Nature & Faune
Vol. 22, Issue 1
The Value of Biodiversity
^1^1,
V
FAO Regional Office for Africa
Nature & Faune
^ Vol. 22, Issue 1
The Value of Biodiversity
Editor: E. Mansur
Assistant Editors: L. Bakker, A. Ndeso-Atanga
FAO Regional Office for Africa
Nature-faune@fao.org
http://www.fao.org/world/regional/raf/workprog/forestry/magazine_en.htm
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANISATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Accra, Ghana
2007
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%AO 2007
Table of Contents
Preface
Editorial iv
News
News in Africa 1
News Worldwide 2
FAONews 2
Thematic News 5
Special Feature
Biodiversity and Climate Change 7
NeilPratt
Articles
Conservation and development: The influence of accessibility, participatory management and
immigration around the Benoue National Park in Cameroon 10
Dominique Endamana, Jeffrey Sayer, Gilles Etoga and Lambert Bene Bene
Forest Biological Diversity and Forest Tree and Shrub Genetic Resources:
concepts, conservation strategies, priorities and values 2 1
Christel Palmberg-Lerche
Pygeum: Money growing on trees in the Cameroon Highlands 29
Verina Ingram and Amos Tume Nsawir
Gaps in the Forest Valuation Equation: the case of Kenya 37
Mohammed El Mongy
Biodiversity surveys in file of Nature & Faune 44
Country Focus
Interview with Mr. M. C.S. Foloma and Mr. B. Soto from Mozambique 45
FAO Activities
Non-Wood Forest Products 48
Forest Genetic Resources 49
Links 50
Theme and Deadline for Next Issue 53
Guidelines for Authors, Subscription and Correspondence 53
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
Preface
In the past few months some important initiatives regarding Biodiversity have taken place. On 22 May
it was the UN International Day for Biological Diversity with a focus on Climate Change. Neil Pratt, of
the Convention on Biodiversity secretariat kindly wrote a Special Feature for this issue of Nature &
Faune (see 'Special Feature'). The 14th Conference of the Parties (COP) to the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) tookplace in the Netherlands (see 'News'). At the
same time, the United Nations University instated a Database for wildlife trade; 'Wildlife
Enforcement Monitoring System '(see' Links ').FAO organized the second inter-sessional meeting to
the AFWC in Rabat, where it was decided that next year's African Forestry and Wildlife Commission,
which will be held in Sudan on February 17-22, will embrace the theme 'Forests and Wildlife in a
Changing Environment'. The Commission shall dedicate a full day to the Role of Wildlife and
Protected Areas in the Sustainable Development ofAfrica (see 'News')
Hence, this issue of Nature & Faune, focusing on the theme 'The Value of Biodiversity' comes at an important
moment. We received varied articles discussing the value of biodiversity at various levels. The article by
Endamana etal. on conservation and development, focuses on the trade-offs between 'natural' capital and social,
human, physical and financial capital in Cameroon and the effects of accessibility, participative management and
immigration. Palmberg-Lerche examines concepts, strategies and priority setting in the conservation of forest
biodiversity, focusing on the management of forest tree and shrub genetic resources. The article by Ingram and
Nsawir looks at one particularly precious tree species, Prunus qfricana, and the regulatory framework for its
exploitation. El Mongy gives an overview of the value of entire forest ecosystems in Kenya and the reasons for
deforestation.
Whether you are living in the choice neighborhoods of Tunis or in the dense evergreen rain forests of Equatorial
Guinea, biological diversity is of value to you. Besides the timber and fuel wood procured from forests, access to
medicinal plants, fruit trees, wild vegetables, fish, bushmeat etc. are all well known values of biological diversity,
especially to rural people. The environmental services provided by forests, woodland and protected areas include
sequestration of carbon; moderating soil; hydrological and aquatic systems; reducing the risks from natural
disasters (floods, landslides, drought); regulation of pests and disease; landscaping and, off course, conserving
biodiversity. Values of biodiversity which are marketable could benefit communities, such as income from Non-
Wood Forest Products trade including fuel wood, hunting and trade in bushmeat or through benefit sharing
schemes based on eco-tourism and trophy hunting revenues. An increasing number of projects are being initiated
to market ecological services such as hydrological regulation and carbon sequestration.
The need for expressing the values of biodiversity and the ecosystem services it supports in monetary values
remains an issue of debate amongst scientists and practitioners. For the time being, many natural resources and
services do not have a price tag, nor a market to establish the price and promote trade. Political and economic
decisions can only be sensibly made when the advantages and disadvantages of various alternatives are explicit.
By increasing the understanding of biodiversity values, monetary and non-monetary, we can only hope the costs
and benefits stemming fi-om biodiversity can be revealed, decision makers become more aware, and more
informed management choices are made based on the consequences of preserving and sustainably using these
resources.
We wish you continued reading pleasure.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
Announcements
Changing baton at Nature & Faune
We say good bye to Michel Laverdiere, who held the mantle of leadership as the Editor for Nature & Faune from
July 2006 to April 2007. Mr. Laverdiere has been appointed as the new Forestry Officer for the FAO Subregional
Office for Eastern Africa with base in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The Editorial Board thanks him for the role he
played and wishes him the best at his new post.
At the same breath we are pleased to inform you that Mr. Eduardo Mansur arrived in Accra, Ghana in July 2007 to
assume the post of Senior Forestry Officer at FAO's Regional Office for Africa. We welcome him as the new
Editor of Nature & Faune magazine.
Saluting our board of reviewers!
Nature & Faune would like to recognize and honor its board of reviewers for their valuable feedback on the articles
submitted to the magazine. Members of Nature & Faune Board of reviewers include: Alan Rodgers; Douglas
Williamson; El Hadji M. Sene; Guy Debonnet; Jean Djigui Keita; Kai WoUscheid and Philippe Chardonnet. The
editorial board and the readership salute their expert advice and look forward to continuing collaboration.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
ui
Editorial
The Value of Biodiversity
Douglas Williamson
Biological diversity relates to the variety of life forms: the different plants, animals and microorganisms, the genes
they contain, and the ecosystems they form. Three different forms of biodiversity are recognized: genetic
diversity, which refers to "the variety of genetic information contained in all of the individual plants, animals and
microorganisms" {V); species diversity, which refers to the variety of plant, animal and microorganismic species;
and ecosystem diversity, which "relates to the variety of habitats, biotic communities, and ecological processes, as
well as the tremendous diversity present within ecosystems in terms of habitat differences and the variety of
ecological processes " (2) . Ecosystems can be difficult to delineate because an ecosystem is essentially a human
concept rather than a self-defining, self-evident entity in the way that trees and birds are.
Biodiversity provides many material benefits to people, as is apparent from the following list of ecosystem
services (3)
Provision of food, fiiel and fiber
Provision of shelter and building materials
Purification of air and water
Detoxification and decomposition of wastes
Stabilization and moderation of the Earth's climate
Moderation of floods, droughts, temperature extremes and the forces of wind
Generation and renewal of soil fertility, including nutrient cycling
Pollination of plants, including many crops
Control of pests and diseases
Maintenance of genetic resources as key inputs to crop varieties and livestock breeds, medicines and other
products
• Ability to adapt to change
Biodiversity also provides people with cultural, aesthetic and spiritual benefits, so there are manifestly many ways
in which people currently benefit from biodiversity, as they have done throughout human history.
But it is possible that "the greatest value of the variety of life may be the opportunities it gives us for adapting to
change. The unknown potential of genes, species and ecosystems is of inestimable but certainly high value.
Genetic diversity will enable breeders to tailor crops to new climatic conditions, while the Earth's biota is likely to
hold still undiscovered cures for known and emerging diseases. A multiplicity of genes, species, and ecosystems is
a resource that can be tapped as human needs change." (4)
These human-centred considerations are not the only reason for valuing biodiversity. There are many people who
believe that biodiversity, especially in the form of highly intelligent species such as great apes, elephants and
whales, should be valued for its own sake and not merely for its usefulness to humans. This view is eloquently
expressed by the distinguished conservationist, David Ehrenfeld:
"The non-humanistic value of communities and species is the simplest of all to state: they should be conserved
because they exist and because this existence is itself but the present expression of a continuing historical process
of immense antiquity and maj esty . Long standing existence in Nature is deemed to carry with it the unimpeachable
right to continued existence" (5).
Given its undeniable value, it is disturbing that biodiversity is so obviously and so widely being used
unsustainably, or wantonly destroyed for short term commercial gain. There is thus an urgent need to take all
possible steps to reduce the rate of biodiversity loss in Africa. Effective action will require contributions from
African governments and conservationists, international conservationists working in Africa, and the provision of
adequate financial resources by rich countries.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
References
1. http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/ publications/ series/paper 1/
2. Ibid.
3. http://www.chinabiodiversity.com/shengwudyx2/ training/ chapter5.htm
4. http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/ pubHcations/ series/paper 1/
5. http://redpath-museum.mcgill.ca/Obp/2.About%20 Biodiversity/ importance.html#non-humans
Ehrenfeid, D. 1 972. Conserving Life on Earth. New York, NY: Oxford University Press
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Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
News
News in Africa
Guinea creates the first African vulture
sanctuary
Source: Guy Rondeau, Afrique Nature
International, 20 November 2006
To conserve some of the last populations of six
species of vultures in West-Africa, Guinea has
created a new protected area in the Fouta Djallon
Massif, with a size of approximately 450,000 ha.
According to Guy Rondeau, main threats to these
'epidemiological containments', consists of killing
of the birds for medicinal purposes and fetishism, as
well as for meat; collection of the eggs and death
through scavenging on carcasses of problem animals
such as hyenas and lions poisoned by farmers. Other
factors influencing the decline in vultures could be
the lack of carcasses due to the disappearance of
large game and better health of farm animals.
Afrique Nature International, in collaboration with
Fauna and Flora International, the Endangered
Wildlife Trust and Guinee Ecologie have
established a regional programme to prevent the
vultures in West- Africa from going extinct, entitled
Duga. The goal is to stabilize rediscovered
populations, which currently do not benefit from any
protection, in rural areas in Guinee, Mali and
Gambia.
For more information, please see:
http://www.afrLature.org
or write to : g.rondeau(g)afriature.org
Largest Conservation Park in the world:
Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Park
Source: BBC, 28 June 2007
While the biggest game park in Africa is currently
the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, a
Memorandum of Understanding signed in
December 2006 between Botswana, Zimbabwe,
Zambia, Namibia and Angola paves the way for the
establishment of the largest park in the world:
Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Park (or Kaza
Park). The park shall cover 280,000 km',
encompassing the Okavango and Zambezi river
basin, including a total of 36 national parks, game
reserves, community wildlife areas and wildlife
management areas such as Victoria Falls, Okavango
Delta, Chobe Game Reserve and Caprivi Strip. It is
anticipated that the park shall be frilly established in
2010 and shall attract up to eight million tourists to
the region, as well as generate employment.
For more information, please see:
http://www.kazapark.com/
Draft Norms and Standards for the Management
of Elephants in South Africa
Source: Website of Ministry of Environment and
Tourism, South Africa, 28 February 2007
On 2 March 2007, the Government of South Africa
published the Draft Norms and Standards (DN&S)
for the Management of Elephants in South Africa. In
the light of the idea that scientific information alone
cannot resolve value differences, policy guidelines
were needed to provide a framework within which
government can make decisions, and within which
management plans can be formulated by agencies
responsible for protecting elephants and the
ecological systems in which they exist.
Guiding Principles, that will inform decision
making, are based on respect for elephants,
reverence for humans and recognition that policy
makers are faced with a degree of scientific
uncertainty in their decision making.
The DN&S therefore provide for population control
of elephants using one or more of the following
options:
• range manipulation (meaning water supply
management, enclosure or exclosure, the
creation of corridors of movement between
different areas or the expansion of the range by
acquisition of additional land)
• removal by translocation;
• introduction of elephants;
• contraception; and
• culling.
Numerous individuals and organizations
commented on the DN&S, and the consolidated
document with comments will be discussed with
relevant stakeholders and finalized.
For more information, please see:
http://www.info.gov.za/gazette/notices/2007/2967
4.pdf
Zimbabwe dehorns rhino's
Source: Reuters, lJune2007
Zimbabwe's Parks and Wildlife Authority
announced that it shall engage in dehorning of black
and white Rhino's in order to deter poachers. The
horns shall be kept in a secured place for Zimbabwe's
future generations.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
Congo Basin receives US$ 98 million from British
Government
Source: Reuters, 29 March 2007
At a news conference, the British Ambassador to the
Democratic Republic of Congo announced that the
British government shall deposit 50 million pounds
(US$ 98 million) to the African Development Bank,
to start an African environment fund as requested by
an African Union summit in January in Addis
Ababa. In order to safeguard the Congo basin
ecosystem, ten central African countries seek a total
of US$ 2 billion to fund a conservation plan agreed
upon in 2005 and envisaged to run until 2013.
News Worldwide
IPCC adopts major assessment of climate change
science
Source: IPCC, 2 February 2007
On 1 February, Working Group I of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
adopted the Summary for Policymakers of the first
volume of "Climate Change 2007: The Physical
Science Basis" also known as the Fourth
Assessment Report (AR4). The report draws on
work by about 2500 specialists from more than 130
nations and assesses the current scientific
knowledge of the natural and human drivers of
climate change, observed changes in climate, the
ability of science to attribute changes to different
causes, and projections for future climate change.
The report says it is at least 90% certain that mankind
is to blame for the warming in the last half century,
and that temperatures will rise by 1.8 to 4.0 degrees
Celsius this century.
For more information, please see:
http://www.ipcc.ch/SPM040507.pdf
12.4% of the total of 9,821 extant bird species in
the world is considered threatened with
extinction
Source: Bird Life International, 21 May 2007
Of the total of 9,82 1 extant bird species in the world,
1,221 species of birds, representing 12.4%, are
considered threatened with extinction. BirdLife
International's annual Red List update made known
that "an additional 812 bird species are now
considered Near Threatened, adding up to a total of
2,033 species that are urgent priorities for
conservation action. The overall conservation status
of the world's birds has deteriorated steadily since
1988, when they were first comprehensively
assessed. Now, more than a fifth (22%) of the
planet's birds is at increased risk of extinction".
For more information, please see :
www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html
ZSL launches The EDGE of Existence
programme
Source: ZSL, January 2007
The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) launched
the EDGE (Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally
Endangered) programme to protect some of the
world's most bizarre and unusual animals. It is the
first global-scale programme which will focus on
those species with few close relatives and which are
highly distinct genetically. These animals are also
extremely endangered and desperately in need of
immediate action to save them from becoming
extinct.
ZSL is starting work to protect ten EDGE species
this year, including the Yangtze River dolphin,
Attenborough's long-beaked echidna (egg-laying
mammal), Hispaniolan solenodon (venomous
shrew-like creature), Bactrian camel, Pygmy
hippopotamus. Slender Loris (a shy, nocturnal
primate with gigantic eyes), Hirola antelope
(antelope known as "four-eye antelope", as their
preorbital glands look like a second set of eyes),
Golden-rumped elephant shrew (the size of a small
rabbit; can run at speeds of up to 25km/h),
Bumblebee bat (possibly the world's smallest
mammal), Long-eared jerboa (mouse-like animals
with the largest ear to body ratio of any mammal).
For more information, please see:
http://www.edgeofexistence.org/home.asp
FAONews
The Working Party on Wildlife and Protected
Areas (WPWPA) of the African Forestry and
Wildlife Commission (AFWC): Looking at its
achievements and potentials for improvement
Source: Nhantumbo, March 2007
The Working Party on Wildlife and Protected Areas
(WPWPA), a subsidiary body of the African
Forestry and Wildlife Commission (AFWC), has
been the object of an independent evaluation.
The AFWC is one of the FAO statutory bodies,
created in the 1950's. According to the Statutes and
Rules of Procedure approved by the FAO Council in
November 1988 its mandate is '...to advise on the
formulation of forest policy and to review and
coordinate its implementation at the regional plane,
to exchange information and generally through
special subsidiary bodies, advise on suitable
practices and action in relation to technical
problems, and make appropriate
recommendations. . .'.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
The WPWPA was established in the early 1 960s as a
subsidiary body of the AFWC. Its first mandate was
to draft the African Convention on Wildlife
Conservation. This later expanded to include the
addressing of emerging issues and to respond to the
continuous internal reflection, monitoring and
strategic evaluation of its role in wildlife
management in Africa. In 1978 the FAO Assistant
Director General and Director of Forestry
Department highlighted three reasons why the
Working Party played an important role in FAO's
business: (i) Wildlife as a source of food demands
prominence in respect to sustainable utilization and
science based cropping for increased production of
protein for human consumption; (ii) Wildlife
provides opportunity for increased foreign exchange
earning through responsible tourism; (iii) The
recreational role of wildlife.
In October 2006, the FAO Regional Office for
Africa commissioned an assessment of the
WPWPA. The focus of the assessment was to review
the documentation of the various meetings of the
WPWPA and analyse the issues addressed over the
years and the challenges encountered in the process;
as well as to discuss the issues through interviews
with key stakeholders within the AFWCAVPWPA,
fairly covering all regions in Africa. The aim of the
assessment was to respond to some critical aspects
including (i) the fiinctionality of the Working Party
in terms of mandate, relevance, structure and
linkages with its main body the AFWC; (ii) the
benefits brought by the WPWPA to the AFWC and
wildlife management in Africa and (iii) the lessons
that could be the base for consolidating
achievements and making improvements. The
assessment was concluded in March 2007 with the
report outlining the main findings and
recommendations .
According to the report of the independent
evaluation, Africa still needs a platform such as
WPWPA that brings together member countries and
other stakeholders to jointly address the many
challenges related to wildlife management and
protected areas. The report highlights main areas of
importance regarding the fiinctionality of the
WPWPA: issues with the membership
representation; the mandate; the leadership as
represented by the bureau, who owns and drives the
working party; and finally the priority of wildlife
within FAO.
The report made two urgent recommendations: the
first calls for a new vision on the role and
responsibilities of the WPWPA whose focus must be
more about responding to key issues in wildlife
sector relevant to the region; the second
recommendation demands a new Terms of
Reference (TOR) embodying the new vision for
WPWPA.
The AFWC held its second Intersessional meeting in
Rabat, Morocco in July 2007 during which it
approved the report of the independent evaluation of
the WPWPA. It also agreed to set aside an entire day
during the next regular session of the AFWC
commission in early 2008 to discuss wildlife and
protected area issues including a review of the
recommendations of the evaluation report. This
meeting is seen as an opportunity for developing a
roadmap for a reform and a revamping of the
WPWPA/AFWC. The reform, it is envisaged,
would align the Working Party activities with
current and emerging international discourse and
overarching goals. For more information on
WPWPA and AFWC visit:
http : //www, fao .org/forestrv/site/afwc/en
AFWC Inter-sessional: 16" AFWC and 18"
NEFC sessions to be lield in Sudan in early 2008.
Source: E. Mansur, July 2007
The second intersession meeting of the Bureau of the
African Forestry and Wildlife Commission
(AFWC), and that of the Near East Forestry
Commission (NEFC) were held in Rabat, Morocco,
between 3 and 5 July 2007. For the first fime, two
Commissions' intersessional meetings were held
together, taking advantage of the fact that both
Commissions have 9 Northern African countries as
common members.
On the occasion, Sudan formalized its offer to host
the next sessions of both Commissions. The
proposal, warmly welcomed by the two Bureaus,
will allow for the 1 6" AFWC and the 1 8* NEFC to be
simultaneously held in Khartoum, from 17 to 22
February 2008. It promises to become a major
forestry event for Africa and the Near East.
In line with the current global debate, the AFWC
Bureau proposed the theme oV Forests and Wildlife
in a Changing Environment" as the overarching
issue for debate, highlighting the importance of
forests and wildlife relations with other sectors, and
with activities of common influence.
The joint sessions will be preceded by two Seminars,
one concerning 'Forests and Climate Change', and
another on 'Institutional Adaptation: Governance
and decentralization in forestry and wildlife related
sectors in Africa'. The conclusions and
recommendations of the pre-session Seminars will
be brought to the attention of the Commissions for
approval and endorsement.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
For more information, please see
www.fao.org/forestry/site/3 1 088/en
or contact the Secretaries of the Commissions
(eduardo.mansur(%fao.org for AFWC;
dijby.kone@fao.org for NEFC)
enterprises, which run from harvesting, production
and processing to marketing.
For more information, please see :
http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/field/2007/10004
87/index.html
FAO's Forestry Department establishes
Community-based Tree and Forest Enterprise
Development (CBED) Programme with funding
from the Norwegian government.
Source: FAO, 3 February 2007
An innovative new approach from FAO is helping
poor people around the world turn trees into cash
income - without felling the trees. It's not just timber
companies that benefit from forests ~ about 1.6
billion people worldwide depend on them for all or
part of their livelihoods. And they often do so in
ways that don't always involve cutting down trees,
but through harvesting of renewable, non-wood
forest products.
Fruits, nuts, herbs and spices, resins, gums, fibres ~
all these non-wood forest products (NWFPs)
provide poor families around the world with food,
nutrition and income. Indeed, some 80 percent of the
population of developing countries use such
products in one way or another to meet health and
nutritional needs.
People could do even more with these renewable
resources in order to fight hunger and poverty. There
are possibly more efficient ways to harvest and
process them into products that sell for more in local
markets, and can be marketed overseas as well. That
is why FAO's Forestry Department established its
Community-based Tree and Forest Enterprise
Development (CBED) Programme with funding
from the Norwegian government. Under the
programme poor communities are helped to set up,
sustain and grow small businesses while giving them
incentives to better manage and protect their
resource base, allowing them to tap the wealth of
nearby forest resources without hurting or depleting
them.
In CBED projects, FAO teams up with government
extension agents and non-governmental
organizations to work with forest communities and
learn how they are making use of the available forest
products. Using a participatory learning process,
detailed surveys of local forest resources are
conducted, studies of local and regional markets are
undertaken and new products, manufacturing and
marketing opportunities are identified. At the same
time, the communities draw up management plans
for the sustainable use of the targeted natural
resources and develop business plans for pilot
FAO and UNEP to lead GEF's cross-cutting
Strategic Programme on Sustainable Forest
Management
Source: FAO, July 2007
The Global Environmental Facility (GEF), the
funding mechanism that supports implementation of
Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEA),
initiated a cross-cutting programme on sustainable
forest management. FAO and UNEP where defined
as leading agencies of the initiative, which focuses
on two Strategic Objectives:
1. Conservation of globally-significant forest
biodiversity, aiming to contribute to forest
biodiversity conservation and sustainable use
in protected area systems;
2. Sustainable management and use of forest
resources, aiming at the sustainable
management of production forests.
Under Protected Areas, the new strategic
programme will focus on projects that will
demonstrate clear additionality and global
environmental benefits on:
• Sustainable financing for Protected Area
systems;
• Strengthening terrestrial Protected Areas
networks;
• Forest conservation to protect carbon stocks and
avoid C02 emission.
Under Production Forests, the project will target
global environmental additionalities in:
• Strengthening policy and regulatory framework
to mainstream forest biodiversity;
• Prevention, control and management of invasive
alien species in forest ecosystems;
• Fostering markets for forest biodiversity goods
and services;
• Sustainable forest management (SFM) in
production landscapes;
• Promoting sustainable energy production from
biomass.
Funds for projects under this new strategic
programme are being allocated from the GEF
thematic areas of Biodiversity, Land Degradation
and Climate Change.
For more information and for the development of
project ideas, please contact the FAO GEF Focal
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
Point at the Forestry Department
(wulf.killmann(g>fao.org ), the Forestry Officers of
your FAO Sub-Regional office, or the Regional
Forestry Officer in your Region
(eduardo.mansur(g> fao.org in Africa,
djiby.kone(g> fao.org in the Near East,
patrick.durst@fao.org in Asia, and
Carlos. cameiro(S)fao.org in Latin America and the
Caribbean).
Thematic News
CITES COP 14
Source: CITES, Nature, BBC, ENS, June 2007
From 3-15 June 2007, the 14* Conference of the
Parties (COP) to the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) was held in
The Hague, The Netherlands. The COP is
administered by the UN Environment Programme
(UNEP) and is held every three years to discuss
international trade in species. Some of the following
issues were discussed and decided upon:
• The international trade in ivory was banned in
1989. Only a one-off sale of a total of 50 tons of
stockpiled ivory had been allowed from
Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe into Japan,
approved in 1997, and amounted to US$ 5
million. While more than a dozen African
countries, led by Mali and Kenya had asked for a
20-year moratorium on ivory trade, Botswana
(20 tons), Namibia (10 tons), South Africa (30
tons) and Zimbabwe will be allowed an
additional sale from stockpiles. Exports were
agreed in principle in 2002, but were made
conditional on the establishment of up-to-date
and comprehensive baseline data on poaching
and population levels. The elephant populations
of southern Africa are listed on Appendix II,
while all other populations are on Appendix I.
No further sales from the four countries will be
considered by CITES for nine years;
• Uganda's request to allow a limited export of
leopard (Panthera pardus) skins was approved,
Mozambique's request to increase the annual
export quota for hunting trophies and skins was
approved;
• The meeting called upon better cross-border
regulation between countries along rhino horn
smuggling routes and tougher domestic controls,
as well as better management of horn stocks in
response to concerns over a continued decline in
rhinoceros populations;
• The trade in Corallium, red and pink corals, shall
be limited;
• The red-tinted Brazil wood {Caesalpina
echinata) used for making violin bows, shall be
protected against over-logging;
• The trade in three species of slow loris
{Nycticebus bengalensis, N pygmaeus and A^.
coucang) in South and Southeast Asia, traded as
'tame' pet primates, shall be banned;
• All trade in sawfish (members of the Pristidae
family), occurring all over the globe, shall be
banned;
• Proposals to regulate the trade in Spiny dogfish
{Squalus acandthias) were rejected;
• CITES issued a statement on tiger breeding
programmes, saying that they should be used for
conservation only, as a response to China's
intention to reconsider a 14-year-old domestic
ban on trading tigers.
For more general information, please see:
www.cites.org/eng/news/meetings/copl4.shtml
www.iisd.ca/cites/cop 1 4
http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/jun2007/2007-
06- 15-01. asp
For information on the ivory trade, please see:
www.cites.org/eng/news/press/2007/070614_ivory
.shtml
A new international, multidisciplinary initiative
that promotes Agricultural biological diversity
Source: FAO, March 2007
A new international initiative on biodiversity for
food and nutrition under the umbrella of the
Convention of Biological Diversity has taken root.
FAO, together with Bioversity International
(formerly IPGRI), leads this new international,
multidisciplinary initiative that recognizes the
essential role of biodiversity and promotes its
sustainable use for food security and nutrition, as a
contribution to the achievement of the Millennium
Development Goals. An innovative aspect of the
initiative is that it promotes the use of local
biodiversitytraditional foods of indigenous and local
communities, within well-managed ecosystems,
with their many sources of nutritionally-rich foodsas
a readily accessible, locally empowering, and
sustainable sources of quality nutrition through
dietary diversity. The overall aim of this
collaborative effort is to promote the sustainable use
of biodiversity in programmes contributing to food
security and human nutrition, and to thereby raise
awareness of the importance of this link for
sustainable development.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
In early 2008, FAO and Bioversity International
intend to conduct the first West African Graduate
Course on Food Composition and Biodiversity in
Accra, Ghana.
For more information, please see:
http://www.fao.org/infoods/biodiversity/index_en.
stm and
http:www.biodiversityintemational.org
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
Special Feature
Biodiversity and Climate Change
Neil Pratt'
There can be few sights more emblematic of the impacts of climate change than the disappearing snows of Mount
Kilimanjaro. Images from just a few decades ago, showing an abundant white cap on the majestic peak, contrast
starkly with the tiny patch of glacier remaining today. Within 20 years, it is projected, the glacier may disappear
entirely.
Beyond this very visible symbol of the changes humans have made to the natural systems of the planet, the
mountain holds a more subtle message for the African continent and beyond. It demonstrates the vital link between
climate change and the urgent need to conserve the dwindling variety of life on Earth.
Kilimanjaro has lost more than its glaciers. In the last 30 years, it is estimated that around 10 per cent of the richly-
diverse cloud forests on its slopes have been lost to fire, in part provoked by the hotter and drier conditions that
have caused the snow and ice to disappear. The mountain forests have also been diminished by illegal logging and
by clearing for plantations of crops and fast-growing alien tree species.
The impact of this deforestation on the lives of people in the region is arguably much greater than the
disappearance of Kilimanjaro's cap of ice. While the glacier has provided some water to the rivers that flow off the
mountain, a far greater quantity has been trapped by the trees from the clouds that swirl around it, and filtered
through the lush vegetation into watercourses. According to a recent report by the Organization for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD), the fresh water lost to Tanzania and Kenya from the destruction of cloud
forests since 1 976 is equivalent to the annual drinking water needs of around three million people.
Protecting the remaining forests of Kilimanjaro therefore has immense practical value to communities in the
region, helping to secure a regular supply of water over a wide area at a time when drought is likely to become an
increasing problem. This is apart from the scientific value of conserving unique plant and animal species in the
Eastern Afro-Montane biodiversity "hotspot" areas of exceptional diversity under a high level of threat.
The wider lesson from this example is that protection of biodiversity can often help directly in the effort to help
people adapt to climate change, an effort whose urgency is becoming ever-more apparent across the African
continent. Whatever steps are taken worldwide to reduce the emissions linked to global warming, they will
unfortunately be too late to save the snows of Kilimanjaro. Investing in the biological diversity of the mountain, on
the other hand, could make its ec.osystem far more resilient to the fiirther impacts of climate change in the coming
decades.
In recognition of the link between these two great challenges facing the planet, the Convention on Biological
Diversity made biodiversity and climate change the theme of this year's International Day for Biological
Diversity, on May 22nd.
The last thing we want to do is to inflict yet another story of doom and gloom onto a public weary of being told of
new ways in which the planet is being wrecked. Rather, we believe we can highlight a message of hope: that if
priority is given to strengthening the ecosystems of Africa, the prospects for human development on the continent
can be made very much brighter.
The connections between biodiversity, climate change and the reduction of poverty were made clear in the
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), published in 2005. One of its overriding conclusions was that the rural
poor are most directly dependent on the wide range of services provided by well-functioning ecosystems, from the
provision offish, crops and fresh water to protection from natural disasters and regulation of pests and disease.
Two-thirds of these services were found to be in decline worldwide.
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, United Nations Environmental Programme. 413 Rue Saint- Jacques, Suite 800, Montreal, Quebec,
Canada H2YIN9. Tel.:+ 1 5 J4 288 2220, Neil.Pratt@biodiv.org.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 7
Another important point arising from the assessment was that these services are underpinned by the diversity of
Hving organisms - biodiversity from the smallest insect to the largest mammal, and that the benefits we derive
from ecosystems can be jeopardized when parts of this web of life are removed.
Climate change emerged in the MA as a factor that would become increasingly important as a driver of
biodiversity loss in coming decades. Animal and plant species have adapted to past climate shifts through
evolution and migration, but fewer options are now available due to the pace of change and the conversion of
potential habitats to other uses such as cities and farmland.
Even if all burning of fossil fuels were stopped today, global temperatures could be expected to rise for several
more decades, since current concentrations of greenhouse gases are the result of past as well as present industrial
activities. This does not, however, mean we need to be fatalistic about the impacts of climate change on
biodiversity and the benefits it brings .
Investment in the resilience of ecosystems can take the form of reducing any or all of the various human pressures
we know to be threatening them. Loss of habitat, over-exploitation of wild species through hunting and fishing,
pollution and introduction of alien invasive species are each identified in the MA as important factors directly
driving loss of biodiversity. If sufficient priority is given to addressing these issues, some at least of the negative
impacts of climate change maybe avoided.
In many parts of Africa, efforts are under way to use biodiversity protection as a tool to improve climate change
adaptation. One example is the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework in the drylands of Sudan, where millions of
people are entirely dependent on rain-fed agriculture, and therefore extremely vulnerable to the increased periods
of drought projected to be an impact of climate change. The process of desertification, in which soils become so
degraded that it is impossible to grow crops or to graze livestock, results from a combination of drier conditions
and poor use of the land; so this project looks at ways in which better management can improve the productivity of
soils and prevent the migration of people which has exacerbated social conflicts including the unfolding tragedy in
Darfiir.
In the Bara province of Northern Kordofan State, for instance, a pilot project has helped villagers to carry out
activities such as replanting sand dunes with native species which can help stabilise them, the collection and
storage of rainwater for use in dry periods, and the construction of windbreaks to prevent soil erosion. Early
evaluation of this project and another similar example in Darfur itself suggests it is having good results for local
livelihoods. It shows how simple measures can add resilience to an extremely fragile ecosystem, and so help to
protect people from the worst effects of climate change.
In another program led by the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), efforts are being made to
explore policy options to reduce climate change impacts on the forests of the three West African countries of Mali,
Burkina Faso and Ghana. Part of the Tropical Forest Climate Adaptation project funded by the European Union,
this is at an early stage. However, it is looking at ways to enhance livelihood options from non-destructive
activities such as the sale of baobab fruit and butter made from shea nuts, and minimise the stress placed on these
ecosystems through unsustainable logging and over-grazing of livestock. Once again, the focus is on using
protection of biodiversity to help bolster ecosystems against climate change, and thus improve the development
prospects for people in the region.
Another African ecosystem with exceptional vulnerability to climate change is the area known as the Cape Floral
Kingdom on the South- Western tip of South Africa. Its unique combination of Mediterranean-style climate, soil
type and susceptibility to fire has produced an extraordinary variety of plants mcn^:. rhan 7«''00 species, of which
80% are endemic, in other words they occur nowhere else in the wot Id It is teared that changes in soil nioisture and
winter rainfall patterns covlo dn\ e many of these species to extinction. Among the strategies being looked at here
is the expansion of existing protected areas, and the creation of "migratory corridors", to give species greater
opportunities to shift their ranges over time as local conditions change.
Throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, climate change is likely to intensify pressure on water resources as authorities
struggle to meet the competing demands of households, agriculture, industry and aquatic wildlife. Here, too,
biodiversity protection can play an important role. A project to restore degraded wetlands in several river basins
running through South Africa's Kruger National Park is attempting to reverse some of the damage caused by
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 8
erosion and the reduction of flows through over-sedimentation at the same time, it is helping local livelihoods by
protecting vegetable plots in the valley bottoms, and conserving plant species used in traditional medicine.
Under the Convention on Biological Diversity, virtually all governments have agreed to the very challenging
target of slowing the loss of biodiversity by 2010. The time has come to recognize that meeting this target is an
essential step in making future generations in Africa better able to prosper in the less stable climate they will
unfortunately inherit.
mm
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Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
Articles
Conservation and development: The influence of accessibility,
participatory management and immigration around the Benoue
National Park in Cameroon
Dominique Endamana , Jeffrey Sayer , Gilles Etoga and Lambert Bene Bene*
Summary
This article evaluates the state of conservation and development of the landscape of Benoue National Park and its
surroundings in Northern Cameroon. Thirty indicators classified into five "capital asset" groups were the object of
a participatory judgment between 2nd and 13th May 2006, by 13 local communities living in the hunting areas
around the park. The mode of evaluation based on the scales of value going from 1 (worst situation) to 5 (optimal
situation) was used. The data collected were presented in a spider web diagram to show the weak and strong points
of each category of asset: natural, social, human, physical and financial, on the assumption that the different
categories of assets are exchangeable. The overall results of the landscape show that local stakeholders perceive
the natural asset as being weaker compared to other categories of assets. The national road that passes through the
network of protected area and links the two big towns of Garoua and Ngaoundere, the immigration, the mode of
involvement of the population in the management of natural resources are the main factors which affect the
landscape. It is necessary to think of the best way to reconcile the conservation interests with those of development
through the development of scenarios to stimulate communication between stakeholders in the landscape and
national and international decision makers. The internalization of the conservation of biodiversity within
communities and decentralized municipalities benefiting partly from land lease taxes is yet to be promoted. It is
the same for the development of synergies between the ministry responsible for wildlife and protected areas and
other departments that influence the management of natural resources.
Key words: Biodiversity, conservation, development, landscape, capital assets, Benoue National Park
1. Introduction
In Sauver la Planete, (Save the Planet) published in 1 99 1 , the International Union for the Conservation of Nature
(lUCN), the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF)
presented a "strategy for the future of life" the main elements of which were on one hand the link between
conservation and development (C& D), and on the other the recognition of the importance of "giving to
communities the means to manage their own environment". For this reason, field projects interventions aim to
improve the living conditions of the people as well as the state of the environment. Thus, the conservation and
integrated development approach is gradually being incorporated into the plan of activities of organizations
responsible for the conservation of biodiversity. This initiative operates in large areas (territory or landscape;
ecosystem; eco-region ...) (Sayer and Campbell, 2004). Sayer et al (2006) define territory or landscape as "a
geographical conception which includes not only the biophysical components of an area, but also the social,
political, institutional and aesthetic components".
In Cameroon, several initiatives aimed at the dual C&D objective have been developed and implemented by the
government with private partners (NGOs, Bilateral and Multilateral Cooperation). The most recent is the
Biodiversity Conservation and Management Programme (BCMP) initiated in 1994 and implemented from 1995
to 2003. Its objective was to guarantee that ecological integrity remains permanent and to ensure that management
of wildlife and flora resources contribute to the fight against poverty. In the northern Savannah ecosystem, several
approaches have been tried from the protection of wildlife to the implementation of eco-development initiatives to
improve the income of the populations. Decentralized local communities or municipalities and communities
organized into judicial and legal entities benefit respectively 40% and 1 0% of the land lease tax, for the realization
ofsociaLservices,
' Socio-economist, WWF Projet Savanes Soudanienne du Nord Cameroun, BP 126 Garoua. Tel. : 00237 954 15 69,
dendamana@wwfcarpo.org or dendamana@yahoo.fr
'Science Advisor, lUCN, 1196, Gland, Switzerland. Tel: (0041) (0)22 9990120, jejf.sayer@iucn.org
'Biologist. WWF CCPO Yaounde Cameroun, BP Yaounde. Tel: 00237 529 48 37 Getoga@wwfcarpo.org
''Biologist, WWF Projet Savanes Soudanienne du Nord Cameroun, BP 126 Garoua, Tel. : 00237 748 16 42, Lbene@wwfcarpo.org
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 10
The problem is that in spite of all these initiatives, the results remain mitigated regarding the conservation h
development balance because of the lack of a logical framework which enables identification of where the ideal
balance between conservation and development should be. Where then is this balance between the two
paradigms? Who has the right to take this decision? Sayer et al. (2006) observe that conservation organizations
have very often made unjustified hypotheses regarding what is good for the fringe local populations in protected
areas. Objective and fair processes are necessary and these must be accompanied by monitoring methods of
performance indicators at landscapes level.
The WWF / World Bank alliance has developed a monitoring tool called "Rapid Evaluation Method and
Classification of Management Priorities of Protected Areas" (RAPPAM) for assessing the effectiveness of the
management of protected areas (WWF and World Bank, 2003), www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/
forest/oursolutions/protection/tools/rappam/index.cfm). However, this instrument is limited only to monitoring
the effectiveness of the management of protected areas without showing the impact of management on the change
in the welfare of the fringe populations of protected areas. Consequently, in 2004 in Kribi, Cameroon, and in 2005
in Bayanga, Central Africa Republic (CAR), the WWF and the CIFOR undertook to train a team of experts to
evaluate the performance indicators for C&D project/integrated programmes. The approach adopted is based on
the conception of acquired results (Carney et al., 1999, Sayer and Campbell, 2004). The hypothesis is that local
stakeholders can agree on a series of indicators of key assets to provide a basis for performance evaluation of the
landscape.
This approach was implemented during the fourth phase of the bilateral programme between the WWF of the
Netherlands and the WWF Programme for Cameroon to examine the link between conservation of biodiversity
and the improvement in the welfare of the fringe populations of protected areas.
The current study shows how to evaluate these indicators of change in the landscape of the Benoue National Park
and its environs. This simple tool enabled us to monitor the impact of interventions which aim at promoting C&D
at the landscape level. Furthermore, the tool will help to improve vertical communication (between the local
people, the technical staff on the ground responsible for the management of the landscape, donors and regional
decision makers) and horizontal communication (the comparison of results of the different sectors of the
landscape) (Sandker, 2006).
2. Study area
The area of study covers all the eight Hunting Areas of Interest (HAI) which surround the Benoue National Park
(figure 1 ). This whole area constitutes the Technical Operational Unit (TOU). The Benoue National Park (BNP) is
situated between latitude 7°5 5 and 8 °40 North and longitude 13°33 and 14°02East. Administratively, it is located
in the Mayo Rey district. The park and the HAIs cover a total area of 800 000 ha 77.5% of which is meant for sport
hunting and human activities. The borders of the HAIs are determined by Ministerial Decree
N°0580/A/MINEF/DFAP/SDF/SRC of 27th August 1998. Compared to the park which is for conservation, the
HAIs are for sustainable exploitation of fauna. These HAIs differ from one another, according to the management
mode. Some are leased to guides (HAI 2,3,5,7,9 and 1 5) who organize safaris and others (HAIs 1 and 4) are under
community and administrative joint management. A tarred road borders this park and links the Northern Province
of Adamaoua, crossing HAIs No 1 , 4, 5, 7, 9 and 15. An un-tarred feeder road with less traffic passes through the
others. No 2, 3 and 9. In each HAI the local communities are organized into legal entities to promote sustainable
management of natural resources and sound management resulting in financial gains. Each legal entity is managed
by an executive committee called HAI management committee (HAIMC) where each village is represented by at
least one person. The area of study comprised more than one hundred thousand inhabitants more than 60% of
whom are migrant populations from the extreme north and from neighboring countries like Chad and the Central
African Republic in search of fertile soil.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 11
3. Methods and tools for data collection
The methodology is based on a procedure of participatory selection of indicators, their validation and the
collection of data by a representative group of local stakeholders.
3.1 Choice and validation of indicators
The choice of indicators was a complex exercise which calls for the participation of several stakeholders on the
ground. A participatory approach for selection and evaluation of indicators for monitoring C&D performance of
the landscape was drawn up. Sayer and Campbell (2004) recommend a maximum of 30 indicators grouped into 5
types of assets: natural, social, human, physical and finally financial represented in figure 2. The approach is based
on the principle of interchangeability of different categories of assets. A loss of natural asset could be justified if it
results in the improvement of another category of asset. Monitoring of indicators should be modified according to
the distinctive characteristics of the areas. In the Sudan-Sahalian site of Northern Cameroon, the background
study on the management of natural resources around the BNP led to the drawing up of a five-year action plan of
communities of HIA 1 and 4. The list of monitoring indicators of the landscape was drawn up, discussed and then
validated during the scientific committee meeting of the BNP in May 2006.
3.2 Data collection
Data were collected over 2 weeks, between 2nd and 1 3th May 2006, in eight HAIs surrounding the BNP through
surveys of representative sociological groups. The objective was to evaluate the state of the whole landscape and
also differentiate by sub areas the said landscape according to the conditions of management of natural resources
and accessibility. The groups for the selection and evaluation of indicators comprised members of the executive
committees of legal entities of the respective areas, assisted by the village chiefs, women and the youth. Table 1
shows the indicators used, grouped into 5 types of assets. They are on a scale of 1 to 5. Value 1 represents the worst
case and 5 is the optimal situation, that is to say the desired state. Several studies used this approach to evaluate the
landscape and the impact of change (Campbell et al. 200 1 ; Sayer and Campbell. 200 1 , Buck et al. 2006).
Financial Assets
□ Formal sector employment
□ Household incomes
□ Priceof basic goods
Q Loans from the associations (tontine)
Q Livestock
^T-
Social Assets # # ^ ^ Natural Assets
□ Community initiatives ^^"^ ^" - ^ ^^ □ Rate of deforestation
□ State governance f ^/ » ^ I '-^ Incidence of uncontrolled bushfires
□ Corruption (civil service) ^^ ^ ■ □ Elephant population
□ Knowledge of barriers * »^ ^ \ # '-' Population of Derby antelope
□ Level of community activity \ / ^ ^* ^ □ Poisoning of waters
Physical Assets Human Assets
□ Com mill □ Quality of dispensaries
□ Quality of habitat □ Quality of education
□ Trade □ Number ofpersons with qualification
□ Potable water □ Rate of infant mortality
□ Accessibility □ Traditional knowledge
Figure 1: Monitoring indicators on Conservation of biodiversity. Welfare of the people in the
BNP landscape and its peripheries
Source: Adapted from Sayer et al. (2006)
A mark was given to each indicator by the people in a concerted manner. These assessments were supported by
precise examples and figures. The data collected were captured on an Excel sheet. For each asset, an average mark
was calculated and placed on an axis. This made it possible to show the strengths and weaknesses of the landscape
as expressed by stakeholders on a spider web diagram. The quantitative data collected by the WWF on the social
works enabled the calculation of ratios of certain socio-economic parameters. MS Excel was used to process the
data. The mean averages were calculated with the help of this software. Given our small sample (n=8 HAIs), a test
of statistical comparison of averages of parameters between the sub sectors was not done.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 12
Table 1: Indicators of the Conservation - Development situation of the landscape of the Benoue Technical
Operational Unit (TOU)
Source: Adapted from Sayer et al. (2006)
Assessment scale of indicators
5
4
3
2
1
Natural asset
Rate of deforestation
(felling of wood)
Zero
0%-l%
l%-2%
2% +
Major deforestation
Incidence of
uncontrolled bush fires
Zero
A few isolated
ones
Several
Big fires
Widespread fires
Elephant population
High growth
Slight growth
Stable
Slight loss
Great loss
Derby Antelope
population
High growth
Slight growth
Stable
Slight loss
Great loss
Poisoning of waters
Zero flow of
poisoned water
Very little
poisoned flow
Half flow of
poisoned water
>50% flow of
poisonous water
All the water flows
poisoned
Social asset
Community initiatives
CBNRM
Efficient systems
in place on a
large scale
CBNRM
functional
Early systems
in place
First attempts
Zero
State governance
(number of active
NGOs)
Very many
Many
Average
Not many
Non existent
Traditional governance
(resolution of
litigations)
Very
equitable
Relatively
equitable
Equitable
Inequitable
Very
inequitable
Corruption (civil
service)
Non existent
Uncommon
Common
Very common
Totally
corrupt
Level of community
activity
Very high
High
Average
Weak
Non existent
Human asset
Quality of dispensaries
(vaccination coverage)
Very good
Good
Average
Weak
Very weak
Quality of education
(literacy)
Number of people with
qualification
Very good
Very many
Good
Many
Average
Average
Weak
Not many
Very weak
Zero
Tate of infant mortality
High reduction
Reduction
Stable
Increase
High increase
Traditional knowledge
Very influential
Influential
Averagely
influential
Hardly
influential
Non existence
Physical asset
Com mill
Very many
Many
Average
Not many
Non existent
Quality of housing
Very good
Good
Average
Not quite good
Not good
Trade
Very diversified
Diversified
Averagely
Diversified
Hardly diversified
Absent
Potable water
Very available
Quite available
Available
Hardly available
Absent
Accessibility
Much cheaper
Accessible
Averagely
available
Difficuh accessibility
Inaccessible
Financial asset
Formal sector
employment
Very many
Many
Quite a lot
Not many
Non existent
Household incomes
Very high
increase
Increase
Stable
Reduction
High reduction
Price of basic products
Much cheaper
Cheap
Stable
Slightly expensive
Too expensive
Tontine
Very active
Active
Averagely active
Not very active
Non existent
Livestock
Very many
Many
Average
Very little
Non existent
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
13
The present approach has a Hmitation. Some indicators are qualitative since they are measured by the mere
perception of the people. It will therefore be difficult to monitor the evolution of this type of indicator within the
context of the area where immigration has increased.
4. Results
4.1 Some human development ratios
The socio-economic parameters presented in Table 2 involve sectors perceived as priority and vital for the people
themselves. This concerns health, education, access to potable water, trade. There is a high consensus of local
stakeholders that these capital assets are of utmost importance for the assessment of social welfare.
Table 2: Ratios of some development indicators for villages around the BNP in 2006
Sectors Ratios
Health
Education
Inhabitant per Health Care 1 1 1 76
Inhabitant per doctor 100587
Inhabitant per nurse 6707
Inhabitant per health assistant 7 1 85
Pupil per school 286
Pupil per class 60
Pupil per teacher 72
Access to water
Inhabitant per well 1037
inhabitant per borehole 2 1 40
Trade
Inhabitant per shop 585
The table shows a low presence of health infrastructure and personnel. There is one doctor for more than ten
thousand inhabitants. Regarding education, the ratios are better, compared to those of the Mayo Rey District in
general, which are 110 pupils per class and 1 10 pupils per teacher. Access to water is quite difficult, a well for a
thousand inhabitants whereas one borehole serves more than two thousand inhabitants. Concerning trade, the
number of shops is quite large. There is at least one shop and/or one small table in each village.
4.2 Evaluation of Conservation - Development assets
The evaluation of assets from the dual conservation - development objective makes it possible to know the
influence of certain vectors of change on the landscape like accessibility, level of involvement of people in the
conservation and management of natural resources and immigration.
4.2.1 Influence of accessibility
Figure 2 shows the perception of stakeholders of the situation in two of the sectors of the superimposed
landscapes. The first sector of access is easy because a tarred road passes through, comprising HAI No 1, 4, 5, 7
and 15; and the other sector of access more difficult, because a feeder road passes through, comprising HAI No 2, 3
and 9. A look at the graph shows that there is a difference between each group of asset except the social asset
evaluated at 3/5. The sector situated along the national road (tarred) presents better human, physical and financial
assets than that of the sector situated along the feeder roads (untarred). This gap is more pronounced with the
physical asset, followed by the financial asset. Regarding natural assets, the state of the environment is better in the
villages accessible by the feeder road.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 14
Natural asset
5,0.
Financial asset
Physical asset
Social asset
■ National
Secondary road
Human asset
Figure 2: Comparison of the landscape of two sectors, served by the national road (tarred)
and secondary roads (untarred)
4.2.2 Influence of the participatory management strategy of natural resources
Figure 3 shows the landscape in the HAIs leased to professional hunting guides and those of HIAs jointly managed
by the administration and the local people. From the graph, these financial, physical and human assets are better in
the areas of joint management than in the leased areas. Concerning social assets, the situation is rather better than
in the leased HAIs.
Natural asset
Financial asset
Physical asset
Social asset
H Co-managed
D Leased
Human asset
FigureS: Comparison of the landscape of two sectors located in the co-managed HAIs and leased HAIs
4.2.3 Influence of immigration
Figure 4 compares two types of landscapes: the first has a strong presence of migrants (HAI 1 , 4, 5, 7, 9 and 1 5) and
the second a weak presence or absence of migrants (HAI 2 and 3).
The graph shows that the natural asset is more degraded in the areas with high migration than the areas without the
migratory phenomenon. Apart form the human and social assets where the difference is not very big, there is a big
gap in the physical and financial assets.
Natural asset
Financial asset
Physical asset
Social asset
I With migrants
I Without migrants
Human asset
Figure 4: Comparison of the landscape of two sectors with and without migrants
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
15
4.3 Evaluation oftheBenoueTOU landscape
Figure 5 presents the entire Benoue TOU landscape. The graph shows that the natural asset is highly degraded by
deforestation, uncontrolled bush fires and rampant poaching. At the socio-economic level, the social and human
assets are more developed than the financial and physical assets. Biodiversity is weak and show that the natural
resources are under human pressure. Socio-economic development is therefore taking a toll on conservation.
Natural asset
Financial asset <1 y^ x^ X. >v j>t Social asset
Physical asset Human asset
Figure 5: Landscape of the Technical Operation Unit (TOU) Benoue (park and hunting area)
4.4 Evaluation of indicators by hunting area
On a map of a Benoue TOU the landscape for each hunting area is indicated (Figure 3). This visualization shows
the differences between the natural heritage management and the state of the welfare of the people. Generally, the
natural asset at the east of the TOU (HAI No 2 and 3) is still well managed. These areas are more enclosed and not
much exposed to the migratory phenomenon. Concerning social and human assets, the difference is not great
between the HAIs. Organisation of communities is effective in terms of community initiatives, traditional
governance and community life. Concerning physical assets, the areas situated along the national road are better
endowed compared to those situated on the feeder roads. Out of the 74 com mills in the inventory, 92% belong to
villages along the tarred road. These are the areas with a concentration of houses with roofing sheets (indicator of
wealth). Trade is diversified with several shops. At the financial level, the same observation is made for physical
capital, except in HAI 9 which is an area with high migration. The migrants are big-time farmers who produce and
sell the fruits of their harvest. The prevalent of a dense population of Mbororo Fulani in this area explains the
increase of livestock which is a financial indicator.
5. Discussion
5.1 Human development ratios
The social infrastructure present in health, education, access to potable water does not satisfy the needs of the
people due to the migratory influx. 25973 inhabitants passed through the periphery of the BNP in 2000 (MINEF,
2002), 100 587 inhabitants in 2006 (Endamana and Etoga, 2006). Among the parameters for welfare, education
seems to have the best ratio compared to the national average, but the quality is not good. Some classrooms do not
have tables and chairs and the pupils have classes sitting on the floor. Most of the teachers are temporary and often
unpaid. Some associations and professional hunting guides in the area take care of the salaries of these temporary
teachers. Good educational structures will encourage good education for the children, especially environmental
education.
With the poor level of health infrastructure the cost of healthcare is high. In the face of this constraint, the people
resort to traditional medicine. Unsustainable use of medicinal plants could bring about scarcity or even extinction
of these plant species. Since the health of the population has an influence on the management of resources, the area
needs health infrastructure. Self-medication is practiced because of lack of doctors.
Water is a vital resource in the area, for the people, wild and domesticated animals. In the dry season, scarcity
results in numerous conflicts. The lack of a water sources in villages and transhumance tracks would, according to
cattle farmers, be one of the reasons for the presence of cattle in the Benoue Park and in the HAIs. In some villages
of HAI 4 and 5, the water sources are in the park. The permanent presence of people in the park results in other
activities incompatible with conservation such as poaching and excessive felling of trees. Development
programmes like National Participatory Development Programme (NPDP) or the West Benoue Development
Programme (WBDP) will be solicited to develop this infrastructure.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 16
Financial Asset
Natural Asset
3 !
Social Asset
Physical Asset Human Asset
State of the landscape of HAI7
Natural Asset
5,
Financial Asset
Social Asset
^..
Physical Asset Human Asset
State of the landscape of HAI9
Natural Asset
Financial Asset
Physical Asset Human Asset
State of the landscape of HAM
Natural Asset
5
Financial Asset
Physical Asset Human Asset
State of the landscape of HAI5
Financial Asset
Natural Asset
5
Social Asset
Physical Asset Human Asset
State of the landscape of HAH 5
Natural Asset
Financial Asset
Social Asset
Physical Asset Human Asset
State of the landscape of HAil
Figure 6: State of the landscape in each hunting zone.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
17
Regarding trade, shops offer manufactured goods for basic needs such as soap, kerosene, matches, radio batteries,
torches. Although not so well-stocked, the shops demonstrate the dependence of the populations on the local
market. Almost every village has a weekly market. The development of trade could be an opportunity to enhance
the development of eco-tourism in the area.
5.2 Accessibility
The BNP and its periphery are vulnerable due to the two national and district roads that serve the locality. This
opening brings about a big change in the socio-economic, cultural and environmental plans. At the socio-
economic level, the community management initiatives for natural resources exist and function in all the HAIs.
The 14 legal entities created for the implementation of the PCMB encourage social works with the share of lease
tax which is resold to them by the state (Endamana 2004). The Cotton Development parastatal (SODECOTON)
and development projects have led to the emergence of Community Initiative Groups (CIG), and Economic
Initiative Groups (EIG) in the area. Concerning finance, the villages situated along the national tarred road have
easy access to the market. This road links the provincial capitals of the North and of Adamaoua. The road traffic
encourages the supply and demand of resources like firewood and bush meat. The road also encourages settlement
of migrants, whose main activities are agriculture, felling and trading in firewood. Urban centres like Mayo Bocki
(HAI7), Gouna (HAI4), Sakdje (HAIl), Gamba (HAIS) and Mbe (HAI15) are known as centres for sale of bush
meat. Strategies must be developed to reduce the impact of this road which passes through the network of
protected areas of the Northern Province. Concerning the environment, the strategy of corridors in HAI No 1 , No 4
and No 5, initiated by the WWF to ensure connectivity between the park and the hunting areas is a good and far-
reaching initiative. These corridors are for the moment the only means of guaranteeing the future of the network of
protected areas in the province. They call for a strong involvement of public administration in the management of
natural resources and the appropriation of these corridors by the local populations. The local people must be in the
forefront since in the long term these hunting areas are likely to be converted into community hunting territory. An
accompanying capacity building project for these populations is necessary.
5.3 Participatory management strategy for natural resources
The second vector which influences change in the landscape of the BNP and its periphery is the manner in which
the local people and other stakeholders involve themselves in the management of natural resources. These
changes are more noticeable at the level of physical, human and financial assets. Although it is the economic
operators who seek to maximise profit, the guides are obliged to involve the fringe residents in the sustainable
management of the RNs. Moreover, the terms of reference oblige them to maintain optimal population of wildlife.
This is only feasible when the people feel involved in the management of the natural heritage. The fact that these
people benefit at different levels from part of the lease tax, from permanent and temporary employment, negotiate
and sign agreement, is proof of their participation in the management of natural resources (Endamana etal. 2005).
At the environmental level, the mode of joint management has no real influence on natural resources. This result
must be confirmed by further studies on the impact of the mode of joint management applied to HAI 1 and 4 in the
management of natural resources. This study is all the more important as fringe communities in these areas benefit
from constant support from projects and the authorities. If they gained more at the financial level, it would have
positive repercussions on changes in behaviour of people in order to preserve the natural heritage.
At the level of decentralized local communities, a strategy of social communication could result in the negotiation
of a percentage (at 5%) of the amount of tax collected by communities to sustain the wildlife conservation. For
this, it would be desirable to recruit community hunting guards who would come to the help of MINFOF
delegations in the fight against poaching. The municipal advisors could then constitute themselves into
messengers or links in their respective villages to sensitize the local populations on the contribution of wildlife to
local development. The people must be made to understand that these natural resources are their heritage, and that
in the end, the decentralization process could result in the management of these areas by the communities
themselves. While maintaining the welfare of people, it is necessary to develop accompanying measures to
minimize the impact on the environment. As already pointed out, this means actively involving the people in the
surveillance of the sensitive areas, putting in place a mechanism for adequate ecological and socio-economic
monitoring to enhance the quality of the environment and estimating the level of balance C&D. These results
emphasize the fact that conservation organizations can no longer claim that improvement in infrastructure for
access to areas of interest in wildlife is necessarily a bad thing. Considering the point of view of indigenous people,
these constructions are greatly welcome.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 18
5.3 Immigration
Immigration can be a vector of socio-economic change, but this development is not sustainable. It is a determining
factor in the change of the landscape around the Benoue National Park. The migrants arrive in waves each year in
search of fertile land. The main activities as means of existence for this social group are agriculture (cotton) and
trading in firewood. Immigration around the protected areas is a subject for reflection and calls for a strong
intervention of the state which has international commitments to set up 30% of its territory as protected areas. The
future of protected areas of the Northern Province will depend on the management of migratory influx.
An observation from the evaluation of the indicators is the changes which operate and help to give direction for
interventions by the different stakeholders. It is all the more necessary since despite the numerous efforts through
projects and programmes, the standard of living of fringe residents is low and degradation of natural resources
remains. The ideal would be to have a figure to show the perfect balance between the asset groups. This is a
situation to which the programme should turn its intervention. What is not the case today we observe is that the
natural asset is weak to the benefit of other groups of assets. The exploitation of natural resources, especially fauna
in the savannah ecosystem, should contribute to the improvement of living conditions of the populations and
maintain natural resources to an optimal level (win-win option). Conservation of biodiversity should be
internalized within the local interventions of decentralized local communities organized at the grassroots. In the
plan of action of some communities, conservation activities like surveillance of the area by community guards and
sensitisation should occupy a prominent position in the same way as social work.
6. Conclusions and Recommendations
This study shows a simple approach of evaluation of natural, human, social, physical and financial asset in a
conservation - development situation of the Benoue National Park landscape and its periphery. In the entire
landscape, the state of biodiversity is unfavourable, compared to other assets (human, physical financial and
social). The natural resources are exploited in an unsustainable manner. The factors which would affect this
situation are among others, anarchic occupation of the space by migrants; the road linking the two provinces of the
North and Adamaoua and that linking Guidjiba to Tchollire; and finally the mode of involvement of the people in
the management of natural resources.
The landscape of each HAI also depends on the types of relationship that the guides maintain with the fringe
residents. Currently, it is clear that development in the living conditions of the people is relatively favourable, but
this is at the expense of the environment. This situation is precarious. Since the principle should be that the results
of the intervention of projects lead to a conservation - development balance ("win-win option"), changes in
interventions are indicated. A reflection is necessary on the best way to reconcile the interests of conservation with
those of development in the landscape. This reflection should be based on the conclusions of the application of a
monitoring tool. This approach could enable the development of scenarios to stimulate communication between
stakeholders in the landscape and national and international decision makers.
The WWF and its partners should maintain the option to facilitate a framework for effective collaboration between
the different administrations involved in the TOU. The emphasis should be placed at the grassroots on the
platform of collaboration between the hunting guides and local people. At the level of communities organized at
the grassroots level, it would be desirable to incorporate more the conservation of the biodiversity in their action
plans and in more sensitisation on the prudent use of national resources for the current and fixture populations with
the aim of guaranteeing intergenerational equity. Decentralized territorial communities must also be encouraged
to sustain the action of MINFOF in the fight against poaching, development and layout of basic infrastructure of
the landscape and structures in it (roads, tracks, observation of animals hideouts, etc.) in order to promote tourism.
They must work with and join all concerned parties in initiatives compatible with the conservation of the
biodiversity.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 19
List of abbreviations
CBNRM: Community Based Natural
Resource Management
CCPO: Cameroon Country Programme
Office
CIFR: International Centre for Forestry
Research
DWPA: Department of Wildlife and
Protected Areas
CIG: Community Initiative Group
GIE : Economic Initiative Group
MINEF: Ministry for Environment and
Forests
MINFOF: Ministry for Forests and Wildlife
ONG: Non Governmental Organisation
BCMP: Biodiversity Conservation and
Management Programme
PDWB:
PNB:
NPPD:
PSSN:
CAR:
SDF:
SODECOTON:
UICN:
TOU:
HAI:
Programme for the Development
of West Benoue
Benoue National Park
National Programme for
Participatory Development
Projet Savanes Soudanienne du
Nord
Central African Republic
Sous Direction de la Faune
Societe de Developpement du
Coton
Union for the International
Conservation of Nature
Technical Operational Unit
WWF: World Wide Fund
Hunting Areas of Interest
References
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Endamana, D., GomsE, A., Tarla, F. N. 2005. Cogestion des zones de chasse 1 et 4 du Nord Cameroun : Jeu, Enjeux,
Contraintes et Perspectives. Article prepare pour presenter au Sminaire ' Co-management of Natural resources in Cameroon :
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(Lobeke National Park, SE Cameroun) 1 2 au 1 6 juin 2006 Organise par WWF et CIFOR
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development. Conservation Ecology 5(2): 32. (also available at
http://www.consecol.org/vol5/iss2/art32A
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Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, USA.
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N. & Burgess N. 2006. Assessing Environment and Development Outcomes in Conservation Landscapes. Biodiversity
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de Mambele sur la modelisation Conservation h Developpement, juin, 2006, Lobeke, Cameroun.
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mondiale/WWF pour la conservation des forets. WWF and The WorldBank
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
20
Forest Biological Diversity and Forest Tree and Shrub Genetic
Resources: concepts, conservation strategies, priorities and values
Christel Palmberg-Lerche
Summary
The present paper discusses concepts, strategies and priority setting in the conservation of forest biological
diversity. It focuses on the management of forest tree and shrub genetic resources, and reviews information on
values derived from their sustainable use in support of local and national development. The paper highlights the
need to address gaps in information on status and trends in forest biological diversity and genetic resources using
relevant indicators, and to clarify variation and variation patterns in forest tree species as a basis for their
conservation, breeding and sustainable use. It supports the notion that forest genetic resources action plans, based
on country-derived information on status, trends and national priorities, should be placed within larger conceptual
frameworks at regional and global levels in order to help strengthen the impact of efforts in individual countries
and make fiill use of comparative institutional strengths among countries. In order to be sustainable over time,
conservation and genetic management should also be incorporated in wider planning frameworks, such as
national forest programmes and rural development plans.
1. Concepts and Definitions
"Forest biological diversity" denotes the variability among living organisms in forest ecosystems and the
ecological processes of which they are part. It includes variation at landscape, ecosystem, species, population,
individual, genetic and molecular levels of biotic organization (FAQ 2007).
As the various levels of diversity are inter-related, a comprehensive approach to conservation is necessary. At the
same time, it is essential to specify clearly the level or levels targeted by specific management action, as it is
possible to conserve an ecosystem and still lose given species, and to conserve a species and lose genetically
distinct populations, genes or valuable gene complexes. Goals for conservation and the management of forest
genetic resources ought to be made explicit and agreed as broadly as possible at the beginning of any conservation
effort ("of what, for what, for whom, how, with what time-scale and with what institutional and financial
resources?"). Since economic, social and environmental priorities continually shift, conservation and
management objectives will however need to be kept flexible to address new needs, and will need to incorporate
new knowledge and understanding as they become available.
While it is recognized that the concept of biological diversity includes variation and genetic resources of plant,
animal, insect and microbial species, the present paper is focused on the conservation of diversity through the
management and sustainable use of forest tree and shrub genetic resources. Only general principles are referred to
in relation to other groups of forest species.
2. Present situation
There is today a worrying loss of forest ecosystems in all tropical and sub-tropical regions caused by deforestation
due to changes in land use. In addition, extensive tracts of forests and woodlands in most regions of the world are
being degraded to various degrees through damage from pests, diseases, fire, atmospheric pollution, climatic
fluctuations and lack of management or non-sustainable forest management practices.
' Christel Palmberg-Lerche has close to 35 years of professional experience in forestry and forest genetic resources
related activities. She served for more than 10 years as Chief of the Forest Resources Development Service in FAO
Rome, and prior to that as Forestry Officer, Forest Genetic Resources for almost 20 years. Via del Salvatore 12, 1-00060
Mazzano Romano (RM), Italy. Christel.palmberg@tiscali.it
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 21
Over the past 35 years the number of international, regional and national institutions, mechanisms and discussion
fora which are concerned with forests and forest biological diversity have greatly increased. These institutions,
which generally cover different aspects of work, are discussed in some detail in a recent document by FAO on
status and trends of the world's forest genetic resources (see Section 5, and Annex 1 of FAO 2007).
Increasing data is becoming available on status and trends of the forests of the world (see Box 1 and FAO 2006,
2007a). Information on changes in forest area and qualitative variables commonly recorded today cannot be
directly used to estimate changes in variation at the level of species, provenances, populations and genes.
However, forest loss and degradation can be expected to have overall negative effects on diversity. Reliable
general data on forest resources is thus an important starting point for assessing and monitoring forest biological
diversity and efficiently managing forest genetic resources.
Information is gradually also becoming available on status, trends and priorities in the management of forest
genetic resources (see Box 2). However, such information is still incomplete and patchy. Monitoring diversity and
variation at the different levels at which they occur is, furthermore, hampered by the lack of agreed-upon
indicators to identify changes and trends (FAO 2007).
Boxl
TRENDS IN SELECTED VARIABLES RELATED TO
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY IN FOREST ECOSYSTEMS
Africa. The area of primary forest in Africa decreased by some 270,000 ha annually during 19902005. However,
information for this variable was based on only 46 countries that together accounted for 67% of the forest area, with
information missing from most of the countries in the Congo Basin, which represents the second largest area of
tropical primary forest after that of the Amazon Basin. Some of this decrease was caused by deforestation, some by
alteration of forests through selective logging and other human interventions. This "altered" forest area was
subsequently classified in the Global Forest Resources Assessment as, "modified natural forest". On the other
hand, an increase of close to 3 million hectares since 1990 was documented in the area of forests designated
primarily for the conservation of biological diversity.
General Conclusions: Progress towards sustainable forest management in Africa appears to have been limited over
the past 15 years. There are some indications that the net loss of forest area has slowed down and that the area of
forests designated primarily for the conservation of biological diversity has increased slightly. However, the
continued, rapid loss of forest area (the largest of any region in the world during the 1 5 -year period under review) is
disconcerting.
Extracted from: FAO (2006), Chapter 8.- Progress towards sustainable forest management.
Box 2
INFORMATION ON FOREST TREE AND SHRUB GENETIC RESOURCES IN AFRICA
The FAO Forest Genetic Resources Homepage hosts information on various aspects of conservation of biological
diversity (http://www.fao.org/biodiversity/Forests_eco_en.asp): and the management of forest genetic resources:
http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/fgr/en/
In collaboration with FAO, national information on status and needs has to date been prepared by 36 African
countries and published as Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/fgr/en/
click on Publications/Working Papers in the left-side menu). These countries include: Benin, Botswana, Burkina
Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo (RDC), Congo Rep. (ROC), Cote d'lvoire, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Leshoto, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius,
Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Sao Tome & Principe, Senegal, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania,
Togo, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
In addition, information on forest genetic resources in a number of African countries is available in documentation
published on sub-regional workshops in the Sahelian/North Sudanian Zone (Working Paper 2E - English:
http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/X6883E/X6883E00.HTM: Southern Africa Development Community
countries (WP 4 1 E: http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/AC850E/AC850E00.HTM): and Central African countries
(available, in paper copy only, from the Forest Resources Division, FAO, Rome).
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 22
Regional up-dates on status, needs and priorities are found in Working Papers 34E and 73E. Information on genetic
resources of tree and shrub species, by region, sub-region and country, generated within the framework of the FAO
Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources, can be viewed at: http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/fgr-region/en/ .
Complementary information has been collected i.a. within the framework of the Sub-Saharan African Forest
Genetic Resources Programme, S AFORGEN, coordinated by Bioversity International, see:
http://www.bioversityintemational.org/Networks/saforgen/introduction.htmand
http://news.bioversityintemational.org/nucleus/plugins/print/print.php?itemid=193
The World Agroforestry Center, ICRAF, collaborates with African countries in support of forest genetic resources
programmes dealing with trees grown in agroforestry systems (http://www.worldagroforestrycenfre.org/).
3. Strategies and Methodologies
Neither forest ecosystems nor the genetic resources provided by them are static. Conservation must not be aimed
at fi"eezing a given state, as this would imply an arbitrary fixation of dynamically evolving, living systems.
Decisions regarding conservation strategies and methodologies will depend not only on the biological
characteristics, genetic variation and variation patterns of given species, but also on the degree of knowledge
available on their silviculture and management; present use; importance and uniqueness; perceived threats; and,
quite decisively, institutional possibilities in the countries concerned, including human resources, infrastructure
and availability of medium- and long-term funding.
Conservation implies varying intensities of human intervention, including non-intervention. In order to be
sustainable over time, efforts to maintain or enhance diversity requires that forests and woodlands be managed to
meet stated productive, protective, social and environmental goals in a balanced manner, and that available natural
renewable resources be wisely utilized in support of local and national development, including poverty alleviation
and food security, economic and social advancement and the safeguarding of cultural values.
The maintenance of an appropriate combination of genetic resource areas in a number of different locations, under
diverse environmental and silvicultural conditions and varying intensities of management, is the most efficient
way to conserve genetic variation at its various levels. In practice, this implies, (i) the conservation of forest
biological diversity and genetic resources in protected areas, (ii) the incorporation of genetic considerations in
forest resource management for productive or protective purposes (including forest plantation establishment and
management), and (iii) the incorporation of such considerations in free improvement and breeding sfrategies
(Palmberg-Lerche 2002).
Action within countries needs to be coordinated to ensure that policies and implementation are consistent across
sectors. To ensure sustainability and long-term success, conservation concerns should be integrated in broader
local and national development plans. Such plans might include national forest programmes and poverty
reduction strategies, which promote harmonization of action between sectors and cooperation among national
agencies dealing with these. Integration should be assured both at policy-making and implementation levels.
Appropriate links should also be made to efforts by countries to meet the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs), notably MDG 1 ("Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger") and MDG 7 ("Ensure Environmental
Sustainability"), to which forestry can make substantial contributions (FAO 2006a).
Wider policy and action frameworks at regional, eco-regional and global levels will sfrengthen the impact of
genetic management in individual countries, and can help draw attention to issues of regional and global concern
which might inadvertently be overlooked or neglected in national forest genetic resources strategies. Regional
collaboration will also help avoid wasteful duplication of effort by making full use of institutional strengths and
comparative advantages among countries (see FAO 2007, Palmberg-Lerche 2001 , 2002).
Conservation must be accompanied by regular monitoring, using relevant indicators, to ensure that progress is
being achieved in reaching stated objectives, and management must be adjusted, should the need to do so arise (see
FAO 2002a, 2002b for information on genetic indicators). Information on expected and realized benefits and
returns should be analyzed and widely disseminated to all stakeholder groups.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 23
4. Priority-setting
Estimates of the total number of tree species in the world vary from 80,000 to 1 00,000. It is clear that there is a need
for priority setting among the many species and ecosystems which may qualify for action.
The general aim of priority setting is to compare the consequences and trade-offs of a number of alternative
choices and actions. It implies that some ecosystems, species or genetic resources will be given lower priority than
others. This is not to say that they have no conservation value, rather, that in relation to agreed-upon, common
local, national or international goals in any one programme, some species or actions are not as urgent as others
(FAO 2007, Williams 1 999).
Relative priorities within any one country will be determined by balancing socio-economic, environmental and
cultural values assessed in the light of susceptibility or likelihood of loss or degradation of ecosystems and genetic
resources of species targeted for action. At the regional and global levels, priority-setting will, in addition, take
into account common interests and commonality of priority species and activities. Priority setting is complicated
greatly by the lack of even basic information on the variation, variation patterns and potentialities of many (or
most) species.
Forest management interventions and non-intervention, which are based on local and national priorities, will have
varying effects on different social and economic sectors. To ensure broadly-based support and sustainability of
action, genuine efforts are needed to meet the needs and aspirations of the fullest possible range of interested
parties. This underlines the necessity for wide stakeholder participation, in order to agree on compromises. What
is valued in biological diversity, how it can be managed and for whom, are critical issues.
When evaluations of priorities among stakeholders are similar, concerted action is possible, but when dissimilar,
independent but coordinated action is more likely to succeed. There will frequently be substantial differences in
perceived values and priorities between sectors of the economy and among governmental and non-governmental
organizations and other groups active in forest biological diversity conservation, genetic management and related
development programmes. In such cases, it will be necessary to form coalitions for action and harmonize these
under a coherent framework, at appropriate level.
5. Values of Diversity
Many values derive from forest ecosystems as well as from their component parts. They include the provision of
goods and services and the maintenance of environmental and life-support values. These latter values, such as soil
and water protection, carbon sequestration, the conservation of biological diversity and recreation, are typically
associated with the ecosystem and forest population levels. Goods (wood and non-wood products) harvested from
forests are usually provided at the species or forest population levels; while evolution and adaptation to medium
and long-term environmental change, and breeding to meet present-day and future needs, are mainly dependent on
gene-level and molecular variation.
There is no single measure for the value of biological diversity or genetic resources. Measures are only possible for
particular aspects, seen in relation to specific goals (see e.g. FAO 2007, Palmberg-Lerche 2002, Williams 1 999).
A search for information related to, "value of forest biological diversity", using a leading Internet Search Engine,
provided 1.2 million hits in 0.13 seconds. However, at closer look, the majority of the studies and papers which
were listed concerned the value of forest resources, or forest (vegetation) cover, rather than the value of diversity.
A number of other studies reviewed the value of given species as food, fodder and medicine, however, they seldom
dealt with the value of using or enhancing genetic variation found within these species. Others, again, focused on
the value of useful chemical compounds in given species, with little or no regard to analysing the benefits of
maintaining variation in such compounds among populations or individuals. Information on the actual values of
diversity seems to be scarce. A systematic review of available information is urgently called for.
Some examples of studies related to forest tree and shrub genetic resources which have, in actual fact, reviewed
the value of diversity and intra-specific variation, are given in Boxes 3 and 4. : -
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 ,24
In managing natural forests and woodlands or establishing forest plantations, foresters use species and intra-
specific genetic variation found in natural tree populations, which buffer them against environmental
heterogeneity, changes in the environment and variations in end use requirements over time. Intra-specific
variation between geographically distinct forest tree populations is referred to in forestry as "provenance
variation". Most documented information on the social and economic gains which can be achieved by
maintaining, wisely utilizing and enhancing genetic variation in forest trees, is related to the use of provenance
variation in forest plantation establishment, tree planting and breeding (see Box 3 for examples).
Another area in which studies have confirmed that high socio-economic returns can be achieved by the
exploration and use of intra-specific variation, is tree breeding. Yet, surprisingly, scientifically valid, genetic
information which is needed to advance in improvement and breeding, is still today available for only some 50 tree
species, and only some 500 species have been systematically tested for their present-day utility (Anon 1 99 1 , FAO
2007).
Some case studies on gains achieved through the use of existing variation in tree breeding programmes are
reported i.a. in Libby and Palmberg-Lerche (2002), and Palmberg-Lerche (2001, 2002a). Of special interest to
breeders in Africa might be the case study on breeding for high gum yield in Pinus elliottii in South-Eastem USA,
summarized in Box 4. This spectacularly successful programme was based on the selection and use of naturally
occurring intra-specific variation, combined with improved silviculture and forest management techniques.
While a subsequent decrease in the demand for natural gums in the USA slowed and finally led to a termination of
the programme, interesting lessons can be learned from the experiences gained and could potentially be applied in
breeding for increased gum yields in Afi-ican tree and shrub species.
6. Conclusions
Forests and the products and services provided by them are vital for local and national development, human well-
being and environmental sustainability. Genetic variation in trees and shrubs underpins the continued health and
vitality of forest ecosystems, buffers forests against environmental fluctuations and changes, and helps ensure that
new and emerging needs of human populations can be adequately met. Deforestation and forest degradation can
be expected to have deeply negative effects on diversity and genetic resources in affected areas.
Vigorous efforts are needed to expand presently existing genetic resources information, both in regard to country
and species coverage. There is, fiirthermore, an urgent need to clarify variation and variation patterns in forest tree
species as a basis for their genetic management, including conservation, breeding and sustainable use, and to
integrate such action in wider regional, national and local frameworks aimed at overall, sustainable development.
Priority setting will help ensure that conservation programmes are adequately focused to make optimal use of
scarce resources. The development and application of reliable indicators to monitor changes in status over time is
an important priority.
Strategies and methodologies for the conservation of forest biological diversity and the management of forest
genetic resources will vary according to biological, social and economic environments, institutional realities and
local and national needs and priorities. While progress in conservation is dependent on action in individual
countries and national institutes, efforts can only be fully effective if they are related to larger, regional, eco-
regional and global forest genetic resources frameworks which can help ensure that important issues are not
inadvertently overlooked, that wasteful overlap is avoided, and that comparative institutional advantages, at all
levels, are drawn upon to streamline action.
A series of systematic reviews of available information on the quantification of values of various aspects of
biological diversity and the use of tree and shrub genetic resources, seen in relation to specific conservation and
management goals, should be carried out as a basis for demonstrating to policy and decision makers both the
potential advantages and gains of conservation and the economic, social and environmental consequences and
costs of mismanagement or neglect.
While the existing information base is weak and needs to be enhanced, there are no fundamental scientific and
technical obstacles to meeting conservation objectives in forests and woodlands managed or established for the
production of timber, non-wood products and the protection of soil, water and other environmental values. The
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 25
main problem in achieving conservation goals is the lack of adequate policy and institutional frameworks under
which land use and operational management choices, fair to all stakeholders, can be considered and efficiently
implemented. In addition to unplanned or unwise changes in land use, the failure to comply with sound forest
management practices, including those related to tree planting and plantation establishment, has been to date a
common cause of loss of diversity and unnecessary damage to site, vegetation and regeneration in all kinds of
forests.
Recent increased attention and expression of wishes for intensified action and collaboration at national and
international levels is a clear indication of growing recognition of the fact that conservation of forest biological
diversity and wise management of forest genetic resources is of vital importance, and that they are not limiting
factors to development but preconditions for lasting well-being.
Box 3
VALUE OF FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES: PROVENANCE VARIATION
Forest tree species are among the genetically most variable organisms on earth. They are generally
characterized by long life cycles and wide natural distribution areas. The span of time over which external
changes may assert selective pressure on forest tree species and populations varies fi"om days to decades,
and the spatial scale varies from local to regional. In response, trees have developed complex mechanisms
to maintain high intra-specific (within species) diversity, which allows them to evolve and adapt to
changing conditions.
The manifested, high level of differentiation in adaptive genetic traits among and within forest
populations has underpinned the development of forest genetic studies and tree breeding programmes
over the past century. In addition to overall intra-specific variation, tree species have fi^equently
developed genetically diversified local populations of actual or potential value both for adaptation to
natural environmental change (including climatic fluctuations and emerging threats fi-om pests and
diseases), and for selection and breeding by man. Such inter-population variation, referred to in forestry
as provenance variation, may at times be as significant and practically important as that between different
tree species, and must consequently be explored and used as a basic component in forest plantation and
tree breeding programmes. Genetically diversified local populations which may possess valuable
attributes, or reproductive materials collected from them, must also be included in genetic conservation
programmes, with due regard to safeguarding such gene pools fi-om hybridization with introduced
provenances (Palmberg-Lerche 2001 , 2002a).
The practical importance of systematic testing of provenance variation has been convincingly
demonstrated in economic terms (see information in e.g. Evans 1999, FAQ 2002, Libby and Palmberg-
Lerche 2002, Palmberg-Lerche 2001, 2002a). The international provenance trials of Eucalyptus
camaldulensis, coordinated by FAG in the 1960s, were among the first of a number of such trials.
Experiments were established on 32 sites in 18 countries, and they showed that the potential gains in
growth and yield which could be achieved by selection of the best-adapted provenances for prevailing
environmental conditions, amounted to several hundred percent, with differences in growth between
provenances planted at any one experimental site ranging from 300% in northern Nigeria, to 800% in
Israel (Lacaze 1978, Palmberg-Lerche 200 1 ). Spectacular provenance differences were also found in dry-
zone Acacia and Prosopis species and provenances in a series of FAG coordinated trials in the 1 980s and
1 990s (Palmberg-Lerche 200 1 ).
Following species and provenance selection in Acacia, Casuarina and Eucalyptus species and the
introduction of better silvicultural methods, yields in forest plantations in China more than doubled in the
1980s and 1990s, and rotation times decreased by 30%. The mean internal rate of return in the plantation
schemes reviewed, using a 5% discount rate, was 35%). In the case oi Acacia mangium, the productivity of
large-scale plantations in Indonesia was doubled by the use of better adapted provenances, as compared to
yields obtained using the relatively poor quality seed previously used. These stands were also of better
quality in regard to stem straightness and branching (McKenney 1 998).
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 26
Box 4
VALUE OF FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES:
BREEDING FOR HIGH GUM YIELD IN Pinus elliottii
Research to breed high gum-yielding strains of a native pine species, Pinus elliottii, was initiated in 1941 in South-
Eastem USA, to meet increasing needs of the naval stores industry. By 1950, over 1000 plus trees had been selected
for superiority in gum production, based on variation in natural stands of the species. Field trials established and
evaluated between 1956 and 1972 using progenies of the selected plus trees showed that these produced
considerably more, and up to several times as much, gum as the average trees. Seed orchards were subsequently
established, using the most promising clones; this resulted in an increase of gum yields of 50-106%, as well as
increased amounts of wood, tall oil (rosin) and turpentine. There were also appreciable gains in stem straightness and
crown form, which had been included among the selection criteria when selecting the plus trees and the clones
included in the seed orchards. In parallel with the development of high gum yielding strains, efforts were also started
to apply more intensive silvicultural practices than those normally used when growing forest trees, and this further
increased gains in all traits selected for, including gum yields.
(Squillace et al. 1 972; see also Libby and Palmberg-Lerche 2002).
For more information, please refer to the FAO Forest Genetic Resources website
http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/fgr/en/. or contact the Editorial Board for a 5 -page list of internet-based
information on Forest Genetic Resources focusing on selected references to forest tree and shrub genetic
resources in Africa, presented by region and sub-region. References to some country-specific information is also
available. See also Box 2.
References
Anon 1991. Managing Global Genetic Resources: Forest Trees. Based on work of G. Namkoong, K. Bawa, J. Burley and
S.S. Shen. US Board on Agriculture, National Research Council. National Academy Press. Washington D.C.
Evans, J. 1999. Sustainability of Forest Plantations: the evidence. Review of evidence concerning the narrow sense
sustainability of planted forests. Department of International Development (DFID), Issues Paper, May 1999. DFID, U.K. 64
pp. ISBNl 861920997.
FAO 2002. Case study of tropical forest plantations in Malaysia by D.B.A Krishnapillay. Forest Plantations Working Paper
23. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO, Rome, (also available at
http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y7209E/Y7209E00.HTM)
FAO 2002a. Criteria and Indicators for Assessing the Sustainability of Forest Management Conservation of Biological
Diversity and Genetic Variation. Document prepared by G. Namkoong, T. Boyle, Y. El-Kassaby, C. Palmberg-Lerche, G.
Eriksson, H-R. Gregorius, H.Joly, A.Kremer, O.Savolainen, R.Wickneswari, A. Young, M.Zeh-Nlo and R.Prabhu. Forest
Genetic Working Papers No. 37/E. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division, FAO, Rome, (also
available at http://www.fao.Org/DOCREP/005/AC649E/ac649e00.htm#Contents).
FAO 2002b. Status and Trends in Indicators of Forest Genetic Diversity. Document prepared by Frank H. McKinnell. Forest
Genetic Resources Working Papers, Working Paper FGR/38E, Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources
Division. FAO, Rome, (also available at http://www.fao.Org/DOCREP/005/AC786E/AC786E00.HTM#Contents)
FAO 2006. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005. FAO Forestry Paper 147. FAO, Rome (Italy), (also available at
http://www.fao.org/forestrv/site/fra2005/en/ and ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/008/A0400E/A0400E00.pdf)
FAO 2006a. The Road Ahead: FAO and the Millennium Development Goals. FAO, Rome (Italy), (also available at
http://www.fao.org/mdg/)
FAO 2007. Technical review of status and trends of the world's forest genetic resources. Background information for
discussions at the 14th Session of the Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources. Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers,
Working Paper FGR/78E, prepared by Christel Palmberg-Lerche. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest
Management Division. FAO, Rome (Italy).
(also available at http://www.fao.org/forestry/webview/media?mediaId= 1 2252&langld= 1 )
FAO 2007a. The State of the World's Forests 2007: Forestry Department, FAO, Rome (Italy), (also available at
http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/sofo/en/)
Lacaze, J.F. 1978. Etude de I'adaptation Ecologique des eucalyptus; Etude de provenances d'Eucalyptus camaldulensis.
Nature & Fauna Vol. 22, Issue 1 27
Proc. 3rd World Consultation on Forest Tree Breeding. FO-FTB-77-2/29, CSIRO, Canberra, Australia.
Lacaze, J.F. (1987a), Lacaze, J.F. (1987a) Advances in species and provenance selection. Third FAO/IUFRO World
Consultation on Forest Tree Breeding-Canberra 1 977. Unaslyva 30(11 9/1 20). FAO, Rome.
http://www.fa0.0rg/d0crep/l 190e/l 1900e04.htm#advances%20in%20species%20and%20provenance%20selection
Libby, W.J. & Palmberg-Lerche, C. 2002. Forest plantation productivity. Forest Plantation Thematic Papers Working
Paper FP/3. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO Rome (29pp.). (also available at
http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/AC60 1 E/AC60 1 EOO.HTM)
McKenney, D.W. 1998. Australian Tree Species Selection in China. ACIAR Projects 8457 and 8848. Impact Assessment
Series Nbr. 8. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, ACIAR. Canberra, Australia. 25 pp.
Palmberg-Lerche, C. 2001. International action in the management of forest genetic resources: status and challenges.
Forest Genetic Resources Working Paper FGR/1. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division.
FAO Rome (49pp.). (also available at http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/X98 1 8E/X98 1 8E00.HTM)
Palmberg-Lerche, C. 2002. Thoughts on genetic conservation in forestry. Unasylva 53 (209):57-61, 2002/2 (E,F,S).
(also available at http://www.fao.Org/DOCREP/004/Y3582E/v3582el3.htm#m)
Palmberg-Lerche, C. 2002a. Forest Genetic Resources International and Australian Perspectives. Forest Genetic
Resources Working Paper FGR/36E. Forest Resources Division, Forestry Department, FAO Rome.(26pp.) (also
available at http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/AC547E/AC547E00.HTM)
Squillace, A.E., Dorman, K.W. & McNees, R.E. 1972. Breeding slash pine in Florida: a success story. Agricultural
Science Review. Cooperative State Research Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Vol.10, Nbr. 3, Third Quarter, pp.
25-32.
Williams, P.H. 1999. Key sites for conservation: area selection methods for biodiversity. In: Mace, G.M., Balmford, A.
and Ginsberg, J.R. {Eds). Conservation in a changing world- integrating processes into priorities for action. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge U.K.
Nature & Fauna Vol. 22, Issue 1 28
Pygeum:
Money growing on trees in the Cameroon Highlands?
Verina Ingram^ and Amos Tume Nsawir
Summary
Cameroon supports some of the largest populations of the Afromontane hardwood pygeum (Prunus africana), a
tree used traditionally for timber, fuel-wood and medicine. It is also the raw material for the pharmaceutical
industry. Its economic importance is indicated by Cameroon's annual permit to export 2000 tonnes since 2005,
providing export revenues of about 1 ,320 million CFA (2,685,929 US$). It is also one of the major income sources
for forest based communities in the Highlands areas of Cameroon. Pygeum is one of thirteen keystone species in
high altitude, montane mixed forest, vital in terms of adding to biological diversity in this 'hotspot' ecosystem.
However, it is an endangered species in a shrinking and increasingly degraded montane ecosystem and its annual
trade has been restricted since 1 995. Despite the quota-based regulatory framework in place and over two decades
of research, development of sustainable harvesting techniques and regeneration planting, the species faces major
problems of over-exploitation, illegal harvesting and degradation of its montane forest habitats. There is no
current scientific knowledge of the quantities of natural or planted stock of pygeum available for sustainable
harvesting, no monitoring system and no long term management plans. This paper details the effects
unsustainable exploitation of pygeum has on biodiversity and provides recommendations for creating win- win
situations for sustainable economic exploitation of this NTFP that also allows its ecological, social and cultural
values to be maintained.
1. Introduction
Prunus africana is also known as Iron Wood or Stinkwood and locally known in Cameroon as pygeum or kanda
stick, and locally^ as Kirah, Elouo, Eblaa, Bi'beh'kemb'oh' and Wotangu. It is an evergreen hardwood tree with
dark-brown longitudinal fissured bark and simple, thick, leathery, oval, leaves with pointed ends (Fig. 01). It
grows at 700-3000 meters above sea level, up to a height of 40 metres. It has creamy white flowers and produces
black fleshy fruits resembling a cherry when ripe, which are eaten and dispersed by monkeys, birds and squirrels,
some of which are endemic and endangered. Seeds can be collected mid-end February or seedlings collected in
May- June. It is long lived - up to 100 years and is patchily distributed as one of thirteen critical species that forms
90% of the rainy high altitude montane mixed forest ecosystems in Cameroon (Masiels and Forboseh 1 999, Cheek
2000). The majority of pygeum populations are in the North West (NW) in the Kilum-Ijim forests. South West
(SW) around Mt Cameroon and Adamoua Provinces of Cameroon, where they have been extensively exploited
for their bark since the 1 980s. It is a multiple-use species, locally used as fuel wood and for charcoal, for poles, hoe
and axes handles, as a bee loving plant in honey production, in protecting water catchments, as a boundary marker,
and especially medicinally for humans and animals; powdered into a tea for genito-urinary complaints, allergies,
inflammation, kidney disease, malaria, stomach ache, fever, chest pain, heart bum, madness and for animal
medicines.
Internationally it is of medicinal economic value. The bark is exported dried, chipped or powdered to USA and
Europe to produce an extract used to treat benign prostrate hyperplasia. The extract is also a raw material for the
burgeoning health, bio-product, diet supplement and pharmaceutical industry. If the bark is partially stripped
according to methods developed by the Mount Cameroon Project (Cunningham 1 993, Nkuineku and Remi 1 998)
of two quarter panels from a tree of more than 30 cm diameter at breast height (approximately 1 2 to 1 5 years old) it
will regenerate and may be exploited at between 5 to 1 5 year intervals without killing the tree. 200 kg of fresh bark
are about equal to 100 kg of dried bark, which is needed to make 1 kg of extract. An average mature tree yields 55-
75 kg of bark per harvest (Cunningham and Mbenkum 1 993 , Acworth 1 999).
' Senior Adviser, SNV, Netherlands Development Organisation, Highlands Office, BP 5069, Bamenda, Cameroon, Tel. + 237
9800 768, vingram(a)snvworld. org or verina _ingram&,hotmail. com
^ Office Manager, Association of Environmental Education NW, PO 19, Kumbo, Bui, NW Province, Cameroon, Tel. +237
7196362, asecnw2000(a),yahoo.com. amosnsawir&yahoo.com orwww.asecnw.org
^ Respective languages ofNso (Lamnso), Kom, Oku, Fulfulde (all used in the North West Province) andBakweri (South West
Province)
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 29
Prunus harvesting and export have been regulated' as a 'Special Product' since 1994, through a system of annual,
non-renewable, tonnage based permits for dried bark harvested each year from provincial zones allocated by
auction and quotas. Permits are granted by an Inter-Ministerial Committee, based on technical reports from
Provincial Chiefs of Forestry which should provide a "reasoned recommendation" of the species, quantities,
exploitation areas and harvesting modalities. Prunus seized after having been illegally harvested (without a
Simple Management Plan (SMP) or sold to a person without a permit) is auctioned at a public sale. The buying
price is usually below the current market price. The buyer, who does not need a permit, pays the Treasury and an
additional 12% of the buying price to the Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife (MINFoF) division making the
seizure. A "Regeneration Tax" of 2% of the quota value is payable to the Government, by permit holders, in three
instalments, one of which is an advance. Since 2006, regeneration is the responsibility of the National Forestry
Development Agency (ANAFOR). Felling of trees, without special permission, is illegal.
Prunus' is lUCN Red List of Threatened Species as "Vulnerable" highlighting its higher risk of global extinction.
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), of which Cameroon is signatory, listed
pygeum as an Appendix II species in 1 995, meaning Prunus is not threatened by extinction, but may be so if trade
is not regulated. In 2006 Cameroon and DRC were the only listed countries for Prunus africana, previously this
included Kenya, Madagascar and Burundi. Producing countries have to declare exports, to set a "scientific non-
detriment finding" for any annual quotas and these have to be reported to CITES. It was recommended that
Cameroon would within 1 year: undertake an inventory of standing stock in harvest areas, establish estimates of
sustainable off-take and a scientific monitoring system, revise the quota and set out a long term management plan
for the species (CITES 2006).
In practice, the majority of inventories have been one of baseline, performed by projects e.g. the Kilum-Ijim and
its predecessor Bamenda Highlands Forest Project ( 1 987 to 2004), the Mount Cameroon Project ( 1 990-2002), and
in Community Forest^ (CF), SMPs which do not quantify, but do state harvesting schedules and forest areas. The
World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) with its partners has been researching domestication techniques^
(Tchoundjeu et al. 2002) and with University of Dschang, Cameroon researching genetic diversity and bark
extracts (Avana 2004 and Pers. comm.). A current Austrian financed Biodiversity International Project
concentrates conservation and sustainable use, focusing on conservation and use of reproductive material, genetic
analysis, reproductive biology and bark extracts (BFW 2007).
2. Economics
In the NW and SW Provinces of Cameroon, Prunus is a major secondary source of income for individuals, CFs,
NGOs, agro-forestry enterprises and schools. Figures on export quantities and prices are difficult to obtain, the
following being from a variety of mainly non-government sources. Between 1985 and 1991, prior to it's CITES
listing, an estimated 9,309 tons of Prunus were exported from Cameroon, amounting to at least 143 million CFA
(290,976 US$). Turnover for Plantecam (a drug manufacturing company operating in Cameroon) in 1998 is
reported at 4,000,000 US$. The export value oi Prunus in 1999 was 700,000 US$'. Prices at export for dry bark'
(chips) in 2006 ranged around 660 CFA to 1 000 CFA per kilo'. In 2000 the Plantecam sold for 2000 CFA per kg. In
' Decree No. 74/357 of 17 April 1974; Law No. 81/13 of 27 November 1981; Decree No. 83/169 of 12 April 1983; Law No.
94/01 of 20 January 1994 and its decree of application, Decree No. 95/53 1/PM of 2 3 August 1995
^ Community Forests are allocated for up to 25 years by the Government to a community(ies) near or in forest areas. The
forest must be managed by managed by a legally registered entity comprised of community stakeholders and forest user
groups in a way that benefits the local population and ensures forest preservation. The government approved 5 year
renewable Simple Management Plan is participatorily produced and assesses the potentials of CF, establishes their
sustainable management and exploitation and agrees revenue distribution accruingfrom the forest.
^ Diversification of smallholder farming systems in West and Central Africa through cultivation of indigenous trees, IFAD
financed project executed by ICRAF from 2000-2004
^ Chupezi T. G., Ndoye O., National analysis of trade related instruments influencing trade in African cherry and the African
Grey Parrot, applications and impacts on poverty alleviation and sustainable forest management in Cameroon, FAORome,
2005
^ "Dry bark" = 12- 18% humidity
* Interviews members Syndicat des Exploitants Transformlatuers Industiels Exportatuers des Produits Speciaux
(STIEPS), Pers. Comm., March 2007
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 30
2005 and 2006, between 1 500 to 2000 tonnes was harvested annually, valued at approximately at 260 million CFA
(540,000 US$) to producers (harvesters, community organisations and individuals), with an export value
estimated at over 2,649 million CFA (5,470,000 US$), based on an average export price of 660 CFA (1 .34 US$)
per kg (Ingram 2007). In NW estimated around 88,400 trees were harvested in 2005 (based on average 75 kg per
mature tree) when 6,630 tons were bought by 40 authorized buyers. The chain in Cameroon involves at least
60,000 people in communities with CFs, an unknown quantity of individuals with plantations, about 500
harvesters, approximately 1 1 exploitation permit-holding small scale enterprises and approximately 5 small to
medium seized exporting enterprises.
There are substantial differences in opinion between the regulators (Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife and
ANAFOR as the Cameroon CITES scientific authority), exporters, forest users, researchers and development
organisations on how to exploit Prunus sustainably and the quantities available for exploitation. This is combined
with declining populations, particularly in the NW and SW Provinces (Ingram and Jam 2007, Gotz Pers. Comm.).
This paper details the effects unsustainable exploitation of pygeum has on biodiversity and provides
recommendations for creating win- win situations for sustainable economic exploitation of this NTFP that also
allows its ecological, social and cultural values to be maintained.
3. Methodology
Interviews from July- August 2005 (Whinconet 2005) and November 2006 to March 2007 were held with pygeum
users and harvesters, CFs, private sector exporters, government ministries and administration, traditional
authorities, researchers, ANAFOR and development organisations (reported in Ingram 2007). These were
supplemented by literature reviews, data gathering, field observations in the NW and SW provinces and two rapid
inventories in the NW Province (Ingram and Jam 2007)
4. Results: Unsustainable exploitation threatens a viable Prunus market and
biodiversity
Recent research (Stewart 2007) combined with actor interviews and field observations (Ingram 2007), all indicate
that in spite of, and because of, its economic and social value, wild Prunus africana populations appear in major
decline. Reasons include:
1 . Uncontrolled exploitation and illegal harvesting (out of 1 ,24 1 tons harvested from January 2000 to March
2007, 257 tons were illegal (Photo I) (WHINCONET 2005, Ingram 2007).
2. Unsustainable harvesting techniques (stripping entire trees or felling) results in die-offs of between 1 3 to
50% of natural stands, especially mature seed producers, in Kilum-Ijim.
3. Inappropriate techniques and timing have contributed to poor health of surviving trees. Even if trees were
unsustainably harvested initially, subsequent illegal harvesting has resulted in die offs of between 13 to
50% of trees in the NW, see Photo 2 (Stewart 2003, Ingram 2007).
4. Bushfires, associated with herders', beefarming and agricultural clearing, devastating approximately 5-
10 hectares of forest annually, which pygeum seedlings and mature trees can not tolerate, leading to very
low levels of natural regeneration.
5 . Current levels of cattle and goat grazing result in almost zero natural regeneration (Stewart 2007).
6. Insufficient management, controls and enforcement (according to SMPs) of natural stands in CFs results
in "illegal harvesting", a lack of planned regeneration and protection against encroachment and bush
fires. CF's SMPs take years to be processed, impeding control over resources, interfering with investment
incentive and slowing down the upsurge in product value. Many CFs also lack adequate management,
financial and administrative skills (MOCAP 2007, Ingram 2007).
7. Declines in prunus may have long term consequences for the health of threatened and decreasing
montane ecosystems and their biodiversity, as it comprises one of the keystone species (Masiels and
Forbosehl999).
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 31
Photo 1: Illegal harvesting has resulted in die ojfs of between 13 to 50% of trees.
Planted stands by the aforementioned projects and by ONADEF^, PAFRA^ and ANAFOR have tended not to have
been monitored until of harvestable age or had their available sustainable harvestable quantities evaluated. Most
were monitored in the first few years of planting (ANAFOR and PAFRA^ Pers. comm.). The result is a lack of data
on plantation locations and harvestable quantities in any given year. However, from available data a conservative
estimate can be given of over 120,000 saplings planted in at least 273 hectares since 1976 (Ingram 2007).
Approximately 15 to 30 nurseries still exist, some actively supported as local partners of ICRAF, that provide
Prunus seedlings for approximately 1 50 CFA (0.30 US$) per 6 month seedling.
5. Discussion
The Cameroon Highlands contain the largest remaining patches of afromontane forest in West Africa, defined by
the World Wildlife Fund one of the top 200 worldwide Ecoregions. It contains 35 restricted-range endemic bird
species (third richest ecoregion for birds in mainland Africa), 10 endemic reptiles, 55 endemic amphibians, 6
endemic mammals and around 100 rare/endemic plant species. The Bamenda Highlands mixed forest and
savannah grasslands have some of the highest levels of endemism in the Western Highlands. However
deforestation has increased dramatically in the last 1 00 years: in the Bamenda Highlands an estimated 93% loss of
original forest from 1965 to 2000 has left approximately only 98km^ of montane forest. Rapid degradation of up to
25% of montane forest cover in 8 years (Cheek, 2000) threatens all the keystone species, which include Prunus
qfricana. Given the species' vital value in terms of its key status in the biological diversity of the montane
ecosystem, it is likely that this increases the health of the ecosystem. As one of the many keystone species, Prunus
africana potentially connects to other plant species, and its fruit drupes are certainly a key high protein food source
for various species of frngivorous mammals and birds, such as the endemic Bannerman's Turaco (Tauraco
Bannermani), Bannerman's Weaver {Ploceus bannermani), Cameroon Montane Greenbul (Andoropagus
montanus) and Preuss' Guenon {Cerccopithecus preussii), and consequently improves the resilience of the entire
ecosystem. Its ecological values also extend to cultural (carving), economic (bark export and firewood) and social
(medicinal) uses.
Constraints identified by actors to develop the Cameroonian Prunus africana sector and increasing local
revenues, production and employment, include;
• Complete lack of scientific knowledge of the state and total amount of the resource of Prunus available in
the wild and in plantations, in any given year and its location. Even where inventories are recent (such as
Mt Cameroon), actors' perceptions of sustainable harvest were over-reported. Notable differences of
opinion exist between harvesters, CFs, researchers, exporters and buyers.
• Local knowledge does exist on locations of natural and planted stands of pygeum. Buyers tend to be the
most knowledgeable, but also reluctant, for commercial reasons, to share this knowledge. They generally
believe that more than 2000 tonnes of dried pygeum bark is available in Cameroon, noting that costs have
increased as increasingly remote areas (such as Adamoua and Centre Provinces), are exploited, while
traditional high yielding locations in the NW and SW are depleted. Community based knowledge also
exists on a local level, although no CFs could give accurate reports of quantities available in the short or
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
32
long term. Locations of replanted Prunus mostly privately owned by individuals but also through
ANAFOR, PAFRA and ONADEF, are also not available. This absence of hard data is compounded by the
annual quota system which does not allocate site specific permits and is not inventory based.
Lack of market information and its dissemination regarding:
o Price, among harvester-producers and between producers, harvesters and buyers in Cameroon,
as well as between exporters and internal buyers and industries. This has lead to low prices for
CFs and harvesters and wide regional variations. Changes in the market structure from the
monopoly of Plantecam in the 1980s to the current quota system (Ondigui, 2001; MINFoF
Decisions 2006 and 2007) also are viewed as inefficient and not business friendly. Most CFs
dealt with different buyers, did not compare prices and did not contact the buyers themselves but
were contacted when buyers were ready. Most did not store and sold "wet" or "fresh bark". The
lack of knowledge about market prices and buyers especially between the SW and the NW,
means selling prices in Mt Cameroon in the SW can reach 240 CFA (0.48 US$) per kg for dried
bark, while in the NW range from 40 CFA (0.08 US$) to an average 65 CFA (0. 13 US$) per kg
for lower value wet bark (equivalent to 20-33 CFA (0.04-0.07 US$) per kg dried bark (Ingram,
2007).
o Methods to add value in the production and transformation (e.g. drying, chipping or extraction).
o International manufacturers and consumer awareness about pygeum, which potentially could
influence buying patterns and the development of alternatives, such as competing natural (e.g.
Saw palmQtto-Serenoa repens, Urtica dioca, Hypoxis rooperi, Populus tremuloides, Secale
cereale, Cucurbita peop) and synthetic products replacing Prunus africana extract (Pomatto
2001).
0 Resource availability, such as total sustainable resource available per year and location, amounts
harvested per year and total value (for producers, exporters, customs, ANAFOR etc.), quantity
replanted per area and organisations, quantity destroyed per area (poor harvesting techniques or
natural).
Expensive, time consuming administrative and bureaucratic requirements coupled with corruption
involved in obtaining exploitation licenses and export permits.
Low level of transformation processing (into chips, powder or extract), currently only by 2 or 3 exporters
in Cameroon, means little value is added to the product and the potential for increasing income,
employment and production to alleviate poverty is not utilised.
Difficult access to capital to invest in transformation/processing, particularly for community
organisations and CFs.
Lack of quality control and lack of certification for export, particularly powdered or chipped products
(certifying that the product is Prunus and not other barks).
Poor governance and transparency: Most Forest Management Institutions (FMIs) were not able to report
on quantities harvested, locations and revenues from sales, who was buying (and therefore the legality),
amounts paid to harvesters or how benefits were shared in their community. The FMIs are village or
community level organisations and are nongovernmental; and the majority of them did not report in
advance to their MINFoF delegates their harvest operation schedules (as required by CF procedures).
Many CFs were also not harvesting according to their SMPs.
6. Recommendations from Lessons learnt
Radical changes are necessary in the sector to allow continued but sustainable exploitation and enable a win-win
situation between income generation and biodiversity conservation and sustainable resource use, particularly in
poor, rural, montane forest areas. Such lessons include;
A. Sustainable management of wild, forest based pygeum can only be possible via a national inventory of
stands, implementation of substantial regeneration measures (potentially linked to implementation and
increased transparency regarding the Regeneration Tax), enforcement of sustainable harvesting methods
and long term monitoring. This will also allow its ecological value to be at least maintained.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 33
B. Meeting CITES requirements is essential to ensure continued exports from Cameroon and to ensure that
the sector does not collapse in the short term. This would have negative consequences for all the producers
and exporters in the chain, as well as lower the revenues for the government of Cameroon. Furthermore, it
has implications for consumers and it would lead to the development of alternative products and/or
sources of Prunus. The inventory should reinforce whether Prunus remains a "Vulnerable" species.
C. Further promotion of domestication, plantations and individual planting of pygeum (via programmes
such ANAFOR, but also through ICRAF, CFs, individuals and innovative, demand lead collaborations
with exporters), is critical to counter decreases in wild stocks and maintain its economic value.
D. In order to balance ecological and economic values of biodiversity, the regulatory system needs to be
adapted to:
o Review the quota system to a location specific, quantity capped quota system
o Introduce site specific tracing and tracking systems e.g. Certificates of Origin
o Implement enforcement measures and capacity building for government authorities such as
MINFoF, Customs and taxes regarding transportation and permit holders reporting.
o Streamline administrative hurdles and increase business friendly practices in the exploitation
permit and registration process for ispecial forest products! e.g. increasing time period of the
permit and revising the rules for sales of confiscated Prunus.
E. Regarding enhancing the market chain; the following recommendations can be made:
o Particularly small and medium sized enterprises and CFs should be targeted to operate more
efficiently and sustainably;
o Optimal use of resources could be achieved through sustainable and alternative harvesting
methods;
o Quality control should introduced at key stages in the chain e.g. through certification of
NTFPs or business in the process;
o A system of value-addition by Cameroonian enterprises and organisations should be aimed
at, through improving processing and transformation such as drying, chipping and extract
removal in Cameroon;
o Links with pharmaceutical companies and end users should be reinforced to increase
awareness of resource constraints and sustainability. In addition, pygeum extract use should
be diversified e.g. for vetinary applications.
F. Increasing institutional and organisational networks should also balance ecological and economic values.
This holds in particular for collaboration between regulatory agencies with exploiters, producers and
other institutions with regulatory functions such as traditional authorities and councils, but also between
producers and exploiters and among exporters and international manufacturers.
G. Increasing knowledge of the resource allows biodiversity to be economically valorized and can also
optimize exploitation, such as increasing knowledge of genetic diversity, and exploring alternative
harvesting options such as leaves or coppicing.
7. Suggestions for further research
Further research and development is necessary to address the problems and solutions identified. The following
current activities will ensure that many of these issues are addressed; a two year European Commission financed
Programme "Mobilisation et renforcement des capacites des petites et moyennes entreprises impliquees dans les
filieres des produits forestieres non ligneux en Afrique Centrale" (Mobilisation and strengthening of small and
medium-scale enterprises involved in the NWFP sector in central Afrika) lead by the FAO with SNV, CIFOR and
ICRAF, started in 2007. Its projected results include reinforcing small and medium sized enterprises in the sector,
developing the Prunus chain as a priority NTFP in Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo, reinforcing
techniques for sustainable management, particularly harvesting and domestication and ensuring that national and
regional institutional and legal frameworks are adapted and function.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 34
SNV is also building capacity in the Cameroon Highlands with the Association of Environmental Education and
the Western Highlands Conservation Network (WHINCONET), which includes CFs in Kilum-Ijim, working
with partners such as MINFOF, ANAFOR, a Community Forestry capacity building project (RIGC), the German
Technical Development Agency (GTZ) and the Mt Cameroon Prunus Management CIG (MOCAP). The French
Cooperation FORINFO Project is supporting researchers at the University of Dschang, Cameroon in researching
genetic diversity. The Institute of Ethnobotany, Florida USA is examining the effects of grazing, fire and
harvesting on Prunus. ANAFOR is seeking finances to fulfil its obligations to CITES. Further research on the
experience in other countries with Prunus africana is welcomed, as is work on comparable NTFPs and issues.
References
Acworth, J. & Ewusi, B.N. 1999. Prunus africana, striving for sustainable & equitable resource management in
Cameroon, Mt Cameroon Project
ANCO 2006. Proposal for biometric data in the Kilum Moist Montane forest in the Bamenda Highlands.
BFW/Biodiverstiy International/CGIAR, Institute for Agrobiotechnology IFA-Tulln, Center for Analytical
Chemistry, Austria; Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRAD), Cameroon; Tanzania Forestry
Research Institute (TAFORI), Tanzania & Kenya Forest Research Institute (KEFRI), Kenya Project 06390 2007.
Document: Development of strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of Prunus africana to improve the
livelihood of small-scale farmers, (also available at http://bfw.ac.at/tis/timain.print_projekt?proj= 1 97)
Chupezi, T.J., Ndoye, O. & Walter, S. 2004. National Analysis of Trade-Related Instruments Influencing Trade in
African cherry (Prunus africana) and the African Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus): Applications and Impacts on
Poverty Alleviation and Sustainable Forest Management in Cameroon, FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Programme.
Cheek, M., Onana J.M. & Pollard J.B. 2000. The Plants of Mount Oku and the Ijim Ridge, Cameron - A Conservation
Checklist, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew and Herbier National Camerounais, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew
CITES 2006. PC16 WGl Doic 1, CITES 16" meeting of the Plants Committee. Peru, July 3-8 2006.
CITES 2006. Export Quota for specimens of species included in CITIES appendices in 2006, 14.02.06
http://www.cites.org/index.html
Cunningham, A.B. & Mbenkum, F.T. 1993. Sustainability of Harvesting Prunus africana Bark in Cameroon: A
Medicinal Plant in International Trade. People and Plants Working Paper 2. UNESCO, Paris, France.
Government of Cameroon 2005. Decision N° 0029/D/MINFOF/SG/DF du 06 avril 2005
Government of Cameroon 2006. Decision N° 0009/D/MINFOF/SG/DF/SDAFF/SAG, 1 3 Janvier 2006
Government of Cameroon 2007. Decision N° 139/D/MINFoF/SG/DF/SDAFF/SAG du 02 Mars 2007 Portant octroi des
quotas d' exploitation des produits forestiers speciaux
Gotz E., Personal communication, GTZ Bureau, March 2007
Hall, J. B., Sinclair, F. L., O'Brien, E. M. 2000. Prunus africana: a monograph. School of Agricultural and Forest
Sciences Publication, University of Wales, Bangor, (No. 18) viii +104 pp.
Ingram, V.J. 2007. Prunus africana (pygeum) in the NW, SW and West Provinces of Cameroon: Summary of data 1980
to 2006, SNV Highlands, April 2007
Ingram, V.J., Jam, N.A. 2007. Prunus africana status NW SW, SNV Highlands Paper (unpublished). May 2007
Avana, M., Tchoundjeu Z., Bell, J.M., Vaillant A. & Chevallier M. 2004. Diversite genetique du Prunus africana (Hook
.f.) Kalkman au Cameroun, Bois et Fortts des Tropiques, 2004 No 282 (4), 2004
Linke, J. 1998. Note d'information du Projet Mont Cameroun sur Prunus africana. Buea.
Maisels, G. & Forboseh P. 1999. Phenology of the major tree and shrub species of the Kilum Ijim forest, Birdlife
intemational/MINEF Cameroon, (Unpublished).
MOCAP 2006. FGF Project "Sustainable management of Prunus africana by organised community groups in the NW
Province using Mocap's initiative and permif
Nkuinkeu, R., & Remi V. 1998. Procedure de la technique d'ecorcage du Pygeum africanum, Unpublished report to
Mount Cameoron Project, Limbe.
Ondigui Balla, R.P. 2001. Sustainable Management Of A Wild Plant Species For The Conservation Of Montane Forest
Ecosystems And The Welfare Of Local Communities: A Case Study Of Prunus ajricana In The Mount Cameroon Area,
World Mountain Symposium.
Pomatto V. 2001. Etude de marche du Pygeum Africanum en Europe, GTZ-MINEF.
Samnick, L.N., Hiol, F. & Determeyer, H. 2004. Scoping Note; Continuite des activitEs visant / developper
durablement le secteur PFNLE, Capacity Building Project.
Stewart, K.M. 2003. The African Cherry tree; Can lessons be learned from an over-exploited medical tree?. Journal of
Ethno-Pharmacology , 89, 2003 3-13
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 35
Stewart, K. 2007. Effects of bark harvest and other human activity on populations of the African Cherry (Prunus
africana) in Mount Oku, Cameroon, University of Dschang and Institute of Applied Ethnobotany, Florida, Poster, 2007
Tchoundjeu, Z., Avana, M. L., Leakey R. R. B., Simons A. J., Assah, E., Duguma, B. & Bell, J. M. 2002. Vegetative
propagation of Prunus africana: Effects of rooting medium, auxin concentration and leaf area, Agroforestry Systems
54,183-192
WHINCONET 2005. Report On The Illegal Harvesting Of Prunus africana in the Kilum-Ijim Forests of Oku and
Fundong, North West Province, Cameroon, (unpublished), December 2005
WWF 2001. Prunus africana
Nature & Fauna Vol. 22, Issue 1
36
Gaps in the Forest Valuation Equation:
; The Case of Kenya
Mohammed El Mongy'
Abstract
In Kenya like many other countries, the forests resources are valued according to the direct material benefit of
forest products market prices. This view might be leading to short term economic gains from sales of wood
products and non wood products. However, on the long term reliance on this method of valuation is unsustainable
ecologically and economically.
Ecologically it leads to deforestation and environmental degradation that is caused by the reduction of the forest
domain or fragmentation of forest. Some consequences of the deforestation will be soil degradation, biodiversity
loss and deficiency in the ecological services provided by the forest like air quality, water catchments, pollination
and flood protection. These ecological services are incommensurable by nature; this means if it is lost it is
impossible to compensate them be it with financial investments or technology.
Economically lack of adequate forest valuation is a symptom of chronic poverty on a micro level and
unsustainable economic strategies. The benefit of forests marketable products if enjoyed by today's generation
will not be enjoyed by the fiiture generations if exploited in an unsustainable manner. Addressing the chronic
poverty and ensuring that forest preservation make livelihood sense to the forest communities are essential for this
sustainable management.
The Economic methodology challenged is the Cost Benefit Analysis method and the theory proposed is the Total
Economic Valuation that takes into account the forest direct and indirect values as well as the optional values and
non use values.
1. Introduction
The purpose of this article is to question the conventional understanding of forests' values that are based only on
natural resources extraction for short term economic purposes, and to challenge that this valuation method is
neither ecologically nor economically sustainable and leading to accelerated deforestation. The case study taken
for demonstrating this is the deforestation process in Kenya. To understand the root causes of deforestation in
Kenya, it is important to analyze the ways forest valuation is conducted and how they affect forest management.
Based on literature review this article tries to address the views on forest valuation from a Macro and Micro level
and to provide an insight on alternative forest valuation, stemming from Ecological Economics theories, to ensure
sustainable management of forest resources.
2. Valuing forests' resources in Kenya on Macro level
About 83% of land area in Kenya is categorised as arid or semi arid based on annual rainfall rate not exceeding 600
millimetres. Forests cover 6.1% of the country (Matriru 1999), with 35,000 km\ with the other land area covered
with savannah, grassland, woodland-grassland and desert (OECD 2006). The average rate of deforestation is at
0.53% per year (FAO 2006). Figure 1 shows that over the last years Kenya's economy and GDP has grown, while
the forest landscape has been steadily shrinking (OECD 2006). In Kenya the main focus of forestry has been on
commercial logging and forest valuation has been associated with the timber revenue and fuel wood usage (lUCN
2001).
' Sustainable Development Consultant/ MSc. University of Edinburgh, CH651, 7 Richmond Place, Edinburgh EH89ST,
Scotland. SO 6 7 7864&^ms. ed. ac. uk
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 37
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
• Forest area (000 sq.
km)
GDP- ppp (current $)
Billion USD
1990
2000
2005
Figure 1: Growth of GDP and rate afforest conversion. Left axis represents forest cover, right axis GDP-ppp.
Source: OECD 2006
The main reason for this inadequate forest value is that forest resources income statistics and accounting systems
consider only the output of formal sectors of marketable goods and do not reflect the Total Economic Value (TEV)
of the forest (Emerton and Mogaka 1996):
Total forest value = direct values + indirect values + optional values + non use values
TEV provides an all-encompassing measure of the economic value of environmental assets (Pearce 1995). TEV
direct values are divided into marketable (directly paid for) and non marketable (non-consumptive) values. The
option values the potential future use of the ecological goods and services, whether direct or indirect (Edwards-
Jones e? a/. 2000)
Among the major macro reasons for deforestation in Kenya, is the unsustainable exploitation of forests' direct
marketable values mainly timber-. These direct marketable values are valued according to the common monetary
valuation methods without TEV (Pearce 1995). Another manifestation of the need of proper forest valuation in
addressing macro economic issues is the conversion of forest landscape to agriculture (Emerton 200 1 ). According
to Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA), decisions to convert tropical forest to agriculture are justified if the net benefits
from agriculture exceed the net benefits fi-om conservation (Pearce 1995). Valuing the forest according to its
direct benefits rather than its TEV leads the agricultural expansion to have a comparative advantage over forests'
sustainable maintenance. Table 1 below indicates that agriculture, with 48% of Kenya's exports, outweighs the
forestry sector in this aspect.
Table 1: Imports and exports in forestry and agriculture.
Forestry Sector Int. Trade
Agricultural Sector Int. Trade
Forestry imports
4*
Agricultural imports
483*
% For. Imports in tot. imports
0.09%
% Agr. Imports in tot. Imports
11%
Forestry exports
27*
Agricultural exports
1296*
% For. Exports in tot. exports
0.07%
% Agr. Exports in tot. exports
48%
Source: FAO Statistical Yearbook 2004
This skewed CBA overlooked the forests' TEV and accelerated the deforestation during the post-independence
period from the Shamba policy that subsidized agricultural expansion (Kahuthu 2006). Moreover, the
circumstances of international trade stimulates agricultural expansion; farmers' subsidies and import taxes in
Europe and North America prohibit Kenya fi-om exporting products in which it has comparative advantage, like
livestock and dairy products. Hence, the structural adjustment policies in the 1980s led to the shift: from
subsistence crops to cash crops for exports like tea and coffee, and, lately, horticulture (Andersen 2002). Pearce
(1995) suggests that, even if only forests' direct benefits are valued, conversion to agriculture leads to economic
failure in the long term. The marginal profit (M in figure 2 below) will decline as the forest conversion increases.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
38
This is due to the rising conversion cost as the agriculture land is spatially expanding, which is the case of the forest
landscape from Mount Kenya through the upstream of Tana River. This inevitably leads to an increase in
infrastructural developments to enhance forest access which, along with population growth, facilitates forest
degradation, biodiversity loss and deforestation (curve M + Sub) (Pearce 1 995).
M + Sub
EXT Loc + EXT Glob
EXT Loc
Forest
C
Land Conversion
O
Figure 2: Marginal profit and cost of forest conversion to apiculture.
Source: Pearce, 1995
Agricultural conversion imposes local externalities (EXT Loc); soil erosion, biodiversity loss and carbon
sequestration reduction (Andersen 2002). These externalities are not only affecting Kenya, but also have global
effects (Ext Glob). In his study for the lUCN, Karanja suggests that in addition to the spatial dimension, a temporal
one needs to be looked at in order to have a sustainable CB A; as forests resources decline in quantity and quality, a
direct cost is implied in terms of the expenditure necessary to prevent environmental degradation occurring (e.g.
soil installation). Moreover, the replacement cost necessary to substitute the ecological goods and services lost
by the degraded forest resource (e.g. non-wood fuel, construction materials etc.). Traditionally the
counterargument presented is that the opportunity cost of forest degradation will be invested in economic
improvements and increased productivity of all sectors (Andersen & Grove 1987). This view disregards the
incommensurable nature of forests resources that, if degraded, will potentially result in inhibiting the production
of other sectors. A clear example of this is downstream flood control and watershed catchments protection; these
ecological functions, if no longer provided by the forest ecosystem, will need high financial investments to be
replaced, as is the case in Ethiopia (McCann 1 999).
Other costs include future economic opportunities foregone; we do not yet have adequate scientific knowledge to
know the full range of production and consumption possibilities which may be obtained from the forests' genetic
pool. We also cannot fully predict human and economic needs for goods and services in the future (Emerton et al.
2001)
Table 2 below suggests the elements to be taken into consideration with forests valuation using TEV as well as the
forest type to consider when extracting the values in question.
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
39
Table 2: Elements to be taken into consideration with forests valuation using TEV and forest type to consider.
Source: Edwards-Jones et al. 2000
M
D
N
M
D
I
o
N-U
VET
stake
Forest
Industrial wood-timber
X
X
XX
National
P
Fuelwood-Charcoal
X
X
XX
Loc. + Nat.
P
Fruits
X
X
XX
Loc. + Nat.
N+P
Vegetables
X
X
XX
Loc. + Nat.
N+P
Building Poles
X
X
XX
Loc. + Nat.
P
Nuts
X
X
XX
Loc. + Nat.
N+P
Herbs
X
X
XX
Local
N+P
Medicine
X
X
XX
Local
N+P
Hunting
X
X
XX
Int. + Nat.
N*
Crafts
X
X
XX
Local
P
Labor
X
X
XX
Loc. + Nat.
N+P
R&D
X
X
XX
National
N+P
Education
X
X
XX
Loc. + Nat.
N+P
Tourism
X
X
XX
Loc. + Nat. +
Int.
N+P
Health
X
X
XX
Local
N+P
Local recreation
X
X
XX
Local
N+P
Scenery
X
X
X
X
xxxx
Loc. + Nat. +
Int.
N+P
Wildlife
X
X
X
X
xxxx
Loc. + Nat. +
Int.
N+P
Biodiversity
X
X
X
XXX
Loc. + Nat. +
Int.
N+P
Community Identity
X
X
X
X
xxxx
Local
N
Climate regulation
X
X
X
XXX
Loc. + Nat. +
Int..
N+P
Carbon sequestration
X
X
X
XXX
Loc. + Nat. +
Int.
N+P
Air quality
X
X
X
XXX
Loc. + Nat. +
Int.
N+P
Water quality
X
X
X
XXX
Loc. + Nat.
N+P
Water cycle
X
X
X
XXX
Loc. + Nat. +
Int.
N+P
Soil erosion control
X
X
X
XXX
Loc. + Nat.
N+P
M D - Marketable Direct Values.
Values. N-U - Non Use Values.
N-M D - Non Marketable Values. 1 -
P - Plantation. N - Native Forest.
Indirect Values.
0 - Option
3. Valuing the forests in Kenya on Micro level
From the micro level, the access of rural population to forests' resources, mainly for fiiel wood, is always stated as
the primary driving force of deforestation. Regarding the forest as a common asset by the local population, Hardin
suggests through his theory of the "Tragedy of the Commons" that individual members want to maximize their
individual and/or collective benefit(s) from the common resource, without due consideration to its sustainability
(Hardin 1968). A deeper analysis of this notion led to conclude that the issue of the commons is actually the open
access to these assets (Kituyu & Lane 1998). People living inside and adjacent to the forest consider the open
access to forest resources as an integral part of their identity, past and future livelihoods. They cut and sell trees as a
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
40
source of energy and income, as well as use the forest as their open super market (Abdel Galil 2003). This led to the
main proponents of early colonial land alienation to argue that Kenyans did not own the land rather they enjoyed
only immediate use rights at zero cost in occupied lands (Kituyu & Lane 1998). This latest view also failed to
recognize the effort and risks invested in collecting forest resources, which mainly affect women and children in
absence of affordable alternatives. It does not also consider the opportunity cost of education, health and other
family and community obligations that are affected in the process of collecting wood for fuel (Basset & Crummey
2003)
Fuel wood and charcoal provides 70% of total Kenyan energy consumption and 93% of the rural household energy
requirements (Emerton et al. 2001). In the last two decades, with population growth, demand for fuel wood has
outstripped supply, rising from 18.7 million tons in 1980 to 47.1 million tons in 2000. The rate of establishing
forest plantations is slow, consequentially the new forest stands do not satisfy the needs, hence felling takes place
in the indigenous forests as is the case for Lembus, Kakamega and Machakos. This leads to not only accelerated
deforestation but also to forest fragmentation and a consequential reduction in soil fertility in the cleared forest
batches (Kirubi etal 2000)
Wood scarcity and inadequate valuation of forest resources on micro level were seldom isolated problems, but
rather manifestations of a much broader and complex problem of poverty (Kirubi et al. 2000); people in their
efforts to enhance their livelihoods, have neither available nor affordable alternatives except to exploit the forests
resources (e.g. alternative energy sources). Additionally in the absence of material or immaterial incentives, poor
communities have no benefits from conserving the forests (Emerton et al. 2001). Deforestation rate increases
during the period of drought, famine and food shortage, which also proves the link between poverty status and
deforestation. Besides, it shows that poverty is not only expressed in financial terms but also in access to resources.
The local population increases logging during periods of hardship, in order to increase sales of fiiel wood and
charcoal in order to live up to their alimentary needs. In such periods, decision making is based on uncertainty
avoidance of future risks hence increased resources exploitation (Mortimore and Tiffen 1994). Additionally,
when the rainfall is scarce, agricultural communities look at the forest for supplying their livelihood resources
(Sankhayan and Hofstad 200 1 )
Economic benefits derived from tourism are always used as an argument to express the forests' values to their
fHnge human communities. Tourism indeed provides 38% of foreign exchange, 8% of the total employment, 5%
of GDP and it is estimated that Wildlife brings 70% of gross tourism earning (Karanja et al. 2002). However,
according to Sindiga, the value of forests for nature tourism in Kenya cannot be argued for. The top 6 National
Parks and Game Reserves destinations in Kenya are actually in Grassland and Savannas; Massai Mara, Tsavo,
Nakuru, Hell's Gate, Nairobi and Amboseli (Sindiga 1999). Forests' tourism remains underdeveloped and
communities are neither involved in tourism activities nor benefit from their income distribution (Sindiga 1 999)
4. Conclusions
In conclusion, Kenya's economy and livelihood of the forests' population lose in the long term by inadequate
forests' resources valuation (Emerton et al. 2001). Figure 3 represents a scheme that summarizes the process of
forest degradation resulting from an inadequate CBA.
Benefits of degiadation > Costs of degradation
Costs of couseivation > Benefits of consenation
o
i
Direct causes of
environmental
degradation
I
Policies which encoiiaige degradation
Lack of pohcies to encourage coiiseiTation
Low prices for emiroumental goods and senices
No luaricets for emTronmental goods and services
o
Underlying root
causes of
environmental
degradation
Figure 3: The process of forest degradation resulting from an inadequate CBA.
Source: Emerton et al. 2001
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
41
Local populations harvest forest trees because they do not have other options for sustaining their livelihoods and
energy (Karanja et al. 2002). Addressing the chronic poverty of rural population is extremely vital, and it is
advisable that national policy should encourage the use of other energy sources; biogas, animal dung or solar
energy. Another solution would be agro forestry, which is basically the planting of trees in the agriculture land for
household fuel wood consumption, as well as a source of income to the farmers, and a possibility to increase the
soil fertility by nutrient fixing trees (Stone et al. 1 993)
Along with this, afforestation programs would need to accelerate, following the footsteps of Dr. Wangari Maathai,
who initiated the Green Belt project.
It is crucial to understand the total value of the forests and apply a Multi Criteria approach to forest management to
ensure that forests continue to deliver their economic, social and ecological services for our generation and the
future ones.
References
Abdel Galil, E.A. 2003. Deforestation in the Dry lands of Africa: Quantitative Modelling Approach. Environment,
Development and Sustainability 6:41 5-427
Akachuku, A.E. 1985. Cost-benefit analysis of wood and food components of agri-silviculture in Nigerian forest zone.
Agroforestry Systems 3: 307-316.
Andersen, D.& Grove, R. 1 987. Conservation in Africa people, policies and practice. University Press, Cambridge, UK, Ch
1 0 Conflicting uses for forest resources in the Lower Tana River basin of Kenya pp 2 11 -229
Andersen, D. 2002. Eroding the commons-the politics of Ecology in Kenya. The Ohio University Press, Athens, Ch 8 The
Captured Forest pp 232-255
Basset, T. J. & Crummey, D. 2003. African Savannas, Global Narratives & Local Knowledge of Environmental Change, Ch
1 Contested images, Contested realities pp 1 -3 1
Edwards-Jones, G., Davies, B. & Hussein, S. 2000. Ecological Economics, An introduction. Blackwell Science LTD, UK,
Ch 2 Value and Valuation tools pp 63 - 1 2 1
Emerton, L., Karanja, F. & Gichere, S. 200 1 . Environment, poverty & economic growth in Kenya: What are the links and
why do they matter? lUCN, project no. UNTS/RAF/008/GEF P.O. No. 93330, pohcy brief No. 2
Emerton, L. & Mogaka, H. 1 996. Participatory environmental valuation of forest resources in the Aberdares, Kenya, Issue
26, pp.610, IIED London
FAQ 2006. Official Statistics & statistical factbookwww.fao.org/waicent/portal/statistics_en.asp
Hardin, G. 1986. The Tragedy of the Commons, SciQWQQS^Q^^QnQS, 162: 1243-1248
lUCN 2001 . The Economic Value of East Africa's forests. lUCN Project No. UNTS/RAF/ 008/GEF P.O. No. 93330
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development-
World Bank 2002 . Tanzania Managing Forests Resources, Findings into brief report, number 72
Kahuthu, A. 2006. Economic Growth and Environmental Degradation in a Global Context. Environment, Development and
Sustainability^: 5568
Karanja, F., Kalage, K. & Moi, K. 2002. Valuing Forest Resources in East Africa: Same/Taita Taveta Cross-Border Sites
Awareness Workshop Report, Tanzania.
Kirubi, C, Wamicha, W. N. & Laichena, J. K. 2000. The effects of wood fuel consumption in the ASAL areas of Kenya:
the case of Marsabit Forest. East African Wild Life Society, Afr. Jr. EcoL, 38, 4752
Kituyu, M., Lane, C.R. & Lewis, D. 1 998. Custodians of the Commons. London: Earth Scan Ch 2- Case study Kenya pp26-
45
Martiru, V. 1 987. Report: Forest cover and forest reserves in Kenya, policy and practice.
McCann, J. 1999. Green Land, Brown Land, Black Land. James Currey Publishers, Oxford, UK, Ch 7 Soil Matters; Erosion
and Empire in Greater Lesotho pp 1 4 1 - 1 75
Mortimore, M. & Tiffen, M. 1994. More Erosion, Less People; Environmental Recovery in Kenya. Overseas Development
Institute, London, UK, Ch 3 Rainfall pp 33-43, Ch 13 Tree Management pp 204-212 & Ch 15 Intervention and Policies pp
249-260
OECD 2006. Official Statistics www.oecd.org/statistics
Ong, C. 2006. Transformations publication, vol 5, no. 32 Friday, SEPTEMBER 1 ST 2006 , World Agro forestry centre, (also
available at http://www.worldagroforestrv.org/news/default.asp7NewsID-7EE5F6E0-0 1 82-4992-B033-CC 1 30C609082
Pearce, D. 1 995. Capturing Global Environmental Value Blueprint 4. Earth Scan Publications Limited, London, UK, Ch 4
Biological diversity, measuring total economic value pp 41-52, Ch 7 Population and poverty 106-112 & Ch 8 Over
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 42
consumption 112-125
Pearce, D. W., Atkinson, G. & Mourato, S. 2006. Cost-Benefit Analysis and the Environment: Recent Developments.
Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development.
Quinn, C. 2003 . Local perceptions of risk to livelihood in semi-arid Tanzania Centre fi)r Ecology, Law and Policy (CELP),
Department of Environment, University of York, UK, Jr. of Environmental Management 68,111119
Sankhayan, L. & Hofstad, 0. 2001 . A village-level economic model of land clearing, grazing and wood harvesting for sub-
Saharan Africa: with a case study in southern Senegal. Ecological Economics 38:423-440
Sindiga, I. 1999. Tourism and African Development, Change and challenge of tourism in Kenya. African Studies Center,
Research Series 14/1999, Ch 5 The structure of Kenya' tourism industry pp 86- 101
Stone, W. S., Kyle, S. C. & Conrad, J. M. 1993. Application of the Faustmann principle to a short-rotation tree species: an
analytical tool for economists, with reference to Kenya and leucaena. Agroforestry Systems 2 1 : 79—90
UNEP 2006. www.unep.org/publications/ Globalis interactive statistics globalis. gvu.unu.edu/indicator_
detail.cfm?IndicatorID=30&Countrv=KE
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
43
Biodiversity surveys in file of Nature & Faune
Below is a list of biodiversity surveys in file of Nature & Faune.
Kindly send an email to nature-faune@fao.org in order to obtain a copy of one of these surveys.
Provisional checklist and migratory status of waterbirds in the Douala-Edea Wildlife Reserve,
Cameroon
Ajonina, G.N., Ayissi, I. & Usongo, L. 2002
Flora-diversity of the wetland of Udu and Ughievwen communities, Delta State, Nigeria
Idu, M., Omonhimin, C. & Akinnibosun, H. 2003
Flora diversity of Okumu forest reserve in southern Nigeria
Idu,M., Osemwegie, 0.0. and Akinnibosun, H. A. undated
Avifauna of the Gouraya National Park, Algeria
Mahmoudi, A. undated
A provisional checklist of Kishwahili bird names of Morogoro Urban Area, Tanzania
Wambura, J.M., Maganga, S.L.S., Tarimo, T.M.C., Mbije, N.E., 2002
Biodiversity of the Mangrove Marine Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Ichthyologic
fauna
Ndey, I., Bilongo, K., Likou, K., Kakay, K.K., Kinakina, K., Kongo, K., Sample, L., Lundengo,
L., Mamud, M., Kajam. & Bidiongo, N. 2007
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
44
Countrv Focus
In what ways do the local people living in and around the protected areas, forests and woodlands of
Mozambique benefit from the diversity of the biological resources of these natural ecosystems?
What are the price-tags like for conserving, sustaining and developing the diversity of these finely
balanced ecosystems?
Nature & Faune talks to two Mozambiquan government officials.
Mr. M. C. S. Foloma is the Head of Wildlife Department and coordinator ofCBFWM (community-based forest
and wildlife management Unit) in the Directorate of Land and Forestry in the Ministry of Agriculture in
Mozambique. Mr. B. Soto is the national Director for Conservation Areas in the Directorate of Conservation
Areas, Ministry of Tourism, Mozambique.
This text has been edited for publication.
Nature & Faune: Within the context of biological diversity, what would you consider the most important
practical experience that Mozambique could share with African countries and other parts of the developing
world?
Soto: We would readily choose to share our practical experiences in striving to share equitably the benefits that
accrue to Mozambique from the conservation and use of wildlife and natural resources between the local
communities, the private sector and the government. The access to these resources should be fair and they should
be made available to everyone.
Nature & Faune: Identifying the benefit-sharing mechanism that is just right for Mozambique's rural people
seems to be one of the top priorities for the government and non-governmental agencies in your country. Would
you consider this an appropriate statement?
Foloma: You have aptly stated the current thinking concerning this subject; more so considering that the
government of Mozambique has instituted benefit sharing at various levels and to differing degrees, to ensure that
there is fair play and equity in resource sharing and also to serve as incentive for sustainable use of the wildlife and
renewable natural resources. Among the most innovative schemes so far are: (i) the 20 percent decree, which
promotes a mandatory devolution of 20 percent of the revenue accruing from consumptive and non-consumptive
natural forests and wildlife uses to be transferred to the local communities; and (ii) a proposal to allocate to a given
community member or individuals 50 percent of any penalty fees collected from offenders, when this community
member acts as an environmental agent to support law enforcement.
Nature & Faune: Could you let us into the core principle underlying these new and evolving benefit sharing
schemes?
Soto: Mozambique is richly endowed with a diversity of biological resources and the government's conservation
policy aim is to make natural resource conservation of benefit to its people and to humankind at large. The novelty
of the new schemes is to be aware that conservation and sustainable use of these resources have a price tag and for
the sustainable development of Mozambique, the nation and its people are being encouraged to pay their fair and
appropriate price. At the same time the price for the global benefits accruing from conservation of these
biologically diverse resources will have to be defrayed by the world governments and citizenry.
Nature & Faune: Could you address the issue of wildlife benefits/cost-sharing in the context of biological
diversity? What are the realities of attempting to distribute equitably both the costs and benefits of wildlife and
protected areas in Mozambique?
Soto: Access to wildlife resources should be fair; everyone should have a just and reasonable share. The
communities living in and around the Protected Areas pay a much higher price for conserving the biological
resources and their very valuable diversity than the urban dwellers. In the case of the rural communities the costs
are due to human-wildlife conflicts which are a pressing problem in many locations, as well as limitations on the
use of natural resources such as restrictions to hunting and gathering, and limited access to certain land-uses (cattle
ranching, farming). To cushion the higher and unbalanced price paid by the frontline communities, the
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 45
government of Mozambique in 2005 introduced a special deal in which the government allots to the neighboring
communities 20% of revenues it collects from the private operators. To this end, a special management plan needs
to be put in place to control the use of wildlife and forest resources. The central government approves licenses for
Protected Areas and for Hunting and Forestry Concessions; while all simple licenses are allotted by the provinces.
Foloma: The vision of the administration is to pursue an expanded programme of Community Based Natural
Resources Management and community enterprises. A legal instrument has been approved which promotes the
participation of the economically disadvantaged in decision making and management. So far about 68 initiatives
have been developed, involving the government, the private sector and the rural people. The challenge in this set
up is the organization of the local people into functional groups (registration of the group, opening of bank
account, and providing end of year reporting and accountability to government). To maintain the balance between
the economic, socio-cultural and ecological dimensions of biodiversity, the costs and benefits must be
meticulously calculated and shared in such a manner that the poor do not suffer unduly from the negative impacts
of misuse of these natural resources.
An important incentive that is still being worked out is the 50% decree, which depicts that 50%) of the fines paid by
defaulters are shared out to rangers, forest guards, and communities from the area within which the resources were
illegally harvested. This scheme is still in the process of being improved and subsequently institutionalized
(development of relevant and accurate databases is still ongoing).
Besides that, the government acknowledges the needs in local communities and builds schools, infrastructure and
helps with improved farming techniques.
Nature & Faune: It is argued by some scholars that 'paying' communities should be avoided, while communities
would get 'free money' without producing goods or providing services for it. What is your view on that?
Soto: The government in Mozambique does not see it as 'free money'. After all, the communities bear the largest
cost of conservation by having to change their livelihood practices. For this, communities are compensated with
money stemming from the benefits conservation produces. If, for example, no benefits would stem from wildlife
and forest resource conservation, people would become very uncooperative, human-wildlife conflicts as well as
conflicts with forest concession holders would be on the increase.
Nature & Faune: Could you shed some more light on the licensing system in place for the commercial use of
wildlife and for est resources in Mozambique?
Foloma: There are two types of forest licensing systems which the government is operating: (i) simple license
system and (ii) concession long-term licenses. Whereas the simple license system is annual in duration and can
draw on forest resources in a certain site of its choice with consultation from the local community concerned,
provided it respects the 500 cubic meters per year volume limit, and is restricted to the specified species; the
concession long-term licenses are issued for specific geographical areas only. Moreover a map of the area and an
inventory as well as a management plan must precede exploitation. In Mozambique private wildlife-based
activities such as game farming requires a title deed.
With regard to wildlife concessions, private sector players such as lodges, restaurants and bars get charged
annually for the area they occupy. In the case of trophy hunting, companies are required to pay a certain price for
each individual animal they intend to hunt.
Nature & Faune: What are the ecological footprints ofecotourism in Mozambique like? Is ecotourism militating
for conservation and development of biodiversity in the country or does it have an overall negative impact?
Foloma: Ecotourism as an industry is still in its early stages of development in Mozambique and as such it is
premature to pronounce on its real or perceived effects on the environmental resources and the people.
The overwhelming footprints that loom in everyone's mind and is evidenced in the state of our environment and its
resources are the footprints left by the 1 6 years of civil war ( 1 976 to 1 992). The civil war affected dramatically the
rich potential of wildlife resources and the status of protected areas with reduction of a diversity and abundance of
the most economic wild animals, such as elephant, rhinos, etc. With the peace agreement in 1992, a new era of
wildlife management emerged and various conservation initiatives (e.g. transfrontier programmes, CBNRM
programmes) have been establish associated with new policy and legislation to accommodate efficient wildlife
management. Investments have been made in protected areas, aiming to contribute to poverty alleviation and
sustainable development of the country.
Nature & Faune: It is understood that Mozambique aims to conserve the wildlife and the biological diversity
within its national territory for the universal good. So how would the world (the international community)
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 -. 46
contribute in offsetting the costs of conservation and development of the biological diversity to which
Mozambique is home?
Soto: Finances from Overseas Development Assistance and the donor community constitute the key elements of
the price paid by the International community. Other important players are the transnational businesses operating
in Mozambique who bear a portion of the cost for the existence of the wildlife, forests and other biological
resources being maintained and developed by the people of Mozambique.
Nature & Faune: How strong is the market based mechanism for defraying of costs of biodiversity conservation
and development in Mozambique?
Foloma: The prevailing practice under the market based mechanism includes visual tourism, whereby fees are
required to see elephants, lions and other charismatic animals. In the future other latent and undiscovered values of
the resources and the value of their diversity will most likely be recognized and should attract generous dividends.
We are struggling to promote benefit sharing that distributes revenue as equitable as possible. In most of the
schemes running today the expenditures take place in the cities. The administration in Mozambique will have to
strive harder to put in place the necessary measures to ensure that a significant part of the revenues from wildlife,
forests and nature parks are spent in the rural areas.
Nature & Faune: What are the prospects for maintaining and developing the diversity of Mozambique's
biological resources in the future in the face of growing human populations in the country?
Soto: The future is very bright for the conservation and development of biodiversity in Mozambique. One must
remember that the backbone of ecotourism is the diversity of biological resources; Mozambique certainly has
much of this to offer the world.
The government is at present working hard to identify potential centers of attraction and putting out tenders for the
private investors to develop infrastructure ranging from luxury hotels and lodges to community based enterprises.
Foreign investors are required to partner with Mozambiquan investors towards the development and
implementation of capital intensive ecotourism initiatives. Labour intensive small scale investment enterprises
(US$ 500) are exclusively under the purview of the local people. Some conservation areas in Mozambique where
commercial enterprises are being developed include the Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation Area, the Great
Limpopo Transfrontier Park, the Chimanimani Transfrontier Area and the Southern part of Tete province. Other
parks are very remote, and few facilities have been put in place yet. Nevertheless, we do plan to improve the
circumstances in the future.
Besides, one of the great centers of attraction still on the drawing board is the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park
which brings into existence a close coordination between Kruger park of South Africa, Gonarezhou in Zimbabwe
and the Limpopo Park in Mozambique. This alliance makes "the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park" one of the
largest nature parks in the world. Already the borders are open; numbers of eco-tourists are doubling every month,
mainly in South Africa and Mozambique, tented camp sites are on the increase, luxury 1 0 bed inns are always full
to capacity and it will not take too long before the 5 star hotels will be established. The fundamental building block
for this flurry of economic developmental activities is the diversity of the biological resources inherent in the
ecological systems in Mozambique in particular and Southern Africa in general.
The people of Mozambique definitely have invested interest in taking care of the diversity of its wildlife.
Nature & Faune: Thank you so much Messrs Soto and Foloma, for informing us on the interesting work
Mozambique is doing in its efforts to distribute equitably the costs and benefits derived from wildlife and protected
areas. You have indeed given readers something to think about!
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 47
FAO Activities
Non-Wood Forest Products
The term 'non-wood forest products' (NWFPs), and similar terms such as 'minor', 'secondary' and 'non-timber'
forest products, have emerged as umbrella expressions for the vast array of both animal and plant products other
than wood (or timber, in the case of 'non-timber') derived from forests or forest tree species. FAO uses the term
'non-wood forest products' and defines it as goods of biological origin other than wood that are derived fi^om
forests, other wooded land and trees outside forests.
The programme "Promotion and Development of Non-wood Forest Products (NWFP)" is one of the priority areas
of FAQ's Forestry Department. Its mission is to improve the sustainable utilization of NWFP in order to contribute
to the wise management of the world's forests, to conserve their biodiversity, and to improve income-generation
and food security.
The programme accomplishes this mission through four main areas of intervention:
• gathering, analysis and dissemination of information
• appraisal of NWFP socio-economic contribution to rural development
• networking
• technical assistance
Non-wood forest products have attracted considerable global interest in recent years because of increasing
recognition of their contribution to household economies and food security, to some national economies and to
environmental objectives such as the conservation of biological diversity. Some 80 percent of the population of
the developing world uses NWFPs for health and nutritional needs. Several million households worldwide depend
heavily on these products for subsistence consumption and/or income. At the local level, NWFPs also provide raw
materials for large-scale industrial processing; including processing of internationally traded commodities such as
foods and beverages, confectionery, flavourings, perfumes, medicines, paints and polishes. At present, at least
150 NWFPs are significant in terms of international trade; they include honey, gum arable, rattan and bamboo,
cork, forest nuts and mushrooms, essential oils, and plant and animal parts for pharmaceutical products.
An important FAO initiative in the Afiican Region is the project 'Enhancing Food Security through Non-wood
Forest Products in Central Africa.' The objectives are:
• Raising awareness of and knowledge about the role of NWFP for food security;
• Laying foundations for the systematic Integration of Information on food fi^om forests in relevant policies
and programmes.
The project contributes to facilitate actions by governments, non-governmental organizations and the private
sector in six Central African countries, i.e. Cameroon, Gabon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of
Congo (RDC), Equatorial Guinea and the Republic of Congo. It aims to enhance food security in the sub-region
through the sustainable use of NWFP from moist dense forests and other tree-based systems.
The project strengthens institutional capacities in the sub-region, enhances knowledge on forest resources and
agroforestry production systems and promotes better coordination among all actors concerned involved in
activities related to food security and forest conservation through the sustainable use of NWFP.
Another initiative is the development of NWFP inventory guidelines for Afiican ACP countries. The purpose of
this activity is to contribute to sustainable forest management in African ACP countries by developing and testing
practical guidelines for the assessment of forest resources providing NWFP. Such guidelines will enable national
forestry administrations to implement improved and regular monitoring of the NWFP resource base and develop
sustainable harvesting regimes in partnership with local and indigenous communities.
For more information, please see:
FAO NWFP site, containing all documents produced in the project 'Enhancing Food Security through Non-wood
Forest Products in Central Africa'
http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/nwip/en/
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 48
Forest genetic resources
Genetic variation is an important part of biological diversity, since it is the basis of evolution and the adaptation of
species to changes in the environment. Variation is also essential for selection and breeding to meet present and
future human needs.
The term "forest genetic resources" refers to the actual or potential value of the hereditary variation contained in
forest trees and shrubs. The field of forest genetic resources is undergoing significant changes. Traditionally
concerned with technical issues of genetic conservation, tree improvement and seed supply, its scope is expanding
to include scientific advances in biotechnology and legal developments concerning access rights to genetic
resources, which bring new possibilities and challenges. The field is driven not only by the forest sector, but also
increasingly by the environmental sector and by developments in crop plant genetic resources.
FAO is actively working with its Members to assess the global state of genetic diversity in the world's forests and
find solutions to the threats facing them. The Organization also promotes best practices in forest genetic resources
management specifically in the areas of conservation, exploration, testing, breeding and informed use of new
biotechnology. The focus is on the transfer off actual information and up-to-date technology, through a wide range
of communication tools and publications and through networking and twinning mechanisms. The work of FAO is
supported by a Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources which meets regularly to report on the latest
developments. The panel updates lists of priority tree species, with recommended actions, by region.
Two important FAO proj ects in the African Region are :
• 'Domestication, Post-Harvest Handling and Marketing of Selected Indigenous Fruit Trees, Namibia'
This project aimed at enabling the populations in northern Namibia to improve their income and living
standards through collecting, processing and marketing fruits and other edible products from local tree
species. It also aimed at enhancing the role of the Namibian Forestry Directorate as a provider of services
to the population in the improvement of wild fruit trees and the development and marketing of fruit
production.
For more information, please see: www.fao.org/forestry/site/9473/en
• 'National Forest Seed Programme, Senegal (Programme National de Semences Forestieres PRONASEF)'
This project had the objective to developpement du PRONASEF est d'assurer un appro visionnement
regulier en semences forestieres, de qualite et quantite sufflsante au moment opportun, en priorite pour la
satisfaction des besoins au Senegal et de la demande des autres pays tropicaux (Afrique, Asie, Australie).
For more information, please see: www. fao .org/forestry/site/6594/fi:
In a growing number of countries and areas of the world, detailed documentation on the state of forest genetic
resources as well as the most urgent actions for their sustainable management is becoming available. The
extensive FAO Web site on forest genetic resources presents a comprehensive coverage of geographic and
thematic issues, with relevant links to the forest, agriculture and environment sectors. The REFORGEN database
summarizes information available on important tree species by country. National and regional assessments of
forest tree genetic diversity are also available. FAO publishes the annual news bulletin Forest Genetic Resources
in three languages, of which recent issues are posted online.
The Web site also presents the achievements of a number of FAO field projects related to forest seed and
germplasm, tree improvement and breeding, and the integration of genetic conservation into forest and protected
area management and agrobiodiversity .
In addition, FAO regularly disseminates information to member countries and relevant national institutions about
developments related to emerging issues, including the applications of modem biotechnologies, biosecurity
management and biological diversity considerations.
For more information, please see : http : //www . fao . or g/forestry/site/f gr/en/
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1 49
Links
Related to the Theme
Wildlife Enforcement Monitoring System
The Wildlife Enforcement Monitoring System
(WEMS), developed by United Nations University
(UNU) in cooperation with the Asian Conservation
Alliance (ACA), has the goal to document
transboundary illegal wildlife trade as well as to
provide a clearer picture, through temporal and
spatial analysis of the data, about the current
situation of illegal wildlife trade.
http://www.unu.edu/wems/
FAO Biological diversity in food and agriculture
http://www.fao.org/biodiversity/
FAO Commission on genetic resources for food
and agriculture
The Commission on Genetic Resources for Food
and Agriculture is a permanent forum where
governments discuss and negotiate matters relevant
to genetic resources for food and agriculture. The
main objectives of the CGRFA are to ensure the
conservation and sustainable utilization of genetic
resources for food and agriculture, as well the fair
and equitable sharing of benefits derived from their
use, for present and future generations. The
Commission aims to reach international consensus
on areas of global interest, through negotiations.
http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/AGRI
CULT/cgrfa/default.htm
FAO Domestic animals diversity information
system
http://dad.fao.org/
FAO International Technical Conference on
Animal Genetic Resources, 1-7 September 2007,
Interlaken, Switzerland
http : //www . fao . org/ag/againfo/programmes/en/gen
etics/ITCbackground.html
FAO Fishery Statistics programme
http://v^^ww.fao.org/fi/statist/statist.asp
FAO Soil biodiversity portal
http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/soilbiod/default.stm
UN World Tourism Organisation
http://www.world-tourism.org/
Convention on Biological Diversity
In 1 992, the largest-ever meeting of world leaders on
environmental issues took place at the United
Nations Conference on Environment and
Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. An historic
set of agreements was signed at the "Earth Summit",
including two binding agreements, the Convention
on Climate Change, which targets industrial and
other emissions of greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide, and the Convention on Biological
Diversity, the first global agreement on the
conservation and sustainable use of biological
diversity. The biodiversity treaty gained rapid and
widespread acceptance. Over 150 governments
signed the document at the Rio conference, and since
then more than 187 countries have ratified the
agreement.
The Convention has three main goals:
• The conservation of biodiversity,
• Sustainable use of the components of
biodiversity, and
• Sharing the benefits arising from the
commercial and other utilization of genetic
resources in a fair and equitable way
www.biodiv.org
The BioTrade Initiative
Since its launch in 1996, the UNCTAD BioTrade
Initiative has been promoting sustainable biotrade in
support of the objectives of the Convention on
Biological Diversity. The Initiative has developed a
unique portfolio of regional and country
programmes.
http://www.biotrade.org/Intro/bti.htm
Convention on Migratory Species
The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory
Species of Wild Animals (also known as CMS or
Bonn Convention) aims to conserve terrestrial,
marine and avian migratory species throughout their
range. It is an intergovernmental treaty, concluded
under the aegis of the United Nations Environment
Programme, concerned with the conservation of
wildlife and habitats on a global scale.
http : //www . cms . int/
UNEP- Biodiversity
http://www.unep.org/themes/biodiversitv/
UNDP - Conservation and Sustainable Use of
Biodiversity
http://www.undp.org/biodiversity/
CITES
CITES (the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an
international agreement between governments. Its
aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
50
of wild animals and plants does not threaten their
survival.
http://wvyw.cites.org/
The CITES trade database, managed by UNEP-
WCMC on behalf of the CITES Secretariat, is a
unique resource and currently holds 7 million
records of trade in wildlife and 50,000 scientific
names of taxa listed by CITES. Currently, more than
500,000 records of trade in CITES-listed species of
wildlife are reported annually.
http://vv^vyw.unep-wcmc.org/citestrade/trade.cfm
Interpol Wildlife Crime
http://www.interpol.int/Public/EnvironmentalCrim
e/Wildlife/Default.asp
Wildlife Working Group
http ://www . Interpol . int/Public/EnvironmentalCrim
e/Wildlife/WorkingGroup/Default.asp
Wildlife trade in the EU
This website has been designed to provide up-to-
date and tailor-made information to commercial EU
wildlife trade sectors as well as travel.
http://www.eu-wildlifetrade.org/html/en/intro.asp
ASEAN Wildlife Trade Initiative
The joint TRAFFIC/WWF ASEAN Initiative aims
to increase regional cooperation in addressing
wildlife trade issues of importance to the 1 0 Member
Nations of the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN).
http://www.traffic.org/25/network9/ASEAN/index
.html
The International Ecotourism Society (TIES)
Promoting responsible travel that unites
conservation and communities since 1990. TIES is a
global network of industry practitioners, institutions
and individuals helping to integrate environmental
and socially responsible principles into practice.
http://www.ecotourism.org/
WWF - Payment for Ecosystem Services
http://www.wwfindia.org/about_vywf/what_we_do
/forests/pes/index.cfm
Agriculture and biodiversity
http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/pol
icy/agricultureenvironment/index.cfm
Center for Applied Biodiversity Science
The mission of the Center for Applied Biodiversity
Science (CABS) is to strengthen Conservation
International's ability to identify and respond to
elements that threaten the earth's biological
diversity. CABS brings together leading experts in
science and technology to collect and interpret data
about biodiversity, develop strategic plans for
conservation, and forge partnerships in all sectors
that promote conservation goals.
http://science.conservation.org/portal/server.pt
The Katoomba Group
The Katoomba Group is an international working
group composed of leading experts from forest and
energy industries, research institutions, the financial
world, and environmental NGOs dedicated to
advancing markets for some of the ecosystem
services provided by forests such as watershed
protection, biodiversity habitat, and carbon storage.
The Katoomba Group seeks to address key
challenges for developing markets for ecosystem
services, from enabling legislation to establishing
new market institutions, to developing strategies for
pricing and marketing, and monitoring
performance.
http://www.katoombagroup.org/
Katoomba Africa:
http://www.katoombagroup.org/africa/index.htm
PES Assessment Inventories ready for download for
Kenya, South Africa, Uganda, Tanzania, and
Madagascar
European Tropical Forest Research Network
Biodiversity information.
http://www.etfm.0rg/ETFRN/t0pics/bi0diversity/i
ndex.html
Publications and information
documents
Livelihoods and the environment at Important
Bird Areas: listening to local voices.
A new publication by BirdLife International
provides a synthesis of local analyses of
biodiversity-livelihoods linkages in key
biodiversity sites in developing countries. The
studies were carried out by BirdLife partners and
focused on sites designated by the organisation as
'Important Bird Areas' or IB As.
http://www.birdlife.0rg/news/news/2OO7/0 1 /listeni
ng_to_local_voices_IBAs.pdf
Biodiversity Economics
Information portal designed to promote economic
approaches to conservation and provide access to
key documents in English, French, and Spanish. The
site includes an events calendar and global database
of practitioners.
http://www.frameweb.org/ev_en.php?
ID-37330 201&ID2-DO TOPIC
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
51
The value of wildlife
Ph. Chardonnet, B. des Clers, J. Fischer, R. Gerhold,
F. Jori and F. Lamarque (4)
Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 2002, 21 (1), 15-51
http://www.oie.int/eng/publicat/rt/2101/Ph.%20C
HARDONNET.pdf
The value of biodiversity
Science and Development Network
http://www.scidev.net/ms/biofacts/index.cfm7page
id=423
Geneflow - A publication about agricultural
biodiversity
http://www.bioversitvintemational.org/publication
s/Pdf/1 144.pdf
Of general interest
Encyclopedia of life
The Encyclopedia of Life is an ecosystem of
websites that makes all key information about life on
Earth accessible to anyone, anywhere in the world.
The goal is to create a constantly evolving
encyclopedia that lives on the Internet, with
contributions from scientists and amateurs alike.
http://www.eol.org/home.html
Encyclopedia of Earth
An electronic reference about the Earth, its natural
environments, and their interaction with society.
The Encyclopedia is a free, fully searchable
collection of articles written by scholars,
professionals, educators, and experts who
collaborate and review each other's work. The
articles are written in non-technical language and
will be useful to students, educators, scholars,
professionals, as well as to the general public.
http://www.eoearth.org/
Biodiversity and ecosystem services:
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Biodiversitvand_e
cosvstem services
FAOTIGERPAPER
TIGERPAPER is a quarterly news bulletin
dedicated to the exchange of information relating to
wildlife and national parks management for the
Asia-Pacific Region. FOREST NEWS is issued by
the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific as
part of TIGERPAPER.
http://www.fa0.0rg/w0rld/regi0nal/rap/tigerpaper/t
igerpaper.htm
African Hunting Info
African Hunting Info is a free web resource on all
facets of African hunting. The site includes hunting
articles, hunting and conservation news, forums,
opinion polls, photo galleries, directories and much
more.
http://africanhuntinginfo.com/modules/tinycontent
/index.php?id=l
Virunga Survie du premier pare d' Afrique
line equipe de 36 experts decrivent le passe et le
present du pare et proposent des voies concretes
pour la sauvegarde de ce site du Patrimoine Mondial.
Pour la premiere fois en 80 ans de I'histoire du Pare
National des Virunga, cet ouvrage comble un grand
vide en decrivant le pare ainsi que les efforts du
Congo et de la communaute intemationale pour
preserver ce premier pare d' Afrique tant d'un point
de vue historique que de diversite biologique.
http://www.virungafund.org/Leaflet%20Virunga%
20FR%208%20dec.pdf
Frameweb
FRAMEweb is an online interactive portal for the
natural resources management community.
Information is available in English, French and
Spanish.
http://www.frameweb.org/
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
52
Theme and deadlines for next issue
The theme for the next issue of Nature & Faune magazine is "Conservation Beyond Boundaries". This theme can be
understood from several perspectives, such as: international agreements and their practical implications; programmes and
activities to harmonize relevant policy and legislation of different countries; the establishment of transboundary wildlife
corridors; transboundary protected areas and transfrontier conservation areas; international law enforcement initiatives;
investment in eco-tourism by international partners; international trade agreements for non-wood forest products;
international schemes for payment for ecological services (e.g. carbon sequestration); impacts of development assistance
on conservation; cooperation between governments and international NGOs in conservation; specific species
conservation strategies; international training programmes for wildlife and natural resource management; international
conferences, seminar and workshops
Deadline for submission of articles, announcements and other contributions is 3 1 October 2007.
Guidelines to authors, Subscription and Correspondence
We welcome any contribution from our readership !
In case you would like to submit an article, kindly take a look at our 'Guidelines for Authors', available on our website.
You could also send us an email.
If you would like to subscribe to this magazine, please send us an email indicating your contact details such as fiill name,
organization, position, postal address, email, and country of residence.
If you have suggestions, comments, questions or remarks, or you would like to contribute to the contents of this magazine
with news, articles, reports or events, please write to us.
Contact Details
Nature&Faune
FAORegional Office forAfrica
P.O. Box OP 1628, Accra
Ghana
Tel: (+233-21) 675000 or (+233-21) 7010930
Fax: (+233-2 1)70 10943 or (+233-2 1)668 427
E-mail : Nature-Faune(a),fao.org
Website: www.fao.org/world/regional/raf/ workprog/ forestry/magazineen.htm
Nature & Faune Vol. 22, Issue 1
53
Nature & Faune is an international publication dedicated to the exchange of information and
practical experience in the field of wildlife and protected areas management and conservation of
natural resources on the African continent. Nature & Faune has been in wide circulation since
1985.
Nature & Faune is dependent upon your free and voluntary contributions in the form of articles
and announcements in the field of wildlife, forestry and nature conservation in the Region.
Editor: M. Laverdiere
Assistant Editors: L. Bakker, A. Ndeso-Atanga
Advisers: F. Salinas, R. Czudek, A. Yapi, P. Lowe
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