Full text of "Nature"
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Nature
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A WEEKLY
ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
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7
Nature
A WEEKLY
ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
VOLUME XL
MAY 1889 to OCTOBER 1889
" To the solid ground
OJ Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye" — Wordsworth
MACMILLAN AND CO.
1889
. V
A^>'
Richard Clay and Sons, Limited,
LONDON and BUNGAY.
Natiirey Nov. 28, 1SS9]
INDEX
Abbe (Prof. Cleveland) : Meteoritic Theory, 53 ; the Red
Sunsets of 1884-85, 189 ; Observations of Twilight and
Zodiacal Light during the Total Eclipse of the Sun, December
21, 1889, 519; on the Determination of the Amount of Rain-
fall, 585
Abbo (Dr.), Colour of Eyes and Hair in Norway, 285
Abercromby (Hon. Ralph) : Rain Clouds on Lake Titicaca, 12 ;
Upper Wind Currents over the Equator in the Atlantic
Ocean, loi ; Nitrate of Soda and the Nitrate Country, i86,
308 ; Sun Water-Distilling Apparatus on Atacama Desert,
211 ; the Circulation of the Atmosphere over the Equator,
297
Abney (Captain W. de W., C.B., F.R.S.): Opening Address
in Section A (Mathematics and Physics) at the British Asso-
ciation, 469 ; on the Quantity of Deposit of Silver produced
by the Development on a Photographic Plate in Terms of the
Intensity of Light acting, 584
Abnormality in Tropseolum, Prof. Alfred Denny, 125
Abrus precatorius, Toxic Action of Albumose from Seeds of, Dr.
Sidney Martin, 117
Accent, French, Researches with Phonautograph on, Dr.
Pringsheim, 168
Accra, Earthquake at, 61
Acoustics : Dr. Rudolph Kcenig on an Important Discovery in
the Theory of Music, 479 ; Mechanical Illustration of Propa-
gation of Sound- Wave, F. J. Smith, 620
Acquired Characters, on the supposed Transmission of, E. B.
Poulton, F.R.S., 610
Actiniae, British, Revision of the, Prof. A. C. Haddon, 390
Actinometer : devised by Prof. Balfour Stewart, F.R.S., 556;
a New Self-registering, Dr. Richardson, 587
Adams (Prof. W. Grylls. F.R.S.), Fifth Report to the British
Association on the Best Means of Comparing and Reducing
Magnetic Observations, 554
Adelsberg Stalactite Grotto, the New, 577
Affinity, Chemical, M. M. Pattison Muir, 273
Afghan Delimitation Commission, the Zoology of the, E. T.
Aitchison, 413
Afghanistan, Northern, Major C. E. Yate, 31
Africa: Penetration of Kong Country by Captain Binger, 17;
the Soil and Climate of German East Africa, Dr. K. W.
Schmidt, 46 ; H. M. Stanley's Movements, 181, 539 ; African
River Life, J. R. Werner, 241 ; Mites in Entomological Col-
lections from South Africa, 283 ; African Farm Pests, Eleanor
A. Ormerod, 385 ; Concession to British East Africa Com-
pany of Lamu and Ben-Adir Coast, 449 ; Narrative of an
Explorer in Tropical South Africa, Francis Galton, F. R. S.,
570 ; the Gold Deposits of the Gold Coast, Sir Brandford
Griffith, 627
Agassiz (Alexander), the Three Cruises of the Blake, Dr. John
Murray, 361
Agram, Earthquake at, 45
Agriculture : Ravages of Cockchafer and its Larva, J. Reiset,
23 ; Loss and Gain of Nitrogen in Soils, P. P. Deherain, 48 ;
a Record of Progress in Agricultural Canada, W. Fream, 52 ;
a Treatise on Manures, by Dr. A. B. Griffiths, 99 ; School
of Practical Agriculture at Fabriano, 164 ; Proposed Chair of
Agriculture at North Wales University College, 207 ; Inter-
national Congress on, in Paris, 252 ; the Industrial Agri-
cultii-al Educational Bill, 254 ; the Cost of Various Remedies
against Vine-pests, 374 ; Agricultural Society of the Gironde,
374 ; Agriculture in Colombia, 423, 596 ; an Italian's View of
English Agricultural Education, Prof. John Wrightson, 428 ;
Agricultural Experimental Stations in the United States, 455 ;
Agricultural Laboratories in Belgium, 481 ; Prof. Wallace's
Farm Live Stock of Great Britain, 619
Ainos, Colour of Eyes and Hair of, Lefevre on, 68
Air in the Soil, Th. Schloesing, yf/.f, 626
Aitchison (E. J.), the Zoology of the Afghan Delimitation Com-
mission, 413
Aitken (John), the Dust-particles in Atmosphere at Ben Nevis
Observatory, 356
Albatross : Sailing Flight of the. A, C. Baines, 9 ; Lord Ray-
leigh, F.R.S., 34; R. E. Froude, 102; the Wandering
Albatross, A. Reischek, 306
Albert Nyanza, Lake, Sir S. Baker and H. M. Stanley on, 65
Aldehydes, M. Grimaux, 369
Aldis (Prof. W. Steadman), Spherical Eggs, 417
Alembert's (D') Principle, Centrifugal Force and. Prof. F. Guthrie,
319
Alexander (S.), Moral Order and Progress, an Analysis of
Ethical Conceptions, 169
Algebra : Key to Higher, H. S. Hall and S. R. Knight,
460
Algebra, Solutions of the Examples in a Treatise on, Charles
Smith, 31
Algebra, a Treatise on Elementary, and Algebraical Artifices,
Saradaranjan Ray, 9
Algeria, the Dangers of Viticulture in, Consul-General Playfair,
423
Algiers Observatory, 539
Allen (Alfred H. ), Commercial Organic Analysis, Dr. C. R.
Alder Wright, F.R.S., 289
AUman (Prof. Geo., F. R.S.), Greek Geometry from Thales to
Euclid, 172 ; the Theorem of the Bride, 299
Alloys of Nickel and Steel, James Riley, 58
Alloys, Raoult's Method applied to, C. T. Heycock and F. H.
Neville on, 587, 628
Alloys, Strength of, at Different Temperatures, W, C. Unwin,
F.R.S., 631
Allport (S.), Contact Metamorphism in Silurian Rocks near
New Galloway, 190
Aluminium : Sir Henry Roscoe, M.P., F.R.S., 182 ; Dr. Nello's
Process for the Manufacture of, from Cryolite, Prof. Bedson,
587 .
Aluminium Chloride, the Vapour-density of, Profs. Nilson and
Pettersson, 596 ,
Amagat (E. H.), the Elasticity of Solids, 192
Amateurs, Cactus Culture for, W. Watson, 123
America: American Journal of Science, 21, 67, 189, 310, 404,
562 ; American National Academy of Science, 44 ; American
Meteorological Society, 117; Paleolithic Man in America,
W. J. McGee, 163 ; Remains of Lake-dwellings in North
America, 180 ; American Meteorological Journal, 189, 262,
311, 383, 445, 611 ; Long-time Weather Predictions in Ame-
rica, 208 ; American Association for Advancement of Science,
228, 556 ; American Journal of Mathematics, 334 ; Two
American Institutions, J. Taylor Kay, 346 ; Count Loubat's
VI
INDEX
[Nature, Nov. 28, I J
Prize for Encouragement of North American Studies, 372;
the Fruit Pest, Curcnlio, in America, Riley and Howard,
373 ; Colonel Labre's E-cpIorations of Regions between Beni
and Madre de Dios and Piirus Rivers, 353 ; the A nerican
Association, 372; Americin Phil )sophical Society, 373;
American Antiquities, W. H Holmes, 437 ; Decay of the
Reading Habit in America, W. C. Wilkinson, 548 ; Cent-
enary of the American Philosophical Society at Philadelphia,
576 ; the Sparrow in America, 627
Ames (Joseph S. ), Dr. Griinwald's Mathematical Spectrum
Analysis, 19
Amia, Lateral Line System in, Minot and Allis on, 419
Amine, a New, Drs. Sknup and VViesmann, 14
Amnion (O.). Results of Observations of Skulls of 5000 Baden
Soldiers, 653
Ammonia, the Nitrification of, Th. Schlcesing, 539
Amsterdam Royal Academy of Sciences, 120, 216, 312
Amylo-dextrin, Brown and Morris on, 214
Analysis, Commercial Organic, Alfred H. Allen, Dr. C. R.
Alder Wright, F.R.S., 289
Anapophyses, Dr. St. George Mivart, F. R.S., 394
Anatomy, Comparative, the Large B )nes of the Anthropoid
Apes, Etienne Rollet, 287
Anatomy, Comparative, Lehrbuch der Vergleichenden Anatomic
zum Gebrauche bei vergleichend anatomischen and zoolo-
gischen Vorlesungen, Dr. Arnold Lang, 124
Anatomy of the Humpback Whale {Megapter.i longimana),
John Struther=, 592
Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui, W. H. Holmes, 436
Ancient Civilization, the History of. Rev. J. Verschoyle, 7
Anderson (J. W. ), the Prospector's Hand-book, 293
Anderson (Prof. R. J.), Apparatus to illustrate Crystal Forms,
71
Anderson (William), Opening Address in Section G (Mecha-
nical Science) at the British Association, 509
Andersonian Naturalists' Society of Glasgow, 653
Andree (Richard), Ethnological Parallels, 229
Andrews (General), Ship Railways, 108
Andries (Dr. B.), the Cold Period of May, 286
Andromedse, Spectrum of R, Espin, 656
Anemometer Comparison^, Prof. H. A. Hazen, 117
Anemometer Experiments, Prof. C. F. Marvin on, 189, 383
Angot (M.), Paris Central Meteorological Office, 421
Animals, do they Count?, Dr. H. A. Hagen, 319
Animals, the Force of Example in, 461
Annenkoff (General), Colonization of Transcasoian Region,
230
Annuaire de I'Observatoire Municipal de Montsouris, 654
Ansaloni (.A..), on the Eiffel Tower, 261
Antherozoids of Cryptogams, Alfred W. Bennett on the, 610
Anthony's Photographic Bulletin, the International Annual of,
245
Anthrax Virus in Subcutaneous Tissues of Rabbits, Destruction
of, M. Pekelharing, 312
Anthropology : Colour of Eyes and Hair of the Ainos, Lefevre,
68 ; Osteology of Veddahs of Ceylon, Arthur Thompson,
118 ; the Anthropological Institute, no, 287; the Anthropo-
lugical Society, 215; Colour of Eyes and ^ Hair in Norway,
Abbo and Faye, 285 ; Introduction a I'Etude des Races
Humaines, A. De Quatrefages, 407 ; the German Congress
on Anthropology, 479 ; Anthropological Society of Bombay,
480 ; Prof. Sir William Turner's Opening Address in Section
H at the British Association, 526 ; the Huron- Iroquois of
E\stern Canada, Sir Daniel Wilson, 557 ; Lake-dwellings in
Northern Italy, P. Castelfranco, 562 ; Pagan Practices among
Modern Provencals, Dr. Ferand, 562 ; Prof. Haddon's Torres
Straits Collection. 626 ; W. K. Sibley, on Left-leggedness,
652 ; Prof. D. J. Cunningham, on the Occasional Eighth True
Rib in Man, 632 ; Paul B. du Chaillu, on the Vikings as the
Direct Ancestors of the English-speaking Nations, 632 ;
Canon Isaac Taylor, on the Origin of the Aryans, 632 ;
Canon Isaac Taylor, on the Ethnological Significance of the
Beech, 632 ; Hyde Clarke, on the Right of Property in Trees
on Another's Land, 635 ; Dr.Garson, on an Anthropometric
Instrument for Travellers, 633; Francis Galton, F.R. S., on
an Instrument for measuring the Reaction Time to Sight and
Sound Signals, 633 ; Dr. MacLaurin, on the British Race in
Australia, 633 ; H. H. Risley, on the Study of Ethnology in
India, 633 ; Prof. A. C. Haddon, on the Custom-; and Beliefs
of the Torres Straits Islanders, 633 ; Dr. J. Beddoe, F. R. S.,
on the Natural Colour of Skin in Certain Oriental Races,
633 ; Dr. Fridtjof Nansen, on the Esquimaux, 633 ; Rev. G.
Rome Hall, on Northumberland in Prehistoric Times, 633 ;
Sir William Turner, F. R.S., on Implements of Stags' Horns
associated with Whales' Skeletons found in the Carse Lands
of Stirling, 634 ; on the Principles and Methods of Assign-
ing Marks f^r Bodily Efficiency in the Examination of
Candidates for Public Service, Francis Galton, F. R. ^., 631,
649 ; A. A. Somerville, 652 ; Anthropometric Instrument
for Travellers, Dr. Garson on an, 633 : Anthropometric Mea-
surements at Cambridge, 593 ; Scientific Anthropometry a id
Artistic Pr >portion^. Colonel Duhousset and TopinarJ, 562
AnthropopiiJie-tis calvus, the Mental Faculties of, Prof. Geo. J.
Romanes, F. R. S., 160
Antiparallel, on the Use of the Word, E. M. Langley, 460
Antiquities discovered in Gothland, 254
Antoine (Ch.), Dilatation and Compression of Carbonic Acid,
48
Apes, the Large Bones of the Anthropoid, Etienne Rollet, 287
Apple and Pear Conference, the, 577
Apiilied Mechanics, Ur. A. Low, 31
April Meteors, 15
Aquatic Habits of certain Land Tortoises, R. W. Shufeldt, ^\\
Arc, the Peruvian, 558
Arcangeli (Prof.), Heat due to Respira*^ion of Fungi, 334
Archaeology in Mexico : Governmental Measures for Study and
Preservation of Ancient Monuments and Historical Remains,
283
Archae ilogy : the Burying-grounds and Civilization of Hallstatt,
Dr. Homes, 286
Arctic Expedition, Return of the Bremen, 539
Arctic Exploration : Dr. Nansen's Journey across Greenland,
i>33
Argentine Republic, Hibernation of Martins in the, Tommaso
Salvadori, 223
Argus, Variable tj. Dr. Thome, 550
Argyll (the Duke of, F. R.S.), an Unusual Geological Sequence,
642
Arithmetic : a Course of Easy Arithmetical Examples for Be-
ginners, J. G. Bradshaw, 293
Armstrong (Prof. H. E., F. R.S.) : the Hydration of Cyanides
335 ; Report to the British Association of the Committee o\\
the Teaching of Science in Schools, 554 ; Suggestions for a
Course of Elementary Instruction in Physical Science, 600;
the Teaching of Science, 645
Arnold (Sir Edv\'in) upon Icebergs, 536
Artesian Wells in Australia, 3t)5
Aryans, the, De Lapouge, 68
Aryans, the Origin of the, Canon Isaac Taylor on, 632
Ashe (Dr. Isaac), Dimidium, an Attempt to represent the
Chemical Elements by Physical Forms, 588
Asia, Central : M. Bonvalot's Tour in, 483 ; Return of Yad-
rintzeft"s Expedition, 551
Aspinall (Rev. «J.), the Inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego, 374
Assmann (Dr. R. ), the Structure of Hoar-frost, 285 ; Meteoro-
logical Experiences in the Sentis, 66o
Association for Improvement of Geometrical Teachin;r, 326
Astrarchia stepliania;. Dr. A. B. Meyer, 461
Astronomy: April Meteors, 15; the White Spot on Saturn's
Ring, Prof. Holden, 15 ; the Variable X Cygni, Mr. Vendall,
15 ; Photographic Determination of the Brightness of the
Stars, 15 ; Astronomical Column, 15, 63, 109, 135, 164., iS'j,
209, 231, 255, 284, 307, 32 <, 424, 448, 482, 538, 550, 597,
655 ; Astronomical I'henomena for the Week, 16, 46, 64, 85,
109, 135, 164, 181, 210, 231, 255, 284, 307, 329, 352, 374,
403,424,448,482, 516, 538, 550, 578, 628, 656; the Re-
siduals of Mercury, O. T. Sherman, 63 ; Right Ascensions of
North Circumpolar Stars, Prof. T. H. Safiford, 63 ; Two
Remarkable Solar Eruptions, F'ather Jules Feiiyi, 64; Comet
1889 b (Barnard, March 31), 64 ; on the Determination of
Masses in Astronomy, R. A. Gregory, 80; the Proposid
Vatican Astronomical Observatory, 84; Meteor- Showars, 16,
46, 86, 109, 136, 165, i8r, 231, 256, 285, 308, 329, 352, 375,
403, 424, 448, 483, 516, 539, 551, 578, 598, 629, 655 ; Vari-
able Stars, 16, 46, 64, 85, no, 135, 165, i8r, 210, 231, 255,
284, 308, 329, 352, 375, 403. 424. 449, 4^3, 516, 539, 55^,
578, 598, 629, 656 ; Barnard's Comet, 1888 e, 109 ; the
Motion of Stars in the Line of Sight, Prof. H. C. V^ogel,
109 ; the Latitude of Detroit, Dr. Ludovic Estes, 109 ; the
Minor Planet Victoria, 109 ; Meridian Observations of Iris,
Nature, Nov. 23, 1889]
\1NDEX
Vll
109 ; Preliminary Report of the Newall Telesope Syndicate,
114; Astronomical Society, 119; New Minor Planet, 135 ;
the Spectrum of x Cygni, 135 ; Solar Phenomena for 1888
and 1889, Tacchini, 144; Stonyhurst College Observatory,
164; Stability of Solar Sy>tem, D. Eginitis, 167; Two Re-
markable Conjunctions, Martb, 180 ; the General Relations
of the Phenomena of Variable Stars, S. C. Chandler, 181 ;
Stellar Evolution and its Relation to Geological Time, James
Croll, F.R.S., A. Fowler, 199; Recent Determinations of
the Amount of Lunar Radiation, Prof. C. C. Hutchins, 209 ;
Astronomica' Society of the Pacific, 231 ; a New Comet,
231 ; the Planet Uranus, R. A. Gregory, 235 ; Proposed
New Telescope for Harvard University Observatory, 252 ;
Death of Maria Mitchell, 253 ; Congress on Celestial Photo-
graphy, 252 ; Obituary Notice of Prof. G. Cacciatore, 255 ;
Comet 1S89 d (Swift), 255 ; Comet 1889 b (Barnard, March
31), 255 ; Comet 1 889 r( Barnard, June 23), 255 ; Comet 1889^
(Barnard, September 2), 255 ; Comet 1889 r/ (Brooks, July 6),
284 ; Babylonian Astronomy, G. Berlin, 237, 261, 285, 360 ;
Celestial Motions, a Handy Book of Astronomy, William
Thynne Lynn, 293 ; the Binary y Corona; Borealis, Prof.
Celoria, 307 ; Eclipses and Transits in Future Years, Rev. S.
J. Johnson, 307 ; the White Spot on Saturn's Ring, M. Terby,
307 ; Comet i889<: (Barnard, June 23), Dr. R. Spitaler, 307 ;
Discovery of a New Comet 1889 e, 328 ; Comet 1889 d
(Brooks), Comets 1888 e (Barnard, September 2), and 1889 b
(Barnard, March 31), 329; the Vienna Observatory, 329;
Astronomy at Johns Hopkins University, 351 ; the Variations
of Latitude in the Solar Spots, R. Wolf, 383 ; Another Photo-
graphic Survey of the Heavens, 417; Comet 1889 rt? (Brooks,
July 6), Herr Otto Knopf, 424 ; Comet 1889^ (Davidson), Dr.
Becker, 424 ; New Minor Planets, 424 ; New Double Stars,
Burnham, 424 ; Stars with Remarkable Spectra, 424 ; Telescopes
for Stellar Photography, Sir Howard Grubb, F.R.S., 441, 645 ;
International Congress at Liege, 445 ; Yale College Observa-
tory, 448 ; New Minor Planet, Prof. Peters, 448 ; Comet 1889 d
(BroDks, July 6), Dr. K. Zelbr, 448 ; Comet 1888^ (Barnard,
September 2), and 1889 b (Barnard, March 31), 448 ; Reduc-
tion of Rutherfurd's Photographs of the Pleiades and Praesepe,
Dr. B. A. Gould, 448 ; the United States Eclipse Expedition,
462 ; the Triple Star 2 2400, 482 ; Publications of the Pots-
dam Observatory, 482 ; the Observation of Sudden Pheno-
mena, 482 ; International Congress of Astronomy, 516 ;
Observations of Twilight and Zodiacal Light during the Total
Eclipse of the Sun, December 21, 1889, Prof. Cleveland
Abbe, 519 ; Bishop's Ring; and Allied Phenomena, T. W.
Backhouse, 519 ; Comet 1889 e (Davidson), 538 ; Observations
at Algiers Observatory, Ch. Trepied, 539 ; Mr. Tebbutt's
Observatory at Windsor, New South Wales, 550 ; the Variable
7? Argus, Dr. Thome, 55° > Rotation Period of the Sun,
Henry Crew ; Comet 1889 ^/(Brooks, July 6), Dr. Otto Knopf,
550; Prof. A. W. Riicker, F.R.S, on Cometic Nebula;,
583 ; Astronomical Observatorie-, Geo. H. Boehmer, 597 ;
a Spectroscopic Survey of Southern Stars, R. L. J. Ellery,
F.R. S., 597 ; Astro-photographic Conference, 597 ; Inter-
national Congress on Celestial Photography, 597 ; the Natal
Observatory, 655 ; Spectrum of R Andromeda;, Rev. T. H.
E. C. Espin, 656 ; Comet 1889 d (Brooks, July 6), 656 {see
also Stars and Meteors)
Alhecse, Phenacodus and the, Lydekker on, Prof. E. D. Cope,
298
Atlantic, North : Pilot Chart for May, 107 ; Icebergs in, 133 ;
Surface Currents of, Prince Albert of Monaco, 167 ; for May,
Meteorology of, 179; Meteorology of, 305 ; Pilot Chart of,
401 ; Currents of, G. Pouchet, 577 ; Pilot Charts of, 578, 595 1
Atlantic Ocean, Upper Wind Currents over the Equator in the,
Hon. Ralph Abercromby, loi ; E. Foulger, 224 i
Atlas : Longmans' New, 148 ; W. and A. K. Johnston's the
Unrivalled, 221
Atlas, Travels in the, and Southern Morocco, Jos2ph Thomson,
149
Atmosphere, Circulation of the, over the Equator, Hon. Ralph
Aberciomby, 297
Atmospheric Electricity, C. A. C. Bowlker, 55 ; Daniel Pidgeon,
77 ; C. Tomlinson, F. R.S., 102 ; R. T. Omond, 102 ; Mar-
shall Hall, 125; Alexander McAdie, 223; Prof. C. Michie
Smith, 585
Atoms and Molecules, the Organization of, Prof. A. E. Dolbear,
419
Audubon Monument, the Proposed, 305
August Perseids of 1889, 420
Aurora, the. Dr. M. A. Vecder, 318
Aurora, 01)servatioiis on Height of, 654
Aurora, the Wavelength of Principal Line in Spectrum of, W.
Huggins, F.R.S., 68
Aus dem Archiv der Deutschen Seewarte, 401
Auspitz (Rudolf) and Richard Lieben, Untersuchungen iiber die
Tneorie des Preises, 242
Austen (Dr. P. T.), Exp;riments on Combustion in Nitric Acid
Vapour, 45
Australia : Records of the Geological Survey of New South
Wales, 254 ; Western Australia, Coal and Tin Discoveries in,
H. P. Woodward, 304 ; Exploration of, Ernest Favenc, 353 ;
Artesian Wells in Australia. 305 ; Proposed Kxploration of
Central, 308 ; the Tertiary Flora of, C. von Ettingshausen, J.
Starkie Gardner, 517 ; Tietken's Exploration of the Interior of
South, 551 ; Dr. MacLaurin on the British Race in Australia,
633
Avalanche on Joser Fjord, 229
Avarian Language, Baron Uslar, 283
Avens, Martel and Gaupillat, 636
Babylonian Astronomy, G. Bertin, 237, 261, 285, 360
Babylonian the Language of Polite Society in the Fifteenth Cen-
tury B.C., Prof. Sayce, 239
Bacillus ethacetkus, a New Ferment, Prof. P. F, Frankland,
588
Backhouse (T. W. ): Bishop's Ring and Allied Phenomena,
519 ; Shining Night Clouds — an Appeal for Observations,
594
Bacteria, the Ferment Action of, Drs. Lauder Brunton and
Macfadyen, 21
Bacteria, Influence of Salt on, Forster, 216
Bailey (G. H.), Zirconium, 92
Bailey Qames Blake), an Index to Science, 245
Bailey (Prof. W. Whitman), Changed Environment, 297
Baines (A. C. ), Sailing Flight of the Albatross, 9
Ball (E. J.) and A. Wingham, Influence of Copper on the
Tensile Strength of Steel, 59
Ball (John, F.R.S.), Death of, 626
Ball (V., F.R.S.), Japanese Clocks, 151
Ball (W. W. Rouse), a History of the Study of Mathematics
at Cambridge, 458
Balloon Ascent, Barometrical Measurements tested by, 547
Balls of almost Perfect Sphericity produced by Mechanical
Movement, M. Mallett, 351
Baltic Coasts, the Secular Rising of, ro8
Baltic Currents, Measurement of, Herr Dinklage, 351
Bambangala, Dr. P. L. Sclater, F.R.S., 54
Bardeleben (Prof.), PraepoUex and Praehallux of Mammalian
Skeleton, 95
Barents Sea, the. Dr. Mohn, 598
Barium, the Malonates of, 264
Barnard's Comet, 1888 e, September 2, 109. 255, 448 ; Comet
1889 b, 64, 255; Comet, March 31, 1889 b, 448; Comet
1889 c, 255
Barnes (Philip), the Founder of the Royal Botanic Society, 304
Barometer, Diurnal and Annual Oscillations, H. H. Clayton,
445
Barometrical Measurements tested by Balloon Ascents, 547
Barrande (Joachim), Systeme Silurien du Centre de la Boheme,
267
Barus (Carl), Electric Resistance of Stressed Glass, 67
Basic Open-hearth Steel, J. H. Darby, 59
Basset (A. B.), Treatise on Hydrodynamics, 412
Bassett-Smith (P. W.), Coral Reefs, 223
Bassot (M.), Difference of Longitude between Paris and Madrid,
612
Bate (C. S., F.R.S.), Death and Obituary Notice of, 350
Bateman (J. F. La Trobe, F.R.S.), Death of, 162
Baur (G.), Valuable Specimens of Vertebrates for Biological
Laboratories, 644
Beacon Lights and Fog Signals, Sir James N. Douglass, F.R.S.,
87, no
Beale (E. Clifford), Board School Laryngitis, Greville Mac-
donald, 8
Beauregard, Egypt in Prehistoric Times, 92
Becker (Dr.), Comet 1889 e (Davidson), 424
Beddard (F. E.), on Fresh water Oligochseta, 611
VIU
INDEX
[Nature, Nov. 28, 18S9
Beddoe (Dr. J., F.R.S.), on the Natural Colour of Skin in
certain Oriental Races, 633
Bedson (Prof.) on Dr. Netto's Process for the Manufacture of
Aluminium from Cryolite, 587
Bee, Alimentary Apparatus of, A. J. Cook, 559
Bee Mango, the, 654
Beech, Ethnological Significahce of the. Canon Isaac Taylor on,
632
Beginners, Statics for, John Greaves, 77
Behrend and Roosen (Dr.), Synthesization of Uric Acid, 62
Belgium : Agricultural Laboratories in, 481 ; the Meteorological
Service in, A. L. Rotch, 311
Bell, a New Mountain of the, H. Carrington Bolton, 35
Bell (Sir Lowthian, Bart., F.R.S.): Opening Address in Sec-
tion B (Chemistry) at the British Association, 473 ; on Gaseous
Fuel, 560
Bells, Tones of, Lord Rayleigh, Sec.R. S., 584
Beloochistan, Mr. Griesbach appointed Government Geologist
in, 444
Bennett (Alfred W.) and George Murray, a Hand-book of
Cryptogamic Botany, 217
Bennett (Alfred W.) : Systematic Position of the Characese,
298 ; on the Antherozoids of Cryptogams, 610
Bennett (Mrs. Lydia S.), Death of, 373
Ben Nevi-; Observatory, 350, 351 ; St. Elmo's Fire on Ben
Nevis, Angus Rankin, 439 ; Report of the Committee ap-
pointed by the British Association for the Purpose of co-
operating with ihe Scottish Meteorological Society in making
Observations on, 535
Benares, Native Opposition to Sanitary Reforms at, 44
Bennie (James), the Cowdenglen Valley, 627
Benzene, M. Combes on, 370
Berkeley (Rev. M. J., F.R.S.): Death of, 326; Obituary
Notice of, 371
Berks, Yew-trees in, Rev. George Hendow, 621
Berlin : Academy of Sciences, 372 ; Meteorological Society,
660 ; Physical Society, 72, 96, 168, 240, 287 ; Physiological
Society, 24, 119, 192, 288, 408
Bernard ( Rev. Henry), Nose-blackening as a Preventive of
Snow-Blindness, 438
Bert (Paul), Statue of, 252
Berthelot (Marcellin, F.R.S.): the Thionic Series, 23, 71, 95;
the Origin of Bronze, 71 ; Heat of Combustion of Carbons,
167 ; the Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen, 539 ; Observa-
tions on Reciprocal Displacements between Oxygen and the
Halogens, 612, 636 : Rafifinose, 612
Bertin (G,), Babylonian Astronomy, 237, 261. 285, 360
Besson(A.), on the Existence of Sulphate of Phosphonium, 659
Bevan (E. J.), a Text-book of Paper making, 414
Bevan (George Phillips), Death of, 373
Bhils, the, and their Country, Sir Lepel Griffin, 116
Bi- and Di-, the Use of the Prefixes, 370
Bibliography of Meteorology, 107
Bidwell (Shelford, F.R.S.), Effects of Heat on Magnetic Sus-
ceptibility of Nickel, 70
Bimetallism, Right Hon. Sir Lyon Playfair, F.R.S., 638
Binary 7 Coronse Borealis, Prof. Celoria, 307
Binet (Alfred), Psychic Life of Micro-organisms, 541
Binger (Captain), Penetration of Kong Country by, 17
Biology : Liverpool Marine Biology Committee's Easter Dredg-
ing Cruise, Prof W. A. Herdman, 47 ; the Progress of
Biology, Dr. Diising, 402 ; Prof. J. S. Burdon- Sanderson's
Opening Address in Section D at the British Association,
521 ; Alimentary Apparatus of Bee, A. J. Cook, 559 ;
Fermentation of Ensilage, Prof Burrill, 559; Marine Bio-
logical Association, S. F. Harmer, 593 ; Prof G. J.
Romanes, F.R. S., on Specific Characters as Useful and
Indifferent, 609 ; Alfred W. Bennett, on the Antherozoids of
Cryptogams, 610 ; E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., the Supposed
Transmission of Acquired Characters, 610; Francis Galton,
F.R.S., on Feasible Experiments on the Possibility of Trans-
mitting Acquired Habits by Means of Inheritance, 610 ; Prof.
F. O. Bower, on the Meristems of Ferns as a Study in Phylo-
geny, 610 ; Prof. Hartog, on the Structure of Saprolegnia,
611; F. E. Beddard, on Fresh-water Oligochgeta, 611;
Messrs. Robert Irvine and Dr. G. Sims Woodhead, on the
Secretion of Carbonate of Lime by Animals, 611 ; Sir John
Lubbock, F.R.S., on the Shape of the Oak Leaf and the
Leaves of the Guelder Rose, 611 ; Sir W. Turner, F.R. S.,
on the Placentation of the Dugong, 611 ; Weismann's Essays
on Heredity, &c., Poulton, Schonland, and Shipley, 618;
Lamarck v. Weismann, Dr. A. R. Wallace, 619; Valuable
Specimens of Vertebrates for Biological Laboratories, G.
Baur, 644
Biquartz, the Use of the, A. W. Ward, 191
Bird-Life of the Borders, Abel Chapman, 147
Birds, Effects of Pepper-feeding on. Dr. Sauermann, 192
Birds, Large, Sailing Flight of, over Land, S. E. Peal, 518;
Dr. R. Courtenay, 573
Birds, Migration of. Report to the British Association on the
Observations made at Lighthouses and Light-vessels, John
Cordeaux, 556
Birds and Seed-dispersion, 305
Birhans (F. C.)i the Solidification of Nitrous Acid, 287
Birmingham, Mason Science College, 13
Birth-rate in France, the, Chervin, 92
Bishop (Sereno E.), Sunset Glows at Honolulu, 415
Bishop's Ring and Allied Phenomena, T. W. Backhouse, 519
Bismuth, New Aromatic Compounds of, Michaelis and Mar-
quardt, 134
Black Rain, the Earl of Rosse, F.R. S., 202
Blackley (Dr. C. H.), Improved Method of Preparing Ozone
Paper, 94
Bladder, Apparatus for Examining the. Dr. Nitze, 192
Blair (Andrew Alexander), Chemical Analysis of Iron, 51
Blake, Three Cruises of the, by Alexander Agassiz, Dr. John
Murray, 361
Blanc (Prof), Lake Trout reared at Champ de I'Air, 422
Blanchard (Emile), the Natural History of the River-Eel, 383
Blanford (Henry F., F. R. S.), a Practical Guide to the Climates
and Weather of India, Ceylon, and Burmah, 221
Blaschka (Dr.), Formation of Horny Layer of Skin, 119
Blater (Joseph), the Method of Quarter Squares, J. W. L.
Glaisher, F.K.S., 573
Blindness, Colour-, Testing of, Rev. J. F. Heyes, 572
Blindness, the Eyes of Young Children, Dr. Webster Fox, 305
Blood, Quantity of Water in, Grehant and Quinquaud, 144
Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory, 283
Blythe (Prof Jas.), New Form of Current-Weigher, 586
Board School Laryngitis, Greville Macdonald, Dr. E. CliflforJ
Beale, 8
Bodily Efficiency, on Weighing Marks for, in the Examination
of Candidates for Public Service, Francis Galton, F.R. S.,
631, 649 ; A. A. Somerville, 652
Boehmer (Geo. H.), Astronomical Observatories, 597
Bohemia, Cystidea of, 267
Boiler Incrustations, on the Formation of Marine, Prof. Vivian
B. Lewes, 19
Boilers, their Construction and Strength, Thomas W. Traill,
414
Boissier (Edmond), R. Buser's Supplement to h:s Flora
Orientalis, W. B. Hemsley, 98
Bolivia and Peru H. Guillaume on, 630
Bolivia, the Population of, 482
Bolton (H. Carrington), a New Mountain of the Bell, 35
Bombay : Endowment by Framjee Dinshaw Petit of a Laboratory
at, 44, 133 ; Opening of the Jubilee Technical Institute at, 60 ;
Proposed Improved Zoological Collection for, 282
Bonney (Prof. T. G., F. R. S. ), Columnar Structure in Ice, 55 ;
Contact Metamorphism in Silurian Rocks, near New Galloway,
190 ; Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, 77, 125, 222 ;
a Lizard Swallowed by a Viper, 150 ; Ice Blocks on a Moraine,
391
Bonvalot's (M.) Tour in Central Asia, 483
Borders, Bird-Life of the, Abel Chapman, 147
Bore of the Tsien-Tang Kiang, the, Captain W. U. Brown,
163
Bored Stones in Boulder Clays, G. W. Lamplugh, 297
Borelli (Giulio), Outflow of the River Omo, 165, 353
Borneo, Dr. Theodor Posewitz's Explorations in, 49
Borneo, the Old- Slate Formation of, Martin, 120
Boscovich's Theory, on. Sir William Thomson, F. R.S., 545
Bosnia, Earthquakes in, 84, 401
Boston, Proposed Natural History Gardens in, 577
Bostwick (A. E. ), Absorption Spectra of Mixed Liquids, 189
Bosworth- Smith, Discovery of Old Mining Implements in India,
229
Botany: in India, J. F. Duthie, 13; Botany of the Cayman
Islands, W. Fawcett, 15 ; Comparative Morphology of the
Coniferse, Dr. Masters, 22 ; a New Conifer, Dr. Marion,
Nature, Nov. 2I, 1889]
INDEX
IX
61 ; the Origin of the Platanus Genus, 61 ; Obituary Notice of
Heinrich Gustav Reichenbacb, 83 ; Botanical Ga/ette, 92,
262 ; the Supplement to Edmond Boissier's Flora Orientalis,
edited by R. Buser, W. B. 'Hemsley, 98 ; Presentation of
Linnean Society's Gold Medal to M. Alphonse de Candolle,
118 ; Cactus Culture for Amateurs, 123 ; Botany of River-
Transformation into Marshes, TanfiliefTT, 163 ; Dr. M. C.
Cooke's Herbarium of Fungi, 207 ; a Hand-book of Crypto-
gamic Botany, Alfred W. Bennett and George Murray, 217 ;
Sideroxylon dulcificuvi, D. Morris, 238 ; Congress of the
Botanical Society of France, 252 ; at the Polytechnic School
of Lisbon, 253 ; Guide to the Botanical Literature of the
British Empire, 253 ; the Kew Bulletin for July 18S9, 253 ;
Prof. H. Ci. Reichenbach's Collection of Orchids, 253 ; the
Journal of Botany, 262 ; the Uses of Plants, G. S. Boulger, 292 ;
Systematic Position of the Characeas, Alfred W. Bennett, 298 ;
the Spiral Torsion in Wild Teasel, M. de Vries, 312 ; Ponte-
dcra azuna, W. C. Sowerby, 327 ; Heat due to Respiration
of Fungi, Prof. Arcangeli, 334 ; the Department of Public
Gardens and Plantations in Jamaica, 352; Names and
Synonyms of British Plants, G. Egerton-Warburton, 316;
the Colouring-matter of the Spermoderm in Angiosperms,
Louis Claudel, 384 ; the Forest Flora of New Zealand, T.
Kirk, 388 ; Botanic Gardens at Tiinidad, 421 ; Prof, de
Bary's Collection of Microscopic Slides, 479 ; Report of the
British Association Committee on the Disappearance of Native
Plants from their Local Habitats, 533 ; Flowers of Calligomwi
polygonoides as Article of Food in N.W, India, Use of, Mr.
Duthie, 537 ; Report to the British Association on the Botany
of the West India Islands, D. Morris, 553 ; the Probable
Cause of Frondal Bifu.'^cations of Ferns, Dom B. Rimelin,
563; Alfred W. Bennett, on the Antherozoids of Cryptogams,
610 ; Prof. F. O. Bower, on the Meristems of Ferns as a
Study in Phylogeny, 610 ; Prof Hartog, on the Structure of
Saprolegnia, 611 ; Sir John Lubbock, F.R.S., on the Shape
of the Oak Leaf and the Leaves of the Guelder Rose, 611 ;
Eucalyptus Kinos, J. H. Maiden, 635 ; Trimorphism in
Scabiosa siiccisa, Arthur Turner, 643 ; the Uredineae and
Ustilaginere, R. Turner, 653
Hottomley (J. T., F. R.S.), Expansion with Rise of Temperature
of Wires under Pulling Stress, 263
Bouchon-Brandely (M.), the Natural Oyster-banks of Brittany,
481
Boulay (Henri), Statue to, 480
Boulder Clay, Bored Stones in, G. W. Lamplugh, 297
Boulder Clay Erratic, Saxicava Borings and Valves in a, T.
Mellard Reade, 246
Boulenger (G, A.), Catalogue of the Chelonians, Rhyncho-
cephalians, and Crocodiles in the British Museum (Natural
History, 5
Boulger (G. S.), the Uses of Plants, 292
Bower (Prof. F. 0.), on the Meristems of Ferns as a Study in
Phylogeny, 610
Bowlker (C. A. C), Atmospheric Electricity, 55
Boys (C. v., F.R.S.) : Quartz as an Insulator, 71 ; Quartz
Fibres, 247 ; Portable Cavendish Apparatus for demonstrating
the Attraction of Gravitation, 65
Brachistochrones and Ray-paths, on the Relation between. Prof.
Everett, F.R.S., 584
Bradshaw (J. G. ), a Course of Easy Arithmetical Examples for
Beginners, 293
Brady (Dr. G. S.) and Rev. A. M, Norman, Monograph of the
Marine and Fresh-water Ostracoda of the North Atlantic and
of North- Western Europe, 364
Brauner (Dr. B.), Experimental Researches on the Periodic
Law, 214
Brauner (Dr.), Tellurium, 284
Bremen Arctic Expedition, Return of, 539
Brest, Earthquake at, 162
Bride, the Theorem of the, 320; Prof. Geo. J. Allman, F.R.S.,
299
Bridge : the Sukkur, Opening of, 13 ; the Channel, Schneider
and Hersent, 536, 560
Brinton (Dr. D. G.), the Ta Ki, the Svastika, and the Cross in
America, 373
Bristow (Henry William, F.R.S.), Death of, 178; Obituary
Notice of, 206
Britain, Mr. Ussher on the Devonian Rocks of, 608
British Actiniae, Revision of the. Prof. A. C. Haddon, 390
British Association :— Dinner to the President-Elect,
106 ; Meeting at Newcastleon-Tyne, Preliminary Ar-
rangements, 329, 349, 373, 462 ; Inaugural Address
by Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S., President, 463; Social
Arrangements, 485 ; the Secretaryship, 485 ; Places of
Meeting for 1890, 1891, 1892, 485 ; Attendance at, 485 ;
Grants, 485 ; Second Report of the Committee Appointed
for Collecting Information as to the Disappearance of Native
Plants from their Local Habitats, Prof Hillhouse, 533 ;
Report of the Committee appointed for the Purpose of Co-
operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society iu Making
Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis, A. Buchan,
535 ; Prof. Sir. William Thom.son, F. U.S., on Boscovich's
Theory, 545; Eighteenth Report of the Committee on the
Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards
in Dry Land and under Water, Prof. Everett, 551 ; Report
of the Committee for Investigating the Best Methods of
Ascertaining and Measuring Variations in the Value of the
Monetary Standards, Prof. F. V. Edgeworth, 553 ; Second
Report of the Committee for Reporting on our Knowledge
of the Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands, and for
Taking Steps to Investigate Ascertained Utticiencies in the
Fauna and Flora, D. Morris, 553 ; Fifth Report of the
Committee for Considering the Best Means cf Comparing
and Reducing Magnetic Observations, Pro/. W. Grylls
Adams, F.R.S., 554; Fourth Report of the Committee
Appointed for the Purpose of Promoting Tidal Observations
in Canada, Prof. A. Johnson, 554; Report of the Committee
on theTeaching of Science in Elementary Schools, Prof. H. E.
Armstrong, F'.R.S., 554; Report of the Committee on Electri-
cal Standards, R. T. Glazebrook, F. R..S., 555 ; Report on the
Present State of our Knowledge in Electrolysis and Klectro-
Che-mistry, W. N. Shaw, 555 ; Report of the Committee on
the Observations on the Migration of Birds made at Light-
houses and Light-vessels, John Cordeaux, 556 ; Report of
the Committee on the Seasonal Variations of Temperature
in Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries, in the United Kingdom,
Dr. H. R. Mills, 556 ; Report of the Committee on Solar
Radiation, 556 ; Report of the Committee for the Investiga-
tion of the Natural History of the Friendly Islands and
other Islands in the Pacific, S. F. Harmer, 556 ; Physical
Papers at the, 583 ; Section Work at the. Prof. Oliver J.
Lodge, F.R.S., 593
Section A (Afatheriiatics and Physics) — Opening Address by
Captain W. de W. Abney, C.B., F.R.S., President of the
Section, 469 ; Prof. Sir William Thomson, F. R.S., on
Boscovich's Theory, 545 ; Prof. A. W. Riicker, F. R.S., on
Cometic Nebula?, 583 ; Prof. C. Piazzi Smyth, on Re-
examination of the Spectra of Twenty-three Gas- Vacuum
End-on Tubes after Six to Ten Years of Existence and Use,
584 ; Lord Rayleigh, SecT<.S., on the Ttne^ of Bells, 584 ;
Captain Abney, F.R.S., on the Quantity of Deposit of
Silver Produced by the Development on a Photographic
Plate in Terms of the Intensity of Light Acting, 584 ; Lord
Rayleigh, Sec. R.S., on Pin-hole Photography, 584; Prof. O.
J. Lodge, F.R.S, and R. T. Glazebrook, F.RS., on the
Determination of z^by Means of Electric O scillations, 584 ;
Prof. A. W. Riicker, F.R.S., on the Inst uments Used in
the Recent Magnetic Survey of France, 584 ; Prof. J. A.
Ewing, F. K.S., on the Magnetic Viscosity of Iron, 584 ;
Prof. Everett, F.R.S., on the Relation between Brachisto-
chrones and Ray-paths, 584; Prof. J. A. Ewing, F.R.S.,
on Hysteresis in the Relation of Strain to Stress, 584 ;
Prof. Henry Stroud, on the E.M.F. Produced by an Abrupt
Variation of Temperature at the Point of Contact of Two
Portions of the same Metal, 585; Prof. McLeod, F.R.S.,
on the Black-bulb Thermometer in vacuo, 585 ; Sir W.
Thomson, F.R.S., on Electrification of Air by Combustion,
585 ; Prof. C. Michie Smith, on Atmospheric Electricity
and the Use of Sir W. Thomson's Portable Electrometer,
585 ; A. W. Clayden, on Dark Flashes of Lightning, 585 ;
Prof. Cleveland Abbe, on the Determination of the Amount
of Rainfall, 585 ; Prof. C. Piazzi Smyth, on Hygrometry
in the Meteorological Jonrnal, 585 ; F. T. Trouton, on
some Experiments on Radiation with Prof. Hertz's
Mirrors, 585; Profs. A. W. Riicker, F.R.S., and
T. E. Ihorpe, F.R.S., on the Relation between the
Geological Constitution and the Magnetic Slate of the
United Kingdom, 5S5 ; Prof. Arthur Schuster, F.R.S., on
INDEX
[Nature, Nro. 28, 1885.
"^[fife Passage of Electricity through Gases, 585 ; Prof. Oliver
^-. Lodge, F.R.S., on the Failure of Metal Sheets to Screen
'off the Electrostatic Effect of Moving or Varying Charges,
5865 Prof. James Blyth, on a New Form of Current- Weigher,
585 ; Prof. S. P. Thompson, on a Phenomenon in the
Electro-Chemical Solution of Metals, 586 ; J. Wilson Swan,
on Chromic Acid as a Depolarizer in Hansen's Battery, 586 ;
Prof. Perry, F.R.S., on a Variable Standard of Self-induc-
tion, 586; Prof. Perry, F.R.S., on a Hot Twisted Strip
Voltmeter, 586 ; W. H. Preece, F. R. S , on the Relative
Effects of Steady and Alternate Currents on Different
Conductors, 586; Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S., and W. H.
Preece, F.R. S., on a New Thermometric Scale, 587 ; Prof.
S. P. Thompson on Sparkless Electro- Magnets, 587 ; W.
W. Haldane Gee and Dr. Ar'hur Harden on Stereometry,
587 ; W. W. Haldane Gee and Hubert L. Terry, on the
Specific Heat of Caoutchouc, 587 ; F. T. Trouton, on the
Temporary Thermo-Currents in Iron, 587
Sertion B {Chemistry) — Opening Address by Sir Lowthian
Bell, Bart., F. R.S., President of the Section, 47? ; on the
Influence of Silicon on the Properties of Steel, 587 ; J. W.
Hogg, on the Volatilization of Lead Oxide and its Action
upon Glass at Low Temperatures, 587 ; Prof. Liveing, on a
New Developer, Eikonogen, 587 ; C. T. Heycock and F.
H. Neville, on Raoult's Method Applied to Alloys, 587 ;
Prof. Bedson, on Dr. Netto's Process for the Manufacture of
Aluminium from Cryolite, 587 ; Dr. Richardson, on the
Action of Light on the Hydracids, 587 ; Dr. Richardson, on
a New Self- Registering Actinometer, 587 ; Prof. H. B. Dixon,
F. R.S., on the Explosion of a Mixture of Hydrogen, Chlorine,
and Oxygen, 587 ; Dr. Isaac Ashe, Dimidium, an Attempt
to Represent the Chemical Elements by Physical Forms,
588 ; Prof. P. F. Frankland, on a New Ferment, 588
Se.tion C {Geology) — Opening Address by Prof. James
Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S., President of the Section, 486;
Prof. Milne's Ninth Report on the Earthquake and Volcanic
Phenomena of Japan. 608 ; Dr. A. Geikie, F. R. S., on the
Crystalline Schists of Norway, 608 ; Dr. Fridtjof Nansen, on
the Geology of Greenland, 608 ; Prof. W. C. Williamson,
F.R.S., on Coal and Mineral Charcoal, 608 ; Prof. E. Hull,
F. R.S., on Coal-like Structures from the Limestone of Cul-
daff, 608 ; Mr. Ussher on the Devonian R icks of Britain,
608; Profs. Thorpe and Rucker, on the Relation between
the Geological Constitution and Ma'ifnetic State of the
British Isles, 609 ; Pleistocene Papers, 609; Mr. R. H. Tidde-
man, on Concurrent Faulting and Deposit in Carboniferous
Times, 609
Section D {Biology)— O'^t'om^ Address by Prof. J. S. Burdon
Sanderson, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., President of the Section,
521; Prof. G. J. Romanes, F.R.S., on Specific Characters
as Useful and Indifferent, 609 ; Alfred W. Bennett, on the
Antherozoids of Cryptogams, 610 ; E. B. Ppulton, F.R.S.,
the Supposed Transmission of Acquired Characters, 610 ;
Francis Gallon, F.R.S., on Feasible Experiments on the
Possibility of Transmitting Acquired Habits by Means of
Inheritance, 610; Prof. F. O. Bower, on the Meristems of
Ferns as a Study in Phylogeny, 610 ; Prof. Hartog, on the
Structure of Saprolegnia, 611 ; F. E. Beddard, on Fresh-
water Oligochista, 6ri ; Messrs. Robert Iivine and Dr. G.
Sims Woodhead, on the Secretion of Carbonate of Lime by
Animals, 611 ; Sir John Lubbock, F.R.S., on the Shape
of the Oak Leaf and the Leaves of the Guelder Ro'^e, 611 ;
Sir W. Turner, F.R.S., on the Placentation of the Dugong,
Section E (CcfT^-ra/Aj)— Opening Address by Colonel Sir
Francis de Winton, President of the Section, 492 ; Dr.
Hugh Robert Mill, on the Physical Basis of Commercial
Geography, 629 ; Captain E. C. Hore, on Tanganyika, 629 ;
W. M. Fhnders Petrie, on Wind Action in Egypt, 629 ; Dr.
H. B. Guppy, on the South Coast of West Java, 630 ; H.
Guillaume, on Peru and Bolivia, 630
Section F {Economic Science and Statistics)— O^&mxvg Ad-
dress by Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, M.A., F.S.S., President
of the Section, 496
Section G {Mechanical .9t/V«r^)— Opening Address by William
Anderson, M.Inst.C.E., 509; Alex. C.Humphreys, on
Water-gas m the United States, 630; Killingworth Hedges,
on Electric Lighting, 630; Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S., on
Electric Launches on the Thames, 630 ; Edward Manville,
on Series Electric Traction (Northfleet Tramways), 630 ;
W. H. Preece, F. R.S., on Telephonic Communication be-
tween London and Paris, 631 ; W. Webster, on the Purifi-
cation of Sewage by Electrolysis, 631 ; Prof. W. C. Unwin,
F. R. S., on the Strength of All lys at Different Temperatures,
631 ; W. W. Phipson, on Central Station Heating and Power
Supply, 631 ; Alex. P. Trotter, on a Curve Ranger, 631 ;
W. H. Wheeler, on the Transporting Power of Water in the
Deepening of Rivers, 631
Se.tion H {Anthropology) — Opening Address by Sir William
Turner, M.B , F.K.S., President of the Section, 526;
Francis Galton, F. R.S., on Assigning Marks for Bodily
Efficiency in the Examination of Candidates for Public
Service, 631, 649 ; VV, K. Sibley, on Left-leggedness, 632 ;
Prof. D. J. Cunningham, on the Occasional Eighth True Rib
in Man, 632 ; Paul B. du Chaillu, on the Vikings as the
Direct Ancestors of the English-speaking Nations, 632 ;
Canon Isaac Taylor, on the Origin of the Aryans, 632 ;
Canon Isaac Taylor, on the Ethnological Significance of the
Beech, 632 ; Hyde C'arke, on the Right of Property in Trees
on Another's Land, 635 ; Dr. Garson, on an Anthropometric
Instrument for Travellers, 633 ; Francis Galton, F. R.S., on
an Instrument for measuring the Reaction Time to Sight and
Sound Signals, 633 ; Dr. MacLaurin, on the British Race in
Australia, 633 ; H. H. Risley, on the Study of Ethnology in
India, 633 ; Prof. A. C. Haddon, on the Custom-; and Beliefs
of the Torres Straits Islanders, 633 ; Dr. J. Beddoe, F. R.S.,
on the Natural Colour of Skin in certain Oriental Races,
633 ; Dr. Fridtjof Nansen, on the Esquimaux, 633 ; Rev. G.
Rome Hall, on Northumberland in Prehistoric Times, 633 ;
Sir William Turner, F. R. S., on In:plements of Stags' Horns
associated with Whales' Skeletons found in the Carse Lands
of Stirling, 634
British Medical Associfition, 350
British Museum (Natural History), Catalogue of the Ch3-
lonians, Rhynchocephalians, and Crocodiles in the, G. A.
Boulenger, 5
British Pharmaceutical Conference, 479
British Plants, Names and Synonyms of, G. Egerton-Warburton,
316
British Race in Australia, Dr. MacLaurin on the, 633
British Rainfall, 1888, G. J. Symons, F.R.S., 437
Brittany, the Natural Oyster-banks of, Bouchon-Brandely, 481
Bromide of Sulphur, Composiiion of, Dr. Buchka, 85
Bromine, a New Test for, F. Swarts, 286
Bronze, the Origin of, Marcellin Berihelot, F.R.S., 71
Brooks, July 6, Comet 1889 d, 284, 656 ; Dr. H. Oppenheim,
328 ; Herr Otto Knopf, 424 ; Dr. Otto Knopf, 550 ; Dr. K.
Zelbr, 448
Brown (Prof. A. Crum), our Sensations of Motion, 449
Brown (A. E.), Iguanas in Philadelphia Zoological Garden,
180 ; on some Effects of Lightning, 543
Brown (H. T.) : Amylo dextrin, 214; Determination of
Molecular Weights of Carbohydrates, 214
Brown (Mary E.) and W. Adams Brown, Musical Instruments
and their Homes, 436
Brown (Mr., Registrar-General of New Zealand), the Maoris, 6^,%
Bruce (E. S.), the Electro-Graphoscope, 67
Brun (Et.), an Oxybromide of Copper analogous to Atacamite,
287
Briining (Dr. Gustav von). Isolation of Methyl Hydrazine, 628
Brunton (Dr. Lauder, F. R.S. ), the Ferment Action of Bacteria,
21
Buchka (Dr.), Composition of Bromide of Sulphur, 85
Biichner (E.), Absence of Squirrel in Caucasia, 286
Buckley (T. E.), and J. Harvie-Brown, a Vertebrate Fauna of
the Outer Hebrides, loi
Bulgaria: Appearance of Pastor roseus in, 179; Pharmacy in,
306
Bulletin de 1' Academic Royale des Sciences de Belgique, 21,
286,63s
Bulletin de I'Academie des Sciences de St. Petersbourg, 286
Bulletin de la Societe d' Anthropologic, 91
Bunsen's Photometer, D. M. Lewis, 174
Burgess (William), Death of, 653
Burnham (S. W.), New Double Stars, 424
Burrill (Prof.), Fermentation of Ensilage, 559
Burton-on-Trent Natural History and Archaeological Society,
Transactions of, 62
Buser (R.), Supplement to Edmond Boissier's Flora Orientalis,
W. B. Hemsley, 98
Nature, Nov. 28, 1889]
INDEX
XI
Butterflies : Note on Ragadia crisia, Sydney B. J. Skertchly,
10
Butterflies, Yellow Pigments in, F. G. Hopkins, 335
Cacciatore (Prof. Signer G.), Death of, 208; Obituary Notice
of, 255
Cactus Culture for Amateurs, W. Watson, 123
Cailletet (L.) and E. Colardeau, the Condition of Matter near
the Critical Point, 239
Calderon (M.), the Nomenclature of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons,
369
Californian Forestry, 176
Callaway (Charles), the Production of Secondary Minerals at
Shear-zones in Crystalline Rocks of Malvern Hills, 47
Calhgomim folygonoides as Food in North-West India, Use
of the Flowers of, Mr. Dulhie, 537
Cambridge: Pi eliminary Report ol the Newall Telescope Syn-
dicate, 114 ; Head-Growth in Students at the University of,
Francis Gallon, F.R.S., 317 ; Head-Measurements of Stu-
dents at the University of, 392, 642 ; Anihropometiic Mea-
surements at, 593 ; a History of the Study of Cambridge
Mathematics, W. W. Rouse I all, 458; the Sedgwick Prize
Essay, 516 ; the State Medical Syndicate Examination, 516
Camerano (Dr. L. ), the Private Laboratory of Marine Zoology
at Rapallo, 302
Can croons Interior, Lieutenant Kund on the, 353
Campanology : Lord Rayleigh, Sec.R.S., on the Tones of
Bells, 584
Camphor, an Isomer of, Drs. Wallach and Otto, 655
Canada : a Record of Agricultural Progress in, W. Fream, 52 ;
the Indians of Canada, 231 ; Fourth Report to the British
Association of the Committee appointed to promote Tidal
Observations in, Piof A. Johnson in, 554
Candolle (Alph. de), Presentation of Linnean Society's Gold
Medal to, ri8
Canoe, Ancient, Discovery of, in Jutland, 283
Caoutchouc, on the Specific Heat of, W. W. Haldane Gee and
Hubert I, . Terry, 587
Cai^e of Good Hope : Meteorology of, for 1888, 401 ; Proposed
Geol' gical Survey of, 547
Cape de Verd Islands, Dust-Fogs of the, 327
Caibohydrates, Determination of Molecular Weights of. Brown
and Morris, 214
Carbonate of Lime, the Stcretion of, by Animals, Robert Ir-
vine and Dr. G. Sims Woodhead on, 611
Carbonic Acid, Dilatation and Compression of, Ch. Antoine,
48 . .
Carboniferous Times, Concuirent Faulting and Deposit in, R.
H. Tiddeman, 609
Carbons, Heat of Combustion of, Berthtlot and Petit, 167
Carhart (H. S.) : Magnetic Leakage in Dynamos, 559 ; Im-
proved Clark Standard Cell with Low Temperature Coefficient,
559
Carpenter (Wm, Lant), Taming the Puma, 542
Carr (Henry), Key to Lock's Elementary Trigonometry, 125
Carruthers (Mr.), Portraits of Linnaeus, 106
Cartailhac (M.), the Gold of Ancient Gaul, 285
Cascade Mountains, Ascent of Mount Kigi in. Dr. Julius Roll,
598
Casey (Dr. J., F.R.S. ), a Treatise on Spherical Trigonometry,
342
Caslelfranco (P.) : Lake- Dwellings in Northern Italy, 562 ; the
Stone Age in Italy, 659
Cataloguing, Classified : W. M. Flinders Petrie, 392 ; Dr. Jas.
Lewis Howe, 644
Cats : Do they Count ?, J. T. Walker, 394 ; the Force of
" Example " in Animals, 461
Caucasia, Absence of Squirrels in, E. Biichner, 286
CaveDwellers in Mexico, Discovery of, by Lieutenant Schwatka,
2C8
Cayman Islands, Botany of the, W. Fawcett, 15
Celestial Motions: a Handy Book of Astronomy, William
Thynne Lynn, 293
Celestial 1 holograjihy, Congress on, 252, 597
Celluloids, on the Explosiveness of the, Charles Munro, 558
Celoria (Prof), the Binary 7 Coronae jBorealis, 307
Census, the Swiss, 538
Centtnarian Graduates of American Colleges, W. H. Tilling-
hurst, 284
Centrifugal Force and D'Alembert's Principle, Prof. F. Guthrie,
320
Ceylon, Entomological Tour in, by Herr Fiiihslorfer, 480
Chaillu (Paul B. du), on the Vikings as the Direct Ancestors of
tic Inglis-h- speaking Nations, 632
ClialUngiT Expedition, Zoological Results of the, 171
Chambers's Encycloj aedia, vol. iv., 619
Champernowne (Arthur), the Ashj rington Volcanic Series of
South Devon, 94
Chandler (S. C), the General Relations of the Phenomena of
Variable Stars, 181
Changed Environment, Prof. W. Whitman Bailey, 297
Channel Bridge, the Proposed, Schneider and Co., and Hersent,
536, 560
Chapman (Abel), Bird Life of the Borders, 147
Characca?, Systematic Position of the, Alfred W. Bennett, 298
Characters, Specific, as Useful and Indifferent, Prof. G. J. Ro-
manes, F. R. S., on, 609
Characters, on the Supposed Transmission of Acquired, E. B.
Poulton, F.R.S., 610
Charcoal, Mineral, Coal and, Prof. W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.,
on, 608
Charleston, Earthquake at, 283
Chartres (R.), Delambre's Analogies, 644
Chatelier (II. Le), Expansion of Quartz, 118
Chauveau (A.): Transformism in Micro-biology, 612 ; Trans-
formism in Pathogenic Micro-biology, 636
Chelonian Remains from Wcalden and Purbeck, R. Lydekker,
238
Chemistry : a New Amine, Drs. Skraup and Wiegmann, 14 ;
the Rate of Dissolution of Metals in Acids, V. II. Veley, 22 ;
the Chemical Society, 22, 94, 166, 214, 335 ; the Thionic
Series, Researches on, Marcellin Berthelot, F.R.S., 23, 71,
95 ; Combinations of Ruthenium with Nitric Oxide, A. Joly,
23; a Treatise on Chemi-try (vol. iii. Part v.). Sir H. E.
Roscoe, M.P., F.R.S., and C. Schorlemmer, F.R.S., 31 ;
Experiments on Conibustions in Nitric Acid Vapour, Dr.
P. T. Austen, 45; I ilaiation and Compression of Car-
bonic Acid, Ch. Antoine, 48 ; the Formation of Nitrogenous
Earths, Miintz and Marcano, 48 ; Chemical Analysis of Iron,
Andrew Alexander Blair, 51 ; Synthetizafion of Uric Acid,
Drs. Behrend and Roosen, 62 ; the New Element Gnomium,
67 ; Chemical Action between Solids, William Hallock, 68 ;
Application of Measurement of Rotatory Power to Study of
Neutral Molybdate and Taitaric Acid Compounds, D. Gernez,
71 ; the Accurate Determination of Carbonic Acid and
Moisture in Air, J. S. Haldane and M. S. Pembrey, 70 ;
Atomic Weight of Ruthenium, A. joly, 72 ; a-Oxycinchonine,
Jungfleisch and Leger, 72 ; Chemistry of Ocean Currents, Dr.
John Gibson, 84 ; Composition of Bromide of Sulphur, Dr.
Buchka, 85 ; Heat-producing Powers of Different Coals com-
pared with their Chemical Composition, W. Thompson, 86 ;
Zirconium, G. H. Bailey, 92 ; Boiling-point of Sodium and
Potassium, E. P. Perman, 94 ; Heat of Neutrali?ation of
Sulphuric Acid, S. U. Pickering, 94 ; Thiophosphoryl
Fluoride, Thorpe and Rodger, 94 ; Oxalomolyhdic Acid dis-
covered by M. Cechard, 107 ; Proportion of Nitrates in Rains
of Tropical Regions, Miintz and Marcano, 119; New Aro-
matic Compounds of Bismuth, Michaelis and Marquardt, 134;
Relation between Density and Refraction of Gaseous Ele-
ments, Rev. T. P. Dale, 143 ; the Nature of Solutions, S. U.
Pickering, 166 ; the Expansion of Liquids, S. U. Pickering,
166 ; the Formation of Phenylindoles, Dr. W. H. Ince, 166;
the Magnetic Rotation of Nitrogen Compounds, Dr. W. H.
Perkin, F.R.S., 166 ; the Alleged New Element, Gnoraium,
Dr. Fleitmann, 2c8 ; Amylo-dextrin, Brown and Morris,
214; Experimental Researches on the Periodic Law, Dr. B.
Brauner, 214 ; Deteimination of Molecular Weights of Carbo-
hydrates, Brown and Morris, 214 ; Vapour Pressures, &c., of
Similar Compounds of Elements in Relation to Periodic
System, Prof S. Young, 215 ; Isomerism of Alkylderiva-
tives and Mixed Diazoamido Compounds, Meldola and
Streatfield, 215 ; the Atomic Weight of Zinc, Gladstone
and Hibbert, 215 ; the Analysis of Kain Water, R.
Warrington, 215 ; the Molecular Action of Dissolved
Substances, Lorenz, 216; the Occlusion of Gases in
Electrolysis of Sulphate of Copper, A. Soret, 239;
Heat of Formation of Ilyponitrites, Berthelot, 239 ; the
Condition of Matter near the Critical Point, Cailletet and
Collardeau, 239 ; M. Leidie on a New Series of Double Oxa-
Xll
INDEX
{Nature, Nov. 28, 1889
lates of Rhodium, 254 ; Chemical Affinity, M. M. Pattison
Muir, 273 ; Use or Abuse of Empirical Formulae, and of
Differentiation, by Chemists, Prof. Oliver J. Lodge, F. R. S.,
273 ; Tellurium, Dr. Brauner, 284 ; a New Test for Bromine,
F. Swarts, 286 ; the Solidification of Nitrous Acid, Fl.
Birhans, 287 ; an Oxybromide of Copper analogous to Ata-
camite, Et. Brun, 287 ; a New Reaction for Cholesterin, Dr.
Obermiiller, 288 ; a New Dioxide of Cobalt, M. Rousseau,
307 ; the Brounian Movement, M. Gouy, 311 ; an Extreme
Case of "Mass" or "Catalytic" Action, Morse and White,
328 ; Monobenzyl-derivatives of Phenylenediamines, Meldola
and Coste, 335 ; Yellow Pigment in Butterflies, F. G. Hop-
kins, 335 ; the Hydration of Cyanides, Prof. H. E. Arm-
strong, 335 ; Quantitative Analysis of Bicarbonate of Soda in
Milk, L. Pade, 336 ; Action of Propionyl and Butyryl Chlor-
ide on Phenol, Dr. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S., 335; Melting-
point of Salicylic and Anisic Compounds, Dr. W. H.
Perkin, F. R.S., 335; Inorganic Chemistry, Ira Remsen,
339 ; Use or Abuse of Empirical Formulae, and of Differ-
entiation, by Chemists, Spencer Pickering, 343 ; an Attempt
to apply to Chemistry one of the Principles of New-
ton's Natural Philosophy, Prof. D. Mendeleeff, 354 ; the
International Chemical Congress, 369, 394 ; the Use of
the Prefixes bi- and di-, 370 ; the Use of the Suffix
•ol, 370 ; Ketones and the Nomenclature of the Ace-
tones, 370 ; the Nomenclature of Cyanogen, 370 ; M.
Chabrie on Sulphur Compounds, 370 ; Ring- Formulae
containing Nitrogen, 370 ; Nomenclature of Naphthalene,
370 ; M. Combes on Benzene, 370 ; an Elementary Text-
book of Chemistry, William G. Mixter, 389 ; Electrolysis of
Potassium Iodide, E. F. Mondy, 417 ; Sir Lowthian Bell,
F. R.S., on the Manufacture of Iron, 473 ; Agricultural
Chemistry, Influence of Gypsum Soil on Fixation, &c.,
of Nitrogen, Pechard, 539 ; Agricultural Chemistry, Rela-
tions between Physical Characters of Plants and Propor-
tion of Elements of Fertility in Soil, G. Ville, 659 ; Agricul-
tural Chemistry, the Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen, M.
Berihelot, 539 ; Agricultural Chemistry, the Nitrification of
Ammonia, Th. Schloesing, 539 ; Vice-Presidential Address
of Prof. William L Dudley at the American Association, 558 ;
the Life-work of a Chemist, Sir Henry E. Roscoe, F.R.S.,
578 ; Influence of Silicon on the Properties of Steel, 587 ;
J, W. Hogg, on the Volatilization of Lead Oxide and its
Action upon Glass at Lowr Temperatures, 587 ; Prof. Liveing,
on a New Developer, Eikonogen, 587 ; C. T. Heycock and
F. H. Neville, on Raoult's Method Applied to Alloys, 587 ;
Prof. Bedson, on Dr. Netto's Process for the Manufacture
of Aluminium from Cryolite, 587 ; Dr. Richardson, on the
Action of Light on the Hydracids, 587 ; Dr. Richardson, on
a New Self- Registering Actinometer, 587 ; Prof. H. B. Dixon,
F.R.S., on the Explosion of a Mixture of Hydrogen, Chlorine,
and Oxygen, 587 ; Dr. Isaac Ashe, Dimidium, an Attempt
to Represent the Chemical Elements by Physical Forms,
588 ; Prof. P. F. Frankland, on a New Ferment, 588 ;
Combinations of Cupric Oxides into Amylaceous Matters,
&c., C. E. Guignet, 588 ; Teaching of Chemistry in Public
Schools, 589 ; the Vapour-density of Aluminium Chloride,
Profs. Nilson and Pettersson, 596 ; Present Method of Teaching
Chemistry, 599 ; Observations on Reciprocal Displacement
between Oxygen and the Halogens, M. Berthelot, 612 ; Raffin-
ose, M. Berthelot, 612; Air in the Soil, Th. Schloesing, Jils,
626 ; Alloys, Heycock and Neville on, 628; Isolation of Methyl
Hydrazine, Dr. Gustav von Briining, 628 ; Reciprocal Dis-
placements between Halogen Elements and Oxygen, Berthelot,
636 ; New Relations between Sugars and Furfuric Compounds,
Maquenne, 636 ; Service Chemistry, Vivian B. Lewes, 639 ;
Watts's Dictionary of Chemistry, Sir H. E. Roscoe, F. R.S.,
640 ; Pinol, an Isomer of Camphor, Drs. Wallach and Otto,
65s ; on the Existence of Sulphate of Phosphonium, A.
Besson, 659 ; Simultaneous Synthesis of Water and Hydro-
chloric Acid, Hautefeuille and Margottet, 659
Chervin, the Birth-rate in France, 92
Chester Society of Natural Science and Literature, 421
Chetham College, Technical Education at, 45
Chevalier (Pere), Bulletin of the Sikawei Meteorological Ob-
servatory, 253
Chimpanzee's Humour, a, Harold Picton, 224
Chicken Cholera, Experiments with Microbes of, Dr. O. Katz,
401
China: Inclement Weather in, 179; the Trade of, 493;
Priority of Chinese Inventions, 165
Chiriqui, Ancient Art of the Province of, W. H. Holmes, 437
Cholesterin, a New Reaction for. Dr. Obermiiller, 288
Christiania Museum, Plants from Yemen presented to, by Dr.
Schweinfurth, 254
Christie (Robert W. D.), Test of Divisibility by any Prime,
247
Chromic Acid as a Depolarizer in Bunsen's Battery, J. Wilson
Swan, 586
Chronograph for Measuring Velocity of Projectiles, &c., Captain
H. C. L. Holden, R.A., 66
Cidaris papillata. Dimorphism of Tentacles of, Prof. M. Duncan,
237
Circolo Matematico of Palermo, the, 316
Circulation of the Atmosphere over the Equator, Hon. Ralph
Abercromby, 297
City of London College Science Society, 328
Civilization, History of Ancient, Rev. J. Verschoyle, 7
Clark (Richard), a Remarkable Meteor, 573
Clarke (F. W.), a New Occurrence of Gyrolite, 404
Clarke (Hyde), on the Right of Property in Trees on Another's
Land, 633
Classified Cataloguing, W. M. Flinders Petrie, 392 ; Dr. Jas.
Lewis Howe, 644
Claudel (Louis), the Colouring-Matter of the Spermoderm in
Angiosperms, 384
Clay, Boulder, Bored Stones in, G. W. Lamplugh, 297
Clayden (A. W.) : the Formation of Ocean Currents, 66; on
some Photographs of Lightning and " Black " Electric Sparks,
262 ; on Dark Flashes of Lightning, 585
Clayton (H. H.), Diurnal and Annual Oscillations of Barometer,
445
Gierke (A. M.) : Photographic Star-gauging, 344; GEuvres
completes de Christiaan Huygens, 591
Climate on Race, the Effect of, Dr. Alfredo da Luy, 423
Climatological Table of British Empire, 654
Clocks, Japanese, A. A. Rambaut, 86; V. Ball, F.R.S., 151
Clouds, Luminous Night, D. J. Rowan, 151
Clouds, Noctilucous, Prof. John Le Conte, 544
Clouds, Rain, on Lake Titicaca, Hon. Ralph Abercromby, 12;
Dr. Julius Hann, 78
Clouds, Shining Night, an Appeal for Observations, T. W.
Backhouse, 594
Coa-l Districts in Victoria, Proposed Government Survey of,
595
Coal and Mineral Charcoal, Prof. W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.,
on, 608
Coal and Tin Discoveries in Western Australia, H. P. Wood-
ward, 304
Coals compared with their Chemical Composition, Heat-produc-
ing Powers of Different, W. Thompson, 86
Cobalt, a New Dioxide of, M. Rousseau, 307
Cobra in Indian and Chinese Folk- Lore, Alleged Avenging
Habits of the. Dr. Macgowan, 423
Cockshott (A.) and Rev. F. B. Walters, a Treatise on Geo-
metrical Conies, 390
Cod, Turtle-headed Rock, 77
Cod-Fisheries on the Coast of Finland, 254
Cod-Fishery, the Norwegian, 229
Coffee-Rrot Disease, the Brazilian, Dr. Golde, 108
Cogwood, Jamaica, 162
Colardeau (E.) and L. Caillefet, the Condition of Matter near
the Critical Point, 239
Colenso (William), Maori Folk-Lore, 596
College for Working Men and Women, Morley Memorial, 653
Colombia, Agriculture in, 423, 596
Colomes and Plumandon, Synoptic Table of Weather Predic-
tion, 61
Colour, C. T. Whitmell, 518
Colour-Blindness and Defective Far- Sight among the Seamen
of the Mercantile Marine, 438
Colour-Blindness, Testing of. Rev. J. F. Heyes, 572
Columbus, the Proposed Commemoration of the Work of, 548
Columnar Structure in Ice, T. D. La Touche, 35 ; Prof. T. G.
Bonney, F.R.S., 55
Colymbosaurus, Structural Peculiarities of, Prof. H. G. Seeley,
653
Combustion of Carbons, Heat of, Berthelot and Petit, 167
Nature, Nov. 28, i£i>9j
INDEX
XUl
Comets : a New Comet, E. E. Barnard, 231 ; Comet, Discovery
of a New, 1889 e, 329 ; Comet 1889 b (Barnard, March 31),
64, 329, 448 ; Prof, Millosevich, 255 ; Comet 18894.- (Barnard,
June 23), 307 ; Dr. H. Kreutz, 255 ; Comet 1888 e (Barnard,
September 2), 109, 255, 329, 448 ; Comet 1889 d (Swift),
Prof. Lewis Swift, 255 ; Comet 1S89 ^(Brooks, July 6), 284,
656 ; Dr. H. Oppenheim, 328 ; Dr. K. Zelbr, 448 ; Dr. Otto
Knopf, 424, 550 ; Comet 1889 e (Davidson), 384, 424, 538 ;
Dr. Becker, 424 ; Cometic Nebulae, Prof. A. W. Riicker,
F.R.S., on, 583
Commercial Geography, Dr. Hugh Robert Mill on the Physical
Basis of, 629
Commercial Organic Analysis, Alfred H. Allen, Dr. C. R.
Alder Wright, F.R.S., 289
Commissioners for the Exhibition of 185 1, Proposals of the,
265 ; the Estate at Kensington, 367
Concurrent Faulting and Deposit in Carboniferous Times,
R. H. Tiddeman, 609
Conductors, on the Relative Effects of Steady and Alternate
Currents on Different, W. H. Preece, F.R.S., 586
Congo, Journeys of the Ngala and Aruwimi Tributaries of the,
J. R. Werner, 65
Congress on Education, the, 548
Congress of Ethnographic Sciences, International, 547
Congress on Hygiene, International, 326, 350, 372
Congress, International, of Astronomy, 516
Congress, the International Geodesic, 576
Congress, the International Medical, 576
Congress, the International Oriental, 556
Congress of Physiological Psychology, the Paris, 304, 372
Congress of Sanitary Institutes, 326
Conies, Geometrical, a Treatise on, A. Cockshott and Rev.
F. B. Walters, 390
Conifer, a New, Dr. Marion, 61
Coniferas, Comparative Morphology of the. Dr. Masters, 22
Conjunctions, Two Remarkable, A. Marth, 180
Connecticut Valley, Topographical Development of Triassic
Formation of, W. M. Davis, 189
Contejean (M.), Erosions due to Wind- Action, 192
Cook (A. J.), Alimentary Apparatus of Bee, 559
Cooke's (Dr. M. C.) Herbarium of Fungi, 207
Cope (Prof. E. D.), Mr. Lydekker on Phenacodus and the
Athecae, 298
Copenhagen, Meteor at, 229
Copper, Influence of, on the Tensile Strength of Steel, E. J.
Ball and A. Wingham, 59
Coral-like Structures from the Limestone of Culdaff, Prof. E.
Hull, F.R.S., 608
Coral-Reefs, Structure and Distribution of. Dr. H. B. Guppy, 53,
102, 173, 222; Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 77, 125, 222;
W. Usborne Moore, 203, 271 ; Dr. John Murray, 222, 294;
P. W. Bassett-Smith, 223
Cordeaux (John), Report to the British Association on the
Observations made at Lighthouses and Light-vessels on the
Migration of Birds, 556
Cornell University, Mr. H. W. Sage and, 179
Cornu (A.), Elliptical Polarization by Reflection, 71
Cornwall, Earthquake in, 576
Coronse round a Light produced by a Peculiar Structure in the
Eye, James C. McConnel, 342
Correspondence of Christian Huygens, A. M. Gierke, 591
Cossipore, Calcutta, on the Phenomena of the Lightning Dis-
charge as illustrated by the Striking of a House in, Walter
G. McMillan, 295
Costa Rica, Earthquake in, 84
Coste (J. H.), Monobenzyl-derivatives of Phenylenediamines,
335
Cotton-tree, the American, in Russian Turkestan, Culture of,
A. Wilkins, 180
Coudreau (H.), the Tumuc-Humac Mountains of Guiana, 353
Couetoux, Intermittent Vision, 86
Count, Do Animals, Dr. H. A. Hagen, 316 ; Do Cats, J, T.
Walker, 394
Courtenay(Dr. R.), Sailing Flight of Large Birds over Land, 573
Courtney (W. L.), Kant's Critical Philosophy for English
Readers, J. P. Mahaffy and J. H, Bernard, 362
Cow-Disease, Scarlet Fever and, 55
Cowl (Dr.), Experiments on Mechanical Latent Period of
Muscle, 408
Crab (Cocoa-nut), Lately Added to Zoological Gardens, 305
Craniology : Cephalic Index of Proven9al Population, Fallot,
285 ; Results of Observations on 5000 Baden Soldiers, P
Ammon, 653
" Crank," Prof, von, 244
Creation, the Centre of, M. Lombard, 92
Crew (Henry), Rotation Period of the Sun, 550
Crimea, Winters of South Coast of, 286
Criminals, the Senses of, 596
Croajingolong, Trip through District of, Prof. Baldwin Spen
and C. French, 421
CroU (James, F.R.S.), Stellar Evolution and its Relation to
Geological Time, A. Fowler, 199
Cross (C. v.), a Text-book of Paper-making, 414
Crouch (Arthur P.), Glimpses of Feverland, or a Cruise in West
African Waters, 53
Crova (M.), Analysis of the Light Diffused by the Sky, 563
Crustacea;, the Phosphorescent Infection in, A. Giard, 563
Cryolite, Dr. Netto's Process for the Manufacture of Aluminium
from, Prof. Bedson, 587
Cryptogamic Botany, a Hand-book of, Alfred W. Bennett and
Geo. Murray, 217
Cryptogams, on the Antherozoids of, Alfred W. Bennett, 610
Crystalline Schists of Norway, on the. Dr. A. Geikie, F.R.S,,
608
Crystallography : Apparatus to Illustrate Crystal Forms, Prof,
R. J. Anderson, 71
Crystals, Iridescent, Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., 227
Cuckoo, the. Does it Ever Hatch its Own Eggs, 133
Culdaff, Coral-like Structures from the Limestone of. Prof. E.
Hull, F.R.S., 608
Cumuli, the Formation of, Dr. M. A. Veeder, 203
Cundill (Major J. P.), Dictionary of Explosives, 341
Cunningham (Prof. D. J.), on the Occasional Eighth True Rib
in Man, 632
Cunningham (Howard), State of Stonehenge, 547
Cunningham (J. T.), Lamarck versus Weismann, 297
Current-weigher, New Form of. Prof. Jas. Blyth, 586
Currents : Ocean, the Formation of, A. W. Clayden, 66 ;
Chemistry of Ocean, Dr. John Gibson, 84 ; Surface Currents,
of North Atlantic, Prince Albert of Monaco, 187 ; G. Pouchet,
577 ; Upper Wind Currents over the Equator in the Atlantic
Ocean, E. Foulger, 224 ; Measurement of the Baltic, Herr
Dinklage, 351
Curiosa Mathematica, Charles L, Dodgson, 148
Curve Ranger, Alex. P. Trotter on a, 631
Customs and Beliefs of the Torres Straits Islanders, Prof. A. C.
Haddon, 633
Cyanogen, the Nomenclature of, 370
Cyclone of Jougne (July 13, 1889), C. Dufour, 540
Cyclones and Anticyclones, Biological Considerations in. Dr.
W. Koppen, 422
Cyclones, Exceptional Deviations of some Tropical, H. Faye,
191 .
Cyclonic Storms in Various Regions, Movement of, H. Faye, 23
Cygni, Variable X, Mr. Yendall, 15
Cygni, Spectrum of X, I3S
Cyslidea of Bohemia, 267
Dale (Rev. T. P.), Relation between Density and Refraction of
Gaseous Elements, 143
Dalgleish (Mr. ), Erection of Monument to late, 595
Damon (Robert), Obituary Notice of, 44
Darbishire (Otto V.), Halo of the Moon and Formation of
peculiarly-shaped Clouds at Oxford, 55
Darby (J. H.), Basic Open-heanh Steel, 59
Darwin (Prof Francis), Dinner to, 207
Darwinism : Alfred Russel Wallace, Prof. E. Ray Lankestc,
F.R.S., 566; Prof. Geo. J. Romanes, F.R.S., 645
Das Wetter, 286, 334, 422
Date-Palm, Egyptian, in India, Cultivation of, 595
Davidson, Comet 1889 ^. 384, 538 ; Dr. Becker on, 424
Davies (G,), Physiological Diagrams, 317
Davis (W. M.), Topographical Development of Triassic Forma-
tion of Connecticut Valley, 189
Day (Dr. Francis), Death and Obituary Notice of, 282
Deboutteville (M.), on Gas-Engines, 262
Defective Far- Sight and Colour- Blindness among the Seamen of
the Mercantile Marine, 438
Deherain (P. P.), Loss and Gain of Nitrogen in Soils, 48
XIV
INDEX
\Naturey Nov. 28, 1889
De La Rue (Warren, F. R. S. ), Obituary Notice of, 26
Delambre's Analogies, R. Chartres, 644
Delcommune (A. ), Return of, 308
Demography and Hygiene, Congress on, at Paris, 252
Denmark, Earthquakes in, 229
Denning (W. F.) : Remarkable Meteors, 150; the Fireball of
May 29, 1889, 174: Fine Slow-moving Meteor, 594
Denny (Prof. Alfred), Abnormality in Tropseolum, 125
D'Entrecasteaux and Louisiade Islands, Basil H. Thomson on,
256
Denza (Prof P. F.), Sand Showers, 286
Derwentwater, the Floating Island in, 290
Deschamps (M.), Expedition to Laccadive Islands, 305
Determination of Masses in Astronomy, on the, R. A. Gregory,
80
Detroit, the Latitude of. Dr. Ludovic Estes, 109
Devonian Rocks of Britain, Mr. Ussher on the, 608
Dewar (Prof., F.R. S.), the Absorption Spectra of Oxygen, 211,
212
Di- and Bi-, the Use of the Prefixes, 370
Diagrams, Physiological, G. Davies, 317
Dibdin (W. J.), Practical Photometry, a Guide to the Study
of the Measurement of Light, 572
Dickson (W. G. ), Gleanings from Japan, 76
Dictionary of Chemistry, Watts's, Sir H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S.,
640
Dictionary of Explosives, Major J. P. Cundill, 341
Dieterici (Dr.), Determination of Specific Volume of Saturated
Aqueous Vapour at o°C., 168
Dimidium : an Attempt to Represent the Chemical Elements
by Physical Forms, Dr. Isaac Ashe, 588
Dines (W. H. ), Experiments on Connection between Pressure
and Velocity of Wind, ('4
Dinklage (Herr), ISIeasurement of Baltic Currents, 351
Dinosaur, the Entire Skeleton of an English, 324
Dinshaw (Framjee) Petit Laboratory, Laying the Foundation
Stone, 133
Diphtheria, the Virus of, C. H. II. Spronck, 407
Disafforestation in Servia, 445
Divisibility, Test of, by any Prime, Robert W^. D. Christie, 247
Dixon (Prof. H. B. , F.R. S.), on the Explosion of a Mixture of
Hydrogen, Chlorine, and Oxygen, 587
Dogs and Fire, Prof. Marcus M. Hartog, 299
Dolbear (Prof. A. E.), the Organization of Atoms and Molecules,
419
Double Stars, New, S. W. Burnham, 424
Douglass (Sir James, F.R.S.), Beacon Lights and Fog Signals,
87, no
Douls (M. Camille), Death and Obituary Notice of, 353
Draper (Henry) Memorial, 17
Dried Plants, a Method of Mounting, Dr. John Wilson, 438
Drummond (A. T.), Some Lake Ontario Temperatures, 416
Dubois (Raphael), Mechanism of Photodermatc and Photogenic
Functions in Siphon of Pholas dadylus, 384!
Duckling, Inclusion of the Foot in the Abdominal Cavity of a,
E. Waymouth Reid, 54
Dudley (Prof. William J.), Vice- Presidential Address in the
Sectionof Chemistry at the Meeting of the American Associa-
tion, 558
Dufour (C), Cyclone of Jougne (July 13, 1889), 540
Dugong, the Placentation of the, SirW. Turner, F.R.S. on, 611
Duhem (P.), Impossibility of Existence of Diamagnetic Bodies,
118
Duhousset (Colonel), Scientific Anthropometry and Artistic
Proportions, 582
Dumas (J. B.), Statue to, 627
Dumont (M.), Sociology of Rural Communes in France, 402
Duncan (Prof. M.), Dimorphism of Tentacles of Cidaris
papillata, 237
Dundee University College, proposed Chair of Physiology at,
252
Dunedin, Acclimatization of Salmon, 282
Dunstable, Palaeolithic Implements from the Hills near, Worth-
ington G. Smith, 151
Dupuis (N. F.), Elementaiy and Synthetic Geometry of the
Point, Line, and Circle in the Plane, ico
Durham (E. Burton), a Brilliant Rainbow, 367
Diising (Dr.), the Progress of Biology, 402
Dust-f^ogs of the Cape de Verd Islands, 327
Dusl-Particles in AtmoFphtre at Pen Nevis Cbtervatory, the,
John Aitken, 350
Dust- Whirl, Stationary, J. Lovel, 174
Duthie (J. F. ): on Botany in India, 13; Use of Flowers of
Calligonum polygonoides as Food in North West India, 537
Duthiers (M. de Lacaze), State of Zoology a Hundred Years
ago, 395
Dyke (Sir W. H.), the Withdrawal of the New Education
Code, 350
Dynamics, an Elementary Treatise on, Benjamin Williamson,
F.R.S., and Francis A. Tarleton, 437
Earthquakes : at Agram, 45 ; at Accra, 61 ; in Turkestan, 61,
327 ; at Costa Rica, 84 ; Plevlje (Bosnia), Schwyz, Schaff-
hausen, and Wilchingen, 84; Earthquake in Norway, 133;
over the English Channel, 140 ; the Recent Earthquakes in
Japan, 162, 327, 461 ; Seismological Work in Japan, 656 ;
J'rof. Milne's Ninth Report on the Earthquake and Volcanic
Phenomena of Japan, 608 ; Earthquakes at Brest, in Massa-
chusetts, 162; Remarkable Earthquake at Tokio, 162; Dr.
E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz on, 294 ; Fifteen Years' Earthquakes
in Tokio, 480 ; Earthquakes in Denmark, 229 ; in Guernsey,
253 ; Earthquakes at Tashkend and Charleston, 283 ; Effect
of the Tashkend Earthquake in Germany, 283 ; an Earth-
quake at Lyme Regis, A. R. Sharpe, 294. ; Earthquakes at
Memphis, U.S.A., 305 ; the Earlier Eruptions of Krakatab,
Prof. John W. Judd, F.R. S., 365 ; Earthquake at Poitiers,
373 ; the supposed Connection between Distant Earthquake-
shocks, William White, 393 ; Earthquake in Bosnia, 401 ; in
Greece, 421 ; in Cornwall, 576; at Mytilene, 653
Eclectic Physical Geography, Kmsell Hinman, 149
Eclipses : the Reports of the Eclipse Expedition of 1886, 626 ;
Eclipses and Transits in Future Years, Rev. S. J. Johnson,
307 ; the United States Expedition to Angola, 462 ; Obser-
vations of Twilight and Zodiacal Light during the Total
Eclipse of the Sun, December 21, 1889, Prof. Cleveland
Abbe, 519
Economic Science : Food Moulds the Race, N. S. Kedzie,
558 ; Sociology of Protection and Free Trade, F. L. Ward,
558 ; Forest Conservation, B. E. Fernow, 558
Economic Science and Statistics, Prof. F. Y, Edgeworth's
Opening Address in Section F at the British Association,
496
Edgevvorth (Prof. F. Y.) : Opening Address m Section F
(Economic Science and Statistics) at the British Association,
496 ; Report to the British Association on the Variations in
the Value of Monetary Standards, 553
Edinburgh : Reports from the Laboratory of the Royal College
of Physicians, Edinburgh, 411 ; Physical Laboratory fitted
up at Fettes College, 627 ; Proposed Inventions Exhibition
in, 653 ; Royal Society of, 95, 143, 167, 335 ; Edinburgh
University Extension Summer Vacation Course, 447
Education : the Proposed Teaching University for London, 60;
Intermediate Education in Wales, 97 ; the Vices of our
Scientific Education, Pi of. Minchin, 126 ; Proposed National
Home-reading Circle Union, 133 ; Industrial Education, Sir
Philip Magnus, 245 ; the Industrial Agricultural Education
];il], 254; the Welsh Intermediate Education Bill, 304 ; the
Ntw Education Code, Sir W. Hart-DyKe on the Withdrawal
of, 350 ; Education in Hong Kong, Dr. Eitei, 352 ; Indian
Education Statistics, 402 ; an Italian's View of English Agri-
cultural Education, Prof. John Wrightson, 428 ; the Technical
Instruction Act, 457 ; the New Welsh Intermediate Education
Act, 480; Guide to Technical and Commercial Education,
538 ; the Congress on Education, 548 ; Report to the British
Association of the Committee on the Teaching of Science in
Elementary Schools, Prof. Armstrong, 554 ; Proposed Train-
ing Schools for Surveyors in Straits Settlements, 595 ; a Bill
to Provide Technical Education in England and V\ ales, 73,
91 ; the Government and Technical Education, 304 ; School
of Technical Education at Frankfort-on Maine, 350 ; Report
of the National Association for the Promotion of Technical
Education, 350 ; Technical Education in Japan, 479 ; Foreign
Students at the Genran Technical Schools, 547 ; the Man-
chester School of Technical Education, 445, 577 ; Technical
Education in Central India, 595 ; Technical Education, Right
Hon. Sir Lyon Playfair, F.R.S., on, 639
Eel, the River, Emile Blanchard, 383
Nature, Nov. 28, 1889]
INDEX
XV
Effects of Lightning, on Some, Arthur E. Brown, 543 ; A. F.
Griffith, 543
Egerton-Warburton (G. ), Names and Synonyms of British
Plants, 316
Eggs: Spherical, Prof. A. G. Greenhill, F.R.S., 10; Prof. G.
D. Liveing, F.R.S., 55 ; Prof. W. Steadman Aldis, 417
Eginitis (D.), Stability of Solar System, 167
Egypt in Prehistoric Times, Beauregard, 92
Egypt, W. M. Flinders Petrie on Wind Action in, 629
Egyptian Blue Artificially Prepared by Prof. Fouque, 67
Egyptian Funeral Wreaths, Ancient, Discovered by W. M.
Flinders Petrie, 2U
Eider, the Preservation of the, in Sweden, 254
Eiffel Tower, A. Ansaloni on the, 261 ; the Lifts in, 261
Eikonogen, a New Developer, Prof. Liveing on, 587
Eitel (Dr.), Education in Hong Kong, 352
Electricity : the Electrical Organ of Torpedo, Prof Fritsch, 24 ;
on an Electro-magnetic Interpretation of Turbulent Liquid
Motion, Prof G. F. Fitzgerald, F.R.S., 32 ; Electro-magnets,
Methods of Suppressing Sparking in, Prof. S. P. Thompson,
190; Electro -magnets, Sparkless, Prof. S. P. Thompson on,
587 ; Electro-magnetic Radiation, Experiments on, including
some on the Phase of Secondary Waves, Fred. T. Trouton,
398 ; the North fleet Series Electric Tramway, 39 ; Atmo-
spheric Electricity, C. A. C. Bowlker, 55 ; Dan. Pidgeon,
77 ; C. Tomlinson, 102 ; R. T. Omond, 102 ; Marshall Hall,
125 ; Alexander McAdie, 223; Prof C. Michie Smith, 585 ;
Electrical Resistance of Stressed Glass, Carl Barus, 67 ; the
Electro-Graphoscope, E. S. Bruce, 67 ; Quartz as an Insulator,
G. V. Boys, F.R.S., 71 ; Determination of Strength of
Liquids by the Voltaic Balance, Dr. G. Gore, F.R.S., 93;
the Electrostatic P'ield produced by Varying Magnetic
Inductions, Dr. O. J. Lodge, F.R.S., 93; the Con-
centration of Electric Radiation by Lenses, Prof O. J.
Lodge, F.R.S., and Dr. J. L, Howard, 94; an Italian
Precursor of Franklin on Electricity and Lightning, 108 ;
the Eiffel Tower as a Lightning Conductor, 261 ; Note
on Some Photographs of Lightning and "Black" Electric
Sparks, A. W. Clayden, 262 ; Phenomena of the Lightning Dis-
charge illustrated by the Striking of a House in Cossipore, Cal-
cutta, Walter G. McMillan, 295 ;,^n Some Effects of Lightning,
C. Tomlinson, F.R.S., 366; A. F. Griffith, 366; Captain
J. P. Maclear, 437 ; Subdivision of the Electric Light, 152 ;
Killingworth Hedges on Electric Lighting, 630 ; a Water-
Spray Influence Machine, George Fuller, 143 ; a Shunt
Transformer, E. W. Smith, 190 ; the Edison Effect, Prof.
J. A. Fleming, 211 ; New Dry Gas Battery, Mond and
Langer, 211 ; an Automatic Electric Railway Reading Lamp,
373 ; Electrolytes, Conductibility of, 383 ; M. Leblanc on
the Transmission of Power by Alternate Currents, 383 ;
Electric Phenomena Produced by Solar Radiations, Albert
Nodon, 384; Electrolysis of Potassium Iodide, E. F.
Mondy, 417; Purification of Sewage by Electrolysis, W.
AVebster, 631 ; Fifth Report to the British Association on the
Best Means of Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observa-
tions, Prof. W. Grylls Adams, F. R.S., 554; Report to the
British Association on the Present State of our Knowledge in
Electrolysis and Electro-Chemistry, W. N. Shaw, 555 ;
Report to the British Association of the Committee on
Electrical Standards, R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.S., 555 ;
Magnetic Leakage in Dynamos, H. S. Carhart, 559 ; Improved
<31ark Standard Cell with Low Temperature Coefficient,
H. S. Carhart, 559 ; the Thomson Electric Welding Process,
W. C. Fish, 561 ; on the Determination of v by Means of
Electric Oscillations, Prof. O. J. Lodge, F.R.S., and R. T.
■Glazebrook, F.R.S., 584; on the Instruments used in the
Recent Magnetic Sur.vey of France, Prof. A. W. RUcker,
F. R. S., 584; on the Passage of Electricity through Gases,
Prof. Arthur Schuster, F.R.S., 585 ; Electrification of Air by
Combustion, 585 ; New Form of Current- Weigher, Prof.
Jas. BIyth, 586 ; on the Failure of Metal Sheets to Screen off
the Electrostatic Effect of Moving or Varying Charges, Prof
Oliver J. Lodge, F. R. S., 586 ; a Phenomenon in the Electro-
Chemical Solution of Metals, Prof S. P. Thompson, 586 ;
Electricity and Magnetism, Error in Maxwell's, Herbert
Tomlinson, F. R.S., 621 ; Edward Manvile on Series Elec-
tric Traction (Northfleet Tramways), 630 ; Electric Launches
on the Thames, Prof G. Forbes, "F.R.S., 630
Elementary Schools, Report to the British Association of the
Committee on Teaching of Science in, Prof Armstrong, 554
Elements of Vital Statistics, A. Newsholme, 145
Elephant, Death of a Remarkable, 549
Elephant, Indian, Skeleton of the Largest known, 6i
Elephants in Philadelphia Zoological Garden, 180
Elephants, Wild, in Mysore, Capture by Superintendent Sander-
son of Herd of 100, 282
Eliot, Sun-spots and Weather in India, 230
Eilery (R. L. J., F.R.S.), Spectroscopic Survey of Southern
Stars, 597
Embryology, Reflexes in the Embryo, Prof. Preyer, 24
Empirical Formulae, Use or Abuse of, and of Differentiation by
Chemists, Prof. Oliver J. Lodge, F. R.S., 273; Spencer
Pickering, 343
Empirical or Inductive Logic, the Principles of, John Venn,
F.R.S., James Sully, 337
Encyclopaedia, Chambers's, vol. iv., 619
Engineering Laboratories, Walker, 653
Engler's Jahrbiicher, 116
English Agricultural Education, an Italian's View of, Prof.
John Wrightson, 428
English Dinosaur, the Entire Skeleton of an, 324
English Railway, the Working and Management of an, Geo.
Findlay, 219
Ensilage, Fermentation of, Prof. Burrill, 559
Entomology: Entomological Society, 71, 191, 286, 383, 562,
635 ; the Leaf Insect at the Zoological Gardens, 105 ; the
Zoological Society's Insect House, 105 ; Agriotypus armatus,
Prof Franz Klapalek, 327 ; the Fruit Pest CurcuUo in
America, Riley and Howard, 373 ; Catalogue of the Moths of
India, 374 ; African Farm Pests, Eleanor A. Ormerod, 385 ;
the Mango Weevil, Wray, 402 ; the Hessian Fly in England,
Chas. Whitehead, 446 ; Herr Friihstorfer's Tour in Ceylon,
480; Importation of Injurious Insects in Indian Wheat, Chas.
Whitehead, 481 ; Metamorphosis and Migration of a Free
Nematode, Moniez, 563 ; the Yellow Powder from Cocoon of
Clisiocampa neustria under Microscope, E. B. Poulton,
F.R. S., 635 ; Change of Colour in Living Larvae of Hemero-
phila abrnptaria, E. B. Poulton, F. R. S. , 635
Environment, Changed, Prof W. Whitman Bailey, 297
Equations, Hertz's, Rev. H. W. Watson, F. R.S., il
Equator, the Circulation of the Atmosphere over the, Hon.
Ralph Abercromby, 297
Equator, Upper Wind Currents over the, in the Atlantic Ocean,
E. Foulger, 224
Ericsson (Captain John) : the late, and his Funeral, 60 ; pro-
posed Statue in Stockholm to, 133
Erinus hispaniais (?) on the Roman Wall, Dr. Sydney IT.
Vines, 544
Erosions due to Wind Action, Contejean, 192
Eruption of Vesuvius, the New, Dr. H. J. Johnston-Lavis, 34
Eruptions of Krakatab, the Earlier, Prof John W. Judd, F. R. S.,
365
Eruptions, Solar, in September 1888, Le Pere Jules Fenyi, 48, 64
Erzeroum, Volcanic Eruption in, 479
Eschenhagen (Dr.), Magnetic Survey of the Harz Mountains,
182
Espin (Rev. T. H. E. C), Spectrum of R Andromedae, 656
Esquimaux, Dr. Fridtjof Nansen on the, 633
Estate of Her Majesty's Commissioners of 1851, 25
Esteban (M.), Difference of Longitude between Paris and
Madrid, 612
Estes (Dr. Ludovic), the Latitude of Detroit, 109
Ethnographic Congress, the, 576
Ethnographic Sciences, International Congress of, 547
Ethnography of Venezuela, Prae-Columbian, Dr. Marcano, 142
Ethnological Parallels, Richard Andree's, 229
Ethnological Significance of the Beech, Canon Isaac Taylor on,
632
Ethnology : Chart of the Colour of Eyes and Hair in France,
Topinard, 659
Ethnology : the Effect of Climate on Race, Dr. Alfredo da
Luy, 423
Ethnology in India, on the Study of, H. H. Risley, 633
Ethnology : the Maoris, Brown, 634
Ethylene and Urea, Derivatives of, M. Graebe, 369
Eton College, on Experiments made at, on the Principle and
Methods of Assigning Marks for Bodily Efficiency, A. A.
Somerville, 652
Ettingshausen (C. Von), Contributions to the Tertiary Flora of
Australia, J. Starkie Gardner, 517
XVI
INDEX
\Nature, Nov. 28, l{
Eucalyptus Kinos, J. H. Maiden, 635
Euclid, the Harpur, E. M. Langley and W. S. Phillips, 365
Everett (Prof, J, D., F.R.S.) : on the Relation between Brachis-
tochrones and Ray-paths, 584 ; Report to the British Associa-
• tion on Underground Temperature, 551
Evolution, Prof. Burdon Sanderson, F. R.S., on, 521
Evolution Ethics, 1 69
Ewart (Prof.), a Flat-fish Nursery, 13
Ewing (Prof. J. A., F.R.S. ), on the Magnetic Viscosity of
Iron, 584 ; on Hysteresis in the Relation of Strain to Stress,
584
Examination of Water for Sanitary and Technical Purposes,
Henry Leffmann, 293
Examinations for Woolwich arid Sandhurst, 43
" Example," the Force of, in Animals, 461
Excursion to the Volcanoes of Italy, the. Dr. H. J. Johnston-
Lavis, 294
Excursions et Reconnaissances, 628
Exhibition in Edinburgh, proposed Inventions, 653
Exhibition of 1851 : the Estate of, 25 ; Proposals of the Com-
missioners for the, 265
Exhibition, Paris, Opening of the, 44
Exhibition, South London Entomological and Natural History
Society, 653
Experirriental Physics : Portable Cavendish Apparatus for de-
monstrating the Attraction of Gravitation, C. V. Boys,
F.R.S., 65; on making Flames non-luminous, Prof. Rosen-
thal, 72 ; Experiment with Water-Hammer, Dr. Reichel,
72 ; Determination of Specific Volume of Saturated Aqueous
Vapour at 0° C, Dr. Dieterici, 168
Explosives, Dictionary of, Major J. P, Cundill, 341
Extinct Starling of Reunion {Fregihiptis varius), R. Boydler
. Sharpe, 177 '.'':4
Eye, Coronse round a Light produced by a Peculiar Structure in
the, James C. McConnel, 342
Fabre (Charles), Traite Encyclopedique de Photographic, 244
Fabriano, School of Practical Agriculture at, 164 ^
Fallot (M.), Cephalic Index of Proven9al Population, 285
Falsan (A.), La Periode Glaciare : 6tudiee principalement en
France et en Suisse, 317
Far-Sight, Defective, among the Seamen of the Mercantile
Marine, Colour-Blindness and, 438
Farm Crops, a New Pest of, Allen Harker, li
Fauna, Vertebrate, of the Outer Hebrides, J. A. Harvie-Brown
and T. E. Buckley, loi
Favenc's (Ernest) West Australian Explorations, 353
Fawcett (W.), Botany of the Cayman Islands, 15
Faye (Dr.), Colour of Eyes and Hair in Norway, 285
Faye (H.) : Cyclonic Storms in various Regions, 23; Excep-
tional Development of some Tropical Cyclones, 191 ; the
' Glacial Epoch, 432
Fenyi (Le Pere Jules), Solar Eruptions in September 1888, 48,
64
Ferand (Dr. ), Pagan Practices among Modern Provencals, 562
Ferment, a New, Bacillus ethaceticus, Prof. P. F. Frankland,
588
Fernow (B. E.), Foest Conservation, 558
Ferns, the Meristems of, as a Study in Phylogeny, Pfdfi F. O.
Bower, 610
Ferns, the Probable Cause of Froridal Bifurcations of, Dom B.
Rimelin, 563
Ferrel (Prof. Wm.) : the Law of Thermal Relation, 310 ; De-
■ crease of Temperature with Increase of Altitude, 446
Fettes College, Edinburgh, Physical Laboratory fitted up at,
627
Feverland, Glimpses of, or a Cruise in West African Waters,
Arthur P. Crouch, 53
Fibres, Quartz, C. V. Boys, F.R.S., 247
Fibrous Plant, /%<?;-;«?«;« /^wffx as a, 390
Findlay (Geo.), the Working and Management of an English
Railway, 219
Fire, Dogs and. Prof. Marcus M. Hartog, 299
Fireball of May 29, 1889, W. F. Denning, 174
Firedamp Meter, Pitkin and Niblett's, 66
Fish (W. C), the Thomson Electric Welding Process, 561
Fish : a Flat-fish Nursery, Prof. Ewart, 13 ; Scotch Fisheries
Board, 106 ; the Life-History of a Marine Food- Fish, Prof.
W. C. Mcintosh, F.R.S., 130, 156 ; Pearl Fishery, Tuticorin,
Edgar Thurston, 174 ; Poison in Cured Fish, Prize offered by
Russian Academy of Sciences for Inquiry into, 178 ; Proposed
Intelligence Department of Fisheries at Halifax, N.S., 179;
the Hatchery of the Sun-fish, Prof. William L. Stone, 202 ;
the Fertilization of the Ova of the Lemon Sole with the Milt
of the Turbot, 253 ; Whales and the Cod Fisheries on the
Coast of Finland, 254 ; the Natural History of the River-Eel,
Emile Blanchard, 383 ; the Oceanic Sardine, 384 ; Habits of
Sea-Trout, 384 ; Experiments in Storing Live Fish, Captain
R, von Muhlenfels, 402 ; the Protection of Fishermen against
Porpoises, Prof. E. Perrier, 402 ; the Destruction of Small
Fish by Shrimp Trawls, 422 ; Sewage and Fish, Willis Bund,
548
Fitzgerald (Prof. Geo. Eras., F.R.S.), on an Electro-magnetic
Interpretation of Turbulent Liquid Motion, 32
Flame, the Radiating Power of. Dr. R. von Helmholtz, 240
Flat-fish Nursery, Prof. Ewart, 13
Fleitmann (Dr.), the Alleged New Element, Gnomium, 208
Fleming (Prof. J. A.), the Edison Effect, 211
Flight, Sailing, of Large Birds over Land, Dr. R. Courtenay,
573
Flint (Dr. Austin), a Text-book of Human Physiology, 74
Floating Island in Derwentwater, the, 290
Flora of Australia, Contributions to the Tertiary, C. Von
Ettingshausen, J. Starkie Gardner, 517
Flora, the Forest, of New Zealand, T. Kirk, W. Botting
Hemsley, F.R.S., 388
Flora Orientalis, by Edmond Boissier, Supplement by R.
Buser, W. B. Hemsley, 98
Flora of Sweden, on the Geological History of the Prehistoric,
Dr. A. G. Nathorst, 453
Flower (Prof. W. H., C.B., F.R.S.), Inaugural Address to
the British Association at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 463
Fly, the Hessian, in England, Chas. Whitehead, 446
Fog-Signals, Beacon Lights and. Sir James Douglass, F.R.S.,
87, no
Fog-Signals, Priestman's Oil-Engines for Blowing, 351
Folk, Sylvan, John Watson, 221
Folk-Lore, the Alleged Avenging Habits of the Cobra in Indian
and Chinese, Dr. Macgowan, 423
Folk-Lore Journal, 62
Folk-Lore, Maori, William Colenso, 596
Food Moulds the Race, Nellie S. Kedzie, 558
Foot, Inclusion of the, in the Abdominal Cavity of a Duckling,
E. Waymouth Reid, 54
Forbes (Prof G., F.R.S.), on Electric Launches on the Thames,
630
Forbes (Prof. G. F.R.S.) and W. H. Preece, F.R.S., on a
New Thermometric Scale, 587
Forest Conservation, B. E. Fernow, 558
Forest Flora of New Zealand, T. Kirk, W. Botting Hemsley,
F.R.S., 388
Forestry, Californian, 176
Forests of North-East Italy, 537
Form of Hailstones, on the Remarkable, J. Shearson Hyland, 544
Formaldehyde, Synthesization of. Prof. Jahn, 85
Formation of Marine Boiler Incrustations, on the, Prof. Vivian
B. Lewes, 19
Foster (M.), Influence of Common Salt on Bacteria, 216
Fortuitous Variation, Lester F. Ward, 310
Foster (Prof. G. Carey, F.R.S.), the Method of Quarter-
Squares, 593
Foulger (E.), Upper Wind Currents over the Equator in the
Atlantic Ocean, 224
Fouque (Prof.), Egyptian Blue Artificially Prepared by, 67
Fowler (A.), Stellar Evolution and its Relation to Geological
Time, James Croll, F.R.S., 199
Fox (Dr. Webster), the Eyes of Young Children, 305
Framjee Dinshaw Petii; Laboratory, Laying foundation Stone
of, 133
France : French Coast by Swallows, Desertion of, 85 ; the
Birth-rate in, 92 ; French Accent, Researches with Phon-
autographon. Dr. Pringsheim, 168 ; French Association for the
Advancement of Science, 252, 394 ; Sociology of Rural Com-
munes in France, M. Dumont, 402 ; Treatment of Vine
Diseases in, G. W. Roosevelt, 446 ; French Government
Scientific Missions, 479 ; on the Instruments used in the
lecent Magnetic Survey of. Prof. A. W. Riicker, F.R.S.,
584 ; Chart of Colour of Eyes and Hair in, Topinard, 659
{sec also Paris)
Nature, Nov. 28, 1S89]
INDEX
xvu
Francis (Prof. E. E. H.), Death of, 576
Frankfort-on-Maine, Technical School at, 350
Frankland (Prof, P. F.), on a New Ferment, Bacillus etha-
cctictis, 588
Franklin (W. S.), Spectro- Photometric Comparison of Sjurces
of Artificial Illumination, 404
Fream (W.), Agricultural Canada, a Record of Progress, 52
Free Trade, Sociology of Protection and, F. L. Ward, 558
Fregilupus varius, the Extinct Starling of Reunion, R.
bowdler Sharpe, 177
Freire (Dr.), Toxic Property of Meteoric Waters, 168
French (C), Trip through District of Croajingolong, 421
Friendly Islands and other Islands in the Pacific, Report to the
British Association on the Natural History of, 556
Fritsch (Prof.), the Electrical Organ of Torpedo, 24
Frog, Penetration of Spermatozoids into Egg of, Mascart, 635
Frohlich Charity, the, 305
Frohlich's (Dr.) New Method of Objective Demonstration of
Vibrations of Telephone Disk, 72 ; New Method of Recording
Vibrations, 287
Froude (R. E. ), Sailing Flight of the Albatross, 102
Friihstorfer (Herr), Entomological Tour in Ceylon, 480
Fruit-trees against Winter Moths, Protection of, Wilson, 85
Fuel, Gaseous, B. H. Thwaite, 342
Fuel, Gaseous, Sir Lowthian Bell, 560
Fuller (Geo.), a Water-'^pray Influence Machine, 143
Funeral Wreaths, Ancient Egyptian, discovered by W. M. F.
Petrie, 21 1
Fungi, Dr. M. C. Cooke's Herbarium of, 207
Fungi, Microscopic, the Uredinese and Ustilaginese, R. Turner,
653
Furnace, a New Form of Siemens, Head and Pouff, 561
Furnace-heating, the Application of Gas to, Fred. Siemens,
576
Future Years Eclipses and Transits in, Rev. S. J. Johnson, 307
Gad (Prof.), Influence of Temperature upon Working Power ot
Muscles, 288
Galton (Francis, F.R. S.) : Head Growth in Students at the
University of Cambridge, 317; Head Measures at Cambridge,
642; Narrative of an Explorer in South Africa, 570; on
Assigning Marks for Bodily Efficiency in the Examination of
Candidates for Public Service, 631 ; on the Principle and
Methods of Assigning Marks for Bodily Efficiency, 649 ;
on Feasible Experiments on the Possibility of Transmitting
Acquired Habits by Means of Inheritance, 610 ; on Natural
Inheritance, Hiram M. Stanley, 642 ; on an Instrument for
Measuring the Reaction Time to Sight and Sound Signals,
633
Galvanometer, New Pocket, 627
Gardner (J. Starkie), Contributions to the Tertiary Flora of
Australia, C. Von Ettingshausen, 517
Garson (Dr.), on an Anthropometric Instrument for Travellers,
633
Gas-Engines, M. Deboutteville on, 262
Gas to Furnace- Heating, the Application of, Fred. Siemens,
576
Gas- Lamp, a New Form of Regenerative, 82
Gas- Vacuum End-on Tubes after .Six to Ten Years of Existence ;
Prof C, Piazzi Smyth, on the Re-examination of the Spectra
of Twenty-three, 584
Gas, Water, in the United States, Alex. C. Humphreys, 630
Gaseous Elements, Relation between Density and Refraction of.
Rev. T. P. Dale, 143
Gaseous Fuel, B. H. Thwaite, 342
Gases, on the Passage of Electricity through, Prof. Arthur
Schuster, F.R.S., 585
Gaudry (A.), Mastodons found at Tournan, 239
Gaul, the Gold of Ancient, Cartailhac, 285
Gaupillat (G.), Avens, 636
Gee ( W. W. Haldane) : and Dr. Arthur Harden, on Stereometry,
587; and Hubert L. Terry, on the Specific Heat of Caout-
chouc, 587
Geikie (Dr. Archibald, F. R.S.): Recent Researches into the
Origin and Age of the Highlands of Scotland and the West
of Ireland, 299, 320 ; on the Crystalline Schists of Norway,
608
Geikie (Prof James, F. R. S.), Opening Address in Section C
(Geology) at the British Association, 486
Genevan Society of Physics and Natural History, 351
Geodesic Congress, the International, 576
Geography : Discovery of New Mouth of Zambesi, 16 ; Ma-
shona Land, F. C. Selous, 16 ; Oklahoma, 16 ; Geographical
Notes, 16, 46, 64, 165, 181, 210, 256, 308, 353, 449, 483. 539f
55*. 598; Exploration of the Lower Laos Country, 17;
Penetration of Kong Country by Captain Binger, 17 ;
Northern Afghanistan, Major C. E. Yates, 31 : the Soil and
Climate of German East Africa, Dr. K. W. Schmidt, 46 ;
the Snowfall on the Summit of Kilimanjaro, Dr. H. Meyer,
46 ; Recent Danish Researches in Greenland, Dr. Rink, 64 ;
J. R. Werner's Journeys up the Ngala and Aruwimi Tribu-
taries of the Congo, 65 ; Expeditions projected by the Rus-
sian Geographical Society, 65 ; the Russian Expedition to
Tibet, 65 ; Exploration of the Eastern Tian-Shan, Brothers
Grum-Grzimailo, 65 ; Sir S. Baker and H. M. Stanley on the
Albert Nyanza Lake, 65 ; Geography in Germany, H. J.
Mackinder, 75 ; Beitrage zur Geophysik. Abhandlungen ans
dem eeographischen Seminar der Universitat Strassburg,
Prof Dr. Georg Gerland, 75 ; Bericht uber die Entwickelung
der Methodik und des Studiums der Erdkunde, Prof. Dr.
Hermann Wagner, H. J. Mackinder, 75; Dr. Nansen's
Journey across Greenland, 103 ; the Royal Geographical
Society, no; the Hesults of European Contact with other
Parts of the World, General Strachey, no ; Eclectic Physical
Geography, Russell Hinman, 149 ; the South Usuri Region,
Colonel Nadarofl", 165 ; Outflow of the River Omo, Giulio
Borelli, 165 ; Mr. Stanley's Movements in Africa, 181, 539 ;
Dr. Schweinfurth's Journey to Hodeida, 182 ; the Vinland
Voyages of Norse Colonists of Greenland, 182 ; Proposed
Exploration of Interior of New South Wales, 182 ; Magnetic
Survey of the Harz Mountains, Dr. Eschenhagen, 182 ; Dr.
Nansen's Account of his Journey across Greenland, 210;
Ascent of Summii of Owen Stanley Range, by Dr. Mac^regor,
308 ; Sir William Macgregor's Ascent of Mount Owen
Stanley, 449, 551 ; Dr. A. Hettner's Observations on Lake
Titicaca, 308 ; Proposed Exploration of Northern Greenland,
by Mr. A. Weston, 308 ; Proposed Exploration of Central
Australia, 308 : Taupin's Exploration of the Laos States, 352 ;
Ernest Favenc's West Australian Explorations, 353 ; Lieutenant
Kund on the Cameroons Interior, 353 ; the Tumuc-Humac
Mountains of Guiana, 353; the River Omo, Borelli, 353 ;
Colonel Labre's Explorations of Regions between Beni and
Madre de Diosand Purus Rivers, 353 ; Prof, Wichmann's Ex-
plorations of Dutch East Indies, 353 ; Trip through District of
Croajingolong, Baldwin and French, 421 ; Concession to British
East Africa Company of Lamu and ;Ben Adir Coast, 449 ;
Government Survey Map of India, 483 ; British Annexation of
Humphrey and Rierson Islands, 483 ; Captain Grombchevsky's
Expedition to Kafiristan, 483 ; M. Bonvalot's Tour in Central
Asia, 483 ; Death of W, W, McNair, 483 ; Safety of Dr.
Kukenthal, 483 ; Colonel Sir Francis de Winton's Opening
Address in Section E at the British Association, 492 ; Return
of Bremen Arctic Expedition, 539 ; New Map of Transvaal,
Frederick Jeppe, 539 ; Tietken's Exploration ot the Inten >r of
South Australia, 551 ; Return of Yadrintzefifs Central Asian
Expedition, 551 ; Travels in South Africa. Francis Galton, 570;
the Barents Sea, Dr. Mohn, 598 ; Ascent of Mount Rigi m
Cascade Mountains, Dr, Julius Roll, 598 ; Influence of Wind
and Rain in Valley Formation, Herr Rucktaschel, 599 ;
Rosset's Exploration of Indo-China, 599 ; Dr. Hugh Robert
Mill, on the Physical Basis of Commercial Geography, 629 ;
Captain E. C, Hore. on Tanganyika, 629 ; W. M, Flinders
Petrie, on Wind Action in Egypt, 629 ; Dr. H. B. Guppy, on
the South Coast of West Java, 630 ; H. Guillaume, on Peru
and Bolivia, 630 .
Geology : London Geological Field Class, 13 ; Geological Photo-
graphy, Osmund W. Jeffs, 34 ; Geological Society, 47. 94.
167, 238 ; the Production of Secondary Minerals at Shear-
zones in Crystalline Rocks of Malvern Hills, Charles Callaway,
47 ; the Sigillaria, Grand Eury, 48 ; a Cause of Contortions
of Strata, Dr, Charies Ricketts, 67 ; the Formation of Sili-
ceous Sinter by Vegetation of ihermal Springs, W. H.
Weed, 68 ; Marine Shells in the Till near Boston, Warren
Upham, 68 ; Stratigraphic Position ofOlenellus Fauna, C. D.
Walcott, 68 ; the Ashprington Volcanic Series of South Devon,
Arthur Champemowne, 94 ; the Structure and Distribution of
Coral Reefs, Dr. H, B. Gupr>y, 53, 102, 173. 222 ; Prof. T. G.
Bonney, F.R.S., 77. 125, 222; W. Usborne Moore, 203,
271 ; Dr. John Murray, 222, 294 ; P, W. Bassett-Smith, 223 ;
«3
XVIU
INDEX
[Nature, Nov. 28, 1889
the Old-Slate Formation of Borneo, Martin, 120; Systematic
Account of the Geology of Tasmania, Robert M. Johnston,
Prof. John W. JudH, F. R.S., 122 ; the Occurrence of Spines
within Spines on Shells of Carboniferous Productidse, John
Young, 134; the Upper Jurassic Clays of Lincolnshire, Thos.
Roberts, 167 ; Topographical Development of Triassic For-
mation of Connecticut Valley, W. M. Davis, 189 ; Contact
Metamorphi'sm in Silurian Rocks near New Galloway, S.
Allport and Prof Bonney, F. K.S., 190; Stellar Evolution and
its Relation to Geological Time, lames Croll, F. R. S., A. Fow-
ler, 199 ; Zur Geologic der Schweizeralpen, Dr. Carl Schmidt,
220 ; the Westleton Beds of the East Anglian Coast, Prof.
Joseph Prestwich, F. R.S., 238; on Certain Chelonian Re-
mains from the Wealden and Purbeck, R. Lydekker, 238 ;
Saxicava Borings and Valves in a Boulder Clay Erratic, T.
Mellard Reade, 246 ; Records of the Geological Survey of
New South Wales, 254 ; Recent Researches into the Origin
and Age of the Highlands of Scotland and the West of
Ireland, Dr. Archibald Geikie, F. R.S., 299, 320: the Ole-
nellus Fauna in North America and Europe, 310 : Geology in
Systematic Notes and Tables for the Use of Teachers and of
Taught, W. F. Gwinnell, 316 ; Geological and Natural
History Survey of Minnesota, 373 ; Geology in Russia, 403 ;
Mr. Griesbach appointed Government Geologist in Beloo-
chistan, 444 ; on the Geological History of the Prehistoric
Flora of Sweden, Dr. A. G. Nathorst, 453 : Prof. James
Geikie'.s Opening Address in Section C at the British Associa-
tion, 486 ; Geology in India, 536 ; Proposed Geological
Survey of Cape of Good Hope, 547 ; the Mesozoic Division
of the Geological Record as seen in America, Charles White,
557 ; the Glacial Phenomena of North- East Illinois and North
Indiana, Frank Leverett, 557 ; Cis- and Trans- Atlantic For-
mations Compared, Prof. H. S. Williams, 557 ; on the Rela-
tion between the Geological Constitution and the Magnetic
State of the United Kingdom, Profs. A. W. Riicker, F.R.S.,
and T. E. Thorpe. F.R.S., 585, 609; Prof. Milne's Ninth
Report on the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of lapan,
608; Dr. A. Geikie, F.R.S., on the Crystalline Schists of
Norway, 608 ; Dr. Fridjtof Nansen, on the Geology of Green-
land, 608; Prof. W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., on Coal and
Mineral Charcoal, 608 ; Prof. E. Hull, F. K.S., on Coal-like
Structures from the Limestone of Culdaff, 608 ; Mr. Ussher,
on the Devonian Rocks of Britain, 608 ; Pleistocene Papers,
609 ; Mr. R. H. Tiddeman, on Concurrent Faulting and
Deposit in Carboniferous Times, 609 ; Polyzoa and Monticuli-
grora Discovered at Kirktonhelm, John Young, 627 ; the
Cowdenglen Valley, James Rennie, 627 ; the Formation of
Avens, Martel and GaupiUat, 636 ; an Unusual Geological
Sequence, the Duke of Argyll, F.R.S., 642
Geometry : Elementary and Synthetic Geometry of the Point,
Line, and Circle in the Plane, N. F. Dupuis, 100; a Manual
of Practical Solid Geometry, W. Gordon Ross, 125 ; (ireek
Geometry from Thales to Euclid, Dr. G. J. Allman, F.R.S.,
172 ; Association for the Improvement of Geometrical
Teaching, 326 ; a Treatise on Geometrical Conies, A.
Cockshott, Rev. F. B. Walters, 390 ; on the Use of the Word
Antiparallel, E. M. Langley, 460; Solid Geometry, Prof.
Kikuchi, 627
Germany : Anthropological Congress, 479 ; German Meteoro-
logical Society, 283 ; Meeting at Heidelberg of German
Naturalists and Physicians, 252, 375 ; Foreign Students at
the German Technical High Schools, 347 ; Geography in Ger-
many, H. J. Mackinder, 75 ; Effect of the Tashkend Earth-
quake in, 283 ; Velocity of Propagation of Thunderstorms
in South Germany, Dr. Lang, 283
Gernez (D.), Application of Measurement of Rotatory Power
■ to the Study of Neutral Molybdate and Tartaric Acid Com-
pounds, 71
Giard (A.), Phosphorescent Infection in Crustacea, 563
Gibier (Paul), the Vitality of Trichinae, 588
Giglioli { Prof. ), and Ornithology in Italy, 549
Gill (Thos.), the Hatchery of the Sun-fish, 319
Giphantia, Sir J. D. Hooker, F.R.S., 34
Glacial Action on Thomasberg, Traces of, 163
Glacial Epoch, the, H. Faye, 432
Glacial Geology, Prof. James Geikie, F.R.S., on, 486
Glaciers : La Periode Glaciare : 6tudiee principalement en
France et en Suisse, A. Falsan, 317
Gladstone (Dr. J. H., F.R.S.) : the New Code and Science
Teaching, i ; the Atomic Weight of Zinc, 215
Glaisher(J. W. L., F.R.S.), the Method of Quarter- Squares,
Joseph Blater, 573
Glasgow : Geological Society of, 627 ; the Mitchell Library, 62
Glass, Molten, and Volcanic Lavas, 263
Glasses, Red, for Windows, Manufacture of Old, Guignet and
Magne, 539
Glazehrook (R. T., F.R.S.) : Report to the British Association
on Electrical Standards, 555 ; and Prof O. J. Lodge, F.R.S.,
on the Determination of v by Means of Electric Oscillations,
584
Gleanings from Japan, W. G. Dickson, 76
Globe, Terrestrial, at the Paris Exhibition, 278
Globular Lightning, A. T. Hare, 415
Globus, 374
Glories, James C. McConnel, 594
Glows, Sunset : Dr. M. A. Veeder, 645 ; at Honolulu, Sereno
E. Bishop, 415
Gnomium : the New Element, 67 ; Dr. Fleitmann, 208
Goat, the Rocky Mountain, Dr. Grinnell, 62
Gold of Ancient Gaul, the, Cartailhac, 285
Gold Deposits of the Gold Coasts, the. Sir Brandford Griffith,
627
Golde (Dr. E. ), the Brazilian Coffee-Root Disease, 108
Goldschneider (Dr. ), the Muscular Sense, 119
Goniometer, a Refraction, A. P. Trotter, 71
Gore (Dr. G., F.R.S.), Determination of Strength of Liquids
by Voltaic Balance, 93
Gothenburg, Legacy by Mr. Wilson to, 254
Gothland, Antiquities Discovered in, 254
Gould (Dr. B. A.), Reduction of Rutherfurd's Photographs of
the Pleiades and Prsesepe, 448
Gourdon, the Fossil Human Bones at, Dr. Hamy, 285
Gouy (M.) : Enlargement of Spectral Rays of Metals, 216 ; the
Brownian Movement, 311
Government Technical Instruction Bill, 330
Grablovitz (Prof Giulio), Seismology in Italy, 246
Graebe (M.), Derivatives of Ethylene and Urea, 369
Grand'Eury, the Sigillaria, 48
Graphics, or the Art of Calculation by Drawing Lines Applied
especially to Mechanical Engineering, Robert H. Smith, Prof.
A. G. Greenhill. F.R.S., 50
Graphophone, Tainter's, G. R. Ostheimer, 167
Graves (R. P.), Life of Sir W. R. Hamilton (vol. iii.), 614
Gravitation. Portable Cavendish Apparatus for Demonstrating
the Attraction of, C. V. Boys, F.R.S., 65
Gray (Prof. A.), the Telephone, William Henry Preece, F.R.S.,
and Dr. Julius Maier, 200
Greaves (John), Statics for Beginners, 77
Greek Geometry from Thales to Euclid, Dr. G. J. Allman,
F.R.S., 172
Green (Rev. W. S.\ and W. de Vismes Kane, Trawling Expe-
dition off the Irish Coast, 253
Greenhill (Prof. A. G., F.R.S.): Spherical Eggs, 10;
Graphics, or the Art of Calculation by Drawing Lines,
Applied especially to Mechanical Engineering, Robert H.
Smith, 50
Greenland : Recent Danish Researches in, Dr. Rink, 64 ; Dr.
Nansen's Journey across, 84, 103, 210, 479; Meteorology in,
578 ; Geology of. Dr. Nansen, 608
Greenwich Observatory, the Annual Visitation of the, 139
Gregory (James R.), Collection of Meteorites, 654
Gregory (R. A.) : on the Determination of Masses in Astro-
nomy, 80 ; the Planet Uranus, 235 ; Mr. Stranger's Sealed
Packet, Hugh MacColl, 291 ; Prof Loomis on Rainfall, 330
Grehant (M.), Quantity of Water in Blood, 144
Griesbach (Mr.), appointed Government Geologist in Belooch
istan, 444
Griffin (Sir Lepel), on the Bhils and their Country, 116
Griffith (A. F.), on some Effects of Lightning, 366, 543
Griffith (Sir Brandford), the Gold Deposits of the Gold Coast,
627
Griffiths (Dr. A. B.), a Treatise on Manures, 99
Grimaux (M.), Aldehydes, 369
Grinnell (G. B.), the Rocky Mountain Goat, 62
Grombchevsky (Captain), Expedition to Kafiristan, 483
Grotto, the New Adelsberg Stalactite, 577
Grubb (Sir Howard, F.R.S.), Telescopes for Stellar Photo-
graphy, 441, 645
Grum-Grzimailo (Brothers), Exploration of the Eastern Tian-
Shan, 65
Nature, Nov. 28, 1889]
INDEX
XIX
Griinwald (Dr.), Mathematical Spectrum Analysis, Joseph S.
Ames, 19
Gubb (Alfred S.), Curious Effects of Lightning on a Tree, 203
Guelder Rose, Leaves of the, the Shape of the Oak Leaf and
the, Sir John Lubbock, F. R.S., 6n
Guernsey, Earthquake in, 253
Guiana, H. Coudreau's Expedition to Tumuc-Humac Moun-
tains, 353
Guignet (C. E.), Manufacture of Old Red Glasses for Windows,
539 ; Combinations of Cupric Oxides with Amylaceous Matters,
&c., 588
Guillaume (H.), on Peru and Bolivia, 630
Gulf Stream, the Course of the, 229
Gulick (Mr.), Darwinism, Prof. George J. Romanes, F.R. S.,
645
Giinther (Dr. Siegmund), Die Meteorologie ihrem Neuesten
Standpunkte Gemiiss unci mit besonderer Berucksichtigung
Geogtaphischer Fragen dargestellt, 173
Guppy (Dr. H. B. ): the Structure and Distribution of Coral
Reefs, 53, 102, 173, 222 ; on the South Coast of West Java,
630
Guthrie (Prof. F.), Centrifugal Force and D'Alembert's
Principle, 320
Gwinnell (W. F.), Geology in Systematic Notes and Tables for
the Use of Teachers and of Taught, 316
Gyrolite, a New Occurrence of, F. W. Clarke, 404
Haddon (Prof. A. C), Return of, 178 ; Revision of the British
Actiniae, 390 ; his Torres Straits Collection, 626 ; on the
Customs and Beliefs of the Torres Straits Isiand<'rs, 633
HaHfieid (Mr.), on the Influence of Silicon on the Properties of
Steel, 587
Hagen (Dr. H. A.), Do Animals Count? 319
Hail: Unusually Large, Prof. W. A. Herdman, 126; on the
Theory of, C. Tomlinson, F. R. S., 203 ; Unusually Large
Hailstones at Rock Ferry, 133 ; Note on some Hailstones
that Fell at Liverpo >1 on Sunday, June 2, 1889, Edward E,
Robinson, 151 ; Miss C. D, Holt, 272; on the Remarkable
Form of Hailstones, J. Shearson Hyland, 544
Haldane (J. S.), the Accurate Determination of Carbonic Acid
and Moisture in Air, 70
Halifax, Proposed Fishery Intelligence Department at, 179
Hall (Rev. G. Rome), Northumberland in Prehistoric Times,
633
Hall (H. S.), and S. R. Knight, Key to Higher Algebra, 460
Hall (Marshall), Atmospheric Electricity, 125
Hallick (William), Chemical Action between Solids, 68
Hallstatt in Austria, its Burying-grounds and Civilization, Dr.
Homes, 286
Halo of the Moon and Formation of Peculiarly-shaped Clouds at
Oxford, Otto V, Darbishire, 55
Hamilton, Life of Sir W. R. (vol. iii.), R. P. Graves, 614
Hamilton (Prof. D. J.), Text-book of Pathology, 270
Hamy (Dr ), the Fos-il Human Bones at Gourdon, 285
Hann (Dr. Julius), Rain-Clouds, 78
Harden (Dr. Arthur) and W. W. Haldane Gee, on Stereometry,
587
Hare (A. T.), Globular Lightning, 415
Harker (Allen), a New Pest of Farm Crops, II
Harkness (Dr. William), the Progress of Science as Exemplified
in the Art of Measuring and Weighing, 376
Harmer (S. F.) : Report to the British Association on the Natural
History of the Friendly Islands, -end other Islands in the
Pacific, 556 ; Marine Biological Association, 593
Harpur Euclid, E. M. Langley and W. S. Phillips, 365
Hartog (Prof. Marcus M.) : Make-Believe, 299 ; Dogs and Fire,
299 ; on the Structure of Saprolegnia, 61 1
Hartog (M. P. J.), Researches on the Sulphites, 383, 384
Harvard College Observatory, Proposed New Telescope ior, 252
Harveian Oration for 1889, 547
Harvie-Brown (J. A.), and T. E. Buckley, a Vertebrate Fauna
of the Outer Hebrides, loi
Harz Mountains, Magnetic Survey of the, Dr. Eschenhagen,
182
Hatchery of the Sun- fish, Prof. William L. Stone, 202 ; Theo.
Gill, 319
Haunts of Nature, H. W. S. Worsley-Benison, 173
Hautefeuille (P.), Simultaneous Synthesis of Water and Hydro-
chloric Acid. 6';q
Hazen(Prof. H. A.), Anemometer Comparison, 117 ; Storms an'l
a Central Ascending Current, 383
Head (John), a New Form of Siemens Furnace, 561
Head Growth in -Students at the University of Cambridge
Francis Galton, F.R.S., 317, 392, 642
Heat, H. G. Madan, 436
Heat-regulaiion in Man, Prof. Zuntz, 408
Heating, Central Station and Power Supply, W, W. Phipson,
631
Heavens, another Photographic Survey of the, 417
Hebrides, the Outer, a Vertebrate Fauna of the, J. A. Harvie-
Brown and T. E. Buckley, loi
Hedges (Killingworth), on Electric Lighting, 630
Helmholtz (Dr. R. von), the Radiating Power of Flame, 240
Helmholtz's Theory of Timbre, 479
Hemsley (W. Bolting, F. R.S.), the Forest Flora of New Zea-
land, T. Kirk, 388
Henslow (George), Yew-Trees in Berks, 621
Herdman (Prof. W. A.). Liverpool Marine Biology Commit-
tee's Easter Dredging Cruise, 47
Herdman (Prof. W. A.). Unusually Large Hail, 126
Heredity: Sir William Turner, F.R.S., on, 526 ; Alfred Rus-
sel Wallace, 566 ; Weismann's Essays on, Poulton, Schcin-
land, and Shipley, 618 ; Examination of Points in Prof.
Weismann's Theory of. Dr. S. H. Vines, F.R..S., 621
Her>chel. the late Sir John, Reminiscences of, Maria Mitchell,
548
Hersent (H.), the Proposed Channel Bridge, 536, 560
Hertz's Equations, Rev. H. W. Watson, F.R.S., il
Hertz's (Prof.) Mirrors, Experiments on Radiation with, F.
T. Trouton, 585
Hettner (Dr. A.), Observations on Lake Titicaca. 308
Heycock (C. T.) and F. H. Neville, on Raoult's Method applied
to Alloys, 587, 628
Heyes (Rev. J. F.), Testing of Colour-Blindness, 572
Hibbert (W.), the Atomic Weight of Zinc, 215
Hibernation of Martins in the Argentine Republic, Tommaso
Salvadori, 223
Hillhouse (Prof.), Report of the British Association Committee
on the Disappearance of Native Plants from their Local
Habitats, 533
Himmel una Erde, 62
Hinman (Russell), Eclectic Physical Geography, 149
Hirudinea, some New Facts about the, 419
History of Ancient Civilization, Rev. J. Verschoyle, 7
Hitchcock (R. ), Japanese Lacquer, 655
Hoar-frost, the Structure of. Dr. R. Assmann, 286
Hodeida, Dr. Schweinfurth's Journey to, 182
Hogg (J. W. ), on the Volatilization of Lead Oxide and its
Action upon Glass at Low Temperatures, 587
Holden (Captain H. C. L., R.A.), Chronograph for Measuring
Velocity of Projectiles, 66
Holden (Prof.): White Spot on Saturn's Ring, 15 ; the Work'
of an Astronomical Society, 231
Holland, A. L. Rotch on the Meteorological Service in, 383
Holland, Walks in, Percy Lindley, 254
Holmes (W. H.), Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui, 436
Holt (Miss C. D ), Hailstorm in Liverpool, 272
Home-reading Circle Union, Proposed National, 133
Homeyer (E. F. von). Death of, 162
Hong Kong Observatory, 3SI ; Education in. Dr. Eitel, 351
Hbnnethal, Discovery of Stalactite Cave at, 45
Honolulu, Sunset Glows at, Sereno E. Bishop, 415
Hooker (Sir J. D., F.R.S.), Giphantia, 34
Hopkins (F. G. ), Yellow Pigment in Butterflies, 335
Hore (Captain E. C), on Tanganyika, 629
Homes (Dr.), the Burying- Grounds and Civilization of Hallstatt,
286
Hornsey, Discovery of Supposed Fossils at, 14
Horse Power, a Proposed Standard, 515
Horticulture at the Paris Exhibition, 60 ; Protection of Fruit-
trees against Winter Moths, Wilson, 85 ; the Apple and Pear
Conference, 577 ; Cultivation of Egyptian Date Palm in
India, 595
Hospital, Johns Hopkins, Opening of, 107
Howard (Dr. J. L.), the Concentration of Electric Radiation Uy
Lenses, 94
Howard (L. O.), the Fruit Pest Curculio in America, 373
Howe (Dr. Jas. Lewis), Classified Cataloguing, 644
Huffert (Dr.), Photographs of Lightning, 190
XX
INDEX
[Natun; Nov. 28, 18S9
Huggins (Dr. W., F.R.S.) : the Wave-length of Principal Line
in Spectrum of Aurora, 68 ; the Photographic Spectrum of
Great Nebula of Orion, 95 ; Spectrum of the Great Nebula
in Orion, 405, 429
Hugo (W.), a Brilliant Meteor, 594
Hull (Prof. E., F.R.S. ), on Coral like Structures from the
Limestone of Culdaff, 608
Human Physiology, a Text-book of, Dr. Austin Flint, 74
Humour, a Chimpanzee's, Harold Picton, 224
Humpback Whale, Anatomy of the Megaptera longimana,
Tohn Struthers, 592
Humphreys (Alex. C), on Water-gas in the United States, 630
Hunter (H. St. J.), Key to Todhunter's Integral Calculus. 593
Huron- Iroquois of Eastern Canada, the, Sir Daniel Wilson,
557
Hutchins (Prof. C. C), Recent Determinations of the Amount
of Lunar Radiations, 209
Huxley (Prof. T. H., F.K.S.), and M. Pasteur on Hydrophobia,
224
Huygens (Christiaan), Oiluvres Completes de, A. M. Clerke,
591
Hydracids, the Action of Light on the, Dr. Richardson, 587
Hydrazine, Methyl, Isolation of, Dr. Gustav von Briining, 628
Hydrocarbons, Nomenclature of Unsaturated, M. Calderon,
369
Hydrodynamics : on an Electro-magnetic Interpretation of
Turbulent Liquid Motion, Prof. Geo. F. Fitzgerald, F.R.S.,
32 ; Treatise on, A. B. Basset, 412
Hydrogen, Chlorine, and Oxygen, on the Explosion of a Mixture
of, Prof. H. B. Dixon, 587
Hydrophobia: the Prevention of, 197, 204; Prof. Huxlev and
M. Pasteur on, 224 ; the Mansion House Fund tor the P.isieur
Institute, 537
Hygiene of Japanese Houses, the, Dr. Seymour, 15
Hygiene and Demography, Congress on, at Paris, 252, 326, 350,
372
Hygrometry in the Meteorological Journal, Prof. C. Piazzi
Smyth, 585
Hyland (J. Shearson), on the Remarkable Form of Hailstones,
544
Hyponitrites, Heat of Formation of, Berthelot, 239
Hysteresis in the Relation of Strain to Stress, Prof. J. A.
Ewing, F.R.S., on, 584
Jce Blocks on a Moraine, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R S., 391
Ice, Columnar Structure in, T. D. La Touche, 35 ; Prof. T. G.
Bonney, F.R.S., 55
Ice Growth, Dr. Stelan, 400, 447
Icebergs in North Atlantic, 133
Icebergs, Sir Edwin Arnold upon, 536
Icelandic Naturalist's Society, 516
Iguanas in Philadelphia Zoological Garden, A. E. Brown, 180
Ikosahedron, Lectures on the. Dr. Felix Klein, 35
Imperial Institute, School of Oriental Studies, 251
Implements, Palaeolithic, from the Hills near Dunstable, Worth-
ington G. Smith, 151
Implements of Stags' Horns Associated with Whales' Skeletons
found in the Carse Lands of Stirling, Sir William Turner,
F.R.S., on, 634
Ince (Dr. W. H.), the Formation of Phenylindoles, 166
Incrustations, on the Formation of Marine Boiler, Prof. Vivian
B. Lewes, 19
Index to Science, an, J. Taylor Kay, 226 ; James Blake Bailey,
245
Index of Spectra, W. Marshall Watts, 641
Indexing : Classified Cataloguing, W. M. Flinders Petrie, 392
India: Botany in, J. F. Duthie, 13; the Bhils and their
Country, Sir Lepel Griffin, 1 16 ; a Practical Guide to the
Climates and Weather of India, Ceylon, and Burmah, Henry
F. Blanford, F.R.S., 221 ; Discovery of Old Mining Imple-
ments in, Bosworth-Smith, 229 ; Neolithic Objects Discovered
at Ranchi, 230; Sun-spots and Weather in India, 230 ; Deaths
by Snake-bites in, 283 ; Statistics of Education Department
in, 402 ; Technical Education in Central, 595 ; the Survey of
India, Colonel Thuillier, 444 ; Atlas of Meteorological Obser-
vations in the Indian Ocean, 447 ; the Early History of India,
Mr. Kitts, 480 ; Importation of Injurious Insects in Indian
Wheat, Charles Whitehead, 481 ; Government Survey Map
of, 483 ; Use of Flowers of Calligomtm folygonoides as Food
in North-West India, J. F. Duthie, 537 ; Proposed Meteoro-
logical Observatory at Verawal, 547 ; Cultivation of Egyptian
Date-Palm in, 595 ; Geology in, 536 ; on the Study of Ethno-
logy in, H. H. Risley, 633
Indians, the Canadian, 231
Indies, Dutch East, Prof. Wichmann's Exploration of, 353
Indo-China, Rosset's Exploration of, 599
Industrial Education, Sir Philip Magnus, 245
Industries, Curious, Dr. A. H. Japp's Days with Industrials, 619
" Infernito," 429
Inheritance, on Feasible Experiments on the Possibility of
transm.itting Acquired Habits by Means of, Francis Gallon,
F.R.S., 610
Inheritance of Injuries, 327 ; Dr. August Weismann on, 303 ;
C. Pitfield Mitchell, 391
Inheritance, Natural, Francis Galton on, Hiram M. Stanley,
642
Inorganic Chemistry, Ira Remsen, 339
Insanity. Annual Report of the Commissioners in Lunacy, 253
' Insect House at the Zoological Gardens, 105
Insects, Scarce, lately added to the Zoological Gardens, 305
Insects of South Africa, Notes and Descriptions of a Few In-
jurious Farm and Fruit, Eleanor A. Ormerod, 385
Instinct, Bird-, a Cordial Recognition, W. J. Stillman, 245
Institution of Civil Engineers, 166
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 207, 261, 595
Instruments, Musical, and their Homes, Mary E. Brown and
W. Adams Brown, 436
Integral Calculus, Key to Todhunter's, H. St. J. Hunter, 593
Intermittent Sensations, Thos. Reid, 318
International Chemical Congress, a Correction, 394
International Congress of Celestial Photography, 597
International Medical Congress, the, 576
Internationales Archiv fiir Ethnographic, 15, 254, 548
Inventions, Chinese, Priority of, 165
Inventions Exhibition in Edinburgh, Proposed, 653
Ireland, Recent Researches into the Origin and Age of the
Highlands of Scotland and the West of, Dr. Archibald Geikie,
F.R.S., 299,320
Iridescent Crystals, Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., 227
Iris, the Minor Planet, Meridian Observations of, 109
Iron Age : Swedish Antiquities from, 163 ; Discovery in Norway
of Objects belonging to, 283
Iron, Chemical Analysis of, Andrew Alexander Blair, 51
Iron Founding, Practical, 390
Iron, the Magnetic Viscosity of. Prof. J. A. Ewing on, 584
Iron, Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R.S., on the Manufacture of,
473
Iron and Steel Institute, 58, 421, 536, 560, 576
Iron and Steel, International Standards for the Analysis of, John
W. Langley, 558
Iron, Temporary Thermo- currents in, F. T. Trouton, 587
Irvine (Robert), and Dr. G. Sims Woodhead, on the Secretion
of Carbonate of Lime by Animals, 611
Island, the Floating, in Derwentwatcr, 290
Italy : Italian Meteorological Society, 85 ; Seismology in. Prof.
Giulio Grablovitz, 246 ; Dr. H. J. Johnston-Lavis, 294 ; the
Excursion to the Volcanoes of, Dr. H. J. Johnston-Lavis,
294 ; an Italian's View of English Agricultural Education,
Prof. John Wrightson, 428 ; Forests of North- East Italy,
537 ; Scientific Excursion to Volcanic Regions of, 537 ;
Ornithology in. Prof, Giglioli, 549 ; Lake Dwellings in
Northern, P. Castelfranco, 562 ; the Stone Age in, P. Castel-
franco, 659
tzvestia of Moscow Society of Friends of Natural Science, 352
Jahn (Prof.), Synthesization of Formaldehyde, 85
Jahrbuch der Naturwissenschaften, 163
Jamaica, the Department of Public Gardens and Plantations in,
352
Jamaica, Handbook of, for 1889-90, A. C. Sinclair, 593
Jamieson ( Prof. Andrew), a Text-book on Steam and Steam-
Engines, 642
Janssen (I.), on the Telluric Origin of the Oxygen Lines in the
Solar S ectrum, 104
Japan : the Hvgiene of Japanese Houses, Dr. Seymour, 15 ;
Gleanings from Japan, "W. G. Dickson, 76 ; Japanese Clocks,
A. A. R.mbaut, 86; V. Ball, F.K.S., 151 ; the Recent
Great Kaithquakes iin Japan, 162,327,461; Prof. Milne's
Nature, Nov. 28, 1S89]
INDEX
XXI
Ninth Report on the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena
of, 608 ; Seismological Work in, Prof. John Milne, 656 ; the
Miharaizan \'olcano, 179 ; Japanese Vocabulary of Physical
Terms, 306 ; Technical Education in, 479 ; Japanese Lacquer,
R. Hitchcock, 655
Japp (Dr. A. H.), Days with Industrials, 619
Java, West, Dr. H. B. Guppy on the South Coast of, 630
Jeffs (Osmund W.), Geological Photography, 34
Jeppe (Fred.), New Map of Transvaal, 539
Jessen (Dr. C.), Death of, 162
Jodrell (T. J. P.), Death of, 538
Johns Hopkins : Opening of the Hospital, 107 ; Account of
the University, Baltimore, 347 ; Astronomy at, 351 ; Important
Be juest to, 627
Johnson (Prof. A.), Report to the British Association of the
Committee appointed to promote Tidal Observations in
Canada, 554
Johnson (Rev. .S. J.), Eclipses and Transits in Future Years,
307
Johnson (W. E.), Treatise on Trigonometry, 542
Johnston (Robert M.), Systematic Account of the Geology of
Tasmania, Prof. John W. Judd, F. R. S., 122
Johnston (W. and A. K.), the " Unrivalled Atlas," 221
Johnston (W. P.), Death and Obituary Notice of, 84
Johnston-Lavis (Dr. H. J.) : the New Eruption of Vesuvius, 34 ;
the Excursion to the Volcanoes of Italy, 294 ; Seismology in
Italy, 294
Joly (A.), Combinations of Ruthenium with Nitric Oxide, 23 ;
Atomic Weight of Ruthenium, 72
Joule (James Prescott, F.R. S.): Death of, 594; Obituary Notice
of, 613 ; Proposed Memorial to, 653
Journal of Anthropologic 1 Institute, 134
Journal of Bombay Nat...-1 History Society, 327
Journal of Botany, 92, 262
Journal of College of Science of the Imperial University of
Japan, 351
Journal of Morphology, a Reord of Progress, 419
Journal of Russian Chemical and Physical Society, 117
Judd (Prof John W., F. R. S.) : Systematic Account of the
Geology of Tasmania, Robert M. Johnston, 122; Petro-
graphical Tables, an Aid to the Microscopical Determination
of Rock-forming Minerals, Prof H. Rosenbusch, 313 ; the
Earlier Eruptions of Krakata~o, 365
jungfleisch (E. ), o-oxycinchonine, 72
Jutland Middens, the. Captain Madsen, 108
Jutland, Discovery of an Ancient Canoe in, 283
Kafiristan, Capt. Grombchevsky's Expedition to, 483
Kane (W. de Vismes), and the Rev. W. S. Green, Trawling
Expedition off the Irish Coast, 253
Kangaroo in Danger of Extinction, 133
Kant's Critical Philosophy for English Readers, J. P, Mahaffy
and J. H. Bernard, W. L. Courtney, 362
Katz (Dr. O.), Experiments with Microbes of Chicken Cholera,
401
Kay (J. Taylor) : an Index to Science, 226 ; two American
Institutions, 346
Kedzie (Nellie S.), Food Moulds the Race, 558
Kennedy (Prof.), Tcbtimonial to, 304
Kensington, the 185 1 Commissioners' Estate at, 367
Ketones and the Nomenclature of the Acetones, 370
Kew Bulletin, 61, 162, 253, 402, 537, 595
Kew Gardens^ 207
Kikuchi (Prof), Solid Geometry (iii.), 627
Kilimanjaro, the Snowfall on the Summit of. Dr. H. Meyer, 46
Kilogramme, the Alloy of the Standard International, J. Violle,
48
Kinos, Eucalyptus, J. H. Maiden, 635
Kirk (T.), the Forest Flora of New Zealand, W. Botting
Hemsley, F.R.S., 388
Kirschmann, Indirect Vision, 373
Kite Trapped in .Surrey, Fine, 45
Kitts (Mr. ), the Early History of India, 480
Klapdlek (Prof. Franz), Agriotypus armatus, 327
Klaproth, on the Metal Uranium, 462
Klein (Dr. Felix), Lectures on the Ikosahedron and the Solu-
tion of Equations of the Fifth Degree, 35
Knight (Francis A.), By Leafy Ways, 32
Knight (S. R.) and H. S. Hall, Key to Higher Algebra, 460
Knopf (Dr. Otto), Comet 1889 rt' (Brooks, July 6), 424, 550
Kcenig (Dr. Rudolph), Important Discovery in the Theory of
Music, 479
Kong Country, Penetration by Captain Binger of, 1 7
Koppen (Dr. W.), Biological Considerations on Cyclones and
Anticyclones, 422
Kossel (Prof.), Nuclein, 119
Krakatrfb, the Earlier Eruptions of. Prof. John W. Judd,
F.R.S.. 365
Kreutz (Dr. H.), Comet 1889 c (Barnard, June 23 , 255
Kukenthal (Dr.), Safety of, 483
Kukenthal and Walter (Messrs.), Arrival of, 539
Kund (Lieutenant), on the Cameroons Interior, 353
Kundt (Prof), Recent Researches on Electro magnetic Rotatory
Polarization, 96
Kymoscope, Modification of, Prof. A. Stuart, 432
La Nature, 42 1
La Touche (T. D.), Columnar Structure in Ice, 35
Laboratory, Physical, fitted up at Fettes College, Edinburgh,
627
Laboratory, Private, of Marine Zoology at Rapallo, Dr. L.
Camerano, M. G. Peracca, and D. Rosa, 302
Laboratory of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh,
Reports from the, 411
Laboratories, Agricultural, in Belgium, 481
Laboratories, Walker Engineering, 653
Labour, Displacement of, by Modern Inventions, Right Hon.
Sir Lyon Playfair, F. R.S. , 638
Labre's (Colonel) Explorations of Region between Beni and
Madre de Dios and Purus Rivers, 353
Laccadive Islands, M. Deschamp's Expedition to, 305
Lacquer, Japanese, R. Hitchcock, 655
Ladies' Conversazione of the Royal Society, 210
Lake Ontario Temperatures, some, A. T. Drummond, 416
Lake Titicaca, Rain Clouds on, Hon. Ralph Abercromby, 12
Lake-Dwelling, Ancient, discovered at Lochavullin, iSo
Lake-Dwellings in North America, Remains of, iSo
Lake-Dwellings in Northern Italy, P. Castelfranco, 562
Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries of the United Kingdom, ReiMrt to
the British Association on the Seasonal Variations in the
Temperature of. Dr. H. R. Mills, 556
Lamarck -^'ersus Weismann, J. T. Cunningham, 297 ; Dr. A.
R. W^illace, 619
Lamp, an Automatic Electric Railway Reading, 373
Lamp, a New Form of Regenerative Gas, 82
I,amplugh (G. W. ), Bored Stones in Boulder Clay, 297
Land of Manfred, Janet Ross, 413
Land, Sailing Flight of Large Birds over, Dr. R. Courtenay,
573
Landerer (M,), the Closed Eye in Microscopic Vision, 282
Lang (Dr. Arnold), Lehrbuch der vergleichenden anatomic zum
Gebrauche bei vergleichend anatomischen und zoologischeh
Vorlesungen, 124
Lang (Dr.), Velocity of Propagation of Thunderstorms in South
Germany, 283
Langer (Dr. Carl), New Dry Gas Battery, 211
Langiey (E. M.) : and W. S. Phillips, the liarpur Euclid, 365 ;
on the Use of the Word Antiparallel, 460
Langiey (John W.), on International Standards for the Analysis
of Iron and Steel, 558
Langiey (S. P.), the Observation of Sudden Phenomena, 404
Lankester (Prof. E. Ray, F.R.S.): the Muy bridge Photographs,
78, 126; Ampkioxus lanceolalus, 116; Mithradatism, 149;
Darwinism, Alfred Russel Wallace, 566
i.aos Country, M. Taupin's Exploration of the Lower, 17, 352
Lapouge (De), the Aryans, 68
Lapparent (A. de), Cours de Mineralogie, 460
Laryngitis, Board School, Greville Macdonald, E. Clifford
Beale, 8
Launches, Electric, on the Thames, Prof. G. Forbes, F. R.S.,
630
Le Bon (Dr. Gustave), Les Levers Photographiques et la Photo-
graphic en Voyage, 245
Le Conte (Prof. John) Noctilucous Clouds, 544
Lea (M. C), Action of Light on Allotropic Silver, 404
Lead Oxide, Volatilization of, and its Action upon Glass at
Low Temperatures, J. W. Hogg, 587
Leaf Insect of the Seychelles at the Zoological Gardens, 105
XXll
INDEX
[raiure, Nov. ;8, i{
teafy Ways, by, Francis A, Knight, 32
I^eblanc (M.), the Transmission of Power by Alternate Currents,
383
Leblanc (Nicolas), Statue of, 653
JLectures and Addresses, Popular, Sir William Thomson,
F.R.S., Prof. Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S., 433
Lectures, Victoria Hall Science, 653
Lefevre, Colour of Eyes and Hair of Amos, 68
Leffmann (Henry), Examination of Water for Sanitaiy and
Technical Purposes, 293
Eeft-leggednes, W. K. Sibley on, 632
Leger (E.), o-oxycinchonine, 72
Leidie (M.), on a New Series of Double Oxalates of Rhodium,
254
Leverett (Frank), the Glacial Phenomena of North East Illinois
and North Indiana, 557
Lewes (Prof. Vivian B. ):on the Formation of Marine Boiler
Incrustations, 19 ; Service Chemistry, 639
Lewis ([). M.), Bunsen's Photometer, 174
Lias, Middle of Norihamptonshire, Beeby Thompson, 341
Lieben (Richard), and Rudolf Auspilz, Untersuchungen iiber
die Theorie des Preises, 242
Life-history of a Marine Food Fish, Prof. W. C. Mcintosh,
F.R.S., 156
Light : in Doubly Refracting Bodies, the Magnetic Rotation of
Plane of Polarization of, A. W. Ward, 117; Notes on
Polarized Light, Prof. S. P. Thompson, 143 ; Patches of
Prismatic Light, C. S. Scott, 224 ; Corona; round a Light,
produced by a Peculiar Structure in the Eye, James Ci
McConnel, 342 ; Action of Light on Allotropic Silver, M. C.
Lea, 404 ; a Guide to the StuHy of the Measurement of Light,
Practical Photometry, W. J. Dibdin, 572 ; the Action of
Light on the Hydracids, Dr. Richardson, 587
Lightning : and Electricity, an Italian Precursor of Franklin,
108 ; Photographs of Lightning, Dr. Huffert, 190 ; Curious
Effects of Lightning on a Tree, Alfred S. Gubb, 203 ; Photo-
graphs of Lightning and " Black " Electric Sparks, A. W.
Clayden, 262 ; the Eiffel Tower as a Lightning Conductor,
261 ; the Duration of Lightning Flashes, 264 ; on the Pheno-
mena of the Lightning Discharge as Illustrated by the Striking
of a House in Cossipore, Calcutta, Walter G. McMillan, 295 ;
on Some Effects of Lightning, C. Tomlinson, F. R.S., A.
F. Griffith, 366, 543; Spencer Pickering, 415, 620 ; Captain
J. P. Maclear, 437 ; Arthur E. Brown, 543 ; Globular
Lightning, A. T. Hare, 415 ; Electric Figures Produced by I
Lightning, Ch. V. Zenger, 432 ; on Dark Flashes of Light-
ning, A. W. Clayden, 585
Lights, Beacon, and Fog Signals, Sir James N. Douglass, F.R.S.,
87, no
Limestone of Culdaff, Coral-like Structures from the, Prof. E.
Hull, F.R.S., 608
Linnieus, Portraits of, Carruthers, 106
Lincolnshire, the Upper Jurassic Clays of, Thos. Roberts, 167
Lindley (Percy), Walks in Holland, 254
Linnenn Society, 22, 47, 118, 237, 263
Linnean Society of New South Wales, 305, 401, 595, 635
Lippmann ((J.), Chromatic Photography by Use of Coloured
Glasses, 48
Liquid Motion, on an Electro-magnetic Interpretation of Turbu-
lent, Prof. Geo. Eras. Fitzgerald, F. R. S., 32
Liquids, the Expansion of, S. U. Pickering, 166
Lisbon Geographical Society, 182
Liveing (Prof. G. D., F.R.S.,) Spherical Eggs, 55 ; the Ab-
sorption Specira of Oxygen, 211, 212 ; on " Eikonogen," a
New Developer, 587
Liverpool Marine Biology Committee's Easter Dredging Cruise,
Prof. W. A. Herdman, 47
Liverpool, Note on some Hailstones that Fell at, on Sunday,
June 2, 1889, Edward C. Robinson, 151 ; Miss C. D. Holt,
272
Liverpool Physical Society, Proposed, 627
Lizard Swallowed by a Viper, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S.,
134, 150
Lochavullin, Ancient Lake-Dwelling Discovered at, 180
Lock's Elementary Trigonometry, Key to, Henry Carr, 125
.Lockyer (J. Norman, F. k.S.), Notes on Meteorites, 136
Lodge(Pror. Oliver J., F. R. S. ) : Name for Unit of Self-Induction,
.11 ; an Electrostatic Field Produced by Varying Ma.jpetic
Induction, 93 ; the Concentration of Electric Radiation by
Lenses, 94 ; Use or Abuse of Empirical Formula, and of
Differentiation by Chemists, 273 ; Popular Lectures and
Addresses, Sir William Thomson, F.R.S., 433; on the
Failure of Metal Sheets to Screen off the Electrostatic Effect
of Moving or Varying Charges, 586 ; Section Work at the
British Association, 593; and R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.S., on
the Determination of v by Means of Electric Oscillations,
584 . .
Loewy (Benjamin), a Graduated Course of Natural Science, 271
Lombard, the Centre of Creation, 92
London Geological Field Class, 13
London Mathematical Society, 626
London and Paris, Telephonic Communication between, W. H.
Preece, F. R.S., on, 631
London, Proposed Teaching University for, 60
London, Report of the Royal Commission on the University of,
121, 149
London Teacher, a. Report of the Royal Commission on the
University of London, 149
Longitude between Paris and Madrid, Difference of, Esteban
and Bassot, 612
Longmans' New Atlas, 148
Longmans' School Arithmetic, F. E. Marshall and J. W. Wels-
ford, 52
Loomis (Prof. Elias) : Contributions to Meteorology, 21 ; on
Rainfall, R. A. Gregory, 330 ; Death and Obituary Notice
of, 401
Lord Howe Island, its Zoology, Geology, and Physical Cha-
racters, 414
Lorenz (M.), the Molecular Action of Dissolved Substances,
216
Lorie (Signor), Investigations in New Guinea, 4^5
Loubat (Count), Prize for Encourage ent of North American
Studies, 372
Louisiade Archipelago, the. Dr. Macgregor, 61
Louisiade and D'Enirecasteaux Islands, Basil H. Thomson on,
256
Lovel (J.), Stationary Dust-Whirl, 174
Low (D. A.), Applied Mechanics, 31
Lubbock (Sir John, F. R.S.), on the Shape of the Oak Leaf and
the Leaves of the Guelder Rose, 611
Luminous Night Clouds, D. J. Rowan, 151
Lunacy, Annual Report of the Commissioners in, 253
Lunar Radiation, Recenc Determinations of the Amount of.
Prof. C. C. Hutchins, 209
Luy (Dr. Alfredo de), the Effect of Climate on Race. 423
Lydekker (R.) : Chelonian Remains from Wealden and Purbeck,
238 ; on Phenacodus and the Athecje, Prof. E. D. Cope, 298
Lynn (William Thynne), Celestial Motions, a Handy Book of
Astronomy, 293
McAdie (Alexander), Atmospheric Electricity, 223
MacColl (Hugh), Mr. Stranger's Sealed Packet, R. A. Gregory,
291
MacConnel (James C.) : Corona round a Light produced by a
Peculiar Structure in the Eye, 342 ; Glories, 594
Macdonald (Greville), Board School Laryngitis, E. Clifford
Beale, 8
Macfadyen (Dr. A.), the Ferment Action of Bacteria, 21
McGee (W. ].), Palaeolithic Man in America, 163
Macgowan (Dr.), Alleged Avenging Habits of the Cobra in
Indian and Chinese Folk-Lore, 423
Macgregor (Sir William): the Louisiade Archipelago, 61;
Ascent of Summit of Owen Stanley Range by, 308 ; Ascent
of Mount Owen Stanley, 449 ; Ascent of the Owen Stanley
Range, 551
Mcintosh (Prof. W. C, F.R.S.), the Life-history of a Marine
Food Fish, 11, 130, 156
Mackinder (H. J.) : Beitrage zur Geophysik, Abhandlungen aus
dem geographischen Seminar der Universitat Strassburg, 75 ;
Bericht iiber die Entwickelung der Methodik und des Studiums
der Erdkulide, Dr. Hermann Wagner, 75
MacLaurin (Dr.), on the British Race in Australia, 62,2
Maclear (Capt. J. P.), on some Effects of Lightning, 437
McLeod (Prof., F.R.S.), on the Black-bulb Thermometer /«
vacuo, 585
McMillan (Walter G.), on the Phenomena of the Lightning
Dischargeas Illustrated by the Striking of a House inCossipore,
Calcutta, 295
McNair (W. W.), Death of, 483
Nature, Nov. 2?-, i8 5]
INDEX
XXlll
Madan (H. G.), "Heat," 436
Madras Journal of Literature and Science, 374
Madsen (Captain), the Jutland Midden>, 108
Magne (L.), Manufacture of Old Red Glasses for Windows,
539
Magnetism : the Magnetic Disturbing Forces in British Isles,
Riicker and Thorpe, 66 ; on the lustruments used in the
Recent Magnetic Survey of France, Prof. A. W. Riicker,
F. R.S. , 584; on the Relation between the Geological Con-
stitution and the Magnetic State of the United Kingdom,
Profs. A. W. Riicker, F.R.S., and T, E. Thorpe, F.R.S.,
585, 609 ; Effect of Heat on Magnetic Susceptibility of
Nickel, Shelford Bidwell, F.R.S., 70; on the Magnetic
Viscosity of Iron, Prof. J. A. Ewing, F.R.S., 584; Fifth
Report to the British Association on the Best Means of Com-
paring and Reducing Magnetic Observation?, Prof. W. Grylls
Adams, F.R.S., 554
Magnus (Sir Philip), Industrial Education, 245
Mahaffy (J. P.) and J. H. Bernard, Kant's Critical Philosophy
for English Readers, W. L. Courtney, 362
Maiden (J. II.) : Spinifex Resin, 595 ; Eucalyptus Kinos, 635
Maier (Julius) and William Henry Preece, the Telephone, Prof.
A. Gray, 200
Major's (Dr. C. Forsyth) Discoveries in the Isle of Samos, 400
Make-believe, Prof. Marcus M. Hartog, 299
Malarce (De), Extension of the Metric System of Weights and
Mi-a-ures, 164
Malltt (M.), Balls of almost Perfect Sphericity produced by
Mechanical Movement, 351
Mammoth Deposit in Moravia, the Great, Prof. Steenstrun, 229
Man, on the Occasional Eighth True Rib in. Prof. D. J.
Cunningham, 632
Manchester : Owens College, 207 ; Local Lectures of the
Victoria University, 253 ; Manchester Technical School, 445,
577
Manfred, the Land of, Janet Ross, 413
Mango Bee, the, 654
Mansion House Meeting in Aid of the Pasteur Institute, 177
Manures, a Treatise on, by Dr. A. B. Griffiths, 99
Manville (Edward) Series Electric Traction, Norlhfleet Tram-
ways, 630
Maori Folk-Lore, William Colenso, 596
Maoris, the. Brown, 634
Maquenne (M.), New Relations between Sugars and Furfuric
Compounds, 636
Marcano (Dr. V.) : the Formation of Nitrogenous Earths, 48 ;
Proportion of Nitrates in Tropical Rains, 119; Pre-
Columbian Ethnography of Venezuela, 142
Marey (M.), Effects of an Intermittent Wind in Sor^ring, 612
Marijottet (J.), Simultaneous Synthesis of Water and Hydro-
chloric Acid, 659
Marine Biological Association, i28 ; S. F. Harmer, 593
Marine Biology, Liverpool, Committee's Easter Dredging Cruise,
Prof. \V. A. Herdman, 47
Marine Biology in the United States, 281
Marine Boiler Incrustations, on the Formation of. Prof. Vivian
B. Lewes, 19
Marine Food Fish, the Life- History of a, Prof. W. C. Mcintosh,
F.R.S., 130, 156
Marine and Fresh-water Ostracoda of the North Atlantic and
of North-Western Europe, Monograph of the, Dr. G. S.
Brady and Rev. A. M. Norman, 364
Marine Zoology, the Private Laboratory of, at Rapallo, Dr. L.
Camerano, M. G. Peracca, and D. Rosa, 302
Marion (Dr.), a New Conifer, 61
Marquardt (Dr. ), New Aromatic Compounds of Bismuth, 134
Marriott (W.), the Recent Thunderstorms; 238
Mars, a Journey to the Planet, Hugh MacColl, R. A. Gregory,
291
Marshall (F. E.), and J. W. Welsford, Longmans' School
Arithmetic, 52
Mart el (E. A.), Avens, 636
Marth (Albert), Two Remarkable Conjunctions, 180
Martin (M.). the Old-Slate Formation of Borneo, 120
Martin (Dr. Sidney), Toxic Action of Albumose from Seeds of
Ahriis prccatorius, Wj
Martiniere (H. M. P. de la), Morocco, 202
Martin?, Hibernation of, in the Argentine Republic, Tommaso
Salvador!, 223
Marvin (Prof. C. F.) : Anemometry, 189 ; on Anemometer Ex-
periments, 383
Mashonaland, F. C. Selous, 16
Mason Science College, Birmingham, 13
Massachusetts, Earthquake in, 162
Ma^sart (M.), Penetration of Sperm atozoids into Egg of Frog^
635
Masses in Astronomy, on the Determination of, R, A. Gregory,
80
Masters (Dr.), Comparative Morphology of the Coniferse, 22
Mastodons found at Tournan, A. Gaudry, 239
Mathematics and Physics : Dr. Griin wald's Mathematical 3pectrun>
Analysis, J seph S. Ames, 19 ; Solutions of the Examples in a
Treatise on Algebra, by Chas. Smith, 31 ; Klein's Ikosahedron,
35 ; Mathematical Society, 95, 191 ; Dupuis' Elementary and
Synthetic Geometry, 100 ; the Va'ue of a Finite Continuous
and Purely Periodical Fraction, Prof. Sylvester, 192 ; Mathe-
matical Method in Political Economy, Rudolf Auspiiz and
Richard Lieben, 242 ; Woolwich Mathematical Papers,
J 880-88, 317 ; Mathematical Theory of Political Economy,
Leon Walras, 434 ; on the Use of the Word Anliparallel, E.
M. Langley, 4610; Key to Higher Algebra, H. S. Hall and
S. R. Knight, 460 ; a History of the Study of Mathematics
at Cambridge, W. W. Rouse Ball, 458 ; Opening Address
by Captain W. de W. Abney, C.B., F. R. S., President of
Section A at the British Association, 469 ; Prof. Sir
William Thomson, F. R. S , on Boscovich's Theory, 545;
Prof. A. W. Riicker, F.R.S., on Cometic Nebula, 583;
Prof. C. Piazzi Smyth, on Re-examination of the Spectra
of Twenty-three (ias-Vacuum End-on Tubes after Six
to Ten Years of Existence and Use, 548 ; Lord Ray-
leigh, Sec.R. S., on the Tones of Bells, 584; Captain
Abney, F. K.S., on the Quantity of Deposit of Silver
Produced by the Development on a Photographic Plate in
Terms of the Intensity of Light Acting, 584 ; Lord Ray-
Icigh, Sec. R.S. , on Pin-hole Photography, 584; Prof. O.
J. Lodge, F.R.S., and R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.S., on the
Determination of v by Means of Electric Oscillations, 584 ;
Prof. A. W. Riicker, F. R. S., on the Instruments Used in
the Recent Magnetic Survey of France, 584 ; Prof. J. A.
Ewing, F.R.S., on the Magnetic Viscosity of Iron, 584;
Prof. Everett, F. R.S., on the Relation between Brachisto-
chrones and Ray-paths, 584; Prof. J. A. Ewing, F. R. S.,
on Hysteresis in the Relation of St ain to Stress, 584 ;
Prof. Henry Stroud, on the E.M. P". Pioduced by an Abrupt
Variation of Temperature at the Point of Contact of Two
Portions of the same Metal, 585; Prof. McLeod, F. R. S.,
on the Black-bulb Thermometer in vacuo, 585 ; Sir \V.
Thomson, F. R.S., on Electrification of Air by Combustion,
585 ; Prof. C. Michie Smith, on Atmospheric Electricity,
and the Use of Sir W. Thomson's Portable Electrometer,
585 ; A. W. Clayden, on Dark Flashes of Lightning, 585 ;.
Pruf. Cleveland Abbe, on the Determination of the Amount
of Rainfall, 585 ; Prof. C. Piazzi Smyth, on Hygrometry
in the Meteorological Journal, 585 ; F. T. Trouton, on
some Experiments on Radiation with Prof. Hertz's-
Mirrors, 585; Profs. A. W. Riicker, F.R.S., and
T. E. Thorpe, F. R.S., on the Relation between the
Geological Constitution and the Magnetic State of the United'
Kingdom, 585 ; Prof. Arthur Schuster, F. R. S., on the
Passage of Electricity through Gases, 585 ; Prof. Oliver J.
Lodge, F.R.S., on the Failure of Metal Sheets to Screen off
the Electrostatic Effect of Moving or Varying Charges, 586 ;
Prof. James Blyih, on a New Form of Current- Weigher, 586;
Prof. S. P. 'I hompson, on a Phenomenon in the Electro-
Chemical Solution of Metals, 586 ; J. Wilson Swan, on
Chromic Acid as a Depolarizer in Bunsen's Battery, 586 ;
Prof. Perry, F. R.S., on a Variable Standard of Self-induc-
tion, 586; Prof. Perry, F.R.S., on a Hot Twisted Strip-
Voltmeter, 586; W. H. Preece, F.R.S., on the Relative
Effects of Steady and Alternate Currents on Different Con-
ductors, 586; Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S., and W. H. Preece,
F.R.S. on a New Thermometric Scale, 587; Prof. S. P.
Thomjison on Sparkless Electro-Magnets, 587 ; W. W. Hal-
dane Gee and Dr. Arthur Harden on Stereometry, 587 ; W.
W. Haldane Gee and Hubert L. Terry, on the Specific Heat
of Caoutchouc, 587 ; Y. T. Trouton, on the Temporary
1 hermo-Currents in Iron, 587 ; the Peruvian Arc, 558 ;
the Method of C^uarter Squares, Joseph Blater, J. W. L.
XXIV
INDEX
[Nature, Nov. 28, 1889
Glaisher, F.R.S., 573 ; First Mathematical Course, 592 ; the
Method of Quarter Squares, Prof. G, Carey Foster, F.R.S.,
593 ; Key to Todhunter's Integral Calculus, by H. St. J.
Hunter, 593 ; Delambre's Analogies, R. Chartres, 644 (see
also Physics)
Matter, Constitution of, Sir William Thomson, F.R. S., 433
Mauritius Observatory, 230
Maxwell's Electricity and Magnetism, Error in, Herbert Tomlin-
son, F.R.S., 621
Measuring and Weighing, the Progress of Science as Exempli-
fied in the Art of, Dr. William Harkness, 376
Mechanical Engineers, the Institution of, 261
Mechanical Science, William Anderson's Opening Address in
Section G at the British Association, 509 ; Alex. C. Hum-
phreys, on Water-gas in the United States, 630 ; Killingworth
Hedges, on Electric Lighting, 630 ; Prof. G. Forbes, F.R. S. ,
on Electric Launches on the Thames, 630 ; Edward Manville,
on Series Electric Traction (Northfleet Tramways), 630 ; W.
H. Preece, F. R. S., on Telegraphic Communication between
London and Paris, 631 ; W. Webster, on the Purification of
Sewage by Electrolysis, 631 ; Prof. W. C. Unwin, F.R.S.,
on the Strength of Alloys at Different Temperatures, 631 ;
W. W. Phipson, on Central Station Heating and Power
Supply, 631 ; Alex. P. Trotter, on a Curve Ranger, 631 ; W.
H. Wheeler, on the Transporting Power of Water in the
Deepening of Rivers, 631
Mechanics, Applied, Dr. A. Low, 31
Mechanics, an Elementary Treatise on, Rev. J. Warren, 365
Medical Congress, the International, 576
Medicine, the Advancement of, 411
Mcgaptera longimana, the Anatomy of the Humpback Whale,
John Struthers, 592
Meldola (Prof. R., F.R.S.) : Isomerism of Alkyl-derivatives of
Mixed Diazoamido-compounds, 215 ; Monobenzyl-derivatives
of Phenylenediamines, 335
Memoires de la Societe d' Anthropologic de Paris, 142
Memorial, the Henry Draper, 17
Memphis, U.S.A., Earthquakes at, 305
Mendeleeff (Dmitri Ivanovitch) : Scientific Worthies, Prof. T.
E. Thorpe, F.R.S., 193 ; an Attempt to Apply to Chemistry
one of the Principles of Newton's Natural Philosophy, 354
Mental Faculties of Anthropopithecus calvtis, Prof. Geo. J.
Romanes, F.R.S., 160
Mercantile Marine, Colour-Blindness and Defective Far-Sight
among the Seamen of the, 438
Mercury, Residuals of, O. T. Sherman, 6t,
Meridian Observations of the Minor Planet Iris, 109
Meristems of Ferns as a Study in Phylogeny, Prof. F. O. Bower,
610
Metallurgy : Uranium, 462 ; Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., F.R. S. on
the Manufacture of Iron, 473 ; a New Form of Siemens
Furnace, Head and PoufT, 561 ; the Thomson Electric Welding
Process, W. C. Fish, 561
Meteorology : Rain Clouds on Lake Titicaca, Hon. Ralph Aber-
cromby, 12; Meteorological Report (1883-84) for New Zea-
land, 14; Temperature and Sunshine Notes for 1889, 14;
Contributions to Meteorology, Elias Loomis, 21 ; Movement
of Cyclonic Storms in Various Regions, H. Faye, 23 ; Synop-
tic Table of Weather Prediction, Plumandon and Colomes,
61 ; Rain Clouds, Dr. Julius Hann, 78 ; San Jose Meteoro-
logical Institute, 84 ; Experiments on the Connection between
Wind Pressure and Velocity, W. H, Dines, 94 ; Upper Wind
Currents over the Equator in the Atlantic Ocean, Hon. Ralph
Abercromby, loi ; Bibliography of Meteorology, 107 ; Pilot
Charts of North Atlantic Ocean, 107 ; Pilot Chart of North
Atlantic, 305, 401, 578, 595 ; the Meteorological Services
in Europe, A. L. Rotch, 117; the Formation of Atmo-
spheric Precipitates, Dr. Vettin, 119; the Meteoro-
logical Society, 119; Synoptic Weather Maps Published by
St. Petersburg Observatory, 133 ; Meteorological Observatory,
Rousdon, 163 ; Die Meteorologie ihrem Neuesten Standpunkte
gemass und mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung geographischer
Fragen dargestellt. Dr. Siegmund Gunther, 173; Meteorology
of North Atlantic for May, 179 ; Exceptional Development of
some Tropical Cyclones, 191; Long-time Weather Predictions in
America, 208 ; a Practical Guide to the Climates and Weather
of India, Ceylon, and Burmah, Henry F. Blanford, 221 ; Sun-
spots and Weather in India, 230 ; Meteorology of Mauritius,
230 ; the Recent Thunderstorms, W. Marriott, 238 ; Intense
Heat in Russia, 253 ; Sudden Depression of the Deutsche See-
warte Barometer, 253 ; Bulletin of the Sikawei Meteorological
Observatory, 253 ; the Eiffel Tower as a Lightning Conductor,
261 ; the American Meteorological Journal, 262, 383 ;
Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 262, 482, 61 1 ; Velocity of Propa-
gation of Thunderstorms in South Germany, Dr. Lang, 283 ;
Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory, 283 ; Sand-showers,
Prof. P. F. Denza, 286; Winters of South Crimean Coast, 286 ;
the Cold Period of May, Dr. B. Andries, 286 ; Meteorology
of the North Atlantic, 305 ; the Meteorological Service in
Belgium, A. L. Rotch, 311 ; Meteorology in Scotland, 326 ;
Dust-fogs off the Cape de Verd Islands, 327 ; Discussion of
Instructions for Observers of Prussian Meteorological Insti-
tute, Dr. Wagner, 334 ; Ben Nevis Observatory, 350,
351 ; Report of Hong Kong Observatory, 351 ; Meteoro-
logical Committee Meeting at Zurich, International, 373 ;
Storms and a Central Ascending Current, Prof H. A. Hazen,
383 ; Prof. II. A. Hazen on Storms, 383 ; A. L. Rotch on
the Meteorological Service in Holland, 383 ; Prof. C. F.
Marvin on Anemometer Experiments, 383 ; the Meteorologi-
cal Service in Holland, A. L. Rotch, 383 ; Meteorology of
the Cape of Good Hope for 1888, 401 ; Paris Central Me-
teorological Office, M. Anger, 421 ; Biological Considerations
upon Cyclones and Anticyclones, Dr. W. Koppen, 422 ; Bri-
tish Rainfall, 1888, G. J. Symons, F.R.S., 437; St. Elmo's
Fire on Ben Nevis, 439 ; Decrease of Temperature with In-
crease of Altitude, Prof. W. Ferrel, 445 ; Diurnal and An-
nual Oscillations of Barometer, H. H. Clayton, 445 ; Atlas
of Observations in Indian Ocean, 447 ; Storms, and Geyser
Outbreak in United States, 516 ; Proposed Meteorological
Observatory at Perim, 516 ; Report of the Committee ap-
pointed by the British Association for the purpose of co-
operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society in making
Observations on Ben Nevis, 535 ; Cyclone of Jougne (July
13, 1889), C. Dufour, 540 ; Noctilucous Clouds, Prof. John
Le Conte, 544 > Proposed Meteorological Observatory at
Verawal, in India, 547 ; Meteorology in Greenland, 578 ;
on the Determination of the Amount of Rainfall, Prof. Cleve-
land Abbe, 585 ; Hygrometry in the Meteorological yournal.
Prof C. Piazzi Smyth, 585 ; Prof C. Michie Smith on At-
mospheric Electricity, 585 ; Shining Night Clouds, an Ap.
peal for Observations, 594 ; Meteorology in New England,
595 ; Determination of Height of Aurora, 654 ; Proposed
Meteorological Observations at Tiberias, Palestine, Dr. Tor-
rance, 654 ; Meteorological Experiences on the Sentis, Dr.
Assmann, 660
Meteors: April, 15 ; Meteor Showers, 16, 46, 86,109, 136, 165,
181, 231, 256, 285, 308, 329, 352, 375, 403, 424, 448, 483, 516,
539. 55i> 578, 598, 629, 656 ; Brilliant Meteor, Capt. T. Herbert
Clarke, 35 ; Remarkable Meteors, W.F. Denning, 150 ; Meteor,
F. T. Mott, 174 ; Meteoric Waters, the Toxic Properties of.
Dr. Freire, 168 ; Brilliant Meteor in Ljungby, 179 ; Meteor at
Copenhagen, 229 ; a Remarkable Meteor, Richard Clark,
573 ; Fine Slow-moving Meteor, W. F. Denning, 594 ; a
Brilliant Meteor, W. Hugo, 594 ; Meteorites, Notes on, J.
Norman Lockyer, F.R. S., 136; Meteorites found at Scania,
229 ; Mr. Gregory's Collection of Meteorites, 654 ; Meteoritic
Theory, Prof. Cleveland Abbe, 53
Methyl Ethylamine, Drs. Skraup and Wiegmann on, 14
Methyl Hydrazine, Isolation of. Dr. Gustav von Briining, 628
Metric System of Weights and Measures, Extension of the, De
Malarce, 164
Mexican Monuments and Historical Remains, Governmental
Measures for Study and Preservation of, 283
Meyer (Dr. A. B.), Astrarchia stephanice, 461
Meyer (Dr. H. ), the Snow-fall on the Summit of Kilimanjaro,
46
Michaelis (Dr.), New Aromatic Compounds of Bismuth, 134
Micro-biology: Transformism in, A. Chauveau, 612; Pathogenic,
Transformism in, A. Chauveau, 636
Micro-organisms, Psychic Life of, Alfred Binet, 541
Microbes and Infection, 384
Microbes of Chicken-Cholera, Experiments with. Dr. O. Katz,
401
Microscopic Vision, the Closed Eye in, M. Landerer, 282
Microscopical Mineralogy, Prof. H, Rosenbusch, Prof. John W.
Judd, F.R.S., 313
Microscopy : Amphioxiis lanceolatus. Prof. E. Ray Lankester,
F.R.S. , 116 ; Maturation of Ovum in Cape and New Zealand
Nature, Nov. 28, 1889]
INDEX
XXV
Peripatus, Lilian Sheldon, 116; Cidaris papillata, Vxoi. III.
Duncan, 237
Middens, the Jutland, Captain Madsen, 108
Middle Lias of Northamptonshire, Beeby Thompson, 34I
Midland Union of Natural History Societies, 372, 549
Migration of Birds, Report to the British Association on the
Observations made at Lighthouses and Light-vessels, John
Cordeaux, 556
Milk, Quantitative Analysis of Bicarbonate of Soda in, L, Fade,
336
Mill (Dr. Hugh Robert) : Report to the British Association on
the Seasonal Variations in the Temperature in Lakes, Rivers,
and Estuaries of the United Kingdom, 556 ; on the Physical
Basis of Commercial Geography, 629
Miller-Hauenfels (Albert R. von), Richtigstellung der in
bisheriger Fassung unrichtigen Mechanischen "Wiirmetheorie
und Grundziige einer Allgemeinen Theorie der Aether-
bewegungen, 244
Millosevich(Prof.) Comet 1889 /^ (Barnard, March 31), 255
Milne (Prof. John) : Ninth Report on the Earthquake and Vol-
canic Phenomena of Japan, 608 ; Seismological Work in
Japan, 656
Minchin (Prof.), the Vices of our Scientific Education, 126
Mineralogy .- the Mineralogical Magazine, 230 ; Cours de
Mineralogie, A. de Lapparent, 460 ; Petrographical Tables of
Rock-forming Minerals, an Aid to the Microscopic Determin-
ation of, Prof. II. Rosenbusch, Prof. John W. Judd, F.R.S.,
313
Mming Appliances, Improvements in, Ralph Moore, 61
Mining Implements, Old, in India, Bosworth-Smith, 229
Minor Planet, New, 135, 424 ; Prof. Peters, 448
Minot and Allison the Mammalian Placenta and the Lateral
Line System in Amia respectively, 419
Missions, French Government Scientific, 479
Mitchell Library, Glasgow, 62
Mitchell (C. Pitfield), Inheritance of Injuries, 391
Mitchell (Maria) : Death of, 253 ; Reminiscences of the late Sir
John Herschel, 548
Mitchell (Prof O. H.), Death of, 208
Mites, F. T. Mott, 572
Mites in South African Entomological Collections, 283
Mithradatism, Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S., 149
Mivart (Dr. St. George), Anapophyses, 394
Mixter (William G.), an Elementary Text-book of Chemistry,
389
Mohn (Dr.), the Barents Sea, 598
Molecules, Atoms and, the Organization of, Prof. A. E. Dol-
bear, 419
Monaco Exhibit at the Paris Exhibition, 61
Monaco (Prince Albert of), Surface Currents of North Atlantic,
167
Mond (Ludwig), New Dry Gas Battery, 211
Mondy (E. F.), Electrolysis of Potassium Iodide, 417
Monetary Standards, Report to the British Association on the
Variations in the Value of. Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, 553
Moniez (M.), Metamorphosis and Migration of a Free Nema-
tode, 563
Monument to late Mr. Dalgleish, Erection of, 595
Moon, Halo of the, and Formation of Peculiarly-shaped Clouds
at Oxford, Otto V, Darbishire, 55
Moore (Ralph), Improvements in Mining Appliances, 61
Moore (Capf. W. U.), the Bore of the Tsien-Tang Kiang, 163
Moore (W. Usborne), Coral Reefs, 203, 271
Moraine, Ice-Blocks on a, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 391
Moral Order and Progress, an Analysis of Ethical Conceptions,
S. Alexander, 169
Moravia, the Great Mammoth Deposit in, Prof. Steenstrup, 229
Morley Memorial College for Working Men and Women, 653
Morocco, H. M. P. de la Martiniere, 202
Morphology : Some New Facts about the Hirudinea, 419 ; the
Organization of Atoms and Molecules, Prof A. E, Dolbear,
419 ; Minot and Allis on the Mammalian Placenta and the
Lateral Line in Amia respectively, 419 ; the Journal of
Morphology, a Record of Progress, 419 ; Prof Burdon- Sander-
son, F. R.S., on Morphology, 521
Morris (D.): Sideroxylon dulcijicum, 238; Report to the
British Association on the Zoology and Botany of the West
India I--lands, 553
Morris (Dr. G. H.) : Amylo-dextrin, 214; Determination of
Molecular Weights of Carbohydrates, 214
Morse and White, an Extreme Case of "Mass" or Catalytic
Action, 328
Motion, our Sensations of. Prof. A. Crum Brown, 449
Mott (F. T.) : Meteor, 174 ; on Mites, 572
Mountain of the Bell, a New, H, Carrington Bolton, 35
Mounting Dried Plants, Method of. Dr. John Wilson, 438
MUhlenfels (Captain R. von). Experiments on Storing Fish,
402
Munro (Charles), on the Explosiveness of the Celluloids, 558
Miintz (A.) : the Formation of Nitrogenous Earths, 48 ; Propor-
tion of Nitrates in Tropical Rains, 119
Murray (Geo.) and Alfred W. Bennett, a Hand-book of Crypto-
gamic Botany, 217
Murray (Dr. John) : Coral Reefs, 222, 294 ; the Three Cruises
of the Blake, Alexander Agassiz, 361
Muscle, Experiments on Mechanical Latent Period of, Dr.
Cowl, 408
Muscles, Influence of Temperature upon Working Power of.
Prof Gad, 288
Muscular Sense, the. Dr. Goldschneider, 119
Museum, National Science, 3
Museum, Paris Natural History, 326
Museums, Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B., F.R.S., on, 463
Music, Important Discovery in the Theory of, Rudolph Koenig,
479
Musical Instruments and their Homes, Mary E. Brown and W.
Adams Brown, 436
Mussel-poiboning, French Report on, 178
Muy bridge Photographs, Prof E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S., 78,
126
Mysore, Capture by Superintendent Sanderson of Herd of 100
Wild Elephants in, 282
Mysticism, Philosophy of, Carl du Prel, 28
Mytilene, Earthquake at, 653
Nadaroff (Colonel), the South Usuri Region, 165
Name for Unit of Self-induction, Prof Oliver J. Lodge, F. R.S.,
II
Nansen (Dr. Fridtjof) : Return of, 84; his Journey across
Greenland, 103, 210, 479 ; on the Geology of Greenland,
608 ; on the Esquimaux, 633
Naphtha as Fuel in Middle Russia, 163
Naphthalene, Nomenclature of, 370
Natal Observatory, 655
Nathorst(Dr. A. G.), on the Geological History of the Prehistoric
Flora of Sweden, 453
National Home- Reading Union, 421
National Science Museum, 3
Natural History : Bird Life of the Borders, Abel Chapman, 147
Natural History of the Friendly Islands and other Islands in the
Pacific, Report to the British Association on, 556
Natural History Gardens in Boston, Proposed, 577
Natural History Museum : South Kensington, 13 ; Paris, 326
Natural Inheritance, Francis Galton on, Hiram M. Stanley, 642
Natural Philosophy, an Attempt to Apply to Chemistry one of
the Principles of Newton's, Prof D. Mendeleeff, 354
Natural Science, a Graduated Course of, Benjamin Loewy, 271
Nature, Haunts of, H. W. S. Worsley-Benison, 173
Nebulae, Cometic, Prof. A. W. Riicker, F.R.S., on, 583
Nematode, Metamorphosis and Migration of a Free, Moniez,
563
Neolithic Objects discovered at Ranchi, 230
; Netto's (Dr.) Process for the Manufacture of Aluminium from
j CryoHte, Prof. Bedson, 587
I Neville (F. H.) and C. T. Heycockon Raoult's Method applied
I to Alloys, 587
! Neville and Heycock on Alloys, 628
New Code and Science Teaching, the, Dr. J. H. Gladstone,
F.R.S., I
New England, Meteorology in, 595
New Guinea : Ascent of Summits of Owen Stanley Range by
Dr. Macgregor, 308, 449, 551 ; Signor Lorie's Scientific
Investigations in, 445
New South Wales : Proposed Exploration of Interior of, 182 ;
Records of the Geological Survey of, 254 ; Royal Society of,
263
New Zealand : Meteorological Report for, 14 ; Volcanic Activity
in. Mount Ruapehu, 179; the Forest Flora of, T. Kirk,
W, Botting Hemsley, F.K.S., 388
XXVI
INDEX
{Nature, Nov. 28, iJ
Newall (Robert Stirling, F.R.S.), Death of, 13; Obituary Notice
cr, 59
Newall Telescope Syndicate, Preliminary Report of the, 114
Newcastle and District, Hand-book of, 479
Newcastle-on-Tyne, Meeting of the British Association at, 349
Newsholme (A.), Elements of Vital Statistics, 145
Newton's Natural Philosophy, an Attempt to apply to Chemistry
one of Ihe Principles of. Prof. D. Mendeleeff, 354
Nicaise (M.), Physiology of the Trachea, 612
Nichols (E. L. ), Spectro-Photometric Comparison of Sources of
Artificial Illumination, 404
Nicholson (Sir Arthur), Primary Technical Education in
Hungary, 164
Nickel and Steel, Alloys of, James Riley, 58
Night-Clouds, Luminous, D.J. Rowan, 151
Night-Clouds, Shining, an Appeal for Observations, T. W.
Backhouse, 594
Nilson (Prof), the Vapour-Density of Aluminium Chloride, 596
Nitrate of Soda and the Nitiate Country, Hon. Ralph Aber-
cromby, 186, 308
Nitric Acid Vapour, Experiments on Combustion in, Dr. P. T.
Austen, 45
Nitrogen Compounds, the Magnetic Rotation of, Dr. W. H.
Perkin, F.R.S., 166
Nitrogen, the Fixation of Atmospheric, M. Berthelot, 539
Nitrogen, the Formation of Earths containing, Miintz and
Marcano, 48
Nitrogen, Influence of Gypsum ar.d Clay on Fixation, &€., of,
Pechard, 539
Nitrogen, Ring Formula containing, 370
Nitrogen in Soils, Loss and Gain in, P. P. Deherain, 48
Nitrogen in Vegetation, Sources of, 332 ; W. Mattieu Williams,
394
Nitroso- Camphor, the Oxidizing Action of, under the Influence
of Light, 384
Noctilucous Clouds, Prof John Le Conte, 544
Nodon (Albert), Electric Phenomena Produced by Solar Radia-
tion, 384
Nomenclature of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons, M. Calderon, 369
Norman (Rev. A. M.) and Dr. G. S. Brady, Monograph of the
Marine and Fresh-water Ostracoda of the North Atlantic and
of North-Western Europe, 364
Northauiptonshire, the Middle Lias of, Beeby Thompson, 341
Northfleet Series Electric Tramway, 39
Northumberland in Prehistoric Times, Rev. G. Rome Hall on,
633
Norway : Earthquake in, 133 ; the Norwegian Cod Fishery,
229 ; Avalanche on Josen Fjord, 229 ; Discovery of Iron
Age Objects in, 283 ; Colour of Eyes and Hair in, Abbo and
Faye, 285 ; on the Crystalline Schists of, Dr. A. Geikie,
F.R.S., 608
Nose-blackening as a Preventive of Snow-Blindness, Rev.
Henry Bernard, 438
Nova Zembla, Dr. J. Kinunen's Exploration of, 254
Nuclein, Prof Kossel, 119
Number Seven, some Properties of the, R. Tucker, 115
Nuovo Giornale Botanico Italiano, 92, 334
Oak Leaf, on the Shape of the, and the Leaves of the Guelder
Rose, Sir John Lubbock, F.R.S., 611
Obermiiller (Dr.), a New Reaction for Cholesterin, 288
Observatories : the Proposed Vatican Astronomical Observatory,
84 ; the Annual Visitation of the Greenwich Observatoiy,
139; Stonyhurst College Observatory, 164; Oxford Univer-
sity Observatory, 205 ; Mauritius Observatory, 230 ; Vienna
Observatory, 329; Hong Kong Observatory, 351; Jubilee
Observatory at Pulkowa, 401 ; Publications of the Potsdam
Observatory, 482 ; Yale College Observatory, 448 ; Algiers
Observatory, 539 ; Mr. Tebbutt's Observatory, Windsor,
New South Wales, 550; Astronomical Observatories, Geo.
' H. Boehmer, 597 ; Natal Observatory, 655 ; Rousdon Me-
teorological Observatory, 163 ; Blue Hill Meteorological Ob-
servatory, 283 ; Ben Nevis Observatory, 350, 35 1 ; i'roposed
Meteorological Observatory at Perim, 516
Ocean Currents, the Chemistry of, Dr. John Gib£on, 84
Oklahoma, 16
01, the Use of the Suffix, 370
Olenellus Fauna in North America and Europe, the, C. D.
Walcott, 310
Oligcclaela, Freshwater, F. E. Ecddard, 611
Omo, the River, Outflow of the, Giulio Borelli, 165, 353
Omond (R. T.), Atmospheric Electricity, 102
Cpenchows^ki (Dr.), the Movement and Innervation of the
Stomach, 240
Oppenheim (Ir. H.), Comet 1S89 ^ (Brooks), 328
Optics: a Refracticn Goniometer, A. P. Trotter. 71 ; Inter-
mittent Vision, Ccueloux, 86; the Magnetic Rotation of
Plane of Polarization of Light in Doubly- Refracting Bodies,
A. W. Ward, 117 ; Geometrical Optics, Prof. S. P. Thomp-
son, 190 ; the Use of the Biquaitz, A. W. Waid, 191 ;
Optical Torque, Prof Silvanus P. Thompson, 232, 257 ; the
Closed Eye in Microscopic Vision, M. Landerer, 282 ; Indi-
rect Vision, Kirscbmann, 373 ; Mechanism of Photodermatic
and Photogenic Functions in Siphon of Pholas dadylus,
Raphael Dubois, 384; Analysis of the Light diffused by the
Sky, Crova, 563 ; on the Relation between Brachistochrones
and Ray-Paths, Prof I'.vtrett, F.R.S., 584
Orchids, Prof H. G. Reichenbach's Collection of, 253
Organic Analysis, Commercial, Alfred H. Allen, Dr. C. R.
Alder Wright, F.R.S., 289
Oriental Congress, the International, 536
Oriental Races, on the Natural Colour of Skin in certain. Dr. J.
Beddoe, F.R.S., 633
Oriental Studies, a New School of, 251
Origin ard Age of the Highlands of Scotland and the West of
Ireland, Recent Researches into the. Dr. Archibald Geikie,
F.R.S., 299, 320
Orion, Spectrum of Great Nebula in, William Huggins,
F R.S., and Mrs. Huggins, 405, 429
Ormerod (Eleanor A."), Notes and Descriptions of a Few In-
jurious Farm and Fruit Insects of South Africa, 385
Ornithology : Sailing Flight of the Albatross, R. E. Froude,
102 ; Sailing Flight of Large 1 irds over Lard, 518 ; Dr. R.
Courtenay, 573 ; Does the Cuckoo ever Hatch its own Eggs?,
133 ; Appearance of Pastor rosats in Bulgaria, i 79 ; a Cordial
Recognition, W. J. Stillman, 245 ; the Presenation of the
Eider in Sweden, 254; Frionodtaa tuwtoniaim 2iTid Acantk:za
sqvaviata, De Vis, 327 ; Omithclogy in Italy, Pi of. Giglioli,
549 ; Report to the British Association en the Ol seivations
made at Lighthouses and Light-^essels en the Migration of
Birds, John Cordeaux, 556 ; Ornithological Obsenatories in
Saxony 577
Oshima, the Volcanic Island of, 179
Cs:heimer(G. R.), Tainter's Graphophone, 167 - -
Ostracoda, Monograph of the Marine and Fresh-water, of the
North Atlantic and of North-W^estern Europe, Dr. G. S.
Brady and Rtv. A. M. Norman, 364
Otto (Dr.), Pinol, an Tomer of Camphor, 655
Owens College, Manchester, 207
Oxalomolybdic Acid Discovered by M. Pechard, 107
Oxford, Halo of the Moon and I'ormation of Peculiarly-shaped
Cloud., at. Otto V. Darbishire, 55
Oxford and its Professors, 637
Oxford, University Extension, Programme of Second Summer
Meeting, 281
Oxford University Observatory, 205
Ox)gtn Lii.es in the Solar Spectrum, on the Telluric Origin of,.
J. Janssen, 104
Oyster Culture, Swedish, 229
Ozone Paper, Improved Method of Preparing, Dr. C. IL
Black] ey, 94
Pacific, Astronomical .Society of the, 231
Pacific, Eastern, British Annexation of Humphrey and Pvierson
Islands, 483
Bade (L.), Quantitative Analysis of Bicarbonate of Soda in
Milk, 336
Palaeolithic Age in Italy, the, P. Castelfranco, 659
Palseoliihic Implements from the Hills near Dunstable, Worth-
ington G. Smith, 151
Palaeolithic Man in America, W^. J. McGee, 163
Palaeontology : Discovery of Supposed Fossils at Ilornsey, 14 ;
Discovery of Antediluvian Possil Mammals at Ixelles, Michel
Mourlon, 21 ; Palacntolcgy of Sturgeons, A. Smith Wood-
ward, 186 ; Chelonian Remains from Wealden and Purbeck,.
R. Lydekker, 238; Mastodons found at Tournan, 239; Sys-
teme Silurien du Centre de la Boheme, Joachim Barrande,
267 ; the Fossil Human Bones at Gourdon, Dr. Hamy, 285 ;
Nature f Nov. 28, if
INDEX
XXV 11
Structural Peculiarities of Colymbosaurus, Prof. H. G. Seeley,
F.R.S.,653
Talermo, the Circolo Matematico of, 316
Palestine, Meteorology of, Proposed Observations at Tiberias,
Dr. Torrance, 654
Panmixia, Prof. Weismann's Use of the Word, 610
Paper-making, a Textbook of, C. F. Cross and E. J. Sevan,
414
iParis : Academy of Sciences, 23,48, 71, 95, 118, 144, 167, 191,
215, 239, 263, 287, 311, 336, 383, 407, 432. 456, 484, 539,
563, 588, 612, 636, 659; Paris Exhibition, Opening of, 44 ;
Horticulture at the Exhibition, 60 ; Monaco Exhibit at the
Exhibition, 61 ; the Lifts in the Eiffel Tower, 261 ; the
Terrestrial Globe at the Paris Exhibition, 278 ; Congress on
Celestial Photography, 252 ; Congress of the Botanical Society
of France, 252 ; Zoological Congress in, 252 ; Congress
on Hygiene and Demography a% 252, 372 ; International
Agricultural Congress at, 252 ; Congress of Physiological
Psychology, 304 ; Paris Natural History Museum, 326 ; the
•Fetes in Connection with Opening of Sorbonne, 372 ; the
fleeting of the Iron and Steel Institute at, 421 ; Central
"Meteorological Office, M. Anger, 421 ; W. H. Preece,
IF.R. S., on Telephonic Communication between London
and Paris, 631
Pasteur (M.) and Prof. Huxley, on Hydrophobia, 224
Pasteur (M.), Sir Henry Roscoe, F.R.S., and, 578
Pasteur Institute : Mansion House Fund for, 177, 537; at Rio
Janeiro, 208; Letter from M. Pasteur, 278; at Rome, Pro-
posed, 326
Pastor rosetis in Bulgaria, Appearance of, 179
Patches of Prismatic Light, C. S. Scott, 224
Pathology, Text-book of. Prof. D. J. Hamilton, 270
Peal (S. E.), Sailing Flight of Large Birds over Land, 518
Pearl Fishery, Tuticorin, Edgar Thurston, 174
Ptfchard (M. ): Oxalomolybdic Acid Discovered by, 107; In-
fluence of Gypsum and Clay on Fixation, &c., of Nitrogen,
539
Pekelharing(M. ), Destruction of Anthrax Virus in Subcutaneous
Tissues of Rabbits, 312
Pembrey (M. S.), the Accurate Determination of Carbonic Acid
and Moisture in Air, 70
Pepper-feeding on Birds, Effects of, Dr. Sauermann, 192
Peracca (M. G. ), the Private Laboratory of Marine Zoology at
Rapall >, 302
Percy (Dr. John, F.R.S.), Obituary Notice of, Prof W. C.
Roberts Austen, F. R.S , 206
Perim, Proposed Meteorological Observatory at, 516
Periodical Press Index, 107
Perkin (Dr. W. H., F.R.S.) : the Magnetic Rotation of Nitrogen
Compounds, 166 ; Melting-points of Salicylic and Anisic
Compounds, 335 ; Action of Propionyl and Butyryl Chloride
on Phenol, 335
Perman (E. P.), Boiling-points of Sodium and Potassium, 94
Perrier (Prof. E.), the Protection of Fishermen against Porpoises,
402
Perry (Prof F.R.S.) : on a Variable Standard of Self-induction,
586 ; on a Hot Twisted Strip Voltmeter, 586
Perseids, August, of 1889, 420
Peru and Bolivia, H. Guillaume on, 630
Peruvian Arc, the, 558
Pest, a New, of Farm Crops, Allen Harker, 1 1
Petermann's Mitteilungen, 64, 65, 182, 353, 446
Peters (Prof.), New Minor Planet, 448
Petit (Framjee Dinshaw) : Endowment of Laboratory for
Scientific Research by, 44 , 133
Petit, Heats of Combustion of Carbons, 167
Petrie (W. M. Flinders) : Ancient Egyptian Funeral Wreaths,
211 ; Classified Cataloguing, 392 ; on Wind Action in Egypt,
629
Petrographical Tables, an Aid to the Microscopical Determina-
tion of Rock-forming Minerals, Prof. H. Rosenbusch, Prof.
John W. JudH, F.R.S., 313
Petroleum, William Anderson on, 512
Petlersson (Prof), the Vapour-Density of Aluminium Chloride,
595
Pharmaceutical Conference at Durham, 479
Pharmacy in Bulgaria, 306
Phenacodus and the Athecse, Lydekker on, Pro*". E. D. Cope,
298
Phenacodus, Skeleton of, 57
Phenomena, Sudden, the Observation of, S. P. Langley, 404
Phenylindoles, the I'ormation of. Dr. W. H. Ince, 166
Philadelphia, Centenary of American Philosophical Society at,
576
Philology, the Avarian Language, Baron Uslar, 283
Philosophy of Mysticism, Carl du Prel, 28
Phipson (W. W.), on Central Station Heating and Power
Supply, 631
Phisalix (C), Experiments on Poison of Terrestrial Salamander,
484
Phonautograph, Researches on French Accent with, Dr. Prings-
heim, 168
Phormium tenax as a Fibrous Plant, 390
Phoronis, a New Species of, 384
Phosphonium, on the Existence of Sulphate of, A. Besson, 659
Photography : Photographic Determination of the Brightness of
the Stars, 15 ; Photographic .Study of the Stellar Spectra
Conducted at the Harvard College Observatory, 17; Geo-
logical Photography, Osmund W. Jeffs, 34 ; Mr. J. Gale's
Photographs at Camera Club, 44. ; Chromatic Photo,;raphy
by Use of Coloured Glasses, G. Lippmann, 48 ; the Dark Flash
in Lightning Photographs, G. M. Whipple, 70 ; Muybridge
Photographs, Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S., 78, 126;
Dictionary of Photography, E. J. Wall, lOl ; Photography
of Lightning, Dr. Hoffert, 190; Traite Encyclopcdique de
Photographic, Charles Fabre, 244 ; Les Levers Photogra-
phiques et la Photographic en Voyage, Dr. Gustave Le Bon,
245 ; the International Annual of Anthony's Photographic
Bulletin, 245 ; Photographic Society of Japan, 327 ; Photo-
graphic Star gauging, A. M Gierke, 344 ; Photographic Con-
vention of the United Kingdom, 401 ; Another Photographic
Survey of the Heavens, 417 ; Reduction of Rutherfurd's
Photographs of the Pleiades and Proesepe, 448 ; Telescopes
for Stellar Photography, Sir Howard Grubb, F.R.S., 441,
645; Captain Abney, C.B., F. R S., on Photography, 469 ;
Use of the Carrier Piger-n in Photography, 537 ; on the
Quantity of Deposit of Silver produced by the Development
on a Photographic Plate in Terms of the Intensity of Light
acting, Captain W. de W. Abney, F.R.S., 584; Lord
Rayleigh on Pin-hole Photography, 584 ; the Photographic
Quarterly, 595 ; Astro-photographic Conference, 597 ; Inter-
national Congress of Celestial Photography, 597 ; Prof.
Liveing on Eikonogen, a New Developer, 587
Photometer, Bunsen's, D. M. Lewis, 174
Photometry, Practical, a Guide to the Study of the Measure-
ment of Light, W. J. Dibdin, 572
Photometry, Spectro- Photometric Comparison of Sources of
Artificial Illumination, Nichols and Franklin, 404
Phylogeny, on the Meristems of Ferns as a Study in. Prof F. O.
Bower, 6io
Physical Geography : the Secular Rising of the Baltic Coasts,
108 ; Mean Altitude of Continents and Mean Depth of
Oceans, A. de Tillo, 239
Physical Laboratory fitted up at Fettes College, Edinburgh,
627
Physical Science, Suggestions for a Course of Elementary In-
struction in. Prof tl. E. Armstrong, F.R.S., 600
Physical Science, Teaching of, in Putilic Schools, 589
Physical Society, 70, 93, 143, 190, 262
Physical Society, Proposed Liverpool, 627
Physical Terms, Japanese Vocabulary of, 306
Physics : the Science and Art Examination in, 102 ; Prof von
"Crank," 244; Magnetic Leakage in Dynamos, H. S.
Carhart, 559 ; Improved Clark Standard Cell with Low
Temperature Coefficients, H. S. Carhart, 559 ; Mercurial
Thermometers, Rogers and Woodward, 559
Physiology : Influence of Digestive Juices in Virus of Tetanus,
Prof G. Sormani, 21 ; the Ferment Action of Bacteria, Drs.
Lauder Brunton and Macfadyen, 21 ; a Text-book of Human
Physiology, Dr. Austin Flint, 74 ; Nuclein, Prof Kossel, 119 ;
Formation of Horny Layer of Skin, Dr. Blaschko, 119; the
Muscular Sense, Dr. Goldscheider, 119; Apparatus lor Ex-
amining the Bladder, Dr. Nitze, 192 ; the Movement and
Innervation of the Stomach, Dr. Openchowski, 240 ; Physio-
logical Society, 240 ; Proposed Chair of Physiology at Uni-
versity College, Dundee, 252 ; Influence of Temperature
upon Working Power of Muscles, Prof Gad, 288 ; Destruc-
tion of Anthrax Virus in Subcutaneous Tissues of Rabbits,
XXV 111
INDEX
, [Nature, Nov. 28, 1 5
M. Pekelharing, 312; Physiological Diagrams, G. Davies,
317 ; Heat-Regulation in Man, Prof. Ziintz, 408; Darwinism,
Alfred Russel Wallace, Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S., 566 ;
the Senses of Criminals, 596 ; Physiology of the Trachea,
M. Nicaise, 612; Penetration of Spermatozoids into Egg
of Frog, M. Massart, 635
Pickering (S. U.): Heat of Neutralization of Sulphuric Acid,
94 ; the Expansion of Liquids, 166 ; the Nature of Solutions,
166; Use or Abuse of Empirical Formulae and of Differentia-
tion by Chemists, 343 ; on Some Effects of Lightning, 415
Picton (Harold), a Chimpanzee's Humour, 224
Pidgeon (Daniel), Atmospheric Electricity, 77
Pigeon, Carrier, in Photography, Use of, 537
Pilot Charts of Noith Atlantic Ocean, 107, 305, 401, 578, 595
Pin-hole Photography, Lord Rayleigh, F. R.S., on, 584
Pinol, Drs. Wallach and Otto, 655
Pisciculture : Artificial Fertilization of Ova, Thomas Scott, 163 ;
Acclimatization of Salmon, 282; Lake Trout Reared at
Champ de I'Air, Prof. Blanc, 422 ; the Natural Oyster Banks
of Brittany, Bouchon-Brandely, 481
Pitkin (James) and Niblett's Fire-damp Meter, 66
Placenta, Mammalian, Minot and Allis on, 419
Placentation of the Dugong, Sir W. Turner, F.R.S., 611
Planets : New Minor Planets, 135, 424 ; Prof. Peters, 448 ; the
Minor Planet Victoria, 109 ; the Planet Uranus, R. A.
Gregory, 235
Plants, the Uses of, G. S. Boulger, 292
Plants, Dried, a Method of Mounting, Dr. John Wilson, 438
Plants, Report of the British Association Committee on the
Disappearance of Native Plants from their Local Habitats,
533
Platanus Genus, the Origin of the, 61 > • v .
Playfair (Consul-General), the Dangers of Viticulture '^ in
Algeria, 423
Playfair (Right Hon. Sir Lyon, F.R. S. ) ; on Universities, 204 ;
Subjects of Social Welfare, 637 ; I3imetallism, 638 ; Dis-
placement of Labour by Modern Inventions, 638 ; Technical
Education, 639
Pleiades and Praesepe, Reduction of Rutherfurd's Photpgraphs
of the, 448
Pleistocene Papers, 609
Plumandon and Colonies, Synoptic Table of Weather Predic-
tion, 61
Poison in Cured Fish, Prize offered by Russian Academy of
Sciences for Inquiring into, 178
Poison of Terrestrial Salamander, Experiments on, C. Phisalix,
484
Polarization, Elliptical, by Reflection. A. Cornu, 71
Polarization, Recent Researches on, Electro-ma;jnetic Rotatory,
Prof. Kundt, 96
Polarized Light, Notes on, Prof. S. P. Thompson, 143
Political Economy : Mathematical Method in, Rudolf Auspitz
and Richard Lieben, 242 ; Mathematical Theory of, Leon
Walras, 434 ; Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth's Address in Section F
at the iiritish Association, 496
Pont eder a azures, W. C. Sowerby, 327
Porpoises, the Protection of Fishermen against. Prof. E. Perrier,
402
Portugal, Botany in, 253
Posewitz (Dr. Theodor), Borneo, 49
Potassium Iodide, Electrolysis of, E. F. Mondy, 417
Potsdam Ob-ervatory, Publications of the, 482
Pouchet (Georges), the Oceanic Sardine, 384 ; Currents of
North Atlantic, 577
Pouff (P. ), a New Form of Siemens Furnace, 561
Poulton (E. B., F.R.S.) : on the Supposed Transmission of Ac-
quired Characters, 610; Weismann's Essays on Heredity, &c.,
618 ; the Yellow Powder from Cocoon of C/isiocampa netistria
under Microscope, 635 ; Change of Colour in Living Larvae
of Henicrophila abrtiptaria, 635
Preece (William Henry, F.R.S.) : and Julius Maier, the Tele-
phone, Prof. A. Gray, 200 ; on the Relative Effects of Steady
and Alternate Currents on Different Conductors, 586 ; and
Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S., on a New Thermometric Scale,
587 ; on Telephonic Communication between London and
Paris, 631
Prefixes bi- and di-, the Use of the, 370
Prehistoric Flora of Swe.lcn, on the Geological History of the,
Dr. A. G. Nathorst, 433
Prehistoric Times in Northumberland, Rev. G. Rome Hall on,
633
Prel (Carl du), Philosophy of Mysticism, 28
Prestwich (Prof. Joseph, F.R.S.), the Westleton Beds of the
East Anglian Coast, 238
Preyer (Prof.), Reflexes in the Embryo, 24.
Priestman's Oil engines for Blowing Fog-signals, 351
Prime, Test of Divisibility by any, Robt. W. D. Christie, 247
Pringsheim (Dr.), Researches with Phonautograph on French
Accent, 168
Priority of Chinese Inventions, 165
Prismatic Light, Patches of, C. S. S^ott, 224
Prjevalsky Memorial, the Proposed, 547
Proceedings of Linnean Society of New South Wales, 135
Professors, Oxford and its, 637
Projectiles, Chronograph for Measuring Velocity of, Captain
Holden, R.A.,66
Proposals of the Commissioners for the Exhibition of 185 1, 265
Prospector's Hand-book, the, J. W. Anderson, 293
Protection and Free Trade, Sociology of, F. L. Ward, 558
Protozoa, Psychology of. Prof. Geo. J. Romanes, F.R.S., 541
Provencal Population, Cephalic Index of, Fallot, 285
Provencals, Pagan Practices among Modern, Dr. Ferand, 562
Prussia, Meteorology in. Discus-ion of Instructions for Obser-
vers of Prussian Meteorological Institute, Dr. Wagner, 334
Psychic Life of Micro-organisms, Alfred Binet, 541
Psychology, Physiological, the Paris Congress of, 304, 372
Psychology of Protozoa, Prof. Geo. J. Romanes, F.R.S., 541
Pulkowa Observatory lubilee, 401
Puma, Taming the, Wm. Lant Carpenter, 542
Purification of Sewage by Electrolysis, W. Webster, 631
Quarter Squares, the Method of, Joseph Blater, J. W. L.
Glaisher, F.R.S., 573; Prof. G. Carey Foster, F.R.S., 593
Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, 116
Quartz, Expansion of, H. Le Chatelier, 118
Quartz Fibres, C. V. Boys, F.R.S., 247
Quartz as an Insulator, 0. V. Boys, F.R.S., 71
Quatrefages (A. de), Introduction a I'Etude des Races Humaines,
407
Queen, the, and Her Majesty's Commissioners of the Exhibition
of 1851, 25
Queensland, Northern, Proposed Exploration of, by Mr. A.
Weston, 308
Quinquaud (M.), Quantity of Water in Blood, 144
Radiation, Experiments on Electro-magnetic, including some on
the Phase of Secondary Waves, Fred. T. Trouton, 398
Raffinose, M. Berthelot, 612
Kagadia crisia, Note on, Sydney B, J. Skertchly, 10
Railway Reading Lamp, an Automatic Electric, 373
Railway, the Working and Management of an English, Geo.
Findlay, 219
Railways, Ship, General Andrews, 108
Rain, Black, the Earl of Rosse, F.R.S., 202
Rain Clouds on Lake Titicaca. Hon. Ralph Abercromby, 12 ;
Dr. Julius Hann, 78
Rainbow, a Brilliant, E. Burton Durham, 367
Rainfall, British, 1888, G. J. Symons, F.R.S., 437
Rainfall, on the Determination of the Amount of, Prof. Cleve-
land Abbe, 585
Rainfall, Prof. Loomis on, R. A. Gregory, 330
Kambaut (Arthur A.) : Japanese Clocks, 86 ; Meridian Observa-
tions of the Minor Planet Iris, 109
Rankin (Angus), St. Elmo's Fire on Ben Nevis, 439
Rankine (William J. M.), Useful Rules and Tables, 517
Raoult's Method Applied to Alloys, C. T. Heycock and F. H.
Neville on, 587
Rapallo, the Private Laboratory of Marine Zoology at. Dr. L.
Camerano, M. G. Peracca, and D. Rosa, 302
Ray (Saradaranjan), a Treatise on Elementary Algebra and
Algebraical Artifices, 9
Rayleigh (Lord, F.R.S.) : the Sailing Flight of the Albatross,
34 ; Iridescent Crystals, 227 ; on Pin-hole Photography, 584 ;
on Tones of Bells, 584
Reade (T. Mellard), .Saxicava Borings and Valves in a Boulder
Clay Erratic, 246
Nature, Nov. 28, 1889]
INDEX
XXIX
Reading Habit in America, Decay of the, W. C. Wilkinson,
548
Reale Istituto Lombardo, 21, 92, 282, 635
Rebeur-Paschwitz (Dr. E. von), the Earthquake of Tokio,
April 18, 1889, 294
Recognition, a Cordial, W. J. Stillmann, 245
Reefs, Coral, the Structure and Distribution of : Dr. H. B.
Guppy, 53, 102, 222; W. Usborne Moore, 203,271; Dr.
■ John Murray, 222, 294; Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 222;
P. W. Bassett-Smith, 223
Rees (Dr. G. O., F.R.S.), Death of, 133
Regenerative Gas Lamp, a Nevir Form of, 82
Reichel (Dr.), Experiment with Water- Hammer, 72
Reichenbach (Prof. Heinrich Gustav) : Obituary Notice of, 83 ;
his Collection of Orchids, 253
Reid (E. Weymouth), Inclusion of the Foot in the Abdominal
Cavity of a Duckling, 54
Reid (Thos.), Intermittent Sensations, 318
Reinach (Salomon), the Writings and Opinions of Samuel
Zarza, 68
Reischek (A.), the Wandering Albatross, 306
Reiset (J.), Ravages of Cockchafer and its Larva, 23
Remsen (Ira), Inorganic Chemistry, 339
Renard (A. F. ), A. de Lapparent's Cours de Mineralogie, 460
Rendiconti del R. Accademia dei Lincei, 108
Rendiconti del Real Istituto Lombardo, 21, 92, 282, 635
Reptilian Orders, G. A. Boulenger, 5
Research, Endowment of, the Framjee Dinshaw Petit Labora-
tory at Bombay, 44
Research, Scientific, Danish Academy Prizes offered for, 372
Research, Scientific, the Elizabeth Thompson Science Fund,
209
Residuals of Mercury, O. T. Sherman, 63
Resin, Spinifex, J. H. Maiden, 595
Reunion, the Extinct Starling of {Fregilupus varius), R.
Bowdler Sharpe, 177
Revue d'AnthropoIogie, 68, 285, 362, 659
Rhodium, New .'!',eries of Double Oxalates of, M. Leidie on a,
254
Rib, on the Occasional Eighth True, in Man, Prof. D. J. Cun-
ningham, 632
Richardson (Dr.) : on the Action of Light on the Hydracids,
587 ; on a New Self- Registering Actinometer, 587
Ricketts (Dr. Chas. ), a Cause of Contortions of Strata, 67
Riley (C. V.), the Fruit Pest Curculio in America, 373
Riley (James), Alloys of Nickel and Steel, 58
Rimelin (Dom B.), the Probable Cause of Frondal Bifurcations
in Ferns, 563
Ring Formulae containing Nitrogen, 370
Rink (Dr.), Recent Danish Researches in Greenland, 64
Rio Janeiro, the Pasteur Institute at, 208
Risley (H. H.), on the Study of Ethnology in India, 633
Rittaikikagaku (iii.). Prof. Kikuchi, 627
River-Eel, the Natural History of the, !]fe(ni!e Blanchard, 383
Rivers, Process of Transformation into Marshes of, M. Tanfilieff,
Rivers, on the Transporting Power of Water in the Deepening
of, W. H. Wheeler, 631
Rivista Scientifico-Industriale, 286
Roberts (Thos.), the Upper Jurassic Clays of Lincolnshire, 167
Roberts- Austen (Prof. W. C, F.R.S.), Obituary Notice of
Dr. John Percy, F.R.S., 206
Robinson (Edward E.), Note on some Hailstones that fell at
Liverpool on Sunday, June 2, 1889, 151
Robinson (Admiral Sir Spencer), Death of, 326
Rock Cod, Turtle-headed, 77
Rock Ferry, Unusually Large Hailstones at, 133
Rocky Mountain Goat, Dr. Grinnell, 62
Rodger (W. J.), Thiophosphoryl Fluoride, 94
Rogers (W. A.), Mercurial Thermometers, 559
Roll (Dr. Julius), Ascent of Mount Rigi in Cascade Mountains,
598
Rollet (Etienne), the Large Bones of the Anthropoid Apes, 287
Roman Wall, Erimts hispanicus (?), on the. Dr. Sydney H.
Vines, 544
Romanes (Prof. Geo. J., F.R.S.): on the Mental Faculties of
Anthropopithecus calvus, 160 ; Psychology of Protozoa, 541 ;
on Specific Characters as Useful and Indifferent, 609 ;
Darwinism, 645
Romanes (Dr. Robert), Death of, 60
Rome, Proposed Pasteur Institute at, 326
Roosen and Behrend (Drs.), Synthesizalion of Uric Acid, 62
Roosevelt (G. W.), Treatment of Vine-diseases in France, 446
Rosa (D.), the Private Laboratory of Marine Zoology at Rapallo,
302
Roscoe (Sir H. E., M.P., F.R.S.): and C. Schorlemmer, a
Treatise on Chemistry, Vol. iii. Part v., 31 ; on the Relations
between Science and Art, 44 ; the New Technical Education
Bill, 73, 91 ; Aluminium, 182 ; the Life Work of a Chemist,
578 ; Watts's Dictionary of Chemistry, 640
Rosenbusch (Prof. H.), Petrographical Tables, an Aid to the
Microscopical Determination of Rock-forming Minerals, i'rof.
John W. Judd, F.R.S., 313
Rosenthal (Prof.), on making Flames non-Luminous, 72
Ross (Janet), the Land of Manfred, 413
Ross {W. Gordon), a Manual of Practical Solid Geometry, 125
Rosse (the Earl of, F.R.S.), Black Rain, 202
Rosset's Explorations of Indo-Chino, 599
Rotation Period of the Sun, Henry Crew, 550
Rotch (A. L.) : the Meteorological Services in Europe, 117 ; the
Meteorological Service in Belgium, 311 ; on the Meteoro-
logical Service in Holland, 383
Rousdon Meteorological Observatory, 163
Rousseau (M.), a New Dioxide of Cobalt, 307
Rowan (D. J.), Luminous Night Clouds, 151
Royal Academy Banquet, Sir Henry Roscoe on the Relations
between Science and Art, 44
Royal Botanic Society, 327
Royal Botanic Society, the Founder of the, 304
Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh, Reports from Ihe
Laboratory of the, 411
Royal Commission on a University for London, I2I, 149
Royal Danish Academy of Sciences, 372
Royal Geographical Society, 210, 353
Royal Horticultural Society, 162, 577
Royal Meteorological Institution at Utrecht, 447
Royal Meteorological Society, 94, 238
Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh, 306
Royal Society, 21, 68, 92, 117, 189, 212, 405, 653 ; Conversa-
zione, 65 ; New Fellows of, 162 ; the Ladies' Conversazione of
the, 210
Royal Society of Edinburgh, 304, 655
Royal Society of New South Wales, 336, 351, 432, 563
Royal Society of Queensland, 327
Ruapehu (Mount), Volcanic Activity in, 179
RUcker(Prof. A. W., F.R.S.): the Magnetic Disturbing Forces of
British Isles, 66 ; on Cometic Nebulae, 583 ; on the Instruments
used in the Recent Magnetic Survey of France, 584 ; and Prof.
T. E. Thorpe, F.R.b., on the Relation between the Geo-
logical Constitution and the Magnetic State of the United
Kingdom, 585, 609
Russia: Expeditions Projected by the Russian Geographical
Society, 65, 165, 230 ; Naphtha as Fuel in Middle Russia, 163 ;
Russian Academy of Science', 178: Intensity of Heat in
Russia, 253 ; Russian Chemical and Physical Society, 326 ;
Geology in, 403
Rustic Walking Tours in the London Vicinity, 254
Ruthenium, Atomic Weight of, A. Joly, 72
Rutherfurd's Photographs of the Pleiades and Prsesepe, Reduc-
tion of, 448
Safford (Prof. T. H.), Right Ascensions of North Circumpolar
Stars, 63
Sage (H. W.), and Cornell University, 179
Sailing Flight of the Albatross, A. C. Baines, 9 ; Lord Rayleigh,
F.R.S., 34
Sailing Flight of Large Birds over Land, S. E. Peal, 518 ; Dr.
R. Courtenay, 573
St. Andrews University, 547
St. Elmo's Fire on Ben Nevis, Angus Rankin, 439
Salamander, Experiments on Poison of Terrestrial, C. Phisalix,
484
Salmon, Acclimatization of, 282
Salmon Smolts, Illegal Sale of, 45
Salvadori (Tommaso), Hibernation of Martins in the Argentine
Republic, 223
Samos, Dr. C. Forsyth Major's Discoveries in the Isle of, 400^
XXX
INDEX
[Natttre, Nov. 28, 1889
San Jose Meteorological Institute, 84
Sand Showers, Prof. P. F. Denza, 286
Sanderson (Prof. Burdon, F.R.S.): Opening Address in Section
1) (Biology) at the British Association, 521 ; on Evolution
and Morphology, 521
Sandhurst and VVoolwich, Examinations for, 43
Sanitary Conference at Worcester, 548
Sanitary Institute, 536, 537 ; Congress of, 326
Sanitary Reform at Benares, Native Opposition to, 44
Sanitary Science, Diplomas in Public Health, 516
Sanitary and Technical Purposes, Examination of Water for,
Henry Leffmann, 293
Saprolegnia, Prof. Hartog on the Structure of, 6n
Sardine Fisheries on the Coast of Brittany, 264 ; the Oceanic
Sardine, 384
Saturn's Ring, White Spot on. Prof. Holden, 15 ; M. Terby,
307
Sauermann (Dr.), Effects of Pepper-feeding on Birds, 192
Saxicava Borings and Valves in a Boulder Clay Erratic, T.
Mellard Reade, 246
Saxony, Waterspout in, 84 ; Ornithological Observatories in,
577
Sayce (Prof A. H.), Babylonian the Language of Polite Society
in the Fifteenth Century B.C., 239
Scabiosa succissa, Trimorphism in, Arthur Turner, 643
Scania, Meteorite found at, 229
Scarlet Fever and Cow Disease, 55
Schists, Crystalline, of Norway, Dr. A. Geikie, F.R. S., 608
Schlagintweit (Adolph), Memorial to, 326
Sclater (Dr. P. L., F.R.S.), Bambangala, 54
Schlcesing (Th.) : Nitrification of Ammonia, 539; Air in the
Soil, 636
Schmidt (Dr. Carl), Zur Geologie der Schweizeralpen, 220
Schmidt (Dr. K. W. ), the Soil and Climate of German East
Africa, 46
Schneider (M.) : the Channel Bridge, 536 ; the Proposed Chan-
nel Bridge, 560
Schonland (Selmar), Weismann's Essays on Heredity, &c., 618
School of Oriental Studies, a New, 251
Schorlemmer (C, F.R.S.) and Sir H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S., a
Treatise on Chemistry, Vol. iii.. Part v., 31
Schuster (Prof Arthur, F.R.S. ), on the Passage of Electricity
through Gases, 585
Schwatka (Lieutenant), Cave-dwellers in Mexico, 208
Schweinfurth (Dr.), Journey to Hodeida, 182
Schweizeralpen, zur Geologie der. Dr. Carl Schmidt, 220
Science and Art Examination in Physics, 102
Science and Art, Sir Henry Roscoe on the Relations between,
44
Science Collections at South Kensington, 425, 565
Science^ Elementary Teaching of, 589, 599
Science in Elementary Schools, Report to the British Association
of the Committee on the Teaching of, Prof. Armstrong, 554
Science Examination Papers, R. Elliot Steel, 293
Science, French Association for the Advancement of, 394
Science, an Index to, J. Taylor Kay, 226 ; James Blake Bailey,
245
Science Lectures, Victoria Hall, 653
Science as She is Wrote, 556
Science Teaching, the New Code and, Dr. J. H. Gladstone,
F.R.S., I
Science, the Teaching of, Prof. Henry E. Armstrong, F.R.S.,
645
Scientia, Dinner to Prof. Eras. Darwin, 207
Scientific Education, the Vices of our, Prof. Minchin, 126
Scientific Research, Endowment of, the Framjee Dinshaw Petit
Laboratory at Bombay, 133
Scientific Works of Sir William Siemens, 409
Scientific Worthies, Dmitri Ivanowilsh Mendeleeff, Prof.
T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S., 193
Scotland : Scotch Fisheries Board, 106 ; Scottish Geographical
Magazine, 181, 598; Recent Researches into the Origin and
Age of the Highlands of, and the West of Ireland, Dr.
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S , 299, 320 ; Scottish Meteorological
Observatory, 304 ; Meteorology in, 326 ; Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society, 326 ; Report of the Committee appointed
by the British Association for the Purpose of co-operating
with, in making Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis,
535
Scott (C. S. ), Patches of Prismatic Light, 224
Scott (Thomas), Artificial Fertilization of Ova, 163 ; the-
Fertilization of the Ova of the Lemon Sole with the Milt of
the Turbot, 253
Seamen of the Merantile Marine, Colour-Blindness and Defective
Far-Sight among the, 438
Section Work at the British Association, Prof. Oliver J. Lodge,
F.R.S., 593
Sedgwick Prize Essay at Cambridge, 516 tf
Seed-Di«persion, Birds and, 305 I
Seeley (Prof H. G., F.R.S.): in Russia, 13; Structural Peca-*
liarities of Colymbosaurus, 653
Seismography : the Earlier Eruptions of Krakatab, Prof. John'
W. Judd, F.R.S., 365 ; the Supposed Connection between
Distant Earthquake Shocks, William White, 393
Seismology : in Italy, Prof Giulio Grablovitz, 246 ; Dr. H. J.
Johnston-Lavis, 294; an Earthquake, A. B. Sharpe, 294
the Recent Great Earthquake in Japan, 461 ; Prof. John
Milne's Ninth Report on the Earthquake and Volcanic
Phenomena of Japan, 608 ; Seismological Work in Japan,
Prof. John Milne, 656
Self Induction, Name for Unit of, Prof. Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S.,.
II
Self-induction, on a Valuable Standard of, Prof. Perry, F.R.S.,.
586
Selous (F. C), Mashona Land, 16
Sensations, Intermittent, Thos. Reid, 318
Sensations of Motion, our. Prof. A. Crum Brown, 449
Senses of Criminals, the, 596
Sentis, Meteorological Experiences on the, Dr. Assmann, 660
Sequence, an Unusual Geological, the Duke of Ariiyll, 642
Series Electric Traction, Northfleet Tramways, Edward Man-
ville, 630
Servia, Disafforestation in, 445
Service Chemistry, Vivian B. Lewes, 639
Seven, some Properties of the Number, R. Tucker, 115
Sewage and Fish, Willis Bund, 548
Sewage, Purification of, by Electrolysis, W. Webster, 631
Seymour (Dr.), the Hygiene of the Japanese House, 15
Sguario (Eusebio), an Italian Precursor of Franklin, 108
Shark off Ventnor, Capture of Large, 163
Sharpe (A. R. ), an Earthquake, 294
Sharpe (R. Bowdler), the Extinct Starling of Reunion [Freg/'-
lupus vai'ius), 177
Shaw (W. N.), Report to the British Association on the Present
State of our Knowledge in Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry,
555
Sheldon (Lilian), Maturation of Ovum in Cape and New Zea-
land Peripatus, 1 16
Sherman (O. T.), the Residuals of Mercury, 63
Shining Night Clouds, an Appeal for Observations, T. W.
Backhouse, 594
Ship Railways, General Andiews, 108
Shipley (A. E.), Weismann's Essays on Heredity, 6i8
Shufeldt (R. W.), on the Aquatic Habits of certain Land Tor-
toises, 644
Sibley (W. K.), on Left-leggedness, 632
Sideroxylon dulcifictim, D. Morris, 238
Siemens (Fredk.), the Application of Gas to Furnace-heating,.
.576
Siemens Furnace, a New Form of. Head and Pouff, 561
Siemens (Sir William, F.R.S.), the Scientific Works of, 409
Sigillaria, the, Grand'Eury, 48
Signals, on an Instrument for Measuring the Reaction Time to-
Sight and Sound, Francis Galton, F.R.S., 633
Sikawei Meteorological Observatory, Bulletin of, 253
Silicon, the Influence of, on the Properties of Steel, Hadfield,.
.587
Silks, Wild, in the East, Treatment of, 4!i.7
Silver, Action of Light on Allotropic, M. C. Lea, 404
Silver, on the Quantity of Deposit of. Produced by the Develop-
ment on a Photographic Plate in terms of the Intensity of
Light Acting, Captain W. de W. Abney, F.R.S., 584
Sinclair (A. C), Hand-book of Jamaica for 1889-90, 593
Skeleton of an English Dinosaur, the Entire, 324
Skeleton of Phenacodus, 57
Skertchley (Sydney B. J.), Note on Ragadia crisia, 10
Skin: Formation of Horny Layer of. Dr. Blaschko, 119 ; on
the Natural Colour of, in certain Oriental Races, 'Dr. J.
Beddoe, F.R.S., 633
Skraup and Wiegmann (Drs.), a New Amine, 14
Mature, Nov. 28, 1889]
INDEX
XXXI
11, Relation between Heiijht and Shape of, P, An n )n, 653
v-movin^ Meteor, Fine, W. F. DanninT, 5^^
.:h (Charles), Solutions of the E'cmples in a Treatise on
Algebra, 31
Smith (Prof. C. M'chie), on Atmospheric Electricity, 5S5
Smith (K. W.). a Shunt Transformer, 190
Smith (F. J.), Mechanical Illustration of Propagation of Soini-
wave, 620
Smith (Robert H.), Graphics, or the Art of Cilcalitioi by
Drawing Lines applied especially to Mechanical Engineering,
Prof. A. G. Greenhill. F.R.S., 50
Smith (Worthington G. ), PaljcDlithic Implemsnts from the
Hills near Dunstable, 151
Smithsonian Institution, the. 346, 421
Smyth (Prof. C. Piazzi), Re-examination of the Spectra of
Twenty-three Gas- Vacuum End-on Tubes after Six to Ten
Years of Existence and Use, 584
Smyth (Prof. C. Piazzi), Hygrometry in the Meteorological
younial, 585
Snake-bites, Death in India by, 283
Snow, the Influence of, on the Soil and Atmosphere, A,
Woeikof, 314
Snow-blindness, Nose-blackening as a Preventive of, Rev.
Henry Bernard, 438
Snowdon Summit, Purchase of, by Sir E. Watkin, 282
Soaring, Effects of an Interinittent Wind in, M. Marey, 612
Sociology of Rural Communes in France, M. Dumont, 402
S )da, Nitrate of, and the Nitrate Country, Hon. Ralph Aber-
cromby, i85, 308
Solar Eruptions in September 188S, Le Pare Jules Fenyi, 48, 64
Solar Phenomena for 188S an I 1889, M. Tacchini, 144
Solar Physics, on the Variation of Latitude in the Solar Spots,
M. R. Wolf, 383
Solar Radiation : Electric Phenomena produced by, 384 ; Re-
port to the British Association on. 556
Solar Spectrum, on the Telluric Origin of the Oxygen Lines in,
J. Janssen, 104
Solar System, Stability of, D E^initis. 167
Sole, the Lemon, Fertilization of the Ova of the, with the Milt
of the Turbot, Thomas Scott, 253
Solids, the Elasticity of, E. H. Ami^at, 192
Solutions, the Nature of, S. U. Pickering, i65
Somerville (A. A.), on the Principle and Meth>is of Assigning
Marks for Bodily Efficiency, 652
Sorbonne : the New Buildings of the, 349 ; the Fetes in Con-
nection with Opening of, 372
Soret (A.), the Occlusion of Gases in Electrolysis of Sulphate of
Copper, 239
Sormani (Prof. G. ) : Influence of Digestive Juices on Virus of
Tetanus, 21 ; Tetanus, 635
Sound- Wave, Mechanical Illustration of Propagation of, F. J.
Smith, 620
Sources of Nitrogen in Vegetation, W. Mattieu Williams, 394
South Kensington, National Science Museum, 3
South Kensington, Natural History Museum, 13
South Kensington, Science Collections at, 425, 565
South London Entomological and Natural History Society's
Exhibition, 653
South Usuri Region, Colonel Nadaroff, 165
Sowerby (W. C), Pontedera azitrea, 327
Sparkless Electro- Magnets, Prof. S. P. Thompson on, 587
Sparrow in America, the, 627
Species in a State of Nature, Variability of, Alfred Russel
Wallace, 566
Specific Characters as Useful and Indifferent, Prjf. G. J.
Romanes, F. R. S., on, 609
Spectrum Analysis : Dr. Griinwald's Mathematical, Joseph S.
Ames, 19 ; the Wave-length of Principal Line in Spectrum of
Aurora, Dr, W. Huggins, F. R. S., 68; the Photographic Spec-
trum of Great Nebula of Orion, Dr. W. Huggins, F. R.S.,
95 ; on the Telluric Origin of the Oxygen Lines in the Solar
Spectrum, J. Janssen, 104 ; Spectrum of x Cygni, 135 ;
Absorption Spectra of Mixed Liquids, A. E. Bostwick, 189 ;
the Absorption Spectra of Oxygen, Liveing and Dewar, 211,
212 ; Enlargement of Spectral Rays of Metals, Gouy, 216 ;
the Spectrum of Great Nebula in Orion, Dr. Williari Huggins,
F. R.S., and Mrs. Huggins, 405, 429; Stars with Remarkable
Spectra, 424 ; Prof. C. Piazzi Smyth on the Re-examination
■of the Spectra of Twenty-three Gas- Vacuum ^End-on Tubes
after Six to Ten Years of Existence and Use, 584.; Spectro-
scopic Survey of Southern Stars, R. L. J. Ellery, F.R.S.
597 : Spectro- Photography of Invisible Parts of Solar Spectrum,
C. V. Zenger, 539 ; ludex of Spectra, W. Marshall Watts,
641 ; Spectrum of R Andromeda, Espin, 656
Spencer(Prof. Baldwin), Trip through District of Croajlngolonj,
421
Spherical Eggs, Prof. A. G. Greenhill. F.R.S., 10 ; Prof. G. D.
Liveing, F. R.S., 55; Prof. W. Steadman Aldis, 417
Spherical Trigonometry, a Treatise on, and its Application to
Geodesy and Astronomy, Dr. J. Casey, F. R. S., 342
Spronck (C. li. H ), the Virus of Diphtheria, 407
Squirrel in Caucasia, Absence of, E. Biichner, 285
Stags' Horns, Implements of. Associated with Whales' Skele-
tons, found i'l the Carse Lands of Stirling, Sir William
Turner, P'.R.S-, 634
.Stalactite Cave at Hiinnethal, Discovery of, 45
Stalactite Grotto, the New, at Adelsberg, 577
Stanley (H M.) : a Visit to Stanley's Rear Guard, at Major
Barttelot's Camp on the Ariwimi, with an Account of River
Life on the Congo, J. R. Werner, 241 ; Movements of, 18 1 ;
News of. 539
Stanley (Hiram M.), Francis Galton, F.R.S., on Natural In-
heritance, 642
Starling, Extinct, of Reuiion, Fregilupiis varius, R. Bowdler
Sharpe, 177
Stars : Photographic Determination of the Brightness of the,
15 ; Variable Stars, 16, 46, 64, 86, no, 135, 165, 181, 210,
231, 256, 284, 308, 329, 352. 375, 403, 424, 449, 483. 516,
539. 550> 578, 598, 629, 656 ; Photographic Study of Stellar
Spectra conducted at the Harvard College Observatory, 17 ;
Right Ascen-ions of North Circumpolar Stars, Prof. T. H.
Safford, 63 ; on the Motion of, in the Line of Sight, Prof. H.
C. Vogel, 109 ; Photographic Star-gauging, A. M. Gierke,
344 ; Stars with Remarkable Spectra, 424 ; New Double
Stars, Burnham, 424 ; the Triple Stir 2 2400, 482 ; Spectro-
scopic Survey of Southern Stars, R. L. J. Ellery, F. R.S.,
597
State Medicine Syndicate, Annual Examination at Cambridge,
516
Statics for Beginners, John Greaves, 77
Stationary Dust-whirl, J. Lovel, 174
Statistics, Vital, Elements of, A. Newsholme, 145
Steam and Steam-engines, a Text-book on. Prof. Andrew
Jamieson, 642
Steel, Alloys of Nickel and, James Riley, 58
Steel, Basic Open-hearth, J. H. Darby, 59
Steel, Influence of Copper on the Tensile Strength of, E. J.
Ball and A, Wingham, 59
Steel and Iron, International Standards far the Analysis of,
John W. Langley, 558
Steel, on the Influence of Silicon on the Properties of, Had-
field, 587
Steel (K. Elliot), Science Examination Papers, 293
Steenstrup (Prof.), the Great Mammoth Deposit in Moravia,
229
Stefan (Dr.): Ice-growth, 400; Erratum in Paper on Ice-
growth, 447
Stellar Evolution, and its Relation to Geological Time, James
Croll, ?".R.S., A. Fowler, 199
Stellar Photography, Telescopes for, Sir Howard Grubb,
F.R.S., 441, 645
Stereometry, W. W. Haldane Gee and Dr. Arthur Harden on,
587
Stewart (Prof. Balfour, F.R.S.), the Actinometer Devised by,
556
Stillman (W. J.), a Cordial Recognition, 245
Stockholm: Royal Academy of Sciences, 96, 120, 264, 54° 5
Proposed Statue to late John Ericsson in, 133
Stomach, the Movement and Innervation of the. Dr. Open-
chowski, 240
Stone Age in Italy, the, P. Castelfranco, 659
Stone (Prof. William L.), the Hatchery of the Sun-fish, 202
Stonehenge, State of, Howard Cunningham, 547
Stones, Bored, in Boulder Clay, G. W. Lamplugh, 297
Stonyhurst College Observatory, 164
Storm (Prof. Gustav), the Vinland Voyages of Norse Colonists
of Greenland, 182
Storms, Prof. H. A. Hazen on, 383
Strachey (General), the Results of European Contact with other
Paits of the World, no
XXXll
INDEX
\Nature, Nov. 28, 1889
Strain to Stress, on Hysteresis in the Relation of, Prof. J. A.
Ewing, F.R.S., 584
Straits Settlements, Proposed Training Schools for Surveyors in,
595
Stranger's Sealed Packet, Mr., Hugh MacColl, R, A. Gregory,
291
Streatfield (F. W.), Isomerism of Alkyl-derivatives of Mixed
Diazoamido-compounds, 215
Stress, on Hysteresis in the Relation of Strain to, Prof. J. A.
Ewing, F.R.S., 584
Stroud (Prof. Henry), on the E.M. F. produced by an Abrupt
Variation of Temperature at the Point of Contact of Two
Portions of the same Metal, 585
Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, Dr. H. B. Guppy,
53. 173 ; Prof T. G. Bonney, F.R. S., 77, 125
Structure in Ice, Columnar, T. D. La Touche, 35
Strathers ( lohn), the Anatomy of the Humpback Whale
[Megaptera longiviana), 592
Stuart (Prof. A.), Modification of Kymoscope, 432
Sturgeons, Palaeontology of, A. Smith Woodward, 186
Subdivision of the Electric Light, 152
Subjects of Social Welfare, Right Hon. Sir Lyon Playfair,
F.R.S., 637
Sudden Phenomena, the Observation of, 482
Sukkur Bridge, Opening of the, 13
Sully (James), the Principles of Empirical or Inductive Logic,
John Venn, F. R. S., 337
Sulphites, Researches on the, M. P. J. Hartog, 383
Sulphur Compounds, M. Chabrie on, 370
Sun : the Total Eclipse of the, December 22, 1889, 462 ; Ob-
servations of Twilight and Zodiacal Light during the Total
Eclipse of the, December 21, 1889, Prof Cleveland Abbe,
519 ; Rotation Period of the, Henry Crew, 550 ; Report to
the British Association on Solar Radiation, 556 ; Electric
Phenomena Produced by Solar Radiations, Albert Nodon,
384
Sun-distilling Apparatus on Atacama Desert, Hon. Ralph
Abercromby, 211
Sun-fish, the Hatcherv of the. Prof. William L. Stone, 202 ;
Theo. Gill, 319
Sunday Lecture Society, the, 576
Sunset-glows, Dr. M. A. Veeder, 645 ; at Honolulu, Sereno
E. Bishop, 415
Sunsets, the Red, of 1884-85, Prof. Abbe, 189
Sunspots and Weather in India, 230
Survey of the Heavens, Another Photographic, 417
Survey, the Indian, Colonel Thuillier, 444
Surveyors in Straits Settlements, Proposed Training Schools for,
595
Swallows, Desertion of French Coast by, 85
Swan (J. Wilson), on Chromic Acid as a Depolarizer in Bunsen's
Battery, 586
Swarts (F. ), a New Test for Bromine, 286
Sweden : Antiquities from Iron Age found in, 163 ; on the
Geological History of the Prehistoric Flora of. Dr. A. G.
Nathorst, 453 ; the Preservation of the Eider in, 254 ; Culture
of Swedish Oyster, 229
Swift (Prof. Lewis), Comet 1889 ^ (Swift), 255
Swiss Census, the, 538
Switzerland, Earthquakes in, 84
Sydney, N.S.W. : Records of the Geological Survey of New
South Wales, 254 ; Royal Society of, 263
" Sylvan Folk," John Watson, 221
Sylvester (Prof., F.R.S.), the Value of a Finite Continuous and
Purely Periodical Fraction, 192
Symbols, Graphic, the Ta Ki, the Svastika, and the Cross in
America, Dr. D. G. Brinton, 373
Symons (G. J., F.R.S.) : British Rainfall, 1S88, 437 ; Monthly
Meteorological Magazine, 654
Tables, Useful Rules and, William J. M. Rankine, 517
Tacchini (M.), Solar Phenomena for 1888 and 1889, 144
Tainter's Graphophone, G. R. Ostheimer, 167
Taming the Puma, Wm. Lant Carpenter, 542
Tanfilieff (M.), the Process of Transformation of Rivers into
Marshes, 163
Tanganyika, Captain E. C. Hore on, 629
Tappenbeck (Lieutenant), Death of, 353
Tashkend, Earthquake at, 283
Tasmania : Systematic Account of the Geology of, Robert M.
Johnston, Prof. John W. Judd, F.R.S., 122 ; Proposed Tas-
manian University, 446
Taupin (J.), Exploration of the Lower Laos Country by, 17,
352
Taylor (Canon Isaac) : on the Origin of the Aryans, 632 ; on the
Ethnological Significance of the Beech, 632
Teaching of Science, Elementary, 589, 599 ; Prof Henry E.
Armstrong, F.R.S,, on, 645
Teaching University for London, the Proposed, 60
Teasel, the Spiral Torsion in, M. de Vries, 312
Tebbutt's (Mr.) Observatory, Windsor, New South Wales, 550
Technical Education : at Chetham College, 45 ; Opening of the
Jubilee Technical Institute at Bombay, 60 ; the New Tech-
nical Education Bill, 330, 350,457 ; Sir Henry Roscoe, M. P.,
F. R. S., 73, 91 ; Primary Technical Education in Hungary,
Sir Arthur Nicholson, 164, the Government and Technical
Education, 304 ; Report of the National Association for the
Promotion of, 350 ; Technical Education in Central India,
595 ; Right Hon. Sir Lyon Playfair, F.R.S., on Technical
Education, 639 ; Guide to Technical and Commercial Educa-
tion, 538 ; Technical School at Frank fort-on- Maine, 350 ;
Technical School, Manchester, 445, 577
Telephone Disk, Dr. Frohlich's New Method of Objective
Demonstration of Vibrations of, 72
Telephone, the, William Henry Preece, F. R. S., and Julius
Maier, Prof A. Gray, 200
Telephonic Communication between London and Paris, W.
Preece, F.R.S., 631
Telescope, the Newall, 114
Telescopes for Stellar Photcgraphy, Sir Howard Grubb, F.R. S.,
441, 645
Telluric Origin of the Oxygen Lines in the Solar Spectrum, J.
Janssen, 104
Tellurium, Dr. B. Brauner on, 214, 284
Temperature, Decrease of, with Increase of Altitude, Prof W,
Ferrel, 446
Temperature, Report to the British Association on the Seasonal
Variations of, in Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries in the United
Kingdom, Dr. H. R. Mills, 556
Temperature, Underground, Report to the British Association
on. Prof. Everett, F.R.S., 551
Temperatures, some Lake Ontario, A. T. Drummond, 416
Temperatures, Strength of Alloys at Difterent, W. C. Unwin,
F.R.S., 631
Terby (M.), White Spot on Saturn's Ring, 307
Terrestrial Globe at the Paris Exhibition, 278
Terry (Hubert L.) and W. W. Haldane Gee, on the Specific
Heat of Caoutchouc, 587
Tertiary Flora of Australia, Contributions to the, C. von
Ettingshausen, J. Starkie Gardner, 517
Test of Divisibility by a Prime, Robt. W. D. Christie, 247
Testing of Colour-blindness, Rev. J. F. Heyes, 572
Tetanus, Influence of Digestive Juices on Virus of, Prof G.
Sormani, 21, 635
Thames, Electric Launches on the, Prof. G. Forbes. F. R. S.,'630
"Theorem of the Bride," Prof George J. Allman, F. R.S.,299,
320
Thermal Relations, the Law of, Wm. Ferrel, 310
Thermodynamics : Impossibility of Existence of Diamagnetic
Bodies, P. Duhem, 118
Thermometer, on the Black-bulb, in vacuo, Prof. McLeod,
F.R.S., 585
Thermometer, Six's, for Soil Temperature, Modification of,
Prof Milton Whitney, 230
Thermometers, Mercurial, Rogers and Woodward, 559
Thermometric Scale, a New, Prof G. Forbes. F.R. S., and
W. H. Preece, F.R.S., on, 587
Thionic Series, the, Marcellin Berthelot, F. R.S., 23, 95
Thiophosphoryl Fluoride, Thorpe and Rodger, 94
Thomasberg, Traces of Glacial Action on, 163
Thome (Dr.), Variable 7? Argus, 550
Thompson (Arthur), Osteology of Veddahs of Ceylon, 118
Thompson (Beeby), Middle Lias of Northamptonshire, 341
Thompson (Elizabeth) Science Fund, the, 209
Thompson (Prof Silvanus P.) : Notes on Polarized Light, 143 ;
Methods of Suppressing Sparking in Electro- Magnets, 190 ;
Geometrical Optics, 190; Optical Torque, 232, 257; a Phe-
nomenon in the Electro-Chemical Solution of Metals, 586 ; on
Sparkless Electro-Magnets, 587
H Nature, Nov. 28, 1889]
INDEX
XXXlll
Thomson (Basil H.), on the Louisiade and D'Entrecasteaux
Islands, 256
Thomson (Joseph), Travels in the Atlas and Southern Morocco,
149
Thomson (Sir William, F.R. S.): Popular Lectures and Ad-
dresses, Prof. Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S., 433 ; on Boscovich's
Theory, 545
Thorpe (Prof. T. E.. F.R.S. ) : the Majjnetic Disturbing Forces
of British Isles, 66 ; Thiophosphoryl Fluoride, 94 ; Dmitri
Ivanowitsh Mendeleeff, 193 ; and Prof. A. W. Riicker,
F.R.S. , on the Relation between the Geological Constitution
and the Magnetic State of the United Kingdom, 585, 609
Three Cruises of the Blake, Alexander Agassiz, Dr. John
Murray, 361
Thuillier (Colonel), the Survey of India, 444
Thunderstorms, the Recent, W. Marriott, 238
Thunderstorms in South Germany, Velocity of Propagation of,
Dr. Lang, 283
Thurston (Edgar), Tuticorin Pearl Fishery, 174
Thwaite (B. H.), Gaseous Fuel, 342
Tian-Slian, Exploration of the Eastern, Brothers Grum-
Grzimailo, 65
Tiberias, Proposed Meteorological Observations at. Dr. Tor-
rance, 654
Tibet, the Russian Expedition to, 65
Tidal Observations in Canada, Fourth Report to the British
Association of the Committee appointed to Promote, Prof. A.
Johnson, 554
Tiddeman (R. H.), on Concurrent Faulting and Deposit in Car-
boniferous Times, 609
Tierra del Fuego, the Inhabitants of. Rev. C. Aspinall, 374
Tietken's Proposed Exploration of Interior of South Australia,
.308, 551
Tillinghurst (W. H.), Centenarian Graduates of American Col-
leges, 284
Tillo (A. de), Mean Altitude of Continents and Mean Depth of
Oceans, 239
Timber- Parasites, Prof. H. M. Ward, F.R.S., 67
Timbre, Helmholtz's Theory of, 479
Tin, Coal and. Discoveries in Western Australia, H. P. Wood-
ward, 304
Titicaca, Lake, Dr. Alfred Hettner's Observations on, 308
Todd (Prof.), the United States Eclipse Expedition, 462
Todhunter's Integral Calculus, Key to, H. St. J. Hunter, 593
Tokio, Remarkable Earthquake at, 162
Tokio : the Earthquake of April 18, 1889, Dr. E. von Rebeur-
Paschwitz, 294 ; Fifteen Years' Earthquakes in, 480
Tomlinson (C, F.R.S.) : Atmospheric Electricity, 102 ; on the
Theory of Hail, 203 ; on some Effects of Lightning, 366
Tomlinson (Herbert, F.R.S.), Error in Maxwell's "Electricity
and Magnetism, 621
Tomsk University, the, 578
Topinard (M. ) : Differences between Methods of Anthropo-
metry followed by the Artist and the Anthropologist, 562 ;
Chart of Colour of Eyes and Hair in France, 659
Torpedo, the Electrical Organ of. Prof. Fritsch, 24
Torque, Optical, Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson, 232, 257
Torrance (Dr.), Proposed Meteorological Observatories at
Tiberias, 654
Torres Straits Collection, Prof. Haddon's, 626
Torres Straits Islanders, the Customs and Beliefs of the. Prof.
A. C. Haddon on, 633
Tortoises, Land, on the Aquatic Habits of Certain, R. W.
Shufeklt, 644
Toxicology : Toxic Action of Albumose from Seeds of Abrus
precatorius, Dr. Sidney Martin, 117
Trachea, Physiology of the, M. Nicaise, 612
Traill (Thos. W.), Boilers, their Construction and Strength,
414
Tramway, Northfleet Series Electric, 39
Transcaspian Region, Colonization of. General Annenkoff, 230
Transformism in Micro-biology, A. Chauveau, 612
Transformism in Pathogenic Micro-biology, A. Chauveau, 636
Transvaal, New Map of, Fred. Jeppe, 539
Travellers, an Anthropometric Instrument for. Dr. Garson on,
633
I ravels in the Atlas and Southern Morocco, Joseph Thomson,
149
Travels in South Africa, Francis Galton, 570
Trawling Expedition off the Irish Coast, by the Rev. W. S.
Green and W. de Vismes Kane, 253
Tree, Curious Effects of Lightning on a, Alfred S. Gubb, 203
Trees on Another's Land, on the Right of Property in, Hyde
Clarke, 63?
Trepied (Ch. ), Observations at Algiers Observatory, 539
Triangle, the Recent Geometry of the, 460
Trichina, the Vitality of, Paul Gibier, 588
Trigonometry, Key to Lock's Elementary, Henry Carr, 125
Trigonometry, Spherical : a Treatise on. Dr. J. Casey, F.R.S.,
342 ; Delambre's Analogies, R. Chartres, 644
Trigonome try. Treatise on, W. E. Johnson, 542
Trimorphism in Scahiosa succisa, Arthur Turner, 646
Trinidad Botanic Garden, 421
Trognitz (Herr), Areas of South American .States, 446
Tropaeolum, Abnormality in. Prof. Alfred Denny, 125
Trotter (Alex. P.) : a Refraction Goniometer, 71 ; on a Curve
Ranger, 631
Trout, Lake, Reared at Champ de I'Air, Prof. Blanc, 422
Troulon (Fred. T.) : Experiments on Electro-magnetic Radia-
tion, including some on the Phase of Secondary Waves, 398 ;
Experiments on Radiation with Prof. Hertz's Mirrors, 585 ;
Temporary Thermo-Currents in Iron, 587
Tsien-Tang Kiang, the Bore of the. Captain W. U. Moore, 163
Tucker (R.) some Properties of the Number Seven, 115
Turbot, the Fertilization of the Milt of, with the Ova of the
Lemon Sole, Thomas Scott, 253
Turbulent Liquid Motion, on an Electro-magnetic Interpretation
of. Prof. Geo. Fras. Fitzgerald, F.R.S., 32
Turkestan, Earthquake in, 61, 327
Turkestan, Russian, Culture of American Cotton-Tree in, A.
Wilkins, 180
Turner (Arthur), Trimorphism in Scabiosa succisa, 643
Turner (R.), the Uredinese and Ustilaginese, 653
Turner (Sir William, M.B., F.R.S.) : Opening Address, Sec-
tion H (Anthropology), at the Meeting of the British Asso-
ciation, 526; on the Placentation of the Dugong, 611 ; on
Implements of Stags' Horns associated with Whales' Skele-
tons found in the Carse Lands of Stirling, 634
Turtle-headed Rock Cod, 77
Tuticorin Pearl Fishery, Edgar Thurston, 174
Twilight and Zodiacal Light, Observations of, during the Tota
Eclipse of the Sun, December 21, 1889, Prof. Cleveland
Abbe, 519
Unit of Self-induction, Name for. Prof. Oliver J. Lodge,
F.R.S., II
United States : Proposed New Telescope for Harvard Uni-
versity Observatory, 252 ; Agricultural Experimental Stations
in the, 455; Stones and Geyser Outbreak in, 516; Water-
Gas in the, Alex. C. Humphreys, 630
Universities : University Intelligence, 20, 142, 166, 189, 212,
237, 334, 483, 611, 659; Proposed Teaching University for
London, 60 ; Report of the Royal Commission on a Uni-
versity for London, 121, 149 ; Sir Lyon Play fair on Universi-
ties, 204 ; University Extension, the Second Summer
Meeting, 281, 447, 549; the Grant for University Colleges,
304 ; Astronomy at Johns Hopkins University, 351 ; Important
Bequest to, 627 ; the Tomsk University, 578 ; Proposed Tas-
manian University, 446
Unwin (W. C, F.R.S.), on the Strength of Alloys at Different
Temperatures, 631
Upham (Warren), Marine Shells in the Till near Boston, 68
Uranium, the Metal, 462
Uranus, the Planet, R. A. Gregory, 235
Urea, Derivatives of Ethylene and, M. Graebe, 369
Uric Acid, Synthesizalion of, Drs. Behrend and Roosen, 62
Urinary Bladder, Dr. Nitze's Apparatus for Observing the, 192
Useful Rules and Tables, William J. M. Rankine, 517
Uslar (Baron), the Avarian Language, 283
Ussher (Mr.), on the Devonian Rocks of Britain, 608
Valley Formation, Influence of Wind and Rain in, Herr
Rucktiischel, 599
Vapour, Saturated Aqueous, at 0° C, Determination of
Specific Volume of, Dr. Dieterici, 168
Variability, Sir William Turner, F.R.S., on, 526
XXXIV
INDEX
[Nature, Nov. 28, 1S89
Variability of a Species in a State of Nature, Alfred Russel
Wallace, 566
Variable Stars : 16, 46, 64, 86, no, 135, 165, i8r, 210, 231,
256, 284, 308, 329, 352, 375, 403, 424. 449, 483, 516, 539,
550, 578, 598, 629, 656 ; the General Relations of the Phe-
nomena of, S. C. Chandler, 181 ; Variable X Cygni, Mr.
Yendall, 15 ; Variable tj Argus, Dr. Thome, 550
Variation, Fortuitous, Lester F. Ward, 3 to
Vatican, Astronomical Observatory, the Proposed, 84
Veddahs of Ceylon, Osteology of, Arthur Thompson, 1 18
Veeder (Dr. M. A.): the Formation of Cumuli, 203; the
Aurora, 318 ; Sunset Glows, 645
Vegetation, Sources of the Nitrogen of, 332 ; W. Mattieu
Williams, 394
Veley (V. H.), the Rate of Dissolution of Metals in Acids, 22
Venezuela, Pre-Columbian Ethnography of, Dr. Marcano, 142
Venn (John, F.R.S.), the Principles of Empirical or Inductive
Logic, James Sully, 337
Ventnor, Capture of Large Shark off, 163
Veroffentlichungen of Berlin Museum fiir Volkerkunde, 163
Verschoyle (Rev. J.), the History of Ancient Civilization, 7
Vertebrate Fauna of the Outer Hebrides, J. A. Harvie-Brown
and T. E. Buckley, loi
Vertebrates, Valuable Specimens of, for Biological Laboratories,
G. Baur, 644
Verworm (Dr. Max), Psycho-physiologische Protisten-Studien,
experimentelle Untersuchungen, 541
Vesuvius, the New Eruption of, Dr. H. J. Johnston-Lavis, 34
Vettin (Dr.), the Formation of Atmospheric Precipitate*, 119
Vibrations, New Method of Recording, Dr. Friihlich, 287
Vices of our Scientific Education, the, Prof. Minchin, 126
Victoria Hall Science Lectures, 653
Victoria Institute, 239
Victoria, the Minor Planet, Meridian Observations of, in July
1889, 169
Victoria : Viticulture in, 445 ; Proposed Government Survey of
Coal Districts in, 595
Victoria University of Manchester, Local Lectures, 253
Victorian Naturalist, 421
Vidal ',Don Sebastian), Death and Obituary Notice of, 547
Vienna Geographical Society, 182
Vienna : Imperial Academy of Sciences, 120, 144, 288 ; Im-
perial Museum and Prof. H. G. Reichenbach's Collection of
Orchids, 253 ; British and American Graduates at the Vienna
Medical School, 44 ; Vienna Observatory, 329
Vikings as the Direct Ancestors of the English-speaking Na-
tions, Paul B. du Chaillu on the, 632
Ville (G. ), Relations between Physical Characters of Plants and
Proportion of Elements of Fertility in Soil, 659
Vine-Diseases in France, Treatment of, G. W. Roosevelt, 446
Vine-Pests, the Cost of various Remedies against, 374
Vines (Dr. Sydney H., F. R.S.): Eritnis liispanicusi^) on the
Roman Wall, 544 ; Examination of Points in Prof. Weis-
riann's Theory of Heredity, 621
Vinland Voyages of Norse Colonists of Greenland, the. Prof.
Gustav Storm, 182
Violle (J.), the Alloy of the Standard International Kilogramme,
48
Viper : and Lizard, 134 ; a Lizard Swallowed by a, Prof. T. G.
Bonney, F.R. S., 150
Vis (De), Prionodura newtoniana and Acanthiza squamata,
Vision, Indirect, Kirschmann, 373
Vital Statistics, Elements of, A. Newsholme, 145
Viticulture in Algeria, the Dangers of, Consul-General Playfair,
Viticulture in Victoria, 445
Vogan (A. L), Intended Exploration of Interior of New South
Wales, 182
Vogel (Prof. H. C), on the Motion of Stars in the Line of
Sight, 109
Volatilization of Lead Oxide and its Action upon Glass at Low
Temperatures, J. W. Hogg, 587
Volcanic Activity in Mount Ruapehu, 179
Volcanic Eruption in Erzeroum, 479
Volcanic Lavas and the Action of Molten Glass, 263
Volcanic Regions of Italy, Scientific Excursions to, 537
Volcano, the Miharaizan, 179
Volcanoes of Italy, the Excursion to the, Dr. H. J. Johnston-
Lavis, 294
Volcanoes : the Earlier Eruptions of Krakata"b, Prof. John W.
Judd, F.R.S., 365
Voltmeter, a Hot Twisted Strip, Prof. Perry, F. R.S., on, 5S6
Volumetric .Analysis for Silver, &c., 38^
Vries (M. de), the Spiral Torsion in Wild Teasel, 312
Vulcano, the Recent Eruption on, 384
Wagner (Dr. Hermann) : Bericht iiber die Entwickelung der
Methodik und des S'udiums der Erdkunde, 75 ; Discussion
of Instructions for Observers of Prussian Meteorological
Institute. 334
W^agner (Moriz), Die Entstehung der Arten durch raumliohc
Sonderung Gesammelte Aufsatze von, 220
Walcott (C. D.) : Stratigraphic Position of Olenellus Fauna, 68 ;
the Olenellus Fauna in North America and Europe, 310
Wales, Intermediate Education in, q7, 480
Walker Engineering Laboratories, 653
Walker (J. T.), Do Cats Count?, 394
Wall (E. J.), Dictionary of Photography, loi
Wallach (Dr.), Pinol, an Isomer of Camphor, 655
Wallace (Alfred Russel), Darwinism, Prof. E. Ray Lankester,
F.R.S., 566; Variability of Species in a State of Nature,
566 ; on the Origin and Uses of Colour in Animals, 566 ;
Lamarck versus Weismann, 619
Wallace (Prof. Robert), Farm Live Stock of Great Britain, 619
Walras (Leon), Elements d' Economic Politique Pure, 434
Walters (Rev. F. B. ) and A. Cockshott, a Treatise on Geo-
metrical Conies, 390
Ward (A. W.) : the Magnetic Rotation of Plane of Polarization
of Light in Doubly Refracting Bodies, 117 ; the Use of the
Biquartz, 191
Ward (F. L.), Sociology of Protection and Free Trade, 558
Ward (Prof. H. Marshall, F.R.S.), Timber Parasites, 67
Ward (Lester F.), Fortuitous Variation, 310
Warren (Rev. J.), an Elementary Treatise on Mechanics, 365
Warrington (R.), the Analysis of Rain Water, 215
Water- Distilling Apparatus, Sun, on Atacama Desert, Hon.
Ralph Abercromhy, 211
Water, Examination of, for Sanitary and Technical Purposes,
Henry Leffmann, 293
Water, on the Transporting Power of, in the Deepening of
Rivers, W. II. Wheeler, 631
Water-Gas in the United States, Alex. C. Humphreys, 630
Water- Hammer, Experiment with, Dr. Reichel, 72
Waterspout in Saxony, 84
Waikin (Sir E.), Purchase of Snowdon Summit by, 282
Watson (Rev. H. W., F.R.S.), Hertz's Equations, u
Watson (John), Sylvan Folk, 221
Watson (W.), Cactus Culture for Amateurs, 123
Watts Town, Earthquake at, 208
Watts (W. Marshall), Index of Spectra. 641
Watts's Dictionary of Chemistry, Sir H. E. Roscoe, F.R. S.,
640
Weather, Inclement, in China, 179
Weather Maps, Synoptic, Ru-sian, 133
Weather Prediction, Synoptic Table of, Plumandon and Colomes,
61
Webster (W.), on the Purification of Sewage by Electrolysis,
631
Weed (W. H), the Formation of Siliceous Sinter by Vegetation
of Thermal Springs, 68
Weevil, the Mango, Wray, 402
Weighing and Measuring, the Progress of Science as Exemplified
in the Art of. Dr. William Harkness, 376
W^eismann (T~)r. August) : Lamarck versus, J. T. Cunningham,
297 ; Pr. A. R. Wallace, 619 ; on the Inheritance of In-
juries, 303 ; Essays on Heredity and Kindred Biological
Problems, edited bv E. B. Poulton, Selmar Schonland, and
A. E. Shipley, 6i8 ; Theory of Heredity, Examination of
Points in. Dr. S. H. Vines, F.R.S., 621 ; Use of Panmixia,
610
Weis'cnborn (Dr. Bernhard), Death of, 162
Wells in Australia, Artesian, 305
Welsford (J. W.) and F. E. Marshall, Longmans' School Arith-
metic, 52
Welsh Intermediate Education Bill, the, 304
Werner (J. R.): Journeys up the Ngala and Aruwimi Tribu-
taries of the Congo, 65 ; a Visit to Stanley's Rear Guard at
Nature, Nov. 28, il
INDEX
XXXV
Major Barttelol's Camp on the Aruwimi, with an Account
of River Life on the Congo, 241
West India Islands, Report to the British Association on the
Zoology and Botany of the, D. Morris, 553
Weston (A.), Proposed Exploration of Northern Queensland by,
308
Whale, Anatomy of the Humpback {Megaptcra longimana),
John Struthers, 592
Whales and the Cod Fisheries on the Coast of Finland, 254
Whales' Skeletons found in the Carse L^nds of Stirling, Imple-
ments of Stags' Horns associated with, Sir William Turner,
F.R.S., 634
Wheat, Indian, Importation of Injurious Insects in, Chas.
Whitehead, 481
Wheeler (W. H.). on the Transporting Power of Water in the
Deepening of Rivers, 631
Whipple (G. M.), the Dark Flash in Lightning Photographs,
70
White (Chas.), the Mesozoic Division of the Geological Record
as seen in America, 557
White Spot on Saturn's Ring: Prof. Holden, 15 ; M. Terby,
307
White (William), the Supposed Connection between Distant
Earthquake Shocks, 393
Whitehead (Chas.): the Hessian Fly in England, 446; Im-
portation of Injurious Insects in Indian Wheat, 481
Whitmell (C. T.), Colour, 51S
Whitney (Prof. Milton), Modification of Six's Thermometer for
Soil Temperature, 230
Wichniann (Prof. A.), Return of, from Dutch East Indies, 353
Wiegmann and Skraup (Drs.), a New Amine, 14
Williams (Prof. H. S.), Cis- and Trans- Atlantic Formations
Compared, 557
Williams (W. Mattieu), the Sources of Nitrogen in Vegetation,
394
Williamson (Benjamin, F.R.S.) and Francis A. Tarleton, an
Elementary Treatise on Dynamics, 437
Williamson (Prof. W. C, F.R.S. ), on Coal and Mineral Char-
coal, 608
Wilson (Dr. John), a Method of Mounting Dried Plants, 438
Wilson, legacy to the City of Gothenburg, 254
Wilson, Protection of Fruit-Trees against'Winter-Moths, 85
Wilson (Sir Daniel), the Huron -Iroquois of Eastern Canada,
557
Wind Action, Erosions due to, Contejean, IQ2
Wind Currents, Upper, over the Equator in the Atlantic Ocean,
Hon. Ralph Abercromby, loi ; E. Foulger, 224
^^ iiid, Experiment-; on Connection between Pressure and
Velocitv of, W. H. Dines, 94
Winton (Colonel Sir Francis de). Opening Address in Section
E (Geography), at the British Association, 492
Wires, Expansion of, with Rise of Temperature under Pulling
Stress. J. T. Bottomley, F.R.S., 263
Woeikof (A.), Der Einfluss einer Schneedecke auf Boden, Klima
und Wetter, 314
Wolf (M, R.), on the Variation of Latitude in the Solar Spots,
383
Woodhead (Dr. G. Sims) and Robert Irvine on the Secretion of
Carbonate of Lime by Animals, 614
Woodward (A. Smith), Palaeontology of Sturgeons, 186
Woodward (H. P.), Coal and Tin Discoveries in Western
Australia, 304
Woodward (R. T.), Mercurial Thermometers, 559
\\ oolwich Mathematical Papers, 1880-88, 317
\\ oolwich and Sandhurst, Examinations for, 43
^Vc)rcester, Sanitary Conference at, 548
Worsley-Benison (H. W, S.), Haunts of Nature, 173
Wray, on the Mango Weevil, 402
Wreaths, Ancient Egyptian Funeral, Discovered by W. M.
Flinders Petrie, 211
Wright (Dr. C. R. Alder, F.R.S.), Commercial Organic
Analysis, Alfred H. Allen, 289
Wright-^on (Prof. John), an Italian's View of English Agri-
cultural Education, 428
Yadrintzeff's Central Asian Expedition, Return of, 551
Yahgan, the, 416
Yale College Observatory, 448
Vate (Major C. E.), Northern Afghanistan, 31
Yendall (Mr.), Variable X Cygni, 15
Yew Trees in Berks, George Henslow, 621
Yorkshire College of Science, 547
Young (John) : the Occurrence of Spines within Spines or>
Shells of Carboniferous Productida?, 134 ; Polyzoa and Mon-
ticuligrora Discovered at Kirktonhelm, 627
Young (Prof. S. ), Vapour- Pressures, &c., of Similar Compounds-
of Elements in Relation to Periodic System, 215
Zambesi, Discovery of New Mouth of, 16
Zarza (Samuel), the Writings and Opinions of, Salomon Reinach,.
68
Zelbr (Dr. K.), Comet 1889 d (Brooks, July 6), 448
Zenger (Ch. V.) : Electric Figures Produced by Lightning, 432 -
Spectro- Photography of Invisible Parts of Solar Spe:trum»
539
Zinc, the Atomic Weight of. Dr. J. H. Gladstone and W. Hib-
bert, 215
Zirconium, G. H. Bailey, 92
Zodiacal Light, Observations of Twilight and, during the Tota>
Eclipse of the Sun, December 21, 1889, Prof. Cleveland
Abbe, 519
Zoological Collection for Bombay, Proposed Improved, 282
Zoological Gardens, Additions to, 15,46, 63, 86, 109, 135, 164,
180, 209, 231, 255, 284, 305, 307, 328, 352, 374, 403, 423,.
447, 482, 516, 538, 549, 578, 597, 628, 655
Zoological Results of the Challenger Expedition, 171
Zoological Society, 22, 95, 167, 191, 239
Zoology : the Rocky Mountain Goat, Dr. Grinnell, 62 ;:
Praepollex and Pra^haliux of Mammalian Skeleton, Prof.
Bardeleben, 95 ; a Vertebrate Fauna of the Outer Hebrides,
J. A. Harvie-Brown, loi : the Leaf-Insect of the Seychelles^
at the Zoological Giirdens, 105 ; the Kangaroo in Danger of
Extinction, 133 ; Viper and Lizard, 134, 150 ; Iguanas and
Elephant in Philadelphia Zoological Garden, i8o ; Die
Entstehungder Arten durch riiumliche Sonderung Gesammelte
Aufsiiize von MorizWagnei, 220; Zoological Congress in Paris,
252 ; Trawling Expedition by the Rev. W. S. Green and W. de
Vismes Kane off ;he Irish Coast, 253 ; New Apparatus for
Marine Exploration, 264 ; the Private Laboratory of Marine
Zoology at Rapallo, Dr. L. Camerano, M. G. Peracca, and
D. Rosa, 302 ; M. Deschamps' Expedition to Laccadive
Islands, 305 ; a New Species of Phoronis, 384 ; State of
Zoology a Hundred Years ago, M. de Lacaze Duihiers, 395 ;
the Zoology of the Afghan Delimitation Commission, E. T.
Aitchison, 413 ; Zoology, Geology, and Physical Characters
of Lord Howe Island, 414 ; the Morals of the Lower Animals,
422 ; the Force of Example in Animals, 461 ; Report to the
British Association on the Zoology and Botany of the West
India Islands, D. Morris, 553
Zuntz (Prof.), Heat-Regulation in Man, 408
Zurich, International Meteorological Committee Meeting at, 375
p
A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.
' ' To the solid ground
Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye." — Wordsworth.
THURSDAY, MAY 2, iJ
THE NEW CODE AND SCIENCE TEACHING.
THE new Code of the Education Department ^ is now
lying on the table of the House of Commons, and
never, since the famous proposals of Mr. Mundella, has
there been so much stir among those interested in primary
instruction as at the present moment. The reason is not
far to seek. For some years a Royal Commission has
been sitting and taking evidence, and it has produced
several bulky Blue-books during the course of the past
year. It was known that the Commission was divided
into a majority and minority who were strongly opposed
to one another on certain questions of policy. This has
found expression in lengthy reports and contradictory
recommendations ; but, to the satisfaction, if not to the
surprise, of educationists it is found that on purely edu-
cational matters there is an almost perfect unanimity
between the two sections. It was therefore a matter of
deep interest to see how, and to what extent, these
recommendations, signed by every member of the Com-
mission, would be embodied in the proposed Code
of 1889.
At the outset it may be well to remar'i that there are
several alterations in this Code which are almost uni-
versally allowed to be improvements. But it is conceived
in a spirit of compromise, and perhaps no party is entirely
satisfied with it. The only point we have to consider is
the aspect of the Code towards the teaching of natural
science.
It may be convenient to group our observations under
different headings.
I. The direct changes proposed in the teaching of
science. These are almost confined to one or two modi-
fications in the geographical schedule, and to a provision
that " Scholars of any public elementary school may
attend science classes held at any place approved by the
inspectors." This may be very useful in towns, espe-
cially as it will admit of the formation of central
' "Code of Regulations, with Schedules, by the Right Honourable the
Lords of the Committee of the Privy Council on Education." (Eyre and
Spottiswoode )
Vol. XL.— No. 1018.
laboratories or work-rooms similar to the present
cookery centres.
II. The proposed changes which will tend to facilitate
the teaching of science. There are four subjects of in-
struction which are termed '• class-subjects " : English
(including grammar, composition, and repetition of poetry),
Geography, Elementary Science (a progressive course of
object-lessons), and History ; together with Needle-work
for girls. Only two of these class-subjects can be taken
for examination, and, under the old Code, " English "
must necessarily be one of those chosen. The conse-
quence of this is, that " Elementary Science " has never
got a footing in our schools, for even where two class-
subjects are taken, they are nearly always English and
Geography, or English and Needle-work. The supre-
macy of English is now to be put an end to, so that any
teacher may now take Elementary Science, if he or she
should prefer it, and earn a grant.
The enormous waste of time and patience in making
little children, even in our infant-schools, learn the spell-
ing of common words, is to be reduced. The inspector
is to give no dictation exercises to boys and girls under
the second standard. This will give more time for
object-lessons and other valuable modes of instruction.
Some relaxation of the literary requirements are also
made in the case of evening schools.
The present system of payment by results is to be so
modified that the cramming in the three R.'s will not be
so profitable, and there will be more chance for intelligent
teaching. One of the matters also to be taken into
account by the inspector in assessing a school, is the
provision of " apparatus," though this need not necessarily
have anything to do with what scientific men would call
by that name.
These proposed changes are in the right direction, but
the value of many of them will largely depend upon how
they are understood. There is a singular want of clear-
ness in some of the clauses. The annual " Instructions
to inspectors " have not been yet drawn up, and indeed it
is very improbable that they will make their appearance
until after the Code has become law. It is quite possible
to take away with one hand what is given with the other.
The present agitation is therefore of great importance
B
NATURE
{May 2, 1889
not merely in getting modifications of the Code when
discussed in Parhament, but in inducing the Education
Department to give their inspectors such instructions as
shall secure that the greater liberty of teaching should be
a reality ; that the ominous word " repetition," introduced
into one or two paragraphs may not become " English "
in disguise ; and that the spelling of the second standard
should not involve a laborious preparation of the younger
children.
III. These alterations bearing on the teaching of
science fall far short of what the Royal Commissioners
unanimously recommend. The report of the majority
states that " some elementary instruction in science is
only second in importance to the three elementary
subjects : "—namely, reading, writing, and arithmetic,
and it places among subjects regarded as essential,
"geography (especially of the British Empire) ; lessons
on common objects in the lower standards leading up to
a knowledge of elementary science in the higher stand-
ards." It adds, " That geography, if properly taught, is a
branch of elementary science, which should not be
separated from the other branches, and might well be
taught along with object lessons, in accordance with the
recommendations of the Royal Commission on Technical
Instruction"; "that the curriculum in the ordinary ele-
mentary schools might often include not only instruction
in the elementary principles of science, but also, in certain
standards, elementary manual instruction in the use of
tools, and in higher schools and evening schools this
work might be carried still further " ; " that, in making
future appointments to the office of inspector, it would be
desirable, in regard to a larger proportion of them than
at present, to give special weight to the possession of an
adequate knowledge of natural science." The members of
the minority express themselves, if possible, more
strongly ; and make such additional remarks as, " We are
of opinion that, after the children have left the infant
school, transitional methods should be adopted, which
will develop their activity and train their powers by
drawing in all cases, and by such other means as, for
instance, modelling, or the collection and mounting of bo-
tanical specimens." ..." If science is to be well taught, care
should be taken, that where the ordinary teachers are not
qualified, specially trained teachers should be employed."
In respect to technical schools they say, " These schools,
which should be the crown and development of elementary
education, should be in touch and close sympathy through
their management with our elementary school system."
IV. The proposals of the new Code also fall far short
of what the principal School Boards are attempting.
Spirited eff"orts are made in Birmingham, Manchester,
Sheffield, Brighton, and other provincial towns, in estab-
lishing higher elementary schools with useful scientific
teaching. The London Board determined from the com-
mencement that object-lessons leading up to science sub-
jects should be given in all its schools. It has repeatedly
contended for the official recognition of such lessons ;
and it has lately sent a memorial to the Education Depart-
ment asking that the regulation, at present in force in the
infant schools, that, in assessing the grant, regard should
be had " to the provision made for simple lessons on ob-
jects and on the phenomena of Nature and of common life,"
should be extended to the boys' and girls' departments.
The reforms decided upon by the London Board last year
with the view of making the teaching "more experimental
and practical, and not so much a matter of book-learn-
ing as a development of intelligence and skill (see
Nature, vol. xxxvii. p. 577), are being gradually put
into operation.
It has also for some years carried on a few classes for
manual instruction in the use of tools with good success,
but its efforts in that direction have been nearly paralyzed
by the disfavour of the Legislature. This seems a neces-
sary step towards the technical education which is now
loudly called for (see Sir Henry Roscoe's lecture. Nature,
vol. xxxviii. p. 186) ; jbut in the new Code we look in vain
for a word of encouragement.
Some of the larger Boards have carefully provided good
instruction in natural history, and in the fundamental
principles underlying mechanical, physical, and chemical
science, for their pupil-teachers, though that does not
appear upon the Government schedule.
V. What is wanted is afar more liberal recognition of the
claims of science in elementary education. At present,
object-lessons or certain sciences are, no doubt, recognized
by the Code ; but it is merely as an additional subject of in-
struction not comparable with the literary subjects which
are considered essential, and which occupy the great bulk
of the scholars' time. The knowledge of Nature is, in
fact, totally neglected in hundreds or thousands of ele-
mentary schools, especially in country districts, where it
would appear to be even more important than in towns.
A boys' or girls' school can obtain the highest credit in
the inspector's report, and the highest possible grant of
money, without its scholars having ever heard of animal
or plant, or of those materials of the world, or of those
natural forces, with which the scholars will have to deal
all through their lives. And what is perhaps still more
anomalous, those pupil-teachers who are possibly expected
to give object-lessons in their schools are never examined
in natural history by the Department, and may gain
a high place in their examinations without the least
knowledge of any kind of natural science.
It seems most desirable that every little child who
enters our schools should be led to observe and inquire ;
its curiosity and activity should be encouraged and
directed; only when its senses have been made ac-
quainted with things should it be introduced to the words
by which they are called, first orally, then in writing or
print. It should proceed from the concrete to the abstract.
The works of the Creator are as worthy to be studied as
the words of men, and should hold as high a place in any
school curriculum.
The reply of the Department to such requests as these
will probably be, We cannot assume that the teachers
are capable of teaching or the inspectors of examining
science. No doubt there is that difficulty. But many of
them are capable, and they are all presumably intelligent
men, who would easily learn what might be required of
them. Special teachers of science also exist, and special
examiners might be appointed. It may not be possible
to insist on all these reforms at once, but at least en-
couragement should be held out to them, instead of
the disappointing uncertainties of the Code now before
Parliament.
J. H. Gladstone.
May 2, 1889J
NA TURE
THE NATIONAL SCIENCE MUSEUM.
IT is now fifteen years since the Duke of Devonshire's
Commission, in its fourth Report, made the following
recommendations : —
" With regard to t/ie Scientific Collections of the South
Kensington Museum, we recommend :
" 9. The formation of a collection of physical and
mechanical instruments ; and we submit for consideration
whether it may not be expedient that this collection, the
collection of the Patent Museum, and that of the Scientific
and Educational Department of the South Kensington
Museum, should be united and placed under the author ty
of a Minister of State.
" With regard to Provincial Museums, we recommend :
" 10. That, in connection with the Science and Art
section of the Education Department, qualified naturalists
be appointed to direct the collection of specimens in order
to supply whatever deficiencies exist in the more import-
ant Provincial Museums ; and also in order to organize
typical museums, to be sent by the Department of Science
and Art into the provinces to such science schools as may
be reported to be likely to make them efficient instruments
of scientific instruction.
" II. That a system of inspection of Provincial Museums
be organized with a view of reporting on their condition,
and on the extent to which they are usefully employed,
and whether the conditions of the loan or grant from the
Department of Science and Art have been fulfilled."
It is quite in accordance with the general way in which
scientific matters are treated by the British Government
that practically nothing has been done to give effect to
these recommendations. Committee after Committee has
been appointed, but it would seem more to give an excuse
for delay than anything else. But the apathy of the Govern-
ment was not shared by H.M. Commissioners for the Exhi-
bition of 1 85 1, for some time afterwards they offered a large
site on their estate, and a building to be erected at a cost
of ^ioc,ooo, if the Government would undertake its main-
tenance for the purposes named in the recommendations.
Even this munificent offer was declined.
Again we hear that another Committee has been ap-
pointed. Its saiUng orders are not known, but whatever
they may be, it seems desirable to again place on record
after an interval of fifteen years that part of the Report in
question which relates to the inquiry intrusted to the Com-
mittee. The Report was the result of much and patient
inquiry and deliberation (the Commission worked for five
years), and that the competence of the Commission may not
be doubted after this lapse of time, we give the names of the
Royal Commissioners : the Duke of Devonshire, Sir John
Lubbock, Sir James P. Kay-Shuttleworth, Dr. W. Sharpey,
Prof. T. H. Huxley, Prof. G. G. Stokes, Prof. Henry
J. S. Smith, and Mr., now Sir, Bernhard Samuelson. Mr.
J. Norman Lockyer was the secretary of the Commission.
The Collections at South Kensington.
64. The South Kensington Museum is administered
by a Director who is responsible to the Lords of the
Committee of Privy Council on Education.
65. Though, from special circumstances, the art col-
lections of this Museum have been, up to the present
time, most developed, it has contained, from its earliest
days, several collections of a scientific nature. Those at
oresent existing are :—
(i) The food collection.
(2) The animal products collection.
(3) The structure and building materials collection.
(4) Models of machinery, ships, and military and naval
appliances.
(5) Collections illustrating economic entomology and
forestry.
(6) Collections illustrating fish culture.
(7) The educational collections.
(8) The Patent Museum.
66. The Food Collection. — This collection, which was
commerced in 185S, has been formed with a view to
showing, first, the chemical composition of the various
substances used as food ; secondly, the sources from
which all varieties of food are obtained ; and, thirdly,
the various substances used for adulteration, and the best
methods of detecting them.
A duplicate collection of the chemical analyses of food
is used for circulation among country schools, and large
descriptive labels are supplied to the managers of country-
museums who may apply for them.
67. The Animal Products Collection. — This collection
was established by the Commissioners for the Exhibition
of 185 1, who observed that, whilst the puWic possessed,
in the Museums of Kew and Jermyn Street, collections
illustrative of the economic apphcations of mineral and
vegetable substances, there was no representation of the
uses of the animal kingdom. The collection consists of
animal substances employed in textile manufactures and
clothing ; substances used for domestic and ornamental
purposes ; pigments and dyes yielded by animals ; ani-
mal substances used in pharmacy and in perfumery ; and
the application of waste matters, together with illustrations
of the processes of manufacture.
We have been informed that, for want of space, this
collection has been but little developed of late years.
68. Construction a7id But I ding Materials Collection. —
This collection had its origin in a large number of models
and specimens which were presented to the Commis-
sioners for the Exhibition of 1851 at its close. In 1859
the collection had become so extensive from gifts, es-
pecially from the Exhibitions in London and Paris, that
the classified Catalogue formed a most useful book of
reference on the subject, and was largely sold as such.
The collection consists of the following objects : —
building stones ; marbles and slates ; cements and
plasters ; bricks of every description ; tiles for roofing,
flooring, and wall decoration ; terra-cottas ; drain-pipes ;
asphalte and bitumen ; iron and metal work ; woods
applicable to building purf oses ; glass, and its applica-
tion ; models of buildings and construction ; paper-
hangings ; papicr-mdche work ; architectural drawings
and plans.
69. In connection with this Museum, numerous experi-
ments on the strength of materials have been carried
on, the results of which have been published in the
Catalogues.
10, Models of Machinery, Ships, and Military and
Naval Appliances. — This collection consists principally
of models of marine engines, ships, and guns. But there
are also specimens and models of machinery of a
different character, such as the Jacquard loom, the Whit-
worth measuring machine, and the Babbage calculating
machine.
7 1 . Collections illustrating Economic Entomology and
Forestry. — A collection of economic entomology is now
in course of formation. It is intended to enable the
public to distinguish insects injurious to man from those
that work to his advantage, and to illustrate the best
means of destroying those which are injurious, or 0/
mitigating the ravages committed by them.
This collection, in its relation to forestry, contains
sfecimens of the various kinds of timber attacked by
insects, the insects themselves in various stages of
NATURE
[May 2, 1889
growth, and the appearance of the foliage and bark when
attacked. The best known means of destroying the
insects are also indicated.
72. Collection illustrating Fish Culture.' — This collec-
tion illustrates the artificial breeding of fish, the protec-
tion of rivers, methods of capture of fish, &c. All or
nearly all the collection belongs to Mr. Buckland
(Inspector of Salmon Fisheries). It is on loan to the
Museum.
73. The Educational Collectiofis. — These collections
comprise : (i) a library of books bearing on education in
which education in science is largely represented ; and
(2) a collection of school furniture and fittings, philo-
sophical instruments, apparatus for scientific and other
instruction, specimens and diagrams of natural history,
including mineralogy and geology, and other educational
appliances, such as drawing materials, &c.
74. The origin of the library and collections is due to
an Educational Exhibition formed by the Society of
Arts, and held in St. Martin's Hall in the summer of
1854. When this Exhibition closed, many of the con-
tents, English and foreign, were placed by the exhibitors
at the disposal of the Society, and a strong desire was
expressed that it should become a permanent institution.
The collection thus formed was offered to and accepted
by the Government.
75. The chief manufacturers of educational appliances
and publishers of school books have largely contributed,
and numerous gifts have been received from foreign
Governments, especially at the close of the Exhibitions
of 1862 and 1871. In consequence of the great demand
for educational wo^ks on scientific subjects, the vote for
purchases has of late years been largely expended in
strengthening the library and collections in this direction.
76. Special collections of apparatus for teaching the
various branches of science have lately been formed.
Duplicate sets of these are circulated in the country.
77. The total number of books and pamphlets in the
library exceeds 30,000.
78. A reading-room, ill-adapted and much too small
for the purpose, as it has been stated in evidence, is at-
tached to the library. It is open during the same hours
as the Museum, and is chiefly frequented by students,
teachers, clergymen, school-managers, and others who
wish to consult special books, or to become acquainted
with the best educational works on the various subjects.
79. The Patent Mtcseum. — In connection with the
South Kensington Museum, but under the control of the
Commissioners of Patents, there is also a Patent Museum,
consisting of a collection of patented and other inven-
tions, ill-accommodated in a building which is much too
small for the proper display of the objects. The col-
lection belongs partly to the Commissioners of Patents,
partly to the Commissioners for the Exhibition of 3851,
and partly to private persons : it contains many most in-
teresting specimens, especially a series illustrating the
history of the steam-engine from its earliest days.
Proposed Additions to the Scientific Collections
OF THE South Kensington Museum.
80. We consider it our duty to point out the striking
contrast afforded by the British Museum collections,
dealing with biology, geology, and mineralogy ; the Jer-
myn Street collections, dealing with geology (scientific
and economic), mineralogy, mining, and metallurgy ; the
Kew collections, dealing with botany, on the one hand ;
and, on the other hand, the collections in the Scientific
Department of the South Kensington Museum (including
the Patent Museum), where alone has any attempt been
made to collect together, in a Museum, objects illustrating
the experimental sciences.
8r. While it is a matter of congratulation that the
British Museum contains one of the finest and largest
collections in existence illustrative of biological science,
it is to be regretted that there is at present no national
collection of the instruments used in the investigation of
mechanical, chemical, or physical laws ; although such
collections are of great importance to persons interested
in the experimental sciences.
82. We consider that the recent progress in these
sciences, and the daily increasing demand for knowledge
concerning them, make it desirable that the national col-
lections should be extended in this direction, so as to
meet a great scientific requirement which cannot be
provided for in any other way.
83. The defect in our collections to which we have
referred is, indeed, already keenly felt by teachers of
science, if a teacher of any branch of experimental
science wishes to inspect any physical instrument not in
his possession, as a teacher of literature would a book, or
a teacher of biology would a specimen, there is no place
in the country where he can do it.
84. We are assured by high authorities that, on the
Continent, collections of scientific apparatus, when Com-
bined with lectures accessible to workmen, have exerted
a very beneficial influence on the development of the
skill of artisans employed in making such instruments.
85. Lord Salisbury, in evidence before us, has stated : —
" There is another point in which I think that the
Government might give an advantage of an educational
kind to scientific research. It would be desirable, if it
were possible, to provide the means of giving scientific
instruction to instrument makers. My impression is that
their importance to the conduct of scientific research is
scarcely sufficiently recognized by the public, and that it
is, I will not say quite, but almost of equal importance, to
have highly educated and cultivated scientific instrument
makers, as to have highly educated scientific thinkers."
86. A valuable part of the instruction to which Lord
SaHsbury refers would be derived from the examination
of collections in which the history and latest develop-
ments of each instrument could be studied with a view
to its improvement or modification in any particular
direction.
87. On this point we have received interesting evidence
from Colonel Strange : —
" What is your opinion as to the need of a museum of
scientific instruments, and apparatus, and machines, and
tools used in the arts.'' — I think that that is a very im-
portant branch of the subject indeed. I need scarcely
allude to the great importance that is attached to that on
the Continent. The name of the Conservatoire des Arts
et Metiers will suggest it at once, which is the very best
evidence indeed that I could produce. I have often
visited it with great interest and profit. Moreover, I
believe there are several others in Paris, some of more
recent establishment, of the same kirki ; I look upon that
as a most necessary part of any scientific system. No
scientific system can be complete without examples of the
apparatus that are being used in all branches of science,
both in England and abroad, and on that point I speak
from experience of the great use that such a museum
would be. ... If there were a great museum, such as I
suggest, containing all the new developments in instru-
ments, and in machines and tools, to which I could
resort, I should be able to introduce modifications with
far greater confidence, and it would be an enormous
assistance to me individually. I find very few persons
who have really studied what I will venture to call the
physiology of instruments and apparatus, and such persons
would derive very great advantage, I think, from being
able to go to an establishment where large collections of
apparatus of different dates and the products of different
minds were collected together in one view, some of which
would contain some desideratum of which they were in
search. I think, if they had such a collection to go to,
it would materially aid them in the choice of the apparatus
May 2, 1889]
NATURE
that they required, and would tend enormously to advance
exact experiments. There is no doubt that some years
ago there was no nation that could compete at all with
England in such matters, but we have taught the rest of
the world, and the pupil has now become somewhat in
advance, in many directions, of his master. Also the
spread of scientific education on the Continent has
tended to the application of more sound principles of
construction in such things than with us."
88. Although the question of the establishment of a
Museum of Scientific Apparatus is more closely allied to
the objects of our Commission than that of a Museum of
Mechanical Inventions, we think it right to call attention
to the proposals made by a Committee of the House of
Commons appointed to report on the Patent Office
Library and Museum.
89. That Committee gave, in the following terms, their
conception of the nature of the "General Museum of
Mechanical Inventions," the establishment of which they
contemplated: —
" It appears to your Committee that the chief purpose
of a General Museum is to illustrate and explain the
commencement, progress, and present position of the
most important branches of mechanical invention ; to
show the chief steps by which the most remarkable
machines have reached their present degree of excel-
lence ; to convey interesting and useful information, and
to stimulate invention."
90. With regard to the funds which would be necessary
for the establishment of such a Museum on an adequate
scale, the Committee, referring to a large sum which had
accumulated from the fees paid by inventors (which fund, at
the end of the year 1 871, amounted to j/^923,741 is. iid.),
stated that —
" Your Committee consider that the principal object of
the fees payable under the provisions of the Patent Law
Amendment Act, was to provide for the proper working
of that measure, and not for the purpose of increasing
the general revenue of the country. Without entering
upon the question whether or not a claim exists to have
the surplus exclusively devoted to the purposes of the Act
of 1852, your Committee are of opinion that for the
future the annual surplus revenue accruing from the
operation of that Act should be so applied to the
extent which may be necessary."
91. We agree with the Committee as to the general
character of the objects to which the fund in question
should be appropriated.
92. We consider that this fund, which is derived in
great part from the applications of scientific principles
to various uses in the arts and industries of the country,
would be very properly spent in bettering some of the
conditions on which invention and discovery depend :
and we are of opinion that, among the uses to which such
a fund could be most advantageously applied, the esta-
blishment of such a Museum of Scientific Apparatus as
that which we contemplate would rank among the most
important ; and we are convinced that such a Museum
would have a material influence upon the spread of
scientific instruction throughout the country, and would
therefore largely foster invention and discovery.
93. We accordingly recommend the formation of a
collection of physical and mechanical instruments ; and
we submit for consideration whether it may not be expe-
dient that this collection, the collection of the Patent
Museum, and of the Scientific and Educational Depart-
ment of the South Kensington Museun, should be united
and placed under the authority of a Minister of State.
94. Whether this union be effected or not, we are of
opinion that it is desirable that the scientific collections
now placed at South Kensington should be subjected to
a critical revision, with a view to restricting them to such
objects as are of national interest or utility.
REPTILIAN ORDERS.
Catalogue of the Che/onians, Rhynchocephalians, and
Crocodiles in the British Museum [Natural History).
By G. A. Boulenger. New Edition. Pp. 311, Illus-
trated. (London : Published by the Trustees of the
Museum, 1889.)
T^HE handsome volume before us deals, as its name
-»- implies, with all known existing forms of the three
Reptilian orders of the Chelonians, Rhynchocephalians,
and Crocodilians ; but since the second group is repre-
sented only by a single species, while the number
of Crocodilians comprises little more than a score of
forms, the great bulk of the book is devoted to the
Chelonians, and it will, therefore, mainly be this group to
which our remarks will apply.
Previously to the appearance of this volume, the last
systematic "Catalogue of Crocodilians and Rhyncho-
cephalians " issued by the Museum was the quarto volume
by the late Dr. Gray,* published in 1872 ; the next year
having seen the publication of the revised list of
Chelonians by the same author."^ Without in any way
wishing to disparage the labours of the late Keeper of the
Zoological Department, to whose untiring energy the
British Museum is so greatly indebted for its magnificent
series of Reptiles, it is at once inanifest that the present
work is enormously in advance of any hitherto published,
this advance being especially noticeable in the case of
the Chelonians. Although in that order Dr. Gray figured
a large number of skulls, yet the distinctive features
afforded by this part of the skeleton were not accurately
gauged from a taxonomic point of view, while the cha-
racters of the bony carapace, so far as they relate to the
connections of the component bones with one another,
were practically ignored. In this respect Mr. Boulenger
has conferred a great boon, not only on the students of
the Chelonia of the present day, but still more especially
on those engagqd in the studv of fossil forms, who
generally have to deal only with the more or less imper-
fect carapace and plastron. In almost every genus the
author has caused at least one specimen to be stripped of
its epidermal horny shields, so as to exhibit not only the
impressions formed by the borders of these shields, but
also the form and relations of the underlying bones which
constitute the solid shell. And he has found that generic
characters can be to a very large extent based on the
structure of the skull, taken together with the form and
relations of the bones of the shell ; the contour of the
neural bones of the carapace, and the relations of the
suture between the humeral and pectoral shields of
the plastron to the entoplastral bone being of especial
importance. No less than seventy-three admirably-exe-
cuted woodcuts serve to illustrate these osteological
features, on which the taxonomy is so largely based ; and
by their aid the palaeontologist may hope to clear up to
some extent the affinities of the host of fossil Chelonians
at present described under the vague terms of Eniys and
Clemniys.
The author proposes to divide the Reptiles treated of
' '■ Catalogue of Shield-Reptilia. Part 2. Emydosaurians, Rhyncho-
cephalia. and Amphisbsenians." (1872.)
^ " Hand-List of the Specimens of Shield-Reptiles." (1873.)
NATURE
[May 2, 1889
in this volume into the following groups of higher than
generic rank, viz. : —
Order Rhynchocephalia.
Fam. Hatteriidx.
Order Chelonia.
Sub-order I. AtheC/E.
Fam. I. Sphargidas.
Sub-order 11. THEOCorHORA.
Super- fam. A. Cryptodira.
Fam, 2. Chelydridse.
3-
4-
5
6.
7-
Dermatemydidse.
Cinoslernidx.
Platysiernidiie.
Testudinidse.
Chelonidoe.
Super- fair
1. B
. Pleurodira.
Fam.
8.
9-
10.
Pelomedusidae.
Chelydidoe.
Carett ichelydidae
Super-fam. C
Fam. II.
. Trionychoidea.
Trionychidse.
Order Emydosauria.
Fam. Crocodilidne.
There are a few points in regard to the nomenclature of
£0 ne of these groups where the author's views are at
least open to question. This is especially the case with
regard to the selection of the name Emydosauria to
replace the almost universally accepted Crocodilia. The
reason for the selection of ihis term appears to be, that
it is the earliest. In common, however, with a large
number of English zoologists, we (while deprecating
the needless introduction of new ordinal names) hold
that, although the enforcement of the rule of priority
is, unfortunately, in most cases, obligatory as regards
generic and specific names in order to avoid endless
confusion, yet no such rule is necessary in respect to
higher groups, where the name that has come to be gener-
ally used ought to be maintained. Then, again, the un-
grammatically formed name Athecns, for which Prof. E.
D. Cope is responsible, should clearly have been amended
to Athecata ; while, since the name Thecophora — or, more
correctly, Thecaphora — clashes with the same term em-
ployed for a group of Hydroid Zoophytes, we think the
author would have been better advised had he followed
his own article on Tortoises in the latest edition of the
" Encyclopaedia Britannica," and employed the term
Testudinata in this sense. Finally, since the generic
names Hatteria and Sphargis are rejected in place of
the earlier Sphe77odo7i and Dcnnochelys (which, by the
way, should clearly be amended to Dennaiochelys), we
cannot follow the author in retaining the names Haiteriida
and SphiV'gidcE for the families respectively represented
by these two genera. If a family name means anything
at all, it means a group of animals more or less nearly
allied to a certain genus selected as the type, and it is
therefore clearly illogical to call the Sphmodon-\\Vt
reptiles JlaHeriida: when no such genus, as Hatteria
exists. Further, to show t'.ie absurdity to which this ad-
herence to the rule of priority, in place of that of com-
mon-sense, in the case of family names might lead us,
we have only to suppose that the name Hatteria, in place
of being rejected as later than Sphenodon, had been re-
jected on account of being preoccupied by another form
belonging to, but not the type of, a distinct family. In
such case, we should have the family name Hatteriida
for a group of animals which did not include the genus
Hatteria! On these grounds we hold that the names
Sphenodotitidce and Derinatochclydidce should certainly
replace Hatteriidce and Sphargidce.
In regard to the Rhynchocephalia, the author considers
that its one existing representative indicates an extremely
generalized type of reptile, of which the relations appear
to be at least as close to the Chelonia as to the Lacer-
tilia. In this respect, Mr. Boulenger departs very widely
from the views of Prof. Huxley ; and although we think
he is undoubtedly justified in maintaining the Rhyncho-
cephalia as a distinct order, yet we cannot overlook the
circumstance that the Homaiosaurian lizards of the Litho-
graphic stone, which appear to be Rhynchocephalians,
are most probably closely related to the ancestors of the
Lacertilia.
The whole of the existing Crocodilians are included in a
single family — against the three families adopted by Dr.
Gray. The true Crocodiles are divided into CrocodiluszxiA.
Osteolamus, according to the absence or presence of a
forward prolongation of the nasals to divide the anterior
nares ; while among the Alligators a similar feature
serves to distinguish Alligator axi^ Caiman. The Croco-
dilus po7idiceriantis of Gray is considered to be based
upon a young specimen of C. porosus. The Gharial skull
mentioned on p. 276 as having been obtained at Poonah
would appear to be incorrectly labelled, as this reptile is
unknown in Bombay.
Taking a brief general survey of the Chelonia, we
think the author is fully justified in adopting Prof Cope's
division of the order into the two primary groups of
Atheca-' and Thecophora ; the great difference in the
structure of the skull, as exemplified by the absence of
descending parietal plates in the former, being a charac-
ter which is of itself apparently sufficient to uphold this
division. We are aware, indeed, that Dr. G. Baur, of
Newhaven, Conn., holds a precisely opposite view, and,
in place of regarding the Athcac as the most generalized
type of existing Chelonians, looks upon them as an ex-
tremely specialized branch derived from the Cryptodiran
Chelonidcc. There are, indeed, certain superficial, and
probably adaptive, resemblances between these two types
of marine turtles, but the fundamental differences are so
great as apparently to render Dr. Baur's views untenable.
And we should much like to ask that authority how he
would explain the appearance of transverse processes to
the dorsal vertebra of one of the extinct Athecit on his
own hypothesis of their phylogeny.
The three " super-families " into which the Thecophora
are divided are, to a great extent, distinguished by the
mode of flexure of the neck, by cranial characters, and
by the relations of the pelvis to the shell. Certain very
peculiar features in relation to the mandibular articula-
tion, the tympanic ring, and the arrangement of the bones
of the palate serve to distinguish the existing Cryptodira
of the southern, from the Pleurodira of the northern hemi-
sphere ; but we have considerable doubts whether these
characters will be found to obtain in the Mesozoic repre-
sentatives of the group, and whether they are not rather
acquired than arcaaic features. We should, indeed,
May 2, 1889]
NA TURE
have been glad to have an expression of the author's
views as to the mutual relations from a phylogenetic
point of view of the three groups of the Thecophora ;
because, if the separate nasals and parieto-squamosal
arch of some of the Pleurodira be indicative of their
more primitive organization, it would be pretty clear that
the peculiar specialized character of the mandibular
articulation can only be diagnostic of the later forms.
The Trionychoidea, or soft Tortoises, appear to show
affinities to the Pleurodira in the structure of the palate ;
and here again we miss an expression of opinion as to
the nature of this relationship. The peculiar chevron-
shaped entoplastron, which is regarded as an important
diagnostic feature of the group, was, we believe, first
brought prominently to notice by Dr. Baur.
In regard to the families of the Cryptodira, the
author follows Dr. Gray in regarding Staurotypus as
nearly related to the Chelydridce, but places it in a
distinct family, of which Dermatemys, placed by Dr.
Gray next the Batagurs, is taken as the type. Ctno-
sternum, likewise placed by Dr. Gray in the Chelydrida,
is regarded as the type of another family, readily cha-
racterized by the absence of the entoplastral bone ;
while the Platysternidce is likewise a family of which but
one genus is known. The widest departure from the
arrangement of Dr. Gray is, however, found in the case
of the TestudinidcB, which is a very extensive family,
embracing the EmydidcB of other writers, and no less
than four other families of Dr. Gray's " Hand-List." The
transition from one genus to another is, however, so
gradual, as apparently to afford full justification for the
new departure. Twenty genera of this family are
recognized, all of which can be defined by cha-
racters of the skull and shell. We would especially
note the disappearance of the well-known Pangshura of
India in the genus Kachuga; and would also remark
that, after its complex synonymy, the common European
Pond Tortoise is finally to be known as Einys orbicularis.
The genus Testudo is the largest in the whole order,
comprising no less than forty-one species. Here it has
been found that the division of the pygal, or supra-caudal,
shield is a character commonly occurring in the typical
Testudo grcEca, and consequently Testudo einys, which,
on this account was made the type of the genus Manuria,
and has attained an unfortunate notoriety owing to the
controversy regarding Scapia, is included in the type
genus. The Chelonidce, or Turtles, are divided into the
genera Chelone and Thalassochelys, each of which is
represented by two species. And here we may notice
the wise discretion of the author in refusing to recognize
a host of so-called species based on features which may
well be regarded as merely indicative of varieties. The
members of this family, it may be remarked, are the only
existing Thecophora in which the temporal fossae are
completely roofed over by bone ; and since a more or less
complete approximation to this feature occurs in many
Mesozoic types, this bony roof may perhips be regarded
as indicative of direct affinity with some of these early
types. In the Pleurodira the first two families are dis-
tinguished from one another by the presence or absence
of a mesoplastral bone, as well as by well-marked cranial
features, while the third family, represented only by the
aquatic Carettochelys of New Guinea, has no epidermal
shields on the shell. This remarkable form, it may be
observed, is one of the ^t'^ desiderata in the collection of
the Museum.
In the Trionychoidea, all of which are included in the
family Trionychida, the author has, we believe for the
first time, pointed out characters by which the skull of
the typical forms, in which the hyoplastral remains dis-
tinct from the hypoplastral, can be readily distinguished
from that of the group typically represented by Einyda,
and characterized by the fusion of the above-mentioned
bones. In the diagnosis of the genera Triouyx, Pelochclys,
and C/iitra on p. 241, we meet with the following sentence,
viz. "outer extremities of the nuchal bone overlying the
second dorsal rib." This sentence, when contrasted with
the corresponding diagnosis of the three following genera,
strikes us as liable to lead to confusion ; and the sentence
would be better if it read " outer extremities of the nuchal
bone overlying the rib supporting the first costal bone."
It appears, indeed, that the first dorsal rib of Chelonians
is aborted, and carries no costal bone, or plate, so that
the first costal bone is supported by what is really the
second rib. We may perhaps be pardoned for pointing
out that the term " straight angle," mentioned in the fifth
line from the bottom of p. 251 does not, at first sight,
suggest the idea of a •' right angle," for which, we presume,
it is meant.
Scarcely any systematic work can nowadays escape
criticism, but in our judgment the system adopted in
the present volume appears to be one which in the
main ought to meet with very general acceptation, and
we heartily congratulate the author on the completion
of a very laborious task in a manner which deserves
the thanks of the students both of recent and fossil
Chelonians. R. L.
THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATION.
The History of Ancient Civilization. By the Rev. J.
Verschoyle, M.A. (London : Chapman and Hall,
THE title of this book is somewhat misleading. One
is led to expect from it a history of the growth < f
civilization from its earliest stages to its v.rious develop-
ments among different nations or races, and of the relation
of one form to another. But instead of this we have an
account of the characteristic civilization of certain selected
nations when at their best, with very little to indicate any
relation between them. The nations whose civilization
is described are the Egyptians, the Babylonians, and
Assyrians ; the Jews, Phoenicians, Aryans, and Persians ;
the Greeks and the Romans. The two latter are treated
very fully, occupying about three-fifths of the whole.
There can be no question that the information con-
veyed would be very useful to a student of ancient
civilization, but he would immediately ask for more.
If he had any intention of studying the question from
a scientific point of view, he would not be content with
isolated facts, but ask for the conne:tion between them.
Indeed, one of the most conspicuous features of the book
is the complete absence of any scientific method ; i:s
merits must be appreciated entirely from the literary
NATURE
{May 2, 1889
standpoint, especially in connection with the history and
literature of Greece and Rome.
In any scientific history of civilization, the first stages,
in which from rough stone implements men passed to
the arts of drawing, sculpture, and the manufacture of
pottery, and so to the invention of bronze and the erec-
tion of megalithic buildings, are surely of too much
interest to be dismissed in a sentence or two, with an
illustration of a "flint spearhead" of very peculiar ap-
pearance. To. what races these men might belong we
do not learn from our author, who, after observing that
"modern science has also directed its attention to the sub-
ject of races and anthropology, and has issued in studies
which have not, however, yet resulted in a decisive con-
clusion," dismisses all other races in eighteen lines, and
springs on us the " white race," " whose first habitation
was the highlands of Asia." " It was there that, after
the deluge chronicled in the legends of all Eastern nations,
mankind dispersed, and formed the three chief branches
of the white race — the families of Ham, Shem, and
Japhet." Thus we learn nothing about the remarkable
and early civilization of the Chinese, on the ground that
" the information respecting it is not sufficient.'' We are
not, therefore, surprised that the author dismisses America
with the single sentence, " In America, the copper or red
race has continually receded before the Europeans, and
cannot be counted amongst the civilized races." He ap-
parently thinks there has never been but one race in
America, and forgets the ancient civilization of the Aztecs,
and that of the race which they themselves succeeded ; and
we cannot therefore hope that he will throw any light on
the home of that remarkable people who carved the
idols of Easter Island, or erected the megaliths of Tonga.
In the chapter on Egypt there is much interesting
though somewhat disconnected information ; but those
who think that the arts and sciences are amongst the
most important parts of civilization, will perhaps scarcely
be satisfied with the statement that " the scientific theory,
which would consider the pyramid a kind of observatory,
is quite unfounded."
The materials for the description of the civilization of
the cities of Mesopotamia are so rich that the chapter
which deals with it cannot fail to be interesting ; it is
only to be desired that the relations of the Accadians,
Babylonians, and Assyrians, and their several conditions,
had been made more clear, and the great length of time,
as in the case of the Egyptians, over which the same type
of civilization continued, pointed out. Indeed, one of
the remarkable features of ancient civihzation, which has
an important bearing on the antiquity of man, is its slow
progress.
The account of Eastern civilization, or that of the
Aryans and Hindus, is very defective. Indeed, we have
little more than a short account of the tenets of Brah-
manism and Buddhism, and no mention of their art,
though many of the Hindu stupas and topes date back
before the Christian era. There is some fair description
of Persian and Phoenician civilization, but there is nothing
about the Phrygians. The rock tombs of Asia Minor
are unnoticed, and Troy is only mentioned in relation to
the Greeks.
In contradistinction to this, the treatment of Grecian and
Roman history is superabundantly full, as one sentence
will show. " The * epithalamium ' of Malhus is probably
his best work, always excepting his charming lyrics to
Lesbia." If a notice of so little known a poet forms part
of the history of ancient civihzation, it is difficult to see
why the omissions above enumerated should occur.
In a word, the whole subject is unequally treated ;
there is a bias towards classical learning, which, in spite
of the useful information given, prevents the book from
being in any sense a scientific history.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
Board School Laryngitis. By Greville Macdonald, M.D.
Lond., Physician to the Throat Hospital, Golden Square
Pp. 31. (London : A. P. Watt, 1889.)
Numerous as are the evils to which the Board School
system is alleged to have given rise, we have before us
yet another indictment to add to the list. This time,
however, it is the teachers, and not the scholars, who compel
our interest. Dr. Macdonald claims to have identified
certain changes in the vocal apparatus of Board School
teachers, of both sexes, of so definite a character as to
enable him to state with certainty from the appearance of
the throat that the patient belongs to that long-suffering
class.
A varicose condition of the superficial vessels of the
vocal cords and a nodular hypertrophy of the free margins
are the conditions to which he calls special attention. Of
the latter condition he notes that it may occur without
obvious inflammatory surroundings, and quotes Stoerk's
reference to it under the name of " singers' nodules."
He does not, however, mention the Viennese laryngo-
logist's explanation of them, which, in the present con-
nection, is interesting. Stoerk claimed that these nodules
were the direct result of an improper use of the voice
whereby a part only of the vocal cords was set in vibra-
tfon. The nodules made their appearance at the spot
intervening between the vibrating and the motionless
parts of the cords, usually the junction of the anterior
third with the posterior two-thirds.
Board School teachers, uninstructed for the most part
as to the use of the voice, depressed by the close and
often foul atmosphere of a crowded schoolroom, choked
with the chalk from their blackboards, and often com-
pelled to scream to make themselves heard above the din
of an unruly class, are beset with every condition which
predisposes to inflammation and over-straining of their
vocal apparatus.
Dr. Macdonald suggests remedies for such a state of
things, for the consideration of the ruling powers, and
intimates that local treatment alone is of any avail in
dealing with the changes to which he calls special atten-
tion. The varicose vessels he would destroy with the
galvano cautery, and the nodules with the forceps. The
monograph is written in a fluent and readable style, and
treats of a subject which deserves the serious attention
both of lay and professional readers. Possibly the interest
of the latter class would have been more keenly aroused
had the author appended a little more information as to
the extent of his experience. He tells us that the Board
School teachers consult him in increasing numbers, and
that his success in treatment has been remarkable, but he
does not quote cases, or offer any statistical record,
by which his professional brethren may compare his
experiences with their own in the same line of practice.
The pathological conditions to which he would affix
such an attractive title are not by any means unknown
as a consequence of chronic laryngitis in other walks of
life, and something more than mere assertion must be
offered before they can be generally accepted as the
peculiar product of the Board School system.
E. Clifford Beale.
May 2, 1889 I
NATURE
A Treatise on Elementary Algebra and Algebraical
Artifices. By Saradaranjan Ray, M.A. Two Vols.
(Calcutta : S. K. Lahiri and Co., 1888.)
The work under review is also Part II. of "A Course
of Elementary Mathematics." Vol. I. comprises those
portions of elementary algebra usually to be found in
modern text-books up to the chapter on proportion.
Vol. II. includes chapters on variation, theory of equa-
tions, elimination, binomial theorem, and properties of
logarithms, as well as many others ; but those mentioned
will suffice to show the general scope. The author gives
the object he has had in view : " To create in beginners
a taste for algebra, and to show them the utility and
application of algebraical artifices." In achieving this
desire he has met with some degree of success. The
.anguage employed is simple and clear. The proofs in
many instances are interesting. We question the advisa-
bility of placing the binomial theorem and properties of
logarithms at the conclusion of a work which contains
biquadratic equations. At least an elementary chapter
upon the former subject should precede the theory of
equations, while a discussion of logarithms would be of
great use in its development.
We notice one very important omission : the multi-
nomial theorem finds no place in these volumes. This
is much to be regretted, for the chapter on permutation
could have introduced it in an elegant and suggestive
manner. Again, we notice that the subject of series is
scarcely touched upon. One would hope in a work
of this scope to find a short chapter which would in-
clude reversion of series. However, there are many ex-
cellent features in the book. Chapters on " Consistency
and Sufficiency," and on " Identities and Equalities," are
novel and gratifying. The pages concerning arith-
metical and geometrical progressions are original and
inspiring ; for example, the student is taught the mean-
ing of the sum of n terms of a progression when n is
negative, and is shown that both arithmetical and geo-
metrical progressions possess the common property that
two successive terms are connected by a linear relation ;
from this point of view the series are then further
examined.
There are many examples, as a rule well selected, with
occasional hints to show the learner that a little ingenuity
will often overcome particular difficulties. There are a
few occurrences of faulty printing, and some misprints
which do not appear in the errata.
The students of our Eastern dependency are in pos-
session of a book by one of their own countrymen who
is a thorough master of his subject.
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[ The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions ex-
pressed by his correspondents . Neither can he undertake
to return, of to correspond with the writers of. rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications. ]
The Sailing Flight of the Albatross.
In Nature, vol. xxxix. p. 230, the late Mr. William Froude,
in a letter to Sir William Thomson, on the subject of the
"Soaring of Birds," gives a short account of the well-knowa
and often discussed sailing flight of the albatross ; and says
that after long consideration the only explanation which pre-
sented itself to his mind was, that the birds use the upward
current caused by the lifting of the air from the bottom of the
trough to the level of the crest of an advancing wave. Mr.
Froude by a rough calculation — the waves being supposed 10
feet from hollow ■ to crest — concludes that an upward current of
3 feet per second may be caused in this manner, and stales that
the bird's movements were often in accordance with this ex-
planation, though it was often impossible to affirm or deny the
accordance.
Having had many opportur.ities of observing the flight of the
albatross, I cannot think this explanation the true one. I have
often seen albatrosses sailing when the sea appeared as flat as a
table, with the exception of the small w aves caused by a light wind.
This seems fatal to Mr. Froude's explanation, which requires
waves of considerable size. As Mr. Froude observed, the birds
often sail along the crests of waves. It seemed to me that they
were sometimes using the current diverted upwards by the wave,
just as on land birds use that diverted by hedges, river-terraces, &c,
I will first give a description of the flight of these birds, as I
observed it when on board steamers running between Australia
and New Zealand, which are nearly always followed by numbers
of birds ; and then attempt an explanation. The sailing flight is
never to my knowledge done in a calm. I once observed the
effect of a gradually diminishing \\ind on their flight. The
steamer was going about nine knots. When the wind, which
was very nearly aft, became one or two knots slower than the
steamer, the birds, which had hitherto kept their wings perfectly
steady, began to flap at intervals which became shorter as the
wind lessened, and when it ceased they flapped almost without
intermission, and soon ceased to follow the vessel.
The birds go through a series of movements which are related
to the direction of the wind. Starting from near the surface,
they rise in a slanting direction against the wind, to a height
which varies with the strength and direction of the wind. The
average seemed to me about 20 feet. Then comes immediately
a turn half round in a rather large circle, followed at once by a
rapid descent down the wind. They then take a longer or
shorter flight in various directions, almost touching the water.
After that another ascent in the same manner, and so on,
repeating the series of movements aJ libitum. The interval of
time between the ascents evidently depends on the direction of
the wind with regard to the course of the vessel. When the
wind is ahead, and the birds' velocity througii the air great,
being necessarily greater than the wind's velocity plus that of
the steamer, the interval is short. When the wind is abaft the
beam, and the birds' velocity much less, the interval is usually
much longer. As a general rule, there is a rough proportion as
to the favourableness of the wind and the length of time between
successive ascents. Also, when the wind is favourable and not
strong they do not rise so high as in a strong and adverse wind.
The explanation I have to give of the movements above
described depends upon the well-known fact that the velocity
of the wind at the surface is diminished by friction, so that its
velocity increases with the height, the rate of increase being
greatest near the surface. Prof. Osborne Reynolds found by
experiment that the wind's velocity over a grass meadow at a
height of 8 feet was double that at i foot.^ Over the sea, when
there is enough wind to roughen the surface, the drag on the
lowest stratum is probably greater than over a grass meadow,
on account of the motion communicated to the water. This effect
of friction makes clear the object of the ascents against, and the
descents with, the wind. For, as a bird rises, he enters currents
of wind which increase in velocity with the height, in a direction
contrary to his own motion, so that the loss of velocity conse-
quent on rising, and which would take place in still air, is partly
— or perhaps, when the wind is strong, wholly — made good. The
bird thus gains energy of position, which is converted into
energy of motion by descending. A bird's ascent against the
wind may be compared with the ascent of a particle up an
incline, while the incline itself is accelerated in a horizontal
direction opposite to that of the particle's motion, thereby
enabling it to reach a height greater than that due to the initial
velocity. The albatross does not go on rising until his velocity
is nearly exhausted, but makes a half-turn at great speed pre-
vious to his descent. Thus the quickness of the ascent, with,
as Mr. Froude says, scarcely if any apparent loss of speed, is
explained. By making a slanting dcbcent with the wind, the
bird carries with him the velocity of the faster-moving wind of
the high level into the slower-moving wind near the surface ;
and thus increases his velocity through the air, to which is to be
added that due to his fall. Thus, if resistance is left out of
account, the bird's velocity since he began to ascend would have
been increased by twice the difference in the velocity of the wind
near the surface, and at the height to which he rises. And as
the power of overcoming resistance varies as the square of the
velocity, the addition of several feet per second to the bird's
already high velocity is equivalent to much more energy than
is lost in the few seconds occupied by the rise, turn, and fall ;
' "On the Refraction of Sound by the .\tm.isphere," by Prof. Osborne
Reynolds. Kead before the Royal Society, Apiil aj, 1874.
lO
NA TURE
[May 2, 1889
so that there is a dcarga'n, which may be expended in flight
until the speed is so much reduced that it is necessary to increase
it by another ascent.
The reason is clear why, when following a steamer against the
wind, the birds are compelled to repeat at short intervals the
movements by which speed through the air is gained, and why,
when the wind is favourable, the intervals are longer. The
great 1< ngth of there intervals just mentioned seems to me the
difficult point in the theory. It cannot be proved that the speed
acquired by the movements described is sufficient for such long
flights between the ascents as are sometimes seen, under conditions
where there is no suspicion of upward ci rrents near the surface.
Our knowledge of the resistance of the air to such complex
surfaces as the wings of birds is, I believe, almost nothing ; and
even if we knew, without doubt, the true explanation of the
manner in which the energy lost by resistance is renewed, we
might find it hard to apply it to all cases, unless we had some
real knowledge cf the supporting power of the air, and the
horizontal resistance at different velocities.
I have sometimes seen a number of albatrosses sailing in a
peculiar manner, the wind being at right angles to the course of
the steamer. They ascend against and descend with the wind,
turning alternately right and left, so as to describe an undulating
line, not far behind the stern. A number of them sometimes
do this for hours, whi'e others are sailing in various directions
farther off. It is curious that the common sea-gulls of New
Zealand {Larus doniinicamis), which have become (o a great
extent 'and-birds since the country was colonized, may be
sometimes seen iraking their way over flat country in the same
manner as the albatrosses just described — that i=, at right angles
to the wind, and turning alternately right and left, and nearly
touching the ground at each descent. Their success in doing
the sailing flight is, however, imperfect, as they seem compelled
to flap their wings a few times during the se( ond half of each
ascent. Perhaps future generations of gulls may improve. No
doubt !^ome muscular exertion is saved by this mode of progres-
sion. The foregoing theory of the sailing flight of the albatross
shows, I think, the action of a vera causa, which, as far as I
know, has not been noticed before. A. C. Baines.
Christchurch, New Zealand.
Note on Ragadia crisia.
Mr. W. L. Distant, in his admirable " Rhopalocera
Malayana," calls attention to the recent appearance of Kagadia
crisia in the Malay peninsula. As I have had opportunities of
studying the habits of the species in what seems to be one of its
head-quarters, it may be desirable to record the facts.
Mr. Distant writes as follows : — "One of the most peculiar
facts in relation to this butterfly seems to be its almost recent
appearance in the Malay peninsula, or at all events its first
capture there by collectors. I did not meet with it myself when
collecting at Province Wellesley, nor did I subsequently receive
it in numerous collections derived from the peninsula. In 1883,
however, the species seems to have been common from Penang
to Singapore. I first received two specimens captured on
Penang Hill, and sent to me as a new species; others shortly
follov\ed from Province Wellesley, with the remark of an ex-
perienced collector that the species was quite new to the locality ;
and almost simultaneously the Indian mail brought me more
examples from Sungti Ujong, Malacca, and Singapore. My
friend Mr. Logan also sent me an example with the comment,
'a very rare butterfly not known to collectors here.'
" Capt. Godfrey, who also captured the species at Sungei
Ujong, described it as being found in low undergrowth in the
forest, where, especially in the early morning, I several times
met with it. Its flight is weak and feeble, but it cleverly
eludes pursuit by threading its way through tangled brushwood "
(" Rhop. Mai.," p. 421).
Mr. W. B. Pryer, in his joint paper with Mr. Distant ("Rhop.
Northern Borneo," Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., January 1887.
p. 49), describes it as "rare, under almost thick forest shade."
In ten years' collecting in North Borneo he has only met with a
few specimens, not more than a dozen, nearly all of which he
saw at Silam, on the coast of the district I write about.
I find it to be the very commonest butterfly in the dense forest
of the centre of Darvel Bay Peninsula, on the east coast of
British North Borneo.
I first saw the insect in the deep forest between Lamag on the
River Kinabatangan and Itok Batu on the River Segama, about
120 miles in'and. It was not common, but I always saw one or
two daily. Since then Mr. Pryer has taken it higher up the
River Kinabatangan, some 250 miles up stream. The butterfly
is still quite rare on the coast, the only specimens having fallen
to Mr. Pryer's net.
Last year I made an exploration through the forest from the
River Tinkyo in Darvel Bay to the head-waters of the River
Sfgama. Within four miles of the coast, in the alluvial flat of
the River Tinl<yo, the species was seen daily, but was far from
common. As soon as we touched the mountain country it began
to grow common, and from 600 feet to 2500 feet above sea-level
it was the commonest butterfly in the deep forest.
Capt. Godfrey's description of its hal i;s agrees with mine,
except in one particular. He found it most plentiful in early
morning. I was always in the jungle from soon after dawn to-
near dusk, and found it appeared about 9 o'clock in the morning,
and was on the wing till about 4 o'clock in the afternoon.
It has the feeblest (and wickedest) flight of any butterfly
known to me. I never saw it rise six feet above the ground,
and it flaps slowly along, apparently with eff rt, its wings not
stiff but bending with each stroke. It looks a certain capture ;
but this, as Capt. Godfrey found, is delusive and elusive. It
keeps just above the low bushes from two to three feet high, and;
sneaks in among them most exasperatingly. It seems to do this
deliberately, and will rather circuit round an opening made by a
fallen tree than cress the small opening. It is often seen flying
in rain.
As a rule it is quite solitary, it being rare to see two at once,
and it is not at all bold or pugnacious.
Its wings are so soft that it often crumples in the wet, and it
is almost impossible to set it during the rainy season, the wings^
relaxing in a few hours, though it may have been a week on-
the setting- board.
From February to October it was equally common. I then
came out of the forest. It probably flies all the year round.
It is one of the few true forest species, and avoids the sunshine.
I do not know whether the insect is common elsewhere, and
can offer no suggestion as to why it should be spreading from
this part, though it is undoubtedly creeping coastwards. The
eastern part of North Borneo is untouched primaeval forest, the
cnly clearings being on the coast and river-l anks, and these are
small. The country where Kagadia abounds is quite uninhabited,
and it is difficult to see how the food-plant (unknown) could
have been taken thence to the Straits Settlements. Then too,
in Borneo at any rate, it would avoid clearings.
Leaving this question for future observers to solve, we now
know that in one part of the interior of North Borneo Kagadia-
crisia is very common, and it is extending its area.
Sydney B. J. Skertchi.y.
Spherical Eggs.
Prof. Aldis will find references to the history of this ancient
question in an article by Mr. W. Walton in the Quarterly
Journal of Mathematics, vol. ix. p. 79, where it appears as
Leslie Ellis's problem of the thirsty crow, "A thirsty crow
flew to a pitcher and found there was water in it, but so near
the bottom he could not reach it. Seeing, however, plenty of
small, equal spherical pebbles near the place, he cast them one
by one into the pitcher, and thus by degrees raised the water up
to the very brim and satisfied his thirst. Prove that the volume
of water must have been to that of the pitcher in a ratio not less
than 3 fjz - ■"■ : 3 sj^.''^ References are supplied in the article by
the Rev. Dr. Luard to Pliny's "Natural History," book x.
chapter 43, "De Corvorum Intelligenlia" ; Plutarch, " De
Solertia Animalium ; and .-Elian, " De Natuva Animalium."
Consult also Tail's " Properties oi^ Matter."
Thus in an aggregation of closely- packed equal spherules the
unoccupied space is i - j7r^/2 of the whole volume.
We may verify this experimentally by comparing the weight
of a given volume of small lead shot with the weight of an
equal volume of lead ; theoretically the densities should be as ir,
to 3 ^2.
On a larger scale, the question may be studied in the piles of
spherical shot form.erly to be seen in our forts and arsenals.
Whether we begin piling the shot in horizontal layers, in tri-
angular order, or in square order, the internal molecular arrange-
ment of the spheres is the same ; but the square order in the
horizontal layers is preferred, as it is then possible to build the
pile on a rectangular ba=-e, fini^hing off at the top with a ridge
May 2, 1889]
NATURE
II
of halls in sinjjle file, the sloping faces all showing the sph;res
in triangular orJer.
Suppose a bag, impermeable to water, i> filled with le id shot,
placed in an hydraulic press, and subjecled to great pressure.
The lead spheres will ba flattened ajainst each o'.har in regular
•cell structure into a solid ma>s, each sphere being chxnged into
a rhombic dodoahcdron ; and in this manner the form of tha
•cell of the bee has been considered as arising in a natural manner
by Mrs. Bryant, D. Sc, in a paper read before the Lond)n
Mathematical Society, vol. xvi.. " O 1 the Ideal Geometrical
Form of Natural Cell- Structure." The plane surfaces of separa-
tion al-o form a possible arrangement of the films of a mass of
soap-bubbles; but the instability of the corners where six
edges meet modifies the soap bubble arrangement to the form
investigated by Sir W. Thomson in the Ac^a Mdthemalica.
April 27. A. G. Greenhill.
Name for Unit of Self-induction.
A NAME for the unit ciefificient of self-induction is much
Avanted. No one is satisfied with secohm, and yet it seems
■making its way ; by reason, no doubt, of Ayrton and Perry's
ingenious commutating arrangement for helping to measure it.
It is an unpleasing name, and it is too big a unit. The name
■quad, which I formerly suggested, is on further consideration still
less satisfactory for permanent use, becau-e it emphasizes unduly
the accid*nt that in electro- mxgmtic measure self-ind action
liappens to be a length. One 1 )oks forward to the time when
till distinction between electrostatic and electro-magnetic measures
shall vanish by both ceasing to be ; and at that not far-distant
time, names e nphasizing the present arbitrary state of things
will be anachronism-;, as well as s'.u nbling-blocks to beginners.
I beg to suggest that a milli secohm shall be called a vo. It is a
short and harmless unmeaning syllable not yet appropriated. It
should be its own plural. The unit of conductivity is already
style! a W(»;and 8 vo will look well alongside 12 mo. " Vo-
meter" is short and satisfactory. A unit of magnetic induction
Avill then be tlie vo-ampere ; and this, bein j of a size convenient
for dynamo makers, may be hoped to replace their abominable
fnongrel unit " Kapp-lines."
The vo in electro-magnetic measure is 10 kilometres, and
hence a vo ampere per square decimetre is a magnetic field of
a thousand C.G. S. units, and might be called a "Gauss." For
Jightning-conductor work the natural unit of self-induction will
t)e a n:;illi-vo, or 10 metres of electro-magnetic measure.
Grasmere, April 16. Oliver J. Lodge,
Hertz's Equations.
Permit me to add a line of explanation of my letter on this
subject, printed in Nature, vjI. xxxix. p. 558. I intended no
•criticism of Hertz's general result, bat merely to draw attention
to the neces-ity of reje :ting all solutions of the equation in n
which made the fore (Z) infinite for points on the vibrator.
Berkswell, April 24. H. W. Watson.
A NEW PEST OF FARM CROPS.
DURING the past three or four years, in the exaini-
nation of plants affected by various injurious
vorms and Arthropods, and of the soils in which such
plants grew, I have from time to time been led to suspect
that certain small species of Oligochceta were concerned
in damaging, if not ultimately destroying, several species
of cultivated plants. With a view to converting sus-
picion into proof, experiments on isolated growing pot-
plants have been carried on.
Within the past few weeks I have received, through
the kindness of Miss E. A. Ormerod, additional evidence
•of a striking character, which induces me to place the
main facts on record.
In the spring of 1885, Miss Ormerod forwarded to me
for inspection two small white Oligochce/a, i\ inch lon^--,
received by her in soils from the roots of plants. In
reporting on them I replied that it did not seem very
probable that they could seriously injure the plants.
In April 1888, an inquiry reached mc as to the natur-?
and means of prevention of a serious attack of "small
white worms" destructive to pot and green-house plants.
On being placed in communication with the observer, th:;
Rev. William Lockett, Rector of Littlede.in, I receiveii
from him a box of soil taken from his affected flower-
pots, and much valuable information in answer to a series
of questions put by me. The soil itself contained some
hundreds of the white worms described ; and the detailed
information all pointed to these worms as the cause of
many serious losses which had been sustained.
Th'j worms were Enchytraeidae, of the genus
Ettchytrcstis, apparently near to E. Buchholzii, Vejd
I took three plants, a sunflower, a geranium, and a
tradescantia, and had them re-potted in carefully examine 1
sifted earth ; when they were well established, I put fifteen
of the worms into each pot, and left them to be tended by
the gardener. I kept a number of the worms in soil
which was alternately wetted and dried at regular
intervals. They all kept alive and vigorous ; when wet
to complete immersion they were most active, when
dried they remained quiescent, apparently dried up, and
difficult to discover.
After two months, the sunflower drooped and bent over,
and examination showed the roots and rootlets dead and
the stem rotting. Within the decaying stem some of the
Enchytrtfidiie were found alive and active. The other two
plants are still living, but it will be shown that the
number of worms supplied them was too small. Mr.
Lockett lost spiraeas, vegetable marrows, fuchsias,
gloxinias, and many other plants, and the dead roots often
contained in and around them many hundreds of worms
to each plant. Both in his garden and a neighbouring
ash-heap he found an abundance of them.
I was on the point of repeating my experiments this
spring with various seedlings, when I received by the kind-
ness of Dr. Gilbert, of Rothamsted (at the suggestion of
Miss Ormerod), a quill with two or three specimens of
worms of the same genus. Mr. John J. Willis, the
superintendent of the field experiments at Rothamsted,
in sending them described them as obtained from a field
of clover " with a good plant except across one portion of
the field, where all the plants were dying off," the small
worms occurring at the roots of the clover along with
larvae of Sitones z.x\A wire-worm. "There is scarcely a
plant that has not one or more of these creatures
attached." Mr. Willis has been good enough to send me
several communications on the subject, and a supply of
the worms, living and in spirit. Much of his informa-
tion is interesting, as that the more decayed the root, the
larger the number of worms ; that even healthy plants
harbour a few specimens ; that the worms seem some-
times to enwrap the rootlets with their coiled body.
He hears of other fields of clover in a similar condition
apparently to those at Rothamsted. I have a quantity of
detailed information, but to sumnarize it, there appears
to be but little room for doubt that these small OlIgochcBta
are one cause of the decay of the clover at Rothamsted,
as they were of the many varieties of garden plants at
Littledean.
The Enchytraeidas have not hitherto, so far as I can
learn, been accused of causing serious injury to plants.
Vejdovsky, in his " Monographie der Enchytraeiden," says,
" Die Enchytrasiden bewohnen trockene und feuchte
Erde, susses und salziges Wasser, Siimpfe und morsches
Holz." In what manner they directly injure the plant
remains to be observed— probably by sucking the fine
root-hairs. Under observation the pharynx is rapidly
everted and withdrawn in the act of feeding. 1 have so
far recognized two species. If, as seems not improbable,
further corroboration should be forthcoming, we may find
that we have to add to the list of enemies of the clover
plant from which it so mysteriously suffers, these un-
suspected Oligocheetes. The discovery, though fraught
12
NATURE
{May 2, 1889
with so little satisfaction to the already burdened agri-
culturist, can hardly fail to prove of interest to the
zoological student of farm pests.
Allen Harker.
Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, April 10.
RAIN CLOUDS ON LAKE TI TIC AC A.
THE cloud system here, 12,500 feet above sea-level, is
so beautiful, and seems to throw so much light on
the formation of one particular type of shower, that I
venture to send diagrammatic sketches of two excellent
specimens of cloud-building over rain.
I have never seen cumuloform clouds so perfectly
developed as on this lake. Whether the height above the
dust and haze of lower levels makes the blue sky darker
than usual, or whether the temperature is such that the
cumulus is composed of snow-flakes instead of water-
drops, the contrast between the sky and cloud is much
greater than usual.
The sketches were taken on a showery day, and the
clouds were visible simultaneously in different directions.
The type of shower is not unknown at home, but there
much complication arises from the almost constant
existence of cyclonic cloud systems.
Certain features are common to both pictures. Nearest
the earth, appears a more or less conical-shaped space r.
Fig. I. — /', blue sky ; c, flat-topped mass of dark cloui, rounded components ; r, rain ; iv, white cloud, tending to flatter, out and to cirrify.
Fig. 2. — b, blue sky ; c, dark cumuloform cloud, flat-topped at edges; d, dark belt ; r, rain ; 7t', white cloud, tending to fl itten and to cirrify.
of uniform inky blackness, where rain is falling. Above,
and stretching laterally some distance beyond the rain, is
a belt of dark cloud, c, curiously flattened at the top ; but
the outhnes are always rounded, and there is no trace of
linear or hairy structure. In Fig. 2 a mountainous rocky
cumulus rises above the flat dark mass c ; and as the rain
could be seen falling, I have indicated that appearance in
the sketch.
In both, a white cloud, w, of remarkable shape and
structure, rises above the dark mass c. Sometimes, as in
Fig. I, this cloud is nearly uniform in structure, but exhibits
a tendency towards hairy structure at the edges. Other
times, as in Fig, 2, the white clood iv shows traces of
cumuloform structure of a very peculiar type. Instead of
round, rocky lumps, the white cloud is composed of long,
straight, fingery masses of cumulus, with a tendency to
fibrous or hairy structure, and radiating slighUy outwards
from the base, like the head of a cauliflower. I have en-
deavoured to suggest this appearance by the straight
hnes, drawn through w, in Fig. 2 ; for the real structure
defies delineation with pen or pencil.
In all cases, the top of iv is more or less flat, and the
whole diffuses outwards, sideways, or edgeways, rather
than upwards. As the shower breaks up, w seems tb be
left as a middle-level layer of strato-cirrus.
The whole shower is surrounded by blue sky, there is
May 2, 1889]
NATURE
13
no cirrus at a higher level ; and while the low cloud c
moves from north-east, the white cloud w may be coming
either from north-east or more probably from north-west.
The puzzling nature of cloud perspective makes it very
difficult to interpret the appearance of these clouds. There
can be little doubt that the lower clouds, c, are the product
of the condensation of rising columns of air ; but while
the somewhat cumuloform structure of %a ought also to
indicate an upward motion, the flat top, and outward
diffusion, would suggest a more horizontal motion.
I cannot therefore suggest any rational explanation of
the building of these shower clouds ; and the true nature
of this phenomenon will only be discovered when the
theodolite is used to determine whether w lies vertically
or horizontally in the blue sky.
Ralph Abercromby.
Lake Titicaca, February 28.
A FLA T FISH NURSER Y.
PROF. EWART submitted the following report at a
recent meeting of the Scotch Fishery Board : —
" I have to report that I recently discovered in the in-
shore waters what might best be described as a flat fish
nursery. This nursery, which is about five miles in length,
and from two to four miles in width, stretches along an ex-
posed and only slightly indented shore, where the sea rises
during spring tides from sixteen to twenty feet. The
bottom of this area consists chiefly of fine sand, covered
here and there with large patches of the common sea-mat
(Flusfra) ; the average depth is about four fathoms.
When a small beam-trawl (with a net having meshes small
enough to capture all the fish over two inches in length)
was carried over the bottom parallel to and at a distance
of about half a mile from the shore, large numbers of
small flat fish were invariably secured. On one occasion
as many as five hundred and sixty of these small fish were
taken in less than an hour, and at all times the Stake '
was large, and usually from 80 to 85 per cent, of the
small flat fish were under two and a half inches in length.
Some distance from the shore the takes were smaller, and
on one occasion the trawl only secured twenty-three small
fish, when used in about ten fathoms of water, some
seven miles from shore. Along with the small flat fish, there
were usually a few small round fish, a number of shrimps
— sometimes over, sometimes considerably under one pint
— numerous hermit and other crabs, and large quantities of
Flustra. As it may be possible to materially increase the
fish supply by affording protection to the young fish, I
hope to be able ere long to report that other similar
nurseries have been found, and also as to whether flat fish
during their earlier stages of growth frequent the inshore
in preference to the offshore waters.
" I have also to report that Mr. Scott (who in January
last secured many thousands of plaice eggs floating in
the open sea over a shoal of spawning plaice) has recently
come across a large shoal of spawning haddocks which
were apparently resting on the bottom at a depth of
about 30 fathoms some fifteen miles off the coast of Banff.
The surface waters over the shoal were crowded with
haddock and cod eggs at nearly all stages of develop-
ment. At a single sweep Mr. Scott with his tow-net
secured nearly half a million eggs, while the trawlers
were capturing hundreds of the spawning fish that were
resting on or moving about near the bottom."
NOTES.
The annual conversazione of the Royal Society will be held
on Wednesday, May 8.
At a meeting of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
on April 10, in Boston, t(he Rumford Medals were presented to
Prof. Albert A. Michelson.
We regret to have to record the death of Mr, R. Stirling
Newall, F. R.S., at the age of seventy-seven. Mr. Newall's
name was well known in connection with the invention and
manufacture of wire rope and telegraphic cables. Just before his
deathheofferedasagifi to the University of Cambridge the 25-incb
refracting telescope which he had constructed some years ago.
The Civil Service Estimates for the year ending March 31,
1890, show that a sum of £^\,T.z\ will be required for the
maintenance of the Natural History Museum, South Kensington,
for the present financial year. The corresponding sum in the Votes
last year was ;^40,934. The principal increase is under the head
of " Purchases and Acquisitions," for which the sum asked is
;C47oo instead of ;^3700. On the other hand, there is a decrease
of £>9^S under the head of "Furniture and Fittings." The
remaining heads do not show any material variation.
Dr. Lendenfeld's "Monograph of the Horny Sponges,"
which the Royal Society are about to publish, is now nearly
through the press. It will consist of about 950 pages of text and
over 50 plates.
We have received the Report of the Mason Science Colleger
Birmingham, for the year ended February 23, 1889. It is
hardly creditable to Birmingham that the authorities of such an
institution as this should still have to complain of a deficiency of
income. Although the amount of the deficiency compares very
favourably with those in former years, the Council feel that the
economies they have been forced to adopt in order to decrease
the difference between income and expenditure seriously impair
the College work by hampering the Professors, especially those
who have laboratories under their charge and require costly
apparatus to illustrate their teaching.
Prof. H. G. Seeley, to whom a sum was assigned from the
Government Grant for a research on the Permian or Trias Rep-
tilia, has been spending his Easter recess in St. Petersburg and
Moscow. The officers and professors of the Academy, the Uni-
versity, and the School of Mines at St. Petersburg have shown
him every attention, and his work in the museums appears likely
to lead to important results.
Much excellent work has been done by the London Geological
Field Class, which is carried on under the direction of Prof
H. G. Seeley. The Report relating to the excursions during
the summer of 1888 shows that the work is conceived in a
thoroughly scientific spirit, and that it cannot fail to exercise a
most wholesome intellectual influence on all who take part it.
This year, on account of Prof. Seeley's projected visit to South
Africa in July, the class will begin its labours earlier than usual.
The first excursion will take place on May 4. Many persons
interested in geology ought to take advantage of this opportunity
for the study of the country around London, and we are glad to
learn that the secretaries have received the names of more sub-
scribers than they have received at the same date in any previous
year.
Mr. Duthie, the Government Botanist for Northern India,
who has been at work with Dr. King, of the Howrah Botanical
Gardens, in classifying the plants collected by him when attached
to the Black Mountain Expedition, has now been directed by
the Government to make a special study of the grasses and
fodders of Upper India. •
The Times of India says that the Sukkur Bridge, which has
been constructed over the Indus, has now been opened. At
Sukkur the river is very rapid, but the large island of Bukkur,
standing about midway in the stream, was of great assistance in
carrying out the plans. There are thus two bridges, one from
Bukkur to the left bank, the other from Bukkur to the right
bank. The latter consists of three spans, the longest of which is
278 feet ; the former, known as the Sukkur Bridge, is in length
between the abutments no less than 790 feet. Two cantilevers.
H
NATURE
{May 2, 1889
310 feet long, one from each side, were erected, and the inter-
vening space of 200 feet was crossed by a girder. There was
4hus a space between the pillars of 820 feet, which is said to be
the largest span of any rigid bridge in the world. The weight of
the span is 3300 tons. The bridge was sent out in pieces from the
•works of Messrs. Westwood, of Poplar, and now, sixteen months
«fter the arrival of the materials from England, it is practically
complete.
A CORRESPONDENT writes to us about a "find " which, he
thinks, may prove to hz of some interes'. At Hornsey, near
Turnpike Lane, an excavation— about 18 or 20 feet wide, and
:about 20 feet deep — is being made in connection with a new
pumping-station. In cutting into the clay, the men have come
iipon large fragments of a white substance, in the inside of which
:are what appear to hz "the vertebrce of some animal." Our
-correspondent expresses a hope that some one competent to form
an opinion about the matter will "take a run down to Turn-
pike Lane " (near the Great Northern station at Hornsey), and
-examine the objects which he believes to be fossils. After the
present week, he says, there will probably be no opportunity of
■seeing the clay in the state in which it was when the objects were
removed from it.
At the meeting of the Scientific Committee of the Royal
Ho ticultural Society, on April 23, Mr. W. T. Thiselton Dyer
presented a note from Mr. Scott, the Director of the Meteoro-
logical Office, relating to the " useful " temperature as r.'ckoned
in " day degrees," and to the amount of sunshine since January
I of the present year, a? compared with recent years. The
present season, it seem^, has been much better than the last,
•except as regards t'le amount of sunshine, in which there is not
much improvement.
Sir James Hector has issued the Meteorologlcil Report for
New Zealand, contiiining observations for the years 1883 and
1884. Returns have been published since 1853, but since the
year 1880 the number of stations has been greatly reduced, in
favour of current weather reports ; the principal stations are now
■only four in number. With the view of enabling daily weather
a-eports to be issued by the press throughout the colony, with the
ieast possible expense, a series of twenty typical isobaric charts
-were prepared and are shown in the Report. Each represents
^ certain type of weather and bears a distinguishing number,
which is telegraphed to the leading journals, so that when the
•number for the day is quoted, the diagram can be printed, and,
although not absolutely correct, it is of great assistance in making
I'cnown the general condition of the weather. The Report also
contains some valuable returns from stations in the Fiji group of
islands.
A NEW amine, methyl-ethylamine, CoH3(CFIa)NH, has been
■obtained by Drs. Skraup and Wiegmann, by the action of
.alcoholic potash upon m Drphine. Not only is the actual pre-
paration of this hitherto unknown amine of importance in itself
as completing a series of isomers of the fjrmula CjHaN, but the
•fact of its derivation from morphine also throws considerable
light upon the constitution of that alkaloid. It has been shown
tiy several chemists that morphine, Cj^H^gNOa, is a derivative of
phenanthrene, CnHi„. As a methyl and an ethyl group have
now been extracted in the form of an amine, it appears very
liikely that these groups are present in-mor^jhine, replacing two
hydrogen atoms of phenanthrene and piobably attached to
Jiitrogen. If this be so, morphine may turn out to be the iso-
•nilrile of a substituted phenanthrene, and it remains now for
future work to test the truth of this, and to determine the
positions and functions of the oxygen atoms. In the latter con-
nection, it was found in the course of this investigation that, in
addition to the volatile amine, ase:o.nd substance of phenol-like
properties was also formed, but great difficulties were met with
in its purification. In the actual experiments, morphine was
heated for about five hours at 180° C. with ten times as much of
a twenty per cent, solution of potash in alcohol. A volatile sub-
stance of amine-like odour was evolved, and was driven over by
means of a current of coal gas into dilute sulphuric acid. The
filtered acid solution was then supersaturated with soda and the
purified amine distilled over in steam into a standard solution of
hydrochloric acid. It was only found possible to eliminate
from the morphine in this way about 50 per cent', of its
nitrogen. The concentrated hydrochloric acid solution deposited
crystals of a hydrochloride, and the solution also gave with
platinum chloride crystals of a platinochloride melting at 208°.
Analysis of this latter salt showed that the amine present pos-
sessed the empirical formula C3H9N. There are four possible
isomers of this formula, three of which, trimethylamine, propyl-
amine, and isopropylamine, have been prepared ; and methyl
ethylamine, which has hitherto been unknown. The hydro-
chloride yielded the ba e itself, by action of the strongest potash,
in the form of a clear liquid of intense amine odour, unlike, how-
ever, that of trimethylamine. The properties of its salts were
also found to exclude the possibility of its being propyl- or iso-
propylamine, so an attempt was ma-le to prepare synthetically
the only other possible isomer, methyl-ethylamine. This was
successfully accomplished by heating methyl iodide with a
mixture of 30 per cent, ethylamine solution and alcohol in a
sealed tube at 100° for three hours. The product was distilled as
far as possible in steam, the residue decomposed with potash, and
the remainder of the volatile amines driven over in steam. The
aqueous solution of the mixed distillate was then shaken with
ethyl oxalate, and successive products were obtained, on con-
centration, of diethyl oxamide, acid ethylamine oxalate, and,
lastly, the oxa'ate of the sought for base, methyl-ethylamine.
This salt, when recrystallized, melted at 154°, like the oxalate
prepared from the amine derived from morphine; and from it
the hydrochloride, platinochloride, gold chloride, and free base
were prepared, in every case the products being identical with
those prepared from the base of morphine.
Messrs. Smith, Elder, and Co. have issued a third
edition of Darwin's work on "Coral Reefs." To this edi-
tion Prof. Bonney contributes an appendix, giving an account
of recent speculations — about which there was lately so much
discussion in Nature — as to the origin of coral reefs.
A CHEAP edition of Darwin's "Journal of Researches into the
Natural History and Geology of the Countries visited during the
Voyage of H.M. S. Beadle round the World," has been
published by Mr. Murray. The portrait of Darwin which ap-
peared in the Nature series of " Scientific Worthies " is
prefixed to this edition.
Messrs. Charles Grikfn and Co. have published a sixth
edition of " A Pocket-book of Electrical Rules and Tables for the
use of Electricians and Engineers," by John Munro and Andrew
Jamieson. The work has been thoroughly revised, and enlarged
by about I20 pages and 60 new figures.
SoMt valuable contributions towards a Flora of Caithness, by
J. F. Grant and Arthur Bennett, have been reprinted from the
Scottish Naturalist. The number of species and varieties that
are admitted for the county of Caithness is over 600, a fair num-
ber, the authors think, considering the physical features of the
county. Caithness has about 80 species that have not yet been
found in Sutherland, and about the same number not yet found
in the Orkneys.
The Smithsonian Institution has issue I six lithographs illustra-
tive of the anatomy of Astrangla Dj'tae. The plates were
drawn by Mr. Sonrel, in 1849, under the direction of Prof.
Agassiz, who intended to prepare a complete memoir on the
subject. Mr. J. Walter Fewkes has written an explanation of
the plates to m.ake them available to students of marine in-
vertebrates.
May 2, 1889]
NATURE
15
A NEW number of the Internationales Archiv fur Ethno-
graphic has been issued. It consists of Parts I. and II. of the
second vohinie ; and the contents, as in every preceding number
of this excellent periodical, are full of interest for students of
ethnography. There are three long articles — all in German.
In the first, Dr. F. von Fuschan gives an instalment, carefully
illustrated, of a paper on an amusement popular in Turkey,
corresponding to the magic lantern. The second is an elaborate
essay, also illustrated, by Dr. II. Schurtz, on knives made in
various parts of Africa for the purpose of being thrown. In the
third article, Mr. R. Parkinson, of New Britain, brings together
many valuable ethnological facts relating to the inhabitants
of the Gilbert Islands.
The "Uses of Plants," by Prof. G. S. Boulger, which is
about to be published by Messrs. Roper and Drowley, is a
manual of economic botany, having special reference to
vegetable products introduced during the last fifty years. It
enumerates all vegetable substances in use in England as food,
materia medica, oil«, gums, rubbers, dyeing, tanning, and
paper- making materials, fibres, timber, &c., both home-grown
and imported ; and there are short essays on the recent progress
of vegetable technology in its various branches.
In a Report lately received, Mr. W. Fawcett, Director of
Public Gardens and Plantations, Jamaica, gives an interesting
account of a visit of a few days to the Cayman Islands during
May 1888. In an appendix he gives a list of the plan's he col-
lected, for the determination of which he expresses indebtedness
to the authorities at Kew. " From this list," says Mr. Fawcett,
"it will be seen that about 20 per cent, of the species are found
more or less throughout the tropics. They are such as one
might expect to find on any tropical island. It is interesting to
note that one of the ferns {Acrostichum aureuvi) which is found
growing to a height of 6 to 10 feet in swamps in Jamaica and
throughout the tropics, was one of the first plants to establish
itself on the Island of Krakatab, where the terrible volcanic dis-
turbance completely destroyed every vestige of plant life. On
its shore was also found the fruit of another plant occurring in
the Cayman Islands, viz. the almond tree ( Terminalia Catappa)."
At a recent meeting of the Royal Asiatic Society of Japan, a
paper wa.s read by Dr. Seymour on the hygiene of Japanese
houses, in which he disproves the common idea that dwelling-
houses in that country are very unhealthy. A Japanese house,
is, on the whole, suited to Jai anese life. The extreme airiness
of the structure prevents the charcoal fires doing the inhabitants
any injury. Its chief defects can be easily remedied. The
boarding of the floor can be made more close-fitting ; ventilating
panels should be used ; the ceilings could with advantage
be higher, and the drainage ihould be well looked af er.
Amongst foreigners there is distinctly more illness in brick and
stone houses than in the wood or frame houses, on account of
the damp remaining in the walls of the brick houses while it dries
up almost immediately in the others. The remarkably small
infant mortality'amongst the Japanese shows that their houses are
healthy and suited to iheir modes of life.
Mr. F. a. Heron has been appointed an Assistant in the
Zoological Department of the British Museum, not in the
Geological Department, as ■ stated (by a printer's error) in
Nature, vol, xxxix. p. 590.
The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
past week include two Macaque Monkeys {Macacus cynomolgus
<? ? ), from India, presented by Mr. J. G. Mackie ; two Caracals
{Fclis caracal) from Bechuanaland, presented by Captain Treville
Cookson ; a Ring-tailed Coati {Nasua riifu) from South America,
presented by Mr. William Shiell ; a Lmgeared Owl {Asiootus),
P^uropean, presented by Mr. Thomas B. Butler; three Orbicular
Horned Lizards [Fhrynosoma orbicularc) from Mexico, pre-
sented by Mr. T. H. Collins; a Rhesus Monkey {Ma,cacm
rhesus 9 ), four Concave- casqued Hombills {Dichoceros bicornis
c5 (5 9 9 ) from India, a Crowned Ilornbill [Anthracoceros
coronatiis) from Malabar, a Nepalese Ilornbill {Accros ncpa-
lensis) from Nepal, deposited ; a Peacock Pheasant {Polyplec-
tron chinqtiis 6 ) from British Burmah, a Squacco Heron {Ardect
ralloides) from Southern Europe, purchased ; a Yellow-footed
Rock Kangaroo {Petrogale xanlhopus 9 ). a Derbian Wallaby
[Halmaturus derbianus 9 ), born in the Menagerie.
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
The April Meteors. — Few of the April meteors appear
to have been visible this year. They were watched for by Prof.
Herschel at Croydon, Mr. Denning at Bristol, Mr. Backhouse-
at Hurwoith (near Darlington), Mr. Monck at Dublin, and
other observers. The shower of Lyrids was but weakly repre-
sented, and meteors generally were scarce. Several conspicuous
ones were, however, recorded from the secondary streams of the
April epoch. On April 20, at loh. i6m., a meteor equal to-
Sirius was seen between Corvus and Virgo by Mr. Backhouse,
and at the same time Prof. Herschel recorded a second-mag-
nitude in Perseus. A comparison of the two paths shows the
objects to have been identical, .and the heights of the meteor at
its beginning and end points, as computed by Prof. Herschel^
were 50 and 46 miles respectively (over Derbyshire), which is-
much lower than usual. The radiant-point was at 301° + 34°.
Another brightish meteor was seen on April 21, at loh. i6m.,
by Prof. Herschel and Mr. Denning, and its heights were from*
76 miles above a point near Newport, Monmouthshire, to 60
miles near Brecon. The radiant was at 217" - 2°, near fi Virginis.
A fine meteor, quite equal to \^enus, was observed at Bristol on
April 27, at 8h. 51m., slowly descending in Hercules. Its path
was from about 218° -)- 49^° to 249° + 32^°. It^left a trail of
sparks as it fell, and its lustre fluctuated in a remarkable manner.
The White Sfot on Saturn's Ring. — Prof. Holdea
reports that a careful examination of the ring of the planet with
the great Lick equatorial on several evenings from March 2 to
March 24 has resulted in the detection of no abnormal appearince
in it. A kind of yellowish deformation or lump was indeed!
noticed close to the shadow on two or three occasions, but it
proved to be due partly to bad definition, for it was only seer»
when the air was unsteady, and partly to contrast, for a similar
appearance was produced in any part of the ring by the use of
an occulting bar.
The Variable X Cygnl — Mr. Yendall gives a new deter-
mination of the elements of this variable in Gould's Astionomica^
Journal, No. 191. Discovered by Mr. Chandler in 1886, it
has proved a variable of very interesting character, and its light
changes still require much stu<"y. The rise from minimum to
maximum is generally sharp, but the interval varies much in
length, the range being from 3'3 days to 87 days ; the mean
interval being 6'9 days. The curve is flat at minimum, and fron>
these two circumstances Mr. Yendall has confined himself to the
use of the maxima alone in the determination of his new ele-
ments. The decrease from maximum to minimum shows a.
remarkable halt, sometimes a positive rise, almost important
enou{,h to be considered a secondary maximum. Lastly, the
magnitude touched at the extreme points of the curve varies-
from epoch to epoch, but with a general correspondence between
the two phases, a bright maximum being accompanied by a
bright minimum, and the contrary. A connection between the-
duration of the rise and the brightness at maximum has not yet
been established. The elements given by Mr. Yendall are —
1886 October lod. 6h. irSm. Camb. M.T. ± 52 sm. -I-
i6d. gh. 36m. 51S. ± 23s. E.
Photographic Determination of the Brightness of
THE Stars. — No. 7 of vol. xviii. of the Annals of the Harrarct
College Obse> vatory details the progress of the researches in stellar
photography carried on at that institution by the assistance of
the Bache fund, the particular direction in which the inquiry is
being carried on being the determination of stellar magnitudes-
by means of photography. The present work is concerned with
the dcterminatii n of the brightness of the stars in three par-
ticular regions, each with special qualifications for the functions
of standard stars ; viz. icoo close circumpolar >tar«, 420 stars itt
the Pleiades, and over i lOO equatorial stars. These three cata-
logues have been prepared with great care ; the errors of the
different photographic plates fully CNamined, and the relation of
photometric to photographic magnitude investigated. The work
i6
NATURE
[May 2, 1889
therefore forms a most necessary and valuable introduction to a
complete survey of the heavens on the same method. The instru-
ment used was the Voigtlander photographic doublet, of 8 inches
aperture and 44 inches focal length, so that the scale of the
photographs was that of the atlas of the Dmchmiisteriin^, 2
centimetres to a degree. The images of the stars obtained on
the plates were of different kinds, the clock sometimes being em-
ployed to drive the telescope when the stellar images were points
or disks, sometimes the clock was stopped when trails were
obtained, sometimes the clock was used but trails produced
through the polar axis of the telescope not being parallel
to that of the earth ; indeed the adjustment of the polar
axis was made in this way. The standard for measuring
the stellar points was a photograph of the Hyades, the
plate being exposed six times with exposures of 3 seconds,
and 3-, 3'', to 3" seconds respectively. For measuring trails
a plate was exposed to the polar region, and the aperture
of the telescope varied to correspond to successive differences of
a magnitude. The result of the careful and independent
measurements of the plates showed that the measures of a
skilled observer of the same star disk or trail did not vary on the
average by so much as a tenth of a magnitude ; so that if the
errors due to the photographs themselves can be eliminated the
photographic method of determining stellar magnitudes is at
least as efficient as the best photometric methods. The com-
parison of the diurnal with the clock trails showed that the cor-
rection for declination to be applied to the former was only half
2 "5 log cos 5, the value it should have had if the chemical action
due to a certain amount of energy was independent of the time
during which it acted.
The first of the three catalogues given in this work is that of
the stars within 1° of the pole. Rectangular co-ordinates are
given with the stars, instead of R.A. and declination. Of the
IC09 stars included, 947 are within one degree radius from the
pole, and nearly all are above the fifteenth magnitude. The cata-
logue of the Pleiades includes all of Wolf's stars between 3m.
preceding, and 2m. following .Alcyone, and 30'north and 15' south
of that star with a few apparently overlooked by Wolf. The
equatorial catalogue contains the stars within 2° of the equator.
Ten different fields were photographed on each plate, one
being exposed on the meridian, eight others right and left at in-
tervals of 40m. hour angle, and the tenth on the polar region.
A comparison of the results obtained brings out some interesting
points. Tempel, at Marseilles, observing the Pleiades with a
4-inch telescope, reached fainter stars than Wolf at Paris with
12 inches aperture. The behaviour of photographic lenses
of different apertures shows that to double the aperture is to
command two additional magnitudes ; to treble it, two and a
half. A 24-inch aperture should, therefore, grasp stars below
the seventeenth magnitude. A comparison t»f the photographic
magnitudes with the Cordoba Catalogue, and the Durchmusterung
gives distinct maxima for the residuals in the Milky Way,
showing that the Catalogue magnitudes are too faint near the
Galactic stream where stars are numerous.
ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE
WEEK 1889 MA F 5-1 1.
/"POR the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at
^ Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24,
is here employed.)
At Greenwich on May 5
Sun rises. 4h. 26m. ; souths, iih. 56m. 32*03.; daily decrease
of southing, S'ls. ; sets, igh 27m. : right asc. on meridian,
2h. 507ni. ; decl, i6° 23' N. Sidereal Time at Sunset,
loh. 22m.
Moon (at First Quarter on May 8,
souths. i6h. 17m. ; sets, oh 35m.*:
7h. 117m. ; decl. 22° 41' N.
7h.) rises, 7h. 57m. ;
right asc. on meridian,
Right asc. and declination
Planet. Rises. Souths.
Sets. on meridian.
h. m. h. m.
h. m. h. m. , /
Mercury.. 4 44. ... 12 43 .
. 20 42 ... 3 37-5 ... 20 51 N.
Venus ... 3 44 ... II 24 .
. 19 4 ... 2 17-8 ... 17 59 N.
Mars ... 4 52 .. 12 44 .
• 20 36 ... 3 38-2 ... 19 47 N.
Jupiter ... 23 46*... 3 42 .
. 7 38 ... 18 35-2 ... 22 57 S.
Saturn ... 10 32 ... 18 11 .
. I 50*... 9 6-6 ... 17 47 N.
Uranus... 16 46 ... 22 15 .
. 3 44*... 13 J07 ... 6 48 S.
Neptune.. 5 18 .. 13 4 ..
. 20 50 ... 3 58-3 ... 18 52 N.
* Indicates that the rising is that of the preceding evening and the setting
at of the following morning.
May.
5 •
h.
17
Mercury in conjunction with and 1° 9' north
of Mars.
7 ... 22 ... Saturn in conjunction with and 1° 28' south
of the Moon.
Saturn, May 5. — Outer major axis of outer ring = 4i"'0:
outer minor axis of outer ring = ii"*6 : southern surface visible.
Varia
ble Stars,
Star.
R.A.
h. m.
Dec'.
h.
m.
U Cephei ...
.. 52-5 ..
81 17 N.
.. May
6,
ii>
I
I
52 m
31 m
X Bootis ... .
.. 14 18-9 ..
16 50 N.
10.
m
5 Librae
.. 14 551 ••
8 5S.
6,
23
51 m
W Herculis...
.. 16 31-3 ..
37 34 N.
6,
m
U Ophiuchi...
.. 17 10-9 ..
I 20 N.
6.
6,
2
22
50 m
38 m
U Aquilse ...
.. 19 23-4 ..
7 16 S.
1 1>
I
M
S Vulpeculae
.. 19 43-8 ..
27 I N. .
8,
VI
i\ Aquilae
.. 19 46-8 ..
43 N.
q.
I
M
S Sagittas ...
.. 19 5i"o ••
16 20 N,
6,
22
oAf
S Aquilaa ... .
.. 20 6*5 ..
15 18 N.
10,
m
XCygni ... .
.. 20 390 ...
35 II N. .
7.
2
oAf
T Vulpeculae
.. 20 46'8 ..
27 50 N. .
1 1,
23
m
5 Cephei
.. 22 25"I ..
57 51 N.
8,
21
ni
M signifies maximum ; ;« minimum.
Meteor-Showers.
R.A.
Decl.
Near € Crateris
170'
... 10° S. ..
. Very
slow.
,, 7] Ophiuchi
255
... 20 S. ..
. Slow
; long.
,, i Draconis
260
... 64 N. .
. Slow
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
The discovery is announced of a new mouth of the Zambesi,
forty-five miles south of the Quaqua, on which Quillimane is situ-
ated. The name of the river is Chinde. As we know already of a
Chinde River which joins two of the principal mouths of the
Zambesi, the probability is, not that a new mouth has been dis-
covered, but that an already known mouth has been more
completely explored. The Chinde, it seems, has a channel
some 500 yards wide, with three fathoms of water at the lowest,
and is therefore expected to afford a clear waterway to the main
Zambesi.
For the last few years Baron Nordenskiold has been engaged
on a work of great importance in the history of geography, and
especially of cartography. He has been collecting from the
archives of various European countries speci i.ens of the earliest
printed (as distinguished from manu>cript) map^, and some of his
finds are really original discoveries. These he intends to repro-
duce in a great atlas with accompanying text, in which, among
other things, he will describe and discuss the various editions of
Ptolemy ; of these he has formed a unique collection. The
work will appear both in a Swedish and an English edition.
The country of Oklahoma, about which we have heard so
much during the past fortnight, is in the very heart of what is
known as the Indian Territory, which lies between Kansas on
the north and Texas on the south. Although on the Survey
maps of the United States it seems to be well watered, the
actual results would show that the water is not well distributed.
It is traversed by the Canadian and Cimarron rivers, and between
them are found on the map a perfect network of streams. The
area of Oklahoma is a little over 3000 square miles, equal to
about one-twentieth of the total area of the Indian Territory ;
the number of Indians in the latter is about 80,000.
In an article in the May number of the Fortni-yhtly Review,
by Mr. F. C. Selous, the well-known South African hunter and
explorer, we find a useful account of Mashonaland, around which
at present there is so much interest. No man knows the
country so well as Mr. Selous, who during the past ten years has
traversed it in all directions. Mashonaland lies to the north-east
of the Matabele country, and is described as a land of perennial
streams, where thirst is an unknown quantity. The high plateau,
which is of very great extent, forms the watershed between the
Zambesi to the north and east, and the Limpopo and the babi
May 2, 1889]
NATURE
17
to 'the south; it is from 4000 to 4600 feet above sea-level.
Nearly the whole of it is magnificently watered by a net-
work of running stream?, the springs supplying which well out
from the highest portions of the downs, so that an enormous
area of land could be put under irrigation. The whole year
round a cool wind blows almost continuously from the south-east,
a wind which in the winter months becomes so cold that it may
well have its origin among the icebergs of the Antarctic sea>.
The country, Mr. Selous assures us from his own experience, is
admirably adapted for European occupation and labour. The
soil is rich and fertile, and from the facilities for irrigation
enormous quantities of wheat could be grown. Although the
highest and healthiest parts of the country are very open, still
one is never out of sight of patches of trees. Be^ides the high
plateau of Mashonaland, the whole of which is over 4000 feet
above sea-level, extending along the watershed for a distance of
over 200 miles from the Matabele country to the source of the
Hanyane and Mazoe Rivers, with a breadth of from sixty to one
hundred miles, there is a vast extent of country lying to the south,
east, and north-east of the plateau, well-watered and fertile,
having an altitude of from 3000 to 4000 feet. These plateaus
are of much ethnological interest, as giving shelter to the very
few remnants of the peaceful Mashonas that have escaped
extermination at the hands of the bloodthirsty intruders, the
Matabele.
Mr. Selous leaves England for the Cape to-morrow. It is
possible that he may be compelled to lead a prospecting party
up .the Zambesi. Should this not be the case, he is likely to
proceed northwards bevond the Zambesi to the Garenganze
country, west of Lake Bangweolo, and thence make either for
the source of the Lualaba, which he will endeavour to follow
down until it broadens out into the Congo.
M. J. Taupin, Professor in the College of Interpreteis at
Saigon, has completed an important exploration in the lower Laos
cotintry. Starting from Saigon in October 1887, M. Taupin, after
visiting the Siamese province of Siem-Reap, and photographing
the numerous Khmer remains in that province, notably those of
Angkor, crossed the forests of the lower Laos, to Ubon, where
he resided several months. Among other things he has obtained
a knowledge, at least summary, of the Laotian language and
writing, the only graphic-alphabetic system, it is stated, on which
we have no positive information. The language, M. Taupin
states, is spoken by four million people. He has surveyed about
looo kilometres of rivers and watercourses not found on any
map, besides making many important corrections. He has made
many notes on natural history, and experimented with the culture
of European plants. The meteorology and anthropology of the
country, moreover, received much attention at his hands.
At the next meeting of the Geographical Society, on May 13,
the evening will be mainly occupied with a discussion of Mr.
Stanley's letters, in which several well-known African authorities
are likely to take part.
Captain Binger, a French explorer, has succeeded in filling
up one of the blanks on the map of Africa. Starting from the
banks of the Niger, he penetrated the country of Kong, amid
many dangers and sufferings.
THE HENRY DRAPER MEMORIAL.^
nr HE researches which constitute the Henry Draper Memorial
have consisted for the last three years in the photographic
study of the spectra of the stars. While this subject will con-
tinue to be the principal one under investigation, Mrs. Draper
has decided to extend the field of work undertaken, so as to
include the study of the other physical properties of the stars by
photography. As will be seen from the detailed statement
below, the first research undertaken is now rapidly approaching
completion, the plans for the study of the bouthern stars have
been matured, and this study will soon be begun ; the detailed
study of the spectra of the brighter stars is making progress, and
a large piece of photometric work will soon be undertaken with
a new telescope. The progress made in each investigation will
now be described, as in previous Reports.
I. Catalogue of Spectra of Bright Stars. — The Bache tele-
scope, which has an 8-inch photographic doublet as an objective,
is used for this work. The photographs cover the entire sky
^ " Third Annual Report of the Photographic .Study of Stellar Spectr.i
conducted at the Harvard College Observatory," Edward C. Pickering,
Director. (Cambridge : John Wilson and Son, University Press i88j.)
north of -25°, with exposures of about five or ten minutes.
About 28,000 spectra of 10,800 stars have been examined, in-
cluding nearly all stars visible in Cambridge of the seventh
magnitude or brighter. The Catalogue is now nearly ready for the
printer, the final copy having been prepared as far as I4h. in right
ascension.
Nearly the entire time of three or four computers has been
devoted during the past year to this work. The intensity of
about 15,000 of the spectra has been measured, completing this
part of the research. Much lime has been spent in checking and
verifying the results. All the positions have been checked and
brought forward to 1900 two or more times independently. All
discordant measures have been re-examined, and a search has
been made for possible error when bright stars are omitted or
very faint ones inserted. Seven thousand two hundred notes
have been made on the various stars in the Catalogue. Each
note has an appropriate number which permits it to be entered
in its proper place. Most of these notes relate to additional lines
contained in these spectra besides those by which the type is
determined. The position and intensity of these lines is
estimated. A portion of them have been reduced to wave-
lengths. The printing of the Catalogue might have been already
begun but for the difficulty of deciding how the different types
of spectra should be distinguished. The classification used for
visual observations fails to indicate many differences obvious in
the photographs. On the other hand, the photographic portions
of spectra of Types H. and HL are nearly identical. The photo-
graphs also show many stars whose spectra are intermediate
between those of the typical stars which have determined the
usual classification. A system has, however, been adopted
which permits all differences detected in the photographs to be
described in the printed volume.
Thirteen spectra were found on these plates which could not
be identified with stars. Three of these proved to be due to
Mars, one to Vesta, three to Jupiter, four to Saturn, and two to
Uranus. Accordingly all the exterior planets bright enough to
be detected in this way appear on these plates.
The measures of the intensity of the spectra form a very
important portion of this work. Since the same part of the
spectrum is measured in each case, the true relative energy is
determined. That is, the same result is obtained as if the
measures of rays of the same wave-length were made by any
other method, as photometrically by the eye, by the thermopile,
or by the bolometer. The colour of the star will be indicated
by the extent of the spectrum, which is also noted. For the
first time, therefore, we shall have a photometric Catalogue in
which the error due to the colour of the star is eliminated. A
preliminary determination of the accordance of the results de-
rived from different photographs of the same star shows that the
average value of the residuals will be about o'l6, which is the
same as the corresponding quantity for the Harvard Photometry.
The number of stars is more than twice that contained in the
latter Catalogue.
2. Catalogue of Spectra of Faint Stars.— li\ November 1888,
the photographs required to cover the sky north of the equator
were nearly finished. It was expected that in two months the
observations would be completed. The telescope, which was
the same as that used in the previous research, was, however,
wanted for photographing the Solar Eclipse of January I, 1889.
It was accordingly sent to Willows, California, where it was
mounted, and the greater portion of the remaining photographs
were taken there, it was then sent to Peru, as will be described
below. The few remaining photographs, including the repeti-
tion of those found on further examination to be unsatisfactory,
will be taken in Peru.
3. Detailed Study of the Spectra of the Brighter Stars.— T\\q
1 1 -inch refractor with one, two, or four large prisms over its
objective h^s been employed in this work throughout nearly
every clear night, until stopped by the morning twilight ; 686
photographs have been taken, mo.-.t of them with an exposure of
two hours. With cur prestnt photographic plates about 570
stars north of -30° are bright enough to be photographed with
one prism, 170 of them with two prisms, and 87 of them with
four prisms. To obtain the best possible result some of the
photographs must be repeated many limes. The difficulty is
increased by the invariably hazy appearance of the lines in
some spectra, like that of o Aquiia;, which was at first attributed
to poor definition of the photograph. It is expected that the
work will be completed during the next year by original or
repeated photographs of 228 stars with one prism, of 64 with
two, and of 12 with four. In general, stars as bright as the
i8
NATURE
{May 2, 1889
fourth magnitude can be satisfactorily photographed with one
prism, the spectra obtained being about an inch long. Fainter
stars, if of a bkiish colour, give sufficiently distinct images, in
some cases good results being obtained with stars of the seventh
magnitude. For example, fourteen stars in the Pleiades are
well photographed with this apparatus. With four prisms
much lons;er spectra are obtained and many more lines are
visible. But certain differences in the character of the spectra
are better shown with the smaller dispersion. Numerous
photographs have been taken of the variable stars Ceti and )3
Lyrse. The changes in the spectrum of the latter star seem
to be undoubted, those of o Ceti, if any, to be slight. Various
peculiarities in the spectra of individual stars have been detected.
One photograph of i' Ursoe Majoris shows the K line distinctly
double, and others show it single. Many photographs will be
required to determine the law of its variation, if this is due to
changes in the star itself. Bright lines were detected in the
spectrum of <^ I'ersei, putting it in a class in which only two or
three other stars are known to fall. In the double star ,8 Cygni
the two components have spectra of different types, an important
consideration in the theories regarding their formation. The
brighter component is of the second type, the fainter of the first.
Ordinary photographic plates are not sensitive to rays of much
greater wave-length than the F line, or 486. By staining the
plates with various coal-tar produc's the range of sensitiveness
may be greatly extended. With erythrosin the spectrum extends
to the wave-length 590. The sodium line D is distinctly seen
to be double in the photographs of o Bootis and a Aurigge.
Various experiments were also made with cyanin, but the plates
were not sufficiently sensitive to give good results. The entire
length of the spectrum with four prisms, including the portion
obtained by erythrosin, is about six inches and a half.
A beginning has been made of the measures of the positions
of the lines in the spectrum. A scale of fortieths of an inch has
been ruled on glass, and the positions of the lines read off with
the aid of a magnifying-glass. Twelve of the photographs of a
Canis Majoris have been studied in this way. The spectrum of
this star is traversed by the hydrogen line-^, which are strong,
and by other lines which are so faint that they are only visible
when the dispersion is la-ge and the definition good. The
catalogue thus formed contains about 320 lines. The average
deviation of the measures of the same line on different plates is
about 0-05 of a millionth of a millimetre, or 0-05 cm. on the
scale of Angsti om's map. If the line occurs in the solar spectrum
these measures will generally identify it. In other cases the
exact position must be determined by a dividing engine. If a
line can he distinctly seen, its wave-length can probably be thus
determined with as great accuracy as that of the po-ition of the
solar lines on the map of Angstrom. In the spectrum of o
Bootis 140 lines are visible between the D and F lines.
The classification of this large number of spectra is a matter of
no little difficulty. .Slight differences exist in many stars, and
certain stars apprar to hold an intermediate position, so as to
render a rigorous division into classes impossible. On the other
hand, many stars appear to have identical spectra. The first
step will be to arrange the stars in groups, and then compare the
best defined spectra of different groups. A minute discussion
and the measurement of wave-lengths will be necessary only in
the investigation of a comparatively small number of spectra.
4. Faint SteUar Spcclra. — The 28-inch reflecting telescope
constructed by Dr. Draper was assigned to this work. During
the first six months of the year a careful study was made of this
problem, and the difficulties encountered bore evidence of the
skill of Dr. Draper in obtaining good results with this telescope.
'I he best method of using this instrument seemed to be a modi-
fication of the form first tried by Dr. Draper, — a slit spectro-
scope from which the slit had been removed. The rays from
the mirror were rendered parallel by a concave- lens which
replaced the o' jeclive of the collimator. As this lens had the
same focal distance as the objective of the observing telescope,
it was not necessary that either should be achromatic. After
long trials with this and other forms of apparatus, a spectrum
was at length obtained showing good definition. As the
results were not better than those described above, ard the
instrument, from its size, was slow in operation, the experiments
have not been carried further.
5. Catalogue of Spectra of Bright Southern i'/arj.— The 8-inch
Bache telescope remained in California until February 2, 1889,
and was then sent to Peru to continue research No. i on the
southern stars. The sky from - 25° to the south pole will be
covered, and the resulting photographs sent to Cambridge and
reduced, as in the case of the northern stars. The advantages
of discussing all stars from the north to the south pole according
to one system are very great, and are here secured for the first
time in so extensive an investigation. If no unforeseen difficulty
arises, the photographs will all be completed during the next
two years.
6. Catalogue of Spectra of Faint Southern Stars. — Research
No. 2 will also be extended to the south pole simultaneously with
the observations required for No. 5. It is expected that these
photographs also will be completed in two years.
The Bache telescope described above has proved an extremely
convenient instrument for various purposes. Besides the spectro-
scopic researches already mentioned, several other investigations
have been undertaken with it, some of which will be found in
the Memoirs of the American Academy, vol. xi. p. 179, and
the Harvard Observatory Annals, vol. xviii. Nos. iv. , vi., and
vii. Owing to its short focal lengih it possesses many advant-
ages over pho'ographic telescopes of the usual form. With
exposures of an hour and a half more stars were photographed
in the Pleiades than are given in the engraving accompanying
the Annual Report of the Paris Observatory for 1886, although
that work was ba^ed on photographs taken by the MM. Henry
with exposures of three hours and a telescope having an
aperture of 13 inches. Nearly twice as many stars were
photographed in this region as were visible with the 15-inch
telescope of the Harvard College Observatory. The short focus
of the telescope also gives it especial advantages for photo-
graphing nebula.'. Twelve new nebulae were thus discovered
in a region where but eighteen were known before. Various
other investigations, such as a determination of the law of
atmospheric absorption, have been undertaken with the aid of this
telescope. It has been so persistently used in spectroscopic work
that the other researches have been neglected, especially those in
which very long exposures were required. Its removal to Peru
now cuts it off for .'ome time from such use on the northern
stars. Acco'dingly, Mrs. Draper has procured a similar len«,
which is now in the hands of the firm of Alvan Clark and Sons
for retouching and mounting. Several important researches will
be undertaken with this instrument. Photography is now used
in so many departments of astronomy that a general investigation
of the photographic brightness of the stars seems desirable. A
plan has been proposed by which a single plate will contain
photographs of a number of regions one degree square, but in
different portions of the sky. Thus a series of standard faint
stars will be photographed, which can all be measured, and re-
duced to the same scale. One or more photographs of the
vicinity of the north pole will be taken on each plate, and thus
serve to correct the results obtained on different plate-. It is
proposed in this way to secure a series of standards of stellar
magnitude at intervals of about five degrees. A third lens of
similar form, having an aperture of four inches, will be attached
to the telescope, with which photographs on a smaller .'cale, but
five degrees square, will betaken simultaneously. These photo-
graphs w ill cover the entire sky, and it is proposed to measure
the photographic brightness of all stars of the seventh mag-
nitude, or brighter, which are represented on them. This
investigation will have a special value in connection with the
photometric measures of the spectra described above. It is
hoped also to photograph the entire northern sky by means of
the 8-inch telescope, with exposures of an hour. Each plate
covers a region nearly ten degrees square, of which the images
in the central five degrees square are satisfac'orily in focus. One
of the regions containing standard stars will appear in the centre
of each plate. By such a series of plates the photographic bright-
ness of any stars brighter than the fifteenth magnitude can be deter-
mined on a uniform scale. The faintest stars photographed will
be nearly a magnitude fainter than the limit proposed by the
.\strophotographic Congress, so that all plates included in that
work can 1 e reduced to a uniform system. The advantages of
such plates for studies of the distribution of the stars and other
similar investigations are obvious.
From the ;.bove description it appears that the field of work
of the Henry Draper Memorial, as now extended, is almost
boundless. The problems to be investigated relate to the fun-
damental laws rfgulating the formation of the stellar system.
Questions of such importance should be discussed on a sufficiently
large scale, or the results of the discussion will soon be super-
seded by a repetition of the work. The liberal provisir n made
for the Henry Draper Memorial permits the investigations to be
planned on a scale which is likely to avoid such undesirable
duplication of work.
May 2. iSS^I
NATURE
v^
INWALDS MATHEMATICAL SPECTRUM
ANALYSIS.
'HE following interesting criticism of Dr. Griinwald's recent
work on the mathematical spectrum analysis of various of
the elements, by Joseph S. Ames, of the Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity, appears in the February number of the American
Chemical journal : —
"Dr. Anton Grimwald, Professor of Mathematics in the
Technical High School at Prague, has given his theory of spec-
trum analysis in the following papers :— (i) ' Ueber das Wasser-
spectrum, das Hydrogen-, und Oxygenspectrum,' Astronomische
Nachrichten, No. 2797, 1887, and Phil. Mag., xxiv. 354,
1887 ; (2) ' Math. Spertralanalyse des Magnesiums und der
Kohie,' Monatshefte fiir Chemie, viii. 650, IVietier Sitz.
Perichte, 2 Abth. xcvi., 1887; Phil. Mag., xxv. 343, 1888
(abstract); and (3) 'Math. Spectralanalyse des Kadmiums,'
Monatshefte fiir Chemie, ix. 956.
"His aim is to discover relations between the elements by
tracing connections between their spectra, and thus to arrive at
simpler, if not fundamental, 'elements.' He considers the lines
in the spectra of two substances, say A and B. If he finds a
group of lines in the spectrum of A, which, on multiplication
with a simple numerical factor, give line for line a group in the
spectnim of B, he assumes that A and B have a common com-
ponent. This factor, which transforms the one group into the
other, is, he says, the ratio of the volumes occupied by the
common constituent in unit volume of the two substances.
Thus, let c be common to A and B, and" let it occupy the volume
\a\ in unit volume of A, and \b\ in unit volume of B ; then the
factor which transforms that part of the spectrum of A due to
f into that of B, also due to c, is \bii{a\ It is not difficult
to find relations between the spectra of different substances ; and,
accepting Dr. Grimwald's hypothesis as to the transforming
factor, we can deduce formulas for the elements. For exam[)le,
in ihe hydrogen spectrum there are two groups of lines, [a] and
[/'], which, when multiplied respectively by \% and \, give cor-
responding groups in the spectrum of water, and, since in water
hydrogen occupies § of the volume, we have the equations
W + \l>\ = I
which gives hydrogen the composition ba^. For reasons which
depend' upon solar physics. Griinwald calls the substance a
coronium, and /' helium. Further, he says that all the lines in
Hasselberg's secondary spectrum of hydrogen can be changed
into water-line by multiplving by \ ; which shows, according to
his theory, that the modified molecule H^ occupies in H2O half
the volume it does in the free condition. He finds that oxygen
has the composition Wb^b^Cr)^. where r is a new substance. In
his last paper, however, Dr. Griinwald states that he has proved
<■ to be nothing but a in a different state of compression.
" He adopts the spectmm of water, i.e. of the o.xyhydrogen
flame, as a standard, and is then able to give various criteria by
means of which the primary elements;? and b may be recognized.
Among them are the following: If A is the wavelength of any
line produced by a as it exists in hydrogen, 1%K, \\, ^5 A. will each
be the wave-lengths of any line of the water-spectrum, and if A is
the wave-length of any line produced by b as it exists in hydrogen,
^A will be the wave-length of a line of the water-spectrum.
Applying his criteria to magnesium, carbon, and cadmium, he
finds that they are made up entirely of « and b in various states
of compression. For instance, one group of li .es in the cadmium
spectrum is transformed into a group of b by the factor |, another
group is identical with a group of b, and so on. But the group
of lines of shortest wave length is transformed into a group of
b by the factor \ ; and cidmium falls in the seventh row of
Mendelejeffs table. Similarly, the group of lines of shirtest
wave-length of zinc is transformed into a group of /^ by the factor
\, and zinc is in the fifth row of the table. Dr. Griinwald findi
in this a general law which he verifies in the cases of Al, Si, Fe,
Cu, Zn, As, Sr, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Ba, Au, Hg. Tl, Pb,
and Bi. He farther connects the lines of greater wave-length
with the substance a ; and, as in all cases so far tried all th; lines
can be deduced from the-ie two substances, he is leJ to believe
that all the so called elenints are com'oun.ls of the priniry
elements a and b.
"It is unfortunate that D •. Griinwald has not published a
complete list of the lines characteristic of a ani b, for until this
is done his theory cannot be accurately tested. There are two
distinct questions to be answered : (i) Are there any numerical
relations connecting the spectra of the elements? and if so, (2)
what is the meaning of the fact? Cornu, Deslandres, and
others have long since answered the first question for us, but
whether Dr. Griinwald's answer to the second is correct or not
depends upon the completeness with which the numerical rela-
tions hold for the entire spectra of the substances. It is here
that Dr. Griinwald's work can be criticized.
"As noted above, the spectrum of the oxyhydrogen flame is
used to test the existence of lines belonging to a and /'. By far
the most accurate and complete determination of this spectrum
is that of Liveing and Dewar (Phil. Trans. 1888) ; but this does
not always answer Dr. Griinwald's purposes. In the B. A.
Report for 1886 there is a provisional list of lines of the water-
spectrum, which he often uses, although the wave-lengths have
since been corrected. Further, if other lines are necessary, they
are found by halving the wavelengths of the secondary .spectrum
of hydrogen. Many lines thus determined are actually present
in the water-spectrum ; but why are not all there ? Dr. Griinwald
says it is because the amplitude of vibrations of parts of the mole-
cule can be so changed, owing to the presence of other substances,
that the intensity may increase or diminish, or become too faint
to be observed. To this argument there is absolutely no answer.
In some ca es, too, the average of two wavelengths is used as a
criterion of a wave-length of b which falls between them ! And
as a last resort, if the necessary wave-length cannot be found in
the water-spectrum by any of these means, it is put down as
'new,' and is called an 'unobserved' line. As just shown,
Dr. Griinwald ea-ily explains why the strongest lines in the
spectrum of an element, cadmium for example, when ' trans-
formed ' into water-lines, may be faint, and vice versii. But
how does he account for the fact that double lines are not trans
formed into double lines? This seems to me a fundamental
objection. The concave-grating gives the only accurate method
of determining the ultra-violet wave-lengths of the elements;
and, as a consequence of not using it, most of the tables of
wave-lengths so far published are not of much value. So
Griinwald's en or tiere may be great. And, besides, when we
consider that in the water-spectrum as given by Liveing ■ and
Dewar, without the "help of the secondary spectrum of hydrogen,
there is on the average one line for every two Angstrom units,
it would be remarkable indeed if any law could not be verified.
This is strikingly shown in the first group of the cadmium lines.
Here 6742 and 6740 are two readings for the wave-lengths of the
same hne, as made by two observers ; yet Griinwald finds a
water-line for each of them !
"The fact that there are exact numerical relations connecting
the spectra of different elements does not afford a proof of
Griinwald's hypathesis ; and until the above difficulties are re-
moved the evidence is against it. But, even granting it, how
do we know that a and b are not themselves compounds? In
the second group of cadmium lines there are nineteen hnes which
can be tr.'^n^formed into b lines ; b has many other lines ; so at
the most this only shows that cad nium and b have a common
constituent unless, of course, the absence of the other cadmium
lines is accounted for in Griinwald's own way of varying
intensity.
"The lines of the spectrum of any substance, as carbon or iron,
seem to fall into definite series or gioups ; and the wave-lengths
of the lines in these groups can be expresse 1 by formulas, as is
well known. All that the fact of there being a connection
between the spectra of different substances seems to show is,
then, that there may be a formula common to many elements,
as Kayser and Runge have recently found. And all that this
means is that the molecules of those elements vibrate in general
according to a similar law."
ON THE FORMATION OF MARINE BOILER
INCRUSTA TIONS.^
TN the older forms of marine boilers, sea waer uas almost
universally employed ; but with the intrjduction of high-
pressure tubular boilers t le amount of deposit was so serious, and
the difficulty of removing it so great, that it became inperative to
use distilled water. It is found, however, that the trouble has
' A Piiper read at the thirtieth <!ession of the Institution of Naval Archi-
tects, by Pr<f. Vivian B. Lewis, K.C.S., F.l.C, Royal Naval College, on
April II, i8?9.
20
NATURE
[May 2, 1889
only been transferred from the steam boilers to the distilling ap-
paratus, and that constant breakdowns of the latter necessitate
the introduction of sea water into the boiler to eke out the supply
of distilled water from the condensers.
The waters at present in use in marine boilers may be classified
as —
(i) Sea water, (2) distilled water, (3) mixtures of sea water
with distilled or fresh water.
In this paper the nature and causes of the deposits are studied
in each of these cases.
Fresh water contains about twenty to fifty grains per gallon of
dissolved solids, principally consisting of calcium carbonate, held
in solution by carbonic acid present in the water, whilst sea
water contains about 2300 grains per gallon, consisting prin-
cipally of sodium chloride, together with magnesium salts and
calcium sulphate. The wide difference in composition between
fresh and sea water is also shown in the deposits formed by them.
Analyses show that with fresh water the incrustation may be
looked upon as consisting principally of calcium carbonate ; that
with a mixture of fresh and salt water the deposit consists of
nearly equal parts of calcium carbonate and calcium sulphate ;
whilst the sea water gives, practically calcium sulphate.
A deposit of calcium carbonate only, separates out as a soft
powder, which remains suspended in the water for some time,
and can fairly easily be removed from the boiler on cleaning ;
whilst calcium sulphate as formed in the boiler separates out in a
crystalline form, and binds the deposit into a hard mass, so hard
in fact that it requires the aid of a chisel and hammer to detach
it from the plates and tubes, an operation which is extremely
injurious, and tends to shorten the life of the boiler.
Calcium sulphate is much more soluble in a saline solution
such as sea water than it is in fresh water, but its solubility rapidly
decreases (i) on concentration of the saline solution, and (2) with
increase of temperature and pressure.
Sea water having a density of i'027 was evaporated, and
analyses made at different densities with the following results: —
Saline Cous'ituents per Cent,
Density ... 1-029 1*05 I'og i"22=;
Sodic chloride 2-6521 4-4201 7*9563 23-8689
Calcic sulphate ... 0-1305 02175 0-3915 none
Calcic carbonate ... 0-0103 0-0171 none none
Magnesic carbonate ... 0-0065 0-0032 none none
Magnesic chloride ... 0-2320 0-3865 06960 2-0880
Magnesic sulphate ... 0-1890 0-3150 0-5670 1-7010
So that on concentrating sea water at ordinary atmospheric
pressure, three distinct stages may be traced :—
(i) Deposition of basic magnesic carbonate ;
(2) Deposition of calcic carbonate with remaining traces of
the basic magnesic carbonate and hydrate ; and, finally,
(3) Deposition of the calcic sulphate.
If the sea water be heated and concentrated 'above a density
of 1-225, the salt commences to crystallize out. '
These experiments show that if sea water be boiled merely
under atmospheric conditions, it would be quite, possible, by
taking care that its density does not rise above a certain point
(1-09) to prevent the deposition of the calcium sulphate; but
any such regulation of density is rendered abortive by the fact
that pressure and consequent raising of the boiling-point acts
upon the calcium sulphate in solution in exactly the same way
as concentration, as it is found that this substance is perfectly
insoluble in either sea or fresh water at a temperature of 150° C.
In the present high-pressure boilers, even if the sea water be
mixed with a hundred times its volume of distilled water, so as
to reduce its den.sity very low, deposition of calcium sulphate
still occurs.
Analyses of several specimens of deposits from boilers where
sea water was used, showed that in all cases there were two dis-
tinct layers— (i) a hard crystalline deposit on the sides of the
tubes, consisting of nearly pure calcium sulphate in the form of
"anhydrite" ; {2) a softer portion resembling alabaster in the
interior, coiisisting of calcium sulphate, with about 6 per cent,
of magnesic hydrate.
The presence of magnesic hydrate in boiler deposits is sup-
posed to be due to the mutual decomposition of water and mag-
nesic chloride, later experiments have shown, however, that
when magnesic chloride and calcium carbonate mutually react
upon each other, soluble calcium chloride and magnesium
hydrate are formed ; this explains why calcium carbonate is
never found, except in very small quantities in marine boiler
deposits.
When distilled water only is used, a slight coating is formed,
practically consisting only of organic matter, whilst if at any
time through a break-down in the distilling app.iratus sea water
is mixed with the distilled water, a thin and very hard scale of
calcic sulphate is formed. An ^incrustation of this character
gave on analysis : —
Calcic sulphate 90*84
Magnesic hydrate 0-75
Sodic chloride 1-41
Silica 0-85
Copper carbonate l-ri
Oxides of iron and alumina 0-24
Organic matter 2-96
Moisture 1-84
This scale is of great interest from the presence in it of the
carbonate of copper. It is well known that distilled water has
a far greater solvent effect upon metals than a water containing
salts in solution, and it is quite conceivable that the distilled
water from the surface condensers attacks the brass and copper
tubes and fittings, and deposits the copper on the tubes of the
boiler, although in only small quantities ; and it is interesting to
note that the green spots due to the presence of the copper are
all on the under side of the scale — that is, in contact with the
metal of the boiler tubes,' showing that in all probability it had
been deposited, as suggested, from the water in the boiler, and
in contact with the iron would set up local galvanic action and
tend to produce pitting.
The importance of preventing boiler incrustation, and thereby
saving the enormous waste of fuel and injury which it entails,
has not been without influence on the minds of inventors, and
almost every conceivable substance, from potato-parings to com-
plex chemical reagents, have from time to time been patented
for this purpose, but have failed more or less for marine boilers,
because either they have had an injurious effect upon the metal
of the plates, or else have produced an enormous bulk of loose
deposit, which, although easily cleaned out if the various parts
of the boiler were accessible, and if it were only being used
intermittently, yet in a marine boiler continuously working,
rapidly chokes the portions between the tubes.
For these reasons, no treatment of the sea water in the boilers
themselves is practically possible, and with high-pressure tubular
marine boilers the water must be either condenser water, made
up to the required bulk with distilled water, as is at present done,
or else the condenser water must be augmented by sea water
specially prepared for the purpose in a separate apparatus before
being supplied to the boilers.
If the engines of a vessel are in good condition, she will
approximately require i ton of water per 1000 horse power per
twenty-four hours, to make up the volume of the condenser
water to the amount required for the boilers, so that, even sup-
posing the engines not to be in good order, and considerable
waste to take place, 10 tons per diem would be an outside
allowance for even very large vessels. To obtain this amount
of treated sea water the author proposes an arrangement, full
details and diagram being given in the original paper.
The sea water, containing 40 pounds of soda crystals to the
ton is heated up under pressure in a separate apparatus by passing
through the solution superheated steam. Under these conditions
the precipitated mixture of calcium and magnesium carbonates
becomes very dense and settles very quickly. The water is then
forced through filtering frames into the hot well of the boiler
and is then ready for use. The whole process is effective and
rapid, and simple arrangements are made for flushing out the
apparatus, after each batch of water.
UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.
Cambridge. — The courses of science lectures this term are as
numerous as usual, but present few noteworthy features. Mr.
Gardiner gives a general course of Botany, while Mr. Darwin
is conducting the course of Elementary Biology (Plants), the
lectures being given in the Archaeological Museum Lecture
Room. Prof. Macalister is lecturing on the History of Human
May 2, 1889]
NA TURE
21
Anatomy, a subject on which a brief volume from his pen would
be very acceptable. Prof. Foster's course is on the Physiology
of the Senses this term.
Among the numerous courses of demonstrations in the Caven-
dish Laboratory we may note those of Mr. Wilberforce on
Dynamo- Electric Machines (Alternating Current Generators and
Transformers),
Two lectures will be given in the Literary Schools on f une 4,
and June 8 at 2.15 p.m., by Dr. Fiancis Warner, on the Study
of Mental Action and the Classification of Pupils according to
their Brain Po\\ er.
London. — The following appointments of Examiners in
various branches of Science in the University of London were
made on Wednesday, April 24 : — Prof. Hill and Dr. Larmor as
Examiners in Mathematics and Natural Philosophy ; Prof. Fitz-
Gerald and Mr. Glazebrook as Examiners in Experimental
Philosophy ; Dr. Pole and Sir John Stainer as Examiners in
Music ; Prof Tilden as Examiner in Chemistry ; *Prof. H. E.
Armstrong, F.R.S., as Examiner in Chemistry ; Prof Bower and
Prof. Ward as Examiners in Botany and Vegetable Physiology ;
Mr. Sedgwick as Examiner in Comparative Anatomy and
Zoology ; *Sydney J. Hickson as Examiner in Comparative
Anatomy and Zoology ; Prof. Boyd Dawkins as Examiner in
Geology and PaI;\:ontology ; *Prof. Charles Lapworth, F.R.S. ,
as Examiner in Geology and Palceontology. The asterisks denote
new appointments. The gentlemen to whose names no asterisks
are prefixed held the same appointments last year.
SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.
American Journal of Science, April. — Contributions to
meteorology, by Elias Loomis. In this paper, which was read
before the National Academy of Sciences, November 14, 1888,
the chief subjects discussed are the relations of rain areas to
areas of high and low pressure. From these studies it appears
generally that no great barometric depression with steep gra-
dients ever occurs without considerable rain ; that in great
rain-storms the barometric pressure usually diminishes while the
rainfall increases ; that the greatest depression of the barometer
generally occurs about twelve hours after the greatest rainfall ;
that a great rainfall is favourable to a rapid progress of the
centre of least pressure. It also appears that in Great Britain
the amount of rain with a falling barometer is twice that with a
rising barometer ; but this ratio diminishes rapidly eastwards,
the precipitation in Central Europe being greater when the
barometer is rising than when it is falling. — The sensitive flame
as a means of research, by W. Le Conte Stevens. These ex-
periments, which take as their stajting-point Lord Rayleigh's
memoir on " Diffraction of Sound "(Proceedings of the R. Institu-
tion, January 20, 1888), tend to show that the sensitive flame
is not applicable for purposes of exact measurement, though it
is much more nearly so than has been generally supposed.
Without its aid it would have been impossible to establish the
important analogies here shown to exist between light and
sound. — The Denver Tertiary formation, by Whitman Cross.
In this paper a succinct account is given of the newly determined
Tertiary formation about the Denver district, Colorado, which
had hitherto been assigned to the Laramie Cretaceous. Although
of limited geographical extent, this formation possesses features of
special importance in several respects. The vertebrate remains
here occurring present some very remarkable associations, which
appear to be in direct conflict with all past observations. — Events
in Nortii American Cretaceous history illustrated in the Arkansas-
Texas division of the south-western region of the United States,
by Robert T, Hill. Here are embodied the results of the
author's investigation of the stratigraphic and palseontological
conditions in the northern and eastern termination of the Texas
Cretaceous, which are brought into relation with the corresponding
formations in the Gulf and Western States. — The distribution of
phosphorus in the Luddington Mine, Iron Mountain, Michigan,
by David H, Browne. The results are here given of some 3000
analyses of ore from the Luddington Mine made during the
last three years by the author while acting as chemist to the
Lumberman Mining Company. Although no generalizations
are attempted, these analyses tend to throw much light on one
of the most diffictflt problems in the chemistry of iron ore — the
distribution, throughout the vein, of Bessemer ore, and its
relation to the formation of the deposit. — Papers were con-
tributed by C. S. Hastings, on a general method for deteraiininjj
the secondary chromatic aberration for a double telescope
objective, with a description of a telescope sensibly free from
this defect ; by G. Baur, on Palaeohatteria, Credner, and the
Proganosauria ; and by O. C. Marsh, on some new .Vmerican
Dinosauria, with a comparison of the principal forms of the
Dinosauria of Europe and America.
Bulletin ile V Acculemie Royale de Belgique, March.— On the
discovery of some fossil remains of mammals anterior to the
diluvium at Ixelles near Brussels, by Michael Mourlon. These
deposits, brought to light in .August 18S8, were all found at a
lower level than that of the rolled Quaternar)' gravels, and at
some points were overlain by several beds of undisturbed shingle.
They include remains of the cave bear, of Elephas antiquus, of
Bison priscus. Bos privtigenius, the hare, Equus caballus, and a
smaller equine species here described under the name of Equus
intcrmcdius, altogether forty four individuals, representing five
known and four not yet determined species, and presenting a
general resemblance to the mammalian fauna of the English
forest-bed. — On the physical properties of the free surface layer
of a fluid, and on the contact layer of a fluid and a solid, by G.
Van der Mensbrugghe. The experiments here described lead to
results opposed to the capillary theories of Laplace and Poisson ;
they further show that the theory of Gauss is intimately asso-
ciated with the surface tension of fluids, one leading inevitably to
the other, and confirming the author's previous conclusion that
the demonstrated existence of tension justifies the theory of
Gauss. — Note on a theory of the secidar variation of terrestrial
magnetism deduced from experimental data, by Ch. Lagrange.
Several arguments are advanced in support of the author's new
hypothesis that the secular magnetism of the earth is due to a
magnetic potential interior and not exterior to the surface of the
globe. The solid globe itself is thus regarded as a magnet, or a
solenoid — that is, as a magnetic body properly so called, or as a
conductor traversed by circular currents. — A paper is contributed
by P. De Ileen on the determination of the theoretic formula
expressing the variations of volume experienced by mercury with
the changes of temperature.
Rendico7iti del Reale Istituto Lombardo, March 28. — -Influence
of the digestive juices on the virus of tetanus, by Prof. G.
Sormani. A series of experiments are described, which the
author has carried out on rabbits, guinea-pigs, rats, and dogs,
from which are drawn the following conclusions : (l) the flesh ot
animals dying of tetanus may be consumed with impunity ; (2)
the bacillus of tetanus swallowed by carnivorous and herbivorous
animals passes through the system without causing death or any
special disturbance ; (3) the gastric juices of herbivorous animals
neither kill, nor diminish the virulence of, the bacillus ; (4) an
animal may with impunity swallow a quantity of the virus ten
thousand times more than would suftice to kill if introduced by
hypodermic inoculation ; (5) the facts here determined throw
some doubt on the accepted theory that the effects of tetanus are
due to the absorption of poisonous alkaloids derived from the
bacillus. — G. Somigliana contributes a paper on differential
parameters, explaining a process by which they may be formed,
and demonstrating the invariability of those of the first order.
Certain relations, either new or more general than those hitherto
studied, are also established between the parameters of the first
and second orders.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
London.
Royal Society, April 4. — "The Ferment Action ct
Bacteria.'" By T. Lauder Brunton, M.D., F.R.S., and A.
Macfadyen, M.D., B.Sc.
The chief objects of this research were, (A) to discover
whether microbes act on the soil upon which they grow
by means of a ferment ; and (B) whether such a ferment can
be isolated, and its action demonstrated on albuminoid gelatine
and carbohydrates, apart from the microbes which produce it,
in the same way that the ferments of the stomach and pancreas
can be obtained apart from the cells by which they were
originally secreted.
The microbes used were Koch's spirillum, Finkler's spirillum,
a putrefactive micrococcus, scurf bacillus, and Welford milk
bacillus (Klein).
The results of the inquiry were as follows : —
(i) The bacteria which liquefy gelatine do so by means of an
enzyme.
22
NATURE
{May 2, 1889
(2) This enzyme can be isolates!, and its peptonizing action j
demonstrated, apart from the microbes which produce it. j
(3) The most active enzyme is that formed in meat broth. !
(4) Acidity hinders, alkalinity favours, its action.
(5) The bacteria which form a peptonizing enzyme on proteid ;
soil can also produce a dia^tatic enzyme on carbohydrate soil.
(6) The action of the diastatic enzyme can be demonstrated
apait from the microbes which produce it.
(7) The diastatic enzyme has no effect on gelatine, and vice
versa.
(8) The microbes, for purposes of nutrition, can form a
ferment adapted to the ^oil in which they grow.
(9) The putrefactive micrococcus gave negative results.
Linnean Society, April 18. — Mr. Carruthers, F. R.S.,
President, in the chair. — In view of the approaching anniversary
meeting, the following wt re appointed auditors : — For the Coun-
cil, Dr. John Anderson and Mr. Jenner Weir ; for the Fellows,
Mr. T. Christy and Mr. D. Morris. — The President called at-
tention to a valuable donation of books on fishes, including the
celebrated work of Bloch, recently presented to the Society's
library by Mr. Francis Day, who, he regretted to say, was lying
seriously ill at Cheltenham ; upon which a cordial vote of sym-
pathy and thanks was unanimously accorded. — Mr. J. R. Jack-
son, Curator of the Museum, Kew Gardens, exhibited speci-
mens illustrating the mode of collecting at Ichang, China, the
varnish obtained from RJms Termicifcra, so largely used by the
Chinese and Japanese for lacquering. He also exhibited some
Chinese candles made from varnish seed-oil. — On behalf of Mr.
Henry Hutton, of Kimberley, some photographs were exhibited,
showing the singular parasitic growth of Ciiscuta appendicidata
on Nicotiana glauca. — Dr. Cogswell exhibited specimens of
vegetables belonging to four different families of plants, to illus-
trate the symmetrical development of rootlets. — Prof. Martin
Duncan exhibited, under the microscope, and made remarks
upon, the splueridia of an Echinoderm. — Dr. Masters gave a
summary of a paper on the comparative morphology and life-
history of the Conifei'a?, a review of the general morphology of
the order based upon the comparative examination of living
specimens in various stages of development. These observa-
tions, made in various public and private " pineta," supple-
mented by an examination of herbarium specimens, demon-
strated the utility of gardens in aid of botanical research. The
mode of germination, the polymorphic foliage, its isolation or
" concrescence," its internal structure, the arrangements of the
buds, the direction and movements of the shoots, were all
discussed. In reference to the male and female flowers, the
author described their true nature, tracing them from their
simplest to their most complex or most highly differentiated
condition ; and showed that, so far as known, the histological
structure and development were essentially the same thioughout
the order. Various special forms, such as the needles of Pinus,
the phylloid shoots of Sciadopitys, and the seed-scales of
Abietincd, were described, and their significance pointed out.
The phenomenon of enation with the correlative inversion of
;he fibio- vascular bundles in such outgrowths was considered in
relation to the light it throws upon certain contested points in
the morphology of the order ; the chief teratological appear-
ances noted in the order were detailed, and their significance dis-
cussed ; the various modifications were shown to be purely
hereditary or partly adaptive, and dependent on permanent or
intermittent arrest, excess, or perversion of growth and deve-
lopment, and to various correlative changes ; lastly, the poly-
morphic forms of the so-called genus Ketinospora, suggested
that in studying them we might be watching the development
and fixation of new specific types.
Chemical Society, April 4.— Dr. W.J. Russell, F.R.S.,
President, in the chair. — The following papers were read : —
The rate of dissolution of metals in acids, by Mr. V. H. Veley.
The dissolution of copper in a solution of potassium bichromate
acidified with sulphuric acid was investigated as affording a case
in which no gas was evolved as such. The copper was
employed in the form of metallic spheres which by various
mechanical devices were rolled about continuously and regularly
in the acid liquid, and the products of the changes continuously
removed from the immediate neighbourhood of the metal. The
author finds (i) that if the temperature be varied between 21^
and 41° in an arithmetical proportion the amount of chemical
action varies in a geometrical proportion ; (2) that if the
amount of sulphuric acid be varied in an arithmetical proportion
between the limits of 41 "3 and 23 '5 grammes per litre, the amount
of ch.nnge also varies in an arithmetical proportion ; and (3)
that the amount of change is at first considerably increased by
increase of proportion of potassium bichromate, but the effect
afterwards gradually diminishes to nil, at which point the
bichromate can be considered to be so much inert material :
the amounts used varied from 22'i to66'3 grammes per litre. —
Note on the interaction of metals and acids, by Prof, H. E.
Armstrong. When a metal forming an element in a voltaic
couple is dissolved, the rate of dissolution is in accordance with
Ohm's law, C = E/R : and this should apply also to the case in
which a metal is dissolved without any precaution being taken
to arrange it as an element of a couple, as the action is con-
ditioned by the formation of, and takes place within, "local
circuits." The changes attending the dissolution of metals may,
therefore, in a certain sense be said to be purely electrical in the
first instance ; yet within recent years it has been argued by
various chemists that the phenomena are only in part electrical
and in part chemical — whatever this may mean. The author
discussed the various phases of such changes, anl criticized the
conclusions arrived at by Spring and Aubel and others.
Referring to Mr. Veley's experiments Prof. Armstrong expressed
the opinion that the results were in no way commensurate with
the labour expended in obtaining them : although by introduc-
ing bichromate polarization by hydrogen had been prevented,
its use had introduced complications which made the analysis of
the results impossible; in fact the information likely to be
obtained from such experiments was not of the kind required in
the present state of chemical science. Thus the proof obtainetl
that a copper sphere dissolved uniformly in a mixture of
sulphuric acid and bichromate was but a proof of the efficiency
of the stirring apparatus : such would necessarily be the case, as
the values of E and R remained almost unchanged throughout
the experiment owing to the relatively small proportion of the
agents used up. In the course of his reply Mr. Veley mentioned
that he had had occasion to verify Dr. Russell's observation that
silver is not dissolved by nitric acid free from nitrous acid, to-
which reference had been made, and stated that in experiments
with copper and nitric acid he had observed that the action took
place at first more slowly, and only attained a maximum rate
when a certain small amount of nitrate was formed. Prof.
Armstrong remarked that this was a really important observa«^
tion, proving that the dissolution of copper in nitric acid was
dependent on the presence of a third substance — perhnps cupric
nitrate. — A zinc mineral from a blast furnace, by Mr. J. T.
Cundall.
Zoological Society, April 29. — Sixtieth Anniversary
Meeting.— Prof Mower, C.B., F.R.S., President, in the chair.
— In the Report of the Coundlon the proceedings of the Society
during the year 1888, it was stated that the number of Fellows
on January i, 1889, was 3076, showing a decrease of twenty-
eight as compared with the corresponding period in 1888. The
total receipts for 1888 had amounted to ^24,025 los. 8d., show-
ing an increase oi £()2Z 15^-. zd., as compared with the previous
year. The receipts from admissions to the Gardens had risen
from ^12,138 to ^13,284. The ordinary expenditure for 188&
had been ;^2i,439 165. a,d., which was ;^2436 les-s than the
corresponding amount for 1887. Besides this, an extraordinary
expenditure of ;^7oo had been incurred^ which had brought up
the total expenditure for the year to ^22, 139. The sum of
;^icoo had been employed in repayment of a temporary loan,
from the bankers, and a further sum of ;^ 1000 had been devoted
to the diminution by that amount of the debt on the Society's
freehold premises, which now stood at ;^70C0. After deducting:
these payments from the income of 1888, and adding to
it the balance of ;^ii58, brought over from the previous year,
a balance of ;^I043 was carried forward for the benefit
of the present year. The usual .'•cientific meetings had
been held during the session of 1888, and a large number of
valuable communications had been received upon every branch
of zoology. These had been published in the annual volume of
Proceedings for 1888, which contained 717 pages, illustrated
by thirty-two plates. Besides this, Part 7 of the twelfth volume
of the Society's quarto Transactions, illustrated by eight plates,,
had been issued. The volume of the "Zoological Record " for
1888, containing a summary of the work done by British and!
foreign zoologists in 1887, had been issued early in the present
year. It had been edited, by Mr. F. E. Beddard, the Prosec-
tor to the Society. An important event in connection with the
Librr ry during the past jear had been the receipt from the
May 2, 1889]
NATURE
n
executors of the late Madame Comely, widow of the late M.
(. M. Cornely, an old and valued corresponding member of the
Society, of a valuable library of zoological books. The Cornely
Library consisted of about 840 volumes, of which 256 were new
to the Society's Library, and many of these were rare and diffi-
cult of acquisition. In the (ladens in Regent's Park, the work
during the past year had been entirely confined to repairs and
renewals, which, however, had kept the staff of workmen busily
engaged. The visitors to the Gardens during the year 188S had
been altogether 608,402, the corresponding number in 1887
having been 562,898. The number of animals in the Society's
collection on Decenber3i last was 2290, of which 666 were
Ma nmals, 1280 Birds, and 314 Reptiles. Amongst the additions
during the past year nine were specially commented upon as of
remarkable interest, and in most cases representing species new
to the Society's collection. About thirty-one species of Mammals,
seventeen of Birds, and two of Reptiles had bred in the Society's
Gardens during the summer of 1888. — The Report having been
adopted, the meeting proceeded to elect the new members of
Council and the officers for the ensuing year. The usual
ballot having been taken, it was announced that Lieut. -Colonel
the Lord Abinger, C.B., Mr. Henry A. Brassey, Mr. Henry
E. Dresser, Lieut.-General Sir H. B. Lumsden, K.C.S.L, and
the Lord Arthur Russell, had been elected into the Council in
place of the retiring members ; also that Mr. Walter Morrison,
M.P. , elected into the Council since the last anniversary, had
been re-elected in place of the late Surgeon- General L. C.
Stewart (deceased) ; and that Prof. Flower, C.B., F. R. S., had
been re-elected President ; Mr. Charles Drummond, Treasurer ;
and Mr. Philip Lutley Sclater, F. R.S., Secretary to the Society
for the ensuing year.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, April 15. — M, Des Cloizeaux,
President, in the chair. — Researches on the thionic series, by M.
Berthelot. The author describes a new method recently discovered
by him, by means of which he has succeeded in measuring the
heat of formation of nearly all the terms in the thionic series,
such as the dithionic, trithionic, tetrathionic, and pentathionic
iicids. Ttie method consists in oxidizing the salts of the thionic
acids, previously dissolved, by means of bromine dissolved
either in water, or, better, in bromide of potassium. For acids
formed by the union of the same element combined in multiple
proportions of oxygen there is in most cases a certain proportion
between the liberated heat and the combined oxygen, a law
already indicated by Dulong. — Experiments on putrefaction and
on the formation of manures, by M. J. Reiset. Detailed de-
scriptions are given of the critical experiments briefly referred to
by the author in his recent communication on. this subject. He
also deals with a serious objection that has been raised against
his general conclusion regarding the liberation of nitrogen during
the process of putrefaction. — Movement of cyclonic storms in the
various regions of the globe, by M. H. Faye. A general survey
is given of the salient features of these phenomena in the North
Atlantic, the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean,
the China Sea, and Japan waters — that is, in the regions where
they have been most carefully studied. The author insists on
the essential identity of all their main characteristics ; everywhere
the same rapid trajectory from the equator towards one or other
of the poles ; the same manner of gyration narrowing towards the
base round about vertical axes ; the same progressive expansion
frequently developing phenomena of varied segmentation far
from the equator ; the same independence of local climatic con-
ditions pointing to their common origin in the upper atmospheric
regions, and showing that these violent disturbances do not
belong exclusively to the science of meteorology, but are the
grandest terrestrial manifestations of the mechanics of fluids,
acting in conformity with the simple theory already, on
several occasions, announced by the author. — Observations
of Barnard's new comet, March 31, made at the Observatory
of Algiers with the 050 m. telescope for the period April
4-10, by MM. Trepied, Ram baud, and Renaux. — On the
specific heat of sea water at different degrees of dilution and
concentration, by MM, Thoulet and Chevallier. The measure-
ment of the specific heat has been executed according to M.
Berthelot's - method with water taken on the Fecamp coast,
sometimes pure, sometimes with distilled water added, and
sometimes concentrated by evaporation, the determination both
of the densities and of the specific heats being made at the
temperature of I7°*5 C. The calculations here worked out
explain the enormous influence exercised by the sea in regulating
the climates of the globe, -^On the intensity of telephonic eflTccts,
by M. E. Mercadier, In continuation of his previous note
{Comptes rendttSf cviii. p. 737) the author here describes his
further experiments with aluminium and copper diaphragms.
The efft'cts produced with these are found, under like conditions,
to be far less intense than with iron diaphragms, the chief
cause of the difference being the very slight specific magnetism
of the former as compared with the latter. On the other hand,
the qtiaiity of the efTects produced by the aluminium and copper
diaphragm-; is very remarkable, as they give the timbre of
sounds and of articulate speech far better than iron, — Researches
on some new metallic sulphides, by MM. Arm. Gautier and
L. Hallopeau. In continuation of the already described studies
{Comptes rendtis, cvii. p. 911) on the action of carbon-di
sulphide on the argillaceous earths, the authors have been
led to examine its action on various metals at a red heat.
The sulphides thus produced include those of iron, manganese,
and the silicate of manganese described in this paper, and
of nickel, chromium, lead, and aluminium, which are reserved
for a future communication, — On the heat of combustion of
some organic substances, by M. Ossipoff. The author has
undertaken a series of experiments for the purpose of determin-
ing the heats of combustion of certain organic bodies not yet
studied from the thermic standpoint. He has already com-
pleted the study of cinnamic, atropic, and terebic acids, all
of which are described in the present paper. — Bacteriological
researches on the disinfection of hospitals, dwellings, &c., by
gaseous substances, and especially by sulphurous acid, by MM.
H. Dubief and I.Bruhl. From these experiments it appears
that gaseous sulphurous acid has a destructive effect on germs
contained in the air, especially when saturated by the vapour of
water ; that it acis mainly on the germs of bacteria, and that
when employed in the pure state for a prolonged period it may
prove fatal to germs even in the dry state.
April 23. — M. Des Cloizeaux, President, in the chair. — On
the theory of the capture of periodical comets, by M. F,
Tisserand, The object of this paper is to supply a rigorous
proof of the theory, based on Laplace's study of Lexell's comet,
that the influence of Jupiter, acting on a comet with parabolical
orbit, may under certain conditions transform its course to an
elliptical orbit analogous to those of the group of periodical
comets. Some of the formulas here worked out agree very well
for two of Tempel's comets and for that of Vico ; but full details
are reserved for the next issue of the Bulletin Astronomique. —
Mejioir on the ravages caused to agriculture by the cockchafer
and its larva, by M. J, Reiset, Ttie results are described of the
measures that have been taken in France for the destruction of
this pest since the year 1866. A de. ailed account is appended
of its remarkable biological transformations, and instances given
of its surprising vitality, surviving complete immersion in water
for over four days, and when buried to a depth of 040 metre in
the earth remaining in a state of suspended animation for 150
days. — Observations of Barnard's new comet, March 31, made at
the Observatory of Paris (equatorial of the east tower), on April
19, by Mdlle. D. Klumpke ; at the same Observatory (equatorial
of the west tower), on April 18-19, by M. G, Bigourdan ; and
at the Observatory of Bordeaux with the 38 cm. equatorial, on
April 20, by M, G. Rayet, Daring these observations the comet
generally presented the appearance of a slight nebula with a
nucleus of the fourteenth magnitude. — On magnetic rotatory
polarization, by M, Vaschy, It is shown that M, Potier's recent
hypothesis {Comptes rendus, March 11, 1889) on the action of
the ether on ponderable matter offers a remarkably simple ex-
planation of this phenomenon. On the other hand, it lends no
support to Ampere's theory regarding molecular currents. — On
the initial mode of deformation of the ellipsoidal crust of the
earth, by M, A, Romieux. M, Daubree's well-known experi-
ments serve as the basis of a theory of the original crumpling
and folding 'of the terrestrial crust, which is here worked out
with illustrations, M. Romieux considers that, although now
far removed from that initial deformation, the globe still retains
many traces of its effects as here described. Thus, the Pacific
Ocean, a vast and very ancient equatorial basin, acting in op-
position to a continental mass with its more recent depression of
the Central Mediterranean, is supposed to have impelled by suc-
cessive spasmodic pressure-: three or four zones of folding against
the resisting mass of the North Pole. — On the combinations of
ruthenium with nitric oxide, by M. A, Joly, Continuing his
investigations on this subject (see Comptes rendus, cvii, p.
994), the author here adds a considerable number to the
24
NATURE
{May 2, 1889
compounds of ruthenium with nitric oxide. They comprise a
compound of nitric oxide with the trichloride, RuCl3(N0) +
H3O, and with the sesquioxide, RuoOsCNO)^ + aH^O, both
remarkably stable bodies, resisting the action of water, of
bases and acids, and decomposing only at a temperature
above 300° C. It is suggested that analogous nitrous com-
binations might be formed with rhodium, and with osmium.
In a future communication M. Joly proposes to show that
the substances described by Fritsche and Struve, under the
names of osmanosmic or osmiamic acid and of o«miates,
have a constitution similar to that of these compounds
of ruthenium. — Researches on the richness of wheat in
gluten, by MM. E. Gatellier and L. L'Hote. A series of ex-
periments are described by which the same wheat (white Victoria)
is made to yield increasing proportions of gluten. The increase
largely depends on the rotation of crops and on the proportion of
nitrogen to phosphoric acid contained in the manures. — Papers
were contributed by M. J. Janssen and Colonel Gouraud on Mr.
Edison's improved telephone, full details of which have already
appeared in the English scientific journals. The proceedings
concluded with the following phonographic message sent by the
President to Mr. Edison : " M. le President et les Membres de
1' Academic des Sciences adressent leurs fe'licitations a M. Edison
pour les nouveaux perfectionnements qu'il a apportes a son
phonographe, et esperent le voir bientot a Paris, a I'occasion de
I'Exposition Universelle. "
Berlin.
Physiological Society, April 12. — Prof, du BoisReymond,
President, in the chair. — Prof. Fritsch gave a brief account of
the results he has obtained from the examination of the electrical
organ of Torpedo which he has been carrying on for several
years. Both Wagner and Remak had correctly made out that
each plate consists of two layers, one dorsal and one ventral ;
that the nerves are attached to the plate from the under side, and
are distributed in branches over it ; and that the under surface
of the plate is dotted. Very little further infofmation as to the
structure of this o'gan has resulted from the many investigations
subsequent to those of the above-named observers. Prof Fritsch
then explained and set aside the views of the best-known ob-
servers, and summed up his own conclusions as follows. The
lowest or marginal layer is composed of a layer, which is here
and there discontinuous, of globules, which refract light very
strongly ; between these the terminal fibres of the nerves make
their way into the plate. The pallisade-layer, which some pre-
vious observers had described, has an existence in the form of a
number of extremely fine filaments, which stand at right angles
to the plate, but inasmuch as they are so fine as to be scarcely
visible, nothing can for certain be made out as to their nature.
Passing further in a ventral direction, globular structures are
found in the lower plate, seated upon fibres which branch
dichotomously ; these may perhaps be bulbous nerve-endings.
Large nuclei lie between the ventral and dorsal layers. The
dorsal or muscular layer contains extremely fine granules, ar-
ranged in rows at right angles to the surface. The above results
were obtained by the application of the modified treatment with
nitric acid. A series of photographs and drawings was ex-
hibited in explanation of that which was described, and several
preparations were shown under the microscope.— Prof. Preyer
spoke on reflexes in the embryo. His researches extended over
many classes of animals. As representing Mammals, guinea-
pigs were chiefly u=ed ; and for reptiles, snakes ; while in addition
the embrj'os of fishes, frogs, mollusks, and other lower animals
were also employed. But of all animals birds are most suitable
for embryological observations, inasmuch as, with due precau-
tions, the development of one and the same individual can be
followed for a considerable time. Birds' eggs can be incubated
in a warm chamber, and by removing a portion of the shell
and replacing it by an unbroken piece from another egg, it
becomes possible to follow the daily development of the chick
and to experiment upon it. As early as the ninetieth hour of
incubation, spontaneous "impulsive" movements may be ob-
served, taking place apparently without any external stimulus as
a cause, and at a time when no muscles or nerves have as yet
been developed. After the occurrence of these spontaneous
movements, and at the earliest on the fifth day of incubation,
movements are observed to result from the application of
mechanical, chemical, and electrical stimuli. In order to
observe these the eggs must be allowed to cool down until all
spontaneous movements have ceased. From the tenth to the
thirteenth day more complicated and reflex actions occur on the
application of stimuli, as, for instance, movements of the eye-
lids, beak, and limbs : and if the stimuli are strong, reflex respira-
tory movemenf:. These reflexes make their aopearance before
any ganglia have become differentiated. Prof. Preyer considered
himself justified in concluding from this that ganglia are not
essential for the liberation of reflex actions. He intends, on
some future occasion, to give a more detailed account of these
experiments, and of the conclusions which may be drawn from
them. In the discussion which ensued the conclusions of the
speaker were contested from many sides.
BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECEIVED.
Year Book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain and
Ireland, sixth annual issue (Griffin) — Subjects of Sjcial Welfare : Sir Lyon
Playfair (Cassell). — Eiologie der Pflanzen, init Einem Anhang ; Die
Historische Entwickhing der Botanik : Dr. J. Wiesni^r (Wien, Holder). —
The Theory of the Continuous Girder : M'. A. Howe (New York). — A Verte-
brate Fauna of the Outer Hebrides : J. A. Harvie-Brown and T. E. Buckley
(Edinburgh, Douglas). — Challenger Report, vol. xxx. Zoology, Text and
Plates (Eyre and Spottiswoode). — Animal Locomotion, 1872-S5, Plates ; E.
Muybridge (Philadelphia). — The Metallurgy of Gold, 2nd edition : M. Eissler
(I^ockwood). — Himmel und Erde. Heft 8 (Berlin). — Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, April (Murray).
CONTENTS. PAGE
The New Code and Science Teaching. By Dr. J.
H. Gladstone, F.R.S i
The National Science Museum 3
Reptilian Orders 5
The History of Ancient Civilization 7
Our Book Shelf: —
Macdonald : "Board S,;hool Laryn jiti-:. " — Dr. E.
Clifford Beale 8
Ray: "A Treatise on Elementary Algebra and Alge-
braical Artifices " 9
Letters to the Editor: —
The Sailing Flight of the Albatross.— A. C. Baines . 9
Note on Ra^^adia crisia. — Sydney B. J. Skertchly . 10
Spherical Eggs.— Prof. A. G. Greenhill, F.R.S. . . 10
Name for Unit of Self-induction. — Prof. Oliver J.
Lodge, F.R.S 11
Hertz's Equations.— Rev. H. W. Watson, F.R.S. . 11
A New Pest of Farm Crops. By Allen Harker . . . ir
Rain Clouds on Lake Titicaca. {Illustrated.) By Hon.
Ralph Abercromby 12
A Flat Fish Nursery 13
Notes 13
Our Astronomical Column : —
The April Meteors 15
The White Spot on Saturn's Ring 15
The Variable X Cygni 15
Photographic Determination of the Brightness of the
Stars ■ • IS
Astronomical Phenomena for the Week 1889
May 5-1 1 16
Geographical Notes . 16
The Henry Draper Memorial 17
Griinwald's Mathematical Spectrum Analysis. By
Joseph S. Ames 19
On the Formation of Marine Boiler Incrustations.
By Prof. Vivian B. Lewes 19
University and Educational Intelligence 20
Scientific Serials 21
Societies and Academies 21
Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received 24
NA TURE
25
THURSDAY, MAY 9, 1889.
THE ESTATE OF HER MAJESTY'S
COMMISSIONERS OF 1851.
UNDER this heading the Times has announced
that "a Sub-Committee of the Commissioners,
amongst the members of which are Lord Thring, Sir Lyon
Playfair, Mr. Childers, M.P., and Mr. Mundella, M.P.,
held a meeting on Saturday last to adopt a final report
upon the disposal of this Estate which should be sub-
mitted for the approval of the Royal Commissioners them-
selves." The Commissioners have determined to let out
a considerable part of their Estate to house builders, and
the Sub-Committee had before them, on Saturday last,
tenders for building leases. If the Commissioners accept
these tenders, they will add some ^10,000 a year to their
income. This notion of sacrificing the Estate to builders
of private houses has been known for some months ; and,
with the view of demonstrating against so short-sighted,
not to say utterly immoral, a poHcy, a Memorial has been
framed and circulated. We have received a copy of it,
and, entirely acquiescing in its object, we print it in extenso.
It runs as follows : —
To His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, K.G., &*€.,
Gr^c. , President of Her Majesty's Commissioners for the
Exhibition of 1 85 1.
,-^. ^, • 1 i- .1 J • J [Here fill in name of
The Memorial from the undersigned chamber of Commerce,
on behalf of
Corporation, (juild or
Educational Institution.
Sheweth
(i) That in the year 1851 a large surplus profit accrued
after the conclusion of the Exhibition of 1851.
(2) That this surplus profit was for the most part
expended by Her Majesty s Commissioners for the Exhi-
bition of 1851 in the purchase of a considerable Estate of
land at Kensington, for the erection of public institutions,
and generally to benefit the country's Arts, Sciences,
Manufactures, and Commerce.
(3) That various public institutions, such as the South
Kensington Museum, the Training School of Science and
Art, the Natural History Museum, the Royal College of
Music, the Royal Albert Hall, and the Imperial Institute,
have been or are in course of being built upon this
Estate.
(4) That fine open spaces intervene between the various
institutions, to provide for further extensions of them, and
give them proper light and air.
(5) That Sir Lyon Playfair, M.P., as Secretary to Her
Majesty's Commissioners, recently stated in the House of
Commons that a large portion of these fine open spaces
between the public institutions already named was to be
leased for the erection of private houses and mansions.
(6) That, in the opinion of Your Royal Highness's
Memorialists, this crowding upon the public institutions
of private houses and mansions is adverse to the interests
of Arts, Sciences, Manufactures, and Commerce, and
foreign to the intentions of Her Majesty's Commissioners,
publicly announced, when they purchased the land, and
also subsequently.
(7) That, in the opinion of Your Royal Highness's
Memorialists, this crowding upon the public institutions
to benefit Arts, Sciences, Manufactures, and Commerce,
of private houses and mansions is in confiict with the last
public announcement in respect of the future of the
Estate which H.R.H. the late Prince Consort made
within six months of his lamented death.
Your Memorialists, therefore, respectfully pray that
Vol. XL.— No. 1019.
Your Royal Highness, as President of Her Majesty's
Commissioners, will prevent the public institutions on the
Estate of Her Majesty's Commissioners from being
crowded upon by private ht)uses and mansions, and will
induce Her Majesty's Commissoners to preserve intact
those unalloted portions of their Estate in order that they
may be placed to the great public uses for which the
Estate was destined by Her Majesty's Commissioners and
their President, Your Royal Highness's illustrious father,
the lamented Prince Consort.
The Times, commenting upon the effe:t of the Com-
missioners' scheme for filling up their Estate with private
houses, says that "the irregular blocks of variegated private
houses " will more or less overwhelm and hedge in " such
National Institutions for Science and Art as the Estate
may ultimately contain."
From time to time the Commissioners' various pro-
posals for dealing with their Estate have been publicly
criticized, with the useful result that such of the pro-
posals as were in the nature of distinct departures from
the original intentions set forth at the time the Estate
passed into their keeping, have been modified or
dropped.
Twelve years or so ago, some representatives of the
original subscribers, whose aid in 185 1 virtually placed a
large portion of the surplus funds at the disposal of the
Commissioners, urged that unallotted portions of the
Estate should be sold to meet expenses in founding pro-
vincial galleries or museums for science and art. For
good reasons, the Commissioners did not give way to
these plausible representations. They said at that time
that, under the guidance of the Prince Consort, "we
purchased the estate to provide an extensive site for
the development of great institutions for the promotion
of industrial art and science amongst the manufacturing
populatioti'' At this very time, and, as was stated in
Nature of May 2, p. 3, the Commissioners proposed
certain conditions to the Government, under which they
(the Commissioners) would raise ^100,000 as a contri-
bution towards erecting a Museum of Scientific Instru-
ments, a Science Library, and Laboratories of Scientific
Research and Instruction. This proposal, which was not
entertained however by the Government of the day, con-
tained provisions for keeping the main parts of the
Estate free for the development of national institutions.
The reasons for keeping the main portions of the Estate
at liberty in this way have since remained every whit as
strong as they were then. Indeed they are stronger than
ever, in the face of Government action now being taken
in respect of the " National Science Museum." But a
malign influence supervened. It was but a week before
Christmas last year, when Mr. G. Samuelson asked a
question in the House of Commons, that Sir Lyon
Playfair stated that Her Majesty's Commissioners for
the Exhibition of 185 1 were arranging to dispose of
considerable plots of land on their Estate to house
builders, in order that the Commissioners might in-
crease their income by obtaining ground-rents from
private houses, and that the Commissioners did not
intend to publish their reasons for this. Is Sir Lyon
Playfair's assurance in thus apparently setting public
opinion at defiance to be ascribed to a sense of relief from
further responsibility which he may have derived from his
resignation of the secretaryship to the Commissioners ?
c
26
NATURE
{May 9, 1889
There is no ambiguity in his statement as to the
choking up of the Kensington Estate with private houses
and mansions. The sites to be occupied by private
houses are bounded on the north by the Albert Hall
and the adjoining semicircular arcades or quadrants,
on the east and west by portions of the galleries con-
taining the Museum of Science and the India Museum,
and on the south by the Imperial Institute. They
form the gardens and terraces so well known to the
public who flocked to the evening al fresco entertain-
ments which were given in connection with the series
of International Exhibitions recently held at South
Kensington. The various public announcements issued
by Her Majesty's Commissioners during the last thirty-
five years conclusively show that this land was acquired
for more useful and comprehensive purposes than those
of speculative house builders.
Let us briefly refer to those announcements. On
the close of the Exhibition of 1851, H.M. Commis-
sioners found themselves the possessors of some ^200,000.
They were impressed with the fact that many public
institutions founded to promote science and art had
been " subject to the disadvantages of being placed
in such a situation from the crowding of surrounding
houses that they were without light or air, and had no
convenient access." They therefore determined to pur-
chase a large estate of unoccupied land, and in 1852
became the landlords of what has since been commonly
known as the South Kensington Estate. For the ulti-
mate use of this large property they proposed to trust to
the "voluntary efforts of individuals, corporations, and
authorities, to carry out the promotion of the different
interests with which they are themselves connected." In
their Report for 1856, the Commissioners, alluding to
" the question of the site that has been purchased by us,"
show that, d'lring the intervening years, "the great
natural capabilities of the site have been properly deve-
loped by means of the construction of important lines of
communication and other improvements ; and that we
are still occupied in taking the remaining steps requisite
for perfecting the estate, and rendering it in all respects
fit for the great national objects to which it is to be
applied." Very shortly afterwards a large area of the
Estate was leased to the Royal Horticultural Society.
This was laid out as an ornamental garden surrounded
by arcades and galleries. The late Prince Consort
opened this garden in 1861. His Royal Highness
made a speech on the occasion, in the course of which
he said, " We may hope that at no distant day this
garden will form the inner court of a vast quadrangle of
PubHc Buildings rendered easily accessible by the broad
roads which will surround them. Buildings where Science
and Art may find space for development, with that
light and air which are well-nigh banished from this
overgrown metropolis." This was but six months
before the death of the Prince. For some years
the Prince Consort's superior policy in dealing with
the Estate was respected and followed by Her Majesty's
Commissioners. The Natural History Museum arose
on the land at the south of the Horticultural Gardens.
Galleries were built above and at the side of the
long eastern and western arcades of the gardens ;
other galleries were erected between these gardens and
the Natural History Museum. The Government secured
a tenuie of all these galleries as a temporary home
in which the Government has placed the National
Science Museum, the Collections of Historic Machinery,
the India Museum, and the Collections of Modern In-
dustrial Art. On the far north of the Estate was built
the Royal Albert Hall : then followed the Royal Col-
lege of Music. Later still sprang up the Technological
Schools of the City and Guilds of London Institute. But
with all this steady realization of the Prince Consort's far-
seeing policy the Commissioners were not satisfied.
Pleading necessity to find money for defraying the
expenses of certain not over-wise experiments undertaken
by them, they began to let land on the margins of their
Estate for the erection of private dwellings. And the
more prominent result of this is the beetling mass of
mansions opposite Hyde Park, overshadowing the Albert
Hall on one side, and frowning ominously upon the
" inner court of the vast quadrangle " of the Estate.
Then came the movement for an Imperial Institute. A
great sHce out of the "inner court" was allocated for
this mysterious Institute, which is rapidly asserting its
architectural entity. At this point in the development of
the Estate, the Commissioners, it would seem, succumbed
to the hopeless temptation of washing their hands of
further trouble. And, as we have already stated, their
present intention is to block up the remaining portion
of the " inner court " with private houses and mansions,
and thus disencumber themselves of any responsibility
for institutions for science and art.
Now, an explanation, which has been offered, of
this volte face on the part of the Commissioners
is this. The subscriptions for the Imperial Institute
are insufificient for its endowment. It must be re-
membered that the Imperial Institute is the outcome
of the "Jubilee" loyalty. The possible utility of this
Institute has been debated without success. To lay the
foundation-stone, and to pay for a staff of subscription-
touters and what not, during two years, have exhausted
some^25,ooo of its capital, which does not reach ^300,000.
The ingenuity of Lord Thring and Sir Lyon Playfair has,
it is said, been accordingly taxed. Their united wits are
credited with having proposed the sale to private house
builders of the unallotted land as well as of portions of
land already occupied by galleries containing the Science
Museum and India Museum. The money thus realized,,
or most of it, is to go into the coffers of the Imperial
Institute. Such are the statements made. If they are
wrong, they should be contradicted.
Another minor incident which further exemplifies the
Commissioners' attitude is the projected removal of the
monument raised twenty-five years ago on their estate to
commemorate the Exhibition of 1851. This monument
is surmounted by a statue of H.R.H. the late Prince
Consort. This too is to be swept away to make room for
private houses.
WARREN DE LA RUE.
A PROMINENT and representative figure has just
"^^ disappeared fi-om scientific circles, whose absence
will be deeply felt by the many eminent men with
whom, for a long time, he had been associated. In the
May 9, 1889]
NATURE
27
Councils of our great Societies he was a man invaluable
for his intelligence, for his persevering energy, for his
promptness of resource, and for a generosity, princely,
but discriminating. These words will at once suggest
the regretted decease of Warren de la Rue. At the age
of seventy-four, he can hardly be said to have died full
of years ; but assuredly Warren de la Rue died full of
honours. He was almost, but happily not quite, the last
■of a generation or two, of men who, possessing ample
pecuniary means in middle or early life, devoted the
means and the life to the search for truth in Nature,
each in his own line. The two Herschels, Wollaston,
Babbage, Gassiot, Spottiswoode, and De la Rue are gone,
and but few like to them still survive, linking us with
the past. " The old order changeth ; " and now the
endowed and professional student of Nature is fast
displacing the amateur. Nor need we altogether deplore
it ; for, after all, the Professor and the amateur belong to
the same race of Englishmen ; they have the same love
of the quest for truth ardent within them ; and in the
case of the Professor there is now superadded the spur
that comes from a sense of duty.
Warren de la Rue was born in 1815, and was the son
of Mr. Thomas de la Rue, the founder of that eminent
firm of manufacturing stationers in Bunhill Row who have
rendered well-known services to social life by the produc-
tion of numerous articles, unsurpassed in excellence in
their particular craft. He first became known to the world
at large by his newly-invented machine for the manu-
facture of envelopes, which was placed in the Great
Exhibition of 1851, and formed one of the chief objects of
attraction there. Not far from it lay a small photograph
of the moon, taken by Bond with the Harvard refractor of
15 inches. It was comparatively, and from the circum-
stances of the times necessarily, but a poor performance,
yet it held out the promise of future possibilities, and it
certainly fired the hopes of De la Rue. It was to him
what the itinerant telescope in the streets of Bath became
to the elder Herschel, viz. the ^determining point of a future
and illustrious career. Accordingly, we soon find him
engaged in the construction of, what in the sequel has
become, his historic reflecting telescope, having an
aperture of 13 inches and a focal length of 10 feet. The
mirror was figured and polished by his own hands, and the
equatorial mounting of the telescope was completed in
his manufactory at Bunhill Row, from his own designs.
Here again our thoughts revert to the elder Herschel ; but
that great astronomer never approached the perfection
either of the De la Rue mirror, or of the mechanism
by which it was mounted and by which it was moved.
It is, however, only just to say that much of this notable
improvement was the natural outcome of the lapse of time
and of the progress that had been made in the working of
metal. The instrument was mounted in the suburbs of
London, at Canonbury, in a small garden surrounded by
houses. It was hither, when the day's work was done at
Bunhill Row, that De la Rue r etired at night ; and here, by
patiently waiting for a clear and serene atmosphere, an
event of rare occurrence, and then only during the small
hours of the morning, he finally succeeded in taking
telescopic pictures of the planets Jupiter and Saturn^
which it may not be too much to say remain still the
equals of any subsequent delineations of the same planets.
Of the Saturn picture, John Herschel was heard to say
that he could die content if he could but once see the
planet itself as beautifully defined. This great success
at once placed him among the chief amateur practical
astronomers of the day. .
It was about this time that he associated himself with
Owen, Quekett, Bowerbank, and others, in the formation
of the Microscopical Society ; and such were the keenness
and exactness of his eyes and hand, that he soon became
a chief referee for the performance of the wonderful
microscopic objectives which then for the first time were
produced by the skill of Powell and Andrew Ross.
His first essays in lunar photography were not so suc-
cessful as he had anticipated : the collodion plates were
deficient in rapidity, and his telescope, not being as yet
provided with a clock movement, he was unable to keep
the moon motionless in the field, even for the short ex-
posure requisite to secure a photographic image. All this,
however, was soon rectified. For, about the year 1857,
he removed his residence and his telescope from Canon-
bury to Cranford, a village distant from London by some
twelve miles west. There he provided his instrument'
with an admirable driving clock, and applied what leisure
he could get, sedulously to celestial photography ; and
there he secured the earliest substantial results of a
method, which, at present, bids fair to revolutionize the
processes of the most exact and refined astronomy. The
photographs of the moon which he now obtained still re-
main works of art, which even the most skilful of recent
astronomers find it difficult to emulate with success. He
also made many attempts to photograph the solar disk ;
but owing to mechanical difficulties, connected with the
necessarily infinitesimal duration of the exposure of the
plates, his success was not great. He had hoped that,
by treating the photographs stereoscopically, he might
decide the true nature of sun-spots in respect of their
being depressions or the reverse ; but, although the evi-
dence seemed greatly in favour of depression, the ques-
tion can hardly be considered as photographically
settled. His efforts in this direction ended in the
construction of a small telescope for the Royal
Society, with an object-glass of 3.^ inches aperture
properly corrected ; and, with this photo-heliograph,
numberless pictures of the sun were successfully taken
at the Kew Observatory. This instrument has proved
the parent of many others established in various parts
of the world, so that at present scarcely a day passes
without a record of the condition of the sun's disk.
The arrangements for these observations of sun-spots are
now constituted under the advice of the Solar Committee
at South Kensington, and in due time no doubt important
facts will be brought to light. All this is traceable to
the little inconspicuous photograph deposited not far
from the envelope machine in 1851 ; and in this way De
la Rue became, and will ever be remembered as, the
Father of Lunar and Solar Photography.
In i860, De la Rue took this photo-heliograph with him
on board the Himalaya, in connection with the memor-
able expedition to the Spanish Pyrenees, for the purpose
of observing the total eclipse of the sun. He posted
himself, with his whole battery of implements, at Riva
Bellosa, in the valley of the Ebro, not far from Vittoria.
He was successful in obtaining several photographs o{
28
NATURE
{May 9, 1889
the eclipse during its totality, which gave the promise of
settling, once for all, the hitherto much-mooted question
as to whether the red prominences belonged to the sun, or
were attributable to a different origin. On his return
home he devised a micrometer -for the due measurement
of these remarkable phenomena, and in conjunction with
other photographs taken by Padre Secchi, at a station
some 250 miles distant from Riva Bellosa, he succeeded
in allocating these singular fiery prominences beyond
question, in the gaseous envelope which surrounds the
sun. The results of his researches were embodied in
the Bakerian Lecture delivered before the Royal Society
in 1862. Perhaps it is not too much to say that these
efforts laid the foundation of that wonderful structure of
solar physics which is daily enlarging our knowledge of
the true nature of the sidereal universe.
In 1873 the Observatory at Cranford was dismantled,
on the occasion of De la Rue's removal from his com-
parative seclusion there to his residence in London. The
reflector, with all its numerous and valuable accessories,
was presented to the University of Oxford, and by this
noble gift it was enabled at length to establish an efficient
Astronomical Observatory at a place of learning where
H alley and Bradley had flourished and taught nearly two
centuries before. The instrument was erected in com-
pleteness at De la Rue's sole expense, and for several
years he defrayed the cost of the additional assistant
necessary for its utilization.
Oxford has at no time been backward in acknowledg-
ing-with gratitude all efficient services rendered in behalf
of the studies of the place. Accordingly, on De la Rue
was conferred the rare honour of the full degree of M.A.,
by which he became a member of Convocation, while
New College also incorporated him among her Society of
Wykehamists, and made him a member of their common
room.
We have occasion to know that it was a source
of gratification to De la Rue to feel assured that his
generous gift was utilized to the full by his old friend the
present Professor of Astronomy, and specially in the
direction which himself had inaugurated. Moreover
when a few months ago he saw the marvellous results
produced by Mr. Roberts in his photographic pictures of
nebulae, secured by a four hours' exposure, he gave direc-
tions for the additional mechanism requisite for the pro-
duction, as he hoped and beheved, of similar pictures by
his own now ancient instrument. Such is the solidity
of the original mounting, that at this moment it is
finally placed on a par, in respect of accurate move-
ment, with any known instrument ; but he did not live
long enough to watch the progress of the experiment. Nor
does this end the catalogue of his gifts to the University.
When he heard of the projected scheme inaugurated by
Admiral Mouchez, the Director of the Paris Observatory,
for completing a photographic chart of the entire sidereal
heavens, he placed a considerable sum of money in the
hands of the Vice-Chancellor in order to defray the cost
of the large photographic telescope necessary for taking a
part in this great enterprise. The University of Oxford
is not an ephemeral institution, and De la Rue's acts of
generosity will remain inscribed upon her annals.
While he was thus watching with intense interest the
uses:- made at Oxford of the work of his renovated instru-
ment, he was himself engaged in a new enterprise of his
own. Whether the recollection of what his friend Gassiot
had done some twelve years before at Clapham — how,
when he returned from his City work in the early evening
he retreated down to his laboratory, furnished at incredible
labour and expense, and there tried to investigate the
nature and origin of the electric discharge, and especially
the strangely beautiful luminous striae observed in tubes
partially exhausted, visited now and then, while at work,
by Faraday and other kindred spirits — whether or not
this may have been the inducing cause, certain it is that
De la Rue became fascinated by the same phenomena,
and enamoured with the same pursuit. Possibly through
a like scientific contagion, Spottiswoode also, in due
course of time, endeavoured to wrest the same secret from
Nature's hands. For years these three men worked and
persevered in hope. None of them wholly succeeded,
and yet none of them wholly failed ; each and all left
finger-posts to guide some future and more fortunate
research.
The space which can be here afforded to the memoir
even of an illustrious man precludes more than a passing
allusion to the honours and social distinctions which
always accompany the efforts of a life such as Warren
de la Rue's ; and upon him they were accumulated in
abundance. The abiding honour lies in the contem-
plation of the man. A career like his dignifies the daily
life of a manufacturer, giving it an aim and an object apart
from the accumulation of wealth ; it humanizes, warms,
and illuminates the absorbing abstraction of the solitary
student ; and it illustrates the fact of an Aristocracy of
Nature.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF MYSTICISM.
The Philosophy of Mysticism. By Carl du Prel, Dr. Phil,
Translated from the German by C. C. Massey. 2 Vols.
(London : George Red way, 1889.)
WE own to a certain mistrust when we are asked to
accept goods under a trade-mark of mysticism ; just
as we have a most Levitical desire to pass by on the other
side when we encounter the latest lucubrations of the circle-
squarer, the absolute harmony of Genesis and geology,
or when the last new theory of the soul is extended before
us, "All Danae to the stars." Now the philosophy of mysti-
cism contains the latest of soul theories, or rather it is an
old theory — a very old theory indeed — which has been
newly adapted and furbished up and fitted with the very
latest adjuncts which the outskirts of modern science can
supply, so that it is to all intents and purposes just as
good as if it were altogether new and original. Do not
let us be misunderstood : both author and translator act
in the strictest good faith. There is no false pretence
about the matter. The whole work is perfectly ingenuous.
The antiquity of the central idea is not in dispute, but it
is claimed for the author that he has essentially modified
our conception of that idea, that he presents his matter
from a new stand-point, which is enough in all conscience
nowadays, and that he is the first to show, by systematic
analysis and comparison, that somnambulism and its
cognate states are not essentially abnormal or morbid,
but are in truth a mere exaltation of ordinary sleep,
that the faculties evinced in those states are incipiently
May 9, 1889]
NATURE
29
manifested also in dream, and are even indicated, though
still more indefinitely, in waking life. It is contended
that in this way the whole dream-life is reclaimed from
its presumed worthlessness for scientific and philosophical
purposes.
A duality of person with a unity of essence is the theory
which commends itself to Baron du Prel,and he has worked
out with much skill and acumen the details of an hypothesis
to which his evident earnestness induces us to accord a
hearing even when we are compelled to dissent from his
conclusions. This hypothesis will have none of science,
falsely so called ; it sets at nought the accepted views of
the physiologist and the materialist, and is a new, if
nebulous, gospel of transcendental existence and appar-
ently limitless progression, Man's life is moulded by his
conception of his relation to the world, and that concep-
tion the present work is to radically revise. Who can
tell if in the twentieth century the acceptance of these
mystical views may not transform the present eager,
struggling, money-grubbing crowd into a fraternity of
peaceful philosophers finding in the placid pleasures of
catalepsy an efficient substitute for the excitement of a
boom in copper and for the fevered gambling of the Stock
Exchange .''
The author is very hard in his strictures upon the
feeble physiologist, the wicked materialist, and indeed
upon the modern professors of science generally, whom
he abandons to their "exact amusements," whilst he
seeks " the true theory in the bare analysis of the process
which takes place in memory," and it is really wonderful
what a superstructure he raises on the basis of that
analysis. His preliminary dig at contemporary men of
science he follows up with cuts and thrusts at intervals, but
his salient grievance is that one and all fail to conceive
progress otherwise than on their existing plane, whereas
true progress must be inevitably vertical. With the
advent of experimental methods, we learn, the world ot
science believed itself to have discovered a means for the
attainment of all available knowledge, but the belief is
erroneous. Not only is science still very far from its
goal, but with the completion of its existing tasks, new
prospects will be opened in the vertical direction. Should
science succeed in explaining the whole visible world,
that explanation is only as to a represented universe, a
secondary phenomenon, a mere product of our sense and
understanding, leaving the true world untouched. The
quality of our consciousness in its relation to that world
has still to be considered, and by such a method alone
can its true nature be in any degree discovered. The
visible world undergoes qualitative changes in the gene-
ration of consciousness, for, since the vibration of ether
is in consciousness light and atmospheric vibration
sound, it is evident that we are not truly cognizant of
things, but only of the inodes in which our senses react
upon them. Taking all which and much more besides
into consideration, the author sums up the result of
human thought on the world-problem by saying that
" consciousness does not exhaust its object, the world," a
remark somewhat analogous to that of the Danish prince
who observed that " there are more things in heaven and
earth than are dreamt of in our philosophy."
As the world is the object of consciousness, so is the
E^o that of self-consciousness ; and here, sa) s the Baron,
materialism still flatters itself with the hope of reducing
all psychology to physiology. It is deceived : self-con-
sciousness does not exhaust its object, but is as inade-
quate to the Ego as consciousness is to the world, and
the Ego may as much exceed self-consciousness as con-
sciousness is exceeded by the world. The degree of the
excess, is, however, not absolutely constant, since, by
the rise of consciousness in the biological process, the
boundary between the conscious and transcendental worlds
has been and will be continually displaced. Of being,
other than representation, we know nothing, and spirit is
the primary and the real, for were its perceptive faculty
changed, the whole material world of representation
would be transformed ; a clear demonstration that the
represented world is a mere creature of the spirit.
Behind consciousness is the ultimate being of which
that consciousness is but the reflection, and as this ulti-
mate being is beyond consciousness the Baron terms it the
unconscious. This unconscious may either lie imme-
diately behind the physically conditioned consciousness,
or may be so indefinitely removed as to allow of an inter-
mediate root of conscious individuality which is only
relatively unconscious for the organism of sense. The
author finds such an intermediary in his so-called psycho-
physical threshold of sensibility, which is the shifting
barrier between the unconscious and self-consciousness.
He conceives a dualism of consciousness, the division
of two " persons " in one subject, but his conception
differs from the popular conception of the dualism of
soul and body, of matter and spirit, of Nature and
supernatural. This dualism of consciousness is, with
him, an intelligence which emerges with clearness and
power just in proportion to the cessation of the organic
functions with which the consciousness of waking life is
associated ; the two halves of our consciousness, divided
by the movable threshold of sensibihty, forming the
subject which is an organizing as well as a thinking
principle. The hypothesis of transcendental individuality
co-existent with the earthly life and constructive of the
organism by which consciousness is (from the earthly
stand-point) dualized, necessitates the doctrine of pre-
existence. Transcendental individuality implies a dis-
tinction from personal consciousness, and that the soul is
not wholly plunged in the successive bodies which it
constructs ; the personal consciousness with its Ego
being the mere partial and temporary limitation of a
larger self, the growth of many seasons of earthly life.
The state of the individual after death is not precisely
defined, but is suggested by the similitude of the smaller
of two concentric circles expanding to the larger; the
circumference of the inner circle being the organic
threshold of sensibility, which death removes altogether,
as it is already partially removed in such analogous
states as sleep, somnambulism, &c. As in preoccupation
the mind is concentrated to a focus, and subsequently
expands to the limits of consciousness, so is earthly
consciousness in death expanded to the boundary limits
of the true Ego.
Transcendental subjectivity provides for continuity of
consciousness, but the experience and whole activity of
one of our objective life-times will be assimilated for
results independent of those proposed by the contracted
Ego^ wh.ich bear but a minute proportion to the gradually
NATURE
[May 9, 1889
accumulated content of the whole individual. The per-
sonal Ego must be brought to the point of view of the
transcendental subject to which the mere happiness of
that Ego is indifferent. What to us as persons are but
high ideal motives may be alone of interest to the larger
self which only maintains the organic personality for its
own purposes. Such is Mr. Massey's analysis of the
master's views, and it must be obvious that on this
showing matters are decidedly in favour of the higher
Ego which has, so to speak, got it all its own way. But
since that exalted essence is, according to its moral
nature, a product of development, the greater morality is
not always on its side, for were that the case, terrestrial
existence would have no educational value, and it is
comfortable, therefore, to learn that our moral conscious-
ness in earth-life can erect itself against its larger self,
and may thus enrich the latter by the moral fruits of
mundane existence ; the struggle which takes place
between the divisions of the subject being analogous to
the process of Nature in its endeavour to expel disease,
and drive whatever is morbid in an organism to the
surface, or, to put it baldly, a species of spiritual measles.
Such a theory, it is contended, fits the progress of the in-
dividual into the progress of the race, avoiding the waste
of energy involved in the conception that the former is
sacrificed to the latter, and supplies a wondrous harmony
in which pessimism is subordinated to optimism.
The author is erudite, and he hails from the Father-
land ; it is therefore not a matter for surprise that
somewhat Shandean theories are exposed in sentences
of wondrous construction. With these Mr. Massey has
manfully wrestled ; but, in his commendable desire to
play the part of a faithful translator, he has at times
given us such specimens of Teutonic English "as she is
wrote " as render the good Baron's mysticism ten times
more mysterious. We have read and re-read a passage,
and a dozen perusals have left us still in doubt whether
the meaning which the author and translator intended to
convey were really grasped. Fidelity may be carried
too far. At other times he who runs may read, and the
author expresses his sentiments with an ingenuous frank-
ness, as when he writes that "every criticism will be
welcome which is adapted to advance the subject and
myself."
Assuming that we have mastered the Baron's theory,
an assumption we hesitate to make, we may place if
before such of our readers as prefer a crude simile to
the technicalities of metaphysics, in an illustration de-
rived from natural history. Those who have visited the
rock-pools of our coasts must have noticed the amusing
little hermit crab {Pagurus ber?thardus), who ensconces
his soft unarmoured tail in the temporary shelter of an
empty shell. He wriggles into his self-chosen habitation,
and holds on to it with the pinchers with which his tail is
provided, until he voluntarily leaves it before the ap-
proach of death. The hermit crab is the unconscious
whole whose tail is tucked into the shell of self-conscious
existence. As he emerges from it, or retires more com-
pletely, the amount of crab within the shell varies, the
threshold of sensibility is shifted, and the shell benefits
or suffers accordingly. The development of the moral
nature of the subject, and its fitness for higher re-incar-
nation, are likewise shadowed forth in the fattening of
the crab's tail, and his search for a roomy whelk-shell in
place of the restricted covering of the modest periwinkle.
Or, once again, the threshold of sensibility may be
hkened to the lid of the box from which the Jack of
memory leaps, and upon the closure of which forgetfulness
ensues.
It may be readily imagined that the author does not
ask us to accept his theories unproven, and he has col-
lected a mass of curious information from the most varied
sources. Some of his anecdotes are oases of entertain-
ment, which will, we fear, be missed by readers who do
not, as we have done, peruse the volumes from cover to
cover. As instances of our meaning, we may cite the
case of a weak-minded youth upon whom all instruction
in languages and science was thrown away, but who,
after a fall on the head, became distinctly clever, intel-
lectual, and highly cultivated, quickly seizing what he
had been taught in vain before — a demonstration of the
value of a box on the ears in the case of a stupid boy ;
the girl who, in her waking life, was reminded of her
self-imposed somnambulistic treatment by the vision of a
squirt ; the military author who entered the barracks to
take charge of the watch, in obedience to a dreamed
order which he conceived to be a reality (had the case
been one of neglect of a real order which he believed
himself to have dreamt, we fear the court-martial would
not have admitted the plea) ; or the wife who, subject to
conditions of alternating consciousness, resented the
presence of her husband, whom she treated with maid-
enly reserve. To prove the existence of a transcendental
measure of time which is totally different from the nor-
mal, we are told of a flea-bite which occasioned a dream,
concluding with a stab in the part of the body upon
which the insect operated ; of a pinch on the thigh,
which caused the sleeper to imagine himself bitten by a
wild beast ; of De Quincey's opium dreams, which ap-
peared to him to extend over vast periods of time ; and
of Mahomet, who, having knocked over a pitcher of water
when translated by the Archangel Gabriel, viewed all
things in heaven and hell, and held ninety thousand con-
ferences with the Deity, returning to his still warm couch
before the contents of the pitcher were expended. A
somnambulistic girl exclaimed, " Where am I ? I am not
at home in the head. There is a strange struggle between
the pit of the stomach and the head ; both would prevail,
both see and feel." So you see that "transcendental physio-
logical functions seem to be parallel with corresponding
changes in the ganglionic system." Authorities jostle in
kaleidoscopic confusion ; the " Novum Organum " stand-
ing cheek by jowl with the Bhagavadgita and the Vedas ;
whilst Aristotle and Proctor, Plato and Mrs. Crowe,
Habakkuk, Galen, Plotinus, L. Oliphant, Daniel, Darwin,
Kant, Olcott, and scores of others, jostle each other in
ill-assorted series, but each with his contribution to the
mosaic of marvels. On such a catena of evidence are
based the two volumes ; and, in spite of their wayward-
ness, there is a thread of argument running through
them which it would be unfair to the author to sunder
by attempting an imperfect precis of his work, had
we even the heart to impose it upon our readers. It
has been said that, sooner or later, all books come into
the hands of those for whom they were written, and there
is no special reason for an exception in this case because
May 9, 1889J
NA TURE
31
the evidence for what is really a very beautiful theory
fails to carry conviction to us. Doubtless our " threshold
of sensibility" has gone wrong in some unaccountable
way, and we have not enough of the Subject on this
side of it to estimate the pearls of transcendentalism at
their true worth. To the true adept, the work will doubt-
less prove wholly acceptable, and the author may take
comfort in the reflection that " on this globe we serve an
■end, the attainment of which cannot be hindered, though
all mankind conspired against it."
OUR BOOK SHELF.
A Treatise on Chemistry. By Sir H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S.,
and C. Schorlemmcr, F.R S. Vol. III. The Chemistry
of the Hydrocarbons and their Derivatives ; or. Organic
Chemistry. Part V. (London : Macmillan and Co.,
1889.)
The present and fifth part of the "Treatise on Organic
Chemistry " is devoted to an account of the benzenoid
compounds containing eight or more than eight atoms of
carbon, and brings the subject down to the group of the
terpenes and camphors, including india-rubber and gutta-
percha.
The various compounds are, as the title of the work
denotes, grouped about the hydrocarbons from which
they are derived. Thus we have the styrolene group,
the cumene group, the cymene group, and so on.
The present instalment of the work also describes
numerous instances of the interesting class of benzenoid
compounds containing closed lateral chains in the ortho-
position, i.e. with the two ends of the chain attached to
-carbon atoms which in their turn are directly united
with one another. Such compounds are, for example,
the indoles, the indazoles, isatin, carbostyril, and cou-
marin.
The subject of closed- chain compounds has of late
years possessed a peculiar fascination for organic
chemists, and the reason of this is not far to seek ;
for, apart from the fact that many of the closed-
chain derivatives of benzene, such as coumarin, isatin,
and indole, either occur in nature or are the imme-
diate derivatives of naturally occurring compounds,
many chemists believe that various important problems
in chemical statics may ultimately be solved by the
study of these compounds. At present chemists do
not altogether know why, for example, closed lateral
chains of carbon atoms should occur only in the ortho-
position, and never in the meta- or para position ;
why such closed lateral chains never contain less than
five or more than six carbon atoms ; and why it has
never been found possible to unite any single polyad atom
to two contiguous (ortho) carbon atoms in benzene,
whilst in paraffinoid compounds such a union may be
effected. But when these questions have been answered,
something will be known concerning the local distribu-
tion of the affinities of the ultimate atoms ; and mean-
while the ingenious hypothesis of Van 't Hoft' with regard
to the position of the affinities in the carbon atom is a
step in the right direction, and affords what is possibly
more than a merely provisional answer.
The authors have also given a very full account of
Wallach's interesting researches on the terpenes, and
here, as elsewhere, the information is thoroughly up to
date.
The instructive historical introductions prefixed to the
descriptions of important compounds and groups of com-
pounds, referred to in our notices of previous portions of
the work, are continued.
Solutions 0/ the Examples in a Treatise on Algebra. By
Charles Smith, M.A. (London : Macmillan, 1889.)
The value of such a book is great both to teachers and
students. The former, as we have often pointed out, have
scant leisure for working out the more elaborate ques-
tions which nowadays have place even in elementary
treatises, or scarcely care to refer to their notes, which are
never, unless they are exceptionally methodical men, to be
found when wanted ; the latter are, by means of such a
work as the one before us, in a great measure rendered
independent of outside aid. Though Mr. Smith's solutions
are marvels of compressed diction in many cases, they yet
are, we can certify from an extended examination of all parts
of the subject, expressed with all the clearness required.
In a few cases two solutions are given ; this is an advant-
age, for often we have found the second solution very sug-
gestive. We have, then, here an excellent corpus of
solutions of questions, which have been considered by
many competent judges to be well arranged and well
calculated to draw out a student's powers in this part of
mathematics. We have come across a few typographical
errors (there is one on the last page), but they are in most
cases easily detected on following out the solution.
Applied Mechanics. By D. A. Low. (London : Blackie
and Son, 1889.)
This is an excellent little text-book, treating of those parts
of the subject which the Science and Art Department
require for the elementary stage. There are, however,
specially marked articles which may be read by advanced
students.
The author has taken, as the ground-work of the book,
the notes which he has used for many years in his classes
with much success. Much care has been taken with
those pages relating to mechanism. The diagrams are
especially good, and the descriptive portions accom-
panying them are clear and concise. A striking and most
useful feature will be found in the unusually large number
of examples following each chapter, typical examples also
being worked out between the articles.
The last half-dozen chapters are devoted to the nature,
use, and strength of materials used for purposes of con-
struction, and the different kinds of stress to which they
may be subjected. The syllabus issued by the Depart-
ment for teachers in this subject, followed by the examina-
tion papers of recent years, is appended. The book is
one which can be recommended, and will no doubt be well
received by teachers and students alike. G. A. B.
Northern Afghanistan. By Major C. E. Yate, C.S.I.,
C.M.G. (Edinburgh and London: Blackwood, 1888.)
In this volume the author has brought together a number of
letters written from the Afghan Boundary Commission, and
he explains that they are now published in a connected
form as a sequel to his brother Captain A. C. Yate's book,
entitled " England and Russia Face to Face in Asia." A
large part of the work relates chiefly to matters of political
interest ; but there are also excellent descriptions of the
various places which Major Yate visited, and of the
people with whom he came in contact. His account of
Herat and the shrines in the neighbourhood is particularly
good ; and Balkh, of which he gives a plan, he depicts
concisely and clearly. Of the desert from Andkhui to the
Oxus he says it is about as hot and wretched a country as
he ever saw. In this desert, wherever a few inches of
mud and water were left, he used to see the white-breasted
pintail sand-grouse coming to drink in small numbers ;
but with that exception he sav\f no sign of game. Lizards
of all sizes and colours were to be seen. A lizard, some
2 or 3 feet long — " of a yellowish colour with red stripes"
— seems to have especially attracted Major Yate's atten-
32
NATURE
tion. This animal "never tries to run away, but stands
and hisses, distending its stomach to an abnormal size."
The dog hates it cordially ; and very naturally, for, when
the dog is approaching to the attack in front, " the lizard
suddenly brings his tail round and gives the unwary dog
a most tremendous wipe across the side of the head."
" The first interview between a dog and one of these
animals is very amusing — the dog is always so utterly as-
tonished at this unexpected attack On the lizard's part,
and also so hopelessly wroth." We may note that in a
pocket at the end of the volume there are two maps —
a map of the north-west frontier of Afghanistan, and a
sketch-map showing the routes traversed by the Boundary
Commission during 1884, 1885, and 1886.
By Leafy Ways.
Elliot Stock, 1 85
By
Francis A. Knight. (London :
This volume is made up of " brief studies," which
originally appeared as articles in the Daily News. The
author's object is not to present scientific conclusions
about Nature, but to convey some idea of the impressions
which have been produced upon him by various elements
of the external world. He is an ardent lover of every-
thing in Nature that appeals to what may be called the
artistic sense ; and he has the secret of suggesting, by
means of brief and simple descriptions, very vivid pictures
of scenes in which he himself has found delight. No one
who wants to be intellectually instructed should trouble
himself to read the volume ; but it will give much pleasure
to persons who like to be reminded of some of the in-
numerable aspects in which the country reveals itself to
sympathetic observers. The volume is prettily illustrated
by E. T. Compton.
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[ The Editor does not hold himself responsible jor opinions ex-
pressed by his correspondents . Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications. ]
On an Electromagnetic Interpretation of Turbulent
Liquid Motion.
The equations of rate of increase of momentum F, com-
ponents X, Y, Z, per unit volume of a liquid (density = l)
are —
X
du
du
. au , du , du , dp
dt dx dy dz dx
and corresponding terms for Y and Z. If the liquid be
incompressible,
du , dv , d'cv
-, + V- + — = O-
dx dy dz
Mulip ying this by u, and adding to X, we get —
Xdu , d , ns , d , s , d , ^ , dp
dt dx dy dz dx
and similar ones for Y and Z.
It is at once obvious that these could be written down at once,
for t<", uv, and uiv are the momenta per second carried into the
element through its faces as in the kinetic theory of gases ; and it
is evident that the equation is the same as for a strained solid
where these are the superficial normal and tangential forces.
If we now take the average values of these throughout any
small region, and write for 'the average of -7- = ,-, we
have-
X
dx
du , dii- duv , duw , dp
+ , - -t- , - + - . — -i- ^ •
dx'
dt
dx
dz
dx
{May 9, 1889
Comparing this with Maxwell's stress in the ether, we must
take (" Electricity and Magnetism," vol. i. § 105) —
dii-
7x
d
dx
(d^W
d
\fx
___ K^-dx^'^^-^'^-d.^'-'^-^,
dy dy \dx • dy) ^ dy ^^ ^ Ty • "^'
duw _ d (d'i^ d^\ , ^ Tjr> , d
if: - TzKjx • -dz) ^ dz ^^^ dz' «T''
adding these together, and comparing with the equation for X,
we get —
■v^ _ du _ dp
ft dx
- dx I \dxj \dy) \dz) ) dx( dx' dy- uz' )
IdP ^-dQ + ^\ . q/^Q _ dP\ ^^(<ll ^ dR\
\dx dy az ) ^ \dx dy ) \ dz dx )
+ P
and
J± + «'^ + dy\ _^/d0 _da\^ (da _ dy\
\dx dy az) \dx dy) \dz dx)
Iving Y and Z.
and two similar ones involving Y and Z
Now, assuming
we get —
X -
d-\\/ d-\j/ d-iii
If'-^ff-^d^^^ °'
d? dQ ^ d^
ax dy dz
da , d^ , dy
■ . + -7- -1- f = vi,
ctx dy dz
.^ Idq d?\ ^ ,. dV d\\\
^ \dx dy ) \ dz ay /
-^
+ 7
and two other similar ones.
li vis now assume as the relations connecting P, Q, R and
a, ff, y with a velocity V —
\dy dz) dt \dy dz]
dy
and the corresponding others, we get —
d?
It'
1' du _
X - = Pf + am +
dt
dt
(Q7-R3),
du
which, if we suppose the motion steady, so that "" = o gives
dt
exactly the right expression for the mechanical force due to an
electric charge, e, and a magnetic charge, m, and to an electric
dP dO dK
current with components - ,. ',,' A •
In order to justify the assumed relation between c, fi, y and
P, Q, R, compare with Sir ^Villiam Thomson's equations of
propagation of disturbance in a turbulent liquid (Fhil. Mag.,
October 1887, p. 342).
In his case everything is a function of y only, and in that case
my equations become, when there is no mechanical force —
= Q
du
dt
dV
dy
V dt
(R/3
- R '^^^ + ;8
da
dy
dy
dy
Now under the circumstances contemplated, R and 7 are not
functions of j; —
. du r\dP , ada
. . - — ^ , + P , •
dt dy dy
May 9, 1889]
NATURE
33
-Y — -r
dx dy dz
If we now assume that during the passage of a disturbance of
the kind Q = .8 = constant, and they must be if
'^^ + '^^ + '^ - o,
dx dy dz
we get —
dt dy dy dy
and consequently —
^ (R)8 - Q-y) = V '/ (PQ + a^;.
dt dy
Comparing this with Sir William Thomson's equation (34) we
see that —
/= - 5^^-'^, xzav{uv) = PQ + aj3).
Similarly, by calculating
^^(PQ + «)3) = Q'^P+ 35«
at at at
= _ QV /')' + 8V '^,'^ = + V f (R8 - Q7),
dy dy dy
we reproduce Sir William Thomson's equation (49), if V- = |R-,
i.e. be I of the average square of velocity of turbulency. This
V is the velocity of propagation of the disturbance.
If we wish to identify this laminar motion of Sir William
Thomson's with a simple wave propagation such as light consists
of, we must take Q = 3 = constant, and then the two equations
are satisfied by —
dV^
dt
and
= -X'^y and ^ =
dy dt
V
dV
dR _ Y "'«
da
dt
1 iia. -.T dR
and = V ,
dy dt dy
no matter what Q and j8 are, and these are, of course. Maxwell's
equations. There is nothing to settle which is the electric and
which the magnetic disturbance, nor even which,/ or x3az'(M^'), is
proportional to R^S - Q7, and which to PQ + o3, but the
consideration that electric currents and electrification are pos-
sible while magnetic currents do not exist, will probably decide
a question of this kind. In Maxwell's simplest wave, P and 7 only
exist, and in this case, as I have assumed above, xzav{tiv) would
correspond to electric, and / to magnetic disturbance. In Sir
William Thomson's representation, xzav[uv) is of the nature of
a twist, andy"of a flow, contrary to the usual notion that mag-
netic force is twisty. However, a flow cannot take place outwards
continuously from a body, so that there seems a reasonableness
in likening electrification to a twist. The fact that magnetism
in matter rotates the plane of polarization sometimes to one side
and sometimes to the other does not prove conclusively that it is
a rotation : a flow might confer that property on matter.
In order to include the general case of a variable state, an
interpretation of X, Y, Z, is required. Where no matter is
present, we must assume —
- X = '^^L + i '^(P2 + qi + R2 + a2 + ^2 + ^is^ szc,
dx ax
and in the steady state —
A = - i(P- + Q' + R- + a^ + )8= + -f-y
When the state is not steady, we have, if
d?
dx
- +
dz
da
+
+
dy _
du
X - «J^ = + p^ + am +
dt
dx ' dy ' dz
djQy - R18)
dt V
, &c.
We must assume that pi has no longer the above value ; but by
differentiating the first of these with respect to x, the second
with respect to>', and the third with respect to z, we get —
a^X ^ rt'Y ^ ^Z _ d/dtt ^ dz! _j_ dw\
dx dy dz dt\ dx dy dz I
= +
{'•■
+ p J + Q^ + R'J
dx dy dz
. I d^.
) + {„.'
, dm , ad»i , dm\
dx
= V2^^<P' + Q'+ R'^ + «^+S^ + 7-),
which is satisfied by « = o, »; = o ; or if ^ and m exist, by —
.de
de
t^ + ?~ + Q'^ + R
and
and
and
\c!X-
111- + a
dx
dm
dy
^ adm
dx dy
+ r
dz
dm
du
dx
dv ,
dy ^
dy' dz-
dw d^p,
dz dx-
dz
dy,
dy'
dz-
1
V3
;>-
+ Q- + R2 + a- + )3- + 7") = o.
which means that energy is propagated with a velocity = V,
and so the assumed relations connecting P, Q, R, and a, /3, 7,
mean little more than that the initial state is stable.
This, I think, shows that, so far, the ether may be a turbulent
liquid.
If we compare the dimensions of the quantities involved in
the theory of motion of a turbulent liquid with those in the
electro-magnetic theory, we find it convenient to put these latter
dimensions into the following forms, as they are the same on the
electro-magnetic and electrostatic systems.
Calling [K-^i] = [V"'], and density [p] = [ML"'], we can
write —
Electric displacement = [K^p'V]
Electric force = [K-ip^V]
Magnetic displacement = [ju^piV]
Magnetic force = [/u-ip^V].
It is at once evident that the products of the force and dis-
placement are, in each case, of the dimensions of the P'^, Q*,
R-, o^, ff-, 7-, involved in the theory I have already given.
I think it would be well, perhaps, to introduce some new
quantities of zero dimensions to define the polarization of the
medium. It seems likely that the velocity involved in P must
depend on how intensely the turbulency is polarized, and could
therefore be measured by a quantity of zero dimensions multi-
plied by a measure of the turbulency. This measure would be
p^V, so that, for electrostatic energy —
P- = VoHpY-),
and for electro-magnetic —
«o"(pV-),
where P,, and a,, were of zero dimensions.
In order to introduce the eff"ect of alterations in material, we
may put these in the form —
P
! _ pPo-'
a- =
Km
and then the electric
displacement
will be —
and the electric
force-
= A
= /"
• Po,
P«.
■ K '
while the magnetic displacement will be —
= ./" • «"'
\^ K
and the magnetic force will be —
_ / p "0
V K ' M
If we call the six quantities iP, v-, vr, vw, wu, uv, a, h, f,
/, g, li, they are connected with the six quantities P, Q, R,
o, j8, 7, and the three undisturbed values of iP = A, z>- = B,
w- = C, by the equations —
rt = A -f P2 -t- aS &c., /= QR H- /37, &c.
In order to examine how these are related, take an ellipsoid
defined by —
ax- + by- -I- cz- ■\- 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy = d.
34
NATURE
{May 9, 1889
and we see that, if A = B = C = R, as is the case except in a
crystalline medium, the ellipsoid is —
R(x2 + j2 + ^1) + (^^x + Qjf' + R-)' + («-^ + ^y + 7-)" = d ;
so that, if Vx + Qj + Rz = L, ox + )8j/ + 72 = X.
L + ?\ and L - /\ are the imaginary circular reactions of the
ellipsoid,^ and consequently theintersection of Land A, whosedirec-
tion cosine-; are proportional to Q7 - RyQ, &c., is the major axis of
the ellipsoid, when the above signs are attributed to L- and A.'^. As
any ellipsoid can be expressed in this form by referring it to its
circumscribing sphere and the corresponding planes of circular
section, it is apparent that any polarized state of the turbulent
motion can be built up of P,Q,R, and a, 0, y, polarizations. The
axis of the ellipsoid mentioned above represents the flow of
energy in the medium during the propagation of a disturbance.
I am inclined to think that Sir William Thomson's fear that
diffusion would vitiate these investigations would be avoided
either by supposing the turbulent liquid to consist of interlocked
vortex rings, or of infinite intercrossing lines ; and in either
case a natural hypothesis would be that matter consisted of free
vortex rings. Geo. Fras. Fitzgerald.
Trinity College, Dublin, April 26.
The New Eruption of Vesuvius.
On April 29, 30, and May i, a constant series of explosions
{boati) and rumblings ace )mpanied by earthquakes, which shook
the southern foot of Vesuvius, were very noticeable at Resina.
About 2 a.m., on May 2, part of the new cone of eruption
(formed during the last ten months) fell in, showing that the
internal support of the lava column had been removed, in con-
sequence of this filling the new dyke, the formation of which
had given origin to the preceding sonorous and mechanical dis-
turbances. On the same day at 3 p.m. the lava sank still lower
in the conduit on account of the dyke reaching the surface at the
upper part of the great cone. More of the eruptive cone crunbled
in, and of course simultaneously a considerable outpour of lava
took place from the dyke fissure which is situated on the south-
east side of the great cone. This outflow soon formed a long
tongue of lava reaching to the Pedimentina or lower.
My friend Mr. George Bidder, Jan., who is studying at the
Zoological Station here, was fortunately able to visit the moun-
tain yesterday (May 3), and much of the information in this
letter I have to thank him for. Unfortunately the extremely
bad weather has prevented the upper part of the mountain being
examined, so that accurate information as to the position and
length of the fissure has not been obtainable ; I hope, however, to
make the ascent to-morrow, and will then send a more detailed
account for your next issue. So far as the facts at hand are
available, it would appear that this eruption is of small im-
portance, being an analogue of that of May 2, 1885, and that,
therefore, the lava will hardly reach cultivated ground.
A short glimpse of the summit of the mountain this evening
shows that much of the eruptive cone still exists, whilst the re-
flection from the flowing lava is much feebler than yesterday
evening. Lastly, a single faint glimmer this evening at the vent
demonstrates the fact that the lava has not sunk very deep in the
chimney. The eruption, or more properly disruption, was
coincident with a marked barometric depression.
Naples, May 4. H. J. Johnston-Lavis.
The Sailing Flight of the Albatross.
I have been much interested by the letter of Mr. A. C. Baines
(Nature, May 2, p. 9) upon this subject. In the year 1883
("The Soaring of Birds," Nature, vol. xxvii. p. 534) I sug-
gested that the explanation of these puzzling performances might
be found in the increase of wind with height. To take advant-
age of this, the bird must rise against the wind and fall with it ;
but, at the time referred to, I had before me only the observa-
tions of Mr. Peal, in Assam, on the flight of pelicans, in which
this feature is not alluded to. In Mr. Baines's observations,
the omission is supplied, and there seems little reason to doubt
that the true explanation of the flight of the albatross has been
arrived at. In the case of the pelican soaring to a great eleva-
' This was remarked to me by Prof. Lyie, of Melbourne, while I was
recently speaking to him upon this subject.
tion, it is less easy to understand how the differences of horizontal
velocity can be sufficient.
Reference may be made to a paper by Mr. H. Airy (Nature,
vol. xxvii. p. 590), in which the matter is further discussed.
Similar views have also been put forward more recently by an
American author, whose name I have, unfortunately, forgotten.
Terling Place, Witham, May 6. Rayleigh.
"Giphantia."
In a curious little work, entitled " Giphantia," the full title
of which I subjoin, there is, at pp. 95-98, a passage that may
have some interest in connection with the early history of photo-
graphy, and of which I therefore subjoin a copy.
The Camp, Sunningdale, April 29. J. D. Hooker.
"Giphantia: or, a View of what has passed, what is now
passing, and, during the Present Century, what will pass, in
the World." Translated from the Original French, with Ex-
planatory Notes. (London : Printed for Robert Ilorsfield, in
Ludgate Street, 1761.)
" Thou knowest that the rays of light, reflected from different
bodies, make a picture and paint the bodies upon all polished
surfaces, on the retina of the eye, for instance, on water, on
glass. The elementary spirits have studied to fix these transient
images : they have composed a most subtile matter, very viscous,
and proper to harden and dry, by the help of which a picture is
made in the twinkle of an eye. They do over with this matter
a piece of canvas, and hold it before the objects they have
a mind to paint. The first effect of the canvas is that of a
mirrour ; there are seen upon it all the bodies far and near,
whose image the Vv^h.\. can transmit. But what the glass cannot
do, the canvas, by means of the viscous matter, retains the
images. The mirrour shows the objects exactly ; but keeps
none ; our canvases show them with the same exactness, and
retains them all. This impression of the images is made the
first instant they are received on the canvas, which is imme-
diately carried away into some dark place ; an hour after, the
subtile matter dries, and you have a picture so much the more
valuable, as it cannot be imitated by art nor damaged by time.
We take, in their purest source, in the luminous bodies, the
colours which painters extract from different materials, and
which time never fails to alter. The justness of the design, the
truth of the expression, the gradation of the shades, the stronger
or weaker strokes, the rules of perspective, all these we leave
to nature, who, with a sure and never-erring hand, draws upon
our canvases images which deceive the eye and make reison to
doubt, whether, what are called real objects, are not phantoms
which impose upon the sight, the hearing, the feeling, and all
the senses at once.
"The Prefect then entered into some physical discussions,
first, on the nature of the glutinous substance which intercepted
and retained the rays ; secondly, upon the difficulties of preparing
and using it ; thirdly, upon the struggle between the rays of
light and the dried substance, three problem^ which I propose
to the naturalists of our days, and leave to their sagacity."
Geological Photography.
In the report of the Annual Conference of Delegates of
Corresponding Societies of the British Association {vide Nature,
vol. xxxix. p. 187), reference is made to the proposed ap-
pointment of a Committee to collect and register photographs
of localities, sections, or other features of geological interest in
the United Kingdom. Several Societies have already attempted
local photographic surveys, but the need is felt to secure
uniformity of action by all the Societies interested, and to arrange
for the photographs to be available for teaching and other
purposes when needed. In order that steps may be taken to
arrange for the practical working of the proposed scheme at the
forthcoming meeting of the British Association at Newcastle, I
am desirous of invoking the kind aid of those of your readers
who have interested themselves in the photography of local
geological features (especially of typical and temporary sections)
in favouring me with the following information : —
(i) A list of photographs already taken, illustrating given
localities or sections j and
May 9, 1889]
NATURE
35
(2) The names of local Societies, or persons who are willing
to arrange for a photographic survey for geological purposes in
their district.
The information afforded me will be placed before the Geo-
laical Section of the British Association at their next meeting,
and I trust to receive many offers of valuable assistance from
different parts of the country. If copies of photographs are
sent me they will be carefully kept for exhibition at the meet-
ing. Several geological friends have favoured me with sugges-
tions in regard to size of photograph, scales of height, length,
and other details, which will ail be carefully considered. Photo-
graphy is now so popular and easy of accomplishment that
there should be no difficulty in organizing local photographic
surveys for the purpose I have indicated.
It was arranged at Bath that the delegates should get their
Societies to thinli the matter over, and that I should meanwhile
endeavour to prepare a list of local geological photographs
already available for study, 1 am communicating with the
Societies with this object, but your insertion of this letter will
further aid me in directing attention to the subject over a wider
circle than I am able to reach. Osmund W. Jeffs.
12 Queen's Road, Reck Ferry, Cheshire, April 23.
Columnar Structure in Ice.
I HAVE just read Mr. James McConnel's interesting and im-
portant paper on the plasticity of ice (Nature, vol. xxxix.
p. 203), and as he remarks that it would be interesting to know
whether the columnar structure he describes as occurring in the
ice of the St. Moritz Lake has been observed in England, I
venture to ask you to record the fact that I recollect seeing a
precisely similar structure in the ice of the lake in Kew Gardens
in February 1880. The phenomenon occurred during a thaw
that preceded by a day or two the memorable snowstorm of that
month, and the aspect of the ice, where it had been broken
through, recalled to my mind that uf the well-known fossil
Lithostrotion basaltifor me, as it was budt up of vertical columns,
irregularly hexagonal in section, about a quarter of an inch in
diameter and of equal length with the thickness of the ice,
about 4 or 5 inches. If I remember aright, bright sunshine had
been thawing the ice during the day. I made a note on the
occurrence at the time, but as I came to India shortly after I do
not know what has become of it.
T. D. La Touche,
Geological Survey of India.
Camp near Cherrapunji, Assam, March 4.
Brilliant Meteor.
I SEND you an account of a meteor I saw on Saturday evening
last, thinking it may interest others as much as it has myself I
was lamp-signalling at the time (8. 55 p. m. ), and saw far the largest
meteor I have ever seen. It was far brighter than any planet, or
even than a good rocket. It seemed to start from the Great
Bear, and fall in a north-ea'-t direction half-way to the horizon.
I immediately stopped my message, and asked my companion
(a mile distant) if he had seen the meteor. He replied he had
not, which surprised me, though he had the town lights not far
behind him, and he was looking away from the north-east. I had
not finished asking him about the meteor, when I heard a loud
but distant report, which I can only put down to the same
source. It sounded like distant artillery, or more particularly
like a six-pounder at six miles distance on a still evening. The
interval of time between the sight and the sound I should
estimate at a minute. T. Herbert Clark,
Wingfield, Trowbridge, April 30.
A New Mountain of the Bell.
Have the kindness to correct two typographical errors in my
communication describing the "New Mountain of the Bell,"
printed in your issue of April 25. On p. 607, col. 2, line 7,
an unfortunate superfluous comma after the word quartz should
be expunged, so as to read quartz pebbles and veins.
Near the bottom of the same column "modern gong" should
read "v/ooden gong." As a matter of fact the Nagous is far
from "modern." It consists of a heavy plank nearly 2 inches
thick, 14 feet long, and sujpended by ropes at two points 4 feet
from either end. When struck with a wooden mallet, this
primitive gong emits a loud sound. At the Monastery of St.
Catherine, three of these are in use, one small one to call ta
their noonday meal the numerous cats which inhabit the
rambling old building. H, Carrington Bolton.
London, May i.
KLEIN'S ''IKOSAHEDRONr^
IT has recently been said, with great truth, that pure
mathematics is at the present moment the most
progressive of all the sciences. It is, we must confess
with sorrow, equally true, that the means at the disposal
of English pure mathematical students for making them-
selves familiar with the recent advances in their science
are deplorably scanty. This is not the place to discuss
the reasons why it has so long been the case in this
island that the stars of our mathematical firmament have
been
' ' Etoilcs qui filent, filent et disparaient ! "
and not fixed suns, with minor but still useful bodies
around them, receiving their light and completing their
systems. But it is obvious that this shortcoming has been
closely associated with the backward state of our text-
book literature in pure mathematics. There exist in the
English language so few books through whose pages the
reader can so much as descry the frontier land of pure
mathematics that every addition is an event of import-
ance. Such an addition is Mr. Morrice's translation of
Klein's " Ikosahedron." Klein's book is in many respects
the most charming piece of modern mathematical writing
that has appeared for many a day. It is a rare combi-
nation of great originality with wide and far-reaching
views, Teutonic minuteness of scholarship, and a candour
in dealing with the work of others which does not always
accompany the other high qualities just mentioned. If
we were asked to name a single book that would beyond
others give the reader a comprehensive glance over the
wide field of modern pure mathematics, and give him
an introduction to this study which would at once both
interest and instruct him, we should without hesitation
name Klein's " Ikosahedron." The work interweaves, in a
singularly felicitous and natural way, the most remote
and apparently unconnected branches of higher pure
mathematics. In the course of its perusal the reader
will make acquaintance with the geometry of the re-
gular solids, the theory of substitutions, the theory of
functions of a complex variable, invariants, the theory of
linear differential equations, Riemann's researches on the
hypergeometric series, Galois's theory of the resolution
of algebraic equations, elliptic functions, Pliicker's line
geometry, and the special theory of quintic equations.
This enumeration will sufficiently indicate the wide
sweep of the work ; but let not the reader be alarmed.
If he is ignorant of all these subjects, so much the more
will he enjoy the p]ea5ure of Prof. Klein's introduction
to them. He will find that he is led, by easy and
pleasant ways, first to see the interest and importance of
these subjects, then to panoramic aspects of them, and
finally to just so much detail as will make him (if he be
right-minded) thirst for more. Speaking from past
experience, we should say that one of the greatest dis-
advantages of modern specialism is the repulsive force
which it establishes at every point to the entrant. Let
an English student sit down, for example, to Jordan's
" Thdorie des Substitutions." He is at once plunged into a
sea of new terms and definitions. He is baffled by a
kaleidoscopic array of subtle distinctions between con-
' " Lectures on the Ikosahedron, and the Solution of Equations of the
Fifth Degree." By Felix Klein. Translated by George Gavin Morrice, M. A.,
M.B. (London ; Trubner and Co., 1888.)
36
NA TURE
[May 9, 1889
ceptions that are unfamiliar to him. He toils through
the solution of abstract problems whose formulation he
imperfectly grasps, and whose interest and importance
he has not been permitted to see beforehand. The very
beauty and logical rigour of the work is a hindrance to
him ; it entangles and suffocates him at the outset. And
yet M. Jordan's work could not be otherwise, could not
be better for its purpose, could not be dispensed with.
But let the learner first read Klein's " Ikosahedron." He
will there see the substitution theory first applied in
simple cases with concrete illustration, and will then be
led by degrees to see its all-embracing character. Then
let him return to Jordan, and he will say of the theory of
substitution,
"Her loveliness I never knew,
Until she smiled on me."
Under ordinary circumstances, any detailed analysis of
a mathematical work would be out of place in the pages
of Nature. The appearance of the "Ikosahedron"
in English is, however, an event of such importance that
it would be wrong to miss the opportunity of giving the
English mathematical world some account, however
imperfect, of its contents.
The proper subject of the work may be said to be the
general theory and applications of functions which are
transformable into themselves {i.e. are unaltered) by a
finite group of substitutions. By a group of substitutions,
or indeed of any operations whatsoever, is meant a
complete set of operations of such a nature that the com-
bination of any two or more of them is equivalent to
some one of the set. The number of operations in a
group is called its order, and the order may in general
be finite or infinite. A leading feature of Klein's work,
indicated by its title, is the geometrical connection which
he establishes between certain groupsof substitutions, and
the rotations which cause a regular solid to return into
itself. It is obvious beforehand that the totality of such
rotations for any given regular solid forms a group of
finite order, for any two successive rotations of the kind
may be replaced by a single one. The accompanying
figure will make the connection plain. It represents the
stereographic projection of the traces on a circumscribed
sphere made by the planes of symmetry of a regular
tetrahedron, A B c D, the vertex of projection being the
antipodal point to A, and the plane of projection the
diametral plane of which A is the pole. The spherical
surface is obviously divided by the planes of symmetry
into twelve (non-shaded) congruent triangles, and twelve
other (shaded) congruent triangles, each of which is the
image of one of the former in a plane of symmetry.
These triangles lie in sets of v., = 2 about points such as
F, which correspond to mid-edges of the tetrahedron, in
sets of 1^2 = 3 about points such as E, which correspond
to centroids of the faces, and in sets of 1^3 = 3 about the
points which correspond to vertices of the tetrahedron.
It is farther obvious that any one of the unshaded
triangles can be transformed into each of the other twelve
unshaded triangles by one of the group of N = 12 rotations
which cause the tetrahedron to return into itself If we
mark one of these by inscribing i, and if S denote a rota-
tion of period 2 {i.e. of angular magnitude 27r/2) about G,
T a rotation of period 2 about F, and U a rotation of period
3 about A, then the rotations by which the region i is trans-
formed into the other twelve are —
I, U, U-, S, SU, SU2, T, TU, T\3-, ST, STU, STU^;
and these give the twelve rotations of the tetrahedral
group expressed succinctly in terms of three of them.
The same holds for the shaded triangles. Hence, if we
pair each non-shaded triangle with a shaded one, and
thus form a fiiiidanienial domain, then we see that any
point within such a domain (boundary and summit points
excepted) is transformed by the N tetrahedral rotations
into N other points, one of which lies in each of the
N domains. (Here we count the transformation of the point
into itself, viz. the rotation represented by the identical
symbol i.) We pass over the questions that arise regard-
ing the composition of a group and the conception of the
extended group which embraces reflections in the planes
of symmetry as well as rotations, and merely mention
that a similar theory is established for the dihedron, i.e.,
the figure composed of a great circle of the sphere
divided into n equal parts, the octahedron, and the
ikosahedron, the characteristic numbers being given by
the following table:-
VI
V',
V2
N
Dihedron
. 2 .
. 2 ..
n .
. in
Tetrahedron
. 2
• 3 ■•
■ 3
12
Octahedron ..
2
■ 3 •■
• 4
■ 24
Ikosahedron .
. 2 .
• 3 •
• 5 •
. 60
The next step is to connect each point on the sphere
with the value of a complex variable ", or with the ratio
of two complex variables z =. z-^lz.2. This is done, after
the manner of Riemann, by representing z = x -\-yi in an
Argand-diagram on the diametral plane of the sphere,
and then projecting the point {x, y) stereographically
upon the sphere. The point on the sphere is then spoken
of as the point (z) or {z^, z^.
It is next shown that every dihedral, tetrahedral, octa-
hedral, or ikosahedral rotation is equivalent to a non-
homogeneous linear substitution of the form —
2'= (As + B)/(C= + D),
or to one or other of two pairs of homogeneous substitu-
tions of the form —
As, + Be
Csi -f Ds., ;
and the proper values of A, B, C, D are calculated for
each case.
If we consider the values of z corresponding to a point,
and the N — i other points into which it is transformed
by the N polyhedral rotations, we see that they are the
roots of an algebraical equation of the Nth degree, say
Z =/(z) — c, the characteristic Z of which must have the
property of remaining unaltered by every one of the N
May 9, 1889
NATURE
Z7
non-homogeneous substitutions. And there must likewise
exist homogeneous integral functions of F(ji, z.^ of the Nth
degree in the two variables z^, z.^, containing one arbitrary
parameter, which remain unaltered, to a factor pres, for
each of the group of 2N homogeneous polyhedral substitu-
tions. The functions of the latter kind (" ground forms ")
are first determined. First, a special function Fj (of
degree N/vj is determined, such that Fj = o gives one
of the vi summits on the sphere, and the N/i*! — i
other points into which it is transformed by the poly-
hedral rotation?. Then F/i is a particular function
having the property sought for. By an elegant applica-
tion of the theory of invariants, two other functions,
F2 and F3, corresponding respectively to the v^ and v^
summits, are derived from Fj. We then have for the
general invariant function required —
AjFi"! + A0F./2 ^^■^■^■i,
which contains only one arbitrary parameter, since there
is in each case an identity of the form —
XlC'Ei"! + Aj'^'F/i + A3<^)F3''3 = o,
connecting Fi, Fg, F3. In the particular case of the
ikosahedron we have —
and Fi^ + Y^ - \12%Y^=:0.
The non-homogeneous function Z is next discussed. It
is shown that any form of Z, whatever, is a linear rational
function, (aZ' +/3)/(7Z' -f 8) say, of any particular form
Z^ ; so that it is sufficient to determine a special form Z
subject to the conditions that Z assumes the values 1,0, cc,
for the v,, Vo, 1/3 summits respectively. It is found that
Z = cY»^-ii¥.^z, and thus the synthesis of the polyhedral
functions is completed.
In Chapters III. and IV. of his first part, Klein dis-
cusses the inversion of the polyhedral functions. If, in the
polyhedral equation cY^y-iiY^'A ■= Z, we suppose Z given
and z required, z appears as an N-valued function of Z,
whose properties it becomes our business to discuss.
Parallel to this problem we have a " form-problem." There
are for each of the five polyhedra a set of three forms
which are absolutely invariant for the 2N homogeneous
polyhedral substitutions ; thus, for the ikosahedron, these
are the special forms Fj, Fo, F3, themselves. We may
then suppose the values of these absolutely invariant
forms given, subject to the identical relation which in all
cases connects them ; and require the values of Zj and Zj.
There are in each case 2N solutions of this " form-prob-
lem," and it is shown that these can all be obtained from
the N solutions of the corresponding polyhedral equation
by adjoining an accessory square root. It is, of course,
obvious that the N solutions of the polyhedral equation
and the 2N solutions of the corresponding form-problem
can all be derived from any one of them by the N non-
homogeneous and the 2N homogeneous polyhedral
substitutions respectively.
A brief graphical discussion is given of the functions Z,
Zj, Z2 ; and it is shown that Z satisfies the differential
equation —
Z' 2V Z'/ 2V(Z - I)-' 2v^''£'
Z-i
llv{- + I/Vg- - \lv{- - I
2(Z - i)Z • • • ^^^
the left-hand side of which is the differential invariant
which Cayley has called the Schwarzian derivative of z
with respect to Z (see Forsyth's " Differential Equations,"
§ 61 and chapter vi.) ; and that Zi and Z2 each satisfy the
linear differential equation—
^ Z 4(Z - i)-L- \
+ Z
^
+ I
)-S}=°-
Through the latter equations z-^ and z.-, are identified as
particular cases of the Riemannian P-function, and thus
connected with the theory of the hypergeometric series.
Here Klein's work comes in contact with the well-known
researches of Schwarz— " Ueber diejenigen Falle, in
welchen die Gaussische Hypergeometrische Reihe eine
Algebraische Function ihres vierten Eiementes darstellt "
{Crelle, Bd. 75).
The inversion of the polyhedral functions is next con-
sidered from the standpoint of Galois's theory of the
resolution of an algebraical equation. An attractive out-
line of this theory is given, so far as it concerns the
problem on hand. The starting-point may be said to be
the famous theorem of Lagrange, which, in a generalized
form, runs as follows: If R, Ri, Rj be rational
functions of the variables .r„ jtj, . . . . .v«, and if R remain
unchanged by all the substitutions of the x's which leave
Rj, Rj simultaneously unaltered, then R can be ex-
pressed as a rational function of Rj, Rj, . . . . and of the
elementary symmetric functions of the -t^s. In particular,
if we characterize all the functions which admit {i.e. are
unaltered by) a given group of substitutions, G, as belong-
ing to the family G, we see that all the functions of any
family are rationally expressible in terms of one another.
Suppose now that we have any algebraical equations,
f{x) = o, whose roots are x^, x^, .... x„, and we " adjoin "
thereto a group of asymmetric functions, Kj, Kg, . . . .,
of its roots, whose values along with the coefficients
of f{x) are supposed to be " known," then there exists
a group of substitutions, G, that, viz., for which Kj,
Ko, . . . . are unaltered, such that all functions of the
family G and no others are rationally expressible in terms of
the " known quantities." If R be a function of a-„ x^, ....
Xn. not belonging to the family, but say to the family g
where g is a sub-group in G of the order v = N/«^, then
we can form an equation tor R, viz.,
(R - Ri)(R - Ro) . . . . (R - R,.i) = o,
whose coefficients are rational functions of the known
quantities. Such an equation is called a resolvent of
f{x) = o. All the resolvents constructed by means of
functions R which belong to the same family gx are
identical in the sense that they are rationally transform-
able into each other, and with these are also identical all
resolvents arising from functions belonging to the families
g», .0-3, . . . ., where ^2, ^3, are the sub-groups " associa-
ted with ^1 " in the main group G of the original equation.
There are therefore as many different kinds of resolvents,
as there are different sets of associated sub-groups in G.
The group r of every resolvent is isomorphous with the
original group G ; that is to say, we can order the two
groups so that to every substitution S in G corresponds one
S' in r, and to every combination of substitutions STU
in G corresponds SiT^U^ in r. If this corre-
spondence be holohedric (one S for every S^), then the
resolvent and the original equation are equivalent in the
sense that every root of the one is rationally expressible
in terms of the roots of the other and of the known quan-
tities ; each is in fact a resolvent of the other. Pre-eminent
among this species of resolvents stands the Galois
resolvent, whose R is a perfectly asymmetric function as
regards the substitutions G. The degree of this resolvent
is the highest possible, viz. N. Since the sub-group ^1
belonging to any root Ri of this equation reduces to the
identical substitution, it follows that we can express each
38
NATURE
{May 9, 1889
of the x's in terms of Rj. In fact, all the roots of the
Galois resolvent are rational functions of any one of them ;
and it has the remarkable property of being transformable
into itself by a group of N rational transformations, which
stands in holohedric isomorphism with the group r. It
is also established that an irreducible equation of the Nth
degree which is transformable into itself by a group of N
rational transformations is its own Galois resolvent ; and
its group is holohedrically isomorphous with the group of
the N transformations. We are now enabled to perceive
a very important property of the polyhedral equations,
viz. each of them is its own Galois resolvent ; the N
rational transformations in question being simply the N
linear polyhedral transformations. Every polyhedral
equation therefore stands in a fundamentally simple rela-
tion to any equation of which it can be shown to be a
resolvent.
If we consider the case where the isomorphism of the
groups G and r is not holohedric— that is, where to each
of the S^'s corresponds a group of the S's, we see that this
necessitates the existence of a self- conjugate (jZi^z'-asso-
ciate) group y in G to which belong the whole of the R's.
If to the other known quantities we now adjoin the R's, the
solution of the original equation fi^x) = o will be simpli-
fied, because its group is now y, which is smaller than G.
Moreover, the R's themselves are calculable in terms of
the known quantities by means of an equation whose
group r is also smaller than G. In this case, therefore,
an essential simplification in the formal solution of the
equation /(a-) =o can be effected. If the group y be
either intransitive or composite, a further simplification
would ensue, in the one case by the "reduction" of
/{x) = o, in the other by the construction of another
resolvent having a smaller group than y.
The application of the latter part of the general theory
in combination with the data regarding the groups of
the polyhedral substitutions obtained in the earlier
chapters, leads at once to important conclusions re-
garding the polyhedral equations. It is found that the
octahedral equation can be solved by extracting in
succession a square root, a cube root, and finally two
square roots ; the tetrahedral equation by the same
series of operations, if we omit the first, and the di-
hedral equation by extracting a square root and then an
nth root. All these equations are therefore soluble by
means of the ordinary elementary algebraical irration-
alities.
The ikosahedral equation stands by itself because the
ikosahedral substitutions form a " simple " group ; its
lowest resolvents correspond to the five associate tetra-
hedral and the six associate dihedral sub-groups of the
ikosahedral main group, and are of the fifth and sixth de-
grees respectively. This is, from one point of view, the
main part of the theory, for it leads us to see that the
solution of the ikosahedral equation involves an irra-
tionahty which exists independently of the ordinary
algebraical irrationalities.
Since Abel demonstrated the impossibility of solving
general equations whose degree exceeds the fourth by
means of elementary algebraical irrationalities, two,
or perhaps we should say three, great classes of
problems in the higher theory of equations have arisen :
(i) to characterize and classify all those exceptional
cases of equations of a degree exceeding the fourth which
can be solved by elementary irrational operations ;
(2) to circumscribe the domain of the higher algebraic
irrationalities — that is, to characterize and, exhaustively
classify all the essentially distinct irrational operations
which are required for the solution of any algebraical
equation of finite order,— this is not to be confounded
with the interesting and practically important, but
perfectly distinct, question regarding the solution of such
equations by means of transcendental irrationalities, such
as circular and elliptic functions ; (3) in connection with
each distinct higher irrationality, there arises, of course,
the question as to the characteristics of the various
equations which can be solved by means of this
irrationality and others of a lower order.
Much has been done in the working out of the first
problem by Abel, Kronecker, and others ; but compara-
tively little progress has been made with the second
class of problems. In Klein's work we have an
important contribution to this new branch of the theory
of equations ; and a sketch of a general method which
seems to promise farther advance in the immediate future.
The latter part of the book under review is almost en-
tirely occupied with this subject. He there shows by two
different methods that the solution of the general quintic
equation can be effected by means of the ikosahedral
irrationality combined with an accessory square root. A
brief sketch of his first method will enable the reader to
understand the general march of the investigation. If to
the rational coefficients of the quintic equation we adjoin
the square root of its discriminant, its Galois group be-
comes the 60 even permutations of its roots. Now this
is isomorphous with the group of the ikosahedral equa-
tion, and therefore (since that group is simple) with the
group of any of its resolvents. But it is shown that one
of the ikosahedral resolvents (" the principal resolvent '') is
an equation of the fifth degree of the form' j/^ + SQ/'' -f
5R/-f- S, where O, R, S are rational functions of three
arbitrary parameters ot, «, Z. The question then naturally
arises. Can we rationally connect the roots of this re-
solvent with the roots of the general quintic by properly
determining the parameters ;«, «, Z ? By means of a
Tchirnhausian transformation, we can reduce the general
quintic to a " principal equation " of the formy -f ^oyj -\-
Sl^y + 7=0; and it is shown that the necessary operations
become rational after the adjunction of the square root
of the discriminant of the quintic. We have thus two
equations, each involving three arbitrary parameters ; an.d
it is shown that the determination of ;//, n, Z in terms of
a, /3, y so as to satisfy the equations 0=?a, R = ^, 8=7
involve no farther irrational operations. The calculations
in both methods are full of beautiful details, partly
geometrical and partly analytical in character.
In the last chapter of the first part a general survey of
the theory of the polyhedral functions is given, wherein
their relation to a variety of other functions is pointed
out. In particular it is shown that the polyhedral
functions virtually embrace all functions that "admit" a
fijtite group of linear transformations. The proof of this
depends essentially on the fact that the diophantine equa-
tion, 2(1- i/i-z) = 2 — 2/N, where the vi's and N are
all finite and positive, has only four solutions, viz. the
values of i/j, v^, "3, N (given in the above table), which
characterize the polyhedral functions. In these four cases
i/"! + ^l^-i -f l/i's > I. If in the differential equation
(A) we give to Vj, i/j, v^ other integral values for which
i/i'i + i/j/g -f- i/i's = or < I, we get the Schvvarzian func-
tions, which are transcendents admitting infinite groups
of linear substitutions. Among these, as a limiting case
corresponding to v^ =2, ^2 = 3, I's = 00 , are found the
elliptic modular functions. This fact naturally leads to
the attempt to solve the polyhedral equations by means of
transcendentally irrational functions ; and it is shown
that, just as the binomial equation, Z'^ = A, can be
solved by means of logarithms, and the dihedral equa-
tion, z"-Yz--^= - 4Z, -f 2, by means of circular
functions, so the tetrahedral, octahedral, and ikosahedral
equations can be solved by means of elliptic modular
functions.
The above imperfect sketch of Klein's " Ikosahedron '"
will, we trust, be held sufficient to justify us in saying that
Mr. Morris's hope that his translation " may contribute
towards supplying the pressing need of text-books upon
May 9, 1889]
NATURE
39
the higher branches of mathematic " is not a vain hope.
He could not, in our opinion, have made a better
beginning. If our critical responsibility compels us to
point out some defects in the execution of the work, we
trust that this will be understood as indicating our desire
to see the book made perfect ; and not construed into
depreciation of a valuable service to the cause of pure
mathematics.
We strongly advise the author to have the translation
read by some one who is familiar with both English and
German idioms, and who possesses also some familiarity
with the departments of mathematics concerned. In
proof of the necessity for such a revision, we draw the
author's attention to the following points, which are
merely a few of tho?e that have attracted our attention.
When Klein says (Pt. I. chap, iii., § 7), " Die Lineare
Differentialgleichung zweiter Ordnung, verlangt also,
. . ,, zu ihrer Losung nur noch eine einzige Quadratur ; "
he does 7iot mean, "The linear differential equation of
the second order, therefore, requires, . . . , only a single
square root besides in order to solve it." Quadratur
means simply quadrature {i.e., direct integration), it
never means square root. Here a knowledge of the
properties of the Schwarzian derivative might have helped
the translator to divine the meaning of the German
technical term. On p. 96, " But for this the determina-
tion of the R's themselves is more easy to carry out," is
not a good, but in fact a misleading translation of the
German " Dafiir aber ist die Bestimmung . . ." Dafiir
here means " in compensation for this." At the foot of
the same page occurs a very common confusion between
wenn eben and wenn gleich, which has the effect of
■exactly reversing the meaning of the note. " Hierdurch
kann/(jr)= o (wenn eben y, in den x geschrieben, nicht
transitive ist) moglicherweise reducibel geworden sein,"
means, " Hereby /(.v) = o may possibly have become
reducible (namely if (or precisely if) y, when expressed in
terms of the jr's, is intransitive) " for, of course, an
equation is reducible if, and not unless, its group be
intransitive. A still more important error occurs on the
following page, where, in the definition of the Galois
resolvent, " ihre einzelne Wurzel bei jeder in G enthal-
tenen Vertauschung der x umgeiindert wird" is trans-
lated " its individual roots are unaltered, &c." First of
all, this makes nonsense of the definition, as definite
knowledge of the subject would have shown ; and farther,
supposing the translator to have read un- by mistake for
um-, a knowledge of German idiom would have shown
him that " ungeandert wird" makes nonsense of the
German. The error is deliberately repeated on the fol-
lowing page, where " in umgeanderter Reihenfolge " is
translated in " unaltered sequence," instead of " in
altered sequence." These are vital errors, which should
at once be corrected by means of an " errata-slip " ; for
they would be a serious rock of offence for a tyro in
reading the passages where they occur. There are many
other cases, however, where loose translation somewhat
obscures the crisp and lucid exposition of Klein, which is
a pity, for this quality is not all too common among
Klein's countrymen. There are a considerable number
of misprints, many of them copied from the original.
An amusing instance of this occurs in the first footnote
on p. 73, where the title of Schwarz's well-known
memoir begins " Ueber dienigen Falle, &c." ; this is in
the original, but the transcriber should have known that
dienigen is impossible German. Nevertheless, we declare,
with all the sanction of our critical stool of infallibility,
that Mr. Morris's translation is a notable piece of good
work ; and he did well to publish it without waiting to
perfect his knowledge of German idiom or of Galois's
theory. The blemishes alluded to can be easily amended
when another edition is called for, which will be speedily,
if our good wishes avail.
G. Ch.
THE NORTHFLEET SERIES ELECTRIC
TRAMWAY.
C\^ Monday, April 29, there was opened for regular
^^ passenger traffic an electric tramway at North-
fleet, near Gravesend, which marks an era in the
history of electric traction. This line has been run
experimentally for the last month, but the seven years
Board of Trade certificate having been received, this
line now enters on the commercial stage of its exist-
ence. Four tramways on which electricity is the motive
power have been in regular use for the last few years in
Great Britain : it is not, therefore, because the North-
fleet line is the first electric tramway in this country
that it has attracted considerable attention ; nor is it
because it is the longest electric tramway, for two of the
other four are of much greater length ; but it is because
this Northfleet line has been constructed on a totally
different principle from that hitherto adopted on this side
of the Atlantic that it is worthy of special consideration.
When a number of electric lamps or motors have to be
supplied with power from a common centre, there are
two well-known methods by which this can be done.
They can either be joined " in parallel," as it is technic-
ally called, or they can be coupled up " in series." In
the parallel system, the one generally adopted with
electric lighting, and hitherto the only method that has
been employed with the electric tramways in Europe, the
electric current that passes through any lamp or motor
does not pass through any other, and the dynamo pro-
duces a large current equal to the sum of all the currents
passing through all the lamps or motors. In proceeding,
therefore, from the dynamo end of the circuit to the
distant end, there is a steady falling off in the current, but
the electric pressure remains, or may remain, nearly
constant. In the series system, on the other hand, the
whole current produced by the dynamo passes through
all the lamps or motors in succession, and therefore this
current can be small. The initial electric pressure, on
the other hand, must be large, since the energy imparted
by the current to each lamp or motor is represented by a
drop in the electric pressure. Since the energy furnished
by the dynamo depends on the product of the current
into the electric pressure it produces, while the waste of
power in heating the conductor depends on the square of
the current flowing through the conductor, it is clear that
while any amount of energy can be supplied by either
system, the use of high pressure and small current is by
far the more economical as regards the power wasted in
heating the conductor, this economy being the greater
the greater the number of lamps or motors on the circuit.
Until a few years ago, however, it was not clear how it
was possible to run motors electrically in series when
the motors were themselves in bodily motion, as they
must be when employed to propel tramcars. In 1881,
Profs. Ayrton and Perry, for the purpose of diminishing
the loss of power through the leakage of the current that
occurs from the insulated rail of an electric railway to
the earth, and which becomes serious when the line is
long, proposed a plan of electrically subdividing the
railway track into sections so arranged that the electric
current was only supplied to that section of the track on
which a train happened to be at any moment. This
system was described and shown in action at a lecture
given by one of the inventors at the Royal Institution in 1882,
and the late Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, on reading the account
of this lecture, saw that the device of employing an elec-
trically subdivided conductor supplied the means of
running electrical trains in series. A combination was,
therefore, brought about between these three Professors
to develop electric traction. This combination resulted
in the formation of the Telpherage Syndicate, and lastly
in the Series Electrical Traction Syndicate, to whom is
due the construction of the first series line in Europe, the
40
NATURE
[May 9 1889
one that was opened for public traffic at Northfleet,
on April 29.
The track itself does not at first sight appear to differ
from an ordinary horse tramway track, there being no
overhead wires as in the American electric tramways,
nor auxiliary raised insulated rail, as at Portrush, nor
central trough, as at Blackpool. A closer inspection.
however, shows that one of the rails at Northfleet, instead
of being simply grooved, is a double rail with a cavity or
slot between the two portions. Fig. i shows the general
cross-section of the line, the upper portion only of which is
of course visible to the passer-by. In the cavity "the arrow,"
as it is called, glides, being drawn along by the moving
car, the function of the arrow being to open the electrical
FjG. I.
conductor at successive points, and insert the electric
motor carried by the moving car in the electrical circuit.
This arrow is made of flexible leather with a kind of
steel spear-head at each end ; it is coated with two
flexible conducting strips, i, 2 (Fig. 2), insulated from
one another, and permanently connected respectively
with the two terminals of the motor. As this arrow
glides along, it passes, as seen in Fig. 3, between the^two
portions of each spring-jack, the spring-jack being shown
in detail in Fig. 4. The arrow keeps open two spring-
jacks at any one time, the portion of the cable joining
them being either cut out of circuit or short-circuited, its
place in the electric circuit being temporarily occupied by
the motor on the car. This result is attained by the con-
FiG. 2. — The Arrov.
ducting-Strips i, 2 (Fig. 2) on the arrow, being each
wrapped round one end, and by an insulated space, 3, 3,
being left on each side, slightly longer than the surface
of contact B of the spring-jack. When the sceptical
Englishman, who, in the past, could not realize that rail-
ways could ever succeed if the carriages were not shaped
and painted like mail-coaches, reads a description of the
Northfleet series tramway, he at once jumps to the con-
clusion that stones must necessarily get wedged in the
slot ; that the cavity will get filled up with mud ; that
the arrow must stick ; and that the method is impossible
in practice, though very pretty in theory. When he is
told that a series electric tramway has been running
successfully for some time in Denver, Colorado, and that
^
^ I T^ I T j^ ^tppp^^ -^ >|
DYNAMO
MOTOR
1 UNDERGROUND CABLE!
Fig. 3.— Diagrammatical Illustration of Series Line.
another ser/es line, twelve miles long, with forty cars on !
it, is completed, or on the verge of completion, in Colum- |
bus, Ohio, he merely shrugs his shoulders and implies \
that such crude ideas may do for America, but that in 1
this country we want time-honoured well-tried methods, I
and not new-fangled notions. The Northfleet cars, how- i
*^vp.r. seem to have a marked disregard for conse rvative I
prejudices, since the arrow, with an ease and lofty contempt
that makes one respect the silent power of the electric
current, simply whisks out of its way any stone that has
been intentionally jammed into the slot as tightly as any
mischievous London urchin can fix it.
The spring-jack (Fig. 4) consists of a pair of glazed
earthenware blocks, 14 X 3 X 4 inches. To each block
May 9, 1889]
NATURE
41
is attached, by means of a double spiral spring, a gun-
metal casting, curved at its ends to allow of the easy
entrance of the arrow. The spring-jacks are arranged
so that they can be taken out or replaced in the conduit
in a few minutes in case of any failure. The electric
resistance that they offer is much smaller than would have
been anticipated, the total measured resistance of the
entire line being but little higher than the calculated re-
FiG. 4. — The Spring Jack.
sistance of the insulated cable. This is probably due to
the surfaces of the spring-jacks being kept bright and
clean by the arrow constantly running through them.
affected by the starting or stopping of any other, it is
necessary, with series working, that a constant current
should be supplied to the circuit. Now while it is pos-
In order that the speed of any one car shall not be sible, by winding the field-magnets of a dynamo in a
Fig. s.— The Statter Constant Current Dynamo, showing Regulator.
particular way, known as "compounding," to cause it,
when running at a fixed speed, to supply perfectly con-
stant pressure to a circuit, no matter how the resistance
of the circuit may vary, no such solution has yet been
practically attained when the supply conditions are con-
stant current. Hence some mechanical device is neces-
sary in the latter case, and the one employed with the
Northfleet dynamo is that due to Messrs. Statter, and
42
NATURE
{May 9, 1889
•seen in Fig. 5. A small pinion rotated by the dynamo
shaft rocks a double ratchet by means of an eccentric.
One or other of the ends of this ratchet is pulled down
and made to engage with the ratchet wheel depending
on whether the current is greater or less than 50 amperes,
the normal current supplied to the line. The rotation of
the ratchet wheel alters the positions of the brushes on
the commutator, until the current is diminished or in-
creased to 50 amperes, when the iron core attached to
the ratchet, and which was previously sucked down below
its normal position by the solenoid, or not sucked down
so far, is now held in its normal position, and the ratchet
kept free of the ratchet wheel. This mechanical con-
stant current regulator works well, with a surprisingly
small amount of sparking at the commutator.
As constant current is supplied to the line, the speed
■of the car could not be altered by introducing resistance
into the circuit ; what is done therefore is to shunt the
field magnets of the motor with a less and less resistance
by moving a lever on the car, as less and less power is
required to be developed by the motor. When the car
is at rest at the end of the journey, the motor is entirely
cut out of the circuit by the handle being pushed full
home. With horse tramcars a mechanical brake must
be employed, and the energy of the moving car wasted in
friction ; indeed with the continuous vacuum brakes on
the modern railway trains, not merely is the energy of the
train wasted, but coal is actually burnt to stop the train.
Some years ago, however, Profs. Ayrton and Perry pointed
■out that when an electric train was running down hill, or
when it was desired to stop the train, there was no
necessity to apply a mechanical brake and waste the
energy of the moving train in friction, because by turning
a handle the electromotor could be converted into a
dynamo, and the train could be slowed or stopped by its
•energy being given up to all the other trains running on
the same railway, so that trains going down hill could
help the trains going up hill, and the stopping trains
could help the starting trains. And at. that time they
proposed detailed methods for carrying out this econo-
mical mutual aid arrangement whether the trains were
running in parallel or in series. But there is this great
difference between the two systems, that whereas with
motors in parallel it is only as long as a stopping train is
still running fairly fast that it can help other trains ; on
the other hand, when one of a group of motors in series
has been temporarily converted into a dynamo by the
reversal of the connection of its field-magnets, this motor
can return energy to the system down to the very last
rotation of its armature. This difference, which is greatly
to the advantage of the series system, will be easily
understood if it be remembered that a motor will help
other motors in series with it if it supplies a forward
■electromotive force, however small, whereas if the motors
be in parallel it is necessary, in order that a motor should
give energy to the system, that it should be able to
reverse the direction of the current that was previously
passing through it — in other words, produce an electro-
motive force actually larger than the potential difference
set up between the mains by the dynamo itself. •
And not only is this form of brake very economical in
that it acts by saving power instead of by wasting it, but in
addition its application imposes no tax on the driver's
strength, as is the case with mechanical brakes where the
pressure of the brake blocks is actually exerted by the
•driver's hand or foot — a consideration of considerable im-
portance in these days of the natural revolt of the " tram
slave."
At each end of the Northfleet cars there are two
handles, one of which regulates the resistance shunting
the field-magnet of the motor, and which therefore replaces
the handle working the throttle valve of a steam loco-
motive, while the other handle reverses the terminals
•of the field-magnet, or short-circuits them when it is in its
middle position, and therefore replaces the handle which
operates the link motion in the locomotive. During the
several journeys we made in the cars, we had freciuent
opportunity of seeing how perfectly they were under
control, even when descending the steep hill near the
Northfleet railway station.
One defect of the parallel system of working electric
tram-lines is that it is possible for a mischievous person
to cut off the power from the whole line, while at
the same time the constant potential difference dynamo
is made to produce far more than its normal current, by
his laying an iron crowbar so as to electrically connect
the go'nj and return conductor. This result he may be
able to accomplish without much difficulty, since both
these conductors must be sufficiently exposed along their
whole length that the passing train can maintain electrical
contact with both of them. With the series system, on
the other hand, such a catastrophe is impossible, since
the return conductor, 3, marked "line" in Fig. 3, is
completely buried out of sight.
A considerable amount of ingenuity has been displayed
in the mechanical details both on the cars themselves
and on the track at Northfleet. The motor, for example,
is geared directly to a spur wheel on the car wheel shaft
by double helical gearing, which runs without biting, and
at the same time without any chance of slip, since the
axle of the motor and the axle of the car wheel driven by
it are always maintained at exactly the same distance
apart. The result is attained by supporting one end of
the motor framework from two bearings on the axle of
the car wheel, and the other end by stout springs from the
car itself. The tram-line is for the greater portion a single
track, hence several places where the up and down cars
can pass, "turn-outs" as they are technically called, have
been provided. As both the up and down lines at the
turn-outs are electrically in series, special electrical
devices which appear to work very well have been pro-
vided for the facing points at the two ends of each turn-
out. At one portion of the line the road is so narrow
that it would have been very inconvenient to the ordinary
horse traffic, had an up and a down tramcar gone along
the same side of the road. An up car has therefore to
pass the horse traffic by following the "near side," so
also has a down car — in other words, the electric tramcar
if it be going in one direction has to be on the opposite
side of the road from that followed by an electric tramcar
when going in the contrary direction. But as the road is
too narrow for two sets of rails the track here consists of
three rails, A B and C, A and B being used by the car when
going in one direction, and C and B when it is returning ;
the facing points at the ends of this section being fitted
with special mechanical and electrical devices, which also
appear to accomplish their aims with perfect satisfaction.
A portion of the line has a long steep gradient of i in
32, but instead of jaded horses having to tug the cars up
this hill, they ascend it at a rate of about nine miles an
hour, so that the whole journey, which is a little under
one mile, is accomplished when desired in three minutes
and a half.
It is but a fcvv weeks ago that the first trial trip of the
Northfleet line was made ; it is but now that it is opened
for public use ; and yet already the passers-by and the
shopkeepers along the route have ceased to wonder how
it is that horseless cars full of people rush up hill without
smoke, quickly start in either direction, and as quickly
stop when directed by the passengers to do so. After
the Englishman has been spending some time conclusively
proving to himself that a series tram-line was a practical
impossibility, while the American was engaged in carry-
ing out the trite saying that " the best way to do a thing
is just to go and do it," our countrymen now accept the
regular daily running of the series tram-line at North-
fleet as a matter of course, and have forgotten that its
very marked success ought to astonish them.
May 9, 1889]
NATURE
43
THE EXAMINATIONS FOR WOOLWICH AND
SANDHURST.
'X'HE revised Code for these examinations has at
-'■ length been published. It is to come into force
after January i, 1891. There is to be a preliminary exami-
nation in elementary Arithmetic, Euclid, Algebra, French
or German, writing English from dictation, elementary
Latin, Geometrical Drawing, and Geography, for which no
marks are given. We regret that as this examination
has now been extended till it includes nearly all the main
subjects of a modern education, an elementary know-
ledge of some branch of science is not also required.
There is also to be a further examination for those who
pass the preliminary, for which the following Code has
been adopted : —
Class I. — Obligatory.
Mathematics (for Woolwich) ... 3000 Marks
,, (for Sandhurst) ... 2500 ,,
Latin ... ... ... ... 2000 ,,
French or German ... ... 2000 ,,
Class II. — Any two Subjects may be taken np.
Higher Mathematics ... ... 2000 Marks
German or French ... ... 2000 ,,
Greek ... ... ... ... 2coo j ,.
English History ... ... ... 2000 ,,
Chemistry ... ... ... ... 2000 ,,
Physics ... 2000 ,,
Physical Geography and Geology 2000 ,,
Class III. — All may he taken.
English Composition
Freehand Drawing
Geometrical Drawing
500 Marks
500 ,,
1000 ,,
Notwithstanding the relative positions of science and
Latin — which seem indefensible in regard to the
Woolwich Cadets— this Code of marks is decidedly
better than that which was the subject of so much
adverse criticism in the early months of last year. In
the first place, the allotment of marks which had such
disastrous effects when adopted a few years ago in the
Sandhurst competitions is at length abandoned, and
candidates will no longer be at any disadvantage in this
respect if they offer themselves for examination in such
subjects as science, history, or Greek.
In the second place, it will now be possible for candi-
dates to offer Greek or history, together with a branch of
science, or to offer both chemistry and physics. In the
case of some candidates this may prove a considerable
advantage ; though the fact that the obligatory and
advanced mathematics can to some extent be studied
concurrently may probably induce a large proportion to
select the latter from Class II.
Thirdly, the better position that was claimed for expe-
rimental sciences in the Woolwich competition has now
also been given to these subjects in the Sandhurst
examination.
At first sight it may appear, after all that has been said
and done, that the position of the experimental sciences
as members of Class 11. is not very splendid. It is
therefore worth while to point out, lest it should be over-
looked by teachers, that chemistry and physics are so
important in the curriculum at the Royal Military Aca-
demy, that it will be greatly to the advantage of candidates
for the scientific branches to study and offer one of these
subjects, now their prospects of success will no longer be
diminished by doing so. Hence, as a whole, the scheme
for selecting and educating cadets for the Engineers
and Artillery is now reasonably favourable for those who
exhibit an aptitude for the experimental branches of
science. We think this will soon be recognized by the
candidates themselves, and that those who are interested
in the science of our public schools will also quickly per-
ceive the importance of the changes that have been
secured in the face of very considerable difficulties by the
action of Sir Henry Roscoe and the other scientific
members of the House of Commons.
Altogether, therefore, it may decidedly be said that
the authorities at the War Office are to be congratulated
on the result of their consultations with Sir Henry Roscoe
and other educational authorities. The new Code is not
ideal. It does not fully recognize the importance of
natural science in modern education, and it is to be
feared that it will lengthen the examination to some
extent. But, if it be fairly carried out, scientific candi-
dates will not in future be placed at any great disadvant-
age, as compared with those who have studied other
subjects, in the examinations for admission to either
branch of the Army. In regard to this last point, how-
ever, it would be well if the Civil Service Commission
took steps to remove the blot in their system of conduct-
ing public competitive examinations to which attention
was called, some years ago, by Sir Lyon Playfair, in his
Presidential Address to the British Association. We
allude to the irregularity with which marks are awarded
for the various subjects at more than one of these exami-
nations. These irregularities are still unduly large. We
have before us an account of the marks given in six
examinations for Woolwich, taken at random during the
years 1884-88, and it appears that, at these examinations,
successful candidates who have offered French, German,
Greek, and experimental science have been given, on an
average, 38, 35, 29, and 28 per cent, of the allotted maxi-
mum marks. A successful candidate offering Greek and
science would, on an average, have obtained 1154 out of
the maximum of 2000 ; whilst one offering French and
German would have been given 1491 out of the same
maximum. A similar tale is told by the highest marks
awarded in the respective subjects. It will scarcely be
contended that, on the whole, the superior teaching of
modern languages, as compared with that of Greek and
science, justifies this. It is perhaps too much to hope
for absolutely equal rates of marking, as between different
subjects at each separate examination. But we do not
think that during such considerable periods of time the
variations should be so great as they have been, especially
in the case of subjects taken up by fairly large proportions
of the candidates. Such variations do real harm by
encouraging the mark-hunter, who is ever on the alert,
and by artificially stimulating the favoured subjects at the
expense of others of importance.
We understand that the examiners are not to be
blamed for this state of things, but rather that the Civil
Service Commissioners are directly responsible. For it
is stated by Mr. Oscar Browning, in the Journal of
Education for April, that the examiners *' receive a paper
as a model which they are told to copy as exactly as
possible. They are informed of the average of marks
given at the last examination, and they are enjoined to
adhere to the standard with special care." If this goes
on year after year, as seems to be implied, it is difficult
to see how any code of marks can secure a fair examina-
tion. If the candidates who offered any subject were
hardly treated in 1888, the chances are that those who
offer the same subject in 1889 will also suffer hardness.
For if the candidates in that subject be better in i88»
than they were in 1888 they will be relatively still more
hardly treated. If of similar calibre they will be treated
equally badly. Only if they happen to be inferior will
they stand at an advantage.
If the system of examining be as it is represented, it is-
high time that it should be revised by those who are-
responsible for it.
44
NATURE
{May 9, 1889
NOTES.
We regret to announce the death of Mr. Robert Damon, of
"Weymouth, the well-known naturalist and geologist. He died
suddenly on Saturday, the 4th instant, from heart disease. Mr.
Damon was the author of an excellent work on the "Geology of
Weymouth and the Isle of Portland," now in its second edition.
He was a most extensive traveller and an assiduous collector.
He obtained a marvellous series of fossil fishes from the Cretaceous
beds of the Lebanon, Syria, now in the British Natural History
Museum, also the most complete skeleton of that rare and extinct
Sirenian, " Steller's Sea-cow, " from Behring Island. Although
in his seventy-fifth year, he contemplated another trip to Siberia
to procure an entire Mammoth's skeleton for the National
Museum. Only a few years ago he took passage from Nijni
Novgorod, down the Volga to Astrakhan, for the purpose of
collecting a complete series of the fishes of the Caspian Sea, in
which he was most successful. He lately purchased the celebrated
zoological collections forming the " Godeffroy Museum" in
Hamburg, and he had perhaps the largest collection of recent
shells in this country. Mr. Damon's loss will be long felt by a
wide circle of scientific friends in all parts of the world, by whom
he was warmly esteemed and respected.
The Paris Exhibition was opened on Monday by the Presi-
dent of the French Republic. As usual on such occasions, there
was a great display of empty spaces which ought to have been,
and soon will be, filled with exhibits. The British Section was
greatly in advance of the others. M. Carnot, in speaking of
the general character of the Exhibition, referred emphatically
to " the surprises reserved for our generation by the marvellous
progress of science."
At the Royal Academy banquet, on Saturday last. Sir Henry
Roscoe responded to the toast for "Science." He spoke of the
intimate relations between science and art, and, as an illustra-
tion of the services rendered by the former to the latter, referred
to the fact that this year we celebrate the jubilee of the dis-
covery of photography. "In 1839," he said, "the power of
the sun to draw in black and white was first indicated by
Daguerre and Fox Talbot. In her infancy exhibiting but
slight promise of artistic life, Photography, in her maturity, has
developed true artistic power, so that she has now grown to be
a trusted and valued ._helpmate to the artist, while she can pro-
duce effects and catch expressions which might defy the brush
of a Turner or a Reynolds."
An International Congress of Photography will be held in
Paris from August 6 to 17. If we may judge from the pro-
gramme, which has been issued by the Organizing Committee,
the proceedings are likely to be of great interest. Anyone may
suggest subjects of discussion on condition that the suggestions
are sent to the secretary (M. S. Pector, 9 rue Lincoln, Paris)
at least fifteen days before the opening of the Congress. On
August 20 there will be a public conference on the labours of
the Congress.
The third of the series of One-Man Photographic Exhibi-
tions at the Camera Club is now open to visitors on presentation
of card. The Exhibition will continue for about two months.
The object of this series of exhibitions is to bring together, in
turn, representative collections of the work of the best photo-
graphic artists. The photographs shown on the present occasion
are by Mr. J. Gale. They are chiefly photographs of land-
scape, and landscape with figure, and are printed in platinum
and in silver processes.
Science gives the following as a complete list of the papers
presented and read to the American National Academy of
Science, at its meeting in April : on composite coronagraphy,
by D. P. Todd ; additional experimental proof that the relative
coefficient of expansion between Baily's metal and steel is con-
stant between the limits zero and 95" F. (read by title), by W.
A. Rogers ; notice on the method and results of a systematic
study of the action of definitely related chemical compounds
upon animals, by Wolcott Gibbs and Hobart Hare ; on sensa-
tions of colour, and determinations of gravity, by C. S. Peirce ;
on the Pliocene Vertebrate fauna of Western North America,
and on the North American Proboscidea, by E. D. Cope ; on
the mass of Saturn, by A. Hall, Jun. ; on the nature and com-
position of double halides (read by title) ; on the rate of reduc-
tion of nitro-compounds, and on some connection between taste
and chemical composition, by Ira Remsen ; recent researches in
atmospheric electricity, by T. C. Mendenhall ; measurement by
light-waves, by A. A. Michelson ; on the feasibility of the
establishment of a light-wave as the ultimate standard of
length, by A. A. Michelson and E. W. Morley ; on the general
laws pertaining to stellar variation, by S. C. Chandler ; review
of the trivial names in Piazzi's Star Catalogue, by C. H. F.
Peters ; on Cretaceous flora of North America, by J. S. New-
berry ; terrestrial magnetism (read by title), Cleveland Abbe ;
spectrum photography in the ultra-violet, by Romyn Hitchcock ;
North American Pelagldce (read by title), and development of
Crustacea (read by title), by W. K. Brooks ; the plane of de-
marcation between the Cambrian and pre- Cambrian rocks, by
C. D. Walcott ; report of the American Eclipse Expedition to
Japan, 1887, by D. P. Todd.
It is reported from India that Mr. Blanford, Meteorological
Reporter to the Government of India, who retires at the end of
his furlough, has been recommended for the special pension of
6000 rupees per annum.
The following "resolution" of the Government of Bombay,
which has just been published, tells its own story, and adds
another to the already numerous examples of the well-judged
munificence of the Parsee community of Bombay. The resolu-
tion is entitled " Scientific Medical Research." " (l) The sum
of Rs. 75,000 having been placed at the disposal of his Excellency
the Governor by Mr. Framjee Dinshaw Petit, for the purpose of
erecting and fitting a laboratory for scientific medical research, on
a site which has been approved by the donor, in the immediate
vicinity of the Grant Medical College, the Governor in Council
has much pleasure in accepting the offer, and, in doing so,
desires publicly to thank Mr. Framjee Dinshaw Petit for his
munificence in supplying an institution, the want of which has
long been felt by those most interested in promoting the cause
of higher medical education in this Presidency. (2) The
Governor in Council is pleased to direct that the institution
shall be called ' The Framjee Dinshaw Petit Laboratory for
Scientific Research.' (3) Instructions for the preparation of
the necessary plans and estimates for the proposed building have
already b een given. "
The native population of Benares cannot be said to have very
advanced ideas as to the importance of sanitary science. The
other day a monster meeting was held in that city to protest
against certain proposed drainage and water supply schemes, and
a petition to the Government condemning the entire action of
the municipality in the matter is said to bear 100,000 signatures.
According to the Calcutta Correspondent of the Times, the
petitioners emphatically decline to pay by increased taxation for
any new system.
Last winter the Vienna Medical School was attended by 150
British and American medical graduates, among whom were
many Edinburgh men. As many medical students, on their
arrival at Vienna, do not know German, the Vienna
Weekly Neivs has opened a special " medical inquiry office " near
the hospital, where information as to lectures, lodgings, &c., is
given without charge to British and American medical men.
May 9, 1889J
NA TURE
45
The same journal publishes weekly a list of forthcoming courses
of lectures at the Universities of Vienna and Berlin.
The Times of Colombo announces the arrival in Ceylon of
two naturalists, Herr Friihstorfer and Herr Kannegieter, the
former a German, the latter a native of Amsterdam. Herr
Friihstorfer has already travelled over a great part of the world
making natural history collections, while his companion is travel-
ling on behalf of the collection of Herr Van de Poll. Both
were about to proceed to the southern part of Ceylon, and after
a few weeks' exploration they intended going, one to Malacca
and Borneo, the other to Sumatra and Java, for scientific
purposes.
A SEVERE earthquake lasting four seconds occurred at Agram
on April 27 at 8.35 p.m.
A NEW stalactite cave has been found at Honnethal, in Sauer-
land, not far from the village of Sanssouci. It is not very large,
but has many beautiful stalactites.
Complaints having, on several occasions, been made to the
Fishery Board for Scotland that salmon smolts are exposed for
sale and sold, the Board have issued a notice to the effect that
such sale, or exposing for sale, is illegal, and renders the seller
or exposer liable to severe pecuniary penalties. The word
"salmon" in the Salmon Fishery Acts of 1862 and 1868 means
and includes " salmon, grilse, sea trout, bull trout, smolts, parr,
and other migratory fish of the salmon kind." All offences
under the Salmon Fishery Acts of 1862 and 1868 may be prose-
cuted, and all penalties incurred may be recovered, " before any
sheriff or any two or more justices acting together, and having
jurisdiction in the place where the offence was committed, at
the instance of the clerk of any District Board, or of any other
person."
With regard to Prof. Marker's article on a new farm
pest, printed in Nature last week. Miss Ormerod writes that,
" if, by any accident, readers should think that what her valued
friend Prof. Harker meant only as a courteous acknowledg-
ment of specimens was an expression of belief in the injurious
powers of this worm, she would in such case like to be able
to mention that up to the present Jtime she sees no reason for
alarm."
A SERIES of experiments upon combustions in nitric acid
vapour have been made by Dr. P. T. Austen, of Rutger's
College, U.S. The gaseous nitric acid is most conveniently
obtained in the following manner. Into a large flask, whose
neck is sufficiently wide to admit a good-sized deflagrating
spoon, a quantity of sulphuric acid is poured, so as to form a layer
about half an inch deep. About ten to twenty grammes of
potassium nitrate, in crystals averaging a quarter of an inch in
size, are then added. On careful heating, the air is rapidly ex-
pelled, and the flask becomes filled with the clear vapour of
nitric acid. A glowing chip of wood held in this vapour in-
flames and burns energetically, something after the manner of
combustion in oxygen ; but, as the red tetroxide of nitrogen,
N2O4, is formed by the reduction of the nitric acid, a ruddy
halo is seen to play around the flame. Charcoal, espe-
cially bark- charcoal, burns brilliantly, the scintillations
in the red tetroxide gas producing an unusually fine
effect. In a similar manner a steel watch-spring may be
burnt as in oxygen, the combustion being started with a
little sulphur ; the effect, however, is quite different from that
in oxygen, owing to the formation of a red halo around each
melted globule of iron as it falls. A layer of sand should be
placed in the bottom of the flask in this experiment, in order to
prevent fracture. Phosphorus burns with great beauty, the
dazzling white flame passing into a deep red at the edges. By
far the most beautiful effects, however, are obtained by the
combustion of readily oxidizable gases from jets suspended in
the nitric acid vapour. Hydrogen burns with an intensely
white flame, totally unlike that in oxygen, surrounded by a deep
red envelope. Coal gas continues to burn with a white centre,
enveloped as in case of hydrogen by a red halo ; when first intro-
duced the flame becomes musical, then degenerates into a series of
rapid slight explosions ; at length, after a certain amount of nitrogen
tetroxide has formed, it burns quietly. Sulphuretted hydrogen
gas burns with a bright yellow flame, and the flask becomes
filled with a cloud of minute chamber-crystals, resulting from
the action of the sulphur dioxide and water formed upon the
tetroxide of nitrogen simultaneously produced. Ammonia gas
burning in nitric acid vapour is perhaps the most beautiful case
of simple combustion yet investigated. Success in this experi-
ment appears to depend entirely upon the siz<; of the orifice of
the jet, which should not be less than an eighth of an inch in
diameter. As soon as the jet, which of course should be turned
upwards, from which a good stream of ammonia is issuing, is
lowered to a level with the mouth of the flask, it may be readily
ignited. On lowering it into the centre of the flask, the flame is
seen to consist of a bright yellow nucleus surrounded by a
greenish-yellow envelope ; this, in turn, passes into an outer
envelope of a carmine-red colour, which deepens as the amount
of nitrogen tetroxide increases.
According to the Manchester Guardian, a technical school
has lately been added to the ancient Chetham College, "the
most unique piece of antiquity " left in Manchester. It seems
that a well-known employer of labour in Salford, and a strong
supporter of technical education in Manchester and the neigh-
bourhood, generously offered to fit up a workshop and supply it
with all necessary tools for the use of Chetham College. The
offer, which was regarded both as a very generous and a very
happy one, was accepted by the authorities. The result was the
erection of a building at the north-east rear of the College dor-
mitories. The building, which is very well lighted and com-
fortably heated, has been fitted up with lathes (for wood and
iron) driven by a steam-engine ; also benches, drilling machines,
grindstones, blacksmith's forge, vices, &c. The results so far
are regarded as highly satisfactory. Some forty-five of the boys
are now regularly engaged in the shop ; fifteen working in the
morning, fifteen in the afternoon, another batch of fifteen the
next morning, and so on. Each boy works nine hours in the
shop every week.
Mr. Rowland Ward writes to the Times that on Saturday,
April 27, one of the keepers on the estate of Mr. Farnal Watson,
in Surrey, trapped a fine specimen of the kite {Faico milvus) —
"a grand bird," says Mr. Ward, " at one time common on our
moors before men became so many in the land, and their
hospitality, even to such visitors, so scant. " Mr. Ward notes
that these birds are still sometimes encountered in Wales.
Mr. Allan Hi;me proposes to issue a second edition of his
" Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds." It will be edited by Mr.
E. W. Oates, author of a " Hand-book to the Birds of British
Burmah," and will incorporate all the notes which Mr. Hume's
numerous correspondents in all parts of India have sent to him
since 1873, as well as some notes from other sources. The work
will be published in three volumes, 8vo, of 500 pa^es each ; but for
the convenience of subscribers it will be issued in six parts, one
of which will be completed every three months, beginning from
an early date. The publisher will be Mr. R. H. Porter, 18
Princes Street, Cavendish Square, London, W.
A collection of Prof. Weismann's essays on heredity
has been translated under the care of Mr. E. B. Poulton, of
Oxford, and will form the second volume of the series of
translations of foreign biological memoirs which the Clarendon
Press are publishing. The volume is nearly ready, and may
be expected shortly.
46
NATURE
[May 9, 1889
Messrs. Crosby Lockwood and Son have published a
■second edition of M. Eissler's "Metallurgy of Gold." The
work has been enlarged by about 150 pages and 40 additional
illustration.s.
We have received the seventh part of Cassell's "New
Popular Educator," which will be completed in forty-eight parts.
This part contains a lithograph presenting the constellations
visible in Britain.
Messrs. C. Griffin and Co. have published the sixth annual
issue of the " Year-book of the Scientific and Learned Societies
of Great Britain and Ireland." The work, which is compiled
from official sources, comprises lists of the papers read during
1888 before Societies engaged in fourteen departments of
research.
The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
past week include an Indian Wolf {Cams pallipes $ ) from
India, presented by Major C. S. Skipton, R.A. ; two Stone
Curlews {CEdiaiemus scolopax), British, presented by Mr.
Brunsden ; a Golden Eagle {Aquila chtysaettis) from Inverness-
shire, presented by Mr. Thomas G. Henderson ; a Cape Mole-
rat [Georychus capensis), a Geometric Tortoise {Testudo
geometrica), four Tuberculated Tortoises {Homopus femoralis),
six Narrow-headed Toads {Eh/o angusiiceps), thirty-four Gray's
Frogs [Rana grayi), a Spotted Slowworm {Acontias meleagris),
rom Cape Colony, South Africa, presented by the Rev. G. H. R.
Fi'R., C.M.Z. S. ; a Puff Adder {Vipera arietans) from the Cape
of Good Hope, presented by Mr. F. Streatfield ; six European
Tree Frogs {Hyla arborea), European, presented Mr. H. Bende-
lack Hewetson, F.Z. S. ; a Rhesus Monkey {Macacus rhesus $ )
rom India, deposited ; two White-eyed Ducks {Nyroca Jerni-
ginea), European, two Black-necked Swans (C/^w^j nigricollis)
from Antarctic America, two Lineated Kaleege {Euplocamus
/i«^a^Mj) from Tenasserim, a Brazilian Tortoise {Testudo tabu-
lata) from South America, a Blackish Sternothere {Sternothcerus
subniger) from Madagascar, purchased ; a Persian Gazelle
{Gazella subgutterosa), two Chinchillas {Chinchilla lanigera),
four Long-fronted Gerbilles {Gerbillus longifj'ons), born in the
Gardens.
ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE
WEEK 1889 MAY 12-18.
/■pOR the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at
_^ Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24,
is here employed.)
At Greemvich on May 12
Sunrises, 4h. 15m. ; souths, iih, 56m. lo'is. ; daily decrease of
southing, I •2s. ; sets, iph. 38m. : right asc. on meridian,
3h. ly-gm. ; decl. 18' 15' N. Sidereal Time at Sunset,
iih. im.
Moon (Full on May 15, 7h.) rises, I5h. 55m. ; souths,
2ih. 57m.; sets, 3h. 4Sm.* : right asc. on meridian,
I3h.
20-im. ;
decl. 2° 58'
S.
Right asc. and declination
Planet.
R;ses.
Souths.
Sets.
on meridian.
h. m.
h. m.
h. m.
h. m. /
Mercury .
• 448
... 13 10 ..
21 32 ..
. 4 32-4 ... 24 8 N.
Venus....
. 3 21
.. 10 45 ••
18 9 ..
. 2 6-3 ... 15 16 N.
Mars
• 4 38
... 12 37 ..
20 36 ..
. 3 58-6 ... 20 55 N.
Jupiter...
. 23 18*
... 3 14 ..
7 10 ..
. 18 34-0 ... 22 58 S.
Saturn . . .
. 10 7
... 17 45 ••
I 23*..
. 9 7'3 ... 17 42 N.
Uranus . .
. 16 17
... 21 46 ..
3 15*.
. 13 9-8 ... 6 42 S.
Neptune.
. 4 50
... 12 37 ..
20 24 ..
. 3 59-4 ... 18 56 N.
•Indicates that the rising is that of the preceding evening and the
setting that of the following morning.
h.
Star.
May.
i8
Jupiter in conjunction with and 0° 15' south
of the Moon.
U Cephei ... .
. 52-5 ..
R Aurigse
• 5 8-3..
W Leonis ... .
. 10 47-8 ..
T Ursas Majoris .
. 12 3i'3 -
5 Librae ... .
• 14 55-1 ••
U Ophiuchi...
. 17 lO-q ..
R Scuti ... .
. 18 41-6 ..
8 Lyrae
. 18 46-0 ..
U Aquilse
■ 19 23-4 ..
R Capricorni
. 20 5-1 ..
XCygni ... .
. 20 39-1 ..
T Vulpeculse
. 20 46*8 ..
S Cephei ... .
. 22 25-1 ..
Variable Stars.
R.A. Decl.
1. m. » / h. m.
81 17 N. ... May 16, i 11 »x
. 53 28 N. ... ,, 13, M
14 18 N , 13, M
60 6 N. ... ,, 15, m
8 S S 13, 23 25 m
I 20 N. ... ,, 17, o 10 m
5 50 S , 13, M
13 14 N 14, 22 30 M
7 16 S. ... ,, 18, I o M
14 36 S. ... „ 17, M
35 II N. ... ,, 17, 2 DOT
27 50 N , 13, I o M
57 SI N. ... „ 15,21 oM
M signifies maximum ; m minimum.
Meteor-Showers.
Near o Coronge
,, 7j Aquilae
From Delphinus
R.A.
232
295
313
Decl.
27° N.
o
15 N.
Faint. Rather slow.
May 1 5. Very slow.
Swift. Streaks.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
Dr. H. Meyer, in a paper read before the Geographical
Society of Leipzig, deals with the snowfall on the summit of
Kilimanjaro. Having shown that the southern and south-eastern
slopes of the mountain are exposed during summer to the south-
eastern trade winds, while the summit rises in to the region of
che anti-trades, and that local winds, sometimes of considerable
force, ascend the mountain slope during the day, and descend
during the night, he explains how these winds p'-oduce rain and
snow. Dr. Meyer looks upon the wall of ice which stopped his
further progress as the edge of a cap of neve which covers the
summit, and which, owing to the combined influence of the wind
and radiation, has melted away on its northern side. On the
south, however, it seems to form a true glacier, which issues from
the ancient crater-trough of Kibo.
Some of the conclusions come to by Dr. K. W. Schmidt, in
his paper on the soil and climate of German East Africa, in the
current number of Petermann! s Mitteilungen, are worth giving
in detail. The wooded and mountainous region of Usambara
and the western part of Bondei, in consequence of the favour-
able character of the soil, the copious rainfall, and extensive
irrigation, may be truly described as fertile, and in the opinion
of the author these countries have a great future before them.
West of Usambara extend vast steppes, utterly unfit for cultiva-
tion. The mountain mass of Kilimanjaro, composed of recent
volcanic, basaltic, andtrachytic rocks, and clothed with a wealth
of forests, should become of great importance. The physical
condition of the country between the Pangani and the
Wami are apparently not very favourable. Westwards the
country of Nguru, in its geological formation, its mag-
nificent forests, its numerous streams, and its meteorological
conditions, resembles Usambara. Southern Useguha, as far as
the Kingani and Gerengere, including the districts of Udoe and
Ukewere, is nothing but a vast waterless steppe. Ukami, in its
western part, abounds in lofty forest- clad mountains and rushing
streams, and its soil is well adapted for cultivation ; the soil of
the eastern part of Ukami is, on the other hand, composed
almost exclusively of quartz pebbles and gravel. Immediately
to the west of Ukami stretches the vast desolate M'Kata
steppe, beyond which rises the mountainous country of Usagara,
divided by the Mukondokwa River. The plain of Farhani,
traversed by the river, is fertile and well populated. The
mountainous district of Usagara itself suffers from a lack of
streams, and also from the sparsely wooded character of its
mountain slopes, at least in the eastern part. The country of
Khutu, in its various river valleys, might furnish soil suitable for
extensive cultivation. The general results of Dr. Schmidt's
observations is to show that there is a great difference in the
fertility and consequent value of the various countries comprised
within the German protectorate in East Equatorial Africa, and
that while there is a considerable extent of extremely fertile
territory, the greater part does not appear to be capable of
remunerative cultivation.
P' May 9. 1889]
NATURE
47
THE LIVERPOOL MARINE BIOLOGY
COMMITTEE'S EASTER DREDGING CRUISE.
'T'HE Liverpool Salvage Association's s.s. Hynsna left the
^ Mersey on Thursday, April 18, on her fifth scientific
cruise under the direction of the Liverpool Marine Biology
Committee. The old gunboat had been generously placed
at the disposal of the l^.M.B.C. for five days, and the pro-
posed course was to cross to Port Erin, at the south end
of the Isle of Man, and then dredge southwards to Holyhead
through the deepest water to be found in this district ; then
to work along the coast of Anglesey to Puffin Island, and
from that back to Liverpool. Besides the ordinary dredging and
tow- netting operations, it was hoped that two interesting new
methods of collecting would be tried on this cruise : (i) the sub-
marine electric light, which gave such good results in the Hyana
expedition of last summer, was to be used as an attraction in the
nets let down to the bottom at considerably greater depths than
was the case in last year's experiments at Ramsey and Port Erin ;
(2) Mr. W. E. Hoyle's new tow-net (recently described in the Proc.
Biol. Soc. Liverpool, vol. iii.), which can be opened and closed
at any required depth, so as to insure that the contents were
captured in a particular stratum of water, was to be taken with
the view of trying how it worked.
After the first day, however, the weather although fine on land
became very unfavourable for marine work, and the programme
had to be considerably altered. Thursday was spent in crossing
to Port Erin. On Friday morning we steamed south-west
towards the deep water, but a strong wind was blowing, and
after a haul of the dredge in 27 fathoms, about five miles out,
some bottom and surface tow-netting, a sounding in 50 fathoms,
and a further run to about nine miles from land, it was found
that the heavy rolling of the vessel rendered dredging operations
impossible out in the open sea ; so the Hyana was put about and
returned to Port Erin, where tow-netting and other work was
carried on in the bay. The following day the wind was still
stronger, so it was decided to give up the Anglesey part of the
cruise and devote the remaining days to shore and shallow-water
work round the south end of the Isle of Man. Accordingly the
rocks at Port Erin, Port St. Mary, Poyllvaaish Bay, and
Fleshwick Bay were explored on the third day, while on the
fourth most of the day was spent on board the Hyana, at anchor
in Port Erin Bay. Tow-nets were let down, both on the surface
and weighted so as to reach the bottom, and a small dredge with
a long canvas net was taken out in a boat and used for obtaining
samples of mud and sand to examine for small animals, such as
Foraminifera, Copepoda, and Ostracoda. The strong wind
blowing was utilized by Captain Young, who suggested floating
tow-nets across the bay with life-buoys, and devised a sailing
apparatus, consisting of an old life-buoy rigged up with a mast
and sail, and having a tow- net suspended from it, which was let
out carrying a long line to leeward and was then hauled in, the
net keeping distended and working well during both the outward
and the return journeys. Another surface-net was even rigged
up attached to a large kite, but this did not work satisfactorily.
In the afternoon the Hy(cna made two runs from Port Erin
southwards to the Calf, dredging homewards with the wind, and
got two excellent hauls, which contained amongst other things :
Sarcodictyon catenata, Stichaster roseus, Palmipcs tnembranaceus,
Porania pulvilhis, Adamsia palliati, and Fagurus pridcauxii,
Ehalia sp., Lyonsia norvegica, Pectunculus glycimeris, and
Ascidia venosa.
After dark on two consecutive nights the electric light was
used for a couple of hours in collecting bottom and surface free-
swimming animals round the ship, in much the same way as
during last summer's cruise. A pair of large arc lamps of 20CX)
candle-power each were hoisted up in such a position as to
illuminate the deck and cast a bright light on the water for some
distance on each side of the ship. Three submarine incandescent
lamps of ;o candle-power each were then fitted in the mouths of
tow-nets and were let down, two of them to the bottom at a
depth of 5 fathoms, and the third to a foot or so below the
surface of the sea. Each of these nets was put out twice, so that
we got four bottofn hauls and two surface hauls with the electric
light tow-nets. Another tow-net, without any lamp, was let over
the side of the Hyana, and lay in the brightly illuminated
surface water. All these nets were stationary, but were kept
fairly distended by the tide. At the same time Mr. I. C.
Thompson was rowed round and round the ship dragging an
ordinary tow-net in the bright area. Consequently all the nets
were, on this occasion, used in water lighted up, the surface n°ts
being in the glare of the 4000 candle-power lamps, while the
bottom nets were further from this bright light, but had each
their own smaller lamps. All gave, so far as we yet know, from
a cursory examination, practically similar results which are
markedly different from both the bottom and surface gatherings
taken at the same place during the previous day, T he electric
light gatherings contain chiefly Schizopoda, Cumacea, Amphi-
poda, and a few Copepoda. The Cumacea are the most marked
feature, they are veiy abundant, and form a conspicuous charac-
teristic in t'le gathering whenever it is transferred from the net
into a glass jar. In none of the daylight tow-nettings, either
bottom or surface during the cruise, was a single Cumacean^
obtained, while every gathering on the two nights when we had'
the electric light going contained Cumacea in abundance. I
think there can be little doubt that those captured in the
surface-nets had been attracted from the bottom by our brilliant
deck-lights, which had been shining for fully half an hour before
the nets were put over.
On the fifth day the Hyana started in the morning from Port
Erin and arrived at Liverpool at midnight. A little dredging
and tow-netting was done on the way. A good haul was
obtained from a stony and shelly bottom, at about 15 miles
south-east of the Chicken Rock, depth 30 fathoms, which yielded
large numbers of Polyzoa, chiefly incrusting forms. At this
spot also, it being the deepest water on our track from Port Erin
to Liverpool, we let the electric lamp down to the bottom in a
tow-net twice, and got gatherings consisting mainly of Copepoda,
Sagitla, Amphipoda, Zotias, and other larval forms.
That free-swimming Crustaceans are attracted to a stationary
net by the electric light may now be considered established beyond
doubt ; and that the illuminated tow-net can be used in, at
least, such moderately deep water as is commonly met with in^
dredging round our coasts was evident to all who saw the success
with which the net was worked on board the Hyana in 30
fathoms.
The various tow-net gatherings and dredged collections were
as usual preserved and brought home, and are now in the hands
of the specialists who are working at the different groups of
animals for the Liverpool Bay "Fauna."
W. A. Herdman.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
London.
Linnean Society, May 2. — Mr. C. B. Clarke, F.R. S., m
the chair. — With reference to a recent exhibition, by Mr. D.
Morris, of leaves of different species, or varieties, of plants in-
cluded under ErytJiroxylon Coca, Lamarck, Mr. Thomas Christy
made some remarks on the leaves of a variety from Japan.
These he described as brittle and thin, with hardly any trace of
cocaine, though yielding 8 per cent, of crystallizable substance.
The thicker leaves of the Peruvian plant yielded more cocaine,
though at first rejected on account of their more glutinous-
nature. — Mr. John Carruthers read a short paper on the
Cystocarps, hitherto undescribed, of a well-known seaweed,
Rliodymenia palmata, upon which remarks were made by Mr.
G. Murray and Mr. A. W. Bennett. —The second part of a
monograph of the Thelephorea was communicated by Mr. G.
Massee. — Mr. Mitten contributed a paper on all the known
species of Musci and Htpatica recorded from Janan. An in-
teresting discussion followed on the character of the lapanese
flora, in which Mr. J. G. Baker, Dr. Braithwaite, and Mr. G.
Murray took part.
Geological Society, April 17.— W. T. Blanford, F.R.S.,-
President, in the chair. — The following communications were
read : — On the production of secondary minerals at shear-zones
in the crystalline rocks of the Malvern Hills, by Charles Calla-
way. In a previous communication the author had contended
that many of the schists of the Malvern Hills were of igneous-
origin. Thus, mica-gneiss had been formed from granite, horn-
blende-gneiss from diorite, mica-schist from felsite, and in-
jection-schists from veined complexes which had been subjected
to compression. As a further instalment towards the elucida-
tion of the genesis of the Malvern schists, he discussed the
changes which the respective minerals of the massive rocks had
undergone in the process of schist- making. — The northern slopes
of Cader Idris, by Grenville A. J. Cole and A. V. Jennings.
From the publication of Mr. Aikin's paper in the Transactions
of the Geological Society in 1829 lo the second edition of the-
48
NATURE
{May 9, 1889
Survey Memoir on North Wales, the relations of the geo-
logical and physical features of Cader Idris have been pointed
out in some detail. The present paper dealt with the nature of
the eruptions that took place in this area, and the characters of
their products at successive stratigraphical horizons. — Discussions
followed the reading of both of these papers.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, April 29. — M. Hermite in the
chair. — On a means of obtaining photographs of true chromatic
value by the use of coloured glasses, by M. G. Lippmann. By
the judicious employment of green, yellow, and red glass in the
way here explained, excellent results have been obtained even
with present plates, notwithstanding their greater sensitiveness
to blue. The impressions are described as clear and free from
brown patches, the green foliage, the red or yellow draperies,
instead of yielding brown tints, being reproduced in delicately
modelled design as in a well-executed engraving. — Loss and gain
of nitrogen as determined by the experiments carried on at
Grignon from 1875-89, by M. P. P. Deherain. A general
survey of the results of these experiments leads to the conclusion
that all soils containing considerable quantities of nitrogen in
combination, say two grammes to the kilogramme, lose, if culti-
vated without manure, far more nitrogen than is absorbed by
the crops, but in proportions varying according to the nature
of those crops — more with beetroot, less with maize grown for
fodder, still less with potatoes and wheat. But when the
ground has thus been impoverished, no longer containing more
than I '45 or i "50 grammes to the kilogramme, the losses ceases
and the ground begins, on the contrary, to recover a certain
proportion of nitrogen, the gain being much greater on grass-
grown than on tilled lands. — Underground growth, seed, and
affinities of the Sigillaria, by M. Grand'Eury. The author, who
has had a favourable opportunity of studying these fossil plants
in the Carboniferous formations of the Gard, confirms the view
always held by Prof. Williamson, that they are true Cryptogams
of the vascular order, despite the radiated structure of the wood.
But they are not directly connected with any living type, and
form a family of fossil plants which entirely disappeared towards
the close of the Palaeozoic period. — Two eruptions observed on
the sun in September 1888, by le Pere Jules Fenyi. These
eruptions, observed on September 5 and 6, are described as of
an extremely violent character, and as all the more remarkable
because occurring at the epoch of minimum intensity. Both
appear to have taken place about the same region of the solar
■disk, and the protuberance accompanying the first contained
the vapours of several metals, such as sodium, barium, and
iron, besides two very bright red rays of an unknown
■element, one between B and C, the other between B and
.a. — On the alloy of the standard international kilogramme,
by M. J. Violle. The alloy of platinum and iridium in
the proportion of 10 per 100, prepared with the greatest care by
M. Matthey, is here found to be still somewhat defective. M.
Violle's researches show that an alloy of 9 parts platinum and i
iridium yields more uniform and accurate results both as regards
density and specific heat. The density thus obtained is an
absolute constant, incapable of further modification under cold-
hammering, annealing, or any other severe test. — Dilatation and
compression of carbonic acid, by M. Ch. Antoine. In a previous
note (January 21, 1889), the author showed that the reciprocal
of the coefficient of dilatation under constant pressure is given
by the relation —
)8 = ^^ - /.,
5
5 being a constant coefficient, ts and Vs the temperature and
volume at saturation under the pressure /. Here he finds that
more simple values may be obtained both for pVs and &. — On
electrolytic polarization by metals, by M. N. Piltschikoff. A
general result of these researches is that one metal may be polar-
ized by another. — On the formation of earths containing nitrogen,
by MM. A. Miintz and V. Marcano, The authors describe
numerous caves in Venezuela, both on the coast ranges and on
the slopes of the Andes, which contain vast deposits richly
charged with nitrates and interspersed with the remains of large
extinct animals. The bones are so friable that they crumble to
dust at contact of the finger ; hence the difficulty of determining
the species. They consist almost exclusively of phosphate of
lime ; carbonate of lime is entirely absent, and there are but
slight traces of organic matter. In these caves, sheltered from
the action of rain-water, the nitrogen yielded by the nitrified
organic remains was gradually accumulated. In some places the
beds are over 30 feet thick, containing from 4 to 30 per 100 of
nitrate of calcium, and from 5 to 60 of phosphate of calcium. — On
the art of utilizing statistics, by M. Delauney. With a view to the
better utilization of statistical returns, especially in the sphere of
meteorology, the author here proposes a solution of the problem :
Given the statistics of a phenomenon, to find a certain method
by means of which the laws controlling that phenomenon may
be discovered.
BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECEIVED.
Sylvan Folk: J. Watson (Unwin).— Moral Order and Progress: S-
Alexander (Triibner). — Physiological Notes on Primary Education : M. P.
Jacobi (Putnam).— Die Meteorologie Ihrem Neuesten Standpunkte Gemass
und Mit Besonderer Berucksichtigung Geographischer Fragen : Dr. S.
Giinther (Miinchen, Ackermann). — Report of Rainfall in Washington Terri-
tory, &c., for two to forty years (Washington).— Haunts of Nature : H. W.
S. Worsley-Benison (Stock).— A Table of Specific Gravity for Solids and
Liquids (Constants of Nature, Part i) : F. W. Clarke (Macmillan).— Half a
Century of Australian Progress : W. Westgarth (Low).— Electric Light for
the Million : A. F. Guy (Simpkin).— A Syllabus of Modern Plane Geometry :
(Macmillan). — Geological Magazine, May (Triibner).— Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, 1889, No. 5 (Leipzig, Barth). — Quarterly Journal of Micro-
scopical Science, May (Churchill).— Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, vol. xv. No. 128. — Proceedingsof the Royal Society of Edinburgh,
Session 1888-89, vol. xvi. pp. 65-128. — Journal of Physiology, April (Cam-
bridge). — Meteorological Record, vol. viii. No. 31 (Stanford). — Quarterly
Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, January (Stanford).— Quarterly
Weather Report, Part 4, October-December, 1879 (Eyre and Spottiswoode).
— Hourly Readings, 1886 (Eyre and Spottiswoode).
CONTENTS. PAGE
The Estate of Her Majesty's Commissioners of
1851 25
Warren de la Rue 26
The Philosophy of Mysticism 28
Our Book Shelf:—
Roscoe and Schorlemmer : " A Treatise on Chemistry " 31
Smith : " Solutions of the Examples in a Treatise on
Algebra " 31
Low: " Applied Mechanics " 31
Yate : " Northern Afghanistan " 31
Knight: " By Leafy Ways" 32
Letters to the Editor: —
On an Electro-magnetic Interpretation of Turbulent
Liquid Motion. — Prof. Geo. Fras. Fitzgerald,
F.R.S 32
The New Eruption of Vesuvius. — Dr. H. J. Johnston-
Lavis 34
The Sailing Flight of the Albatross. — Lord Rayleigh,
F.R.S 34
"Giphantia"— Sir J. D. Hooker, F.R.S 34
Geological Photography. — Osmund W. Jeffs ... 34
Columnar Structure in Ice. — T. D. La Touche ... 35
Brilliant Meteor. — Captain T. Herbert Clarke,
RV 35
A New Mountain of the Bell. — H. Carrington
Bolton 35
Klein's " Ikosahedron " 35
The Northfleet Series Electric Tramway. {Illus-
trated.) . • , , 39
The Examinations for Woolwich and Sandhurst . . 43
Notes 44
Astronomical Phenomena for the Week z88g
May 12-18 46
Geographical Notes 46
The Liverpool Marine Biology Committee's Easter
Dredging Cruise. By Prof. W. A. Herdman ... 47
Societies and Academies 47
Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received 48
NA TURE
49
THURSDAY, MAY i6, i{
BORNEO.
Borneo : Etitdeckungsreisen iind Untersuchungen ; Gegen-
wiir/iger Stand der Geologischen Kenntnisse ; Ver-
breitung der Ntitzbaren Mineralien. Von Dr. Theodor
Posewitz. (Berlin: Friedlander, 1889.)
IN the work before us, Dr. Theodor Posewitz, of the
Hungarian Geological Institute, gives the results of
his three years' personal explorations in the Island of
Borneo, with which he has incorporated the more im-
portant observations which are recorded in the literature
of the subject. The larger portion of this literature being
in Dutch, it is, as a whole, not very widely known ;
it is, accordingly, a matter of considerable importance to
have it here summarized and critically examined by so
competent an authority.
The three parts into which the volume is divided are :
(i) Political and Historical ; (2) Geological ; and (3)
Economic Mineralogy. Each of these parts is further
subdivided into a number of clearly-defined sections, so
that there is no difficulty experienced in at once master-
ing the range and contents of the work, which are further
indicated by means of four excellent maps, showing re-
spectively, (i) the routes of travellers, (2) the political
divisions, (3) the geological structure, and (4) the
distribution of useful minerals.
We are told, in Part I., that two-thirds of the island
belong to the Dutch, but that the States on the north
coast are more or less under British influence.
The history of exploration, as conducted by the Dutch,
is treated separately from that which originated in con-
nection with British colonial enterprise. During the
last century, only one extensive journey was undertaken
in Dutch Borneo, and scientific exploration was then
altogether prohibited.
The genuine exploration of the country did not begin
till 1820-30, when a Natural History Commission was
established in Batavia, and its members undertook to
investigate artd describe various islands. Among others,
Horner, G. Miiller, Dr. Schwaner, and Von Gafifron
devoted themselves to Borneo, and to the two last we
owe our knowledge of South Borneo. Between the years
1850-60, systematic explorations for useful minerals were
carried on by Dutch engineers in South-West Borneo,
and these explorations have been recently resumed, after
an interval of twenty years.
To Alexander Dalrymple, who travelled in 1769, we
are indebted for our first knowledge of North Borneo ;
other early travellers were Burns, Hugh Low, and
Spenser St. John, who visited Sarawak, Brunei, and the
north-east coast, and ascended the Kina Balu Moun-
tains. Among later travellers, Crocker and H. Everett
merit special notice ; as also do the courageous pioneers
in the British Ntsrth Borneo Company's territory — Dobree,
Peltzer, Wetti, Von Donop, Pryer, and F. Hatton.
With regard to the geological and physical structure,
which are dealt with in Part II., we are told that there
is no uninterrupted central mountain chain in Borneo,
though such is represented on most maps. Isolated
Vol. XL. — No. 1020.
mountains occur at intervals, surmounting table-lands
which extend in a north-east to south-west direction ; but
it is not yet decided whether a regular chain exists in
any part of the interior. The Kina Balu Mountains,
which have a maximum elevation of 13,698 feet, are, so
far as is at present known, the highest in the island ; they
are situated in the territory of the British North Borneo
Company.
The largest rivers — the Barito, Kapuas, Redjang, and
Mahakkam — rise in the centre of the island.
The geological structure is remarkably free from com-
plexity. The isolated mountains are of slate or schist
penetrated by granite and diorite — conditions, it may be
remarked, which are in many countries accompanied by
the occurrence of mineral veins ; this also seems to be
the case in Borneo.
Succeeding these are rocks of Devonian age, in
which auriferous veins occur. Till quite recently no
formations had been recognized between them and the
Tertiary deposits which have long been known, but Car-
boniferous strata (mountain limestone), which it is be-
lieved occur throughout a large area in Northern Borneo,
have within the last few years been recognized, and
Cretaceous rocks have been discovered in a single
locality in West Borneo.
Tertiary formations belonging to several subdivisions
are distributed over considerable areas ; they form the
plateaus through and above which the mountain chains
rise. The older Tertiary strata were first studied by
Verbeek and Pengaron in South Borneo. They are
divisible into sandstone, marl, and limestone groups.
The majority of the coral deposits occur in the sand-
stone,, and the limestones consist mainly of wide-spread-
ing coral reefs. These older Tertiary strata are often
much disturbed and • broken by intrusive masses of
andesite. Oligocene strata are only known in Eaist
Borneo, where they include extensive deposits of coal.
The diluvium of our author is of considerable economic
importance. It spreads over wide undulating tracts sur-
rounding the Tertiary hills. It includes the principal
sources of the gold and diamonds which, together with
coal, constitute the most valuable mineral resources of
the island. From the diluvium to the alluvium which is
in process of formation at present, there is a gradual
transition.
There are no evidences of any post-Tertiary volcanic
energy in Borneo. The Kina Balu Mountains, at one
time thought to be volcanic, are now known to consist of
ancient eruptive masses. Earthquakes occur, but rarely,
and so far as is known they originate in neighbouring
islands.
In West Borneo a deposit which appears to be identical
with one form of Indian laterite, is described as resulting
from the weathering of the rocks. A similar laterite
occurs near Singapore.
Taking a general survey of the probable geological
history of Borneo, it appears that, up to the beginning of
the Tertiary period, what now forms one united island
consisted of an archipelago like that between Singapore
and Banka. After the deposit of the Tertiary strata
there followed a period when the island had the form of
the Celebes. A tradition among the natives, that the sea
formerly reached to the foot of the mountains, is referred
D
50
NATURE
[May 1 6, 1889
to as confirming the view that the present form of the island
has only been acquired recently.
The useful minerals are described in Part III., and
their distribution is indicated on the map already re-
ferred to. Of most of them Dr. Posevvltz has previously
published separate descriptive monographs.
The rich coal-fields are first described. The seams
are exposed in many river cuttings in Sarav.'ak and
Brunei. Coal also occurs on the Island of Labuan and
in Sabah. There are said to be rich and extensive deposits
in East Borneo also, but they have not been worked.
Gold is of the next importance to coal as a mineral
product. Mining in the older formations has hitherto
not proved remunerative, the best field being from the
diluvial deposits, which are worked almost exclusively by
Chinese. The richest gold regions are in the south-
east, near Tanah Laut and Kusan, on both sides of the
auriferous Meatus Mountains ; and in the north-east, in
the Chinese districts of West Borneo and Sarawak.
Recently, what jjromise to be rich gold deposits have
been discovered in the Upper Segamah River in Sabah.
The production of gold was much more considerable
formerly than it is at present. In West Borneo it amounts
annually to 120,000-150,000 kilogrammes, and in Sarawak
it amounted to 28,281 kilogrammes in 1886.
Diamonds are not, comparatively speaking, so abundant
as gold, but they occur in the same deposits. They are
searched for by Chinese. Since the introduction of the
cheaper Cape diamonds, the production has fallen. In
1884, 2727 carats were exported from West Borneo, and
1200 carats from Sarawak in 1886.
Dr. Posewitz refers to the late Prof Lewis's speculation
as to the connection between diamonds and serpentine
{Peridotite) (Nature, vol. xxxvi. p. 571), but states that
it is not yet known how far his conclusion is correct,
that diamonds and platinum are only found in Borneo
in streams which traverse areas containing serpentine.
Indeed, it may be added that serpentine is of rare occur-
rence in the principal diamond regions of India, and in
some of them none whatever has been observed.
The famous "diamond" of 367 carats, known as the
" Matan," from the territorial title of the Rajah to whom it
belongs, has been estimated to be worth ^269,378 (Craw-
furd). The Dutch made very large offers of money and
warlike material for it early in the present century, but
these were always refused. The stone, it now appears,
was examined in 1868, and proved 10 be only a rock
crystal with a specific gravity of 2 63, thus confirming
doubts perviously expressed as to its being really a
diamond.
Platinum is of very local occurrence in Tanah Laut only.
Antimony and quicksilver only occur, so far as is
"known, in sufficient quantities to be regularly mined in
Sarawak.
Iron ores are widely distributed, but are of no present
economic value. The introduction of cheap European
iron has put an end to the native iron industry, as is the
case, too, in many parts of India.
Dr. Posewitz states that the condition of mining
industries generally in Borneo is at present very poor.
In the south, private coal-mme^ existed, but were put an
end to by an insurrection. The well-known Government
mines at Pengaron ceased working after thirty-six years'
existence, as they were no longer remunerative. A private
company has now commenced to work valuable mines on
the east coast. In Sarawak, mines have been worked by
the Government since 1881, and in 1886 produced 44,167
tons. In Labuan, mines were also worked for some time,
but are now closed. The principal source of supply at
present is from Brunei (Muara coal). It is hoped that in
the British North Borneo Company's territory extensive
workings of gold and coal will be established.
It is impossible to give here an adequate idea of the care-
ful details with which each topic discussed in this work is
illustrated. At the same time there is a highly meritorious
conciseness of treatment which, together with the sound-
ness of the author's views and his careful quotation of his
authorities, makes the work a text-book for which it is to
be hoped that a competent translator into English and an
enterprising publisher will be found. It is emphatically a
work which was much wanted, as our knowledge of the
geology of this important island has hitherto been most
fragmentary and imperfect, and we trust, therefore, thalt,
ere long, steps may be taken to make Dr. Posewitz's
labours better known to Enghsh readers. V. B.
GRAPHICS.
Graphics ; or, the Art of Calculation by drawing Lines,
applied especially to Mechanical Engineering. With
an Atlas of Diagrams. By Robert H. Smith, Professor
of Engineering, Mason College, Birmingham. Part I.
(London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1889.)
MAXWELL was the first, according to the Intro-
duction of the present treatise, to state the
principles in a very complete and general manner by
which stress-diagrams are drawn, in the Phil. Mag.,
xxvii., 1864 ; and also in the Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh,
vol. xxvi.
But Maxwell himself is careful to point out that he
derived the original idea from Mr. W. P. Taylor, or at
least was unaware of his previous use of the method.
The method is of much greater antiquity, and can be
traced through Moselej''s " Mechanical Principles of En-
gineering and Architecture," 1843, to Mutton's " Course
of Mathematics," 181 1, and probably still further back.
It is, however, only of recent years that Maxwell's treat
ment has been followed up and developed by Cremona,
Culmann, von Ott, and others ; and now the method is
considered indispensable in practice for the calculation
of the stresses in bridges, roofs, and engineering and
architectural structures generally.
Two great advantages of the graphic method recom-
mend it to the practical man — the first, that the diagram
is itself a check upon the correctness of its construction ;
and the second, that the numerical results of the diagram
are read off on a scale only to the really practically signi-
ficant number of figures, the very roughness and imper-
fection of the draughtsman's work showing the margin of
variation to be allowed for.
As to the relative rapidity of the graphic method com-
pared with ordinary numerical calculation by logarithms
and arithmetical processes, the author points out that, while
for a single isolated calculation the graphic method may
easily be distanced, it is in the long-continued series of
May 1 6, 1889]
NATURE
51
operations of the same character required by the engineer,
shipbuilder, or constructor in general, that the graphic
method takes the lead once the calculator has got his
mental operations thought out, and his instruments in good
order; for which purpose Chapter I., on instruments, gives
valuable hints and information.
Chapter II. explains succinctly the plan of the book in
its applications to graph-arithmetic. Chapter III. ; graph-
algebra. Chapter IV. ; grapho-trigonometry and mensura-
tion, Chapter V., &c., and lastly, grapho-dynamics,
experimental and mathematical tabulation.
It is in the later chapters that the full power of the
graphic method is developed, but in the earlier chapters
the student is exercised by well-chosen practical examples
in the mental operations and manipulation required in
the advanced processes. The student of ordinary mathe-
matical processes will find here graphic solutions of geo-
metrical loci, and the solution of quadratic, cubic, and
other algebraical and trigonometrical equations, illus-
trated by carefully-drawn diagrams in the atlas of
plates. But the author appears to underrate the value
of the planimeter on p. 63, in its application to the evalua-
tion of the irregular areas encountered in indicator dia-
grams, shipbuilding, and railway engineering.
In Chrystal's " Algebra," the importance of the graphic
solution in integers of the loci represented by indeter-
minate equations of the first and second degree is pointed
out ; and in the present work the graphic solution of the
general quadratic and cubic equations by means of acare-
fully-drawn curve, y = ' , or y = — .and its intersec-
10 -^ 100'
tions with a straight line, is also developed, and illustrated
in the Atlas of Diagrams. • .
■ The logarithmic curve, y = t", or lo>^^, would also be
useful for the graphic solution of transcendental equations
of the form —
\a^ -\- D.v + F = o,
required in the problem of the hydraulic buffer.
Again, in trigonometry, the solution of the equation —
a cos ^ + ^ sin ^ = ^,
or the summations 2 cos (a -}- «/3) or 2' sin (a -f ;//3) by a
graphical method, or drawing Lissajous's figures graphic-
ally, would tend to impart freshness to a subject at
present running in a narrow dry rut. Paper ruled into
small squares of centimetres and millimetres, suitable for
graphic methods, can be obtained in Germany, of Carl
Schleicher and Schiill in Diiren, for instance.
It is curious to notice that the fresh and original ideas
and treatment of elementary mathemathical subjects due
to Maxwell and Clifford are to be found embodied and
adopted only in practical and technical treatises, such as
the present work. Elementary mathematical treatises are
in danger of becoming as dry and orthodox as a religious
creed : examiners, on the one hand, are forbidden to set
ideas out of the groove of a few antiquated text-books ; and
examinees, on t'he other hand, dare not allow themselves
to learn new ideas and methods, for fear of finding them-
selves at a disadvantage with old-fashioned examiners.
Some reflections on p. i8i of the present work on the
radiant-energy-carrying ether show, however, that the
author allows himself occasionally to indulge in the
purely abstract speculations dear to SirW. Thomson and
Mr. Macfarlane Gray.
Chapter IX., on the " Kinematics of Mechanisms,"
covers much the same ground as Kennedy's " Mechanics
of Machinery," and follows Reauleaux's treatment in his
" Kinematik." Chapter X., on "Static Structures, Frames,
or Linkages," and Chapter XI., on " Flat Static Structures,
containing Beam-Links," contain the applications of the
graphic method to problems most commonly encountered
by the practical designer.
The consideration of" Solid Static Structures" in Chap-
ter XII. follows very usefully as a check upon the in piano
treatment of the subject in the two preceding chapters.
The failure of many very scientifically-designed bridges
in America has shown that it is not sufficient to treat the
beam in elevation only, as if it was a vertical plane struc-
ture ; but that the torsional rigidity is of importance
whenever the load is applied in the least degree
eccentrically.
A glossary of special terms and symbols is inserted
at the beginning, containing without redundancy the
new terminology useful in this subject ; and an index
completes the work, in which we should like to have seen
a complete list of books in English bearing on this and
kindred subjects, such as Cotterill's " Applied Mechanics,'
Eagles's " Constructive Geometry," Clarke's " Graphic
Statics," Wormell's "Plotting, or Graphic Arithmetic";
also McLay's articles on " Geometrical Drawing," now
appearing in the Practical Engineer.
The author promises a second part dealing with "The
Distribution of Stress and Strain," " The Strength,
Stiffness, and Design of Beams and Struts," " Economy
of Weight in Structures," " Stresses in Redundant Struc-
tures," " Statics and Dynamics of Machines," " Frictional
Efficiency," " Governors and Fly-wheels," " Valve Gears,"
" Practical Thermodynamics of Furnaces, Boilers, and
Engines," " Hydrostatics and Hydrokinetics of Ships and
Hydraulic Machines"— all subjects of great practical and
theoretical interest, to which we shall look forward with
much pleasure. A. G. Greenhill.
THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF IRON.
The Chemical Analysis of Iron. By Andrew Alexander
Blair. (London : .Whittaker and Co. Philadelphia :
J. B. Lippincott, 1888.)
OF all the branches of quantitative analysis practised
for the control of industrial processes, none is of
greater importance than that which concerns iron. The
precise relationship of chemical composition to mechan-
ical properties is by no means fully ascertained ; but a
great deal of excellent work has been done in this
direction, and we know in several cases the kind of
variation in physical properties which is, cceteris paribus,
to be expected to accompany a variation in the quantity
of one constituent. We know, moreover, how extra-
ordinarily great this physical change may be, com-
pared with the change in composition. When we reflect
that a quantity, which in most other technical analyses
is within the error of experiment, may become the
criterion by which an iron is appraised, we must recog-
nize the necessity of accurate methods of analysis for
this particular commodity.
52
NATURE
{May 16, 1889
The present work is stated to be a " complete account
of all the best known methods for the analysis of iron,
steel, pig-iron, iron-ore, limestone, slag, clay, sand, coal,
coke, and furnace and producer gases," and we may say
at once that the book realizes its title in a very admirable
way.
The author brings high credentials to his task, having
— as chief chemist to the United States Board, appointed
to test iron, steel, and other metals in 1875, and as chief
chemist to the United States Geological Survey and
tenth census 1880 — devoted many years to the subject.
He records, he says, the results of his own experience, and
there is a personal flavour about the work such as is too
seldom found in modern hand-books. One feels in read-
ing the descriptions of apparatus, processes, and pre-
cautions, that they are not merely what the author has
collated, but what he has seen and done and learned.
There are many novel arrangements of apparatus de-
scribed, many improvements of detail in various ana-
lytical processes, and altogether the subject is handled
in a thoroughly authoritative and practical manner.
The most striking thing, however, is the elaborateness
and refinement insisted upon in the performance of the
more important operations. There is no attempt to com-
promise unwisely between accuracy and rapidity — these
two desiderata are treated separately. Thus there is a
method described for determining silicon with elaborate
precautions by volatilization in a current of chlorine, and
another in which the amount of silicon in a pig-iron can
be determined in twelve minutes from the time the ladle
is put into the molten iron.
The book begins with a description of apparatus and
manipulation required for sampling, and subsequent
analytical operations. This portion of the work will no
doubt be found useful — but we regard it as sufficient
rather than exhaustive. We can scarcely say as much of
the following 20 pages, devoted to reagents. There seems
to be some uncertainty as to the chemical knowledge
expected from the operator. The information about
chlorine that it is a yellowish gas, about two and a half
times heavier than air, sparingly soluble in water, and the
somewhat obvious truth which completes this description,
that " when required it must be made," will probably
fall flat upon a person who a few lines further on is
expected to know that chromic acid should not be dried
by filter-paper. And again, if one is to be told the
equations which represent the preparation of ammonium
sulphide, why should not one be told why it " becomes
yellow by age, or on exposure to air " ? We think this
portion needs revision ; superfluous information should
be removed, and the descriptions should be made more
complete. We think also that it would be much to
the benefit of the very large number of half-informed
persons engaged in the routine analysis of iron, if the
theory of the analytical process were described always at
the beginning of a chapter instead of being interspersed
(and then often imperfectly) with the details of opera-
tions. In these respects Mr. Blair's work might be
improved, but in the main features there is no fault
either of omission or commission. The book is beauti-
fully printed, is supplied with full marginal notes and
luxurious woodcuts, and is altogether a much more
presentable volume than the British analyst is accustomed
to have about him. We have no doubt it will be very
cordially welcomed in the numerous iron and steel works
laboratories of this country.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
Ai^riciilttiral Canada : a Record of Progress. By W.
'Fream, B.Sc, LL.D., &c. (1889.)
Last year. Dr. Fream, as Commissioner of the Canadian
Government, visited Canada, for the purpose of reporting
upon the position and prospects of agriculture in the
Dominion, and his Report has now been published under
the direction of the Government of Canada. The author,
who was well fitted for the task by his previous know-
ledge of Canada, appears to have visited every province
in the Dominion, from Nova Scotia on the Atlantic sea-
board to British Columbia on the Pacific. Numerous
details concerning the climate, and the geological, bota-
nical, and other natural features of the northern half of
the North American continent, are interwoven with the
more prosaic facts bearing upon the agricultural deve-
lopment of an area as large as that of Europe. Some
parts of the Dominion, little known even in Canada, are
dealt with in special detail. The fine rolling prairie
occupying North-Western Manitoba, and stretching away
through Assiniboia to the banks of the North Saskat-
chewan River, is selected for favourable notice, but this
region has at present to be explored on horseback or on
a " buckboard." Far away to the west, in Alberta, there
appears to be another fertile and beautiful region await-
ing development, in the Rosebud country, which includes
the Red Deer Valley. The attempt to unravel the com-
plicated surface features between the Rocky Mountains
and the Pacific deserves notice, and some reference is
made to the little-known Kootenay district. The Com-
missioner extended his travels across an arm of the
Pacific to Vancouver Island, the southern point of which
is capable of considerable agricultural development. To
the production of cattle, horses, grain, cheese, and fruit,
the agricultural energies of the Dominion are chiefly
directed, and the Report strongly urges the Government
not to moderate one iota the stringency of the quarantine
regulations, whereby alone Canadian cattle are kept free
from contagious disease. The Report, as a whole, might
advantageously take the place of nine-tenths of the school-
books which profess to deal with Canada.
Longmans" School Arithmetic. By F. E. Marshall, M.A.,
and J. W. Welsford, M.A. (London : Longmans,
1889.)
This work owes much of its value to its being drawn up
on the lines laid down by De Morgan. This is shown
by the importance attached by the authors to computation
in the early part of the work, and by the copious use of
diagrams in the chapters devoted to vulgar fractions. A
moving cause to such a casting of the book is the import-
ance which has been attached to De Morgan's methods in
the recently issued report of the Arithmetic Committee of
the Association for the Improvement of Geometrical
Teaching. With such an admirer of the Professor as the
late President of the Association is, on the said Committee,
we should expect such a result. Much space is devoted
to oral exercises ; this being so will account, in a measure,
for the written explanations not being quite so full as we
have seen them in other text-books. The treatment of
recurring decimal fractions is thorough, the unitary method
is employed in the solution of examples, and considerable
care has been expended upon the commercial arithmetic. A
large body of exercises is furnished in the text for solution,
and very many specimens of examination papers as well as
papers of miscellaneous exercises come at the end. There
are a/ew small matters, in an appendix and elsewhere, .
May 1 6, 1889]
NATURE
53
which call for more careful and precise statement, but on
the whole the work is calculated to be useful, and we can
recommend it for school use.
Glimpses of Feverland : of, A Cruise in West African
Waters. By Archer P. Crouch, B.A. Oxon. (London:
Sampson Low, 1889.)
In this volume Mr. Crouch presents a record of the
impressions made upon him by the land and people of
certain portions of West Africa, which he visited in
connection with the laying of a cable to put various
places, principally French and Portuguese, in telegraphic
communication with Europe. A large part of the book
is devoted to an account of what he saw during his
passage from Accra, on the Gold Coast, to the Portu-
guese island of St. Thomd. Afterwards we have a full
description of St. Thom(? and St. Paul de Loanda, and in
several concluding chapters the author sums up the
incidents of his voyage homewards. Mr. Crouch is so
good an observer, and has so frank and lively a style,
that his narrative, taken as a whole, is fresh and interest-
ing, although his subject is often, apart from his treatment
of it, dreary enough. He is particularly successful in those
passages in which he seeks to give his readers glimpses
of native customs and superstitions. It is worthy of note
that he has formed a very unfavourable judgment as to
the intellectual and moral qualities of the Negro race ;
but on this question, with regard to which he differs
widely from Mr. Stanley, he perhaps speaks rather more
positively than the extent of his experience warrants.
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
I 77ie Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions ex-
pressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake
to return, of to correspond with the writers of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications. ]
The Meteoritic Theory.
I H.WE during the past six months been led from the study
of our own atmosphere to consider certain phenomena relatinc;
on the one hand to the solar atmo-physics, and on the other hand
to the evolution of our own globe and its atmosphere. There
has thus arisen in my mind a system of cosmo{/ony which has
led me, quite independent of Mr. Norman Lockyer's published
course of reasoning, back to a meteoric theory that will,
I hope, be acceptable to yourself and others. Awaiting
'.he preparation of these views fjr publication, I have had
occasion to look over the report on the total eclipse of the sun,
July 1878 (Professional Papers of the Signal Service, No. i,
Washington, 1881). I quote from pp. 49 and 50 some para-
graphs to show the connection between views then held and
those at which I have recently arrived.
Washington, April 29. Clevfxand Abbe.
" Under these circumstances, I could but regard the sugges-
tion that occurred to me on July 29 as a slight but important
extension and modification of the views previously held. . . .
It amounted to saying that a large part of the phenomena of the
outer corona is essentially non-solar, having to do with cold
meteoric matter that is beyond the solar gaseous atmosphere and
is shining by reflected light, . . . rushing on its way to plunge
into the sun's atmosphere, where, within a few hours, it would be
<lissipated. . . . That these lieams were due to wholly new
meteor streams . . . now for the first time approachin<j the sun.
... I am now inclined to extend this view to very many of the
radiating dark artd bright lines observed during eclipses, and
would explain most of them as due to brightly iduminated
groups and streams of meteors and to large meteors followed by
trains. . . . Those meteors that enter the solar atmosphere and
become incandescent will of course shine with a greitly in-
creased splendour, and thus constitute a portion of the inner
corona ; these thus show us the limit of the gaseous atmosphere
«f the sun, . . . The extreme limit may bo located at a distance
of five minutes (of arc) above the sun's surface, and is very
likely to be less than this. . . . Meteors glow as shooting-stars
when tliey strike our atmosphere with a relative velocity of from
twenty to forty miles per second, and at an altitude of about one
hundred miles, where the density of the atmosphere may be
about 3 X lo"" times that which prevails at the surface. Now
these same meteors will, when they have approached to within
130,000 miles of the sun's surface, have a momentum at least a
hundred times greater than that with which they enter the outer
limit of the earth's atmosphere ; therefore we are allowed to
assume the density of the outer limit of the supposed solar
atmosphere to be but the hun Jredth part of that of the earth,
or 3 X io~" ; this gives us for the base of the solar atmo-
sphere a density and a pressure quite within plausible bounds."
The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs.
Thosk who have read the additional appendix in the edition
just published of Mr. Darwin's work on coral reefs will doubt-
less have observed that whilst the recent evidence there pro-
duced against the theory of subsidence lies chiefly in observations
on living reefs in the Florida seas, in the Western Pacific, and in
the Indian Ocean, the new testimony advanced on behalf of the
theory is in the main indirect in bearing, and is based ou
assumptions that have yet to be proved.
Referring to the latter evidence in the order of mention, I come
first to the 90-fathom neef off Socotra, a reef that is assumed to
have been lowered by a movement of subsidence into its present
position. So defective is our knowledge of the depths at which
coral reefs may grow, and so incomplete is our acquaintance
with the complex agencies that combine to produce a coral reef
or to limit and prevent its growth, that the inference respecting
tlie depth of the Socotra reef may be truly characterized as
based on an unproved assumption. At present our acquaintance
with the fauna of the submarine slopes of tropical islands in the
Indian and Pacific Oceans, between the depths of 20 and 100
fathoms, is of the scantiest description ; and we are not in a
position to hazard even a guess on the subject, much less to
assume that an island like Socotra has experienced a movement
of subsidence because it possesses a reef "submerged in some
places to a depth of over 90 fathoms." It is owing to our
ignorance of the fauna in these depths that it has not been
possible to identify the great numbers of minute molluscan shells,
which occurred in the upraised post-Tertiary muds discovered
by me in the Solomon Islands ; and it is of the lack of such know-
ledge that Prof. K. Martin in his recent great work on the
Tertiary formations of Java naturally complains. Surely, when
the biologist is fain to acknowledge his want of acquaintance
with the matter, and when as a consequence the palaeontologist
and the geologist have to bring their labours to a standstill from
the lack of comparative material, it seems rather dangerous for
the coral reef speculator to assume what has never been properly
examined.
If, therefore, we have yet to determine the limit of depth of
the growth of coral reefs, we are scarcely in a position to advance
as evidence in behalf of subsidence the thickness of certain up-
raised beds of coral limestone in the West Indies and in the
Sandwich Islands. Even if such evidence should be ascertained
to be valid in itself, it must be remembered that Mr. Murray in
his theory places no limit to the possible thickness of coral reefs,
and that in the outward growth of a reef a considerable thickness
may be produced. There was, in truth, no circumstance more
impressed on my mind in the Cocos-Keeling Islands than the
seaward extension of ciral reefs.
Once more, however, I would impress on future investigators
the extent of our ignorance of the depths in which coral reefs
may form. In one of my papers (Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1885-
86, p. 887) I have pointed out that the estimates of observers in
different regions vary between 5 and 40 fathoms. It is also
singular how different observers may vary in the conclusions they
draw from the same lines of soundings. The soundings off
Keeling Atnll were made by Captain Fitzroy himself, and he
places the limit of depth at 7 fathoms ("Voy. Adventure and
Beagle" ii. 634) ; whilst his companion, Mr. Darwin, judging
from the same soundings, concluded that it lay between 12 and
20 fathoms. In truth, as long since pointed out by Prof.
.Semper, the whole question of the depth of the reef-coral zone
has never been methodically investigated. It never occurred to
Mr. Darwin or Prof. Dana that coral reefs might grow in depths
beyond the belt of sand that apparently limited their growth. Yet
54
NATURE
[May 16, 1889
such I found to be actually the case on the slopes of Keeling
Atoll, where Captain Fitzroy's soundings were taken. Few, in
fact, who have read the work of the young naturalist of the
Beagle, can sufficiently realize how scanty were the data on which
the fundamental inference of the theory of subsidence was based ;
and I may safely add that few must be the scientific questions
that have been settled on a scantier basis of observation than
that relating to the depths at which reef-corals grow.
With regard to the sections exhibiting the submarine profile
of the reef of Masamarhu Island, I was first at a loss to under-
stand why their character should be advanced as favouring
the idea of a movement of subsidence, since, when they
first appeared in Nature (vol. xxxvi. p. 413), I regarded
them as favouring Mr. Murray's views. However, it soon
appeared that this opinion was based on our inextensive
acquaintance with the habits of corals, especially with the limit-
ing causes of their extension in depth. The "ditches" shown
in these sections I look upon as indicating the formation of
barrier-reefs at considerable depths, and as giving remarkable
support to my views on the origin of these reefs. In the paper
above quoted I have been led by the observations of Agassiz in
the Florida seas, and by my own in the Solomon Islands, to the
conclusion that the main determining condition of the depth in
which reef-corals thrive is to be found in the injurious effect on
coral growth of the sand and sediment produced by the breakers,
and that the distribution of these materials is dependent on
the angle of the seaward submarine slope and on other less
important circumstances.
It follows from this that in those localities where the sub-
marine slope is moderate, a barrier-reef will f )rm beyond the
belt of detritus derived from the shore-reef inside it. But when
the slope is fairly steep, as in the case of Keeling Atoll, the
reef debris will cover an area of much less horizontal extent,
and, as at these islands, an off-lying line of coral shoals will
spring up at a distance only of 150 or 200 yards from the inner
reef. Should, however, the slope be precipitous, as at Masa-
marhu Island, the reef debris will extend to considerable
depths ; and beyond the area thus covered with sand and gravel,
a line of reef will in the course of time grow upwards, giving
rise to the so-called "ditches " of the sections.
Reefs of all classes, as I hold, have a two-fold mode of
growth seawards. There is first the advancement of the outer
edge of a reef on its own talus, as dwelt upon by Mr. Murray.
In the second place, they grow seaward by a reclaiming pro-
cess, whether they be fringing, barrier, or circular reefs. The
distribution of the sand and debris, guided by the angle of the
submarine slope, determines, as above shown, this second mode
of growth, which may result, as at Keeling Atoll, in a line of
adjacent coral banks that ultimately reclaim a new strip and add
it to the width of the reef, or a more distant barrier reef may
appear at the surface, the lagoon of which silts up and is choked
with coral in the course of ages, or, as at Masamarhu Island,
there may occur a deeply-submerged barrier-reef that can be
discovered only by methodical soundings.
Let us take the instance of Keeling Atoll to illustrate the
present condition of this controversy. In a series of papers on
this celebrated atoll, that I am preparing for the Royal Scottish
Geographical Society, I have shown that the direct evidence of
subsidence adduced in its case by Mr. Darwin is, according to
Mr. G. C. Ross, its present proprietor, founded in error. In
- truth, Mr. H, O. Forbes, during his visit in 1878, observed
evidence leading in his opinion towards a movement of upheaval.
In default, then, of direct evidence, we have to look for the
indirect proofs to certain a priori considerations, based on a
few soundings that appeared to demonstrate once and for all the
limit of depth of the reef-coral zone, a subject concerning which we
still have very incomplete data. Then we are transported across
the Indian Ocean to the go-fathom reef of Socotra, the origin of
which, for the reason ju:t stated, is hidden in mystery. After-
■ wards, appeal is made to the thickness of reef limestones in
Cuba and in the Sandwich Islands, limestones which, it is
alleged, could only have been formed during subsidence, not-
■ withstanding that their exact nature has not yet been deter-
mined, and in spite of the circumstance th?t reefs can attain a
consideral)le thickness, as Mr. Murray rightly holds, solely by
their outward growth.
If a visitor from another planet, having thus fa- followed the
discussion, were to inquire in an apologetic manner whether,
instead of going to the other hemisphere for evidence wa had
'methodically endeavoured to investigate the problem on the
spot, by patiently studying the complex agencies at work on
this atoll, by carefully inquiring into the changes of the past,
and by interpreting through their aid the proce-ses of the
present, we should be obliged to answer: " .Scarcely at all. A
theory advanced on the very threshold of such an investigation
explained so well our limited knowledge by a movement of
subsidence, that it is only of late years that doubts have arisen
and that a new theory has been advanced opening up the lines
of research to which you refer." H. B. Guppy.
" Bambangala."
I SHALL be glad if you will allow me to call the attention of
those who visit the Congo Free State to the curious antelope
called " Bambangala," which is spoken of by Captain Bateman
in his "The First Ascent of the Kasai," lately published by
Messrs. George Philip and Son. Captain Bateman describes it
as being " in size as large as a mule ; of a bright chestnut colour,
striped with creamy white, much in the manner of a zebra, on
the back and sides, and dappled on the neck and flanks."
From the form of the horns shown in the figure (which, by
the kind permission of Messrs. George Philip and Son, is here
reproduced from Captain Bateman's book), it would appear that
this antelope must belong to the genus Tragelaplms, but probably
to a new species.
I should be very glad to examine specimens of the head and
horns of this antelope, in case any of your correspondents in the
Congo should meet with it, or to have some further information
on the subject from those who have visited that region.
P. L. SCLATER.
Zoological Society of London, 3 Hanover Square,
London, W. , May 7.
Inclusion of the Foot in the Abdominal Cavity of a
Duckling.
A DUCKLING, four days old, sent from Eastry in Kent, hatched
on April 25, 1889, presented the above curious abnormality.
The ngiit lower extremity was normal in every respect ; the left
appeared on superficial examination to be absent. An incision
made through the skin over the left flank at once disclosed the
left limb, the joints being flexed to their utmost extent, and
the thigh adducted, so that it lay in contact with the ab-
dominal muscles of the left side ; at the tibio-tarsal joint the
limb passed through the wall of the abdomen, a few millimetres
above the symphysis pubis. A portion of the yolk-sac protruded
at the aperture by which the foot penetrated tlie abdominal
wall. Opening the abdomen showed the rennind.-rof the yolk-
sac, its connection with the ileum, and the left foot lying upon
the surface of the intestines. This included foot was fully
developed, having a complete web, an 1 being covered with
scales. An adhesion exi.sted between the outer surface of the
yolk-sac and the left leg in the region of its tibio-tarsal joint, and
there were also adhesions of the sac to the skin of the abdomen,
May 16, 1889]
NATURE
55
covering the lower part of the tibial muscles. This adhesion of
the yolk-sac to the leg had apparently taken place after the full
development of the limb ; and the yolk-sac, in the course of its
w ilhdrawal into the cavity of the abdomen, had apparently
drawn the foot in with it. The withdrawal of the yolk-sac is
generally held to be brought about by the absorption of its con-
tents ; if the above explanation of the existing condition be
correct, a considerable force must be exerted by this act of
absorption if it is capable of dragging the foot, from its normal
position, into the cavity of the abdomen.
E. Waymouth Reid.
.St. Mary's Hospital, W., May 6.
Atmospheric Electricity.
I SEND you the following account of a curious, and, I believe,
rare electrical phenomenon witnessed last week by a friend of
mine and myself.
We had, in the course of a long mountain ramble, reached the
summit of Elidyr Fawr (3033 feet), a mountain lying to the north-
east of Llanberis, and about four miles north of Snowdon. Being
a short distance in front of my friend, I sat down and rested with
my back to the cairn, sheltering myself from a cold south wind
which was blowing with considerable velocity. In about two
minutes I heard a curious buzzing sound commence, apparently
proceeding from the top of the post set up not long ago by the
Ordnance surveyors. I had heard the same noise about three
years ago while descending the areU of the Weisshorn, and
on that occasion, as on this, there was a south wind blowing,
accompanied by snow — on the Weisshorn in large flakes, on
Elidyr Fawr in fine powdery flakes. On the Weisshorn, for
above an hour every rock seemed to emit the peculiar buzzing
noise, and our ice-axes did the same. We were in too great a
hurry, however, to pay much attention to the phenomenon. A
day or two after, I related my experience to a gentleman, Mr.
Powell — who, I tnist, will forgive me for mentioning his name —
and learned from him that he had had a similar experience on
the Unter-Gabelhorn, near Zermatt. The day was on that
occasion, if I remember right, clear, when the noise was heard,
followed in a short time by a flash, and a shout from two of the
party that they were struck. No harm was done by the shock,
but the sensation was described as being like that which would
be felt if every hair of the head were caught hold of and
violently twisted. Having heard the sound before, I readily
recognized it on Elidyr Fawr, and resolved if possible to study
the phenomenon more closely. I first climbed on to the cairn,
and found that the sound proceeded from the whole surface of
the wood for about two feet from the top of the post. I then
raised my stick, which had an iron point, and found that the
sound began to proceed from it directly a height of about six
feet from the ground was reached. I then put my hand on the
part emitting the sound, but could feel nothing. On putting my
stick down, and keeping my hand up, the sound proceeded from
my hand — from more or less of it according as I raised it higher
or lower — and I imagined that on the back of my hand the
sensation of being very slightly pricked in many places was
perceptible. My friend was much impressed by the peculiarity
and intensity of the sound, and agreed with me that it would
not be wise to stay long. As_we proceeded along the ridge,
after a slight drop, we rose again, and while standing on some
rocks, the noise began in our caps, accompanied by such an
agitation of the hair that it quite seemed as if we had literally a
" bee in the bonnet." There was no sound of thunder, and in
the course of about half an hour the srow-storm passed away,
not however before we had descended far below the enchanted
summit. C. A. C. liowLKEK.
Halo of the Moon and Formation of Peculiarly Shaped
Clouds at Oxford.
I NOTICED the following very beautiful phenomenon on the
night following May 8, aid it seems to me worth recording. At
9.45 p.m. the moon was surrounded by a very large halo, tlie sky
being quite clear in the immediate vicinity of the same, with the
exception of a small accumulation of clouds at the lower part of
the halo (to the left of the spectator).
At 10,45 '^s h^'o ^^^ completely disappeared, and a large
cloud was obscuring it and the moon. The margin of the
cloud was split up into tongue-like protuberances. At U.20
the halo had again appeared, but it was not so bright ; the moon
was hidden from the spectator by some clouds.
At 1 1. 30 the clouds had disappeared, and the moon was shining
out brightly, but the halo was only very slightly visible, and that
only at its highest point. Just before it began to disappear
gradually, some of the clouds with the peculiar tongue-like pro-
tuberances already mentioned were formed, but they disappeared
again after a few minutes. As was to be expected, we had
rain on the following day, and some already during the same
night.
I need only just mention that the halo is supposed to be pro-
duced by the refraction of light by crystals of ice. Brewster
proved this by viewing the sun through some plate-glass on
which he had allowed some alum to crystallize out in a thin
sheet, when he saw a number of rings closely resembling halos.
Otto V. Darbishire.
Balliol College, Oxford.
Spherical Eggs.
The problem of packing the greatest number of equal spheres
into a given space, to which Prof. Aldis has drawn attention in
your columns, is the simplest case of a more general problem
which I have employed in my theory of crystallization (Cam.
Phil. Trans., vol. xiv. part 3) — that is, the packing of the
greatest number of equal and similar ellipsoids into a given space.
The solution is that the ellipsoids should be arranged in a manner
similar to that described for spheres by Profs. Aldis and Green -
hill, so that every ellipsoid be touched by twelve others, and,
further, that all the ellipsoids be similarly situated. The curious
result comes out that so long as the ellipsoids are all similarly
situated the orientation of the axes makes no difference in the
number of them per unit volume. They may be turned about,
provided they are all similarly turned, without affecting the ratio
between the space filled by them and the unfilled space between
them.
In the case of spheres, if tangent planes be drawn through
all the points where the spheres touch one another, they will cut
up space into regular rhombic dodecahedrons, every sphere being
circumscribedby such a dodecahedron. Now, of plane-faced figures
which can be described about a sphere and which will exactly
fill space, the smallest in volume is the rhombic dodecahedron ;
hence the spheres arranged in the way described occupy the
minimum volume. In like manner if tangent planes be drawn
through all the points where the ellipsoids touch one another, they
will divide space into dodecahedrons with quadrilate>-al faces,
which will be unsymmetrical, but will be all similar and equal.
If the ellipsoids be all turned in a similar manner the dodeca-
hedrons will alter in form but not in volume. These dodeca-
hedrons are the smallest which can be described about the
ellipsoids consistently with the condition that they shall exactly
fill space. The condition of similarity in the situation of the
ellipsoids involves the consequence that, if we consider one
ellipsoid and the twelve others which touch it, four planes can
be drawn each passing through the centres of seven ellipsoids.
The points of contact of the ellipsoids will lie in those planes,
and the tangent planes through these points will be parallel to
the diameters conjugate to those planes. Other geometrical
properties follow which do not concern the present problem.
Cambridge, May 10. G. D. Liveing.
Columnar Structure in Ice.
There are several notices in existence on the subject of the
columnar structure of ice, to which attention has been called by
Mr. La Touche (Nature, May 9, p. 35). For instance, a
letter by myself in ihe first volume of Nature (p. 481), which
contains references to sundry cases of the occurrence of the
structure in Britain .ind in other parts of Europe, and offers a
suggestion as to the cause. The structure may often be seen,
if looked for, and is be t exhibited when a very gradual thaw
follows a hard frost. T. G. Bonney.
SCARLET FEVER AND COIV DISEASE.
FEW questions have within recent years more en-
grossed the attention of the veterinary and medical
professions of this country, and have been the subject of
greater or more acute controversy, than the relation of
56
NA TURE
[May 1 6, 1889
human scarlet fever to cow disease. As is well known,
the Medical Department of the Local Government Board,
through the Reports of Mr. Power, Dr. Cameron, and Dr.
Klein (1886), have brought forward a formidable array of
facts, by which it was established that, in an epidemic of
scarlet fever prevailing towards the end of 1885 in the
north of London, the contagium was distributed through
a milk supply derived from particular milch cows at a
dairy farm at Hendon, which cows were affected with
ar specific eruptive and visceral disease — the Hendon
disease. It was further shown (Report of the Medical
Officer of the Local Government Board, 1887) that this
cow disease is to be considered as cow scarlatina, and
that both human and cow scarlatina are associated with
and caused by a microbe, the Streptococcus scarlatince.
The veterinary profession, headed by the Agricultural
Department of the Privy Council, have been foremost in
the opposition to these statements. In the Report " On
Eruptive Diseases of the Teats and Udders of Cows,"
issued towards the end of 1888 by Prof Brown, the chief
of the Agricultural Department, a superabundance of
opinions were forthcoming, and, as often happens under
the circumstances, fact has appeared for a while in danger
of being smothered in the confusion engendered. But,
happily, facts are stubborn things, and not easily stifled.
However much trampled on, facts are ever prone to re-
assert themselves and to multiply, and one result of the
cow controversy has been that the recently issued Report
of the Medical Officer of the Local Government Board
gives promise of a new and abundant crop of them. The
first subject bearing on this controversy and dealt with in
the recent volume is the significance of the Streptococcus
scarlatince. Many and various have been the assertions
as to this microbe being an unessential concomitant of
the disease. The experiments now made by Dr. Klein
(Appendix B, No. i, Section A.), with artificial cultures of
the Streptococcus scarlatina; on recently-calved milch
cowf, show that an eruptive and visceral disease is pro-
duced in these cows which closely resembles the Hendon
disease, and consequently lend firm support to the view
previously enunciated by the Medical Department that
the Streptococcus scarlatince is the real microbe of scarlet
fever.
Amongst a further array of facts therein marshalled,
some that are historical obtain, in view of the cow
controversy, fresh interest and importance. It is pointed
out (Section B.) that, before the time of Jenner, " cow-
pox" was the familiar name given to every sort of
sore on cows' teats ; that, with recognition by Jenner of a
form of sore denominated by him variolce vaccina, one
particular cow-pox obtained the distinctive name of
" true," while all others became designated as "spurious " ;
and that, except for Ceely's notable endeavours to obtain
better knowledge, '■ spurious cow-pox," blister-pock, and
the like vague terms continued to be used indifferently
for all sores on the teats and udders that were not
" true cow-pox." So the matter stood for eighty years,
until at the Hendon farm a second definite member
of this group was recognized by Mr. Power, when the
old division into true and spurious cow-pox became
manifestly insufficient. It was now seen that the name
" spurious cow-pox " had in all probability been used to
cover a variety of sores having essential differences in
nature, just as, until the time of Jenner, the name " cow-
pock " had covered along with various other things the
disease which we know as vaccinia. But it is one thing
to have learnt the essential nature of those sores of the
cow that are concerned with vaccinia or scarlatina in
the human subject, and quite another thing to affirm the
distinguishing characters by which these may be recog-
nized from other sores that once on a time laid claim to
being equally with them "cow-pox "or" spurious cow-pox."
It is very obvious, too, that our new discontent with the
name " spurious cow-pox " does not at once give us know-
ledge of those sores which remain on the list, while it is
equally clear that there are many kinds of such sores.
In these circumstances there was nothing to be done
but to begin over again the study of cow-poxes with a view
to learning of each one its complete natural history. And
this has been the procedure of the Medical Department,
with the result that a considerable instalment of positive
knowledge respecting certain cow eruptions is afforded
in the Report already referred to. When it is said that
there was no alternative procedure to that adopted by
the Medical Department, no more is meant than that from
the scientific stand-point no alternative was possible.
Other ways there were, of course, of dealing with the
subject, as, for instance, in its " practical " or trade
aspects, or from the sentimental point of view. That
adopted by the Veterinary Department of the Privy
Council is not easy of definition, but it may be described
as a method of composite character by which uncertain
science and excess of sentiment are oddly interjumbled.
It has consisted in flat denial of the possibility of cow
scarlatina, along with reversion in the matter of cow-
po.xes to the attitude of the cow-man of pre-Jennerian days.
Thus Prof. Brown, in the earlier pages of his Report in
denial of cow scarlatina, speaks indifferently of " eruptive
disease among cows," " udder disease among cows,"
'"outbreaks of udder disease common as usual," "a very
common eruptive affection which is usually called cow-
pox by dairymen," and the like. And throughout his
Report Prof. Brown studiously avoids giving a name to
any udder disease or diseases with which he is dealing.
Only once does his reader, when referred to Plate 4, at
the end of Prof. Brown's volume, obtain hope of some de-
finite nomenclature ; but he turns to the plate in question
only to be confronted with such terms as " blister-pock"
and " blue-pock " — terms of the pre-Jennerian prototype.
Having thus smoothed the way for discovery of a cow-pox
(or "Hendon disease") not associated with scarlatina
among consumers of the milk of the affected animals.
Prof Brown would seem to exercise almost superfluous
caution in his phrasing of the following passage at p.
vii. of his Report : — " Leaving for the present the subject
of the original Hendon cow disease in 1885-86, it is
necessary to refer to outbreaks of the same or similar '
cow disease which occurred at Hendon and elsewhere in
1887-88." Be this as it may, he had of course no difficulty
whatever in finding instances of one or another cow malady,
which it pleased him to call " Hendon disease," not as-
sociated with scarlatina among persons consuming the
implicated mill:. This sufficed for Prof Brown, and for
a while, perhaps, he was altogether content.
But Prof Brown's confidence in his own opinion,
fortified as it had been by his failure in the early stage
of his investigation to find any udder affection associated
with illness t.f scarlatinal sort among consumers of the
milk of the affected cows, was destined later on to re-
ceive somewhat rude shocks. Prof McFadyean, a
coadjutor of Prof. Brown's, having made discovery at
Edinburgh of an udder malady associated with sore
throat among persons consuming the milk of the cows
affected by it, Prof Brown, on personal examination
of the Edinburgh cows, was constrained to admit for
this disease clinical characters distinguishing it from
any that he himself had been investigating, and patho-
logical features very similar to those of the original
Hendon disease.
Of this Edinburgh disease (the pathology and cetiology
of which are described by Dr. Klein in Appendix B., No. 2)
Prof McFadyean notes that it "differed in every im-
portant respect from true cow-pox," and that (hke the
Hendon disease) " it did not cause sores on the hands of
the milkers." Here, then, on the evidence of the Veterinary
Department, was a cow malady that was not cow-pox,
' 1 he italics are curs.
May 1 6, 1889]
NATURE
57
that was not the " Hendon disease" of Prof. Brown, but
which was associated with throat illness among consumers
of the milk of the affected cows — ^just such a cow malady,
in fact, as the Medical Department stated could have,
and had, existed without recognition by veterinary
surgeons.
SKELETON OF PHENACODUS.
A LL readers of the American Naturalist must be
-^*- familiar with a striking woodcut of the entire
skeleton of a peculiar fossil Ungulate, which occurs
throughout a long series of numbers among the adver-
tisements, and bears the following somewhat startling
subscription, viz. " The five-toed horse — the ancestor of
lemurs and man." This fisrure we are enabled, throuerh
the courtesy of Prof Cope, to reproduce in the accom-
panying woodcut. The name given by its describer. Prof.
E. D. Cope, of Philadelphia, to the animal of which the
skeleton is so marvellously preserved, is Phenacodtis
primavits ; the genus forming one of the best-known
representatives of that very curious extinct group of
generalized Ungulates for which the Professor has
proposed the name Condylarthra.
Till quite recently those zoologists who have not enjoyed
the good fortune of visiting the United States have been
acquainted with this remarkable and unique fossil only
by description and figures ; the largest figure being the
fine plate in Prof Cope's magnificent quarto work on the
" Tertiary Vertebrata of the West," published a few years
ago by the United States Government among the Reports
of the Geological Survey of the States. Some months
ago, however, the Keeper of the Geological Department
The Skeleton oi i'henacodus priinavns; from the Wasatch Eccene of Wyoming. One-seventh natural size. (After Cope.)
of the British (Natural History) Museum entered into
negotiations with Prof Cope, to whom this priceless
specimen belongs, with a view to obtaining a plaster
model for exhibition in the pateontological galleries of
the Museum. Fortunately these negotiations have been
attended with success, and all students of Mammalian
osteology ought certainly to pay a visit to the Museum in
order to see this beautiful cast, which is now mounted in
its place, and is, we will venture to say, of far more value
to the student than many of the real but fragmentary fossil
specimens for which large prices have been paid. We
may indeed congratulate the popular Keeper of the Geo-
logical Department in not hesitating to pay what we
believe was a somewhat heavy price for the acquisition of
this cast.
No figures could, indeed, possibly give an adequate
idea of the marvellous state of preservation of the original
specimen ; and we must confess that personally we totally
failed to acquire a conception of the real size of the
specimen till we were brought face to face with the cast.
The original skib was obtained some years ago by Mr.
J. L. Wortman from the Wasatch Eocene of the Big-
Horn basin in Northern Wyoming, and was subsequently
transferred to the collection of Prof Cope, of which it is
one of the chief gems. The Wasatch beds, it may be
observed, are low down in the Eocene, and when v.'e con-
sider that so many of even the Upper Eocene Mammals
of Europe are known only by isolated and often imperfect
skulls, teeth, or limb-bones, we are struck with the mar-
vellous preservation of the American form. The dimen-
sions of the slab are about 49 by 28 inches ; and Prof.
Cope describes the animal as intermediate in point of
size between a sheep and a tapir. The animal lies on its
right side, with the tail bent suddenly down behind the
58-
NATURE
{May 1 6, 1889
posterior limbs, and the shoulder-blades thrown up from
their proper position some distance above the line of the
vertebral column. The skull is almost entire, and although
the scapulas are imperfect, and the right pectoral, limb
has sustained some losses, all the bones of the skeleton are
in their original juxtaposition, so that we may note the
arrangement of the bones of the carpus or tarsus almost
as well as in the skeleton of a recent type. It strikes us,
indeed, that it would have been quite easy to have ex-
tracted the skull and many of the bones of the limbs
from the matrix, and made entire casts from them, which
could have been placed in cavities in the cast from the
original slab.
The chief importance of this and other American
specimens of fossil Mammals belonging to totally extinct
types is their completeness, whereby we are enabled at
once to gain a very fair idea of the affinities of the anirnals
to which they belonged. In Europe, with the exception
of the well-known Mammals of the Upper Eocene (or
Lower Oligocene) of the Paris basin, our efforts are
nearly always hampered by the imperfect nature of our
specimens — as witness the question whether the limb-
bones from Hordwell described, by Kowalewsky are or
are not referable to the Dichodon of Owen, which was
founded upon the evidence of .the skull — so that we can
very rarely speak confidently and fully as to the affinities
of any particular form. It may, indeed, be stated, without
any fear of contradiction, that we could never have hoped
to have attained anything like our present knowledge as
to the mutual affinities of the various sub-orders (or
orders) of Ungulate Mammals and their relations to
other groups, had it not been for the fortunate dis-
coveries of such a host of well-preserved specimens in
the Tertiaries of the United States. And we may here
express the obligations which all European students are
under to those palaeontologists who, like Messrs. Cope,
Leidy, Marsh, Osborn, Scott, and others, have laboured
so indefatigably to collect and describe the Vertebrate
faunas of past epochs in the so-called New World. In
expressing thus briefly our obligations to these eminent
exponents of the life-history of a former world, we must,
however, not omit also to mention the enlightened
liberality of the Government and of various learned
Societies in the States, which have furnished the funds
necessary to render these treasures available to the world,
through the means of the magnificent publications in
which they are described.
In concluding this brief notice of the new treasure re-
cently aquired by our National Museum, we may say a
few words regarding some of the chief characters of the
Condylarthrous Ungulates. One of their most essential
features is the comparatively simple arrangement of the
bones of the wrist and ankle joints (carpus and tarsus) ;
the various rows preserving their original distinction, and
having only very slight mutual interlocking. In this
respect, this group agrees with the existing Hyracoidea so
closely that Prof Cope has considered himself justified in
brigading the two groups together under the common
title of Taxeopoda. Usually ihe dentition comprises the
full number of teeth found in those higher, or placental,
Mammals in which the teeth are differentiated into
groups ; and very generally the cheek-teeth have their
crowns formed on what is known as the bunodont type.
That is to say, their crowns are low, and carry three or
more low and blunt tubercles, as exemplified in the pig
and in man. Further, the eye or canine teeth are well
developed, and recall those of the Carnivora. Again, the
humerus, or bone of the upper arm, has a foramen at its
lower extremity, which is totally unknown in all other
Ungulates, and likewise recalls the Carnivora and some
of the lower orders. The digits are nearly always five in
number, and their terminal joints are so pointed as fre-
quently to render it difficult to say whether their coverings
should be termed nails or hoofs. The femur, or leg-bone.
has a third trochanter, like that of existing Perissodactylate
Ungulates ; and the ankle-bone, or astragalus, has its
lower articular surface uniformly convex, instead of flat-
tened or facetted as in all modern Ungulates. The astraga-
lus and the wrist joint are, indeed, very similar to the same
parts in the generalized Carnivora of the Eocene. The tail
was larger and heavier than in any existing Ungulate, and
was thus more like that of many Carnivora, such as the
wolf In walking, it appears that the three middle toes
of each foot touched the ground, whilst the first and fifth
toes stuck out on the sides and behind, after the fashion
obtaining with the second and fifth toes of the pigs.
The curious approximation made in the osteology of
this remarkable type of Mammal to the generalized Carni-
vora of the Eocene, to which Prof Cope has applied the
name of Creodonta, is so marked that Dr. Max Schlosser,
of Munich, considers that we are now justified in regard-
ing the Ungulates and the Carnivores as divergent
branches of a single primitive stock. Phenacodiis is-
regarded, moreover, by Prof Cope, as the ancestral type
from which a number of the more specialized Ungulates
have been derived ; and there appears every probability
that this genus should be placed as one of the earlier
links in the chain which culminates in the modern horse.
Recently, however, the American Professor has
proposed to include in the Taxeopoda not only the
Hyracoidea and Condylarthra (which it was originally
formed to receive), but also the Primates of English
zoologists, which it is proposed to divide into the Dauben-
toidea, represented by the existing aye-aye {C/iironiys)
and the t.x\.mct Mtxodectes ; the Ouadrumana, embracing
the other lemurs and monkeys ; and the Anthropo-
morpha, which is taken to include the man-like apes and
man. A complex genealogical tree is given, in which the
Phc7tacodo7itidce are represented as not only the pro-
genitors of the other Ungulates, but also as giving origin
on the one hand to the so-called Daubentoidea, and on
the other to the Quadrumana, from which the Anthropo-
morpha are derived as a secondary branch from the
Eocene Lemuroid Aticiptoinorphido' , which group is itself
derived from the Adapidce, as represented by the well-
known Adapts of the Upper Eocene cf Europe.
Now, with all dua respect to Prof. Cope, we venture to
say that no English zoologist will be inclined to accept
a classification which includes in a single " order " such
widely different forms as man and the hyrax, while the
other Ungulates are apparently regarded as constituting a
totally distinct order. Again, in regard to the genea-
logical tree it appears to us to be incomprehensible how
an order like the Primates, all the members of which are
furnished with fully-developed clavicles, can have takers
origin from an Ungulate type like Phenacodiis, in which
it appears that those bones are totally wanting. While^
therefore, fully recognizing the great interest of Phena-
codiis as an ancestral type, we totally fail to see how
it can also be regarded as the " ancestor of lemurs and
of man." R. L.
THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE.
^pHE twentieth session of the Iron and Steel Institute
-*- was opened on Wednesday, May 8, when the President^
Sir James Kitson, gave his inaugural address, which was
of a technical character, and was devoted mainly to the
consideration of the best Yorkshire iron as an industrial
product ; but the subject of iron alloys, to which we shall
refer again, the extending application of iron and steel for
railways and ships, and other matters of interest, such
as technical education and the revival of trade, were also-
referred to.
The first paper read was one on the alloys of nickel and
steel, by Mr. James Riley. This led to a very lengthy and
interesting discussion, from which it appeared, as has
May 1 6, 1889]
NATURE
59
often occurred in similar instances, that another metal-
lurgist had been working in the same direction for a con-
siderable time. The results obtained by Mr. F. J. Hall, of
Messrs. Jessop'a, of Sheffield, and Mr. Riley are very
similar in character, but whilst the former appears to have
made what may be called industrial experiments, those
of the latter have been mainly confined to the laboratory.
Nickel can be made to form an alloy with steel, in
quantities varying from a hardly appreciable amount up
to as much as 50 per cent. ; the alloy does not require an
excessively high temperature to melt it, special attention
is not necessary in its production, the resulting metal is
definite in character, and is easily worked both under the
hammer and in the rolls. A very remarkable increase in
the tensile strength and elasticity of steel is produced by
alloying it with nickel. Among many tests given by Mr.
Riley, the following specially referred to by him may be
cited : — " In No. 6, the carbon present (o"22) is low enough
to enable us to make comparison with ordinary mild
steel, which would give (when annealed) results about as
follows : elastic limit, 16 tons, breaking strain, 30 tons,
extension 23 per cent, on 8 inches, and contraction of area
48 per cent. Therefore, in this case the addition of 47
per cent, of nickel has raised the elastic limit from 16 up
to 28 tons, and the breaking strain from 30 up to
40'6 tons, without impairing the elongation, or contrac-
tion of area to any noticeable extent." In his remarks
Mr. Hall referred to his applications of nickel steel to gun
barrels, propeller blades, and other purposes during recent
years, and concluded by observing that in an experiment
he had made about twelve months ago, he had obtained
with nickel steel a tensile strength of 97 tons per square
inch, with an elongation of 7 per cent. Another im-
portant point with regard to nickel steel referred to by
Mr. Riley is its non-corrosibility when the alloy contains
25 per cent, of nickel, for, with low proportions of nickel,
ordinary mild steel and nickel steel appear to corrode in
About the same proportion. In the discussion Mr. White
(the Chief Constructor of the Navy) drew attention to the
■question of cost, as affecting the application of materials
in practice, and with nickel at ^224 a ton, or ^56 as the
cost of the nickel in a ton of 25 per cent, nickel steel, it is
a consideration.
The next paper, on the manufacture of basic open-
hearth steel, by Mr. J. H. Darby, also gave rise to an
important discussion. From the paper and discussion it
may be inferred that the basic steel industry has not made
so much progress in this country as it has done in
■Germany. This may be due to the circumstance that
German ores are mainly phosphoric in character (Mr.
Thielen, who spoke as to his experience in Germany,
stating that of the steel no v produced in the Siemens
furnace in Germany 70 or 80 per cent, was produced in
the Siemens basic furnace), or to the " Batho type " of
furnace used in this country being inapplicable to steel-
fnaking, an opinion expressed as well by the author of
the paper as by speakers who followed him. Mr. Windsor
Richards could not understand why they had gone away
from the rectangular furnace of Sir William Siemens, and
was pleased to say that since he had returned to it his
difficulties had come to an end ; Hvhilst Mr. John Head,
Mr. Frederick Siemens's representative, spoke of a new
form of regenerative gas furnace, recently built and tried,
which consumed about 50 per cent, less coal than the
original regenerative gas furnace, and promised a paper
on the subject for the autumn Paris meeting of the Institute.
A statistical paper on the progress made in the German
iron industry since 1880 was read by Mr. R Schroedter.
One on the influence of copper on the tensile strength of
steel was read by Messrs. E. J. Ball and A. Wingham, in
which the authors state that from a general consideration
of the results of their experiments it would seem that
within certain limits copper does not prejudicially affect
the mechanical properties of steel. In this they agree
with a theory brought by Prof. Roberts-Austen before the
Royal Society last year to the effect that small quantities
of a metallic impurity exert a deleterious effect on a large
mass of another metal only if the atomic volume of the
impurity is greater than that of the metal in which it is
hidden. Mr. Bauerman, in discussion, expressed the
opinion that it was not the copper, but the sulphur which
generally came with the copper, that was injurious to iron.
The papers on universal rolling-mills for the rolling of
girders and cruciform sections, by Mr. H, Slack, and on
the Thomasset testing-machine, by M. Gautier, were
mainly of mechanical interest. M. A. Pourcel read a
paper on the application of thermal chemistry to metal-
lurgical reactions.
ROBERT STIRLING NEW ALL, F.R.S.
OBSERVANT travellers by the Great Northern Scotch
express may see, as it nears Newcastle, the low
dome of an astronomical observatory on the eastern side
of the line. It is a spot which will be memorable in the
history of astronomy, and it marks the home of a man
who combined the practical sagacity and inventive skill
which have made England the first industrial nation in
the world, with the love of science which must be added
to these if it is to hold its place.
Mr. Newall, whose death we chronicled a fort-
night ago, was a successful manufacturer. When he
was still a young man, a friend who was studying mining
in Saxony informed him that cables made of iron wires
were largely used there, but that the process of making
them was " unmechanical," and suggested that he should
invent a machine for the purpose. This he did, and wire
ropes of his construction are now used all over the woi'ld.
From time to time he improved on the original design,
and so lately as 1885 he devised a new machine by which
the rope is made at one operation, the double process of
first making the strands and then combining them being
avoided.
His interest in his business was not, however, confined
to the gradual development of his earlier patents. He
was quick to see that wire rope might help in solving the
difficulties which had to be overcome before submarine
telegraphy was an accomplished fact.
Sir Charles Wheatstone had clearly conceived the
possibility of electric communication between England
and the Continent as early as 1837. In 1840 he gave
evidence on the subject before a Committee of the House
of Commons, and references were made to his suggestion
in the public Press. His drawings and notes show, how-
ever, how diffi:ult the problems of insulating and
preserving the cables seemed to these early pioneers.
The insulation was attained by the use of gutta-percha
—of which Mr. Newall received a portion of the first
sample transmitted to this country — but the cumbrous
devices at first suggested for protecting the outer cover-
ing of the cable were forgotten when Mr. Newall pro-
posed that the " gutta-percha lines containing insulated
wire should be surrounded with a strong wire rope "
(pamphlet by Mr. R. McCalmont, dated September
19, 1850).
The first cable, laid between Dover and Cape Grisnez,
in which this plan was not employed, broke after one
day. The first successful cable, which was laid on Sep-
tember 25, 1 85 1, by Mr. Crampton, was manufactured
by Mr. Newall, and protected by wire.
The submergence of cables in seas deeper than the
English Channel presented greater difficulties, and the
Newall drum-brake, which was introduced in 1853, and
afterwards for a time abandoned, has since been again
employed, so that, as Mr. F. C. Webb stated at the
Institute of Telegraph Engineers in 1876, "we have come
back to the old drum-brake of Newall."
6o
NATURE
{May 1 6, 1889
Mr. Newall took an active part in superintending the
actual laying of many cables, and on these occasions he
showed the qualities of a leader of men— cool in
an emergency, confident in his own resources, and
undismayed in disaster. " Gentlemen, it's over now ;
ye may go to bed," was his only remark when a cable
broke involving a loss of many thousands of pounds.
During the Crimean War he laid a wire insu'ated in
gutta-percha without sheathing of any kind from Varna
to the Crimea. It was run out over the stern through
hand leathers held by the cable men in turn. He formed
one of the boat's crew that left to seek help for the pas-
sengers of the P. and O. steamship Alma, wrecked in
1859 in the Red Sea.
But, during this busy life, Mr. Newall never allowed
his love of pure science to be crushed by the weight of
the practical affairs in which he was engaged. The suc-
cess of submarine telegraphy was due to no one in-
dividual only, but to Mr. Newall belongs the credit of
inaugurating a new era in the construction of refracting
telescopes. He had long wished to possess a refractor
of large dimensions, and in the Exhibition of 1862 he
discovered two large disks of crown and flint glass,
manufactured by Mr. Chance, of Birmingham. He
at once saw that his opportunity was come, secured
the glass, and placed it in the hands of Mr. Cooke, of
York.
As the result of his boldness in risking a very large
sum on an experiment the success of which was most
uncertain, Mr. Newall carried, at one bound, the diame-
ter of the largest object-glass from 15 to 25 inches. His
observatory was a spot to which the most distinguished
astronomers journeyed, and to which Profs. Newcomb,
Holden, and Alvan Clark came as a deputation from
the other side of the Atlantic.
Mr. Newall's original idea was to mount the telescope
in the Mauritius, and spend as much time as possible
there himself This plan has never been carried out, and
the great Newall refractor has never yet had a fair chance
under the adverse skies of Newcastle. Almost his last
act was to offer it as a gift to the University of Cam-
bridge, and it is to be hoped that it may there add to the
high scientific reputation that University has won.
To have established a new industry, to have taken
an active part in securing a triumph of applied science
which will modify the history of the world, and to have
led the way in the development of the refracting tele-
scope, is a record of achievement to which few attain,
but which does bare justice to the life-work of Robert
Stirling Newall.
NOTES.
The Report of the Royal Commission appointed to consider
the expediency of establishing a Teaching University for London,
has been laid on the table of the House of Commons, and the
Blue-book may be expected in the course of the next week.
The Commissioners are agreed — first, that the petition of the
Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons to be authorized to
grant degrees in medicine should not be entertained ; secondly,
that it is desirable that London should have a Teaching Uni-
versity. On the third point— whether a charter shall be granted
to the associated Colleges of King's and University, constituting
these Colleges the Teaching University of London — the Com-
mission are divided. The three Commissioners connected with
the teaching profession (Sir William Thomson, Prof. Stokes,
and Mr. Welldon), are in favour of it ; the three lawyers (Lord
Selbome, Sir James Hannen, and Dr. Ball), are opposed to it.
The Report ends with a request that this question be referred
back to the Commission for their further consideration, in order
that they may determine whether it is not possible to devise
a scheme of common action between the two Colleges and tP»e
existing University of London.
Prof. Stokes will deliver the Rede Lecture on Wednesday,
June 12, at 2 p.m., in the Senate House, Cambridge, the sub-
ject being, " Some Effects of the Action of Light on Ponderable
Mattel-."
The Museums and Lecture Rooms Syndicate, Cambridge,
have been authorized to have quantities taken out and tenders
invited for the proposed Anatomical and Physiological Buildings,
in three distinct blocks.
Mrs. de la Rue has presented to the Royal Institution the
philosophical apparatus of the late Dr. Warren de la Rue. A
fine portrait of Sir Humphry Davy has been presented to the
.same Institution by Mr. James Young, grandson of the late
Dr. James Young, F.R.S., of Kelly, the former owner of the
portrait.
The Swedish Government has decided to send a man-of-war
to New York to bring home the body of Captain Ericsson, who
expressed a .strong desire to be buried at Langbanshyttan, in
Vermeland, the place of his birth. In his will no directions are
given as to the disposal of his valuable collection of models, but
Swedish journals state that the executors will present them to the
Smithsonian Institution .
The last mail from Bombay brings news of the formal open-
ing, by Lord Reay, of the Jubilee Technical Institute in that
city. The Times of India, commenting on this event, says it
forms a notable landmark in the educational history of Bombay.
That the Institute meets a public want is shown by the circum-
stance that it already numbers two hundred and forty students,
while nearly half as many are awaiting nomination. The origin of
the Institute is this. When Lord Ripon was about to leave India,
a movement was set on foot to signalize his Viceroyalty by a
memorial of some kind, and subscriptions were collected for the
purpose. Soon after Lord Reay's arrival in Bombay there arose
suggestions for the formation of a technical school. The Govern-
ment in January 1887 promised a grant of 25,000 rupees annually,
and recommended to the Municipal Corporation of Bombay that
80,000 rupees which they proposed to devote to commemorating
the Jubilee of the Queen's reign should be devoted to the founding
of a technical institute. The other funds were amalgamated with
this, and a Board of management was formed ; but still the funds
were found insufficient, until at last the munificence of Sir
Dinshaw Petit came to the rescue. He presented the Board
with a noble building, and work began at once, and the formal
official opening took place recently, although, in fact, the
Institute has been open for several months. The immediate and
signal .'uccess of the Institute Lord Reay attributes in no small
measure to the fact that in starting the movement its originators
did not allow themselves to yield to the demand for a programme.
The Upsala University and the Swe.iish Geographical Society
have sent Dr. Carl Forsstrand to study the marine fauna of the
West Indian Islands during the present summer.
The Indian papers report the death from cholera, at Ran-
goon, of Dr. Robert Romanes, Professor of Science in the
Rangoon College, and Chemical Examiner to the Burmah
Government.
In the horticultural part of the Paris Exhibition there are
some splendid beds of Darwin tulips in full bloom. The
flowers are magnificent, and a sergent de ville keeps watch
over them — an unusual proceeding in France, where flowers
are never in ordinary circumstances stolen from public gardens.
Unfortunately the presence of an unusual number of foreigners
makes this precaution necessary. In the same part there is a
very curious exhibit of Japanese horticulture. It consists of a
May 1 6, 1889]
NATURE
61
number of specimens of dwarfed trees — trees which are usually
tall, but in the present case hardly attain the height of 2 or 3
feet. This exhibit excites much interest among gardeners.
Zoologists will be interested in the exhibit of the Principality
of Monaco at the Paris Exhibition, as all the implements used
by the Prince in his dredging experiments are to be shown,
with numerous specimens of deep-sea fauna. The exhibit of
the results of the Talisman researches will unfortunately be
scanty.
Last week, Mr. Ralf)h Moore, Inspector of Mines for the
Eastern District of Scotland, on his retirement from that post,
which he has held for t\venty-sev3n years, received a farewell
present from a number of gentlemen connected with the Scottish
coal and iron trades. In thanking the donors, Mr. Mooie gave
some interesting details of the improvement in mining appliances
since he first was a colliery manager, forty-eight years ago. At
that date, he said, there were cages at two or three collieries in
the county of Edinburgh, but there was none in Lanarkshire.
The coals were all drawn in corbes. A few years after, there
was not a single colliery without them. Pug engines were first
introduced about 1845. Ventilating furnaces were of the most
primitive description. Fans were unknown. The first fan in
.Scotland was put up in 1868 ; now there were hundreds, and
scarcely anyone thought of doing without a fan. The amount
of ventilation in a colliery was from 8000 or 10,000 down to as
low as 1000 cubic feet per minute, and now there were some
collieries in the district with 250,000 cubic feet per minute.
Last year he made the calculation that eight tons of air were
sent into the mines for every ton of coals extracted. Wire ropes
were not in use at the time of which he spoke ; now there was
nothing else. Underground mechanical haulage was practically
unknown ; now it was universal. Many large collieries had only
one shaft, now all had two. A coal-owner putting out 100,000
tons a year was a large coal-owner. There were coal-owners
now putting out over 600,000 annually. As a consequence of
all these improvements, the output of minerals in the district,
which in 1856 was 4,500,000 tons, was now 17,000,000 tons,
and the death-rate, which in 1853 was one for every 250 persons
employed, is now about one in 800.
In connection with the Congress of German Anthropological
Societies, which is to meet this year at Vienna, a large exhibi-
tion of prehistoric objects is being formed. All the smaller
public collections and the most important private ones of
Austria will be represented.
Sir W. Brandford Griffith, Governor of the Gold
Coast, has reported to Lord Knutsford the occurrence of
a smart shock of earthquake at Accra on April 5, at 12.2
noon. The seismic wave seemed to run from south to north,
and was felt at Aburi, twenty-six miles to the northward of
Accra. Sir W. B. Griffith had not heard of any serious damage
being caused in the colony, nor, so far as he could hear, was
the earthquake felt at sea or at Addah. Christ iansborg Castle,
ihe Government House at Accra, was once laid in ruins by an
earthquake.
Earthquakes still continue in the neighbourhood of Vyernyi
in Turkestan. On February 19, at 3 p.m., an earth-tremor was
felt after a fortnight of absolute rest. The shock was quite
isolated, and lasted but a few seconds. Another slight shock was
felt during the night, at 2 a.m. On February 25, at 11 a.m., a
noise like that of a discharge of a battery of guns was heard, and
the soil was set in motion for about three seconds. Many houses
cracked, but there was no loss of life.
La Nature of April 27 contains a representation, by photo-
lithography, of an interesting synoptic table of weather predic-
tion, by MM. Plumandon and Colomes, whereby anyone may
find mechanically the probable weather, by observing the
direction of the wind, as based upon fourteen years' ob-
servations at the Puy-de-Dume Observatory. The table
from which the representation is reduced, is printed in
six colours, and is divided into eight sectors correspond-
ing to the principal directions of the wind, and comprising
216 weather conditions. A m-vable indicator, with three
arms, works upon a pivot ; one arm being moved to re-
present the wind direction as shown by the clouds or a
good wind-vane, the others then point to the region of
lowest barometer, and to the probable weather, indicated by one
of the cases referred to. These conditions are contained in a
few words, and differ for each season of the year, and for
different states of the barometer, e.g. high, low, &c. The prin-
ciple involved is merely an application of the rule known as
Buys Ballot's law ; " Stand with your back to the wind, and
the barometer will be lower on your left hand than on your
right," combined with the experience gained in weather predic-
tion during the last thirty years. A card somewhat similar ir>
principle was published some years ago by the late F. Pastorelli.
Persons unable to consult daily weather charts may find the
diagram very useful.
In a private letter recently received from Dr. Macgregor, the
Governor of British Guinea, an interesting account of his trip in
the Hygeia through the Louisiade Archipelago and the adjacent
groups of islands is given. He found them, he says, all thickly
inhabited, the natives being in thousands, and in many cases
very wild — so wild, in fact, that he thinks it probable they had
never seen a white man before. On some of the islands he found
hot mud-springs, some of them being strongly impregnated with
sulphur. Gold was found on many of the islands, but in no
instance was it in payable quantities.
According to Allen s Indian Mail, the Madras Museum
now possesses the skeleton of the largest elephant ever killed in
India. This elephant was the source of great terror to the
inhabitants of South Arcot, by whom it was killed and buried.
The Museum authorities despatched a taxidermist to the spot
to exhume the bones and transfer them to Madras. The skele-
ton is exactly 10 feet 6 inches in height, being 8 inches higher
than the highest hitherto measured in the flesh by Mr.
Sanderson.
Mr. Lester Ward has recently claimed an American origin
for the entire genus Platanus, of which the plane and the syca-
more are the best-known species. It occurs abundantly, how-
ever, in these isles, in the Lower Eocenes of Mull, Reading,
and the Middle Eocene of Lough Neagh, the former being
probably at least as old as the beds in which it makes its earliest
appearance in America. It probably came into existence in the
Old World in late Cretaceous time=.
Dr. Marion describes, in the Annales des Sciences Geolo-
giqiies, a new conifer, having the foliage of Araucaria with the
cones of Dammara, and therefore an essentially Australasian
type, which only became extinct in France in the Miocene-
The material is so perfect and ample that very little more would
remain to be learnt about it, were it still living. The same, or
a nearly allied, species abounded in the Isle of Wight in the
Oligocene. In outward form the tree must have resembled
Cryptoaieria.
The May number of the Ke7v Bulletin opens with an inter-
esting account (with plate) of the Persian dye plant Zalil, pre-
pared by Sir Joseph Hooker for the April number of the
Botanical Magazine. This is followed by an account of Tas-
manian woods, some curious details as to lily flowers and bulbs
used as food, a paper on Pu-erh tea, an account (with plate) of
the short-podded yam-beam, and a list of the staffs of the Royal
62
NA TURE
{May 1 6. 1889
Gardens, Kew, and of botanical departments and establishments
at home, in India, and in the Colonies, in correspondence with
Kew.
In his Report for 1888, just issued, the librarian of the
Mitchell Library, Glasgow, notes, for the third year in succession,
a decrease in the number of volumes issued to readers. This is
believed to be mainly due to the fact that the rooms are not
nearly large enough to provide accommodation for those who
wish to use the library. Even now, notwithstanding the decrease
of attendance, the rooms are often inconveniently crowded. It
seems strange that in a wealthy and intelligent city like Glasgow
there should be the slightest difficulty about the provision of a
proper building for so good a collection of books — a collection
■which, according to the librarian, "is becoming year by year
richer in all departments of literature, better fitted to supply the
wants of every student and every reader."
The Burton-on-Trent Natural History and Archreological
Society have begun to issue "Transactions"; and if we may
judge from the first volume, which we have just received, suc-
ceeding volumes are likely to contain a good deal of interesting
work. The most important paper in the present volume is
a Report, by Mr. John Heron, on certain explorations carried
on at Staplehill in 1881, under the auspices of the Society. In the
course of these explorations the remains of upwards of thirty-six
human bodies were found, accompanied in some cases by personal
ornaments, small iron knives, or weapons of a kind which showed
that the ground had been a burial-place of the English in pagan
limes. The various " finds " are clearly described by Mr. Heron,
whose paper is admirably illustrated by a frontispiece and ten
plates.
The third chapter of the revised editi)n of D.-. Eiias Loomis's
•"Contributions to Meteorology" has been issued. In this
■chapter the author deals with the mean annual rainfall for
■different countries of the globe ; describes the conditions favour-
able, and the conditions unfavourable, to rainfall ; examines
individual cases of rainfall in the United States, in Europe,
and over the Atlantic Ocean ; and defines the areas of low
pressure without rain. Many valuable plates accompany the
text.
The May number of Himmel ttnd Erde (Berlin) opens with
an interesting description of the Lick Observatory, and an
account of its foundation by the Director, Prof. Holden. The
article is illustrated by a view of the giant refractor and the
interior of the Observatory, the presence of three of the ob-
servers serving to give an idea of the immense size of the
instrument. Dr. Mohn continues his account of the Norwegian
North Sea Expedition, and Dr. Wagner concludes his article
on the Krakatab eruption. Other articles and astronomical data
for the month are also given.
The new number of the folk-lore Journal (vol. vii. part 2)
■contains an interesting paper, by Mr. John Abercromby,
on the beliefs and religious ceremonies of the Mordvins, a
people of Finnish descent inhabiting parts of Central Russia,
■who were pagans up to the beginning of the present cen-
tury. The paper gives their conception of the Deity, a list of
the various objects of worship, their account of the creation
and the fall of man, and descriptions of their feasts and sacri-
fices. The paper is one of considerable length. Mr. Edward
Clodd follows up his recent paper on "The Philosophy of
Punchkin" by a similar one called "The Philosophy of Rum-
pelstiltskin," the latter being a generic title derived from the
character in Grimm's well-known Miirchen. An interesting
bibliography of variants of the tale is appended. Students of
folk-lore anxious to aid the Society by practical work will be
glad to have their attention attracted to the appeal of the
Council for volunteers to tabulate certain works which are
mentioned, the method of tabulation being shown at the end.
Messrs. Smith, Elder, and Co. have issued a new edition
of "Wild Life in a Southern County," one of the finest of
the late Mr. Richard Jefferies's writings.
At a recent meeting of the Linnean Society of New York
City, Dr. G. B. Grinnell read an instructive paper upon the
Rocky Mountain goat (Mazania inoniana). The limits of the
range of this animal have never been fully defined by any one
writer. It is a mammal belonging to the Arctic fauna, and
only f.jund among the high and rug'ged mountains of the Rockies
and Coast Range, where the snow lies all the year. The centre
of its abundance seems to be in Western Montana, Idaho and
Washington Territories, and British Columbia, and it has been
found from about latitude 44" to about latitude 65° ; its southern-
most records being on the highest peaks of the Sierra Nevada,
near Mount Whitney. This goat is in no immediate danger
of extermination, as it inhabits the most inaccessible localities,
and has few natural enemies.
Uric ACID has been synthesized by Drs. Behrend and Roosen,
of Leipzig, in a manner which completely settles the question of
its constitution. A few months ago a syntheds of this i nportant
natural compound was effected by Horbaczewski, by fusing
/NH2
together glycocine, CH... NH.,. CODH, and urea, C0<^
\NHi,
High temperature reactions, however, are never satisfactory as
indicating the constitution of organic compounds, inasmuch as
there is always a possibility of inter-molecular change. Hence
a new mode of synthesis a*^ lower temperatures has been devised
by the Leipzig chemists, and carried out in an admirable manner,
every stage being most critically investigated so as to be
absolutely certain of the constitution of the intermediate com-
pounds. The process consists of seven stages : — (i) The substances
started with are aceto-acetic ether, CH3.CO.CH.,. COOC2H5,and
/NH,
urea, COv^ . These two compounds combine logetherwith
^NHo
elimination of water, forming an ether of crotonic acid in which
one of the hydrogen atoms is replaced by the radical of urea,
CH3
I • (2) This substance on
NH2. CO.NH— C=CH— COOC^Hg
saponification with caustic potash yields the potassium salt of
the corresponding acid. The free acid itself readily splits off
NH— C— CH.,
.11'
water, forming the anhydride, CO CH , methyl uracil, as
I i
NH— CO
it is termed. (3) On treatment with fuming nitric acid, the
CH3 of methyl uracil becomes oxidized to the acid radical,
COOH, a nitro-group, NOo, being simultaneously introduced,
NH— C— COOH
I !!
CO C — NO2 . (4) On boiling this nitro acid with water,
NH— CO
a molecule of carbonic anhydride is eliminated, leaving
NH-CII
a substance termed nitro-uracil, CO C — NO^. (5) On re-
I i
NH— CO
duction with zinc and hydrochloric acid, nitro-uracil yields
iso-barbituric acid — a compound which has been shown
May 1 6, 1889]
NATURE
63
in a previous paper of Dr. IJehrend's to possess the consti-
NH— CH
I II
tution CO COH. (6) By oxidation of iso-barbituric acid with
I I
NH— CO
bromine water another acid is obtained, which is found to be
isomeric with dialuric acid, but differs entirely from that acid in
properties ; it is therefore termed iso-dialuric acid. From
its reactions it is shown to correspond to the constitution
NH-CHOH
I I /OH
CO ^"\ OH' It crystallizes in long rhombic prisms contaming
NH— CO
a molecule of water of crystallization, which it loses at
ioo° C. The yield is very good, 80 per cent, or more
of the theoretical. (7) It now only remains to mix this iso-
dialuric acid with one equivalent of urea and six equivalents
of sulphuric acid, the latter to take up three molecules of
water which are eliminated in the reaction between the two
former substances. The reaction is complete in the cold in twenty -
four hours, or in five minutes if the mixture is gently warmed
upon a water-bath. On cooling and adding water, uric acid is
precipitated in small crystals, which, on purification, exactly
resemble those of natural uric acid. The equation is very
readily understood, there being a simple combination of iso-
dialuric acid and urea with formation of uric acid and elimination
of three molecules of water —
-^ + 3II2O.
NH-CHOH NH— C— NH
! I /OH /NH2 I II
CO C< + CO< = CO C— NH
I I ^OH ^NH., I I
NH— CO ' NH-CO .
Iso-dialuric acid. Urea. Uric acid.
Hence the formula of Medicas and Fischer for uric acid may
now be considered as finally proved.
The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
past week include a Purple- faced Monkey {Seinnopithecus letico-
prymnus) from Ceylon, presented by Mr. J. H. Taylor ; a Vervet
Monkey {Cercopithecus lalaiidii i) from South Africa, pre-
sented by Dr. W. K. Sibley ; an Otter {Lzttra vtilgaris) from
Cornwall, presented by Mr. Basset ; a Long-eared Owl {Asio
olus), Briti>h, presented by the Hon. Eric Thesiger ; a Herring
Gull {Lanes argentalus), British, presented by Mrs. Gainsford ;
a Yellow-billed Amazon {Chrysalis panatnensis) horn Panama,
presented by Lord William Cecil ; two Common Kestrels
(Tinnuncuhts alaudarius), captured at sea, presented by
Captain Janes ; two Common Rheas {Rhea americana, juv.)
from Uruguay, presented by Mr. J. D. Kennedy ; a Black
Swan [Cygnus atratus i) from Australia, presented by Mrs.
Siemens ; a Long-eared Owl {Asio otus), British, presented by
the Rev. F. Hopkins ; two Natterjack Toads {Bufo calamita),
British, presented by Master H. Millward ; two Natterjack Toads
{Bufo calamita), British, presented by Master A. Smith ; a
Bonte-bok {Alcelaphus pygargus i ) from South Africa, de-
posited ; a Squacco Heron {Ardea raiioides) from South Europe,
three Japanese Teal {Querqnedtila formosa 3 9 9), from North-
East Asia, an Amherst Pheasant {Thaumaha amherstice i ), from
Szechuen, China, purchased ; two Moor Harriers {Circus
maurus) from South Africa, received in exchange.
OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN.
The Residuals of Mercury. — In a recent discussion of the
perturbations of Mercury {Astronomical Journal, No. 191, April
15, 1889), Mr.' O. T. Sherman has arrived at some important
and highly suggestive results relating to the residuals. His
method ^of determining these appeared in No. 173 of the
Astronomical Journal, and this process has been employed in
obtaining the data given in the article referred to. The values
arrived at show a remarkable relation to the heliocentric latitude
of the planet, the maximum effect being nearer the solar equator,
and the effect decreasing as the latitude increases. Since the lower
latitudes correspond to maximum and the higher ones to mini-
mum solar activity, the apparent connection of the disturbances
of the planet with solar phenomena should also bear some rela-
tion to the sun-spot period, and Mr. Sherman gives figures to
show that this is the case. The chief disturbances occur in the
years when I he sun-spots are increasing in frequency, and it is
pointed out that this result is in strict ace )rdance with the
retardations of Encke's Comet during perihelion passage.
It is further stated that " the forces deflecting the planet are
sunward when the planet is in that part of space towards which,
the sun is travelling, and away from the sun when the planet
follows in his path." This, taken in conjunction with the dis-
turbances of Encke's Comet, seems to Mr. Sherman " to indicate
a considerable amount of matter coming to the sun from space.
If so, its place of meeting with the matter coming from the sun
should abound in collisions, and display local spectra showing
bright lines. Our knowledge of the zodiacal light is fully ii>
accord with such a supposition."
If the more detailed investigations of the residuals, which it
is intended to make when more-observations have been collected^
confirm the results already obtained, we may look for a consider-
able advance of our knowledge, especially of the nature of the
solar surroundings. Already the residuals clearly admit of ex-
planation by supposing that the sun, with its meteoritie
surroundings, in the form of the corona and the zodiacal light, is
moving with considerable velocity through a meteoritic plenum.
In that case the planet would encounter most meteorites when
on the advancing side of the sun, and it would obviously be more
retarded there than elsewhere.
The apparent relation to the sun-spot period is of great interest
in connection with the meteoritic theory of the formation of sun-
spots. According to this theory, there should be most meteorites-
in the solar surroundings at maximum spot period, and greater
disturbances of the planet at that period would therefore be ex-
pected. The collisions between tlie two sets of meteorites would
further produce the spectroscopic phenomena associated with the
zodiacal light — namely, the appearance of a line near wave-length
558, which has been ascribed to manganese. It seems probable
that the variability of this spectrum which has been suspected by
Mr. Sherman (letter to Mr. Lockyer, quoted in Roy. Soc. Proc.^
vol. xlv. p. 248) may also subsequently be shown to be connectedi
with the sun-spot period.
Right Ascensions of North Circumpolar Stars. —
Prof. T. H. Safford, Field Memorial Professor of Astronomy at
Williams College, Mass., has just published a very useful piece
of woik in the shape of a Catalogue of North Polar Stars.
This Catalogue, which is a first instalment of a more extensive
one, the observations for which are now in progress, has beea
constructed by Prof. Safford in order to strengthen what he felt
to be the weak point of all the standard Catalogues, viz. the
right ascensions of Polar stars. It was also a consideration with
him that it would be easier to take account of instrumental cor-
rections if a more extended list of Polars were generally used
than has been the custom. These stars are also of importance
in the study of proper motion?, since their early observations^
are accurate.
The observations for this Catalogue were made at the Field
Memorial Observatory, and not at the Hopkins Observatory of
Williams College, and the meridian circle with which they were
made was a fine one of 4^ inches (French) aperture, by Repsold.
The observations were made at first by eye and ear, but a fillet
chronograph was used in 1887 and 1888. Prof. Safford's inten-
tion throughout was to make his Catalogue a differential one ;
the stars he has relied upon for his instrumental corrections,
being those of Publication 14 of the Astronomische Gesellschaft,
which lie within 10° of the Pole. Besides the catalogue itself,
which contains 261 stars, of which just 200 are within 10° of the
Pole, a very important part of the work is the discussion of the
right ascensions, with a view to clearing up certain points as to-
mode of observation, as well as to find the weights and system-
atic corrections necessary for combining this series with others.
The result of this discussion is to show that it tends to greater
accuracy to base a catalogue of Polar R.A.'s on standard places
in all hours of right ascension rather than on double transits
alone ; that the eye-and-ear method should be used as the stan-
64
NATURE
{May 1 6, 1889
•dard only near the Pole ; and that a thorough comparison of it
with the chronographic method through a wide range of
magnitude and declination is desirable ; that modern meridian
instruments are subject to irregular small changes of position
which are not direct functions of temperature ; and that, there-
fore, it is well not to trust the instrumental zero points for more
than two hours without re-determining the most essential.
Prof Safford is at work on a paper, now well advanced, on
the proper motions of the stars within io° of the Pole, and he
hopes shortly to complete the comparison of the chronographic
and eye-and-ear methods which the present discussion had
■shown him to be needed.
Two Remarkable Solar Eruptions. — Father Jules Fenyi,
of the Kalocsa Observatory, records, in a note to the Paris
Academy of Sciences, his observation of two remarkable solar
■eruptions which he observed on September 5 and September 6,
i888. Both eruptions would have been remarkable had they
occurred at a time of maximum activity ; but, coming as they
did nearly at dead minimum, they stand out as most unusual.
The first prominence was seen to rise from a height of 25", as
seen at 6h. 6m. (Kalocsa M.T. ), to 151" "4 at6h. 19m., its speed
of movement attaining at one time 171 kilometres per second.
A number of brilliant metallic lines were seen, some so bright
that, with a wide slit, they showed as a small prominence,
reaching 19" in height on 1474 K and 15' on the D lines. The
second eruption was seen eighteen hours later, on September 6,
at ilh. 45m., and was even more violent. In 6 J minutes it
•mounted from 37" to 158", with a speed at one time of 296"8
kilometres per second. It was of dazzling brilliance whilst it
lasted, but passed away in about 14 minutes. The two eruptions
were nearly but not quite in the same heliographic latitude.
The first was on the east limb in S. lat. 18° ; the other was
distant some 4^°, and, as the base of each was about 3° in
length, they could not have overlapped, and if connected in
origin, must have sprung from a deep-seated source.
Comet 1889 <!> (Barnard. March 31). — This object is now
too near the sun for observation, but accepting the elements of its
orbit as hitherto determined, it will not travel far from its pre-
sent position for some time to come. Dr. Krueger gives its
position for Berlin midnight (Astr. Nnch., No. 2893) for the end
of May and beginning of July as under, but with reserve from
the uncertainty of the elements : —
1889. R.A. Decl.
h. in. s. o /
May 28 ... 5 6 52 ... 14 I3'i N.
July 3 ••• 5 9 8 ... 12 19 oN.
Log .i.
Bright-
ness.
05099 ... 071
04944 ... 076
5 i8-2 .
25 27 N.
2 1-5 .
.13 8N.
4 i9'2 .
. 21 53 N.
18 321 .
. 23 S.
9 93 •
• 17 35 N-
13 9-0 .
. 6 38 S.
4 0-4 .
■ 18 59 N.
ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE
WEEK 1889 MA V 19-25.
/■pOR the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at
^ ■*■ Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24,
cs here employed. )
At Greenwich on May 19
Sun rises, 4h. 4m. ; souths, lih. 56m. 15 8s. ; daily increase
of southing, 2'8s. ; sets, igh 4Sm. : right asc. on meridian,
3h. 45*6m. ; decl. 19° 52' N. Sidereal Time at Sunset,
iih. 39m.
Moon (at Last Quarter on May 21, 2 2h.) rises, 23h. 50m.* ;
souths, 3h. 50m. : sets, 7h. 53m. : right asc. on meridian,
igh. 37 ■9m. ; decl. 22° 25' S.
Right asc and declination
Planet. Rises. Souths. Sets. on meridian.
h. m. h. m. h. m. h. m. . /
Mercury.. 4 57 ... 13 29 . 22 i
Venus ... 3 o ... 10 12 . 17 24
Mars ... 4 25 .. 12 30 ... 20 35
Jupiter ... 22 48*... 2 44 ... 6 40
Saturn ... 9 42 ... 17 19 ... o 56'
Uranus... 15 48 ... 21 18 ... 2 48'
Neptune.. 4 24 .. 12 ii ... 19 58
* Indicates that the rising is that of the preceding evening and the setting
that of the following morning.
May.
20
23
24
h.
12
3
19
Venus stationary.
Neptune in conjunction with the Sun.
Mercury at greatest elongation from the Sun,
T.'C east.
Variable Stars.
Star.
R.A.
h. m.
Decl.
h.
m
U Cephei ...
... 52-5 .
. 8i 17 N. .
. May
21,
50 y
R Persei ...
... 3 23-0 .
• 35 '8 N. .
•9,
M
U Monocerotis
- 7 255
• 9 33 »• •
21,
M
S Leonis
... II 51 .
. 6 4 N. .
22,
M
S Bootis
... 14 19-2 .
. 54 19 N. .
21,
M
R Bootis ...
... 14 32-3 .
. 27 13 N. .
23.
vt
5 Librae
... 14 55-1 •
.8 5 S. .
20,
22
59 w
U Coronae ...
... !.■; 137 .
.32 3 N. .
19.
I
35 "'
R Draconis ...
... 16 324 .
. 66 59 N. .
24,
M
U Ophiuchi...
... 17 10-9 .
. I 20 N. .
22,
55 »'
22,
21
3 w'
T Herculis ...
... 18 4-9 .
. 31 N. .
24,
M
R Lyrse
... 18 52-0 .
. 43 48 N, .
21,
m
U Aquilse ...
... 19 23-4 .
. 7 16 S. .
25.
2
M
77 Aquilse
... 19 468 .
. 43 N. .
21,
rn
T Vulpeculse
... 20 46*8 .
. 27 50 N. .
21,
22
M
T Cephei ...
... 21 8-1 .
.68 2 N. .
19.
M
S Cephei
... 22 25-1 .
. 57 51 N. .
25.
oAf
M signifies maximum ; m minimum.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES.
In the new number of Petermanri! s Mitleilungt'n, Dr. Rink
describes the recent Danish researches in Greenland, especially
those carried out in East Greenland under the leadership of
Captain Holm. The aim of the expedition was mainly anti-
quarian and ethnological ; at the same time the report of iis
work contains valuable observations on the geology, geography,
and especially the glacial conditions of the region visited. In
the first volume of the Report, the first chapter, by Prof Steen-
strup, is devoted to a discussion of the situation of Osterbygd.
The second chapter contains the report of Captain Holm and
Lieutenant Garde on the results of the expedition of 1883-85.
The principal results may be thus summarized : — Graah's ma|)
of the east coast of Greenland has been corrected and com-
pleted ; a map has been prepared of a part not previously sur-
veyed, and now named Christian IX. Land ; and, after sketches
and information from the natives, the oudine of the coast has
been continued from 66° to 68^° N. la^ It was found that
the country called after Christian IX. was inhabited by a branch
of the Eskimo which, before the arrival of the expedition, had
not been in contact with Europeans. Detailed observations have
been made on their mode of life, their customs, language,
legends, &c., and a large collection made of articles of ethno-
logical interest. During the various journeys of the expedition,
and especially in their winter quarters, systematic researches
were made in the physical geography of the country. Geological
and botanical observations were made and specimens collected
along the east coast. It was found that the east coast of Green-
land is not so inaccessible as has hitherto been supposed. The
expedition explored the east coast as far to the north as it was
at all likely Osterbygd could have been located, without dis-
covering the least trace of buildings which were not of
P^skimo origin, and without finding anything in the physiognomy,
the customs, mode of life, or legends of the natives that couUl
furnish the slightest ground for inferring former relations witi
Europeans. From this it is concluded that Osterbygd could not
have been situated on the east coa-t of Greenland. The third
chapter deals with the geography of Danish East Greenland,
i.e. as far as 66° N. This part of the east coast is divided into
five natural zones — (i) the most southerly part as far as Anarket ;
(2) from Anarket to Ikermiut ; (3) from Ikermiut to Igdlol-
narsuk ; (4) from Igdiolnarsuk to Inigsalik ; (5) the section
which extends to the east of the last-named place. Zones i, 3,
and 5 have strong resemblance.-; with each other, as also zones 2
and 4. The three first-mentioned zones are cut by deep fjords,
crowned with lofty serrated mountains, never covered by the
o.ntinental ice. Some places are characterized by a vegetation
comparatively rich. Beneath the mountains there are, in
general, numerous glaciers, which often descend to the fjords,
and towards the interior is found a mountainous region filled with
large local glaciers. Zones 2 and 4 have a different aspect. The
country is very barien, and the continental ice descends almo^t
directly to the sea, or to the edge of the fjords, only a few moun-
tains or rounded groups of mountains emerging from the ice.
Another characteristic , of the east coast is the parallelism of
May 1 6, 1889]
NATURE
65
I
I
most of the fjords in an E. i S. direction, as compared with the
south-west direction of the fjords on the west coast.
The new number of the MitUilungen also contains a map of
the flora of Schleswig-Holstein, with accompanying text by Dr.
Ernest Krause, and an accounc of a journey to the sources of
*.he Tigris by Prof. Wimsch.
The paper read at Monday's meeting of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society was by Mr. J. R. Werner, on his journeys up
the Ngala and Aruwimi tributaries of the Congo. The Ngala
enters the Congo a little south of 2° N. lat., coming from a
generally north-east direction. A little above its junction with
the Congo is a channel through which the waters of the latter
flow into the Ngala. For a considerable distance the banks of
the river are low, swampy, and forest-clad. Gradually hills ap-
pear, and latterly bluffs, between which the channel narrows
considerably. In May of last year, Mr. Werner accompanied
the steamer to the Aruwimi, which was taking the men to
Major Barttelot's camp at Yambuya. He was surprised at the
number of sand-banks on the lower river, and the difficulties of
navigation. After passing the town of Mokulu, the whole
character of the country seemed to change, the islands stood
higher out of the water and were covered with forest, which was
crowded with palms, the crowns of which looked very pretty
above the trees. The high banks on either side were lined with
villages, or rather the sites of former villages, for the Arabs had
been raiding here, and the natives were now living under roughly
put-up sheds of leaves and sticks ; the conical huts described by
Stanley had almost entirely disappeared, and during the time
Mr. Werner was on this river he only saw s^ix, four of which were
inside Major Barttelot's camp at Yambuya, and the other two
in the village of Irungu. On the high bluff on which Stanley
had found the large town of Yambumba, there was not a single
hut on the vast clearing where the town had been, while on The
opposite bank of the river such of the natives as had not been
killed or carried into slavery were living under sheds and awn-
ings of sticks and palm-leaves. On this side of the river the
baiik was quite low, and offered a strange contrast to the pre-
cipitous bluff on which the town had formerly stood. Above
Yambumba the Aruwimi runs between two ridges of low hills,
which are covered with magnificent timber. There are no more
villages on its banks until Yambuya is reached.
A.FTER the reading of Mr. Werner's paper at the Geographical
Society, there was a discussion on the letter from Mr. Stanley
which was read at the previous meeting. In this discussion Sir
F. De Winton, Sir Samuel Baker, Colonel Grant, Rev. Horace
Waller, and others took part. Sir Samuel Baker's statement
was of considerable geographical interest. Against Mr. Stanley's
doubts, Sir Samuel maintained the accuracy of his original ob-
servations as to the southward extension of Lake Albert Nyanza.
He pointed out that Mr. Stanley himself refers to the very
marked decrease in the size of the lake in the last few years, a
decrease quite analogous to that \\ hich has taken place in Lakes
Tanganyika and Nyassa. This decrease has no doubt tended to
diminish the southern extension of the lake, and bring to light
the vast extent of Ambatch or Sud which Gessi and others
refer to. Sir Samuel maintains, moreover, that it will most
probably be found that the two lakes (Albert Nyanza and Muia
Nzige) are really one, and are known among the natives by one
name. The region which lies between them on our maps has
never been visited by any European explorer. Sir Samuel
pointed out the vast importance to Egypt of a precise know-
ledge of the laws which govern the increase or decrease of water
in the Albert Nyanza, which is really one of the great sources
of supply for the regions on the lower river.
In the May number of the Scottish Geographical Magazine
will be found a very complete account of Samoa and its people
by Dr. G. A. Turner, who has lived many years on the islands.
The town Kara-kol, on Lake Issyk-kul, has received the official
name of " Frjevalsk " in commemoration of the explorer of
Central Asia.
A GEOGRAPHICAL expedition, under the two brothers Grum-
Grzimailo, has lately started for the exploration of the Eastern
Tian-Shan. On April 19 it had reached Tchardjui, on the
Trans-Caspian Railway. Its aim is to connect the explorations
of M. Potanin in North- Western Mongolia with those of
Prjevalsky. One of the two brothers is already well known for
his explorations of the Pamir.
The Russian Geographical Society is sending out the fol-
lowing expeditions: — M. Vilkitzki, who has made pendulum-
observations on Novaya Zemlya, will continue the same measure-
ments in Central and South-Eastern Russia. M. Faussek is
sent out to the shores of the White Sea in order to make zoo
geographical explorations in the Kandalak Bay, as well as for
observations upon the secular rising of the coasts of the White
Sea. M. Andrusoff, whose interesting researches into the
geological history of the Caspian Sea have attracted a good deal
of attention, will continue the geological exploration of Daghestan
and Kuban ; and M, Kuznetsoff will continue in the Caucasus
hisywork upon the geography of plants. M. Antonoff is sent out
to the Transcaspian region for the study of the conditions of
animal and vegetable life in the desert ; and MM. A. P. Semenoff
and Yaschenko will visit the same region for zoological and
botanical researches. Of ethnographical expeditions that of M.
Katanoff to North- Western Mongolia is worth noting. The
investigation of the folk-lore of the White Russians (Byelorusses)
will be continued by MM. Romanoff and Dobrovolsky.
The expedition to Tibet, the departure of which was delayed
by the death of Prjevalsky, is now at the town Prjevalsk
(formerly Kara-kol), and it will start in a few days, via the Bedel
Pass, to Kashgar. The original plan of reaching Lhassa has
been abandoned, and the expedition will limit its explorations to
Eastern Turkestan and North-Western Tibet. It is under the
leadership of Colonel Pyevtsoff, who accompanied Prjevalsky in
all his memorable journeys. It includes also two other travelling
companions of Prjevalsky— MM, Roborovsky and Kozloff — and
a geologist, M. Bogdanovitch, who is commissioned by the
Russian Geographical Society.
THE ROYAL SOCIETY CONVERSAZIONE.
'T'HE annual conversazione, held by the Royal Society on
May 8, was in every way brillianily successful. There was
a numerous attendance, and the programme had been arranged
with the greatest skill and care. We refer to some of the most
novel and important objects exhibited. In addition to these, the
results set forth in many recent papers to the Royal Society were
illustrated by experiments.
Mr. C. V. Boys, F.R.S., exhibited :— (i) Portable Cavendish
apparatus for demonstrating the attraction of gravitation. This
apparatus differs only from the well-known apparatus of Caven-
dish in matters of detail. First, instead of the beam 6 feet long,
carrying heavy weights, used by Cavendish, or half a metre long,
used by Cornu, the beam consists of a piece of lead only i centi-
metre long, and this is inclosed in a round tube of metal, outside
which the attracting weights are placed. This reduction of size
has been rendered possible by the use of quartz threads, the
production of which was shown two years ago. The advantages
gained by the reduced dimensions are increased sensibility, and
almost perfect elimination of temperature disturbances. The
particular apparatus exhibited is designed to show the effect, and
that it is the same from time to time, rather than to determine
the constant of gravitation absolutely. By arranging the two
attracting weights and the two ends of the attracted body at
different levels, the deflection is nearly doubled. — (2) Experi-
ment showing the insulation of quartz. A pair of gold leaves
are supported by a short rod of quartz which has been melted
and drawn out about three-quarters of an inch. The atmosphere is
kept moist by a dish of water. Under these circumstances a glass
in^uIaling stem allows all the charge to escape in a second or
two. With tthe quartz but little change is observed in four or
five hours. The quartz may be dipped in water and put back in
its place with the water upon it. It insulates apparently as well
as btfore. — (3) Apparatus for testing the elasticity of fibres. One
of these pieces of apparatus consists of a microscope cathetometer
arranged vertically, and a gravity bob which is deflected by the
vertical pull of the fibre on a side arm. The lower end of the
fibre is made fast to a beam carried by the microscope. A scale,
to which the upper end of the fibre is fixed, is viewed by the
microscope, which thus shows the stretch of the thread ; the
pulling force is found by subtracting the stretch from the vertical
movement of the microscope and multiplying by a constant
previously found. The second piece of apparatus is used to
measure the fatigue of fibres after torsion.
66
NATURE
{May 1 6, 1889
Results of experimenls with working model of the tidal Seine,
exhibited by Mr. L. F. Vernon Harcourt. These experiments
were undertaken with the object of obtaining an indication of
the effects which the various schemes proposed for the improve-
ment of the estuary of the Seine, by the prolongation of the
training walls below Berville, would have upon the estuary
if carried out. After ascertaining, by experiments, that the
former and present conditions of the Seine estuary could be
reproduced in miniature in the model, the various schemes
proposed were successively introduced in the model, with the
results shown upon the diagrams exhibited. The method of
working this model has since been applied to the model of
another estuary, which may be seen in operation at 6 Queen
Anne's Gate, Westminster.
Profs. A. W. Riicker, F.R.S., and T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S ,
exhibited maps to illustrate the direction and magnitude of the
regional magnetic disturbing forces in the Briti h Isles. The
British Isles can be divided into a comparatively small number
of districts, in each of which the horizontal disturbing forces
tend towards centres or loci of attraction, which are also regions
of large vertical force. The shaded portions of the maps are
districts of high vertical force, and it will be seen that the
arrows which represent the horizontal forces on the whole point
towards them. In Scotland the forces indicated by tlie do'ted
arrows were deduced from data collected in 1857-58 by Mr,
Welsh. The five principal lines towards which the magnetic
disturbing forces in Great Britain converge aie in the immediate
neighbourhood of (i) the Caledonian Canal ; (2) the basalt of
the Western Isles ; (3) the centre of the Scotch coal-field, in
which basaltic crystalline rocks occur ; (4) the line in South-
East Yorkshire, in which the Jurassic and Liassic strata thin
out, and passing thence to the Lakes ; (5) the Palaeozoic ridge
between London and the South Wales coal-field. There are
well-marked centres of attraction, (i) between Reading and
Windsor, (2) near the Wash, which have been specially studied.
The disturbance which culminates in the first extends from
Kenilworth to the Channel, and from Salisbury to the North
Sea. The well-known anomaly in the difference of the declina-
tions at Greenwich and Kew is thus accounted for. The maps
also afford indications of other subsidiary centres.
Captain H. Capel L. Holden, R. A., showed : — (i) Chrono-
graph for measuring the velocity of projectiles and small periods
of time. This chronograph, of which the latest form with
Captain Holden's most recent improvements is exhibited, is of
the gravity type, originally invented by M. Le Boulenge ; since
its first introduction it has been improved by Captain Breger,
of the French Marine Artillery. Broadly speaking, it consists
of a heavy pillar, to which are affixed two electro-magnets (the
circuits of which are arranged to be interrupted by the action of
the body whose velocity it is required to measure) which can
support two rods, the shorter one of which, in falling, strikes a
trigger table and releases a knife, which marks the other as it
falls. The time elapsing from the commencement of the fall of
the short rod until the knife strikes the other rod is obtained
mechanically by means'of the instrument called the disjunctor,
which breaks both of the separate circuits simultaneously : a
commutator in connection with this disjunctor enables errors
due to the circuits not being broken simultaneously to be de-
tected and corrected for. When an interval of time occurs
between the two circuits being broken, the mark made on the
rod by the knife will be more or less above that made when the |
disjunctor is used, and the space between the two marks gives |
the means of ascertaining the time, since the rod falls under the i
influence of gravity. In ordinary use, the screens, where the
interruption of the circuit takes place, are made of a continuous
wire in circuit, each with its electromagnet and battery, and these
screens are broken by the passage of the projectile through them.
The disjunctor reading is arranged i-o as to be adjustable by
altering the height of the magnet, so that, the screens being a
fixed distance apart, a scale can be engraved on the micrometer
bar of velocities in feet per second, thus saving time and avoid-
ing frequent calculation. — (2) Holden hydrometer. This is
intended more especially for use in connection with secondary
batteries, for observing the density of the acid during charge
and discharge. It consists of two parts — the hydrometer- float
and the scale. In use, the scale is clipped to the battery plates
or to the side of the containing vessel, the point being pushed
down until it just touches the liquid, and the reading is then
taken from the top of the hydrometer stem on the ebonite scale.
The range of density and the size of the divisions can be varied
according to the requirements. The advantages claimed for this
form over the ordinary type of hydrometer are : greater sen-
sitiveness, more open scale, and increased legibility owing to the
reading being above the level of the liquid and side of the cell,
freedom from adherence to the plates or side of the vessel, and
the ready correction for temperature by means of a sliding scale.
A model illustrating the formation of ocean currents, exhibited
by Mr. A. W. Clayden. This is practically a map of the
Atlantic in which the land surfaces are raised about half an inch
above the portions occupied by the sea. The continents and
larger islands are made of wood cut into the required shape,
while the smaller islands are represented by pins or small pieces
of sheet metal driven into the board which forms the basis of the
whole. This raised map forms the bottom of a shallow tray
which can be filled with water up to the level of the land sur-
faces, thereby obtaining a map (on Mercator's projection) in
which the seas are represented by the surface of water. Under-
neath the tray a wind chest is fixed, and a number of tubes are
brought up from it through the continents, and bent over so that
the jets of air delivered from them may impinge upon the water.
These jets are so arranged as to approximately reproduce on a
small scale the actual circulation of the atmosphere as laid down
on a chart of the prevalent winds for the year. Care is taken to
have as few tubes as possible, and they are so placed as to hide
the least possible amount of the sea. The strong and persistent
trades are simulated by bringing the openings of the tubes near
to the surface of the water, while the fitful and uncertain winds,
of northern latitudes are imitated by allowing the jet to be con-
siderably dis|.ersed before coming into contact with the water.
A foot-blower is attached to supply the wind, and any movement
of the water is rendered visible by scattering over it some
Lycopodium powder. A few moments after the blast is turned
on, the whole surface of the model sea is in motion. All the
principal currents of the North Atlaiitic are shown, including the
return current between the great equatorial currents, and the
northward stream along the west coast of Greenland. If a
narrow opening is made in the Isthmus of Panama all that
happens is that some of the return stream round the Mosquito
Bay and Gulf of Parien flows into the Pacific, leaving the North
Atlantic practically unaffected. But if a large part of Central
America is removed, almost the whole of the tropical water passes
through the opening, and the currents from Baffin's Bay and the
Arctic Ocean are drawn down to the Azores and the Canary
Isles. There is an absence of evident connection between the
slack water close to the New England coasts and the Labrador
current, but the apparatus does not attenr.pt to imitate differences
of temperature or differences of rotational velocity, hence any
effect due to either of those causes must necessarily be absent.
All that is attempted is to demonstrate the connection between
the prevalent winds and general oceanic circulation, by showing
that nearly all the movements of the water are determined by the
direction of the winds and the contours of the coasts.
Mr. James Pitkin exhibited :— (i) Pitkin and Niblelt's fire-
damp meter. By means of these instruments it is possible to
detect and estimate the percentage of oxygen or hydrogen in
mixtures of these gases. In its simplest form it consists of two
ordinary cylindrical bulbed mercurial thermometers. These are
mounted on a suitable base, and are then graduated off in the ordi-
nary v/ay to Fahrenheit or Centigrade scale. One tube registers
the temperature of the mixed gases. The other, which is the gas
indicator, has its bulb coated with one of those metals which
when in a very finely divided state have the peculiar property of
occluding and facilitating the chemical combination of certain
gases. When placed in a gaseous mixture and during the
combination of the gases due to the above property of the metal, a
considerable amount of heat is developed. The heat generated
thus produces a corresponding rise in the mercurial column. To
read the instrument the difference between the two scale readings
is taken, and then, by comparison with a table supplied with each
instrument, the percentage of gas may be read off. In the case
of fire-damp and air or coal-gas and air, the amount of heat
developed appears to correspond approximately to the explosive
activity of the mixed gases. A sliding scale may be fixed on the
instrument, which can be graduated in terms of percentages of
any particular gas. — (2) Pocket electric lamp. This lamp is
constructed for astronomical and other scientific purposes where
a steady and a safe light is occasionally required. Its total
weight is i lb. 13 oz., and it gives a light of i candle-power for-
a period of six hours. Its charging current is i ampere at a
potential of 5 volts for four hours.
May 1 6, 1889]
NATURE
67
A series of ancient wreaths and plant remains from the
cemetery of Hawara, Egypt, exhibited by Mr. Percy E.
Newberry, by permission of the Director of the Royal
Gardens, Kew. These wreaths and plant remains were dis-
covered last year by Mr. P'linders Petrie, in coffins of the
Ptolemaic period, and date from about the first century before
Christ. They are fully described by Mr. Percy E. Newberry, in
Mr. W. M. Flinders Petrie's "Hawara, Biahmu, and Arsinoii,"
and were presented to Kew some few month? since.
Gramme ring, rotating under the influence of the magnetism
of the earth, exhibited by Mr. J. Wilson Swan. It is a motor
of the type of the ordinary dynamo-electric machine, but without
field magnets other than the north and south magnetic poles of
the earth. The current passing in the ring is about half an
ampere.
Preparations of the new element gnomium, recently discovered
by Gerhard Kriiss and F. W. Schmidt, of Munich, exhibited
by Dr. Hugo Miiller, F.R.S. Gnomium oxide ; gnomium
chloride (in aqueous solution) ; nickel from which the gnomium,
which up to the present always accompanied it, has been sepa-
rated ;' nickel oxide free from gnomium. Gnomium is a metallic
element which, according to the discovery of Kriiss and Schmidt,
is always associated with cobalt and nickel, and consequently
neither of these metals have up to the present been known in
the pure state.
Illustrations of the new and the old astronomy, exhibited by
Mr. I>aac Roberts. Among these was the photograph of the
nebula 51 M. Canum Venaticorum ; the original negative being
shown under the microscope.
Mr. H. J. Chaney showed a hollow cylinder and sphere, used
in the re-determination of the weight of a cubic inch of distilled
water, 1889. / — 62 , B = 30 inches. One cubic inch —
252'286 grains.
Voltaic balance, exhibited by Dr. G. Gore, F.R.S. Used for
measuring voltaic energy in chemical analysis ; strength of
aqueous solutions ; effect of light and heat on aqueous solutions ;
detecting chemical changes in liquids and measuring their rates :
<letecting chemical compounds and their combining proportions ;
measuring losses of vol'aic energy during chemical combination ;
measuring chemical energy. By means of it the influence of
I part by weight of chlorine in 500,000 million parts by weight
of water has been detected.
Films of metals and metallic oxides 'deposited by electric
sparks, exhibited by Prof \V. N. Hartley, F.R.S.
Hair from the Yenisei Mammoth, obtained by F. Schmidt, of
the Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, exhibited by Prof.
G. H. Seeley, F.R.S.
Drawings illustrating the feeding of Scrobicularino, exhibited
by Dr. H. C. Sorby, F.R.S. The feeding of Scrobicularice, as
also of Tellinte, is by actively taking in mud by the indraught
syphon and afterwards discharging it by the same, unlike the
quiet habit of most other Conchifera.
Mr. J. Young showed— (i) a cluster of nests of a species of
Ssvift (Collocalia) taken in one of the Society Islands ; (2) a
specimen of Piuznaiielitis sociabilis, a plover obtained in South
America, of which only two specimens (obtained fifty years ago)
were previously known in Europe ; (3) the tail of a Japanese
barndoor cock, 1 1 feet long.
Mr. ^V. H. Preece, F.R.S., exhibited — (i) calcedonified
tree-trunk, from Arizona, U.S.A. ; (2) transverse, tangential,
and radial microscopical sections of the wood, to illustrate the
original vegetable structures and the mineralogical changes which
have taken place during and subsequently to the silicification of
the woody tissues.
EgyjJtian blue (" Vesterien ") artificially prepared by Prof. F.
Fouque, of the College de France, Paris, exhibited by Prof.
J. W. Judd, F.R.S. This substance is shown to have the for-
mula CaO, CuO, 4SiO. It has been obtained, not only in a
glassy form, but in crystals, which are remarkable for their in-
tense pleochroism (dark blue to rose pink), as was shown in
specimen under microscope. For comparison specimens of ancient
objects (Scarabei and ornaments used in mosaic work) were ex-
hibited by Mr. R. H. Soden Smith, to illustrate the method in
which this blue enamel was employed by the Egyptians. Other
specimens of antique ornaments glazed with the Egyptian blue,
exhibited by Mr. John Evans, Treasurer of the Royal Society.
A revolving stage for the microscope, exhibited by Prof R. J.
Anderson. .
Prof. H. Marshall Ward, F.R.S., exhibited various parasitic
fungi, and specimens of diseased timber showing characteristic
symptoms of injury caused by them. The chief of these
are : — (i) piece of larch stem, aftected with the " larch
disease," and exhibiting the cups of Pcziza (Hi-lotiitni) ivill-
kominii on the cancerous cortex ; (2) specimen of fructification
of Polyporiis stilplntreus ; (3) piece of larch timber attacked by
Polyportis stdplnirctis, showing the characteristic symptoms of
the injury ; (4) piece of oak timber, exhilMting the characteristic
symptoms of disease due to the ravages of Stcrettm hirsjitiim ;
(5) piece of oak attacked by Thelephora pcvdix, showing the very
different mode of injury due to this fungus ; (6) piece of spruce fir,
attacked by the mycelium of Tiainetes radiciprda, and exhibit-
ing the very characteristic dark spots which serve to diagnose the
disease ; (7) piece of pine injured by Agaricns mellctts, and show-
ing the very different symptoms which betray the presence of this
fungus ; (8) piece of deal with grey mycelium of Mcrtdhts
lacrymans, causing the common " dry rot " of timber: and a
similar piece of timber attacked by the white mycelium of
Polyporus vaporarius, another and quite different fungus, which
produces a form of " dry-rot " ; (9) portion of pine stem in-
fected with Pcrider?nii(m pint, the TEcidium form of Coleosporiiim
seneciottis, — the other form of this parasite is found on various
species of groundsel (it does mu'^h damage to the pines in some
fo-ests, producing so-called "cankers" as disastrous as those of
the "larch disease"); (10) specimen of wheat infested by
Ustilago carlo (U. segeium), showing the destruction of the ears
by the fungus, the black spores of which completely occupy the
interior of the grain; (11) specimen of grass attacked by
Epichloe typhina, a destructive ascomycetous fungus which in-
fests the flowering shoots of pasture grasses : (12) culture speci-
mens of Sclero'ia developed from species of Botrytis, which
destroy certain garden plants. Micro.-copic preparations of these
are also exhibited.
Models illustrating a cause of contortions of strata, exhibited
by Dr. Charles Ricketts. To induce these flexures, dry and
powdered clay of different colours is spread in consecutive layers
in a trough, when by the access of water, the clay becomes
plastic, sand is poured on some special part, its weight in the
experiment being supplemented by extra pressure ; this causes
the heavier substance to subside into the plastic mass ; at the
same time the clay-beds are squeezed outwards, the layers
underneath being formed into films still continuous with those at
the sides, which are rendered considerably thicker than in their
original state, and are curved into folds, representing on a small
scale such as frequently occur in stratified rocks. The experi-
ment so exactly coincides with natural phenomena that it is
reasonable to expect it will afford a true explanation of a
frequent cause of contortion, and also of cleavage of strata (see
"On some Physical Changes in the Earth's Crust, Part 3,"
Geological Magazine, April 1889, p. 165).
Amorphophalliis campanulatus, exhilsited by the Director of
the Royal Gardens, Kew.
New optical apparatus for lecture demonstration, invented and
exhibited by Mr. Eric Stuart Bruce :— (i) Apparatus for project-
ing Crookes's radiometer in action on the screen, so as to render
its effects visible to large audiences. — (2) "The electro-grapho-
scope." A striking method of showing the illusions produced
by persistence of vision to large audiences. In this apparatus
a narrow lathe of wood, about an inch wide, is made to revolve
rapidly by means of an electric motor, the effect being an almost
invisible haze, but when the revolving lathe is placed in the
path of the rays of light proceeding from an oxybydrogen
lantern, in which there is a transparent picture or photograph,
the image is apparently cast upon the air, in the case of a
statue giving the effect of bold relief. In reality minute portions
only of the image are cast upon the revolving plane, in such rapid
i-iiccession that they are united into the perfect whole by the
retentive action of the retina of the human eye.
Mr. Eadweard Muybridge exhibited projections by the electric
lantern of automatic electro-photographs, exposed at regulated
intervals of time, illustrating the consecutive jjhases of bipedal
locomotion, as synchronously viewed from two or more points of
."■itlht.
SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.
American Journal of Science, May. — The elcLirical resistance
of stressed glass, by Carl Barus. Pollowing u|i Warburg's ex-
periments, which have thrown so much new light on the thermal
relations of the resistance of glass, the author here deals specially
68
NATURE
[May 1 6, 1889
with the effects of stress on electrolyzing glass kept as nearly as
possible at different constant temperatures between ioo° and
360°. He finds generally that a Folid electrolyte like glass is a
better conductor of electricity when in a state of strain or torsion
than when free from strain. The influence of temperature in
changing the value of the electrolytic effect of stress is not
marked ; the same pull per unit section does not apparently in-
crease the conductivity of glass more at 350° than at roo°, if indeed
it increases it as much. — On the formation of siliceous sinter by
the vegetation of thermal springs, by Walter Harvey Weed.
These researches on the origin of the deposits of siliceous sinter
found in the basins of the Yellowstone National Park make it
evident that such deposits are largely formed by the vegetation
of the hot spring waters. Waters too poor in silica to form
sinter deposits by any other cause may be accompanied by beds
of siliceous sinter formed by plant life ; the extent and thickness
of these deposits establish the importance of this form of life a;
a geological agent. — -Marine shells and fragments of shells in the
Till near Boston, by Warren Upham. These fossils, occurring
ill drift deposits near Boston, are usually regarded as evidence of
a marine submergence within the Pleistocene or Quaternary
period. But Mr. Upham's observations made last year show
that they were transported from the bed of the sea on the north
by the ice-sheet in the same manner as the materials of the drift
have been carried southwards and often deposited at higher
elevations than the localities from which they were brought.
Hence these shells afford no proof of the former presence of the
sea at the level where they are now found. — A platiniferous
nickel ore from Canada, by F. W. Clarke and Charles Catlett.
']"he careful analysis here made of these ores from the mines at
Sudbury, Ontario, places beyond all doubt the presence of
platinum in appreciable quantities. It probably exists in the ore
as sperrylite, though this point has not yet been determined. —
Stratigraphic position of the Olenellus fauna in North America
and Europe, by Chas. D. Walcott. The general result of these
researches is to remove the Olenellus fauna both in the Old and
New World from the Middle Cambrian to the base of the whole
Cambrian system. The paper, which is not concluded, gives
full tables of this fauna, with its areas of geographical distribu-
tion east and west of the North Atlantic— Earthquakes in
California, by Edward S. Holden. The statistics of seismic
disturbances in this region with incidental remarks are brought
down to the end of the year 1888. — Chemical action between
solids, by William Hallock. In his recent note on a new
method of forming alloys, the author undertook to carry out
some additional experiments, the results of which are here given.
He infers generally that chemical action may take place wherever
the products are liquid or gaseous, even though the reagents
are solid, with perhaps the added condition that one or both
reagents be soluble in the liquid produced.
Revtie d'' Anthropologic, troisieme serie, tome iv., deux<^. fasc.
(Paris, 1889). — On the colour of the eyes and hair of the Ainos,
by M. Lefevre. These no^es were drawn up at the suggestion
of Dr. Colignon, while the author was acting as Professor at the
Military College of Japan. The principal point commended to
his notice was to determine whether there was any foundation for
the statement, made by various traveller-, that many of the
Ainos present the anomalous condition, that while the hair of
the head is red, the beard, and the hair with which various parts
of their bodies are profusely covered, are deep black, the skin
being sallow, and the eyes light. This coloration is completely
at variance with all known physiological relations, and it is
obvious from the author's observations that the statement must
have arisen from a misconception, due, perhaps, in part to the
practice pursued by the .Ainos of colouring their heads a bright
red, and tattooing the lip? in circular rings of black and blue.
The interest of racial coloration is considerable when judged
from an ethnological point of view, and special importance
attaches to the subject in regard to the Ainos, who, although
undoubtedly a white race, have undergone various modifications
in accordance with the different parts of the empire in which
they were settled. Thus, while in some districts the people have
been forced to adopt the dress and habits of the Japanese, in the
neighbourhood of Sapporo, the capital of the Island of Yesso,
they have hitherto been enabled to retain their old customs, and
keep themselves far more free than elsewhere from intermixture
with the Japanese. It is, therefore, the more worthy of notice
that in this district no blonde or blue-eyed Ainos are to be met
with, while the people generally have absolutely black hair. It
would, in fact, appear that the hair of the normal Ainos is of a
jay-like blackness, coarse and stiff, but bright and lustrous,
although in the case of a few of those who have long occupied
the seacoast, the hair is of a dark brown, presenting almost the
same softness as that of Europeans. In no section of the people
is there the slightest evidence of any anomalous colouring of the
hair, eyes, and con^plexion. M. Lefevre considers that the stature
of the Ainos is somewhat higher than that of the normal Japanese,
while their cranial index, which is found to range from the
extremes of dolichocephalism to that of brachycephalism,
would seem to give very strong weight to the assumption that
these people are not a pure race, and that they differ in accord-
ance with the extent to which Mongolian or other ethnic elements
have modified their primitive character. — On the writings and
opinions of Samuel Zarza, by M. Salomon Reinach. Consider-
able interest was excited by a statement made in 1877 by Dr.
Topinard, in one of his lectures, afterwards published in the
Gazette Mcdicalc, according to which a Jew, named Samuel
Zarza, was burnt alive in 1450, for having maintained the anti-
quity of man. This statement excited much attention, and M,
Cartailhac, who doubted its accuracy, appealed to his confreres
for information in regard to the documents from which M.
Topinard had quoted. This appeal remained unanswered until
the question was lately taken up by M. Reinach, who associated
with himself in the necessary investigations a learned Russian Jew,
M. Salomon Fuchs. To the latter we are indebted for a com-
mentary on the numerous works of Zarza, surnamed Ben S'ne,
which, according to his own report, were undertaken in the hope
of reviving among his coreligionists in Spain their interest in
philosophical and theological inquiries, which had nearly died
out amid the miseries they had endured during the civil wars
between Peter the Cruel and his brother, Henry II. M. Fuchs
has failed to find in these works any opinion expressed concerning
the antiquity of man, although the writer appears to have adhered
to the belief of the eternity of the world. It is, moreover,
obvious from his reference to his age when he completed his
second work, entitled " Mikhalal-Yophi," i.e. " Perfection of
Beauty," in 1369, that he could not have survived until 1450,
which is given by the commentators of the seventeenth century,
from whom Dr. Topinard borrowed his references, as the date
of his presumed martyrdom. While M. Fuchs thus supplies
another proof of the inaccuracy of many of the earlier comment-
ators, he at the same time shows by his summary of Zarza's
writings that Hebraists might throw interesting light on the early
dawn of scientific inquiry by a careful study of the numerous
still unprinted remains of Zarza, and of his Spanish co-religionists,
who undoubtedly exercised an active influence on the progress
of learning in the Middle Ages. — On the belief in familiar
household spirits and other forms of superstition, by Dr. Berenger-
Feraud. The interest of this paper to the student of folk-
lore depends upon the writer's detailed narratives of the local
superstitions still prevailing, or only recently exploded, in the
rural districts of France ; his elaborate exposition of the
superstitions of other countries has little value for the English
reader. — On questions regarding the Aryans, by M. de Lapouge.
The author believes that, at the present stage of our knowledge,
we are justified in assuming that in the ancient Aryans we have
a blonde dolichocephalic race, whose cradle was in the north-
west of Europe as it existed in the second half of the Qujiternary
age. — On the steatopygia of the Hottentots in the Garden of
Acclimatization by M. Topinard.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
London.
Royal Society, March 7. — "On the Wave-Length of the
Principal Line in the Spectrum of the Aurora." By William
Huggins, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.
I think it is very desirable that I should put on record some
observations of the spectrum of the aurora which I made in the
year 1874, but which, up to the present time, have remained
unpublished. These observations were made with a powerful
spectroscope, and under conditions v/hich enabled me to deter-
mine the wave-length of the principal line within narrow limits
of error. The spectroscope was made by Sir Howard Grubb,
on the automatic principle of his father, Mr. Thomas Grubb.
It is furnished with two " Grubb " compound prisms ; each has
5 square inches of base, and gives nearly twice the dispersion
of a single prism of 60° — namely, about 9° 6' from A to H.
May 1 6, 1889J
NATURE
69
The observations were made on February 4, 1874. There
was a brilliant aurora, showing a whitish light ; a direct-vision
spectroscope resolved this light into a brilliant line in the yellow
and a faint continuous spectrum.
The "Grubb" spectroscope was directed from the window of
the Observatory upon the brightest part of the aurora. In the
first instance, an estimation by eye was made of the position of
the bright line by comparing it in the instrument with the spec-
trum of a spirit-lamp. The bright line was seen to fall on the
more refrangible side of the line for which Watts gives the wave-
length 5582 {Phil. Mag., vol. xli., 1871, p. 14), Angstrom and
Thalen 5583 ("Spectres des Metalloides," Nov. Act. Soc. Sci.
Upsal., vol. ix,, 1875, P- 29), by from one-fifth to one-fourth
of the distance of this line from the beginning of the band. If
we take one-fourth, we have A 5569*6 ; one-fifth gives A 5572"3.
The mean of these values gives for the
Aurora line A 5570"9 (i)
The cross-wires of the spectroscope were then brought upon
the line, and the reading 3476 showed the line to fall about
midway between two strong lines in the spectrum of tin, X 5564
and A 5587 respectively, according to my measures (" Spectra of
the Chemical Elements," Phil. Trans., 1864, p. 139). The
position of the cross was thea compared directly with those lines
in the spectrum of an induction spark taken between electrodes
of tin. The further details of this comparison are not given in
my note-book, but the result only, which placed the
Aurora line at A 5571 (2)
Consulting my map of the chemical elements, I found that
there was a line of tellurium very near this place — namely, at
A 5575 ; I therefore brought the spark from tellurium before the
slit, when the cross appeared on the more refrangible side of the
tellurium line. The measure of the distance of the cross from
this line came out equal to A 0003. . The place given in my
paper for this line of tellurium is 5575. Thalen gives for the
same line 5574*1 (Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1885, p. 292). If we take
the mean of these values and deduct 0003, we get for
The line of the aurora A 5571*5 (3)
There are strong lines of iron very near this position in the
spectrum, and I made use of these also for a further determina-
tion of the place of the aurora line. The cross, after having
been placed upon the line of the aurora, was confronted with
these lines in the spectrum of iron.
The condensed account in my note-book does not give further
particulars of this comparison, but states only that the place of
the
Aurora line came out A 5571 '5 (4)
Summing up these determinations we have —
(i) Eye-estimation A 5570*9
(2) From tin 5571 'o
(3) From tellurium 5571 '5
(4) From iron 5571 5
" From these values I think that we are justified in taking for
the aurora line, as a position very near the truth,
A 5571 ±0*5 (5)
Among the numerous determinations of other observers, those
of Prof. H. C. Vogel in 1872 [Lepzig Math. Phys. Berichtc,
vol. xxii. p. 285) seem to me to have great weight. A direct-
vision spectroscope with a set of five prisms was used. The
reduction of the readings of the micrometer into wave-lengths
was based upon the repeated measures of 100 lines of the solar
spectrum.
The screw had been thoroughly examined. After each ob-
servation of the aurora line, readings were taken of the lines of
sodium or of hydroj^en. The observations extended over four
nights. On three nights four separate readings were obtained ;
on the fourth night two only. Vogel gives as the mean result
of the fourteen observations —
Aurora line A 5571*3 ± 0*92 (6)
The recent observations on the spectrum of the .-lurora by
Gyllenskiold, at Cap Thordsen, in 1882, de;eive special
mention.^ With a Hoffmann spectroscope, furnished with
a scale, he obtained at Cap Thordsen in 1882 a mean result
of A 5568 ± 1*6; later, in 1884, at Upsala, with a Wrede
spectroscope furnished with a micrometer screw, a mean value
for the aurora Ime, A 5569 ± 6*2.- Gyllenskiold discusses in
detail nearly all the recorded observations of the spectrum of
the aurora from 1867 to 1882, and then brings them together in
a table, with such probable errors as the original statements of
the observers enabled him to assign to them.
Gyllenskiold then calculates by the method of least squares
the mean value of all the determinations, and finds the following
result : — ■'
Mean value of the 23 observations, A 5570*0 ± 0*88 . . (7)
The recent measures by C. C. Krafft,* depart largely from
Gyllenskiold's mean value. Krafft found on
1882 November 2 A 5595
II 5586
and measures with the same instrument made by Schroeter, on
November 17, gave A 5587.
Now, though Angstrom's original value, A 5567, may not be
quite accurate, his observation fixed a limit towards the red
beyond which the aurora line cannot lie. Angstrom says : " Sa
lumiere etait presque monochromatique, et consistait d'une seule
raie brillante situee a gauche " (on the more refrangible side)
" du groupe connu des raies du calcium" ("Spectre Solaire,"
Upsal, 1868, p. 42). The position of the most refrangible line
of this calcium group is accurately known ; according to (Brit.
Assoc. Rep. 1884, p. 372)
Kirchhoff
Thalen ..,
Huggins . .
A 5580*9
5580*9
5581-0
It is certain therefore, from Angstrom's first observation in
1867, alone that the aurora line lies well on the more refrangible
side of wave-length 5580. This limit towards the red was con-
firmed afterwards by Angstrom himself; he says later that the
yellow line falls almost midway between the second and third
line of the shaded carbon group (Nature, vol. x. p. 211), The
positions of these lines of comparison are, according to Angstrom
and Thalen, A 5538 and A 5583 {Acta Upsal., vol. ix. 1875,
p. 29).
It follows that Kraftt's values, A 5586, A 5587, and A 5595,
must be from some cause inaccurate. A possible explanation
may be found in the small number of solar lines employed by
Krafft for the reduction of the measures into wave-lengths. The
curve was drawn through the six Fraunhofer lines, B, C, a, D,
E, and b. There was no control for the curve between D and
E, and a very small deviation of the curve from its true position
here would be sufficient to account for the position of less
refrangibility of from A 0016 to A 0024, which his measures give
for the aurora line.
It should be stated that Krafft expresses regret that more at-
tention could not be given to the spectroscopic observations.
He says : — " Leider gestatteten die obligatorischen Beobacht-
ungen nicht, den spectroscopischen Untersuchungen die gehorige
Aufmerksamkeit angedeihen zu lassen. . . . Ich glaubte ausser-
dem diese Messungen um so mehr auslassen zu konnen, als der
Platz der gewohnlichen Nordlichtlinie oft und sehr genau
bestimmt ist,"
To sum up, we have the following values for the principal line
of the aurora : —
(6) 1872, Vogel . . ; A 5571 '3 ± 0-92
(5) 1874, Huggins 5571*0 ±0-5
(7) Gyllenskiold's mean of twenty-three
obser%'ers from 1867 to 1884 . . , 557o*o ± o*88
These values agree closely, and fix within very narrow limits,
the position in the spectrum where we have to seek the chemical
origin of the line.
Gyllenskiold, from his observations of the changes which
occur in the spectrum of the aurora, comes to the conclusion
» "Observations faites an Cap Thordsen, Spitzberg. par I'Expedition
Surfdoise," vol. ii. part 1, "Aurores Bo.-ealss," par Carlheim-GyllenskiOld
(Stockholm, 1886;.
-- Ibid. p. 166. 3 Ibid. p. i5q. _
4 " Beobachtungs-Ergebnisse der^ Norwegischen Polarjtation, &c.
A. S. Steen(Christiania, 1888).
70
NATURE
{May 1 6, 1889
that " le spectre de I'aurore boreale resulte de la superposition
de plusieurs spectres differents," and that "la raie principale
forme un de ces spectres elementaires ; elle apparait tres souvent
seule." A similar view was taken many years ago by Angstrom
(Nature, vol. x. p. 210) and by Vogel {Leipzig Math. Phys.
Berichte, vol. xxiii. p. 298).
[After consideration, I think that I ought to point out that
Mr. Lockyer's recent statement (Roy. Soc. Proc, vol. xlv., 1889,
p. 234), that "the characteristic line of the aurora is the remnant
of the brightest manganese fluting at 558," is clearly inad-
missible, considering the evidence we have of the position of
this line.
• In support of this statement Mr. Lockyer says : — "Angstrom
gave tlie wave-length of the line as 5567, and since then many
observers have given the same wave- length for it, but probably
without making independent determinations. Piazzi Smyth,
however, gives it as 558, which agrees exactly with the bright
edge of the manganese, fluting. R. \l. Proctor also gives the
line as a little less refrangible than Angstrom's determination.
He says : ' My own measures give me a wave-lengih very
slightly greater than those of Winlock and Angstrom ' (Nature,
vol. iii. p. 468)."
By reference to Gyllenskiold's table it will be seen that the
probable errors of the determinations by Piazzi Smyth and
Proctor, 5579 ±9'5 and 5595 ± 25-0 respectively,^ are too
large to entitle these measures to special weight.
Mr. Lockyer says, further : — " Gyllenskiold's measures with
the Wrede spectroscope also give 5580 as the v\ ave-length of
the characteristic line. I feel justified, therefore, in disregard-
ing the difference between the wave-length of ihe edge of the
manganese fluting and the generally accepted wave-length of the
aurora line."
GyllensUold's single measure of 5580, on which Mr. Lockyer
relies, differs widely from the values which Gyllenskiold himself
assigns to this line — namely, from observations at Cape Thord-
sen in 1882, A 5568 ± i'6, and from observations at Upsala in
1884, with the Wrede spectroscope, A. 5569 ± 6 '2.
Speaking of Krafft's observations, Mr. Lockyer says (Roy.
Soc. Proc, vol. xlv., 1889, p. 241): — "The wave-lengths ob-
tained for the aurora line were 5595, 5586, and 5587. Unlike
most observations, these place the aurora line on the Itss re-
frangible side of the manganese fluting. Hence, we have an
additional reason for neglecting the difference bet\^ een the wave-
length of the brightest edge of the manganese fluting, and the
commonly accepted wave-length of the aurora lin^, as given by
Angstrom. . . . These observations are the latest which have
been published, and were obviously made with a full knowledge
of all previous work, so that their importance must be strongly
insisted upon."
I have already pointed out that Krafft's measures were not
made under circumstances which sssurtd to them a high degree
of accuracy ; and Krafft's own words, which I have quoted,
disclaim expressly any special attempt on his part to redeter-
mine the position of the principal line with a hijiher degree of
accuracy than the observers who preceded him.^March 4.]
May 2. — " The Accurate Determination of Caibonic Acid
and Moisture in Air." By J. S. Haldane, M.A., M.B., and M.
S. Pembrey (Physiological Laboratory, Oxford). Communicated
by Prof. J. Burdon Sanderson, F. R.S.
The authors show that, in spite of the efforts which have been
made in recent years to improve the method of Pettenkofer for
determining COo in free air, the results obtained by different
observers still seriously disagree. They also point out the
serious defect in the ordinary " chemical " method of determining
moisture in air, that in spite of its superior accuracy it only gives
accurate results over a long period, while the proportion of
moisture in the air is constantly changing.
A method is then described for determining simultaneously
the CO2 and moisture in air. The method is gravimetric. The
CO2 is estimated by the increase in weight of an apparatus of
simple construction containing soda lime, through which a known
volume of the air has been passed. The moisture is similarly
estimated by means of an apparatus containing pumice soaked
in sulphuric acid. The increased accuracy and convenience of
the method depend on the facts : (i) that a very rapid current
of air may be passed through the apparatus without fear of non-
absorption of either COo or moisture ; (2) that by the method
of counterpoising with a dummy apparatus during weighing the
' Gyllenskiold's sta'.emer.t of Proctoi's valve is based on Natur", vol. iii.
p 347 and p. 68.
"errors of weighing" are reduced to about a tenth of what they
would otherwise be. It is shown that with these two improve-
ments the method for moisture gives in a period of experiment of
one minute a result equal in accuracy to that obtained with the
ordinary method in a period of two hours.
Using their own method for CO.i as a standard, the authors
have also tested the Pettenkofer method. They find that the
latter method usually gives resuUs for free air about a fifth too
high, but that the error is less in proportion with air containing
larger amounts of CO2.
As a number of sets of absorption apparatus can easily be
carried about, the new method is well suited for experiments in
hygiene, and especially for cases in which a series of experiments
require to be made in rapid succession. Both kinds of absorption
apparatus last over a large number of experiments without
refilling.
Physical Society, A] ril 13. — Prof. Reinold, President, in
the chair.- — Mr. Sbelford Bid well, F.R. S., showed a lecture ex-
periment illustrating the effect of heat en the magnetic suscepti-
bility of nickel, and an experiment showing an effect of light on
magnetism. In the first experiment a piece of nickel was
attached to one side of a copper pendulum bob, which was held
out of the vertical by bringing the nickel in contact with a fixed
magnet. On placing a spirit-lamp flame below the nickel, the
bob was, after a short time, released, and oscillated until the
nickel had cooled, when it was again attracted and the operation
repeated itself. The second experiment had been recently
shown before the Royal Society. One end of an iron bar, which
had been ^magnetized and then demagnetized, was placed near a
magnetometer needle. On directing a beam of light on the bar
an immediate deflection of the needle resultedj and on cutting
off the light the needle promptly returned to near its initial
position. The direction of magnetization induced by the light
is the same as the previous magnetization, and the bar
seems to be in an unstable magnetic state. That the effect is
due to light and not heat, the author thinks is rendered probable
by the suddenness of the action. The President said he had
tried the experiment himself and failed to get any effect, but
after seeing the arrangement of apparatus used, he believed his non-
success due to the comparatively great distance between Ms bar
and needle.- Mr.- C. Richardson asked if the results were different
for different coloured rays, and Prof. S. P. Thompson inquired
whether the magnitude of the effect varied with the intensity of
illumination as in selenium, and also if any change was produced
by altering the direction of vibration of the incident light. Mr.
G. M. Whipple wished to know whether any difference was
produced by blackening the bars, and as bearing somewhat on the
same subject mentioned an induction magnetometer in which an
iron bar used was demagnetized by plunging in hot water. The
results obtained were very irregular after the first magnetization,
and this may have been due to the instability shown to exist by
Mr. Bidwell's experiment. In reply, Mr. Bidwell said red light
produces most effect, and blackening the bar makes the action
much slower. As regards . selenium, the character of the effect
is similar, but he believes the causes to be different. Polarized
light produces no change. . In answer to Prof. Herschel, he said
that any part of the, bar. is, sensitive to light, and showed that
illuminating both sides of the bar increased the effect. — Mr.
G. M. Whipple read a note on the dark flash seen in some light-
ning photographs. After expressing his dissent from the
explanations offered in the report of the Lightning Flash Com-
mittee oftbe Meteorolegicail Society and Prof. Stokes respecting
ribbon lightning and dark flashes-, the author described some
experiments he had made on the subject. Ribbon lightning he
conceived to be an effect produced by taking the photographs
through windows, and to test this, lines on a blackboard were
photographed, (i) direct; (2) through good plate-glass placed
obliquely ; and (3) through window-glass, the result being that
the double, triple, and ribbon flashes -were closely imitated. As
regards " dark flashes," the author believes the appearance due
to the prints being taken in oblique light, and to be produced by
successive reflection from the reduced silver forming the dark
line on the negative and the upper surface of the glass of the
negative. Prof. Perry suggested that this might be easily proved
by examining a negative, the prints from which .'how the dark
flash. Mr. Baily pointed out that, if the explanation given were
correct, ih^ d,ark line should be parallel to the bright one, and
this he understood was not always the case. Mr. Boys remarked
that one dark flash exhibited minute wriggles not seen in the
bright one, and Mr. C. V. Burton thought these might be due
May .16, 1889]
NATURE
71
to irregularities in the upper surface of the negative. Dr. Glad-
stone said he was not satisfied with Prof. Stokes's nitrous oxide
explanation, but thought the plienomenon may be due to some
kind of reversion. He also mentioned that a negative might
probably be obtained from Mr. Shephard, of Westbourne Grove.
As regards multiple flashes, Mr. Boys said he had often seen
seven or eight flashes traverse the same path in rapid succession.
On the motion of the President, the discussion was adjourned
until the next meeting, when Mr. Whipple hopes to exhibit the
negative referred t >, together with photographs of his experi-
mental dark flashes. — On quartz as an insulator, by Mr.
C. V. Boys, F.R.S. In making quartz fibres the author ob-
served that the ends of fibres broken during the shooting process
coiled up into screws, and projected themselves against anything
brought in their vicinity. After a short time they released them-
selves and sprang back to their original position. This could be
repeated indefinitely, and the only explanation he could think of
was that the fibre was electrified. If so, then to exhibit such
phenomena the insulating qualities of quartz must be very great,
and experiments were shown to demonstrate this deduction. A
small pair of charged gold leaves were suspended from a short
quartz rod in a moistened atmosphere, and the deflection fell one-
quarter the original amount in about five hours. A clean glass
rod under the same conditions would discharge the leaves in a
few seconds. Dipping the quartz into water did not seem to
diminish its insulating properties, and ordinary chemicals pro-
duced no permanent prejudicial effect. The author considers
that quartz will be very useful in electrostatic apparatus, for the
troublesome sulphuric acid may be dispensed with. — On a re-
fraction goniometer, by Mr. A. P. Trotter. The goniometer,
which was designed when determining the figure of a refracting
surface to effect a special distribution of light, is practically a
movable four-bar linkwork, representing the figure given in
Deschanel (p. 924) ; two of the bars are parallel to the incident
and emergent rays, and the other two normals to the faces of the
prism. By its means the angle of a pri-m to jiroduce a given
deviation, when the index of refraction and angle of incidence
are known, can be readily found. A series of curves expressing
the relation between incidence and deviation for prisms of various
angles were shown, and the same curves show the minimum
deviation and limiting angle for prisms of all angles represented.
The author thinks the instrument will be useful in physical
laboratories for adjusting optical apparatus and for the calculation
of lighthouse and other polarized lenses, Fresnel pris us, &c.
Prof. Herschel said he found a wooden model illustrating the
relations between the angles of incidence and refraction very
useful in teaching ; and Mr. Blakesley sketched an arrangement of
links and cords devised for the same purpose. Mr. Boys con-
sidered that all such relations were best seen on a slide rule. —
A note on apparatus to illustrate crystal forms, by Prof. R. J.
Anderson, was read by Prof. Perry. Th£ apparatus is con-
structed of cords, pulleys, and weights arranged to produce the
required figure when in equilibrium. By increasing or decreasing
some of the weights the corresponding axes of the crystal forms
can be lengthened or shortened, and the passage from one
system to another effected. In one arrangement the forces may be
divided or united, and the pulleys are carried by rings capable
of rotating on different axes. By this apparatus the various
conditions are said to be beautifully illustrated, and methods of
deriving the oblique from the rectangular systems are shown in
photographs which accompany the paper.
Entomological Society, May i. — Mr. Frederick Du Cane-
Godman, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the chair. — Mr. W. L.
Distant announced the death of Dr. Signoret, of Paris, one of
the Honorary Fellows of the Society. — Dr. Sharp exhibited
male and female specimens of Rhomborhina japonica, in which
the thorax was abnormal ; also, a specimen of Batoccra roylei,
which he had kept in a relaxed condition in order to be able to
demonstrate the power of stridulation possessed by this species.
— Dr. N. Manders exhibited a small collection of Coleoptera,
including several remarkable and very interesting species, re-
cently made by him in the Shand States, Burmah. — Mr. C. O.
Waterhouse exhibited, for Mr. Frohawk, a series of wings of
British butterflies, prepared in accordance with a process (de-
scribed by Mr. Waterhouse in the Proc. Ent. Soc, 1887, p.
rxiii.'), by which they were denuded of their scales so as to
pxjiose the neuration. — Dr. P. B. Mason exhibited cocoons of
species of spider — Theridion pallens. Black., — from Cannock
^hase, distinguished by the presence of large blunt processes on
"leir surface.— Mr, H. Goss exhibited, for Mr. N. F. Dobree,
a number of scales of Coccidce, picked off trees of Acacia melan-
oxylon and Grevillea rohusta, growing in the Market Square,
Natal. These scales had been referred to Mr. J. W. Douglas,
who expressed an opinion that they belonged to the family
Brachyscelidiv, and probably to the genus Brachyscelis, Schrader.
He said that most of the species lived on Eucalyptus. — Captain
H. J. Elwes exhibited a long and varied series of specimens of
Terias hecabe. He remarked that all the specimens which had
strongly defined markings were taken in the cold and dry season,
and that those which were without, or almost without, markings,
were taken in the hot and wet season ; further, that he believed
that many specimens which had been described as distinct were
merely seasonal forms of this variable species. Mr. W. L.
Distant, Mr. F. D. Godman, F.R.S., Prof. Meldola, F.R.S.,
Mr. H. T. Stainlon, F. R. S., and Mr. G. Lewis took part in
the discussion which ensued. — Mr. H. Burns exhibited, and
made remarks on, a number of nests of living ants of the fol-
lowing species, viz. Formica fusca, Lasius alienus, L. flavus
L. niger, Mynnica ruginodis, M. scabrinodis, Sec. One of the
nests contained a queen of L. flavus, which had been in the
exhibitor's possession since September 1882. — Mr, W. Darinatt
exhibited specimens of Thaumantis hoivqua, West., from Shang-
hai. — Mr. G. C. Bignell communicated a paper entitled "De-
scription of a New Species of British Ichneuvtonidce." — Mr. A,
G. Butler communicated a paper entitled "A Few Words in
reply to Mr. Elwes's statements respecting the incorporation
of the Zeller Collection with the General Collection of Lepi-
doptera in the Natural History Museum." Captain Elwes, Mr.
Siainton, Mr, Godman, and others, took part in the discussion
which ensued.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, May 7. — M, Des Cloizeaux,
President, in the chair. — On elliptical polarization by vitreoUs
and metallic reflection ; extension of the methods of observation
to the ultra-violet radiations, by M. A. Cornu. The principles
on which Cauchy has established the theory of these two orders
of phenomena and the form of the laws controlling them differ
so greatly that most physicists regard them as essentially dis-
tinct. But these experiments show that this is not the case, and
that the same substance may present a continuous transition from
one to the other according to the nature of the reflected radia-
tion. It follows that the phenomena presented by transparent
substances with metallic sheen (fuchsine, platinocyanides, &c.),
far from being exceptional, merely constitute particular forms of
the general phenomenon of reflection. — On the origin of bronze,
by M. Berthelot. The author has analyzed specimens from a
statuette from Tello in Mesopotamia, and from the sceptre of the
Egyptian king Pepi I. (sixth dynasty), both dating back to
about 4000 B.C., and both consisting of pure copper. From
this he argues that, as in the New World, the Stone Age was
followed by a Copper Age in the eastern hemisphere, anl that
the bronze period cannot bs more than some fifty or sixty cen-
turies old. — On the thionic series ; action of the alkalies, by M.
Berthelot. Having already determined the heats of formation
of the thionic compounds {Comptcs rendus, cviii. p, 773), the
author here deals with the reciprocal transformations of these
compounds under the influence of the alkalies. The penta-
thionates, tetrathionates, an I trithionates are treated in detail,
and it is concluded that these as well as other compound
substances, such as metaphosphoric and pyrophosphonc acids,
hitherto regarded as isolated and exceptional, all come within
the same general theories as the organic acids. — Note on an iron
meteorite discovered buried in the ground at Haniet-el-Beguel in
Algeria, by M. Daubree. This meteorite, found at a depth of
5 metres, while sinking a well in the Wed Mzab district, appears
to be of great age, having fallen probably during the
Quaternary epoch. It shows the Widmanstatten figures quite
distinctly, and its other characteristics place its extra-terrestrial
origin beyond all doubt. — Remarks accompanying the presenta-
tion of the third part of the Bulletin international de la Carte du
Ciel, by M, Mouchez. In these remarks special attention is
called to Mr, Isaac Koherts's panto^raveur stellaire, an ingenious
and valuable process, by means of which the photographic im-
pressions of the stars can easily be transferred to metallic plates,
and thus preserved from all danger of perishing. The method
is simple and economical, and allows of an unlimited number of
copies being taken for general use. By this invention all risk is
removed of the labours of the International Association for photo-
graphing the Heavens being lost to future generations, — Researches
on the application of the measurement of rotatory power to
72
NATURE
[May 1 6, 1889
the study of the compounds formed by the action of the
niagnesium and lithium molybdates on the solutions of tar-
taric acid, by M. D. Gernez. The present series of experiments
are analogous to those already described in previous communica-
tions, demonstrating the great increase experienced by the
rotatory force of certain active compounds when their solutions
are placed in contact with various substances without proper
action on polarized light. Here M. Gernez studies more parti-
cularly the action of the neutral magnesium molybdate on solu-
tions of tartaric acid, and the action of the neutral lithium
molybdate on the same solutions. Combining these with
the results already obtained, he is now able to formulate the
following general conclusion : The simplest combinations which
are produced in aqueous solution between tartaric acid and the
neutral molybdates and tungstates hitherto studied, and which
correspond to a maximum rotatory power, are formed by the
union of the acid with the salt molecule for molecule. — On the
atomic weight of ruthenium, by M. A. Joly. In a previous com-
munication {Comptis rendus, cvii. p. 994) the author announced
that the analysisof compounds of nitric oxide with rutheno-chlor-
ides led to a reduction of about two units in the atomic weight of
ruthenium (I04-I03'5) as determined by the latest researches of
Glaus. He now finds this view confirmed by his own studies,
and provisionally fixes the atomic weight of this element at
loi •4. In its preliminary transformation into compounds contain •
ing nitric oxide the ruthenium was completely freed ftom osmium,
the atomic weight of which, according to Seubert's last determina-
tions, is nearly double (191), and this would explain the consider-
able reduction in the atomic weight of the ruthenium itself — On
a-oxycinchonine, by MM. E. Jungfleisch and E. Leger. A de-
tailed description is given of the preparation, properties, salts,
and various derivatives of this substance, the formula of which is
CggHgjNjOj. — On the alcoholic fermentation of the juice of
the sugar-cane, by M. V. Marcano. The object of these studies
has been to determine the agent of the alcoholic fermentation,
as well as the nature of the products accompanying the alcohol
yielded by the juice of the sugar-cane. — Action of zinc
chloride on isobutylic alcohol in the presence of hydrochloric
acid, by MM. H. Malbot and L. Gentil. The points here
chiefly studied are the part played by the isobutyl chloride, and
the properties of the polybutylenes. — On an artificial silk, by
M. de Chardonnet. The author has prepared from a pure
cellulose octonitrate a silk -like fabric of great elasticity and soft-
ness, more lustrous than the silk of cocoons, and capable of being
dyed by the ordinary processes. Specimens will be shown at
the Universal Exhibition. — M. Daubree paid a tribute to the
memory of ihe late M. Lory, Corresponding Member of the
Section for Mineralogy, who died at Grenoble on May 3.
Berlin.
Physical Society, April 5. — Prof, von Helmholtz, President,
in the chair. — Prof. Rosenthal, of Erlangen, described his
calorimeter and the experiments he had made with it on the heat-
production of the animal body. (See report of the Physiological
Society in Nature of April 25, p. 624. ) He then showed a small
experiment on making flames non-luminous. This result can be
obtained either by means of a strong current of air or by con-
siderable cooling. The speaker, however, produced the same
effect in the following way. A small gas-flame is made to burn
brightly inside a cylindrical chimney ; it becomes non-luminous
as soon as a platinum crucible is placed on the chimney so a-; to
incompletely close the upper end of the cylinder. Prof
Rosenthal believes that in this case the current of air through
the chimney is very considerably slowed, hence the gas issuing
fiom the burner becomes disseminated throughout the whole
mass of air, and as a result of this, the temperature being low,
t burns without giving any light. Several other explanations of
I he phenomenon were suggested by the members present at the
meeting. — Dr. Frohlich made a further communication in
connection with his older, resultless experiments on the objective |
<lemonstration of the vibrations of a telephone-disk, in order to
describe his new method by which positive results had beea
obtained. In his earlier experiments he employed manometric \
flames, and endeavoured to photograph their movements with the i
help of a rotating mirror; now, however, he attaches a small
mirror to the iron plate of the telephone, and from this the light
of an electric lamp is reflected on to a polygonal rotating mirror,
irom which it falls upon a screen. The vibrations of the plate
wtre thus made visible on the screen, and since each sidi of the
polygonal mirror cast its own image, when the mirror was
rotated the curves were seen moving over the screen. The more
rapidly the mirror was rotated the slower did the curves move
over the screen, and when the rotation was as rapid as the
vibration of the plate, the curves became stationary and could
thus be exactly observed and drawn. These luminous curves
could also be photographed. The speaker had employed this
method in a series of researches on certain electrical phenomena
which might influence the efficiency of the telephone. Thus the
action of alternating currents, of self-induction, of the rise and
fall of the current en making and breaking, of the introduction
of electro-magnets, and of other conditions, were studied by
means of the altered mode of vibration of the telephone plate.
The speaker had further obtained a graphic record of the
vibrations of the telephone jilate when vowels and consonants
are sung and spoken into it. Many other problems may,
by the above method, be brought nearer to their solution. —
Dr. Reichel showed a lecture-experiment with a water-
hammer. When the bulb in which the fluid is contained is
grasped in the warm hand, the fluid is driven over to the other
side by means of the vapour which is then formed. When all
the fluid has thus passed over, bubbles of vapour finally make
their way through the fluid, and at this moment the hand which
is grasping the bulb experiences a distinct sensation of cold.
BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECEIVSD.
Illustrations of Zoology : W. R. Smith and J. S. Norwe]l (Pentland). —
South Alrica as a Health Resort, 2nd edition: A. Fuller (Whittingham). —
A Dictionary of Explosives: Major J. P. Cundill (Mackey, Chatham). —
Three Cruises of the Blake. 2 vols. ; Bulletin of the Museum of Compara-
tive Zoology at Harvard College, in Cambridge, vols. xiv. and xv. : A.
Agassiz (Cambridge, Mas'.). — hibliography of Meteorology— Part i, Tem-
perature: edited by O. L. Fassig (Washington). — Mr. Stranger's Sealed
Packet : H. MacCoU (Chatto and Windus).— Travels in the Atlas and
.^■oinhern Morocco : J. Thomson (Philip). — A Treatise on 'trigonometry :
W. E. Johnson (Macmillan). — Darwinism : A. R. Wal'ace (Macmillan). —
Life ot Charles Blacker Vignoles : O. J. Vignoles (Longmans).— Gleanings
from Japan: W. G. Dickson (Blackwood) —Celestial Motions, 6th edition :
\V. T. Lynn (Stanford). — Our Fancy Pigeons, cheap edition : G. Ure (Stock).
— Natural Science E.xamination Papers — Part 1, Inorganic Chemistry : R.
E. Steel (Bell).
CONTENTS. PAGE
Borneo 49
Graphics. By Prof. A. G. Gieenhill, F.R.S 50
The Chemical Analysis of Iron 51
Our Book Shelf: —
Fream : "Agricultural Canada : a Record of Progress " 52
Marshall and Welsford : " Longmans' School Arith-
metic " . . •....• . . ' 52
Crouch: " Glimpses of Feverland " 53
Letters to the Editor: —
The Meteoritic Theory.— Prof. Cleveland Abbe . . 53
The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. — Dr.
H. B. Guppy 53
" Bambangala." [Illustrated.)— Ht. P. L. Sclater,
F.R.S 54
Inclusion of the Foot in the Abdominal Cavity of a
Duckling.— E. Waymouth Reid 54
Atmospheric Electricity. — C A. C. Bowlker .... 55
Halo of the Moon and Formation of Peculiarly Shaped
Clouds at Oxford.— Otto V. Darbisnire .... 55
Spherical Eggs.— Prof. «j. D. Liveing, F.R.S. . . 55
Columnar Structure in Ice. — Prof. T. G. Bonney,
F.R.S 55
Scarlet Fever and Cow Disease 55
Skeleton of Phenacodus. {Illustrated.) 57
The Iron and Steel Institute 58
Robert Stilling Newall, F.R.S 59
Notes 60
Our Astronomical Column : —
The Residuals of Mercury 63
Right Ascensions of North Circumpolar Stars .... 63
Two Remarkable Solar Eruptions 64
Comet 1889 ^(Barnard, March 31) 64
Astronomical i'denomena for the Week 1889
May 19-25 64
Geographical Notes 64
The Royal Society Conversazione 65
Scientific Serials. ^7
Societies and Academies 6:{
Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received ^z
NA TURE
Vo
THURSDAY, MAY 23, li
THE NEW TECHNICAL EDUCATION BILL.
A FTER the storms which have wrecked so many
^^ previous attempts to deal with the question of
technical education, it is no less surprising than gratifying
to find that on Wednesday, May 8, Sir Henry Roscoe's
Bill, representing the views of the National Association
for the Promotion of Technical Education, slipped through
the second reading stage in less than a minute, with no
opposition and amid general cheers. If would be too
much to expect that the same easy course lies before the
Bill in Committee, but at least it may be said that we are
much nearer the settlement of this vexed question than we
seemed to be a month ago.
The Bill itself, which we reprint elsewhere, does
not differ materially from its predecessor of last year
— we mean the Bill introduced last year by Sir Henry
Roscoe, not the hapless measure drafted by the Govern-
ment, There is, indeed, an alteration in the definition of
technical education, which now includes, besides instruc-
tion in the branches of science and art named in the
Science and Art Directory, the working of wood, clay,
metal, &c., commercial subjects, and " any other subject
applicable to the purposes of agriculture, trade, or com-
mercial life and practice, which may be sanctioned by a
minute of the Department of Science and Art made on
the representation of a School Board or local authority
that such a form of instruction is suited to the needs of
its district." This is an improvement on last year's
definition, which gave the initiative in this matter to the
central Department instead of the local authorities. The
more freedom that is given to localities to adapt their
scheme of technical instruction to the diverse needs of
their own industries the better.
But the Bill is essentially unaltered, and it ought to
meet with the same approbation from friends of education
as greeted its predecessor. It is, like all the measures
that have been drafted, an enabling Bill ; that is to say,
it gives powers to localities to provide technical instruction
if they think fit. The Bill deals with the case both of
elementary and secondary schools. Technical instruction |
given in the former will be provided by the School Board, i
and a school will not cease to be a public elementary
school by reason of technical instruction given therein.
If, however, a School Board fails to do its duty in the
matter, the local authority {i.e. the County, District, or |
Borough Council, or the Urban Sanitary Authority, as the '
case may be) may step in and make the requisite pro- j
vision themselves. In the case of higher technical in-
struction, provision may be made either by the School
Board or, except in the case of London, by the local
authority. Provision is made for the payment of fees of
deserving students, the establishment of scholarships,
grants for laboratories, apparatus, museums, libraries,
&c. Grants may be made to the higher technical schools
by the Science and Art Department, and to elementary
schools giving technical instruction by the Science and
Art Department, or the Education Department, or both.
The Bill was allowed to pass the second reading
unchallenged only on the understanding that certam
alterations should be made in Committee. Until
Vol. XL.— No. 102 i.
the Government amendments are put on paper, it is
hard to give an opinion as to the future chances of the
measure. It would of course be out of the question to try
to revive the clause of the last Government Bill compelling
School Boards either to abstain from providing technical
instruction altogether, or to make the same provision for
voluntary schools as for schools under their own manage-
ment. It ought not, however, to be difficult to arrange a
satisfactory compromise, and so remove what is undoubt-
edly a defect in the present measure as it stands, viz. the
absence of any provision for the large majority of children
who are educated in denominational schools.
It would, indeed, be pitiable if the settlement of the
question were again postponed owing to the endless
difficulty of the relation between Board and voluntary
schools. After all, it should be remembered that by far
the most important part of technical instruction neces-
sarily falls within the realm of secondary, not of ele-
mentary education. The ground may be prepared in the
primary school, but that is nearly all. In our opinion,
therefore, the most important clauses of the Bill are those
dealing with non -elementary schools, and at all costs
these must be preserved, and, if possible, extended ; for,
as we read the Bill,it is doubtful whether they give the local
authority the requisite powers to build new technical
schools. This, however, is a matter which can easily be
set straight in Committee.
We do not wish to undervalue the part of the Bill
dealing with elementary schools. It is most undesirable
that a School Board that wishes to build a workshop,
or provide tools for manual training, should continue to
run the risk of surcharge by the auditors, and it is right
that the work of the so-called higher elementary schools
should be formally recognized, and established on a satis-
factory basis. But if there are any who expect, as a
result of the measure, that a system of distinctively tech-
nical instruction will be introduced wholesale into our
elementary schools, they are destined, in our opinion, to
be disappointed.
We note with pleasure that the present Bill is not
hedged round by the cumbrous and harassing restrictions
which disfigured the Government Bill of last year. There
is no requirement of a poll, no restriction in the amount
of the rate ; and, above all, no clause restricting tech-
nical instruction in elementary schools to children in the
sixth and seventh standards. Of all alterations that may
be proposed, an amendment embodying the last-named
restriction would, in our opinion, be the most disastrous.
It would at once cripple the work of the higher element-
ary school, and destroy science as a class subject and (in the
fifth standard) as a specific subject throughout our ele-
mentary school system. The representatives of the
Technical Education Association will doubtless be on the
watch to see that no sinister alteration of this kind is
introduced, for it would virtually convert the Bill into a
measure for prohibiting the provision of technical instruc-
tion throughout the greater part of the elementary school
course.
There are one or two criticisms which we may
offer on the measure as it stands. In the first
place, it does nothing for girls — for instruction bear-
ing on domestic economy can hardly be brought under
any of the heads enumerated in Clause 11. This
74
NATURE
[A/ay 23, 1889
objection might be met by slightly extending that clause so
as to include cookery, laundry work, &c. Another Haw is
the omission to provide expressly for Imperial grants other
than payments on results of individual examination. It is
true that the Bill leaves the mode in which such grants shall
be made to the discretion of the Science and Art Depart-
ment, but something more definite than this is required.
It would be a great mistake if payments for technical
instruction were made on results, like the present Science
and Art grants ; they ought rather to bear a certain pro-
portion to local contributions, and a clause to this effect
should, if possible, be embodied in the Bill. Lastly, why
should School Boards and local authorities be required
to confine any entrance examination which they may
institute, to reading, writing, and arithmetic ?
In spite of these minor defects in matters of detail,
the Bill as a whole ought to meet with the hearty approval
of the public, and we trust no stone wi 1 be left unturned
to secure that it shall be passed into law this session.
Another year's delay would be most disastrous, as it would
have the effect of paralyzing local activity, especially in
those centres which have already prepared schemes and
collected funds for technical schools, but are waiting year
after year to see what form legislation on this subject will
take.
A TEXT-BOOK OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY.
A Text-book of Human Physiology. By Dr. Austin
FHnt. Fourth Edition. (London : Lewis, 1888.)
^''HE present edition of Dr. Flint's " Human Physio-
logy " is a capital manual of the subject. The book
has been re-written from the third edition, which was
published nine years ago. As might have been expected
from the author of the previous work, the style of the
text is always clear and eminently readable. Upon the
whole the selection of the matter is good, and the illustra-
tions are almost without exception excellent. Detailed
description of apparatus and of methods of experiment
has been excluded as unsuited to the character of the
book. In the same way digression into the laws of
physical and chemical science has been avoided as far
as possible, on the ground that such knowledge is already
within the possession of the student of physiology, or that
to obtain it he can turn with advantage to special treatises.
Amid much that is praiseworthy in the work, one may
single out some points for especial commendation. The
brief historical introductions to certain chapters are
of marked excellence, and notably the sketch relating
the progress in our knowledge concerning the functions
of the heart and blood-vessels. The discussions of
the terms hunger and thirst, and of the value of the
various constituents of the urine as indices of the general
metabolism of the body, are exceedingly full and satis-
factory. Very interestingly given, too, is the account of
the uses of water and inorganic chemical substances which
pass through the organism ; and the probability of the
formation of a considerable amount of water within the
organism during severe muscular exercise is related with
striking vigour and force of argument. As its title
implies, the volume is devoted particularly to the physio-
logy of man, and the portion dealing with the special
mechanisms for voice and speech is exhaustive. The
chapters upon the cranial nerves, upon sight, and upon
hearing, are perhaps, upon the. whole, the best in the
entire volume. The illustrations to these chapters are
particularly deserving of praise.
In a science developing with such rapidity as of late
years physiology has done, peculiar difficulties stand in
the way of furnishing a text-book that shall pretend to
some degree of co.npletencis, and shall at the same time
avoid statement of all that is not absolutely worthy of
credence. Dr. Flint has to a great degree succeeded in
accomplishing this difficult task. But he has done so
somewhat at the expense of matter that might, we think,.
have been introduced into his text-book with advantage.
One finds no dafinite mention in his work of rhythmic
contractility as a function of the fibres of the cardiac
muscle per se, apart from nervous connections they
possess. There is no adequate discussion in this
manual, consisting of nearly 900 pages, of the pheno-
menon of inhibition as an exhibition of temporary
diversion of cell-activity into channels of anabolism.
When treating of uric acid the writer is silent as to the
synthesis from urea and glycocoU, although that fact
throws a flood of light upon the origin of the acid in the
animal body. A long paragraph is devoted to the pineal
gland, and finally the remark is made that in structure
it resembles the ductless glands ; surely such a sugges-
tion is worse than worthless, in view of the discovery of
its relation to the dorsal median eye of Sphenodon.
On the other hand, when writing of the superficial and
deep reflexes, no hint is given of any doubt as to the
truly reflex nature of the latter. The balance of evidence
is decidedly in favour of the patellar jerk being really of
the nature of a reflex, yet an unqualified statement on so
important a subject is scarcely fair to the student.
In so excellent a chapter as that on sight, it is dis-
appointing to find hardly one word of mention of the
phenomena of colour-sensations. The Young- Helmholtz
theory is not alluded to, much less any rival hypothesis
such as that of Hering. One hears nothing of three
primary sensations of colour, or that colour-blindness i-
most frequently a defect for the rays of the longer wave-
lengths. In a physiological work treating especially of
man, this ought not to be the case. We are not so
poverty-stricken in our knowledge of the functions of the
semicircular canals as Dr. Flint would let his reader
imagine. No adequate description is given of the
symptoms which appear when they are separately
injured No adequate representation is made of the
views of the long series of more recent workers on the
subject. In the statement of the motor-paths by which
nervous impulses arrive at the urinary bladder, no refer-
ence is made to the sacral spinal nerves, although the
contraction brought about through sympathetic channels
is incomparably weaker than that effected along the
former route. One must add here, however, that the
diagram, from Kiiss, exhibiting the various forms and
positions assumed by the organ in question when dis-
tended in various degree, is remarkably useful an
well-chosen.
Dr. Flint alludes to, rather than describes, the way in
which, by partial superposition and fusion of simple coj
tractions, the tetanic contraction of muscle is obtain*
He is far too brief upon the matter, especially as he gi\
it no pictorial illustration in aid of his text. The stude
whose grains of knowledge on this head had been gleanl
May 23, 1889]
NATURE
75
only in the five-lines field that Dr. Flint here allows him,
would, one must think, find his garner too e;iipty to satisfy
the pillaging of the College examiner. And one sin-
■cerely hopes he would. On the other hand, upon the
very next page, the significance of the so-called vibration
of voluntary muscular contraction is treated in a tho-
roughly satisfactory way, and in view of extremely recent
experiments
One might have expected, in a text-book of human
physiology, to find some description of experiments in
hypnotism, or at least some mention of the matter. It
is a subject that more and more demands attention from
the physiologist and from the physician, and a subject
to which the student of medicine can have no better in-
troduction than from the objective, non-metaphysical side
from which the physiologist makes his inquiries. One has
failed to discover any reference to the subject in this work.
A few instances of curious, and one may say unjust,
omission of certain authorities demand mention in a
notice of the book. On p. 53 it is related that following
ligature of the coronary arteries the heart ceased to
beat after a mean interval of twenty-three and a half
minutes in six experiments by Erichsen. One would
have thought the laborious and all- important research
on this subject by Cohnheim and his pupil. Von
Schulthen-Rechberg, not to speak of previous work by
Panum, and by Samuelson, and Von Bezold, was at least
worthy of some comment in the connection, and the more
so that the results obtained were so infinitely more sig-
nificant and valuable than those of the experiments here
quoted by Dr. Flint. In describing the endings of nerve-
fibres in the fibres of striated muscle, Doyfere and Rouget
are mentioned, and very properly so ; but the name of
Kiihne does not appear, and nothing is said of the nucle-
ated " sole." The description, too, is illustrated by two
figures from Rouget, more than a quarter of a century
old. On p. 262 occurs the following : — " It is possible,
however, that future researches may show that micro-
organisms play an important part in actual digestion, as
is foreshadowed in a recent article by Pasteur (August
1887). Pasteur has isolated seventeen different micro-
organisms of the mouth. Some of these dissolved albu-
men, gluten, and caseine, and some transformed starch
into glucose." " These observations are very suggestive,
and they seem to open a new field of inquiry as regards
certain of the processes of digestion." To most readers,
these lines would certainly infer that observations of this
kind had first been recognized in their full bearing by
Pasteur, or that, indeed, the observations of Pasteur were
the earliest or the most important of the kind. To do
this is to do signal injustice to a large number of investi-
gators, who, possessed of the idea, have obtained ex-
perimental evidence of its truth, much more complete
than, and several years in advance of, that published by
Pasteur. One need only mention the names of Du-
claux, Marcano, Hueppe, Miller, Wortmann, Escherich,
Bourquelot, Brieger, Wolff ; and there are many others.
A minor point on which one is inclined to join issue
with Dr. Flint is the terminology he employs. He does
not employ the word metabolism, but the notion is
expressed by employment of " assimilation," and " dis-
assirailation." The latter has a peculiarly uncouth ring.
The words " anabolism " and " katabolism " one does
not find. To speak of serum albumin as serine ; of para-
globulin as metalbumen, and of this last as " dissolved
fibrin" is likely to render more confused subjects that
are sufficiently so already. It is not usual to spell the
name lecithin indiscriminately lecithene and lecethine.
Gustation and olfaction are not pretty words.
In the matter of illustrations the volume is thoroughly
and artistically equipped. Fig. 64 and one or two more
of the same kind are, however, severe blemishes. How,
one asks, can the drawing of a dog with a fistulous wound
in the body benefit the student ? What good purpose
can it subserve? The figure is a useless, gratuitous
exhibition of what must to every mind be the unfortunate
and repulsive accompaniment of physiological research.
Intellectual and material boons conferred upon society
justify to the full a pursuit of the science in despite of
every difficulty of this kind, because those boons can be
obtained for it by no other course of action. They do not,
however, justify for such a book as Dr. Flint's one single
picture such as those referred to.
As was to be expected, the question of the elimination
of nitrogen from the body is treated with that pleasant
decision and competence that can be assumed only by
an author who has himself carried on research in the
field of which he is writing. The observations of Dr.
Flint upon Weston the pedestrian are seemingly at
variance, as he remarks, with those of Parkes, and of Fick
and Wislicenus, made upon other persons. The sugges-
tion is valuable that the difference may be explained by
the much more strenuous character of the exertion under-
gone by Weston than by Parkes's soldiers, or by the
physiologists who walked up the Faulhorn. Dr. Flint
found that the excretion of urea was increased by a walk
of 100 kilometres a day for five consecutive days, the
walker being upon the same generous diet during as well
as before and after the exertion. Fick and Wislicenus
during their ascent and for a short time beforehand
abstained from all nitrogenous food. They found an
actual decrease in the amount of urea excreted in the
period of exertion. But in the main result the researches
are in accord. They all alike fail to yield evidence of
increased degradation of proteids sufficient to account for
the increased quantity of energy set free.
In conclusion one has to add one word in praise of the
form and typography of the book. It is evident that, as
the author says in his preface, " the publishers have
spared nothing in the mechanical execution of the
work." C. S. S.
GEOGRAPHY IN GERMANY.
Beitriige zur Geophysik : Abhandlungen aus dem geo-
graphischen Seminar der Universitdt Strassbiirg.
Herausgegeben von Prof. Dr. Georg Gerland. I.
Band. (Stuttgart: Koch, 1887.)
Bericht iiber die Eniwi eke lung der Methodik und des
Studiums der Erdkunde. Von Prof Dr. Hermann
Wagner. Im Geographisches Jahrbuch, 1888. (Gotha :
Perthes.)
IN 1886-87 there was much discussion among English
geographers about the limits and methods of their
subject. The whole matter had been gone into by the
Germans a few years before. It is curious to note that
76
NATURE
{May 23, 1889
just when we had relapsed into something like silence on
the point, and had agreed to put our views to the test of
practice, the debate was vigorously revived in the Father-
land. In part this was the effect of the sympathy and
of the supply of material for criticism which came across
the water, but in the main it was due to Dr. Gerland's
striking introduction to the first volume of the Strassburg
" Contributions to Geophysics." In the last Geographisches
Jahrbuch Dr. Wagner sums up both the English and the
German discussions, and, though he differs radically from
Dr. Gerland's fundamental positions, he gives to his essay
the place of honour. The clearness and richness of its style,
the closeness of its argument, the extreme and unhesitating
views it enunciates, and its author's great experience
command attention, and must be the excuse for once
more bringing an almost threadbare subject before
English readers.
The three propositions which Dr. Gerland aims chiefly
at establishing are that geography has to deal not merely
with the earth's surface, or even the earth's crust, but
with the earth as a whole ; that the human element
should be shut out entirely from the view of the geo-
grapher, and that geography must be a single science
characterized by a single method of investigation, the
" mathematical-physical " to the exclusion of the " bio-
logical-historical." He defines the task of geography as
the study of the " interaction between the earth's interior
and the earth's surface," of the " interaction of the forces
connected with the earth's matter, and the arranging
and rearranging — the development — of the earth's matter
as a result of these forces ; " in a word of " the earth as
a whole," the surface being but the expression of the in-
terior. He enumerates five "geographical disciplines" —
mathematical geography, geophysics, Ldnderkunde , geo-
graphy of organisms, history of geography— and of these
geophysics is the most important. He regards mathe-
matics, physics, and geology, as the sciences auxiliary to
geography, but mathematics as the least dispensable. He
agrees with the views expressed in England in 1887, in
laying down the difference between geology and geography
as consisting not in the objects studied, which are to
a certain extent the same, but in the point of view from
which they are studied. After comparing the definitions
and programmes of geology according to Naumann,
Lapparent, Lyell, and Credner, he terms geography the
science of the forces of the earth as a whole {Krdfie
der Gesammterde) ; geology, that of the structure of the
earth's crust {Striictur der Erdrinde). It should be noted
that his Ldnderkunde is purely physical, the " special
part of geophysics " ; and that his geography of organ-
isms refuses to touch the organism man. He excludes
the human element, or, to use Ratzel's term, Anthropo-
geographie, from geography, on the grounds that, while
geography is a science auxiliary to history, the converse
is not true ; that geography would have two methods—
the " mathematical-physical-exact " and the " biological-
historical-conclusive " ; that mastery of the two methods
exceeds the power of one man, and that, as an educa-
tional discipline, geography loses force and logical co-
hesion owing to the mixture of the two methods. He
assigns anthropogeography to the historian, whose point
of view is that of the microcosm, man.
Dr. Gerland claims for geography, as defined by him,
that it is a single science, dealing with a homogeneous
mass of facts, with one method and a logical unity,
making it a true field for the investigator, and of value
to the teacher. His essay of fifty-four pages contains a
wealth of examples and of neat formulae which compel
admiration ; but it is questionable whether he does much
good with his chief positions. With Dr. Wagner, we are
disposed to think that he exaggerates the importance of
his point that the earth as a whole is the subject of
geography. He keenly combats the view that the sur-
face of the earth, the topographical, is the specific cha-
racteristic of geography. Yet surely the burden of what
has been recently said, on the part even of those who
hold this view, has been that you must not stop short at
the defining of relative position, but inquire into causes,
and those causes lie largely within the earth. But Dr.
Gerland's second position, his uncompromising exclusion
of the human element, has more substance. Bold though
he is, he has not dared to exclude the geography of (non-
human) organisms. Does not his inconsistency here
invalidate his programme? All through his essay one
fancies there is a certain undertone of contempt for the
merely probable results of anthropogeography. But are
the results of the investigation of the distribution of
animals at best more than highly probable ? Are they not
attained by the biological-historical-conclusive method?
Are they capable of mathematical expression or certainty ?
Again, is it fatal to geography that it is too much for one
man? Is any man equally master of all the methods of
any science ? Dr. Gerland is hardly fair to anthropogeo-
graphy. He says, "river and town are heterogeneous
conceptions which geography can never bind logically
together." Surely a river may be viewed under two
aspects — physical and human. It is part of a great circu-
lation beginning and ending in the ocean, and it is an
obstacle or an advantage, according to circumstances, to
human communication. Lines of human communication
and points of human settlement are not heterogeneous
conceptions.
But the real seriousness of Dr. Gerland's contention lies
in its results in education ; indeed here only is it important.
You cannot hedge in the original investigator ; you cannot
forbid him to cultivate the march-lands which sever the
different fields of knowledge. You are only entitled to
define what you expect of a geographical teacher and
text-book. To exclude the human element would be
fatal to the early or general learning of geography. None
but mathematical specialists have the preliminary know-
ledge needed for Dr. Gerland's geography. It would be
equally bad to have two geographies, one for the school-
master, another for the professor, for it is just because
the Universities have neglected this subject that the *
school teaching has been so ineffectual. Logically,|
mathematical geography should no doubt come first, but
a teacher rarely does well to begin his teaching with the
first principles of his subject. H. J. Mackinder.
OUR BOOK SHELF.
Gleanings from Japan. By W. G. Dickson. (Edinburgh]
and London : W. Blackwood and Sons, 1889.)
After an interval of twenty years, Mr. Dickson revisitedj
Japan in 1883-84, and in the present volume he gives an]
account of what he saw. The book contains no very novelj
May 23, 1889]
NATURE
77
information ; so many travellers have lately recorded their
impressions of Japan that it would now be hard for a
writer to present any part of the subject from a wholly
new point of view. Nevertheless, Mr. Dickson's book is one
of exceptional interest, for, having already been in Japan,
and having carefully studied its history, he knew exactly,
on his return, the kind of phenomena which it would be
best for him to study. Accordingly, we find in his narra-
tive that he fastens attention chiefly on what is really
characteristic of Japanese life, and that he understands
how to connect particular facts with the general ten-
dencies of Japanese society. Mr. Dickson was, of course,
greatly struck by the enormous changes which had taken
place from the time when he had formerly visited Japan,
and he adds largely to the value of his observations by
steadily comparing and contrasting the conditions which
came under his notice four or five years ago with those he
had noted twenty years before. About Japanese customs
and institutions, so far as they are of native origin, he
writes in a kindly and appreciative spirit ; and he also
finds something to admire in the effort of the educated
classes " to advance in Western learning and the acqui-
sition of scientific information." He declines, however, to
commit himself to any very decided opinion as to the
future of Japan. That she may have serious troubles in
store for her he does not dispute ; but, if they come, they
will, he thinks, spring altogether from internal causes, and
he has sufficient respect for her rulers to suggest that
they " may have wisdom to avert a crash."
Statics for Beginners. By John Greaves, M.A. (London :
Macmillan and Co., 1889.)
To simplify the subject of statics, and to make it attractive
at the sam'? time, is by no means an eisy task, but the
author of this little book has gone far towards succeeding
in doing this. With the approval of several experienced
teachers, the principle of the transmissibility of force has
been discarded in favour of the ordinary method. The
parallelogram of forces is deduced from the laws of
motion, Duchayla's proof being given as an alternative.
The definitions are admirable, and the various proofs are
as simple as they well can be.
The examples are progressive and very numerous,
typical ones being fully wor!;ed out.
The book is admirably adapted to serve as a stepping-
stone to the larger treatises.
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.
[ Th4 Editor does not hold himself responsible for opitiions ex-
pressed by his correspondents . Neither can he undertake
to return, or to correspond with the ivriters of, rejected
manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE.
No notice is taken of anonymous communications.'\
The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs.
As I have had no personal experience of coral-reefs, I do not
wish to touch more than the literary side of the controversy,
but, in regard to this, Mr. Guppy's letter in the last number of
Nature (p. 53) obliges me to call attention to the fact that
the "90-fathom reef" which he mentions is not at Socotra, but
at Rodriguez. Also that, apart from Mr. Guppy, I found little
evidence of "ignorance of the depths in which coral-reefs may
form." On the contrary, there appeared to be a remarkable
concurrence of testimony on the part of observers that, though
occasionally a reef-building species may be found alive at depths
greater than about 25 fathoms, this bathymetric limit for the
growth of reefs, assigned by the earlier observers, is sufficiently
accurate for all practical purposes.
It seems, then, to me that, with the evidence before us, the
onus probandi of the supposition that a reef may commence at
any depth which the exigencies of a particular case require,
rests on Mr. Guppy (this done, no theory of coral-reef forma-
tion is needed — they may grow anywhere). But, till he can
establish this hypothetical but fundamental proposition, Masa-
marhu Island is a fact for Darwin. T. G. BoNNEY.
The Turtle-headed Ro;k Cod.
A RARE specimen of the turtle-headed rock cod {Glyptauchen
panduratus) has just come into the hands of Mr. J. Douglas
Ogilby, of the Ichthyological Department of the Australian
Museum at Sydney. This extraordinary fish belongs to the
family of the red rock cods. Not many years ago these fishes
(the red rock cod and its allies) formed a part of a most miscel-
laneous c:>nection of species, which, under the general title of
Triglidce, included the true gurnards {Tngla and I.epidotrigla),
the flying gurnards {Dactylopterus), Siwi the flat- heads {Platy-
cephalus). In i860, however, Dr. Giinther wisely separated
these fishes from the Triglidic, which family he broke up into
four distinct groups. The first of these, named by him Scorpce-
nidiE, is that to which the specimen just captured at .Sydney
belongs. All the Scorp,cnidiC are carnivorous marine fishes, most
of which live at the bottom of the sea, and are generally provided
with a powerful armature of the head and fin spines ; while many
possess skinny appendages on the head and body variously de-
veloped, which, owing to their resemblance to the fronds of sea-
weeds, serve the double purpose of enabling them the more easily
to obtain their food, and the more effectually to conceal them-
selves from their enemies. As they are mostly of a small size,
this latter point is evidently of no slight value, because, being
slow, lazy fishes, they would, without some such means of pro-
tection, be unable to cope with their swifter antagonists. Nature
has additionally protected this family by enabling it to vary its
coloration according to any change of locality which it may be
necessary to make, so as, chameleon-like, to fit itself for adapta-
tion to the various phases of life under which it maybe called on
to exist. The genus Glyplawhen, of which the species just
received by Mr. Ogilhy is the sole representative, was separated
in i860 by Dr. A. Giinther from the Cuvierian genus Apistus,
for the reception of a fish from King George's Sound, Western
Australia, described many years ago by Sir John Richardson
under the name o^ A. panduratus. It has since been recorded
from Port Jackson (Sydney), and the present specimen comes
from Manly Beach, a few miles to the north of Port Jackson.
T.
Atmospheric Electricity.
Your correspondent, Mr. C. A. C. Bowlker, will, probably,
be interested to learn that an electrical discharge, exactly similar
to that which he recently experienced on the Glydyr Fawr
(? " Elidyr") was described by the late Dr. Mann, and by Mr.
F. G. Smith, in the Quarterly Journal of the Meteorological
Society for October 1875.
Mr. Smith was engaged in August 1865 in a cending the Lin-
guard Mountain from Pontresina, when his party was overtaken
by bad weather. They reached the summit, however, and found,
at one end of the ridge of which it consists, a fl ig-staff tipped
with an iron point, and, at the other, a flat metal disk, serving
to indicate bearings. Snow was falling, and nothing was visible
except mist, but the "otherwise death-like stillness of the spot
was broken by a strange, intermittent noise, resembling the
rattling of hailstones against the panes of a window. A careful
investigation of the cause of this noise soon made it apparent
that it proceeded from the flag staff, and was due to the passage
of a continuous electrical discharge from the cloud in which the
summit was wrapped."
After a time, the party, although, by Mr. Smith's own
admission, "alarmed," held their alpenstocks, points up-
ward, in the air, and, at once, each became conscious of
an "electrical discharge passing through him, and causing a
throbbing in the temples and a tingling in the linger-ends. The
noise was still vigorously proceeding when, after three-quarters
of an hour's stay, Mr. Smith and his party left the summit."
I called attention to a somewhat similar phenomenon ("An
Engineer's Holiday," vol. i. p. 204), which I experience;! on
crossing the divide separating Central City from Idaho
Springs, Colorado, the height of the ridge being 10,000 feet
above sea-level.
There was thunder, and "it was raining, but without
lightning, as we neared the divide, when 1 felt a tickling
sensation on the backs of my hands. Presuming that a dis-
charge was taking place between our bodies and the cloud, I
tried to increase its intensity by holding my wet umbrella, point
upwards, above the waggon. This, at once, produced distinct
sensations in the hand and arm, the driver reirarking, ' (Jh !
that's common enough here, though many don't know what it is,
7^
NATURE
{May 23, 1889
and others don't notice it.' This man was very nervous about
crossing the divide at all while it was thundering, and plainly
said if there was lightning he must wait for fair weather."
Possibly, sound might have accompanied this discharge, but'
the noise of our wheels would have drowned it.
Holmwood, Putney Hill, May 19. Dan. Pidgeon.
Rain-Clcuds,
The rain-cloud which Mr. Abercromby sketches in Nature
of May 2 (p. 12) is often seen in Upper Austria in summer.
I have given a rough sketch of these thunder-clouds in the
Austrian Mdeorojo^cal Journal, vol. viii., 1873, p. 104.
Vienna, Hohe Warte 38. juuus Hann.
THE MUYBRIDGE PHOTOGRAPHS^
TWrR. MUYBRIDGE is of English birth, a citizen of
-'■*■»- the Great Republic, and a professional photo-
grapher. Long before he applied his knowledge and
skill to the subject of instantaneous photography of
moving animals and human beings, he had obtained
recognition by his work in producing valuable views of
Cahfornian scenery, of Panama and the West Indies.
In 1872 he made the first lateral photograph of a horse
trotting at full speed, for the purpose of setting a con-
troversy among horsemen as to " whether all the feet of a
horse while trotting were entirely clear of the ground " at
at any one instant of time. It was not until 1877, how-
ever, that he conceived the idea that animal locomotion,
which was then attracting considerable attention through
the experiments of Prof. Marey,of the College de France,
might be investigated by means of instantaneous photo-
graphy, wiih results of value both to the artist and to the
naturalist.
Marey's investigations were made by means of elastic
cushions, or tambours, which were placed on the feet
of the moving animal, and connected by flexible tubes to
pencils writing on a chronograph. A record of the im-
pact of each foot on the ground was thus obtained, and
important information was deduced from these records
as to the succession of footfalls and the time-intervals
separating them in the various "gaits" of the horse.
Mr. Muybridge proposed to settle this and similar
problems once for all by a complete and demonstrative
graphic method. He arranged a number of cameras
side by side, parallel to the track along which a horse was
to be ridden. Each camera was provided with a specially
contrived " exposer " (the word suggested by Mr. Muy-
bridge in place of " shutter"), which could be let go by
the pulling of a string. The strings connected with the
" exposers " were placed across the path of the horse, so
that they must be broken by him successively in his pas-
sage. At the instant of the breaking of the string, the
exposer was brought into play in the corresponding
camera, and thus the horse was photographed in a suc-
cession of intervals of about 14 inches, representing,
according to the rate of progression of the horse, a time-
interval of more or less than one-twentieth of a second.
In this way, in 1878, with the wet plates then in use a
few sets of horses moving with various gaits were taken by
Mr. Muybridge. The results were astonishing and con-
clusive. They were published at the expense of Mr.
Leland Standford, under the title of "The Horse in
Motion," and were exhibited in Europe in 1882 by Mr.
Muybridge, together with other photographs taken in
1879. The reception which Mr. Muybridge met with on
his visit to Paris and London was a great encouragement
to him to proceed with his work. Meissonier, the great
French painter, was enthusiastic in his admission of the
value of the photographs as a guide to the observation
required for all true artistic work, and the story goes that
' "Animal Locomotion : an Electro-photographic Investigation of Con-
secutive Phases of Animal M vements." By Eadweard Muyb'idge.
(Published under the auspices of the L niversity of Pennsylvania, i88S.)
a particular attitude of the horse presented by him in
one of his best known pictures which had been objected
to by the critics as unnatural, was demonstrated by the
Muybridge photographs to be perfectly correct. The
series of little black silhouettes, which were at that time
the form in which Mr. Muybridge obtained his pictures,
were so contradictory of all preconceived notions as to
what were the actual phases of attitude passed through
by a trotting or a galloping horse, and so difficult to re-
concile with the conventional representations of what is
of course a totally different thing, viz. what we see when
a trotting or galloping horse crosses our field of vision,
that Mr. Muybridge determined on his return to America
in 1883 to pursue the subject, and to apply improved
methods of photography to the study of the rapid move-
ments of a variety of animals and of man. The new
dry plates now made it possible to obtain in exposures of
I/5COO of a second and less an amount of detail which was
previously impossible. New automatic methods of regis-
tration and exposure were to be employed, larger pictures
obtained, and the selected series printed without re-touch-
ing by a permanent photogravure process. The funds
necessary to carry out this scheme were beyond Mr.
Muybridge's own resources, and he for some time failed
to obtain the necessary aid from any publisher or scientific
institution. A Committee of the University of Pennsyl-
vania thereupon came forward and placed /6000 at Mr.
Muybridge's disposal, solely on condition that the first pro-
ceeds of the sale of the photographs when ready for publica-
tion should be assigned to the reimbursement of this sum.
Thevyords of Dr. William Pepper, the Provost of the Univer-
sity, in recording this most worthy action, are remarkable,
and ably state that conception of the part of the University
in the life of the State whicli we have so often advocated
in these pages. " The function of a University," says
Dr. Pepper, " is not limited to the mere instruction of
students. Researches and original investigations, con-
ducted by the mature scholars composing its Faculties,,
are an important part of its work ; and in a larger concep-
tion of its duty should be included the aid which it can
extend to investigators engaged in researches too costly
or elaborate to be accomplished by private means. When
ample provision is made in these several directions, we
shall have the University adequately equipped and pre-
pared to exert fully her great function as a discoverer
and teacher of truth."
As a result of the action of the University of Pennsyl-
vania in providing Mr. Muybridge with the means to
carry out his experiments, we have a really marvellous
set of plates — 781 in number — each containing a series
of from twelve to thirty pictures representing successive
instantaneous phases of movement. About 500 of the
plates represent men, women, and children, nude and
semi-nude, in successive phases of walking,running, jump-
ing, dancing, bathing, fencing, wrestling, boxing, and other
such exercises. The rest of the plates give similar studies
of the various gaits of horses, asses, mules, oxen, deer,
elephants, camels, raccoons, apes, sloths, and other quad-
rupeds, as well as of the flight of birds. Many of these
photographs have been, this spring, exhibited in London
by Mr. Muybridge, projected on the screen by electric
light — at the Royal Society, the Royal Institution, the
Royal Academy, and the South Kensington Art School.
The whole series can now be obtained by those who
desire to possess them, and to assist the University of
of Pennsylvania by bearing a portion of the expense of
their production. Series of not less than one hundred
plates are also to be disposed of, and may be seen on
application to Mr. Muybridge, who is at present in London.
The interest which these photographs present from thej
scientific point of view is threefold : — I
(A) They, first of all, are important as examples of a|
very nearly perfect method of investigation by photo-
graphic and electrical appliances.
May 23, 1889]
NATURE
n
(B) They have also a great value on account of the actual
:ts of natural history and physiology which they record.
(C) They have, thirdly, a quite distinct and perhaps
their most definite interest in their relation to psychology.
It seems, indeed, that the most interesting problems
which are brought before us in the Muybridge photographs
of the galloping horse are not so much those of animal
locomotion itself as these, viz. how is it that this (which
is demonstrated by the photograph to be the actual series
of attitudes assumed by the galloping horse) has given
rise through the human eye and brain to the conventional
representation with outstretched fore and hind legs 1 Can
the conventional representation be justified? If it can-
not, what do we really see as opposed to what really is ?
What is the objective fact — the brain-picture — as opposed
to the objective fact — the sun-picture ? for it is the former
which the painter struggles to reproduce. Here, in fact,
science and art are absolutely united in one common
search after truth.^ On this subject I hope to say more
in a subsequent article.
With regard to the method and apparatus employed by
Mr. Muybridge in the present series of photographs, it is
to be noted that they are different from those employed
in 1878-79. As in his earlier photographs, so in the
later series, Mr. Muybridge's object was to obtain suc-
cessive clear and separate pictures. In this respect his
method differs altogether from the simpler and much
cheaper one used by Marey since the publication of
Muybridge's first results. Marey's method is, no doubt,
•efficient, and in a certain sense sufficient, for the purpose
of determining some of the main facts as to the phases
of the limbs in locomotion. The object to be studied
moves in sunlight before a dark background. A photo-
graphic camera faces it. A large disk with one or more
openings in it is rapidly revolved in front of the lens.
Whilst the opening is passing the lens, the moving object
is photographed ; then there is darkness in the camera
until an opening again passes the lens. The moving
object has now a new position, and is photographed anew
on the same plate : and so on, again and again, as often as
required, or until the object has moved beyond the range
of the plate. Thus on the same plate are developed a
series of images, readily compared and faithfully depict-
ing phases of the movement studied at definite intervals
of time. The advantage of this method consists in the
simplicity of the apparatus required ; its defect is that
with rapidly moving objects the amount of light neces-
sary is not easily obtained together with a sufficiently
dark background.
Mr, Muybridge's perfected apparatus consists of three
batteries, each of twelve (or more) cameras. One battery
is parallel to the track, a second looks up it from behind
the moving object, a third faces the moving object. Each
camera is provided with a specially contrived "exposer"
or shutter (so called) which is "let off" by means of an
electric current. The exposure thus given is as small as
the 1/5000 of a second. The electric connection is such
that in each of the batteries A, B, C, a camera, Ar, is
exposed absolutely synchronously with cameras Bi and
Ci. So, too, with regard to cameras A2 B2, and C2, and
with the rest up to A12, B12, and C12. Each exposure
thus gives a group of three synchronous pictures record-
ing lateral, fore, and hind views of the moving object.
The intervals between the exposures of the successive
trios of cameras, ABCi, ABC2, ABC3, &c., is determined
by the rotation of a wheel carrying a metallic brush in
front of a circular plate, on the circumference of which
are placed equidistant metal studs, one connected with
the wires going to each trio. The circuit is completed by
• Mr. Francis Gallon, in Nature, vol. xxv!. p. 228, has made a valuable
suggestion on this subject — which is repeated by Mr. George Snell in the
Century \n \%'i,-y—\.o \\xi effect that the brain-picture consists of a blending
of the extreme positions of extensi )n of the hind Kmbs and the fore limbs,
which, although not actually coincident in time, are Lngest in duration of
all the phases passed through.
the contact of the metal studs with the moving metallic
brush. The wheel can, by a special mechanism, be
rotated so that a revolution is effected in one second Or
in any fraction of a second. During one revolution the
twelve studs make contact at equal intervals of time, and
twelve groups of three photographs each, exposed for the
1/5000 of a second and separated from one another by
one-twelfth of the time occupied by a revolution, are
taken. Usually, Mr. Muybridge found it convenient to
set the wheel so that it should rotate at such a rate as to
give 1/30 of a second between the contact of the twelve
studs, but longer intervals were also employed. Behind
the track along which the object was made to move was
a black screen divided by white threads into squares of
about 2 inches to the side. The bright sunlight of the
open space was the illuminating agent, no artificial light
being sufficiently powerful. A full account of the appa-
ratus will be found by those specially interested in the
subject in a book published by Lippincott Company of
Philadelphia in 1888, entitled " The Muybridge Work at
the University of Pennsylvania — the Method and the
Result." Enough has been said here to give an idea of
the perfection attained in the apparatus.
With regard to the results, in the form of facts recorded
of interest to the naturalist and physiologist, it is not
easy to speak in the brief space at my disposal. The
branch of inquiry opened out by this method of instan-
taneous photography is in its infancy, and generalizations
of any consequence can hardly be looked for at present.
The questions to be answered — the hypotheses which it
will be necessary to test— have not yet been formulated.
What we have in Mr. Muybridge's published plates is a
number of individual studies. By far the most comple^e
investigation is that of the various gaits of the horse,
which may be considered as very nearly exhaustive. An
interesting generalization which perhaps might have been
arrived at without the aid of the camera —but could not
have been clearly demonstrated without it — is that the
walking gait of all Mammalia is the same, including the
quadrupedal crawl of the infant man, and the progression
of the sloth as it hangs from a horizontal pole. An
apparent exception to this rule is found in the baboon,
which instead of extending one pair of "diagonals"^
simultaneously and then bringing them together beneath
the body whilst the other pair is extended, exhibits the
simultaneous extension of a lateral pair followed by their
approximation whilst the opposite lateral pair are ex-
tended. The analysis of various gaits involves many
points besides the mere swing of the limbs, the 'most
obvious and important of which are the succession of the
footfalls, the weight of impact, and its exact period (which
need not coincide with visible contact of foot and ground),
the exact mechanical value of the complex stroke given
by the limb, and the exact period at which it is applied
(which need not altogether coincide with that part of it given
by the foot as it leaves the ground). Another factor to be
studied is the rotation of the various segments of the limb.
Information and suggestion on these points are fur-
nished by the photographs, but it is by no means to be
supposed that it is possible that once for all these prob-
lems can be settled by any set of photographs, however
elaborate. The turning of the quill-feathers of the bird's
wing during the upward movement or recovery of the
wing, so that they cut the air instead of pressing it with a
broad surface, is one of the prettiest demonstrations
which Mr. Muybridge has obtained. That such a move-
ment takes place seems to have been observed by the
ordinary man in the remote past, for the word " feather-
ing,'' applied to the similar movement of an oar in rowing,
implies a knowledge of the setting of the feathers in the
upward movement of the bird's wing.
' The "diagcnals" are the right fore hmband the left hind limb, and the
left fore limb and the righ t hind Umb ; the "' laterals " are the right fore and
hind limbs and the left Lre and hind limbs.
8o
NATURE
[May 23, 1889
Whilst the photographs furnish abundant material for
the further study and consideration of the normal move-
ments of a variety of animals and of man, there are some
in the series which are especially suggestive of new lines
of research. Amongst these are the series illustrating
locomotion in man in diseased conditions, such as loco-
motor ataxia, and lateral sclerosis. A distinct line of
scientific inquiry is suggested by those photographs which
represent men, women, or children, in the course of
movement which is associated with emotion. A new
chapter in Mr. Darwin's "Expression of the Emotions"
couldbewrittenby theaidof some of these series, and a most
interesting line of investigation, to be followed up by new
photographic analysis, is indicated. Not only is the play
of facial muscles connected with the series of emotions of
the base-ball player recorded in half a dozen pictures
taken between the moment of raising the bat and striking
the ball, but in other photographs we have unconscious
expression of mental condition exhibited by rapidly
transient movements of the whole body. These are
especially noticeable in the series of a na':ed child ap-
proaching a stranger in order to offer to her a bunch of
flowers, and in the three or four phases of movement of
the young woman springing from her bath after she has
been unexpectedly " douched ' from head to foot with a
bucket of ice-cold water.
It is clear enough that the correlation of movements of
facial and limb muscles in the expression of emotion can
be best studied by such instantaneous photographic
series as the Muybridge publication contains ; and, as
Darwin, with his marvellous insight, showed, such study
of emotional states furnishes some of the most important
evidence with regard to the relationship of man and
animals.
It is no doubt true that the immediate result of Mr.
Muybridge's work, from the scientific point of view, is the
desire which they evoke to apply this method systematic-
ally and experimentally to a variety of subjects of investi-
gation. The present pictures have great value, and many of
them great — indeed astonishing— beauty {e.j^. the wrestling
boys). They should be purchased by those who can afford
them for the purpose of bearing a share in the expense of
so important an experiment as that set agoing by the
University of Philadelphia. But we should like to see
the batteries turned on again, and a number of new sub-
jects investigated. Terrestrial locomotion has been
gradually developed through an amphibious transition
from aquatic locomotion. The movements of fishes, of
tadpoles, salamanders, turtles, and crocodiles should be
included in the scope of any study of vertebrate limb-
play. But even more necessary is it that in future the
scientific method, of theory, test hypothesis, and experi-
ment, should be followed in the application of the photo-
graphic batteries, so that each set of photographs may
definitely prove some particular point or points in the
orderly development of a general doctrine.
For my own part, I should greatly like to apply Mr.
Muybridge's cameras, or a similar set of batteries, to the in-
vestigation of a phenomenon more puzzling even than that
of " the galloping horse." I allude to the problem of " the
running centipede." I have a series of drawings made from
large West Indian specimens which I kept alive for some
time in my laboratory at University College. At the same
time I made drawings and recorded as well as I could the
movements of the legs of Peripatus cafiensis, which was
also (through Mr. Sedgwick's kindness) living in my
laboratory. I am anxious to compare with these move-
ments the rapid rhythmical actions of the parapodia of
such Chastopods as Phyllodoce and Nephthys on the one
hand, and the curious "gait" of the Hexapod insects, of
which Prof Lloyd Morgan has already written a few
words in Nature. Passing on to scorpions and spiders,
and then to shrimps, lobsters, and crabs, we should
eventually possess the outlines of an investigation of
Arthropod locomotion. There is no doubt that the Muy-
bridge battery would be the one effective means of study in
the case of the centipede and marine worms, although in
some cases a good deal may be done by intent observation
and hand-drawn records. The difficulty of this investigation,
and the disastrous results in the way of perplexity which
follow from too close an api)lication to it ■without the aid
of Mr, Muybridge, is set forth in certain lines, the author-
ship of which is unknown to me or to the friend who
kindly sent them to me on hearing that I was studying
the limb-play of centipedes. May I be pardoned for
quoting them, and associating in this way fancy with fact,
whilst expressing the hope that Mr. Muybridge will take
steps to prevent any such catastrophe in the future as
these lines record !
A centipede was happy— quite !
Until a toad in fun
Said, " Pray which leg moves after which ? "
This raised her doubts to such a pitch,
She fell exhausted in the ditch,
Not knowing how to run.
E. Ray Lankester.
ON THE DETERMINATION OF MASSES IN
ASTRONOMY.
T N the An7iuaire du Bureau des Longitudes for 1889
■*■ occurs an interesting article by M. Tisserand on the
methods employed in the measurement of the masses of
the heavenly bodies. The writer begins with an explanation
of the elementary principles leading to the law of Newton
that all bodies attract one another with a force which is pro-
portional to their masses and inversely as the square of the
distance between them. He proves, in a popular manner,
that this force is equal to the product of mass into
acceleration ; and therefore, speaking theoretically, to
compare the masses of two bodies it is only necessary to
apply directly to each of them the same force and to
measure the acceleration produced ; or, if a body be
placed in succession at the same distance from the sun
and the earth it will be attracted towards each with a
force which is proportional to their masses. Hence,
since the space traversed by a body is directly pro-
portional to the acceleration, if during the first second
the body fell 330 metres towards the sun, and i milli-
metre towards the earth, it would be obvious that the
sun had a mass 330,000 times greater than the earth.
Similarly, by applying the law of inverse squares,
the relative masses of the sun and earth might be
found when the distance of the body from each was
not the same. We find that the earth falls towards the
sun io-6o metres in a minute, and that our moon falls
towards the earth 4*90 metres in the same time. But the
earth is 386 times nearer the moon than it is to the sun,
so correcting for difference of distance we get -\^,., =
o"oooo328 metre as the fall of the moon towards the earth in
a minute. Therefore the sun's mass is to the earth's mass
as io'6 is to 00000328— that is, 1/323,000. This method
is, however, dependent on our knowledge of the distance
of the sun and moon. The same calculation may be
employed, without modification, to find the mass of a
planet having a satellite. Kepler's third law is used for
expressing the mass ?n of a planet in terms of the sun's
mass M. The formula being : —
m _ (a' Y /T
M ~ \a:) \V'
where a is the semi-major axis of the planet's orbit
and T the time of revolution round the sun ; a' and T'
representing similar teims for the satellite.
In the case of Jupiter-, observations of the four satellites
may be made and the mean result taken. A recent de-
termination by M. Schur gives the value 1/1047232 as.
compared with the sun.
A
May 23, 1889]
NATURE
81
Saturn's mass has been obtained from observations of
its two largest satellites, Titan and Japetus. Bessel's re-
searches made it 1/3502, whilst Struve found a value
1/3498. This gives roughly the fraction 1/3500 as the
planet's mass.
Newcomb deduced, from observations of the four
satellites of Uranus, a mass 1/22,600, and by observa-
tions of N^eptune's one satellite found a value 1/19,380
as the planet's mass.
Before the discovery of the Martian satellites by Hall,
the mass of the planet was a matter of great uncertainty.
The discoverer's observations of the satellites led him to
assign i 3,100,000 as the mass of Mars, a result probably
not far from the truth.
The Masses of Planets without Satellites.
For the determination of the masses of Mercury and
Venus a different and much less exact method of proce-
dure is used. If the masses of Venus and the earth were
known, the perturbations they would give to the motion
of Mercury could be easily calculated. Let the orbit be cal-
culated which Mercury would have if it existed alone with
the sun, and then let its true path be found. By compar-
ing the two paths the disturbing effect of Venus and the
earth may be also found. In a similar manner the cal-
culated and true paths of Venus may be compared ; the
disturbing masses being Mercury and the earth. In this
way a series of equations is obtained from which the
masses of Mercury and Venus may be isolated. The
result in the case of Mercury is 1/5,000,000.
The Mass of Jupiter.
M. Tisserand gives a full discussion of the methods
of determining Jupiter's mass, which, being so consider-
able, shows itself in its effects upon many bodies of our
system.
Beginning with comets, he quotes the comet of Lexell
as a typical case. In 1769 this comet approached very
near to Jupiter, and by the planet's action was brought
within our range of vision and given a period of 5| years.
Its return in 1776 could not be observed, and before
another revolution could be completed, viz. in 1779, the
comet was shown by Lexell to have again approached
very near to Jupiter, nearer than the fourth satellite.
The probable result was that the elliptic orbit was trans-
formed into a parabolic one by the predominance of
the planet's attraction over that of the sun, and the comet
left our system, never to return.
From observations of the perturbations of Winnecke's
comet, M, de Haertl found Jupiter's mass to be 1/1047-175,
whilst Faye's comet gave the value 1/1047788.
Some of the asteroids approach very near to Jupiter,
amongst these are (^ Themis, Q Pales, and (^ Hilda,
and from observations of the motion of Themis the planet's
mass has been found 1/1047-538. Estimations have also
been made by observations of the perturbations of Saturn,
but, since the necessary series should cover a cycle of 900
years, and only 120 years are available, the method is not
yet very exact. This accounts for the anomalous result
1/1070-5 found by Bouvard in 1821.
It is also mentioned that Airy, from 1832 to 1836, ob-
served the motion of the fourth satellite and found for
Jupiter a mass 1/1047-64, whilst Bessel in 1841 found
1/1047-905.
The following are the masses of the planets given by
M. Tisserand, with the earth as unit : —
Mercury VV Jupiter ...
Venus % Saturn ...
The Earth ... i Uranus ...
Mars ^V Neptune ...
Cavendish's method for determining the mean density
of the earth is next explained, and it is shown that, know-
ing the relative masses of the planets as given in the
above table, we may express their weights in pounds.
310
93
14
17
Determination of the Masses of Asteroids.
Some pages are devoted to a discussion of these small
bodies. It has been found that the effect of each asteroid
is to give a motion to the line of apsides of Mars's orbit.
The sum of these effects is the same as would be pro-
duced by taking a mean orbit of all the asteroids and
distributing them uniformly in it. Leverrier made a cal-
culation on the assumption that the total mass of the
asteroids was equal to that of the earth, and he found
that, if they had a mass only equal to one-fourth that of
the earth. Mars would be disturbed by an amount
clearly perceptible to us. M. Swedstrup has found the
assumption too high, and has calculated that the
sum of all the asteroids known up to August 1880
is only about 1/4000 of the earth's mass, or about 1/50
that of the moon. Three comparatively large asteroids
have had their diameters measured. Sir W. Herschel
found the apparent diameter of Ceres and Pallas to be
o"-35 and o"-24 respectively ; the equivalent in kilometres
being 250 and 170 For Vesta, Miidler found an ap-
parent diameter o"-65, or 470 kilometres. If these bodies
be supposed to have the same density as the earth, their
proportional masses will be found — Ceres, i 130,000;
Pallas, 1/420,000 ; Vesta, 1/20,000. By photometric
means, the diameters of these asteroids have been deter-
mined by Prof Pickering, and also of some much smaller,
such as Eve, with a diameter of 23 kilometres, and
Menippe, whose diameter is only 20 kilometres, being
no larger than the meteorites met by the earth daily.
Determi7iatio7i of the Masses of Satellites.
The method of determining the mass of our satellite
based upon the fact that it is the common centre of
gravity of the earth and moon, and not the earth itself,
which moves in an elliptic orbit round the sun, is fully
explained by the writer. By means of it, the mass of
the moon has been found 1/81 that of the earth. Ob-
servations of the proportion of lunar to solar precession,
as well as lunar and solar tides, also furnish a means of
determining the moon's mass.
Masses of fupiter's Satellites.
These bodies, so proportionally small, the greatest
being only 1/10,000 of the planet's mass, cannot have
their masses accurately determined by the measurement
of the angle subtended by the linejoining the planet to the
common centre of gravity ; for, since the line joining the
planet to its satellite is divided into parts inversely pro-
portional to their masses in order to find this point, the
line in question is very small. Hence the best method of
determining the measures of the satellites in this case is,
according to M. Tisserand, by measurement of the dis-
turbances upon each other. This method was propounded
and worked out by Laplace with the following results, in
terms of Jupiter's mass : —
1st satellite
2nd ,,
1/59,000
1/43,000
3rd satellite
4th ,,
1/11,000
1/23,000
This proportion would give the third satellite a mass
about double that of our moon.
The Satellites of Saturn.
Titan, as its name suggests, is the largest of the family,
and consequently exercises a considerable influence over
the others. Prof. Hall found that under its action the
major axis of Hyperion's orbit made a complete revolu-
tion in about eighteen years. Newcomb, Tisserand,
Stone, and Hill have each investigated the matter, but it
is mainly due to the two latter observers that Titan's
mass has been found 1/4700 that of Saturn. Prof
Pickering has compared the diameters of the other satel-
lites with that of Titan by photometric means, and, if
82
NATURE
[May 2 2,, 1889
they all have the same density, the following numbers
•represent their masses, Saturn's mass being unity : —
: Mimas 1/500,000 I Rhea 1/32,000
^Enceladus ... 1/270,000 | Hyperion ... i/i,8oo,coo
Tethys 1/75,000 Japetus ... 1/110,000
Dione 1/85,000 |
The mass of Saturn's rings has been found 1/620 that of
the planet by observations of the rotational movement
which it imparts to the major axes or line of apsides of
the satellites.
The masses of the satellites of Uranus and Neptune are
not known to any degree of accuracy. The two satellites
of Mars have had their masses deduced from photometric
measures, but they are so small— about 10 kilometres in
diameter, being no larger than the smallest known
asteroids — that the numbers found cannot be very exact.
Masses of some Stars.
M. Tisserand rightly gives a dissertation, full and clear
withal, of this subject. Sir William Herschel was the
discoverer of the relative motions of binary stars in 1802.
The obvious conclusion from such a discovery was that
the laws of gravitation were universal. Truly, it was
not logical to make such an assumption, and some
objections have been raised, but the 07tus probafidi rests
with those who doubt it. In considering the motions of
the components of a binary star system, it must be re-
membered that they revolve round a common centre of
gravity. It is usual, however, to consider the principal
stars as fixed, but augmented by the mass of its satellite,
the latter having an orbit which is the mean of the two.
Knowing the fall of the satellite to its primary in one
second, we may calculate what it would be if at the same
distance from it that the earth is from the sun. But we
know by how much the satellite would fall towards the
sun, since it would fall as the earth. Hence the considera-
tion of the two falls will give the sum of the masses of the
stars in terms of the sun's mass.
The following is the formula employed : — ■
771 + til'
m and in' are the masses of the two stars ; M that of the
sun ; a is the angle, expressed in seconds, which is sub-
tended at the earth by the semi-major axis of the satellites
orbit ; p is the "annual parallax" of the binary group
expressed in seconds ; whilst T is the time in years of one
revolution of the satellite. These are the numbers that
have been obtained for four groups, the distances of which
from the earth are known : —
Star. Paralla.x. Magnitude. Mas"^es!
a Centauri ... o" 8d ... i ... 18
7J Ca'^siopeias ... o"i5 ... 4 ... 8'3
70 p Ophiuchi ... o"i/ ... 45 ... 2'5
<7'^ Eradini ... o"22 ... 45 ... i"o
Sirius aftd its Companion.
The article concludes with a complete history of the
work which suggested the existence of a companion to
Sirius. Bessei had determined the proper motion of
thirty-six stars by observations of their right ascensions
and comparing with Bradley's, but he found that in the
case of Sirius the hypothesis of a uniform variation was
irreconcilable with them, and suggested that the irregu-
larities might be produced by the action of some obscure
body. As a proof that obscure bodies exist in the heavens,
the case of Tycho Brahe's Nova is quoted, this being a
star which suddenly appeared in Cassiopeia in 1572, and
then gradually disappeared without change of place. After
Bessel's death Peters found that it was possible to account
for the irregularities by the supposition that Sirius de-
scribed an orbit in fifty years whose eccentricity was
about o"8. Safford, in 1861, from a discussion of the
declinations of Sirius, came to the same conclusion as
HJj.T.;
Peters ; whilst Auwers, in 1862, after investigating about
7000 right ascensions and 4000 declinations, found the
time of revolution to be forty-nine years, and the eccen-
tricity o-6oi. At the same time as Auwers was engaged
with his calculations, Alvan Ciark discovered a small
star only about 10" from Sirius, which appeared to be the
companion. Future considerations supported the surmise,
and proved that this body was precisely what was re-
quired to account for the orbit of Sirius round the
common centre of gravity.
If Gill's measure of the parallax of Sirius be taken as
correct, viz. o"-38, the sum ot the masses of the two stars is
equal to 4-4 that of the sun. Sirius has about twice the
mass of its companion, and they are separated by a dis-
tance a little more than twice the distance of Jranus
from the sun.
From a discussion of similar little irregularities in the
proper motion of /? Cassiopeias, Struve found its mass
to be 6-6 compared with the sun, whilst its companion
was 17 times as great.
A reflection on the inability of astronomers before
Copernicus to make such measurements as those pre-
ceding, concludes this retrospect.
R. A. Gregory.
A NEW FORM OFREGENERA TIVE GAS-LAMP.
T7ROM the time when Mr. Frederick Siemens first
-»- introduced regenerative gas-burners, now ten years
ago, down to the present day, this method of burning gas
for illuminating purposes has been adopted all over the
world, and has come to the assistance of the gas com-
panies by illustrating the fact that, with proper appliances,
gas can produce the same brilliant effects as are ordinarily
produced by means of electricity, at much less expense
both as regards first cost and working. We would explain
that in regenerative lamps the heat which is usually
wasted in ordinary burners is to a great extent returned
to the flame. The manner in which this result is brought
about is by intercepting, by means of a regenerator, the heat
passing away with the products of combustion, and apply-
ing the heat thus saved to raise the temperature of the
air which feeds the flame, thus increasing the temperature
of the latter, and its illuminating power ; for it may be
admitted that the higher the temperature of a body ren-
dered incandescent by heat, the greater is the proportion
of light rays emitted out of the total amount of energy
radiated. 1 his being the case, the amount of heat carried
from such a source of illumination to the surrounding
atmosphere by conduction and convection must be less
than in the case of a burner consuming the same
quantity of gas burning at a lower temperature, which
circumstance, combined with the well-known economy
resulting from the use of these burners, accounts to a
great extent for the popularity which regenerative lamps
have attained.
Mr. Frederick Siemens has lately introduced a new
form of regenerative gas-lamp, vhich we understand is
highly efficient, and is in consequence being largely
adopted ; its construction is shown m the accompanying
diagram. It is known as the Siemens inverted type, and
is produced in various ornamental designs, which have
been much admired. Alter passing through the governor
A, and the tap b, the gas enters an annular casing ; in
the lower portion of this, a number of small tubes are
fixed, forming the burner, Jrom which tubes the gas passes
out in separate streams. By this means, combustion of a
very perfect character takes place, as the air is directed
round each separate stream of gas, and thus enabled to
combine most intimately with it. Within the circle of
small tubes is a trumpet-shaped porcelain tube, d, and
around the outside and inside of this the gas burns,
downwards and slightly upwards, as indicated by arrows.
I
May 23, 1889]
NATURE
83
thus producing a steady powerful flame of beautiful
appearance. This porcelain tube forms the lower portion
of the chimney, around which is placed the regenerator.
The products of combustion, in passing away, heat the
regenerator by conduction, through the metal of the
same ; and the air, passing upwards and downwards
between its metallic surfaces, as also indicated by arrows
in the diagram, carries the heat back to the llame. The
lamp is closed below by a glass globe, which, however,
need not be removed for lighting, as a flash-light is
provided for that purpose.
These lamps are made of different sizes, with a con-
sumption varying from 10 to 40 cubic feet of gas per
hour ; with London gas they give a light of from ten to
twelve candles per cubic foot consumed per hour, which
is from four to five times as much as is obtained with
ordinary burners. It would have been easy to arrange
the lamp we have just described so as to produce a much
higher result than that given above ; but, to produce this
effect, the air supplying the burner would have to be
passed through small channels, which would be liable to
be partly closed up by oxidation, and thus, by reducing
the air-supply, cause the lamp to smoke, whereas the
Siemens lamp has been specially designed to provide
against this unpleasantness, to which regenerative gas-
lamps are more or less liable.
H EI N RICH GUSTAV REICHENBACH.
(~\^ the 6th inst., there died at Hamburg, in the sixty-
^-^ seventh year of his age, a botanist long and fami-
liarly known to his English colleagues, and one whose
name will be preserved in the annals of botany.
Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach had been Professor
of Botany and Director of the Botanic .Garden at Ham-
burg since 1862. He was born in Leipzig, his father
having been also a well-known botanist and Professor in
Dresden from 1820 till his death in 1879. Much of the
younger Reichenbach's work was done in association with
his father, with whom he co-operated in the production of
the later volumes of the carefully elaborated hones Flora
Gerinanica ct HclveHccc. But work of this character,
carefully and critically executed though it was, was cast
into the shade by the magnitude of his labours among the
Orchidacea.\ Reichenbach the younger devoted more
than forty years of his life, almost (though, as we have
seen, not quite) exclusively to the study of orchids.
At the commencement of his career, Lindley was still
in the plenitude of his powers, but when, some quarter of
a century since, the great English botanist failed in health,
and subsequently died, there was no one to question the
supremacy of Reichenbach so far as orchids were con-
cerned.
From that time to the present the Hamburg Professor
has reigned with undisputed sway. His reign corresponds
in its progress with the development of that passion for
the cultivation of orchids which has attained such large
proportions in this country. This is a fashion which at
present shows no sign of waning here, whilst it is spreading
widely in other countries. It has proved of signal service to
orchidology in its systematic aspect, and to a less degree
to morphology and biology, as witnesses, to cite only one
illustration, the work of Darwin on the " Fertilization of
Orchids." A hundred years ago about three hundred
species were catalogued in the later editions of Linnasus's
" Species Plantarum," and those three hundred were very
imperfectly known or illustrated. About sixty years have
elapsed since Lindley began his first systematic enumera-
tion of the genera and species, a work in which he was
at first greatly aided by the previous labours of Brown
and by the splendid drawings of Bauer. In 1840, at
the conclusion of the "Genera and Species," Lindley men-
tions that the total number of species included iVi that
work amounted to 1980, of which the author himself had
analyzed three-fourths. Later estimates in the " Vegetable
Kingdom " bring the numbers up to 394 genera and 3000
species. Bentham, in 1883, calculated the known species
as between 4500 and 5000 ; while Pfitzer, the most recent
census-maker, gives the extreme number of species as
10,000. Granting that this latter figure is excessive, it at
least suffices to illustrate the enormous increase in our
knowledge of orchids. This advance has been, as we
have said, chiefly due to the orchidomania which origi-
nated as a consequence of the exhibition of a few remark-
able forms at the early meetings of the Horticultural
Society, and which has been growing ever since. We
never heard of any material good arising from the tulipo-
mania ; but the passion for orchids, involving, as it has
done, the exploration of the countries where they grow,
and the collection and transmission of countless thou-
sands of specimens, live and dead, not only of orchids
but of plants of other orders also, has most undoubt-
edly been of great service to botany, and it has served
also to illustrate the great, but often unappreciated,
value of gardens as instruments of scientific research.
Dried specimens of orchids afford a sorry spectacle at
best, and the characters upon which the distinction of
genera and species depend are readily obliterated or lost
in the drying process. But in gardens the material is
often ample, and in the best condition for examination.
Reichenbach, as we have seen, was able to avail himself
to a much larger extent than any of his predecessors of
the facilities offered by gardens. He became the acknow-
ledged referee on all questions of nomenclature, and to
him were constantly submitted fresh specimens for ex-
amination. Of late years, also, hybridization has been
practised to a large extent among orchids, and the resul-
tant hybrids found their way to Hamburg, there to be
84
NATURE
[May 23, 1889
compared with the parental forms from which they had
emanated. The result of this correspondence with
orchid-growers of all classes in all countries, as well as
with collectors and botanists, was that the Hamburg Pro-
fessor became the depositary of the greatest amount of
orchid-lore yet accumulated, and the possessor of the
largest stores of materials relating to the order. Un-
happily his synthetic faculty was by no means so strong
as his acquisitive tendencies were great and as his
analytical powers were developed ; so that much is left
for his successors to accomplish in collating and expound-
ing his work. In no place in the world can this be done
so readily as at Kew, so that on all accounts it is earnestly
to be hoped that the late Professor's herbarium and
notes may find their way to that establishment, where
Lindley's collections are already enshrined.
Reichenbach was almost exclusively a systematise He
had little to say on morphological questions, and less on
the biological points which lend such great interest to
the study of the order. Speculations were made the sub-
ject of sarcasm by him, and to the last it may be doubted
whether he had any great amount of sympathy with
those researches which have furnished the clue to the
explanation of the extraordinary and highly diversified
structure of orchid-flowers, and illustrated alike its genetic
and its physiological significance. Nevertheless, as in
his lifetime he was constantly and disinterestedly at the
service alike of his brother naturalists and of the orchid-
growing community, shrinking from no labour or trouble
where an orchid was concerned, so in that future recon-
struction of the order on morphological and physiological
principles which is inevitable, the botanist, be he who
he may, will find himself as much indebted to the labours
of Reichenbach, as unable to proceed without constant
reference to them, as are the students of the present day.
His title to our gratitude is indefeasible ; it will be even
more so to our successors.
NOTES.
The Croonian Lecture, " Les Inoculations Preventives," will
be delivered at the Royal Society to-day, by Dr. Roux, of the
Pasteur Institute, Paris.
The ship Hvidjlimen arrived at Copenhagen on May 21 from
Greenland, having on board Dr. Fridtjof Nansen and his com-
panions, who succeeded in crossing Greenland from east lowest
on snow shoes. The members of the expedition received an
enthusiastic welcome from a large crowd.
The anniversary meeting of the Royal Geographical Society,
for the election of President, Council, &c., will be held in the
hall of the University of London, Burlington Gardens, on Mon-
day, May 27, at 2.30 p.m., General R. Strachey, F.R. S.,
C.S.I., President, in the chair. After the presentation of the
Royal medals for the encouragement of geographical science and
discovery, the annual address on the progress of geography during
the year will be delivered by the President.
An International Congress of Chronometry will be opened
at the National Observatory, Paris, on September 7. An in-
fluential organizing Coinmittee has been formed, of which Vice-
Admiral de Fauque de Jonquieres has accepted the presidency.
Those who wish to become members should communicate with
the secretary, M. E. Caspari.
Congregation has approved of the nomination of Dr.
William Huggins, F.R. S., as a visitor of the Oxford University
Observatory, in place of the late Dr. Warren de la Rue.
According to the Rome Correspondent of the Daily News,
the Pope has decreed, owing to the wishes expressed by Padre
Denza more than a year ago, that the works for the Astronomical
Observatory, to be erected in the Vatican, are to be begun at once.
The site selected is the tower over the rooms occupied by the
Master of the Sacred College, it being the most elevated building
of the Vatican Palace. The cost is estimated at a .million of
francs.
Mr. W. p. Johnston, Government Electrician, Calcutta,
died on April 23, at Darjeeling. According to Allen^s Indian
Mail, Mr. Johnston had served for over twenty years in the
Indian Telegraphs, and had specially distinguished himself in
the scientific branch of the Department, his researches in con-
nection with duplex telegraphy, the working of river cables
and long stretches of land lines, having been unusually productive
of good results. He was also one of the first to improve the
telephone after its introduction into India.
It is reported in the Chinese Press that the Marquis Tseng, so
well known in Europe as the Ambassador of China to this
country, has been appointed to the control of the Foreign
Science College in Pekin.
Prof. Milne, of the University of Tokio, whose work in
connection with the investigation of earthquake phenomena is
well known to all readers of this journal, is in England for a
short time on leave of absence.
Dr. John Gibson, who has for some time been engaged in
superintending the physical work of the Fishery Board for Scot-
land, has recently completed a series of investigations which are
likely to throw considerable light on the problems connected with
ocean currents. The detailed results will appear in the next
Annual Report of the Fishery Board ; but from a preliminary
note communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh it appears
that two chemically distinct kinds of sea water are present in the
North Sea. The difference between these two waters is rendered
perfectly distinct by sufficiently accurate determinations of the
relation between chlorine and density, and is not due to river
water flowing into the North Sea. Water in which the relative
proportion of chlorine is high reaches the North Sea from the
surface of the Atlantic, round the north of Scotland and also
through the English Channel, while water in which the relative
proportion of chlorine is low flows into the North Sea from the
north, and has been found on the surface as far north as 79°
N. lat. Ttie determinations of chlorine and density in the
samples of ocean water collected during the Challenger Expedi-
tion, as published in the Challenger Reports, seem to show that
similar differences of composition exist in ocean waters. To
judge from these determinations, the mass of ocean water,
especially in southern latitudes, approximates in chemical com-
position to that flowing as above mentioned into the North Sea
from the surface of the Atlantic. The water in which the r'jla-
tive proportion of chlorine is less appears to have been met with
chiefly to the north of the equator and to the south-west rf the
principal outlets from the Arctic Ocean. This, as well as its
chemical composition, seems to point to an Arctic origin.
A severe earthquake occurred at Plevlje, in Bosnia, at
3.43 a.m., on May 8. It lasted three seconds, the direction of
the shocks being from west to east.
Several shocks of earthquake occurred on April 26 in
Schwyz, and at Schaffhausen and Wilchingen.
On May 20 a waterspout burst over the district of Crimmitz-
schau, in Saxony. Two persons were drowned at the town of
that name, and a third at the neighbouring village of Lauterbach.
The British Consul at San Jose, in Costa Rica, in his latest
report says that a Meteorological Institute has been established
at San Jose, and several useful observations have been taken,
especially of recent earthquakes. He adds that the year
1888 did not have a very propitious closing, for just two days
1
May 23, 1889]
NATURE
85
before the end of the year, the capital and surrounding districts
were visited v/ith several severe shocks of earthquake. The first
shock took place on December 29 at 8 p.m. This was followed
by another at 11 p.m., and on Sunday, December 30, at
4.21 a.m., by the most severe of all, lasting 25 seconds, and
of such force as to cause considerable damage to the principal
buildings in San Jose, and to nearly all the churches, besides
private houses, few of which escaped damage. The morning was
pitch dark, and hundreds of people, in all kinds of costumes,
hurried into the Central Park looking for their friends, not
knowing what might happen or whether any portion of their
houses would be left to them. Several houses have been con-
demned by the authorities, and have had to be pulled down, whilst
energetic measures are being taken to repair the damage done
to the principal buildings, and the Government have erected
temporary shelters for the poor who have been rendered home-
less. The total damage is estimated at half a million sterling.
The half-yearly meeting of the Council of the Italian Meteor-
ological Society was held on April 28. Padre Denza referred
to the activity of the Society during the previous six months,
during which time several observing stations had been
added in Italy and at Malta and Punta Arenas (South
America) ; and to the working of the hygienic stations estab-
lished at Florence and several other important cities. He also
referred to the various Conferences which are being held in ac-
cordance with the decisions of the general meeting at Venice
last year, for the purpose of popularizing meteorological science
in Italy. Special investigations are being carried out with the
view of determining the amount of carbonic acid gas in the air,
and with regard to the system of the winds in the South Atlantic.
The questions of sunshine and phenological observations were
also discussed, and the importance of issuing general instructions
for these subjects, and for the regular geodynamical observations
at the Society's stations.
At the meeting of the Scientific Committee of the Royal
Horticultural Society on May 14, Mr. Wilson made some re-
marks on the question of the protection of fruit-trees againht
winter moths. He observed that the plan recommended in the
Agricultural Gazelle of October 15, 1888, of making a ring of
cart grease and Stockholm tar round the bases of fruit-trees,
though very effectual in catching large quantities of wingless
females, had not prevented them from attacking the trees
altogether, as the leaves on certain trees thus treated (as
described at the Scientific Committee on January 15, 1889) were
all going at the present date. At the same meeting Dr. Masters
exhibited several photographs of plants from Madeira, including
one of Phylolacca dioica as a large tree with a massive base of
confluent roots, the usual form of this plant in Europe being
a herb.
At the last meeting of the Chemical Society of Gottingen,
Dr. Buchka announced the re.-ults of his investigations upon the
'composition of bromide of sulphur. Balard long ago showed
that sulphur readily dissolves in bromine with formation of a ruby-
red liquid ; this liquid, as more recently shown by Mr. Pattison
Muir, may be freed from excess of bromine by means of a current
oi dry carbon dioxide. On attempting, however, to subject it
to distillation, it is found to boil at about 200° C, but with de-
composition. Indeed it is possible, by repeated distillation, to
completely dissociate it int t sulphur and bromine. Hence it has
never hitherto been possible to analyze a sample of the redistilled
liquid, and so there has been a certain amount of doubt as to its
composition. Most of the analyses hitherto published have
pointed to the formula SoBr^, but Guyot ascribes to it the formula
SBrj. Hence Dr. Buchka has attempted the distillation of the
crude product under diminished pressure, and finds that the ex-
periment entirely succeeds at the low pressure of 20 mm. of
mercury, the red liquid passing over withoat the least sign of
decomposition at a temperature of 1 11°- 113°. Analyses of this
redistilled liquid confirm the formula S.2Br2. Hence bromide
of sulphur resembles the monochloride, SgCU, the most stable
of all the chlorides of sulphur : it differs from the chloride,
however, in being more unstable, and only volatilizable without
decomposition at a pressure not much exceeding 20 mm. of
mercury.
Formaldehyde, CHjjO or H . COH, the first member of the
important series of aldehydes, has been synthesized by Prof.
Jahn, of Cronstadt, Hungary, in a most instructive manner.
During the course of Dr. Jahn's well-known researches upon the
volumetric estimation of hydrogen by means of palladium, it was
noticed that the presence of carbon monoxide always considerably
disturbed the occlusion of the hydrogen by the palladium. As
there was a possibility that some of the hydrogen had bodily
united with the carbonic oxide with formation of formaldehyde,
it was determined to repeat the experiment upon a larger scale
and in a more suitable form of apparatus. A mixture of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen was therefore led over a layer of spongy
palladium, and the products passed through a series of bulbs con-
taining water. On detaching the bulbs the odour of aldehyde
was readily perceived, and the contents at once reduced an
ammoniacal silver nitrate solution with formation of the silver
mirror characteristic of aldehydes. Hence it was quite evident
that the carbon monoxide and hydrogen had partially united in
the pores of the palladium with production of formaldehyde.
Two litres of the mixed gases were found quite sufficient to give
a good silver mirror. This reaction is all the more interesting
in view of Dr. Loew's recent synthesis of formose, CgHjaOg, an
artificial member of the glucoses, by condensation of formalde-
hyde with calcium hydroxide ; for as carbon monoxide is readily
prepared by passing oxygen over excess of heated carbon, it may
be said that glucose has been built up directly from its elements
— carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The officials of the Australian Museum, Sydney, are now
engaged in working at the Percoid Fishes, and the trustees
announce that they will be glad to make exchanges in this group
with the authorities of other museums.
The Paris Correspondent of the Daily News says the Zoological
Society of France has warned the French Government that a
great ornithological calamity is impending. The Department
of the Bouches du Rhone has hitherto been one of the chief
landing-places for swallows coming from Africa. Engines for
killing them, formed of wires connected with electrical batteries,
have been laid in hundreds along the coast. When fatigued by
their over-sea flight, the birds perch on the wires and are struck
dead. The bodies are then prepared for the milliner, and crates
containing thousands of them are sent on to Paris. This has
been going on for some years, and it has been noticed this spring
that swallows have not landed on the low-lying coast, but have
gone farther west or east, and that they go in larger numbers
than formerly to other parts of Europe. There are places, says
the Zoological Society in its petition, where they used to be
very numerous, but which they have now deserted, although there
has been no falling-off in the gnats and other flying insects on
which they live.
Miss E. C. Jelly, F.R. M.S., proposes to issue shortly a
catalogue of the published species of recent Polyzoa, with a full
synonymy. The main lines followed are those of Hincks and
Waters. Only a limited number of copies will be printed, and
application for them must be made to the authoress.
The State University of Iowa has begun to issue what
promises to be an excellent series of Bulletins from its
laboratories of natural history. No systematic biological survey
of the State has yet been attempted, and the editors of the new
86
NA TURE
[May 23, 1889
Bulletin do not suppose that it will be in their power to provide
such a survey. They propose, however, to bring before their
readers some idea of the natural' history of Iowa, and of the
manner in which it may be studied ; hoping in this way to
stimulate an interest in such things sufficient to lead to greater
results in the future.
An interesting note, by Mr. Arthur A. Rambaut, on sone
Japanese clocks lately purchased for the Dublin Science and Art
Museum, has been reprinted from the Proceedings of the Royal
Dublin Society. These clocks, though differing in other re-
spects, agree in this particular, that the time is recorded, not by
a hand rotating about an axis, but by a pointer attached to the
weight, which projects through a slit in the front of the clock-
case. This pointer travels down a scale attached to the front of
the clock, and thus points out the hour. Mr. Rambaut has con-
sulted several persons who have been resident for some time in
Japan, but none of them has ever seen clocks of like construction
in actual use. A young Japanese gentleman to whom the
specimens have been shown, says that he has heard of such
clocks being used in rural parts of Japan about twenty or thirty
years ago, but that they have been almost completely superseded
by clocks made on the European plan.
The fact of intermittence in the intensity of some sensations
is known to physiologists. Thus, the tick of a watch withdrawn
gradually from the ear begins to be heard, by turns, distinctly
and indistinctly, then times of silence alternate with the sound.
M. Couetoux, in the Rcvtie Scicntifiqtte, calls attention to an
analogous experience he has had in the case of vision. Looking
at a distant windmill, with four vanes, he could not make up his
mind whether it was in slow motion (like a nearer one) ; for, of
the three vanes projected against the sky, he saw now one, now
another ; but the intermittent degradation of the sensorial im-
pression prevented his observing two successive positions. These
sensorial fluctuations seem to deserve careful study.
At a recent meeting of the Manchester Section of Chemical
Industry, Mr. William Thompson read a paper on the heat-
producing powers of twelve samples of coal, determined by
burning in oxygen (in the apparatus devised by him), compared
with their theoretical values as calculated from their chem.ical
composition. The coal which he found to give the highest
results as regards heat-producing was anthracite, which gave
8340 Centigrade units of heat. Next came Pendleton coal,
with 7736 units ; then Wigan coal, 7552 ; and the lowest ot
the twelve came from near Atherton, with 6448 units. The
results obtained by experiment were higher in two coals than
the calculated results obtained by determining by heat units
given by the combustion of the carbon, hydrogen, and sulphur
found by analysis, but deducting the hydrogen, which appears
always to be in combination with the oxygen present, so that
its hydrogen does not produce heat on burning. In two coals
the heat found by calculation and that found by experiment were
the same, and in seven coals the heat found by calculation
was greater than that found by experiment. A short discussion
followed the reading of the paper.
The additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the
past week include a Rough Fox {Cards rudis f, ) from Demerara,
presented by Mr. James Coombe ; a Derbian Wallaby {Halma-
turus derbiamcs i) from Australia, presented by Mr. Buckland,
s.s. Britannia; two Great Eagle Owls {Bubj iiiaxirmis), European,
presented by the Executors of the late Mr. W. J. Cookson ; two
Red-legged Partridges {Caccabis rufa) from the Canary Islands,
presented by Captain Augustus Kent, s.s. Fez ; six Barbary
Turtle Doves (Turtur risoritis) from North Africa, presented by
Major T. Erskine Baylis, F.Z. S. ; a Black-bellied Sand Grouse
{Plerocles arenirius i ) from InJia, presented by Mrs. Ayrton
PuUan ; a • ■ Falcon {Falco sp. inc.) from 'Australia, pre-
sented by Baron F. von Mueller, C.M.Z. S. ; a Tuberculated
Iguana {Iguana tttbemilata) from Spanish Honduras, presented
by Mr. J. B. Johnson, s.s. Antilles ; a Grey- breasted Parrakeet
{Bolborhynclms nionachus) from Monte Video, presented by Mrs.
Macnab ; ten Common Vipers ( Vipera berus) from Surrey, pre-
sented by Mr. C. F. McNiven ; two Common Vipers ( Vipera
berus) from Gloucestershire, presented by Mr. Barry Burge ;
a Chimpanzee {Arithropopithecus troglodytes i ) from West
Africa, two Cormorants {Phalacrocorax carbo), British, de-
posited ; a Mountain Ka-ka {Nestor notabilis) from New Zea-
land, a Green-headed Tanager {Calliste tricolor) from South-
East Brazil, purchased ; five North African Jackals (Canis
anthus), a Japanese Deer {Ccrviis sika ? ) a Collared Fruit
Bat (Cynonycteris collaris), a Great Kangaroo {Macropui
giganteus i ), born in the Gardens.
ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE
WEEK 1889 MA Y 26— JUNE i.
/T7OR the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at
^ ■*■ Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24,
is here employed.)
At Greenwich on May 26
Sun rises. 3h. 56m. ; souths, ilh. 56m. 48 8s. ; daily increase of
southing, 6"5s. ; sets, igh. 58m. : right asc. on meridian,
4h. I3"8m. ; decl. 21° 13' N, Sidereal Time at Sunset,
I2h. 1 6m.
■Moon (New on May 29, I7h.) rises, 3h. 2m.; souths,
9h. 36m. ; sets, i6h. 24m. : right asc. on meridian,
decl. 6" 16' N.
Right asc. and declinatioD
on meridian,
h. m. o /
ih. 52 8m.
Planet. Rises.
h. m.
Mercury.. 5 4
Venus 2 41
Mars 4 12
Jupiter..., 22 18*
Saturn.... 9 16
Uranus ... 15 20
Neptune.. 3 58
Souths,
h. m.
13 34
9 47
12 23
2 14
16 53
20 50
II 45
Sets,
h. m.
22 4 ..
16 53 •■
20 34 ,.
6 ID ..
o 30*..
2 20*..
19 32 ..
5 51 '4
2 3-9
4 39 '9
18 29'6
9 ii"i
13 8-3
4 i-S
25 12 N.
II 55 N.
22 41 N.
23 3 S^
17 27 N,
6 34 S.
19 2 N.
* Indicates that the rising is that of the preceding evening and the
settirg that of the following morning.
May.
26
h.
16
16
Venus in conjunction with and 4° 30' north
of the Moon.
Mercury in conjunction with and l° 53' north
of the Moon.
Variable Stars,
Star.
U Cephei ..
I R Crateris ..
i W Virginis ..
! 5 Librae
U Coronae ..
U Ophiuchi..
S Lyrse
U Aquilae ..
S Vulpeculae
S Sagittse ..
5 Cephei
R.A.
h. m.
o 52-5
10 55-1 ...
13 20-3 ...
14 55-1 ••
15 137 -
17 io'9 ...
18 46'o ..,
19 23-4 ••
19 43'8 ..
19 510 •••
Decl.
..8i 17 N.
.. 17 44 S.
.. 2 48 s,
... 85 s.
.. 32 3 N.
.. I 20 N.
7 16 S.
27 I N.
16 20 N.
22 25-1 ... 57 51 N.
May 26,
„ 31.
., 27,
June I,
May 27,
June I,
May 27,
and at intervals of
33 14 N. ... May 27,
., 3i>
June I,
May 28,
,, 29,
June I,
May 31,
h.
o
o 9 w
M
o M
35 »*
o m
42 m
8
I
20
20 30 M
2 o in
3 oM
M
2 o m
2 o M
2X o M
M signifies maximum ; m minimum.
Meteor-Showers.
R.A. Decl.
From Vulpecula
,, Lacerta...
Near ( Pegasi...
290
305
330
335
60 N.
25 N.
48 N.
27 N.
May 30. Short, slow
Swift.
Very swift.
Swift, streaks,
■
May 23, 1889]
NATURE
87
BEACON LIGHTS AND FOG SIGNALS}
I.
TT is stated by Samviel Smiles in his " Lives of Engineers "
■*• that, "with Winstanley's structure on the Eddystone in
1696, may be said to have commenced the modern engineering
efforts in directing the great sources of power in Nature for
the use and convenience of man," efforts which', followed up by
Rudyerd, Smeaton, and others, have been so successful in con-
verting hidden dangers into sources of safety, and insuring the
beneficent guidance of the mariner in his trackless path.
The famous structure of Smeaton, which had withstood the
storms of more than half a century with incalculable advantage
to mankind, became in course of time a matter of anxiety and
watchful care to the Corporation of Trinity House, owing to the
great tremor of the building with each wave stroke, during heavy
westerly storms. The joints of the masonry frequently yielded to
the heavy strains, and the sea-water was driven through them to
the interior of the building. The upper part of the structure was
strengthened wiih internal ironwork in 1839, and again in 1865.
On the last occasion it was found that the chief mischief was
caused by the upward stroke of the heavy seas against the pro-
jecting cornice of the lantern gallery, thus lifting this portion of
the masonry, together with the lantern above it. Unfortunately,
the portion of the gneiss rock on which the lighthouse was
founded had become seriously shaken by the heavy sea strokes
on the tower, and the rock had thus been seriously undermined
at its base. The waves rose during storms considerably above
the summit of the lantern, thus frequently eclipsing the light,
and altering its distinctive character from a fixed light to an
occulting. This matter of distinctive character in a beacon light
was one of little importance'at the date of the erection of Smea-
ton's lighthouse, when coal fires were the only illuminating
agents along the coasts ; but with the rapid development of our
commerce, and the great increase in the number of coast lights,
it has become an absolute necessity that each light maintain a
clearly distinctive character. It was therefore determined by the
Trinity House, in 1877, to erect a new lighthouse at a distance
of 120 feet from Smeaton's tower, where a safe and permanent
foundation was found, but at a much lower level, which
necessitated the laying of a large portion of the foundation
masonry below low water. The foundation-stone of this work
was laid on August 19, 1879, ^y H-R-H. the Duke of Edinburgh,
Master of the Trinity House ; assisted by H. R. H. the Prince of
Wales, an honorary Elder Brother of the Corporation.
On June i, 1881, H.R.H. the Master, when passing up
the Channel in H.M.S. Lively, landed at the rock and laid
the last stone of the tower ; and on May 18 of the following
year H.R.H. lighted the lamps, and formally opened the light-
house. The edifice was thus completed within four years from
its commencement, at a cost of ;if59,255. The work was
executed under the immediate direc'ion of the Trinity House and
their Engineer, and with a saving of ;^24,ooo on the lowest sum
at which it had been found that it could be executed by contract.
Every block of granite in the structure is dovetailed together
both vertically and horizontally, on a system devised by my
father, and first adopted at the Hanois Rock Lighthouse off the
west coast of Guernsey. The illuminating apparatus consists of
two superposed oil lamps, each of six concentric wicks, and of
two drums of lenses of 920 millimetres focal distance, twelve
lenses in each drum. The optical apparatus is specially designed
on the system of Dr. John Hopkinson, F. R.S., for a double
flashing light, and shows two flashes in quick succession, at
intervals ol half a minute. Attention has of late been directed
to the subject of superposed lights in lighthouses, which became
a necessity when several small luminaries had to be substituted
for the large coal or wood fire of our early lighthouses. The
credit of first superposing lighthouse luminaries is doubtless due
to Smeaton, who lighted his lantern, in 1759, with twenty-four
large tallow candles in two tiers. The idea was followed in
1790 with the first revolving light, established at the St. Agnes
Lighthouse, Scilly Islands, which consisted of fifteen oil lamps
and reflectors, arran^^ed in three groups, and in three tiers. The
number of the lamps and reflectors at this and other first class
lights was afterwards extended to thirty, and in four tiers. In
1859, Mr. J. W. D. Brown, of Lewisham, proposed superposed
lenses for signal and lighthouse lanterns, with a separate light for
each tier of lenses. In 1872, Mr. John Wigham, of Dublin, pro-
' Friday evening discourse delivered at the -Royal Institution by Sir
James N. Douglass, F.R.S., on March 15. We are indebted to the Editor
of the Engineer (or the use of the woodcuti illustrating this discourse.
posed superposed lenses for lighthouses, in conjunction with his
large gas flames, and the firtt application of these was made in
1877 at the Galley Head Lighthouse, County Cork. In 1876
Messrs. Lepaute and Sons, the eminent lighth)use optical,
engineers of Paris, made successful experiments with superposed
lenses and mineral oil flames, and one of their apparatus was
exhibited at the Paris International Exhibition of 1878. The
results of these experiments were given by M. Henry Lepaute,
in a paper contributed to the Congress at Havre in 1877, of the
French Association for the Advancement of Science. The Eddy-
stone represents the first practical application of superposed
lenses of the first order, with oil as the illuminant.
The apparatus at the Eddystone is provided with two six-
wick burners of the Trinity House improved type, and has a
minimum intensity for clear weather of about 38,000 candle
units, and a maximum intensity of about 160,000 candle units
for atmosphere impaired for the transmission of light. The
chandelier light in Smeaton's lantern was unaided by optical
apparatus, 1 have found by experiment that the aggregate
intensity of the beam from the twenty-four candles was 67 candl^
units nearly. The maximum intensity of the flashes now sent to
the mariner is about 2380 times that of the candle beam, while the
annual cost for the mineral oil illuminant is about 82 per cent. less.
The sound signal for foggy weather consists of two bells of
40 cwt. each, mounted on the lantern gallery, and rung by
machinery. If any wind occurs with the fog, the windward
bell is sounded. The distinctive character of the signal is two
sounds of the bell in quick succession every half-minute, thus
corresponding with the character of the light signal.
The tendency of the curvilinear outline near the base of
Smeaton's and of other 'similar sea towers that have followed
it, to elevate the centre of force of heavy waves on
the structure, induced me to adopt a cylindrical base
for the new lighthouse, which is found to retard
the rise of waves on the structure, while it affords a con-
venient platform for the lijjhtkeepers, and adds very consider-
ably to their opportunities for landing and relief. The Town
Council and inhabitants of Plymouth having expressed a desire
that Smeaton's lighthouse should be re-erected on Plymouth
Hoe, in lieu of the Trinity House sea mark thereat, the Trinity
House, who, as custodians of public money, had no funds avail-
able for such a purpose, undertook to deliver to the authorities
at Plymouth, at actual cost for labour, the lantern, and the four
rooms of the tower. These have been re-erected by public sub-
scription on a frustrum of granite, corresponding nearly with
the lower portion of Smeaton's to.ver, and it is to be hoped that
it will be preserved by the town of Plymouth as a monument to
the genius of Smeaton, and in commemoration of one of the
most successful and beneficent works in civil engineering.
It is extremely difficult to estimate, with a fair degree of
accuracy, the maxijaum force of the waves with which some of
the most exposed of these sea structures may occasionally have
to contend. The late eminent lighthouse engineer, Mr. Thomas
Stevenson, F.R. S.E., carried out a long series of experiments
with a self-re.:jistering instrument he devised for determining
the force of sea-waves on exposed structures. He found at the
Skerry vore Kock Lighthouse the Atlantic waves there gave
an average force for five of the summer months in 1843-44
of 611 pounds per square foot. The average result for the
six winter months of the same year was 2086 pounds per
square foot, or three times as great as in the summer months.
The greatest force registered was on March 29, 1845, during a
westerly gale, when a pressure of 6083 pounds, or 2j tons nearly,
per square foot was recorded. After Smeaton had carefully con-
sidered the great defect of the building of Rudyerd at the
Eddystone, viz. want of weight, he replied that, " if the light-
hou e was to be so contrived as not to give way to the sea, it
must be made so strong as that the sea must be compelled to
give way to the building." Smeaton also had regard to durability
as an important element in the structure, for he adds : "In con-
templating the use and benefit of such a structure as this, my
ideas of what its duration and continued existence ought to be
were not confined within the boundary of one nge or two, but
extended themselves to look towards a possible perpetuity."
Thus Smeaton soon arrived at the firm conviction that his light-
house must be built of granite, and of this material nearly all
lighthouses on exposed tidal rocks have since been constructed,
while those on submerged sandbanks are open structures of iron,
erected on screw piles or iron cylinders. The screw pile was the
invention of the late Mr. Alexander Mitchell, of Belfast.
We have here a molel of the first lighthouse, erected in 1838,
NATURE
{May 23, 1889
on these screw piles, at the Maplin Sand, on the north side of
the estuary of the Thames, under the direction of the late James
Walker, F.R.S., then Engineer-in-Chief to the Trinity House.
A lighthouse on the principle of minimum surface exposed
to the force of the waves, of which we have here a model,
was erected on the chief rock of the dangerous group of
the Smalls, situated about \%\ miles off Milfoid Haven, by
Mr. John Phillips, a merchant and shipowner of Liverpool.
The work was designed, and erected under great difficulties,
by Mr. Henry Whiteside, a native of Liverpool, and a man of
great mechanical skill and undaunted courage. Added to his
mechanical ability, Whiteside possessed a great love and know-
ledge of music, and had, previous to the erection of his light-
house, excelled in the construction of violins, spinnettes, and
upright harpsicords. The lighthouse, commenced in 1772, was
intended to be erected on eight cast-iron pillars, sunk deep into
the rock ; this material was, however, soon abandoned for
English oak, as being more elastic and trustworthy. The
work was completed and lighted in 1776 with eight lamps
and glass faceted reflectors, similar to the one before us.
In 181 7 sixteen improved lamps and silvered paraboloidal
reflectors were substituted for these ; and the lighthouse, al-
though sorely tried by winter storms, was (with the aid of yearly
repairs and strengthening) enabled to send forth its beneficent
beam until the year 1856, when the Trinity House commenced
the erection of a lighthouse of granite, as shown by this model.
The vibrations of the old wooden structure must have been very
considerable with heavy storms, for the lightkeepers occasionally
found it sufficient to cause a bucket of water, placed in the
living-room, to spill just half its contents. It was in this light-
house that the painful circumstance occurred in the year 1802
of the death of one of the lightkeepers. In those days only
two men inhabited the lighthouse at a time ; one of them was
taken ill, and the means employed by his companion for obtain-
ing relief proved ineffectual ; he hoisted a signal of distress, but
owing to stormy weather no landing could be effected, and after
many days of extreme suffering, the poor fellow, named Thomas
Griffiths, breathed his last, when the survivor, Thomas Howell,
fully realized the awful responsibilities of his position ; decom-
position would quickly follow, and the atmosphere of the small
apartment would be vitiated. The body could not be committed
to the sea, as suspicion of murder would probably follow. Howell
was a cooper by trade, and he was thus enabled to make a
coffin for his dead companion out of boards obtained from a par-
tition in the apartment. After very great exertion the body was
carried to the outer gallery, and there securely lashed to the
railing. For three long weeks it occupied this position
before the weather moderated, yet night after night Howell
faithfully kept his lights brightly burning. When a landing
was at la-t effected, his attenuated form demonstrated the
sufferings, both mental and physical, he had undergone ; indeed,
several of his friends failed to recognize him on his return to his
home. Since this sad occurrence the Trinity House have always
maintained three lightkeepers at their isolated rock stations.
The present lighthouse was designed by the late Engineer-in
Chief of the Trinity House, Mr. James Walker, F. R.S., and I
had the honour of executing the work as resident engineer. The
foundation-stone was laid on June 26, 1857, and the light was
exhibited on August 7, 1861. The work was completed by the
Trinity House, at a cost of ;^5o, 125, being about 24 per cent,
under the lowest amount at which it had been ascertained that
it could have been executed by contract.
Probably the most exposed rock lighthouse is that on the
Bishop (the westernmost of the rocks of Scilly), shown in
Fig. I. Its position is doubtless one of the most important
to mariners, warning them, as it does, of the terrible dangers
where, on October 22, 1707, Sir Cloudesley Shovel, with the
Association, Eagle, and Romney, were lost, with about 2000 men.
The Bishop is also the guiding light f )r the entrances to the
English and Bristol Channels. The rock, composed of a very
hard, pink-coloured granite, is about 153 feet long by 52 feet
wide at the level of low water of spring tides. It stands in
over 20 fathoms water, is steep to, all round, and is exposed to
the full fury of the Atlantic. It was at first feared that the width
of the rock was not sufficient for the base of a stone tower of
adequate dimensions to withstand the heavy wave-shocks it
would have to resist, and an open structure of wrought and cast
iron [shown on the diay;ram] was determined on. The work was
jointly designed by the late Engineer-in-Chief to the Trinity
House and my father, the superintending engineer, who after-
wards erected the structure, at which I had the honour of acting
as assistant engineer.
senvioE ROOM
BNCINE ROOtt
''%„„'/; .-: :://:. M/MMLW/M''/'-^''//////'-'/^''^'^
The work was commenced in 1847, and at the end of the
working season of 1850 the lighthouse was so far completed as
1
May 23, 1889]
NATURE
89
to be in readiness for receiving the lantern and the illuminating
apparatus, and it was left with confidence to resist the storms of
the approaching winter. But during a very violent storm, between
11 p.m. of the 5th and 3 a.m. on the 6th of the following
February, the lighthouse was completely destroyed, and swept
from the rock. On further consideration of the matter, the
Trinity Ifouse determined, on the recommendation of their
engineers, to proceed with a stone structure, and my father was
appointed to build the lighthouse, I acting as before as assistant
engineer. The work was proceeded with in the spring of 185 1.
In order to obtain the greatest possible diameter of base for the
tower that the rock would admit of, it was found necessary to
lay a portion of the foundation on the most exposed side of the
rock, at the level of I foot below low water of spring tides ; and,
although every possible human effort was made by the leader
and his devoted band of workers, the foundations were not com-
pleted until the end of the season of 1852. Soon after this, my
brother, Mr. William Douglass, now Engineer- in- Chief to the
Commissioners of Irish Lights, succeeded me as assistant
engineer at the work. The lighthouse was completed in 1858,
and its dioptric fixed oil light of the first order was first exhibited
on September i of that year. Soon afterwards, its exposure to
heavy seas during storms was fully realized. On one occasion
the fog bell was torn from its bracket at the lantern gallery at
ICX3 feet above high water, and the flag-staff, with a ladder,
which were lashed outside the lantern, were washed away.
The tremor of the tower on these occasions was such as to
throw articles off shelves, and several of the large glass prisms
of the dioptric apparatus were fractured. After some time it
was found that several of the external blocks of granite situated
a few feet above high water were fractured by the excessive
strains on the building. In 1874 the tower was strengthened
from top to bottom by heavy iron ties, boiled to the internal
surface of the walls ; but, after a violent storm in the winter
of 1881, there was evidence of further excessive straining at the
face of the lower external blocks of masonry, when the Trinity
House, on the advice of their engineer, determined on the re-
erection of the lighthouse. This was accomplished (as
shown in Fig. i) by incasing the existing tower with carefully
dovetailed granite masonry, each alternate block of the new
granite being dovetailed to the old. The work
was one of considerable difficulty, owing to the
necessity for maintaining the light throughout the
progress ; and the risk to the workmen was great,
especially at the upper part of the old tower, owing
to the narrow ledge on which the work had to be
executed. I am, however, thankful to state that
the new lighthouse has been successfully completed
by my son, Mr. W. T. Douglass, who was also my
assistant engineer at the Eddystone ; and with the
same complete immunity from loss of life or limb
to any person employed, as with the two previous
stnictures on this rock. The optical apparatus con-
sists of two superposed tiers of lenses of the type
adopted at the Eddystone, but of larger dimensions,
as suggested by the late Mr. Thomas Stevenson,
for obtaining greater efficiency with the larger-
flame luminaries recently adopted. The apparatus
is provided with two Trinity House improved
mineral oil burners, and has a minimum intensity
for clear weather of about 80,000 candle units, and
a maximum intensity for thick weather of about
513,000 candle units. The character of the light is
double- flashing, showing two flashes, each of four
seconds' duration, in quick succession, at periods of
one minute. The flashes of this light, and those
of a light lately corhpleted at about 8 nautical
miles from it, on Round Island, are the most
intense yet attained with oil flames for beacon lights ; and
it may be stated that, with no other illuminant at present
known to science could these results be carried out within the
space available at the Bishop Rock, and under the circumstances
attending that work. The fog signal recently adopted at this
station, in lieu of the bell, is by the electrical explosion of
4-ounce charges of gun-cotton, at intervals of 5 minutes. The
apparatus provided for this form of fog signal is shown in
Fig. I. It consists of a wrought- iron crane (attached to the
lantern) which is raised and lowered by a worm-wheel and
pinion. When the crane is lowered, its end reaches near the
gallery, where the lightkeeper suspends the charge of gun-
cotton, with its detonator attached, to the electric cable, which
is carried along the crane and through the roof of the lantern to
a dynamo-electric firing machine. After suspending the charge^
the jib of the crane is raised to its upper position, when the
charge is fired nearly vertically over the glazing of the
lantern, and thus without causing damage to it. The
large and heavy optical apparatus is rotated automatically
by compressed air, which is stored in two vertical steel reser-
voirs, fixed at the centre of the tower. The air is compressed
by a small Davey safety motor. A Vi'inch, worked by the
compressed air, is fixed on the lantern gallery for landing the
lightkeepers, stores, &c. Fig. 2 is a sketch, from actual obser-
FJC.2
vation, of the height and form of waves on the tower during a .
storm.
The numerous outlying shoals surrounding the shores of this
country, particularly off the east coast, were an early cause of
anxiety to those responsible for the guidance of mariners. And
in addition to buoys as sea-marks by day, floating lights, as
guides by night, were found to be a necessity. The first light-
vessel was moored at the Nore Sand in 1732, and another near
the Dudgeon Shoal in 1736. We have here a model of the
latter vessel, from which we may judge of the pluck and hardi-
hood of the crews who manned them, especially when we
remember that there were no chain cables in those days, the
Foff.3
vessel having to be moored with a cable of hemp, which, owing
to the constant chafing, occasionally parted during winter
storms, when, to save their lives, the crew had to put out
another anchor if possible, or set such storm canvas as they
could to keep her off a lee-shore, and endeavour to reach a place
of safety. The illuminating apparatus of these vessels consisted,
of a sujall lantern and flat-wick oil lamps, fixed at a yardarm,
and here appears to have occurred the first application of a
distinctive character to beacon lights, for the Dudgeon was fitted
with two lights, one being placed at each arm of the yard (Fig. 3).
The next light- vessel was placed at the Newarp Shoal in 1 790, and
in 1795 one was placed at the north end of the Goodwin Sands..
go
NA TURE
\^May 23, 1 339
The two latter vessels were provided with three fixed lights, and
the lanterns were larger, and surrounded each mast-head, as
shown by the model before us. An improvement was also
•effected in these lights by providing each lamp with a silvered
reflector.
In 1807 the late Mr. Robert Stevenson, the engineer of the
Bell Rock Lighthouse, to whom and his successors are due
much valuable engineering and optical work connected with
• coast-lighting, designed a larger lantern to surround the mast,
and capable of being lowered to the deck for properly trimming the
lamps (Fig. 4). Soon after the adoption of the system of catoptric
illumination in lighthouses, it was extended to floating lights ;
each lamp and reflector was hung in gimbals, to insure hori-
zontal direction of the beams of light during the pitching and
rolling of the vessel. We have here one of these apparatus.
"The intensity of the beam sent from it was 500 candle units,
.:nearly.
On January i, 1837, the Trinity House installed the first
revolving floating light, at the Swin Middle, and later in the
same year another, on board the Gull light-vessel. The lamps
and reflectors were carried on a roller frame surrounding the
mast, and rotated through light shaftings by clockwork placed
between decks. There were nine lamps and reflectors arranged
in three groups, of three each, and thus the collective intensity
of each flash was equal to that of three fixed lights, or 1500
candle units, nearly. In 1872 the Trinity House further
increased the dimensions of the lanterns and reflectors of their
floating lights — the lanterns from 6 to 8 feet in diameter, with
cylindrical instead of polygonal glazing, and the reflectors from
12 inches to 21 inches diameter at the aperture. These im-
provements, together with the adoption of improved burners,
have effected a considerable increase in the intensity of these
lights ; and during the last two years a further improvement has
been obtained by the adoption of concentric wick burners with
xnore condensed flames, and of higher illuminating power, by
•which the intensity of the beam from each reflector has been
raised to 5000 candle units, being just ten times the intensity of
~*he smaller apparatus ; while, by the adoption of mineral oil in
lieu of colza, the annual cost for the illuminant has been reduced
50 per cent.
Dioptric apparatus was proposed for light-vessels by M.
Letourneau in 1851, several small fixed-light apparatus being
intended to be employed in each lantern, and arranged nearly
in the same way as the reflectors. This arrangement has been
adopted in some instances by Messrs. D. and T. Stevenson,
Engineers to the Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses, and
by the engineers of the French Lighthouse Service ; but, for
■efficiency and adaptability to meet the rough duty to which
floating lights are occasionally subjected in stormy weather and
-collisions, this system has been found to be inferior for this
service to the catoptric.
An intere ting experiment was recently made by the Mersey
Docks and Harbour Board with the electric arc light, on board
one of their light-vessels, at the entrance of the Mersey ; but
unfortunately it did not prove successful. The present difficulties
experienced afloat with this powerful illuminant will doubtless be
overcome, and it will be found to be, as in lighthouses, by far the
most efficient illuminant for some special stations, where a higher
intensity than can be obtained with flame luminaries is demanded.
Experiments have been in progress during the past two years
at the Sunk light- vessel, off the coast of Essex, for maintaining
electrical telegraphic communication with the shore for reporting
wrecks and casualties in the locality. This vessel is connected
with the post office at Walton-on-Naze, through nine miles of
cable. The instruments adopted are the Wheatstone ABC
Morse, and the Gower Bell telephone, the telephone for the
first time for this purpose on board a vessel at sea, and its effi-
ciency has been found to be so perfect that it is preferred by the
operators to the telegraphic instruments. Many difficulties have
been experienced in maintaining trustworthy communication
during stormy weather, owing to consequent wear and tear of the
connections with the vessel, but the system, which was designed
I
May 23, 1889]
NATURE
9r
and carried out by the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance
Company, is now working satisfactorily. Unfortunately, how-
ever, it is found ;o be too costly for adoption except in very
special cases.
( To be continued. )
A BILL TO PROVIDE TECHNICAL EDU-
CA TION IN ENGLAND AND WALES.
'X'HE following Bill, introduced into the House of Commons
■*■ by Sir Henry Roscoe on behalf of the National Asso-
ciation for the Promotion of Technical Education, was read a
second time without opposition on Wednesday, May 8 : —
Whereas it is expedient that due provision should be made for
technical education in public elementary schools and elsewhere :
Be it therefore enacted by the Queen's most Excellent
Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords
Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parlia-
ment assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows :
I. This Act may be cited as the Technical Education Act,
1889,
?• (i) After the passing of this Act any school board may
make provision for giving technical education in any school
under their management, and either by day or evening classes,
or both, as may seem fit, having regard to the daily occupations
of the persons to be benefited thereby.
(2) If no such provision is made, or if it is insufficient, and
if the local authority by special resolution determine that
provision or further provision ought to be made, they may them-
selves make such provision.
3. Where technical education is given in any school, not being
a public elementary school (including for the purposes of this
section any college), which is not under the management of a
school board or local r.ulhority, and is either within their
district or accessible to the inhabitants thereof, the school board
or local authority may contribute or they may join together with
other school boards or local authorities in contributing from their
respective funds tow ards — ■
{a) the maintenance or improvement of that school or of its
provisions for technical education ; or
{h) the payment of the fees at that school of deserving
students who before proceeding to such school have been
resident in the district of the contributing board or authority ;
(c) the establishment of scholarships for deserving students.
The mode in which and the terms upon which contributory
school boards and local authorities shall be represented upon the
governing bodies of schools receiving such contributions, so far
as technical instruction is concerned, shall be such as may be
agreed upon between the school boards, local authorities, and
governing bodies respectively in each case.
Plvery such contribution shall be deemed to be expenses of
such school board or local authority incurred for the purposes of
this Act.
4. (i) Where any school imvhich technical education is given in
pursttan e of this Act is also a public elementary school, a parlia-
mentary grant may he made to such school by the Education
Department and by the Science and Art Department, or by either
of such Departments.
(2) The conditions required to be fulfilled by such school in
oraer to obtain an annual parliamentary grant shall be those
contained in minutes isiued by the Committee of Council on
Eaucation.
(3) Any minute made in pursuance of this section shall not
cotne into force until it has Iain on the table of both Houses of
Parliament for one month.
5. (i) Where any school in which technical education is given
in pursuance of this Act is not a public elementary school, a
parliamentary grant may be made to such school by the Science
and Art Department, subject to such conditions as that Department
may prescribe.
(2) Any minute made by the Science and Art Department in
pursuance of this section shall not come into force until it has
lain on the table of both Houses of Parliament for one month.
6. (i) All the provisions of the Elementary Education Acts
rekiting to the powers of school boards with respect to sufficient
accommodation, fees, the combination of school boards, and the
acquisition of land, shall apply to school boards in whose
schools technical education is given, or to be given, under this
Act ; and a school shall not cease to be a public elementary
school within the meaning of the Elementary Education Acts by
reason of technical education being given therein.
(2) A school which is under the management of a schoot
board, and in which technical education is given under this Act,,
shall be conducted in accordance with the same regulations as ai>
elementary public school under the Elementary Education Acts ,-
Provided, however, that every such school shall be open to the
inspection of any inspector appointed by the Department of
Science and Art, as well as of Her Majesty's inspectors as-
defined in the Elementary Education Acts.
7. The expenses incurred by any school board in carrying this
Act into effect, including any contributions made by the school'
board in aid of technical education in schools not under their
management, shall be deemed to be expenses of the said schoot
board within the meaning of the Elementary Education Acts^
and payable accordingly. '
A school board shall have the same powers of borrowing for
the like purposes, but subject to the same consent and other
conditions, as they have under the Elementary Education
Acts.
8. The expenses incurred by a local authority in giving effect
to this Act, including any such contributions as are above
mentioned, shall be payable out of the local rate. The local
authority shall have the like powers of borrowing for the
purposes of this Act, but subject to the same conditions, as for-
other purposes.
9. The provisions of this Act with respect to a local authority
shall not apply to the Metropolis.
10. It shall be competent for any school board or local
authority, should they think fit, to institute an entrance examin-
ation in reading, writing, and arithmetic for persons desirous of
attending technical schools or classes under their management, or
to which they contribute.
11. For the purposes of this Act the expression "technical
education " means instruction in —
(i.) Any of the branches of Science and Art with respect to
which grants are for the time being made by the Department of
Science and Art.
(ii.) The working of wood, clay, metal, or other material for
the purposes of art or handicraft.
(iii.) Commercial arithmetic : commercial geography ; modern
languages ; book-keeping, and shorthand,
(iv. ) Any other subject applicable to the purposes of agriculture,
trade, or commercial life and practice, which may be sanctioned
"by a minute of the Department of Science and Art made on the
representation of a school board or local authority that such a
form of instruction is suited to the needs of its district.
12. The provision to be made for technical education under
this Act may include the providing of school laboratories,
apparatus for teaching and experiment, museums and their
contents, libraries, books, workrooms, schools or schoolrooms,
or the improvement of existing provisions of any of these kinds,
and the maintaining of the same in such manner as may be
necessary to give effect to this Act.
13. (i) Save as otherwise provided by this Act the ex-
pressions "school board," "public elementary school,"'
"managers," "parliamentary grant," and " Education Depait-
men'," respectively, have the same meaning in this Act as in
the Elementary Education Acts.
(2) The expression " local authority" means in any borough
the council of that borough, and elsewhere the district coimcil if
district councils are established under any Act of the present
session of Parliament, but if not then the urban sanitary
authority or where there is no urban sanitary authority the
county council.
The expression " local rate " means in a borough the school'
fund or borough fund or borough rate, and elsewhere the general
district rate or other rate corresponding thereto.
14. This Act shall not apply to Scotland or Ireland.
SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.
Bulletins de la Socii!t^ d^Anthrojologie, tome onzieme, se'rie
iii., fasc. 4 (Paris, 188S). — Conclusion of M. Variot's paper on the
removal of marks of tattooing ; and on an instrument for tattoo-
ing, by the same writer. — On the sacrum of a chimpanzee, by
M. Chudzinski. In this case the sacrum was composed of seven
vertebra, the normal number in the Anthropoids being only five,
or at most six. — A process for mounting histological specimens-
92
NATURE
{May 23. 1889
treated under paraffin, by M. Mahoudeau. — A description of
the cranium and brain in two assassins, by MM. Fallot and
Alezais. This communication gives a minute analysis of the
convolutions and other parts of the hemispheres, while it supplies
numerous and special measurements of the various parts of the
skull together with the respective cerebral and cranial indices. —
On the cranial alterations observable in rachitic conditions, by
M. Regnault — On the first temporal convolution in the right and
left hemispheres, in the case of a person who was known to
have suffered from deafness of the left ear, by M. Manouvrier.
— A communication regarding the truth of the reports made by
various travellers that cannibalism exists among the Fuegians, by
M, Hyades. According to this writer there is absolutely no
ground for this charge.— On a Peruvian bell, by M. Verneau.
— On the antiquity of Egypt, and the evidences of its con-
dition in prehistoric times, by M. Beauregard. In this
very exhaustive article the author passes in review the material
evidence remaining of the ages of cut and polished stone
and of bronze. He believes that Egypt at the time of the
Pharaohs exhibited the mixed condition of combining the
use of flint implements with the simultaneous acquaintance
with the means of extracting copper, and blending it with
other metals, including tin, although no distinct hieroglyphic
for the latter has been recognized in the older language
of Egypt. It remains undetermined where and when first
the ancient Egyptians obtained the tin which enters into
the bronze fabricated in the valley of the Nile as far back
as the seventeenth century before our era. — On the birth rate in
France, by M. Chervin. This paper contributes the most
elaborate and detailed series of statistical tables, for the separate
departments, of the births, marriages, and deaths registered, as
well as of the numbers of children born in a definite number of
households. The means obtained from these lists show that 8
per cent, of all the marriages in France are sterile, and that while
25 per cent, yield only one child, 100 families supply a mean of
only 259 children. Many curious points of interest are suggested
by this complex report, but it does not do much to explain the
causes of the want of increase in the papulation of P'rance, as
compared with that of other ciuntries. — On the hinged and
cantoned crosi in Cyprian decorative art, by M. Max Richter.
The remains of ancient art in Cyprus strongly resemble those of
Hissarlik, excepting that there is no trace of the swastika, or
hinged cross on the decorated red jars of the Bronze Age, while
its later appearance and disappearance in Cyprian art appears to
-coincide with the predominance and decline of Phoenician in-
fluence. — On the survival in Brittany of some of the usages and
privileges of clanship, by M. Sebillot. — On a semi-pagan pro-
cession on St. John's day, in th: Basses Alpes, by M. Arnaud.
From time immemorial the peasants of Lauzet have proceeded
after the benediction of the neighbouring lake to throw stones
into its waters amid loud and angry cries of vengeance against
the evil spirits who bring rain and hail storms. In this strange
•ceremony the local curd is constrained by popular will to take
part. — On phallotomy among the Egyptians, by M. Letourneau.
— On the centre of creation, and the first appearance of the
human race, by M. Lombard. The writer supports Signor
Saporta's view that vegetable forms, which now cover our con-
tinents, have spread slowly and continuously from north to south,
recent species forcing back or obliterating those of more ancient
origin. The laws which Signor Saporta endeavours to establish
for the diffusion of vegetable forms, M. I^ombard thinks may
be extended to the animal kingdom, including man, whose
cradle he would seek in circumpolar regions. — Report of sixth
Conference on Transformism, under the presidency of M. Duval,
by M. Bordier. — Report of fifih Broca-Conference, by M.
Topinard, a member of the commission for awarding the prize
instituted by Madame Broca in memory of her husband. The
memoirs presented between 1885 and 1888 are not numerous,
but great value attaches to two among these works, viz. the
general ethnography of Tunis, by Dr. Rene Collignon, to whom
the Broca Prize for 1888 has been unanimously awarded ; and
ethnological researches in regard to the human remains dis-
covered at Spy, by M. Fraipont, wh > received a silver medal in
recognition of the great merit of his work. — On the longevity
of the Berber races, by M. Letourneau. — On a Palaeolithic
station on Mont Roty, and on a novel flint implement, by the
Abbe Blanquet. — On an ancient cemetery at Biskra, Algeria, by
M. de Mortillet. — On a sepulchral dolmen, discovered at
Nanteuil-le-Houdouiu (Oise), by MM. Collin and Lair. — A
•prehistoric station at Frileuse (Seine-et-Oise), by M. Vauville.
The numbers of the Botanical Gazette (Crawfordsville,
Indiana) for March and April contain a careful study of the
histology of the leaves of Taxodiitm by Mr. Stanley Coulter,
and a description of a number of new North American mosses,
with illustrations, by Messrs. Renauld and Cardot. It is an
evidence of the attention paid in the United States to micro-
scopical technique, that this magazine frequently contains (as do
both the numbers now before us) valuable hints as to the pre-
paration of sections of tissues for the microscope, the use of stain-
ing reagents, or objects specially well calculated to demanstrate
difficult points of structure.
In the Journal of Botany for April and May, Messrs. Murray
and Boodle complete their account of the genus Avrainvillea of
Siphonocladacese, — Students of conifers will read with very great
interest Dr. M. T. Masters's attempt to distinguish the North
American pines, Abies lasiocarpa, A. bifolia, and A. siibalpina,
with their varieties or subspecies. The paper is illustrated by a
series of excellent woodcuts. — Most of the other papers in these
numbers are of special interest to students of British plants.
The Nuovo Giornale Botaniio Italiano for April, a large por-
tion of which is devoted to a report of the proceedings of the
Italian Botanical Society, contains several articles of general
interest besides those devoted to the Phanerogamic and Crypto-
gamic botany of Italy. — Dr. H. Ross has an interesting article
on the assimilating tissue and development of the periderm in the
branches of plants with few or no leaves. — In pursuance of his
careful examination of the Nymphasaceas, Prof. G. Arcangeli
now contributes a paper on the seeds of Victoria regia. — Signor
U. Martelli adds a species to the few hitherto known of the genus
Riccia—R. atromarg'mata from Sicily. — Signor C. Lumia gives
the result of an examination of the composition of the gas found
within the inflorescence of the common fig in an unripe condition,
which contains more than 5 per cent, of carbon dioxide, showing
that an active process of respiration must go on within the recep-
tacle. — Signor G. Cuboni gives an account of experiments carried
on with a view to check the plague of grasshoppers by infecting
them with a parasitic fungus, Entomophthora Grylli, which
had, however, only negative results.
Rciidiconti del Reale Istituto Loinbardo, April. — Palcconto-
logical notes on the Lower Lias of the Lombard fore-Alps, by
Dr. C. F. Parona. These notes are communicated pending the
publication of the author's exhaustive treatise on the fauna of
Saltrio. They deal especially with the palaeontological features
of the Bergamo and Como districts in connection with the
various faunas that flourished in the Lombard Sea during the
Lower Lias epoch. The results of this summary survey agree
generally with the conclusions arrived at by Prof. De Stefani in
his comparative study of the various Lower Lias formations
throughout Italy. — New measurement of the curvature of sur-
faces, by Prof. Felice Casorati. A new solution is presented of
this problem, that of Gauss being shown to be defective and
inadequate, although he laid the first solid foundation for the
study of the subject in his classical work, " Disquisitiones
generales circa superficies Curvas." — Prof. Giovanni Zoja con-
tributes some historical notes on the cabinet of human anatomy
in the University of Pav'a, dealing more particularly with the
period from 1815 to 1864 under the able adminis'ration of
Bartolomeo Panizza.
SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES.
London.
Royal Society, May 9. — "Zirconium and its Atomic
Weight." By G. H. Bailey, D.Sc, Ph.D., the Owens College,
Manchester.
Before proceeding with any final estimation, those salts of
zirconium which were at all likely to be of service in the
determination were exhaustively examined with special regard
to their stability in presence of reagents and under the action
of heat.
It was found that in consequence of their instability and
tendency to form numerous oxychlorides, neither the chloride
nor the oxychloride could be relied upon, and that the sulphate
was the most suitable salt to work with. Even this salt when
heated above 400° C. undergoes gradual decomposition with the
production of basic salts, though it is quite stable up to this
temperature A special method (applicable in a number of
May 23, 1889]
NATURE
93
other atomic weights) was devised by which the normal salt
could be obtained free from acid on the one hand, and from
basic salt on the other. In order to have a sufficient check on
the results, the carefully purified zirconia was further treated
by four perfectly independent methods,
(a) The sulphate was prepared and its solution precipitated
by means of hydrogen peroxide.
[b) The tetrachloride was prepared and its solution pre-
cipitated by ammonia.
(f) The sulphate was re crystallized several times from con-
centrated sulphuric acid and precipitated by ammonia.
(d) The oxychloride was prepared and recrystallized and
precipitated by ammonia.
The average values obtained from the sulphate prepared
from the specimens of zirconia so treated by determining the
relation Zr(S04).2 : ZrO,, were : —
is the same as that in (2), the impulse given to the charged
body by destroying the induction will be —
(a) 90*402
{b) 90-390
{c) 90-471
{d) 90-30
mean 90 "401.
In addition to the investigation of the salts which have been
used in the estimation of the atomic weight, observations on
the peroxides of zirconium discovered by Cleve and the author
are embodied, as well as an examination of the so-called
metallic zirconium.
" Determining the Strength of Liquids by means of the
Voltaic Balance." By Dr. G. Gore, F.R.S.
This method is based upon the circumstance that the greater
the degree of concentration of a solution the larger is the amount
of dilution required to reduce its voltaic energy to a given magni-
tude. The method of measuring the energy is described in
Royal Society Proceedings, vol. xlv. p. 268,
In the present research a known volume of solution was taken,
and the proportion of dissolved substance in it was found by
ordinary chemical analysis. A second portion was taken, its
specific gravity ascertained, and its degree of strength found by
aid of the ordinary published tables of specific gravities. A
third portion of known volume was then taken, its average
amount of voltaic energy measured, and its degree of concen-
tration ascertained by the amount of dilution required to reduce
its voltaic energy to the same magnitude ; the less dilute it was
at starting the greater the amount of dilution required. The
following are the results : —
By HCI. H0SO4. HNO3. NaCl. NaaCOs- K3N.
Chemical analysis ... 1-85 ... 5 60 ... 2-97 ... 9-13 ... 721 ... 1-05
Specific gravity ... 1-70 ... 5-44 ... 280 ... 8*74 ... 7-63 ... 1-03
Voltaic balance ... 1-65 ... 5-70 ... 2-90 ... 8-71 ... 7-57 ... i-o6
A much less quantity of the substance is usually required by
the voltaic balance method than by either of the other ones, and
the operation is very quickly performed.
Physical Society, May ir.— Prof. Reinold, President, in
the chair. — The following communications were read : — On an
electrostatic field produced by varying magnetic induction, by
Dr. O. J. Lodge, F.R.S. This paper describes a research
made with the object of finding some connection between static
electricity and magnetism. Several methods of attacking the
problem, such as rotating or varying the strength of magnets in
the neighbourhood of delicately suspended charged bodies, are
indicated, and the one selected was based on an idea of Mr. A.
P. Chattock, who conceived that a charged body in the vicinity
of a closed magnetic circuit would be affected by varying the
magnetic induction. From the theory of the effect it is shown
that the magnitude of the quantity sought is exceedingly small,
for the expression involves the inverse squr.re of the velocity of
light. The E.M.F. induced in any closed curve round the
magnetic circuit or solenoid by varving the induction, I, is given
by—
dl
'^Ift (')
If an E.M.F., e, act on 'a charge, Q, at distance r from the
axis of the solenoid, the work done in one revolution will be
«Q, and
fQ = F . 27r^- (2)
where F is the mechanical force. Now if the E.M.F. in (i)
Ydt^n
Z-irr
(3)
Since I = "^"""^^^ = /xC times a length, and Q = jV = KV
times a length,
.-. d> = KmCVA /iength)2 and K/* = --,, ,; , -. (^ oc _1_
The magnetic circuit actually used was a wire Gramme ring of
trapezoidal section, wound with copper over only a part of its
periphery. The indicating apparatus was a suspended needle,
consisting of two oppositely charged bodies carried on a small
shellac arm, to which a mirror or pointer was attached, and
was suspended vertically in the plane of the ring. Great dif-
ficulty was experienced from Foucault's currents when metallic
films were used for the needle, and the magnetic properties and
other semi-conductors tried further complicated the matter.
Eventually, the charged bodies were made of paper, in the form
of cylinders one- eighth of an inch diameter and three-eighths
of an inch long. Considerable trouble was caused by the elec-
trostatic action between the needle and exciting coils, and various
methods of screening were tried and abandoned, and subse-
quently the wire was replaced by a single spiral of copper rib-
bon, the outer turn of which was put to earth. Observation was
rendered difficult, owing to the wandering of the zero when the
needle was charged, but this was minimized by suitably shaping
the contour of the needle's surroundings. Heat also created
considerable disturbance, and the convection currents were cut off
by a series of concentric cylinders of tin plate. The method of
observation was to charge the two insulated parts of the needle,
and then reverse the magnetizing current in synchronism with
the period of the needle, noting whether the amplitude of any
residual swing could be increased or diminished according as
the impulse assisted or opposed the motion. In this way, slight
indications have been observed, and the effects reverse when the
charges of the cylinders are reversed. In explaining the theory
of the experiment, the author made use of a simple transformer,
consisting of an ordinary hank of iron wire wound over with
insulated copper and provided with several secondary coils ; and
by it he demonstrated that the primary current increases on
closing the secondary, due, as was shown, to the decrease of
self-induction of the primary caused thereby. Prof. Fitzgerald,
in answer to a question from Dr. Lodge as to the influence of
screens, said he had not fully considered the matter in this par-
ticular case, and, as the general effect of screens depended on
the square of "z',"the subject required careful treatment. As
a means of checking the results obtained by Dr. Lodge, he sug-
gested calculating the impulse, and seeing whether its magnitude
approximately corresponds with that observed. Commenting
on an idea for carrying out a similar experiment attributed to
him in the paper, in which a charged gold leaf is placed between
the poles of a magnet, Prof, Fitzgerald said he had been mis-
understood, for he had conceived a disk parallel to the faces of
the magnets, which, when excited, should cause the disk to turn
in its own plane. Referring to the equations for mechanical
force given in Maxwell, §619, he pointed out that the coefficieat
of e in the equation —
, (/(// da
- inv - c~r- - m j-
dx dx
X
ought to be P, where-
d¥
r> . ,. av
^ = cy-bz- -^ -
d^
dx'
and considered it very important that the existence of the
term e - should be tested experimentally. Prof. S. P.
Thompson mentioned some experiments on which he was
engaged by which he hoped to show electric displacement in
continuous dielectric circuits, such as a link of gutta-percha.
Up to the present the experiments had not been successful^
owing to his inability to place the two Gramme ring coils used
into such relative positions as to give silence in the telephone
connected with the coil used as secondary, when currents were
sent through the primary. Prof. Ayrton suggested that Dr.
Thompson's difficulty may arise from the fact that such rings do
produce considerable external field, even when carefully wound.
94
NA rURE
[May 23, 1889
Prof. Fitzgerald requested Dr. Thompson to investigate the
effects of displacement-currents and of changing vector potential,
and pointed out that in a single medium the former can produce
no magnetic effect. As regards fields containing different
media, he said the calculations would be complicated by the
spurious charges on the separating surfaces. Dr. Lodge, in
reply, said he had calculated the momentum to be expected in
one arrangement of his experiment in which a suspended alu-
minium cylinder surrounds one limb of a rectangular magnetic
circuit which formed the core of an induction coil ; one end of
the secondary was put to the core and the other to the cylinder,
thus forming a condenser. The result came out about 10"" dyne
second, but he could not say whether such a small quantity was
-observable. — On the concentration of electric radiati)n by lenses,
by Prof. O. J. Lodge, F.R.S., and Dr. James L. Howard. The
authors' first attempts at concentration were made with mirrors
■on a comparatively small scale, and, owing to the difificulties
■experienced, it was considered advisable to try lenses. Two
'large cylindrical ones of piano-hyperbolic section were cast of
mineral pitch in zinc moulds, the plane faces being nearly a metre
square, the thickness at vertex 21 centimetres, and each lens
weighed about 3 cwt. The eccentricity of. the hyperbola was made
I "7, to approximate to the index of refraction of the substance.
The lenses were mounted about 6 feet apart, with their plane
faces parallel, and towards each other on a table in the College
corridor, and an oscillator was placed about the principal f ical
line of one of them at a distance of 51 centimetres from the
vertex. The field wa5 expljred by a linear receiver made out of
two pieces of copper wire mounted in line on a piece of wood,
and the air-gap fietweei their inner ends was adjustable by a
screw. When the oscillator worked satisfactorily, the receiver
would respond at about 120 centimetres, and with the lenses the
distance was 45c. The receiver responded anywhere be-
tween the lenses, and within the wedge between the second
lens and its focal line, the boundaries being clearly defined,
but no special concentration was noticed about the focus.
Interference experiments were carried out by placing a sheet of
metal against the flat face of the second lens, and determining
the positions of minimu n intensity between the lenses. The
distance between these points was 50 '5 centimetres, correspond-
ing with a wave-length of loi centimetres, whereas the calculated
wave-length of the oscillator was 100 centimetres. Prof Fitz-
gerald congratulated the authors on their success, and also
pointed out that although large oscillators give good results at
distances within a few wave-lengths, yet at greater distances
small ones were decidedly superior, owing to the energy of
radiation varying as the fourth power of th-i rapidity. He had
recently made experiments on electric radiations analogous to
Newton's rings, and had successfully observed the central dark
spot and the first dark band. Referring to Dr. Lodge's experi-
ments, he inquired whether any traces of diffraciion were
observed near the boundary of the bundle of rays between
the lenses. Speaking of polarization experiments, Prof. Fitz-
gerald said waves reflected from films of water exhibited no
polarization, whereas those reflected from non-conductors were
completely polarized. In reply, Dr. Lodge said no diffraction-
effects had been observed, but in the interference-experiments to
determine wave-length, the positions of minimum effect were
very decided. — The President, in proposing that the thanks of
the meeting be given to the authors of the papers, congratulated
the Society on the presence of both Dr. Lodge and Prof. Fitz-
gerald on the present occasion, when subjects with which they
were so well acquainted were brought before the meeting.
Chemical Society, May 2.— Dr. W. J. Russell, F.R.S ,
President, in the chair. — The following papers were read : —
Thiophosphoryl fluoride, by Prof. T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S., and
Mr. W. J. Rodger. Thiophosphoryl fluoride, PSF3, may be
prepared by the action of arsenic trifluoride on thiophosphoryl
chloride, or by heating a mixture of bismuth trifluoride or lead
fluoride with phosphorus pentasulphide in a leaden vessel at a
temperature not exceeding 250°. It is a transparent colourless
gas, which under a pressure of ten to eleven atmospheres at
ordinary temperatures condenses to a colourless, mobile liquid.
It is slowly decomposed by water into sulphuretted hydrogen,
phosphoric acid, and hydrogen fluoride, but does not attack
mercury, and can be stored in a glass gas-holder. In air it is
spontaneously inflammable, burning with a greyish-green flame
forming phosphorus pentafluoride, phosphorus pentoxide, and
sulphur dioxide, and it spontaneously explodes with oxygen.
When heated, or subjected to electric sparks, it is decomposed
with separation of sulphur and phosphorus, and formation of
phosphorus trifluoride, and eventually phosphorus pentafluoride,
whilst if the heating be effected in a glass tube at a sufficiently
high temperature the gas is ultimately converted into silicon
tetrafluoride. Thiophosphoryl fluoride combines with ammonia
forming a solid product P(NH2)2SF, and when shaken with a
moderately strong solution of alkali it is absorbed with the for-
mation of a thiophosphate and a fluoride. — The boiling-point of
sodium and potassium, by Mr. E. P. Perman. Sodium and
potassium were boiled in a hollow iron ball which was heated by
means of a blowpipe ; the temperature was found in each case by
means of an air thermometer consisting of a glass bulb with a
capillary stem which was lowered into the vapour, sealed and
broken open underwater. The mean result for sodium was 742^,
and for potassium 667°, — Note on the heat of neutralization of
sulphuric acid, by Mr. S. U. Pickering. Calculating the value
of the heat of neutralization of sulphuric acid in infinity of water
from the results of a series of experiments on the dilution of the
acid, the author finds that it becomes reduced to 28,197 cal., a
value within experimental error, the same as that of two mole-
cules of hydrogen chloride. — a-codiacetylpentaneand a tw-diben-
zoylpentane, by Dr. F. S. Kipping and Prof. W. H. Perkin.
— Acetopropyl- and acetobutyl-alcohol, by Dr. H. G. Colman
and Prof. W. H. Perkin.
Royal Meteorological Society, May 15. — Dr. W. Marcet,
F.R.S., President, in the chair. — The following papers were
read : — Account (if some experiments made to investigate the
connection between the pressure and velocity of the wind, by
Mr. W. H. Dines. These experiments were made for the pur-
pose of determining the relation between the velocity of the
wind and the pressure it exerts upon obstacles of various kinds
exposed to it. The pressure-plates were placed at the end of
the long arm of a whirling machine which was rotated by steam
power. The author gives the results of experiments with about
twenty-five different kinds of pressure- plates. The pressure
upon a plane area of fairly compact form is about i^ pounds per
square foot, at a velocity of twenty- one miles per hour; or, in
other words, a pressure of i pound per square foot is caused by
a wind of a little more than seventeen miles per hour. The
pressure upon the same area i^ increased by increasing the peri-
meter. The pressure upon a ^-foot plate is proportionally less
than that upon a plate either half or double its size. The pressure
upon any surface is but slightly altered by a cone or rim project-
ing at the back, a cone seeming to cause a slight increase, but a
rim having apparently no effect. — On an improved method of
preparing ozone paper, and other forms of the test, with starch
and potassium iodide, by Dr. C. H. Blackley. Some years ago
the author made some experiments with the ordinary ozone test-
papers, but found that the papers did not always give the same
result when two or more were exposed under precisely the same
conditions. He subsequently tried what reaction would take
place between unboiled starch and potassium iodide when exposed
to the influence of ozone ; but the difficulty of getting this spread
evenly upon paper by hand so as to insure a perfectly even tint
after being acted upon by ozone led him to devise a new method of
accomplishing this. Briefly described, it may be said to be a method
by which the starch is deposited on the surface of the paper by pre-
cipitation, and for delicacy and precision in regulating the
quantity on any given surface leaves very little to be desired. —
Notes on the climate of Akassa, Niger Territory, by Mr. F.
Russell. This paper gives the results of observations made from
February 1887 to October 1888 at Akassa, which is the seaport
and principal depot of the Royal Niger Company, and is situated
at the mouth of the River Nun in the Niger Delta. — Wind
storm at Sydney, New South Wales, on January 27, 1889, by
Mr. H. C. Russell, F.R.S.
Geological Society, May 8.— W. T. Blanford, F.R.S.,
President, in the chair. — The following communications were
read : — The rocks of Alderney and the Casquets, by the Rev.
Edwin Hill. The author in this paper described Alderney,
Burhou, with its surrounding reefs, and the remoter cluster of
the Casquets, all included within an area about ten miles long.
Thereadingof thepaperwasfollowed bya discussion, in which the
President, Prof. Bonney, Dr. Woodward, Dr. Hicks, and others
took part, — On the Ashprington volcanic series of South Devon,
by the late Arthur Champernowne. Communicated by Dr. A.
Geikie, F. R. S. The author described the general characters of
the volcanic rocks that occupy a considerable area of the country
around Ashprington, near Totnes. They comprise tuffs and
May 23, 1889]
NATURE
95
lavas, the latter being sometimes amygdaloidal and sometimes
flaggy and aphanitic. The aphanilic rocks approach in character
the porphyiiic " schalsteins " of Nassau. Some of the rocks
are much altered ; the felspars are blurred, as if changing to
saussurite, like the felspars in the Lizard gabbros. In other
cases greenish aphanitic rocks have, by the decomposition of
magnetite or ilmenite, become raddled and earthy in appearance,
so as to resemble tuffs. The beds are clearly interca'ated in the
Devonian group of rocks, and the term Ashprington Series is
applied to them by the author. Alrhough this series probably
contains some detrital beds, there are no true grits in it. Strati-
graphically the series appears to come between the Great Devon
Limestone and the Cockington Beds, the evidence being dis-
cussed by the author, however, not so fully as he had intended, as
the paptr was not completed. The President said that the
thanks of the Society were especially due to Dr. Geikie for
having rescued this paper from oblivion. Dr. Geikie, after
alluding to the melancholy interest attaching to the paper, said
that he had himself urged the author to formulate his ideas
upon the structure of the country. The present communication,
however, was all that was found among his papers in a condition
for publication. But it is imperfect, and no materials remained
from which it could be completed ; still it was too valuable a
piece of work to leave unpublished. There were two principal
points in this last work of Mr. Champernowne : (i) the non-
intrusive character of the beds in question ; (2) their geological
horizon, regarding which, though, owing to the faulted nature of
the country, it is rather obscure, Mr. Champernowne's surmises
may turn out to be correct. There was no allusion in the paper
to the compression and shearing the rocks had undergone, to
which he (Dr. Geikie) attributed much of the schistose structure
both of the sedimentary and igneous rocks of the region. The
flaky beds of which the author speaks can be traced into the
more massive rocks. The flattening out of the amygdaloids was
a striking proof of this mechanical deformation. Some remarks
on the paper were also offered by Mr. Rutley, Dr. Hatch, Mr.
Worth, and Mr. W. W. Beaumont.
Zoological Society, May 7. — Prof. Flower, F.R.S., Presi-
dent, in the chair. — The Secretary read a rep irt on the additions
that had been made to the Society's Menagerie during the month
of April 1889, and called attention to a young male Sinaitic
Ibex {Capra sinaitica), from Mount Sinai, presented by Sir
James Anderson ; and to a young male of the Lesser Koodoo
[Strepsiaros iniberbis), from East Africa, presented by George
S. Mackenzie. — Mr. Sclater exhibited and made remarks on a
living specimen of an albino variety of the Cape Mole {Geoiyc/ms
capensts), lately presented to the Menagerie by the Rev. George
H. R. Fisk, C.M.Z.S. — The Secretary read a letter addressed
to him by Dr. E. C. Stirling, of Adelaide, containing a copy of
his description of a nevv Australian burrowing Mammal, lately
published in the Tran.-actions of the Royal Society of South
Australia, and promising to send to the Zoological Society a
more complete account of the same animal. — Mr. Seebohm ex-
hibited and made remarks on the skin of a male example of
Fhasianus chrysomelas, which had been transmitted in a frozen
state from the Trans-Caspian Provinces of Russia. — A com-
munication was read from Colonel C. Swinhoe, containing
descriptions of seventy-five new species of Lidian Lej idoptera,
chiefly Heterocera. — A communication was read from Rev. O. P.
Cambridge, containing the description of a new Tree Trap-door
Spider fro.n Brazil, proposed to be called Dend>icon rostratriim.
— Mr. F. E. Beddard read some notes on the anatomy of an
American Tapir [Tapirus terrcsti is), based on a specimen lately
living in the Society's Collection. — A communication was read
from Prof. Bardeleben, of Jena, on the pra'pollex and prsehallux
of the Mammalian skeleton. '1 he author recorded the presence
of a two-segmented nail-clad prsepollex in Pedetes, and that of a
two-segmented pisiform (post-minimus) in Bathyergns. He also
stated that he had discovered vestiges of the pr^ehallux and prce-
pollex in certain keptilia. He then passed to the consideration of
the Mesozoic Theriodesmus of Seeley, and denied the existence
of the scapho-ltmare of that author, while he produced good
reason for believing the same observer's second csntrale to consist
of two elements, and his prseaxial ceniraleio be the basal element
of a praehallux. — Mr. Oldfield Thomas read the description of a
new genus and species of Muridse from Queensland, allied to
Hydromys, which he proposed to call Xeromys myoides.
Mathematical Society, May 9.— J. J. Walker, F.R.S.,
President, in the chair. — The following communications were
made : — On the solution in integers of equations of the forn[>
X* -»-y* -J- As* = o, by S. Roberts, F. R.S. — On the concomitants-
of Kary quantics, by W. J. C. Sharp. — Note on the G function
in an elliptic transformation annihilator, by J. Griffiths. — On the
complete elliptic integrals K, E, G, I, by Dr. J. Kleib.r, Prival-
docent of the University of St. Petersburg. — On the motion of
an elastic solid strained by extraneous forces, by Signer Betti
("by symmetrical algebraic analysis, the author obtains an expres-
sion, in terms of the rotations of the element, for the unbalanced
couples acting on each element of a solid when strained by given
forces ; and he points out that the result is in accordance with
a form of the elastic equations given by Sir W. Thomson "). — On
cyclotomic functions, § iii. the cyclotomics belonging to the
/-nomial periods of the /th roots of unity, where / is a prime
number, by Prof. Lloyd Tanner.
Edinburgh.
Royal Society, April i. — Sir W. Thomson, President, ir>
the chair. — Prof. Tait communicated some of the results obtained
from a series. of experiments on impact of various bodies. — Sir
W. Thomson exhibited and described new forms of magneto-
static current- and volt-meters, and an electro-static voltmeter
with a multiple voltaic pile to facilitate graduation. — Mr. A.
Crichton Mitchell gave an account of the properties of manganese
steel. — Dr. W. Peddie described an improved method of measur-
ing small rotations of the plane of polarization by ordinary
apparatus. — Prof. Tait read a paper on the relations between
line-, surface-, and volume-integrals. He showed that the well-
known relation between line- and surface-integrals can be deduced
directly fro^n a particular case of the equally well-known relation
between surface- and volume-integrals.
April 15. — Prof Sir Douglas Maclagan, Vice-President, in the
chair. — The Keith Prize for 1885-87 was awarded to Mr. J. Y.
Buchanan for a series of communications on subjects connected
with ocean circulation, compressibility of glass, &c. — The Mak-
dougall-Brisbane Prize for 1884-86 was awarded to Dr. John^
Murray for his papers on the drainage areas of continents, and
ocean deposits, the rainfall of the globe, and discharge of rivers,,
the height of the land and depth of the ocean, and the distribution
of temperature in the Scottish lochs as affected by the wind. — The
Makdougall-Brisbane Prize for 1886-88 was awarded to Dr.
Archibald Geikie for numerous communications, especially that on>
the history of volcanic action during the Tertiary period in the
British Isles.— Prof. Swan read an obituary notice of the late Mr,
R. M. Smith. — Dr. E. Sang read a paper on the resistance of the
air to the motion of an oscillating body with special reference to
its effect on time-keepers. — Mr. A. Johnstone communicated a
paper on a new and easy method for the rapid and sure de-
tection of mercury.
Paris.
Academy of Sciences, May 13. — M. Des Cloizeaux,
President, in the chair. — The thionic series, by M. Berthelot.
In this paper the author studies the action of the acids on-
the thiosulphates, which throws quite a new light on the
constitution of the salts of the thionic series, by deter-
mining the limits of the heat of neutralization of thio-
sulphuric acid. The liberated sulphur reacts with the thio-
sulphuric acid before it decomposes, forming complex thionic
acids. — On mesocamphoric acid, by M. C. Friedel. —
The author has prepared this substance by a process differei t
f.om that of Wreden, by whom it was first described, and some
of whose statements are here rectified. Instead of being an
inactive, non-decomposable acid, it is found to be decomposable
by simple crystallization. — On the photographic spectrum of the
great nebula of Orion, by Dr. W. Huggins. In 1882 the author
obtained a photograph of the spectrum of this nebula, revealirg
a new luminous ray with wave-length about A3730. Two recert
photographs taken in 1888 and 1889 enable him to determine
more accurately this wave-length, as well as to describe a certain
number of other luminous lays which occur in the ultra-violet
region of the spectrum of the same nebula. These photograpl s
are figured in a drawing which accompanies the present note.
The wave-length of the bright ray discovered in 1882 is heie
determined at A3724. Dr. Huggins considers it probable thrt
nebulae yielding a spectrum, of luminous rays, with a very fail t
continuous spectrum, which is probably formed in part by
luminous rays in close proximity, are at or near the beginning
of the cycle of their celestial evolution, while those resembling
the large nebula in Andromeda have already reached a more
96
NATURE
\_May 23, 1889
advanced phase of their development. The photograph of this
nebula taken by Mr. Roberts reveals a planetary system, in
which some planets are already formed, and their central mass
-condensed. — On the surgical treatment of the foot in cases of
suppurated osteo-arthritis, by M. Oilier. Hitherto amputation
has generally been considered the only remedy ; but the author's
-experiments show that, by removal of the ankle with abrasion or
resection of the limiting articulations, the foot may be preserved
almost in its normal state and with little detriment to its loco-
motive functions. — On the linear expansion of solid bodies at
high temperatures, by M. Pionchon. These researches show that
by means of the simple process here described M. Fizeau's well-
4cnown experiments may be repeated with the greatest ease.
M. Pionchon now proposes to apply the process to the study of
the linear expansion of amorphous and crystallized solid bodies
;it high temperatures. — On the direct measurement of the
retardation produced by the reflection of luminous waves, by M.
A. Potier. These experiments, which are applicable to a large
number of substances, constitute a method by means of which
the retai-dation may be directly measured, which is caused by the
reflection of the luminous waves on their surface. — On the
influence of terrestrial magnetism on atmospheric polarization,
by M. Henri Becquerel. In a previous memoir {Annales de
Chimie et de Physique, xix., 1880) the author showed that in a
cloudless sky the plane of polarization is not generally coincident
with the theoretic plane (plane of the sun), and further that the
two should coincide when the latter is vertical, but that, in a
region near the horizon and the magnetic meridian, the plane of
■polarization then deviates by a small angle in the direction
corresponding to the rotation of the plane of polarization of a
luminous ray traversing a column of air, subject to the magnetic
influence of the earth. In the present paper he determines both
the direction and the extent of the rotation, and also shows how
this display of terrestrial magnetism is associated with some of
the most interesting questions connected with the physics of the
globe. — A study of the electric conductivity of saline solutions,
as applied to chemical mechanics — the acid salts, by M. P.
Chroustchofif. The author has applied M. Bouty's extremely
sensitive electrometric method of measuring the electric con-
ductivity of liquids to the study of several problems in
ohem.ical statics. In the present paper he tabulates the
chief measurements of the electric conductivity of aqueous
solutions containing one salt only. — Action of the atmo-
sphere on manganese carbonate, by M. A. Gorgeu. In this
paper the author discusses the question whether this action
can give rise to any of the natural dioxides, as assumed by
MM. Boussingault and Dieulafait. — Papers were contributed
by M. L. Pigeon, on platinic chloride ; by M. Aug. Lambert,
•on the action of borax on the polyhydric phenols and alcohols ;
and by M. H. Prouho, on the structure and metamorphosis of
Flustrella hispida. — -A c^py of M. Seligmann-Lui's translation
■of Clerk Maxwell's classical treatise on " Electricity and Mag-
netism " was presented to the Academy by M. Sarrau.
Berlin.
Physical Society, April 26.— Prof. Kundt, President, in
the chair. — Prof. Kundt gave a short account of recent re-
searches on electro-magnetic rotatory polarization, and developed
the more general point of view froai which they had been
respectively undertaken. Since the time when Faraday disco-
vered the fundamental phenomena and later physicists had
accumulated a mass of material on which ob ervations could
be made, two facts had chiefly presented difficulties in con-
nection with the established theory : of these one was the
varying direction of rotation produced by different substances,
some producing a positive rotation (in the direction of the Am-
perian current), others a negative rotation ; the other fact was
the absence of magnetic rotation in doubly-refractive crystals.
Starting from some theoretical considerations, the speaker was
led to surmise that rotation is not wanting in these crystals, but
is only obscured by some opposing phenomenon, a view which
has been fully confirmed by experiments carried out at his sug-
gestion by Drs. Wedding, Wiener, and du Buis. When a piece
of glass was made doubly refractive by pressure, its magnetic
rotatory polarization diminished, becoming nil when the differ-
ence in path of the two rays was ^X ; when the difference was
^A, then the rotation took place in the opposite direction. When
the difference was A., the rotation was again nil, and it varied
»hus in a wave-like manner, with increasingly small amplitudes
until it ceased entirely. Prof. Kundt concluded from this that
the power of electro-magnetic rotatory polarization is common to
a// substances, whether crystalline or isotropous. As regards
the varying direction of rotation, his own experiments had shown
that simple substances produce a positive rotation, and com-
pound bodies a negative rotation ; this last result may be ex-
plained by the fact that the Amperian currents inside compound
bodies run in a direction different from that in the magnetic
field. The proportionality of rotation to the strength of mag-
netization is also a property common to all substances ; its rela-
tionship to ' refraction is being made the subject of further
researches. Dr. Koenig (from Leipzig) pointed out many
ana'ogies which exist between the electrical rays discovered by
Prof. Hertz and rays of light, more particularly the polarization
of the electrical rays by means of the wire grating and the phe-
nomena w hich may be observed in the immediate neighbour-
hood of the rays as they are advancing in straight lines, pheno-
mena which are in exact accord with those described by Stokes
in the case of light.
Stockholm.
Royal Academy of Sciences, April 9. — Researches on the
deviations of the plumb line in Sweden, by Prof. Rosen. —
Resume preliminaire d'une recherche experimentale sur I'ab-
sorption _^de la chaleur rayonnartte par les gaz atmospheriques,
by Dr. Angstrom. — Newly found specimens of Anser bracliy-
rhynchus, Baill., in Sweden, by Dr. A. Stuxberg. — On a singular
Tetrarhynchid larva, by Herr E. Lonnberg.
BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECEIVED.
Eclectic Physical Geography : R. Hinman (Low). — A Treatise on the
Principles of Chemistry, 2nd edition: M. M. P. Muir (Cambridge Univer-
.sitv Press). — Teutonic Mythology : V. Rydberg, tran-Iaied by R. B.
Anderson (Sonnenschein). — Die E'ltstehung der Artendurch Raumliche Son-
derung : M. Wagner (Basel, B. Schwabe). — Examination of Water for
Sanitary and Technical PuiTioses: H. Leffmann and VV. Beam (Philadelphia,
HIakiston). — Hourly Readings, 1886, Part 3. July to September (Eyre and
Spottiswoode). — The Uses ot Plants : G. S. Bou'ger (Roper and Drowley).
— Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, No. 79, vo'. xviii. (Spon).
— Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, No. 178 (Longman.s). —
Ergebnisse der Meteorologischen Beobachtungen, Jahrg. x. (Hamburg).
CONTENTS. PAGE
The New Technical Education Bill 73
A Text-Book of Human Physiology 74
Geography in Germany. By H. J. Mackinder ... 75
Our Book Shelf.—
Dickson: " Gleanings from Japan " ........ 76
Greaves : " Statics for Beginners " 77
Letters to the Editor-. —
The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. — Prof.
T. G. Bonney, F.R.S 77
The Turtle-headed Rock Cod.— T 77
Atmospheric Electricity. — Dan. Pidgecn 77
Rain-Clouds. — Dr. Julius Hann 78
The Muybridge Photographs. By Prof. E. Ray Lan-
kester, F.R.S 78
On the Determination of Masses in Astronomy. By
R. A. Gregory • 80
A New Form of Regenerative Gas-Lamp. (Illus-
trated.) 82
Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach 83
Notes 84
Astronomical Phenomena for the Week i38g
May 26 — ^June i 86
Beacon Lights and Fog Signals. I. {Illustrated.)
By Sir James N. Douglass, F.R.S 87
A Bill to Provide Technical Education in England
and Wales 91
Scientific Serials 91
Societies and Academies 92
Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received 96
NA TURE
97
THURSDAY, MAY 30, i!
INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION IN WALES.
IT does not often happen, in these days of slow ParHa-
mentary progress, that two educational measures,
having an important bearing on the industrial and the
intellectual welfare of the country, are read a second time
within a week of each other. In our last issue we gave
some account of Sir Henry Roscoe's Bill for the provision
of technical education, and expressed our strong hope
that it would pass through the remaining stages this
session. No less heartily do we wish success to Mr.
Stuart Rendel's Bill for providing intermediate and
technical education in Wales, which was read a second
time on May 15, after a debate which practically resolved
itself into a chorus of approbation. It is, indeed, high
time that something should be done. Secondary educa-
tion, both in England and Wales, stands sadly in need of
organization, but the claims of the Principality (to which
the present measure is confined) are far stronger than
those of England, so far as the necessity of immediate
action is concerned.
The main grounds on which the special treatment of
Wales in this matter is based are to be found stated in
the Report of Lord Aberdare's Committee on Intermediate
and Higher Education in Wales, which was published in
1 88 1. It is there pointed out that the aggregate income
of the educational endowments of Wales and Monmouth
amounted to little over ^14,000, against a total of more
than ;^6oo,ooo for England (excluding Monmouth). Nearly
a third of these scanty endowments were to be found
in Monmouth. In the matter of these endowments
Wales is no better off now than it was then. Since i88i,
it is true, the educational resources of Wales have been
increased by the grant of ^12,000 a year to the three
University Colleges of Aberystwith, Bangor, and Cardiff.
But even including this sum, which is really intended for
higher education, the educational income of Wales is
not nearly so great in proportion to the population as in
the case of England, and what there is is so unequally
distributed as not to be available where the need is
greatest.
The result is that in many counties of Wales inter-
mediate education can hardly be said to exist. The
Schools Inquiry Commission estimated that about sixteen
boys in every thousand ought to be receiving intermed ate
or higher education. The following quotation from the
Report to which we have referred will show the destitution
which existed in Wales in 1881, and which unfortunately
still exists to a great extent to-day : — " Taking the popula-
tion of Wales and Monmouthshire to be about 1,570,000,
and reducing the estimate in consideration of the excep-
tional conditions of Wales from sixteen to ten per 1000,
intermediate school accommodation should be provided for
15,700 boys, and that number ought to be in attendance.
In contrast to this, our returns show accommodation in
the public schools for less than 3000, and that accommoda-
tion to a great extent unsatisfactory. They also show an
attendance of less than 1600."
This estimate only applies to boys, and the state of the
Vol. XL.— No. 1022.
case as regards girls' education is still worse. Only from
two to three hundred girls were in 1881 in schools under
any kind of public supervision, and the Committee
naturally found great difficulty in devising recommenda-
tions which should adequately meet a case where, as they
say, " the unsatisfied requirements are so great and the
available resources apparently so meagre." Probably, on
the whole, intermediate school accommodation ought to
be provided for at least fifteen children per 1000 of the
population, making a total of 23,500 school places. Less
than a fifth of this number were provided in 1881 in
schools under any kind of public supervision or control.
So much for the state of the case. Lord Aberdare's
Committee reported in favour of aid being given to Welsh
intermediate education both from rates and Imperial
grants. Progress, however, in these matters is so slow in
England that nothing has hitherto been done to carry
out these recommendations except the drafting of a Bill
by Mr. Gladstone's Government in 1885. This meafure
was essentially the same as Mr. Stuart Rendel's Bill which
is now before the public.
The Bill embodies most of the recommendations of
Lord Aberdare's Committee. It proposes to create a
Board of Education for Wales, consisting of represen-
tatives of County Councils. To this Board schemes
are to be submitted by the Council of each county, to
meet the educational needs of that district. The plans
may include the establishment of new schools, the re-
organization of endowments, and the provision of scholar-
ships. The Board may approve or alter the plans, and
the funds required to carry them into effect are to be raised
by a rate not exceeding one halfpenny in the pound —
a sum, by the way, which will produce about ^14,000 a year
for the whole of Wales. This sum may be met by a
Parliamentary grant not greater than the amount raised
from the rates, subject to favourable reports upon in-
spection. Powers are given to reorganize and utilize
existing endowments, and there may no doubt be some
difference of opinion as to the extent and nature of the
powers in relation to this matter which the Bill proposes
to give to the new Board of Education.
There are a few criticisms which may be made on
points of detail. The Board of Education ought un-
doubtedly to include not only representatives of the
County Councils, but a certain number of educational
experts. The County Councils should likewise be em-
powered to co-opt men of special knowledge to help in
the preparation of their schemes. But on such points
the representatives of Wales — a country where, as all who
know it well will admit, there is a sincere zeal for educa-
tional progress — will not be likely to offer unreasonable
opposition.
On the whole, the Bill is a most important step in
advance, leading, as we may hope, ultimately to the or-
ganization and supervision of secondary schools through-
out the Kingdom, All interested in the advance of
scientific and technical teaching know how higher
institutions are crippled by want of better teaching in
secondary schools. The teachers in technical schools and
higher colleges in England constantly complain of the
want of preparation of those who come to their institutions
from private schools. In Wales much of the work which
the University Colleges are now compelled to do ought to
... F
98
NATURE
{May ^o, 1889
be done in intermediate schools. We hail the fact that
the Bill was read a second time as a sign that the public
are waking- up to the very great importance of this side of
the educational problem.
FLORA ORIENTALIS.
Flora Orientalis, sive Enumeratio Plmitarum in Oriente
a Grcecia et AUgypto ad Indicz Fines hucusque Obser-
vatartim. Auctore Edmond Boissier. Supplementum,
editore R. Buser. (Geneva; et Basileas apud H. Georg,
Bibliopolam, 1888)
A BRIEF notice of the eminent author of the monu-
F\- mental work which the present volume brings to a
close appeared in Nature (vol. xxxii. p. 540), a day
or two after his decease, and it is there mentioned that
he had for some time been engaged on a supplement to
his " Flora Orientalis/' the body of which was com-
pleted in 1 881. That supplement is now fortunately in
the hands of botanists, and an opportunity is offered for
a more comprehensive notice of the author and his work,
as a whole, than has hitherto been published in this
country. Apart from the value of the work to the
systematist and phytogeographer, it possesses an interest
for a wide circle, inasmuch as it deals with the vegeta-
tion of those countries of the greatest historical attrac-
tions. As the title indicates, the eastern limit of the area
of the "Flora Orientalis" is India, and now there are
other works actually in progress, which, although they
will not by any means exhaust the flora of the rest of
Asia, will add vastly to what is known. Sir Joseph
Hooker's " Flora of British India" has reached the sixth
volume, and the indefatigable author is now engaged on
the Orchidese (the largest order in the British Indian
flora, represented by upwards of 1000 species) ; and
we may reasonably hope, now that he is free from
official duties, that he will finish it in the course of four
or five years. But the energy and perseverance required
to get through such an amount of descriptive botany as
that accomplished by such men as Bentham, Boissier,
and Hooker, can be estimated by few except those
similarly engaged.
Kegel and Maximowicz's elaboration of the collec-
tions of Russian travellers in Central and Eastern Asia,
Franchet's " Plantae DavidiancE " and " Planta; Yunnan-
enses," and Forbes and Hemsley's "Index Florae
Sinensis," are jointly bringing together the materials for
a flora of Central Asia and China, so that it will soon be
possible to survey and analyze the composition of the
vegetation in its various aspects from the Atlantic across
Europe and Asia to the Pacific.
The " Flora Orientalis " consists of five octavo volumes,
with an aggregate of 5387 pages, independently of the
present supplement of 499 pages, making a total of 5886
pages ; and, on the authority of Dr. H. Christ, the
author of a notice of the life and works of Boissier
appended to the supplement, the number of species
described amounts to 11,876 ! To these descriptions are
added the localities of the plants within the limits of the
" Flora," and the geographical area of each species. In
giving the former, the author takes the countries in the fol-
I owing order : Greece, Macedonia and Thrace, Asia Minor
and Armenia, Egypt and Arabia, Palestine, Syria, and
Mesopotamia, Crimea and Caucasus, Persia, Turkestan,
Afghanistan and Baluchistan.
Before proceeding to a further examination of the
nature and quality of Boissier's " Flora Orientalis," I will ex-
tract some particulars of his life from Dr. Christ's memoir,,
more especially such as relate to his botanical career.
Pierre Edmond Boissier, a descendant of a Huguenot
family, was born at Geneva in 18 10, and early developed
a love for botanical pursuits. This inclination was stimu-
lated and cultivated by the eminent Augustine Pyramus
De Candolle, whose admirable teaching resulted in
Boissier's life-long devotion to botanical research.
Boissier was a man of great mental attainments, of a
most amiable disposition, and at the same time of noble
stature and fine physique.
Botanizing in the field, which is undoubtedly the best
of all training, was his great delight, and his home
excursions subsequently extended into distant travels.
He was a good walker and a good mountaineer, and
retained his great physical power until quite late in life.
On his first visit to the Maritime Alps in 1832, he walked
the whole distance, some forty miles, from Nice ta
Tenda in a single journey, and as lately as 1871 he
accomplished in one day on foot the longer and much
more difficult journey from La Madone delle Finestre ta
Tenda. The distance is estimated at about forty-five
miles, and entails an ascent from 1900 to 2336 metres,,
then a descent to 1500 metres, upwards again to 2600,
and finally down to 750 metres. And this exertion was
undertaken to rediscover the rare and singular Saxifraga
florulenta, originally discovered by an English tourist.
This, Boissier's fourth excursion for this object, proved
successful.
After finishing his studies at Geneva, Boissier went to
Paris, where he met with our countryman Philip Barker
Webb, who had botanized extensively in Spain, chiefly in
the Kingdom of Granada, though he had published almost
nothing thereon. It is supposed that Webb influenced
Boissier in his determination to make Spain the field of
his next botanical work, and it is certain that he gave hiri>
the whole of the materials he had collected, having him-
self made the Canary Islands the scene of his future
labours. Boissier went on his first voyage to Spain in
1836, and continued his investigations for several years,
aided more or less by several persons, and greatly by his
friend Renter. Following several preliminary contribu-
tions to the botany of Spain, the first part of Boissier's
" Voyage botanique dans le midi de I'Espagne " ap-
peared in 1839 ; and this admirable publication was
completed in 1845. It is a botanical work of the first
rank, and an enduring monument of the industry and muni-
ficence of the author. It consists of two quarto volumes
containing a most interesting narrative of his travels ; an
essay on the geographical distribution of the plants of the
region under consideration ; descriptions of all the plants,
and last, though by no means least, upwards of 200
beautifully drawn, hand-coloured plates by Heyland, one
of the most accomplished botanical artists of his time.
Previous to the appearance of this work, the flora of
no country of Europe was so little known as that of
Spain. The enumeration numbers nearly 2000 species,
about one-eighth of which were previously unknown.
Since its appearance the flora of the whole of Spain has
I
May 30, 1889]
NATURE
99
been elaborated by Willkomm and Lange — by foreigners
again, and not by Spaniards ! As a noteworthy exception
to the botanical lethargy of the Spaniards, the learned
and valuable works on the botany and botanists of the
Iberian Peninsula by Don Miguel Colnieiro deserve spe-
cial mention in this connection. Boissier himself, although
he soon afterwards became engaged upon a work of much
greater magnitude, never lost interest in the flora of
Spain, and he revisited the country many times. Even
before the completion of his " Voyage en Espagne," he
commenced travelling and collecting in South-Easlern
Europe, subsequently visiting Egypt, Palestine, and
Arabia, and other countries ; the results of these journeys
culminating in his magnum opus, the " Flora Orientalis."
Preliminary to this work he published a vast number of
new species in fascicles, from time to time, between 1842
and 1859, under the title of " Diagnoses Plantarum
Orientalium Novarum." Another important contribution
to systematic botany was his " Icones Euphorbiarum,"
a large quarto, containing figures and descriptive letter-
press of 120 species of Euphorbia. This was published
in 1866, and in the same year the author furnished de-
scriptions of the seven hundred species of this genus for
De Candolle's " Prodromus."
Apart from its size, the " Flora Orientalis" is incontest-
ably one of the most masterly pieces of descriptive
botany ever executed, and although many botanists will
not agree with the illustrious author in his limitation of
species, all will recognize the excellence of the de-
scriptions, and admit that by their aid a botanist can
actually " determine " his plants. On this point I can
speak from successful personal experience. The analy-
tical keys to the species of some of the larger genera are
admirably constructed, and display a marvellously acute
knowledge, as well as great power of discrimination
Take such genera as CatnpaJiula (125 species), Cousinia
(136 species), Centaurea (183 species), Silene (204 spe-
cies), and Astragalus (757 spiecies), as examples of the work,
and it will be admitted that few approach it in quality.
With regard to his conception of species, Boissier
rejected the Darwinian theory altogether, believing that
species were not arbitrary congeries of individuals, but
direct creations of God at different periods. And al-
though he by no means carried subdivision to the absurd
extent that some modern botanists have done, yet he went
much farther in this direction than most authors who have
dealt with the vegetation of so wide an area as that of the
■" Flora Orientalis."
The supplement, issued towards the end of last year, is
brought down to a very recent date, and contains all Dr.
Aitchison's additions to the Afghan flora, except those in
his last paper, of course, which was not published till
the spring of last year. It also includes an index to all
the collectors' numbers cited throughout the work, which
will be very useful to persons possessing these numbered
collections. A portrait of the author late in life forms
the frontispiece to this volume, and there are several
views of the new building erected on the bank of the
lake, not far from Geneva, to contain the fine herbarium
amassed by Boissier.
Thus Geneva now possesses the remarkably rich
herbaria of De Candolle, De Lessert, and Boissier.
W. BOTTING HeMSLEY.
A TREATISE ON MANURES.
A Treatise on Manures. By A. B. Griffiths, Ph.D.
(London: Whittaker and Co., 1889.)
IN this substantial little volume of nearly 400 pages
the author treats of natural and artificial fertilizers,
with a decided leaning towards the latter. The work is
intended to be useful to manure manufacturers as well as
to farmers and students of agriculture, and must be
regarded as a useful addition to our information. The
subject is introduced by two chapters upon the soil and
the plant, after which all the leading and the suggested ,
fertilizers are reviewed, and analyses are furnished. It is
convenient to have at hand a book written up to date in
which the newest sources of phosphatic materials, guanos
and alkalies, are brought under notice. The chief interest
of Dr. Griffiths's book centres in his chapter upon the
use of iron sulphate as a manure. It is well known that
Dr. Grifliths first pointed out that the iron sulphate, used
in small quantities of about half a hundredweight per
acre, exerts a beneficial effect on many crops ; and this fact
is distinctly brought before the reader in the book before
us. The value of sulphate of iron lies in the fact that
many soils do not contain a sufficiency of iron in a form
to be readily taken up by plants, and Dr. Griffiths con-
siders that when added to such soils it tends to increase
the amount of chlorophyll in the leaf, and that this is
followed by increased vigour in the elaboration of starch,
woody fibre, fats, carboliydrates, and albuminoids. The
amounts of increase of crop in the cases cited are re-
markable, and the greater percentage of iron in the ashes
of plants top-dressed with this substance is decided. It
would be unjust to Dr. Griffiths to detract from the value
of this observation, which, as he tells us, has been the
cause of hundreds of letters on the subject from all parts
of the world. The results are indeed open to the criticism
that they are almost too satisfactory, for an increase of
19,313 pounds per acre of mangel owing to the use of half a
hundredweight of sulphate of iron seems almost too good
to be true. Nine tons of mangel are worth something like
£(i sterling to the farmer as food for stock, a sum which
would effectually turn an unprofitable into a profitable
crop. The season is still young, and it would be well if
agriculturists would put Dr. Griffiths's results to the test
of a simple experiment during the coming summer, upon
root crops.
Dr. Griffiths is no great partisan of farmyard manure,
and he is scarcely fair in his argument when he touches
upon this important subject. We cannot agree with him
that farmyard manure is "far from being a perfect
manure," or that " the farmer who uses nothing but farm-
yard manure exhausts his land," or that " farmyard
manure does not return to the soil all the nitrogen which
was originally extracted from it by growing crops." In
pursuing this argument he asks, " Whence comes the
fertilizing matter contained in the dung of animals.'' An
ox or a sheep cannot create nitrogen, phosphorus, or
potash. All of these substances, which are to be found
in its liquid and solid excrements, have been derived from
its food. That food has been grown upon the farm."
This is doubtless true if the farm actually does pro-
duce all the food of the animals it supports ; but every
farmer knows that this is not the case. The believers in
lOO
NATURE
[May 30, 1889
the value of farmyard manure know perfectly well that
the sale of lambs, of young stock, and of dairy produce,
as well as of beef, mutton, and wool, exhausts land ; but, in
order to counteract this tendency, they invariably (we
speak of good farmers) purchase oil-cake, hay, and corn
in large quantities, sometimes to the extent of from ^i
to £2 per acre over the entire farm, and it is this fact
which is ignored by Dr. Griffiths. As to whether farm-
yard manure is a cheap manure or the reverse depends
greatly upon the skill of the farmer, but we may be sure
that when it is produced by well-bred animals, of high
value, or when purchases of stock are made judiciously,
farmyard manure may be properly regarded as a by-
product.
It is questionable teaching on the part of an agricul-
tural chemist to run counter to the experience of
practical men, and we fear that Dr. Griffiths will not
carry his agricultural readers with him in his
opinions regarding the exhausting nature and ex-
pensive character of farmyard dung. Warming with
his subject. Dr. Griffiths asks, " Why will the farmer still
go sinking in the Slough of Despond, while faithful and
willing hands are continually being s'retched out in every
direction to help him ? Let him take a word of warning.
Be up and doing, and — whatever you (sic) do — be up to the
times. Do not let German, French, Belgian, or American
agriculturists, simply by dint of superior scientific know-
ledge and methods, outstrip you in that great competition
which is now going on amongst the nations of the world."
As in the previous quotation given, we see once more the
learned Doctor arguing upon wrong premises. In what
respects do German, French, Belgian, or American agricul-
turists outstrip the English farmer ? The average yields
of corn and the average results of stock-feeding obtained
by British farmers are far superior to those obtained by
German, French, and American farmers. The manner
in which our farmers have stood the shock of rapidly
falling grain prices is extraordinary. Farming has not
ceased to be a profitable occupation, but times have
recently been very difficult, partly on account of the fall
in the value of corn, and partly because the seasons have
been remarkably unfavourable for the last fifteen years.
Dr. Griffiths proceeds to point out that in 1884 Germany
boasted 158 colleges and schools of agriculture, attended
by 17,844 students, and contrasts this fact with the very
few colleges and the 240 students of agriculture in
England. "If, says he, "Old England is to hold her
own, we must have these necessities. It may be said, Is
not England already taxed enough ? where is the money
to come from to support the colleges, schools, and experi-
mental farms ? We all admit that England is the rzc/tes^
country in the world. Very well, then, if ^oor Germany
can support at least 158 agricultural colleges, and give
instruction to 17,844 students, surely England need not
grumble or be so mean." Does not Dr. Griffiths know
that the farmers, as a rule, in Germany and France,
do not care about the agricultural colleges? that there
is the greatest possible difficulty in inducing them
to send their sons to them ? that it is only by offering
exemption from the galling military service exacted from
all men in those countries, and by conferring upon students
the rank necessary for serving as officers in the army,
that the colleges and schools are filled at all ? Does he
not know that the colleges and schools are chiefly useful
as a means of training the great army of professors and
teachers in those countries ? Does he not know that a
certificate of proficiency gained at a college is, in those
countries, absolutely necessary before a man can give
evidence in a court of justice on an agricultural ques-
tion .'' Does he wish to introduce artificial restrictions
such as this into England, and to substitute a patriarchal
system for that free enterprise which is the true reason of
the wealth and the excellence of England ?
A very short time ago ^5000 was put aside by the
Government for grants on account of agricultural educa-
tion. No sooner was this offered than a struggle ensued
for participation in this small sum. Share lists have been
opened, in which one source of profit put before the in-
vesting public is a share of this same ^5000 as a means
of increasing the dividends of the promoters ! It is more
than likely that this same ^5000 will do more harm than
good, by encouraging bogus schemes and paralyzing the
natural enterprise which is the life-blood of English
supremacy.
Dr. Griffiths has issued his book, and farmers are free
to read, mark, learn, and inwardly digest it. The agri-
cultural press is open, and there is that great body of
good practical farmers who are more fully alive to the
situation than Dr. Griffiths imagines, who, if not
" scientific " in their instincts, are shrewd men of busi-
ness, and the possessors of a knowledge of rural matters
which comes not from books, but through contact and
experience.
Dr. Griffiths is a disciple of Ville, and the main object
of his work is to substitute a system of artificial fertilizers
for manuring through live stock. Farmyard manure, he
says, is imperfect, full of seeds of weeds and germs of
disease ; it is expensive to produce and to apply ; it
exhausts the land ; it is inferior to artificial manures ; and
its good properties, such as they are, are not easily re-
coverable. Such is Dr. Griffiths's indictment, which is
calculated to make farmers rub their eyes, and, having
made sure they had read aright, lay the book down. If
experience is of any value at all in regulating practice, it
teaches us that in our climate, and with our natural and
acquired advantages in races of cattle, the strength of our
position is our live stock ; that the fertility of the soil is
not o 
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