 55th and 
56th parallels. 

In the areas of these central neve 
the rocks and boulders rest upon rocks 



of the same kind and evidently have not 
been transported far. As the distance 
from these central areas of neve in- 
creases, the sculpturing by the ice 
becomes more distinct; but in general 
the amounts of erosion and change 
wrought upon the general surfaces have 
not been so great as is generally thought. 
Though the ice certainly did erode in 
one place and deposit in another to 
reduce the surface to a general uniform 
level over the most of the plateau, the 
evidence does not show that it ever 
trenched or plucked out such deep 
depressions as it apparently did farther 
south along the peripheral edges and 
lobes of the ice-sheet. 

PHYSIOGRAPHY 

Outline 

The west coast of the peninsula, 
running nearly due north and south for 
800 mi. is remarkably straight and un- 
broken by any deep indentations,though 
bordered by numbers of long groups of 
low narrow islands paralleling the shore- 
line; the south side of the area covered 
in this report corresponds roughly to the 
divide between the rivers flowing into 
the St. Lawrence and those emptying 
westward, eastward, and northward to 
Hudson Bay, Ungava Bay, and the 
Atlantic. The Atlantic coast is ex- 
ceedingly irregular, cut by many deep, 
narrow fjords and bays, of which Hamil- 
ton Inlet, the southernmost, is the 
largest and deepest; and bordered by 
islets and skerries innumerable. The 
coast of Hudson Strait and Ungava 
Bay are relatively regular, bordered by 
many islets. The passages between the 
islets and the mainland, and between 
the islets themselves are locally des- 
ignated as "tickles." 

Relief 

The Labrador peninsula is a gently 
undulating plateau which rises abruptly 
within a short distance from the coast 
line to a general elevation of about 
2000 ft., and which slopes rather gently 
westward, northward, and eastward to 



104 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



the rim of the plateau, from a central 
crest lying approximately along the 
53rd parallel between the 65th and 
70th meridians, west longitude. The 
plateau is bordered in the northeastern 
portion, along the Atlantic seaboard by 
ranges of sharp, unglaciated mountains, 
beginning about latitude 55 N. and 
extending northward to Cape Chidley, 
with maximum altitudes of 6000 ft. 
inland from Saglek Bay; but elsewhere 
the rim of the plateau does not rise 
above the general level of the plateau. 
The entire inland area of the plateau is 
comparatively level, traversed only by 
low, rounded, roughly parallel ridges of 
crystalline rocks, so that except for a 
very few places, there is not in the entire 
plateau area 200,000 sq. mi., a difference 
of level of more than 400 ft. The general 
surface is further modified by low 
moraines extending in a general way the 
same direction as the slope of the 
country, yet appreciably modifying the 
preglacial drainage system of the terrain. 

Soil 

Most of the soil of the peninsula is a 
boulder-studded, infertile, glacial till, 
derived from the Archean rocks. Over 
wide areas it is very sandy. The soil 
along the river valleys has been modified 
and enriched by redeposition and with a 
consequent heavier growth of vegeta- 
tion. The richest soils bearing the 
best development of vegetation are the 
alluvial-topped soils along the coast 
and the inlets, and the areas of limestone 
and shale outcrops of the supposed early 
Cambrian rocks. 

Drainage 

As a consequence of the damming of 
the valleys and basins of the streams 
of the Labrador plateau by the masses 
of glacial till and moraines, the whole 
area is dotted with myriads of lakes and 
pools, that occupy at least a fourth of 
the entire area. They vary in size from 
small narrow ponds to large extensive 
lakes hundreds of square miles in area, 
most of them relatively shallow, some 
deep. In addition to the great lake 



areas, large portions of the plateau 
are occupied by damp, boggy, tundra 
with defective drainage, almost lake- 
like in character. 

A perfect network of streams connects 
these lakes and ponds, all interlocking so 
closely that no great distances separate 
the headwaters; and since above the 
rapids near the coast, the streams and 
lakes are generally navigable by canoes, 
water travel is relatively easy through- 
out the plateau, with few portages more 
than 2 or 3 mi. long. 

Three principal watersheds comprise 
the peninsular north of the Height of 
Land. The eastern is drained prin- 
cipally by the tributaries of Hamilton 
Inlet' the northern is drained by the 
Koksoak, the largest and longest river 
of Labrador, the George, the Whale, 
and the Leaf; the western, the most 
extensive of the peninsula, is drained 
by the Nastapoka to the north, the 
Little Whale and the Great Whale about 
the middle, and the Big and East Main 
to the south. 

The water in the pools, lakes, and 
streams is remarkably clear, quite 
different from the dark-brown waters 
of the Laurentian basin. Because the 
summer season is short, the swamps and 
tundra from which most of the streams 
and lakes drain their water are thawed 
only to a depth of 12 to 18 in., and 
vegetable decomposition, particularly of 
the sphagnum mosses, is negligible. 

CLIMATE 

The climate of the plateau of Labrador 
is generally and distinctly Arctic. Ex- 
cept at the heads of the deeper fjords 
and inlets of the southern portion of the 
east coast, where the diurnal range of 
temperature is from 45 to 90, and the 
average temperature in summer is 
above 50, the temperatures for the 
year are characteristically sub-Arctic. 

Though situated in the same latitude 
as some of the most pleasant and most 
productive lands of Europe, Labrador 
is chilled by the cold waters of the 
Greenland current along its eastern 
shore, and^by the prevailing westerly 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



105 



winds which come off the cold expanses 
of Hudson Bay, and the frigid, icebound 
islands of the Arctic Archipelago, 
instead of being warmed by the balmy 
winds that blow off the temperate Gulf 
Stream, as in northwestern Europe. 

Temperature 

The temperature depends greatly on 
the direction of the winds. During the 
summer the prevailing winds in the 
interior are southerly and southwesterly, 
bringing higher temperature and cloudy 
skies, often with drizzling rain. The 
prevailing westerly and northwesterly 
winds of winter are accompanied by 
lower temperatures and clear skies. 
The northerly and northeasterly winds 
accompany heavy storms of rain and 
snow, with damp, chilly weather. Clear, 
pleasant weather usually comes with 
easterly and southeasterly winds, though 
fogs along the coast are then most 
common. 

The temperature in the interior, 
even in the southern part of the area, 
rarely rises above 80 during the middle 
of the day, on more than a few days 
during the warm season. The summer 
temperature of the Atlantic coast 
region is considerably lower than inland, 
or along the western coast. The lowest 
winter temperatures inland are 55; 
along the coast 45, at the head of 
Ungava Bay; and at the mouth of 
Hamilton Inlet -40. 

The interior plateau has but two 
seasons, winter from mid-September to 
mid-June, and summer rather spring 
from mid-June to mid-September. The 
summer season begins almost simulta- 
neously throughout the interior, with 
a suddenness that is surprising. In 
the first two weeks of June the snow 
disappears, the ice melts off all the 
lakes except the larger, the temperature 
rises rapidly every day, the trees and 
shrubs burst into leaf and early bloom, 
and the birds arrive to mate, and to 
begin nesting almost immediately. Un- 
til the first of July frosf/s are likely to 
occur every night and flurries of snow 
may come even later. Summer ends 



about the middle of September when the 
first fall snow falls and the ice forms in 
the small lakes. From early in October 
the snow remains permanently, and all 
the smaller lakes are solidly frozen. 

Precipitation 

The precipitation over the interior is 
relatively light. The summer precipi- 
tation is fairly constant though very 
light, with few days without drizzles or 
thunder-showers. The winter snowfall 
varies from 3 to 6 ft., of which the most 
is brought by the north and notheast 
winds. Three-fourths of the winter 
season is clear and crisp with brisk 
northwest winds blowing. 

BIOTA 
Plant life 

The vegetation along the coast of the 
Labrador Peninsula is distinctly tundra, 
with no trace of forests except at the 
heads of the deeper inlets, while the 
interior is more or less forested according 
to the latitude and topography. 

The tundra of the coast is almost 
continuous over the islands, capes, prom- 
ontories, and forelands, being broken 
only by ledges of outcropping rock 
with no soil covering; pools and lakes; 
the low depressions which form moors; 
the high rocky summits of the coastal 
mountains where broken masses of rock 
(typical "Felsenmeer") constitute the 
surface; and scattered moist sunny 
slopes and protected niches where the 
same plants as those of the less favored 
localities attain a most luxuriant growth. 

In these coastal tundras, the essential 
element is the sphagnum moss which 
grows in all the damper portions. 
Arctic grasse, sedges, rushes, and cot- 
ton-grasses form turfy patches where 
conditions are favorable. Northern Sa- 
liceae and Ericaceae are the common 
shrubs, all low-growing Empetrum nig- 
rum, Vaccinium uliginosum and V. 
Vitis-Idaea, Betula nana, Rubus cha- 
maemorus and R. arctica, Ledum, Loise- 
luria, Bryanthus that grow in the 
tundra and tundra moor. Viola palus- 
tris, Diapensia lapponica, Cerastium, 



106 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



Draba, Saxifraga, Papaver, Epilobium, 
Drosera, Pinguicula, Silene, Pedicularis, 
and numerous other arctic vascular 
plants constitute the more prominent 
flowers. On the drier slopes Linnaea 
borealis, Rhododendron lapponicum, Py- 
rola grandiflora, Campanula, Arnica, 
Antennaria, Festuca, Trisetum, and 
Calamagrostis characterize an almost 
heath-like association of plants. 

The interior plateau as a whole is 
quite different from the coastal belt, 
though large areas within the limit of 
the plateau are composed of similar 
tundra and tundra-moor vegetation. 

The forest is practically continuous 
over the southernmost edge of the area 
described in this report, only the sum- 
mits of the highest, rockiest hills being 
bare; but from the 53rd parallel north- 
ward, all the higher hills are treeless, 
the size and number of barren areas 
rapidly increase, and the trees them- 
selves grow smaller. In latitude 55 
N. more than half the surface is without 
trees, forested areas being found only 
in narrow belts along the streams and 
lakes, and in moist, sheltered recesses 
among the hills. The northern limit 
of trees extends from the mouth of the 
Nastapoka River on Hudson Bay, to 
the mouth of Leaf River on Ungava 
Bay, thence along the south shore of 
Ungava Bay to the mouth of the George 
River, thence along the foothills of the 
Atlantic coast range to Hebron, just 
north of Cape Mugford and south of 
Saglek Bay. 

The arborescent flora comprises the 
following species: 

1. Black spruce (Picea mariana'), the 
most widely distributed and abundant 
tree of Labrador, extends to the northern 
limit of trees and constitutes nine- 
tenths of the forest. It flourishes on the 
sandy soils of the Archean complex and 
grows equally as well on the dry hills 
of the southern portion as in the boggy 
land between the ridges. Farther north 
it grows rank and slim in the valleys, 
btit on the uplands where it forms open 
glades, it spreads out like the white 
spruce. 



2. Balsam fir (Abies balsamea} is a 
more southerly tree than the black 
spruce. It grows only along the edges 
of the waterways and the shores of the 
larger lakes. Its northern limit is the 
Great Whale River, and then roughly 
eastward across the plateau to Hamilton 
Inlet. 

3. White spruce (Picea alba} is dis- 
tributed throughout the wooded area 
but is not so abundant. It is confined 
to the scattered areas of rearranged 
drift of the river valleys, the marine 
deposits of the coast, and to the heavier 
soils of the interior. Its size and num- 
ber are thus more dependent upon the 
soil factor than upon the climate, lati- 
tude, or altitude. Its northern limit 
approximates the forest limit. 

4. Tamarack (Larix laricina], the 
largest and the hardiest tree of the sub- 
arctic forest belt, grows everywhere 
over the Labrador Peninsula, next in 
abundance to black spruce. It fre- 
quents all the cold bogs; and even to the 
northern limit of the forest, where the 
black spruce is a mere shrub, the tama- 
rack retains its arboreal form and size, 
though somewhat diminished. 

5. Banksian pine (Pinus divaricata] 
occupies the southwestern portion of 
the Labrador Peninsula, south of the 
Great Whale River and west of a line 
that roughly corresponds with the 
seventy-first meridian. It grows on dry 
sandy ridges and hills, where it is often 
combined with black spruce to form the 
second growth on fire-swept reaches. 

6. Canoe birch (Betula papyrifera) 
grows commonly over the southern 
portion of the peninsula but is rare and 
small toward the north. Its northern 
limit lies to the south of the forest 
limit, though scattered groups of the 
trees are found even in the valley of the 
Koksoak river a few miles above its 
mouth. 

7. Aspen (Populustremuloides^is found 
in clumps in the original coniferous 
forest, and in company with white birch, 
as second growth in many burned-over 
areas. It seems most abundant and 
widely distributed in the western portion 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



107 



of the peninsula on the undisturbed 
original till of the drift ridges. Its 
northern limit approximates the fifty- 
fourth parallel. 

8. Balsam poplar (Populus balsami- 
fera) grows farther north than the 
aspen but it thrives only on the heavy 
clay soil of the river valleys or that 
derived from limestone and shale rocks. 
Its extreme northern limit is near the 
head of Ungava Bay, thence south- 
eastward to the mouth of Hamilton 
Inlet, and southwestward to Bishop 
Roggan river on the shore of Hudson 
Bay. 

At least one-half of the original forest 
cover has been burned off, and a second- 
ary growth of black spruce, Banksian 
pine, aspen, and white birch replaces 
the former forest. In many places 
only blackened stumps and small second 
growth extend for miles over the plateau 
and up the river valleys, with here and 
there a large thrifty tract of the original 
forest to indicate the character of the 
former pristine forest covering. 

Throughout the forest belt, the low- 
lands fringing the streams are covered 
over with thickets of low willows and 
alders. Toward the semi-barrens north- 
ward, these fringes of shrubbery become 
wider, and with dwarf birch occupy 
much of the open glades. The willows 
and birches grow on the hillsides above 
the tree-line up to the "Felsenmeer" 
and its patches of Sphagnum or Cla- 
donia tundra, and form low thickets 
through which it is difficult to pass. 
North of the tree-limit similar thickets 
of Arctic willow, birch, and alder grow 
over the lower reaches, but on the hills 
they attain only a carpet-like form. 
Ledum and Kalmia in tangled masses 
form the undergrowth of the southern 
forest region, but die out in the semi- 
barrens. Sphagnum is the ground car- 
pet of the southern regions, being re- 
placed by Cladonia to the north, a rich 
growth everywhere throughout the 
semi-barrens and barren regions. 

The semi-barrens and barren moun- 
tain-tops and northern tracts are either 
areas of "Felsenmeer" with little vegeta- 



tion, or tundra or tundra-moor vegeta- 
tion such as is found along the coast. 
Over 450 species of vascular plants have 
been reported, including about 35 Com- 
positae, 30 Ericaceae, 30 Cruciferae, 
30 Rosaceae, 30 Cyperaceae, 30 Gra- 
mineae, 25 Caryophyllace; 20 Saliceae, 
20 Saxifragaceae, 20 Ranunculaceae, 
and 15 Scrophulariaceae. 

During the short summer season the 
open places of the peninsula become 
dotted with the blossoms of berry- 
bearing shrubs and flowering plants. 
Nearly all vernal in character, they 
burst into bloom abruptly, just as breaks 
the summer. Their flowering and grow- 
ing season is brief, and they hasten 
through their vegetative and reproduc- 
tive processes in a rapid, continuous 
succession by which the aspect of the 
landscape seems often to change over 
night. Grassy, sedgy, swales are dotted 
with the plants of the moor; gravelly, 
clayey slopes become colored with the 
heath-plants in every warm sheltered 
nook; and every niche and ledge among 
the rocks bears a flower, or a bit of fern, 
or sedge, or grass. The subarctic land- 
scape during the all too brief summer 
is far from monotonous. 

ANIMAL LIFE 

Mammals 

Of the land-mammals the barren- 
ground caribou is the most significant 
form in the whole fauna of the peninsula. 
The woodland caribou once abundant, 
and the chief reliance for food of the 
Nascaupee and Montaignais Indians, 
has been almost exterminated, with the 
result that a large portion of these 
tribes has perished from starvation. 

The barren-ground caribou ranges 
immense herds over the barren and 
semi-barren grounds. These animals 
spend the summer season on the barren 
highlands near the coast where the 
strong winds reduce the number of 
flies and mosquitoes that plague all 
life. In the autumn they migrate in- 
land and southward into the semi- 
barrens of the lower lands, * and [re- 



108 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



turn to the high barrens in April and 
May. 

Three distinct herds browse over the 
north part of the peninsula. One, on 
the Atlantic coast occupies in summer 
the mountainous area between the 
56th and 59th parallels, and migrates 
almost as a unit southwestward toward 
the semi-barrens of the inland valleys 
and forested lowlands beyond Lake 
Michikimau. Hundreds are killed by 
the Indians while crossing the George 
River about 100 mi. below the lake. 
The spring migration is more desultory 
in small bands. Another of the herds 
frequents in summer the point of the 
peninsula between Ungava Bay and the 
Atlantic, and migrates to the point 
west of Ungava Bay and Hudson Strait, 
crossing the lower regions of Koksoak 
River. The third herd winters about 
Clearwater Lake, and migrates north- 
ward for summer pasturage to the high- 
lands along the divide of the north- 
western part of the peninsula. 

With irregular periodicity the caribou 
remain on the barrens throughout the 
winter, not migrating back to the for- 
ested inland valleys and lake shore 
tracts. Whenever this happens the 
Indians are likely to face stress and 
starvation and death. 

With diminution in number of the 
Indian hunters, there is a corresponding 
increase in the number of furbearing 
animals. Of these the most abundant 
are the pine marten (Maries) ranging 
through the forested regions, but not 
found on the semi-barrens of the high- 
lands, or north of the tree-limit; the 
wolverine (Gulo) common throughout 
the entire extent of Labrador to its 
northernmost point; the otter (Lutra) 
common throughout the wooded regions 
and ranging northward into the barren 
grounds; the beaver (Castor), numerous 
throughout the forested lands, and rang- 
ing into the semi-barrens wherever 
the food-supply permits; the weasel 
(Mustela), distributed throughout the 
wooded regions; the mink (Mustela 
vison), rare even in the southernmost 
portion of the peninsula; the red fox 



(Vulpes) and its variant color phases, 
relatively abundant throughout the 
peninsula; and the arctic fox (Alopex) 
both blue and white forms found most 
abundantly in the barren ground to the 
north, and ranging farther south along 
the coast to the 52nd parallel. 

The arctic hare (Lepus arcticus) is 
confined to the barren and semi-barren 
lands, but the common rabbit (Lepus 
americanus) is found in great numbers 
throughout the wooded regions, except 
that periodically it is almost extermi- 
nated by an epidemic infection that 
rages through the species. This rabbit 
is an essential element in the Labrador 
fauna, for many of the carnivoran species 
depend upon it for their basic food 
supply. The Canada lynx (Lynx cana- 
densis), the gray wolf, and many of the 
fur-bearing carnivores find the rabbit 
the ultimate source of sustenance. It 
is said that whenever the rabbits die 
from disease, the lynx faces such difficult 
food conditions that it does not breed 
during the shortage of rabbits. The 
gray wolf (Cam's lycaon) preys chiefly 
upon the caribou (Rangifer spp.), and 
since the woodland form has become 
almost extinct, the range of the gray 
wolf has been largely limited to the 
barrens and semi-barrens, the haunts 
of the barren-ground caribou. The 
arctic wolf (Cam's tundrarum) is rare, 
and found only in the barrens and along 
the coast. 

Three species of bears are found in 
Labrador, the barren-ground bear, the 
black bear, and the polar bear. The 
barren-ground bear (Ursus sp.), as its 
name implies, is northerly in its range, 
and is very rare. The black bear (Ursus 
americanus group) is common through- 
out the wooded country, frequenting 
the coast when the great shoals of caplin 
are swept in on the beaches; the rapids 
and falls of the streams when the salmon 
and other fish are "shoaling;" and the 
burnt-over areas in the fall when the 
berries are ripe. The polar bear (77m- 
larctos) is common along all the coast 
of Labrador, but most abundant in the 
northern portion where it finds seals in 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



109 



abundance. It frequents the ice-fields 
and bergs, and rarely travels inland 
except in winter when the fjord and 
inlets are frozen over. The polar bear 
is essentially a shore-loving animal, 
spending much of its time at sea. 

The smaller mammals that frequent 
the northern barrens and semi-barrens 
include the Labrador deer-mouse (Pero- 
myscus} common as far south as the 
52nd parallel, particularly about build- 
ings and huts; the small and large yel- 
low-faced Phenacomys of rather far 
northern distribution; the Ungava red- 
backed mouse (Euvotomys ungava) re- 
stricted to these northern barren and 
semi-barren areas; the small Labrador 
vole (Microtus); two species of lem- 
ming (Lemmus and Dicrostonyx), most 
common about the grassy, sedgy moors 
and bogs; and the Labrador shrew (So- 
rex), found from Fort Chimo 'south. 

The small mammals that are of more 
southern range, found principa llyin 
the wooded lands are as follows: the 
porcupine (Erethizon), ranging north- 
ward into the semi-barrens; the north- 
ern red squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus) 
of the same range; the Labrador flying 
squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus makkovi- 
kensis), rare even in the southernmost 
portions; the large Labrador vole com- 
mon throughout the wooded regions and 
penetrating into the semi-barrens; the 
Labrador rock vole and Labrador jump- 
ing mouse (Zapus), rare along the 
coast; the Hamilton Inlet red-backed 
mouse and the northern jumping mouse, 
common in the woodlands to the edge 
of the semi-barrens; the Labrador musk- 
rat (Ondatra) becoming progressively 
less numerous from the heavily-wooded 
tracts in the south to the semi-barrens 
as far north as Fort Chimo, where it is 
very rare; and the little brown bat and 
Say's bat (Myotis L. Lucifugus and 
M. subulatus), that may occasionally 
be found in the extreme southern 
portion. 

In the waters off the coast the walrus 
is found along the whole coast, its former 
usual range, but now it is common only 
along the northern reaches. Six species 



of seal frequent the coast; the harbor 
seal, common to the coast and low parts 
of the rivers all around Labrador, and 
plentiful in a number of northern fresh- 
water lakes in which they breed and rear 
their young, and from which apparently 
they never go, having acquired a fresh- 
water habit; the ringed seal and harp- 
seal, common along the whole coast; 
the bearded seal, the gray seal, and the 
hooded seal, everywhere and always 
rare. The white porpoise or beluga, 
and the narwhal, are fairly common. 
The humpbacked, the little-piked, the 
finback, the sulphur bottom, the killer, 
and the bottle-nosed whales are locally 
relatively common; while the right 
whale, the bowhead, the Pollock whale, 
and the sperm whale are rare. The 
porpoises and dolphins are common. 

Birds 

The bird life of Labrador, both inland 
and coastal, is numerous and varied, 
the number of species of the seabirds 
being relatively small, though the num- 
ber of individuals in many cases is in- 
credibly large; while of the land birds 
the number of species is relatively large, 
the number of individuals relatively 
small. 

Of the sea-birds, two species once 
common, the great auk and the Labrador 
duck, have been quite exterminated. 
The puffin, the black, guillemot, and 
the Mandt's guillemot, the common 
murre and the Brunnich's murre, and the 
razor-billed auk, are common summer 
residents in the waters off the coasts, 
and the dovekies are numerous during 
the winter. The skuas, and jaegers, 
many gulls and terns, petrels and shear- 
waters, fulmars, gannets and cormorants 
frequent the coast. The mergansers 
and many species of ducks and geese 
including the eiders, brant, and the 
whistling swan populate the coastal 
inlets, fjords, and lagoons. 

Along the shores, the fast vanishing 
curlew may still be found, though the 
oyster-catcher has been exterminated; 
the sandpipers, the phalaropes, the 
plovers, the ruddy turnstone, the sand- 



110 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



erling, and the godwit, all help to make 
the coastal skerries and lowlands along 
the inlets interesting and lively. 

On the inland plateau the loons, the 
grebes, the coots, and the Canada geese 
nest in numbers about the lakes and 
pools, a few herons and rails, harlequin 
ducks, and sandpipers frequent the 
shores of the streams and ponds, some- 
times nesting. In the woods and timber 
lands of the interior the northern rang- 
ing species of woodpeckers hairy, 
downy, black-backed, three-toed, and 
the yellow-shafted flicker; the Canada 
blue jay, and the Labrador jay; the 
yellow-bellied fly-catcher, the raven, 
the pine grosbeak, the white-winged 
crossbill; the tree sparrow, the waxwing, 
the warblers Tennessee, yellow, myrtle 
magnolia, black-poll, black-capped yel- 
low, the water-thrush, and rarely, a 
few others; the northern shrike; the 
Hudsonian chickadee; the kinglets; 
the live-backed and hermit thrushes; 
the American robin; the ruffed grouse 
and the Canada grouse; and transient 
or casual visitors of other species; all 
these form the interior woodland 
avifauna. 

In the more open glades and on the 
barrens and semi-barrens, the willow 
ptarmigan and Reinhardt's ptarmigan 
are common, the latter migrating north- 
ward about mid-April to the northern 
barrens, and the islands to the north of 
Labrador; the yellow-legs, Wilson's 
snipe, and the inland sandpipers are 
found on the moorlands; the cow-birds 
and rusty blackbirds frequent the 
shrubby fringes of the open places; the 
red-polls, the longspur, the savannah 
sparrow, Lincoln's sparrow, the white- 
sparrow, the white-crowned and white- 
throated sparrow, the junco, the pipit, 
and the horned lark, flit about the 
semi-barrens, and the shrub-carpeted 
stretches of the barrens; while the snow- 
bunting commonly, and the rare wheat- 
war, occasionally, make their home 
among the rocky ledges and Felsenmeer 
of the whole region of barrens and semi- 
barrens. The gyrfalcon, the duck hawk, 
the bald eagle, and the American gos- 



hawk course over the plateau; the osprey 
frequents the waters of the southern 
portion; the kingfisher darts along the 
wooded streams; a number of owls 
short-eared, saw-whet, dusky, horned, 
and American hawk owls prey on the 
small life; and the snowy owl sweeps 
down over the plateau in winter, 
coming from the high-arctic lands to 
the north. 

Insects 

About 300 species of insects are known 
from Labrador. The diptera, many 
circumpolar in distribution, and an 
almost intolerable feature of the short 
Labrador summer, include two species 
of botfly that infest the caribou; deer- 
flies and horseflies of 10 or 12 species of 
which the larvae are aquatic or sub- 
aquatic and of which the adult flies are 
the torment of the larger land life of 
the peninsula; mosquitoes, beyond cred- 
ible enumeration, that rise in cloudlike 
swarms from the moors and tundra 
and hover about the woodlands equally 
densely; the minute midges, that help 
to make human existence during summer 
almost worthless in the woods; and a 
few other species "that do not bite." 

The hymenoptera number less than 
30 species, of which 11 or 12 are leaf- 
eaters or saw-flies; two are ants, con- 
fined to the southernmost wooded 
valleys; two are wasps; and 5 are bum- 
ble bees. The bumblebees are far north- 
ern species. 

One hundred and fifteen species of 
lepidoptera have been listed; 18 butter- 
flies, including 4 small Fritillaries; 
Argynnis atlantis; Papilio turnus; Pon- 
tia napi v. frigida; 4 Eurymus; Eugonia 
j-album; Oeneis norma v. semidea; 
Agriades aquilo; and Lycaena ladon. 
Two species of skippers, Pamphila 
comma and Hesperia centaureae, have 
been collected. Of the moths the 
Arctiidae include 4 species; the Noc- 
tuidae, 40 species; the Geometridae, 20 
species; the Lipariidae one species; 
the Hepialidae, two species; the Pyral- 
idae, 8 species; the Crambidae, 6 species; 
the Tortricidae, 20 species; the Tineidae, 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



111 



10 species; and the Trichoptera (caddis- 
flies) 5 species. 

The Hemiptera include only 4 species; 
the Orthoptera number one. Eight On- 
donata (dragon-flies) have been found in 
Labrador; one Ephemeris, or May-fly; 
3 Plecopterids ; several Thysanura or 
spingtails; and the snow-flea; all these 
have been recorded. Sixty species of 
beetles and 11 spiders have been de- 
scribed from the peninsula. 

fish 

The inland waters of Labrador are well 
stocked with fish. The sturgeon is 
common in many streams; the northern 
sucker and the red sucker are common 
throughout the peninsula in all the lakes 
and streams; the whitefish is everywhere 
abundant; the Atlantic salmon enter 
all the streams opening on the Atlantic 
and Hudson Straits watersheds; the 
Great Lake trout, the brook trout, and 
the pike are found in most of the 
streams; the ling, an important fish 
for the Indians because it will take bait 
freely during the winter months when 
other fish can not be caught and food is 
scarce, is abundant in all the deeper 
lakes. 

The most important fish of the coastal 
salt-water is the cod, which comes to the 
coast to feed on the immense schools 
of caplin that run inshore to feed. The 
cod comes to the Labrador coast about 
June twentieth, and moves northward 
along the coast at the rate of about a 
degree of latitude a week, but from 
August to September they are spread 
along the entire coast. The smaller 
cod begin leaving the coast about the 
first of October, but the larger remain 
until well into November. 

The mackerel left the Labrador coast 
about the middle of the nineteenth 
century and is rarely found there now. 
The herring is again abundant after a 
long period of relative absence. The 
halibut, dab, and rock-cod are common. 
The sleeper shark is abundant in all the 
inlets and near the coast, a scavenger of 
the sea-floor. 

Crustacea of many species frequent 



the Labrador coast. Crabs, lobsters, 
shrimps, amphipods, isopods, copepods, 
and barnacles are numerous. The mol- 
luscan fauna is distinctly Arctic, largely 
of circumpolar species, both lacustrine 
and littoral. Land molluscs are rare. 
The plankton life, seasonally, is ex- 
ceedingly rich. 

CONCLUSION 

The Labrador is relatively unexplored. 
It offers one of the most promising 
fields for the explorer and the pioneer 
naturalist. The coast may be readily 
visited during the summer months by 
mail-steamers from St. Johns and by 
fishing vessels from Gloucester, Pro- 
vincetown, and the Atlantic coastal 
fishing towns, where the cod-fleets 
have their bases. The interior may be 
traversed only by well-organized and 
well-equipped expeditions with expe- 
rienced guides and leaders. 

5. NEWFOUNDLAND 
BY W. ELMER EKBLAW 

INTRODUCTION 

Newfoundland, an island of some 
42,000 sq. mi. off the mouth of the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence, lies between the parallels 
of 46 36' 50" and 51 39' north latitude, 
and between the meridians 53 37' and 
59 24' 50" west longitude. It forms 
an equilateral triangle, the distances 
between Cape Bauld at the north angle, 
Cape Spear at the southeast angle, and 
Cape Ray at the southwest angle, being 
each approximately 320 mi. 

GEOLOGY 

Except for a belt composed of the 
highest portion of the Long Range 
Hills, the entire island has been glac- 
iated. Possibly two-thirds of the area 
is occupied by Laurentian granites and 
gneisses, with considerable tracts of 
serpentine; Huronian gneisses and 
schists predominate in the eastern 
portion; considerable belts of Carboni- 
ferous sandstones and shales and scat- 
tered tracts of Silurian and Devonian 



112 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



limestones are found along the western 
coast and in a few places over the pla- 
teau. The distribution of the soils 
resulting from the disintegration of 
these different rocks influences to a 
considerable degree the flora and vege- 
tation of the island. 

PHYSIOGRAPHY 

Outline 

The northwest coast of the island, 
paralleling the fold known as the Long 
Range, is fairly regular; the south coast 
is much more broken by bays and fjords, 
particularly toward the east end; and the 
northeast coast is exceedingly broken 
and irregular throughout its entire 
extent, like the west coast of Norway, 
or Greenland. These bays and fjords 
occupy the valleys and lowlands of a 
peninsular continuation of the eastern 
Canadian coast prior to the post-glacial 
submergence which left Newfoundland 
an island. Numerous islets and islands 
occupy the bays and gulfs. Avalon 
Peninsula, almost detached from the 
main island by Trinity Bay and Pla- 
centia Bay, is connected only by a 
narrow isthmus. 

Relief 

The relief, like the shore line, is an 
expression of the geologic structure of 
the terrain, the ridges and valleys 
paralleling the direction of the folds, 
N.N.E. to S.S.W. Seen from the sea, 
the coast rises steep, 200 to 300 ft. or 
even more, like a broad rocky wall, 
bleak and apparently barren, to a 
plateau dissected to form a rugged 
hilly landscape. 

Back of this dissected coastal belt, 
the plateau is extensive and undulating, 
with parallel ranges of hills and moun- 
tains, of which the Long Range along 
the west coast, with heights of 2000 ft. 
or more, is the most important. Avalon 
peninsula is rather rugged and rough, 
but the highest hills here are not over 
1200 ft. in height. Throughout the 
region of the interior rolling plateau, 



scattered sharp peaks called "tolts," 
serve to identify the various localities 
of the island. 

Drainage 

Consequent upon the disturbance of 
the original drainage system by the 
general glaciation of the area, New- 
foundland is characterized by innu- 
merable lakes, pools, ponds, and 
marshes, of such extent that one-third 
the island is thus occupied by small 
bodies of water, lying along the flood 
plains of the streams, in hollows along 
the slopes of the valleys, in depressions 
between the moraines and ridges, and 
even in hollows in the tops of the hills. 

Three rivers of considerable size 
the Humber running west into the Bay 
of Islands; and the Gander and Exploits 
running northeast into the Hamilton 
Sound and Notre Dame Bay respec- 
tively and a number of smaller streams 
drain the island; but because of nu- 
merous falls and rapids, and shallow 
riffles they are unnavigable except for 
canoes. Extensive bogs occupy much 
of the valley areas and the plateau 
slopes and levels. 

CLIMATE 

The climate of Newfoundland does 
not merit designation as an oceanic 
climate, but it is so modified by the 
waters bathing its shores that it is 
distinctly more equable and uniform 
than that of the neighboring mainland. 
The temperature rarely falls below 
zero even in mid-winter, and rarely rises 
above 80 in summer. The mean tem- 
perature for the year, except in the 
extreme northern portion where it is 
lower, is from 40 to 45. The average 
precipitation, about evenly divided 
between rain and snow, is less than 
60 in. 

The average barometer is 29.37 in. 
The storms are mildly cyclonic, with 
winds varying with the seasons in 
general direction and velocity. Winter 
sets in late in November and continues 
until mid-April. During this period 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



113 



a general covering of snow keeps the 
frost from penetrating deep. The first 
frosts are rather early in places as 
early as mid-August and spring is 
often tardy, particularly when the ice- 
floes and ice-bergs have accumulated 
unduly off the coast. July in New- 
foundland is like May in New York. 

The north, east, and south coasts are 
chilly and damp and foggy, because of 
the meeting of the cold Greenland- 
Labrador current with the warm air 
and water of the Gulf stream. There 
where the warm, moisture-laden air 
off the Gulf stream encounters the 
chill air off the cold waters of the Green- 
land current, with its fleets of floes and 
bergs, the vapor is condensed into 
clouds and fogs and mists that charac- 
terize the region. The interior and the 
west coast, however, have a pleasant, 
relatively mild and equable climate, 
generally clear and invigorating. 

BIOTA 

Plant life 

The vegetation of the island varies 
with the topography of the soil, and the 
drainage. The greater part of the 
island has been heavily forested, the 
dominant type of forest being coni- 
ferous, with interspersed areas of decid- 
uous woods but great tracts have 
been destroyed by fire. 

The white pine, once abundant over 
the island, has been almost all cut, 
surviving only in isolated groves where 
it has been intentionally preserved, or 
in small tracts remote or difficult of 
access. The most abundant coniferous 
tree is black spruce, though the balsam 
fir or spruce is also common; the tama- 
rack is abundant in the bog or tundra; 
and white spruce and cedar (low-growing 
juniper) are widely distributed. Arbor- 
vitae, rather common in New Brunswick 
and Nova Scotia, is absent. 

Scattered about among the coniferous 
woods are large tracts of rather pure 
growths of deciduous trees, balsam, 
poplar, aspen, white and red maple, 
birch, elm, mountain ash, alder and a 



few others. In places, particularly on 
the burned tracts, these are also scat- 
tered promiscuously among the new 
stands of coniferous trees. 

As a rule the forests are found in belts 
from two to 10 mi. wide along the 
streams and about the shores of the 
lakes. The most extensive areas of 
timber left standing are in the basins 
of the Exploits, Gander, and Humber 
Rivers. It is estimated that the acreage 
of marketable timber left standing in 
Newfoundland is 6,500,000, of which no 
small portion is well established second 
growth on cut-over or fire-swept areas. 

The forests rarely extend above the 
1000 ft. elevation and generally cease 
considerably lower. The crests and the 
rolling tops of the hills are bare of trees, 
in many places quite destitute of vegeta- 
tion the so-called barrens; in others, 
where the soil and moisture are more 
favorable the barrens are covered with 
scrub willow, alder, and birch and low 
evergreens. Thus from east to west, 
Newfoundland is a succession of parallel 
barren ridges, and forested valleys. 

On the plateaus and in the valleys 
where the drainage is incomplete, lie 
extensive bogs; some of them are for- 
ested with black spruce, tamarack, 
willow, and alder as dominant trees, 
and Labrador tea, dwarf birch, an- 
dromeda, kalmia and other low shrubs 
forming a rather dense undergrowth on 
the wet floor of sphagnum, sedge, and 
cotton grass; others are shrubby; but 
many of them are open, grassy, and 
sedgy moors, with a wealth of flowering 
plants and ferns. 

The vascular plants of Newfoundland 
are many and varied, comprising over 
1000 species, some of general distribu- 
tion, others confined to certain limited 
types of soil, or physiographic divisions. 
Berry-bearing plants Rubus, V actinium 
Empetrum, and Viburnum are numer- 
ous. Flowering plants, both shrubs, 
and herbs, and ferns grow in profusion, 
except in the driest, windswept portions 
of the barrens. Grasses, sedges and 
mosses carpet the wet open places. 
Reindeer moss (Cladonia) clothes the 



114 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



rockier slopes and crests, particularly 
in the northwest part. 

The flora seems to possess definite 
affinity with the sub-alpine life of 
Labrador, and with the flora of New 
England and New Jersey, but forms 
related to those of New Brunswick, 
Quebec, and Nova Scotia, are rela- 
tively few, probably due to a barrier of 
unfavorable soils prior to the post- 
glacial submergence of the connecting 
lands. 

Animal life 

The most important feature of the 
fauna of Newfoundland is the woodland 
caribou, which migrates in March from 
the valleys and the more wooded por- 
tions of the southern half of the island, 
to the Cladonia-covered barrens of the 
northwest, there to bear rts young in 
May and June, and to browse through 
the summer until the first heavy frosts 
of October, when it again moves south- 
ward. The large herds of this animal 
thus moving annually back and forth 
over the island are the dominant feature 
in the animal life of the land, as the cod 
is of the sea. 

The gray wolf (Cam's ly'caori), now 
very scarce, and the black bear (Ursus 
americanus group), frequent the interior. 
The red fox and its variants are common. 
Beaver, otter, weasel, arctic hare, musk- 
rat and bats abound. No reptiles are 
indigenous. Frogs have been intro- 
duced and thrive well. The moose and 
porcupine of the neighboring Canadian 
coast are absent. Salmon and trout, 
but no pike or pickerel, or other pre- 
daceous fish, are found in the inland 
streams or lakes. 

Bird life, both on land and sea, is rich 
and varied. Over 300 species have been 
recorded eagles, hawks, owls, wood- 
peckers, swallows, king fishers, fly 
catchers, thrushes, warblers, ravens, 
jays, sparrows, and others inland; 
golden plover, sandpipers, curlews and 
other shore-birds, but no woodcock; 
ducks, geese, loons, coot and others 
frequent the many lakes and the coast; 
dovekies, gannets, gulls, guillemots, 



puffins, murres, and razorbill auks 
are abundant in the waters that wash 
the shore; on the lower lands the willow 
ptarmigan is one of the most distinctive 
birds and on the uplands, the rock 
ptarmigan. The great auk once fre- 
quented the shores and the outlying 
islands but has been extinct these many 
years. 

Insect life is abundant. Mosquitoes 
and deerflies are apparently omnipresent 
throughout much of the summer. Gay 
butterflies flit over the open vales and 
barrens; moths of many species frequent 
both open and woodland. 

And in the sea adjacent to Newfound- 
land, particularly on the Grand Banks 
to the south and southeast, the aquatic 
fauna is one of the richest in the world. 
In this meeting ground of the Green- 
land current with the Gulf Stream, both 
bearing heavy loads of pelagic algae 
and other minute forms, sea life is most 
abundant. Echinoderms, molluscs, an- 
nelids, and coelenterates innumerable, 
feed upon this rich plankton growth, 
and in turn yield sustenance to the fish 
and larger forms. 

About the first of June the caplin, 
a small fish, appears on the banks in 
incredible millions, and preying upon 
them appear the cod. When the caplin 
disappear, the squid comes to take its 
place as cod-food, and when the squid 
leaves the herring appear, thus furnish- 
ing the cod with an abundance of food 
until mid-October, when it too leaves. 
Lobsters are abundant in the off-shore 
waters. Mackerel once frequented the 
coast in large numbers but disappeared 
about the middle of the nineteenth 
century, and have not returned. 

In spring thousands of harp and a few 
hooded seal float south from the Arctic 
regions on pan-ice borne by the Green- 
land Current, to bear their young on the 
floes. They are killed by hundreds of 
thousands, both young and old, during 
the month of April. Hundreds of whales 
are also killed annually, many of them 
sulphur-bottoms, finbacks, and hump- 
backs. The white whale, or beluga, 
one of the porpoises, is occasionally 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



115 



common. The narwhal once abundant 
along the coast is now disappearing. 
The killer whale is abundant, as are the 
grampus and porpoise. 

ROUTES OF TRAVEL 

Newfoundland is readily accessible 
as a field for study, either by the Inter- 
Colonial Railway or by steamers from 
America and Europe. The island itself 
is difficult of traverse, particularly 
toward the northwest, because of the 
bogs, rocky hills, and barrens, without 
roads or even trails. The rivers are 
navigable only by canoes. Most parts 
of the island are accessible only by boat 
from the sea; the southern half may be 
studied fairly well from the main railway 
and the spurs built out from it. Mos- 
quitoes and deerflies are so annoying 
as to hinder field work and special pre- 
cautions for comfort and relief are 
necessary. 

6. THE MACKENZIE WATERSHED; 
NORTHERN HUDSON BAY REGION, 
UPPER YUKON REGION, AND THE 
ARCTIC ISLANDS 

BY EDWARD A. PREBLE 

I. GENERAL CONDITIONS 

1. General topography of the entire region 
The region treated in the present 
sketch includes a vast area in the north- 
ern interior of North America, between 
latitude 50 and 78 N., and extending 
from longitude 85 west to 115 at the 
south, and from 80 west to 141 at the 
north. The Arctic Ocean washes its 
northern shores and islands; Hudson 
Bay marks its eastern limit, and its 
western border includes the headwaters 
of streams which enter the Pacific from 
middle British Columbia to Bering Sea. 
Its physiography is very much varied. 
At the south grassy plains, interspersed 
with small patches and tongues of forest, 
are succeeded as one goes northward by 
a forest that is almost unbroken save 
by the rivers and the lakes, which are 
numerous and sometimes very large. 
Because of differences in geology, the 



lakes are more numerous in the eastern 
portion. North of the great forest lies 
a large area which for climatic reasons is 
treeless, but still has a rich and varied 
flora. The southern and eastern parts 
of the region are rolling, with only a few 
hilly areas. At the extreme northwest, 
however, it includes the northern part 
of the Rocky Mountain chain, here lower 
than farther south, and its foothill 
ranges. These are forested on their 
lower slopes but hold large alpine areas, 
the flora and fauna of which have close 
affinities with the treeless Arctic. 

North and northeast of the continen- 
tal portion of the region, above briefly 
described, lies the Arctic Archipelago, 
including a number of large islands 
similar in topography, flora, and fauna 
to the treeless part of the mainland. 

The region is exceptionally well- 
watered, mainly by the great Mackenzie, 
which ranks second in size of basin, and 
third in actual volume, among North 
American rivers. Northwestwardly, the 
region includes areas watered by streams 
which enter the Pacific Ocean and Bering 
Sea, this lying, of course, west of the 
Continental divide. 

For transportation, the naturalist 
must depend largely on boats of some 
kind, supplemented by dog sled if it is 
desired to enter the region before the 
opening of navigation, or if the freeze- 
up should overtake him en route. To 
reach the northward flowing streams 
several rail routes are possible. For 
most direct access to the lower Atha- 
baska and the Mackenzie, the Alberta 
and Great Waterways Railway, running 
north-northeastward from Edmonton, 
Alberta, takes one to navigable water 
on the lower Clearwater. From here 
steamboat travel, interrupted only at 
one point, the 16-mi. Smith portage, is 
afforded to the mouth of the Mackenzie. 
From many points on this 1500-mi. 
route a great number of canoe routes 
lead to all parts of the immense region 
now treated, to thousands of lakes, 
streams, and mountains unknown ex- 
cept to the wandering native. Alter- 
native railroad lines leading to the north 



116 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



are the Athabaska Landing branch of the 
Canadian Northern, running 100 mi. 
northward from Edmonton, and the E. 
D. and B. C. railway running to Peace 
River by way of Lesser Slave Lake. 
The latter line affords access to the 
Mackenzie by way of the lower Peace 
and Slave River, or to the upper tribu- 
taries of Peace River, in the interior of 
northern British Columbia. Another 
route to the latter section is by canoe 
northward from various points on the 
Canadian National railway, which 
crosses central British Columbia from 
the head of Fraser River to the Pacific 
in about latitude 54. 

2. Climate of entire region 

The climate of a region of such magni- 
tude as the one under discussion is so 
varied that it seems best to take up this 
subject in the account of the various 
areas. In general it may be said that 
the winters are long and cold, and the 
summers short and comparatively warm. 
There is a very wide yearly range of 
temperature especially over the Conti- 
nental portion of the region, the greatly 
increased number of hours of sunlight 
enjoyed in summers in high latitudes 
making up in a measure for the increase 
in latitude. This enables the smaller 
shrubs and other plants to complete 
their reproductive processes within a 
comparatively short time. 

8. Original biotic divisions 

A. Poplar forest and savanna of south- 
ern portion (Canadian Zone). This 
division occupies most of a broad strip 
extending north-northwestward from 
Edmonton, passing west of Athabaska 
(on the river), thence, including the 
basin of Lesser Slave Lake, on to Peace 
River, northward down its valley on 
either side, and northward nearly to 
Great Slave Lake. In a modified form, 
it stretches westward to include much 
of the Peace River valley, in northeast- 
ern British Columbia. 

This is the region of transition from 
the grassy and treeless Great Plains to 



the great northern Forest. Its principal 
tree is the aspen poplar (Populus tremu- 
loides) which forms groves of greater 
or lesser extent on the slopes of the rol- 
ling hills. In low areas where the 
drainage is imperfect, mossy swamps or 
muskegs where the black spruce (Picea 
mariana} is dominant are frequent. 
Farther north these become more 
numerous and become a dominant 
feature. 

Originally this area was the habitat 
of the bison (Bison b. athabascae) and 
the elk (Cervus canadensis), but the 
latter is long since extirpated here, and 
the bison remains only in small numbers 
near its northern part. Other mammals 
presumably here were the moose (Alces 
americanus), Franklin ground squirrel 
(Citellus franklinii), thirteen-lined 
ground-squirrel (C. tridecemlineatus) 
(these two not north of Athabaska 
River), Saskatchewan pocket-gopher 
(Thomomys talpoides) (southerly), nor- 
thern plains skunk (Mephitis hudsonica), 
and several mice and voles. Birds are 
numerous; a few notable breeders in- 
clude the sharp-tailed grouse, upland 
plover, and the western solitary sand- 
piper. 

The only reptile, the northern garter 
snake (Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis), 
which enters any part of the region is 
confined mainly to the savannas of this 
subdivision. Scarcely less strictly con- 
fined to it are the western toad (Bufo 
lentiginosus woodhousei), and the leopard 
frog (Rana pipiens). The northern 
wood frog (Rana cantabrigensis latire- 
mis) and the northern chorophilus (Cho- 
rophilus septentrionalis) also are found 
in it, but extend their ranges far be- 
yond to the limit of trees. 

B. Transcontinental coniferous area. 
1. Southern heavy timber (Canadian 
Zone): Covering most of the region 
under discussion is the great transcon- 
tinental conifer forest. Its principal 
trees are the white and black spruces 
(Picea alba and P. mariana), whose 
ranges are coextensive with its limits, 
and the canoe birch (Betula papyrifera), 
tamarack (Larix laricina), aspen and 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



117 



balsam poplars (Populus tremuloides 
and P. balsamifera), Banksian pine 
(Pinus divaricata) (replaced in British 
Columbia and Yukon by lodge-pole 
pine (Pinus contorta)), and balsam fir 
(Abies balsamea), which are common in 
the southern part of the belt, and which 
terminate, counting from the north, 
in about the order given. With these 
are associated, generally in the form of 
undergrowth, a variety of shrubs, some 
of which, also, have a continuous dis- 
tribution through the forest zone, while 
others are more or less restricted in 
range. Some of the more conspicuous 
of these are the following: creeping 
juniper (Juniperus sabina), low juniper 
(J. nana), a large variety of willows 
(Salix), one (S. bebbiana) attaining the 
dignity of a tree, but most being creeping 
shrubs or low bushes, sweet gale (Myrica 
gale), two hazels (Corylus americana 
and C. rostrata) (southerly), dwarf 
birches (Betula glandulosa and B. nana), 
alders (Alnus), several currants and 
gooseberies (Ribes), red raspberry (Rubus 
strigosus), shrubby cinquefoil (Dasi- 
phora fruticosa), wild rose (Rosa acicu- 
laris), service berry (Amelanchier alni- 
folia), cherries (Prunus pennsylvanica 
and P. virginiana) crowberry (Empet- 
rum nigrum), silverberry (Elaeagnus 
argentea) buffalo berry (Lepargyrea 
canadensis), dwarf cornel (Cornus cana- 
densis), red-osier cornel (Cornus stolo- 
nifera), Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandi- 
cum), swamp laurel (Kalmia glauca), 
wild rosemary (Andromeda polifolia), 
leatherleaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata), 
red bearberry (Arctostaphylos uvaursi), 
mountain cranberry (Vitisidaea vitisi- 
daea), small cranberry (Oxy coccus oxy- 
coccus), bog blueberry (Vaccinium uligi- 
nosum), cranberry tree (Vivurnum 
americanuni) (southerly), few-flowered 
viburnum (V. pauciflorum), and 
snowberry (Symphoricarpos racemosus) 
(southerly). With these are associated 
a great variety of herbaceous plants, 
many of which bear flowers of great 
beauty, a number of ferns, and a great 
variety of mosses and lichens. 
The more common and characteristic 



mammals of the great forest include 
the following: 1 

Eastern moose (Alces americanus} 
Eastern woodland caribou (Rangifer 

caribou) 

Wood bison (Bison bison athabascae) 
Canadian woodchuck (Marmota monax 

canadensis) 
Liard River chipmunk (Eutamias 

borealis) 
Hudson Bay red squirrel (Sciurus hud- 

sonicus) 
Hudson Bay flying squirrel (Glaucomys 

sabrinus) 
Arctic white-footed mouse (Peromyscus 

m. borealis) 
Mackenzie phenacomys (Phenacomys 

mackenzii) 
Athabaska red-backed mouse (Evotomys 

gapperi athabascae) 
Northern lemming vole (Synaptomys 

borealis) 

Drummond vole (Microtus drummondi) 
Chestnut-cheeked vole (Microtus xan- 

thognathus) 
Northwest muskrat (Fiber zibethicus 

spatulatus) 

Canadian beaver (Castor canadensis) 
Hudson Bay jumping mouse (Zapus 

hudsonius) 

Canada porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) 
Hudson Bay snowshoe hare (Lepus 

americanus) 

Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) 
Gray wolf (Canis occidentalis) 
British Columbia red fox (Vulpes 

alascensis abietorum) 
Black bear (Ursus americanus) 
Canadian otter (Lutra canadensis) 
Western mink (Lutreola vison energu- 

menos) 
Richardson weasel (Mustela cicognanii 

richardsoni) 

Least weasel (Mustela rixosa) 
Alaska marten (Martes americana ac- 

tuosa) 

Fisher (Martes pennantii) 
Hudson Bay wolverene (Gulo luscus) 
Common eastern shrew (Sorex per- 

sonatus) 

Richardson shrew (Sorex richardsoni) 
Marsh shrew (Neosorex palustris) 
Alaska microsores (Microsorex eximius) 
Little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) 
Hoary bat (Nycteris cinereus) 

Among birds the following may be 
noted: 

Horned grebe 
Loon 

1 These lists do not include certain West Coast 
and Rocky Mountain species occurring in British 
Columbia and Yukon, and which are listed under 
those subdivisions. 



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NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



Pacific loon 

Herring gull 

California gull 

Short-billed gull 

Bonaparte gull 

Common tern 

American merganser 

Mallard 

Baldpate 

Green-winged teal 

Pintail 

Lesser scaup duck 

Ring-necked duck 

American golden-eye 

Bufflehead 

Canada goose 

Little brown crane 

Sora rail 

Yellow rail 

American coot 

Wilson snipe 

Greater yellowlegs 

Yellowlegs 

Western solitary sandpiper 

Spotted sandpiper 

Hudsonian spruce grouse 

Gray ruffed grouse 

Sharp-tailed grouse 

Marsh hawk 

Sharp-skinned hawk 

Goshawk 

Western red-tailed hawk 

Golden eagle 

Bald eagle 

Duck hawk 

Pigeon hawk 

American sparrow hawk 

American osprey 

Long-eared owl 

Short-eared owl 

Great gray owl 

Richardson owl 

Arctic horned owl 

American hawk owl 

Belted kingfisher 

Northern hairy woodpecker 

Nelson downy woodpecker 

Arctic three-toed*woodpecker 

Banded-backed three-toed woodpecker 

Yellow-bellied sapsucker 

Northern flicker 

Nighthawk 

Kingbird 

Phoebe 

Olive-sided flycatcher 

Western wood pewee 

Alder flycatcher 

Least flycatcher 

Canada jay 

Northern raven 

Crow 

Cowbird 

Northern redwing 

Rusty blackbird 

Bronzed grackle 

Eastern pine grosbeak 



White-winged crossbill 
Redpoll 

Western Savanna sparrow 
Intermediate sparrow 
White-throated sparrow 
Western chipping sparrow 
Slate-colored junco 
Lincoln sparrow 
Swamp sparrow 
Fox sparrow 
Louisiana tanager 
Cliff swallow 
Tree swallow 
Bank swallow 
Bohemian waxwing 
Northern shrike 
Red-eyed vireo 
Western warbling viree 
Blue-headed vireo 
Black and white warbler 
Orange-crowned warbler 
Tennessee warbler 
Yellow warbler 
Myrtle warbler 
Magnolia warbler 
Bay-breasted warbler 
Black-poll warbler 
Palm warbler 
Ovenbird 

Grinnell water-thrush 
Wilson warbler 
Redstart 

Red-breasted nuthatch 
Long-tailed chickadee 
Hudsonian chickadee 
Golden-crowned kinglet 
Ruby-crowned kinglet 
Olive-backed thrush 
Eastern hermit thrush 
Robin 

2. Northern stunted timber (Hudso- 
nian Zone) : Included in the great coni- 
ferous forest and bordered on the north 
by the Barren Grounds, there is a strip 
of country from 100 to 200 mi. wide, 
which is covered by forest somewhat 
stunted and dwarfed (Hudsonian Zone). 
In some places, where areas of fertile 
soil, usually the valleys of northward- 
flowing rivers, impinge closely on more 
exposed areas of rocky ground, the tran- 
sition from one type to another is well- 
marked, while in others the change is 
more gradual. 

In the Mackenzie region this belt has 
no strictly characteristic mammals, 
though the range of a red-backed vole 
(Evotomys dawsoni) is practically con- 
fined within its limits. Most of the 
woodland mammals necessarily have 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



119 



their northern limit within it. Such 
comprise the following: Rangifer cari- 
bou, Alces, Sciuropterus, Sciurus, Castor, 
Evotomys, Fiber, Erethizon, Lepus ameri- 
canus, Lynx, Lutra, Lutreola, Mustela, 
and others. Among birds, the pigeon 
hawk, great gray owl, hawk owl, pine 
grosbeak, Harris sparrow, tree sparrow 
and gray-cheeked thrush breed princi- 
pally within it. Its trees are not pecu- 
liar, though the Banksian pine (Pinus 
divaricata) and balsam poplar (Populus 
balsamifera) barely enter its borders. 
Its shrubs are mainly species that over- 
lap from the adjoining zones. Among 
those which seem to reach their greatest 
perfection in the belt of stunted trees 
may be mentioned Empetrum nigrum, 
Ledum palustre, Vaccinium uliginosum, 
Vitisidaea vitisidaea, Oxycoccus oxycoc- 
cus, Arctous alpina, and Betula nana. 

On the southwest shores of Hudson 
Bay this zone occupies a strip about 200 
mi. in width. Thence its southern 
boundary extends inland, passing 
through Athabaska Lake, and then 
bending northward crosses Great Slave 
Lake just east of the mouth of Slave 
River. Practically all of the northern 
shore of Great Slave Lake lies within 
its limits. Beyond here its lower boun- 
dary is very uncertain. It is bounded 
by a strip of well wooded country, 
probably only a few miles in width, 
extending northward along the Macken- 
zie. This southern influence ceases .to 
be effective near the mouth of Bear 
River, and the southern limit of the 
zone may be considered to cross the 
Mackenzie near latitude 65. Thence 
it bends southward, following the west- 
ern border of the Canadian strip. Here, 
as on the eastern side, the position of 
the boundary is unknown, but because 
of the great altitude of most of the 
country west of the Mackenzie and north 
of the Liard the southern heavy timber 
(Canadian Zone) can not extend far 
from the river and the stunted timber 
(Hudsonian) must cover nearly the 
entire area, exclusive of the alpine sum- 
mits of the mountains. A large area 
to the south of the Liard, including most 



of the country drained by its southern 
tributaries, and practically all the 
country about its headwaters in north- 
eastern British Columbia and south- 
eastern Yukon below the timberline, 
are also in this class. The latter area 
will be considered more fully later. 

C. Barren grounds (Arctic Zone}. 
North of the Trans-continental Forest 
lies an immense area usually called the 
Barren Grounds, from its treeless con- 
dition, which results from a summer so 
short that reproduction can not be 
effected. This condition, however, does 
not prevent the perpetuation of many 
species of shrubby and herbaceous plants 
and a rich insect fauna, which together 
support a great variety of vertebrate 
life. 

Shrubby plants are common, Rhodo- 
dendron lapponicum, Cassiope tetragona, 
Dryas integrifolia, and several dwarf 
willows being perhaps the most charac- 
teristic. Many other less strictly rep- 
resentative plants also are abundant. 
The area is further characterized by the 
presence of certain mammals, as the 
lemmings of the genera Lemmus and 
Dicrostonyx, the Arctic fox (Alopex 
lagopus innuitus), musk-ox (Ovibos mo- 
schatus), Barren Ground caribou (Ran- 
gifer arcticus), and Arctic hare (Lepus 
arcticus canus). Most of the birds 
which characterize this area are mi- 
gratory, spending only the breeding 
season within its boundaries. They 
comprise, among the Anatidae, the 
various species of the genus Chen, the 
brent geese, and one or two genera of 
maritime ducks; and among the Limi- 
colae, the genera Lobipes, Phalaropus, 
Macrorhamphus, Pisobia and related 
genera, Crocethia, Tryngites, Numenius 
(hudsonicus and borealis), Squatarola, 
Pluvialis and Arenaria. The Gallinae 
are represented by willow and rock 
ptarmigans, the Raptores by the gyr- 
falcons, and the Passeres by the Snow- 
flakes, Lapland and painted longspurs 
and the pipits. 

D. Local conditions. 1. The larger 
rivers, the Athabaska, Peace, Slave, 
Mackenzie, and Liard, have a moder- 



120 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



ately swift current and are usually 
muddy, especially in spring and at times 
of high water, when the clay banks are 
cut down by the flood. Their courses 
are characterized by a series of long 
alternating curves, with cut banks on 
the concave sides, and gravel bars 
opposite. Spruce trees usually line 
the high banks, and willows, alders and 
poplars the lower younger shores. 
Many islands usually wooded, occur. 

2. Lakes are numerous especially in 
the area of primitive rocks, and are of 
course bordered by rocky and sandy 
shores, and contain many islands. 
The principal ones form a more or less 
connected system, part of a series 
extending from Lake Superior to the 
Arctic Sea. These lie along the junction 
of the primitive or granitic and the 
newer limestone formations, usually 
heading in the primitive belt and out- 
letting in the limestone district. They 
are of irregular shape, usually sending 
long arms eastward into the primitive 
formation and north and south along 
the junction of the two systems, though 
in some cases the southern arms have 
been filled by the sediment-bearing 
streams which enter them. In addition 
to the large lakes thousands of smaller 
ones are scattered over the entire region. 

3. Marshes are numerous and in 
several cases very extensive. The more 
important of these will receive detailed 
attention in the proper places. 

4. Fire-swept areas are all too com- 
mon. In the case of coniferous woods, 
a growth of deciduous woods usually 
succeeds. 

II. PRESENT BIOTA 

Apart from the general reduction in 
numbers of the game and fur bearing 
animals, and the game birds, due to 
partial settlement, the changes in the 
fauna of the wooded parts of the region 
are mainly chargeable to fire, which has 
profoundly changed large areas. Some 
sections have been reburned, sometimes 
repeatedly, and in such the forest cover- 
ing may be entirely destroyed, and 
grassy prairie may succeed. Coniferous 



areas which are burned usually change 
to the deciduous type, and this change 
in type of forest is of course accompanied 
by the ingression of certain birds and 
mammals which were originally absent. 
The most conspicuous mammalian ex- 
amples are the mule deer (Odocoileus 
hemionus}, which, within the past 
century, has extended its range north- 
ward for several hundred miles. The 
coyote also (Cam's latrans), aided per- 
haps by partial settlement within its 
former habitat, has effected an extension 
of its range even more notable. Among 
birds, it is certain that the rose-breasted 
grosbeak (Hedymeles ludoviciana) , has 
traveled northwestward upwards of 500 
mi., and there is reason to suspect that 
several other species of small birds 
have entered the region of the lower 
Athabaska within historic times. This 
ingression, probably caused in part at 
least, by the changes referred to, has 
not been accompanied by the loss of 
any species excepting the elk (Cervus 
canadensis), although many mammals, 
notably the larger game animals and 
especially the fur-bearers, have suffered 
great reduction in numbers, and two 
others, the northern bison (Bison b. 
athabascae} , and the musk-ox (Ovibos 
moschatus}, have had their ranges 
greatly reduced. These reductions and 
losses, however, it should be emphasized, 
can not be charged to changes in the 
character of the forest cover, but are 
rather in line with the usual reduction 
of the large animals which follow partial 
settlement and the exploitation of the 
natural resources of a region. 

Along the Arctic coast of Alaska and 
Canada, the presence of whaling and 
trading ships has resulted in great 
diminution of the game animals. Since 
about 1896, when the whalers begun to 
winter at Herschel Island and Baillie 
Island, and a few years later at Langton 
Bay and in Coronation Gulf, the effect 
has been serious. These vessels depend 
largely on the game resources of the 
country for subsistence, hiring the 
natives as hunters. This has resulted 
in the practical extermination of the 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



121 



caribou along the entire coast of north- 
ern Alaska and Yukon, and great reduc- 
tion in their numbers east to the region 
of the Coppermine. During the same 
period the musk-ox has been extirpated 
from most of its former range from Coro- 
nation Gulf westward. 

III. NATURAL DRAINAGE AREAS AND 
PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS 

1. The Mackenzie and Upper Yukon 
Basins 

In any description of northern North 
America from the standpoint of the 
traveler one must be guided in his 
method of treatment by its waterways, 
which now, and which probably will for 
many years to come, afford almost the 
only means available for visiting its most 
interesting sections. Thus considered, 
the valley of the Mackenzie is by far 
the largest and most important of the 
natural divisions. Broadened to in- 
clude certain areas not actually drained 
by this great river system, but which can 
most readily be reached by its help, it 
comprises a vast region in the northern 
part of Canada, with an area of nearly 
700,000 sq. mi., bounded roughly as 
follows: On the north by the Arctic 
Ocean; on the east by the valleys of the 
Great Fish, Thelon, Telzoa, and 
Churchill rivers; on the south by the 
Churchill and Saskatchewan valleys; 
and on the west by the main range of 
the Rocky Mountains. 

For convenience of reference the 
Mackenzie basin may be divided into 
several areas: The Athabaska Valley; 
the basin of Athabaska Lake; the Peace 
River Valley, including the Slave; the 
basin of Great Slave Lake; the Macken- 
zie Valley proper; the basin of Great 
Bear Lake; the region to the north of 
that body of water, and drained *by the 
Anderson and smaller rivers which enter 
the Arctic Ocean, and the Liard River 
Valley. The areas will be considered in 
the order given. These accounts will 
be followed by a description of north- 
eastern British Columbia and Yukon, 
comprising the drainage areas of the 



Upper Liard and Yukon rivers, and of 
the Stikine and other rivers which reach 
the Pacific in middle British Columbia. 

A. The Athabaska Valley. The Atha- 
baska River rises in the Rocky Moun- 
tains near Mount Brown, at an altitude 
of about 5700 ft., and pursues a north- 
easterly and northerly course for nearly 
600 mi. to Athabaska Lake, falling in this 
distance some 5000 ft., and being in- 
terrupted by several series of rapids. 
In the first 300 mi. of its course it falls 
about 4000 ft., and receives in succession 
Baptiste River from the west, the Mc- 
Leod and Pembina from the south, and 
the Lesser Slave from the west. Below 
its confluence with the last-named stream 
the Athabaska turns southeastward for 
some 50 mi. and then resumes its north- 
erly course. In the course of the next 150 
mi. it receives in succession La Biche 
River, Quito or Calling River; Big 
Mouth Brook; Pelican River; and House 
River. Just below the mouth of the last 
river the Athabaska strikes a range of 
low hills, and in forcing a passage 
through them is deflected eastward, and 
for a distance of about 75 mi. contains 
many rapids, falling in this distance 
some 400 ft. At the lower end of this 
stretch it receives the waters of Clear- 
water River, its principal tributary below 
Lesser Slave River. The Clearwater 
rises on the height of land between 
the Churchill and the Athabaska, and 
30 or 40 mi. above its mouth it is joined 
by the Pembina, a stream of about equal 
volume. 

The country drained by the Athabaska 
is mainly a rolling plain, and with the 
exception of a few areas of semiprairie 
land is well wooded with a forest com- 
posed mainly of spruce, fir, pine, tama- 
rack, poplar, birch, and willow. A large 
part of its surface is occupied by mossy 
swamps, called muskegs, and hundreds 
of lakes, of which Lesser Slave, 70 mi. 
in length is by far the largest, occupy its 
shallow valleys. 

The country lying between the Atha- 
baska and Peace rivers, and drained in 
part by the latter stream, may be best 
characterized by quoting in part the 



122 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



account by McConnell, who examined it 
in the summer of 1889 : 

The country between the Peace and 
Athabasca rivers north of Lesser Slave 
Lake, comprising an area of about 
44,000 sq. mi., . . . may be de- 
scribed as a gently undulating wooded 
plain, diversified with numerous shallow 
lakes, muskegs and marshes. Small 

Erairie patches, manifestly due to forest 
res, occur north of the west end of 
Lesser Slave Lake, at several points 
along the Loon and Wabiscaw rivers, 
. . . but their total area is relatively 
insignificant. 

The rolling plains between Peace 
River and the Athabasca are relieved 
by several high ridges or plateaus, all 
of which owe their origin to a differential 
denudation of the soft rocks on which 
the plains are based. Of these Marten 
Mountain is situated northeast of Lesser 
Slave Lake, above which it rises to the 
height of about 1000 ft. The Buffalo 
Head Hills commence abruptly about 
50 mi. above the mouth of the Loon 
River, with an elevation of about 2500 
ft. above the Sea, and running in a 
south-southwesterly direction die away 
opposite the mouth of Battle River, 
while Birch Mountain extends for nearly 
90 mi. along the lower part of the 
Athabasca, from which it is separated 
by a plain 15 to 20 mi. wide. Among 
the smaller elevations are Trout Moun- 
tain, which is situated north of the 
Wabiscaw River, and the Thickwood 
Hills, which lie south of Birch Moun- 
tain. The uplands of the district, like 
the lowlands, are all wooded, and are 
dotted everywhere with lakes and 
marshes. (Ann. Rept. Geol. Surv. 
Canada, V, pp. 6D, 7D, 1893.) 

Climatology: The climate of the 
Athabaska Valley in common with most 
of the country included in the Mackenzie 
basin, is characterized by a wide range 
of temperature. In winter the mercury 
frequently reaches 40, while summer 
temperatures of between 80 and 90 are 
not infrequent. Its western portion is 
subject to Chinook winds, which periodi- 
cally temper the climate. 

Of vital interest to the traveler, who 
must depend so largely on water trans- 
portation, are data on the freezing and 
breaking up of the rivers. In all 
northern rivers navigation is inter- 
rupted, before the actual closing of the 
stream, by drift ice. This is mainly ice 



which has formed in the eddies and 
which, by a slight rise of water, the 
usual result of its formation, or from the 
accumulation of snow upon it, becomes 
detached and descends the current, con- 
tinually adding to its own volume. This 
continues until the increasing cold causes 
the mass to jam and become solidly 
cemented. After the breaking up of 
the rivers in spring the ice, of course, 
continues to run for a longer or shorter 
period. 

The following table shows the dates of 
the opening and closing of the Athabaska 
at Fort McMurray during a series of 
years: 

Table showing condition of Athabaska at 
Fort McMurray 



YEAR 


RIVER 
OPENED 


ICE DRIFTING 


RIVER CLOSED 


1878 


Apr. 18 


Oct. 27 




1879 




Oct. 26 


Nov. 1 


1880 


May 2 


Nov. 14 




1881 


Apr. 21 


Oct. 14 


Nov. 12 


1882 


Apr. 24 


Nov. 1 


Nov. 8 


1883 


Apr. 25 


Oct. 30 


Nov. 10 


1884 


Apr. 27 


Oct. 18 


Oct. 28 


1885 


Apr. 9 


Oct. 23 


Nov. 13 


1886 


Apr. 16 


Nov. 4 


Nov. 14 


1887 
1888 


Apr. 27 
May 4 


Oct. 22 
Nov. 3 


Oct. 24 
Nov. 9 



B. Athabaska Lake Region. Atha- 
baska Lake is long and narrow and lies 
in a general easterly and westerly direc- 
tion. Its greatest length is about 195 
mi.; greatest width, 35 mi.; and area, 
approximately 2850 sq. mi. Its eleva- 
tion above the sea is about 690 ft. 

The principal tributary of Athabaska 
Lake is the river of the same name, just 
described. Its capacity for deposition 
is so great that, assisted by the Peace, 
it has filled up a large portion of what 
was originally the western part of 
Athabaska Lake, and has isolated several 
good-sized sheets of water, the largest of 
which, Lake Claire, is some 35 mi. in 
length. 

The north shore of Athabaska Lake is 
mainly rocky and sparsely wooded, and 
is broken by the mouths of a number of 
insignificant streams, which help to 
drain the unexplored country to the 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



123 



northward. On its southern side, whose 
shores are mainly low and sandy, Atha- 
baska Lake receives the waters of Wil- 
liam, Grand Rapid, and several smaller 
rivers. 

Black River, draining a very large area 
of rocky, sparsely wooded country, 
flows into the extreme eastern end of 
Athabaska Lake. Black Lake, the 
principal expansion in its lower portion, 
receives the waters of Chipman and 
Cree Rivers. 

The climate of Athabaska Lake is not 
radically different from that of other 
parts of the Mackenzie region which are 
practically removed from the influence 
of the warm Pacific winds. Though it 
lies at a low altitude, the proximity of 
the lake to the Barren Grounds, from 
which winds are frequent, keeps its 
average temperature rather low. An 
occasional warm west wind slightly 
tempers the winter climate. The Peace 
and Athabaska break up at their mouths 
about the 1st of May, but the neigh- 
boring part of the lake usually does not 
open until about the middle of May, and 
the eastern part probably not before 
June. The lake usually closes at Fort 
Chipewyan some time in November. 

C. The Peace River Valley. Peace 
River is the largest of the affluents of 
the Athabaska-Mackenzie system, and 
being in fact much larger than the 
Athabaska, may be considered the main 
river. It rises on the western side of 
the Rocky Mountains and is already a 
a good-sized stream when it breaks 
through that range. 

From the confluence of the Finlay and 
the Parsnip, the Peace flows in a general 
easterly direction for some 300 mi. to its 
junction with the Smoky, falling in this 
distance a little less than 800 ft. The 
country through which it flows east of 
the mountains may be considered as a 
plateau, in which it has excavated a 
rather deep valley. Back from the 
river the country is mainly level or 
rolling, and is thinly wooded. 

Smoky River is the largest tributary 
of the Peace. Its principal branches 
rise on the eastern slope of the Rocky 



Mountains, and it drains a large extent 
of thinly wooded and prairie country. 

Below the mouth of the Smoky, the 
Peace turns and pursues a winding 
though general northerly course nearly 
to Fort Vermilion. It is bordered at first 
by steep sandstone cliffs, but its valley 
gradually becomes wider and shallower. 
Extensive plains, comparatively level 
and clothed with grass or a sparse growth 
of poplars, border it on both sides. 
North of Fort Vermilion this character 
of country is said to extend to the valleys 
of Hay and Buffalo rivers. 

Between Fort Vermilion and the 
Peace-Athabaska Delta the Peace is 
very broad and contains many wooded 
islands. Vermilion Falls, a formidable 
rapid, interrupts navigation a short 
distance above the mouth of Red 
River, and another, usually called the 
"Little Rapid," occurs at some distance 
below. 

The Quatre Fourches, an offshoot of 
the Peace, connects that stream with 
Athabaska Lake, and few miles below, 
Rocher River also joins the Peace. 
These streams traverse the Peace-Atha- 
baska Delta, and their currents run to or 
from Peace River, being dependent on 
the relative heights of the water in 
Peace River and Athabaska Lake. The 
delta is a vast marsh, partially wooded 
with poplars and willows and studded 
with hundreds of reedy lakes. This 
marsh is one of the most important 
breeding areas of waterfowl in North 
America, and is also one of the principal 
resting and feeding places for migratory 
wildfowl on their semi-annual journeys. 
Of the breeding birds, the following 
may be noted: Holboells grebe, horned 
grebe, black tern, American merganser, 
mallard, baldpate, green-winged teal, 
shoveler, pintail, canvasback, lesser 
scaup, ringneck, American goldeneye, 
bufflehead, Canada goose, little brown 
crane, sora, Wilson snipe, yellowlegs, 
alder flycatcher, yellow-headed black- 
bird, northern redwing, rusty grackle, 
Leconte's sparrow, Nelson's sparrow, 
Lincoln's sparrow, swamp sparrow, 
Alaska yellow warbler, Grinnell's water 



124 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



thrush, redstart, and olive-backed 
thrush. 

Below the delta the combined stream, 
here called the Slave, turns abruptly 
northward and flows for a distance of 
about 70 mi. in a general northerly direc- 
tion to the Smith Rapids. It is a broad, 
rather deep stream with a moderate cur- 
rent, and its low banks are well wooded. 
In latitude 60 it cuts through "a gneissic 
spur from the Luarentian district to the 
east," forming the Smith Rapids, some 
16 mi. in length. Below here it flows in a 
rather irregular manner for about 175 
mi. in a general northwesterly direc- 
tion to Great Slave Lake. In this 
stretch it has an average width of about 
half a mile, and its banks are high at 
first, but gradually diminish. The coun- 
try bordering it is level and mainly 
well wooded, but to the west are exten- 
sive tracts of prairie, especially in the 
region of Salt River, its principal tribu- 
tary. Slave River enters Great Slave 
Lake through an extensive delta, in 
forming which it has silted up an ex- 
tensive arm of the lake. Its breeding 
birds are practically the same as those - 
of the Athabaska delta. 

The Peace River Valley, as here con- 
sidered, exhibits the greatest diversity 
of climatic conditions at the same 
season of any of the regions now under 
discussion. Its extreme upper portion, 
lying at a comparatively low altitude 
and near the Pacific, has a relatively 
mild winter climate, while its lower 
part at the same season is surrounded by 
almost Arctic conditions. Its middle 
part, just east of the mountains, seems 
to be characterized by violent extremes 
of temperature. 

Preserved areas: Wood Buffalo Park: 
An area lying west of Slave River, partly 
in Alberta and partly in Mackenzie, 
known by this name, was set aside in 
December, 1922, as a Preserve for the 
resident herds of the northern race, 
known as the wood buffalo, which now 
constitute the only wild specimens of 
this race in existence. This area, which 
includes the entire ranges of the two 
aggregations of herds, covers an area of 



about 10,000 sq. mi. It covers that part 
of the primitive range of this northern 
race, formerly much more wide-spread, 
on which it has been able longest to 
maintain itself against the persecution 
attendant on the partial settlement of 
the country, and which therefore may be 
considered as the most favorable portion 
of that range under modern conditions. 
It contains considerable wooded and 
swampy country, but is mainly charac- 
terized by its areas of meadow and 
prairie and sparsely-wooded glades. 
The number of the animals now remain- 
ing is not definitely known, but prob- 
ably numbers several hundred. Many 
moose, a few woodland caribou, and 
many fur-bearers, besides grouse, ducks, 
and the usual birds of the country, 
abound on this area. These may still be 
hunted by the natives. 

The buffalo has been protected on this 
area for about 20 years, but the estab- 
lishment of this preserve, with its attend- 
ant warden service, should ensure the 
continued increase of these unique 
herds, which under the inadequate 
protection which has heretofore been 
possible, have not increased as they 
should. 

Slave River Preserve : This area, which 
contains about 2200 sq. mi., includes a 
broad strip of country bordering the 
lower part of Slave River, and adjoining 
the Wood Buffalo Park for some dis- 
tance. The country is mostly low and 
swampy, and comprises the delta of 
Slave River and the area between that 
and the Taltson, and is the breeding 
ground of thousands of geese, ducks, 
rails, cranes, and other water birds, and 
is also the resort in spring and autumn 
of vast numbers of the same and other 
species, where they linger to rest and 
feed while on their migrations to and 
from their more northern breeding 
grounds. Natives only are allowed to 
hunt on this area. 

D. Great Slave Lake. Great Slave 
Lake is said by McConnell to have a 
superficial area, including islands, of 
about 10,400 sq. mi., and thus to 
rank fifth among the great lakes of the 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



125 



continent. 2 It has a total length of 
nearly 300 mi., and is over 60 mi. wide 
in its broadest part. Its shore lines 
have remained unexplored, especially 
as regards its eastern arm, until recent 
years. Maps issued in 1923 by the Topo- 
graphical Surveys branch show details 
of this portion, excepting a few com- 
paratively short stretches. 

The eastern part of the lake is much 
deeper than the western part, and its 
water is very clear, as is also that of the 
northern arm. The main or western 
part of the lake, which receives the 
sediment-laden flood of Slave River, 
never becomes so clear, although it is 
fairly so at its outlet. Its southern 
shores are very low; its northern borders 
higher. It has few islands, and the rocks 
on its shores are largely limestone. 

Great Slave Lake lies wholly within 
the forested region, though some of its 
eastern affluents drain large areas of 
treeless country. Its southwestern 
shores are well wooded, while the 
northern shores, exposed for most of 
the year to cold winds from the north 
and watered by colder streams, are 
poorly wooded. The soil conditions 
are more favorable on the southern side 
of the lake, exerting a marked influence 
on the foresting. In general it divides 
the southern heavy timber from the 
northern stunted forest. 

On the Eastern Arm of the lake, how- 
ever, the conditions in this respect are 
more nearly uniform. Several streams, 
the courses of some of which are practi- 
cally unknown, enter this arm on the 
southern side. Hoarfrost River, drain- 
ing Walmsley Lake, and Lockhart 
River, carrying the waters of Mackay, 
Aylmer, Clinton-Golden, and Artillery 
lakes, which lie almost wholly in the 
Barren Grounds, fall into this arm near 
its eastern extremity. The country 
bordering its northern shore is rocky and 
sparsely wooded, and contains a great 
many lakes. 

The Northern Arm of Great Slave Lake 

* It is exceeded in size by Superior (31,500), Huron 
(23,000), Michigan (22,300), and Great Bear (11,400). 
IMcConnell.] 



lies along the junction of the primitive 
and the newer formations. Its eastern 
shore, therefore, is mainly composed of 
granite, while its western border is of 
limestone. Yellowknife River enters 
this arm on its eastern side. At the head 
of the Northern Arm, in an expansion 
named Lake Marian, or Lac du Brochet, 
Grandin River discharges its waters. 
To the westward of the Northern Arm 
and north of the main body of Great 
Slave Lake lies a low, broad plateau, 
dotted with many lakes and muskegs. 
It contains no rivers of consequence and 
is mainly rather thinly wooded, though 
a number of large prairies occur in the 
western part, north of the outlet of 
Great Slave Lake. 

The country south of the main part of 
Great Slave Lake is mainly flat and 
swampy. Eagle Mountain, a low, iso- 
lated range, lies a short distance south 
of the extreme western end of the lake. 
The principal stream is Hay River, 
which rises close to the height of land 
between the Nelson and the Peace, far 
to the southwest. The region drained by 
it is practically unknown, but is reported 
to be low and swampy and mainly well 
wooded, though it contains much grassy 
prairie, Hay River being said to mark 
the northern limit of this character of 
country. 

Ice forms in the bays and along the 
shores of Great Slave Lake in late 
October, and the whole lake, though 
kept open later by the violent winds, is 
usually closed by mid-November. The 
ice, which attains a thickness of 6 or 
8 ft., usually breaks up in the main or 
western part about the first of July, 
but sometimes remains in the eastern 
part until late July. 

Yellow Knife Preserve: An immense 
area estimated to contain 70,000 sq. mi., 
extending from Great Bear Lake and the 
Coppermile River, south to Great Slave 
Lake and Marten Lake, and thus in- 
cluding much of the hunting grounds of 
the Yellow Knife and the Dogrib In- 
dians, is now closed to hunting by others 
than natives. Its principal large game 
are the moose and caribou. Formerly 



126 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



large numbers of musk oxen inhabited 
the northern and eastern part of this 
area, but few, if any, of this notable 
species now remain. Large numbers 
of a few species of geese and ducks breed 
within this area, but it does not abound 
in large marshy tracts which form the 
favorite nesting places of waterfowl. 

E. The Mackenzie Valley proper. The 
Mackenzie (taken in a restricted sense 
as comprehending only that part of the 
river known under this name) has a 
course of over 900 mi. from Great Slave 
Lake to the Arctic Sea. It averages 
over a mile in width and is usually deep, 
with a current of from 2 to 6 mi. an hour. 
Its general course is to the northwest. 
It is bordered mainly by sandy or grav- 
elly beaches and occupies a narrow, com- 
paratively shallow valley, through which 
it flows in a succession of gentle curves. 
Many low islands, usually well wooded, 
occur throughout its course. Its rocks 
are chiefly Devonian. 

Issuing from Great Slave Lake, the 
Mackenzie first follows a general west- 
erly course for nearly 300 mi. The tribu- 
taries which it receives in this stretch, 
with the exception of the Liard, are of 
minor importance. The Horn Moun- 
tains, a long low ridge lie at some dis- 
tance north of the middle of the stretch. 
To the southward occur other lower 
ranges, the principal one being Trout 
Mountain. These mountains are very 
imperfectly known, but they are too low 
to support a fauna and flora differing 
appreciably from that of the surrounding 
country. A large part of the country 
bordering this part of the Mackenzie is 
swampy, and it is all well wooded. 
Nearly all the species of trees of the 
great subarctic forest are represented. 

A short distance north of latitude 62 
the Mackenzie strikes a spur of the 
Rocky Mountain system, the Nahanni 
Mountains, is deflected toward the 
north, and for some distance flows close 
to their bases. At the point where the 
Mackenzie first approaches them the 
nearest peaks are from 200 to 2500 ft. 
in height and are sparsely wooded to 
their summits. Farther back they rise 



much higher, and above an altitude of 
2500 ft. are treeless. In early summer 
these mountains are capped with snow, 
but this disappears entirely beneath the 
almost continuous sunlight of mid- 
summer. 

Near this point the fauna receives an 
infusion of Rocky Mountain types. 
Among mammals, these include a chip- 
munk (Eutamias borealis caniceps) com- 
mon in northern British Columbia and 
southern Yukon. The Rocky Mountain 
shrew (Sorex obscurus] also occurs, but 
has reached also the middle Athabaska 
and Great Slave Lake, farther south. 
The white mountain sheep (Ovis dalli] 
occurs in the Nahanni Mountains at 
some distance back from the river and 
also farther north, but is not found near 
the Mackenzie. Among birds the blue 
grouse (Dendragapus obscurus), and the 
Townsend solitaire (Myadestes town- 
sendi) seem to reach their northeastern 
limit on the mountains near the mouth 
of the North Nahanni. The northern 
varied thrush (Ixoreus naeviusmeruloides) 
also reaches the Mackenzie near this 
point, and follows its valley to the delta. 

Continuing northward, the Mackenzie 
is bordered on the west by a broad ex- 
panse of mountain country, mainly un- 
explored. A few low spurs of the same 
system cross the river and appear in 
the form of isolated peaks or discon- 
nected ranges to the eastward of its 
valley. The principal western tribu- 
taries between latitude 62 and 65 are 
the Red Rock and Gravel rivers. In the 
same interval the Mackenzie received 
several small streams which drain the 
country east of the river. One of the 
largest of these is the Blackwater 
Mount Clark, which is visible from the 
river at some distance below the mouth 
of this stream, has an estimated altitude 
of 3500 ft., and is the highest of the 
mountains east of the Mackenzie. The 
most conspicuous landmark in the im- 
mediate valley is Roche Trempe-Peau, 
a limestone mass which rises abruptly 
from the water's edge a short distance 
north of latitude 63. Bear River, 
the principal eastern tributary of the 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



127 



Mackenzie, joins it just south of latitude 
65. Below its mouth, on the north side 
of the Mackenzie, is Bear Rock, 1400 
ft. in height. 

Below here the Mackenzie resumes 
its general northwesterly course. Wol- 
verene Rock, 100 mi. below Bear Rock, 
is formed, like that eminence, by an 
uplight of the Devonian limestone, 
and is about 1000 ft. in height. Twenty- 
five miles below here a rocky ridge 
crosses the river, forming the Sans 
Sault Rapid. The next important fea- 
ture in the valley of the Mackenzie is 
the defile called the "Ramparts." 
Here the river contracts from a width 
of 2 mi. to about 500 yds., and flows for 
about 7 mi. between precipitous lime- 
stone cliffs, which in places rise to a 
height of 250 ft. 

Below Sans Sault Rapid the Mac- 
kenzie recedes from the mountains, 
and they are not again visible until the 
delta is reached. Hareskin River enters 
the Mackenzie from the east a short 
distance north of the Ramparts. It 
drains a large extent of rocky wooded 
country between- Great Bear Lake and 
the Mackenzie. For a long distance 
below here the Mackenzie maintains a 
general northwesterly course. In about 
latitude 67 40' it turns rather abruptly 
at right angles, and for about 50 mi. 
follows a course considerably south of 
west. It is here bordered, especially 
on the north, by high clay banks, 
through which several good-sized 
streams cut their way. The river then 
turns northward again and maintains a 
northwesterly direction to the delta. 
The defile called the "Narrows" or 
"Lower Ramparts" is encountered near 
67 40', and at its lower end Arctic Red 
River, from the south, discharges its 
muddy waters. As far as known the 
country bordering this part of the 
Mackenzie on both sides is rolling, well 
watered, and fairly well wooded. A 
few miles below Arctic Red River the 
high banks of the Mackenzie gradually 
become lower and the river spreads 
out into the delta. 

The Mackenzie Delta occupies a 



triangular area nearly 100 mi. in length 
and 50 mi. broad at its widest part. 
To the westward of the delta lies a 
range of high hills, the northern ex- 
tremity of the Rocky Mountains. They 
rise to a height of from 1200 to 1500 ft., 
and their lower slopes only are wooded. 
The Caribou Mountains, apparently a 
continuation of the ridge which crosses 
the Mackenzie at the Lower Ramparts, 
lie to the eastward of the delta. They 
rise to a height of 700 to 800 ft. and are 
less rugged than the mountains west 
of the delta. 

Climatology : The climate of the Mac- 
kenzie Valley is fairly indicated by the 
tables of temperature which follow. 
They were taken in 1900, which seems 
to have been a year of about average 
conditions. 

Summaries of temperatures taken at Fort 

Simpson, Mackenzie, during 

the year 1900 









EXTK 


EMES 


IB 

a 


MONTH 


3 
P 5 


*l 


a 


| 


s 

a 




fc* 




a 


s 


B 




^ 


w S 


i 


1 


o 




S 


a 




X 


i 


January 


-16.2 


-33 5 


5 


-51.0 


-24.8 


February 


-9.2 


-33 5 


14 


-50.5 


-21 4 


March 


12.8 


-17.4 


39 


-50 


-2 3 


r'l 


41.2 
52 6 


17 8 
35.2 


60 
66 


5.0 

27 


29 5 
43.9 


... 
June 


69.3 


45 3 


80 


27.0 


57.3 


July 


69 4 


45.7 


79 5 


31.5 


57.6 


August 


65.0 


44.1 


78.0 


27.0 


54.5 


September 
October 


56.8 
29.0 


34.7 
19.2 


71.0 
40.0 


23.0 
3.0 


45.7 
24.1 




5 4 


8 7 


23 


-29 


1.7 


December 


-7.3 


-20.1 


13.0 


-48.0 


-13.7 


Year 






80 


-51 


20.7 



The temperatures of the extreme 
upper Mackenzie are undoubtedly 
slightly lower than those recorded for 
Fort Simpson, but comparable data are 
not at hand. 

Comparable figures for points in the 
valley of the lower Mackenzie and for 
Herschel Island show that the winter 
climate of the upper and lower Macken- 
zie varies but slightly, while the summer 
climate is considerably cooler to the 
northward. 

As has been stated, the warm winds 



128 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



from the Pacific sometimes exert a 
decided though temporary influence 
on the climate of the Mackenzie, and 
the Liard, opening early, disrupts the 
Mackenzie ice below the confluence. 
The removal of the icy covering of an 
immense river and the blending with its 
flood of the waters of a warmer tributary 
necessarily affect conditions along its 
banks. The ice in the Liard, having 
broken its bonds, is forced against that 
of the Mackenzie, through which it 
opens a passage, and urged on by the 
immense pressure behind it breaks its 
way seaward, occasionally becoming 
dammed and raising the level of the 
water until the increased pressure again 
clears a channel. At Fort Simpson, 
near latitude 62, the ice continues to 
drift in quantity for some days after 
its disruption. About ten days, on 
the average, after the Mackenzie opens 
at this point, or about the time that the 
breaking ice has reached latitude 65, 
the upper Mackenzie opens and the 
channel is filled again with floating ice. 
Sometimes a third consignment of 
floes, from the "Little Lake" or from 
Great Slave Lake, fills its current. 

Records of the opening and closing 
of the Mackenzie at Fort Simpson, kept 
between 1876 and 1906 (but not con- 
tinuously) show that the river usually 
broke up between May 5 and 10 (ex- 
treme dates April 29 and May 14), 
and closed usually about November 20 
v extreme dates November 17 and No- 
vember 28). At the mouth of Bear 
River the Mackenzie usuall}' opens 
between May 15 and 20 (extreme dates 
May 9 and May 28;, and closes about 
November 10 (extreme dates November 
2 and November 18). 

Seasonal phenomena in Mackenzie 
Valley, 1903-1904: Following is a brief 
account of the progress of the seasons 
and attendant phenomena as observed 
by the writer from October 1, 1903, 
to July, 1904. The first three weeks in 
October were spent in ascending the 
Mackenzie from Fort Norman, at the 
mouth of Bear River, to Fort Simpson, 
at the mouth of the Liard. The fact 



that these notes were taken while the 
party was traveling detracts but little 
from their value, since the conditions 
in different parts of this stretch of river 
were nearly uniform at that time. The 
period from October 20, 1903, to June 1, 
1904, was spent at Fort Simpson, and 
the month of June in descending the 
Mackenzie to its delta. 

When the Mackenzie was reached, on 
September 30, 1903, by descending Bear 
River, a marked contrast was noted 
between the conditions left behind at 
Great Bear Lake and those encountered 
on the Mackenzie. The temperature 
was considerably higher, and several 
species of small birds which had practi- 
cally disappeared from Great Bear Lake 
were common. The high mountains to 
the west of the Mackenzie were covered 
with snow. 

During the first few days of October, 
as we were ascending the Mackenzie, 
the weather was mostly fine, with south- 
erly winds part of the time. The nights 
were frosty and ice formed on still 
water. The blue flowers of a gentian 
(apparently Gentiana acuta\ the latest 
flowers observed, were seen on October 
3. During the night of October 7 (above 
Blackwater River) a little snow fell, 
but it disappeared during the following 
day. On the night of October 12 (above 
Fort Wrigley) 4 in. of snow fell, and on 
the night of October 14 another fall of 
snow occurred. Some ice was seen 
drifting on the west side of the Mac- 
kenzie on October 15 (above mouth 
Nahanni River). 3 On the following day 
the drifting ice had greatly increased in 
quantity, and on October 17 our progress 
by canoe was arrested. At this time 
the last of the tree sparrows and a few 
other hardy species left for the South. 

Fort Simpson: The Liard was par- 
tially closed at its mouth on October 
21, but broke away once or twice before 
it finally set fast. The weather from 
October 21 to 25 was considerably milder 
than it had been during the previous 



8 It should be noted that the appearance of 
drifting ice at this early date was almost unprece- 
dented. 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



129 



week, and on the 26th and 27th it became 
still warmer and the ice practically 
ceased running. On October 28, how- 
ever, the weather became colder and the 
ice again appeared. From this date it 
continued to run and the snow steadily 
accumulated. The thermometer did not 
rise above the freezing point, and con- 
sequently there was no thawing, except 
to a very slight extent in sheltered 
spots directly exposed to the sun. While 
the river remained open its expanse of 
ice-laden water added greatly to the 
intensity of the cold. From the same 
cause the trees and shrubs were nightly 
loaded with ice crystals. On the night 
of November 7 the minimum tempera- 
ture recorded was 10, and on the 
night of November 15 a temperature of 
27 was registered. 

During the night of November 18 the 
river finally set fast. In this process 
the drifting ice accumulates until it 
has so filled the river that it jams in 
some place where it has partially bridged 
the channel. Against this barrier the 
oncoming floes, laden with saturated 
snow, are pushed by the current, and 
becoming lodged in all possible positions 
are almost instantly cemented together 
by the intense cold. This process con- 
tinues upstream, usually without inter- 
ruption, until the whole river is closed. 

During November and December the 
cold steadily increased in intensity and 
the snow gradually accumulated. When 
no thaw occurs the snow remains so 
light and powdery that it does not settle 
appreciably. On the shortest days the 
sun rose in the southeast about 9.30 
a.m. and, after describing a low arc 
over the tree tops, set about 2.30 p.m. 
Even at midday its heat was scarcely 
appreciable. After the middle of De- 
cember the thermometer scarcely ever 
rose above zero. From January 1 to 
March 12, 1904, it rose above zero on 
only eight occasions. The lowest tem- 
perature recorded was 54, on January 
20 and 21. During the third week in 
January the average daily maximum 
was 30; the average daily minimum 
-45. 



A grave which was dug on February 
26, 1904, afforded an opportunity to 
ascertain the depth to which frost had 
penetrated. The location was a sandy 
knoll somewhat sheltered on the north 
by a thick growth of young trees and 
open to the south. Snow lay to a depth 
of about 3 ft. The frost had reached a 
depth of only 20 in., but the excavation 
was not carried to a sufficient depth to 
reach the permanently frozen sub- 
stratum. 

On March 26 the temperature first 
rose above the freezing point and from 
that date did not descend below zero. 
When the spring thaw set in the snow 
had attained a depth of nearly 4 ft. 

The progress of the season at Fort 
Simpson from March to June, 1904, as 
indicated by the temperatures of suc- 
cessive weeks, is shown in the following 
table: 

Temperatures of successive weeks, spring 

of 1904, at Fort Simpson, 

Mackenzie River 





*g 

s 


P 


M 
H 

H 


FOURTH 
WEEK* 


Average of daily maxima: 
March 


-2.8 


-2.7 


9.5 


30.7 


April 


39.4 


42.7 


46 4 


57.9 


Mav 


46.0 


50.8 


59.7 


53 2 


June 
Average of daily minima: 
March 


62.1 
25.4 


63.1 
-26.8 


60.0 
-16.0 


70.4 
3 3 


April 
May 


11.8 
30.6 


23.4 
33.2 


23.4 

38.8 


33.5 
34 5 


June 


39.7 


44.4 


43.8 


48.6 



*The "fourth week" includes the last nine or 
ten days of the month. 

On March 19 a flock of white-winged 
crossbills, evidently migrants, was seen. 
On March 28 the first hawk owl of the 
spring was observed, and snow fleas 
(Achorutes) appeared. About the same 
time several species of small birds, 
which had been seen rarely during the 
winter, appeared in larger numbers. 
On March 30 the buds and catkins on 
the willows and alders imparted a 
brown tinge to the hillsides where these 
shrubs were common . On the same date 
snow buntings, which had been absent 
since the middle of December, reap- 



130 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



peared. On April 2 many small grayish 
moths were seen in the woods. On 
April 17 a mourning-cloak butterfly 
(Euvanessa) was seen. By April 18 the 
snow had nearly disappeared from the 
fields. Mosquitoes (Culex annulatus) 
first appeared on April 20, and were 
biting on April 24, but did not become 
troublesome until over a month later. 
The sap of the white birches began to 
flow freely on April 20. On April 23 a 
small space of open water was seen near 
the mouth of the Liard. Frogs (Rana 
cantabrigensis latiremis) were first ob- 
served on April 28. 

On April 29 Liard River broke up. Its 
advancing flood first opened a channel 
nearly straight across the Mackenzie, 
forcing the ice with irresistible power 
up on the opposite bank in immense 
piles. At the same time a mound 60 
or 70 ft. in height was formed at the 
mouth of one of the channels of the 
Liard, several immense cracks opened 
in the white expanse before the post, 
and the huge sheets were soon broken 
up. The stupendous amount of force 
exerted by the river upon the broad 
expanse of ice, 5 ft. in thickness, as with 
a grinding roar it folds and crushes the 
mighty sheets like cardboard, reducing 
them to powder and forcing them aloft 
in great mounds, impresses the beholder, 
who is likewise occupied in considering 
the possibility of the river being dammed 
sufficiently to overflow the ground on 
which he stands. Such a catastrophe 
has destroyed more than one post on 
the Mackenzie in years past. 

At this time a few ducks appeared in 
open places on the river. On May 6 a 
small quantity of snow fell. The leaves 
of Ribes oxyacanthoides began to appear 
on May 8. By this time the river was 
nearly clear of ice below the mouth of 
the Liard, but above its mouth the ice 
in the Mackenzie was still intact. On 
May 10 large sheets of the Mackenzie 
ice broke away and floated down, but 
the river did not open from above until 
May 13. The water then rose and 
became filled with ice, but on the fol- 
lowing day was nearly clear again and 



had fallen. On May 10 the leaves on 
aspens and birches were half an inch in 
length. About the middle of May blue 
violets (Viola albertina) blossomed. 
The weather continued warm and vege- 
tation advanced steadily. On May 18 
Virburnum pauciflorum and Populus 
balsamifera put forth their leaves, 
and mountain cranberry (Vitisidaea) 
was in flower. Birds were now coming 
fast and additional species were noted 
daily, but on May 21 the weather turned 
cold and stormy. This had the effect 
of retarding the advance of vegetation 
and the tide of bird migration. On May 
22 Ribes oxycanthoides and Calypso 
bulbosa were in flower. The weather 
remained cold and stormy during the 
remainder of the month and the condi- 
tions of vegetation and of bird migration 
remained almost at a standstill. On 
May 29 several inches of snow fell. 

Mackenzie below Fort Simpson: On 
June 1, 1904, 1 left Fort Simpson, and 
spent the remainder of the month de- 
scending the Mackenzie, my rate of 
travel keeping pace in general with the 
advance of spring. The weather during 
the first few days of June was favorable 
and vegetation made good progess. 
On June 2, a few miles below Fort Simp- 
son, the leaves of the tamaracks were 
just coming out. All along the river 
more or less ice still lay on the banks, 
but a few miles above Fort -Norman 
the quantity was astounding. Many of 
the stranded cakes were upward of 20 
ft. in thickness. On June 17, below 
Fort Norman, a small quantity of snow 
fell. On June 21, at Fort Good Hope, 
the leaves on most of the trees were 
about half grown. On the same date 
the sun was visible at midnight from a 
low hill near the post, and many birds 
were in full song at that hour. For 
the next three weeks, north of this 
point, the sun was continually above 
the horizon. Vegetation now advanced 
rather faster than our rate of travel 
northward, but was not at its height 
when we reached the delta of the Mac- 
kenzie on June 30. 

Preserved areas: Peel River Preserve: 






NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



131 



This recently established preserve, on 
which natives only are allowed to hunt, 
includes a rather long and narrow area 
lying between Arctic Red River and the 
Peel River divide north to the Mackenzie 
delta, being entirely in the Mackenzie 
district. It contains about 3300 sq.mi. 
Its principal game animal is the moose. 
Many ducks of several species nest 
here, but the area is not especially nota- 
ble as a wild fowl resort. 

F. The Basin of Great Bear Lake. 
A short account of Great Bear Lake may 
begin with a portion of the description 
by Richardson, who examined most of 
its shore line in 1825 and 1826. He says: 

Great Bear Lake is an extensive sheet 
of water, of a very irregular shape, 
being formed by the union of five arms 
or bays in a common center. The 
greatest diameter of the lake, measuring 
about 150 mi., runs from the bottom of 
Dease Bay, which receives the principal 
feeding stream, to the bottom of Keith 
Bay, from whence the Bear Lake River 
issues, and has a direction of N.E. to 
S.W. The transverse diameter has a 
direction from N.W. by W. to S.E. by 
E., and is upwards of 120 mi. in length. 
The light bluish-coloured water of Great 
Bear Lake is everywhere transparent, 
and is particularly clear near some 
primitive mountains, which exist in 
M'Tavish Bay. A piece of white rag, 
let down there, did not disappear until 
it descended fifteen fathoms. The depth 
of water, in the center of the lake, was 
not ascertained; but it is known to be 
very considerable. Near the shore, in 
M'Tavish Bay, forty-five fathoms of 
line did not reach the bottom. (Narr. 
Second Exp'd to Polar Sea, Appendix, 
p. ii, 1828.) 

Great Bear Lake, according to the 
Canadian Geological Survey, has an 
area of approximately 11,400 sq. mi. 
and lies 391 ft. above the level of the sea. 
Its shores, with the exception of parts of 
MacTavish Bay, are rather low. Its 
southern and western shores are well 
wooded, while its northern and eastern 
borders are more thinly forested. The 
immediate shores are mainly of sand or 
gravel and are usually devoid of trees, 
but are well clothed with willows and 
various ericaceous shrubs and herba- 
ceous plants. In most places along the 



south shore this treeless stretch is only 
a few hundred yards in width, and in the 
bays the forest extends to the water's 
edge. In the vicinity of Leith Point, 
however, a treeless area stretches from 
near MacTavish Bay to Me Vicar Bay, 
and extends inland for several miles. 
On this area the faunal and floral con- 
ditions are practically those of the 
Barren Grounds. 

The junction between the primitive 
or granitic rocks and the limestone 
formation crosses Great Bear Lake 
near its eastern extremity. To the 
eastward of the dividing line the shores 
are higher, especially around Mac- 
Tavish Bay, where the mountains ap- 
proach closely to the shore. The Griz- 
zly Bear Mountain, which occupies the 
peninsula between Keith and McVicar 
bays, is upwards of 900 ft. high and 
several hundred feet of its upper portion 
are devoid of trees. On the opposite 
side of the lake, between Smith and 
Keith bays, a broad peninsula is oc- 
cupied by the Scented Grass Hills, of 
about the same height and similar in 
structure to the Grizzly Bear Mountain. 
The mountains which border Mac- 
Tavish Bay are so rocky that it is diffi- 
cult to trace the limit of timber on their 
sides. 

The northern shores of Great Bear 
Lake are described as mainly low and 
thinly forested, although the country 
at some distance inland is better 
wooded. 

The tributaries of Great Bear Lake 
are comparatively few in number. 
Dease River, which discharges into the 
northeastern extremity of the lake, is 
probably the best known of its feeders. 
It rises on the treeless height of land 
between Dease Bay and the lower Cop- 
permine. Several important streams 
enter the lake from the north. Several 
others, draining a very large extent of 
country to the southward, enter Mac- 
Tavish and McVicar bays. The latter 
receives also the waters of a chain of 
large lakes lying north of Marten Lake 
(which discharges into Great Slave 
Lake). The country drained by the 



132 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



southern tributaries is very rough and 
rocky, though fairly well wooded, and is 
traversed in various directions by 
ranges of low mountains. 

G. Region north of Great Bear Lake. 
North of Great Bear Lake lies an area 
of considerable size bounded on the 
west by the Mackenzie, on the east by 
the lower Coppermine and Coronation 
Gulf, and on the north by the Arctic 
Ocean, into which flow most of its 
rivers. Its southern portion is sparsely 
wooded; its barren northern part re- 
ceives narrow tongues of forest along 
the northward flowing rivers. Its fauna 
and flora, therefore, are those of the 
northern stunted forest and the Barren 
Grounds, about equally divided. Its 
surface is mainly rolling with some 
ranges of low hills, and many lakes. 
Its climate is essentially Arctic. 

H. The Liard River Valley. TheLiard 
River has its sources west of the Rocky 
Mountains, one of its branches rising 
within 150 mi. of the Pacific. 

In its upper portion the Liard bears a 
strong superficial resemblance to the 
upper Peace, being formed by large 
north and south trending branches which 
unite west of the mountains and, like 
the Peace, cut eastward through the 
main range of the Rocky Mountains. 
Fort Nelson River, entering the Liard 
from the south, is its principal branch 
east of the mountains. It rises near 
the headwaters of Pine River (north), 
and pursues a very tortuous northerly 
course to the Liard. Below the junction 
the Liard flows northerly and then 
northeasterly, still being bordered on 
the western side by spurs of the Rocky 
Mountain range. The country east of 
the lower Liard is mainly low and 
swampy in character. The valley of 
the lower Liard is heavily wooded, the 
largest tree being the balsam poplar 
(Populus balsamifera), which here attains 
perfection of habit, and from which the 
river is said to take its name. The 
other forest trees also are those common 
to the whole region. 

The upper reaches of the Liard are 
most readily reached from the Pacific 



side, by ascending the Stikine, and 
crossing the low height of land. 

The climate of the Liard River Valley, 
like that of the Peace, varies widely in 
the different sections. The upper part 
of the river, lying west of the main 
divide, enjoys a climate much tempered 
by the warm Pacific winds. The upper 
Nelson River also, the principal tribu- 
tary of the Liard east of the mountains, 
lies far to the southward and sufficiently 
near the Pacific to come within its 
modifying influence. Unfortunately no 
exact data regarding the temperature 
of the upper Liard or the Nelson are at 
hand; hence the conditions there can not 
be compared directly with those on its 
lower course. The average temperature 
conditions on the lower Liard may be 
fairly represented by those taken at 
Fort Simpson in 1900. The warm west- 
erly winds which reach the valley of the 
Liard extend their influence as far as 
its mouth and have been known to cause 
a pronounced thaw there even in Janu- 
ary, the coldest month. This modifying 
influence is apparent in the character 
and progress of vegetation, the migra- 
tion of birds, and in other phenomena. 
It is especially manifest, however, in 
its relation to the breaking up of the 
river and the attendant effect on the 
conditions along the banks. Further- 
more, the disruption of the Liard ice 
starts that in the Mackenzie also, which 
thus opens considerably earlier than 
would be the case were it not affected 
by its warmer tributary. This, of 
course, has its natural effect in accelerat- 
ing the progress of vegetation on the 
banks of the Mackenzie below the Liard. 

At Fort Liard, the river freezes up 
between the last of October and the 
middle of November and usually opens 
about the first of May. 

/. Northeastern British Columbia and 
Yukon. Reference has already been 
made to the fact that both Peace and 
Liard rivers rise west of the main ranges 
of the Rocky Mountains which farther 
south form a strict watershed, but which 
are here traversed by these great 
streams. There results a large area in 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



133 



British Columbia which faunally and 
florally resembles the Mackenzie Basin, 
but which naturally has derived many 
of its species from the Pacific slope and 
the Rocky Mountains. Northwest- 
wardly this area extends to include the 
valley of the Upper Yukon, whose upper 
branches interlock with those of the 
Liard. 

The valleys of the Parsnip and the 
Finlay, which unite to form the Peace, 
lie in the valley referred to in another 
account as the Rocky Mountain Trench, 
which extends in a general north-north- 
west direction from near the northern 
boundary of the United States to Yukon 
Territory. This great valley was 
plainly formed at a time when the 
drainage of the region was very different 
from the present system. The various 
northward and southward flowing 
streams which now occupy it are long 
and comparatively slow-flowing, so that 
one may travel from latitude 49 north- 
ward to the Yukon without encountering 
any extraordinary differences in alti- 
tude. Most of the side tributaries of 
these streams, however, are compara- 
tively short and swift. Farther north 
the ancient valley holds tributaries of 
the Liard and the Yukon. 

To the west of these rivers lies an 
elevated region which besides forming 
a nursery for these eastward-flowing 
rivers, gives rise to several others enter- 
ing the Pacific. The mountains of this 
area comprise many single mountain 
masses and short ranges disposed in 
irregular systems, and the numerous 
streams which drain them flow in all 
directions. The principal ones on the 
upper courses occupy broad valleys 
through which they meander over shal- 
low gravelly beds, but lower down they 
cut canyons as they approach the main 
rivers, which occupy deep valleys, some- 
times gorge-like in character. This 
region, lying between the Rocky Moun- 
tains and the coast ranges, is considered 
by Dawson (1891) to be an ancient 
plateau which has been dissected by 
glacial action into a region traversed 
by broad level valleys flanked by moun- 



tains which are often steep and craggy. 
It is evident to the most casual observer 
that these wide flat valleys must have 
been excavated by some more formidable 
forces than the comparatively small 
and shallow streams which now meander 
through thtm. 

The trees and shrubs of this region are 
largely those common to the great 
transcontinental conifer forest, enumer- 
ated on earlier pages. The lodge-pole 
pine here replaces the Banksian pine, 
however, and certain other trees and 
shrubs characteristic of the coast region 
or of the Rocky Mountains are present. 
Some of these will be noted in the de- 
scriptions of the various topographic 
features. These may best be considered 
under the several river valleys. 

Stikine River Valley: The Stikine 
River rises in a large irregular mountain 
mass in about latitude 57 from which 
flow also head tributaries of the Finlay, 
flowing to Peace River and the Arctic, 
and the Skeena, flowing to the Pacific. 
Disregarding its smaller head feeders, 
the Stikine may be considered as rising 
from a string of three lakes, from which 
it flows eastward, or directly away from 
its final destination. Traversing valleys 
flanked by high mountains it is soon 
joined by numbers of small branches, 
and in the first one hundred miles of its 
course has attained a considerable size, 
has turned a half-circle northward and 
westward, and is now started fairly 
toward its final goal. Here it joins 
the Ispatseeza which has risen near 
the same place and has flowed north- 
ward and eastward. These streams are 
of about equal size and divide honors as 
the head tributary. From their junc- 
tion the combined river turns to the 
westward, and receives in succession 
the Ketatsil or Pitman from the east, 
the Kilicho from the north, the Klappan 
from the south, the Tanzilla from the 
north, and the Klastline or Second 
South Fork and the Mestua, or First 
South Fork, from the south. The north- 
erly streams mentioned take their rise 
close to tributaries of the Liard, while 
those from the south rise in ranges which 



134 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



give birth also to branches of the Nass, 
the Skeena, and the Finlay. 

A typical valley, that of the Upper 
Ispatseeza, may be described in some 
detail. It varies from a mile or less to 
several miles in width. Long stretches, 
perfectly level, having a gipvelly soil 
covered with a good growth of grass, 
are frequent, and these often succeed 
each other as terraces, with altitudinal 
differences of only a few feet, or may 
alternate with gently undulating mea- 
dows clothed with patches of willows 
and dwarf birches, or with stunted white 
spruces, which merge gradually into the 
fairly well grown forest which covers 
the sides of the bordering mountains. 

These valleys though largely treeless 
correspond to the stunted forest belt 
of the Mackenzie and most of their 
woody plants are the same. With them 
are found also certain Rocky Mountain 
plants, including the large blue larkspur 
(Delphinium menziesii), western ane- 
mone (Pulsatilla occidentalis] , and the 
yellow paint brush (Castilleja pallida). 
Mammals more or less characteristic 
of these broad valleys are the Osborn 
caribou (Rangifer osborni), the hoary 
marmot (Marmota caligata oxytona], 
the Yukon ground squirrel (Citellus 
plesius), and the British Columbia 
lemming (Lemmus helvolus). The most 
characteristic birds are the willow 
ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus) which 
breeds almost entirely on these brushy 
meadows, the golden-crowned sparrow 
(Zonotrichia coronata), and the western 
tree sparrow (Spizella monticola 
ochracea). 

In these valleys, usually at the sources 
of streams, sometimes in the forest, and 
sometimes above the timberline, lakes 
of clear water occur. About these nest 
Barrow's goldeneye. 

Bordering the valleys a zone of spruce 
usually covers the lower slopes of the 
mountains, which are treeless above an 
altitude of about 5000 ft. The summits 
of the mountains are usually rocky, 
sometimes craggy and precipitous, but 
hold many gently sloping meadows and 
hanging valleys, well-watered and sup- 



porting an alpine flora of great beauty. 
The fauna of the peaks include the 
mountain sheep (Ovis d. stonei) and 
the mountain goat (Oreamnos m. colum- 
bianus} which usually, but not in- 
variably, choose different mountains, 
the hoary marmot, the white-tailed and 
rock ptarmigan, the pipit, the Alaska 
horned lark, and the Hepburn rosy 
finch. 

Below the level of these broad valley 
meadows, where the streams cut their 
way down to the deeper canyons of the 
main valleys, the trees are those of the 
main transcontinental forest, with an 
infusion of west coast types. Populus 
trichocarpa replaces Populus balsami- 
fera, and the red-berried elder is occa- 
sional in the damper situations. The 
plants, however, are virtually the same 
as those of the great interior forest as 
far down the Stikine as the Little Can- 
yon, below which the flora and fauna 
changes abruptly to that characteristic 
of the coast region, elsewhere con- 
sidered. In these lower valleys and the 
adjacent slopes up to about 2000 ft. 
(Canadian Zone), certain birds of the 
Athabaska-Mackenzie region are com- 
mon, including gray ruffed grouse, yel- 
low-bellied sapsucker, eastern night- 
hawk, Say's phoebe, alder flycatcher, 
rusty grackle, Gambel's sparrow, west- 
ern chipping sparrow, junco, cliff swal- 
low, barn swallow, western warbling 
vireo, Tennessee warbler, redstart, olive- 
backed thrush, hermit thrush, with 
many others. With these are found the 
following which are mainly confined to 
the Rocky Mountain region: Hammond 
flycatcher, Wright flycatcher, violet- 
green swallow, Macgillivray warbler, 
Myadestes towns endi, and Ixoreus naevius 
meruloides. 

Yukon: Yukon, stretching through 
nearly ten degrees of latitude, and 
extending from the Arctic Ocean nearly 
the Pacific, lies between Mackenzie, 
British Columbia, and Alaska, and sends 
rivers of considerable size to all of these 
adjacent regions. Its affinities are close 
to Alaska, owing to its contributions 
to the Yukon, Alaska's main waterway. 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



135 



All of the main head tributaries of this 
great stream, the Stewart, Pelly, Lewes, 
and White, together with the Porcupine, 
rise either within Yukon's borders, or 
close to them, and drain about four- 
fifths of its territory. Most of the area 
remaining contributes to the Liard and 
Peel. 

As might be inferred from the fore- 
going discussion of its drainage, the 
Yukon River affords the principal 
means of access to most parts of Yukon 
Territory. From Skagway, at the head 
of navigation on Lynn Canal, the White 
Pass and Yukon Railway takes one to 
Whitehorse at the head of steamboat 
navigation on the Yukon, which may, of 
course, be easily descended with or 
without power. From their junctions 
with the Yukon, the Pelly, Stewart, 
and many smaller streams may be 
ascended by small power boats or by 
tracking well toward the main divide, 
affording access to alpine areas of large 
extent. The Frances Lake region, which 
is drained by Frances River and other- 
tributaries of the Liard, may be reached 
by canoe from the upper Pelly, or from 
the Dease Lake region of British 
Columbia. 

Faunally and florally, Yukon has close 
affinities with both Mackenzie and 
Alaska. Comparison of lists of plants 
of the three sections show very few 
differences. Their mammal and bird 
faunas are also strikingly alike. 

Of the large game animals of Yukon 
the mountain sheep, found on both the 
eastern (Mackenzie) and the western 
slopes of the main Rocky Mountain 
range, here generally referred to as the 
Mackenzie Mountains, as well as in many 
of the ranges to the westward, from 
southern Yukon north to the Arctic 
watershed, is probably the most interest- 
ing. This animal (Ovis dalli), is found 
in its typical form in many of the ranges 
of northern Yukon. To the south it 
gradually becomes darker, finally merg- 
ing into the dark race named Ovis stonei 
of northern British Columbia. Moose, 
caribou, black and grizzly bears, and 
(in extreme southeastern Yukon) moun- 



tain goats, are also found in some 
numbers. 

Most of the small mammals show 
affinities with both Mackenzie and 
British Columbia, in varying degrees. 
The chestnut-cheeked meadow mouse 
(Microtus xanthognathus) , the Hudson 
Bay jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius), 
the Rocky Mountain shrew (Sorex 
obscurus), and the Yukon chipmunk 
(Eutamias b. caniceps) are found in both 
the Mackenzie and Yukon regions. 
The British Columbia wood rat (Neo- 
toma c. saxamans) is a Rocky Mountain 
type, extending northward from British 
Columbia into southern Yukon. 

The avifauna of Yukon, especially as 
regards the smaller land birds, shows 
close affinities with the Mackenzie 
Valley. Conspicuous are the following 
species, most of which probably have a 
breeding range which is continuous from 
Mackenzie to Yukon by way of the low 
valleys tributary to the upper Liard 
and thus including northeastern British 
Columbia. A partial list follows: Co- 
laptes a. borealis, Chordeiles virginianus, 
Empidonax trailli alnorum, Euphagus 
carolinus, Passerculus sandwichensis al- 
audinus, Zonotrichia leucophrys gambeli, 
Junco hyemalis, Petrochelidon lunifrons, 
Hirundo erythrog aster, Tachycineta bi- 
color, Vermivora celata orestera, V. 
peregrina, Dendroica aestiva rubiginosa, 
D. coronata, D. striata, Seiurus auroca- 
pillus, S. noveboracensis notabilis, Wil- 
sonia pusilla, Sitta canadensis, Pen- 
thestes atricapillus septentrionalis, Hylo- 
cichla aliciae, H. ustulata swainsoni, H. 
a. pallasi, and Ixoreus n. meruloides. 
Species which extend northward from 
western British Columbia include the 
following: Selasphorus rufus, Pica p. 
hudsonica, Dendroica townsendi, Empi- 
donax hammondi, Zonotrichia coronata, 
and Tachycineta thalassina lepida. 
Most of these reach the upper Yukon 
(Canadian Zone) only. 

2. The Barren Grounds (Arctic Zone) 

Under this heading will be considered 
the great area lying to the north and 
northeast of Great Bear and Great 



136 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



Slave lakes. It is watered by the 
Anderson, Coppermine, Great Fish, 
Thelon or Ark-i-linik, and many smaller 
rivers. With the exception of Great 
Fish River all those named are wooded 
to some extent on their upper portions, 
but by far the greater part of the area 
drained by them is treeless. It may be 
well to trace the northern boundary of 
the great transcontinental forest from 
the western shore of Hudson Bay to the 
mouth of the Mackenzie. 

Starting from the mouth of Churchill 
River, Hudson Bay, the tree line follows 
the shore closely for a few miles and 
then curves gently inland. Thence it 
extends northwesterly, crossing Nueltin, 
or Island Lake; Ennadai Lake on Kazan 
River; and Boyd Lake on the Dubawnt. 
Just north of 60 on Artillery Lake is 
the next point where we have a definite 
dividing line. Between the Dubawnt 
and Artillery Lake is the valley of the 
upper Thelon, or Ark-i-linik, along 
whose banks the forest extends in a 
narrow line far into the general treeless 
area. This northward extending tongue 
of forest will be more fully described 
beyond. 

From Artillery Lake the line extends 
northwestward to Point Lake, curving 
toward the southwest in the interval 
and crossing Lake Mackay south of 
latitude 64. From Point Lake, whose 
shores are practically devoid of trees, 
nearly to latitude 67, the banks of the 
Coppermine are so thinly wooded that 
the river may be taken as the approxi- 
mate boundary of the woods. Spruces 
occur on the Coppermine as far north 
as the mouth of Kendall River, but are 
absent from the summit of the divide 
between there and Great Bear Lake and 
reappear on lower Dease River. The 
north shore of Great Bear Lake is thinly 
wooded and tongues of timber follow 
the northward-flowing rivers well into 
the Barren Grounds, on the Wilmot 
Horton to latitude 69. The tree line 
crosses the Anderson north of the same 
parallel, and thence extends northwest 
to the mouth of the Mackenzie, probably 
dipping to the south in the interval, as 



is usually the case in the areas between 
rivers. West of the timbered delta of 
the Mackenzie a considerable area ot 
treeless country occurs. 

In general the surface of the Barren 
Grounds may be described as rolling. 
The greater part of its area lies within 
the region of the primitive rocks, and 
many low granitic hills, some of them 
with precipitous cliffs, are found. 
Thousand of lakes, many of consider- 
able extent, and abounding in lake 
trout, dot its surface. There are vast 
areas of grassy plains and gentle slopes, 
on which, during the short summer, the 
bright flowers of a profusion of shrubby 
and herbaceous plants lend their beauty 
to the landscape, and prove the appella- 
tion "Barren Grounds" to be a mis- 
nomer, though in many parts, from the 
nature of the soil, there is little plant 
life. Alders (Alnus alnobetula) occur 
in a more or less dwarfed condition in 
favorable places well into the treeless 
area, and several species of willows, 
some of which here attain a height of 
5 or 6 ft., border some of the streams 
as far north as the Arctic Ocean. These 
are the only trees which occur even in a 
dwarfed state on the Barren Grounds 
proper. 

The northward extension of the coni- 
ferous forest along the banks of north- 
ward-flowing rivers has already been 
referred to. The most remarkable ex- 
ample of this phenomenon is found on 
the Thelon, or Ark-i-linik, a stream 
tributary to Hudson Bay. From a 
point near latitude 62|, which is as far 
south as the river has been explored, 
and is within the main area of the Bar- 
ren Grounds, a more or less continuous 
belt of spruce borders the river as far 
north as latitude 64|, a distance of 
over 200 mi. by the river. A few species 
of woodland-breeding birds follow these 
extensions of the forest to their limits. 

Climatology: No tables of tempera- 
ture taken throughout the year at any 
point in the Barren Grounds are avail- 
able. The winters are, of course, very 
long and the summers short, with the 
intervening seasons practically wanting. 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



137 



Winter sets in soon after the 1st of 
September and persists until May, 
with only a short season of spring. 
During the short summer the progress 
of vegetation is very rapid, but the 
seeds and berries are scarcely ripened 
before winter again asserts its sway. 

Owing to the great thickness of their 
icy covering, some of the lakes of the 
Barren Grounds are not clear of ice in 
backward seasons until July, or even 
August, when new ice has usually begun 
to form in still water. They generally 
break up in late June or early July. 
The rivers, having the advantage of a 
current, open earlier than the lakes. 

During a residence of about five years 
at Fort Anderson, on Anderson River, 
MacFarlane observed the river to set 
fast on two occasions as early as Sep- 
tember 10, though once it remained open 
until October 10. In 1857 the Anderson 
broke up at the mouth of the Lockhart 
on June 12. At Fort Anderson the 
dates of the opening of the river were 
as follows: 1861, about May 15; 1862, 
May 19; 1863, May 30; 1864, May 31; 
1865, June 2. During the last days of 
June, 1864, MacFarlane found nearly all 
the lakes on the Barren Grounds still 
covered with ice, though the rivers 
were open. 

In 1821, when Franklin's party started 
to descend the Coppermine on July 1, 
the lakes on its upper course were still 
covered with ice. Apparently the river 
had opened only a short time before. 
In 1849 Doctor Rae noted the breaking 
up of the same river near its mouth on 
June 28. At this time the leaves of the 
dwarf birches were out, and the leaf 
buds of the willows had begun to de- 
velop. The lower part of the river 
remained blocked with ice until July 13. 

Preserved areas: Backs River Pre- 
serve: This great area containing up- 
wards of 65,000 sq. mi., includes most of 
the valley of Backs River and north to 
the Arctic Coast, from Bathurst Inlet 
east to Backs Inlet. Its natives, chiefly 
Eskimo, retain the sole right to hunt. 
This area is the breeding ground of great 
numbers of the Barren Ground caribou, 



some of which remain in winter, though 
many migrate southward at that sea- 
son. Many musk oxen also are found 
here, this being the only one of the 
several preserves recently established 
which harbors this notable species in 
any numbers. 

S. The region northwest of Hudson Bay 

This section of country has already 
been described, in effect, in the account 
of the Barren Grounds of the Mackenzie 
region. Its rivers excepting those emp- 
tying into Chesterfield Inlet, are not 
readily navigable. Those parts border- 
ing on Hudson Bay can be reached, of 
course, most readily by means of that 
great inland sea, which is itself reached 
either by way of Hudson Strait, or by 
means of the several rivers, navigable by 
canoes only, which enter it from the 
south and southwest. Railroads, 
branches of the Canadian National, now 
take the traveler several hundred miles 
nearer Hudson Bay than formerly, and 
as projected will ultimately reach its 
shores, but at present the journey must 
be completed by canoe or dog-sled. The 
waters of Hudson Bay, furthermore, are 
scarcely nagivable by means of the frail 
canoes by which the passage of these 
rapid and shallow streams must be 
effected, so that access to the region is 
very difficult. Parts of the country 
draining into northwestern Hudson Bay, 
however, can be reached by canoe from 
Great Slave Lake, though the shortness 
of the season of open water makes such 
a journey a very hurried one. 

4. The Arctic Islands (Arctic Zone} 

The Arctic Islands, lying to the north- 
ward of the continent of North America, 
are closely related faunally and florally 
to the neighboring mainland. Being 
more northerly and surrounded by an 
ocean which is frozen over from 6 to 9 
months of the year, it follows that both 
animal and vegetable life include fewer 
species. They are of course treeless, 
and their shrubs comprise only a few 
creeping species, some indeed, the same 
that inhabit more favorable habitats to 



138 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



the southward, but which here, in defer- 
ence to the influence of the chilling winds 
and hard-packed snow against which 
they must struggle, cling closely to their 
parent earth. 

The mammalian inhabitants of the 
Arctic Islands are few in number. The 
musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) occurs only 
on certain ones, the reasons for its choice 
being in many cases difficult or impossi- 
ble of explanation. Its habitat includes 
the peninsulas and islands northward 
from the eastern part of its main conti- 
nental range northeastward to northern 
Greenland. Another island area com- 
prises Banks Land, the adjacent part of 
Victoria Island, and the southern part of 
Melville Island, this aggregate area 
being isolated from the remainder of its 
present range . The only other ruminant 
is the Barren Ground caribou (Rangifer 
arcticus and related forms), which 
inhabits practically all the islands, for- 
saking some of them in winter, but being 
a year-long inhabitant of most of the 
area in question. The other land mam- 
mals include the polar bear (Thalarctos 
maritimus], Arctic fox (Alopex lagopus 
innuitus), Arctic weasel (Mustela 
arctica), an occasional wolverene (Gulo 
luscus), the Arctic hare (Lepus arcticus}, 
pied lemming (Dicrostonyx} , and the 
brown lemming (Lemmus). All these 
are either circumpolar species, or close 
relatives of such. 

The birds of the Arctic Islands are 
more numerous in species, including 
most of the genera already listed as 
breeding on the continental Barren 
Grounds, and a few which are practically 
confined as breeders to these uttermost 
insular lands. 

Most of the Arctic Islands are accessi- 
ble only by sea-going vessels, and can 
be reached practicably only by way of 
Baffin Bay and Lancaster Sound, and its 
various connecting channels. In this 
category may be included all the islands 
and peninsulas lying to the north and 
east of McClintock Channel and McClure 
Strait, and the northern and eastern 
shores of Victoria Land and Banks Land. 
The southern and western shores of these 



latter insular masses may be reached in 
ordinary seasons from the west by way of 
the Arctic Ocean, and Dolphin and Union 
Strait. The reason for this strict divi- 
sion is the drift ice that usually chokes 
the western entrance to McClure Strait, 
which prevented the accomplishment of 
the Northwest passage when it was first 
attempted in 1819, and has since almost 
invariably forbidden the passage of 
vessels in either direction. In winter 
and early spring, by Eskimo methods of 
traveling, these islands are accessible 
from the west and south, but this method 
is seldom practicable for expeditions 
having for their main objective the 
collecting of natural history specimens. 
Plants. Excluding the ferns, grasses, 
and sedges, the plants of the Arctic 
Islands include the following: 

Tofieldia palustris 
Salix arctica 
Salix glauca 
Salix richardsonii 
Salix alaxensis 
Salix reticulata 
Polygonum viv parum 
Oxyria digyna 
Silene acaulis 
Lychnis apetala 
Lychnis affinis 
Stellaria longipes 
Stellaria humifusa 
Cerastium alpinum 
Helianthus peploides 
A isine verna rubella 
Caltha palustris radicans 
Anemone richardsonii 
Ranunculus hyperboreus 
Ranunculus pygmaeus 
Ranunculus sulphureus 
Ranunculus nivalis 
Ranunculus affinis 
Ranunculus sabinii 
Papaver nudicaule 
Draba alpina 
Draba nivalis 
Draba fladnizensis 
Draba hirta 
Braya purpurascens 
Eutrema edwardsii 
Hesperis pallasii 
Cardamine digitata 
Cardamine pratensis 
Parrya arctica 
Chrysosplenium tetrandrum 
Saxifraga rivularis 
Saxifraga cernua 
Saxifraga hirculus 
Saxifraga nivalis 
Saxifraga hieraciifolia 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



Saxifraga decipiens groenlandica 

Saxifraga tricuspidata 

Saxifraga aizoides 

Saxifraga flagellaris 

Saxifraga oppositifolia 

Dryas octopetala 

Dry as integrifolia 

Potentilla pulchella 

Potentilla nivea 

Potentilla rubricaulis 

Potentilla vahliana 

Potentilla emarginata 

Rubus chamaemorus 

Lupinus arcticus 

Astragalus alpinus 

Astragalus aboriginorum 

Oxytropis campestris 

Oxytropis nigrescens 

Oxytropis arctobia 

Hedysarum mackenzii 

Hedysarum alpinum 

Empetrum nigrum 

Epilobium latifolium 

Epilobium angustifolium 

Hippuris vulgaris 

Pyrola grandi 'flora 

Ledum palustre 

Rhododendron lapponicum 

Loiseleuria procumbens 

Cassiope tetragona 

Arctostaphylos alpina 

Vaccinium uliginosum microphylla 

Primula borealis 

Androsace chamaejasme 

Androsace septentrionalis 

Statice armeria sibirica 

Phlox richardsonii 

Polemonium boreale 

Mertensia maritima 

Castilleja pallida 

Pedicularis lapponica 

Pedicularis hirsuta 

Pedicularis sudetica 

Pedicularis arctica 

Pedicularis lanata 

Pedicularis capitata 

Campanula uniflora 

Erigeron uniflorus 

Erigeron compositus 

Artennaria alpina 

Matricaria inodora grandijlora 

Chrysanthemum integrifolium 

Petasites frigida 

Arnica alpina 

Senecio palustris 

Senecio frigidus 

Taraxacum ceratophorum 

Crepis nana 

Preserved areas. Within the area here 
classed under the term Arctic Islands, 
two preserved areas have recently been 
created by the Canadian Government. 
These cover the entire areas of Banks 
Island and Victoria Island respectively. 



Like the areas established at the same 
time in the Mackenzie Basin and along 
Backs River, hunting and trapping by 
natives is allowed, but the areas are 
closed against hunting by white men. 
This will exclude sportsmen but will 
still allow the natives to make legitimate 
use of the game, a vital necessity since 
the areas in question comprise the 
hereditary hunting grounds of either 
Indians or Eskimo, who are almost 
entirely dependent on the chase for their 
subsistence, clothing, and equipment. 

Banks Island: Banks Island contains 
an area of about 26,000 sq. mi. It was 
formerly the home of large numbers of 
musk oxen, but these are believed to be 
now extirpated. Many caribou are still 
found, while the Arctic fox is the only 
fur bearer of importance. The island 
is also the breeding ground of large 
numbers of geese, principally snow geese, 
several species of the more northerly- 
breeding ducks, large numbers of shore- 
birds of several species, and ptarmigan. 

Victoria Island: The principal large 
game of Victoria Island is the caribou. 
The muskox appears not to have inhab- 
ited the island, at least within historic 
times, excepting limited areas near its 
northern shores where it is still found. 
Victoria Island has an area of over 74,000 
sq. mi., and like Banks Island is the 
summer home of great numbers of geese, 
ducks, and shorebirds. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The following list includes a few of the 
more important titles referring to 
northern North America, excluding 
Alaska, Greenland, eastern Franklin, 
and the Ungava Peninsula, with special 
reference to topography and natural 
history. In titles by the author here 
listed (1902, 1908), may be found fuller 
lists of publications relating to most of 
the areas therein treated. 

1795. HEARNE, SAMUEL. A Journey 
from Prince of Wales's Fort in 
Hudson's Bay to the Northern 
Ocean. Undertaken by Order 
of the Hudson's Bay Company, 
for the Discovery of Copper 



140 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



Mines, a North West Passage, 
etc., in the years 1769, 1770, 
1771 and 1772. 4to, pp. i-xliv, 
1-458. London, 1795. There is 
also a Dublin edition, 8vo, 1796, 
and another London edition, 
1807. 

Contains, scattered through- 
out the narrative, many notes 
on the mammals and birds of 
the region; Chapter X, pp. 358- 
458, treats exclusively of the 
natural history of the Barren 
Grounds, and the Great Slave 
Lake and Hudson Bay regions. 

1801 MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER. Voy- 
ages from Montreal, on the 
River St. Laurence, through 
the Continent of North Amer- 
ica, to the Frozen and Pacific 
Oceans; in the years 1789 and 
1793. With a preliminary ac- 
count of the rise, progress and 
present state of the Fur Trade 
of that country. 4to, pp. 412. 
London. 

Mackenzie was the first trav- 
eler to descend the Mackenzie 
River; and the first to cross 
the continent north of Mex- 
ico, which he accomplished by 
ascending the Peace and de- 
scending the rivers west of the 
divide. His narratives of these 
voyages contain many notes 
on natural history. 

1826 PARRY, WILLIAM EDWARD; AND 
Ross, JAMES CLARK. Journal 
of a Third Voyage for the Dis- 
covery of a Northwest Passage 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific ; 
performed in the years 1924r-25, 
in His Majesty's Ships Hecla 
and Fury, under the orders of 
Captain William Edward Parry. 
4to, pp. i-xxvii, 1-186; 1-151. 
(Appendix on Zoology, Ross, 
pp. 1-151.) 

The zoological appendix 
refers mainly to the natural 
history of Port Bowen, where 
the expedition wintered, and 
other points about Prince 
Regent Inlet. A few notes on 
natural history occur in the 
narrative. 

1829 RICHARDSON, J. Fauna Boreali- 
Americana. Part First. Quad- 
rupeds. 4to, pp. i-xlvi, 1-300. 
London. 

This work, in which the 
material accumulated on the 
first two journeys of Franklin 
and the early voyages of Ross 
and Parry is elaborated, con- 
tains a great deal of informa- 



tion on the mammals of the 
Athabaska and Mackenzie 
region. 

1831 SWAINSON, W., AND RlCHARDSON, 

J. Fauna Boreali-Amencana. 
Part Sec9nd. The Birds. 4to, 
pp. i-lxvi, 1-524. London. 

This publication was for many 
years the standard work on the 
birds of British America. 

1875 PETITOT, E. Geographic de 
L' Athabaskaw-Mackenzie et des 
Grands Lacs du Bassin Arctique. 
Bulletin de la Societe de Geog- 
raphic. Pp. 5-42 (July); pp. 
126-183 (August); pp. 242-290 
(September) ; with a map of the 
region from Great Slave Lake 
northward. 

A geographical and general 
description of the region , based 
mainly on the explorations of 
the author, for many years a 
missionary in the Mackenzie 
region. Traveling mainly on 
snowshoes, he visited many 
remote districts never before 
explored. The present account 
and map may be considered the 
official announcement of some 
of his geographical discoveries. 

1888 GREELY, ADOLPHUS W. Report 
on the Proceedings of the 
United States Expedition to 
Lady Franklin Bay, Grinnell 
Land. [Report of International 
Polar Expedition.] 2 vols.; 
pp. 545, 738. Washington. 

This expedition left the 
United States in the Proteus in 
the summer of 1881 and returned 
in 1884. Headquarters were 
established at Fort Conger. 
In Appendix 129 (Vol. II, pp. 
1-10) and App. 131 (Vol. II, 
pp. 19-37, are given the reports 
on mammals and birds, respec- 
tively. In connection with the 
notes recorded on this expedi- 
tion, many recorded by other 
northern expeditions are given. 
This is particularly true in the 
case of birds (Vol. II, pp. 30-37) 
where the principal notes made 
by several Arctic observers 
are summarized in tabular form. 

1890 MACFARLANE, RODERICK Ross. 
Land and Sea Birds nesting 
within the Arctic Circle in the 
Lower Mackenzie District. 
Transaction 39, Historical and 
Scientific Society of Manitoba, 
season 1888-9 (1890). 

An annotated list of the birds 
observed and taken in the 
Anderson River region, from 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



141 



April, 1862, to June, 1865, in- 
clusive; annotations mainly in 
reference to nesting habits, 
nests, and eggs. 

1893 WICKHAM, H. F. Report on an 
Entomological Reconnaissance 
of Southern Alaska and adjacent 
portions of British Columbia. 
Bulletin from the Laboratories 
of Natural History, Univ. of 
Iowa, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 202-233 
with 2 maps. 

Comparison of the lists of 
Coleoptera of the Little Canyon, 
and Glenora, on the Stikine, 
with those found at the mouth 
of the river, and at Fort Simp- 
son on the Mackenzie and other 
interior points. 

1900 OSGOOD, W. H., AND BISHOP, L. B. 
Results of a Biological Recon- 
naissance of the Yukon River 
Region (North American Fauna 
No. 19, 100 pages). General 
Account of the Region; Anno- 
tated List of Mammals, by 
Wilfred H. Osgood; Annotated 
List of Birds, by Louis B. 
Bishop. 

Relates to a natural history 
expedition made along the 
Yukon in 1899. 

1902 PREBLE, EDWARD A. A Biological 
Investigation of the Hudson 
Bay Region (North American 
Fauna No. 22, 140 pages). 

Annotated lists of the mam- 
mals, birds, and reptiles and 
batrachians of the country bor- 
dering Hudson Bay on the west 
and northwest. Account of a 
natural history expedition con- 
ducted in 1900. Bibliography. 

1908 PREBLE, EDWARD A. A Biological 
Investigation of the Athabaska- 
Mackenzie Region (North 
American Fauna, No. 27, 574 
pages). 

Topographic and historic 
description of the region, with 
special reference to its natural 
history. Annotated lists of 
mammals, birds, reptiles, and 
amphibians, fishes, and trees 
and shrubs; extensive bibli- 
ography. Bibliography. 

1922 HOLM, THEODOR. Contributions 
to the Morphology, Synonymy, 
and Geographical Distribution 
of Arctic Plants. Report of the 
Canadian Arctic Expedition, 
1913-18, part B, vol. 5, pp. 4B- 
139B. 

Includes list of species found 
in Arctic North America with 
distribution indicated. 



1922 SWARTH, H. S. Birds and mam- 

mals of the Stikine River region 
of northern British Columbia 
and southeastern Alaska. 
Univ. of Calif. Pub. in Zool., 
Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 125-314. 

Results of a somewhat in- 
tensive study of the fauna of 
the Stikine Valley from its 
mouth to Telegraph Creek, 
including discussion of zooge- 
ography. 

1923 DALL, WILLIAM H. Land and 

Fresh water Mollusks. Harri- 
man Alaska Expedition. Vol. 
XIII. 

List of land and fresh water 
mollusks of Mackenzie, Alaska, 
and whole northern part of 
British America. 



7. ALASKA 
BY W. H. OSGOOD 

I. GENERAL 

Alaska has an area of 590,000 sq. mi. 
or about one-fifth that of the United 
States. The main part of it lies between 
the same parallels of latitude as the 
Scandinavian Peninsula. Its shores are 
washed on the north by the Arctic Ocean 
on the west by Bering Sea, and on the 
south by the Pacific. Its coastline is 
very long and much indented, and there 
are many outlying islands. It is largely 
a mountainous region, although flat- 
lands of considerable area are found on 
its northern coast and about the deltas 
and in parts of the valleys of its larger 
rivers. In general, the mountains are 
in two series, northerly extensions of 
the main continental systems. The 
Pacific or Coast system follows the coast 
and curves southward to include the 
Aleutian Islands . The Rocky Mountain 
system, continuous from Canadian terri- 
tory, is parallel in general trend with the 
coast system but separated from it by 
a wide plateau through which course 
Alaska's two greatest rivers, the Yukon 
and the Kuskokwim. 

Notwithstanding its great area and 
its complex topographic features, in- 
cluding the highest mountains in North 
America, the greatest glaciers, and 
some of the largest rivers and forests, 



142 



NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS 



it is easily divisible into a few general 
regions in which biological conditions 
are broadly similar. At least four 
primary divisions are necessary: (1) the 
humid and relatively warm southeastern 
or Sitkan region; (2) the intermediate 
glacial region lying next to the coast 
just northwestward; (3) the wooded 
plateau and mountains of the interior, 
and (4) the treeless coast of the Arctic 
and Bering Sea. 

II. REGIONAL ACCOUNTS 

1. Southeastern region 

A. Topography. This is the so-called 
panhandle of Alaska extending from the 
British Columbian boundary to the 
vicinity of Lynn Canal and including 
a narrow strip of wholly mountainous 
coast and numerous adjacent islands, 
some of considerable size and also moun- 
tainous. The mainland is only 20 mi. 
in average width and is much dissected 
by long fjords bounded on either side by 
mountains rising sheer from the water. 
These fjords and smaller channels are 
very deep and usually navigable for large 
vessels. The mountains rise to heights 
from 5000 to 8000 ft . with timberlines from 
2000 to 3000 ft., the higher elevations 
mostly to the northward. One large navi- 
gable river, the Stikine, breaks through 
the mountain wall. In the northern part 
of the region, another river of consider- 
able size is the Taku, but although other 
streams are numerous, they are all of 
small size. At the head of some of the 
inlets and on the higher slopes are gla- 
ciers of some size, although small as 
compared to those found farther north. 
The evergreen forests, snow-crowned 
mountains and narrow waterways com- 
bine to make the region exceedingly 
picturesque. The islands of the Alex- 
ander Archipelago lie close to the main- 
land and are similar to it in character, 
but the relief is generally lower and in 
many cases the mountains are fully 
timbered. Some of the islands are 
quite large, Prince of Wales, the largest, 
being about 140 mi. long and 40 mi. wide. 

B. Climate. The climate of south- 



eastern Alaska is relatively mild and, 
in general, is similar to that of the Puget 
Sound region. In ordinary winters but 
little snow falls, and severe cold is 
almost unknown. At Sitka, the mean 
for February, the coldest month, is 33 
and for August, the warmest, it is 57.2. 
The region is subject to much rain and 
cloudy weather. At Sitka and Juneau, 
the annual precipitation is about 90 in. 
and at stations farther southeast, annual 
rainfall may be as much as 130 in. The 
greatest fall is during the months from 
September to January and the pleasant- 
est months as well as the warmest are 
May, June and July. The rains are 
usually of the soft gentle variety but 
often continuous for many days and 
nights at a time. 

C. Original biota. Vegetation: Al- 
though the region has been inhabited for 
many years and has been exploited to 
some extent, its general biological condi- 
tions are not greatly changed. The 
forests are so vast that the consumption 
of lumber for local purposes has had 
little effect and no great amount of 
exporting has yet taken place. This is 
partly due to the bringing of over 1000 
sq. mi. under federal control in the 
Tongass National Forest. The entire 
region below an altitude of 2000 ft. is 
heavily grown with coniferous forest. 
This consists of the giant cedar (Thuja] , 
which is generally distributed; the yel- 
low cedar (Chamaecyparis}, mostly scat- 
tered except in a few fine stands; the 
Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis} , com- 
mon throughout; the western hemlock 
(Tsuga heterophylla] , very abundant; 
the yew (Taxus vrevifolia), locally abun- 
dant; and the mountain hemlock (Tsuga 
mertensiana) , scarce and local. The 
important timber tree, the Douglas 
Spruce (Pseudotsuga'), does not occur, 
its northern limit being reached in 
British Columbia. Underbrush and her- 
baceous plants are everywhere very 
luxuriant, The principal shrubs are 
Alnus, Ribes, V actinium, Viburnum, 
Menziezia, Gaultheria, and Echinopanax. 
At higher elevations on the mountains 
is an alpine flora. 



NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS 



143 



Animals: A characteristic large mam- 
mal is the Sitka deer, g