The history of music

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THE

HISTORY OF Music

EMIL NAUMANN

THIS EDITION

Is specially prepared for
Subscription only, and is not
obtainable through the general
Booksellers.

CASSELL <fc COMPANY, Limited.

MADAM K N OP-MAN N.ERUDA .

THE

HISTOEY OF MUSIC

BY

EMIL NAUMANN

TRANSLATED BY F. PRAEGER

EDITED BY THE

EEV. SIK F. A. GOEE OUSELEY, BART., Mus.Doc.,

Professor of Music in the University of Oxford.

YOL. Y.

SPECIAL EDITION.
7

a Series of portraits reprotmrea in Jlljotopahntte,
atttr Jlumenms illustrations.

''

's

CASSELL & COMPANY, LIMITED^

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LONDON, PARIS, NEW YORK & MELBOURNE.
[ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.]

FACULTY OF MUSIC

9 & 7/

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

SIGNOR PIATTI

SIGNOR BOTTESINI

CONTENTS OF VOL. V.

IV. (continued).

CHAPTER PA«E

XXXV. — FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBEKT SCHUMANN . . . . 1007

THE INFLUENCE OF THE GERMAN GENIUS EPOCH ON ITALY AND

FRANCE . . ' . 1054

XXXVI. — THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS AND THE FRENCH COMIC ROMANTIC

OPERA . . ..... .... . . •. , . . 1056

XXXVII. — CHERUBINI, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI -.. « • . . 1107

THE NEW ROMANTIC SCHOOL . ' . . V . . .1143

XXXVIII. — HECTOR BERLIOZ AND RICHARD WAGNER .... 1163

XXXIX.-THE PRESENT -V. , .' •" ... .. . . . .1193

XL. — MODERN ENGLISH Music ... . . . . . 1274

INDEX . . . . . . -. . . 1315

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOL. V.

SiGNOR PIATTI Portrait

MDME. NORMAN-NERUDA

SIGNOR BOTTESINI

PIG.

268. Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Por-

trait of

269. "Wilhelmine Schroeder-Devrient ...

270. Henrietta Sontag, Portrait of

271. Moritz Hauptmann, Portrait of

272. Ignatz Moscheles, Portrait of

Robert Schumann To face

Robert and Clara Schumann, Auto-
graphs of To face

273. Clara. Schumann, Portrait of

Schumann, Letter of To face

Frederick Chopin, Portrait of ,,

Chopin, Autograph of , ,

Spontini, Autograph of ... ,,
D. F. E. Auber, Portrait of „

274. J. F. E. Halevy, Portrait of

275. A. E. M. Gretry, Portrait of

276. E. N. Mehul, Portrait of

277. F. A. Boieldieu, Portrait of

278. Hippolyte Roger, Portrait of

279. L. J. F. Herold, Portrait of

280. Teresa and Maria Milanollo

281. Malibran Garcia, Portrait of

-trait

PIG.

282.

283.

PAGE

284.

285.

1012

286.

1023

287.

1026

1032

1033

288.

1036

289.

1038

1039

290.

1041

291.

1045

292.

1047

293.

1063

294.

1066

1069

295.

1085

296.

1085

297.

1087

298.

1091

1093

1102

299.

1103

300.

M. L. Cherubini, Portrait of 1108

G. L. P. Spontini, Portrait of 1114

Gioachino Rossini, Portrait of 1130

Paganini, Portrait of 1138

Paganini, Portrait of 1140

Paganini, Portrait of ... 1141

Hector Berlioz, Letter of ... To face 1167
Richard Wagner, Letter of ,, 1173

Exterior of the Wagner Theatre ... 1186
Interior of the Wagner Theatre ... 1187
Franz Liszt, Portrait of ... To face 1189
Franz Liszt, Autograph of ... ,, 1191

Johannes Brahms, Portrait of 1199

The Vienna Opera-House 1233

Giuseppe Verdi, Portrait of 1237

N. Gade, Portrait and Autograph of 1252
Rubinstein, Portrait and Autograph

of 1258

Sarasate, Portrait of 1265

Pauline Lucca, Portrait of 1268

Joseph Joachim, Portrait of 1270

Wilhelmj, Portrait of 1271

The Organ at King's College, Cam-
bridge To face 1296

Sir W. Sterndale Bennett, Portrait of 1285
Sir G. Grove, Portrait of 1308

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN. 1007

CHAPTER XXXV.

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN.

THE list of the composers of the Talent period, which commenced with
Franz Schubert and Karl Maria von Weber, and includes Spohr and
Meyerbeer, closes with Felix Mendelssohn and Robert Schumann. Richard
Wagner, though belonging to this period, will, in consequence of his
exceptional position in the history of music, be treated of in a succeeding
chapter.

Schubert and Weber exhibit that natvettt to be found in the works of
the great tone-poets of the Genius epoch, hyper-sentimentality finding
no place in their works, which are replete with the health and vigour
which characterise the national mind. The feature distinguishing Spohr
and Meyerbeer from Weber and Schubert — and the same might be said of
Mendelssohn and Schumann — is that they bear the impress of nationality
in a less degree. Spohr, as a harmonist and romantic writer, exhibits a
vein of nationality which forms a special feature in his productions; yet
his works, taken as a whole, give evidence that he was unable to portray so
thoroughly the national characteristics of the Germans as did his pre-
decessor Weber. The works of Meyerbeer, though to a great extent
lacking that specifically German element to be found in the productions of
Spohr, have gained a far wider popularity. The national character appears
in a less degree in the works of Mendelssohn and Schumann, yet their pro-
ductions are impressed with it more deeply than those of the members of
the Genius epoch. Mendelssohn's national sentiment finds an outlet in the
following songs, which have gained great popularity, rivalling that of the
gems of Weber and Schubert : " Es ist bestiment in Gottes Rath/'
" Wer hat dich, du schoner Wald," " Liese zieht durch mein Gemuth/'' and
" Ihr Thaler weit, ihr Hohen." We are entitled to treat Mendelssohn and
Schumann as twin talents, as we have treated many of their predecessors
belonging to the same period, since they possess many mental qualities
in common, and their points of difference are such that each supplies what
is wanting in his fellow. In discussing their points of similarity we find
that both are essentially subjective and lyric. The supremacy of the lyric

1008 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

over the dramatic style is a characteristic of the latest period of art, and
exists not only in modern music, but also in poetry and painting. We
must not be deceived by terms, for much which is to-day presented to us
as being epic or dramatic is purely lyrical; in the place of an objective
representation standing out in bold relief, we encounter a restricted and
most individual conception, the outcome of artistic subjectivity. It cannot
fail to surprise us that such a feature should appear at a period when society
is so strongly imbued with realism ; it must be traced to the reaction of
man's inborn idealism, which rebels against the scepticism and prosaic
materialism by which it is surrounded on all sides. Music, being the most
lyrical of all arts, deals most closely with the innermost life. It must also
be acknowledged that the opportunities for lyrical expression in music
are more numerous and varied than in poetry, painting, or sculpture ; con-
sequently Mendelssohn and Schumann, although in many respects but fol-
lowers of the lyrical school of the great epochs which preceded them, have
devised new methods for its application. Mendelssohn is the founder of
the concert-overture, a form of composition which consists of a complete
tone-picture. Instances of composition like his Hebrides and Melasine are
not to be found among the works of his predecessors. To Mendelssohn
also we owe the introduction of " songs without words/'*" and the re-
modelling of the " Capriccio " and four-part a capella songs. Schumann
must be credited with the invention of the ballad for recitation with piano-
forte accompaniment, the t( Novelette " form and " Symphonic Etude."

A fresh instance of the similarity existing between our two composers is
their prominence in the list of song-writers subsequent to Schubert. Their
contributions to the fund of German song are not marked by number alone
but by their excellence. Mendelssohn wrote about one hundred and forty
songs, including ten duets, twenty-eight four-part songs for male and
female voices, seventeen songs for male chorus, and eighty-three solo songs.
The solo song published by Schubert of Leipzig, at the author's request, as
the eighty-third was composed by Mendelssohn for his mother's album in
1826, the words being taken from Schiller's " Wallenstein." Schumann's
vocal works exceed two hundred, and comprise duets and choruses for mixed

* This must be taken with some reservation, as it may be well contended that John Field
in his "Nocturnes" had in a great measure forestalled Mendelssohn in this particular. —
F. A. G. O.

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBEET SCHUMANN. 1009

and male voices. Both composers possess a refined sentiment which
approaches feminine grace and ardour.

These masters figure most prominently among the composers of
symphony, symphonic overture, and concerto for solo instrument with
orchestral accompaniment, since the period of the three great classical
symphonists, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. Whilst Schubert and Spohr
are. entitled by their C major symphony and " Power of Sound " respectively
to stand on a level with Mendelssohn and Schumann, we must bear in
mind the fact that those masters composed but one such work, Schubert's
B minor symphony being unfinished, whereas Schumann has written four
symphonies of this kind, viz., the B flat major, the D minor, the C minor,
the E flat major, as well as his splendid " Overture, Scherzo, and Finale,"
which might almost be reckoned as a fifth symphony, and the grand piano-
forte concerto in A minor. Mendelssohn, besides his two symphonies in
A major and A minor, wrote the pianoforte concerto in G minor, his violin
concerto, and his five original concert overtures, Midsummer Night's Dreamy
Hebrides, Melusine, The Calm and Prosperous Voyage, and Ruy Bias ; the
overture to Athatie, not being an independent conception, cannot be included
in this list. Schumann must be acknowledged as the most important com-
poser of instrumental music since Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. This
composer attains the same prominence as a composer of chamber music,
his position being established by his three string quartetts, Op. 41, his
pianoforte quintett in E flat major, Op. 44, and his piano quartett in
E flat, Op. 47. Mendelssohn, notwithstanding much that is charming and
skilfully finished, cannot be compared with his contemporary Schumann as
regards inventive power and passion.

Schumann and Mendelssohn are entitled to take the lead as composers
of classical pianoforte music since Beethoven. Schumann employed his piano
as a means of expressing his most intense feeling, and we find that the first
ten years of his career as a composer (1829—1839) were entirely devoted to
pianoforte compositions. The results are his " Papillons," " Intermezzi/'
" Carnival," " Scenes mignonnes sur quatre notes;" his sonatas, Ops. 11,
14,22; his"Fantasiestucke/'"Arabesken," "Humoresken," "Nachstiicke,"
" Kinderscenen," eighteen characteristic pieces entitled " Die Davids-
biindler ; " and " Kreisleriana." Mendelssohn's pianoforte compositions
are glimpses of an artistic imagination, which never reveal the sentiment
MMM

1010 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

of the innermost soul, and in their composition the master has not
neglected the opportunities for brilliant execution. Schumann's instru-
ment was the companion to whom he freely confided his innermost feelings.
Mendelssohn, on the contrary, considered his piano merely the mediator
between the composer and his audience, though this assertion by no means
implies that he ever descended to the level of drawing-room music, as
is proved by the list of his compositions including the " Songs with-
out Words/' " Characterstiicke," « Praludien und Studien," " Caprices/'
" Fantasies/' "Sonatas," " Variationen," (i Capriccios," " Praludien und
Fugen," Op. 35, and " Variations serieuses," Op. 54.

Both masters failed in their attempts to write operas, neither possess-
ing the required dramatic gift, and failing to raise their musical expression
to the necessary climax. Schumann, though having written an opera, is
even less gifted in this form of composition than Mendelssohn, whose
music to the Midsummer Night's Dream and Antigone has retained its
position on the modern stage, . whilst the very rare performances of
Schumann's Genoveva and incidental music to Byron's Manfred are
regarded rather as a necessary tribute to the memory of a celebrated
composer.

Apart from music we find several points of similarity in the life of
our two composers : both had received the soundest education ; they both
exhibited the most refined mental culture, which, however, was not only
the result of their school and college training but of the development
of general culture since the reformation which began after the German
Genius epoch and the rise of German ^poetry.

In the taste of the two masters we encounter a material difference :
whilst both composed music for the poetry of Goethe, Heine, Geibel,
Uhland, Eichendorff and Lenau, Schumann exhibited a preference for Jean
Paul, Byron, Thomas Moore, Chamisso, T. A. Hoffmann, Riickerfc, Justinus
Kerner, Moricke, Hebbel and Tieck ; Mendelssohn's taste, however, in-
clined towards the older writers, such as the Psalmists, Shakespeare,
Cervantes, Vosz, and Platen. Schumann's love of the romantic is to be
seen even in his choice of literature. Mendelssohn, on the contrary, is a
decided classic, or rather a classic in the romantic era. We have already
demonstrated that since the entry of the epoch of the Great German
Talents every musician has been more or less influenced by the romantic

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN. 1011

element, and Mendelssohn, though the resuscitator of the classical art-
form, did not escape the prevailing influence. The distinction between
Schumann and Mendelssohn is, in short, that the latter is more en-
tirely classical, whilst the former, like Mozart and Beethoven, exhibits a
classical and a romantic side. Schumann, like Spohr, is one of the few
romantic writers who has thoroughly mastered the classical art-form.
This is to "be seen especially in his orchestral and chamber music. The
works which bear the most powerful impress of the romantic, and by
which the master aided in the establishment of the school, belong to his
youth, and were superseded by the productions of the later period of his life
which exhibit greater perfection of form ; nevertheless the earlier works will
ever remain interesting specimens as belonging to a period of the past.
Among the works of this class we must mention his " Carnival ; " his
grand sonata in F sharp minor ; his " Kreisleriana," based on the hyper-
romantic work of T. A. Hoffmann, entitled " Kapell-Meister Kreisler;" the
" Papillons," inspired by Jean Paul's humoristic fancy ; and his " Davids-
biindler." Schumann himself writes in 1837 to Moscheles concerning the
" Carnival " : — " The whole of it claims no position as a work of art, but
the many varied moments of emotion may prove of interest/' In 1852 he
writes to Van Bruyck as follows : t( I am afraid you are extolling too
highly my early works, such as the sonatas whose defects are too clear to
me. Of my later and more ambitious works, such as my symphonies and
choral compositions, such a kind recognition would be more just." We
cordially agree with the master's modest opinion, and in respect to his
choral compositions we should notice particularly his choruses to Goethe's
Faust, and in particular the Finale of the second part.

Schumann and Mendelssohn do not only differ as regards the extent,
force, and quality of their romantic tendency, but in Mendelssohn we find
an epic element by which he was enabled to resuscitate the oratorio. He has
founded his resuscitation on the older productions of Bach and Handel,
re-modelling them to suit the present taste.

Mendelssohn's St. Paul is based upon Sebastian Bach's Passion of St.
Matthew, and his Elijah is founded on the Old Testament oratorios of
Handel. These works are not mere copies of the productions of the earlier
masters, for their spirit is thoroughly modern, and they show everywhere
the characteristic features of the composer. Schumann also attempted
M M M 2

1012

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

religious music, and in his essays he has given birth to much that is new
and beautiful ; nevertheless the Paradise and Peri and the Pilgrimage
of the Rose, compared with St. Paul and Elijah, are as the poetry of
Thomas Moore and Moritz Horn to the language of the Bible. The one
introduces powerfully drawn Prophets and Apostles ; the other represents in

his music hazy outlines of femi-
nine grace belonging to the
poetry of the flowers and fairies.
Schumann's efforts were strictly
lyrical, whereas Mendelssohn
employs an epic power which
finds its equal nowhere since
Bach and Handel. Although
he fails to attain to the sublime
grandeur of the great masters,
we cannot but admire the ear-
nest and energetic perseverance
with which he pursues his object.
No one since has succeeded in
permeating choral works with an
equal epic spirit, compared to
which Schumann's polyphony
Fig. 268.— Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy. appears the weakest point of his

Born 3rd February, 1809, at Hamburg; died two compositions.

' 4th. November, 1847, at Leipzig. .

/4« T> ^ -A • , ^ ,, ™ TT-,^ T, 3^ J*1 order to elucidate the rea-

(After a Portrait painted by Th. Hildebrandt.)

son of the close relationship of our

two masters we must mention that, at the most important period of their
artistic activity, they were both residing at Leipzig. Though there was
but the difference of a year in the ages of the two composers, Mendelssohn
was undoubtedly the more matured as regarded artistic- individuality.
Nevertheless Schumann, with remarkable energy, soon made up for what
he had lost while indulging in subjective humour and fantastic creation.
He soon felt and became grateful for the beneficial influence of Mendelssohn,
who, with artistic conscientiousness, steadily followed the path which he had
chosen, and from which he could be drawn aside by nothing. Schumann's
gratitude knew no bounds, and his admiration may be gathered from the

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN. 1013

following. He says : ' ' I look up to Mendelssohn as to a lofty mountain ;
he is divine. Not a day passes but he utters some sentiment worthy of
inscription in gold." In another letter he says : " I believe that Men-
delssohn returns ' to Leipzig next winter. He is now the best musician
in the world." Schumann in 1842 dedicated to his friend Mendelssohn his
three masterly string quartetts, Op. 41. A similar tribute was paid to his
friend at his death, November 4th, 1847, in his " Album fiir die Jugend,
No. 28, Erinnerung." Mendelssohn appears to have helped Schumann to
popularity, which is proved by the frequent appearance of the composer's
name in the Leipzig Gewandha,us concert programmes, over which Men-
delssohn had sole control. Schumann's engagement at the Leipzig Con-
servatorium was also due to his friend, who, it must be remembered, was
its founder. The author, a pupil at the Conservatorium, well remembers
how kindly Mendelssohn stood at Schumann's side and advised him during
the first rehearsals of Paradise and the Peri. He also caused repeated
performances of Schumann's works at his friend David's "Quartett
evenings."

We need scarcely make mention of Mendelssohn's thorough appreciation
of the interpretation given of his friend's works by his wife Clara
Schumann ; he continually showed his approbation in public. If the
relationship existing between these two masters failed to become as intimate
as Schumann might have desired, we must attribute it to the fact that
Mendelssohn entertained a decided aversion for any creative artist becoming
a musical critic. When in 1835 he was called to Leipzig from Diisseldorf
in order to assume the direction of the Conservatorium and Gewandhaus
concerts, Schumann had already been for a year the editor of the Neue
Zeitschrift fur Musik, which, after 1844, came into the hands of Brendel.
Although Schumann would have made as little use of such means to raise
his name as Mendelssohn, yet there were amongst his staff a few of his
admirers who praised him in as extravagant a manner as they afterwards
did Richard Wagner, when Robert Schumann had become a superseded
standpoint for these Hotspurs of the new Romantic school. That this was
unpleasant to a finely organised nature such as Mendelssohn's can be easily
perceived by the following circumstance. When the celebrated music-
teacher Dehn asked him for some explanations of his Antigone music for
insertion in his musical journal Cecilia, the master replied : " I have made

1014 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

it a stringent rule never to write anything concerning music in public
papers, nor directly or indirectly to cause any article to appear concerning
my own productions. Although I cannot fail to see that this must have
often been to my detriment, nevertheless I will not depart from a principle
I have hitherto strictly adhered to." In the same spirit he writes to his
friend David : " If I am not made for popularity I have no desire to learn
how to acquire it ; if you find that unreasonable I prefer to say I am
unable to learn it, and really I cannot and would 'not like to learn it."
When we remember that Mendelssohn's dislike of theorising or speculating
on his art was so great that all aesthetic arguments were antipathetic to
him, and that he once remarked that they made him sad and silent, we can
understand why he conceived a certain reluctance to form a closer intimacy
with the editor of the Neue Zeitschri/t, which had begun to influence the
Leipzig public. There may have been a good side to this matter, as we
doubt whether our master could have acted so unrestrictedly for Schumann's
benefit if greater intimacy had existed, as it might have been conducive to
a suspicion of mutual interest.

Mendelssohn when a child was powerfully influenced by Bach, Handel,
Mozart, Beethoven, and Karl Maria von Weber. The master has often
been extolled as being the first to introduce a fantastic world of nymphs
and gnomes into musical art. Notwithstanding, however, the many
charming and original effects produced by Mendelssohn in his Midsummer
Night's Dream, Melusine, Hebrides, and Walpurgis Night, we must ac-
knowledge Weber as his predecessor, and the real creator of this new
feature in music. We owe to Mendelssohn, however, the " Instrumental
Capriccio/' in which he often introduces the goblin element, which
is but rarely found in the works of earlier masters. He introduces this
element also into many orchestral and pianoforte compositions ; it will be
found in the Scherzo of his A minor symphony, the Finale of the A major
symphony, and the favourite " Rondo Capriccioso." Whilst Weber deals
with the preternatural world in its hideous or pleasant aspect, as in
Freischiltz and Oder on, Mendelssohn introduces the humoristic teasing
nature of the elves and goblins. Weber's influence may be plainly traced
in Mendelssohn's forest and hunting songs ; for example, in his " Wer hat
dich, du schemer Wald," in the trio of his A major symphony, and in
the beautiful horn passage in the " Nocturne " of his Midsummer Night's

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND KOBEKT SCHUMANN. 1015

Dream. However independently conceived the above passages may be, we
cannot doubt but .tbat they were suggested by Weber's hunting chorus
from Euryantke, or the introduction to the overture of Der Freischiltz.

Bach and Handel have influenced Mendelssohn most decidedly in his
sacred compositions. In St. Paul we trace the Passion of Bach, and Handel
is certainly taken for a model in Elijah. Though Mendelssohn does not
reach the standard of lofty sentiment and grand expression employed by
his models, we meet in his works with new and independent features
which will insure their position amongst classical oratorios. These features
occur in St. Paul in the stoning of Stephen and the scene following,
in the miracle on Saul journeying to Damascus, in the chorus, " Arise,
shine, for thy light is come/' and in the chorale, to the Christian spirit
of which the pagan choruses form so striking a contrast. In the Elijah,
again, instances of epic power are to be found in the contest of the
prophet with the heathen and their priests, in the final chorus of the first
part descriptive of the rejoicing of the land at the termination of the
drought, and in the scene on Mount Sinai. Mendelssohn's Psalms, though
containing much that is beautiful, contain too much modern subjective
sentiment; in Psalm cxiv., however, we meet with the serious grandeur
which characterises the ancient religious hymns. Mendelssohn was the
first to attempt, and to succeed in producing without poetical and vocal aid,
grand pictures of nature ; * these compositions are often replete with local
colouring solely produced by the orchestra. In the overture to the Hebrides,
which refers to the group of rock-bound islets enveloped in Ossianic fog,
amidst which the stormy waves and the sea-gull's doleful cry call forth strange
echoes, Mendelssohn has depicted musically the impressions on a receptive
mind of the fantastic scenery. This tendency to descriptive composition ex-
tends even to the master's symphonies : the A major has received the name
of the " Italian Symphony," the A minor has been christened the " Scotch
Symphony ; " these works reproducing in a striking manner Mendelssohn's
impressions of each country. The first-named with its cheerful and sunny
character and its Neapolitan ' ' Tarantella," and the latter with its serious-
ness and Scotch melody, clearly show the sources from which they arose.
With his " Songs without Words " Mendelssohn has enriched the repertoire

* The Editor feels bound to demur to this statement, remembering Beethoven's symphonies,
especially the " Pastoral Symphony," No. 6.— F. A. G. O.

1016 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

of pianoforte music with a form of composition which lends itself readily
to the transfer of momentary impressions. If the works in this new
form lack the grace and refinement of Mendelssohn they degenerate into
mere bagatelles. To the master's great merits we must add one which
almost equals those he possesses as a tone-poet ; we refer to the enthusiasm
and persistence which he displayed as the champion of Handel and Bach
in the first half of the nineteenth century. Mendelssohn, in opposition
to the modern school which underrates the music of the past, was con-
vinced that the development of the mind proceeds as little by skips as
does nature, and that real progress advances by consecutive gradations.
However, Mendelssohn was far from wishing to reduce the musicians of the
present time to mere imitators of the great masters of the past, and in
St. Paul and Elijah he has clearly shown what he understands by following
the classical writers. Instead of producing a mere imitation of the old
masters in his oratorios, Mendelssohn has modernised the style of Bach and
Handel by removing the long introductory phrases and ritornelli, which,
especially in the arias, served but to forestall and repeat the singer's theme.
He omits the tedious sequences and endless roulades, and reduces the
excessive breadth of the text. Such a condensed classical form, notwith-
standing its advantages, could not raise Mendelssohn to the level of Bach
and Handel, for however great and important as a man of talent, like all the
masters since Beethoven, he cannot be classed as a genius, and the chasm
between talent and genius will ever remain impassable. Mendelssohn with
becoming modesty never attempted a comparison with the classics, and
must be credited with referring to Bach and Handel as the imperishable
representatives of sacred composition. Mendelssohn may be quoted as the
resuscitator of Bach, and the earnest study which is made of this composer's
works at the present time is due to him.

One of Mendelssohn's most prominent works is the composition of
Goethe's Walpurgis Nacht, which was commenced at Rome in his early
years. Concerning this production he wrote to his sister : " In the begin-
ning there are spring songs and such-like in abundance ; then, when the
guards create a din with pitchforks and owl hootings, begins the witches'
scene, for which, as you know, I have a special foible ; .this is followed by
the Druids' sacrifice (in C major, with trombones) ; the frightened guards
follow, and here I will introduce an uncanny chorus, followed by a hymn

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN. 1017

as Finale" Twelve years later, when the cantata was finished, he wrote :
" In the second part of the concert my Walpurgis Nacht will be resuscitated,
although in a somewhat different dress, but, if it fails to suit me now I vow
I will give it up for. the rest of my life." The critic Otto Gumprecht
adds : " It could not fail to satisfy him, for we find in it the three sources
from which the composer sought subject and inspiration by preference ; its
form is classical, its matter romantic, and it faithfully represents the
composer's characteristics. The loving perception of nature and the joy
of a fantastic fairy world is followed by a pious invocation. The instru-
mental interlude following- the overture and leading up to the chorus, ' Es
lacht der Mai/ is the most loving greeting of spring ever expressed in
music. The description of spring and the dramatic effect of the pretended
devilry are most powerful, and the Finale breathes piety equal in intensity
to that which characterises St. Paul and Elijah."

Mendelssohn's songs, with few exceptions, follow the form of art-song
created by Franz Schubert ; they are, however, as a rule, more restricted in
form and more cunningly devised than the productions of the earlier master.
Schubert's ideas are broader, his construction is more effective, his modu-
lations are bolder and more surprising, and his thematic treatment is less
restrained than that of Mendelssohn. The careful finish of the latter master
resembles the polish of marble, yet a marble coldness also occasionally
characterises the songs, whereas we are carried away by the vital power and
warmth of colouring, and refreshed by the imperishable vigour of Schubert's
gems. A similar distinction exists between the songs of Mendelssohn and
those of Schumann. Schumann's songs lack the naivete and dewy fresh-
ness of the works of Schubert, whose inspirations are redolent of the pure
mountain air and the invigorating breezes of the forest. Schubert derives
his inspirations from real nature ; Schumann's inspirations are derived
from an imagined nature. Yet Schumann's are ever superior to Mendels-
sohn's in passionate expression and deep romantic sentiment. We must
not, however, be unjust to the latter master, who has written such charming
songs as " Leucht' Heller als die Sonne; " " O Winter, schlimmer Winter; "
"Der Herbstwind riittelt die Baume;" " Auf Flugeln des Gesanges;"
" Wenn durch die Piazzetta;" "Auf dem Teich, dem regungslosen ; " "Es
ist bestimmt Gottes Rath ; " and the two-part song, " An des lust'gen
Brunnens Rand."

1018 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

We will now discuss Schumann as a writer for the orchestra. On
April 14th, 1839, he wrote to Heinrich Dorn : " I would often like to
smash my piano, it has become too feeble for my ideas ; as yet I have had
but little experience in orchestration." Two years later the symphonies in
B flat major, Op. 38, and D minor, Op. 120, were composed. These pro-
ductions by no means impress us as the works of a beginner, but rather as
those of a sound master. The B flat major symphony was performed with
great success under Mendelssohn's personal direction in 1841. The work is
not only original and impressive, but is possessed of remarkable freshness.
In the Scherzo of this work, as well as in the C major symphony, and many
other of his instrumental works, we meet with a peculiarity in the shape
of two trios. The vigorous first Allegro exhibits a formal finish and
thematic construction which almost equals that of the first part of the
C minor symphony of Beethoven. The graceful Finale exhibits proof of the
influence of Mendelssohn. The second symphony, Op. 120, which number
it assumed owing to the composer's re-modelling it at a later period, is counted
as the fourth of his symphonies. It gains an entirely individual character
by the four movements not being separated by pauses, but continuing in one
whole. In its later form this work shows a much greater mastery over the
technical means of the orchestra than its predecessor, the B flat major
symphony, which, in its three vast movements, shows some instances of
unskilfulness in the production of orchestral effect. The D minor symphony
contains many grand traits, although in certain moments it reminds the
hearer too clearly of Beethoven. Amongst the movements of the C major
symphony, Op. 61, we prefer the genial Scherzo, though none of the
movements are without interest. Schumann's E flat major symphony,
Op. 97, must be acknowledged as one of the most important works in this
branch of the art which have been written since Beethoven. This beautiful
work receives its title of the " Rhenish Symphony " from the fact of its
having been written at Diisseldorf ; its freshness and healthy vigour defy
any presentiment of the approaching mental derangement which ended
in, an incurable malady. The romantic mind of the composer is said to
have received the inspiration for this work after witnessing the im-
pressive ceremony which took place in Cologne Cathedral on the occasion
of the installation of Archbishop Geiszel as cardinal. Op. 52, which
consists of an " Overture, Scherzo, and Finale for Orchestra/' shows

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN. 1019

surprising originality. This work, which Schumann re-modelled after
the first performance, shows very clearly the value of a composer's self-
criticism ; for it is to this that it owes its classical finish and uninterrupted
flow. No less prominent are Schumann's chamber compositions. As the
crowning effort in this direction we should allude to the E flat major
quintett, Op. 44. The Allegro brillante, which begins most powerfully, the
second movement like a funeral march, in which the plaintive viola is so
effectively treated, and the passionate Scherzo, with its two trios and
vigorous Finale, form a complete work which points to Schumann as im-
bued with Beethoven's spirit as no other master was. We must also point
to the excellence of this master's quartett in E flat major for piano and
strings, and the pianoforte trio in D minor, Op. 63, which is reckoned
the most important of his works belonging to this class. Among his
string quartetts, that in A minor is the most important, and in it the
composer does not show himself a mere imitator of Beethoven, but a com-
poser whose very flesh and blood are saturated with the spirit of the
great master.

Amongst Schumann's moral works Faust undoubtedly takes the first
place, though this opinion is contrary to that entertained by Schumann
enthusiasts, who invariably retain the Peri for the place of honour. We
must restrict our opinion, however, to the third and last part of this work,
the composition of which extended over a period of ten years. The last
part was the first written, and he was engaged on its composition at the
time when his creative power was at its zenith. Faust, especially Goethe's
version, possesses a magnetic influence which attracts every romantic
composer. Schumann did not escape this ; his genius also found here a
favourable field for action, and if the first and second parts of his work
had been equal to the third we should now possess a most worthy musical
setting of this grand poem. As it is, we possess a priceless gem in the
Finale of his work entitled " Waldung, sie schwankt heran."

That Schumann excelled himself in the last part of his Faust will be
seen by comparing it with the choruses of his other well-known vocal works ;
for example, his Peri, Pilgrimage of the Rose, Mignon Requiem,, Nacht
Lied (Hebbel), and the two first parts of Faust, all of which, as regards
polyphonic excellence, are inferior. The fugal chorus in B flat major,
" Gerettet ist das edle Glied der Geisterwelt vom Bosen/' the antiphonal

1020 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

chorus, " Alles V.ergangliche 1st nur em Gleichnisz," and the contrasting
choruses for female voices, " Jene Rosen aus den Handen liebend heiliger
Biiszerinnen " and " Du schwebst zu Hohen der ewigen Reiche/' contain
the noblest power and the most charming tenderness ever displayed by
Schumann in choral composition.

The healthy vigour of the Finale to Schumann's Faust is equal to that
found in the works of the older Romantic school by Schubert and Weber,
while for romantic expression it may vie with Mendelssohn's Walpurgis
Night and Midsummer Night's Dream. In the early portions of Faust we
meet already with the monotony of the so-called " endless-melody " of
the new Romantic school, a feature which also characterises the master's
music to Byron's Manfred. Schumann does not entirely follow the new
Romantic school; the form of the overture to his Manfred is entirely
classical, and, as such, is a masterpiece; the contents, however, are of a
most pessimistic character. The mission of art is not to darken human
life, but, even when representing the deepest tragedy, its duty is to console
and elevate the mind of man. The composer of Manfred drags us down
into a sea of hopeless misery from which it would seem impossible to rise.
This dire hopelessness, which we so often meet in the lyrics of Lenau,
creates a painful impression, which is heightened by the recollection of the
two masters. Notwithstanding the regrettable pessimism of the Manfred,
we cannot fail to be attracted by its masterly development and the talent it
displays. The few compositions which affiliate Schumann to the new
Romantic school belong either to the " storm and stress period " of
his life ; or may be selected from Ops. 1 to 23, to which he referred
as belonging to a superseded class ; or else they belong to that period
during which the master was most terribly afflicted. The compositions
on which is founded Schumann's world-wide fame belong, without ex-
ception, to the period of the master's artistic maturity and sound mental
health.

Schumann's Peri} if we ignore its pretension as an oratorio, contains
much beauty, although the third part is somewhat wearisome by reason
of its extreme length. Otto Jahn says of the music to the Peri, that it
addresses itself specially to those who form a total impression of the work
from its detail, which exhibits much beauty and finish. To this we may add
our opinion that, with the exception of the scenes associated with the con-

FELIX MENDELSOHN AND EGBERT SCHUMANN. 1021

queror Gazna, whicli exhibit a certain epic and dramatic power, the work
lacks the thrilling events which would justify the employment of the means
supplied by orchestra, chorus, and ensemble; a striking example of the inca-
pability of a lyric composer to invest any subject with plastic power is thus
offered by the Perl. The subject of this work would never be chosen by an
epic composer, as being allegorical and too replete with metaphor. Tom
Moore's hyper-sentimental " Lalla Hooka/' from which the subject of the
Peri is taken, is totally unable to assume the dimensions of an epic poem,
nor does it contain the requisite heroic figures and events. In the third part
the work is restricted to the description of the soaring of the Peri over the
fertile Indies and glowing Orient, the only episode being the tear of the
repentant sinner by which the Peri regains the lost Paradise. We are
far from underrating the lyric charms and poetical colouring to be found
in many parts of this work. The second part is specially rich in the above
qualities, which lend a touching and poetical expression to the description
of the Nile sprites, the pestilence, the dying scene of the lovers,, and the
affecting character of the final chorus, " Schlaf nun und rah' in Traumen
voll Duft."" Nor do we credit the heroic character to be found in
the oratorios of Handel as alone worthy of acceptance ; for Handel in his
L' Allegro, il Pensieroso ed il Moderate ; Acis and Galatea ; and Susanna,
departs from the original character of the subject. To Haydn also we owe
an entirely new species of oratorio. If a subject of so tender and undefined
a character as the Peri had to be treated as an epic, the smaller dimensions
of the cantata form would have amply sufficed, and this compression would
have spared us many tedious and weak points in the score. What is dis-
played on a large scale in the Peri, that is Schumann's lack of epic power,
is to be found in a less degree in his cantata the Pilgrimage of the Rose,
which offers a similar subject to that of the Peri, though of smaller
proportions. The poem of the Pilgrimage of the Rose, on account of its
extravagant allegory, which causes it to appear affected and mean, even
more stubbornly than the Peri, refuses to lend itself to epic treatment. At
most its contents would have supplied matter for a suitable ' ' ballade " or a
small cycle of solos. Instead of this the master seizes the opportunity of
introducing the too powerful means of expression supplied by choruses and
solos, and he alters the more fitting pianoforte accompaniment into one for
the orchestra. There is no need to expatiate on the many lyrical beauties

1022 HISTORY OP MUSIC.

which are present in this work, when we recollect that it is the result of the
talent of Schumann.

Schumann's songs are as a rule more intense and breathe a passion more
fiery than that which pervades those of Mendelssohn. If in the songs of
the latter we find deep reflection and too anxious self-criticism, we feel that
Schumann's songs are the result of an irresistible inspiration. As a song-
writer, therefore, Schumann is undoubtedly the more important; he not
only surpasses Mendelssohn, but every song-composer since the time of
Franz Schubert, amongst whose disciples Schumann ranks, as exhibiting
the deepest feeling. Nevertheless Franz Schubert remains incomparable,
and it must be confessed that traces of his influence may be found through-
out Schumann's songs, though the latter is by no means a mere imitator,
but rather an explorer who has dispovered many new paths. The most
striking difference between the two masters Schubert and Schumann is that
the songs of the former are mostly of a manly and vigorous character, and
are pervaded by an unchanging youth and cheerfulness ; those of Schumann,
on the contrary, are the result of a dreamy and imaginative character, the
works of a man entirely occupied by his own ft soul-life/' and thus they
receive a peculiar character which occasionally bears a feminine impress.
Schumann was the first to depict the innermost sentiment of a woman's
heart, whose most secret emotions he appears to have fathomed. We
refer to those beautiful song-cycles entitled " Frauen-liebe und Leben,"
" Myrthen," and " Dichterliebe." The twelve songs from Riickert's
" Liebesfriihling," Op. 37, and those from Eichendorf's poems, Op. 39,
mostly partake of this nature. If we had to enumerate our favourite
songs from the repertoire of this master, we should include ""Waldesges-
prach ; " " Es weisz und Rath' es doch Keiner ; " ' ' Es war, als hatte der
Himmel;" "Es rauschen die Wipfel und schauern;" " Uesberm Garten
durch die Liiften ; " " Ich grolle nicht ; " " Und wiiszten die Blumen, die
kleinen ; " " Allnachtlich im Traume ; " ' ' Der Nuszbaum ; " " Du meine
Seele, Du mein Herz," and many others equally tuneful. Amongst his
most charming duets for female voices we must select " Wenn ich ein
Voglein war " as the most beautiful.

Amongst the interpreters of Schumann's songs, especially those in
which he displays such powerful passion, none of her contemporaries sur-
passed Wilhelmine Schroeder-Devrient, and he who has heard her sing the

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN.

1023

" Waldesgesprach " or " Ich grolle nicht " must have received an ineffaceable
impression. It is natural that Schroeder-Devrient, who so excelled in
rendering the songs of Schubert — for example, the "Erl King/' "Das
Meer erglanzte Weit hinaus," " Bachlein, lasz dein Rauschen sein," and
"Ich schnitt es gern in alle Rinden ein" — should be the most successful

Fig. 269. — Wilhelmine Schroeder-Devrient.
(Original published by Franz Haufstangl, Munich.)

interpreter of the works of Schumann, who so nearly approached the great
song-master in depth of feeling. Though Schumann lacks dramatic power,
his Genoveva abounds in lyric beauties ; for example, Siegfried's aria, and
Genoveva's scene at the cross, acts iii. and iv. respectively. The overture
to the opera is most effective, is skilfully finished, and is pervaded by a
genuine romantic spirit. The introduction, with its mediaeval chorus of
warriors, and the witches' scene, are also powerfully delineated. Amongst
Schumann's later works for the pianoforte we must note the duets,
" Bilder aus Osten," Op. 66 ; the " Waldscenen," Op. 82 ; the " Marchen

1024 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Bilder," for viola and piano; " Variations for two Pianos/' Op. 46, which
were performed for the first time in 1843 by Mendelssohn and Clara
Schumann ; and the " Four Fugues for the Piano," Op. 72. As one of
Schumann's most important tributes to the repertoire of pianoforte music,
however, we must refer to the 'Etudes Symphoniques." The list of the
master's last great works includes the overtures to Julius Casar and
Hermann und Dorothea ; the two " ballade" for chorus, soli, and orchestra,
" Des Sanger's Fluch" and " Das Gliick von Edenhall ; " and six splendid
organ fugues, Op. 60, on the notes represented by the letters comprised in
the name of Bach.

We must now consider the principal events in the lives of the two
masters. Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy was born at Hamburg, on February
3rd, 1809. His father, a wealthy banker, was the son of the well-known
philosopher and friend of Lessing, Moses Mendelssohn. The boy's musical
gift was apparent at an early age — indeed to such an extent that there could
be no doubt as to his future career. In 1813, his family moving to Berlin,
Mendelssohn commenced his musical education under the care of the cele-
brated Ludwig Berger (1777 — 1839). Berger established a pianoforte
school at Berlin, amongst the pupils of which we find Mendelssohn,
Adolf Henselt, Taubert, and Fanny Hensel. This school might well be
called the "Berlin Classical Pianoforte School," as Berger founded his
method on that adopted by Mozart and his pupil Hummel, which was in
close connection with that of Clementi, Cramer, and Dussek (1761 — 1812).
Dussek was one of the first to apply to the piano what is understood as
" making it sing/' Mendelssohn was a pianist of the highest order, and
his method greatly influenced other well-known pianists,* such as Hiller,
Reinecke, and Wilhelmine Clausz. While at Berlin he studied harmony
under Karl Friedrich Zelter (1758 — 1832), who was renowned as the friend
of Goethe, his correspondence with that master having been published in
1833 in six volumes ; he composed music to many of Goethe's poems, and
was conductor of the celebrated Berlin Vocal Academy. Zelter, as a com-
poser, was of moderate calibre, and, according to Mendelssohn, by no means
an erudite contrapuntist. The master's conscientious earnestness led him
to select the best models, his favourite being Sebastian Bach, and this
could not fail to be most advantageous to the promising pupil. The boy
heard at this academy the best choral works, in which he took part in

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN. 1025

person, and, when still a youth, occasionally assumed the post of con-
ductor at rehearsals. This was more beneficial to him than all the
lessons he received. The attention bestowed on the a capella style
formed a special feature of this institution, and proved of the utmost
value to the young- master. It was introduced by the founder, Karl
Friedrich Fasch, 1792, who wrote a sixteen-part mass in that form. This
special feature was continued under the rule of Z niter's successors, Karl
Friedrich Rungenhagen and Edward Grell, born in 1778 and 1800 respec-
tively, at Berlin ; both of whom excelled as a capella writers, the latter
composing a sixteen-part mass in the style of Palestrina. The Vocal
Academy possessed at that period an invaluable collection of Sebastian
Bach's manuscripts, many of which were either unpublished or out of
print. From this collection Mendelssohn derived considerable benefit, and
its influence may be traced throughout his whole career, and to this might
also be attributed his persistent endeavours for the resuscitation of Bach's
Passion of St. Matthew.

The Berlin Opera, then at the zenith of its glory, considerably influenced
Mendelssohn, for although the dramatic element was never brought into
prominence, yet the excellence of the repertoire could not fail to impress
him favourably, and to this influence we may attribute the dramatic effects
with which his oratorios abound, as well as his music to Shakespeare's
Midsummer NigMs Dream, and in Athalie, Antigone, and (Edipus. At
this period the Royal Opera-House and Konigstadtische Theatre possessed
most eminent vocalists, such as Sontag, Milder, Seidler, and Faszmann, as
well as the great baritone Blume, and those excellent tenors Bader and
Mantius. Pauline Anna Milder-Hauptmann (1785 — 1838) possessed one
of the most powerful voices of the period, in addition to an unequalled
figure. It was for this vocalist that Beethoven created the part of
Leonora in Fidelio. Milder was the best interpreter of Gluck's heroines,
and as such she excited the greatest enthusiasm among the Berlin public
from 1815 to 18-k31. She excelled in the roles of Alceste, Armida, Iphigenia
in Aulis, and Iphigenia in Tauris. Goethe was so charmed with her render-
ing of the latter part that he sent her an edition de luxe of his Iphigenia
as a memento. Henrietta. Sontag (1806 — 1854), who created Weber's
Euryanthe at Vienna, came in 1824 to the Konigstadtische Theatre, where
she remained for three years. As & bravura singer she divided the honours

N N N

1026

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

with the celebrated Catalan!. Her most successful efforts were as Agatha
in Der Freischiitz, Euryanthe, Anna in Boieldieu's Dame Blanche, and Donna
Anna in Don Giovanni. Besides these classical roles, she performed suc-
cessfully the part of Desdemona in Rossini's Othello, Semiramide, and
above all Rosina in II Barbiere. In 1830 Sontag married Count Rossi,

Fig. 270.— Henrietta Sontag.
(Original published by F. Schuberth and Co., Leipzig.)

and retired from the stage ; but eighteen years later she returned to her
former triumphs, and performed in London, Paris, Brussels, and America.
She died in 1854, her chief parts at this period being Lucrezia Borgia,
Linda di Chamounix, La Figlia del Reggimento, and similar characters, in
which her youthfui appearance caused universal astonishment. Carolina
Seidler VMS prima donna at the Berlin Opera from 1817 to 1838 ; while there
she created the part of Agatha, at the first representation of the Freischiitz,
1821. From that time until 1836 she appeared ninety-one times in this part.

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN. 1027

She also excelled as Euryanthe, Costanza in Cherubim's Porteur d'Eau,
and Isabella in Robert le Diable. Augusta von Faszmann, born at Munich,
1814, visited Berlin in 1836, and obtained a success so great as to procure
for her an engagement at the opera for the following year. Faszmann was
one of the grandest classical mezzo-soprani, and was incomparable in the
operas of Gluck and Spontini. Heinrich Blume (1788 — 1856) was one
of the most prominent interpreters of Mozart, his extraordinary range of
voice enabling him to sing both tenor and baritone parts. His rendering of
Don Giovanni has rarely been equalled. During an engagement of twenty-
seven years, Blume sang this role one hundred and one times. He was
no less successful as Almaviva in II Barbiere. In Weber's operas he
shone as Caspar and Lysiart, and was specially successful as an oratorio
and concert singer. Blume was a true artist, as is proved by the fact that
he never refused minor characters, his respect for the composer considerably
outweighing the love of prominence. He sang the Commendatore and
even Masetto in Don Giovanni.

Blume was followed by Carl Bader, born in 1789, who was engaged at
the Berlin Opera, 1820 — 1849, when he was especially famous as Adolar in
Euryantkc, Belmonte in Mozart's Seraglio, Joseph in Mehul's sacred drama,
Masaniello, and Fra Diavolo. Bader also made a point of conscientiously
rendering minor parts, such as Blondel in Richard Cceur de Lion, Rudolf in
William Tell, and Bois Rose in Meyerbeer's Huguenots. He was a member
of Zelter's Vocal Union ; and, like Blume, was as famous in oratorio as in
opera. On an equal footing with these two celebrated tenors we can place
Edward Mantius (1806 — 1874). Mantius belonged to the Royal Opera
from 1830 to 1857 — i.e., during the last years of Mendelssohn's residence in
Berlin. He had, however, gained renown as an oratorio singer before seek-
ing the stage. Mantius was also a member of Zelter's Vocal Union, and
was in the habit of singing the title-roles in Handel's Samson and Judas
Maccabeus. He made his debut at the Berlin Opera as Tamino in Mozart's
Magic Flute, and became famous in the characters of Belmonte, Ottavio,
Joseph, Raoul, Adolar, Almaviva, George Brown in Boieldieu's Dame
Blanche, Florestan in Fidelio, and Pylades in Gluck's Iphigenia in Tauris.

Young Mendelssohn, as a member of Zelter's Vocal Academy, could not
fail to be brought into contact with the two last-named singers. The
excellence of the operatic performances in Berlin at that period inspired the

N X N 2-

1028 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

young master with the desire of writing- an opera for such an ensemble. He
had already tried his skill as opera-writer at the age of twelve, the result
being a pretty little operetta, entitled The Two Pedagogues. Although
parts, and especially the overture, show the strong influence of Mozart,
there are yet many glimpses of originality. The author is in possession of
an autograph duet, for soprano and bass, from this work, as well as the
manuscript of the entire production arranged by the composer for four
hands. Neither of these has yet been printed, and it is uncertain whether
any copy exists. Between the composition of this work and the public
performance of his Marriage of Camacho, the libretto of which is taken
from Cervantes' " Don Quixote," and which was performed at Berlin in
1827, Mendelssohn made many essays in dramatic composition. The first
performance of this work was at the same time the last, for the master
strenuously refused to witness again the stormy applause of his friends
confronted by the hisses of an organised opposition. This performance was
the turning-point of our master's life as regards opera composition. He
entirely resisted the desire of becoming an opera-writer, his sole efforts in
this direction being Heimkehr aus der Fremcle, which was written on the
occasion of the silver wedding of his parents, and Lorelei, the libretto of
which was written for him by Geibel, and of which he only completed a
sang, a chorus of vine-dressers, and the Finale.

In a preceding chapter we grouped a number of composers round
Meyerbeer, under the title of the Berlin Opera School, and we now deem
it fit to connect with Mendelssohn the two Berlin theorists, Dehn and
Marx, who are, by the number and efficiency of their pupils, entitled to be
regarded as the heads of a special school of composition. We connect these
masters with Mendelssohn not only on account of their close personal re-
lation with the great master, but the affinity of their musical tendencies.
They, as teachers, like Mendelssohn in his compositions, distinctly point to
the masters of the German Genius epoch as the climax of our musical
development. Their intention was to teach their pupils that in art, form
is in as close connection to idea as is the body to the soul. And as the
soul cannot be imagined without the body, musical ideas without form will
ever fail to possess an organic existence. The first of these teachers who
has exercised his influence almost further by his personal tuition than by
his large collection of theoretical and practical works is Siegfried Deha,

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND EGBERT SCHUMANN. 1029

musical historian and antiquary, born in 1799 at Altona, died at Berlin
in 1858. Proceeding chronologically, we must include in the list of
his distinguished pupils, Michael Glinka, Hieronymus Truhn, Theodore
Kullak, Friedrich Kiel, Martin Blumner, Hugo Ulrich, Woldemar
Bargiel, Anton Rubinstein, Albert Becker, Bernhard Scholz, and Heinrich
Hoffmann. Dehn from 1819 to 1823 studied jurisprudence at Leipzig,
at the end of which period he became attached to the Swedish Embassy at
Berlin. In 1829 he engaged in music as a professor. Through Meyerbeer's
recommendation he became, in 1842, custodian of the musical collection at
the Royal Library at Berlin, where seven years after he received distinction
as royal professor. By enriching this valuable library, Dehn gained great
celebrity. Amongst his published works his " Theoretisch -praktische
Harmonielehre " stands pre-eminent. His list of published works also
includes an analysis of three fugues from John Sebastian Bach's " Forty-
eight Preludes and Fugues/' and a double fugue for voices by G. M.
Buononcini, a collection of music of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-
turies in twelve parts, and a translation of Delmotte's notes on Orlandus
Lassus. From among his posthumous papers his pupil Bernhard Scholz
collected matter for a treatise on " Counterpoint, Canon, and Fugue/'
Adolph Bernhard Marx, who was born at Halle in 1799, and died in 1866,
while professor of music at Berlin, was entirely opposed in nature to
his contemporary. Dehn, although an excellent lecturer, was most posi-
tive as to his assertions, and terse almost to rudeness. Marx, on the
contrary, had the diplomatic prudence of a logician, and was an elegant
and gifted writer. It is pleasant to notice that notwithstanding these
existing differences, and a reciprocal personal aversion, these men were con-
scientious enough to work into each other's hands, both starting from the
same musical principles and aiming at the same end. Among published
works of Marx we must notice specially his " School of Composition "
(1837 — 1847), in four volumes, of which there have been four editions.
This work is specially calculated for self-tuition, and is most useful
for pupils who possess some elementary knowledge of music. Of his
other works, equally intelligent, but not of the same importance, we
must mention " The Old Musical Theory, in opposition to that of
our Own Time/' 1842; "Gluck and the Opera," "Guide to the Per-
formance of Beethoven's Pianoforte Works," 1863; and the "Musical

1030 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Grammar," the ninth edition of which appeared in 1875. Amongst
Marx's most important pupils we must mention George Vierling, Karl
Reiiithaler, and Ludwig Meinardus. Dehn corresponded with Men-
delssohn, and was repeatedly visited by him at the library, but Marx
belonged to the closer circle of Mendelssohn's friends, and attended all
the private performances at the master's house during his earlier years.

We have already stated that Mendelssohn, in addition to his musical
knowledge, had received a sound education. At the age of twelve, in
1821, he was taken by Zelter to Weimar, where he spent several weeks
with Goethe. The old poet-prince took a great interest in the boy, being
attracted not only by his beauty, but by his intelligence. During this visit
Goethe gave more attention to music than he was wont, being attracted
by the boy's talent. Mendelssohn received instruction at home from
D. W. L. Heyse, the father of the renowned novelist, who was delighted
with the gifts of his pupil. Like his predecessor Weber, he possessed a
decided talent for landscape drawing. His father, notwithstanding the
boy's evident gift of music, deemed it advisable to apply to an authority
of the first rank, and to be assured that music was really his destined pro-
fession. Spontini had already delivered his opinion in the affirmative, adding,
as he pointed to the church steeple, " II vous faut des idees grandes comme
cette coupole." This was not sufficient for Felix's father; therefore, in
1825, the boy being sixteen years of age, he took him to Paris to Cheru-
bim, to whom the young master showed his* B minor quartett for piano
and strings. Cherubini, who was, as a rule, averse to laudation, said,
"Le gar9on est riche, il fera bien, il fait meme deja bien."

The young master was henceforward allowed to regard music as his
future profession, but this did not prevent him from becoming an
industrious student at the University of Berlin. While studying there,
he paid special attention to history, philosophy, and geography, the
last-named subject being taught by Eitter. The result of Cherubini's
encouragement was the composition of the overture to Midsummer Night's
Dreamy The Marriage of Camacho, and numerous psalms and other
sacred compositions, which were performed at the Vocal Academy under
his own direction, and received favourable acknowledgment. One of
Mendelssohn's greatest deeds was the resuscitation of Bach's Passion of
St. Matthew, 1829, which had never been performed in Berlin, having,

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN. 1031

indeed, been completely forgotten since the death of the composer.
Mendelssohn was supported in this movement by Edward Devrient, who
aided him to overcome the diffidence of Zelter, whose doubts as to the
success of the work were not dispelled until the final rehearsal. In 1829
the master visited London for the first time, where his merits as a composer
and virtuoso were enthusiastically appreciated. Here he met Moscheles,
who did all that lay in his power to further his success. In the spring of
the following year, on his way to Italy, he visited Weimar, at the
request of his friend Goethe. During his visit the poet spent many hours
by the piano in company with him. Concerning this, Mendelssohn
wrote: ft He sits there still, with flashing eyes, -like a Jupiter Tonans.
Beethoven offered no attraction for him; but telling him I could not do
otherwise, I played him the first movement of the C minor symphony, that
seemed to affect him strangely/' From Rome, Mendelssohn went, in 1831,
to Naples, Switzerland, and Munich, and, in the winter, to Paris and
London. In the following summer he returned to Berlin. The impressions
he received on the journey were published after his death in a collection
of letters. In order to please his family he tried to obtain the appoint-
ment of director to the Vocal Academy, but was unsuccessful. In 1835
he was appointed " Musik-Director " at Diisseldorf, where he acted in
concert with Immermann, then stage- manager there. Before the end
of the year, however, the composer accepted the post of conductor afc
the Gewandhaus concerts. Leipzig was celebrated for its music, even
before the advent of Mendelssohn ; but it reached its utmost point of cele-
brity during the residence of that master. After a few years this town
became the musical centre of Germany. By his excellent conducting he
raised the orchestra to a high point of perfection. The musical reputation
of the city was not only enhanced by the renown of Mendelssohn as the
best German pianist and organist, and the excellence and number of the
compositions he wrote there, but also by the circle of prominent musicians
whom he attracted thither, and who regarded him as their head. The list
of these men includes Moritz Hauptrnann, born 1792 at Dresden, died lSb'8
at Leipzig. Hauptmann was, until 1842, a member of the court orchestra
at Cassel. In that year Mendelssohn obtained for him the post of cantor at
tne Church of St. Thomas at Leipzig. The following year Hauptmann
accepted an engagement as the chief master of theory at the Conservatorium

1032 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

newly established by Mendelssohn. Hauptmann is entitled to recognition
as the first theorist of the age ; in proof of which we must refer to his cele-
brated work, "Nature of Harmony and Metre," published in 1853, of which
a second edition appeared twenty years later. His compositions are not
numerous, but they all bear the stamp of high artistic finish ; for instance,
his choruses for mixed voices, dedicated to Mendelssohn, which are still well

Fig. 271. — Moritz Haiiptmann.

received, as well as a number of sacred compositions. Hauptmann was justly
entitled to the friendship of the great master, on account of his sound
general knowledge, his lofty sentiment, and the purity of his artistic purpose.
His genial humour can be testified to by his pupils, the list of whom in-
cludes David, Curschmann, Burgmuller, Kiel, Jadasohn, Gernsheim, Gold-
sohmidt, Joachim, Von Holstein, Dietrich, and the author. He has left a
treasury of posthumous works, including a " Treatise on John Sebastian
Bach's Art of the Fugue ; " " Opuscula," a collection of minor essays,
published by his son in 1874; the " Laws of Harmony/' published 1868
by Oscar Paul ; the interesting " Letters to Franz Hauser," published by

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN.

1033

A. Schone, in two volumes,, 1871 ; and " A Collection of Letters to Ludwig
Spohr and Others," published by Ferdinand Hiller, 1876. Hauptmann, in
his earlier years, was an excellent violinist, and a pupil of Spohr.

Mendelssohn kept a post for his friend Ignatz Moscheles at the Leipzig
Conservatorium. Moscheles was born at Prague in 1794, and died at Leipzig

Fig. 272.— Ignatz Mosoheles.

in 1870. It will be remembered that he was chosen by Beethoven as
the arranger of the pianoforte score of Fidelio, and from 1814 to 1834
emulated Hummel. For many years he occupied a prominent position in
London. Amongst his compositions his G minor concerto, his " Concerto
Pathetique," his excellent " Studies " for the piano, a sonata for piano
and violoncello, and others, belong to our most classical and instructive
repertoire of music. The third on the list of Mendelssohn's intimate
friends is Ferdinand David (1810 — 1873). Like Hauptmann, David was a
pupil of Spohr. In 1836 he was appointed leader of the Gewandhaus
concerts, and, in 1843, professor of advanced violin-playing. With the

1034 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

exception of Lipinsky, we find no leader who had such power over his
orchestra as David ; he seemed to impart to every member his own in-
domitable energy. Notwithstanding that he insisted on strict correct-
ness, he encouraged individual artistic expression, and if the Gewandhaus
orchestra under Mendelssohn's baton ranked as one of the first, it owed this
prominence not only to the conductor, but also to its leader, who carried out
the intentions of his conductor with the energy of a true artist. Men-
delssohn wrote his celebrated violin concerto for him, and sought his
advice during its composition. David's efficiency as a master is proved
by his pupils Joachim and Wilhelmj. Besides his violin concertos, his
most important works include his " Violin Schule," and a collection of
violin compositions by German, French, and Italian masters of the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries, published under the title of " Hohe Schule
des Violinspiels." Mendelssohn was surrounded by a number of intimate
friends, who all worked eagerly to extend his influence over the art of musie
in Germany. The most prominent members of this circle were Julius
Rietz, Ferdinand Hiller, and Niels Gade. The two latter, during their re-
sidence in Leipzig, occasionally represented Mendelssohn as conductor at the
Gewandhaus concerts, or as teacher of composition at the Conservatorium.
We need hardly mention that Schumann and his wife were included in this
list. We shall treat of the renowned pianist in this chapter, but Hiller,
Gade, and Rietz will be included in the chapter entitled " The Present
Time/' as they survived Mendelssohn longer than Hauptmann, David, and
Moscheles.

Mendelssohn's St. Paul was commenced at Diisseldorf and finished at
Leipzig. In this work he displays his creed in an artistic light, and we
could almost say that it shows the development of the Christian sentiment
which had not till then become a conviction. In 1836 St. Paul was
finished, and performed for the first time at a musical festival at Diisseldorf ;
this performance was soon followed by others in England. In 1837 the
work was performed for the first time in Berlin, Sophie Lowe taking
the soprano part. After the success of SI. Paul at Diisseldorf, the master
was created Doctor of Philosophy, and in 1841 the King of Saxony con-
ferred on him the title of "Court Chapel-master." In 1837 Mendelssohn
married Cecilia Jeanrenaud, the handsome and gentle daughter of a pastor
of the Reformed Church set Frankfort-on-the-Maine. In 1843 Mendels-

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND EGBERT SCHUMANN. 1035

sohn's enthusiasm as a teacher induced him to establish a conservatorium at
Leipzig, under the protection of the King of ^Saxony. As a proof of the
master's earnestness we may mention the fact that from among the pupils
of the couservatorium he selected six, who met twice a week to submit their
works for criticism. The recipients of this special favour were F. A.
Dupont, who was appointed chapel-master at Nuremburg ; Von Wasie-
lewski, afterwards " Musik-Director " at Bonn ; E. Biichner, who was created
court chapel-master at Meiningen ; Bratfisch, u Musik-Director " at Stral-
sund ; Pfretzschner, who accepted the post of organist at the Kreuz Church
at Dresden ; and the author. Their essays consisted of movements of a
sonata, or string quartett, a prelude and fugue, or a chorus in the strict
style. This mutual criticism under the supervision of the master created
close ties of friendship between the master and pupils, as also between
the pupils themselves.

The privilege of seeing Mendelssohn in private was only accorded to
Sterndale Bennett, Joachim, Wiirst, and the author, who were allowed
to bring their compositions for correction and advice. In 1841, when
the master was invited to Berlin by King Frederick William IV. of
Prussia, he composed, at the sovereign's request, the music to the Mid-
summer Night's Dream, the incidental music to Racine's Athalie, and
choruses to Sophocles' Antigone and (Edipus in Colonus. During his
visit he also composed for the newly established royal cathedral choir,
of which he became the director, many a capella psalms for double
chorus, liturgies, and chorales. These compositions bear the impress of
a sacred character more strict than that of most other works of the
same nature. Heinrich Neithard (1793 — 1861) was the regular conductor
of the cathedral choir, and is well known as the composer of the
national song, " Ich bin ein Preusze." In 1H42 Mendelssohn was created
" General Musik-Director," an honour bestowed on no other before him
but Spontini. This recognition, however, could not induce him to
abandon Leipzig. In 1844 he visited Frankfort-on-the-Maine, where
he spent the winter ; after which, having conducted the performance of
Athalie at Berlin, he returned to his former post of conductor of the
Gewandhaus concerts. In the following year the master conducted the
festival at Aix-la-Chapelle, in which Jenny Lind sang the soprano part of
Haydn's Creation. This artiste possessed a remarkable gift of rendering

1036 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

pianissimo effects, which was especially noticeable in her interpretation of
Mendelssohn's " O Winter, Schlimmer Winter/' Jenny Lind and her con-
temporary Livia Frege were undoubtedly the best interpreters of the com-
poser's vocal music that have appeared before the public. In 1846
Mendelssohn conducted the German- Flemish " Sanger-Fest" at Cologne,
and for the first time superintended the performance of his Elijah at the
Birmingham festival. In the following year he conducted this oratorio
in London, on which occasion the Prince Consort sent him his book of
words on which he had written that he was " the saviour of art from the
service of Baal." The Queen had already admitted him into the family
circle, and rendered his songs to his accompaniment. Since the first per-
formance of his oratorios in England, Mendelssohn has risen into a position
almost approaching that of Handel. The excessive work of his latter
years proved too much for his system, which received an additional
severe shock at the sudden death of his much loved sister Fanny Hensel,
and he died on November 4th, 1847. The funeral ceremony at Leipzig was
worthy of such a prince of musicians. The houses of business were closed,
the streets were draped in black. At the Church of St. Paul the body was
received with the final chorus from the Passion of St. Matthew. On the
journey to the Berlin railway the cortege was accompanied by the members
of the university bearing torches, and consisted altogether of thirty
thousand people. At the station, as well as at Dessau, the body was
received with choruses of his "Es ist bestimmt in Gottes Rath," under the
direction of the renowned composer of The Last Judgment, Schneider.

The life of Schumann was no less eventful than that of his contemporary.
Schumann's father was by trade a bookseller, who, at the time of Robert's
birth, June 8th, 1810, was residing at Zwickau. It was intended that the
boy's musical education should be undertaken by Karl Maria von Weber,
who had agreed to superintend it, but, owing to the course of intervening
events, this never came to pass. After leaving the high school at Zwickau,
at the desire of his widowed mother he studied jurisprudence at Leipzig, and
for one year at Heidelberg. In 1830 he determined to devote himself
entirely to music, and removing to Leipzig, became the pupil of Wieck and
Dorn. Frederick Wieck (1785 — 1873) showed his excellence as a pianoforte
teacher by the results obtained in the case of his daughters Clara and Marie.
He excelled also as a singing-master, having been a pupil of Mieksch.

ROBERT SCHUMANN.

Born 8th June, 1810, at Zwickau, in Saxony ; died 29th July, 1856,
at Endenich, near Bonn.

(By permission of Bartholf Senf of Leipzig, after an original lithograph
published by him.)

32

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN. 1037

While studying pianoforte-playing- under Wieck, Schumann was receiving
lessons in composition from Heinrich Dorn. The latter master was born in
1804 at Konigsberg. He settled in Leipzig until 1832, when we find him
at Riga in the capacity of chapel-master. We next meet him at Cologne
in the same capacity, and in 1849 he was appointed court chapel-master.
Among Dorn's operas Der Schoffer von Paris and Lie Nibelungen.&rQ
the best known. His humorous part and solo songs became very popular.
As a critic he was noted for his characteristic humour. Schumann was
unable to continue his career as pianist, having, by excessive practice,
seriously strained his hand. This is not altogether to be regretted, as it
was doubtless the cause of the devotion of all his energies to composition.
An important item of Schumann's artistic career was his association
with Wieck, Julius Knorr, and L. Schunke, in the foundation of the
Neue Zeitschrift fur Musik, in which he took so prominent a part that
we shall return to it anon. Much praise is due to that band of associates
who successfully rebelled against the " Kapell-meister rnusik," which
was the result of the labours of mere adherents of grammatical rule with-
out ideality, sentiment, or taste. As a genuine follower of the Romantic
school, loving all that is mysterious and strange, Schumann created in
his own mind a union of sympathetic spirits, which he entitled " Davids-
Ibiindler," whose intention, he presumed, was the overthrow of " Kapell-
meister musik?"7 This association consisted not only of imaginary, but
also living, personages. In connection with this idea, he composed all
his earlier pianoforte works, ranging from 1829 to 1839. Wasielewski
speaks of this brotherhood as the outcome of the poetical ideas and manner
of Jean Paul. In the articles on the " Davidsbiindler/' Schumann assumes
the names of Florestan and Eusebius, Wieck is .personified by Raro, Banck
was represented by Serpentinus, Knorr was Julius, and the sentiments of
Clara Wieck were represented by the opinion of Chiara. Schumann did not
restrict his choice of characters to the world of the living ; he wrote to
Dorn : " Mozart was as great a biindler as is Berlioz. " Wasielewski recog-
nises in the idea of this " Davidsbiindler " the characteristic trait of Schu-
mann's nature. The master had an unusual penchant for the mysterious in
opposition to the reality; his very tread was stealthy. In a preface to
an edition of his collected works, Schumann humorously refers to the
" Davidsbiindler,^ which he said was no secret society, but a mere creation

1038 HISTOEY OF MUSIC.

of his imagination. In later years his opinion changed equally in regard
to his early pianoforte works. Amongst the characters of the " Davids-
biindler/' next to Schumann and Clara Wieck, Carl Banck is the most
prominent figure. Banck, born in 1811, was a pupil of Klein, Zelter, and
Berger, and belonged to the original staff of the Neue Zeitsckrift. He
ranks high amongst German critics, and has distinguished himself as a
teacher of singing, composer of songs, editor of hitherto unknown,
and arranger of well-known, works of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries.

In 1837 Schumann essayed to obtain Wieck's consent to his marriage
with Clara, but was refused. Three years later, having received the degree
of Doctor at the University of Jena, in recognition of his merits as a com-
poser, he once more attempted to gain the consent of the father, and this
being again refused, he married in secret. Clara Wieck, born at Leipzig
in 1819, had created a sensation as a child of ten when accompanying
hei* father on his concert tours. It was to her father that she owed her
perfect technique, but her conception of the classical masterpieces dates
without doubt from her meeting with Schumann. The pianist owes her
reputation as an interpreter of classical music to the fact that she ignores
her personal identity while performing, and therefore renders equally well
the works of Bach, Beethoven, Schumann, Mendelssohn, and Chopin.
Clara Schumann stands unrivalled for conjugal devotion and self-denial.

During the period of his wooing, Schumann's imaginative mind was in
a continual state of happy inspiration, which found an outlet in his vocal
compositions. In the year of his marriage alone he composed no less than
one hundred and thirty-eight songs. Among these we must draw special
attention to the cycle dedicated to his bride under the title of " Myrthen,"
the " Frauenliebe und Leben/' <( Liederkreis/' the words of which are from
the pen of Eichendorff; Riickert's " Liebesfriihling," of which those
numbered 2, 4, and 11 were composed by Clara Schumann, and several others.
In the year 1841 Schumann composed his first two symphonies and Heine's
Tragodie. These were followed a year later by the three string quartetts,
the piano quintett and quartett in E flat major. In 1843 The Paradise and
Peri made its first appearance. In 1845 he composed the fugues for
piano and organ. These were followed by the C major symphony, 1846 ;
the opera Genoveva, and the music to Manfred, 1848 ; Das Spanische Lieder-

£3

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SlGNATUKEJ! OF RoBEIlT AND

(From the Collection

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IIUMAXN, AND MUSIC WRITTEN BY THEM.

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN.

1039

spiel, the requiem Mignon, and " Das Nachtlied," from Hebbel, 1849 ;
Faust, which was complete with the exception of the overture, which
followed three years after ; and the symphony in E flat major, 1850, and
The Pilgrimage of the Rose, 1851.

Fig. 273.— Clara Schumann.

In 1843 Schumann was appointed professor at the Leipzig- Conserva-
torium ; but after a concert tour with his wife through Russia he removed
to Dresden, in 1844. Here he founded a Choral Union, which still exists,
and bears his name. In 1850 Ferdinand Hiller, on leaving Diisseldorf in
order to accept the position of chapel-master at Cologne, recommended
Schumann for his late post of " Musik-Director." After two years of
activity in this capacity, a misunderstanding with the directors of the
Diisseldorf " Musikverein," in conjunction with the first symptoms of
his fatal malady, caused Schumann to resign the post. A concert tour

1040 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

through Holland, during which he and his wife received the most enthu-
siastic ovations, roused him for a short time from his melancholy. On his
return to Diisseldorf his malady increased alarmingly, and he attempted
to put an end to his life by throwing himself into the Rhine ; he was,
however, rescued, and removed to the establishment at Endenich, near
Bonn, where he died on July 29th, 1856. No tone-poet has been more
enthusiastic in the praise of woman than Robert Schumann : he was a
second " Frauenlob." This was acknowledged by the maidens of Bonn,
who, at his interment, filled the cemetery, and crowned the tomb with
innumerable garlands. In 1880 a monument by Donndorf, of Stutgardt,
on which was represented Schumann, accompanied by his wife as the muse
of music, was placed on the grave. We have already mentioned the
fact that Schumann possessed more than ordinary gifts as a critic. This
brings us back to the noteworthy fact that after Beethoven — that is, at
the close of the German Genius epoch — composers began to address the
public as litterateurs. Karl Maria von Weber was renowned as a critic,
humourist, and contributor to the Dresdener Abendzeitung ; Spohr was the
first musician to write an autobiography; as early as 1828 we find Berlioz
engaged as a critic on the Correspondent, the Courrier de I' Europe, and the
Revue Europeenne} the special champion of Beethoven, Spontini, and Karl
Maria von Weber. From 1834 we meet him engaged on the Journal des
Debats and the Gazette Musicale, and employing his spare time in other
literary work, of which we shall make mention anon. Schumann held the
same position in the literary world of Germany as that occupied by Berlioz
in France. Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner likewise exemplify the rule.
Wagner has gained reputation as a poet, and in his writings has far out-
stripped the poetical works of Weber and Berlioz.. Literary activity among
the Great Talents was the result of gift, and differed widely from that
of the host of semi-talents and talentless, who make use of this tendency
to cloak their lack of productive power in music ; members of this class have
even descended from concert composition to concert oration. In answer to
the argument that we find no litterateurs among the great masters, we can
only offer the proposition that the talents wield the pen in order to establish
firmly the principles of the Romantic school. Those talents in whom the
romantic was not the most prominent feature, never employed the pen as a
means of addressing the public ; and the little that is known of their private

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i,.

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&

FAC-SIMILE OF A LETTER FKOM SCHUMANN TO A YOUNG LADY.
15*

HONOURED MADAM,

My thanks for your co-operation in the " Peri," and especially for

the heartfelt delivery of the aria of the maiden. As I was unsuccessful in my endeavour to
find you after the performance the other day I could not express my thanks to you. Receive
them then now, and accept my good wishes for your future, which to you and yours, to whom
I beg to be kindly remembered, can only bring joy and happiness,

With much esteem,

Yours devotedly,

B. SCHUMANN.

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN. 1041

opinions has been gathered from their intimate correspondence. The in-
vestigation of the more profound reasons for the need of literary aid on
behalf of the steadily increasing- Romantic principles we shall reserve for
a later chapter. Schumann became a litterateur through his opposition
to many of the features of the musical world, but nowhere do we find him
claiming indulgence for extreme principles, or a leader of rebellion against
all pre-existing tenets.

As a composer, the storm and stress period of youth past, Schumann
might be designated a classic in the new Romantic school; as a critic
he never indulged in one-sided or unjustifiable arguments ; his pro-
positions can, even at the present day, be accepted with safety by
musicians of every party. The best testimony will be found in the
master's own words. There is an historical interest attached to his
explanation as to the reasons why he founded his opposition paper in
1834. " Towards the close of the year '33 there were a series of
meetings of young musicians, which in the first place were the result of
chance. The aim of these meetings was social communion, and this
soon included the mutual exchange of ideas on that art which was to
them the meat and drink of their life, music. It cannot be said that
the musical state of Germany at that period was enjoyable. On the
stage Rossini reigned supreme, on the piano almost exclusively Herz
and Hiinten, and yet it was but a few years since Beethoven, Karl
Maria von Weber, and Franz Schubert had lived among us. However,
the star of Mendelssohn was rising, and wonderful things were being
said of a Pole, by name Chopin. No lasting effect was, however, produced
until a much later period. One day an idea seized the young enthusiasts :
Met us not idly look on, let us act, that the poetry of art may one day
be honoured/ This gave rise to the Neue Zeitschrift fur Musik" The
following paragraph is still more important : " Our line of action is already
determined. It is simple ; this is it : to point to the past and its pro-
ductions, with emphasis ; to strongi}' demonstrate how, from such a source
only, new art-beauties can result ; to brand the latest period as inartistic,
having alone for its aim the elevation of mere virtuosity ; and, lastly, to
hasten a new period of poetry." Schumann wished to war against " three
arch-fiends — the talentless, the common talent, and the talented scribblers/''
Yet Schumann found later on that he had lighted on a superseded path,
o o o

1042 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

*

and that a critical journal by itself could neither found a new epoch in the
tonal art, nor call up new talents. Scarcely ten years elapsed before he
resigned the editorship, hoping- as a gifted artist to aid more powerfully by
his compositions than by his literary work. After this period it was only
on special request that he contributed minor articles. He broke this rule on
the occasion of his introduction of Brahms to the world, which he did in an
article entitled "New Paths/" as he found in the music of that composer much
that was in sympathy with his own nature, and many novel features. A very
important item in Schumann's literary work is his first reference to Chopin.
No one like Schumann has pointed to the importance of Chopin as the com-
poser of pianoforte music of a most poetical and refined character, and the
creator of a fresh feature in the new Romantic school. No one has exerted
himself with so much energy to gain for Chopin an appreciative reception,
in spite of the attacks of the Philistines, than the composer of the Peri.
Though we introduce Chopin into this chapter, which had been set apart for
the discussion of the great German talents, it must not be inferred that we
have any desire of claiming for Germany the possession of that composer.
Chopin's position is peculiar. He cannot be identified with the French
school, no Polish school existed in the first half of the nineteenth century
to which he could be affiliated, therefore we are only just in classing him
as a pianoforte composer with Mendelssohn and Schumann. Both masters
admired Chopin, and there are moments in the pianoforte works of Schu-
mann and Chopin in which the mental relation and mutual influence of
the composers cannot escape notice. It is worthy of note too that Chopin,
notwithstanding the number of monographs and notices in dictionaries of
biography, has, with the single exception of Brendel, received no notice
in the most important musical histories of the latter half of our century.
Arrey von Dommer closes his musical history with Beethoven ; and Am-
bros, who was a warm admirer of the works of Chopin, was prevented by
death from continuing his work beyond the life of Palestrina. Owing
to his descent from a French father and Polish mother, and the influence
exercised on him by the German school, Chopin may well be styled cos-
mopolitan.

Chopin was not only a highly-gifted musician, but possessed of a most
poetical anci refined nature. He has invested every form of pianoforte
composition employed by him, be it nocturne, polonaise, mazurka, or waltz,

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN. 1043

with exquisite pathos and charm, and may be said to be the creator of an
entirely new pianoforte style. Though the waltz was first raised from the
level of a common dance tune by Franz Schubert, in his " Valses Senti-
mentales/' Op. 50; "Valses Nobles/' Op. 77; and by Karl Maria von
Weber, in his " Invitation a la Danse ; " Chopin was the first to enrich
the art of music by forming a special genre of this class of music. His
productions were by no means intended to serve as mere dance music,
but rather as complete poems depicting the various emotions and sen-
timents engendered in the mind of the dancer. Just as Mendelssohn
raised the German "folk-song" into an art-song, so Chopin raised the
dance into an art-form, and the virtuoso salon music that found favour
with his predecessors into a form of composition possessing a distinctive
artistic character. He may be said to have infused for the first time
the genuine spirit of romance into pianoforte music, for it is only in the
works of Schubert and Field that we find isolated cases, which are still rarer
in the productions of Hummel and Moscheles. We find this feature inde-
pendent in Mendelssohn, whereas in Schumann's compositions it is without
Ndoubt due in part to the influence of Chopin. Indeed, as a pianoforte
composer, Schumann may be with justice placed 'at the side of the latter
contemporary, whose influence is seen directly in the works of Henselt,
Schulhoff, and Hermann Scholtz.

There is yet another feature in the new Romantic school of Germany
which is prominent in the compositions of Chopin ; we allude to the use
of the chromatic progression. This means of obtaining effect was but
rarely used by earlier masters, like Schubert, Wreber, and Marschner,
and then in order to express the presence of something strange, super-
natural, or demoniacal ; in the invention and working of their themes and
motivi they kept strictly to the diatonic. We only meet one exception to
this rule, in the person of Ludwig Spohr, who not only used the chromatic
progression without special purport, but even made it the basis of his
peculiar manner, which can be traced not only in his part-writing, but also
in the outline of his themes. If in Schubert and Weber the preference for
the diatonic element may be regarded as a testimony of vigorous mental
health, as, with the exception of Bach and Mozart (Don Giovanni), the chro-
matic element is but rarely found in the works of the heroes of the German
Genius epoch, and even the most powerful ideas of Beethoven are diatonic;
o o o 2

1044 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

the excessive use of the chromatic found in the works of Spohr, and even
to a greater extent in those of Chopin, may have a pathological signification.
The continued presence of an element like this in the creations of a master
cannot always be considered a fault. Art presents such a boundless field
that it allows the existence of a pathological character, sentimentality,
discordance, and even to a certain degree that which is baroque, adven-
turous, and fantastic, beside healthy vigour, the natural, the euphonic,
and the beautiful. The latter compared with the former phase is as the
first crop compared to the second, or the healthy open-air vegetation to
that reared in the hothouse, which is sickly and mean, commonplace, and
ugly; the latter, unless used for the purpose of contrast, should be ex-
cluded from the precincts of art ; whereas we can never fail to be charmed
by tenderness, longing reverie, and feminine sentiment. These last
qualities proclaim their presence in Chopin's works in the strong chro-
matic element, by which he not only bridges the space intervening
between the old and new Romantic school, but approaches nearer to
the head of the new Romantic school, Richard Wagner, than does any
other master.

T.he works of Chopin include two concertos for the piano in F minor
and F sharp minor, a pianoforte trio, and two sonatas for piano and violon-
cello, with many others. However great the beauty contained in parts of
these works, they fail to show the perfect mastery of the composer ; that
is reserved fop his smaller pianoforte works, including the polonaises,
mazurkas, valses, etudes, and the nocturne, which had been previously
dealt with poetically, but in more restricted proportions. The grand
symphonic development of instrumental music which had been applied to
the pianoforte concerto by Beethoven, Mozart, and Weber, and was con-
tinued by Mendelssohn and Schumann, was beyond the reach of Chopin,
for he lacks the power of organic development of themes, and strict
working out of motivi. His orchestration never rises beyond mere accom-
paniment ; and the same fault may be found with the string parts in his
chamber music. Chopin appears at his best in the smaller forms of
composition, such as his twelve polonaises, fifty-two mazurkas, twenty-
seven etudes, twenty-five preludes, nineteen nocturnes, thirteen waltzes,
five rondos, as well as in his " Funeral March/' and his compositions in
the form of the " Crakoviak/' " Bolero/' " Tarantella/' " Barcarole/'

FREDERIC CHOPIN.

Born 1st March, 1809, at Zelazowa Wola, near Warsaw; died 17th October, 1849,

in Paris.

(After an original Lithograph drawn from life.)

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND EGBERT SCHUMANN. 1045

and " Berceuse." Although not a perfect master of the symphonic form,
Chopin is successful in his impromptus, variations, balladen, fantasias, and
his scherzi, the form of which he has extended beyond the usual limits.
We must here not fail to point to the exquisite beauty and originality of
his sixteen Polish songs. Chopin's originality, which is inseparable from
his individuality — a, feature common to the talents of his period — renders
his works almost inimitable.

Frederic Fran9ois Chopin was born March 1st, 1809, near Warsaw, whence
his father, Nicholas Chopin, had removed from Nancy. The name of
his mother was Justina Kryzanowska. He received the earliest portion

of his musical education at the Warsaw Conservatorium, under the direc-

• '

tion of Joseph Eisner; and even as a child excited general admiration.
He visited Berlin in 1828, in company with the zoologist, Professor
Jarocki, who was on his way to attend a meeting under the presidency
of Humboldt. It was now that he wrote about Handel's Alexander's
Feast : " I confess I have been touched by Handel's Cdcilienfest. It
approaches nearest to the ideal which I carry in the depths of my soul/' A
year later he visited Vienna in the capacity of composer and virtuoso, per-
forming at the Karthnethor Theatre. From here he wrote : " I have been
leniently criticised by my compatriots here ; but what can I expect in a
city that boasts of having heard the performances of Haydn, Mozart, and
Beethoven?" The refined interpretation of his imaginative compositions was
not altogether appreciated in Vienna, for he writes : " There is but one
voice about my having played too softly, or rather too delicately, for the
public here. They are accustomed to the thumping of their pianoforte
virtuosi ; but that does not matter. As the case stands, I prefer to be told
that I played too delicately rather than too coarsely/' On his return
journey to Warsaw, Chopin was fortunate enough to be present at the per-
formance of Faust at Dresden, given on the occasion of Goethe's eightieth
birthday. Like a true poet, he had ever before him a female ideal, to
whom he addressed his inspirations. His first love was Constance Glad-
kowska. He wrote to his friend, Titus Woyciechowsky : " I have, perhaps
unfortunately, found my ideal. I have not, as yet, spoken a single syllable to
her, but for six months her image has been ever before me." In 1830 Glad-
kowska sang at the farewell concert ; and he wrote of her : " She has never
sung so well as to-night ; and in her white dress, her hair adorned with roses,

1046 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

she looked lovely." On his quitting Warsaw Chopin was presented by his
friends with a goblet filled with Polish earth ; and he was implored that,
wherever he might wander or reside, he would never forget Poland. At
the end of the year he again visited Vienna, whence he removed to Paris.
Schumann's enthusiasm was first excited by Chopin's variations on a theme
from Mozart's Don Giovanni, Op. 2. While in Paris the young master
met Liszt, Berlioz, Heine, Balzac, Meyerbeer, and Ernst, and afterwards
Mendelssohn and Hiller. Besides this friendly society, he entered the
aristocratic circle of the French capital. Prince Radziwill introduced him
at the soirees of Rothschild, where he soon became a great favourite ; and
indeed, before very long, he became the hero of every Parisian salon. The
master was helped into this position by the enthusiasm felt for the cause
of Poland, and the identification of his plaintive melodies with the sorrows
of his down-trodden fatherland. One of the composer's friends writes at
the period : " Chopin is at present the hero of the ladies, which causes
much jealousy among the men. He is all the rage. The fashionable
world will, before long, be wearing gloves a la Chopin" Every year
Chopin gave several seances musicales, to which it was very difficult to
gain admission. The entree was exceptionally high, as his patrons
wished to keep the concerts as exclusive as those in their own salons.
We may with justice assert that the refinement of his music might
partly be traced to his exclusive surroundings. The daughters of the
highest French and Polish families eagerly sought lessons from him. In
1835, passing through Leipzig, Chopin spent a day with Mendelssohn,
concerning which the latter wrote : " I was glad to be in the company
of a real musician, not one who is half virtuoso, half classic ; that is, not
a man who mingles les honneurs de la vertu et les plaisirs du vice, but
who has a decidedly settled object. However different may be our objects,
it makes no difference, but I cannot bear those half-hearted people." In
1836 a second visit to Leipzig brought Chopin into contact with Schu-
mann. We cannot fail to notice how our master was attracted by
Germany and German composers. Before his visit Chopin had been
affianced to Maria Wodzynska, a Polish lady of noble birth, but on his
return to Paris he found that she had broken faith, and was married to
a Polish nobleman. It was now that he formed an intimacy with the
novelist George Sand. During 1838 and 1839 they resided at Majorca,

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FAC-SIMILB OF No. 15 r CHOI
(from ihe Coll^iioiW HB»

CHOVIN'S 24 PRELUDES, Or. 28.
Hermann Scholt* at Dresden.)

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND EGBERT SCHUMANN. 1047

occupying- an uninhabited monastery. Of this George Sand says, in her
memoirs : " Our sojourn in the ruins of the monastery became agony to
Chopin, and a very difficult task for me ; a broken rose-leaf, the shadow of
a passing beetle, affected his shattered nerves. All he cared for was
myself and my children ; all else beneath the southern sky was painful
to him/' In the following year we find him at Nohant, her country
villa. Here her favourite occupation was to write while he improvised,
and to this she refers more than once in her novels. Moritz Karasowsky,
Chopin's biographer, attributes the rupture between them, which took
place in 1847, to the conduct of George Sand ; and it may be inferred
that it caused a rapid increase of the composer's malady, of which
he finally died after two lingering years. In the spring of 1849 he
rallied, and accepted engagements in London. The improvement in his
health proved to be, however, only temporary ; and the excitement of the
London season, and worry caused by a journey into Scotland, hastened his
death. On his return to Paris it was evident that his life could not be of
long duration. His knowledge o^; this fact was evident from his wish to
be buried beside Bellini. On the day previous to his death he begged the
Countess Potocka, who stood at his bedside, to sing something to him.
She complied by tearfully singing an Italian hymn to the Madonna, at
the conclusion of which he said, " Oh, Heaven ! how beautiful that is ;
sing it once more." On the 17th of October he died, after taking
affectionate leave of his friend Gutmann. His funeral was public, all
Paris taking part in it. The burial service was held in the Madelaine.
On the way to the church his " Funeral March," which had been pur-
posely scored, was performed, and the ceremony, according to his desire,
was concluded with Mozart's Requiem. Thus he was accompanied to the
grave by the tones of that master to whom he paid homage on his
first entrance into publicity. In front of the cortege the pall was borne
by Meyerbeer and Prince Adam von Czartoryski, and the" musicians
Franchomme and Gutmann, the celebrated painter Delacroix, and Alex-
ander Czartoryski. Chopin's grave at Pere la Chaise is situated between
those of his friends Bellini and Cherubini, for whom he felt a marked
respect. Amongst his lady-pupils Princess Czartoryska is undoubtedly
the best. On Jules Schulhoff, born at Prague in 1825, Chopin exercised
remarkable influence. It was through his inducement that Schulhoff, who

1048 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

had resided several years in Paris, made his first appearance in public. The
author considers that there is no such genial and characteristic pianist
as Schulhoff performing at present, and that Chopin's works are per-
formed either with too little s.pirit, or else with too much realism and
too many accents. Schulhoff possessed the grace and chivalric spirit so
prominent in the Polish character. We must reckon as one of the best
editions of Chopin's works that by Hermann Scholtz.

Before we take leave altogether of the three masters, Mendelssohn,
Chopin, and Schumann, who possess many features in common, we must
consider the position in which they stood with their musical contemporaries,
as that is the only manner in which we can gain a positive apprecia-
tion of their importance in the history of musical art. Mendelssohn is
the renovator of the oratorio, which assertion will b'e proved beyond all
doubt by reference to the sacred compositions of his immediate prede-
cessors and contemporaries. Before the St. Paul, Graun's oratorio The
Death of Jesus was regarded as an unsurpassable master-work in the
north of Germany, and especially at Berlin. It was the ideal of the innu-
merable cantors, organists, and musik-directors, who, as representatives of
the still existing Zopf, or the " Kapell-meister " music which had already
begun its existence, composed oratorios by the dozen, but never dared
compare their works with that of Graun. The immediate and most im-
portant predecessors of Mendelssohn in oratorio writing were Schneider
and Klein. Friedrich Schneider (1786—1853) wrote the WeUgericht,
Die Sundfluth, Das verlorene Paradies, Pharao, Gethsemane, and Golgotha.
These were considered models of this species of composition, and were
frequently heard at the German musical festivities at the period in which
.St. Paul was written. Though the Weltgericht contains much that is
sound and earnest, it has, like the other works of the same master,
vanished entirely from our churches and concert rooms, although less con-
ventional than his other works. Bernhard Klein (born at Cologne in
1793, died at Berlin in 1832) approaches nearer to Mendelssohn. Klein's
David contains much meritorious and fine writing, as do his Jephtha and
Job. These works display talent and not mere imitation, but they, with
those by Reissiger, also including an oratorio entitled David, as well as the
oratorios of Spohr, the most prominent contemporary of Mendelssohn, pale
before St. Paul and Elijah. We must, therefore, connect the works of

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN. 1049

Mendelssohn, for the sake of comparison, with those of his forerunners
Each and Handel. We have already given praise to Mendelssohn for his
resuscitation of the works of Bach. How well-deserved this was is clearly
seen when we remember that, even in Mozart's time, very little more was
known of Bach than his " Suites " and his " Forty-eight Preludes and
Fugues/'' Mozart found Bach's cantatas and motets, which he saw at
the house of his friend Doles, quite new. After his death, Bach's works
again fell into oblivion. The Passions had long been forgotten, his motets
and a few of his cantatas were occasionally performed at the Church of St.
Thomas at Leipzig, and in a few isolated cases at vocal academies. Men-
delssohn directed general attention to the greatness of Bach by his perform-
ances of the Passion of Si. Matthew, 1829, after more than half a century
of oblivion. The classical vocal unions referred to were that of St.
Cecilia, founded by Nepomuck Scheibler (1789 — 1837) at Frankfort- on -
the-Maine in the year 1819, and that at Breslau established in 1825 by
Johann Theodor Mosewius (1788 — 1858). Not only was Mendelssohn suc-
cessful in resuscitating Bach's vocal music, but he put an end to the organ
'Z°P/> an(i brought about the death of the meaningless " Kapell-meister "
fugue. In support of his endeavours Mendelssohn wrote six preludes and
fugues for piano, Op. 35 ; three organ fugues, Op. 37 ; and six sonatas for
the organ, Op. 65. Schumann aided in the same cause with four fugues
for piano, Op. 72 ; and six fugues for the organ, on the notes represented
by the letters contained in the name Bach. These works were permeated
with the spirit of Bach and Handel, and, whilst removing everything
meretricious, they infused into the orthodox forms the spirit of modern
thought. These praiseworthy efforts produced good effect on other com-
posers. It was under this influence that Alexander Klengel (1784 — 1852),
the court organist at Dresden, composed his excellent canons and fugues,
which were published after his death by Moritz Hauptmann. The same
might be said of J. Ch. H. Rinck (1770—1846), a disciple of Bach's pupil
Kittel, who became famous through his chorales ; R. Hesse, whose life
we have discussed in a former chapter; A. G. Ritter (1811 — 1885); and
Gustave Rebling, born 1821.

Mendelssohn also exerted his power on behalf of the quartett for male
voices, which form of composition had degenerated and become common-
place, though since the time of Karl Maria von Weber, the father of this

1050 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

form, Kreutzer, Methfessel, Marschner, Zollner, Julius Otto, Heinrieh
Dorn, and Abt have done some good work, yet most of the composition of
this form was of the most trivial kind. With the exception of his splendid
choruses to (Edipus and Antigone, Mendelssohn has written but few part-
songs for male voices, yet this small number not only gained great
popularity, but may be said to vie with those of Karl Maria von Weber,
and have done much towards reinstating this form of art-song. This
assertion will not surprise any who have heard, for instance, the " Am
fernen Horizonte." We are entitled to speak as strongly in favour of
Mendelssohn's composition for mixed choirs, which, as regards poetical
significance, Mendelssohn may be said to have re-created. His most gifted
follower in this branch of composition was undoubtedly Robert Schumann.
To gain a definite idea of the value of the songs of these two masters, we
must compare them with those of their contemporaries. Friedrich Silcher
(1789 — 1860), the senior of their contemporaries, whose songs were already
in vogue in the early days of Mendelssohn and Schumann, compares favour-
ably with Reichardt and Zelter. He was, however, more successful in
striking the taste of the public in such songs as " Aennchen von Tharau/'
' ( Morgen musz ich fort von hier," ts Ich hatt' einen Kameraden/" which,
even if failing to rise to the level of art-songs, possess imperishable
melody. In chronological order, Silcher is followed by Josef Dessauer,
born in 1798 at Prague, who, like the other composers of the period, wrote
operas, orchestral, choral, and chamber compositions, but owes his popularity
chiefly to his songs and romances, many of which became extremely
popular in France. The intellectual superiority of Dessauer^s accompani-
ments almost raises him to the level of Mendelssohn and Schumann. We
may almost say the same of Norbert Burgmliller (1803 — 1836), who has
left some excellent specimens of orchestral composition, chamber music, and
songs. Karl Friedrich Curschmann (1805 — 1841), a native of Berlin, was a
pupil of Spohr and Hauptmann. Many of his songs gained great popularity.
The next on the list is Heinrieh Proch (1809—1878), who is followed by
Friedrich Wilhelm Kiicken, born at Hanover in 1810. These two, like
Curschmann and Franz Abt, although popular, may be justly accused of
hypersentimentality, which at times approaches dangerously near to tri-
viality. Proch's " Alpen Horn/' and Kiicken's " Ach wenn du warst
mein eigen," enjoyed popularity for over twenty years. We must except

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN. 1051

Kiicken's " Ach, wie war's mb'glich dann/' which has become a folk-song
among the Thuringians. With a reference to Wilhelm Speier, born at
Frankfort-on-the-Maine in 1790 ; Hieronymus Friedrich Truhn, born in
1811 at Elbing; and Karl Banck, we close the list of song-writers who
enjoyed popularity in the time of Schumann and Mendelssohn. In favour
of Banck we may add that he aimed higher than most of his contem-
poraries, as may be seen in his setting of well-known poems, which give
proof of Schumann's influence.

Both Schumann and Mendelssohn stand out boldly as composers of
chamber and orchestral composition. In chamber music Schumann un-
doubtedly surpasses his contemporary, although Mendelssohn's octett for
strings and his quartett in E flat major rise above most works of the
same kind by his contemporaries. Though Schumann may excel in the
symphony, Mendelssohn is superior in the concert overture ; and if their
works are carefully examined, and their value duly weighed, their import-,
ance in the history of modern tonal art cannot fail to strike the student.
However clever may be the well-finished orchestral and chamber music of
Kalliwoda (1800—1866), Lindpaintner (1791—1856), Reissiger (1798-^
]859), Vincenz Lachner (1811), Onslow (1784—1852), Hummel (1/78—
1837), and others, none of them have, like Schumann and Mendelssohn,
approached so near to their great predecessors of the Genius epoch in
thematic treatment of poetical ideas. As the best works of Lindpaint-
ner and Reissiger, we quote the overtures to Faust and Felsenmiihle.
Kalliwoda's a Das Deutsche Lied " has been adopted as the national anthem
by the Germans in Austria. Mendelssohn and Schumann infused new
life into orchestral music. Chopin raised the waltz and mazurka from
simple folk-melodies to the level of art-productions, and Mendelssohn may
be said to have done the same in song. Nearly all the previous attempts
to achieve this may be recorded as failures. Weber and Silcher must, of
course, be excepted ; Reicliardt and Zelter may be said to have succeeded
occasionally; Strauss, Lanner, and Labitzky have produced works far
superior to those of our contemporary pianoforte composers, with the ex-
ception of Brahms, who possesses considerable artistic power, especially
apparent in his waltzes for four hands, with vocal accompaniment.
Schumann, Chopin, and Mendelssohn must be also regarded as the
renovators of modern pianoforte music, which — the works of Weber,

1052 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Hummel, and Moscheles excepted — had degenerated as much as the
other branches of the tonal art. This deterioration did not, however,
extend to the opera. The three musicians with whom we are dealing in
this section carefully eschewed programme music. Schumann's works of
this class belong to his early period; and during the epoch of his
greatness he carefully refrained from expressing more than the mere
title of his work. In their great symphonic works Mendelssohn and
Schumann have altogether ignored programmes, although Berlioz and
Liszt had adopted them, and Wagner had even supplied one for the ninth
symphony. Mendelssohn ridiculed the idea of attempting to supply
programmes to his songs without words; in Chopin's works we find no
traces of any programme. In this respect our composers were stricter
than the great masters of the Genius epoch. Of those masters Haydn
indulged to the greatest extent in musical painting ;-Tnext to him we must
place Beethoven, who employed programmes for several of his symphonies.
This ignoring of programme music is rendered still more remarkable by the
fact that the composers in question belong to the Romantic school. Many
modern romantic composers consider that instrumental music is incomplete
unless accompanied by a programme. The author suggests that in many
cases the programme is merely a cloak to conceal artistic incapability and
want of power in working in the classical art-form.

There are still more links of a mental and artistic relation between
Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Chopin ; for example, the feminine element
which we find in their being, their creation, and conception of the world.
This element is most prominent in Chopin. A special feature of these three
masters is the entire absence of envy. Chopin gave proof of this by his
enthusiasm for so dangerous a rival as Liszt ; Mendelssohn by his interest in
the works of Schumann and Gade ; Schumann by his respect for Mendelssohn
and Berlioz, and the extraordinary zeal which he displayed in smoothing
the way for Chopin and Brahms. A trait equally common to these com-
posers was their reverence for the classical composers and everything great
in art. Mendelssohn wrote to Taubert : " Is this lofty and unpleasant
manner, this bitter cynicism, as disagreeable to you as to me ? And do you
agree with me, that the first condition of an artist should be to bear respect
towards what is great, and to bow to it and acknowledge it, and not
attempt to extinguish great flames for the sake of making his own rush-

FELIX MENDELSSOHN AND ROBERT SCHUMANN. 1053

light burn more brightly ? " We gave a similar utterance of Schumann's
when giving the reasons for his founding the Neue Zeitschrift fur Musik.
Chopin's reverence for Mozart and Beethoven has been already referred to.
Party spirit was disagreeable to all three. Schumann was annoyed at
praise from the paper he had established, and the comparison drawn between
himself and Mendelssohn. Mendelssohn's letters prove positively his dis-
like for all musical clique ; Chopin, with his retiring nature, never took
any part in such matters. Our three masters may be said, briefly, to have
infused a new poetical spirit into all the forms of composition excepting the
opera, which had been for some time before fast degenerating.

THE INFLUENCE OF THE GERMAN GENIUS EPOCH ON ITALY AND

FRANCE.

E took leave of the most musically-gifted of the Latin races
in an earlier chapter, when noticing the decadence of their
music, which was owing to the influence exercised over
European art in the eighteenth century by the entrance
of the Zopf period. The sway of the Zopf was rendered
doubly potent from the fact of its emanating from the Italians, who claimed
seniority as a cultured nation. Notwithstanding the power exercised by
Scarlatti over the French school of music, and by Bernini and Borromini
over the architecture and sculpture of the period, the French nation intui-
tively formed an idiosyncratic artistic manner, which had been in existence
even during the period of the Baroque. This is especially noticeable in the
operas of Lully and Rameau, and the tragedies of contemporary writers.
Notwithstanding the generally pernicious influence of the Zopf, men of
talent existed in the eighteenth century who were enabled by their
individual power to stand out in bold relief from among the multitude of
their fellow-artists. On Italian music for piano and violin, either chamber
or orchestral, the Zopf exercised less power than on opera, oratorio, and
other sacred music. This is proved by the works of the celebrated violin
virtuosi and composers, such as Tartini (1692 — 1770) ; Locatelli (1693 —
1764) ; Sammartini (1700 — 1775), who, by his symphonies, overtures, and
chamber compositions, might be almost considered the forerunner of Joseph
Haydn ; Boccherini (1743 — 1805), who has composed much solid and
tasteful music for that period; Nardini, died 1793; Lolli, died 1802;
Pugnani, died 1803; Clementi (1752—1832); Viotti (1753—1824);
Valentini, who lived about the latter half of the eighteenth century;
and Sacchini, who has written many trios and sonatas. In France we

THE INFLUENCE OF THE GERMAN GENIUS EPOCH. 1055

meet with Leclair (1697—1764), Gavinies (1726—1800), and Duport.
Although the Zopf reigned supreme in Italy and France, these composers
were all more or less affected by the advancing stream of modern ideas
which were bringing about the maturity of the German Genius epoch.
If other nations could not escape the influence of Bach, Handel, Gluck,
Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, how much greater power must those
masters have exercised over the Italians and French, the most gifted of
their neighbours, especially when their music had become familiar to the
masses, and Germany added to its Genius epoch such a brilliant array of
talents as Schubert, Weber, Spohr, and Meyerbeer, for the influence of
Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Wagner had as yet not extended thus far.
Proof of this is found in the works of Cherubini, Spontini, Rossini
{Tell and Barbiere), and the followers of the Italian melodist. Among
the French it is exemplified by the works of Gretry, Mehul, Boieldieu,
Herold, Halevy, and rarely Auber, as well as a considerable number of
prominent masters who have added to the repertoire of French comic
opera during the last half of the eighteenth and first of the nineteenth
century. This genre of composition, notwithstanding the German influence,
contains all the French grace and finesse.

The influence of the Germans over the French and Italian music con-
tinues at the present day, and to such an extent, indeed, that both nations
imitate them in errors and in improvement. It will be remembered that
when the old French school of contrapuntists of Notre Dame, the Nether-
land school, and the Italians ruled the musical world in turn, the position
was reversed. The imitation by the French and Germans of the Italian
school, albeit the Italians were then in the midst of their Zopf period,
was attended with advantage. Such talents as Cherubini — who might
almost claim a place next to the six great masters of the Genius epoch
— or Spontini could never have existed without the influence of Haydn,
Mozart, Beethoven, or Gluck ; nor could the masters of the charming
comic Romantic French opera have perfected their purity of expression,
freed themselves from conventionality, and acquired such a mode of poly-
phonic treatment, had not they received aid from the German Genius and
Talent epochs that preceded them. There is no doubt but that a great part
of this charm is owing to the national character of the composers, but the
depth and dramatic spirit of the works are derived from the influence of the

1056 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

German school. As proofs of this statement we should mention Gretry's
Barbe Bleu, Mehul's Joseph, Boieldieu's Dame Blanche, and Herold's
Zampa. This influence was extended even to literature, and can be
traced in the works of Chateaubriand, Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas
(pere), Lamartine, Alfred De Vigny, Edgar Quinet, and George Sand — all
of whose writings show proof of the power of such books as Goethe's
"Faust/' "Werther," " Wilhelm Meister/' Schiller's •" Jeanne d'Arc "
and " Marie Stuart/' and the works of Jean Paul, Theodore Hoffmann,
and Heinrich Heine. In the same way we find that the works of the
French Romantic school of music are inspired by Mozart's Don Giovanni,
Weber's Freischutz and Oberon, Franz Schubert's songs and instrumental
music, by the symphonies and sonatas of Beethoven, and the works of
Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Wagner. The Romantic school of the French
does not only consist of comic opera, but also contains a number of works
by composers of instrumental, sacred, and romance music. The grand
French opera has yielded in part to the influence of the Romantic school,
and we shall deal with it in the following chapter with the comic opera, as
an interesting, important, and influential factor in the development of
dramatic music altogether. Auber and Halevy must be placed in the ranks
of the composers of comic opera, notwithstanding that their Masaniello,
Gustave III., and La Juive belong to the grand opera. Our reason for
acting thus is that the greater number of their works can be classed as
comic, and in them they exhibit that musical naivete and rhythmic melody
which form the greatest charm of the music of this genre.

CHAPTER XXXVI.

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS AND THE FRENCH COMIC ROMANTIC OPERA.

WE remarked, while treating of the German Genius epoch, that music,
after the period of the Reformation, and still more after the commence-
ment of the eighteenth century, was powerfully influenced by historical
events and by the march of learning. We intend in this chapter to
furnish most striking proof of this assertion. In a nation as excitable as

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS. 1057

the French, a reaction of historical events could not fail to find an outlet
in dramatic music. This is most natural, as the French possess a facility
for dramatic expression and a power of lapsing into the pathetic at will.
This talent for dramatic action is noticeable in the history of the nation,
for at times this tendency has affected the people as a whole, and has
caused many crises and violent catastrophes, none of which have altogether
lacked stage effect. Thus we find the French opera in the foreground of
their musical world, reflecting, as far as music is capable, every phase of
national, political, and mental existence. As the operas of Lully and
Rameau exemplify the French Renaissance in the reign of Louis XIV., so
the masters who succeeded the school of Lully represented a chivalric and
patriotic fidelity to the sovereign. The passions of the Revolution, and the
national principle which had travelled throughout Europe, found a place
in the realms of sound. In the middle of the eighteenth century we meet
with unpremeditated and primitive features in their art which express
what we should designate the soul and innermost kernel of French dramatic
music, being independent of external influences. If this music is credited
with being the head of the French tonal art, the other opera school which
deals with the inner life of the populace must be called the heart. , We
purposely employ the term school, as, where the Teutonic love of indivi-
dualising is prominent, which was the case in the Genius epoch, the Latin
races indulged involuntarily in forming schools. Of the above schools that
which represents the innermost life of the people is the national ; the other,
which absorbs political events, is international, although in its present form
it is only possible in France. With reference to the latter, we will consider
those dramatic masters who turned their power to the stage and seized on
political events, and whose field of choice consists of state events and
revolutions, and who make the stage the arena for pathos and heroism
under the title of " Le Grand Opera/' Although this species of composi-
tion is not without foreign influence, it can scarcely be considered less
the product of the national French mind than the comic romantic opera.
But the circumstance that the French possessed the power of attracting
foreigners to the country and rendering them serviceable to their art-cause
proves that the grand opera, as well as its sister form the comic romantic
opera, is the result of the gift of the French. There exists between the two
operas the essential difference that the comic romantic is entirely a French
p p p

1058 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

production in character ; indeed to such a degree that wherever the French
language is to be found spoken by individuals or peoples, it takes root firmly.
Gretry was born at Liege ; Isouard was the son of a French inhabitant of
Malta. The so-called grand opera may be designated the special product of
Paris, particularly as all the foreign composers of that form resided at the
time in the French capital. We find the most prominent French masters of
the modern grand opera, Auber and Halevy, at the side of the Italian
Rossini and the German Meyerbeer, the older grand French opera having
been fostered by Gluck, Spontini, and Cherubini. It may be said that the
foreigners — Spontini, Cherubini, Rossini, and Meyerbeer — have elevated
the special style of the grand French opera in a great degree, thereby
making it a standard to a greater extent than was accomplished by Auber
and Halevy. The name of the father of grand opera is in justice applic-
able to Spontini alone ; he, with his Vestale, preceded all the others and
established the classical model, the ideal of the new style. Auber with
Masaniello, Rossini with Tell, and Meyerbeer with the Huguenots, em-
ployed Spontini's style with a new and characteristic expression hitherto
unknown in musical art.

We must not ignore the fact that a grand opera could nowhere be put
on the stage to such perfection as in Paris, which city at that time was
far more cosmopolitan than at present. The opera comique, however,
nourished equally well throughout all France, and in every country where
the French language was spoken. A considerable difference exists between
the two operas owing to the fact that the grand opera was written for the
enjoyment of the wealthy, whereas the opera comique, the outcome of
the ancient pastorals or shepherd plays, ballads, and roundelays, addresses
itself to the people whose unvitiated taste leads them to recognise genuine
humour and naivete, and to distinguish the difference between heartfelt
music and empty phrase. The grand opera presents to the unbiassed observer
the review of two distinct periods differing entirely in character and style.
The first of these periods might be designated the " Period of the Com-
posers of the Great French Revolution and the succeeding Empire/' as the
grand opera continually reflects political and social events ; the second,
the " Period of the Restoration, July, and Forty-eight Revolution." The
composers of the former perbd are Cherubini, Gossec, Spontini, and Lesueur ;
those of the latter include Auber, Rossini, Meyerbeer, and Halevy.

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS. 1059

One of the earliest masters of the grand opera is Pierre Montan
Berton (pere), born at Paris in 1727. Berton profited by the traditions of
Lully and Rameau, which is proved by the great number of additions made
by him to the operas of those and other masters of that school. His
reverence for Gluck, in the performance of whose works he took the greatest
interest, when in 1755 he was appointed conductor of the Grand Opera,
prevents his classification with the school of Lully and Rameau, which
was antagonistic to the style of the composer of Armida. Berton is
instrumental in teaching us that the influence of Gluck, Cherubim, and
Spontini was necessary for the formation of that peculiar style which dis-
tinguishes the grand opera of the French. When Cherubini went to Paris
for the second time in 1788, in order to reside there, musical France was
under the influence of Gluck and Gretry; and the contest between the
partisans of Gluck and Piccini was at its climax. Although Italian by
birth, Cherubini did not side with Piccini. Gluck had revealed to Cherubini
an ideat world elevated in his idea above that of the Italian, and his serious
and conscientious character soon determined his choice. The ultimate result
of this decision was the production of Cherubini's immortal tragic opera
Medee, 1797. Although the grand opera is not so decisively typified in
Medee as in Spontini's Yestale, which appeared ten years later, yet it
exhibits features which that style still possesses. Among these peculiar
features we may enumerate the greater warmth and diversity of tone-
colouring, superior power and effect, wealth of harmonic changes, and
the splendid development of ensembles. In all these qualities, more par-
ticularly the last-named, Cherubim's works rise above those of Gluck,
and still more above those of Lully and Rameau. The declamatory style,
and superabundance of monologues, forbids the acknowledgment of their
music-dramas as the fully-developed grand opera. The pathetic operas
of Lully and Rameau have nothing in common with the grand opera
but the fact of their being serious. In respect to the music they differ
so materially from their successors that they seem to stand separate, for
Gluck neither followed the style of the old French nor of the Neapolitan
school. Throwing aside all conventionalism, he insisted on dramatic truth
and heartfelt expression.

Cherubini also composed a dramatic ballet, entitled Achille a Scyros,
and an opera, Die Abencerayen, of which we shall speak in a following
p p p 2

1060 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

chapter. The master is brought into close connection with the grand
French opera, owing to his pupils Auber and Halevy. He by no-
means disdained the opera comique, however, and contributed some of the
finest specimens of that form of composition. One of his best productions
is Les Deux Journees, which was performed in Paris in 1800, and which
occupies a position between the opera seria, such as Medee, and the opera
comique, as developed by G retry and Mehul. This work belongs to the
grand opera only on account of its ensembles, choruses, saudjinales, its plot
being that of an opera comique, the subject the horrors of the Revolu-
tion. In this work the composer shows his love of liberty and sympathy
with the people, though he was much opposed to the excesses which were
the result of revolt. In 1794 he was dragged from his house and paraded
about the streets by a band of sans culottes ruffians, who finally made him
provide music for the accompaniment of their orgies. The dislike felt by
Bonaparte for Cherubini was reciprocated by the composer. On the return
of the victorious Napoleon from his second campaign, the members of
the Conservatoire begged permission to perform a festival cantata and a
"Marche Funebre" composed by the master; the General took notice of
neither in his speech to Cherubini, but lavished praises on Zingarelli
and Paisiello as the greatest existing masters. Cherubini answered that
Paisiello might be accepted as possessing some merit, but that he could say
nought for Zingarelli, whereupon Bonaparte turned brusquely upon his heel,
and never forgot the master's candid utterance of opinion. The mutual
dislike referred to above was further made manifest when Napoleon was
created Dictator of the Republic. When receiving the masters of the
Conservatoire, the Consul exclaimed, " I do not see M. Cherubini/' Being
thus forced into the foreground, the composer could not avoid conversation,
and when the Dictator resumed his praises of Paisiello and Zingarelli, and
remarked to Citizen Cherubini that his music was too noisy, the composer
replied, " I suppose, Citizen Consul, that you only enjoy that music which
allows you to think without interruption over the affairs of State." In
1806 the master, disgusted with the condition of the empire, left Paris for
Vienna, where he was unlucky in encountering Napoleon, who had proceeded
to that city after his triumph at Austerlitz, and who remarked, " Since
you are here, M. Cherubini, we will indulge in some music." The com-
poser was forced to conduct several concerts at Schonbrunn, the summer

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS. ]961

palace of the Emperor of Austria, without receiving- any such reward as
had been lavished on Spontini, Lesueur, Paisiello, Zingarelli, and the
Bertons.

Fran9ois Joseph Gossec (1734 — 1829) was more ardent than Cherubim
in introducing incidents of the E/evolution into his grand operas. The
opera, however, was not so powerfully influenced by his works as it had
been by those of Cherubini and his distinguished foreign contem-
poraries whom we have already mentioned. Gossec, though not in-
fluenced by Lully and Rameau, may have written under the influence of
Gluck, which, however, could hardly have extended to Cherubini, who was
much younger. In the earlier composed choruses to Racine's Atlialie,
Rochefort's Electro, , the grand operas Sabinus, 1773, and Theseus, 1782,
the working-out of the music is more fully developed and richer in scoring
than the old French opera seria of Lully and Rameau. These features
are still more prominent in the cantatas and operas written during the
Revolution, which differ entirely from the conventional and traditional
style of Lully in effective and brilliantly-scored orchestration and the exhibi-
tion of occasional traits of genius. Gossec wrote fourteen minor works,
including hymns, "A la Raison/' " A la Divinite/' "A la Nature/' "A la
Liberte," "A FHumanite," "A 1'Egalite ; " a "Marche Religieuse," "Marc-lie
Victorieuse ; " and choruses in honour of Jean Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire,
and Mirabeau — all which compositions exhibit considerable grandeur of con-
ception. These works produced so great an effect that the composer was,
by order of the Directoire, styled the " First Composer of France." His
operas may be similarly criticised. The list includes La Reprise de Toulon,
1796, in which the " Marseillaise " is introduced with great effect. This
celebrated national song was composed by Rouget De Lisle, an engineer
captain, who wrote both words and music on the night of the 24th of April,
1792, at StrasLurg, entitling- it the "Chant du Combat de TArmee du
Rhin/' It obtained its present title owing to the fact that it was sung by
a battalion of volunteers from Marseilles on their entry into Paris in July.
Klopstock, the poet, remarked of De Lisle that with this song he had
caused the death of fifty thousand Germans. The remaining celebrated
works of this class are Le Camp de Grandpre, 1793, and Offrande a la
Patrie, 1792. We must credit Gossec with being the most important
French composer in the latter half of the eighteenth century. Philidor

1062 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

said of his funeral mass at Paris, in 1760, that it was so beautiful that
he would willingly have exchanged all his compositions for the honour
attached to such a work. We cannot fail to mention Gossec's " Te Deum/'
" O Salutaris Hostia," and De la Nativiie, 1780, an oratorio in which
there is a chorus of shepherds and angels, which excited the greatest admira-
tion. We shall refer again to this composer in a subsequent chapter on the
opera comique. During the Revolution Gossec was appointed musical
instructor to the National Guard of Paris, and must be regarded as instru-
mental in the foundation of the world-renowned Paris Conservatoire. This
institution owed its establishment to the lack of competent performers on
wood and brass instruments necessary for the army corps of the French
Republic. This led the Convention, in November, 1793, to start "Une
Ecole Nationale de Musique," which was amalgamated with the " Ecole
du Chant et du Declamation/'' established by the Baron de Breteuil, 1784.
The Convention determined on an annual allowance of two hundred and
forty thousand francs, and fixed the number of masters at one hundred and
fifteen, limiting the number of pupils, male and female, to six hundred.
Napoleon favoured the Conservatoire by increasing its income in 1803, and
in the autumn of 1812 by issuing a decree from Moscow that a number
of free scholarships should be established.

The last prominent composer of the period of the Revolution was
Montan Berton (fils), born at Paris in 1767. Berton was an ardent supporter
of the Revolution ; and under this influence he wrote Les Rigueurs du
Clottre, Le Nouveau, d'Assas, Viola, and Cynthee. During the Reign of
Terror Berton was proscribed, and, in consequence, his opinions changed
entirely ; the result being that he wrote an opera, entitled CJiarles II., in
which he favoured the doctrine of the Legitimists. When order was
restored in Paris, he turned his attention wholly to the opera comique, in
which he gained his greatest triumphs.

Immediately following the composers of the Revolution . we shall
deal with those of the Empire, who were for the most part contem-
poraries. The first of these is Gasparo Spontini (1774 — 1851), an
Italian by birth, who, like his predecessor of the Revolution, Cherubini,
rose far above the French composers of the period. No other composer
has succeeded in infusing into music the spirit of heroism and glory
which prompted the victorious exploits of Napoleon, in portrayal of which

AUTOGRAPH OF SPONTIKI.

23

T should be obliged if Signor Hauser would come this evening to the
Konigstadt Theatre to see and hear the singer Hanal, in order to tell me
whether she would be preferable, in grand roles, to D , as regards figure,

voice, and musical talent.

Yours devotedly,

Thursday, 30 June, SPOXTIXI.

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS. 1063

Spontini created a kind of artistic expression, the influence of which has
extended to the present day. When the composer first came to Paris he
brought several operas, written in Italy under the influence of the Neapolitan
school, the performance of which, however, caused little or no enthusiasm.
He had scarcely more success with his first French opera, entitled Julie. The
second, La Petite Maison, 1804, gave rise to a hitherto unheard-of scandal.
The ascendancy gained over the French, to the detriment of native com-
posers, by the Italians on the Paris opera stage, had long been a source of
continually increasing discontent among the musicians and the public. The
last-named opera, the libretto of which was of doubtful morality, displeased
the public, and their disapprobation being received with scorn by Elleviou,
one of the singers, they invaded the orchestra, stormed the stage, and
destroyed all within their reach, continuing the scene of disorder until
checked by the police and soldiery. It was not until after the production
of the one-act opera, Milton, at the Feydeau Theatre, and that of Julie, on
le Pot de Fleurs, which made its appearance, and was performed sixty times,
having been re-arranged by the composer in 1805, that Spontini gained
popularity. Two romances from these operas, " En vain je cherche a m'en
distraire," and " II a done fallu pour la gloire," were sung with enormous
success by the vocalist Desbordes, and were afterwards adopted by the
Vaudevilles. The hatred against the composer as a foreigner had by no
means subsided, and an oratorio written in 1807 was hissed to such an
extent by the young musicians of Paris as to prevent a continuation of the
performance. This year, however, was destined for his triumph over his
opponents. The Empress Josephine had already made him court composer,
and this, though at first supplying a cause for complaint at the precedency
of a foreigner, could not fail to have a beneficial effect. Josephine had
commissioned him in 1806 to write a cantata in honour of the victory at
Austerlitz. This was performed in Paris, and brought the composer under
the notice of the emperor, who, in spite of the opposition of the directors
and performers of the Grand Opera, ordered the representation of his
T~estale, the score of which had been previously submitted to the empress.
The libretto of this work, written by Jouy, had been submitted in turn to
Mehul, Boieldieu, and Cherubini, none of whom, however, accepted it.
Spontini found in it a congenial theme, and at once, according to Berlioz,
" seized on it like an eagle on its prey," the result being his most magnificent

1064 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

and imperishable work. In this production he has found an outlet for
an artistic representation of the heroism of the period. We defer the
description of the opera to a later chapter. Spontini's opponents intended
to oppose the opera as they had the oratorio, and had decided to create a
disturbance by laughing, yawning, snoring, and even putting on nightcaps
at the Finale of the second act. This coarse and childish design was frus-
trated by the effect produced by the overture and the succeeding pieces,
which were received with ever-growing enthusiasm. Henceforth the fame
of Spontini was firmly established in Paris, and the Vestale was destined
to become the model for composers of this genre. The Emperor Napoleon
rewarded Spontini with 10,000 francs from his privy purse, the same sum
being bestowed on him by the directors of the Conservatoire as the prize
which was presented every ten years to the composer of the best grand
opera. At the request of Napoleon, the master composed his second grand
opera, Ferdinand Cortez. This demand was prompted in part by diplomacy,
the emperor wishing to gain the sympathy of the French for the already
contemplated Spanish campaign, and the reputation of being a friend to
that country. The total failure of the Spanish campaign caused Napoleon
to take a violent dislike to the subject of the opera, and to prevent its pro-
duct ion by a decree. Spontini's third grand opera, Olympia, composed for
a Parisian audience, to which it was presented in 1819, did not meet with
success equal to that of its predecessors, the reason of which must be
sought in the fact that affairs in the French capital had undergone an
entire change, and Napoleon, who had been deposed by the Allied Powers
in 1815, had been for the past four years an exile at St. Helena. France
of the Restoration was happy in the enjoyment of peace, and had no
sympathy with Spontini's heroic strains ; the consequence being that that
composer retired to Berlin, where he accepted the position of chapel-
master.

Jean Franc, ois Lesueur (or Le Sueur), born near Abbeville in 1763,
also influenced the spirit dominant during the period of the Empire, though
as regards talent he stands far behind Spontini. Lesueur's grand operas,
Les Hardes and Le Mort d' Adam, being put aside in favour of Gatel's
Semiramis, the composer, who was of passionate temperament, made a
violent attack upon the masters of the Conservatoire, of which Catel
was one. This led to his expulsion from the post of inspector to that

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS. 1065

institution. Napoleon, who had heard Lesueur' s Paul et Virginie, La
Caverne, and Telemaque, and had been favourably impressed by them, ap-
pointed the composer court chapel-master in 180 4-, this position putting
him at the head of all the musicians at Paris. Bonaparte possessed
the gift of selecting those individuals likely to be of service to him, and
this, doubtless, was the reason for Lesueur's sudden supremacy over all
the aspirants for the post formerly occupied by Paisiello. The composer's
gratitude was boundless, and he immediately composed an effective, albeit
somewhat stagey mass, and a brilliantly-scored '• Te Deum/' intended
for the celebration of his protector's coronation as Emperor of the
French. Napoleon bestowed on his protege every mark of approval. After
the first performance of Les Bardes, in December, 1804, he presented
him with a gold snuff-box, on which was engraved " L'Empereur des
Francais au compositeur de 1'opera Les Bardes." The dramatic works
bearing the title of divertissements, such as L' Inauguration dn Temple de
la Victoire and Le Triomphe de Trajan, were intended to extol the fame
of the emperor. Although self - instructed, and therefore less strictly
schooled, Lesueur must be credited with being the first to introduce a full
orchestra as an accompaniment to the church music of the French capital,
an innovation that has done much to secure increased power and variety
of colour. Nor is his merit lessened by the fact that his sacred composi-
tions, are of somewhat superficial, worldly, and too dramatic a character.
These qualities can be observed in French sacred music dating from the
middle of the seventeenth century to the present time, though, previous to
that period, French composers must be honoured as the earliest teachers of
sacred counterpoint to all nations. The attacks of Lesueur's opponents
were directed less against the secular character of this sacred composition
than against the introduction of the entire orchestra, where formerly the
violoncelli and basses were only occasionally admitted, and the employment
of this orchestra for the purpose of tone-painting. It was in defence of
these innovations that Lesueur published, in 1787, his "Essai de Musique
Sacree " and " Expose d'une Musique Descriptive/' This composer may
be said to have prepared the way for the grand sacred works of Cherubim,
in which the prominence o£ the orchestra cannot fail to attract attention.
He died at Paris in 1837.

There are yet two names to be -added to this list, those of Loiseau de

1066 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Persuis (1769— 1819) and Rudolph Kreutzer (1766— 1831). The former
must be credited with having- gained great reputation as director of the Grand
Opera. Of his twenty dramatic works, that entitled Jerusalem Lelivree
was the only one that gained more than a succes d'estime. Of Kreutzer's
forty operas the Jeanne d'Arc alone was received with favour. We shall,
at a future period, discuss the instrumental works of this composer.

Our intention is now to deal with composers whose works may be
classed as forming the second period of the grand French opera. The first
of these is Daniel Franyois Esprit Auber, born at Caen, January 29th,
1782; died May 12th, 1870, at Paris. This composer must be recognised
as representing in his music the modern type of French opera, which reflects
in a striking manner the national French character. His father was an
officier des chasses, who excelled as violinist, vocalist, and painter; and
though at eleven years of age the lad already composed romances, ha sent
him to London, destined for a mercantile career. Young Auber returned
from England more than ever enamoured of music, notwithstanding the
commercial sphere in which he moved. In 1812 he composed an operetta,
entitled Julie, which, notwithstanding its dilettante character, attracted 'the
at'ention of Cheiubini, who happened to be present, to such a degree that
he undertook the supervision of the young composer's musical studies. In
1813, after a course of instruction in composition and instrumentation,
Auber began the production of comic operas, which followed one another
in quick succession. What this genre of composition owes to him we shall
see in a subsequent chapter. Here we must deal with him as one of the
most prominent masters of the grand French opera, who materially assisted
in the foundation of the second period of its development. This assertion
will at first be surprising when it is remembered that amongst his fifty operas
there are but two which belong strictly to the grand opera, the majority
being of that species known as the " comic romantic opera/' Amongst the
latter we may enumerate at most three which may be said to partake of
the nature of both species of opera. His Masaniello must be accepted
as commencing the most important period in the history of the grand
French opera. Cherubim and Spontini, following the school of Gluck,
had laid the foundations and reared the edifice of the former period of
grand opera, of which the more prominent works were marked with the
sublime grandeur of the antique, Spontini introducing in this style the

D. F. E. AUBER.
Born 29th January, 1784, at Caen; died 12th May, 1871, at Paris.

35

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS. 1067

triumphs of the hero of his age. The productions of the second period
not only include this epic grandeur, but in addition to it we find the por-
trayal of the characteristic features of the surroundings, the impressions
produced by the character of the landscape, the popular song and dance.
This had already been attempted by Spontini, who in his Cortez not only
expresses the national character of the Spaniards and Mexicans, but also the
effects of a tropical climate, and the peculiar religious dances. In Ipldgenie
en Tauride Gluck portrays the national characteristics of the Greeks
and Scythians, the storm on the inhospitable rocks of Tauris, and the
rhythmic dance of Scythian warriors, the result being a remarkably powerful
specimen of musical painting — a foundation for the future productions
of the French composer. The essays of Gluck and Spontini were not of
sufficiently frequent occurrence to form a typical feature of their operas,
whereas the latter period of the grand opera exhibits as a peculiar character-
istic the attachment to a modern historical epoch, a particular locality and
nationality. Consequently, the modern grand opera claims more sympathy
from the public than did that of the former period ; and this sympathy is
strengthened by the fact that, in addition to the peculiar characteristics
mentioned above, the works of this epoch are pervaded by a breath of
romance. This feature was noticeable before Auber in the French comic
operas, more particularly in those of Boieldieu. The false and happily super-
seded idea that the grand French opera of the modern period lacks all
na'ivete and purity of style, should be carefully repulsed. This notion can
be entertained only by one who possesses no historical knowledge, whose
ideas are merely superficial, and whose objectivity has vanished and given
place to mere subjective contemplation. The grand opera was undeniably
forced to employ increased orchestral, scenic, and decorative means to
effectively express the extended range of subject caused by the advance-
ment of the period. The opponent of this genre of dramatic composi-
tion, that is, the supporter of the modern grand romantic opera, is by no
means backward in availing himself of increased and unusual scenic effect
and the support afforded by an augmented orchestra. But as to the
charge brought against the grand opera, that it lacks purity of style and
that its composers are artistically degenerate, we can only say that a school
which regards all traditional forms of art as antiquated and as mere obstacles
to the flight of genius, can only find the " purity of style," which it desires,

1068 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

in the union of the dramatic and musical elements presented by a
musical drama or opera. This faultless unity is found in a greater
degree in Der Freischutz, Oberon, Euryanthe, Lohengrin, and Lie Meister-
singer, than in Medee, Vestale, Cortez, Olytnpia, Masaniello, William
Tell, Huguenots, and Norma. These latter are compositions which for
nearly half a century have maintained their positions on the stages of
nearly all civilised nations, and have proved to every satisfaction that they
are not children of fashion. Notwithstanding the beauties of both species
of composition, neither represents the perfect form of musical drama. This
ideal is represented by Orpheus, Alceste, Armide, Iphigenie, Don Giovanni,
Figaro, Magic Flute, Fidelio, Wassertrdger, and Joseph in Egypt. These
works cannot be quoted as belonging entirely to the classic, romantic,
tragic, comic, or heroic style ; neither can they be expressed by the term
genre : they include and express every sentiment, and may be taken without
fear as the ideal of human perfection. Time and place can never affect
these productions ; no future period of development can lessen their value ;
they are objective in character, and, therefore, eternal. Should not this
lead the partisans of the grand romantic operas to a more just judgment of
the respective worth of the works they admire ? All that is strained or exag-
gerated, partial or exclusive, should be carefully shut out from the realms of
art. Instances of these faults occur in the grand and romantic operas alike.
As a proof that the grand French opera is not the result of calculation
and meretricious striving for effect, as has been asserted, we will quote
Auber's Masaniello, which is undoubtedly the creation of an ingenious and
unfettered imagination. The music of this opera, the plot of which is
founded on the revolt of the Neapolitans, proclaims its origin from a
most gifted Frenchmen by its intelligible and charming rhythm, its popular
themes and melodies the bold expression of which occasionally bears re-
semblance to the " Marseillaise," its extreme correctness of declamation,
and its natural and unrestrained pathos. The interest is riveted by
the vigorous and pleasing expression which pervades the entire work;
and notwithstanding the tragic Finale, in no instance does the work
become laboured and dull, a remark not applying equally to all French
operas. While attracted by the ever-flowing imagination displayed in the
work, we are surprised by the rich harmony, development, novel instru-
mentation, and local colouring. The composer's idea of supplying the

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS.

10C9

speech of the dumb girl by means of the orchestra is so perfectly executed,
that her every gesture is explained with a precision almost verbal. We
know of no master who has succeeded in painting in music the beauties
of Italy with a character equal to that obtained by Auber, who, though
the most national of all French composers of the first half of the rineteenth

Fig. 274.— J. F. E. Halevy.

century, has achieved what has been attempted with but moderate success
by many Italians. How striking are the parting between the brother
and sister in the second act, the scene in the market, and the prayer
oefore the battle. And how greatly is the effect heightened by the intro-
duction of the Barcarole and Tarantella, the national character of which
has been caught by Auber in a manner more successful than that of any
other composer.

The influence of this work, which was first performed in 1828, can be

1070 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

clearly traced in Rossini's Tell, which appeared in the following year,
Halevy's Juive, produced in 1835, and Meyerbeer's Huguenots. Rossini's
Siege de Corinthe and Mo'ise, given in 1826—7, have vanished from the stage,
owing to fcheir want of the influence of the new style, having been com-
posed before the appearance of Masaniello. Tell, on the contrary, owes
its present vitality to the fact of its production taking place after that of
Auber's grand work. Meyerbeer's Robert le Diable, though not performed
until three years later than Masaniello, owes its freedom from the influence
of the latter work to the fact that its subject and style belong not to the
grand but to the romantic opera. In this respect its musical and historical
position is due to the introduction into French musical art of the mannerism
and strained romance of such German poets as T. A. Hoffmann and Arnim.
The innovation of this species of poetry is continued in the works of
Victor Hugo and Alexandre Dumas (pere). It was this affinity of Robert
le Diable to the peculiarities of the then most celebrated poets of France
that caused its unprecedented success, which was aided considerably by the
evident German spirit pervading it, and the numerous concessions made
in the score to French musical taste. These items wero important factors
in increasing the interest taken by the French for a considerable period in
the romantic school of German music and poetry. Meyerbeer's Robert le
Diable may thus be considered in the light of a mediator between the
mental streams of two great nations, which, if considered without prejudice,
fulfil a most important mission in the history of the art. Not only the
music of Masaniello, but the plot and the mode of treatment, influenced the
works of the masters belonging to the second era of the grand opera ; thus
Tell, I/a Juive, and the Huguenots, in which we find portrayed the principal
incidents of great revolutionary movements belonging for the most part
to modern history, admit of a greater variety of musical form and instru-
mental colouring than do the simple subjects on which antique operas
are founded, such as Medee, La Vestale, and Olympia, which allow only
that grandeur of simplicity which characterises the first period of the grand
French opera. Rossini succeeds no less completely in Tell in representing in
music the character of the Swiss and their surroundings, than does Auber
in portraying the beauties of the Bay of Naples and the fiery temperament
of the inhabitants of its shores. Both works treat in the same manner
of social and political, religious or national contests, represented alike by

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS 1071

individuals and masses. These struggles partake of an ideal as well as a
real nature, and afford ample scope for musical expression. Such contests as
these are represented in Masaniello by the revolt of the fishermen against
the oppression of the aristocracy; in Tell, by the efforts of the Swiss to
cast off the Austrian yoke; in La Juive, by the ancient hatred existing
between Jew and Gentile ; whilst the Huguenots and the Prophete represent
the horrors resulting from religious fanaticism. The preference of the
composers belonging to the latter period of the grand opera for revolu-
tionary themes must not be confounded with that entertained by the
masters who composed during the earlier portion of the first period, whom
we have styled the composers of the French Revolution. These masters
recorded their impressions of the circumstances surrounding the period in
which they lived. They were, therefore, restricted to the same country,
nationality, and epoch. The composers of the second period of the grand
opera only selected , the events of past historical periods, whether of
national, political, or sectarian import, and were therefore enabled to
express their impressions in a manner far more objective than that of their
predecessors, who were induced through their sufferings to record subjec-
tively passing events. Notwithstanding the recognition of this difference
of surroundings, the earlier masters could not compete either as regards
talent or musical skill with the composers of the latter era. Auber's
Masaniello possesses a double interest, as it not only recorded but even
foreshadowed historical events. Spontini's Cortez and Rossini's Tell were
but the musical echoes of history ; as also were Mozart's M*igic Flute,
which reflected the humanity and tolerance springing- out of the period of
Joseph II., and Spontini's Vestale, which celebrated the French Consulate.
Masaniello proved the harbinger of the July Revolution, which produced
a tremor throughout Europe. Only a few weeks later this opera was
the signal for a general rising of the townspeople of Brussels, who, on
the 25th of August, 1830, leaving the theatre, hastened to attack the
Dutch authorities, and thus began the movement which ended in the forced
separation of Belgium from Holland which followed a year later. Auber's
second grand opera is his Gustavus III., or The Masked Ball, which was
performed in 1833 ; and although in freshness of invention and dramatic
power it does not approach its predecessor, it is still not unworthy of
notice. The character of the page is a creditable conception, musically

1072 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

considered, and the remainder of the work does not lack moments of happy
inspiration.

A truly grand work is Rossini's William Tell, which immediately
followed Auber's masterpiece. The composer of this opera was so struck by
the dramatic superiority of the French operas which he heard in Paris while
on his way to fulfil important engagements in London, that he determined
to make the French capital his home. This resolution was carried out on his
return, and he accepted the direction of the Italian opera in Paris, a post
occupied formerly by Paer. His inability to control the finances of the
company caused him to resign this position after an experiment of eighteen
months' duration. In order to retain him in Paris, however, he was ap-
pointed {( Premier Compositeur du Roi et Inspecteur General du Chant en
France," an engagement which produced 20,000 francs per annum. He
now wrote an opera, II Viaggio di Reims, ossia V Alb ergo del giglio d'oro,
to celebrate the coronation of King Charles X. The best portions of
this work were afterwards embodied in an opera entitled Le Comte Ory.
The master reconstructed two other operas : the Maometto IT. was embodied
in the Siege de Corinthe, and the Mose was reproduced as Mo'ise. These
works both show the composer's determination to suit his music to the
taste of a French audience, and his keen perception of the leading charac-
teristics of the operas in vogue during the early period of the grand opera.
But it was not until influenced by Auber that the great Italian maestro
exhibited the full power of his latent gift. The foreign yoke under which
his native country lay oppressed was brought vividly to his memory by the
work of the great French master. Under this impression he wrote his
William Tell, the revolutionary character of which for a long time caused
its prohibition in Vienna, where it at last gained admission under the title
of Andreas Hofer. When we consider Rossini's earlier serious operas, such
as Semir amide, Otello} and Tancredi, we cannot fail to see in William Tell
that the man and the artist had undergone an entire transformation. This
result cannot be assigned exclusively to French influence; in his earlier
years the composer was an ardent admirer of the works of Haydn and
Mozart, and their power can be traced throughout his Tell and Barber oj
Seville. Even the influence of Gluck, Cherubiui, and Spontini would not
be sufficient to account entirely for this change. We cannot but ascribe it
to the power exercised over the master by Karl Maria von Weber, whose

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS. 1073

Freischiitz and Euryantke had considerably lessened Rossini's supremacy on
(.lie German operatic stage. The influence of the last-named operas on
Rossini was increased by a personal meeting- of the two masters, on Weber's
passing through Paris while repairing to London. Rossini began to occupy
himself seriously with Tell in the winter of 1826—27, but a little while
before all Europe lamented the loss of Weber, who died in the English
metropolis at an early age. The maestro was weary of the mere melody and
effect of the operas exclusively written for the exhibition of the vocalists'
skill. He was fired by artistic ambition, and the fame of his operas begin-
ning to wane in France and Germany, he determined to convince the public
that he required energetic resolution alone to make for himself a position
among the greatest dramatic composers. The lax and almost mechanical
method of composition into which he had fallen after the production of II
Barbiere yielded to a serious power, which was shown in Tell, to the
surprise of the whole civilised world. In this work Rossini embodied the
musical spirit of three nations, but fused so thoroughly the German depth,
French esprit, and Italian grace into one artistic whole, that in no case can
we perceive any one of these qualities standing in isolation. The distant
horns announcing Gessler, the Swiss hunting chorus, the march in C major
in the first act, and Matilda's romance in the second, could not have existed
without Weber's hunting choruses, the peasants' march in Der FreiscJmtz,
and the aria of Agatha; nor could the music descriptive of the storms
have found birth without Beethoven's pastoral symphony and Auber's
musical creations; whilst Gluck, Spontini, and Auber inspired the grand
recitative.

All these items are welded into perfect unity with an ingenuity never
before exhibited ; for although Meyerbeer's Huguenots approaches closely to
Tell in this respect, that master shows the restraint under, and the
power of will by which he achieves this result, whereas in Tell we cannot
ascribe the effect to aught but inspiration. In this work Rossini forsook
the past, and with it the slight and merely mechanical part-writing into
which he fell after his enormous success with the Barbiere, and adopted in
the ensembles a form truly classical. Nowhere do we find a superfluity of
sensuous effect. Having referred to the Huguenots as the next work of
the grand opera in order of merit, we have here but to add that in this
work Meyerbeer follows the grand opera school, inasmuch as he adopts

1074 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

the style of Gluck and Spontini, and the power of expression developed by
Auber and Rossini. In choice of subject he follows the school of the
second period. Meyerbeer's German origin is pointed to more prominently
in the Huguenots than in Robert le Diable, by the more developed and
intellectual polyphony of his orchestra and ensembles, the greater harmonic
richness of the score, the vigorous structure of the finales to the second
and third acts ; while the conspirators' scene in the fourth act is superior to
similar scenes in Tell. Two very important items in the work are the
employment of Luther's hymn and the effective septet in E major. In
the Prophete Meyerbeer has made very many concessions to the prevailing
taste of the Parisians of the period, in the shape of forced stage effects and
a musical olla podrida. According to Heine, Ferdinand Hiller, seeing a
conversation imminent on Meyerbeer's Prophete, then about to be produced,
sarcastically remarked, " Gentlemen, let us avoid politics." L'Africaine,
also composed for the Paris Grand Opera, though far more decided in
character, and containing many instances of beauty, more especially in the
third and fourth acts, must be considered as showing evident proofs of the
degeneration of the master's work. Meyerbeer's Huguenots, Auber's
Masaniello, and Rossini's Tell form a triad which stands out in bold relief
from among the many works belonging to the second era of the grand
opera. Between this trio and the Juive of Halevy, which is next in order
of merit, there exists a considerable interval. Although art admits of
many degrees of excellence, a glance will be sufficient to impress us with
the fact that, important as is Halevy in the history of French comic opera,
his productions belonging to the school of the grand opera can bear no
comparison with those of Meyerbeer, Auber, or Rossini. Halevy's best
works written for the latter school, such as La Juive, 1835, Guido et
Genevra, 1838, and La Reine de Chypre, 1841, cannot, however, be placed
on as low a level as the works of Gossec and Lesueur, whose operas obtained
but a transient success, and were forgotten even before the death of the
composers. The incomparably higher merit of La Juive is proved by its
existence, accompanied with undiminished success, for half a century upon
all important European stages. Halevy attempted in the Juive to portray
musically the aspect of religious fanaticism, and thus aided in preparing
the way for Meyerbeer, who a year later, in the Huguenots, exceeded by
far the essay of his predecessor. We must bear in mind that Spontini

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS. 1075

had preceded Halevy by twenty-six years in depicting religious frenzy in
the choruses and dances of the Mexicans in Cortex . Spohr, in 1823,
had portrayed in Jessonda the philosophical placidity of the Brahmins,
whilst Marschner, in 1829, had musically painted the religious sentiment
of the Jewess in IvanJioe. Meyerbeer has succeeded to a greater degree of
perfection than did any of his predecessors in expressing in musical colouring
the bigoted rage and blind madness of the fanatical Roman Catholics.

Jacques Fromental Elie Halevy was born at Paris in 1799. He was a
favourite pupil of Cherubini, under whose direction he studied counterpoint
and composition. In 1819 his cantata, Herminia, gained for him the Prix
de Rome. He immediately adjourned to Rome, where he ardently studied
the works of the Italian sacred writers under the tuition of Baini. Before
returning to the French capital he resided in Vienna for a year (1822-3), the
Austrian capital then being the centre of musical study in Germany. It
is said that during this visit Halevy made the acquaintance of Beethoven.
We see in La Juive not only the result of serious self-criticism and great
industry, but moments of passionate feeling and tender expression, evincing
proof of remarkable dramatic gift. Instances of this occur in the second
and fourth acts. Although in the works of Halevy traces of the influence
of Meyerbeer's Robert le Diable and the Huguenots are undeniable, these
works have in no great degree affected the master's individuality, as ex-
hibited in his grand operas, and still less in the comic operas with which
he gained such great success. Besides the grand operas already named,
Halevy wrote Charles VI., 1843, La Magicienne, and Le Juif Errant.
These do not approach La Juive in merit, and do not even equal Guido et
Genevra and La Reine de Chypre* In the three former operas Halevy
i ndulges to a greater extent in a propensity for strained melody and forced
and glaring contrast. Notwithstanding this, he appears as the last promi-
nent talent among the composers of the grand French opera, as not one of
his successors can bear comparison with him. He died at Nice in 1862.
A talent, however, has recently developed in the French opera school. We
refer to Massenet, of whom we shall speak in a future chapter. As a reason
for not mentioning Gounod's Faust, we must state that in company with
Meyerbeer's Robert le Diable we class it as one of the comic romantic operas.

The grand French opera has obtained a rich harvest from the foreigners,
who, from contemporaries of Halevy, have continued to the present time.

1076 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Of the productions of the Italians who figure amongst them, we will only
quote the Puritani and Nor ma of Bellini ; Belisario and La Favoriia
of Donizetti ; II Giuramento, by Mercadante ; Don Carlos, Rigoletto,
and II Trovatore, by Verdi. Those of the Germans include Ivanhoe, by
Marschner ; Jessonda, by Spohr ; Catarina Cornaro, by Lachner ; La Reine
de Saba, by Goldmark. Of these works we have already made mention, or
shall do so in a following chapter. With the exception of the German
operas, most of the works we have just mentioned were composed to French
libretti, and intended either for performance at the Grand Opera or the
Opera Italien.

We cannot leave the subject of the grand opera without mentioning
two of their most celebrated tenors — Adolphe Nourrit, born in 1802, and
Louis Duprez, born in 1806. These vocalists were both natives of Paris.
The latter possessed the renowned " ut de poitrine/' Nourrit made his
debut in 1821 as Pylades in Gluck's Ipliigenie in Tauride, and excelled
as Arnold in Tell, Robert in Meyerbeer's opera, Eleazer in La Juive,
and Raoul in Les Huguenots. Duprez was equally renowned in the same
parts.

In turning to the French comic opera, which sprang from the fading
school of Lully and Rameau, we must go back from the nineteenth century
to the middle of the eighteenth. We divided the history of the grand
opera into two different periods, according to their characteristics; the
comic romantic opera we will separate into three distinct periods. The
first, which extends from Philidor and Monsigny to Gaveaux and Jardin,
was preceded by a few dramatic creations, which may be considered as
forerunners of the artistic movement which raised the primitive folk-
theatre to the song-play stage. Such precursors, although mostly con-
ceived in a different mood and style, we meet with in the comic operas
of Rameau, and especially in the Devin du Village. For it will readily
be admitted that the French operetta and the modern comic and comic
romantic opera are not direct descendants of Adam de la Hale, King Thibaut
de Navarre, or Guillaume de Maschaud, of the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries, nor of the ballads, ballets, rondeaux, and song-plays of the
species of Li Jus de Robin et Marion. These primitive musical dramatic
or half -danced pantomimic attempts, which graced the old French stage,
can scarcely claim anything in common with the operas composed during

THE GEAND OPERA OF PARIS. 1077

the eighteenth century by Duni, Monsigny, Dalayrac, and Desaides, which
show the novelty of their species by their decided form. At most the only
existing link would be their leaning to modern -tonality and their pastoral
subjects, which features are occasionally to be found in the works of the first
period of the modern comic opera. The later masters employed the poly-
phonic method for their song-stage compositions, which have no relation,
even in subject-matter, style, or musical form, to the present comic opera,
into which the earliest composers introduced solos, and whose folk-songs,
' chanson, and rondeaux were rendered by soloists to a soft orchestral
accompaniment. History records but the most meagre items of the five
centuries which elapsed between the old French pastorale and the operetta.

The French Opera Comique, which sprang up in the middle of the
eighteenth century, and which, for reasons we shall state hereafter, we
prefer to call the comic romantic opera, is essentially French, and differs
as widely from the Italian opera buff a as from the German Sing spiel;
whereas in the opera buffa the recitativo-parlante is employed, in the
comic romantic opera dialogue alone is used. The emotional element
contained in the libretto of the comic opera is more often wanting in that
of the opera buffa, and lastly the French chanson is entirely different from
the Italian aria. This chanson is, to a certain degree, related to the lied
of the older German song-play, which is also totally distinct from the aria,
but is more fully developed as regards musical form, which fact would be
clearly established by a careful comparison of the works of Monsigny
(1729—1817) and those of J. A. Hiller (1728—1804).

The first composer of this new species of opera is Francois Andre
Darnican Philidor, born at Dreux in 1726, died in London in 1795. His
predecessors in comic opera writing, the elder Philidor and the Neapolitan
Duni (1709 — 1775), who wrote French comic opera for representation in
Paris, lack the peculiarities which distinguish his work. Francois Philidor
commenced his career as an operatic composer by writing one-act operas, all
< .£ which were stamped with the characteristics of the genuine comic opera.
The list of these works include Blaise le Savetier, 1759; L'Huttre et les
Plaideurs ; Le Quiproquo ; Le Soldat Magicien, 1760; Le Jardinier et son
Seigneur, 1761. The two last-named works and his two-act operas, Le
Marechal Ferand, and Le Sorcier, 1764, gained for him the favour of
the Parisian public, giving him a position in the history of music which

1078 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

for several decades had a decided influence upon his successors. Of his
lighter operas we must enumerate Sancho Panga, Le Bucheron, Les Trots
Sou/i aits, and Tom Jones. Like his contemporary, Berton (pere), Philidor
is one of the first composers of the grand opera. Amongst his works of
this class we must draw attention to his Ernelinde, or Princess de Norwege,
1767; Persee, 1780; Themistocle, 1786; and Belizaire, 1795. As he is
much less important in connection with the grand than the comic opera,
we have with justice placed him in the foreground in this chapter. The
works of Philidor go far to prove the theory which we have submitted
elsewhere, viz., that what is understood to-day by the " grand opera,"
differs greatly from the opera seria of Lully and Rameau, and that its
birth is contemporaneous with that of the French comic opera, whose
bourgeois character has nothing in common with the mythological characters
inseparable from the mask plays of Lully, nor with the pedantic comic
operas of Rameau.

With the upgrowth of the two new species of opera, we have to notice
a remarkable feature, which had never occurred before the commencement
of the late era. We refer to the frequent composition of both styles of
opera by one master. When this had been the case in the earlier period, it
was confined entirely to the writing of Intremedes and Comedies-Ballets,
which exhibit nothing in common with the real French operetta. An
incident, not without interest, in the life of Philidor, was his success in the
chess tournament held at London, the enormous prize which he obtained
on that occasion forming a large part of his fortune. Berlioz accuses this
master of having taken his aria of the Sorcier from Gluck's Orpheus.
Fetis vehemently defends him from this charge. We agree with the
latter, that a master who has given proof of such fertility of invention
could have well dispensed with any extraneous assistance, and that cases of
unintentional reproduction are of such frequent occurrence in the works of
greater masters that we might even defend him on this score alone.

We find a contemporary of Philidor in Pierre Alexandra Monsigny, who
became tutor to the Duke of Orleans. Monsigny was born near St. Omer
in 1729, and died at Paris in 1817. He was first led to the composition of
comic opera by Pergolesi's Serva Padrona. At a later period, however, he
adopted the style of Philidor. Amongst his sixteen operas and panto-
mimic ballets, his comic operas, Rose et Colas, 1764, Le Deserteur, 1769,

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS. 1079

and Felix, ou V Enfant Trouve, were the most successful, and gained him
great renown. His reputation was based more on his natural musical
and dramatic talent than on a profound knowledge of the theory of his art.
One of his chief merits is his judicious employment of the pronounced
French declamation which he combined with the light and somewhat
conventional forms of the Italian opera buffa, by which he gave to
the chansons and romances of the Parisian comic opera that attractive and
spirituel expression which forms its most pleasing characteristic. In Paris
Monsigny's operas are not yet entirely forgotten, and his Felix or Le
Deserteur would be well worthy of reproduction. At the anniversary of
the French Republic, 1798, the name of Monsigny was proclaimed, linked
with those of Cherubini, Lesueur, and Martini, as deserving well of the
nation, he being a composer of great merit. We may notice at this
point that Monsigny, like Dalayrac, Gretry, Isouard, Boieldieu, and Adam,
belongs to the small body of comic opera composers who exerted their
talent in this branch alone, or gained infinitely greater success with this
form than with the grand opera. We must now discuss the comic operas
of Gossec, which include Le Faux Lord, 1764; Les Pecheurs, 1766; Le
Double Deguisement, 1767; and Toinon et Toinette, 1767. Of these the
Pecheurs, which contained the greatest attractions, enjoyed continued favour.
Jean Benjamin Delabord, or more correctly De la Borde, a gentleman-in-
waiting to Louis XV., who afterwards became fermier general, gained some
success with comic operas and operettas, which he wrote as an amateur.
His works of this description number twenty-eight, of which Gilles Gargon
Paintre, Annette et Lubin, and Trois Deesses Rivales, achieved some success.
His talent, however, was questioned by Grimm in his " Correspondance
Litteraire/' Works of lasting merit by this amateur composer are his
" Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne/' published in four volumes in

1780, and "Memoires Historiques sur Raoul de Coucy," published in

1781 . Delabord fell a victim to the guillotine in 1794. We meet a most
gifted and well-schooled musician in Johann Paul ^Egidius Schwartzendorff,
who adopted the name of Martini. He was born in the Upper Palatinate of
Bavaria in 1741, and died in 1816. He obtained the direction of the
Theatre de Monsieur, formerly the Theatre de Feydeau, where both Italian
opera buffa and French comic operas were performed. Martini composed
nine operas, of which the Amoureux de Quinze Ans, 1771 ; Le Fermier Cru

1080 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Sourd, 1772; Le Rendezvous Nocturne, 1773 ; Henri IV. > ou la Bataille
d'lvry, 1774; and Le Droit du Seigneur, 1783, enjoyed a success almost
fabulous. These works were characterised by great imagination and esprit,
and were based on the graceful style of the French comic opera. They re-
mained in the Parisian repertoire for a much longer period than many of the
productions of native composers. Martini figures prominently among the
composers of romances, and the pleasing melody and touching melancholic
vein which we find in these productions are the cause of their adoption as
models by the present school. He was followed by Nicholas Dalayrac,
born in Languedoc in 1753, a member of a noble family. His early
operettas, which were anonymous, met with such success as to cause
him to attach his name without further scruple to all succeeding works.
He enriched the list of comic operas by the addition of sixty works,
great and small, including Les Deux Savoyards, Raoul de Crequi,
Nina, Les Sauvages, and Camille, which were greatly praised by Fetis.
These productions were received with considerable favour in Germany.
There are extant, in Paris, some beautiful editions of the scores of these
operas, and the composer's charming melodies have survived, and are still
enjoyed in Paris as Vaudeville music. Dalayrac died at Paris in 1809.
Pierre Gaveaux (1761 — 1825), a celebrated tenor, contributed a number of
charming operettas to increase the musical wealth of Paris, from amongst
which La Famille Indigente, Le Petit Matelot, and Leonore, ou I' Amour
Conjugal, may be selected as favourable specimens. The last-named has
also been composed by Paer, and although not superior to many con-
temporary productions, gained renown owing to the fact of its libretto
being employed by Beethoven under the title of Fidelio. The most com-
plete collection of the scores of Gaveaux is perhaps that left by Meyerbeer.
The last composer of the early period of the school of opera comique was
Louis Emanuel Jadin, born at Versailles in 1768. Jadin was a page-
musician to Louis XVI. During the Revolution he joined a band attached
to the National Guard, and at the Restoration was promoted to the post
of chief page-musician. The number of his operas and operettas amount to
forty. The most celebrated are La Supercherie par Amour, L'Avare Puni,
Les Bons Voisins, and Les Deux Lettres. During the disturbances in Paris
Jadhr's choruses, "Ennemis des tyrans" and " Citoy ens levez-vous/' en joyed
great popularity with the people. This composer died at Paris in 1853.

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS.

1081

In taking a retrospective view of the first period of development of the
opera comique, we find that its chief features are the correct and refined
musical declamation, the peculiar but simple rhythm of its chansons and
choruses, and the expression of its melodies, which at times equal the

Fig. 275. — A. E. M. Gretry.

heartfelt sentiment of the folk-song, romance, and roundelay. The musical
simplicity and originality of the works belonging to this era justify their
identification with the genuine national character of the French. In the
latter period of French opera comique we find the composers influenced by
the works of composers of various nationalities. Gretry and Mehul are
influenced by Gluck, Isouard and Boieldieu by Mozart. With the excep-
tion of Gretry, the above French composers may be said to have yielded to

1082 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

i

the power of Cherubini, in addition to the already named foreign com-
posers. An elegiac and romantic spirit is found to a far greater extent in
the latter period, thereby justifying our designation of its productions as
comic-romantic opera. The romantic breath pervading Isouard's operas
Cendrillon and Joconde, and Boieldieu's Jean de Paris and La Dame Blanche,
was without doubt inspired by Mozart. The last-named work also bears
traces of the influence exercised by Weber's Frelschiltz. Those composers
who established the German romantic opera, Mozart with Don G-iovanni,
and Weber with Der Freischutz, have greatly influenced the second period of
French opera comique. The introduction of this romantic spirit into Ger-
man, and, finally, French poetry, facilitated the increase of its influence on
the French comic opera, which we shall notice when reviewing the prin-
cipal features of the third period.

The works of all the composers between Gretry and Mehul and
Isouard and Boieldieu may be classed as belonging to the second period of
the French comic opera. This list includes the operas of the Revolution, of
which we must select Cherubini' s Pofleur d'Eau, as it not only influenced
his later works written for Paris and Vienna, Lodoiska and Faniska, 1806,
but also the best operas o£ Mehul, Berton (fils), Isouard, and Boieldieu.
Since the production of Cherubini's chef-d'oeuvre, the status of the comic
romantic opera has risen considerably. This improvement of intellectual
working-out can .be seen in the polyphony of the ensembles, the more
refined musical portrayal of character, and the richer and more independent
orchestration. The thoroughly French character of the Porteur d}Eau is
seen in the romance in G minor and the song in E flat major. Both are
gems of French grace, reminding one of the chanson and the national folk-
song, and the melodramatic episodes are of a truly French character. We
must leave the remainder of Cherubim's works, with further discussion on
the Porteur d'Eau, for a subsequent chapter, and have but to add that
the last-named work stands uninjured by any change of school or time.
Lodoiska and Faniska, although not real romantic operas, like Don
Giovanni and Der Freischiitz,- contain a certain amount of romance, which
has helped to influence the masters of the second period. Amongst these
masters, the one most independent of Cherubim's influence is Andre
Erneste Modeste Gretry, born at Liege in 1741. This independence may
be attributed to his possession of romantic tendencies in a greater degree

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS. 1083

than that of his contemporary compatriots. Whereas Gretry' s predecessors
wrote instinctively, he formed special doctrines for the guidance of his
successors in the national school. Influenced, perhaps, by the principles of
Gluck, Gretry says, in his memoirs, "The true element of musical expres-
sion is to be found in the accents of the verbal language which must be
correctly rendered in music by the composer/'' This caused the composer
to become a regular frequenter of the Theatre Fran^ais. The comic
romantic opera of the French owes to Gretry a still greater advance by his
addition of affecting and dramatic sentiment, which his predecessors allowed
only in exceptional cases, and his introduction into it of the features of real
life, thereby giving it a charm and variety to be sought for in vain among
the conventional mannerisms and almost fossilised characters of the older
opera buffa of the Italians. Gretry 's vocation as a comic opera composer was
only determined on his seeing the score of Monsigny's Rose et Colas while
at Home. This so excited the hitherto composer of sacred music, that he
was anxious to try his hand at the same genre. At the Lake of Geneva he
met Voltaire, who pointed to Paris as the only city where world-wide
renown could be gained. Gretry made many essays, which were but par-
tially successful, but at length with Lucile, 1769, he gained great celebrity,
and the quartett, " Ou peut-on etre mieux, qu'au sein de sa famille/'
became exceedingly popular. No less successful was his charming opera,
Le Tableau Parlant. Deeming his position secured, he gave the rein to his
unbounded fertility, and in the ensuing thirty years composed no less than
fifty operas. Of these the best are Les Deux Avarex ; Zemire et Azor,
177 1; L' Ami de la Maison; La Fausse Magie; L'Embarras des Richesses; La
Caravane de Ca'ire, which was performed five hundred and six times in the
lifetime of the composer; Richard Cmir de Lion, 1784; Raoul Barbe Bleue,
1789; and Le Barbier du Village. In opposition to these works we must
place his Cephale et Procris, Andromaque, snidAspasie, which, being specially
pathetic in subject and style, must be classed as belonging to the grand opera,
and failed entirely even in Paris, whilst his charming comic operas were
triumphant on every French and German stage. The same fate met his
revolutionary Pierre le Grand, Guillaume Tell, Les Deux Convents, Denys
le Tyran, and La Fete de la Raison. It is as wrong to say that Gretry's
Richard Coeur de Lion, Barbe Bleue, and La Caravane de Caire are really
grand operas, because performed as such, as to assert that Zemire et Azor

1084 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

and the Tableau Parlant do not belong to the comic opera, as not being
exclusively comic. Fairy subjects like Barbe Bleue, Zemire et Azor, and
romantic such as Richard Cceur de Lion and La Caravane de Ca'ire, have
since Gretry been acknowledged as distinguishing features of French comic
opera. The French composer Saint- Saens asserted, in 1885, that Gretry
had proposed a slanting auditorium, without boxes, and with covered
orchestra, sixteen years before the birth of Richard Wagner. The works
which have survived Gretry, and which still remain as proof of his talent,
are Richard Cwur de Lion and Barbe Bleue, which are still produced in
Paris, and seen at times on German stages. In the latter opera Schroeder-
Devrient produced a great effect. In 1785 the street leading to the
Theatre Italien was named Rue Gretry, to commemorate the triumphs of
that composer in the theatres of the French capital. In the previous year
the Abbot of Liege had appointed the composer privy councillor. The
Tnstitut de France made him a member on its foundation in 1796, and
Napoleon created him one of the first Knights of the Legion of Honour,
and settled on him in 1801 a considerable pension. On his death, which
took place at Montmorency in 1813, the town council of Liege entered
upon a lawsuit as to the right of burying the heart of their composer
under the pedestal of the monument to be erected in his honour in that city,
in front of the university. This curious case was decided in favour of the
Liegeois as late as 1828. Fourteen years later a bronze life-sized statue
was added to the monument, and was unveiled with great ceremony.

The next master of importance belonging to the same school is
Etienne Nicolas Mehul, born at Givet, in the Ardennes, in 1763. We
have already mentioned this master in the chapter on Gluck as the
composer of Joseph in Egypt, which bears an impress almost classical.
Here we will discuss his comic-romantic operas. The first of these
is Le Jenne Henri, written in honour of Henry IV. of France, and
performed in Paris in 1797, where it was hooted and hissed on its
first representation for introducing a king, though a favourite, during
the dominion of the Republic. A remarkable evidence of the discrimi-
nation and just appreciation of the Paris Republic may be found in the
fact that a repetition of the overture was demanded twice at the close
of the performance. With the exception of Mehul's Joseph in -Rgypt,
which is unique, no other of his operas approaches the level of the

THE. GRAND OPERA OF PARIS. 1085

Jeune Henri, although his Eupkrosine, 1790, Les Deux Aveugles de Tolede,
1806, and Uthal, which was produced in the same year, contain much
that is beautiful. Mehul was led by the sombre and dreamy character
of Ossian's poetry to leave out the violins, giving their part entirely to
the violas, which seemed to him to supply a more fitting tonal colouring.
The monotony thus produced by the want of brilliancy caused Gretry,

Fig. 276.— E. N. Mehul.

who chanced to be present at the first representation, to exclaim, "I
wculd give a louis to hear the sound of a chanterelle " (the E violin
string). MehuPs grand operas met with the same fate as did those of
his predecessor, for neither his Cora nor Stratonice achieved more than
moderate success. It is noticeable also that even the Pont de Lodi,
1 797, written in honour of Napoleon, was not received with enthu-
siasm. Mehul's Joseph can be classed with the grand operas as little as
G retry VT^W^/Y/ Ccenr de Lion; for with its Oriental colouring, elegiac
rather than heroic spirit, and grand ensembles, it stands alone, un-
approached by any other opera. Indeed, Mehul might be placed more

1086 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

fitly among the typical romantic writers than among those of the grand
opera, for the foreign scene and period of antiquity belong undoubtedly to
the romantic.

The next on the list of romantic writers is Henri Montan Berton (tils).
The works of this gifted master do not equal in depth and artistic finish
those of Gretry, Mehul, and Boieldieu ; they are the outcome of a happy
and inventive imagination. There are two works, however, which rise above
this level — Ponce de Leon and Aline, Heine de Golconde. These succeeded
in Germany as well as in Paris, and might with advantage be reproduced
at the present day. Berton wrote his Montana et Stephanie under the
supervision of Gretry, and the beneficial influence can be clearly traced in
the more serious portions of the work. Anton Reicha, though born at
Prague in 1770, must also be included in the list of French comic opera
composers of the first half of the nineteenth century. Reicha composed
three comic operas, Cagliostro, Natalie, and Sappho, which were performed
about 1810 to 1822, in Paris. Their success was so slight that the com-
poser desisted from any further attempt in this field, and devoted the
remainder of his life to instrumental music. He died at Paris in 1836.

Nicolo Isouard, born at Malta in 1775, achieved great success as com-
poser of comic opera. His father was in the service of the Knights of
Malta, and, intending him to become a merchant, placed him in a large
mercantile house at Palermo. The boy, entertaining a passion for music,
composed an opera, and fled with the score to Florence. It was not until
his arrival in Paris, however, that he justified the step which he had taken.
In the French capital he was happy in receiving much encouragement from
Kreutzer, Mehul, and Boieldieu; but it was not until 1802, when he pro-
duced an opera, Michel Ange, that he gained much success. Before this
he had written several operettas which had not been received with much
favour, but the success of Michel Ange, both in Paris and Berlin, where it
was performed in 1805, decided his future career, and placed him high
among the composers of comic opera in Paris. The operas, Les Confidences <
Le Medecin Turc, 1803, Leonce ou le Fils Adoptif, and IS Intrigue an
Fenetres, 1805, followed in quick succession, and helped to assure his
position. Isouard became a great favourite, owing to his wealth of melody
and refined musical taste. He won great triumphs in 1810 with his opera
Cendrillon, which was performed not only in France, but on almost every

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS. 1087

European opera stage. The performances of this opera produced, in Paris
alone, over 100,000 francs as the share of the composer. Until a few
years ago this work was still in favour with the public. Isouard's greatest
achievement, from an artistic point of view, was the honourable position
maintained by him when in competition with Boieldieu for the favour of
the public. The works by which he won this position were Joconde and
Colin et Jeannot. This master died at Paris in 1818.

Fig. 277.— F. A. Boieldieu.

Isouard's rival, Fra^ois Adrien Boieldieu, who may be justly de-
signated one of the greatest of the French comic opera composers, was born
at Rouen, December 16th, 1775. His father, private secretary to the
Archbishop of Rouen, perceiving his talent for music, made him a member
of the cathedral choir, and afterwards placed him as pupil with the organist
of the metropolitan church, by name Broche. The lad ran away to Paris
whilst with this severe master, having overturned an ink-bottle on the
keys of the organ, but he was brought back to his native town. At the
age of seventeen Boieldieu composed an operetta entitled La Fille Coupable,
the libretto of which was supplied by his father. This first work meeting

1088 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

with success at Rouen encouraged the young composer to go and seek his
fortune in Paris, which he did in 1795. Notwithstanding the " Reign of
Terror" from 1792 to 1794, no less than 'thirty -seven new comic operas
were produced in the French capital. In the morning crowds attended to
witness the horrors of the guillotine, in the evening the theatres were over-
flowing. The difficulty for an impoverished composer to obtain a perform-
ance of one of his works was great, and Boieldieu for a long time was com-
pelled to exist on the miserable earnings of a pianoforte tuner. He had the
good fortune, however, of an introduction to the celebrated pianoforte manu-
facturer Erard, in whose salon he met Cherubim, Mehul, and Rode. He
now sold a number of romances for the sum of twelve francs apiece, and
these becoming great favourites greatly enriched the publisher. Boieldieu's
name thus becoming known to the Paris public, Fievee, a celebrated poet of
the period, offered him a libretto, La Dot de Suzette. This was accepted,
and the opera performed in the same year at the Opera Comique. A further
success was his one-act opera comique, La Famille Suisse, which followed
soon after, but it was not until 1798 that the production of his opera Zoraime
et Zulnare firmly established his fame as a superior composer among the
Parisians. In this opera Boieldieu's peculiarities, as remarked by Fetis, are
clearly visible. They consist in the possession of a vein of genuine tender-
ness, refined orchestration, and complete mastery over musical form.
Boieldieu's sentiment is the deepest to be found in the works belonging to
the first and second periods of the comic romantic opera. Notwithstand-
ing this sentiment, the master bore in mind the principles of all French
librettists and composers of the comic romantic opera, viz., to afford in-
tellectual amusement and dramatic entertainment. Thus Boieldieu aided
in preserving that superiority of the French comic opera and song-play
over that of the Germans, whose works of the same class are heavy
and undramatic. It is but very rarely that this master yields to the French
tendency to allow calculation to supply the place of ingenious imagi-
nation, and to employ powerful contrasts with no artistic result, and
to indulge in capricious musical mannerisms, which might not inaptly
be compared to musical witticisms. In 1800 he produced the Caliplie de
Bagdad, a one-act opera, the music of which is still popular throughout
France and Germany. Two years later he married a danseuse, Clotilde
Mafleuroy, but the union proved an unhappy one. He was soon glad to

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS. 1089

accept an engagement at St. Petersburg. Before leaving Paris he produced
an opera in three acts, entitled Ma tante Aurore, in which there is evidence
of his progress in the art. Alexander I. of Russia appointed him court
chapel-master, insisting on his composing three operas annually, the sub-
jects to be of his own choice. Of the operas Boieldieu composed while at
St. Petersburg, amounting to nearly a dozen, only two travelled beyond
the confines of that city, viz., the minor song-plays Rien de Trop and La
Jeune Femme Colere. It was not until his return to Paris in 1811 that the
master developed such a genius as is evinced in his opera Jean de Paris,
performed in 1812, which, with I/a Dame Blanche and Le Caliphe de
Bagdad, has survived his other works, and still maintains a position on every
stage where regard is paid to true art. In Jean de Paris we can perceive the
commencement of a transition caused by an absence in foreign countries of
seven years, and the influence of a close acquaintance with the works of
Mozart formed in Germany and Russia. Without interference with the
national character of the work, Boieldieu has introduced into the last-named
opera a greater wealth of ideas, a deeper sentiment, and more artistic de-
velopment. The ana of the Prmcesse de Navarre, " Ah, quel plaisir d'etre
en voyage," and that of the Seneschal, are unequalled in esprit. The three
great works named above are only separated chronologically by Le Chaperon
Rouge, which followed •few* de Paris, and which is founded on the well-
known fairy tale of Little Red Riding Hood. This opera met with great
success. Seven years later Boieldieu crowned his former successes with the
production of La Dame Blanche, without doubt his greatest work. This
dramatic tone-poem is unique in its kind, and forms now, after a lapse of
half a century, an attraction on every opera stage. The spirit of the melody
is inspired by Mozart ; the original modulation, dramatic recitatives, and
orchestration are all superior to those of any other French composer.

We have as yet only spoken of the musical merits of La Dame Blanche,
and have not discussed its significance in the history of French art.
After Boieldieu had exhibited the deep romance of his nature in his song
of the minstrel, and that of the troubadour in Jean de Paris, he continued
to allow this feature to exercise its power by omitting to preserve the
balance of the romantic and comic, as observed by his predecessors.
Although we agree, as a rule, with Riehl's opinion of Boieldieu, we do not
favour his assertion that La Dame Blanche is a perfect romantic opera,

ft II R

1090 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

since we find in it a number of purely comic scenes. In Der Freisckillz
we meet with only two such scenes; in Euryantke and Lohengrin they are
altogether wanting. We agree, however, with the opinion that in this
work Boieldieu approaches the boundary which separates the purely
romantic from the comic romantic opera, and the consequences of this we
shall treat of in the chapter on the third period of the comic romantic
opera. In this opera the master introduces, in a manner most successful,
the fusion of the music of a foreign nationality with his own, by the in-
troduction into the opera of the Scotch " Robin Adair." Boieldieu might,
for many reasons, be designated the Weber of France. Although we
cannot say that the French composer presented his country with the first
complete romantic opera, as did the German, yet he contrived to bring into
close union the highest art-form with the simple folk- music. Boieldieu
follows closely the plan adopted by Karl Maria von Weber in his overtures,
by employing important themes from the opera and combining them with
the folk-motive in a skilful and intellectual working-out, producing a
grand whole, without ever degenerating into mere musical mosaic. Not-
withstanding the great number of the themes, they are welded in a most
masterly fashion. The introduction to the overture begins with the motivo
of the first Finale, followed by the ballad with chorus from the same act;
the Allegro begins with the drinking song, its episode being selected from
the trio. The chorus, " Sonnez," could never have found birth had not
the composer studied the hunting choruses of Weber. The aria, (r Ah !
quel plaisir d'etre soldat/' and the cavatina, " Viens gentille dame/' are
thoroughly French. Such ensembles as are contained in this opera had
never been known to the opera comique before tne appearance of the works
of Boieldieu.

We cannot take leave of the masterpiece of Boieldieu without referring
to his most successful interpreter. We refer to Hippolyte Roger (1815 —
1879), who rendered the role of George Brown. Roger was an excellent
tenor, and gave a classic dignity to every part entrusted to him. As
regards Boieldieu' s domestic life, we must mention that at St. Petersburg he
married Jeanne Philis. The composer's amiable and unpretending character
is easily perceived in the charming letter to his future bride respecting the
performance of his operetta Rien de Trap. " On my way to the theatre I
looked anxiously at the weathercock over the Feydeau to see from which

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS.

1091

direction the wind was blowing. It came from the north ; that gave me
hope. I said to myself, ( This wind bears the kindest wishes of my best
friend, whose joy I should have gladly witnessed this evening/ You would
have been happy, I am sure. Of course I was called before the curtain,
led on by Chenard, Gavaudan, and Martin. Cherubim, of whom my

Fig. 278. — Hippolyte Roger.

brother had never lost sight during the performance, and who never ceased
applauding, came to tell me, before the whole assembly, that this music
enchanted him. Had you been here excessive joy would have killed me."
No less modest were his acknowledgments of the unexampled triumphs
he gained with I/a Dame Blanche. He writes : " My success appears to
be a national one, and all the world tells me it will create a fresh epoch
in the history of music. The fact of the matter is, foreign music had
gained such an ascendancy that the public understood that all that could
be done was to follow in Rossini's wake. The task of overcoming this
R R R 2

1092 HISTOKY OF MUSIC.

prejudice was by no means easy. The honour has been awarded to me of
achieving it, and all French artists, painters, poets, and musicians con-
tinually bestow on me their thanks. But I fear that their zeal in indis-
creetly uttering their opinions will cause dissension. Rossini's partisans
are enraged ; they only await an opportunity of taking up arms on behalf
of their hero. The most amusing feature of the case is that whilst our
respective adherents quarrel, we, the principals, Rossini and I, are excellent
friends."

After the most romantic of all the French comic romantic operas, that
is Boieldieu's Dame Blanche, by an increase of the romantic element in the
works of this school nought could result but a complete separation of
the comic from the romantic school. The increasing influence of romance
in music could not tend otherwise than to cause a separation of the
hitherto united elements of comic romantic opera, the former element
being admitted after the production of Leu Dame Blanche in only excep-
tional cases, most frequently in the shape of satire. There can be no
doubt but that the example set by Boieldieu in his masterpiece was
aided strongly, though indirectly, by the works of Weber, Schubert,
Spohr, Marschner, Meyerbeer, Hoffmann, Fouque, and Heine; and inas-
much as many of their works partake of a romantic nature, Mozart and
Beethoven, Goethe and Schiller may also be reckoned as helping in this
development of romance. In the third period, which speedily followed the
production of Boieldieu's Dame Blanche, opera comique was subdivided into
two separate species, comic romantic and romantic or lyric. The very names
of the Paris theatres go far to support our theory, for while the Opera
Lyrique employs an entirely romantic repertoire, the Opera Comique supports
the comic romantic opera. Many of the works written by French com-
posers for the Opera Italien may also be added to the new genre of the
romantic opera ; for example, Halevy's Tempesta.

The third period may be accepted as dating from Auber and Herold,
who each adopted a different branch of opera composition, both of
which exist at the present day, as is proved by the works of Thomas,
Delibes, and Bizet. The two first-named composers stand alone as the
successors of Boieldieu; but whilst Auber favours the comic romantic
character of the Caliphe de Bagdad and Jean de Paris, Herold in-
clines towards the strongly developed romantic mood of La Dame Blanche

THE GEAND OPERA OF PARIS.

1093

in such a marked manner as to make the romantic opera triumphant
on the French stage. Louis Joseph Ferdinand Herold was born at
Paris in 1791, and died at Maison des Ternes, where he was residing,
in 1833. He received instruction from Adam, Catel, and Mehul, and
gained his first success in Paris with an opera entitled Charles de France,

Fig. 279.— L. J. F. Herold.

which he wrote in co-operation with Boieldieu. It is of historical interest
to notice the frequent and widespread custom of the eighteenth century in
France and Italy of composing in co-operation, the result being much
like that produced by a manufactory, works lacking artistic unity. With
reference to Italy we may regard this habit as an outcome of the Rococo
and Zopf, but in France it cannot fail to surprise us, as the comic and grand
operas of that nation had risen to a standard far above the influence of a
Zopf. Our astonishment is increased by the recollection that this custom
was by no means confined to petty composers, but that it was followed by

1094 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Cheiubini, Spontini, Mehul, Boieldieu, Auber, and Herold. Auber, Batton,
Berton, Blangini, Boieldieu, Carafa, Cherubini, and Paer, all united in com-
posing La Marquise de Brinvllliers ; Cherubini and Boieldieu wrote La
Prisonniere ; Catel, Boieldieu, Cherubini, and Isouard produced Bayard a
Mezieres ; Spontini, Persuis, Berton, and Kreutzer composed Les Deux
Rivaux ; while Herold and Carafa contributed L'Auberge d'Auray. As
this plan of conjunction in labour is employed at the present time by French
litterateurs, we must consider it a special trait of Latin nations. Where
this proceeding is found in German composition, it occurs in the eighteenth
century in the works of composers tutored in the Italian schools, whose
Zopf and co-operative custom they had adopted. This feature cannot, how-
ever, be said to belong now to German composers, amongst whom the habit
has long since died out ; whereas in France the greatest number of libretti
are produced by joint authors ; and Dumas, Erckmann, Chatrian, and others
are associates in authorship. Herold' s earliest comic operas, Les Rosieres and
La Clochette, were followed by several insignificant works and ballets for
the grand opera. His next important works are Le Premier Venu> 1818,
and Marie, performed in 1826. These were followed by seven comic
operas, but his position in the musical world was assured by Zampa,
1831.

It is strange that such a work as this, with so tragic an end, can be
classed among comic operas, but we must explain it as the result of the
French custom, which designates all operas comic which contain the smallest
amount of that element. Thus it is that Cherubim's Porteur d'Eau,
Lodoiska, Faniska, and All Baba, Gretry's Barle Bleu and Richard Cceur
de Lion, Herold's Zampa and Le Pre aux Clercs, Auber's Lac des Fees,
Halevy's Tempest a, Thomas's Mignon, Gounod's Faust , and Bizet's Carmen,
are styled opera comique. This generalisation is occasionally modified by
the terms Lyric and Italian being applied to various operas, though these
distinctive expressions bear no very significant meaning. Some of these
works have been classed even with the grand opera on account of the ex-
cessive expenditure necessitated by the required scenic effect, their subject
matter being by no means suited to the character of that genre. In the
face of such confused though accepted classification, we have ventured to
separate Boieldieu's Porteur d'Eau and Mehul's Joseph from the mass of
operas of the period; Gretry's Barbe Bleu and Boieldieu's Dame Blanche

T1IE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS 1095

we have designated semi-romantic ; while Gounod's Faust and Romeo and
Juliet, Halevy's Tempesta, Thomas's Mignon, and Bizet's Carmen we
include in the list of romantic operas. This last-named class found origin
in Harold's Zampa. We must not forget that Meyerbeer's Robert le Diaule
was produced in Paris at the same time as Herold's chef-d'oeuvre, and that
this opera, with its extraordinary combinations, went far to bring the
romantic into favour with the French, who, when once excited, sought
eagerly for strained contrast and effect, which found no place in the
classical productions of Boieldieu and his contemporary German composers
of romantic operas.

In discussing the commencement of the period of the opera comique,
we noticed the increased influence of German genius and talent on French
composers. This assertion is proved beyond doubt by the first exclusively
romantic opera, Herold's Zampa. Although in Boieldieu's Dame Blanche
we called attention to a general influence of German masters, now, with
regard to Herold's Zampa, we can point directly to a special German work,
Don Giovanni, the first German romantic opera, without which Herold's
work could never have found birth. In these two operas the introduction
of the supernatural, with its attendant horrors, necessitates a special method
of musical treatment, such as the employment of trombones on occasion of
the marble statues assuming vitality. Herold's best dramatic effort was a
comic opera in one act, La Medecine sans Medecin, which was followed by
Le Pre aux Clercs, performed in 1832. This opera charmed the French
to such an extent that by 1871 it had undergone a thousand representations.
Auber was as successful a writer of comic as he had been of grand opera,
and as such was directly opposed in style to his contemporary Herold, who
was an idealist and romanticist, whereas Auber himself gained great popu-
larity through his cheerful realism. In 1820 La Bergere Chatelaine gained
for Auber his first success ; it was not, however, until he began to compose
to Scribe's libretti that his continuous triumphs commenced. Scribe was
destined as an opera-writer to hold in France the position occupied a century
before in Italy by Metastasio, with the exception that while the libretti of
the latter now appear conventional and stiff, those of Scribe — especially
when written for comic opera — are full of life and dramatic interest. This
writer contributed many of the libretti of the works of interest belonging
to the period of the grand French opera, such as Masaniello, Les Huguenots,

1096 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Le Prophete, and La Juive. Although at times he favours tragedy, there
can be no denial of his rare knowledge of stage effect and poetic con-
ception of character. The first opera by which Auber gained a real and
lasting success was La Macon, written by Scribe, which was performed
for the first time in Paris in 1825. The music of this work is pure and
simple in expression, and therefore calculated to affect us more deeply
than many other works of the same kind written by him with more pre-
tension and calculation.

In this work Auber reflects the amiable character of the lower classes
of the Parisian population in the most advantageous manner. The com-
poser contrives to produce the most striking effects by his graphic
Turkish music, which, in juxtaposition to that of the simple-minded and
light-hearted French workmen, becomes invested with a highly dramatic
expression. Auber's other great works of this class include Fra Diavolo,
1830 ; Le Domino Noir, 1837 ; Les Diamants de la Couronne, 1841 ; and
La Part du Diable, 1843, all works which have remained on the stages
of Europe and America, and which gained on their production the fame they
still retain. Fra Diavolo obtained in the first few years after its production
a popularity of which we can barely form an idea ; and now, after a lapse
of half a century, it still attracts crowded houses. The charming solos and
romances, as well as the ensembles, are specimens of Auber's best finished
compositions, and are only equalled by the music of Le Maqon and Le Domino
Noir. Auber, as the most important master of the comic romantic opera
of the French, differs from Boieldieu, the most important master of the
immediately preceding period of this class of opera, since the latter draws
the musical ideas of the situation of his dramatic characters almost always
from his innermost soul, whilst Auber sketches his in graceful outline,
and treats their feelings as momentary moods rather than as heartfelt
emotions. Consequently, Boieldieu employs a more fully developed method
of working out, and greater unity of construction, welding the two into an
organic whole. Auber treats form and contents superficially ; and instead
of employing his power for the purpose of giving unity to the work,
directs his attention entirely to the elaboration of details ; indeed, in
many of his less important works he descends to a mere manufacture of
musical mosaic. Nevertheless, we are occasionally surprised by charm-
ing ideas, striking rhythm, and most appropriate modulation. As a rule,

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS. 1097

his music is neither strained nor affected, and in his better works the
striving after even small effect is natural, and never interrupts the graceful
flow of the music. If in every work of his we fail to find the depth and
sentiment of Le Macon, Le Domino Noir, and Fra Diavolo, we are at least
recompensed by his never-failing knowledge of stage effect and dramatic
interest. In the Lac des Fees, the libretto of which is founded on the
fairy tale by the German poet Musaus, Auber has essayed to enter upon
the field of purely romantic opera, the success of which, commencing from its
birth, had incited him to make an attempt in this direction. Notwithstand-
ing that this composition contains many glimpses of beauty, the romance of
Weber and Schubert lay beyond his power, and in some instances the work
becomes laboured and dry. In such works as Fra Diavolo, when Auber
follows his natural gift, influenced by no desire of imitation, we find more
romance, though of a French and realistic character, than he exhibits when
imitating German romantic opera. In 1842 the master was appointed
director of the Conservatoire as successor to Cherubini, who had occupied
the post for almost half a century. In this position he proved himself
of the utmost value, and even at the age of eighty had not missed
a single examination or distribution of prizes. Napoleon III., in 1857,
created him court chapel-master. The list of Auber's best known operas
includes LaNiege, 1823 ; L'Ambassadrice, 1836; L3 Enfant Prodigue, 1850 ;
and the last of nearly half a hundred, Reves $ Amour, 1869.

Scarcely less important than Auber, in the history of the comic and
comic romantic opera, is Halevy, of whose works written for the grand
opera, viz., La Juive, La Magicienne, and La Reine de Chypre, we have
already spoken. As a master of opera comique he gained renown with the
one-act piece, L? Artisan, produced in Paris in 1827. His first essay for
the opera Italien, entitled Clari, produced in 1829, was a work of indifferent
merit, and only received favour through the persistent efforts of Malibran.
Le Dilettante d' Avignon and Les Souvenir de Lafleur, performed in the
Theatre Feydeau, gained a lasting success by their intrinsic worth. It was
in L* Eclair and Les Mousquetaires de la Reine, produced eleven years later,
that Halevy. exhibited his real worth, which obtained for him a place
amongst the most prominent masters of the opera comique. In 1850 the
master composed La Tempesta, a comic romantic work for the London
Italian Opera, in which, about a year later, Henriette Sontag made her

1098 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

re-appearance at Paris, after many years of retirement from the stage.
This work, and Le Val d'Andorre, composed in 1848, although containing
many instances of inspiration, exhibit on the whole a decided decline of the
master's productive power. Halevy, who may be designated as one of the
most scientific of French musicians, was an erudite scholar and an inde-
fatigable worker. In 1833 he succeeded Fetis as professor of composition
at the Conservatoire. Three years later he was created a "Membre de
rinstitut" in the place of Reicha. He became vice-president of the
Paris Academy of Fine Arts in 1844, and in 1854 he accepted the post
of recorder to the same institution, and in this quality he has presented
the world with masterpieces of reasoning in his minutes, criticisms,
and advice. He was chosen to represent Paris in the Assembly in
1848, an honour conferred on no musician before him, and only met
with since in the case of Verdi, who was returned to the Italian Par-
liament in 1860.

Adolphe Charles Adam was born in Paris in 1803. It was originally
intended that he should become a scientist, but his love for music made
him oppose the wishes of his parents. His first attempts consisted of
occasional pieces of Vaudeville music, and it was not until 1829 that he
succeeded in gaining a performance of his Pierre et Catherine, an operetta
in one act, at the Opera Comique. After the production of several similar
works he came to London to superintend the performances of his ballet
of Faust) with which he achieved considerable success. He gained little
renown in Paris until 1833—4, when his Proscrit and Le Chalet were
received with favour. In 1838 his Postilion de Longjumeau was received
with great eclat in Paris, and he gained celebrity throughout Europe. In
no succeeding work did he achieve such happy results. Of his later operas
the most successful were Le Brasseur de Preston, La Heine d'un Jour, and
La Poupee de Nuremberg, with which he tried to improve the style of the
Parisian opera bouffe, founded by Offenbach in 1855. Adam, as a rule,
wrote quickly and without effort, but his music was for the most part su-
perficial ; in his best works, however, we find much gracefulness, good taste,
and humour. This composer, who was created a " Membre de PInstitut
de France," died in 1856. By adding Hippolyte Chelard, born at Paris
in 1789, we shall complete the list of French comic romantic opera com-
posers to the middle of the nineteenth century, for Gounod, Maillart, Delibes,

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARIS. 1099

Thomas, Bizet, and Massenet belong strictly to the present period, with
which we shall deal in a subsequent chapter. Chelard produced an opera
in 1830, La Table et Logement, performed in Germany under the title
of Der Student. Into his Macbeth, produced in Paris and Munich, he
introduced the romantic element favoured by Boieldieu and Herold. He
died at Weimar as chapel-master in 186 L. That the French comic romantic
opera found favour in other countries of Europe is proved by the adoption
of its form by Donizetti in his Figlia del Eeggimento, by Flotow in
Martha, and by Ignatz Briill in his Golden Cross.

We have now to call attention to a new feature of musical art which
was developed independently of the French stage from 1750 to 1840 ; and
in connection with which we shall meet with several masters whom we have
discussed as composers of French opera. This period is represented by a body
of prominent French orchestral and chamber-music composers, and violin
and pianoforte virtuosi, and is signalised by the growth of elevated style.
Besides those virtuosi who united artistic purpose to technical perfection,
there were many who, although gaining great celebrity in Paris, possessed
no artistic quality but mere mechanical skill. It is of the latter class that
we shall treat in the present section. The influx of virtuosi into Paris was
commenced by the Italians, and their example being followed by artists
of other countries, the French capital was crowded during the latter part of
the eighteenth and earlier portion of the present century with singers,
pianists, and violinists of almost every European nationality, who hoped
to make here the fortunes they could never realise in their own country.
Among the most prominent of these were Fran9ois Him ten, born in
1793 at Coblentz, where he died in 1878, and Henry Herz, born at Vienna
in 1806. Hiinten resided in Paris from 1819 to 1837, and Herz from
1816 to 1874. Both pianists were pupils of the Paris Conservatoire, of
which institution Herz was afterwards created a professor. For many
years they enjoyed great renown as performers and prolific composers of
pianoforte music. Such celebrity was easily obtained, as the semi-educated
always welcome superficial productions as being understood without effort.
Their innumerable compositions and arrangements are, like the majority of
the productions of this class, out of date, and even their concertos for the
piano and orchestra are almost entirely forgotten.

Though musicians of this class can now interest us but slightly, those

1100 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

men who have aided the development of the national instrumental music,
and consequently that of the orchestra, deserve special notice. The last
important violin virtuoso and composer of the period of B/ameau was Jean
Marie Leclair, born at Lyons in 1697. Ferdinand David has published, in
his " High School of Violin Playing/' two of this master's violin sonatas,
which cannot fail to prove his importance as a composer. He wrote several
" Concerti Grossi " for three violins, alto, violoncello, and organ ; overtures,
trios, and sonatas. Of the latter his wife, engraved one with her own hands.
Leclair was assassinated at night jn one of the streets of Paris in 1764, the
cause of the crime being jealousy. The next violin virtuosi whom we shall
discuss approach closer to our own period. The first of these is Pierre
Gavines, the founder of the modern violin school. He was born at
Bordeaux in 1726, and died at Paris jn 1800. This artist, who was
designated by Viotti " the Tartini of the French," was self-taught. If
we judge by his concertos, sonatas, and studies (entitled matinees], Gavines
must have possessed considerable power as a virtuoso, the technical difficulty
of these works being extremely great. Gossec, who succeeds chronologi-
cally, has already been mentioned as a master of the French opera schools
of the eighteenth century. This master occupies a position among the early
orchestra composers by no means unimportant. This is proved by his twenty-
nine symphonies, of which three are for wind instruments alone. Several
of his compositions belonging to this class have been performed at the
Paris Concerts Spirituels. Gossec's string quartetfcs, duets for violins, and
serenades were much in favour among his contemporaries.*" The interest
engendered by orchestral music had gradually inculcated a taste for the
performances of virtuosi. Amongst those assembled in Paris at this period,
the violoncellist Louis Duport (1742 — 1819) stood pre-eminent, composing
many sonatas, variations, and duos. He was appointed chief soloist by
the Emperor Napoleon. His instrument, a magnificent Stradivarius, was
bought by Franchomme for 25,000 francs.

Rodolphe Kreutzer, born at Versailles in 1766, was as important a
violinist as his contemporary Duport was violoncellist. In 1769 Beethoven
heard him while on a concert tour through the Netherlands, Italy, and
Germany, and dedicated to him his violin sonata, Op. 47, thus helping

* It is supposed that Gossec was the first to introduce the clarinet into his orchestral
compositions.

THE GKAND OPEEA OF PARIS. 1101

to hand his name down to posterity. Kreutzer's " Qaarante Etudes, ou
Caprices " for the violin are accepted as classical even at the present day, and
much beauty is to be found in his double concertos,, concertos, and string-
quartetts. He died at Geneva in 1831.

The elder Jadin is still more important as an instrumental and opera
composer, and has left a great number of orchestral and chamber composi-
tions, consisting chiefly of symphonies, overtures, quintetts, and string-
quartetts. Hyacinthe Jadin (1769 — 1802), a younger brother of the last-
named composer, was a professor of the Conservatoire. He emulated his
brother in his works, of which many chamber compositions still remain.
Reicha, who is next on the list, has written no less than twenty stririg-
quartetts, twenty -four quintetts for flute, oboe, clarinet, horn, and
bassoon ; six quartetts for flute, violin, viola, and violoncello ; and
very many chamber compositions. Reicha's contemporaries were Baillot
and Rode, two of the most gifted of French violinists. These virtuosi,
like their compatriot Kreutzer, were disciples of the famous violin
school founded by the great Italian master Yiotti. Before the ap-
pearance of Viotti, who, with short interruptions, resided in Paris from
1782 to 1822, France possessed a number of violinists whose school can
be identified with that of Gavines ; Kreutzer, however, with Francois
Baillot (1771—1842) and Pierre Rode (1774—1830), through their re-
lation to Viotti, helped in the fusion of the violin schools of modern Italy
and France. Like Kreutzer, Rode was happy in attracting the notice of
Beethoven while on a concert tour through Austria, the result being that
the great master dedicated to him his romance, Op. 50. Amongst Rode's
still prized compositions we will enumerate his thirteen concertos; four
" Quatuors Brillants," in which the first violin is solo; four string-quar-
tetts, twenty-four " Caprices/' twelve " Etudes/' and " Themes Varies "
with orchestra. A work of great value is the " Methode de Violon, par
Rode, Baillot et Kreutzer, redigee par Baillot/' Rode was appointed in
1800 solo violinist in the private chapel of the First Consul, with a salary
of 10,000 francs. In 1803 he accompanied his friend Boieldieu to St.
Petersburg. Of his works the " Etudes/' "L'Art du Violon" (1835,
Paris), 24 preludes, 9 concertos for the violin, 15 string trios, and three
string-quartetts are still in great request among violinists. As litterateur
Baillot gained his greatest success with his " Notice sur Gretry " and

1102

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

" Notice sur Viotti," published in Paris in 1814, and again in 1825.
Though Kode enchanted his audience with his exquisite bowing and the
perfect purity of his intonation, Baillot exhibited an unequalled grandeur of
conception in rendering his own works and those of other composers. Both

Fig. 280. — Teresa and Maria Milanollo.

Though no vir-

these masters were unsurpassed as quartett performers,
tuoso, George Onslow, born in 1784, was an important composer of French
chamber- music. He was of English descent, but being born at Clermont-
Ferrand in the Puy-de-D6me, and passing his life entirely in France,
Onslow cannot but have been influenced by his surroundings, and must,
therefore, be accepted as a French composer. It has been asserted that
the composer was not born at Clermont, but that he bought an estate there
when very young. Halevy, however, when delivering a funeral oration at

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARTS.

1103

the Institut, lauded Onslow as a gifted Frenchman. Onslow followed by
preference the classical examples of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. He
has, therefore, left many excellent works which are still in vogue in
Germany. Not only was he a thorough and refined musician, but his
works exhibit deep sentiment ; his quintetts for string instruments and his
pianoforte sonatas for four hands are very beautiful, especially the sonata

Fig. 281. — Malibran Garcia.

in F minor, Op. 22. Of his string-quartetts several remain, which have
lost none of their interest through the lapse of time. Later in life Onslow
began to write carelessly, and his works were never on a level with those
produced during the first half of his career. In 1842 the composer was
chosen to succeed Cherubini as " Membre de FInstitut de France." He
now wrote three comic operas which, though performed in Paris, met with
but a succes d'estime. Onslow died at Clermont-Ferrand in 1852. The
next famous violinists were the sisters Teresa and Maria Milanollo. These
sisters were born in Piedmont in 1827 and 1832 respectively. Though they
commenced their career in Italy, it was not until they visited Paris that
they gained a world-wide fame. It was here, too, that Maria, the younger

1104 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

of the sisters, died in 1848. At the present day, when the musical world
possesses such a performer as Neruda, the sisters Milanollo, excellent as
was their performance, would hardly have created such a sensation as they
did at that period, when the appearance of two female violinists constituted
a new feature of the concert-room. As the violin school of Paris was
formed through the influence of the Italian Viotti, so was the Paris school
of vocalists established by the Spaniards Manuel Garcia, father and son.
Under their influence, from 1828 to 1850, this school threatened to sur-
pass that of Italy. Manuel Garcia, the son, is to be credited with the
invention of a mirror for examination of the larynx,* this ingenious con-
trivance being named after the inventor. The elder Garcia transmitted
his incomparable method to his youngest daughter as well as to his son.
This daughter, Pauline Viardot Garcia, is undoubtedly the most gifted
female vocalist and teacher of singing. Pauline's elder sister was the cele-
brated Maria Felicita Malibran, born at Paris in 1808, and who died at
Manchester in 1836. Malibran possessed a splendid contralto voice, in
addition to which she was enabled, by her unusual range, to render suc-
cessfully high mezzo-soprano parts. On her first appearance in 1824 at Paris,
she completely electrified her audience. From 1827 to 1832 she performed
with great success in Paris, London, and Italy. Her chief roles were from
the operas of Rossini, such as Arsace in Semiramide, Tancredi, and Rosina
in // Barbiere. She was especially successful as Palmira in Meyerbeer's
Crociato, and in Beethoven's Fidelio. In 1836 she again married, her
second husband being the celebrated violinist Charles Auguste de Beriot
This Belgian virtuoso was born at Leuven in 1802, and died in 1870 as
professor at the Brussels Conservatoire. Malibran was one of the best
pianists of her period, and composed many charming and original songs,
romances, nocturnes, and canzonets. Manuel Garcia (pere) was followed
by the French master Auguste Panseron, born at Paris in 1796. Pan-
seron was undoubtedly influenced by his Spanish predecessor, though not
sufficiently so to destroy his own individuality. His " Solfeggios " and
" Methode de Vocalisation " are still of great value. We shall now return
to the French instrumentalists and virtuosi. Louis Drouet (1792 — 1873)
was solo flautist to the court of the first Napoleon. Vivier, the celebrated
horn-player, was born in 1821. He enjoyed great reputation as a wit,
* This is usually known in England as the " Laryngoscope." — F. A. G. O.

THE GRAND OPERA OF PARES. 1105

Henri Bertini (1798 — 1876), who enjoyed great reputation as a pianist and
composer, came to Paris at the age of six. His studies are in general use at
the present day. Though Italian by birth, he must be reckoned amongst
the masters of the French school, owing to his long residence in Paris, and
his connection with the French pianists. We have already discussed the
influence of Chopin and Liszt, as virtuosi and composers, on the Parisian
masters of pianoforte performance and composition. Simultaneously with,
and even before, Liszt and Chopin, Pierre Joseph Guillaume Zimmermann
(1785—1853), born at Paris, and Frederick Kalkbrenner (1784—1849),
born at Cassel, greatly influenced the French pianoforte school. These
masters both died in Paris. Of the pupils of Kalkbrenner the most
important were Stamatz, the master of Saint-Saens, and Madame Pleyel ;
Zimmermann's most noteworthy pupils were Alkan, Dejazet, Prudent,
Marmontel, Lacombe, and Ambroise Thomas. Kalkbrenner introduced
Logier's ' ' Chiroplast " or hand-guide, which was intended to keep the
fingers free from any influence of the fore-arm when practising scales and
exercises, and the wrist from that of the upper arm while playing sixths
and octaves. Zimmermann employed the method of teaching set down in
his "Encyclopedic du Pianiste."

We must now glance retrospectively at the development of the science
of music among the French during the period in which the two species of
opera began to flourish. The two first names which we must consider
belong to the last century, and are those of Villoteau and Laborde. Ben-
jamin de Laborde, a lord-in-waiting of Louis XV., born in 1734, was
guillotined at Paris in 1794. He was celebrated as an historian
and theorist. The most important of his works was his " Essai sur la
Musique Ancienne et Moderne," published in four volumes in 1780.
Guillaume Villoteau was born in the Department of the Orne in 1759, and
died in Paris in 1839. He commenced his career as a choir-boy, and
eventually became tenor at the Cathedrals of Le Mans, La Rochelle, and
Paris; and after the Revolution he studied philosophy at the Sorbonne. His
essays gained for him such notoriety that he was appointed a member of
the commission of scientists which followed Napoleon's army to Egypt.
Villoteau's valuable work on the music of the Oriental nations was pub-
lished at the expense of the State under the title of " Descriptions de
1'Egypte/' which embodied, among others, treatises on " Les Diverses

8 S S

1106 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Especes d'Instruments de Musique que Fon remarque parmi les Sculptures
qui decorent les Antiques Monuments de 1'Egypte ; " and " Description
Historique, Technique, et Litteraire des Instruments de Musique des
Orientaux." Amongst his many other works on the theory of music, we
must mention as the most important the " Memoire sur la Possibilite et
1'Utilite d'une Theorie Exacte des Principes Naturels de la Musique/7 pub-
lished 1807. Proceeding in chronological order, we meet next with Alexandre
Choron, who was born in Normandy in 1772, and died at Paris in 1834.
By Fetis, Choron was designated as the most profound of French theorists.
Of his works the most important are the " Dictionnaire Historique/' written
in conjunction with Fayolle, and published in two volumes in 1810 ; " Prin-
cipes de Composition des Ecoles de 1' Italic/7 a second edition of which
appeared in 1816 ; " Methode Elementaire de Musique et de Plain-Chant,"
published in 1811 ; "Liber Choralis Tribus Vocibus ad usum Collegii Sancti
Ludovici," published in 1824 ; and a " Manuel Complet de Musique Vocale
et Instrumental, ou Encyclopedic Musicale," written in collaboration
with La Fage, and published in eight volumes in 1836. The last of
these scientists is Catel (1773—1830). Of his works the "Traite d'Har-
monie," which has been used for many years at the Conservatoire of Paris,
is without doubt the most important.

The opinion of the French that the importance of Rossini, Meyerbeer,
and even of Gluck, Cherubini, and Spontini, rests solely on their relation
with the grand French opera, must be regarded as one of those pardonable
errors which soon creep into the mind of a nation which is anxious to
assert its pre-eminence in the world's history by the possession of the
greatest names in art. Gluck and Spontini not only belonged to the grand
opera, but, as we have proved before, were its founders ; yet like Rossini,
Meyerbeer, and the versatile Cherubini, their relation to the French opera
represents only one phase of their artistic activity ; they belonged to their
own nation and the entire musical world more than to the grand opera,
owing to their artistic individuality and national character. In order to do
justice to these masters, we have already devoted two chapters to the dis-
cussion of the respective merits of Gluck and Meyerbeer, and are entitling
the following chapter " Cherubini, Spontini, and Rossini."

CHERUB INI, SPQNTINI, AND ROSSINI. 1107

CHAPTER XXXVII.

CHERUBINI, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI.

IN a former chapter we proved the Italians to be the representatives of
the musical Zopf, and, as such, the leaders and model of entire Europe,
by which this period was considered to be the climax of musical art. That
the Italians had not already completed the performance of their mission
is proved by the appearance of the names of Cherubini, Spontini, and
Rossini at the close of the eighteenth and commencement of the nine-
teenth century. This ought to suffice for a proof to those biassed
phraseologists and musical pharisees who have for an entire generation
deplored the decline of Italian music during the last century and a
half. In addition to the three great masters we have Mercadante, Bellini,
and Donizetti, the most important of the remaining Italian tone-poets,
who prove that the nineteenth century produced a rich after-crop of the
genius prevalent in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Operas such as
II Giuramento, Norma, Lucrezia Borgia, La Favorita, La Sonnambula, Don
Pasquale, L'Elisire d'Amore, La Figlia del Reggimento, and many other
works, prove that the reactionary classicists or romanticists contradict
historical truth when they declare such works as extinct. These operas
have not disappeared totally from European nor American stages ; and
even had they disappeared occasionally, their resuscitation proved always
a great and joyful surprise to the public, who found in them, even after a
lapse of fifty years, a marvellous fertility of invention, beauty, and charm-
ing melody, allied to dramatic passion and musical grace and humour.
This favourable reception cannot fail to increase the ire of those composers
whose stilted attempts at artistic profundity cause the withdrawal of their
operas after the usual three performances.

As we have stated elsewhere, Cherubini and Spontini came as young
men to Paris, where the former, with the exception of a few journeys, re-
mained to the close of his life, and where Spontini resided for a number of
years. Yet the influence which was to direct the mind and style of these men
cannot be accepted as French, but rather as German. None can reproach
us, however, with having underrated the influence exercised over these
masters by the intelligence of the Parisian population, the national music,
s s s 2

1108 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

such as that of Gretry, Mehul, Isouard, and Boieldieu, and the historical
importance attached to that period of the existence of the French capital,
as, it must be remembered, the composers were respectively twenty-six and
twenty-nine years of age when they entered Paris, and had received their
musical education entirely in their own country. In the French capital
the masters were influenced by the operas of Gluck, and also in part by

Fig. 282.— M. L. Cherubim.

the symphonies and overtures of Haydn and Mozart, of whose chamber
music, besides, Cherubim made a close study. Although they could not
escape the beneficial influence of the French school, the result was by no
means equal to that produced upon them by the classical school of German
music, which was continually advancing westwards. This influence \vas after-
wards increased by Cherubini's sojourn in Vienna, and Spontini's residence
in Berlin, as the masters then came into contact with the representatives of
the art. As we have not here to discuss the connection existing between
the composers of Medee and the Vestale and the French school, we shall

CHERUBINI, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI. 1109

pass in review their lives, for the purpose of portraying completely the
events attendant on the development of their artistic activity. Maria
Luigi Cherubim was born September 4th, 1760, in the Via Fiesolana, at
Florence. Strange to relate, the master erroneously quoted the 8th of Sep-
tember as the day o£ his birth, but this was corrected by the register of
the church in which he was baptised. His father was " Maestro al
cembalo/' whose duty in the orchestra was to accompany the recitative on
the piano, an institution which lasted until the middle of the present
century. Cherubini therefore received the elements of his musical education
at home. At the age of eighteen his talent attracted the attention of the
Grand Duke of Tuscany, afterwards Emperor Leopold II. of Austria, an
eminent patron and lover of music. The duke sent him as a pupil to
Sarti, a learned musician. Under this indefatigable master Cherubini
received a profound schooling in the strict style, and there can be no doubt
that it was to him that he owed his thorough mastery o£ polyphonic
writing. When advanced in years, he expressed his gratitude in the
following terms : " It is to Sarti's advice and example that I owe my
education in counterpoint, both in sacred and dramatic composition/'' Until
1779 Cherubini composed nothing but sacred music. A year later, his
first opera, entitled Pabio, was performed, and during the next five years
six operas were, performed with success in different Italian towns. The
Venetians said, with reference to his name, " Toccante meno al suo nome
dalla dolcezza di suoi canti," referring to the peculiar charm of purity of
melody in his operas, which, however, still bore slight traces of the influence
of the contemporaneous Neapolitan school. These early successes spread
his fame to such an extent that in 1784 he received an invitation to
London. Here he composed an opera in two acts, La Finta Principessa,
which was tolerably well received ; but the second work, Giulio Safiino, met
with a complete fiasco, being abused not only by the critics, but by the
public. Mortified at this failure, Cherubini in 1786 returned to Paris,
and thence, after a short stay, to Italy. In 1787 he produced at Turin an
opera entitled Iphigenia in Aulide, the last of his works written in the then
prevailing style. He now visited Paris, as he thought en passant. How-
ever, meeting his countryman Viotti, the violin virtuoso and composer, the
close friendship he formed with him induced him to remain there. We
have already discussed the principal events of his stay in the French capital.

1110 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Before composing the Medee, Cherubini wrote D6mophony 1788; Lodoiska,
1791 ; and Elise, on le Voyage du Mont Sf. Bernard, 1794, which contains
many traits of truly tragic grandeur. Between the Medee and the Porteur
d'Eau he composed L'Hotellerie Portugais. After the Porteur d'Eau
he wrote Anacreon, 1803, and Achille a Scyros, 1804. His first work
written for the Grand Opera was Demophon, and although in it he had
attempted to adopt the French declamation, it was not very successful.
With the exception of the Porteur d'Eau, which was written for the
Theatre Feydeau, the above-named works were performed at the Theatre
de la Foire St. Germain, founded by Leonard, the hairdresser to Marie
Antoinette, and of which Cherubini was conductor from 1789 to 1792.
During the Revolution the master lost his position. In 1793 he married
Cecile Tourette, the daughter of a former royal chamber musician. On his
visit, in 1805, to Vienna, which we have mentioned before, he was accom-
panied by his wife and daughter. In the Austrian capital he was received
like a son by the patriarchal Haydn, whom he approached with the most pro-
found veneration . He also met Beethoven here, but his relations to Haydn
were of a more familiar character. At the death of the latter master he
composed a funeral cantata, which was performed at Paris, at the Con-
servatoire, with great celebration. The respect he bore for his revered
friend may be estimated by the fact that when asked his reason for not
dedicating the Porteur d'Eau to Haydn, he replied, " The work was not
worthy of such honour/' Yet this grand work has been an object of
admiration to all great men and artists from the date of its production to
the present time. After the 200th representation of this work, which soon
arrived, Gretry headed a committee of French musicians, who wished to
express to the composer their respectful congratulations. Goethe praises
the work in his celebrated correspondence with Eckermann ; the score is
said to have had a settled place of honour on Beethoven's writing-table ;
Karl Maria von Weber called it " divine music ; " Robert Schumann describes
it as a masterly and intellectual work, whose composer, the refined and
learned Italian, in his strict independence of thought, he compares to Italy's
greatest poet, Dante.

It is strange that of Cherubini's Abencerages, which contains so much
beauty, nothing is popular but the brilliant and romantic overture, that
has become a favourite with all the orchestras of France and Germany.

CHERUBINI, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI. 1111

Two of the most characteristic items of this opera are the tribunal scene,
with its powerful choruses, and the Finale. At the age of seventy-three
the master's intellect was still youthful and vigorous, and he wrote All
Baba, an opera in which all the effects of modern orchestration are dis-
played, anticipating those produced by Berlioz, Wagner, and Liszt. The
overture of this work forms an entire symphonic tone-picture, and with
those of the Medee, LodoisJca, Faniska, Anacreon, Abencerages, and Porteur
d'Eau, constitutes a constellation sufficient in itself alone to immortalise
the name of Cherubini.

This master was as prominent among the writers of sacred music as
among those of opera and orchestral works. He rose far above the
generality of sacred composers, both French and Italian, belonging to the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and his sacred works may be fairly said
to rival those of his Italian precursors Palestrina, Gabrieli, Lotti, and
Scarlatti, as well as of the greatest German masters in this branch of the
tonal art, Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven. It is interesting to notice the
causes which led him for a number of years to confine himself to writing
music entirely for the Church. Vexed by the neglect of Napoleon and the
entire Parisian public, which could not understand his works with ease, with
the exception of the Porteur d'Fau, and which respected him more than it
admired him, Cherubini deserted his art and devoted himself, in company
with his learned friend Desfontaines, to the study of botany. He left Paris
in 1808, accompanied by his pupil Auber, having accepted an invitation from
the Prince de Chimay to visit him at his chateau. The botanical studies
which he eagerly prosecuted in the parks attached to the chateau led
him more than once to dissertations with his host on the philosophy of
nature. It was by mere accident that the composer returned to the pursuit
of his former art. The townsmen of Chimay wished to celebrate the Feast
of St. Cecilia, with the performance of a mass. They were unsuccessful,
however, in finding a work suited to their restricted means of production,
and having petitioned Cherubini to compose one for them, had been
brusquely refused. One day the master, returning from his usual day's
botanising, entered the salon of the princess, and seated himself at the
table where his herbarium had its place. Here by some chance was lying
a quire of manuscript music-paper, and the composer, almost unwittingly,
began writing, heedless of the assembled company, who forbore noticing

1112 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

bis action. The immediate result of this was a " Kyrie " in F major for
three voices, to which he added later on a complete mass in the same key.
Such were the circumstances attendant on Cherubim's resumption of his
art, which tended to the increased wealth of Church music. Amongst his
sacred compositions we must draw special attention to bis grand mass in A,
written in celebration of the coronation of Charles X. ; a mass in C major;
an Ave Maria ; an occasional credo a capella ; and his two Requiems, of
which the first, in C minor, is for a mixed choir and orchestra, the second,
in D, for male voices only with orchestral accompaniment. The absence of
female voices in the latter work has been regarded as a concession to the
Church dignitaries of the Restoration, who, influenced by the bigotry of
former periods, wished to exclude female voices from all Church music. It
may be asserted, however, that it was through the preference of the
composer himself, for the darker colouring, as more suitable to the sombre
character of a Requiem. Beethoven was so impressed by the master's first
(C minor) Requiem, which bears traces of Mozart's influence, that he was
influenced by it while writing his Missa Solennis, which was not produced
till a much later period. Cherubim's great Requiem must be reckoned
as one of the grandest creations of modern art. The master has
determined his line of action ; there is no hesitation. Everything in
this grand poem exists. The listener is carried away, and becomes in
spirit a co-actor in the terrible drama which is unrolled before him.
What mastery does the composer display over the strict choral style !
how bold an innovator in the realms of orchestration ! Until the climax,
the crash of the tam-tam, and the terrible blast of the trombones, depicting
the destruction of the world, the composer has confined himself to the use
of the viola in the place of the violin, the subdued colouring thus produced
representing effectually the night of death; then how effective are the shrieks
of the violins in the " Dies Irae," resembling the wild flickerings of a sea of
flame. The grandeur and passion displayed in this creation remind us in-
voluntarily of that wonderful work of the great Florentine painter Michael
Angelo, the " Last Judgment." The Requiem was performed for the first
time on January 21st, 1816, in the Cathedral of St. Denis. Amongst its
numerous performances following we must notice specially that on the occa-
sion of the interment of Boieldieu in October, 1834. Cherubini's second
Requiem, in D, composed in 1836, was intended specially for the celebration

CHERUBINI, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI. 1113

of his own burial. As a reward for the Coronation Mass, the composer was
created Officer of the Legion of Honour by Charles X. ; and afterwards pro-
moted to a higher rank. In 1822 the master rose from the rank of professor
and inspector of the Conservatoire at Paris to that of director, a post which
he was destined to retain for twenty years, although sixty-two years of age
on his acceptance of it. At the Conservatoire he taught many French masters
of note, including Auber, Halevy, Adam, Carafa, and Fetis. Mendelssohn
and Hiller both sought him at Paris to gain his opinion of their works,
and Rossini entertained great reverence for him. Mehul may be reckoned
as having been one of his closest friends. In fact Cherubini enjoyed the
respect of both French and German masters, and composers of all nations
sought his advice. The veneration in which the Italian master was held
among his pupils may be gathered from the fact that Auber, when visited
by the author, promised to show him the most valuable of his possessions,
and carefully unlocking a case he produced a coffer whence he took a score,
which as far as the author remembers was that of Cherubini's great mass.
Cherubini was possessed of a high mental culture, which was allied with
refined humour and biting irony. Though conscious of his own merit he
was naturally modest. On one occasion when he found his own name on
the programme next to that of Beethoven he exclaimed, tf I shall appear but
as a boy next to the great German." On another occasion, however, having
been requested to attend a performance of a symphony of a composer of
whose talent he had formed a very low estimate, he answered, " Why
should I go and hear how one is not to compose." His pupil Halevy,
having invited him to a dress rehearsal of one of his operas, sat next to
him during the whole of the first act, anxiously expecting some opinion
from him. Cherubini maintained a strict silence; but on Halevy's inquiry
as to the reason of his silence, he replied, " Why have you not told me
anything ? " Berlioz once expressed an opinion in the presence of Cheru-
bini that he did not love fugue ; the Italian master rejoined, ' ( The fugue
loves you just as little," implying that the younger master's training had
not been altogether strict. Cherubini died on March 15th, 1842, at the
age of eighty-two, deeply regretted by the musical world. His funeral
was public, and was attended by all the prominent men of Paris. One of
the best portraits of the great master was that painted by Ingres, the
celebrated French artist.

1114

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

If Cherubini is specially characterised by idealism, Spontini's most
prominent feature is realism. We use the term realism here in that high
sense in which it has been employed with reference to art by Goethe.
Gasparo Luigi Pacifico Spontini was bom on November 14th, 1774, at
Majolati, a hamlet situated near Jesi, then belonging to the pontificate.
His father, a man of humble position, was most ambitious with regard to

Fig. 283.— G. L. P. Spontini.

his children, and would not allow Gasparo to adopt music as a profession.
The boy was sent to his uncle Joseph Spontini, a priest at Jesi, in order to be
educated for the Roman Catholic Church. He ran away from his guardian,
but returned, and his uncle, at length recognising, his great talent, ceased
to oppose his adoption of music as a profession. Consequently in 1791 he
entered the Conservatorio Delia Pieta, at Naples, where he became a pupil
of Sala and Tritto. He soon gained celebrity by his insertions in the
operas of earlier masters. This induced Sigismondi, then director of the
Argentine Theatre at Rome, 1796, to persuade him to leave the Conserva-

GHERUBINI, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI. 1115

torio clandestinely, and follow him to Rome, where he should compose an
opera for production at his theatre. This work, entitled / Puntigli delle
Donne, met with a success so striking that his escape from the Conserva-
torio was forgiven, through the intercession of Piccini, who made him one
of his favourite pupils. Several operas which the young composer wrote
for Rome, Florence, and Naples caused his invitation in 1800 to Palermo,
where the Neapolitan court had fled before the advancing French. Here
he fell in love with an Italian princess, thus compromising his position.
This fact, in conjunction with the unhappy state of his country, compelled
him to establish himself at Paris in 1803. In the previous chapter we
have called attention to the powerful influence of Gluck's master- works over
Spontini; it was so powerful as to make him resign his musical position, and
develop rapidly his great talent. We left him, no striving beginner, but
a composer of world- wide celebration. In Paris he married the daughter
of Sebastian Erard, the wealthy and renowned pianoforte manufacturer.
His wife proved most devoted, and with true admiration for her husband's
gifts she remained a fond partner of his triumphs and trials. When
in 1814 King Frederick William III. of Prussia entered Paris at the
head of the allies, he not only heard Spontini's operas there, but was
much impressed with the composer's individuality. This induced him
to invite Spontini to Berlin in 1819, appointing him " General Musik-
Director," court composer, and conductor of the Royal Opera at Berlin.
His income in the Prussian capital was 6,000 dollars (Fetis states the sum
to be 10,000 dollars, but this is incorrect). The power given to him by
order of the king was immense. The following is copied from the instruc-
tions, dated September 26th, 1821, under the royal signature : —

" Spontini has the exclusive right with respect to the performance of
operas, &c., of

" (a) Assigning the roles.

" (b) The ordering and direction of rehearsals.

" (<?) The power of excising ineffective vocal pieces, and introducing
others.

" (d) The scenic arrangements so far as the effect is connected with the
music, his orders to be strictly carried out by the stage manager and his
subordinates, such as the scene-shifters, wardrobe-keepers, scene-painters,
&c.

1116 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

" (e) The appointment of a conductor of rehearsals and performances
in his own absence.

" (f) The choice of understudies for the principal characters."
We may say in addition that to Spontini belonged almost the sole
right of accepting and refusing operas for performance; and very great
power respecting the imposition of fines on the members of the opera com-
pany. On June 28th, 1820, Spontini commenced his career as conductor
with his own opera Ferdinand Cortez. The royal orchestra soon had reason
to be proud of its conductor. A member of this body wrote : " The piano
desired by Spontini resembles the pianissimo of a quartett, the forte vies
with the loudest thunder. Between these extremes occur his unparalleled
crescendo and decrescendo. He pays the greatest attention to light and
shade. Through the great number of rehearsals, occasionally amounting
to eighty, the performers gain a most complete acquaintance with his
operas, and the result is an incomparable ensemble. I was thunderstruck
when I performed for the first time in one of those operas ; it was not
playing, it was hard work. Spontini entered the orchestra like a king,
assumed command like a general, and looking about him with that piercing
glance, he noted the heavy battery, as he calls the contrabassi and violon-
celli, and gave the signal to begin. Like a pillar of bronze he stood at
his desk, moving only his forearm — a very model of a conductor. The
orchestra, from the leader to the drummer, sat in fear of the master, but
followed his baton with enthusiasm to the last note. Then with the words
' Ick danke/ he left the orchestra." It will be seen that Spontini was
always imperfect in his pronunciation of German. We will add to this
letter of one of Spontini's orchestra a few more items concerning his rule
in the orchestra. He insisted on uniform bowing on the part of the string
performers, even in the most insignificant passages, gaining by such
means extraordinary refinement. With his sforzandos he produced remark-
able effects. Eckert mentions one in Gluck's aria in F, from Armida, in
which the heroine conjures up fury and hatred from the nether world,
remarking that the effect resembled a series of stabs with a dagger. After
the last rehearsal of a grand opera, Spontini left the company with the
words " Au revoir, messieurs, au champ de bataille." When in rehearsal
a grand crescendo was necessary, he would call upon the orchestra as a
general upon his troops, " Allez ! en avant, martelez."

CHERUBINI, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI. 1117

We have ventured to dilate at length upon Spontinr's characteristic
peculiarities as a conductor, for though conducting is subordinate to com-
position, we hoped by this means to complete our portrait of the master,
whose ambitious spirit, like that of his emperor, would brook no contra-
diction, and steered towards a settled purpose with a determination to
overthrow every obstacle. Thus the dissensions which occurred later in his
career could not but be of a most serious nature. Spontini's reception in
Berlin augured most favourably for his future; his Cortez and Testale
were received with enthusiasm ; and even Olympia, which met with but
small success in Paris, became the means for an extraordinary ovation to
the composer. After the performance of the last-named opera, the master
was literally covered with flowers and laudatory verses, which were
showered upon him by the enthusiastic audience. But their excitement
rose to the utmost when the maestro attempted, in broken German, to
address his thanks to the public. In 1822 his NurmaJial was performed
with the same success, on this occasion showers of eulogistic German verses
and Italian sonnets being thrown from the roof upon the audience. This
public ardour at length abated. In 1824 the king commissioned Spontini
to compose an opera — Alcidor — in celebration of the wedding of the Crown
Prince with Elizabeth of Bavaria. With this opera began the decline of
public favour : the composer was reproached with noisy instrumentation,
and a number of tuned anvils which were employed in the opera formed
the subject of much abuse, and were regarded as meretricious means of
concealing poverty of invention. No less cold was the reception of his
opera Agnes von Hohenstauffen, which was produced in 1829, and the
libretto of which was from the pen of Raupach, a then popular writer.
Although it cannot be denied that the three operas which Spontini com-
posed at Berlin, viz., NwrmaAal, Alcidor, and Agnes von Hohenstauffen,
stand, on the whole, considerably below the level of the three Paris
operas, Fcstale, Cortez, and Olympia ; yet it was not the decrease of
artistic power of the tone-poet, but rather the position that he assumed
in the musical world of the Prussian capital that brought about this de-
velopment of public animosit}7. Unlike Cherubini, the maestro did not
favour contemporary works, but with the immense power with which he
had been invested by the king, and which he employed for his personal
interest, he placed his own works entirely in the foreground, excluding,

1118 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

with the exception of the operas of Gluck and Mozart, all German pro-
ductions. This could not but wound the national sentiment, and was
without doubt the cause of the opposition which ensued. As early as 1821
the seeds of dissension between Spontini's supporters, the court and the
majority of the aristocracy, and the German party, which consisted of the
civic classes and the people, were sown by the first performances of Weber's
Freischutz. The first representation of this work was given on the 18th of
June, the anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo, in which Spontini's idol,
Napoleon, had been overthrown by the allied Powers. The admirers of the
Italian composer did all that lay in their power to prevent the success of the
German opera ; but the majority of the people, who loved Weber's music —
i.e., the composition of Kdrner's songs of liberty and Preciosa — were so
moved by the fresh and national character of the Freischutz that the work
met with a fabulous success. Spontini's vanity was wounded to the quick,
and his resistance to German national music became more and more energetic,
widening continually the breach between his supporters and those of the
German master. At length, feeling the power of the national sentiment,
Spontini invited Spohr and Weber to conduct the first performances of
their operas, Jessonda and Euryanthe, but this must be recognised as a
diplomatic move rather than as a token of acknowledgment. The press
united with the public ; and when, angered by the challenges of the
Italian, Ludwig B/ellstab, the most important of Berlin critics, discussed the
question whether a composer like Spontini, who was known in Berlin only
as a compounder of such vapid compositions as LallaJi Rookh, Nurmahal,
and Alcidor, could be accepted as the creator of Vestale and Cortez, a fact
which he seriously doubted, a deplorable crisis occurred. At first Spontini
seemed to triumph. He brought an action against Rellstab for libel, as
well as for pre-arranging a scandalous scene to take place in the opera
house, the result being that the journalist was sentenced to be imprisoned for
fourteen days. This did not, however, mitigate the opposition to the
maestro, for in the eyes of the people Rellstab, who, by-the-by, had been
soured by his imprisonment, had been made a martyr for the German cause.
Count Briihl, the director of the royal theatres, whose influence had been
considerably lessened by the power with which Spontini had been in-
vested, gladly seized the opportunity for revenge by joining the ranks of the
popular party. William IV., on ascending the throne, appointed a com-

CHERUBINI, SPONTINI, AND. ROSSINI. 1119

mission to arrange matters to the satisfaction of both parties ; but before
this committee could arrive at any decision the master ventured to declare
that the sacred promise of two Prussian kings would be compromised were
they to decide against him. This was regarded as a threat, and therefore as
contempt of a commission appointed by His Majesty, and an investigation
ensuing according to the criminal code, Spontini was sentenced to imprison-
ment in a royal fortress for nine months. The king, respecting the artist
and excusing the man, overruled the judgment, and in 1841 freed the com-
poser from his functions, allowing him his full income and the maintenance
of his titles, and still permitted him to exert his pen on behalf of the Royal
Opera, giving him at the same time the privilege of conducting his own
works. Spontini, however, felt that his position in Berlin was untenable,
and therefore relinquished all engagements. He could not fail to see that
he had sinned more against the public than they against him. He even
acknowledged this in 1842, at the farewell banquet at Leipzig, saying:
" I leave Berlin with a heavy heart, but one full of gratitude. The
insults which have been directed against me by individuals, and which
I have long pardoned with all my heart, fail to make me ungrateful to
the city which for twenty-three years has afforded me protection, esteem,
and love. Berlin will ever remain in my mind the noblest and most sacred
memory of my life, and I shall continue to love and bless it until my
death. I leave Berlin as the singer of ' Jerusalem Delivered ' left the court
of Ferrara. Tasso could not have loved his Leonora more than I have my
Prussian king/' Spontini occasionally visited Berlin, but never again
resided there for any length of time. In 1838 he visited his birthplace,
but stayed there only for a short time. On leaving he went to Paris, where
he met with a cool reception. His compatriot Rossini divided with Meyer-
beer almost exclusively the laurels which the French capital could bestow.
It appeared as if the creator of the Festale had outlived his span, and
that the rising generation had no desire to become acquainted with him.
The majority were indifferent to his being created "Conte di Sant'
Andrea " by the Pope, or his membership of the Paris Institute, or of
the Senate of the Berlin Academy of Arts. Nor could his breast,
crowded with orders and decorations received at the hands of emperors
and kings, recompense him for the carelessness with which the public now
regarded their once highly-revered composer. But there was yet solace in

1120 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

store for the master, for just when he was suffering from the indolent
respect as shown by the inhabitants of the imperial city to a past greatness,
and when the Italian fatherland scarcely knew the name of its great son,
the immortal portion of his works was revived in Germany. The conten-
tion had been forgotten, and the Vestale and Cortez commenced life anew
on the German opera stage. In 1844 Spontini was invited to Dresden to
conduct his operas; and in 1847 the committee of the Rhenish Musical
Festival invited him to Cologne. Here the aged master enjoyed the satis-
faction of conducting some of the splendid scenas and choruses from the
Vestale and Olympia, for the benefit of thousands of hearers, whose en-
thusiasm was manifested in a storm of almost interminable applause.
Shortly before his death the Italian master experienced a longing to re- visit
his southern home, and on his passage through Rome received an enthusi-
astic reception at the house of Landsberg, a clever German musician, whose
house formed the rendezvous of all artists at Rome. His last days were
spent at Majolati, his birthplace, to the inhabitants of which place, and to
the institutions of the neighbouring hamlet of Jesi, he left a considerable
portion of the large fortune he had amassed. In his last moments his mind
was occupied with the memory of the Vestale, and this name is said to have
been on his lips at the moment he died. It seemed as if he were being
received, on his entrance to a new existence, by a band of his noblest
creations. He died at Majolati on January 24th, 1851.

Spontini's dramatic creations are impressed with the noblest and most
heroic elements, to which he added the most serious, passionate expression at
will. He was imbued with the spirit of tragedy, and the representation
of grand tragic conflicts, with imposing massive and orchestral effect, had
become a second nature with him. He never descended, however, to the
employment of hollow theatrical pathos. He could with a simple solo affect
the hearer, and enchant him with all the grace of chaste beauty, the
Vestale furnishing splendid examples of this power. Spontini has depicted
the grandeur and majesty of Rome in as classical and plastic a manner as
that in which Gluck had achieved the portrayal of the beauty and nobility
of the Grecian era. Whereas Gluck, following the example of the Greek
tragedians, describes the internal emotions of individual heroes, Spontini
employs as a theme the action of conflicting masses. The latter had been
preceded in the representation of Roman character by Mozart.

CHERUBINI, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI. 1121

The Titus of Mozart compared to Spontini's Vestale may be fitly
likened to a picture replete with harmony standing in juxtaposition to a
group of marble statuary, such as would be found on the temple of Jupiter
Capitolinus. It must be remembered, however, that Titus was but a hastily
composed opera, whilst the Vestale was the outcome of a great love and con-
sequently ardent study of the subject. In the heroine we possess a crea-
tion whose ideal purity alone would be sufficient to gain for the opera every
sympathy. The dramatic action and the conflicting passions of the persona
with which Spontini dealt are far more exciting and more serious than
those of Mozart's heroes. The manner in which the Italian master portrays
the sorrowful abnegation on the part of the priestess, in whose heart the
fire of love at length bursts into passion, leading to a terrible combat between
duty and love, forms at the close of the second act one of the grandest con-
ceptions to be found not only in the region of opera, but of the entire
drama. Although the Vestale should, like all great works, be judged in its
entirety, we cannot refrain from calling attention to the chief and most
noble features of this creation ; they include the choruses of the priestesses,
the grand duet between the Vestal virgin and Licinius, the triumphal march,
the affecting Finale to the second act, and the funeral march, to the sound
of which Julia is led to death by the priests and populace. The lamenta-
tion with which she takes leave of her youthful existence bears strong
resemblance to a similar outburst occurring in Antigone. Spontini's second
immortal opera, Cortez, partly lacks the youthful vigour, the flow of
melody, and that seeming facility of production so prominent in the
Vestale. It exhibits increased artistic reflection, but we miss in it the
intense human emotion which affects layman and artist alike. Neverthe-
less this work still maintains its position as one of the prominent art-pro-
ductions of the period ; and when we consider the masterly manner in which
Spontini in the Vestale has delineated the Roman character, we cannot
fail to be astonished at the objectivity he displays in his treatment of
Cortez, a subject so entirely different. The chief feature of the latter work
is the juxtaposition of the adventurous chivalry common to the Spaniards
of the sixteenth century, with the childlike naivete and religious fanaticism
shown by the uncultured Mexicans. In representing these items Spontini
has succeeded in- a manner unsurpassed. In the grand Finale of the
second act the composer ventures on an entirely new field. The hero
T T T

1122 HISTOEY OF MUSIC.

Cortez quells the revolt of his attendant warriors, who long for the return
to their distant home, by destroying with fire the very ships which con-
veyed them to the Mexican shores, thus severing all connection between
the newly discovered world and the native country of the adventurers.
When the master undertook the task of painting in music this historical
tradition, he added a hitherto unknown expression to the musical art.
Ever increasing in intensity, in this Finale we find the most varied emotions
which at length unite into a complete whole. The vigour of the songs of
the men and the seductive dances of the maidens, the home-sickness of the
Spaniards, their revolt, and the contempt of death exhibited by their leader,
are worked into an harmonious and perfect entirety. He who has enjoyed
the good fortune of seeing a performance of this work, with such a tenor
as Tichatscheck in the title-role, supported by choruses and orchestra as
at Dresden, cannot fail to have been carried away by enthusiasm, and must
have felt that Spontini had represented in music the noblest spirit of
the Napoleonic age as well as if in marble or bronze. No less vividly
does the composer depict the demand of the priests for human sacrifice and
the fanatical fury of their religious dances. The orchestration seems to reflect
something of the warm breath of the south and the tropical heat of Mexico.
The trio of the condemned Spaniards makes the listener almost long for the
distant home, which in their contempt of death they despair of seeing again.
It will scarcely seem rational at the first glance to place Rossini on a
level with Cherubini and Spontini, who — the former with his severe grandeur
and chaste beauty, the latter with the energy and boldness of his com-
position— stand above the majority of their effeminate contemporaries. It
cannot be denied that the self-criticism, artistic earnestness, depth of
musical expression, and serious conception of the age exhibited by Cheru-
bini and Spontini, are partly wanting in the works of the third great
Italian. Rossini was not inferior, however, in the natural gifts which had
been so lavishly bestowed on the former two masters, and he has proved,
moreover, in Tell and II Barbiere, that when in earnest he was equal to
them in artistic power. We have already said that Cherubini and Spontini
rose far above the level of their contemporaries, and we think it but just
to apply the same remark to Rossini ; in fact, we may say that his two
above-named operas are as far removed from the standing of his former
works as he himself is from the level of his contemporaries.

CHERUBINI, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI.

The fact that Cherubim, Spontini, and Rossini stand together above
their contemporaries does not form the sole link connecting this triumvirate.
Another feature common to the three composers, one which characterises
them not only in the musical history of Italy but in that of the entire
universe, is the powerful influence exercised over them by the great masters
of the German Genius epoch. We have already devoted a section to the
discussion of the influence of the German Genius epoch on Italy and France ;
we now assert that this influence was nowhere so powerful as in the case
of Cherubini, Spontini, and Rossini. As the former two masters owed
their great position m, the history of music to Gluck, Haydn, and Mozart
— Spontini more especially to the first — so was Rossini's position assured by
Tell and II Barbiere, which were written under the influence of Haydn
and Mozart, whose works he adored. Each of these masters owes his best
creations and their continued success to the love and enthusiasm with which
h« has studied the model offered by the works of the great masters of the
German Genius epoch, on whom, in their vanity, their Italian contem-
poraries had turned their backs, the result being that their works have been
long forgotten, whereas those of their three great compatriots are still per-
formed. We must add that we find in Cherubini, Spontini, and Rossini
(as regards the latter only as the creator of II Barbiere and Tell) com-
posers of works which replaced the vapid " concert-operas " of Sacchini,
Paisiello, Zingarelli, and Paer with creations containing dramatic life and
truth, substituting for the degenerated duets and the conventional passages
of thirds and sixths, ensembles — polyphonic in form. The employment of
this polyphonic form was extended even to the orchestra, which, in the hands
of their countrymen, had been lowered to a mean accompaniment. With
this began the emancipation of the orchestra, and the introduction into
Italy of musical colouring.

Gioachino Rossini did not appear in his early years as -the great
master we have considered above. He was but a composer of those
national Italian melodic operas which seemed for some time to the inhabi-
tants of Europe to be the resuscitation of the great Italian musical
supremacy. He was born on February 29th, 1792, at Pesaro, in the
Romagna. His father, besides fulfilling the duties of an inspector of meat,
was a performer on the horn ; his mother was a singer in an insignificant
travelling opera troupe. It may be supposed, therefore, that the lad
T T T 2

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

received some musical impressions when young. His possession of a fine
voice when a boy caused him to be sent to Bologna, to study under Tesei at
the Lyceum ; and he afterwards received lessons in composition from Mattel,
a pupil of Padre Martini, 1807. A year previously the boy, then fourteen
years of age, had, owing to his remarkable gift, been elected conductor of
the Academia dei Concordie, and had produced successfully Haydn's Seasons,
a work even at that period one of his favourites. Unfortunately, Mattei
was a dry, pedantic scholar, and little able to interest his gifted pupil in
the study of the fugue, fugal style, or double counterpoint; therefore
Rossini, with his usual lax disposition, accepted as serious the contemptuous
satire of his master, who declared that simple counterpoint would be quite
sufficient for any one who, like him, aspired no higher than the composition
of operas and profane music. The youth borrowed from the celebrated
library of the Lyceum the works of Haydn and Mozart. It being the old
Italian custom to rest content with the possession of the parts, young Rossini
composed the scores for his own benefit. He thus scored a number of
string quartetts of these great masters. This marked preference for German
music obtained for the youthful composer the name of "II Tedeschino."
In 1810 Rossini's first comic opera, in one act, entitled La Cambiale di
Matrimonio, was produced at the San Mose Theatre, at Venice. This work
was followed, a year later, by another opera buffa, L'J&quivoco Stravagante.
Of his next three operas, composed in 181 2, for Venice, Ferrara, and Milan,
one only achieved a great success ; we refer to La Pietra del Paragone.
The success of this work was altogether eclipsed by that of Tancredi,
performed in 1813 at the Fenice Theatre, at Venice. The extraordinary
excitement caused by the first production of this work raised Rossini at
once to the head of the operatic composers of Italy.

In Tancredi we meet all the defects as well as the beauties which
distinguished the unclassical Rossini of that period, whose works ruled all
European opera stages, from the Rossini the composer of II Barbiere and
Tell. The title-role of Tancredi was written for a contralto voice. The
characters in this work were by no means dramatically treated ; the parts
appear to have been intended for concert singers wishing to exhibit their
power of vocalisation. Instead of musical expression depicting the action
on the stage, we find mere striving for vocal effect. Even in the most
tragic moments the music is only composed of pleasing melodies and facile

CHERUBINI, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI. 1125

rhythms. Nothing can afford a better proof of this than the celebrated aria,
" Di tanti palpiti/' We find in Tancredi features which distinguish it, and
all Rossini's subsequent works, from the conventional opera as produced by
his predecessors and contemporaries ; the stiff aria, with its fatiguing
ritornelli and endless repetitions, assumes, under the hand of this master,
something of the form of the melodious canzone, the rondo, and the tempo
di marcia ; the secco recitative is reduced and adorned with graceful fiori-
turi ; harmony and modulation are no longer restricted to the tonic,
dominant, and their parallel keys ; and the orchestra exhibits, even if
modestly, some attempts at independence. With Tancredi and Otello
Rossini commenced the substitution of the second related minor key for the
usual dominant ; for example, he goes from F major to A minor ; he intro-
duces his celebrated crescendi into the stretto. The latter effect had been
already attempted by Jomelli, but without the same success. At the same
time Rossini introduced the commonplace triplet passages for the violin,
consisting only of an arpeggio chord as accompaniment to the singer ; and
the cantilena, which seems merely calculated to provide the vocalist with
a foundation on which to improvise solfeggi and variations. We are con-
soled, however, with occasional sweetness and freshness of melodic invention,
such as no other Neapolitan could create. Rossini carefully avoided the
tedious length and consequent dulness which occur in the opera seria of
his older contemporaries. Tancredi was composed when Rossini was twenty-
one years of age, and between that age and that of thirty the composer
produced thirty operatic works, all of which have, in common with
Tancredi, defects and beauties. The best known of these works are
L'lialiana in Algeri, 1813; II Tarco in Italia, 1814; Elisabetta, 1815;
Otello, 1816; Cenerentola, 1817 ; La Gazza Ladra, 1817 ; II Califfo di
Bagdad, 1818 ; La Donna del Lago, 1819 ; Maometto, 1820 ; Semiramide,
1823; Le Siege de Corintke, 1826; Mo'ise, 1827; and Le Comte Ory,
1828. Rossini, who never missed an opportunity for joking at the
expense of himself as well as of others, said, in reference to most of these
operas, that if you had heard one you had heard them all, so typical and
conventional are the persona, situations, and musical manner. Their con-
ventionalism, however, is far removed from that of the later masters of
the Neapolitan school. The above-named operas have given rise to the
designation of Rossini as the composer of the European reaction which

1126 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

took place after the Revolution, the Consulate, the Empire, and the over-
throw. W. H. Riehl says : " Rossini's world-wide fame dates from the
Vienna Congress. The wearied nations were in need of rest, and the Italian
composer provided them with charming lullabies. Tired of the stilted
pathos of the Napoleonic school, on the stage as well as in daily life, the
source of entertaining art from which oblivion could be drunk was eagerly
sought. Where was art more entertaining than in the operas of Rossini ?
The heroes had played their parts ; their duties were replaced by diplomacy,
and certainly Rossini was the finest diplomat to be found amongst artists.
How excellently does his syren song suit a wearied race, anxious to read of
travelling prima donnas and favourite dancers rather than the reports of
battle and even victory. The Italians ascribed to Rossini's music a pleasant
perfume ; perfume indeed was necessary to remove the scent of those past
years of bloodshed/''

Among the operas of Rossini which we have named above, and which
have for the most part been forgotten, we must draw special attention to
those which occupy an honourable position midway between the immortal
Barbiere and Tell and those works in which the composer shines merely as
a gifted melodist. They include the Elisabetta, Semiramide, Otello, and
Mo'ise. In the first of these works, Elisabetta, Regina d'Inghilterra, the
composer exhibits unusual earnestness, and introduces into the secco reci-
tativo an entirely new feature, viz., replacing the usual violoncello or piano
accompaniment by that of the string quartett. In the third act of Otello
we encounter not only refined musical beauty, decidedly above that of the
average of his productions, but tragedy and pathos by which we cannot fail
to be affected. • As instances, we will quote the song of the gondolier,
" Nessun maggior dolore/' the grand duet, and the plaintive romance sung
with harp accompaniment by Desdemona. The opera Nose, which had been
re- arranged for the grand Paris opera under the title of Mo'ise, contains,
besides the celebrated " Prayer/' several touching scenes. The same may
be said of Semiramide, the overture of which enjoys great popularity.

II Barbiere di Seviglia contains not only isolated instances but one
continued flow of beauty. Nowhere are any defects visible, the work never
flags ; it is a masterpiece, assuming the rank in the opera buffa that
Tell occupies in the repertoire of the grand opera. In a previous chapter we
designated as the " Comic Romantic Opera "that species of French opera

CHEBUBINI, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI. 1127

known as the " Opera Comique/" on account of the latter title inadequately
expressing- the diverse elements contained in this form of composition.
The Barbiere, however, would necessitate no alteration of the title of its
species, it being- entirely restricted to the limits of the old Italian opera
buffa, which, beginning with Logroscino and Pergolese, only reached its
ideal at a hundred years from its birth with the work of Rossini. This
classical work, which stands so high above the similar productions of tht
master, was composed in thirteen days, a fact all the more remarkable when
we consider that not one of the parts exhibits signs of haste or mere
musical craft. II Barbiere not only reflects the humour and refined taste
of the composer, but even seems to breathe the voluptuous climate /of the
country of its birth. The master in many of his serious operas overlooks
the dramatic requirements of the work ; for instance, he leads to death a
condemned victim to the accompaniment of a cheerful melody, whereas he
puts into the mouth of one who is happy a plaintive ditty. In the Barbiere,
however, he adheres conscientiously to the fitting dramatic characteristics.
This is visible in the melody of the gracefully entwined voices of the
ensembles, in the rhythm which is replete with irresistible humour, in the
modulation and harmonic treatment, and the choice and delicate instru-
mentation of the entire work. Indeed, the work might have been inspired
by the graces, so well balanced are its parts ; nowhere is it laboured or
dull, and in no instance does it trespass on the borders of: frivolity. The
characters of Dr. Bartolo and Basilio, which in the early opera buffa would
have been grotesque and extravagant, are depicted with a refined irony
truly Shakespearian. The barber, instead of being- a shrewd and designing
servant alone, is fashioned into a genial Gil Bias. Almaviva and Rosina
might be well compared to a Romeo and Juliet of comedy. It seems
incredible that this creation was, on the first night of its performance at
Rome, February 5th, 1816, hissed and hooted. This occurred through the
influence of the adherents of Paisiello, who were indignant at the subject
being selected by Rossini, as it had already been composed by their favourite.
The opera was conducted on the first night by the composer, who quitted
the theatre immediately after the performance. His disappointed friends
calling at his house later on, intending* to console him, found him in bed
and asleep. The following evening the opera was not conducted by the
composer, who remained at home, and who was astonished by a crowd

1128 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

assembling- under his windows after the performance shouting "Evvivail
maestro/' in atonement for the injustice which they had shown on the
previous evening. In the year 1815 Rossini had entered into an agree-
ment with Barbaja, an enterprising impresario at Naples, who had perceived
what a source of wealth would be open to him through the talent of the
gifted composer. By this contract Barbaja had the sole right of producing
the master's operas, supplying him with libretti and performers, an agree-
ment which suited the taste of the indolent maestro. The impresario soon
reaped the profits of his speculation, and though providing the composer
with but a petty honorarium, supplied him with such lavish cuisine and cellar
that, having been accustomed to moderate circumstances, the master soon
developed into a gourmand, and in after-years surprised his Parisian friends
with his love for and knowledge of the culinary art. The operas Mose,
La Donna del Lago, and Maometto, performed 1818 — 1820 at Naples,
owed a great part of their success to the rendering given by the prima
donna Mademoiselle Colbran. We cannot be surprised that this vocalist
charmed the young composer, and in 1822 became his wife. In the
summer of the same year the newly married composer visited Vienna
for the purpose of fulfilling a new engagement procured by Barbaja.
During the Congress at Verona, Rossini was recalled to Italy by Prince
Metternich, who wrote to him that " Orpheus must not be missing where
diplomats were busy in restoring harmony between princes, people, and
cabinets/' The master, whose vanity was flattered, obeyed the call, and it
was not until afterwards that he recognised in the actions of the prince
merely the working-out of a scheme to maintain the Austrian supremacy in
Italy. It was out of revenge for this that Rossini composed his Guillaume
Tell. The coolness with which the Semiramide was received in Venice
wounded the composer so deeply that he decided to leave his country for
ever. In 1824 he received an invitation from the Italian Opera in
London, where King George IV. and the aristocracy showered laurels and
gold upon him. In a few months he realised 180,000 francs, which, in
addition to his previously acquired fortune, made him a wealthy man. On
his journey to London, Rossini had visited Paris, where the cheerful
atmosphere and his flattering reception had already inspired him with the
desire of residing. This plan was realised on the composer's return, as we
have mentioned in a previous chapter.

CHERUBINI, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI. 1129

We will now consider the later years of this master. Whilst Bach,
Handel, Gluck, and Haydn composed their grandest works when advanced
in years, Meyerbeer wrote the Huguenots at the age of forty-five, and the
two great Italians Spontini and Cherubini composed, the one his Olympia
at the age of forty-five, the other the Porteur d} Eau, Anacreon, Abencerages,
Ali Baba, and his two Requiems between the ages of forty and seventy,
Rossini completed his career as a composer on arriving at the age of thirty-
seven. When we remember that the master, enjoying the full power of
his intellect, lived beyond the span of a lifetime after the composition of
Telly this fact will appear incredible. It is true that in 1832 Rossini
began the Stabat Mater, a work more fitted for the stage than the church,
notwithstanding its charming melodies, and to this he added his " Soirees
Musicale," and " Solfeggio per soprano, per renders la voce agile/' and the
new instrumentation of a short mass composed in his earliest days, never-
theless these works appear trifles when compared to the magnitude and
number of his compositions prior to this age, and we have to face a period
of unproductiveness extending over forty years, and for which we can supply
no psychological explanation. The only proposition which appears in the
slightest degree satisfactory is that after the poor success attending the
first performance in Paris of Tell, and the loss of one of his dearest friends,
a reaction took place, causing the master to desert for ever the arena of his
triumphs. It could not fail to wound the master deeply when he con-
sidered that the second of the works destined to bring his fame down to
posterity was received with more coolness than had been shown at the first
performance of II Barbiere. How could the composer help despising the
public who were indifferent to his greatest works, while showing favour to
those creations of which he himself had but slight opinion ? Had the
master been a Cherubini, he would have proudly disdained the judgment of
the public, and remained firm in the assurance of the purity of his inten-
tions. But, being of a nature much less energetic than that of his com-
patriot, and having been spoilt by previous adulation, the failure of Tell
made him quit Paris in 1836 to return to his birthplace and revisit the
scenes of his childhood. After some time he left Pesaro for Bologna, where he
resided in solitude apparently unmoved by the great success achieved by Tell
in Northern Germany, and afterwards in Paris. In 1841 he was visited by
Fetis, who experienced uneasiness at the master's appearance and humour.

1L30

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

B/ossini seemed satiated with and indifferent to fame and success. He was
thoroughly wearied of the world, and disgusted with mankind ; he had no
longer any faith in art nor in himself, and echoed the sentiment of the
preacher that "all is vanity/'' The master evinced such a dislike for music

Fig. 284. — Gioachino Rossini.
(Painted ly If. Grevedoy, 1828.)

that not a note could be played in the house in which he resided. While
at Bologna he occupied himself with fishing and pig farming, the latter it
has been supposed as an outburst of irony and contempt. By degrees this
misanthropy was dispelled, and in 1853 the composer once more returned to
Paris. In the French capital he was received with open arms; a street,
theatre, and cafe were named after him. His hospitable dwelling on the
Boulevard des Italiens was the rendezvous of all the representatives of
intellect, art, and science. He died on November 13, 1868, and was

CHERUB IXI, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI. 1131

followed to the grave by half Paris. Cherubini was too individual to form
a school, Spontini did so only in respect of the grand opera in France, but
Rossini, versed in all the mechanical contrivances of his art, and not above
striving for effect, with such a knowledge of writing parts flattering to the
vocalists, could not fail to form a large school, especially in favour with his
Italian contemporaries. After his first success he was surrounded by a
group of imitators, including Mercadante and the now forgotten Generali,
Tadolini, and Pacini. Influenced by the facility with which Rossini's
works had driven from the stage the respected creations of the older
masters, such as Sacchini, Anfossi, Paisiello, Zingarelli, Cimarosa, Paer,
and Simon Mayr, who had entirely adopted their style, Italian composers
followed eagerly in his footsteps, though not possessed of his gifts.
Saverio Mercadante, the most gifted of Rossini's disciples, and the only one
whose works are not entirely forgotten, was born near Bari in 1795. The
best of the sixty operas composed by this master are Elisa e Claudio and II
Giuramento. The latter work not only contains powerful dramatic en-
sembles and soli, but differs from Rossini's school more than any other of
his works, as it contains passages which remind us of Meyerbeer and the
Rienzi of Richard Wagner. For this reason the Giuramento appears more
modern than either Tancredi or Otello. This master, who lived until 1870,
might be accused of imitating the more modern masters, were we not aware
that the opera in question had been produced in 1837. The second in
importance of Rossini's disciples was Vincenzo Bellini, who was born at
Catania, in Sicily, in 1801, and died in Paris in 1835. This composer, like
Rossini, was endowed with the gift of spontaneous melody. He, however,
differed from his predecessor in many respects. Rossini was more versatile
than his follower, and had as much dramatic pathos as humour. Bellini, on
the contrary, never composed a comic opera, a fact all the more, surprising
when we consider that it was customary with Italian composers to begin
their career with the creation of an opera buffa. The cause of this was
undoubtedly the composer's dreamy nature and inclination for melancholy
sentiment. It was owing to this elegiac character that Bellini became the
favourite of his period, and was admired so greatly by his nation. The
friends of liberty, and Ihe opponents of foreign oppression, had been
ardently hoping that with the July Revolution a complete political and
national regeneration of Europe would take place. They were, however,

1132 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

doomed to disappointment, for a brutal reaction took place everywhere,
affecting the Italians more powerfully than any other nation. This
led on the one hand to hatred and desire for revenge, on the other to
melancholy and effeminacy. No Italian composer represented so thoroughly
in his music the latter mood. Vincenzo entered the Conservatoire at
Naples when eighteen years of age, 1819. His first real success was
obtained at Milan with the opera II Pirata, the libretto of which was by
Felice Romani. The chief roles of this work were rendered by Lalande,
Rubini, and Tamburini. II Pirata was followed in 1828, at Milan, by
La Straniera, which in turn was succeeded by / Capuleti ed i Monteccki,
1831, and La Sonnambula. These works carried the fame of the composer
throughout Europe. In 1832 the young master reached the climax of his
renown with the production of Norma, the libretto of which was supplied by
his friend Romani. This work ranks higher than any other of Bellini's
operas, and wants but little to obtain the attribute of " classic." It has
been surmised that, like Rossini, who represented his patriotic sentiments
in Telly Bellini has masked the Italians under the form of the Druids in
Norma. The overture to this opera is undoubtedly superior to those pre-
ceding the other dramatic works of this composer. Its motivi are more
fully developed, and are characteristically orchestrated. The well-known
chorus and march of the Druids, and the Finale of the first act, never fail
to produce striking effects. The grand trio and the ensembles, with the
exception of the trivial duet in thirds allotted to Norma and Adalgisa, show
what Bellini might have achieved had he possessed more energy and gained
further experience with a longer life.

Bellini, whose music so easily degenerates into the effeminate and
melancholy, has most happily avoided all false sentiment in Normals
tf Casta Diva " and grand aria, in the latter of which he exhibits a tragic
expression and nobility of sentiment equalled only by the chorus of Druids
in the second act. The latter number can almost be said to bear traces of
the influence of Beethoven's moonlight sonata, and the entire work seems
influenced by the music of Spontini and the German composers. Norma
was followed by Beatrice di Tenda, which appears almost to have been the
composer's farewell to his country on going to Paris. In the French
capital the master composed IPuritani, in 1834, for the Italian opera, having
previously made a serious study of the style of the grand French opera to

CHERUBTNI, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI. 1133

which this work adheres. It was the composer's last opera, for he died in
1835. The pleasing amiability of Bellini's character is powerfully reflected
in the music of his operas, which are, therefore, in great favour among
prima donnas, who prefer his simple cantilenas to Rossini's arias replete
with brilliant passages. The most renowned interpreters of Bellini's vocal
music include Pasta, Grisi, Viardot Garcia, Jenny Lind, Biirde-Ney,
Schroeder-Devrient, Johanna Wagner, Artot, Patti, and Nilsson. The
chief male vocalists celebrated for their performance of Bellini's operas are
Tamburini and Rubini.

Bellini, whose character was similar to that of Chopin, invested the
cantilena with a breath of romance which differed from the realism of
Rossini. Notwithstanding the superficial character of some of Bellini's
compositions, the master cannot altogether be accused of that negligent
writing according to routine which is so often encountered in the operas of
Rossini, and which is the result of the Neapolitan do Ice far niente. The
orchestration of those of Bellini's operas produced previous to Norma is
considerably weaker than that which is found in most of Rossini's com-
positions. Bellini in the commencement of his career endeavoured to make
the vocalist the medium by which to express the emotion and sentiment of
the opera, employing the orchestra as a mere means of accompaniment,
thus rendering the wind instruments practically superfluous, the string
quartett fully supplying the requirements of such an accompaniment. In
JSorma and the Puritani, the second in importance of this master's operas,
we find a more fully developed orchestration, and one which would bear
comparison with that of Rossini's Tell, Barbiere, Siege de Corinthe, and
Semir amide.

The last great talent belonging to the school of Rossini is Gaetano
Donizetti, born at Bergamo, in Lombardy, in 1797, where he died in 1848.
This composer, though not so gifted as Rossini, was decidedly more ver-
satile than his contemporary Bellini, and exerted his talent in every branch
of opera with the exception of the Romantic, although he outlived Weber,
the founder of that class of composition, by twenty-two years. Apart from
the tuition received by this master from the hands of Simon Mayr, he was
undoubtedly influenced by the German school, as can be plainly seen in
La Favorita, the most important of his operatic works. Donizetti's com-
position was neither as natural nor flowing as that of Rossini or Bellini,

1134 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

his works are more the result of reflection than are those of the latter
masters, and the variety of his subjects, local colouring, and strained effect^
prove him to be an adherent of the eclectic school. In consequence of this
method of speculation, the greater number of the master's seventy Italian
and French operas are at the present day forgotten, but there are some in
which his natural gift and reflection are so evenly balanced that they have
remained favourites on every opera stage to the present day. Amongst his
comic operas, La Figlia del Reggimento and 'L'Elitire d'Amore are still per-
formed with success. Both these operas contain much genuine humour,
skilful musicianship, and dramatic interest. I/a Figlia, written about 1841,
bears strong evidence of its birth in the French capital ; but L'Elisire
d'Amore, written in 1832, is of a thorough Italian character, and its spark-
ling humour calls to mind the happiest efforts of Rossini.

We must now distinguish between Donizetti's important serious operas
and those of less interest. The musical development of La Favorita is the
result of serious reflections, its ensembles and recitatives are characterised by
powerful dramatic expression, and most parts are replete with musical charm.
There are other numbers, however, which detract seriously from the value
of the entire work.

The works which obtained for Donizetti the greater portion of his
renown were Lucrezia Borgia, produced at Milan, 1834 ; Lucia di Lammer-
moor, performed in 1835 at Naples ; and Don Pasquale, which appeared in
1843 at Vienna. These works contain much beauty of expression, and are
replete with melodious invention. Belisario, in which the composer has
emulated Rossini's Guillaume Tell, exhibits a lack of power, self-criticism,
and artistic earnestness. Lucrezia Borgia is, without doubt, a work
superior to that we have named above, owing chiefly to the serious spirit in
which the composer has treated the subject. The weak character of such
operas as Belisario, Anna Bolena, Maria Stuarda, Linda di Chamounix, and
Marino Faliero, notwithstanding their great success, have gained for their
composer the soubriquet of (i Donizetti-dudelsac." The master has not been
altogether fairly judged. On the one hand he has been exalted, on the
other debased to the utmost. But his admirers have too often been led
astray by the doubtful taste of the period, whereas his detractors have failed
to acknowledge the master's great gifts. Donizetti's last opera, written
for Naples, was Catarina Cornaro, 1844, which was composed but a little

CHERUBINI, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI. 1135

while before the first attacks of his illness, which eventually proved mental.
The master visited his birthplace,, where a cure was attempted, but the
malady had gained too great a hold, and the composer lived there for the
last two years of his life under the hallucination that he was dead, and
greeted every visitor with the remark that " poor Donizetti is dead."

Turning from this sad picture, we will now deal with the remainder of
those masters who belong to that period which is marked by the great
names of Cherubini, Spontini, and Rossini. Antonio Zingarelli was born
in 1752 at Naples, where he died in 1837. This composer, like Paer, was
one of the last of the Neapolitan opera composers belonging to the period
of the decline. Zingarelli was a great favourite of Napoleon, who pointed
to him as a model whom Cherubini should follow, much to the disgust of
that great master. The success of this composer's operas, which was fur-
thered by such vocalists as Marchesi, Crescentini, Rubinelli. Catalani, and
Grassini, shows us into what Italian music would have degenerated, in the
end of the eighteenth and commencement of the nineteenth century, had
not Cherubini, Spontini, and Rossini arisen to rescue the art from its
gradual decay. Pietro Raimondi, born at Rome in 1786, was one of Italy's
greatest contrapuntists of the nineteenth century. His extraordinary pro-
ficiency in polyphonic combinations too often induced him to indulge in the
mere display of theoretical knowledge. For instance, he published at
Ricordi, in Milan, four four-part fugues which can be performed as a six-
teen-part work, and six four-part fugues which can be made into one
twenty-four-part work. His inclination for contrapuntal and polyphonic
exhibition led him to compose a sixty-four-part fugue for sixteen four-
part choirs. This work was followed by a triple Biblical drama, Potifaro,
Giuseppe, and Giacobbe. These three parts were performed consecutively
at the Argentina Theatre at Rome, on August 7th, 1852, and again, simul-
taneously, on the following day. Raimondi also composed many oratorios,
masses, requiems, operas, and ballets, in addition to the composition of the
entire psalter in the Palestrina style. Francesco Morlacchi and Niccolo
Vaccai were two of the last composers of the almost extinct Neapolitan
opera school. They differed from their colleagues, inasmuch as they were
strongly influenced by the spirit of modern times, the works of Spontini
and the grand French opera. This caused them to write in more than
one style, and they therefore enjoyed two separate periods of activity.

1136 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Morlacchi, born in 1784 and died in 1841, was a pupil of Zingarelli.
Amongst other works, he composed a cantata in celebration of Napoleon's
coronation as King- of Italy. He was appointed court chapel-master to
the King of Saxony, and was a companion of Karl Maria von Weber and
Reissiger while at Dresden. He was the last of the Italian chapel- masters
who had so long officiated in the Saxon capital. Niccolo Vaccai (1790 —
1848) has gained greater renown than his compatriot as a composer, and
was, moreover, a celebrated teacher of singing. His " Metodo Practice di
Canto Italiano per Camera " is accepted as a classical work, and his twelve
" Ariette per Camera, per 1'Insegnamento del bel Canto Italiano " are still
much used in tuition. The great number of operas and sacred compositions
of Morlacchi and Vaccai are now forgotten, and even if revived they could
at the present time possess no other than an historical interest. We shall
complete our list with the names of the brothers Luigi and Federigo Eicci.
These brothers lived during the years 1805—1859 and 1809—1877 respec-
tively. Their operas, both serious and comio, were performed with great
success until the middle of the present century on the stages of Italy,
Trieste, St. Petersburg, and Paris. These works were based on the prin-
ciples of the old Neapolitan school, but bear traces of the evident influence
of Rossini. The greatest success was achieved by the comic opera Crispino
e la Comare, the joint production of the two brothers, which was per-
formed at Venice in 1850.

That period of development of Italian music which, is rendered famous
by such names as Cherubini, Spontini, and Rossini was characterised by
the upgrowth of a great number of remarkable instrumental and vocal
virtuosi. Foremost amongst the female vocalists was the celebrated
Angelica Catalani. This singer was born in 1779 at Sinigaglia. She was
educated at the Convent of Santa Lucia at Rome, where her voice attracted
much attention, to the great profit of the institution. It was a powerful
soprano of extraordinary compass and exquisite charm, and she soon
developed that facility of execution, united with a grand style, that has
made her recognised as the greatest singer perhaps of all times. Catalani
first appeared in Zingarelli's Clitemnestra, and Niccolini's Baccanali di
Roma, and her wonderful voice, beauty, and dramatic talent obtained for
her an unusual success. All Europe soon resounded with her fame, and
she visited Rome, Naples, Florence, Venice, Trieste, Lisbon, Madrid, Paris,

CHEfttJBINI, SPONTIXI, AND ROSSINI. 1137

and London, meeting everywhere with a success unparalleled in the history
of the art. In England she remained from 1807 to 1814, receiving a fixed
salary of 96,000 francs per season. Like Madame de Stael, Catalani in-
curred the displeasure of Napoleon by preferring in 1806 an engagement
in London to one in Paris. She only returned to the French capital after
the fall of Napoleon in 1814, and was by Louis XVIII. created directress
of the Italian Opera, with an annual income of 160,000 francs. On the
return of Bonaparte from Elba she again left Paris, whither she returned
after his overthrow and exile to St. Helena. Her last performance in
public was at Berlin, in 1827, at the conclusion of a tour throughout
Northern Germany. She died in Paris in 1849.

We have alluded before to the importance of Pasta in the success
of the performances of Rossini's and Bellini's operas. Giuditta Pasta
was born at Como in 1798, where she died in 1865. She achieved her
greatest success in roles requiring passionate expression and dramatic
action. Her voice was a magnificent soprano* of unusual compass. She
was followed by the sisters Giuditta and Giulia Grisi. Giuditta Grisi
was born in 1805 and died in 1840 ; it was for this singer that Bellini
wrote the mezzo-soprano part in his / Capuleti ed i Montecchi. Her sister
Giulia was born in 1811 and died in 1869; she possessed a high soprano
voice, for which Bellini wrote the part of Juliet in / Capuleti ed i
Montecchi. This sister was especially famous as Donna Anna in Mozart's
Don Giovanni. Fanny Persian i was born at Home in 1812, and died at
Passy, near Paris, in 1867. She was the favourite for many years at the
Italian Opera both in London and Paris, and in Venice rivalled Malibran.
One of the most celebrated contraltos, who possessed also the range of a
mezzo-soprano, was the gifted Marietta Alboni, born in the Komagna in
1823. The character of Orsini in Donizetti's Lucrezia Borgia was com-
posed especially for this artiste. We have already referred to Antonio
Tamburini; this incomparable bass was born in 1800 and died in 1867,
and with Giovanni Rubini, a brilliant tenor (1795 — 1854), united with
Lablache, Persiani, Grisi, and Viardot Garcia in forming in Paris, during
the years 1832 — 1841, an ensemble which placed the Italian opera stage
above all stages of Europe.

* Rather mezzo-soprano, as her lower notes were somewhat contralto in quality. — F. A. G. 0.

u u u

1138

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

We took leave of Italian instrumental music with the mention of Sam-
martini and Boccherini. Sammartini was the precursor of Haydn in
instrumental composition, and the teacher of Gluck. Twenty-four of this
master's symphonies were published in Paris, and twelve trios, for two

Fig. 285.

violins and bass, were published in London and Amsterdam. Boccherini
was celebrated as a composer of chamber music, and not undeservedly so,
for some of his most prominent works are often performed at the present
day. His compositions include ninety-one string quartetts and 125
string quintetts. Between these masters and Cherubini and Spontini we
find no composer of instrumental music whose works can be compared with
the former or the latter, either in respect of artistic earnestness, grandeur

CHERUBINI, SPONTINI, AND ROSSINI. 1139

of form, or brilliancy of colouring1. The period of activity of these
masters was rendered famous by the existence of a number of classical
virtuosi, some of whom even preceded this epoch. The first of these was
Gaetano Brunetti, a pupil of Boccherini, celebrated for his execution on
the violin. Brunetti was of more importance as a virtuoso than as a com-
poser, as is proved by his manuscript compositions both for orchestra
and chamber. He was born at Pisa in 1753, and went to Madrid to
reside when still a youth. The siege and capture by Napoleon of this city
in 1808 so affected the master that he died there. Of still greater im-
portance is Giovanni Battista Viotti, the founder in Italy of modern violin
playing. He was born in 1753 near Vercelli, and died in London in 1824.
On his first concert tours throughout Europe, during which he visited
Paris, London, Berlin, and St. Peters-burg, he created great excitement. In
1782 Viotti was accompanist to the Queen Marie Antoinette, and solo
performer of the Paris " Concerts Spirituels." The success gained by a
young and insignificant violinist, together with the indifference shown by
the public at one of his concerts, caused such annoyance to Viotti that for
a number of years he refrained from appearing in public, and played only
to a circle of friends and connoisseurs. For some time he assumed the
directorship of the Theatre Feydeau, but was ruined by the Revolution, and
quitted Paris for England. On his return to Paris, Cherubini and Rode
persuaded him to resume his performances as soloist at the Conservatoire,
and it was found that, far from having lost any of his power, he had
improved to such an extent that he was at once acknowledged to be the
greatest of European violinists. ViottPs grand style caused the formation
of a school, which was followed by all the most prominent violinists of
Italy and of the French capital. Amongst his compositions there are
twenty-nine violin concertos of the first order, and many quartetts, trios,
duets, and sonatas of minor importance. Viotti was followed by Niccolo
Paganini, born at Genoa in 1784. As a child Paganini performed on the
mandoline and guitar, but soon adopted the violin, which was destined to
make his name immortal. Of a violent and untamed nature, Paganini ran
away from home when still a boy, and in gambling lost all his possessions,
including his beloved violin. The extraordinary effect produced by his
fascinating performances on the people of Italy until the year 1827 was
repeated in France and Germany. So great was the excitement caused by
u u u 2

1140

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

his performance that in many bigoted places he was credited with magic
and an alliance with the Evil One. Paganini was self-taught, and it was
not until he had obtained an almost perfect mastery over his instrument
that he began to notice and acquire the methods of other virtuosi, which he
imitated with the greatest facility. He therefore exhibited in his perform-
ance his own power, combined with the technical peculiarities of others.

To a grand tone he united the most
touching expression. He employed
unheard-of double stops, and intro-
duced remarkable effects, such as the
imitation of the flageolet, and pizzi-
catos performed with either hand. He
could continue his performance with
the loss of one or even two strings, so
perfectly indeed that the difference
was scarcely perceptible to the connois-
seur. He tuned his instrument accord-
ing to the effect he desired to produce,
following a method of his own, and even
possessed the power of accomplishing
it while playing. Thus this mysterious
man, whose genius was not unmixed
with trickery, who could move to tears
his audience and at the next moment
startle them with the maddest tricks,
who could imitate all other virtuosi

and yet possessed an independent style, and who resembjed nobody
and excelled all, stands unique in the history of practical music. Of
the works published under his name only a moderate number can be
regarded as composed by him. Of those we must mention the concertos
in E flat major and B minor, the latter of which is known as "a la
Clochette ; " twenty-four. " Capricci per violino solo/' which have been
arranged for the piano by Schumann and Liszt ; twelve " Senate per
violino e chitarra;" three " Gran quartettia violino, viola, chitarra e violon-
cello;" his "Moto perpetuo," his variations on Rossini's "Di tanti palpiti,"
and his sixty variations on the "Carnival of Venice." These works are for

Fig. 286. — Paganini.

CHERUBINI, SPONT1NI, AND EOSSINI.

1141

the most part characterised by a fantastic vein, a capricious form, and
piquancy of expression. One of the most prominent of his pupils was
Giovanni Battista Polledro (1781 — 1853), who, although celebrated as a
performer and a composer of some importance, can bear no comparison with
his master.

There can be no more convincing proof of the power of a school such as
was created by the masters to whom we have devoted this chapter than its
influence over the art-productions of other countries, the position it has
maintained in spite of the numerous
styles of most different character, and
the esteem in which it is held by
masters of all other schools. The
influence of Rossini on the composi-
tion of the period emanated from the
operas Barbiere and Tell. Although
as a composer he maintained his
nationality, there can be no doubt
but that in the above operas Rossini
was influenced by the works of Haydn,
Mozart, Weber, Spontini, and Auber ;
by the two latter especially in Tell.
The power of the school formed by
the Italian master can be no longer
questioned when we consider that it
produced such talents as Mercadante, Bellini, and Donizetti. The influence
of the German opera composers on Cherubini and Spontini was more
powerful as a whole than that which they exercised on Rossini ; £or
instance, the former idolised Haydn, and in return was declared by
Beethoven his greatest contemporary ; and Weber, who had pronounced
his Porteur d'Eau divine music, feared lest by inserting into Lodouka a
song specially composed for the prima donna, he should cause a blemish
in the work. Spontini founded his style on the works of Gluck and
Mozart, of whose operas he was the avowed champion, producing in
Paris, for the first time, Don Giovanni, and in Berlin making a special
feature of the works of Gluck, Handel, Haydn, Mozart, Cherubini, and
Beethoven; on the other hand, the maestro was revered by the most

Fig. 287.— Paganini.

1142 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

prominent representatives of the New Romantic School — Berlioz and
Wagner. Berlioz never tired of praising the Vestale, and remarked of
the second act that it was a " gigantic crescendo/' rising to a climax of
dramatic passion and tragedy. In his " Grand Traite d'Instrumentation et
d'Orchestration/' Berlioz speaks on every possible occasion with admiration
of Spontini; and when Olympia failed to achieve a fitting success, he
opposed the verdict of Fetis, and reproached the Parisian public for the
cool reception they had given the opera. Richard Wagner * says : " With
Spontini an important and precious art-period has gone to its grave. Let
us bend low and with reverence before the grave of the creator of the
Testate, Cortez, and

* See Richard Wagner's " Collected Works," published 1872, vol. v., p. 111.

THE NEW ROMANTIC SCHOOL.

HE majority of the masters belonging to the epoch of the Great
Talents, such as Weber, Schubert, Spohr, Mendelssohn,
and Schumann, refrained from exaggeration in their com-
positions as regards expression, sentiment, and instrumen-
tation. Their manner was, as a rule, healthy and grand,
and but rarely degenerated into the strained and unnatural.

How different is the case with a great number of the important masters
who form the New Romantic School, in whose works the contents and
form are opposed, and the Idiosyncrasy and fancy of the composer replace
the eternal laws of an art which has been developing for the space of a
thousand years.

It would be impossible for the art-historian to successfully investigate
the causes of the changes in music without referring to the history of the
sister arts which have influenced it, especially that of poetry. In so doing
we must return to the Renaissance, which affected poetry, architecture,
sculpture, and painting alike.

Besides the Classical Renaissance, the author is convinced, after many
years' study of the history of art, that there exists also a Renaissance of
the Romantic. In order to understand the possibility of such an existence,
we must consider of what a renaissance consists. We believe that the
Renaissance at the beginning of the fifteenth century was in great part
owing to the longing of the human race to regain that union with
nature which the ascetic tendencies of the religion of the Middle Ages,
with its contempt and even hatred of everything terrestrial, had severed.
A reaction took place; man wished to enjoy the beauties of nature.

1144 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

He desired a new birth, hence the term (C Renaissance/' This Classical
Renaissance is repeated in romantic natures, especially at a period when a
barren moral teaching and prosaic enlightenment cause in poetical natures
a longing for the supernatural and an ideal solution of the mystery of
man's existence. It is characteristic that both periods of Renaissance
were interrupted in the midst of their progress by an entirely new art-
epoch, imbued with a totally different spirit. Whilst the Renaissance is the
result of a partiality towards the culture of a past period, the object of the
intervening epoch is to connect that of the past with that of the new era.
We shall style these particular epochs " connecting epochs." The first of
these occurred in the Classical Renaissance — sixteenth century -, and the
second in the Romantic Renaissance — eighteenth century. The first of
these connecting epochs comprises the genius era of Italy, the second con-
sists of that of Germany. Each of these epochs had the effect of bringing
about the decline of its period. If we omit architecture, sculpture, and
painting, the renaissance of which took place after 1420, we may state that
the Classical Renaissance commenced when the development of mediaeval
culture reached its climax with Dante. It is undeniable that Dante, while
passing through Hades in company with Virgil, and in contest between the
Guelphs and the Ghibellines, no longer favours the Pope, but rather the
German Emperor of Rome, a fact denoting an inclination towards the
antique and classical ideal. This tendency becomes still more evident when
we consider the works of Petrarch and Boccaccio, which prove also that
poetry precedes its sister art. Music, the youngest of the arts, made but
little progress before or during the connecting epoch of the sixteenth
century, and in the seventeenth century was influenced greatly by the
weak and mistaken conception of classical ideals then prevalent. Con-
cerning the music-drama we must remember that this institution owed its
origin in a great part to the plastic art and literature, and that the revolu-
tion in Tuscan music was brought about rather by an external agency of
the Classical than by an independent Renaissance. Consequently the efforts
of the Florentines affected the tonal art in many ways, and their action
reminds us almost of that of the Bayreuth music -drama, though they
cannot lay claim to results equal to those produced by the Classical Renais-
sance in architecture, sculpture, and painting, and from want of vitality
degenerated into the Neapolitan opera, and thence into a musical Zopf.

THE NEW ROMANTIC SCHOOL. 1145

In church music, however, this period was signalised by uninterrupted
progress, aided by the Catholic restoration and the practice of music among
the Protestants. This progress, which had begun in the other arts at an
earlier period, can by no means be attributed to a Classical Renaissance,
but rather to the more complete expression of the medieval Christian ideal.
Examples of this we* find in the sacred compositions of Lotti, Astorga,
Schiitz, Buxtehude, and others. We can hardly ascribe to the Classical
Renaissance the isolated German opera essays of Schiitz, the secular
canzonets of the Venetians, and their imitations by German masters of
the seventeenth century, nor the musical " School-Comedies " which were
then in favour with the Protestants of the North. A real Classical Renais-
sance did not take place in Germany until the eighteenth century, and not
before the commencement of the Genius epoch ; as had been the case with
the Italians, it happened during that epoch, and increased with such vigour
that for the moment it threatened to eclipse poetry and painting. We
can perceive this in the works of Gluck and • Handel, its most prominent
representatives, who united the pure Christian conception of the age to the
Classical Renaissance, in which their example was followed by all the
heroes of the Genius epoch.

The development of the sister arts took place under totally different
circumstances. The union of the medieval Christianity with the antique
was brought about in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries ; in painting by
masters such as Bramante, Leonardo, Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian, and
Correggio ; in poetry by Shakespeare, Cervantes, and Ariosto. This fusion
was brought about unconsciously by the artists of the period, and formed
the first of our " connecting epochs." Without any actual period of transi-
tion, if we ignore for the moment Ghiberti and Brunellesco, this " con-
necting epoch " follows immediately upon the Classical Renaissance,
which in poetry and the plastic art had begun ere this, and was in
the full strength of its development. It was, without doubt, the neces-
sary result of the first Renaissance. Painters such as Luca della Robbia,
Masaccio, Benozzo, Gozzoli, and Mantegna, who began this era, and
Periigino, Francia, Ghirlandajo, and SignorelH, who, approaching Michael
Angelo and Raphael, brought it to a close, show that, notwithstanding
the influence of the antique, there existed still a strong mediaeval Chris-
tian type; in the mature works of Michael Angelo and Raphael we

1146 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

meet with a complete fusion of the antique and Christian ideal, the
result of an objective conception of the world.

With the decline of the Italian Genius epoch, a new era commenced
in the history of the tonal art. This has already been styled by the
author a period of contention between the antique and realistic, the
Mediaeval Catholicity and the Romantic. These various elements existed
in this period, defying amalgamation, and each striving for prominence.
The Baroque and Zopf styles prove that the Classical Renaissance even
in its decadence was the ruling element of the above-named epoch. The
Romantic Renaissance, which had to struggle for existence, was the result
of a restoration enthusiastically brought about by the Catholics, who
employed as a handmaiden the sacred music of the Protestants. The
Renaissance of the Romantic differs from the Rococo and Zopf in its
characterising sentiment, and the nature of the subjects treated by it.
Its influence can be perceived in the passionate sorrow of a " Crucifixus " by
Lotti ; an entranced Madonna, the creation of Murillo ; Calderon's " Worship
at the Cross," or his " Magi/' a seeming prelude to Goethe's " Faust,"
and Lope de Vega's woman-worship, or Tirso de Molino's tragedy Don
Juan. The effect on art of the two contending Renaissances is seen in the
realistic and antique tendency of the works of Cellini, Veronese, Caracci,
Rubens, Holbein, Velasquez, Teniers, Ostade, Camoens, Corneille, Racine,
Moliere, Lully, Prsetorius, Monteverde, Peter Vischer, Andreas Schliiter,
Van Dyck, Canaletto, and Poussin. On the other hand, the Christian and
Catholic idealism is represented by Ammanati, Giulio Romano, Caravaggio,
Rembrandt, Diirer, Murillo, Callot, Salvator Rosa, Calderon, Tasso, Angelus
Silesius, Milton, Antonio Lotti, Heinrich Schutz, Frescobaldi, Adam
Kraft, Lorenzo Bernini, Ribera, Ruysdael, and Claude Lorrain.

With the eighteenth century a new epoch appeared in the form of a
fusion of the opposing elements of art-culture, which in France was but
incomplete, for Voltaire, with his realism and witty sarcasm, was entirely
opposed to Rousseau, whose ' ' Heloise " is both Romantic and fantastic.
These masters were instrumental in preparing a fusion of the opposing
elements in Germany, which in poetry was brought about intentionally,
whereas in music — the youngest of the arts — it occurs for the first time,
and happened unconsciously. It is important that we should notice that
the great poets of this epoch, opposing the vulgarising of the antique and

THE NEW ROMANTIC SCHOOL. 1147

the prosaic enlightenment of the period, no longer sought their inspirations
in the classics, and favoured the fantastic Catholic Romance, and paganism
or German Christianity, the source from which emanated the school of
modern romance in poetry and music. Klopstock wrote not only his
"Messiade/' but also " Freia," "Baldur," and the " Hermannschlacht."
The circle formed around Klopstock, designated the " Hainbund," the
members of which were styled "bards/'' included not only the brothers
Stolberg, converts to E/oman Catholicism, but Burger, who in his
" Bal laden " introduced the tone of genuine romance into modern German
poetry, as in " Leonora/' The " storm and stress " period not only
brought forth Klinge, by whom this epoch was so named, and who
wrote a " Faust/' under the title of " Faust's Leben, Thaten und Hollen-
fahrt/' but also the passionate Lenz, and the young Goethe, whose " Erwin
von Steinbach/' " Gotz von Berlichingen," " Werther's Leiden/-* and
earliest Faust scenes, together with his studies in necromancy, and the
prevailing admiration of Shakespeare's romance, prove that the age was
imbued more strongly with Christian Romance than with the Classical
conception of the world.

It is as important to notice that the contemporaries Handel and Bach,
the first of whom, with his Protestant principles based on Classic form, and
Bach, the perfecter of the medieval tonal art, began the fusion of the
antique with the Christian conception of the world, as to remark that
Mozart and Beethoven favoured the Romance, and therefore the musicians
of the period returned with the last-named master to that mood which
characterised Bach.

Such different tendencies in two arts of the same epoch of genius, the
fact that the poets are in the commencement Romantic and are finally
Classic, whilst the tonal masters, with the single exception of Bach, begin as
Classics and end as Romantic composers, had the most diverse effects upon
both poets and musicians.

Both "connecting epochs" were of some duration, and consequently
the Renaissances in which they fell suffered degeneration. As the " con-
necting epoch " of the eighteenth century interrupted the Renaissance of
the Romantic, the art-period immediately following was Romantic, and as
the second half of the Classical Renaissance had now come to an end, the
Romantic element enjoyed sole power.

1148 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

These assertions are proved by history, for immediately following the
German Genius epoch was a period of Romance, and one of such power
that it produced two separate Romantic schools — the one in modern German
poetry, the other in modern German music.

The style of the German Genius epoch of poetry and music entirely
differed at the close of the period from that of the commencement. The
poets, with the exception of Lessing, Winckelmann, Goethe, and Schiller,
who maintained the Classical style, embraced the Romantic element in a
most extravagant manner ; thus Ludwig Tieck, one of the founders of this
school, in his " William Lovell," exhibits a contempt of the world almost
bordering on nihilism. He says : " We must, above all, try to rid our-
selves of the loving mawkishness and the agreeable platitudes of the
Weimar school, viz., Goethe, Schiller, &c." Frederick Schlegel, another
of the founders of this school, says : " The beginning of all poetry is the
abolition of the process and laws of reasoning and calculation, and the
restoration of that beautiful confusion of phantasy, the original chaos of
human nature/' Schlegel also says that true genius shows its lofty origin
in leaving the common adherence to duty, morals, and propriety to the
bigoted Philistines. With regard to the tonal art, circumstances differed
greatly. The development of the musical Genius epoch, in which Beet-
hoven may be said to have returned to Bach, enabled Romantic composers
to follow their great predecessors without opposition. The Romantic vein
of Mozart and Beethoven was followed up by Schubert and Weber. There-
fore, unlike poetry, the tonal art was continued from the point at which it
had been left by the great classics. The result was that the development
of the two Romantic schools, viz., Poetry and Music, the disciples of which
commenced by following Goethe and Beethoven respectively, took place in
an entirely different manner. The school of the Romantic poets com-
menced with chaotic tendencies, and had to clarify by degrees. The
Romantic school of music began clear, naive, and popular, and later on
became unnatural and subjective. As a proof of this, the school of litera-
ture and poetry of a Frederick Schlegel, Tieck, Gentz, Zacbarias Werner,
Holderlin, Novalis, and T. A. Hoffmann, must be compared with that of
Gorres, Heinrich von Kleist, Brentano, Fouque, Armin, Chamisso, Eichen-
dorff, Lenau, and Hauff ; or Spohr, Schumann, Chopin, and Robert Franz
with their predecessors Weber, Schubert, and Marschner.

THE NEW ROMANTIC SCHOOL. 1149

When the poets of the Romantic connecting epoch had gained style,
and satisfied their inclination for German pagan and Christian, and Catholic
mediaeval subjects, and the musicians were becoming more subjective, in-
dulging in hypersentimentality, under the impression that this was the
special province of music, there occurred another reverse of the sister
schools, which now turned towards revolution, nature, and nihilism. The
result of this was a fusion of the terrestrial and the transcendental, which
gave rise to a symbolising of the " glorification of the flesh/' a character-
istic feature of the New Romantic School. The poets returned to their
former state, as will be seen by comparing Schlegel's " Lucinde " with
Gutzkow's " Wally." The musicians, on the contrary, returned from
optimism to pessimism, and a bitter contempt of the world or social
trammels.

In taking a comprehensive view of the nature, spirit, treatment of form,
subject, and mood of the sister schools, we shall see that they are not only
in harmony, but are actually identical. We cannot, therefore, gain a
perfect understanding of the younger school of music in a shorter and more
convincing manner than by comparing it with the school of poetry, both as
regards moods and conceptions, and the innumerable analogies existing
between them. We shall prove this by a few examples, not having room
to treat the matter in a complete and exhaustive manner. With the ex-
ception of Bach, in whose sacred works we find the full development of that
world-estrangement which, in the Middle Ages, resulted in the birth
of the element of Romance, we meet in the Genius epoch of music only
two tone-masters who give expression to the Romantic. Mozart favours
Romance in his Requiem, Don Giovanni, and Seraglio, Beethoven in the
Missa Solennis, Fidelio, the three overtures to Leonora, the apotheosis in
Egmont, his song-cycle, " An die ferae Geliebte/' his last string quartetts,
and the ninth symphony. The Romantic appears in the secular works of
these, the most powerful of tone-poets, as it does in the creations of Goethe
and Schiller, as a separate feature of their artistic individuality. In the
epoch of the Great Talents the masters were variously influenced by the
spirit of Romance, which became a characteristic feature of the period.
Even Felix Mendelssohn, the most decided classic of the era, could not
escape the reigning influence. The masters of this epoch not only intro-
duced Romance into their works, but wrote them under the influence of that

1150 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

powerful modern element — as examples, we may mention Schubert, Karl
Maria von Weber, Spohr, and Marschner. Schumann, as we have remarked
before, enters into the New Romantic or "Young" German School, and can
therefore be placed with justice on a level with Hector Berlioz and Richard
Wagner. Schubert and Weber never considered themselves disciples of
any Romantic School, nor did the masters Spohr and Marschner; and even
in the case of Schumann this distinction is due rather to the influence of a
number of adherents who in his name adopted a course directly inimical to
the classics under the name or banner of the Romantic School. After
Schumann the principles of Romance were accepted as the true musical
doctrine of the future, and the term " music of the future" was adopted by
both friends and opponents. In order to gain a correct conception of these
principles, we must refer to the change which took place in German poetry
a generation before under the title of f< Young Germany." The growth of
the Romantic art-principles was gradual, and may be traced in the works of
Weber, Schubert, Marschner, and Lowe, which, notwithstanding the intro-
duction of the new element, are of a thoroughly sound character, and
though an increase of the power of the new principles is visible in the
works of Spohr, Schumann, Mendelssohn, and Gade, it is as yet not
excessive. Later we find a change similar to that which occurred, two
centuries earlier, in the Tuscan School of music, the masters of the period
declaring music to be at an end, and claiming for themselves and their
disciples the creation of a new tonal art. A similar change characterises
the Romance period of German poetry. For proof of this, the contents,
language, and form of Kleist's " Prince von Homburg," and the " Geharn-
ischte Sonette " of Ruckert, must be compared with that of a tragedy of
Grabbe, or the political poems of Heine, Herwegh, and Tieck's, or Maler
Miiller's " Genoveva " with that of Hebbel. The historian and aesthete
regard such changes, which recur in every art with extraordinary regularity,
with impartiality,. recognising them as necessary to the development of the
mind as the corresponding processes are beneficial to the welfare of the
body.

The resemblance of " Young Germany " as regards poetry, and in con-
nection with music, will be more easily perceived by directing a glance at
the special peculiarities which distinguish the poets and musicians of that
period. In both we mark an inclination towards the German primaeval

THE NEW ROMANTIC SCHOOL. 1151

paganism, and the mediaeval conception of the world ; the memory of the
crusades, the sagas, legends, and the reign of the minnesingers. These
features occur in Tieck's and Wackenroder's " Bekenntnisse eines kunst-
Hebenden Klosterbruders," Novalis' {t Heinrich von Ofterdingen," Fouque's
<e Sigurd " and " Sangerkrieg auf der Wartburg/' Weber's Muryanthe,
based on chivalry and woman -worship, Spohr's Kreuzfahrer and Faust,
and Schumann's Faust and Genoveva. It is interesting to note the
adoption by the sister schools of a creed destined to overthrow the brilliant
period of German poetry-music intervening between the Classical Renais-
sance and the present. This faith, which Goethe, with the humour of a
Mephisto, attributes to the representatives of philosophy and literature, in
his character Baccalaureus, in the second part of Faust, may be taken as
that of the musician of " Young Germany.-" It is characteristic of the
sister schools to underrate their predecessors belonging to the Genius epoch,
and to treat them with a certain degree of contempt* The brothers
Schlegel, in 1797, directed their criticisms against Schiller and Lessing in
this spirit ; Brentano criticised Herder in the same manner, and in the early
half of the present century Heine and Herwegh attacked Goethe in verse
and prose. Hnydn was called a lackey, and was said to have been born an
old man, and Mozart's Don Giovanni was designated by BrendeFs musical
journal in 1852, " a most defective musical drama/' As late as twenty-five
years ago Handel has been stigmatised as the "elephant-footed Handel/''
Wagner, in his pamphlet entitled " Judaism in Music," attacked those of
his contemporaries who were among the first to acknowledge his gifts, and
his adherents continued to shower abuse in the same direction. Goethe had
been attacked by Novalis, but the creations of the school which existed
during the last connecting epoch were based on his works, just as those of
the musical school had their foundation on the compositions of Beethoven.
The style of Goethe selected for imitation was that which prevailed during
the " storm and stress " period, and of Beethoven's creations the ninth
symphony was chosen as a model. The works of these masters were
regarded as stepping-stones connecting the later period with the preceding
Genius epoch. There was one prevailing theme and mood adopted by the
poets and musicians of the period. Novalis treats everywhere of the
mediaeval Christian ideal, and Tieck and Wackenroder were enthusiasts for
the early Christian painters Fiesole and Diirer. Tieck, indeed, in his novel

1152 HISTOEY OF MUSIC.

" Sternbald," and his tragedy " Life and Death of St. Genevieve/' dis-
plays an inclination towards Roman Catholicism. A similar tendency
prompted Schumann to compose Genoveva and Faust, Liszt to write his
St. Elizabeth, his " Dante Symphony" and " Legend of St. Francis/' and
Wagner to add to the list of the music-dramas his Lohengrin and Parsifal,
in which he introduces the Knights of the Holy Grail. In addition to this
inclination towards mediaeval subjects, each of the masters exhibited a
hatred of Judaism, which almost equalled that of the Middle Ages, and
which found an outlet in literature. The German Romantic poets, such as
Gorres, Clemens Brentano, and De la Motte Fouque, show an inclination
for Roman Catholicism, and Frederick von Schlegel, Adam Miiller, and
Zacharias Werner apostatised and joined the Roman Catholic Church.
Liszt entered the brotherhood of the Franciscans, and Wagner, having ,
portrayed the pagan mythology in his G otter dammerung, treats the Last
Supper in his Parsifal in a mediaeval mood. This period of Roman
Catholicism was followed by one of spiritualism. Justinus Kerner was a
pretended spirit-raiser, and for three years sheltered in his house the
<( Prophetess of Prevorst," and in 1824 published a history of that cele-
brated somnambulist. Clemens Brentano entered a Westphalian cloister to
study the utterings of the nun Katharina Emmerich, on whose body marks
corresponding to the wounds of Christ had appeared. Liszt, when a youth,
was almost induced by his religious enthusiasm to enter into the priesthood ;
but ended by adopting the " nouveau Christianisme/' established by the
Marquis of St. Simon. The followers of this doctrine denounced the Papal
reign, but yet did not embrace Protestantism. They purposed founding a
socialistic community, and desired the abolition of the marriage ceremony.
These fantastic traits influenced the art of the Romance period, proof of
which may be found by an inspection of the works of Ludwig Tieck and
T. A. Hoffmann, and studying characters such as Kleist's Kathchen von
Heilbronn and Wagner's Senta and Elsa. Further proof is to be found in
the ecstatic creations of Novalis, who, like Tieck, enters fully into Jakob
Bohme's mysticism.

The sympathy between the sister schools is further evidenced by the
fact that many of the adherents of both turned from the orthodox to the
radical, or starting with heterodox opinions, ended by becoming ardent
supporters of the accepted faith. Thus Hector Berlioz and Zacharias

THE NEW ROMANTIC SCHOOL. 1153

Werner were in the commencement radicals, and finally became orthodox.
Berlioz left heterodoxy for the mediaeval Catholicism in his Faiist, Requiem,
"Te Deum/' and L'Enfance du Christ. Heinrich Heine was at first
romantic, and afterwards revolutionary; Richard Wagner in Rienzi was
republican, and in Tannhauser, Lohengrin and the Meistersinger orthodox ;
in Tristan and Ring des Nibelungen he favoured the pessimism of Schop-
penhauer, and in Parsifal returned to Catholicism.

Another point of similarity between the twin schools is to be found in
the assertion of the author's idiosyncrasy, its position as the basis of all
his conceptions, and the limit beyond which no other can be allowed to
pass. Novalis, with an almost effeminate spirit, says : " We dream of
journeys through the universe — is not the universe within ns ? The mys-
terious road leads but to our innermost soul ; we are eternity. The outer
world throws nought but shadows on this realm of light." Who could
arise as the champion of this school but the philosopher Fichte, the ideal
of Frederick Schlegel ? This savant made " I " in contradistinction to
the " world " the foundation of all reasoning. It is but natural that a
musician who adhered to the tenets of a Schoppenhauer, whose pessimistic
principles represent but one side of a philosophical conception of the world,
could not fail to be as subjective as Fichte. The preference of the sister
schools for the vague and undefined must be accepted as a {< connect-
ing link : " fancy was to roam unfettered, reality to be replaced with a
world of dreams. The opposition of truth to the visionary world of these
schools led to that dissension in the mind the apparent end of which is
world-sorrow (" Weltschmerz "). This sentiment has been identified with
art by the modern supporters of romance, and finds its sequel almost
always in contempt of the world. The vague longing for the impossible
peculiar to the " Weltschmerz " philosophy, and the subject's over-indul-
gence of his idiosyncrasy, frequently taking the form of a Narcissus-
like gazing into the mirror of imaginary joys and sorrows, leads to the
development of irony or weariness. In a Hamlet it results in scepticism,
in a Faust it ends in nihilism. The action of such different and yet closely
united sentiments explains the reason for the dislike of the disciples of this
school for what is clearly developed in form in classical art, and preference
for the undefined night with its mysterious world of stars to the brightness
of day. Of these inclinations we shall now quote a few examples, such as
v v v

1154 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Tieck's " Mondbeglanzte Zaubernacht" and ' ' Phantasus ; " Novalis' Hem-
rich von Oft er ding en and (< Hymnen an die Nacht;" Karl Maria von
Weber's aria from Der Freischutz, " Wie nahte mir der Schlummer/' and
Mermaid song in Oberon; Robert Schumann's chorus from the Peri, " Schlaf '
nun und ruh' in Traumen voll Duft," and " Nachtstiicken ; " Schumann's
version for chorus and orchestra of Hebbel's " Nachtliede ; " Richard
Wagner's ' ( Abendstern " from Tannhamer, " Athmest du nicht mit mir
die siissen Diifte," and the love-scene from Tristan und Isolde ; Chopin's
"Nocturnes;" EichendorfPs and Schumann's " Phantastische Nacht;"
Jean Paul's " Nur in der Ruhe der Nacht gliiht und glanzt die Sehnsucht
und die Liebe hell ; " and Wagner's duet in Tristan und Isolde, " Dem Tag,
dem tiickischen Tage, dem hartesten Feinde, Hass und Klage." Instances
are to be found even before Jean Paul, the precursor of this school ;
Calderon says : <( What is life ? Madness. What is it but an empty
bubble ? A poem, scarcely a shadow. Little can happiness give us, for
life is but a dream, and the dreams e'en but a dream." In this there is as
much of modern romance as in Tieck, T. A. Hoffmann, Lenau, and Hebbel.
The sentiment of this pious Roman Catholic Spaniard proves that all
romance, with its yearning for the unknown, dates from the Middle
Ages.

A characteristic feature of both schools is the love of flowers and the
symbolic use. Jean Paul says : " Flowers are arabesques adorning the
throne of heaven." Ruckert's " Westdstliche Rosen " and " Blaue Lilie
der Welt;" Ernst Schulze's "Bezauberte Rose;" Wolfgang Miiller's
" Rose von Jericho ; " Moritz Horn and Robert Schumann's " Der Rose
Pilgerfahrt ; " the well-known aria from Spohr's Azor and Zemir, " Rose,
wie bist du reizend und mild ; " Schubert's " Sah ein Knab' ein Roslein
stehn;" Novalis' " Bliithenstaub " and " Blaue Blume der Romantik ; "
Heine's " Du bist wie eine Blume," " Die Blauen Veilchenaugen schaun
aus dem Grase hervor," and " Lotos Blume ; " and Schumann and Heine's
" Ich will meine Seele tauchen in den Kelch der Lilie hinein," are but a
few instances of flower-worship, and the list of poems on the same subject
might be continued ad infinitum. Another trait is the admiration of the
charms exhibited by water, both beautiful and terrible, and the peopling
of that element with imaginary nymphs and genii. This appreciation of
the beauties of nature is expressed in the Lorelei of Clemens Brentano,

THE NEW ROMANTIC SCHOOL. 1155

Heine, Eichendorff, Mendelssohn, Geibel, Schumann, and Liszt ; in Fouque's
Undine, Weber's Meermadcken, Warner's RheintocJitern, Mendelssohn
and Granimann's Melusine. Romance when compared with the classical
appears effeminate, and its commencement, brought about by the trou-
badours and minnesingers of mediaeval Provence, is rooted in the woman-
'worship which distinguished the period. This " cult " is followed in
Weber's Bury ant he > Novalis' Heinrich von Ofterdingen, Wagner's Wolfram
von Eschenbachy Tannhduser, and WaltJier Stolzing, and Chamisso and
Schumann's " Frauenliebe und Leben." It is this woman-worship which
produces the ecstatic happiness depicted in the characters of Kathchen von
Heilbronn, Senta, and Elsa.

The motto of the New Romantic School seems to be taken from Goethe's
" Faust/' " Das ewig Weibliche zieht uns-hinan," though it is not always
employed in the lofty sense adopted by that king of poets. Another mark
of the schools of Romance is the glorification of the Virgin Mary, as met
with in Balde's " Marienliede," Tieck and Wackenroder's " Mariencult,"
Novalis' " Ich sehe dich in tausend Bildern, Maria/' and in secular music
such as Faust, which has been set by so many Romantic musicians, and
Franz Schubert's " Ave Maria." So in Wagner's Tannhauser, tne principal
character exclaims, " Mein Heil ruht in Maria." Many other types are
also in favour with the Romantic Schools, such as Mignon, written by
Goethe and set by Schubert, Schumann, Liszt, Rubinstein, and Thomas ;
the well-known Melusine, who was selected by Schwind the painter ;
Zuleika has been selected by Goethe, Hafiz, Bodenstedt, Schubert, and
Mendelssohn; St. Elizabeth has been chosen by Wagner, Liszt, and
Schwind ; Tieck, Hebbel, Maler, Miiller, and Robert Schumann have
been inspired by Genoveva; Gounod and Berlioz by Juliet; Burger
and Raff have made Leonora the theme of their inspirations. Moore
and Schumann have celebrated in poetry and music respectively the
wanderings of the Peri ; Marguerite has been adopted as a subject by
Goethe, Liszt, Berlioz, Schumann, and Gounod; and Lorelei has pro-
vided a theme for many poets and musicians. We have already noticed
as a feature of the Romantic Schools that, longing for the transcen-
dental, they look with regret on a past paradise, that of the golden age,
and yearn for happiness of the future. This is directly opposed to the
principles of plassical art, which, as a rule, deals with the present. In the
v v v 2

1156 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Middle Ages this desire for the celestial promoted the adoption of the
principles of asceticism, that is, the employment of unnecessarily rigorous
devotional exercises, and we may venture to assert that the aspiring-
Gothic steeples were raised by the same desire, as symbolical of the intense
longing for the divine. It was this spirit also which prompted the Crusades,
and the craving for the unknown found an outlet in the undertaking of
lengthy voyages of discovery. The same principles signalise the present
period of Renaissance, bringing with them a fondness for the fantastic.
This statement will be proved by an inspection of Berlioz's " Childe
Harold/' Meyerbeer's Robert le Liable, T. A. Hoffmann's fantastic tales
after the manner of Callot, Jean Paul's " Titan/' and the occasional works
of Achim von Arnim, Brentano, Chamisso, Byron, Victor Hugo, Richard
Wagner, and Schumann. The worship of the purely beautiful, divested of
its bizarre surroundings, is to be found in Beethoven's " Liederkreis an
die feme Geliebte/' in Agatha's prayer from the Freischutz^ in th6 vocal
quartett from Oberon, in Hebbel's and Schumann's " Nachtlied," in the
scene of the Last Supper from Wagner's Parsifal, Elsa's lament at the
departure of Lohengrin, and Novalis' outburst of grief at the death of his
beloved, calling to mind involuntarily Dante and Beatrice, a union of the
present with the past Renaissance. Dante's influence can be traced even
in the works of Berlioz, Schumann, Liszt, and Wagner.

Both schools of Romance have sought subjects in the range of the older
Persian poetry and the idealistic philosophy of the Hindoos, and this longing
for the strange and foreign causes the outline of the poet's creation to become
undefined. Goethe even has entered on this field in his " Westostlichen
Divan," but this is the only instance. His precursors and followers are
distinguished by more fanciful and subjective expression, and their manner
degenerates into fantastic rhyming. Ruckert, in his " Oestlichen Rosen,"
imitates the " Westostlichen Divan " of Goethe. In his " Ghasel " the
poet has devoted special pains to secure euphonious phrasing. Prince
P tickler derived the matter of his later poems from his travels in the East ;
so did Michael Beer, in his " Paria ; " Schefer, in " Hafiz in Hellas;"
and Byron, in "Childe Harold," " Sardanapalus," "The Corsair," and
the "Giaour." Heine longs for the roses of Schiraz, th« lotus, and the
river Ganges, and laments his being a Persian poet born in Germany. Fre-
derick Schlegel, the champion of romance, writing on the language, religion,

THE NEW BOMANTIC SCHOOL. 1157

i

and philosophy of the Hindoos, says we must seek in the Orient for genuine
romance. We meet a similar preference for the poetry of the East. Weber
exhibits this tendency in Oberon, Schubert and Mendelssohn in their "Zuleika
Liede/' Meyerbeer in L'Jfricaine, Felicien David in Le Desert, Spohr in
Jessonda and the Crusaders, Schumann in his Paradise and Peri, Rubinstein
in his opera Feramors and many songs, and Goldmark in the Queen of Sheba.
It is incumbent on us to notice the merits possessed by the Romantic poets
and composers alike, inasmuch as the poets discovered fresh fields on which
to base their subjects, mythology and the saga world, and the morals and
customs of foreign lands, thus not only enriching poetry, literature, and
philosophy, but also painting and the plastic art. Scarcely less important
are their new discoveries for the advancement of music. Richard Wagner
has, for the first time, bestowed on music a tongue with which to proclaim
the old German Christian conception of the world. Schumann breathes in
musical tones the description of a celestial sphere, and Meyerbeer gives
tongue to religious fanaticism. The merits of the Romantic School of
music are not restricted to this ; it has overcome the barrier which seemed
to exist for centuries between the tonal art and its sisters. If in the efforts
of the New Romantic School to bring about a closer connection between the
sister arts we find several erroneous assumptions, we may rest assured that
they will be rectified, and the prevalence of extended culture can but
open to the musician an increased horizon, and will prove a lasting gain to
art. Musicians who lack this advantage, and merely rely on the exercise
of their musical craft, will be henceforth pronounced mere mechanics.

We have already referred to a number of works dealing with the
beauties of the East. This feature in the sister schools, of searching for
subjects in the manners and customs of foreign climates, must be accepted
as being closely related to that trait which causes the schools of the present
day to overthrow all barriers separating the sister arts, and employ the
character of one art for producing the effects of another. This is a special
feature of the Lyrical Romantic poets, such as Tieck, Schlegel, Novalis,
Brentano, Riickert, and Heine, who appear to aspire to the musical element
as the most important item of their art, exhibiting much deference for
rhythm and peculiar tonal effects, such as alliteration and assonance,
appertaining to music rather than to poetry. The musicians of the New
Romantic School, on the contrary, essay to renounce all flowing melody and

1158 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

the beautiful periods of the classical art-form, searching for a " speaking1
music," and not content with this, attempt to convey in tones positive ideas
and represent particular persons and localities. Their printed programmes,
however, prove distinctly that in the music alone they have failed to express
clearly the actions of their characters and the description of localities. The
numerous mistakes which have occurred show the impossibility of describing
the music in words ; for instance, a piece of programme music without its
programme will convey a different signification to every hearer, and even
a laconically- worded explanation will lead to serious errors. A. B. Marx,
referring to Beethoven's sonata, Op. 81, bearing the title " Les Adieux,
I/ Absence, et Le Retour," says : " This sonata is a portrayal of soul-felt
sentiment. We expect the parting of lovers, the loneliness caused by
separation, and the joyous return/' In the manuscript, however, we find
above the first movement the words, " Farewell at the departure of his
Imperial Highness Archduke Rudolph, May 4th, 1809." Over the Finale
is written, " The return of his Imperial Highness the Archduke Rudolph,
on January 30th, 1810." In a later orchestral work, the " Nirvana," we
find that the composer has gone so far as to attempt the expression of
philosophy by the orchestra. Wagner, who in his Nibelungen founded
the (t speaking music," employs in his poetry the assonance and alliteration
to be found in the works of Schlegel, who preceded him by fifty years.
" Speaking music " and " musical poetry " overstep the barrier between the
sister arts, expression in tones and words. Some representatives of the
Modern Schools of Romance have not even shrunk from overthrowing the
barriers of conventionality in life, and have applied their nihilistic principles
to every-day life. F. Schlegel even wished to subvert the fundamental laws
of art, and in his declaration of the principles of the Romantic School says :
" The essence of Romantic poetry is its infinitude — it alone is endless, and
it alone is free. Its first acknowledged law is that the poet's will suffers no
restraint. The beautiful is separated from the true and moral, and yet
maintains equal rights." (Probably it is in this spirit that he asks, in the
Athenaum : " What objection can there be to a mariage en quatre ? ") Yet
these writers wish to impose their principles as the only recognised law. As
Wagner, in his G otter ddmmerunffj attempts to fuse Schoppenhauer's philo-
sophy with the tonal art, so Schlegel proposed a union of philosophy and
poetry, and indeed, in his remark that in Romantic poetry " all works shall

THE NEW ROMANTIC SCHOOL. 1159

be one work, all arts one art," he anticipates Wagner's " Kunstwerk der
Zukunft/' in which the author proposes that poetry, music, painting, and
sculpture should be united in forming a complete art- work. We agree, inas-
much as this proposal must be accepted as purely ideal, and can never be
carried into practice, at least to such an extent as to bring about a complete
equality in the various arts. This is impossible, and all attempts could
result in nought but the monstrous. A true perception of the real relation
Detween the arts, one based on their ideal unity and relative identity, will
alone teach when to enforce strict separation of action and when to encou-
rage unity. We find that the poets and musicians of the New Romantic
School have for generations clung to the same sagas and mythical or semi-
mythical heroes. Faust has been treated by the poets Goethe, Klinger,
Lenau, Heine, and Grabbe; the musicians Berlioz, Spohr, Schumann,
Gounod, Liszt, and Wagner (the last-named in his Faust overture and Faust
programme to Beethoven's " Choral Symphony"). The minstrel contest at
Wartburg and the Siegfried saga from the Edda were poetically treated by
De la Motte Fouque, and both in poetry and music by Richard Wagner.
Venus and Tannhauser were treated long before Wagner by Tieck and
Heine ; Don Giovanni by the founder of Romantic Opera, Mozart ; by
Lenau in his unfinished " Don Juan ; " and Byron, the most advanced of
the New Romantic School. Manfred has been employed as a theme 'by
Byron and Schumann ; Mazeppa by Byron and Liszt. The Corsair, Childe
Harold, and Sardanapalus have been celebrated in verse and music respec-
tively by Byron and Berlioz. Geibel and Hebbel both employed the
Nibelungen as a theme long before Wagner, whose Flying Dutchman,
Saga of the Grail, Lohengrin, Tristan and Isolde, and Hans Sachs, had
served for subjects to Tieck, Gorres, Heinrich Heine, and Immermann.
W'ell may we affirm that there is no subject which has not been used in
both schools of Romance. After merely glancing at the wealth of subject-
matter, although all exhibit some slight similarity, we cannot fail to notice
how much there is of novelty, beauty, and originality amongst the real and
important talents. We cannot help remarking the number of by-ways by
which those Romantic masters, who adopted as their motto the sentence
" car tel est notre plaisir," were led from the path of the proportionate,
natural, and healthy, into that of incongruity, sentiment, and artificiality.
The subjectivity of these masters was further supported by that doctrine of

1160 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

the New Romantic School, which declared that all transmitted forms were
worn out or else had been smuggled into art by the pedants under the
guise of a Zopf, and could at best be regarded only as arithmetical examples
which retarded the free flight of genius. This dogma, accompanied by
an affected display of nationalism, occasionally developing from vigour to
rudeness, as well as by a fondness for ancient German paganism, caused
Goethe, the most objective of critics, to exclaim in anger, " Romantic
is sickness, classic is health." The poet spoke in the same strain in
his periodical Kunst und AltertJium, writing under the title " Ueber die
christlich-patriotisch-neu-deutsche Kunst.^ Goethe, who besides his love
of the classical possessed so deep a vein of Romance, wished only to express
his conviction that the hysterical utterances, the veto on " all discipline of
thought," and the heterogeneous mixture of inorganic styles which cha-
racterised the Romantic in German literature, formed the best proof of
the feebleness of that style. No better instance of the pessimism of the
Romantic School can be cited than that found in the lines written by Jean
Paul in the album of the grandson of Goethe. They run thus : " Man is
allowed but two and a half minutes — one to smile, one to- sigh, and but
half to love ; in the midst of this he dies." Such unhealthy exaggeration
could not fail to rouse Goethe, who wrote in the same book the following
lines : —

" Sixty minutes hath an hour,

More than thousands hath a day,
Look ye what gigantic power

He who works may thus display."

If the New Romantic School of literature had not since half a century
lost all healthy perception of the natural upgrowth of art as taught by
history, they would have known that a vital art-form was never the result
of the teaching of a certain master or a special school, but is inevitably
brought about by the working of the most opposite agents throughout the
course of centuries ; in music this is proved by the forms of canon, fugue,
suite, overture, sonata, and symphony, which are adopted by all musical
nations. Had those litterateurs who belonged to the time of Goethe, the
teacher of nature's progress which is based on organic development and the
hater of all hasty progress, followed the dictum of that master, they would

THE NEW ROMANTIC SCHOOL. 1161

have perceived that the result of investigation in aesthetics and art-
philosophy is the knowledge that the first element of all artistic develop-
ment is not the form and the second the contents, but the reverse. In art
it has always been the idea that brought about the construction of the
form. Those who would abolish all the existing and accepted musical forms
ignore the achievements of the mental culture which has developed for many
centuries past. This is specially applicable to music, which, unlike painting
and sculpture, does not seek its models from nature. Architecture, like
music, finds no model in nature, and its forms are the creations of fancy,
yet its tenacity to certain forms may well serve as a lesson to musicians,
for the composer possesses a great advantage over the architect by the
fact that music is movement, architecture rest. How superficial is the in-
vestigation of art- forms by the New Romantic School — forms which' can
be filled with worthy contents by all but the impotent — is proved by the
fact that they have pointed to examples in which lack of talent and musical
artificiality have degenerated to mere stencilling. Besides the talents there
are many parasites of the Romantic School, to whom the attack on the
established forms proves a boon, for they are spared the dangerous trial of
employing those forms, which when indifferently filled at once proclaim the
incapacity of the composer.

We have given the Romantic School credit for a considerable number
of real talents, many of whom are possessed of genuine artistic objec-
tivity, and are masters of form. Those possessing the latter quality,
however, are exceptions. The champions of this school, and the greater
number of their blind followers, declare its doctrines of freedom in
form infallible. If the efforts of the New Romantic School of music
continue in the same direction there can be no question but that the
school will soon become antiquated and then obsolete ; this progress being
merely a question of time. This has been the destiny of poetry, the sister
art, whose New Romantic School has ceased to exist. We fear that this
climax is imminent, as, being of the nature of a new art-principle, i.e., both
intolerant and aggressive, it will proceed to an extreme where Nature her-
self will exclaim, " hold — enough ," thus bringing about a turn and an un-
avoidable counter-stream. Till then we do not expect the fanatic supporters
of this school to awake from their dreamy self-deception. The fact is that
so great a talent as Wagner must, of necessity, be surrounded and followed

1162 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

by a number of adherents who have been unable to imitate him with any
success. But the master who, with phenomenal power and energy, roused
the enthusiasm of all belonging- to his period was unique, and was a fitting
end to the development of the Romantic in poetry and music. Such a com-
poser could exist but once. All who have copied have failed, and will ever
continue to do so ; we have sufficient proof of this in the works of his most
ardent disciples, the " Hagbarth und Signe" of Mihalovich and "Helianthus"
of Goldschmidt. The followers of Wagner, who himself in the second period
of his activity approached closely to the limits of musical expression, can
but copy their ideal, and that without the merit of originality which must
be ascribed to the great master. They can but appear what Wagner really
was, and in their attempt to " out- Wagner Wagner " are lost in chaos. If
we have proved that the musicians of the New Romantic School will continue
their course to its end, as did the poets who preceded them by fifty years,
we may be certain that the school of Wagner and Berlioz will share the
fate which attended its sister school. If the history of any religious,
political, or social fraternity, even before the close of its development, can
be compared with that of the career of a preceding school founded on the
same conception of the world, we can safely prognosticate for it a like end-
ing, as it had a similar commencement ; this is an occasion on which we can
employ our power of prophecy. If we can apply this to religious, political,
or social bodies, which are greatly influenced by external causes, how truth-
fully can we say the same of art and science, which are farther beyond
the reach of external influence. Both schools were rooted in the people
of Germany, and the historical development of both occupied less than a
century (1798 — 1885). Within this period the elder exercised all the more
influence on the younger, as the poets of the middle and last periods
were contemporaries of the earliest and midway composers of the school of
music, and the musicians employed as subject-matter almost exclusively
the creations of the poets who in spirit were so closely related to them.
In both schools we find the same virtues and the same faults ; on the
one hand they must be credited with a justifiable opposition to the de-
generation of art into a mere handicraft and artificial imitation, on the
other hand they must be accused of unmeasured self-praise and deception,
which causes them to believe that the art-development of a few thousand
years has been compelled to wait for their labours to raise it to a climax.

HECTOR BERLIOZ AND RICHARD WAGNER. 1163

They are guilty of another misconception, which is, that the theory which
declares the upgrowth of art to have taken place by eternal laws for so
long a period may be regarded as erroneous, and that they themselves were
the discoverers of true art. The Romantic School of poets has proved to
us how fatal are such errors. Holderlin and Lenau died insane, Kleist
committed suicide, and Jean Paul, Novalis, Achim von Arnim, Brentano,
Fouque, and Tieck, who were, during their period, exalted at the expense of
the classical writers, and who formed the object of feminine hero-worship,
are, notwithstanding their evident talent, now almost consigned to oblivion.
The creations of the musician possess more vitality than do those of the
poet, since in music the composer can leave the world of reality and soar
into the realms of fantasy, whereas the poet is restricted to logic and con-
ceptions of truth ; the former employs tone with its variety of orchestral
and vocal colouring, but the poet is confined to the positive use of words.

Among the Romantic poets and musicians there was a display of much
talent, yet Jean Paul, Tieck, Novalis, Kleist, Holderlin, Brentano, Arnim,
T. A. Hoffmann, Chamisso, Lenau, Eichendorff, Immermann, Heine, Hauff,
Gutzkow, Laube, Freiligrath, and Herwegh, who, in their period, were
styled (f Young Germany," are now old ; whereas the great masters Herder,
Lessing, Schiller, and Goethe, who were then considered antiquated, are
now making manifest their eternal youth. The fate of the latest Romantic
composers will be, in fifty years, similar to that of their compeers in poetry.
We might say, with justice, that whilst the talents of the present period,
who have been raised to the position of suns and fixed stars, may decline
into stars of a minor rank, the great masters of the German Genius epoch,
Bach, Handel, Gluck, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, will rightfully assume
their dignity of planets.

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

HECTOR BERLIOZ AND RICHARD WAGNER.

WE have seen that the German Romantic Schools of music and poetry in
the early part of the nineteenth century were free from foreign influence.
In our own period, however, when the New Romantic Schools developed, we

1164. HISTORY OF MUSIC.

find external influence, the English and French agents of which had been
biassed by the older school of German Romance. The two men through
whose fiery imagination Germany received the reflection of its own intensi-
fied romance were Byron and Berlioz. It was necessary that Byron should
have influenced the school of Romantic poetry before Hector Berlioz could
sway the younger sister school with his romantic influence. Byron was un-
doubtedly influenced by Goethe's romantic poems, ' ' Werther," " Faust/'
and " Tasso." He not only analysed and treated of Goethe's " Faust/' but
had been a very Faust, even as he had enacted the part of Don Juan.
Goethe points to the fact that the demon in Byron's "The Deformed
Transformed" could be but the result of his Mephistopheles. Byron's
unbounded regard for the poet-king is shown* in his enthusiastic letters, and
the dedication to him of " Sardanapalus." Goethe reciprocated the senti-
ment, as is seen in the apotheosis of the English poet in " Helena." Sir
Walter Scott, after the death of Byron, wrote to tell Goethe how the latter
poet felt the honour which had been conferred on him by a poet on whom
all men looked with veneration. Even Mozart was not without influence
on him, as is proved by the latter's " Don Juan." In such works as " Cain
and Abel," " Heaven and Earth," and " The Last Judgment/' we see
Byron's inclination for subjects belonging to mediaeval romance. His
influence on the new German Romantic School is to be seen at its best in
the works of Heine, Lenau, Laube, Herwegh, and Hebbel, who not only
vie with him in poetic gift, but exhibit the characteristics of the "storm and
stress " period which was brought about by the general discontent and spirit
of pessimism to be found at every fresh epoch of development among the
adherents of romance as the result of subjectivity and the claim for
the rights of the individual in the face of the established order of things.
Through the agency of the above-named followers Byron indirectly in-
fluenced a number of prominent musicians, who composed their poems and
employed their subjects, and by his own creations he directly swayed Berlioz,
Schumann, and Liszt. As Byron influenced the poetry of romance, so did
Berlioz rule German musical art. The points of similarity between the
French composer and the English poet are many. Like Byron, he was
passionate, and judged his entire surrounding solely from the standpoint
of his feverish subjectivity. Their pessimistic conceptions were the same.
The outbursts of volcanic nature were strange alike in both men. Berlioz's

HECTOR BERLIOZ AND RICHARD WAGNER. 1165

existence, like that of Byron, was an uninterrupted chain of struggles,
failures, and sorrows, finally developing into bitterness and irony, which
caused, in their artistic activity, a leaning towards gloomy and demoniacal
subjects. Berlioz, however, was less the creator of his own sorrows, since
he was naturally of a more generous nature.*

Hector Berlioz was born on December 14, 1803, at Cote-Saint-Andre, a
small town in the department of the Isere. His father, who was a medical
man, wished him to follow the same profession. Hector's impressionable
nature is seen by the fact that at the age of twelve he had studied the entire
" JEneid," and conceived a violent attachment for a young lady of eighteen.
Her ridicule failed to cure him, but caused him to hide himself for days,
" suffering and dumb like a wounded bird " in bush and field. The memory of
this attachment never left him, and when he met the object of his passion
after an interval of forty-nine years, a married woman with white hair, it
was still evident. When nineteen years of age, Hector, to whom music had
already become the passion of his life, left for Paris, to continue his medical
studies. For a considerable period he pursued his vocation, but when he
found in the library of the Conservatoire the operatic scores of Gluck, he
could no longer restrain himself, and declared to his parents his determina-
tion to become a musician. His enraged mother cursed him, and his father
withdrew all help. In order to keep from starvation, he entered the
chorus of the Gymnase Theatre. He soon attracted the notice of Lesueur
and Reicha, who became his teachers in musical theory ; but as the strict
style offered no attraction to him he left the Conservatoire in 1825, and
studied composition by himself, t

In 1825 Berlioz studied the literature of Victor Hugo, Alexandre
Dumas (pere), and Alfred De Vigny, who were all influenced by the
German school, wrote the two overtures to Les Francs Juges, and Scott's
Waverley, and sketched his fantastic symphony, the " Episode de la Vie

* Edmond Hippeau, in his " Berlioz Intime, d'apres des documents nouveaux," points to
many mistakes in Berlioz's " Memoires," published in Paris in 1870, and of which a second
edition appeared in 1881. "We have taken for our authority, in a great part, the memoirs of
Berlioz, and doubt but few of his dates.

f We have already referred to the disagreements between Berlioz and Cherubini, and
may assume that much that Berlioz says of him is tainted with prejudice. Hippeau is
doubtless right when he refers to the impossibility of fixing precisely the dates connected
with the quarrels of Berlioz and Cherubini.

1166 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

<Tun Artiste/' About the same time he composed eight scenes of Goethe's
Faust, a subject which he had deeply studied, publishing- the score at
his own expense. Not satisfied with the work, however, he bought up
all the copies, and afterwards used some of the matter in his Damnation
de Faust, which was performed in 1846 at Paris. Berlioz now fell in love
with Henrietta Smithson. This lady was a talented member of an English
troupe, and the composer having witnessed her performance of Ophelia and
Desdemona, made overtures, which were however refused. The disappoint-
ment of the master was so deep that his friends feared his committing
suicide, and on one occasion Liszt and Chopin spent a night roaming
over the plains of Saint-Ouen, whither he had gone in a fit of madness.
The composer returned to the Conservatoire in 1826, and four years later
gained the first prix de Rome with his cantata Sardanapalus, the libretto
of which was founded on Byron's poem of the same name. He now
became reconciled to his parents, and in 1831 left for Rome, where he re-
sided at the Villa de Medici, in the society of several French artists, headed
by Horace Vernet, the celebrated painter. Here he composed the overtures
to Rob Roy and King Leary the " Scenes aux Champs " for his " Sym-
phonic Fantastique," " Chant de Bonheur," " La Captive/' from Victor
Hugo's te Orientales," and the music to a religious poem by Thomas Moore.
During his residence at Rome Berlioz was subject to fits of melancholy,
and would often, like Salvator Rosa, with gun or guitar, wander far among
the valleys of the Abruzzi, unmolested by the banditti whom he encountered.
It was during these rambles that the composer gathered those ideas which
afterwards found expression in his symphony " Childe Harold," the subject
of which was taken from Byron's poem. In 1832 he returned suddenly to
Paris before the expiration of the prescribed period. He chanced again
to see the English actress as Juliet in Shakespeare's tragedy, and it is
said that after the performance he exclaimed, "Cette femme j'epouserai
et sur ce drame j'ecrirai ma plus vaste symphonic ! " This actress soon
after heard Berlioz's a Lelio," which was performed at one of his concerts,
by which she was so impressed that she accepted the composer, and in
1833 they were married. It was after this that the master composed
his choral symphony " Romeo et Juliette," which was published in 1839.
Madame Berlioz was obliged to leave the stage owing to an accident, which
resulted in a broken leg. They were visited with much trouble, until in 1837

I thank you, Sir, for having taken the trouble to re-translate in verse the -Shep-
herds' Chorus of my Biblical excerpt. I regret much more than you that I received
your work post festum (as you call it) ; and it is a curious fete with which my translators
have honoured me up to the present.

As you offer me so gracefully your assistance against them, I shall take the liberty
to forward you from Paris a last proof of Faust, and to request you to look it over.
You will oblige me much by being severe in your correction.

Give my kindest regards to Liszt. The concert remaius fixed for Saturday. We
rehearse to-night, and again to-morrow. Remember me cordially to Rameny, who is, I
know, kneeling to me; and that he may rise as quickly as possible, I send him a volley
of brass on his Hony theme.

Always yours devotedly,

HECTOR BERLIOZ.

LEIPZIG, 6 December, 1853.

HECTOR BERLIOZ AND RICHARD WAGNER. H67

Paganini made the composer a present of 20,000 frs. The marriage, how-
ever, was never a happy one, and in 1840 the trouble culminated in a
divorce. On the death of his first wife in 1854 Berlioz married a second
time, the subject of his choice being Mdlle. Rezio, a young vocalist.
The master's symphony " Childe Harold" was performed in 1834; and in
1840, on the occasion of the erection of the July Column, his " Sinfonie
Funebre et Triomphale }> was given. The complete failure of his opera
Benvenuto Cellini, which had been performed at Paris in 1838, caused
a severe attack of melancholy, and the composer, during the winter oL*
1842 — 1843, sought refuge in Germany.* Here he entered upon a concert
tour, hoping to gain for his music that appreciation which was denied him
in Paris. The composer was well received, and at Stutgardt, Dresden,
Berlin, and Brunswick created a furore. Although his gift of imagination
and his remarkable scoring were acknowledged, he was accused of employing
his talent £or the purpose of giving voice to capricious fancy, and ignoring
euphony in favour of the merely characteristic.

In 1845 Berlioz undertook a second concert tour through Vienna,
Prague, Pesth, and Breslau, and two years later to Russia. In 1848 and
1851 the master visited London, and during the two years following he
went, for the third time, to Germany, at the invitation of Liszt. The
principal object of his visit was to see Liszt at Weimar. This master
had been ardently engaged in preparing a reception for his friend's
works, and had arranged the celebration of a " Berlioz " week. It was
owing to his efforts also that the first part of Berlioz's trilogy, L'Enfance
du Christy composed in 1854, was performed at Aix-la-Chapelle, at the
Rhenish Musical Festival, where it achieved great success. In 1856 an
anti phonal " Te Deum," with orchestra and organ accompaniment, produced
in Paris, gained for the composer the honour of membership of " L' Aca-
demic des Beaux-Arts." In later years he received several decorations,
including that of " Officier de la Legion d'Honneur." Of his last works
we must mention the comic opera Benedict and Beatrice, taken from

* We cannot guarantee the correctness of all the dates in connection with the life of
Berlioz, as, besides the variance between those of his own memoirs and those of Edmond
Hippeau, there are many discrepancies in the dates quoted by the master in his own writings.
For instance, he places the first performance of Ophelia in the years 1827 and 1830, he dates
his first journey to Brussels and Germany in 1840 — 1841, whereas it really took place in 1842 —
1843. His application for prof essorship at the Conservatoire he fixes at both 1833 and 1839.

1168 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Shakespeare's Much Ado about Nothing, performed at Baden-Baden in
186*2, and at Weimar a year later. In the same year the composer pro-
duced his grand opera Les Trojans in Paris, and, later on, an oratorio,
entitled Le Temple Universel, written for the opening celebration of the
Paris Exhibition in 1867. When the author, in the spring of the same
year, paid a visit to Berlioz in Paris, the composer was so unwell as to be
obliged to receive him in bed, but the state of his mind by no means pointed
to a speedy end. At the news, however, of the death of his son abroad,
he was seized with a fatal illness, and died on March 8th (or, as some say,
March 9th), 1869. We have mentioned Berlioz at the commencement of
this chapter as the real founder of the New Romantic School of music, a
school exercising immense power on the musical world of the present, and
to which Liszt, Chopin, Meyerbeer, and B/ichard Wagner belong. Berlioz
was the resuscitator of programme music, which, however, had been known
centuries before, and introduced the form of the symphonic poem and the
leit-motiv, which he used in his orchestral works, as later on Wagner
did in vocal composition. Thirty years before Wagner, Berlioz used, for his
symphonic works, the instrumentation which the composer of the Ring
des Nibelungen employed for dramatic purposes. Notwithstanding these
points of similarity, Berlioz was little inclined to join in the idol-worship
which was indulged in by Wagner's adherents. It may even be said that
Berlioz was not just in his judgment of Wagner. After the first Wagner
concert in Paris he wrote that the .attention of the public during the per-
formance of the overture to the Flying Dutchman " is wearied and flagging."
He found but little originality in the melody of the Tannhauser March,
which, in form, not to say accent, reminds us of a theme in Der Freischiltz.
He declared that the violin passage accompanying the pilgrims' chorus in
the overture to Tannhauser, which occurs one hundred and forty-two times,
produced a most wearying impression. Of the charming wedding music in
Lohengrin he says : u This march precedes a chorus which one is amazed to
find here so small — I might say childish, in its style. The effect was all
the more unfavourable, as the first few bars remind us of a very poor
selection from Boieldieu's ' Deux Nuits/ music which is heard in every
vaudeville and known by every one in Paris." Speaking like Lessing,
Berlioz said of Wagner's principles, that what was true had been known to
all previous important masters, while that which was brought forward as

HECTOR BERLIOZ AND RICHARD WAGNER. 1169

new contained so little truth that " I could but seriously raise my hands
and exclaim, non credo" Every man who is not a fanatical Wagnerian,
particularly an historian, who must be honest,, can but subscribe to this. Also
must he agree with Berlioz, that " I firmly believe that beauty can never
assume the form of ugliness, and that though the mission of music is not
to please the ear alone, it was never intended to be disagreeable to it."
The master added that there might be some who preferred to drink
vitriol, but he favoured pure water, were it as insipid as an opera of
Cimarosa. The author assigns the first place in the list of Berlioz's
compositions to his Requiem, excerpts of which he had the good fortune
to hear under the baton of the composer at the Leipzig Gewandhaus
Concerts, where the French composer had been warmly received by
Mendelssohn. The work is one of austere grandeur, written in the spirit
of Dante. The author was of opinion that it crowned all the previous
efforts of Berlioz, and was delighted to hear that the same opinion
was entertained by the composer. Spontini's admiration seems to have
been equally great, as he declared, on hearing the first performance in
Paris, that the effect was equal to that produced by Michael Angelo's
" Last Judgment/'' Among the instruments employed for the production
of this work are sixteen kettle-drums, sixteen trombones, a like number of
trumpets, four tam-tams, four ophicleides, two tubas, ten cymbals, twelve
horns, four cornets, &c. These gigantic means would appear to denote
a too realistic tendency, were we not aware that the motivi, without such
a wealth of dynamic resources, would still produce a powerful effect. For
instance, at the words, " Flammis acribus addictio," the B of the double
basses, clashing with the C of the celli, while the violins depict the leaping
of the flames, produces a wonderful effect. Another extraordinary work,
though one exhibiting less unity, is Berlioz's fantastic symphony, " Episode
de la vie d'un Artiste/' The author heard this work for the first time
under the direction of the composer, at Paris, on March 24, 1851, and his
opinion was that with all the chaotic, formless, and inorganic matter, and
working out, there is no trivial idea, but the hearer is kept continually in
suspense. The orchestral effects, though strained and glaring at times, are
often powerful and charming, characterised by spontaneity and originality.
The listener seems to hear a newly-discavered orchestra ; lacking but the
direction of a Beethoven to be brought to the highest degree of perfection.

WWW

1170 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

The five parts were named respectively, "Reveries et Passions/' "Au Bal,"
" Aux Champs/' " Marche Funebre," " Dies Irae, un Burlesque/' The sym-
phony " Harold en Italic/' is one of the master's more prominent works. It
was written at the desire of Paganini, who wished for a symphonic concerto
for the viola. From this the master constructed a symphony. The numerous
beauties contained in this work are marred by the prescribed programme
with which the composer was fettered ; nevertheless, the impression pro-
duced is that of a true tonal poem, and the whole effect compensates us
for the too realistic bells in the " Ave Maria " and the noisy " Orgie
des Bandits," which Hauptmann compares to a painting by " Hell
Breughel." The part ascribed to the viola is as original as it is effec-
tive. The overtures to King Lear and Les Francs Juges contain much
beauty, as do also the greater works, La Damnation de Faust and " Romeo
et Juliette," in the latter of which the scherzo, " Queen Mab," must
be especially noticed. We must not omit to notice the charming and
imaginative trilogy L'Enfance du Christ. The operas of Berlioz, Benvenuto
Cellini, Benedict and Beatrice, and Les Trojans, cannot be accepted as
genuine musical dramas, notwithstanding their many beauties, for this
form requires artistic objectivity, which the dreamy nature of a subjective
Berlioz could not attain to. We must direct attention to the master's
celebrated and truly classical "Grand Traite d'Instrumentation et d'Or-
chestration," published at Paris in 1844; and " Le Chef d'Orchestre,"
published in the same city ten years later, and which is still acknowledged
to be the best and most instructive work of its kind. As a serious critic,
and one most enthusiastic for his compeers, Berlioz must command respect.
His appreciation of Gluck, Spontini, Beethoven, Weber, Meyerbeer, Liszt,
and Mendelssohn was as sincere as it was just. As feuilletonist, our master
was possessed of unusual gifts, a fact which is proved by the number of
treatises, articles, and aphorisms published under the titles of " Soirees
d'Orchestre/' "Grotesques de la Musique," and "A Travers Chants,"
between the years 1853 and 1863.* The master's " Voyage Musicale en
Allemagne et en Italic," published in two volumes in 1844, is a work of
great interest.

As Berlioz was the founder of the New Romantic School, so Richard

* These works were, in 1864, translated into German by Richard Pohl, and published
by Gustav Heinze, at Leipzig.

HECTOR BERLIOZ AND RICHARD WAGNER. 1171

Wagner may be styled its perfector, being its most prominent and truly chosen
dramatist. At the commencement of the dramatic career which was destined
to make him ere long so famous, Wagner clung to the old traditional opera,
and as he himself says, he followed the most trodden paths — those least
characterised by a German spirit. He says in his autobiographical sketch,
extending to 1842, that his first opera, Das Liebes Yerbot, composed between
1835 — 1836, and performed at Magdeburg, was the result of no pains
in avoiding the French and Italian reminiscences then the fashion. The
master's Rienzi, commenced in 1838, exhibits unusual progress in dramatic
creation, and although the leaning towards French and Italian models is
still displayed, it is confined to the leading masters of the grand French
opera, represented at that period by Spontini, Meyerbeer, Rossini (Tell), and
Auber (Masaniello) . In the eyes of the connoisseur, Wagner's Rienzi is the
turning-point, which contains in a great measure his special characteristics.
Although this work is in parts too lengthy, and at times verges upon the
commonplace, yet there are many traits which evidence a powerful musical
dramatic gift. This is made manifest in several ensembles, and in the grand
antiphonal chorus in the Finale of the third act ; the contrast between the
tumultuous cries of the populace and the chorus of priests, at the end of
the fourth act, forming dramatic effects of the highest character. Besides
these examples of massive choral and orchestral effects we find solos of
touching beauty. Rienzi's song, " O laszt der Gnade Himmelslicht/' and
the prayer in the fifth act, with the female chorus of the messengers of
peace, enchant us with their original and graceful melody. In his next
opera, the Flying Dutchman, the master presents a totally different aspect.
We specially retain the title opera, for Wagner until the Meister singer
trespasses still on the domain of early opera, from which we see a complete
separation only in Tristan und Isolde. The Flying Dutchman was, like the
Freischiilz, treated in a popular manner. The subject of this opera is a
legend well known to all seafaring nations, and it has been treated by
the composer in a most striking manner. He has depicted in music the
character of the spectral seaman and the local colouring of the story in a
marvellous manner, and from the commencement of the stormy overture
we are held in thrall by the powerful instrumentation. In this work we
meet with that flow which Wagner's music occasionally lacks, and cannot
fail to be delighted with its originality and novelty. We must quote as
w w w 2

1172 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

instances of especial beauty the vigorous sailor choruses, the song of the
steersman, the duet between Daland and the Dutchman in the first act, the
charming spinning chorus, the romance sung by Senta, and the cheerful
festal chorus in the third aet. In Tannhauser, the fourth of Wagner's
operas, the master has increased the power of the romantic vein which he
struck in the Flying Dutchman, and has given to the local colouring a
special religious impress by the introduction of St. Elizabeth of Thuringia,
who, although not particularly identified, is suggested by her renunciation
of the world, and Tannhauser's words, " St. Elizabeth pray for me ! " As
is well known, Wagner was a poet and composed his own libretti ; in this
opera he has employed two distinct folk-legends — viz., that of Tannhauser
and the Venusberg, and the contest of minnesingers on the Wartburg.
Amongst the finest portions of this justly famed opera we must draw
attention to the overture, Tannhauser' s song in honour of Venus, the chorus
of pilgrims, the septet at the end of the first act, Elizabeth's grand aria and
duet with Tannhauser, the march and the thrilling Finale of the second
act, Wolfram's song "The Star of Eve/' and the thrilling account of
Tannhauser's pilgrimage to Rome ; in short, all that in form belongs to
the older opera school is most effective. In Lohengrin we also find that
all the portions to which the opera owes its real success are in or nearly
approaching the melodic form of the established system. Its greatest
beauties are to be found in the novel introduction replacing the over-
ture, Elsa's song, the Finale of the first act, the song " Euch Liif ten, die
mein Klagen," Ortrud's invocation in F sharp minor, the duet between
Ortrud and Elsa, the male choruses and the procession in the second act,
the introduction of the third act with its marriage chorus, the grand duet
between Elsa and Lohengrin, and the magnificent orchestral summons of
the warriors. We must here notice that in the introduction to this opera
Wagner employed a new art-form, in which he leads the chief motive
from pianissimo to the extreme of fortissimo, from which by degrees it
descends to its former level, representing effectually and in a manner most
poetical the progress of the Knight of the Grail.

Wagner's Meistersinger occupies a position midway between that group
of his operatic works which we have already discussed, and those musical
dramatic works with which we are now about to deal. In this work
Wagner has, according to his own words, treated ' ' the dramatic language

<£

f/L-C*^. .

^yfv4Xj2~ -^fi*~

&. JL..°^G^L-~

FAC-SIMILE or ONE OF UICHAKD WAGNER'S LETTERS.
(J-Yom « Collection o/ /lufojva^/is o/ Herman ScTioUs at Dresden).

DEAR SIR,

I have been so occupied the last few weeks that I have been obliged to delay the whole
of my correspondence. I must therefore ask you to excuse my seeming neglect. You princi-
pally wish to know my opinion whether Tannhauser or Lohengrin should be performed
first. I decidedly say Tannhauser, and only after that can Lohengrin be played. I even
insist that Lohengrin shall never be performed first, because the artists can only understand
it when they have thoroughly studied Tannhauser.

Will you kindly arrange all other matters with my old friend W. Fischer of Dresden.
I am delighted at your undertaking this enterprise, and wish you every success.

Believe me, dear Sir,

Yours sincerely,

IxICHAKU WAGNEli.

ZUKICH. May 30*' A, 1853.

HECTOR BERLIOZ AND RICHARD WAGNER. 1173

as the most essential part of the work/' and has made the music entirely
subordinate to it, or to quote once more the words of the master, has ( ' fitted his
music to the thought expressed in language so imperceptibly that the latter
is the dominant element/'' Nevertheless, in the Meistersinger we find parts
in which, as in the early opera, music is the principal feature. Instances of
this are to be found in the quintett in G flat major, which occurs in the
third act and represents the original opera ensemble, the song and dance
of the apprentices, the overture, the chorale, the three songs of Walter
von Stolzing, " Am stillen Heerd in Winterszeit/' " Fanget an ! So rief
der Lenz in den Wald," and the last scene of the work, which, with
instrumental introduction, choruses, procession, and prize-song, illustrates
the leading features of the genuine opera finale. It is in our opinion on
these portions of the work that the success of the Meistersinger is based.
It is in Tristan und Isolde that the entire separation from traditional form
takes place. Instead of closed and half-closed forms, dramatic ensembles,
and recitatives alternated with song, we find declamation supported by
music expressing the meaning of the words — in truth a resuscitation of the
early Florentine monody employed by Peri and Monteverde. This fact is
most surprising, as the progress of the great dramatic tone-poets, Gluck,
Mozart, Beethoven, Weber, Spontini, Cherubini, Mehul, &c., was owing to
their endeavours to free the music-drama from monody, and by the addition
of polyphony to raise it into a complete form. In Tristan and the Ring des
Nibelungen Wagner practically excludes polyphony. In close connection
with this we must note Wagner's adoption of the monothematic style in
direct opposition to the polythematic, as founded and cultivated by our
classical writers. In the music-drama the monothematic style can appear
but as a leit-motiv, and although the master did not invent this principle he
made it the important feature of his dramas belonging to the second period.
Instead of a manifold musical painting of one and the same character, as
attempted by the masters of the old opera form, Wagner adopts a single,
stereotyped, and ever-recurring tone-phrase intended to designate a dramatic
character. We meet in Lohengrin a leit-motiv which illustrates the words
" Nie sollst du mich befragen," always associated with the presence of the
hero. Even if a leit-motiv be harmonised or orchestrated in various ways,
and yet cannot renounce its original outline, it can really represent but one
phase in the life of a dramatic character, and is powerless to describe the

1174 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

entire sentiment, action, and existence of the character. Beethoven, to im-
press us with the true character of his heroine in Fidelio, employs at
least twenty entirely different themes, which are as powerful as and
more richly developed than a leit-motiv of Wagner. The latter is the
only important master, from the time of Gluck downwards, who has
employed the monotheme, none having adopted stereotyped phrases by
which to identify their dramatis persona, but allowing them to develop
in as many themes as are required, in imitation of real life, of which
the drama is but a mirror. Such a procedure is identical with our exist-
ence, which knows no halt, but is perpetually in action. This cannot be
said of such a fixed formula as the leit-motiv, which precludes freedom
and variety. Wagner also employs monothemes even when using several
leit-motivi to distinguish special traits of character or actions of one person,
for in such case we are treated to a repetition of one particular phrase,
which replaces polythematic, and consequently ever-varying effect. His
principle undeniably unites the monothematic character with the hyper-
romantic, and carries it to its extreme. We must notice also that the
master does not always employ a fully developed theme, but often a mere
fraction of one. This must account for the absence of that refreshing
variety which, especially in Tristan, is so painfully apparent. The pleasant
diversity of form is replaced by the (( eternal melody ; " and the established
art-forms, such as recitative and song, solo and ensemble, rest and movement,
are entirely wanting. It is wonderful indeed, and testifies truly to Wagner's
gift, that even in Tristan, in which, for the first time, he applies his prin-
ciples with iron determination, and stands aloof from the well established
and beautiful forms of his art, he is enabled to arouse enthusiasm and
affect us deeply with his dramatic power. For example, we must quote the
second scene of the second act, in which Tristan and Isolde passionately
declare mutual love. Such a fascinating power can but be the result of an
immense talent. This scene, followed by the duet, "O sink' hernieder,
Nacht der siebe," is undoubtedly the musical climax of the entire work.
On the other hand Tristan und Isolde contains so much t( speech music/'
and notwithstanding the leit-motivi which connect bar to bar, so much dis-
jointed matter, that Berlioz would have been justified in complaining of the
" fatigue " which he experienced whilst listening to Tannhatiser, and this is
the reason no doubt that Tristan und Isolde has not gained favour on any

HECTOR BERLIOZ AND RICHARD WAGNER. 1175

stage equal to that obtained by Rienzi and the Meistersinger, and still less
that of the Flying Dutchman, Tannhauser, and Lohengrin.

Though in Tristan und Isolde Wagner ignores almost entirely the
accepted forms, in the Ring des Nibelungen he has recognised them. In
the Rheingold, in place of the resuscitated monody of the Florentines we
find trios for the Rhine daughters, and even the leit-motivi appear in
the form of fully developed subjects. In the trilogy Wagner further
favours the established forms, as in Die Walkure, the Walkurenritt, the duet
between Siegmund and Sieglinde, " Keinerging, Doch Einer Kam,"
Wotan's " Abschied und Feuerzauber," Siegfried's " Schmiedelied," the
orchestral description of " Waldweben/' the duet between Siegfried and
Waldvoglein, the introduction to the first act of the Gotterddmmerung,
the chorus of the warriors, the song of the Rhine daughters, and the im-
pressive funeral march.

Wagner's return to the older forms is even more complete in Parsifal
than it had been in the Ring des Nibelungen. In this, Wagner's last
dramatic production, we find that power of music which can be expressed
by polyphonic means alone. The orchestral introduction, the solo of
Amfortas alternating with the chorus of knights of the Grail, and the
chorus of boys from the dome of the chapel, furnish materials which, in
the hands of so gifted a master, could not fail to result in a magnifi-
cent tone-picture. The chorus of flower maidens, and, indeed, the entire
Finale of the " Buhnenweih-festspiels," are polyphonic and in obedience
to form. It must not be supposed that it was the seriousness of the
subject-matter of Parsifal which led Wagner to return to the polyphonic
form. For in works as serious, viz., the Ring des Nibelungen and Tristan
und Isolde, there were many opportunities for the introduction of choral
effect. Indeed, the gnomes of the Rheingold and the knight and esquire
in the first act of Tristan und Isolde seem to claim their right of choral
treatment, which the composer has denied them. We can plainly see then
that it is by no means the subject-matter of Parsifal which induced the
master to renounce the antiquated monodic treatment, but that it was
rather the instinctive perception of the fact that such a style could not
remain in existence — experience gathered from his Tristan and Nibelungen
trilogy. It was, without doubt, on the strength of this conviction that
Wagner, with exceptional talent, was enabled to abandon his former style.

]176 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

"We are of opinion that all monothematic treatment is the result of the
exalted romance of the present day. We refer not only to Wagner, who, in
the second period of his activity, eschewed ensembles, replacing them by
monothematic treatment, hut also the melologue, monodrama, the " Harold
Symphony " (as regards the viola solo), and similar works of Berlioz. The
enormous increase of solo songs and pianoforte pieces also points to the
tendency of the present age — subjectivity.

If we investigate seriously the cause of the inclination to this feature
which characterises the present school, we cannot fail to perceive that to
composers other than Wagner, who was undoubtedly a born dramatist, a
grand ensemble requires a certain amount of artistic objectivity, which
allows too little play for purely individual sentiment. A body of people
seems altogether unfitted to express a purely personal sentiment, conse-
quently the chorus is rejected on the plea of its requiring a theme of too
objective a nature. Equally objectionable to the New Romantic School is
an ensemble of soloists, each of whom expresses a purely personal idea,
which necessitates an objective effort on the part of the composer.

Even as a litterateur Wagner exhibits the same tendency. Thus, the
master insists on the fusion of all arts, and declares that the thousand
different items forming our existence and represented in art can only be
seen in one condition, viz., that which is acceptable to his personal senti-
ment, and which consequently he declares as the only one justified. As
Wagner employs the leit-motiv and dramatic song which allows the per-
sona to speak only in rotation, thereby typifying the monothematism in
music, so in his " Art- Work of the Future " he advocates the fusion of all
arts, thereby introducing the tendency of the Romantic School into the
very field of thought and criticism. Instead of the endless variety whence
art derives its wealth, the master has but one art, the drama ; he would
dispense with epos and the lyric. The separate arts, whose sublime
creations can be but the result of freedom, are to be fused into one whole,
the music-drama ; in which, notwithstanding all assurances of the ultimate
freedom and equality of the arts, we learn from Wagner's drama that
poetry and painting are subservient to music, whilst architecture and
sculpture are to be ignored. The " Art- Work of the Future/' in fact, may
be interpreted by the music-drama of Wagner, to suit which the archi-
tect, according to the master himself, should plan nought but " Wagner

HECTOR BERLIOZ AND RICHARD WAGNER. ]177

Theatres \" the object of the sculptor should be to arrange groups,
gestures, and dress of the performers ; the painter to restrict himself to
scenic painting and selection of costumes ; the musician to repudiate the
art-culture of a thousand years, and return to the " speech-music " which
comprised the tonal art before the growth of polyphony and ensembles ;
lastly, the poet is to overlook all rhythm and the forms of Greece, the
Renaissance and modern poetry, in order to resuscitate alliteration and
assonance. Wagner even counsels the abandonment of independent drama,
and it requires no extraordinary perception to become aware that even science
and religion find their fate in the " Art- Work of the Future/' which the
master would seem to pronounce the end and aim of the future.* We
find an explanation of Wagner's underrating of the plastic art in favour of
poetry and music, and the manner in which the composer ignores the
importance of Greek sculpture, which, like no other art, finds its existence
in non- conventional beauty and truth, in the master's words, which imply
that the ancient sculptors leave us the form of the modelled Greek " like a
petrified memory, a mummy of Greece" (p. 162) ; and, further, that the
unthought-of works, which may be the outcome of future periods, "will
make the remains of Greek art an insignificant toy for foolish children "
(p. 263). Wagner overlooks the fact that besides the drama there are other
combinations of arts — for example, at the performance of a Stabat Mater,
a Requiem, a " Te Deum/' &c., in a Roman Catholic cathedral, in which
music, poetry, architecture, sculpture, and painting (the plastic arts being
incomparably superior than when on the stage) unite in forming on the
mind of the auditor an effect which, owing to the presence of religion,
cannot fail to outweigh that produced by the drama. If any one inordi-
nately favoured this church art, as Wagner does the dramatic, he might
with equal justice demand the fusion of all arts into the form of church
art, and yet this impossibility can be but the outcome of a supposition
that the unity of art, which can be but ideal, may be positively realised.
Such a conception of the fusion of all arts could only be a truth when the
arts could bring forth equal effects. So long as one or two branches of art
maintain a supremacy this fancied fusion is impossible. The result of a

* See Wagner's "Collective Works," vol. iii., pp. 154, 166, 174, 175, 179, 180, 183, 287 ;
and same volume, pp. 20, 21, 22, 32, 36, 41, 43, 102, 103, 115, 221, 125, 129, 130, 132, 138,
141, 152, 189, 195, 205, 206, &c.

1178 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

union of sciences would be identical. A union of art can be but ideal, and
a conception of such an ideal is at present a necessity. The " Art-Work of
the Future/' even though its sentiment be ideal, cannot endure, because
the fanciful conception of the connection between the arts teaches that their
fusion into a unity does not consist in the sacrifice of the independence of
either of the four in favour of one of its sisters, but rather in the absolute
coincidence of their essential qualities, that is in the identity of their
elementary conditions, the laws of beauty, form, species, and style.

We have already noticed the fact that with the opening- of the Romantic
School of Music, critical and not theoretical musical literature was intro-
duced, whilst the Romantic School of Poetry commenced with literature en-
tirely relating to the laws of their style. The first of the Romantic School
who engaged in critical and aesthetic literature, though within narrow limits,
was Karl Maria von Weber. Spohr's writings are, as a rule, mere records of
his personal opinion, and it is only in Berlioz and Schumann that we first
find a prominent literary activity. Wagner's fertility exceeds everything
hitherto attempted in this field, the result of his literary labours occupying
no less than nine volumes. The chief subjects selected by the master
include " Ein Deutscher Musiker in Paris/' the libretti of his operas and
musical dramas, with the exception of Parsifal, " Die Kunst und die
Revolution," " Das Kunstwerk der Zukunst," " Kunst und Klima," " Oper
und Drama," which occupies three volumes, " Das Judenthuin in der Musik,"
f * Ueber das Dirigiren," " Beethoven," " Ueber die Bestimmung der Oper/'
and " Programmatische Erlauterungen." There are also letters to the
Mayor of Bologna, on the Stage ; to Hector Berlioz ; to Liszt, on his sym-
phonic poems ; and an autobiographical sketch extending to the year 1842.
It may be of interest to notice that Wagner wrote libretti not only for
composition by himself, but for the use of others. He ceded to his friend
Friedrich Kittl (1809— 18 68), a chapel-master at Prague, the libretti of the
operas Die Franzosen vor Nizza and Bianco, und Giuseppe, the first of which
was performed with great success in the Bohemian capital in the year 1848.
Alfred Meiszner in the "Geschichte meines Lebens," vol. ii., pp. 6 and 9,
ascribes the success to the dramatic power of the libretto rather than to the
composition. We, however, prefer Wagner as a musician to Wagner as a
poet ; in the latter capacity he excels in choice of subject and dramatic
treatment. We care least for his esthetic and art-philosophical writings,

HECTOR BERLIOZ AND RICHARD WAGNER. 1179

though they contain many happy ideas and valuable propositions. If the
last-named works are to possess in the future a value more than merely his-
torical, it must be ascribed to the fascinating influence of the writer's in-
dividuality and his immense genius as a composer. The life of the master
cannot fail to be of great interest, as during the last thirty years nothing
has excited the musical world so powerfully as his works and doctrines. The
cause of this is to be found in the fact that he possessed a nature imbued
with an ideal fanaticism, and was so convinced of the truth of its principles,
that he was ready to risk all for the sake of their propagation. Such extra-
ordinary natures have at all times exercised great power over that mass of
the general public whose opinions are unstable, and who are easily led by a
temperament firm in its faith and ideas, and imposing in presence. Nothing
is therefore more unjust than to represent the master, as many of Wagner's
opponents have done, as one who by his art-principles worked but for him-
self. Whatever advantage might accrue to himself was a secondary result,
the propounding of his principles being the ruling motive. After this re-
mark, which it is due to the master to make (it being his firm belief in his
own principles which appear to us the most prominent feature of his cha-
racter, and in which we see the clearest explanation of his intolerance
towards those who disagreed in doctrine), we will turn to the discussion of
Wagner's life.

Richard Wagner was born on May 22nd, 1813, at Leipzig, of which
city his father was a civil official. He lost his father in the year of his
birth, and his mother married an actor and playwright, Geyer, who resided
at Dresden. His stepfather appears to have discerned a musical talent in
the child, but died before anything could be arranged for its development,
Richard being scarce seven years of age. Two years later the boy entered
the Kreuz-Schule, it being intended that he should study seriously. Of
this period he wrote : " Nothing pleased me so much as the opera De r
Freischiitz ; I used frequently to see Weber pass our house on the way home
from rehearsal, and looked on him with reverence. A tutor, whose duty it
was to explain the intricacies of Cornelius Nepos, instructed me in piano-
forte playing, and scarcely had I mastered the first exercises when I began to
practise secretly the overture to Freischiitz. When my master happened to
hear me, he declared that I should never be anything. He was right, for
through my whole life I have never learnt to play the piano." At school

1180 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Wagner already had attempted poetry. He afterwards commenced a tragic
drama, which was a mixture of Hamlet and Lear. The plot was a grand
one ; forty-two people died in the course of the play, and he adds humor-
ously that he was forced to bring back the characters as ghosts, otherwise
there were no persona to appear in the last act. In 1827 we find the
embryo dramatist at the Nicolai School at Leipzig, where the Gewandhaus
concerts interested him far more than did his studies. Beethoven's music
to Egmont so pleased the boy that he was desirous of composing music to
his own tragedy. Though after eight days' study of Logier's ' ' Method of
Thorough Bass" he lost confidence, yet in 1828 he decided on becoming
a musician, but his family offered no encouragement. Like Berlioz, the
enthusiast soon wearied of the dry study of musical theory. In 1830
Wagner was sent to St. Thomas's School, but his studies were interrupted
by the July Revolution, by which he was strongly impressed. Heinrich
Dorn, then chapel-master at Leipzig, interested himself in the young
composer and produced an overture for the orchestra by him. This work,
however, proved unsuccessful, and Wagner, again like Berlioz, found it
necessary to resume the study of the principles of his art. The master now
became a pupil of Weinlig, the well-known cantor of St. Thomas's Church,
with whom he studied counterpoint, meanwhile attending lectures at the
University on philosophy and aBsthetics. His first published work was a
sonata for the piano in B flat major (Breitkopf and Hartel, 1829). About
that time also he composed a pianoforte fantasia in F sharp minor, a work
of more sterling promise. In 1832 he wrote a symphony which was per-
formed on the 10th of January, 1833, at one of the Gewandhaus concerts.
If his earlier works lacked any of the characteristic peculiarities of the
future composer, they displayed "a bold fresh energy of thought and
naive motivi which arrested the attention of that well-known litterateur,
Heinrich Laube, who expressed great hopes for his future. The score
of this C major symphony was lost, but the orchestral parts were found
in 1882 at Dresden, and enabled the composer to conduct this work
at Venice at the Liceo Benedetto Marcello. In 1833 Wagner composed
at Wiirzburg a romantic opera, entitled Die Feen, after Gozzi's fairy tale,
" Die Frau als Schlange/' His wish that it should be performed at the
Leipzig Theatre was not fulfilled. In the following year we find Wagner
a champion of Young Germany, writing articles for Laube's a Zeitung

HECTOR BERLIOZ AND RICHARD WAGNER. 1181

fur die elegante welt." He was greatly influenced by this school and the
study of works like " Ardinghello," " Wally," and " Jung Europa," which
advocated material enjoyment; and which he declared to have diverted
him from his previously favoured mysticism. While at Wiirtzburg the
master composed for- his elder brother Albert, then stage-manager and
tenor of the opera in that town, a Finale to an aria in Marschner's Vampire,
writing both verses and music, of which latter there were one hundred
and forty-two bars, in F minor. This composition shows how he was
influenced by the Romantic School of Karl Maria von Weber.* We must
now seize the opportunity to remark that Marschner holds an important
position midway between Weber and Wagner, his Hans Heiling un-
doubtedly influencing the latter's Flying Dutchman, and that, style alone
excepted, as belonging to the Old Romantic School, he has written works,
in subject more akin to the New School of Romance than even those of
Wagner. In the Vampire there is a scene in which the attacked maiden
screams from the wings, an incident as extravagant as which, we may
safely affirm, is nowhere to be found in the works of Wagner. This scene
proves also that there is no incident, however exaggerated, that a hyper-
romantic mind will not essay to depict, after the manner of T. A.
Hoffmann.

In 1834 Wagner became conductor of the Magdeburg Theatre, where
his Liebesverbot (or "The Novice of Palermo"), founded on Shakespeare's
play of Measure for Measure, was performed in 1836 ; its lack of success,
however, was owing to purely external circumstances. In the same year the
composer married Minna Planer, an actress, and in 1837, after a short period
at Konigsberg, was appointed " Musik-director," under Holtei, at Riga.
Here he wrote the libretto of Rienzi, and composed the first two acts. This
work being in the style of Meyerbeer, and intended for the Grand Opera at
Paris, the master embarked with his wife in a small sailing vessel, and,
after a tedious and dangerous voyage, during which they were almost driven
on the coast of Norway, arrived at Boulogne. To this sea voyage we may
attribute the realistic beauties of the Flying Dutchman. At Boulogne
Wagner sought Meyerbeer, who was greatly interested with the score of
Rienzi, and gave the composer introductory letters to the French capital.

* A fac-simile of this composition is to be found in Tappert's " Richard Wagner, sein
leben und seine Werkc," Elberfeld, 1883.

1182 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

The influence of the popular master, however, was lessened by his absence,
and Wagner was compelled to earn a livelihood by making arrangements
for various instruments and contributing articles to the newspapers.
Amongst others he arranged a pianoforte score of Halevy's La Reine de
Chypre. It is undeniable that Wagner learnt much from the orchestral
treatment of Berlioz. The two composers, however, did not become very
intimate. Amongst those of Wagner's works which were composed in
Paris, we find the Faust overture, written in 1840, and the Flying Dutchman ,
1841, an opera which was completed in seven weeks. He offered the
Flying Dutchman to the opera managers of Leipzig and Munich, but it
was not accepted. In the same year Meyerbeer, who was pleased with
the talent of his compatriot, brought about the acceptance of Rienzi at
Dresden, and a year later, that of the Flying Dutchman at Berlin. In
1842 Wagner left Paris disappointed, and went to Dresden to hasten the
production of Rienzi. On the 20th October of the same year, the opera
was performed with immense success, and on January 2nd, in 1843, the
Flying Dutchman was performed for the first time, meeting with great
success, and soon afterwards the composer received the appointment of court
chapel-master in the Saxon capital. In the summer of the same year he
wrote for the Saxon Male Chorus Festival a cantata, with orchestral
accompaniment, entitled Das Liebesmahl der Apostel. In 1844 Wagner
conducted the first performance of his opera, the Flying Dutchman, at the
Royal Court Theatre, Berlin. This was followed, on October 19th, 1845,
by the production of Tannhauser, and, two years later, Rienzi was given
at Berlin, under the baton of the composer. In Tannhauser Wagner has
manifested his artistic faith in a characteristic manner for the first time, a
fact acknowledged by the public. The author, who heard this opera in
1847, was vividly impressed with it, as being a work which opened a fresh
field in the realm of musical art. Robert Schumann wrote in his diary, in
the same year, that the work exhibited glimpses of genius, and that
Wagner would be the man of his period were he as melodious as he was in-
tellectual. In 1848 Wagner, like other prominent men, became involved
in the eddy of public discontent, and, during the Revolution, was compelled
to fly from Dresden, as did his friend, the architect Semper. We meet him
next in Paris, and soon after at Zurich, where he wrote and published
the " Kunst und Revolution/' 1849, "Das Kunstwerk der Zukunft/' and

HECTOR BERLIOZ AXD RICHARD WAGNER 1183

" Kunst und Klima," which were followed in the next year by his
" Oper und Drama," a work in three volumes. In 1850 Liszt, who ex-
hibited great friendship for and interest in the master, produced Lohengrin
at Weimar, on August 28th, and urged him to write a new great work.

Wagner now turned his attention to the story of the Ring des Nibe-
lungen, which he wished to fashion into the libretto of a music- drama, but
it assumed such proportions that the master was compelled to make out of:
it a trilogy with a prologue, the performance of which occupies four
evenings. The subject of the opera is based rather upon the Northern
Sagas and the Edda than upon the German of the Nibelungen Lied. The
master began this work in 1853, and so energetic was he, that by the spring
of 1857 -the prologue Rheingold, and .the first of the cycle, the Walkilren,
and part of the second, Siegfried, were finished and scored. The first sketch,
of the Walkurenritt, however, is dated 1852. Wagner was interrupted
in the composition of this gigantic work in 1855 by a journey to London,
where he conducted a series of eight concerts given by the Philharmonic
Society (whose invitation was sent at the instance of the translator of this
work), and in 1857 by the composition of Tristan und Isolde, at which he
worked at Zurich, in 1858 at Venice, and which he completed in the
summer of the following year at Lucerne. In 1860 he went to Paris to
conduct three concerts of his own compositions in the " Salle Ventadour,"
and on March 13th, 1861, his Tannhduser was produced at the Grand
Opera. Berlioz had already opposed the " music of the future," and now
Wagner found a legion of envious composers, who hated the foreigner, who
misunderstood his works, and who tried to bring about their failure by
means of the press. The Jockey Club, whose members included the
wealthiest members of Parisian society, lost no opportunity of interrupting
the performances. The master in consequence refused to allow further
performances. Till now he had been exiled from Germany for political
reasons, but in May, 1861, a successful performance of Lohengrin took
place in Vienna, which repaid him for his disappointments in Paris. In
1852, while staying at Biberich, on the Rhine, he commenced the Meister-
singer, after which he visited Prague and Berlin ; and Saxony now being
open to him, he returned for the first time since his flight to Leipzig.
During 1863 he achieved many brilliant successes in Russia and Hungary,
and in the following year King Ludwig of Bavaria called him to ^

1184 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

where, in 1865, Tristan und Isolde was performed at the Royal Court
Theatre, the role of the hero being rendered by Schnorr, the son of
the celebrated painter. In 1868 the Meister singer was performed for the
first time and soon gained in Germany a popularity much greater than
that of Tristan und Isolde. In 1871 Waguer addressed a circular to his
friends for the purpose of collecting the sum of 900,000 marks, necessary
for the production of his Ring des Nibelungen ; and for this purpose in
most German cities a " Wagner Verein " was formed. In the previous
year the master had married Cosima von Biilow, a daughter of Liszt. In
1872 he left Switzerland for Bayreuth, where, a little while after, a Wagner
Theatre was built on the Stuckberg, the plans being drawn up by Semper,
and in the building of which many improvements suggested by the master
were introduced. The foundation-stone was laid on May 22nd, 1872, on
which occasion Beethoven's ninth symphony was performed. Four years
afterwards the first performances of the Ring des Nibelungen were given,
August 13th to 17th. A pilgrimage to Bayreuth was commenced from all
parts of the world ; the Americans came not only from the United States
but from California ; Englishmen not only from Great Britain but from
the East and West Indies ; and even the French, who had not had time to
forget the incident of 1870, were strongly represented; all parts of
Germany sent auditors, and the youthful King of Bavaria, who had lent
unusual support to the enterprise, was present at the performance with the
Emperor of Germany, who had, by visiting Bayreuth, conferred an honour
on Wagner experienced by no other German composer. The author, who
was present at the third cycle, quotes the following from his pamphlet
entitled " Musikdrama oder Oper ? Eine Beleuchtung der Baireuther
Buhnenfestspiele." * The grandest effects of the trilogy are to be found
in the third act of the Gb'ttcrdammerung, and include the impressive
orchestral introduction, followed by the charming song of the Rhine-
daughter, " Frau Soime sendet lichte Strahlen." All that follows forms a
continuous chain of beauty, which might be increased were there more
adherence to established forms. We refer to Siegfried's meeting with the
Rhine daughter; , the hunting scene, Siegfried's history, and the funeral
march form a powerful ending to the trilogy. Parsifal was performed for
the first time at Bayreuth on July 26th, 1882, and with it Wagner brought
* Published by Robert Oppenlieim, Berlin, 1876.

HECTOR BERLIOZ AND RICHARD WAGNER. 1185

to a close his career as a musical dramatist. On Palm Sunday, 1884, the
grand scene of the Last Supper from this work was performed at a concert
at Dresden, and the author, who was present, could not fail to notice the
impression it produced, not only on enthusiastic Wagner disciples, but on
his enraged opponents, the staunch upholders of hyperclassical form. The
composer in his later years was not entirely free from bodily ailments : he
suffered from asthma, and passed the winter of 1882-83 at Venice, where
he stayed at the Palace Vendramin, near the Grand Canal ; he rallied, but
on February 13th the civilised world received the news of his death.*
Wagner's peculiar tendencies may be said to have called forth a new class
of singers, musicians, and litterateurs. We find, first, the Wagner singers,
who, forsaking the melodic flow of the older aria, require that strongly
accented declamatory intensity so necessary to the interpreters of Wagner's
works, especially those of the second period. Among the female singers
we must notice specially Reicherkindermann, incomparable as Briinhilde,
who died on June 2nd, 1883 ; Amalie Materna, born in Styria, 1847, who
assisted at the performances in 1876; Theresa Malter; Frau Milder, of
Weimar ; Frau Vogel ; Herr Milder; and Herr Vogel, born 1845, who is
undoubtedly the best Tristan; Schnorr von Carolsfold (1836—1865), to
whom we have referred as the son of the creator of the Nibelung frescoes
which adorn the walls of the museum at Munich ; Emil Scaria, born at
Gratz in 1840, who made his debut at Vienna as St. Bris in the Huguenots ;
Albert Niemann, born near Magdeburg, 1831. There are some performers
other than " Wagner singers " who have excelled in the creations of this
master. We refer to Mme. Schroeder-Devrient, who was perhaps the
most magic Venus who ever appeared in Tannhduser ; Johanna Wagner,
who was incomparable as Elizabeth, after receiving tuition in the part from
her uncle ; Joseph Tichatschek, one of the earliest of the master's friends
at Dresden, an excellent Rienzi and Tannhauser ; Franz Betz, who excelled
as Wotan and Hans Sachs ; and Mitterwurzer, a worthy representative of
Wolfran.

* The whole life and experience of the translator have led him to an estimate of Wagner
in direct conflict with that of Professor Naumann. To the translator Wagner represents the
climax of the six great geniuses. The whole of their efforts find their completion in him.
It is Wagner who makes the tonal art a language, understood by all ; his music is as if the
tongue of the art were loosened, where before it was but lisping speech. To class Wagner
with the "Talents" is an absolutely false judgment; he is a genius of the first order. —
FERDINAND PRAEGEK.

XXX

1186

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

There are also Wagner conductors, historians, and panegyrists. The
best known of the first name include Hans Richter, Hans von Billow,
and Hermann Levi. Among the historians are Franz Brendel, with his
"Grundziige der Geschichte der Musik" (a fifth edition of which was
published in 1861); and Carl F. Glasenapp, whose "Richard Wagner's
Leben und Wirken" (published in two volumes in 1876) is well known.
Of the panegyrists the most prominent are Friedrich Nietzche, Ludwig

Fig. 288. — Exterior of the Wagner Theatre at Bayreuth.

Nohl, and Hans von Wolzogen. The principal theorist of the school
is Karl Friedrich Weitzmann, born at Berlin in 1808, where he died
in 1880.

Our history of the New Romantic School would be incomplete without
mention of Franz Liszt, who holds a position midway between Berlioz and
Wagner, and who has been an intimate friend and admirer of both. This,
however, has never prevented him from due acknowledgment of talent
wherever perceived, although a leader of the "Young German " school.
Though nobody has striven so ardently to establish the position of Berlioz
and Wagner when still unacknowledged, yet Liszt, ever without prejudice,
extolled the beauties of the works of Rossini, Bellini, Verdi, Meyerbeer,
Auber, Mendelssohn, Chopin, and Schumann ; and whereas Wagner under-

HECTOR BERLIOZ AND RICHARD WAGNER. 1187

rated Meyerbeer, Liszt helped to render celebrated his operas by transcrib-
ing parts of them. Liszt's admiration for the old masters is unbounded,
according to Goethe an unmistakable sign of a noble nature. As instances
we can point to his transcriptions for the piano of the grandest fugues of
Bach, the symphonies of Beethoven, and the songs of Schubert; his
fantasias on Mozart's Don Giovanni, Meyerbeer's Huguenots and Robert
le Liable j Mendelssohn's Midsummer Night's Dream, and the songs of

Fig. 289.— Interior of the Wagner Theatre at Bayreuth.

Schumann, Mendelssohn, and Bellini's Puritani. He has also paraphrased
works of Wagner, Berlioz, and Saiut-Saens.

Liszt, as a virtuoso, had no equal in any branch but Pagamni, whom he
even excelled in sentiment. Notwithstanding his artistic triumphs, which
stand unequalled in the history of art, Liszt ever aspired to gain a position
among composers, and although he could not reach that goal which he had
set for himself, a goal similar to that of Berlioz, who desired to begin
where Beethoven ended, nevertheless his works claim interest from every
true artist. Those attempts include symphonic poems for the grand opera,
in two of which, "Test Klange" and "Prelude," mere expressions of
sentiment, we find still the symphonic forms of our classics. In his
later works he attempts to paint characteristically circumstances, localities,
x x x 2

1188 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

and the musical individuality of special persona, and adopts Wagner's leit-
motivi, thereby introducing the new symphonic style.

This form could not bring the desired result, since the employment of
the leit-motiv , as we have asserted elsewhere, is nothing but a return to
mouothematism, i.e., to an antiquated form. The manifold contrasts of
modern existence find their true representation only in polythematic music,
more especially dualism, the form used by the great masters in the sonata,
symphony, and overture, and found in the chamber music of Haydn, Mozart,
and Beethoven, and in the works generally of Schubert, Weber, Spohr,
Mendelssohn, and Schumann. This form is also present in a few of Liszt's
compositions, viz., the " Hunnenschlacht," a work inspired by Kaulbach's
picture of the battle of the Huns; "Mazeppa;" "Die Ideale," after
Schiller's well-known poem; the "Faust Symphony;" " Dante Symphony;"
and " Berg Symphony," after Victor Hugo's poem. This master's works
exhibit as a whole much originality, boldness, and earnestness, while in
them we find no triviality nor effects lacking serious intention. Liszt
possesses much in common with Wagner as regards energetic will, although
the latter master, with his wealth of invention, developed a more independent
character. Of his entire works, Liszt's sacred music is by far the most
valuable, and includes his " Graner Messe," " Missa Choralis," " Ungarische
Kronungsmesse," and his oratorio Christus. Die Legends von der heiligen
Elisabeth (St. Elizabeth), the libretto of which is by Roquette, and in
which Liszt's romantic tendency proclaims its presence most clearly in the
" Rosen wunder " and " Kreuzfahrerscene," may be said to stand midway
between the sacred and secular styles. We must also call attention to the
master's setting to music of Heinrich Heine's poems ; a sonata dedicated to
Robert Schumann, his two concertos for the piano in E flat, and works
belonging to an early period; the "Consolations," "Annees de Pelerin-
age," " Hungarian Rhapsodies," and " Harmonies Poetiques et Religieuses."
That the master is not lacking in humour is proved by his " Nieschor " in the
" Wartburgfestspiel " and the " Vogelpredigt " from the Franciskuslegende.
Besides his gifts as a musician, Liszt enjoys a wide education and sound
universal knowledge, which enables him to maintain an important position
as a musical litterateur. His writing is as fluent in French as in German.
He has written a sketch of the life of Chopin, of whom he was ever a
champion ; essays on John Field's " Nocturnes ; " and pamphlets entitled

FRANZ LISZT.
Born 22nd October, 1811, at Raiding, near Oedenburg.

(By permission of S. Schottlaender, of Breslau, after the original Steel Engraving published by Turn.)

HECTOR BERLIOZ AND RICHARD WAGNER. 1189

" Ueber die Musik der Zigeuner," " Ueber Tannhauser und Lohengrin/'
and " Ueber die Goethestiftung." He also contributed articles to Brendel's
" Neuezeitschrift." Benfey remarks on one o£ Liszt's eulogistic articles on
Meyerbeer, in which his opinion was entirely opposed to that of Wagner,
that " where Liszt feels and thinks otherwise than does Wagner he knows
perfectly how to assert the independence of his judgment."

Franz Liszt was born on October 22nd, 1811, at Raiding, a village
near Oedenburg, in that part of Hungary bordering on Lower Austria.
Though at an earlier period the family of Liszt had belonged to the Hun-
garian nobility, Germany has an equal claim on the master, as it was there
that he received his musical education. This claim is strengthened by the
fact that the master resided for many years at Weimar, that he was most
energetic in promoting the spread of Wagner's works, was most active in
assisting the completion of the Beethoven statue at Bonn, and held a
peculiar and prominent position in the New Romantic or " Young German"
School. His father, Adam Liszt, who was himself musical, discovered his
son's gift at an early age, and eagerly fostered it, so that at nine years of
age the boy made his debut in a concerto by Ferdinand Ries. A stipend
was awarded to the young virtuoso by the Counts Amade, Apponyi, and
Szapary, which enabled his father, who was steward to Prince Esterhazy,
to send him to Vienna, where he received lessons in pianoforte playing from
Charles Czerny, and in composition from Salieri. After a concert given
in 1823, the young artist was taken to Beethoven by Schindler. The great
master encouraged the youth with kindly words. By these early successes
of his son, Adam Liszt was enabled to forsake his vocation and devote himself
entirely to his son's interest. He entered with the lad upon a concert tour
through Munich and Stutgardt, and finally to Paris, in the winter of 1823-4.
Notwithstanding his success as a performer, and a brilliantly-passed exami-
nation, Cherubini, clinging to sundry old statutes, refused to allow the
virtuoso to enter the Conservatoire, and he was compelled to take private
lessons from Reicha and Paer. The Paris journals of 1824 described the
boy as a talent without parallel, and at about the same period a similar
Success was obtained in London. In 1825 the young musician's operetta,
entitled Don Sancko, ou le Palais de I3 Amour, was performed. In 1827
Liszt lost his father, and at the early age of sixteen was enabled to
present his mother, whom he had sent for from Styria, with 100,000 francs.

1190 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

About this period the youth's career seemed in imminent danger of inter-
ruption, as he was seized with the desire of joining the priesthood. We
find him soon after, however, an adherent of the <( Nouveau Christianisme/'
as preached by St. Simon, and actively engaged with Chevalier and Pereire
in planning socialistic improvements. Although he soon discovered that
this was not his true destiny, we may safely affirm that it is from this
period that his gentle humanity dates. Later on the talented master
indulged in daily intercourse with the heads of the Romantic School of
poetry, especially Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Heinrich Heine, and Mme.
Dudevant, afterwards so celebrated as George Sand. It was at one of these
meetings that Victor Hugo read his poem, " Ce qu'on entend sur la mon-
tagne," which produced such an impression on the composer that he deter-
mined on composing the " Berg Symphony." The friendship of Meyerbeer,
Berlioz, and Chopin kept alive Liszt's musical enthusiasm. It is peculiar
that the young artist who had just lately wished to become priest was now
attacked by the same scepticism which characterises so many prominent
Romantic poets and musicians, though it would seem that the nature of
Romance, the chief features of which are art, chivalry, and woman-worship,
would be averse to such contradictory principles. We, however, see that
the disciples of Romance return, as a rule, to their original world's-concep-
tion. So it was with Liszt also, whom Lamennais, the author of (i Paroles
d'un Croyant," led back to the acknowledgment of the undeniable worth
and grandeur of religion. The phenomenon we have just discussed is not
without psychological interest, for the commonplace saying that scepticism
once past strengthens faith, is not sufficient to account for the endless number
and difference of intellect of the individuals who pass through the ordeal.

In 1834 Liszt's intimacy with the Countess d'Agoult commenced.
This lady was known as a gifted writer under the name of Daniel Stern. One
of the children of this union was Cosima, afterwards Cosima Wagner. In
1835 they removed to Geneva. A year later, however, the master returned
to Paris, in order to contest with Thalberg, who had just achieved a brilliant
success there. Liszt, as he has done everywhere and all times, maintained
his position as the first of pianists. Heine remarked on this occasion that
there was a striking contrast between the perfect but unimpassioned
Austrian and the wildly enthusiastic Hungarian. Sigismund Thalberg
(1812—1871) was a pupil of Hummel, studying under that master at Vienna.

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HECTOR BERLIOZ AND RICHARD WAGNER. 1191

The European fame of this artist is founded on his success in 1835, at
Paris. Of his compositions his operatic fantasias must be regarded as
the best. In 1837 Liszt went to Italy, where he achieved great success.
While here the master seized the opportunity of earnestly studying the
treasures of art which abound. In 1839 he commenced in Vienna that
brilliant tour through Europe which insured for him a reputation unequalled
by that of any virtuoso but Paganini. From this date until the year 1847
the master travelled incessantly from Russia to Spain, from Sweden to
Hungary, visiting everywhere the capitals and chief cities, and producing
an extraordinary effect. Mendelssohn said that he had never before met a
musician whose fingers could so perfectly express his sentiments. Schumann
said, " The piano appears to glow under the hands of this master/' This
homage, which was during the years 1841-2 unprecedented at Berlin, was
not paid to Liszt as virtuoso alone, but as a man of intellect and high
culture. The author, who had the opportunity of frequently hearing Liszt
at an early age, remembers how the public were charmed with the master's
noble bearing. Honours of every description were showered on Liszt.
The Emperor of Austria renewed his patent of nobility ; the University of
Konigsberg awarded him the honorary title of Doctor ; the City of Pesth
presented him with a sword of honour ; and the European monarchs vied in
decorating him. It was owing to his strenuous efforts that the Beethoven
statue was completed, he himself contributing 50,000 marks. The ceremony
of unveiling was performed at Bonn, on which occasion Queen Victoria and
King Frederick William IV. of Prussia were present. About the year
1847 the master, satiated with his success as virtuoso, longed for seclusion,
and the desire of becoming a composer grew daily more intense. He
sought a peaceful resting-place, and at length determined on residing
at Weimar, formerly the home of Goethe, where he was invested by the
Grand Duke with the direction of all the musical affairs of the State.
He was accompanied by the Russian Princess Caroline von Wittgen-
stein, and took up his abode at the " Altenburg," a property belonging
to the Grand Duchess of Weimar. As conductor of the opera Liszt
began by producing Flotow's Martha; this was followed by the first per-
formance of Wagner's Lohengrin; Berlioz's Benvenuto Cellini; Schu-
mann's Manfred and Genoveva ; and Franz Schubert's Alphonso und
Estrella. The works of younger masters, such as Rubinstein, Raff, Lassen,

1192 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

and Cornelius, were introduced by him. He also instituted Sunday matinees
at his residence, which was visited on these occasions by the Grand Duke
of Weimar and many people of distinction. Liszt's career as a composer
commenced with a symphonic poem, " Der entfesselte Prometheus. " His
" Graner Messe " was composed for the ceremony of consecration of the
church at Gran, in Hungary, its first performance taking- place in 1855.
His resignation of the post he occupied at the Opera was due to the o.pposi-
tion of part of the public to the performance of the Barbier von Bagdad,
by Cornelius, which the master was introducing. Liszt visited Paris in
1860, but soon returned to Weimar, and after a visit to the Duke of
Hohenzollern, finally fixed his residence at Rome, where, in 1864, he acted
on behalf of Pope Pio nono in the " Academia Sacra." The Pontiff con-
tinually alluded to Liszt as his "dear son" and " Palestrina," and in 1865
created him Abbe Liszt, as which the composer has been for the most part
connected with the Franciscans. In this year the St. Elizabeth was per-
formed for the first time at Pesth. Two years later Christus was produced at
Rome, and the "Wartburgfestspiel" was performed for the first time at the
Wartburg, in celebration of the eight- hundredth anniversary of its founda-
tion. Since the year 1871 the master has resided for the most part at
Weimar and Pesth. In 1870 he conducted a Beethoven festival at Weimar,
and afterwards a similar celebration at Pesth. The Government of Hun-
gary bestowed on the master the title of Royal Councillor, to which honour
was. attached an annual stipend of 4,000 florins, and the Grand Duke of
Weimar appointed him Chamberlain. The first complete performance of
Christus, a work conceived in the spirit of the Romish Church, took place
at Weimar in 1873. Amongst the pupils of Liszt we find Hans von Billow,,
Hans von Bronsart, KarlTausig (1841-1871), D' Albert, and Sophie Menter.
We must close this sketch of Liszt's career with a reference to his
versatility, tolerance, and the fostering care with which he aided the works
of both old and young composers of the most diverse tendencies. If the
leaders of opposing parties and different schools possessed more of Liszt's
qualities of toleration, they would soon discover for themselves the fact that
the history of art is sustained by the collective efforts of the most opposite
natures, and that, excepting those isolated geniuses who appear in the
course of centuries, who raise the beautiful to the divine, all who strive to
reach the ideal are mere disciples.

THE PRESENT. 1193

CHAPTER XXXIX.

THE PRESENT.

THE period of the present might with some justice be described as the
period of the " Epigones," i*e., of those whose works form the art-produc-
tion of a period of transition alternative with the existence of the great
geniuses. The leading feature of such periods is the would-be degradation
of preceding geniuses, and the attempted " discovery " of others. For
example : thirty years ago the author was introduced to a young man as
the future Goethe; this man has since become one of the foremost of
German poets, but approaches Goethe no more than Chopin does Schumann
or Schubert. How often in the space of thirty years do so-called geniuses
arise who after a decade at most are forced back into oblivion !

Before employing too frequently the term "epigone/' at present a
favoured expression with German literary theorists, we should explain that
by it we do not imply mere imitation, but the fatality of birth immediately
after the appearance of a genius. Immermann in his novel " Die Epigonen "
has done much to lower the meaning of this word by employing it to desig-
nate giftless imitators. But as the national peculiarities of composers vary
to such a degree at the present day, as almost to defy the strict application
of the term to them in any sense, we prefer to leave this debatable point,
and return to the acceptation of the term as treated by us earlier in this
work.

Endeavour was there made to show that the musical history of the old
French, Gallic, Belgian, Netherland, Roman, and Early Venetian schools
had their origin in the conception of the Middle Ages. The Classical Renais-
sance of the tonal art might, however, have received an entirely different
form if actual reference could have been made to such productions as the
choruses to the tragedies of Sophocles and JEschylus and other musical
works of Greece. But nothing more than mere descriptions of such works
were accessible. It is, then, extraordinary that the Romantic Renaissance
should have adopted the musical theories of ancient Greece in connection with
the sagas of ancient Germany (as if in opposition to the Classical Renais-
sance) when suffering under the same disadvantage, a disadvantage not

1194 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

shared by the plastic art, to which distinct and visible Greek models were
bequeathed.

We have referred to two Renaissance periods in the tonal art, the Classic
and the Romantic, the latter originating during the decline of the former.
Within each of these we find a culminating point of high excellence. In
the Classic period of the plastic art, Greek and mediaeval conceptions united
to form the epoch of high culture, as represented by the works of Bramante
and Raphael up to Correggio.

In the modern Romantic period the Germans combined similar concep-
tions, attaining that excellence in music and poetry represented by the
creations from Bach and Klopstock to Beethoven and Goethe. In this
period the works of Wagner and Liszt may be said to form its climax, but
although the latter may represent the culmination of all that preceded them,
yet they really belong to that section of the period initiated by Berlioz and
Schumann, and known as the New Romantic School. They can therefore
in nowise be described as Epigones, and in so far as Wagner is concerned
he must, in a pre-eminent sense, be considered the last of the Romantic
School. We, however, do not agree that the highest excellence was reached
by Wagner and Liszt. It is true they complete the period of the Romantic
Renaissance, but we consider that the ultimate stage was reached during
the genius period extending from Bach to Beethoven, for the reason of the
fusion that then took place of the most opposed culture-principles, in so far
as such was possible in the musical art.

To the historian it is very significant that, during the last stages of
the Romantic period, the introduction of the New Romantic School was
a perfectly logical sequence to all that had preceded it in the tonal art.
It was furthermore imperative that this school, like all others, should have
diverged, no matter to what degree, provided it was not the outcome of
mere fashion but the true development of natural law. It was in fact
an historical necessity.

Reflecting now on the achievements of the past, we observe in the tonal
art an organic whole. It is complete and finished. What is to come one
cannot divine. Beyond investigation, a vision of the probable progress of
the art is relegated to the realms of speculation. It is obvious that the
tonal art, even of the New Romantic School, attained its climax in the
universal development of the humanitarian principle dating from the Greek

THE PEESENT. ]195

era. And herein the tonal art differs widely from the fine arts of the
ancients, wherein each art appeared to be the unique possession of a
distinct race. But modern masters, though regarded as the natural
outcome of the Romantic era, do, by their inherent tendency, form a period
of transition, a period uniting all that has preceded them with the future.
If, however, we may assume that the tonal art of the future will be dis-
tinguished by its classical style, wherein will be found well-balanced periods
and euphonic expression, and intellectual art-forms united to deep heartfelt
conceptions (such as were effected, though unconsciously, from Bach to
Beethoven), then our prediction that the basis of art-principles will be more
complete and elevated will be perfectly logical and historically supported,
though the productions partake of a Romantic as well as of a Classic
character. All will be the natural result of working or proceeding from
a sound basis, whether the music be " absolute/' or united to other arts.
The more lofty the conception of art, the more pure and vigorous will be
the art-productions, the character of which we are now only able to
surmise.

Such an art-period as this is, in our opinion, the only one possible, after
all other tendencies and theories have been exhausted, unless music be
confined to one direction, work in a circle, or ultimately degenerate into
the abnormal. If, however, our picture of its future be in any degree true,
then the period of conflict between the two opposed world-cultures we are
now passing through will be conclusively proved. As in past ages there
were conflicts in the arts of architecture, sculpture, painting, and poetry,
so now have such arisen in music. The fierce contests in art and literature
of the nineteenth century have invaded the domain of mental life with
increasing vigour, arousing the most bitter strife and leading to conclusions
too often antagonistic to reason. The battles of intellect have not been
confined to the arts, but have also shown themselves in religion, philosophy,
and natural sciences, affecting social life as well as the administration of
states, a condition predicted by us many years since. In religion the strife
began shortly after the period of the Reformation ; in the plastic arts
during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ; whilst in literature, natural
sciences, philosophy, and the government of states, they date from the
sixteenth to the nineteenth century, having greatly increased within the
last two generations. It is only in the latter half of this century that

1196 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

these seemingly unending struggles have arrived at the consciousness of
their irreconcilability, while in the musical art they are yet still engaged
in a contest that can only terminate on the attainment of a full and com-
plete conception of the fundamental principles of true art by the annihila-
tion of all prejudices, and an emergence from the bias of party contention.

But of this, at present, we cannot speak. We can only indicate in this
general survey the tendencies of musical principles and their representatives,
some of which are in direct opposition to orthodox laws, while others,
again, adhere rigorously to established systems. As, however, from the
different theories on which they work there is evidence of strong national
traits in music which greatly influence whole groups of musicians — and
that in an almost unprecedented manner — we are bound, besides pointing
to the special schools of the artists, to treat of their nationality and to
classify them accordingly. It is evident that we are precluded from
naming all those possessing a certain degree of talent, who have yet gained
unquestionable notoriety in their own locality. We are, in the space to
which we have been limited in this chapter, compelled to confine ourselves
to those musicians whose names have become known and respected by
the intellectual section of the musical world. Were we not thus, to limit
ourselves we should considerably exceed the limits of this section. We
feel it also incumbent to consider that a general musical history should
be restricted to the extraordinary and excellent on the one hand, and to the
abnormal and such as may be deemed of real interest on the other. There
are many able artists of France, Germany, and Italy, whose works, meri-
torious though they be, yet must be omitted as far as detailed criticism
is concerned. We have thought it, however, right to name those, who,
though less meritorious, have yet explored new regions, such studies being
the natural outcome of their possessing some strong individuality. We
have regarded solely those who, in theoretical, historical, or sesthetic
works, have left that which we feel will bear fruit for future generations.
We have been compelled to omit, on account of their great number, the
names of certain conductors, professors, and orchestral performers possessing
undeniable talent, and doing greater service to the tonal art than mediocre
composers or virtuosi, naming them, however, if, at the same time, they
have excelled as composers, theorists, or masters of prominent pupils.
We have thought it a duty to refer to those artists, vocal and instrumental,

THE PRESENT. 1197

who have confined their abilities to the rendering of the works of the
great masters. But we fear, that no matter how carefully we may have
sought to adhere to the plan indicated, we cannot have escaped occasionally
mentioning a name of less merit than those possessing higher talent, but
whose works have not yet been brought to our notice. It is but probable
that we have made no reference to this latter class, one comprising men of
worth, but who from various causes escape publicity, although perhaps more
fully entitled to it. It is hoped that in future editions we shall be able
to rectify such omissions, or that whoever may be engaged in that labour
will carry it out in the spirit hitherto shown by us.

After these introductory remarks we will now endeavour to indicate
as clearly as we are able the artistic tendencies of the most prominent
musicians of our time, grouping their creations as accurately as possible.
As Germany took the lead in the tonal art a century and a half ago, and
still holds the sceptre of music, though probably not for all time, we will
begin with that country. A nation can only hold the lead in an art so long
as its vision embraces every point of the horizon. The history of all arts
teaches us this, and it is impossible that it should be otherwise. So long
as a country merits the premier position, so long will its conception of art-
principles be the most complete of its time. But if that necessary and
wide survey be reduced, and only one of the many lines that form the
limits of an art be treated as its full extent, then the time will quickly
arrive when the leadership will pass into unbiassed hands whose natural
instincts may not yet have been blunted by wilful prejudice. The loss of this
leadership by Germany must happen if it does not succeed in throwing off
its present subjectivity with its pernicious consequences; an upgrowth of
its music, to be regretted, during the past thirty-five years. If it does not
rid itself of its intolerance of that which may not serve a party programme,
in favour of universality in art, and become elevated above all prejudice
while mediating between all contrasts, its lead will inevitably be lost to it.

We can distinguish in Germany three decided groups of composers, one
leaning to the New Romantic School, the second to the still vital influence
of Mendelssohn, and the third to the teachings of Schumann. In the last
we find an adherence to the strict classical form which, with Schumann, was
almost an article of faith ; in this respect there is a connecting link with
the followers of Mendelssohn, while, again, certain tendencies that united

1198 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

him to Berlioz have helped to prepare the school of Wagner and Liszt.
The pupils of Schumann, therefore, occupy a peculiar position. They retain
the Classical form of Mendelssohn while employing Wagner's advanced
Romantic theories. This causes a convergence so frequent that in only a
few cases can one point to them as being decided followers either of the
New German School or of the Classico-Romantic School of Schumann. In
alluding to any disciple of these three groups, we should, in order to avoid
misunderstanding, explain that we do not necessarily mean that he is a
strict disciple of the master of the school, but that he is influenced, more or
less, by his model.

We will now turn to those masters who in their youth followed
Schumann, and, in various directions, have disseminated his influence. The
most prominent, Johannes Brahms, is a composer of conspicuous merit.
We know well that this distinction will not satisfy a certain eccentric
number of his admirers, who in their exclusiveness are not less fanatical
than the Wagnerians, a body much abused by them. We cannot but dis-
appoint them in declining to place him on a higher pedestal than that of
Schumann, or on a level with Beethoven, for, little as we hold him re-
sponsible for the bombast of his adherents, we are forced by our stand-
point of art-criticism to regard such inflated and careless utterances as the
subjective aberrations of irresponsible enthusiasts. We do not detract from
his merit in thus describing him, as we firmly believe he is the most promi-
nent talent Germany has produced since Wagner's death. The only man
worthy to be placed by his side is Rubinstein.

Johannes Brahms was born in Hamburg on the 7th May, 1833, his
father being a double-bass performer in the orchestra of the leading theatre
there. At the age of fourteen Johannes made his debut as a successful
pianist, and in 1853 visited Robert Schumann at Diisseldorf, before whom
he played a selection from his own compositions. Schumann was so favour-
ably impressed that he wrote an article in the Leipzig Neue Zeitschrift,
entitled " New Paths/' In this he described Brahms as a talent of the first
rank, the effect of this favourable criticism showing itself by Brahms se-
curing a publisher for his songs and pianoforte pieces, which found much
favour with the public. In 1863 he moved from Hamburg to Vienna,
making the latter his permanent residence. While at the latter place he
held the conductorship at the Vocal Academy for a period of twelve months,

THE PRESENT.

1199

and from 1872 to 1874 a similar post to the Society of the Friends of
Music. He steadily refused all offers of appointments, his inborn love for
music prompting him to devote all his time to composition.

It was not long before he made many friends in the Austrian capital,
and being practically free from all professional engagements, was enabled

Fig. 290.— Johannes Brahms.

to complete many works of magnitude. By 1882 he had written his
eightieth opus, and, ere this, may have completed his hundredth. Among
these we would direct attention to his German Requiem, performed for
the first time at Vienna in 1868, a cantata entitled Rinaldo, a rhapsody
(after Goethe's " Harzreise ") for contralto, male chorus, and orchestra,
and his two cantatas entitled SchicJcsalslied and Triumphlied. Of his

1200 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

orchestral compositions we would remark that the most distinguished
are his three symphonies; the first, in C minor, was called by his adu-
lators the Tenth Symphony, as a seeming sequence to the last of Beet-
hoven's masterpieces. Though we by no means respect such overweening
appreciation, yet we must admit that it is a work of much interest. We
would, however, place more value on the second and third, as in the D
major symphony he turns from emulating Beethoven and displays more of
his own individuality, whilst that in F major, simple and almost pastoral
in character, has become the most popular. It may be added that at the
first performance of the F major symphony the Viennese public were
unanimous in asserting that the one hearing had expressed to them the com-
poser's intention in a very clear and decisive manner. We must also notice
favourably the two overtures Tragic and Academic, some variations for the
orchestra on a theme by Haydn, the two orchestral serenades in G and A
major, the two pianoforte concertos, and the violin concerto. Of his chamber
music we would refer to two sextets, the first of which might be said to
usher in a new description of " musica di camera." A sonata for violon-
cello and piano, written at an early age, several string quartetts and piano-
forte trios, quartetts and quint etts, bear evidence of considerable artistic
merit. Among modern song composers Brahms holds a prominent position,
and when we turn to his a capella songs for four and six voices, we meet
with real gems. We refer to the " Magelonenlieder," " Wie bist du meine
Konigin," " Gutenabend, Gutenacht," and " Verfehltes Standchen," and,
in addition, many duets for female voices.

If we wished to investigate Brahms's music in connection with the
present and the past, we should find him one of the most prominent expo-
nents of that classical art-form used by all the great masters dating from
Bach to Beethoven. As regards the poetical conception of his art, and in
spite of the influence of Schumann on his earlier period, we should find
that he develops an independent individuality. He does not belong to that
class to which might be applied the remark of Schiller on Goethe, that " he
had only need to touch the tree of art in order that its fruits might fall
plenteously at his feet/' Rather should we say that . Schiller's criticism of
himself, " in order to achieve any real success my effort had to be cor-
respondingly great/' is one more applicable. He could rarely give birth to
his inspirations without considerable mental struggle, and only in the most

THE PRESENT. 1201

exceptional cases was lie able to produce with the readiness of Goethe,
though he appears to us to have overcome the subjective influence he showed
in his earliest and, to a certain extent, subsequent works. It appears
further to us that he has mastered the form and that tendency to subtlety
which gave too abstruse a character to so many o£ his works, and has now
turned to that sovereign na'ivete which accepts its inspiration without an
exaggerated self-criticism. Throughout his works we meet with talent,
accompanied by a seriousness that excludes all trivialities, and we may
fairly say he is worthy to be ranked with the best musicians of our time.

A contemporary of Brahms worthy of mention is Robert Volkmann,
born at Lommatzsch, in Saxony, on the 6th of April, 1815, died the 29th
of October, 1883, at Buda-Pesth. He is another of the many musical
notabilities produced by Saxony, where, during the seventeenth century,
were born Johann Hermann Schein, Hammerschmidt, and Heinrich Schiitz ;
in the eighteenth century it produced Adam Hiller, Naumann, and Schicht ;
and in the nineteenth century Robert Schumann, Richard Wagner, and
Otto Grimm. Although Saxony cannot claim old Sebastian Bach, with
his son Friedmann, Hasse, Karl Maria von Weber, Moritz Hauptmann,
and Felix Mendelssohn, on the ground of it being their birthplace, yet it
has much to be proud of, inasmuch as the major portion of their labours
was completed there.

The father of Volkmann, a cantor, early instructed his son in the piano
and organ ; but having the intention to make him a schoolmaster, sent him
to Freiberg for the necessary tuition. At this town, one AD acker, a musical
director, meeting Volkmann by chance, advised him to journey to Leipzig
to complete his musical studies, being impressed with his artistic gift.
This advice Volkmann acted on, leaving for Leipzig in 1836 ; and three
years later had the satisfaction of publishing his first composition for the
pianoforte, " Phantasiebilder/' In the year 1839 he visited Prague, and
afterwards Buda-Pesth, making the latter his residence. From 1854 to
1858 he was studying at Vienna, returning to Pesth, the city he cared
most to live in.

On account of his long residence in the Hungarian capital it has been
frequently supposed that he was by birth a Hungarian, and indeed some
of his works, such as " Ungarische Skizzen/' " Ungarische Lieder/' and
the fantasia " An tombe du Comte Czechenyi/' justify this supposition,

Y Y Y

1202 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

bearing the impress of the Hungarian character. Among his most im-
portant works we include three serenades for string instruments, a
number of string quartetts, an overture to Richard the Third, and two
symphonies in B flat major and D minor, the latter being especially
excellent, and, in addition, two trios for piano and strings, one of which
in B minor, as well as the string quartetts in A minor and Gr minor,
were among the first to secure him notoriety. He also wrote several
" Concertstiicke " for the violoncello and pianoforte, besides numerous piano
solos and duets. With regard to his vocal works we would refer to two
masses for male voices, a number of secular songs, some with orchestral
accompaniment and others with piano and flute accompaniment ; but his
best efforts are undoubtedly shown in his orchestral and chamber music.
He, like Brahms, was much influenced by Schumann, developing later on
and in a similar way his real tendencies, these showing themselves in
natural and heartfelt expression. In the greatest number of his works we
find less subtlety than we meet in Brahms's, yet we do not find him less
profound, for though Brahms is bolder and more severe, yet Volkmann
shows greater regard to euphony ; but in respect, however, to strict art-
form, both masters appear to be evenly balanced.

Another disciple of Schumann, possessing less universality than the two
masters just compared, is Robert Franz, a man of much ability in the more
restricted sphere of song-compositions, in which he has achieved most
praiseworthy results. Born in 1815 at Halle, his father, perceiving his
inclination for music, forbade him to follow the profession, the result being
that he did not begin his studies till 1835, at Dessau, under Friedrich
Schneider. His retiring character and extreme modesty united in confining
his efforts to the limits of song-form, with the exception of a few somewhat
lengthy compositions for the Church. Although in his songs he is most
individual and refined, still he has failed to achieve the same prominence as
Schumann, Schubert, or Mendelssohn. The first of his forty-four sets of
songs appeared in 1843 ; the second, soon after, was dedicated to Robert
Schumann, who in writing of them said, ".There is no end to the new and
refined traits that one discovers." Franz, who held the position of organist
to the " Ulrich Kirche/' and conductor to the Vocal Academy of Halle,
had the honorary degree of Doctor conferred on him by the University oi
that town, on account of his resuscitation of old sacred vocal works, such

THE PRESENT. 1203

as those of Astorga, Durante, S. Bach, and Handel. It is to be remarked
of his songs, that with very few exceptions they have not become so well
known as those of other classical masters, but on the whole they are tone-
pictures of a reflective nature, and highly finished in form, with carefully
chosen harmonies and refined accompaniments, melody and fluency, how-
ever, not being very evident. Many of them require deep musical declama-
tion, with an unusually careful delivery ; and if, on the one hand, there are
some that are the outcome of reflection rather than of an effusive imagina-
tion, there are those, on the other hand, that overflow with a na'ivete and
spontaneity deficient in others. Nothing, however, can support our estimate
of him more than the fact that men such as A. W. Ambros, Julius
Schaffer, and Franz Liszt have deemed him of sufficient merit to warrant
their writing specially of him.

Another song composer reflecting the influence of Schumann is Adolf
Jensen, born at Konigsberg, 1837, died at Baden-Baden, 1879. Having,
in 1856, conceived the idea of studying composition under Schumann at
Diisseldorf, he travelled to Russia in the hope of gaining sufficient money
there to enable him to carry out his object. Within a year he returned
to Germany, on hearing of Schumann's illness — an illness that preceded
insanity — and accepted the appointment of conductor to the Posen town
theatre. This position he subsequently resigned, taking up his residence at
different periods in Copenhagen, Konigsberg, Berlin, and Graz. Of his
song compositions we would mention those arranged in sets numbered 4, 6,
22, and those entitled " Dolorosa" and " Erotikon." He has further dis-
tinguished himself in modern pianoforte music, notably sonata Op. 25, a
number of detached pieces, such as Op. 37, 38, and 42, and some larger
works of a sacred character, e.g., " Der Gang nach Emmaus/' and the chorus
for nuns with accompaniment for harp, horns, and piano.

In Woldemar Bargiel we meet a musician much resembling Jensen, and
belonging to that branch of the Romantic School most closely allied to
Schumann, to whom he was related, being step-brother to Clara Schumann.
Born in 1828 at Berlin, he entered while very young the cathedral choir
under the leadership of Grell and Mendelssohn, studying counterpoint with
Dehn, and subsequently pursuing his studies at the Leipzig Conservatorium.
In 1859 he was appointed professor in the Musical Academy at Cologne
founded by Ferdinand Hiller, afterwards acting as conductor at Rotterdam,
Y Y Y 2

1204 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Of his orchestral compositions we would point to the overture Medea, and,
in chamber music, to the trios ; whilst his vocal compositions, both part-songs
and solos, exhibit much poetic fancy.

Theodor Kirchner, born in 1824 near Chemnitz, a musician of the type
of Bargiel, has gained some repute in his chamber music, songs, and short
pianoforte pieces, with and without accompaniment of strings. His string
quartett in Gr major deserves special mention.

Karl Gradener, born in 1812, to whom we owe many symphonic works,
string quartetts, pianoforte pieces, and songs, is a musician endowed with
an over-fanciful imagination. The same may, to an extent, be said of
Albert Dietrich, born 1829, near Meissen, the pupil of Rietz and Haupt-
mann, and court chapel-master at Oldenburg from 1861. In 1851, at
Diisseldorf, he became intimate with Schumann, whose influence is manifest
in all his compositions.

Finally, we must mention Ernst Naumann, born 1832, and following
like those above-mentioned the lead of Schumann. In chamber music he ex-
hibits genuine gift and perfect mastery of art-forms, a combination further
apparent in a sonata for viola and piano, and in a serenade in A major for
strings and wind instruments.

In dealing with those masters of the present who are specially influenced
by Mendelssohn, the place of honour belongs to Ferdinand Hiller, his con-
temporary and friend, as well as the senior among the adherents to the
classic form which was evolved during the years 1830 to 1865. The
romantic spirit which permeates Mendelssohn, the most ardent follower of
classical art-form, is apparent also in the works of all his disciples. With
Hiller, however, it is less strongly perceptible than in the younger com-
posers, therefore he may fitly be regarded as the chief exponent of the
Modern Classical School. Ferdinand Hiller, the son of a wealthy Jewish
merchant, was born on the 24th October, 1811, at Frankfort-on-the-Maine.
He first studied under Aloys Schmitt at Frankfort, and subsequently under
Hummel at Weimar. In 1827 he accompanied Hummel on a professional
tour, during which at Vienna he had the good fortune to become acquainted
with Beethoven. In 1829 he proceeded to Paris, forming there a close
friendship with Cherubini, Meyerbeer, Rossini, Berlioz, Chopin, Liszt,
Borne, and Heinrich Heine, and it will be readily understood why such
society could not fail to be of the greatest service to him in widening his

THE PRESENT. 1205

views and enlarging his comprehension. After acting as a substitute
for Schelble in 1836 at Frankfort, he visited Italy in 1838, and again in
1841. He also acted as deputy conductor for Mendelssohn at the Leipzig
Gewandhaus Concerts, and as instructor to the Advanced Composition
Class held at the Conservatorium. Three years later he was appointed con-
ductor at Diisseldorf, leaving this post in 1850 to assume a similar one at
Cologne, where his activity in the triple role of conductor, composer, and
professor at the Conservatorium founded by him, has raised the city into a
position of much prominence. His directorship of the Cologne musical
festivals held during his residence there greatly contributed to the musical
celebrity of the old cathedral city. In 1877 the King of Wiirtemberg con-
ferred on him a patent of nobility. He died on the 10th of May, 1885,
before this notice had been written. In 1876 the number of his works had
reached 160, many owing their origin to his undoubted facility of compo-
sition. Among his inspired works we would include The Destruction of
Jerusalem, and Said, two great oratorios, the latter having scarcely re-
ceived its merited recognition. These might fairly be placed by the side
of Mendelssohn's oratorios ; the same might also be said of his cantata Ver
Sacrum. The symphony, superscribed with the motto, " Es muss doch
Friihling werden," three concert overtures, a pianoforte concerto in F sharp
minor (Op. 69), the effective vocal quintetts (Op. 25), and many chamber
and pianoforte works, show very completely the uncommon facility and
gift of the master. He composed five German and one Italian opera, but
failed to achieve any success with them. He was not only a refined
musician, but a spirited litterateur, maintaining firmly the classical charac-
teristics of his school, and insisting on the principle that only a pure
harmonic permeation of content and form can create an art- work of
genuine and lasting merit. His pupils, Max Brack and Fr. Gernsheim,
are the worthy scholars of a gifted master.

Next to Hiller we mention Carl Reinecke, another distinguished repre-
sentative of the school of Mendelssohn. Born at Altona in 1824> he
received his first tuition in piano playing from his father, himself an
excellent musician. In 1842 he began his tour to Scandinavia and
Stockholm, journeying thence to Leipzig, at that time the musical centre
of Germany, owing to the efforts of Mendelssohn and Schumann. In
1851 he was engaged by F. Hiller as .professor to the Conservatorium at

1206 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Cologne. Successively conductor at Barmen in 1854, at the Breslau Vocal
Academy in 1859, of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Concerts in 1861, and
director of its Conservatorium, he has been gaining a very prominent
position in the musical world. Of his works, numbering more than one
hundred, we may mention the opera of Manfred, several pianoforte con-
certos, a symphony, two concert overtures, Dame Kobold and Aladdin,
vocal and chamber compositions, all of which deserve notice on account of
their finished form.

Another professor of the Leipzig Conservatorium, S. Jadassohn, was
born in 1831 at Breslau. Successively a pupil of Liszt for piano, and of
Moritz Hauptmann for theory, he settled in 1852 at Leipzig, conducting
the Euterpe Concerts from 1867 to 1869, afterwards becoming professor.
His orchestral works possessing most attraction are certain symphonies
which show formal finish and natural flow. The greater part of his works
bear the impress of the Mendelssohn school, but his later compositions lean
towards the New Romantic School.

Among the earlier masters of the Mendelssohn school who outlived their
idol we should mention Rietz and Taubert. Julius Rietz, born at Berlin,
1812, died at Dresden, 1877, was in his youth a friend of Mendelssohn;
he was the pupil of Zelter and Bernhard Romberg, and became under the
latter master a virtuoso on the violoncello. From 1834 to 1847 he occu-
pied the post of conductor at Diisseldorf, thereby gaining much experience
in that particular sphere of the profession. In 1847 he became chapel-
master at the Leipzig Theatre; a year later he succeeded Mendelssohn
as director of the Gewandhaus Concerts, and in 1860 was appointed royal
chapel-master to the Court Theatre, Dresden. He does not seem to us to
possess much importance as a composer, although it must be admitted that
his well-known " Concert Overture," the overture to Hero and Leander,
and a symphony composed for the Leipzig Concerts, are all masterly as
regards form and orchestration. Besides being well versed in his profession,
he was eminent as a general scholar, Otto Jahn, the litterateur, asserting
that in him the world lost an eminent doctor of philology, owing to his
exclusive devotion to music. Rietz has raised an imperishable monument
to himself in editing the works of Bach, Handel, Beethoven, Mendelssohn,
nnd Mozart, published by Breitkopf and Hartel.

Wilhelm Taubert, another follower of Mendelssohn, born 1811, was a

THE PRESENT. 1207

pupil of Ludwig Berger, studying theory under Bernhardt Klein. He is
famed as a virtuoso of that classical school of pianists headed by Moscheles,
Mendelssohn, Clara Schumann, F. Hiller, Wilhelmina Clauss, and Reinecke.
In 1831 he undertook the conductorship of the Berlin Court Concerts, and
three years later was elected member of the Prussian Academy of Arts,
receiving in 1845 the appointment of court chapel-master of the Royal
Opera-House at Berlin. His " Kinderlieder " acquired much popularity in
being sung by such eminent artists as Jenny Lind, Johanna Wagner,
and Harriers- Wippern. His compositions of larger significance are the
opera Macbeth, the incidental music to the Tempest, and to the Medea
of Euripides.

Of the few masters having had the inestimable advantage of private
tuition from Mendelssohn we first mention Richard Wiierst, born at Berlin,
1824, and dying there in 1881. In 1856 he was appointed music director at
Berlin; in 1874 he was nominated Royal Professor of Music, and in 1877
elected member of the Prussian Academy of Arts. Of his compositions
we would mention specially " Der Rothmantel/" " Vineta/' " Der Stern von
Turan," and " Faublas," and his Cologne prize symphony, Op. 21. His
cantata, Der WassernecTc, may be mentioned as a scholarly choral work.

A prominent and popular composer is Max Bruch, born at Cologne,
1838, the pupil of F. Hiller and Carl Reinecke. In 1852 he was awarded
the prize of the Frankfurt Mozart stif tun g for a string quartett, a composi-
tion that attracted the attention of the musical world. In 1867 he became
court chapel-master at Sondershausen j and three years later he removed
to Berlin. From 1873 to 1878 he resided at Bonn, afterwards returning to
Berlin to conduct Stern's Musical Academy. In 1880 he conducted the
Philharmonic Concerts at Liverpool, and, after a tour in the United States,
he returned to Europe to reside at Breslau, where he was appointed con-
ductor of the Orchestral Union. Bruch is one of the most versatile and
fruitful composers of the present day, his works evidencing the influence of
Schumann and Wagner. In addition to his operas, instrumental and vocal
music, his secular cantatas, the libretti of which were written by Georg
Vierling, are worthy, from their epic character, to be placed among the best
of secular oratorios, e.g., the cantatas, Scenen aus der Frithjofs-Sage, Schon
Ellen, and, in a still higher degree, his music to the Odyssey, Schiller's
Lay of the Bell, and his latest work, Achilles. His operas, Ermione (after

1208 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Shakespeare's Winter's Tale) and Loreley, rapidly becoming popular, the
symphony in F minor, Op. 36, that in E flat major, and the two violin
concertos, are deserving of praise. It is interesting to note that the
popular G minor concerto, with its melodious Andante, has been performed
by coloured artists from St. Domingo. Besides grandeur of style, his
pianoforte, chamber, and song music exhibits much that is charming, and
justifies the assertion that he never strives after effect for its own sake, but
is always the genuine artist.

A composer, educated in the Mendelssohn school, but, like Bruch, much
influenced by Schumann and Wagner, is Karl Reinthaler, born in 1822 at
Erfurt, in a house formerly inhabited by Luther, at which town his father
founded a school called the " Martinstift." To gratify his father he devoted
himself to theology, and does not seem to have exhibited any musical inclina-
tion until he had passed his examination for the Church. While residing
at Berlin for his theological studies, he, on feeling the force of his natural
bent, took lessons in musical theory from Dr. A. B. Marx, which were of
great advantage to him. Like Hiller, he enjoyed the friendship of Men-
delssohn, whose steps he followed in adopting the modernised form of
oratorio created by that master, and this is shown most in his JepWiah
and his Daughter, a work that at once established his name as that of
a musician of unusual ability. A symphony strictly adhering to the
" classical " form increased his reputation, but the charming romantic
opera Kdthchen von Heilbronn, in spite of its idealistic tendencies and- the
influence of Wagner's characteristic orchestration, further shows him to be,
in melodious flow and careful attention to orthodox form, a disciple of the
classical German school. His opera Edda, although an earlier work, is
entitled to special mention. Owing to the success of certain sacred com-
positions by him, performed by the Royal Cathedral Choir at Berlin in
1850, Frederick William IV. of Prussia provided him with the means of
proceeding to Italy for the purpose of studying there for two years. At
the end of this time, F. Hiller engaged him as professor to the Cologne
Conservatorium, but in 1858 he resigned this to become conductor of the
Bremen Concerts, being appointed later on organist to the cathedral and
director to the Vocal Academy. In 1876 he competed successfully for the
prize offered by the town of Dortmund for a hymn to be composed in
honour of Bismarck.

THE PRESENT.

In Friederich Gernsheim we meet with a musician of somewhat similar
merit to Reinthaler. Born in 1839, he studied under Hauptmann, Rietz,
and Moscheles, making his debut in 1855 as a pianist in Paris, and ten
years later Hiller appointed him professor at Cologne, to which he subse-
quently added the office of conductor of the civic Vocal Union and Cologne
Opera. In 1874 he accepted the post of director of the Rotterdam Conser-
vatorium. His pianoforte concerto in C minor, several string and piano
quartetts, the cantata Salamis, for male voices, and a "Salve Regina" for
female voices, are worthy of mention. We will conclude this portion by
referring briefly to four musicians influenced more or less by the teachings
of Mendelssohn. The first, Theodor Gouvy, was born in 1822 near Saar-
briicken, and was a composer of symphonies, chamber and sacred music ;
the second, Karl Eckert, born 18*20 at Potsdam, was chiefly celebrated for
his opera WUhelm von Oranien, and certain songs, and successively held
the appointment of court chapel-master at Vienna, Stutgardt, and Berlin ;
the third, Robert Radecke, born 1830 in Silesia, the composer of two over-
tures, a symphony, and part-songs, was appointed in 1871 court chapel-
master at the Royal Opera, Berlin ; the fourth being Ernst Rudorff, born
1840 at Berlin, a pupil of Rietz, Hauptmann, Moscheles, and Reinecke, and
famed for his overtures to Tiecks' Der Blonde Ekbert, to Der Schutz, a
ballad, a serenade, and orchestral variations. In 1880 he was appointed
conductor to Stern's Vocal Union.

In turning our attention to living German musicians, we' approach a
body distinguished as dramatic composers — e.g., Cornelius, Hofmann,
Grammann, and Goldschrnidt. Although the three first do not lack
mastery of art-form in a great degree, whilst, however, differing as regards
style, yet their operas do not possess the conditions of lasting and genuine
success, chiefly on account of their imitation of the principle employed in
the modern music-drama — i.e., a continuous melody instead of the estab-
lished operatic form. Such bare imitation must always fail to impress the
hearer, as the copy of a strong individuality is at once perceived, and such
a treatment can only interest when it is the outcome of some well-defined
originality like* that of Wagner. This primal power of Wagner is so
exalted that it renders all imitation weak and spiritless ; imitation that
is, after all, nothing more than an external reproduction lacking the
vigour of the original.

1210 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Heinrich Hofmann, born in 1842 at Berlin, was the pupil of Dehn and
Wu'erst. His heroic music-drama Armin displays decided dramatic gift,
whilst a second opera, Aennchen von T/iarau, exhibits much that is charming
and romantic in instrumentation. This latter work, on account of its rich
vein of melody and, in part, humorous character, would assuredly have
secured popularity had it not been for the unfortunate imitation of the modern
music-drama, with its exclusion of set arias, duets, trios, ensembles, and
finales interspersed Avith dialogue, a form, be it noted, observed with such
success by Mozart, Beethoven, Weber, Lortzing, and Kreutzer. All comic
operas — e.g., Nicolai's Merry Wives of Windsor, and The Golden Cross, by
Ignaz Bru'll, both of which have remained popular for the last thirty-five
years, have interpolated spoken dialogue; and, moreover, the French teach us
that recitative, admissible in heroic and tragic operas, and pre-eminently in
modern German Romantic opera, ought to be excluded from the opera
comique, a form of opera that evolved itself from their national " song-play."
And it should be remarked that, up to the present day, French composers
have almost exclusively adhered to the substitution of the spoken dialogue
for recitative.

Karl Grammann, born in 1844, deserves special notice for his operas
Melusine, Thusnelda, and Das Andreasfest. Like Hofmann, he is an
extensive colourist ; but both composers have achieved notoriety by works
that show their individual gift to better advantage than their operas, and
more especially Hofmann by his Hungarian suite, Op. 16, the cantata
Mdrehen von der schonen Melusine, Op. 30, and Grammann in many of his
chamber works.

Peter Cornelius, nephew of the great painter of that name, was born at
Mayence, 1 824, and died there in 1874. His opera, Der Barbier von Bagdad,
met with no success, again because of the imitation of the modern music-
drama form, though talent is unquestionably displayed in this, as also in his
music-drama Cid, and in certain minor compositions.

Adalbert von Goldschmidt, the last of the four, and born 1853 at Vienna,
is a musician of gift, but is an illustration of the unsatisfactory result of
attempting to overreach the individual tendencies of Berlioz, Liszt, and
Wagner. This is particularly evidenced in his oratorio Diesieben Todsiinden,
performed at Berlin in 1876 and the opera Helianthus, produced at Leipzig
in 1884.

THE PRESENT. 1211

Among those yet to be named who, on the whole, follow the German
School, though not in the important branch of the drama, are Damrosch,
Draseke, Krug, Lassen, the two Riedels, Josef Huber, Hans von Billow,
Hans von Bronsart, Nicode, and Ferdinand Praeger. As a rule, these have
adhered more to orchestral, chamber, and vocal music, an adherence to their
profit, on account of the impossibility of the application of Wagner's
musical dramatic principles to purely instrumental music, and the evident
necessity of strict form. A musical subjectivity that descends to using the
powerful means of the orchestra for no other purpose than extemporising
fleeting impressions, as one would improvise at the piano, cannot but defeat
its object. The use of such means for so small a purpose appears incon-
gruous, and indicates an overweening love of approbation.

This extravagance, however, is not to be met with in the greater number
of the compositions of the musicians just mentioned. And even those that
have adopted, like Liszt, the leit-motif and programme music, always show
more fluency and adherence to form, as did Liszt in his chief works, than
the imitators of Wagner's music-dramas, and this all the more so when
they relegate Lohengrin and TannJiduser to the past, and adopt the principle
observed in Tristan.

Leopold Damrosch (born at Posen in 1832, died at New York in 1885)
was from 1858 to 1860 conductor of the Philharmonic Concerts at Breslau,
after which (1862-71) he established an orchestra for the chief purpose
of popularising the works of Wagner, Liszt, and Berlioz, subsequently
removing to New York, and conducting there numerous concerts and
festivals, besides acting as an energetic pioneer of the German tonal art.
His violin concerto in D minor, serenades, a " Festival " overture, a sacred
idyll, Until and Naomi, and several other sets of songs, deserve special
mention.

Eduard Lassen, born in 1830 at Copenhagen, became, in 1858, through
the influence of Liszt, court music director at Weimar. He is the composer
of two operas, Konig Ed gar d and Ffauenlob, and of the incidental music to
Goethe's Faust and HebbeFs Nibelungeny a symphony, overtures, cantatas,
and a number of songs, of which many have become very popular. In
these we meet occasional graceful traits, reminding one of the chansons of
the best modern French masters. In his orchestral compositions Lassen
generally adheres so strictly to form that it is only in the selection of his

1212 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

subjects that one is induced to consider him as belonging to the Romantic
School.

Karl Riedel, born in 1827 near Elberfeld, became founder in 1854 of the
now celebrated RiedeFs Vocal Union, its performance in 1859 of Sebastian
Bach's difficult and grand mass in B minor being one of its greatest achieve-
ments. It is owing to Riedel that many of the neglected works of the older
masters have been republished, among them being those of Heinrich
Schiitz. As a composer Riedel has gained notoriety through his songs and
part-songs, and also as one of the prominent directors of the Leipzig
Wagner- Verein.

Hermann Riedel, born in 1847, conductor of the Court Theatre,
Brunswick, has obtained prominence by his setting of Scheffel's Trompeter
von Sdkkingen.

In Hans von Bronsart, born in 1828 at Konigsberg, and his wife
Ingeborg, the latter a pupil of Liszt, we meet artists excelling both as
virtuosi of the piano and composers of pianoforte pieces, the lady being also
a writer of songs and an operetta on the subject of Goethe's Jery und
Batly. Bronsart acted as conductor to the Euterpe Concerts in 1860, and
from 1870 director to the Court Theatre at Hanover.

Hans von Biilow, born in 1830 at Dresden, whom we have already
mentioned as a pupil of Liszt, and one of the most prominent virtuosi on
the piano, has written the symphonic works " Nirwana/' "Des Sangers
Fluch," the incidental music to Shakespeare's Julius C(esar> and in addition
nine sets of pianoforte pieces, many transcriptions and arrangements and
critical annotations to the works of the great masters.

Joseph Huber, born in 1837 at Sigmaringen, and appointed in 1864
leader of the Euterpe Concerts, has composed four symphonies, each con-
sisting only of one movement, and two operas, Die Rose vom Libanon and
Irene. He is such an extreme partisan of the New German School that he
even omits the signature of the piece.

Felix Draseke, born in 1835 at Coburg, was an enthusiastic admirer of
Liszt. From 1864 to 1874 he was professor at the Conservatorium at
Lausanne, and since 1874 has officiated in a similar capacity at Dresden.
Even his partisans have declared his earlier works to be in their nature
somewhat bizarre, and that he has sacrificed euphony to obtain a doubtful
success in character-painting. This judgment can, in part, be applied to

THE PRESENT. 1213

such works as his symphonies in G and F, and the Requiem. Of late
he has made a new departure in his art, and if he steadily adheres to it he
cannot fail, being a really talented musician, to approach closely the Classico-
• Romantic School of Schumann, Brahms, and Volkmann.

Arnold Krug, born in 1849 at Hamburg, is a musician who seems to
unite his symphonic poems, with their leit-motif and programme, with the
classic form ; but how much he may achieve in this direction must be left
to the future to decide. His prologue to Shakespeare's Othello exhibits,
with real passion of expression, a decided gift of musical colouring. His
graceful dance rhythms for the orchestra, and some chamber compositions,
deserve passing notice.

Next to Krug, Louis Nicode, born in 1853 near Posen, deserves to be
included with the more gifted of the New German School, as is proved by
his symphonic poems. Storm and stress still seem to weigh down in him
the balance of organic development and clearness. He has shown himself
to be a virtuoso on the piano, and a composer of pianoforte pieces of
merit.

Lastly, we must refer to Ferdinand Praeger, of London, whose sym-
phonic prelude to Byron's " Manfred/' and overture to Abellino, show
that he also belongs to that branch of the New German School just
referred to.

Besides the three groups of German composers mentioned at the begin-
ning of this chapter there is a fourth, consisting of musicians neither
showing the exclusive influence of any particular master, nor that they
belong to any special school, but forming in themselves a distinct body.
It is satisfactory to know that this section, notwithstanding the various
coteries of musical thought in Germany, is numerically very large ; but as
we are unable to form definite opinions of them all we will confine our-
selves to such as Raff, Rheinberger, Jean Vogt, Ulrich, Grimm, Abert,
Ries junior, Klughardt, Herbeck, Albert Becker, Kiel, Xaver and Philipp
Scharwenka, Vierling, Meinardus, Blumner, Mangold, Abt, Wilhelm
Tschirch, S chaffer, Stade, Merkel, Miiller-Hartung, Wiillner, Gold mark,
Heinrich Urban, Grell, Riifer, Brambach, Bernhard Scholz, Briill, Gurlitt,
Bungert, Kretchmer, Holstein, Herzogenberg, Hochberg, Hopffer, Goetz,
Schlottmann, Hans Huber, Strauss, Nessler, and the venerable Franz
Lachner, of whom we treated in the chapter on Schubert and K. M. von

1214 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Weber. We include Lachner on account of his orchestral suites, which are
of a modified classical art-form, fused with a romanticism that modernises
them and augments our present symphonic repertoire. We will now pro-
ceed to treat of those of the masters just named, that are noteworthy for
their symphonic and chamber music, beginning with Raff.

Joachim Raff was born in 1822 in the Canton Schwytz, and died in
1882 at Frankfort-on-the-Maine. While engaged in the occupation of
teaching, he sent a few compositions to Mendelssohn for criticism, and in
consequence of the favourable opinion expressed of them determined to
devote himself entirely to music. He then went through a course of study,
intending, at its termination, to take finishing lessons of Mendelssohn, but
the death of that master in 1847 put an end to such a prospect. Three
years later he travelled to Weimar, where the principles of Liszt and the
New German School attracted his attention, without, however, inducing
him to become their votary. In 1856 he was at Wiesbaden, and in 1878
director of Koch's Conservatorium at Frankfort-on-the-Maine. The in-
fluence of the Modern Classical and the New Romantic School shows itself
in a decided manner in the upgrowth and quality of Raff's large and pro-
lific talent, for it was owing to the school of Mendelssohn that he gained
his solid and excellent foundation, and never fell into the error of thinking
that art-form was superfluous and almost unnecessary. It was also owing
to the influence of Schumann and Liszt that he was kept from exhibiting
a merely finished and polished form by sustaining a passion and depth of
feeling that restrained him from treating pure form as the summum dotium,
a, treatment that would, by its exclusiveness, have rendered him a mere
academician.

The individuality of Raff is well exhibited in his grand symphonic
works, especially in the " Leonora Symphony/' which, with the exception
of its demoniacal finale, is as classical in form as it is romantic in content,
and because of this feature may justly be regarded as a valuable addition
to the modern symphony. The symphonies, " Im Walde," rich in poetic
fancy, " Friihlingsklange/' and that in G minor, though less serious, yet
graceful and sparkling in orchestration, are, of all that he has written,
most deserving of special notice. He wrote more than two hundred works,
a number proving the facility of his creation, but denoting a facility un-
balanced by the purifying influence of self-criticism, the recognition of

THE PRESENT. 1215

which would have insured the production of works greater in merit, though
possibly fewer in number. Notwithstanding this, we find among his
concertos, orchestral suites, chamber and pianoforte compositions, certain
features that connect him with the most prominent musicians of the
present day.

To these belongs Hugo Ulrich, a man hitherto but little known, born
in 1827 at Oppeln, in Silesia, died in 1872 at Berlin. He was a pupil of
Mosevius and Dehn, and shows in his prize " Symphonic Triomphale," and
two others in B minor and G major, an independence of thought that
places him in the first rank of modern symphonists ; his pianoforte trio is
also distinguished by the same laudable feature.

August Klughardt, born in 1847 at Kotin, and court chapel-master
since 1873 at Neustrelitz, shows a fusion of the Modern Classic and New
German School in his D major symphony (No. 3), performed in 1882 at
Dresden, the " Leonora Symphony/ ' the overture Im Friihling, the opera
Iwein, the phantasias on Lenau's <c Schilflieder " for piano, viola, and oboe,
and in other chamber works.

In Otto Grimm, born in 1830 in Saxony, and at present conductor of
the Minister St. Cecilia Union, we find a composer displaying much
thoughtful vigour in his symphony and pianoforte pieces. We must
specially mention the suite for strings, written in strict canonic form,
a composition that not only shows the master of strict art-form, but also
to what degree a real talent can increase his ideas by its aid.

Johann Herbeck, who was born in 1831 at Vienna, and died there ir
1877, belongs to the school of modern instrumental music. Of his most im-
portant works, only the fourth symphony, the variations for orchestra, and
a string cjuartett have been published.

A symphonist of merit is Joseph Abert, born in 1832 in Bohemia, a
pupil of Tomaczek, and court chapel-master in 1867 at Stutgardt. His
operas, Konig Enzio, Astorga, Ekkehard, deserve notice on account of their
many interesting features. His popularity, however, is owing to the C
minor symphony, the symphonic poem {l Columbus/' and his overtures.

Bernard Hopffer, born in 1840, Heinrich Urban, born in 1837, both in
Berlin, and P. B. Riifer, born in 1844 at Liege, and now residing in Berlin,
have each shown meritorious work in instrumental composition ; Urban in
his " Friihling Symphony/' a violin concerto, and the overtures to Fiesco

1216 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

and ScJiekerezade; Hopffer in his opera Frithjof, overtures, and symphonies;
and Riifer in his F major symphony, three overtures, and chamber
compositions.

Franz Ries, born in 1846 at Berlin, whose uncle, Ferdinand Ries, was
a pupil of Beethoven, is the son of Hubert Ries, a concert-master at Berlin.
His string quartetts bear evidence of excellent polyphonic treatment, and
his suites for violin and piano show considerable melodic gift.

Philipp and Xaver Scharwenka, the former born in 1847, and the latter
in 1850, both in the province of Posen, are noteworthy for their chamber
music. Philipp, in addition, has composed symphonies, and Xaver, a grand
pianoforte concerto in B flat minor. The nationality of both composers is
very discernible in their rhythms.

The Swiss, Hans Huber, born 1852, may be said to have expressed Jiim-
self in his best manner in pianoforte and chamber compositions, a trio, violin
sonatas, a " Concertstiick;" and pianoforte duets.

Jean Yogt, born in 1823 near Liegnitz, shows a certain excellence in
his chamber and pianoforte music and his oratorio Lazarus. August Bun-
gert, born in 1846, at Miihlheim, on the river Ruhr, is known through his
llohes Lied der Liebe, a work with orchestral accompaniment, an overture
to Tasso, and a prize pianoforte quartett. Cornelius Gurlitt, born in 1820
jit Altona, is the composer of two operettas, and certain chamber and piano-
forte music.

Among gifted organ performers and composers of the group now under
notice, we may mention Gustav Merkel, a musician, born in 1827 near
Zittau, and dying in 1885 whilst court organist at Dresden; Wilhelm
Stade, born in 1817 at Halle, court chapel-master at Altenburg, a com-
poser of excellent vocal and orchestral works, and Miiller-Hartung, born in
Thuringiain 1834, a composer of organ sonatas, psalms, and part-songs for
male voices. Also belonging to these, and noteworthy for their vocal works,
are Louis Schlottmann and Julius Schaffer. The first-named was born
at Berlin in 1826, and is famed for his setting of Goethe's poenis; the
latter was born in Altmark in 1823, and is known by his compositions for
mixed choirs. Since 1860 he has been director of the Vocal Academy of
Mosevius, and is also the university professor of music at Breslau, and
well known as a musical savant.

In salon and sentimental music we meet with an eminent exponent in

THE PRESENT. 1217

Franz Abt, born in 1819 at Eilenburg, and died in 1885 at Wiesbaden.
in 1852 he was court chapel- master at Brunswick, and has written many
songs of the description just mentioned. He has gained some prominence
for his part-songs for male voices. A like prominence has been achieved by
Karl Zollner, born in 1800, died in I860, especially in those of a certain
humorous character that is displayed with much effect in his chorus of the
" Thirty-six German Fatherlands." Julius Otto, born in 1 804, dying in 1877,
was cantor at the Dresden Church of the Cross. He is also another gifted
song writer, his " Das treue deutsche Herz " being now acknowledged as a
national song; but in the works of Joseph Brambach, born in 1833 at
Bonn, and Wilhelm Tschirch, born in 1818 in Silesia, we meet with the
evidence of a higher and more ambitious aim, the former in " Das
eleusische Fest " and " Prometheus/7 and the latter in " Eine Nacht auf
dem Meere " and " Der Sangerkampf ."

Of the composers of sacred music, Friedrich Kiel, born in 1821 near
Siegen, dying in 1885 in Berlin, is to be mentioned as one that excels in the
highest degree in that form of composition. He was a pupil of Dehn, but
did not gain any notoriety till 1862, then doing so through his Requiem in
F minor, a work we had the advantage of hearing at its first performance
in Berlin by Stern's Vocal Union, and of which we then expressed the
opinion that it was a worthy successor to the similar works of Mozart and
Cherubini; a second Requiem in A flat major almost equals this in its
grandeur, depth, and mastery of strict style. An equally unusual creative
power is shown in his Missa Solemnis and the oratorio Christus, written
respectively in 1867 and 1874, and again proving the perfect fitness of
the classic form of the polyphonic style when united to adequate ideas.
Kiel has also written a " Stabat Mater," a "Te Deum," motets for two
female voices, and, in addition, two string quartetts, trios, three piano-
forte quartetts, four violin sonatas, a pianoforte concerto, and, as piano
solos, fifteen canons, six fugues, suites, te variations and fugue/' duets, &c.
Kiel, who settled at Berlin in 1842, is decidedly one of the most pro-
minent contrapuntists of our time, but he never appears to have sacrificed
his ideas in order to bring into prominence his pre-eminent ability as a
contrapuntist.

Equally sincere, although, it may be, less gifted than Kiel, are Edward
Grell, Becker, and Wiillner. Grell, born in 1800 at Berlin, became a
z z z

1218 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

member of the Berlin Academy of Arts in 1841, and ten years later was
appointed conductor of the Vocal Academy there. His grand mass in
sixteen parts, which was the means of securing him notoriety, is in character
midway between the old Venetian and Palestrina styles. In addition to
this he has written psalms in eight and eleven parts, a 'f Te Deum/' mctets,
cantatas, and settings of Biblical proverbs.

Albert Becker, born in 1834 at Quedlinburg, a pupil of Dehn, created
some sensation in 1879 by his mass in B flat minor. His German symphony
gained in 1861 the prize of the Viennese Society of the Friends of Music.

Franz Wiillner, born in 1832 at Minister, was appointed in 1869
royal court chapel-master at Munich. In 1877 he left for Dresden in
order to take up a similar appointment, and since 1884 has been chapel-
master at Cologne and director of its Conservatorium. He has written
two masses, several motets, a " Miserere, a " Stabat Mater/' and a " Salve
Regina," all of which are dignified in form and sacred in character. His
part-songs for male voices with orchestral accompaniment, and his choral
songs, exhibit much grace. He is a most able conductor, and, as a pro-
fessor, has written some excellent choral exercises for the Munich Academy,
at which place he received, on account of his professorial attainments, the
degree of Doctor and Professor of Music.

We add to this class of composers three that have obtained renown
through their oratorios and sacred cantatas, viz., Blumner, Meinardus, and
Vierling, excluding those such as Hiller, Kiel, Reinthaler, Max Bruch,
Rheinberger, Diettrich, Herzogenberg, and others, also meritorious com-
posers of such works, but who have by no means confined themselves
strictly to that form of composition.

Martin Blumner, born in 1827 at Mecklenburg, was a pupil of Dehn,
and was appointed in 1853 a conductor of the Berlin Vocal Academy. He
has written two grand oratorios, Abraham and The Fall of Jerusalem, the
latter having been performed in 1884 with much success at the Seventh
Silesian Musical Festival at Breslau. These not only show his mastery of
strict style, but also considerable dramatic power in the treatment of
musical epics.

Ludwig Meinardus, born in 1827 in Oldenburg, a pupil of A. B. Marx,
became in 1862 music director to the Grand Duke of Oldenburg, and in
1865 professor at the Dresden Conservatorium. He is the composer of tne

THE PRESENT. 1219

oratorios, St. Peter, Gideon, Salomo, and Luther at Worms, the last of
which gained him much celebrity at the Luther Jubilee in 1883. Besides
several chamber compositions/ he has written some secular oratorios, and
the cantatas, Roland's Schwanenlied, Frau Hitt, Die Nonne, and Jung
Baldur's Sieg.

Georg Vierling, born in 1820 in the Bavarian Palatinate, appears as a de-
cided improver of an almost obsolete form, viz., the secular cantata, showing
in this respect similar ability to that of Max Bruch. His Hero and Leander,
Der Raub der Sabinerinnen, Alarich, and Constantin are full of dramatic
vigour ; besides having met with much success in Germany, they have also
been performed in America. In modernising the secular oratorio, Vierling
stands in juxtaposition to Mendelssohn, who successfully effected a similar
improvement in the sacred oratorio. A pupil of Marx, he established about
the year 1850 the Bach Verein at Berlin. In 1859 he was appointed royal
music director in that city, and in 1883 was made a member of the Prussian
Academy of Arts. Besides his setting of the 130th and 137th Psalms, he
shows himself in his symphony and overtures, " Sturm," " Maria Stuart,"
" Im Friihling/' " Hermannsschlacht," and " Tragic Overture/'' an orchestral
composer of merit. He has also written chamber compositions and part-
songs of much significance.

Another musician of considerable independence of thought is Joseph
Rheinberger, who, in many respects, might be described as the South
German Raff. Although as versatile as the North German master, yet he
does not exhibit so great a power in instrumental music as in choral works
with orchestral accompaniment, in which he might be said to show a more
powerful individuality. He was born in 1839 at Vaduz, in sight of the^Swiss
Alps, and was educated at Franz Hauser's Conservatorium in Munich, where,
in 1859, he was appointed professor. In 1867 he received the title of royal
professor of music, and in 1877 the appointment of Bavarian court chapel-
master. Of his works we prefer the symphonic tone-picture "Wallen-
stein/' the overture to Demetrius, a pianoforte concerto, his choral works
" Toggenburg," " Wittekind," " Klarchen auf Eberstein," and St. Christo-
phorus, the last being a very excellent cantata. In sacred compositions he
has shown ability in a Requiem, " Stabat Mater," a mass for two choirs,
and many able organ compositions. The opera Die Sieben Raben, and
the incidental music to Calderas's Der Wunderthatige Magus, also deserve
z z z 2

1220 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

mention. Whilst exhibiting the influence of the Modern Classic and New
Romantic Schools, he nevertheless retains his individuality intact.

Of the masters of the group now under discussion, and whose best efforts
are observable in operatic compositions, we would mention, as the most
popular, Karl Goldmark, born in 1832 in Hungary. He received a
thoroughly German musical education in Vienna, and first attracted notice
by his overture Sakuntala, to which subject he was drawn through a natural
inclination for Indian subjects, the study of which had for him a peculiar
fascination. This same feature is noticeable in his opera, The Queen of
Sheba, a work performed for the first time at Vienna in 1875, and securing
for him much popularity. We know of no other artist of whom it might
be said that he has entered fully into the peculiarities of that race, a people
strange in manner and habits, and with passions peculiar to themselves,
and the outcome of exceptional climatic influences. But in his avidity for
Indian subjects both his strength and weakness are apparent. Perhaps his
greatest glory is most, we might say exclusively, exhibited in extensive
musical colouring, for his melodic invention and thematic working-out are
not in proportion to his tone-painting.

We have included this master in the present section, as, although he has
gathered much from the artistic colouring of Wagner, he yet remains inde-
pendent in his application of this feature of the art of music to that of the
Oriental world, with its peculiar rhythms and cadences, and moreover does
not, like many of the adherents of the New Romantic School, disavow the
classic art-form. Of his massive colouring we have evidence in the
orchestral suite " Landliche Hochzeit/' an overture Penthesilea, a violin
concerto, and many chamber works. With Goldmark we link Ignaz Briill,
born in 1846 in Mahren, who began his career as a pianist, composed a
pianoforte concerto, and in 1864 an orchestral serenade. His opera, The
Golden Cross, was the first work on a large scale that brought him before
the public, and with much success. It is a composition still found in
the repertoires of German theatres. The same success cannot, however, be
said to have greeted the operas Der Landfriede and Bianca, works that
are by no means without evidence of talent. As a gifted composer of
chamber music he shows the influence of Schumann and Mendelssohn.

Edmund Kretchmer, born in 1830 in Saxony, was a pupil of the Dresden
organist Schneider, the brother of the composer of the Last Judgment. In

THE PRESENT.

1221

1854 he was appointed organist to the Dresden Catholic Chapel, and wrote
in 1868 a prize mass. In 1874 his heroic opera Die Folkunger was pro-
duced at Dresden, and up to the present has been performed at sixty-three
theatres. Although the influence of Wagner's Tannhduser and Lohengnn,
as well as that of Weber's and Meyerbeer's works, may be seen in Kretch-
mer's operas, he sufficiently maintains an independence, and especially is this
to be remarked of certain parts of the heroic opera written in the Scandi-
navian style, which contains much that is new and agreeable. He was his
own librettist in the opera Heinrich der Lowe, performed at Leipzig in
J 877, and showed both in the libretto and music much excellence. His
" Musikalische Dorfgeschichten " also bears evidence of originality.

Bernhard Scholz, born in 1835 at Mayence, was a pupil of Dehn ; in
1859 he was appointed court chapel-master at Hanover, and in 1871 con-
ductor of the Breslau Orchestral Concerts, and in 1882 succeeded, on Raff's
death, to the conductorship at Hoch's Conservatorium at Frankfort -on-the-
Maine. Of his operas, Die ZietheniscJien Husaren, rich in humoristic vein,
and Golo are the most popular. In chamber music he shows gift and
evidence of the strong influence of Schumann and Brahms. He has also
written a Requiem, and an overture to Goethe's Iphigenia.

Next to Scholz, Holstein and Goetz are musicians of ability. Goetz
died at the early age of thirty-six. Franz von Holstein, who was born in
1826, and died in 1878, began his career as a musician after quitting the
military profession, receiving his theoretical education from Hauptmann.
His operas, of which he was also librettist, are Zwei Ndchte in Venedig,
Waver ley, Der Haidesckacht, Der Erbe von Morley, and Die Hochldnder
(written in 1876), the first of which spread his name in Germany to a con-
siderable extent. He also wrote an effective overture to Frau Aventiure,
and many chamber compositions and part-songs.

Hermann Goetz, born in 1840 at Konigsberg, died in ]876, is prin-
cipally known through the opera Der Wider spenstigen Zahmung (" The
Taming of the Shrew"), a work finished in form and full of spirit. It
has been performed at nearly all the important German theatres, in the
repertoires of which it still holds a place, and it has further been trans-
lated for an English audience ; his last opera, Francesco, di Rimini, was
left incomplete, the third act being unfinished. His F major symphony
created a favourable impression, and among other works exhibiting talent

1222 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

may be mentioned "Nania," a composition for voices and orchestra, a
" Spring1 Overture/' violin and piano concertos, and other chamber music.

If among the operatic composers of this section we include Victor
Neszler, born in 1841 in Alsace, it will not be on account of thorough
musicianship or dramatic profundity, but rather because of his natural
and felicitous style, to which is due his widespread popularity. His two
operas, Der Rattenf anger von Hameln and Der Trompeter von Sackingen,
have been as frequently performed as those of Wagner, the Carmen of
Bizet, and the Undine of Lortzing ; in fact we know of no operas that have
obtained such universal favour, not even those of Mozart and Weber.
This might well form matter for surprise, and would receive an explanation
at our hands were we not so limited for space.

We will conclude our review of this school by mentioning those masters
who, though not showing conspicuous or special merit, have nevertheless
given sufficient evidence of possessing more than ordinary ability, viz., Karl
Mangold, born in 1830 at Darmstadt ; Heinrich von Herzogenberg, born
in 1843 at Gratz ; Count Hochberg, born in 1843 in Silesia; and Richard
Strausz, born in 1865 at Munich. Mangold, who since 1848 has held
the appointment of court music director at Darmstadt, first acquired pro-
minence by his part-songs for male voices ; his other works of note are the
oratorios Wiltekind and Israel in der Wuste, the operas Dornroschen and
Das Kohlermadchen. Herzogenberg succeeded Kiel as professor at the
Berlin Conservatorium, and has shown himself in his chamber and choral
compositions a disciple of Schumann and Brahms ; he is also one of the
founders of the Leipzig Bach Yerein. Count Bolko von Hochberg is the
composer of the successful opera Der Warwolf, many string quartetts,
symphonies, and songs, and deserves praise for his .exertions in promoting
the Silesian Musical Festivals. Strausz introduced himself to the public
by his E flat major concerto for the horn, a serenade in the same key for
thirteen wind instruments, a concerto in D minor for violin and piano,
and string quartetts, all of which bear indications of a promising career
being open to the youthful composer.

To this list might appropriately be added the names of those musical
savants in whom Germany is scarcely less rich than she is in composers,
and whom, for the purpose of clearness, we will endeavour as far as pos-
sible to classify. As historians of music thoy might be subdivided into

THE PRESENT. 1223

(1) those that have treated the art as a whole ; (2) those that have confined
their researches to special periods ; (3) those that have dealt with it from an
antiquary's standpoint by deciphering1 old manuscripts and editing, with
critical comments, old works ; (4) those that have treated it biographically
and theoretically, or as physicists and as lexicographers ; and (5) those that
have studied its aesthetics or its philosophy as an art.

Unquestionably the most important of the modern German historians
that have made musical history a life's study is A. W. Ambros, born in
1816 at Mauth, near Prague, died in 1876 at Vienna. His mother was the
sister of the celebrated musical historian Von Kiesewetter, which may
partly account for his early interest in the art and subsequent eminence
as an historian. In 1839 he obtained the degree of Doctor of Laws, and
whilst engaged actively in his profession as crown advocate, was appointed
professor of music at the University and Conservatorium of Prague. This
double appointment he resigned in 1872, to superintend the historical art-
studies of the Crown Prince Rudolph of Austria. He subscribed the
musical articles in the Viennese official paper ; a treatise, " The Boundaries
of Poetry and Music," which he published in 1856, was in direct conflict with
Hanslick's publication, te The Beautiful in Music/' and attracted consider-
able notice. In 1862 appeared the first volume of his excellent " Musical
History," a work displaying his rare gifts as a critic and an art-historian.
From 1864 to 1868 appeared the second and third volumes ; the fourth,
left unfinished by him, was completed by G. Nottebohm in 1878, two
years after the death of Ambros, and contained a number of very impor-
tant studies, dealing with the Palestrina period, and the influence of the
Renaissance on the Florentines. But this gifted writer's treatment, begin-
ning with the development of the musical history of the classic and pre-
classic nations, does not extend much beyond the Netherland School of
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. It is strange that Ambros should
be another of those eminent historians who died before the completion of
their labours, this happening also to Padre Martini, of Bologna, with his
" Storia della Musica," in the last century, and in the present century to
Forkel, of Gottingen, and the Belgian Fetis. Ambros' imcomparable
work, unfortunately still a torso, treats the history of music as affected
by and bearing upon the history and development of the other arts, and dis-
cusses, further, the influences of nationality, climate, politics, and ethics.

1224 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

He has also published a number of essays by no means abstruse in
character, though showing to a remarkable degree his excellent intellectual
education. The chief of these are "Bunte Blatter" (Musical and Art
sketches and studies, in two volumes, published 1872 and 1874), and
" Culturhistorische Bilder, aus dem Musikleben der Gegenwart" (Leipzig,
1860), a work written in a graceful style; from both of which one may
learn much that is interesting. He occasionally makes departures into the
serious realms of art-philosophy and history, but nevertheless maintains
an attractive character that charms while it instructs.

Arrey von Dommer, born in 1828 at Dantzig, August Reiszmann, born
in 1825 in Silesia, and Heinrich Kb'stlin, born in 1846 at Tubingen, are
historians of signal merit, Dommer having written a comprehensive " Hand-
buch der Musikgeschichte," published in Leipzig, 1867, a second edition
of which appeared in 1878. Reiszmann, the composer of the operas
Gudrun and Das Gralspiel, has written a useful musical history, besides his
" Geschichte des deutschen liedes/' for which the Leipzig University con-
ferred on him the honorary title of Doctor. In addition to his " Geschichte
der Musik im Umrisz/' in two editions, Kostlin has also written the
" Einfiihrung in die ^Esthetik der Musik." The history of music by Dr.
Brendel we have already referred to.

Coming now to those writers who have devoted their researches and
criticisms to special periods of tonal history, we find that the epoch of
ancient Greece has been carefully treated by Heimsoeth, Kriiger, Beller-
mann, Westphal, Von Jan, and others. We refrain from naming eminent
philologists, like Bockh and Ottfried Miiller, on account of their being such
exclusively, though it should at the same time be stated that Heimsoeth was
also a professor of philology at the University of Bonn ; but, as he was a dis-
tinguished amateur musician, his remarkable investigations on the position
and musical signification of the chorus in Greek tragedies have thereby
acquired the weight attaching to the investigations of an expert, and as
such they possess great importance for the musician. Similarly Friedrich
Bellermann was also a philologist and a musical amateur of much merit.
From 1847 to 1867 he was director to the Gymnasium of the Berlin Grey
Monastery ; his profound work on Grecian scales and notes, and a treatise
on the " Hymns of Dionysius and Mesomedes," have gained for him great
respect as a trustworthy writer on ancient Greek musical history. That

THE PRESENT. 1225

learned musical theorist, Edward Kriiger, born in 1807 at Liineburg, held
the appointment of professor of music at the University of Gottingen. He
is the author of " De musicis Graecorum organis circa Pindari tempora," and
ff Grundrisz der Metrik" (published in 1838), works deserving of serious
attention. Rudolph Westphal, born in the year 1826, was from 1858 to
1862 professor at Breslau University, and from 1875 professor at the
Kalkow Museum, Moscow. He belongs to that section of writers who are
distinguished alike for their philological and musical ability. In his
" Plutarch liber die Musik " (published in 1864), " Geschichte der alten
und Mittelalterlichen Musik" (published in 1865), and "System der
Antiken Rhythmik/" published in the same year, he exhibits profound in-
vestigations and close reasoning, and has justly earned by those works much
distinction. We can only accept his assertion that the Greeks were
acquainted with polyphonic music, subject to restrictions, as to accept it
entirely, without considerable limitations, would completely destroy our
notion of the polyphony which we meet with in the a capella composers
and organists, dating from the old French, Netherland, and Italian Schools,
up to the time of Bach and Handel.

Westphal has created an epoch in musical history in his ({ Allgemeine
Theorie der Musikalisch Rhythmik seit J. S. Bach" (published in 1880), a
work that has gained him great respect, and in which he enunciates propo-
sitions deserving most careful consideration. Dr. Karl von Jan, head-
master since 1884 at the Strassburg Lycee in Alsace, is the author of many
excellent treatises, among which should be mentioned " Ueber antike
Tonarten" (Fleckeisen's " Jahrbiicher fur Philologie/' 1867) ; « Die Har-
monik des Aristoxenianers Kleonides" (" Programm Landsberg/' 1870),
" Ueber antike Instrumente," a ; " Saiteninstrumente " (" Programm
Saargemiind/' 1882), b ; " Floten " (Baumeister's " Denkmaler " u. s. w.,
1885). In a similar manner to those writers who have treated the tonal
history of the Greeks, the German musical savants, Commer, Proske,
Mettenleiter, Bellerman (junior), Von Winterfeld, Kade, and Andere, have
exhaustively written about the music of the Middle Ages and the period of
Luther and his immediate successors. Franz Commer, born in 1813 at
Koln, has dealt very extensively and justly with the great polyphonic
schools of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in his " Collectio operum
musicorum Batavorum sseculi XVI." This extensive work is completed

1226 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

in no less than twelve volumes. His " Musica sacra XVI., XVII. ssecu-
lorum/' still more voluminous, being in thirteen volumes ; and his " Collec-
tion de compositions pour Torgue des XVI., XVII., XVIII. siecles/' are
other meritorious works.

Karl Proske, cathedral chapel-master at Ratisbon, was, at tre time
of his death in 1861, the collector of a most valuable library of works of
the a capella style, including " Musica Divina" (began in 1853, and con-
tinued after his death by Vesselack in 1864) and " Selectus Novus Mis-
sarum" (published in 1855), a work containing masses, motets, psalms,
magnificats, hymns, vespers, and antiphonies by Anerio, Gabrieli, Gallus,
Hassler, Lassus, Marenzio, Paciotti, Suriano, Vecchi, Viadana, Vittoria, and
other masters. He cannot be too highly extolled for his efforts.

J. G. Mettenleiter, born at Ratisbon, and dying there in 1858
while organist and precentor of the Stiftskirche, gained even greater
fame by his " Manuale Breve Cantionum ac Precum " and " Enchiridion
Chorale, sive selectus locupletissimus cantionum liturgicarum juxta ritum
S. Romans Ecclesiae" than by his sacred compositions -for the Roman
Catholic Church.

Heinrich Bellermann, born in 1832 at Berlin, is the son of the savant of
Greek music of that name whom we have recently mentioned. He was
appointed in 1866 professor at the University of Berlin, and gained a
much respected name by his treatise " Die Mensuralnoten and Tactzeichen
im 15 und 16 Jahrhundert/' He is also the author of a work on counter-
point that has passed through two editions. In F. H. von der Hagen we
meet the author of the " Minnesinger/' a work of interest, the third volume
of which is illustrated with specimens taken from the Jena codex and other
collections. He published in 1807 melodies to old German, Flemish, and
French folk-songs, and died in 1856 while professor of literature at the
University of Berlin.

Karl von Winterfeld, born at Berlin in 1852, added to the library of
musical history his work on Johannes Pierluigi Palestrina (published in
1832), and in 1834 " Johannes Gabrieli und sein Zeitalter/' Later on, in
1840, appeared " Dr. Martin Luther's deutsche geistliche Lieder/' and
between 1843 and 1847 " Der evangelische Kirchengesang und sein Ver-
haltniss zur Kunst des Tonsatzes," a work in three quarto volumes. These
are classical works of a valuable nature, and in addition to being written in

THE PRESENT. 1227

a very comprehensive and spirited manner, unite in a great measure
an individual and independent research to a profound knowledge whilst
advancing propositions of great import to the tonal art.

With regard to Luther and the Evangelical Church music, we meet
with an able exponent in Otto Kade, born in 1825 at Dresden, and since
1860 music director of the grand ducal cathedral choir at Schwerin. His
work, published in 1872, " Neu aufgefundene Luther-Codex vom Jahr
1530," and that on " Le Maistre," are such as may justly be described as
evincing a most genuine and excellent treatment of their subject. His
explanatory musical additions (1881) to the third volume of A. W.
Ambros' work on musical history are well worth study. He became a
member of Robert Eitner's society for musical research (established in 1868),
and in 1877 published, in the seventh volume of the society's journals, the
" Wittembergisch Geistlich Gesangbuch " of Johann Walther, the well-
known friend of Martin Luther.

In the realm of musical research, Bitter and Schletterer appear to have
approached more closely in their investigations to the period of the present
than those authors to whom we have just referred. C. H. Bitter, born in
1813 at Schwedt, and dying in 1885 at Berlin, was by profession a lawyer,
and became in 1879 Prussian Minister of Finance, publishing in the same
year his te Beitrage zur Geschichte des Oratoriums." In 1884 his " Die
Reformation der Oper durch Gluck und Richard Wagner's Kuntswerk der
Zukunft " appeared ; he gained notoriety by his pamphlets on Mozart's
Don Giovanni and Gluck's Ipliigenia in Tauris, as well as on that of Ger-
vinus's " Handel and Shakespeare/' H. M. Schletterer, born in 1824 at
Ansbach, had the honorary title of Doctor conferred on him by the Uni-
versity of Tubingen in 1878, and has been since 1866 the director of the
Augsburg Conservatorium and Oratorio Union. He has made himself
favourably known through his {< Studien zur Geschichte der franzosischeii
Musik" (the first section of which is the " Geschichte der Hofkapelle
der franzosischen Konige," the second, the " Geschichte der Spielmanns-
zunft in Frankreich und der Pariser Geigerkonige/' and the third, the
' ( Vorgeschichte und erste Versuche der franzosischen Oper"), a work
that appeared between 1884 and 1885. Older historical treatises are his
" Geschichte der geistlichen Dichtung Kirchlichen Tonkunst/' the first
volume of which appeared in 1879, his " Zur Geschichte der dramatischeri

1228 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Musik und Poesie in Deutschland," published in 1863, and " Der Ursprung
der Oper."

Otto Gumprecht, born in 1823 at Erfurt, a Doctor of Law in Berlin Uni-
versity^ became in 1849 musical critic of tbe National zeitung. His is the
merit of having- widely spread the knowledge of our classical masters. . He
has treated, in separate parts, special periods of musical history, concerning
which we would direct attention to those entitled " Unsere Klassischen
Meister " and " Neuere Meister/' These have also been linked together
and published under the title " Musik alische Lebens- und Charakterbilder,"
a second edition appearing at Leipzig in 1883.

La Mara (Marie Lipsius), born in 1837 at Leipzig, has obtained celebrity
through her " Musikalische Studienkopfe," a work in four volumes, pub-
lished between 1873 and 1880, dealing with Weber, Schubert, Men-
delssohn, Schumann, Chopin, Liszt, Wagner, Cherubini, Spontini, Rossini,
Boieldieii; Hector Berlioz, &c., and written in an intelligent and agreeable
manner, although a not inconsiderable proportion has been derived from
other works. Moritz Fiirstenau, born in 1824 at Dresden, was the son of
A. Bernhard Fiirstenau and grandson of Kaspar Fiirstenau, both of them
celebrated flautists. He was the author of the thoughtful and original works,
" Beitrage zur Geschichte der Konigl. sachsischen musikalischen Kapelle "
(published in 1849), and " Zur Geschichte der Musik und des Theaters am
Hofe zu Dresden" (published between 1861 and 1862), and, in addition,
wrote a large number of pamphlets and essays treating of the history of
music. He is himself an excellent flautist, and has been since 1842 con-
nected with the court orchestra of Dresden ; in 1852 he was appointed
librarian to the king's private library, and in 1881 received the title of
Royal Professor of Music.

To our most prominent musical antiquaries and biographers belong
Polchau, Bohme, Dorffel, Eitner, Von Kochel, &c. Georg Pdlchau, born
in 1836 at Berlin, was one of the shrewdest collectors of old musical
works, and purchased, amongst others, the whole of the musical collection
of Philipp Emanuel Bach ; thus he amassed treasures of this nature of
much value, which, on his death, became the property of the Royal Library
at Berlin.

Magnus Bohme, born in 1827 near Weimar, and professor of musical
history and counterpoint at the Hoch Conservatorium at Frankfort-on-the-

THE PRESENT. 1229

•

Maine since 1878, has gained an enviable name by his "Altdeusches
Liederbuch," a work that shows considerable spirit; its authentic melodies
and texts are evidently the work of a critical mind, and must have been
the continuous labour of at least a year.

Alfred Dorffel, born in 1821, was appointed successor to K. F. Becker,
organist to the Church of St. Peter, Leipzig. He was the founder of a
valuable subscription library for orchestral scores and older and rarer works
of a theoretical and historical nature. He furnished most complete thematic
catalogues of the works of Sebastian Bach and Robert Schumann, and, in a
very meritorious manner, assisted in the publication of Breitkopf and
Hartel's celebrated edition of classic composers.

Robert Eitner, born in 1832 at Breslau, applied his scientific ability to
bibliographical productions, such as, e.g., the " Lexikon der hollandischen
Tondichter," by which he gained the prize offered by the City of Amster-
dam in 1867. This, and also his " Verzeichnisz neuer Ausgaben alter
Musikvverke aus der friihesten Zeit bis zum Jahre 1800 " (a work by
which he is best known), his " Bibliographie der Musiksammelwerke des
16 und 17 Jahrhunderts," and his " Verzeichnisz der Gedruckten Werke
von Hans Leo Haszler und Orlandus de Lassus/' are works in which he
has shown his ceaseless musical activity.

Chevalier Ludwig von Kochel (died in 1877 at Vienna) not only
obtained prominence through his " Chronologisch-thematisches Verzeichnisz
sammtlicher Tonwerke W. A. Mozart's," but also by his " Die Kaiserliche
Hofmusikkapelle zu Wein von 1543 bis 1867," which gives a careful review
of those musicians that during more than three centuries were engaged
in the Imperial Chapel, and which has secured him celebrity both as an
antiquary and musical historian.

Turning now to the most important German musical biographers, we
have to mention first Friedrich Chrysander, born in 1826 in Mecklenburg.
He became Doctor of Philosophy at Rostock University, and was co-founder
of the Leipzig Handel Society. A work still unfinished, but which,
merited the name it gained him, is his biography of Handel, consisting in
its incomplete state of two and a half volumes. Equally noteworthy are
his contributions to the " Jahrbiicher fur musikalische Wissenschaft/" of
which he was also the editor (vide the issues of 1863, 1867, and 1885).
His edition of Carissimi's oratorios published in his "Denkmalern der

1230 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Tonkunst" was an excellent finish to his labours because of its real
worth.

Scarcely less important than the labours of Chrysander, in connection
with the works and biography of Handel, are those of Philipp Spitta,
born in 1841 at Hoya, near Hanover, with respect to the works, &c., of
Johann Sebastian Bach. He studied philology at Gottingen, and in 1874
assisted in the foundation of the Leipzig Bach Society. In 1875 he was
called to Berlin to act in the triple role of permanent secretary to the
Royal Academy, as professor of music to the University, and as professor
of musical history at the E/oyal High School. His biography of Bach in
two volumes (published respectively in 1873 and 1880) introduces, like
that of Handel by Chrysander, much new matter in an objective historical
criticism. In 1875 and 1876 he published two folio volumes of a critical
edition of the organ works of Buxtehude. In respect of G. F. Handel,
G. G. Gervinus (born in 1805 at Darmstadt, died in 1871 at Heidelberg),
the well-known German literary historian and professor at Heidelberg
University, must be referred to, because of his authorship of " Handel und
Shakespeare; zur ^Esthetik der Tonkunst" (published in 1868), a work
which, although containing much that is important, nevertheless proves how
even eminent professors, when treating* of other than their own special
subjects, are liable to err in their judgments. Gervinus also translated
into German the libretti of Handel's oratorios, which were published by
his widow in 1873.

In a similar manner Dr. Wilhelm Rust, born in 1822 at Dessau, and
cantor at St. Thomas's Church, Leipzig, since 1880 has laboured cease-
lessly in the production of the edition of Bach's works published by
Breitkopf and Hartel. To this Rust has added no less than thirty critical
analyses and prefaces.

Otto Jahn may, in a certain manner, be considered a precursor of
Chrysander and Spitta, so far as regards the biographies of classical musi-
cians. He was born at Kiel in 1830, and in 1855 became professor of
antiquarian research and director of the Academic Museum of Art at Bonn.
He was one of the most distinguished of German archaeologists and philo-
logists. His biography of Mozart, published originally between 1856 and
1860 in four volumes, was in a second edition reduced to two; and it may
fairly be regarded as a standard work on the life and labours of one of

THE PRESENT. 1231

the most eminent representatives of musical art. The celebrated philo-
logist Ritschl has referred to this work and its novel philological-critical
method as one of the greatest achievements of our time. Jahn died at
Gottingen in the year 1869, leaving a large amount of matter for intended
biographies of Haydn and Mozart, which, however, has been utilised by
the American biographer Thayer (concerning whom it will be our duty to
speak in connection with our review of English music), and by C. F. Pohl,
of Vienna, of whom we shall now treat.

Carl Ferdinand Pohl, born in 1819 at Darmstadt, was in 1849
appointed organist at Vienna, and in 1866 keeper of the records of the
Society of the Friends of Music. His seriously written biography of
Haydn, in two volumes, appearing in 1878 and 1882 respectively, is
defective only in so far as it omits to treat of the period subsequent to
1790. He has written other excellent works, one of which, "Mozart and
Haydn in London," appeared in 1867.

Of the savants of the present that have made a special study of the life
of Beethoven, we have to mention M. G. Nottebohm, born in 1817 in
Westphalia, died in 1882 at Gratz. He is an author who, in our opinion,
has no compeer, and shows in his " Ein Skizzenbuch von Beethoven " (pub-
lished in 1865), " Thematisches Verzeichnisz der im Druck erschienenen
Werke von Beethoven" (1868), " Beethoviana " (1872), "Beethoven's
Studien " (Band 1 . Beethoven's " Unterricht bei Haydn, Albrechtsberger,
Salieri : nach den Originalmanuscripten," 1873), "Neue Beethoviana"
(1875), and "Ein Skizzenbuch von Beethoven aus dem Jahre 1803"
(1880), much depth of reasoning and trustworthiness of form. He also
published a "Thematisches Verzeichnisz der im Druck erschienenen
Werke Franz Schubert." (1874), and " Mozartiana" (1880) 5 and here we
might refer, as regards biographies of Beethoven, to an excellent pamphlet
of Dr. Gerhard von Brenning, son of Beethoven's friend Stephan von
Brenning, entitled "Aus dem Schwarzspanierhause, Erinnerung an L. v.
Beethoven aus meiner Jugendzeit," published at Vienna in 1874. Although
unable to notice them critically in any way, yet we are not precluded
from directing attention to the work of C. H. Better, in two volumes,
"Johann Sebastian Bach," and his "Philipp Emanuel und Friedemann
Bach/' as well as the "Franz Schubert" of Dr. Heinrich Kreiszle von
Hellborn, published at Vienna in 1865, the " Kobert Schumann/' in three

1232 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

volumes, of Joseph von Wesielewski, published in 1858, and his essay,
" Die Violine und ihre Meister ; " also to Max von Weber's biography of
his father, Karl Maria von Weber, published in 1864, to the " Christoph
Willibald Ritter von Gluck " (1854) of Anton Schmid, and to the
' ' Johann Friedrich Reichardt " of H. M. Schletterer.

Among the few German professors of acoustics and physics, Hermann
Helmholz, born in 1821 at Potsdam, is by far the most prominent. Having
studied medicine and anatomy, he turned to the study of physiology and
natural philosophy, holding during the jears 1849, 1855, 1858, and 1871,
the appointment of professor to the Universities of Konigsberg, Bonn,
Heidelberg, and Berlin respectively. This excellent physicist wrote in
1863 a celebrated work, "Lehre von den Tonempfindungen, als physiolo-
gische Grundlage der Musik," which, not only to the science of music
generally, but to all practical musicians wishing to obtain an insight into
the physiological aspect of their art, will be found to be of very great
value. In this work he emphasises the methods of Rameau and Chladui,
and points out how the whole action of music on man consists in the
relationship of our nervous activity to the vibrations of objective bodies.
He shows how the impressions of sound and colour are originated through
the vibrations of bodies and light transmitted through air and ether re-
spectively. The effect of these vibrations varies according to their nature,
which may be modified according to the nervous capacity of the organs of
sight and hearing. Helmholz goes on to show in what way the different
excitements of the nerves affected by sound-waves correspond to their
special causes, and how the laws of musical theory were based on such a
process- long before the principle was discovered. Specially important are
the results of his investigations with regard to the varying nature of the
tone-colour of different instruments, as well as his explanation of dis-
sonances by interrupted vibrations. His valuable survey of the tone-
systems of the Arabs, and of the Greeks since Pythagoras and Terpander,
and other cultured nations, deserves passing notice.

Arthur von Oettingen, born in 1836 at Dorpat, and since 1865 professor
of physical science at the Dorpat University, has written a work of much
value for musicians in his " Harmoniesystem in dualer Entwickelung"
(published in 1866), and in it shows felicitously the correspondence between
the " Lehre von der Harmonik" (Laws of Harmony), the "Natur der

THE PKESENT.

1233

Harmonik und Metrik" of Hauptmann, and the acoustic principles as
advanced by Helmholz.

Within recent years theorists have numerically become fewer, and if we
except such as Flodoard Geyer, or those authors who offer the means of that
apparently rapid acquirement which has the inevitable result of giving but
an imperfect grasp of the subject, we have only to add to the names of such
theorists of later times as Marx, Dehn, and Hauptmann that of J. C. Lobe,
an author dying in 1881, while professor of music at Leipzig, and whose

Fig. 291. — The Vienna Opera-House.

most celebrated work is his " Lehrbuch der Musikalischen Composition "
(published in four volumes between 1851 and 1867). His " Lehre von der
Thematischen Arbeit" (1846), and his " Musikalischen Brief e von einem
Wohlbekannten " (published between 1853 and 1860), are works well
deserving mention.

Lobe was also an eminent classical art-critic, but often lost himself, in
the mere formality of the work, in a purely subjective analysis of the com-
poser's intention expressed in succeeding bars (vide his otherwise excellent
analysis of the Do?\ Giovanni overture) . He, as a representative of the
classical school, held the view indicated in the following quotations from
his writings: (< Our classical tone-masters in the Temple of Art believed
that the human mind should be freed from the sorrows and miseries of
A A A A

1234 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

every-day life. Now the belief seems to be gaining ground that art should
oppress the heart and torture it even more than life itself."

Almost as complete a musical theory as that of Lobe was the one ad-
duced by Reiszmann. His <( Lehrbuch der Musikalischen Composition "
was published in three volumes between 1866 and 1871 at Berlin, the first
containing the rudiments, the second treating of the " accepted " form,
and the third of orchestration. Of great practical value is Ernst Friedrich
Richter's work, " Praktische Studien zur Theorie der Musik," published
in three parts, which treat respectively of harmony, counterpoint, and
fugue. The first of these has been translated into six languages, and had
up to 1880 passed through no less than fourteen editions in Germany.
Richter, while at Leipzig, was a colleague of Hauptmann as a professor
of composition, and his work gains a special value on account of its
embodiment in a practical form of the system of his celebrated compeer.
In 1868 he became successor to Hauptmann as cantor to the Church of
St. Thomas, and has, in following the Mendelssohn- Hauptmann School,
shown in composition some interesting work of a sacred nature. He died
at Leipzig in 1879.

To the group of the German physicists and theorists we add those
authors of aesthetic works and art-philosophy, such as W. H. Riehl, born
in 1823 at Biebrich on the Rhine. Of those of his works containing a
mass of new ideas on the basis of sound historical studies,. and which by
their attractiveness have gained much popularity with the greater part of
the educated German public, we must mention the " Musikalische Charak-
terkopfe" (published in 1853, a second issue with additions appearing in
1861), and " Culturstudien " (containing the essays "Das Musikalische
Ohr/' " Geistliche Gassen Musik," " Volksgesang/' " Heermusik/' " Geige
und Clavier," " Musikalische Architektonik," " Die Antike in der Ton-
kunst/' &c.). Riehl, besides being an art-philosopher, is a lawyer, and
professor of the University of Munich since 1854. He is also known as a
composer by his " Hausmusik," published between 1856 and 1877.

With regard to the study of musical aesthetics, we find in Edward
Hanslick, born in 1825 at Prague, a most important author on the
subject. His " Von Musikalisch-Schonen ein Beitrag zur Revision der
^Esthetik der Tonkunst" (published in 1854) has been translated into three
languages, and has in Germany passed through six editions. It fixes the

THE PRESENT. 1235

aesthetic creed of the musician, which till 1854 moved in manifold ways
in the realm of purely subjective conception, by restricting it to an excel-
lent and sound basis deduced from natural laws. Of his best works we
would prefer "Die Moderne Oper" (1880), which has reached its fourth
edition. Han slick received the degree of Doctor of Law in 1849, and since
1870 has held the appointment of professor of music to the University of
Vienna. He is one of the most brilliant of the musical feuilletonists and
critics of Germany.

Other authors on musical aesthetics we meet with in Karl Kbstlin, born
in 1819 in Wurtemburg; Heinrich Ehrlich, born in 1824 at Vienna; and
Gustav Engel, born in 1823 at Konigsberg. The last-named has been
since ]874 professor at the Royal High School, Berlin, and is one of the
most prominent teachers of singing that Germany possesses. In his pro-
found work, " ^Esthetik der Tonkunst/' published at Berlin in 1884, he
bases his conception of aesthetics on that of Hegel, and in so doing im-
parts to his work a philosophic and strictly scientific character. Heinrich
Ehrlich is the author of a spirited and intellectual work on the same
subject. Kostlin, in addition to a treatise on musical aesthetics, contri-
buted the musical portion to the third volume of Theodor Vischer's work
that treats of the aesthetics of the collective arts, and gained thereby a
lasting name. Of works referring more especially to an intelligent inter-
pretation of musical compositions, we would mention David Wagner's
" Musikalische Ornamentik^ (published at Berlin in 1863), and the sections
in Damm's " Clavierschule " and Riemann's " Methode," treating of
musical phrasing (published by Steingraber, of Hanover). In these works
the authors discuss the subject in a very extensive manner, and, although
it is by no means an entirely new one, it had never before received so full a
treatment.

We complete our list of German musical savants by referring to the group
of lexicographers, the most prominent of whom are Mendel, Von Ledebur,
Paul, and Riemann. Hermann Mendel, who died in 1876 at Berlin,
published in 1870 his " Musikalisches Conversationslexikon," in which he
only reached to the letter M, the rest being completed by Reiszmann.
Oskar Paul, born in 1836 in Silesia, and professor of music at the Leipzig
University, published in 1873 a small encyclopaedia, and in 1872 a transla-
tion of the five books of Boetius " De Musica/' which now forms a valuable
A A A A 2

1236 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

addition to the history of the earliest Christian era. Freiherr Karl von
Ledebur, born in 1806 near Bielefeld, was up to the year 1852 an officer
of the Prussian cavalry, and published in 1860 his musical " Tonkiinstler-
lexikon Berlins von den altesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegenwart." Hugo
Riemann, born in 1849 near Sondershausen, and since 1878 a private tutor
in the University of Leipzig, published a " Musik-Lexikon," containing, in
addition, a treatise on theory and orchestration ; he has also shown ability
as a composer of the new German School. Robert Musiol, born in 1 846 at
Breslau, is the author of the " Musikalisches Fremworterbuch " and " Kate-
chismus der Musikgeschichte," and the editor of the tenth edition of Julius
Schubert's " Musikalisches Conversationslexikon " (published in 1877).

We have dealt up to this point with the music of Germany. To the
number of schools and artistic individualities by which it is represented are
opposed the less numerous masters of other countries, which, however, have
much increased during the last ten or fifteen years, and of these countries
France and Italy have, in our opinion, with Germany, been the most pro-
minent from a musical point of view. But we have to remark, that in
modern times, the Scandinavians, i.e., Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes, and
the subdivisions of the Slavonic race, viz., the Russians, Czecks, and Poles,
have during the period above mentioned also forced themselves prominently
forward by their undeniable genius. England, however, has not much ex-
ceeded the average of its musical productivity, for amongst the English,
as well as the Spanish and Portuguese, there do not seem to be any
masters whose works have been performed out of their country to such a
degree as has been the case with those of the masters of the Scandinavian
and Slavonic races.

We will now proceed to treat of Italian tonal art. We find prominent
among the masters in the foremost rank Giuseppe Verdi, born in 1813 near
Busseto, in the Duchy of Parma. He received his musical education in
the Academy of Milan, where in 1839 he produced his first opera, Olerto,
Conte di S. Bonifacio. From its manifest resemblance to the style of
Bellini he gained by it some publicity. His operas, Nalucodonosor , per-
formed 1842, Ernani in 1844, / due Foscari, also in 1844, and Luisa
Miller (the libretto adapted from Schiller's " Kabale und Liebe"), began
to increase that publicity, but without doubt the world-wide popularity he
DOW enjoys rests on his Rigoletto, performed in 1851, II Trovatore in 1853,

THE PRESENT.

1237

La Tramata (adapted from Dumas'' " Dame aux Camelias "), II Ballo in
Maschera, and that most admirable production, Aida, performed in 1871, on
the opening- of the Italian Opera, Cairo ; for the last-named, we may add,
he received .£4,000. The operas written specially for the Paris Grand
Opera, Les Vepres Siciliennes and Don Carlos (founded on Schiller's " Don

Fig. 292.— Giuseppe Verdi.

Carlos'"), contain much that is noteworthy, but bear no comparison to his
five most celebrated operas ; and more especially is this so for the reason
that his endeavour to assimilate the style of the Paris Grand Opera (as
introduced by Rossini, and continued up to the time of Donizetti) to his
own was detrimental, inasmuch as he was no longer the exponent of his
own feelings, but by assuming a garb that was to him foreign, was
restricted from a full and complete expression. The result of this is that

1238 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

one intuitively feels that the newer element does not combine by any
means in a favourable way with his own real merit. Unfortunately, Verdi
went even further, for in his re-writing of Don Carlos at a subsequent date,
he not only wrote in the style of the Paris Grand Opera, but showed a
strong" imitation of the second period of Richard Wagner, by which he was
led to deviate from the established art-form, and to desert in several scenes
his well-known bel canto in favour of the undue prominence of orchestral
painting so characteristic of that German master.

In his other operas, such as Rigoletto, La Traviata, and II Trovatore, we
meet with the influence of Auber, Meyerbeer, and Halevy, yet there is an
abundant charm of Italian melody and a na'ivete that exclude that ten-
dency to strained effects, evident in those works written by him for the
Parisian opera. Most successful was he in his praiseworthy effort to adopt
in A'ida a deeper and more dramatic character than had been usually shown
by Italian masters. In 1874 he surprised the musical world, which had up
till then regarded him solely as a dramatic composer, by his great Requiem,
the style of which was very elevated, besides being pathetic in expression
and full of youthful fire, containing also soli, ensembles, and choruses
whose masterly polyphony is worthy of Mendelssohn. It is a production
all the more surprising when it is considered that it was written at the
comparatively advanced age of sixty-one, and is the work in which Verdi
approaches most closely to the masters of the German Genius epoch, and
especially to Mozart, and the modern Classical school.

It is quite natural that such a talent as Verdi's should have influenced
his compatriots, and that he should find among them many regarding him
as their master. Among these we have to mention Arrigo Boito, born in
1842 at Padua, who, however, adopts in many ways the principles of the
second period of Richard Wagner. His first work, the cantata Le Sorelle
d' It alia, performed in 1868 at Milan, was folio wed by the opera Mefistofele,
the libretto of which is based on Goethe's Faust, and was succeeded by
the operas Hero and Leander and Nerone. It is interesting to note that
Boito is a poet of some considerable merit. Francesco Cortesi deserves
notice on account of his opera Mariulizza, performed in 1875 at the
Pergola Theatre, Florence. The Gioconda of Amilcare Ponchielli (born in
1834) was performed in 1876, and has been, like the Mefistofele of Boito,
produced at Vienna and in Germany. Ponchielli's Marion Delorme met

THE PRESENT. 1239

with much success on its performance in 1885 at the Scala Theatre,
Milan.

Filippo Marchetti, born in 1835 at Bolognola, produced at the Carcano
and Scala Theatres his operas Romeo e Giulietta (in 1865) and Ruy Bias
(in 1869), gaining thereby much popularity. Franco Faccio, born in 1841
at Verona, is the composer of the operas Iprofuglii Fiamminghi and Amleto,
which were produced respectively in 1863 and 1871. Carlo Pedrotti,
born in 1817 at Verona, composed two operas, II Favorite and Olema, per-
formed at Turin and Milan, respectively, in 1870 and 1873, with much
success. Giro Pinsuti, born in 1829 near Siena, is the composer of the
operas // Mercante di Tenezia and Mattia Corvino, produced in 1873 and
1877.

Before closing this review of Italian masters, we would like to refer
to the work of Dr. Carl Eiese, whose skilful translations of Italian libretti
are deserving of much praise. He was specially engaged to translate into
German for the Vienna stage Verdi's Simone Boccanegra, Boito's Mefistofele,
and Ponchielli's Gioconda ; and for the Dresden stage, Marchetti's Ruy
Bias and Verdi's Don Carlos, and in each case paid special attention to
a correct idiomatic rendering while, using language permitting of easy
vocalisation. His earlier adaptations are those from Mozart's Idomeneo,
Le Nozze di Figaro, Don Giovanni, Co si fan tutte, and La Clemenza di Tito.

Of the Italians most renowned in the field of musical research, we must
mention Francesco Florimo, born in 1800 near Reggio, who introduced
himself to the public through his work in two volumes entitled " Cenno
Storico sulla Scuola Musicale di Napoli," published between 1869 and 1876.
He showed his interest in German art by another work written in 1879,
entitled " Riccardo Wagner ed i Wagneristi." * Florimo was appointed
in 1826 librarian to the Real Collegio di Musica at Naples, the Conserva-
torium of which city adopted the principles set forth by him in his
" Metodo di Canto."

Federigo Polidoro, born in 1845 at Naples, is an author of eminence in
the field of musical history and aesthetics. By his representation of classic
German, French, and Italian musicians, he has gained much celebrity,

* An anonymous pamphlet on the same subject appeared iu 1885 at Bologna, " Traccie
per una ricerca intorno alia musica di Wagner ed alia musica italiana," and serves to show
the widespread interest in German art.

1240 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

more especially in his "Dei pretesi portent! della Musica Antica," and has
been since 1874 professor of aesthetic and musical history to the Conserva-
torium of Naples. We must not omit to mention Gamucci, born in 1822
at Florence, a composer of sacred works, and the author of " Intorno alia
vita ed alle Opere di Luigl Cheriibini."

We will conclude this review of Italian musicians and historians by
referring briefly to the author Gaetano Gaspari, born in 1807 at Bologna,
and dying there in 1881 ; the gifted composer for the pianoforte, Stefano
Golinelli ; the song- writers, Gordigiani and Campana ; and, among im-
portant instrumental composers, G. Sgambati, a pupil of Liszt, whose
string quartett in D flat major, Op. 17, shows genuine sentiment and
occasional euphony. In this work he, unlike many disciples of the New
Romantic School, does not aspire to orchestral effects by the aid of
tremolos, arpeggios, and other unfit contrivances. He shows that he is
aware that this class of composition in its polyphonic treatment still insists
on melody; and although a tendency to extravagance becomes apparent, and
an attempt evinces itself to emulate the so-called posthumous quartette
of Beethoven, yet we meet with sufficient inborn gift to attract our
attention.

We will now turn to the school of French musicians, of which the
greater number are composers of operas. These either follow the romantic,
and always more or less pathetic opera, or that graceful and romantic
comic opera which is so peculiar to the French nature. The former has its
representatives in such gifted musicians as Gounod, Bizet, and Massenet,
the latter in Delibes, Thomas, and Masse. To these we might add
Offenbach, who is not without talent, although of a lower kind. A third
section comprising Saint-Saens, Felicien David, Reber, Lacombe, Godard,
and Blanc, has devoted itself to the composition of orchestral works.

In each of these groups there are those that follow their compatriot,
Berlioz, or turn directly to the old and .new German Romantic School. We
specially refer to Gounod, Saint-Saens, and Bizet. We have also, in order
to complete our list, to name as a fourth group the musical theorists and
historians of France, of whom Castel-Blaze, Vincent, Kastner, Chouquet,
Bidal, and Pougin are the best known.*

* We do not include in this list of French theorists Fetis, Nisard, De Coussemaker, and
Gevaert, for the reason that they have not dealt with French but Belgian theory. Further,

THE PRESENT. 1241

We will now proceed to treat of the most prominent composers. Charles
Fra^ois Gounod, born in 1818 at Paris, a pupil of Paer, Lesueur, and Halevy,
gained in 1839 "Lei Prix de Rome " for a cantata. While in Rome he
studied the works of the Italian masters of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, writing in 1842 a Requiem. At this time he was strongly dis-
posed to enter the Church, but in the course of his travels through Germany
the works of Mendelssohn and Schumann came under his notice, and owing
to their impression upon him, he was induced to continue his studies in
music. His first operas, Sappho, performed in 1851, and La nonne Sanglante,
performed in 1854, attracted the notice of the Parisian public; it was, how-
ever, owing to the success of Faust, performed in 1859, that his fame reached
its climax. The opera does not pretend to paint the metaphysical side of
the Faust of Goethe, but, while allotting it the premier role, depicts it only
in the character of a fantastic lover. The imagination of the poet was
excited, however, almost exclusively through the German maiden Mar-
guerite. But if, while accepting Gounod's interpretation of the latter
character, we make some concessions to the French taste (concessions which
are entirely opposed to Goethe's conception), and accept the delineation
expressed in the waltz song, for instance, and the joyful dance, during
which she adorns herself with the jewels, then must we admit that this
interpretation justly claims for Gounod's work a place among the best
romantic operas of modern times. And the twenty-six years of its unabated
success on all European and American stages, and even in Germany, go far
to prove this assertion. It will be long before one discovers in the works
of the present dramatic composers anything containing so much melody
and dramatic passion as that exhibited by Gounod. We refer, in support
of this assertion, to the garden scene towards the end of the third act,
Valentine's death, and the cathedral scene. A work of equal merit, which,
in our opinion, is but too little known, is his Philemon et Baucis, per-
formed for the first time in 1860 at Paris, and which we consider to be far
more original than his Romeo et Juliette (performed in 1867 at Paris), in

we did not classify, in our list of German musical theorists, the Germans Kastner, Kreutzer,
Zimmermann, Herold, Habeneck, Adam, and others ; nor Gretry in the Flemish School, although
a Belgian by birth, nor similarly Onslow in the English School. All these masters (Fetis,
Nisard, De Coussemaker, and Gevaert excepted) more properly belong to the French School,
whereas Fetis and his three compeers have been, on account of their position as Belgian
musical savants, included in the Flemish School.

1242 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

which one must admit tlie lower level of invention and dramatic power,
although it met on its production with greater success than that accorded
to Philemon et Baucis. Besides the operas named, Gounod wrote eight
that failed to achieve popularity. He has also written a number of sacred
works, e.g., masses, Latin hymns, the oratorios Tobias, The Redemption,
Mors et Vita (performed for the first time in 1885 at Birmingham),
and many sets of excellent songs. A rather sentimental meditation on
the first prelude of the great Sebastian Bach's Forty-eight Preludes and
Fugues has secured Gounod considerable popularity among amateurs, but we
must confess it is not in strict accord with the spirit of that great* master.
His artistic objectivity is shown in a decisive manner in his reverence
and enthusiasm for German music, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Weber, and
Wagner being the masters that have most influenced him.

A contemporary of Gounod, but of much less importance, is Aime
Maillart, born in 1817 at Montpellier, died in 1871 at Moulins. His most
popular opera, Les Dragons de Villars, performed in Paris in 1856, although
not exhibiting the gracefulness and sentiment of Auber's best comic operas,
displays much piquancy, and has the true spirit of the opera eomique. A com-
poser of more depth and originality than Maillart was George Bizet, born in
1838 at Paris, dying there in 1875. He was a pupil of Halevy, and gained
in 1856 the "Offenbach" prize for his operetta Der Wunderdoktor, and
in 1857 the " Grand Prix de Rome." It was not till 1875, in Paris, that his
Carmen was produced, the success of which spread his name to other
countries. This work sufficed to gain for Bizet a European fame, never
destined for his enjoyment, the year of its great success being the year of
his decease. If we inquire of ourselves whether Carmen deserved its fame,
we cannot deny that in many respects it was fully merited, but we only
admit this provided certain extravagances in harmony, rhythm, and instru-
mentation are disregarded. The opera shows decided originality and ad-
herence to the established art-form, and although employing the modern
orchestral colouring, makes it ever subservient to the voice. It is very
successful in its portrayal of Spanish character, which finds its embodiment
in the admixture of glowing passion and humour in the leading role, and
in the interpretation of which Pauline Lucca and Lilli Lehmann have suc-
ceeded in a pre-eminent degree. The incredible number of the performances
of Carmen has been proved by statistics, prepared in 1883 at Berlin, to

THE PRESENT. 1243

have exceeded those of Weber's and Wagner's works combined. In the
entr'acte music to Daudet's drama, IS Arlesienne , Bizet shows much origi-
nality, energy, and grace. After his early death and the great success
of Carmen, a very natural inclination was shown by the public to hear
others of his compositions. To meet this the entr'actes were arranged as
an orchestral suite, and in such form have been performed by the chief
German orchestras.

Working in a different groove to that of Bizet is Jules Massenet, born in
1842 near St. Etienne, another composer belonging to the group now under
review. Having gained " Le Prix de Eome " for his cantata Rizzio, he
received the honourable distinction of "Membre de I'lnstitut/' and in
1878 the professorial chair at the Conservatoire. He is especially distin-
guished for his settings of Biblical dramas, a species of composition which,
both as regards libretto and music, is in character partly oratorio and
partly opera, and in which he may be said to have been preceded by
Anton Rubinstein. His most important Biblical dramas are Marie Made-
leine (1873), Eve (1875), and La Vierge. He has, in addition, written
orchestral suites, overtures, fantasias, &c., and secured celebrity outside
France by two works written for the Paris Grand Opera, Le Eoi de
Lahore, and Herodias.

At the head of the French national comic-opera writers of the present
stands Leo Delibes, born in 1836 at St. Germain du Val. Among his
many charming operas that are very tastefully scored, we would mention
Le Hoi Va dit (1873) and Lakme (1883), works that were his most success-
ful productions. In the first-named, which has been performed on almost
all German stages, we cannot refrain from referring to a charming " fugato "
introduced in a serenade. We may mention that much praise has been
awarded to his grand ballet Coppelia.

A composer, in our opinion, of much less importance than Delibes is
Ambroise Thomas, born in 1811 at Metz. His most popular work, Mignon
(1866), performed on almost all the principal stages, shows but little depth,
although it must be admitted that it leaves the impress of a certain talent.
With the exception of certain portions, the whole of the music falls short
of that required by the high poetic creation of Goethe's heroine. Of
Thomas's Hamlet, written in 1868, it has been asserted that it is very
little in advance of Mignon in point of style.

1244 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Of similar capacity is Victor Masse, born in ]8£2 at L'Orient, and
in 1876 appointed Auber's successor in the French Academy. Of his
sixteen operas (eight of which are in character comic) the following have
obtained most popularity, Le Fils du Brigadier (1867), Paul et Virginie
(1876), and La Nuit de Cleopdtre (1877). We have now to mention
Jacques Offenbach, born in 1819 at Cologne, died in 1880 at Paris, who,
notwithstanding his considerable musical gift and a fancy both peculiar
and original in the creation of the bouffe-parisiens, yet represents the
cynicism and moral emptiness of the Second French Empire. And it
cannot but be regarded with regret that he should have so subordinated
his talents to pecuniary considerations; for his first one-act opera, by
which he became known, entitled Le Manage a la Lanterne, decidedly
ranks with the best comic operas, and even solely on account of its
charming ensembles might fairly claim a classical position. Again, his
Orphee aux Enfers shows in many of its parts such a cheerful exuberance
that it might well be called an intelligent musical persiflage. Those operas,
however, of the La Belle Helene class became not only more frivolous,
but, even from a purely musical standpoint, more and more shallow, and
tried solely by meretricious means to please the coarser elements of the
human mind. We, however, lay less stress on Offenbach as a musician,
and prefer to direct attention to the peculiar position he held from a
historical standpoint, in reflecting the morals and the character of Parisian
society during the years 1850 to 1880.

Turning to the modern French masters of symphonic compositions, we
meet among the foremost the contemporary of Berlioz, viz., the gifted
Felicien David, born in 1810 in the department Vaucluse, died in 1876
at St. Germain en Laye. In an early part of this work, when treating of
the Islamites, we had occasion to refer to David's most important sym-
phonic work, Le Desert, which maintained the style of programme-music
inaugurated by Berlioz, and is a work not only original, but more perfect
than those of Berlioz as regards form. The success David gained by this
in Paris was very remarkable. Other works by the same master are the
symphonic ode " Columbus," the opera Lalla Eookh (1862), an oratorio
Moses on Mount Sinai, a symphony in F, two nonetts for wind instruments,
and his string quintetts, " Les Quatres Saisons."

A composer who must unconditionally be admitted to be a most pro-

THE PEESENT. 1245

minent instrumental writer is Camille Saint-Saens. Born in Paris in 1835,
he studied under Halevy, and in 1858 received the appointment of organist
of La Madeleine. He gained much popularity by his Phaeton, Le Rouet
cl'Omphale, La Jeunesse d'Hercule a,nd.J)anse Macabre, works in the style
of Berlioz and Liszt ; but they exceeded the productions of those masters
in their stricter adherence to the established art-form. It has been sug-
gested that the last-named work (Danse Macabre] might well be accepted
as a musical illustration of Goethe's "Todtentanz " (death dance). Among
his orchestral compositions, four symphonies, a suite algerienne, four grand
pianoforte concertos, in addition to one for the violoncello and one for
the violin, deserve special mention. In chamber music Saint-Saens again
shows his complete mastery of art- form, infusing much genuine French
esprit into his treatment. He is an excellent organist and virtuoso on the
piano, and is thoroughly acquainted with Sebastian Bach, in the interpre-
tation of whose works he has shown special excellence. He has also written
meritorious organ music, and has a special gift as an improviser on both
piano and organ.

Yet, notwithstanding these acknowledged excellences, we must admit
that Saint-Saens shows more intellectuality in his compositions than poetical
inspiration, and more self-criticism in art-form than richness of invention.
His collective gifts, however, cannot be denied their sterling worth, and
no other master, only perhaps excepting Pasdeloup, has since the time of
Cherubini, Habeneck, and Berlioz, so warmly fought on behalf of Ger-
man ,tonal art in France, as did Saint-Saens, more especially before the
year 1870.

Another writer of symphonic works is Henri Napoleon Beber, born in
1807 at Miilhausen, in Alsace, died in 1880 at Paris. A pupil of Reicha
and Lesueur, he has secured an honourable name by his four symphonies,
an overture, and an orchestral suite. To these may be added his string
quartetts and pianoforte trios, all of which are imbued with the influence
of the great German masters. His comic operas, however, have met with
but very slight success. In 1853 he became Membre de FInstitut, and
in 1862 successor to Halevy at the Conservatoire.

Louis Lacombe, born in 1818 at Bourges, and a composer much in-
fluenced by Berlioz, studied at Vienna under Czerny, and produced in
Paris in 1847 his dramatic choral symphony "Manfred." Three years

1246 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

later a similar work, Arva, ou les Hongrois," appeared, and excited con-
siderable interest. He wrote his prize cantata Sappho for the great ex-
hibition of 1878.

Much has been furnished to the realm of instrumental composition of a
charming character by Benjamin Godard, born in 1849 in Paris. His
orchestral suite, " Scenes poetiques," consisting of four movements (" Dans
le Bois," " Dans les Champs/' « Au Village/' and " Sur la Montagne"), is
replete with the grace that is so peculiar to the French, besides possessing
a certain charm due to its dreamy nature. It has been as frequently per-
formed in Germany as in Paris, and is published by Bote arid Bock of
Berlin (Op. 46). The praiseworthy sobriety evinced in orchestration, that
nowhere leads the composer to exceed a proper employment of the means
for the attainment of his poetical and instrumental colouring, gains for him
a prestige over many of the present German opera-composers. Godard also
wrote a " Symphonic gothique," and a lyric scene " Diane et Acteon," and
received for his dramatic choral symphony " Tasso " the prize offered by
the city of Paris. His two hundred " Chansons et Melodies/' the latter
having a strong resemblance to the German " lieder," enjoy a widespread
reputation in France. We have lastly to mention Adolphe Blanc, born in
1828 in the department of the Basses- Alpes, who is chiefly known for his
chamber music (based on the theories of the German School), consisting of
quintetts, string quartetts, pianoforte trios, and sonatas. He was awarded
the " Prix Chartier," offered by the French Academy, for his untiring efforts
in popularising chamber music in that country.

In dealing with the fourth group of French musicians, &c., we meet
with the savants, of whom we shall be unable to mention any but the
most important on account of space. Francois Castil-Blaze, born in 1784 in
the department Vaucluse, died in 1857 at Paris, began his career by entering
the legal profession, and it will not be without interest to refer to the fact
of the chief German musical savants Thibaut, Von Winterfeld, Ambros,
Kiesewetter, Bitter, Kiehl, Gumprecht, Hanslick, and De Coussemaker,
having also been by profession lawyers. The chief works of Castil-Blaze
are his " Dictionnaire de Musique Moderne " (published in 1825, and
passing through two editions) , the " Chapelle de Musique des B-ois de
France/' "Moliere Musicien " (published in 1852), and " Theatres Lyriques
de Paris" (in three volumes, Paris, 1855 and 1856). He is also well

THE PRESENT. 1247

known through his translations of the German and Italian libretti of Don
Giovanni, Figaro, Zauberflote, Der Freischutz (this appearing- under the
title of Robin des JBois), Euryantke, Matrimonio Segreto, Barbiere, &c.,
and was the author of the novel " Julien, ou le Pretre."

Alexand re Vincent, born in 1797 in the department Pas-de-Calais, and who
died in 1868 at Paris, wrote many erudite treatises on the music of ancient
Greece, and a considerable number also on the music of the Middle Ages ;
in these he has furnished us with a very exhaustive criticism on De Cousse-
maker's brilliant mediaeval researches.* As regards the possession by the
Greeks and Romans of a polyphony, Vincent strongly supported Westphal's
affirmative view, but was as strongly opposed, in 1854 and 1861, by his
compatriot Marcel Jullien (born in 1798, died in 1881).

Johann Georg Kastner, born in 1811 at Strasburg, died in 1867 at
Paris, was an author whose works have importance chiefly on account of
their educational nature. We refer to the " Grammaire Musicale," in three
volumes, the " Theorie abregee du contrepoint et de la fugue/' the ' ' Traite
general de ^instrumentation/" in two volumes with supplement, and the
" Encyklopadie der Musik " (left unfinished through the author's death).

In Adolphe Gustave Chouquet, born in 1819 at Havre, we meet with
a prominent musical historian, who gained in 1864 the " Prix Bordin " for
his " Histoire de Musique,"" an excellent work, treating of the period from
the fourteenth to the eighteenth centuries. No less meritorious is his
" Histoire de la Musique Dramatique en France depuis ses origines jusqu'a
nos jours" (published in 1873). In a similar manner Antoine Vidal, born
in 1820 at Rouen, gained notoriety by a voluminous work, " Les Instru-
ments a archet" (in three volumes, Paris, 1876), which is amongst the
most reliable and profound treatises extant on the history of stringed
instruments.

Arthur Pougin, born in 1834, gained considerable prominence by his
" Musiciens francais du XVIII. siecle/' In 1867 he wrote, at the request

* We give here the titles of a few of De Coussemaker's works: — " De la Notation Musicale
de 1'Ecole d'Alexandrie " ("Revue Archeologique 3iemc annee"), an analysis of the celebrated
paper " De Musica," by St. Augustine (1849), "Emploi des quarts de ton dans le chant gre-
gorien constate sur 1'antiphonaire de Montpellier " (1854), " De la Notation Musicale attribuee
a Boe'ce et de quelques chants anciens qui se trouvent dans le manuscrit latin No. 989 de la
Bibliotheque imperiale," and lastly, the" Notice sur trois manuscrits grecs relatifs a la inusique
avec une traduction f ran9aise et des commentaires " (Paris, imprimerie royale, 1847).

1248 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

of the Government, his " De la situation des compositeurs de musique et de
Pavenir de Tart musical en France/' and published, in 1878 and 1880, two
volumes in order to complete the " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens "
of Fetis. We have no need here to mention the literary achievements of
Berlioz, they having already been referred to.

As we have completed our review of the musicians, &c., of the most
gifted nations of the earth, viz., Germany, France, and Italy, we will
turn our attention to the principal musicians of England, the Netherlands,
and Scandinavia.

During the nineteenth century the first-named country has possessed
many undeniable musical savants and noteworthy composers. With regard
to the latter we may well, on account of his wide popularity, introduce
them under no less a man than Michael William Balfe. Although born in
Dublin in 1808 (died in 1870), we cannot treat him as a national com-
poser, for the reason that his works are strongly tinged with the influence
of the school of Rossini, Bellini, and Donizetti, and not unmixed with
certain features peculiar to the French grand opera. The work by which
Balfe gained his remarkable popularity was the Bohemian Girl, performed
for the first time at Drury Lane. This was followed by the opera Falstaff,
written for Her Majesty's Theatre, and many others, some of which were
performed in Germany and France: of these Les quatre fils Aymon
achieved considerable success in the French capital.

Sir George Macfarren, the director of the Royal Academy of Music,
was born in London in the year 1813, and from 1842 to 1864 devoted
himself to the composition of the operas Don Quixote, Charles II., Robin
Hood, and Helvellyn, and the oratorios John the Baptist and Joseph, in
addition to cantatas, symphonies, overtures, and chamber music. By
these works he gained considerable prominence. There is much merit in
his critical edition of Purcell and Handel's works, and we may here refer to
the excellent translations of German opera libretti by Lady Macfarren. We
meet with another opera composer in W. Vincent Wallace, born in 1814
at Waterford, died in 1865. His most popular work, Maritana, like others
of his operas, has been performed in France and America and in the chief
cities of the British Colonies. Maritana was followed by Matilda, the
Amber Witch, Lurline, &c., none of which, however, can be said to be
national in character, but rather to show the influence of the modern

THE PRESENT. 1249

Italian and French Schools. Wallace was a prolific writer of pianoforte
music, none of which, however, can be regarded as of the highest standard.

Working in a different direction from that of Balfe and Wallace we find
Sir Michael Costa, who, although bom at Naples in 1810, yet spent the
greater part of his life in the English capital, where he became conductor
at Her Majesty's Theatre, and subsequently of the Philharmonic and
Sacred Harmonic Societies, and also of the Birmingham and the great
Handel Festivals, writing for Birmingham his oratorio Eli. Costa was
knighted in 1869 and died in London in 1884.

Sir Sterndale Bennett, who was born in 1816 at Sheffield, and died
in 1875 in London, entirely followed the principles of Mendelssohn, and
was honoured by the presence of that master at the performance, at one
of the Royal Academy concerts, of his pianoforte concerto in D minor,
a work in which Mendelssohn showed considerable interest — an interest
that developed into a friendly intercourse and lasted during Bennett's stay
at Leipzig between the years 1837 and 1842. His compositions are more
noteworthy for their taste and refinement than for their energy and force,
the chief of them being the four concert overtures, The Naiads, The Wood
Nymphs, Parisina, Paradise and the Peri, the four pianoforte concerti, the
symphony in Gr minor, the oratorio The Woman of Samaria, and the cantata
the May Queen. Bennett founded in 1849 the London Bach Society, and
became in 1856 the conductor of the Philharmonic Society, and professor of
music in the University of Cambridge; in 1870 he received the honorary
degree of D.C.L. from the University of Oxford, and was knighted in 1871.

Of older composers whose work was begun and completed in the present
century, we may mention J. Baptist Cramer, who although of German
birth (born in 1771 at Mannheim), yet at an early age came to England,
where he died (in London) in 1858. A pupil of the celebrated Clementi, he
owes his fame especially to his well-known classical pianoforte studies, and
was the composer of much pianoforte and chamber music, writing no less
than 105 sonatas, 7 concertos, and various exercises. Less prolific was
John Field, who was born at Dublin in 1782, and died in 1837 at Moscow,
the composer of many charming nocturnes, which in regard to a certain
taste and refinement may be said to have anticipated Chopin, although
the subjects are much simpler and more naive and diatonic than those
of the more romantic Polish composer.
B B B B

1250 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

The celebrated London pianist, Charles Halle, was born in 1819, and
although he has practically passed his lifetime in the English capital, yet it
is interesting to note that he and Sir Julius Benedict (the latter a pupil of
Karl Maria von Weber) were both born in Germany, Halle at Hagen, in
Westphalia, and Benedict at Stutgardt in 1804 (died in London, 1885).
In 1835 Benedict arrived in London from Italy, and four years later
was appointed conductor of the Drury Lane Opera. In 1850 he proceeded
on a tour to America with Jenny Lind, and on his return was appointed
conductor to the Sacred Harmonic Society. In 1854 he conducted the
performance of Naumann's oratorio Christ, the Messenger of Peace, at
Exeter Hall, for the benefit of the German Hospital; and in 1874 received
the honour of knighthood at the hands of the Queen. Those of his operas
that became most popular were the Gipsy's Warning and the Lily of
Killarney ; his cantata Undine, and many orchestral compositions, have
frequently been before the public.

Among the more youthful English composers of note is Sir Arthur
Seymour Sullivan, born in 1842 in London. He received the principal part
of his musical education at the Leipzig Conservatorium, at which he stayed
from 1858 to 1861. While there he wrote his music to Shakespeare's
Tempest, a work that was publicly performed at the Conservatorium. We
would specially mention his oratorios, The Prodigal Son and The Light of
the World, the symphony in C major, the overture In Memoriam, and the
incidental music to Shakespeare's Henry VIII. His numerous operettas,
principally comic, contain many charming morceaux, and in these Sullivan
shows himself a talented disciple of a school evincing the strong influence of
Schumann and Mendelssohn, although he by no means lacks individuality.

With regard to the organists and professors of the English School, the
Rev. Sir F. A. Gore Ouseley, Bart., M.A., Mus.Doc., son of the distin-
guished Orientalist and English ambassador of the Persian and Russian
Courts, stands in a very prominent position. In 1846 he took his B.A.
degree at Oxford, and in 1849 that of Master of Arts. In 1854 he received
the degree of Doctor, and in 1855 the title of Professor of Music in the
University of Oxford. As a theorist he is well known by his excellent
treatises on harmony, counterpoint, and fugue. He has been a contributor
to Sir George Grove's " Dictionary of Music," and is the editor of the
translation by Ferdinand Praeger of this " History of Music," and one

THE PRESENT. 1251

of the chief dignitaries at Hereford Cathedral, besides being a finished
master of the organ. He exhibits a rare skill of improvisation in strict
and double counterpoint, and is the composer of two oratorios, entitled
St. Polycarp and Ilagar, seventy anthems, fugues for the organ, and
chamber and vocal music, all of which display considerable merit.

The musical savant, Henry Chorley (born in Lancashire, in the year
1808, died in London, 1872), next demands our notice. His invaluable work
in drawing attention to the classical works of German authors deserves
special mention. He was an intimate acquaintance of Mendelssohn, Rietz,
and David, and a constant attendant at the German musical festivals. His
most popular works are, ' ' Music and Manners in France and Germany "
(published in three volumes), and tf Modern German Music " (in two
volumes). Chorley, in addition to being a poet, was also the critic to the
Athenaum, and a librettist, supplying words to many songs.

John Hullah, born in 1812 at Worcester (died 1884), was another
distinguished savant. His grammars of (1) fl Music " and (2) "Counter-
point/' his "The Third or Transition Period of Musical History/' and
the " History of Modern Music " (1862) are works exhibiting 'wide know-
ledge of the musical art. He is well known for his enthusiastic endeavours
to establish a national choral union, formed by the teachers and pupils of
national schools, and also as the composer of many anthems and songs
which have attained very wide popularity.

We may here conveniently refer to the American biographer of Beethoven,
Alexander Wheelock Thayer, born in 1817 at Massachusetts. In the same
manner that the present generation is considerably indebted to Carlyle and
Lewes for their careful and elaborate works on Schiller and Goethe, so
it is indebted to Thayer for an excellent biography of Beethoven. The
work, which is not yet complete, is of such merit that the portion which
has so far been published has been carefully translated into German by Dr.
Deiters, under the title, " Ludwig von Beethoven's Leben." Thayer was
appointed in ]S60 attache to the American Embassy at Vienna; an earnest
worker in musical art, he has produced a valuable chronological catalogue
of Beethoven's works (published in 1865), and, further, the critical
essay, " Einen Kritischen Beitrag zur Beethovenliteratur," published in
1877.

We will now devote our attention to the Swedish, Norwegian, and
B B B B 2

1252

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Danish masters. Considered as constituting one body, these Scandinavians
do not appear, at any time, to have achieved celebrity beyond the borders of!
their own country. It is only during the progress of the present century

Fig. 293.

that we find any of their works falling under the fierce light of European
criticism. To the Danes belongs the credit of being the first to make
any conspicuous advance in musical art, in the person of no less a master
than the excellent Niels Gade. Born at Copenhagen in 1817, he first
became celebrated among his countrymen as the composer of a C minor

THE PRESENT. 1253

symphony, while still a young member of the Copenhagen orchestra. The
author had the good fortune to be present at its first performance at Leipzig
under the direction of Mendelssohn, in the winter of 1842, at the Gewand-
haus Concerts, at which date the work was still unpublished. It produced
general enthusiasm in the orchestra on account of its newness of treatment.
Connoisseurs discovered in it the same sentiment that so strongly pervades
the songs of Ossian and the sagas of Frithjof . More forcibly is this depicted
in the concert overtures, Nachklcinge aus Ossian, Im Hoc A land, Hamlet, and
Michelangelo. Of Gade's eight symphonies, none of which can be described
as mediocre in character, that in B flat major is on the whole the best.
Gade has also written orchestral novelettes and most meritorious chamber
music. Of his cantatas we would specially mention Comala and ErlJconigs
Tochter ; but, notwithstanding the merit of his vocal works, we prefer his
instrumental compositions. He is as rigid in his adherence to the strict
classical sonata form as he is a perfect master of its details. He has also
written some charming songs and pianoforte pieces. During the season
1845-6 he acted for Mendelssohn as conductor of the Gewandhaus Concerts,
succeeding to the conductorship on the death of that distinguished man in
the year 1847. The following year he was appointed conductor of the
celebrated Copenhagen Concerts, and in 1861 court chapel-master to the
King of Denmark.

Next in importance to Gade is his brother-in-law, Emil Hartmann, born
in 1836 at Copenhagen. A pupil of the elder master, he has followed very
closely in Gade's footsteps. In Germany he is best known by his overture,
Nordische Heerfahrt, the symphonic poem, " Aus der Ritterzeit/' and the
symphony in E flat major. He has also written a violin and a violoncello
concerto, a cantata Winter und Lenz, and many smaller chamber and
pianoforte works.

In turning to the Norwegians, among the most noteworthy are Johann
Svendsen and Edvard Grieg, the former born at Christiania in 1840, and
the latter at Bergen in 1843. Svendsen, a pupil at the Leipzig Con-
servatorium, under Hauptmann and Reinecke, has been since 1872 con-
ductor of the Musical Union Concerts at Christiania. He exhibits in
his compositions the impress of the Scandinavian character, and shows an
occasional tendency to mannerism. We would mention among his orchestral
works the symphonies in D major and B flat major, the overture to Romeo

125-1 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

and Juliet, a descriptive work for the orchestra entitled Zorahayda, and an
introduction to Bjornson's " Sigurd Slembe.'" In addition to these he has
written Norwegian rhapsodies, a number of chamber compositions, and an
octet for strings (Op. 3), all of which show mastery of classical art-form
and power of invention. Edvard Grieg has done less than his compatriot
in symphonic works, gaming his name chiefly through chamber and
pianoforte music. Of these some of the most remarkable are his two
violin sonatas, a string quartett, and a sonata in A minor (Op. 36)
for violoncello and piano, in addition to a number of pianoforte pieces,
most characteristic and original, e.g., l ' Norwegischer Brautzug im Voriiber-
ziehen/' " Auf den Bergen/' &c. We may ascribe what in Grieg's work
seems somewhat extreme, to his having united with a young composer,
llikard Nordraak (now dead), in opposing that which they considered
effeminate in Scandinavian music, an effeminacy asserted to have been
introduced by Gade through his strong leaning to the school of Mendelssohn.
In so doing they entirely disregarded the undoubtedly great influence of
the latter master on Scandinavian music, and the influence of the Leipzig
school, from which the impulse first proceeded.

Turning now to the Swedish composers, Ivar Hallstrom, born at
Stockholm in 1826, is the first to demand our attention. He began his
career as a lawyer, afterwards becoming librarian to the Crown Prince, and
in 1861 successor to his compatriot, Lindblad, in the directorship of the
Stockholm Conservatorium. He shows merit as a composer of operas,
but the national impress of his dramatic works is very apparent in the
choice of his libretti. The most popular of his operas are Das Geraulte
Bergmddchen, Die Braut des Gnomen, Der Bergkonig, and Lie Wikinger,
all of which were performed during the years 1874 to 1877. His pre-
decessor at the Stockholm Conservatorium, Frederick Lindblad (born in
1804 near Stockholm, died in 1864), was a composer of songs strongly
national in character, and made celebrated by his pupil, the famous Jenny
Lind, who introduced them into England and Germany. Of the many
that are peculiar and interesting, "Der junge Postilion/' "Der Invalide,"
" Der Spatz," « Der Schlotfegerbub/' and the excellent " Gesang eines
Madchens aus Dalekarlien/' are, perhaps, the most popular.

In discussing the music of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, we
had to refer to the supreme merit of the then existing Netherland School.

THE PRESENT. 1255

We will now turn to its modern descendants, as represented by the Belgians
and Dutch. In its list of composers are the names of Verhulst, Vieuxtemps,
De Swert, and Servais; and among1 litterateurs the widely known names of
Fetis, Nisard, Burbure, De Coussemaker, Gevaert, Van der Straeten, and
Van Maldeghein.

Jan Verhulst, the most celebrated living Dutch composer, was born in
1816 at the Hague, and studied under Bernhardt Klein and Mendelssohn.
His compositions consist of symphonies, that in E minor being the most
excellent, overtures, string-quartetts, a Requiem for male voices, a setting
of the 145th Psalm, and many vocal works. It is, however, very strange
that he absolutely refuses to write for any other than the Dutch tongue.
Up to 1842 he had the good fortune to move in the circle of prominent
composers and pupils that surrounded Mendelssohn at Leipzig. In the
same year the King of Holland appointed him court music-director;
later on he became conductor of the Amsterdam Concerts, held under the
direction of the " Maatschappijtot."

Of the Belgian composers of the nineteenth century we have first to
mention Henri Vieuxtemps, who was born in 1820 at Verviers, and who
died in 1881 in Algiers. His compositions are principally for the violin,
which is accounted for by his having been one of the greatest violinists of
this century. They are all genuine artistic conceptions, aiming at the
highest standard, and exhibiting the classical art-form. The chief of them
are five grand concertos in symphonic form, an overture (Op. 41), a violon-
cello concerto, and a duo concertante on airs from Mozart's Don Giovanni
for violin and piano. We must not omit to mention his three cadenzas^
written for Beethoven's violin concertos. As a performer of European
fame, Vieuxtemps made three most successful tours in America. From
1871 to 1873 he held the professorial chair at the Conservatorium of
Brussels, and was conductor of the concerts populaires of the same
place. Another Belgian artist of note is Jules de Swert, born in 1843
at Louvain. He was a well-known performer on the violoncello, and
besides being the composer of a number of works for that instrument
that show decided talent, has also written an opera, Les Albigenses.
Francois Servais, born in 1807 near Brussels (at which city he died in
1866), undoubtedly ranks among the greatest violoncellists of the present
century. As a composer for his favourite instrument he rises much

1256 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

above other Belgian virtuosi, as is witnessed by his three concertos and six-
teen fantasias for violoncello and orchestra.

We must finally refer to the Flemish composer, Peter Benoit, born in
1834 at Harlebeke, in Flanders, of whose compositions we prefer* the
Flemish opera Isa, the oratorio UE scant, a choral symphony " Les
Moissoneurs,"" a Requiem, a " Te Deum/' and the music to Charlotte
Corday. Benoit is also the author of the interesting treatise, " L'Ecole
de Musique flamande et son Avenir/'

Of the Netherland savants we have frequently spoken, and may again
refer to their connection with modern musical literature. In doing so we
first notice F. J. Fetis, who was born in 1784 at Mons, and who died in
1871 at Brussels ; he was the author of the "Biographic Universelle de Musi-
ciens,"" in eight volumes, of which a second edition appeared between 1860
and 1865. His " Histoire Generale de Musique " (published between
1869 and 1875, in five volumes), unfortunately, does not extend beyond
the fifteenth century. Only fifty copies were printed of his "Esquisse de
1'Histoire de I'Harmonie" (1840). In 1827 he was appointed librarian,
of the Paris Conservatoire, and from 1833 to 1873 was principal of the
Brussels Conservatoire. He gained some distinction as a composer by his
two symphonies, a sextet (for two pianoforte performers and a string
quartett), a concert overture, and a Requiem. Fetis was held in very
great esteem in the musical profession ; at the performance in Aix-la-
Chapelle in 1867 of his concert overture, he was received with the greatest
enthusiasm by the orchestra, whose reverence for him was such as is only
expected by a father from his sons.

We next come to Theodore Norman (otherwise Nisard), born in 1812 in
the province Hennegau, the author of ten works on the cantus planus, and
of the " Etudes sur les Anciennes Notations Musicales de 1'Europe/' works
well deserving study. In the early part of his career Nisard was head-
master of a high school, but after 1842 he devoted himself entirely to music,
becoming organist and choirmaster of St. Germain, at Paris. To him is due
the discovery of the celebrated antiphonary of Montpellier.

Leon de Burbure, a wealthy Belgian nobleman, born in 1812 in East
Flanders, has left us the results of his invaluable researches on the ancient
musical guilds of Antwerp. His " History of Keyed Instruments and the
Lute since the Sixteenth Century " is a valuable and interesting work.

THE PRESENT. 1257

Edmond de Coussemaker, the descendant of an old Flemish family,
was born in 1805 at Bailleul, and died in 1867 at Bonbourg. Although
trained for the legal profession, and subsequently appointed a judge at
Bergues, his time, therefore, being fully employed, he succeeded in proving
himself one of the most eminent musical savants of the present century.
We have mentioned some of his chief works in a former chapter, and need
only further name his " (Euvres completes d'Adam de la Hale " (1872),
and his " Essai sur les Instruments de Musique au moyen-age."

Another Belgian savant of eminence is Frangois Auguste Gevaert, born
in 1828 at Oudenarde. A pupil at the Ghent Conservatoire, he there
obtained in 1847 a prize for his Flemish cantata Belgie, and later on the
" Prix de Rome/'' He also composed sacred music, orchestral works, and
comic operas, all of which were produced under his direction> and in 1867
became conductor of the Grand Opera at Paris. In 1856 appeared his
"Leerboek van den Gregoriaenschen Zang;" in 1863 the "Traite
d'lnstrumentation/" and in 1868 the work by which he is chiefly known,
" Les Gloires d'ltalie," containing specimens of the work of the best Italian
masters of the present century. These were followed by the " Histoire et
Theorie de la Musique de 1'Antiquite," written between 1875 and 1881.
By these works he undeniably merits the high position he holds in the world
of musical savants. In 1870 he left Paris, and the following year was
appointed director of the Brussels Conservatoire.

Edmond van der Straeten, born in 1826 at Oudenarde, became, on the
termination of his studies at Ghent, librarian of the Royal Library, Brussels.
Among his chief works, the "Notice sur Charles Felix de Hollande"
(1854), " Recherches sur la Musique a Audenarde avant le XIX. siecle"
(1856), and "La Musique aux Pays-Bas" (1867 to 1880, in five volumes),
deserve special attention. Of the life of the author Van Maldeghem
very little is known. His " Tresor Musical " is, however, to be mentioned
as a meritorious work.

Within the last twenty years the Slavonic races have made considerable
progress in music. We do not intend it to be understood that prior
to this they lacked talent, but, either from not being sufficiently numerous
in the number of their representatives to make an impression, or from
being too much under the influence of the great German masters, the
special genius of their race has not been very pronounced until within

1258

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

comparatively recent times. Whether their advancement in the art of music
during this period is due to that most powerful of all influences, a more

Fig. 294. — Rubinstein.
(With the kind permission of ihe publishers, S. Schottlaender, of Breslau, after an original engraving.)

humane and therefore wider political view, we will not venture to say, but
it is nevertheless true that their progress has been a most glorious one,
showing all the while their national peculiarities.

THE PRESENT. 1259

In entering upon our review of the work of the Slavonic masters,
we are naturally led first to consider Anton Rubinstein, born in Bess-
arabia on November 30, 1830. As early as 1840 he excited the wonder
of the Parisians by a public performance ; indeed, they regarded him
as a prodigy. In 1844, at Meyerbeer's suggestion, he was placed under
Dehn at Berlin. He has successfully carried through several concert
tours in the various European capitals, and now resides in St. Peters-
burg. He has written some Russian operas, of which we shall only
mention Dimitri Donskoi (1854) and The Siberian Hunters. In 1858
he was appointed imperial Russian court pianist and conductor; in 1859
he founded a Russian Musical Society at St. Petersburg, and three
years later the Conservatorium. As a composer he reflects, to a great
extent, the influence of the German School and its classical art-form,
although the unrestrained wildness and impetuous rush so peculiar to the
Slavonic race assert themselves at times in a very extraordinary manner.
As a virtuoso he ranks second only to Liszt. We here cite a few of his
most celebrated compositions, the operas Feramors (1863), Z^ Demon (1875),
Die Makkabder (1875), and Nero (1879) ; the oratorios (designated by him
" sacred operas'"), The Tower of Babel and Paradise Lost; and his five
symphonies, the best of which is that entitled (t Ocean.-" In addition, he
has written an endless number of duets, trios, quartetts, quintetts, and
sextetts. Prolific as a composer of pianoforte pieces, he is to be credited
with the production of five pianoforte concertos, sonatas, an " Album de
Danses Populaires/' " Les Soirees de St. Petersburg/" and the musical
sketch, " Ivan IV., the Cruel," &c. His songs, " Der Asra/' " Gelb rollt
mir zu Fiiszen," " Es blinkt der Thau," &c., are most noticeable for natural
charm.

Next to Rubinstein, Michail Ivanovitch von Glinka, born in 1804 near
Smolensk, deserves notice. Like the great pianist just mentioned, he was also
a pupil of Dehn. At an early period he studied intently the peculiarities of
the Russian character, which study resulted in a more successful portrayal of
native character than that of any other of his compatriots. In illustration
of this, notice his first opera, A Life for the Czar, performed in 1836. The
second opera, on the libretto of the Russian poet Puschkin, entitled Russia
and Ludmilla, led Liszt, who was present at its second performance, to
write a laudatory article upon it for Le Journal des Debats. Glinka has

1260 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

also written many interesting chamber compositions and a number of
graceful songs. He became popular in Germany by his quaint and
original orchestral treatment of Kamarinskaja and Jota Aragonese, the latter
composed at Madrid. Whilst on a visit to his old master Dehn, for
assistance in his researches as to the origin of the harmonies of the old
Russian folk-songs, he fell ill, and in the year 1857 died at Berlin.

Of older Russian composers we have to mention Bortnianski and Lwoff.
Dimitri Bortnianski (born in 1751 in Ukraine, died in 1825) received his
musical education from Galuppi, in Venice, through the patronage of the
Empress Katharine II. He reorganised the Russian Imperial Cathedral
Choir, and gained for it a celebrity which extended far beyond the Russian
borders. For this choir he composed fifty a capella psalms for four and
eight voices, but, like his mass written for the Greek ritual, they are of
too sentimental a character, though this might justify their production in
Russian churches.

Alexis von Lwoff, who was born in 1799 at Reval, and died in 1870,
was a great violin virtuoso, and chapel-master to the imperial court. He
was also a major-general of the Russian army and aide-de-camp to the
Czar. He wrote many violin compositions and choral works for the
cathedral choir, and published in 1859 an interesting treatise " On the
Free and Unsymmetrical Rhythm of the Old Russian Church Song."

As composers of modern times, Tschaikowsky and Borodin may now be
referred to. Peter Tschaikowsky, born in 1840 in the province of Perm,
entered Rubinstein's Conservatorium, and held a professorial chair there
from 1868 to 1877. Besides some operas, he has written symphonies, over-
tures, the symphonic poems, " Der Sturm " and " Francesca di Rimini/'
string quartetts, a violin concerto, a pianoforte concerto, and other works
for the piano. He is to be regarded as a representative of the Russian
national character, and whilst occasionally descending to trivialities, he
exhibits, on the whole, originality, combined with interesting modulation
and quaint rhythm.

Alexander Borodin, born in 1834, a greater master of polyphony, and
possessing more natural gift, is, however, more confused in his treatment,
and, further, is exceedingly unrestrained. He is a true representative of
the Young Russian School, which, in many respects, has modelled itself
after the New German Romantic School. As a member of the medical

THE PRESENT. 1261

profession, he holds the distinguished appointment of professor to the
St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy, and is an imperial coun-
cillor. Two symphonies, of which that in E flat major was performed
in 1880 at Wiesbaden, the symphonic poem " Mittelasien/' the opera
Igor, and his many chamber compositions, strongly corroborate our opinion.
Everywhere one feels that the composer is straining after effect without
duly regarding proper continuity. In fact, his music might be fairly
termed " Nihilistic/'

As musical litterateurs, Oulibicheff and Lenz stand prominently to the
front. Alexander von Oulibicheff, born in 1795 at Dresden, was the son
of the Russian, ambassador at that courb, and died in 1858 at Nishnii
Novgorod. He introduced himself to the public by his " Nouvelle
Biographic de Mozart, suivie d'un aperc.u sur Thistoire generale de la
musique/' translated in 1844 into German. This work (three volumes)
affords numerous proofs of the writer's enthusiasm and refined taste, and
although it lacks a certain trustworthiness, yet, even when compared with
Jahn's " Mozart Biography," it remains a most interesting work. His
enthusiasm for Mozart has made him scarcely just in his criticism of
Beethoven, more especially with regard to that master's ninth sym-
phony. He was, however, justly and happily corrected by the imperial
councillor Wilhelm von Lenz, the well-known author of " Beethoven
et ses Trois Styles" (1852 and 1855).

We now turn to that more numerous class of Slavonic composers, the
Bohemians (less known as the Czecks), the chief of whom are Cernohorsk/,
Tomaschek, Czerny, Dvorak, Smetana, Naprawnik, Zlenko, Fibich, and
Neswadba. Bohuslav Cernohofsky, who died in 1740, and was known in
Padua as Padre Boemo, was professor of music at St. Anna. On leaving
Padua he became organist at Assisi, and, subsequently, chorus director and
professor at St. Jacob, in Prague. In his notice upon Cernohofsky's few
sacred compositions (including the excellent motet, " Laudetur Jesus
Christus "), A. W. Ambros says : " These exhibit the manifold con-
trivances of double counterpoint in the boldest and most intelligent
manner." In 1754, the time of the great fire in Prague, the greater
number of his compositions were unhappily destroyed, but he left in
his native land, through the excellence of his teaching, many gifted
pupils.

1262 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Johann Wenzel Tomaczek (Tomaschek) , who .was born in 1 774 at Skatsch
in Bohemia, died in 1850, whilst holding the office of director of the Prague
Conservatorium. An excellent organist and contrapuntist, he was more
famed as a tutor than as a composer, numbering among his pupils the
celebrated Schulhoff; Kittl, and Dreyschock. Tomaczek has published
masses, cantatas, an opera, a symphony, a concerto for the piano, and a
number of clever chamber compositions.

Charles Czerny, born in 1791 at Vienna, where he died in 1857, is
included among Bohemian composers, on account of his Bohemian descent.
That he was a most prolific composer will be admitted when we mention that
the number of his works reached the high total of a thousand ; he was, too,
an excellent pianist and a praiseworthy editor of classical works, the chief
of which is Bach's "Wohltemperirtes Clavier/'' The names of such of his
pupils as Liszt, Thalberg, and Dohler, are sufficient to form an estimate of
his ability, and it will be interesting here to mention that Czerny himself
received lessons from Beethoven. His " Etudes de Velocite^ and other
studies have gained a world-wide celebrity.

During the political movement by which the Czecks endeavoured to
assert their independence, we trace, concurrently, the development of a
similar feeling in music, which is represented by the genius of Anton
Dvorak (pronounced Dvorschak] . Dvorak, born in 1841 near Kralup, is
one of the most gifted composers of the Bohemian section of the modern
German School. We think, however, that he has exercised very little care
in his scoring ; and we are further of opinion that a more matured
study of harmony, and a stricter observance of art-form, would have
added materially to the value of his compositions ; of this we are convinced,
after having heard certain of his symphonic orchestral works. Whilst we
do not feel that much regard will be paid to this Teutonic judgment, yet
we take as musicians sufficient interest in his talent to justify this advance-
ment of our opinion. As a dramatic composer he has gained but little
success, which will well be understood after hearing the opera Der Bauer,
ein Schelm ; still, we meet with much that is remarkable in his sym-
phonies, the Slavonic rhapsodies for orchestra, a serenade for wind instru-
ments, an elegy, " Dnmka," for piano; the duets " Klange aus Mahren,"
Slavonic dances, and the* Bohemian national dances entitled " Furiante."

As national in character as the compositions of Dvorak are those of

THE PRESENT. 1263

Friedrich Smetana, who was born in 1824 at Leitomischl, and who died
insane in 1884 at Prague. Smetana shines most as a dramatic composer,
and chiefly in the operas Die verkaufte Brant, Die Brandenburger in
Bohmen, Dalibor, and Der Kusz. In his orchestral works he shows an
adherence to the school of Berlioz, Liszt, and Wagner. Among his sym-
phonic poems, " Wallensteins Lager," (< Hakon Jarl/' and " Mein Vater-
land/' deserve special notice.

Edward Naprawnik, born in 1839 near Koniggratz, resided from
1853 to 1861 in Prague, and became in 1869 chief conductor of the
St. Petersburg Opera. While in that capital he composed the Russian
National opera Die Bewohner von NiscJinij Novgorod, the symphonic
poem " Der Damon/' a number of chamber compositions, and many Czeck
and Russian songs.

Zlenko Fibich, born in 1850 near Czaslau, was educated at the Leipzig
Conservatorium, and was subsequently a pupil of Vincenz Lachner ; in 1876
he was appointed conductor of the Czeck National Theatre, Prague. Like
Smetana, he follows in his orchestral compositions the school of Berlioz
and Liszt ; his works include a number of symphonic poems, two sym-
phonies, the opera Blanik, and a ballad, " Die Windsbraut.""

We conclude our review of the Czeck composers with Joseph Neswadba,
born in 1824 at Vyskef, in Bohemia, died in 1876, while court chapel-
master at Darmstadt. He was a very popular composer of national songs.

The third branch of the Slavonic race which, during the present century,
has produced eminent composers, is that of the Poles. Of these, Frederic
Chopin stands above and beyond the reach of any of his countrymen ; but
as we have already fully discussed his merits in the chapter on Mendelssohn
and Schumann, further reference is unnecessary. Composers such as
Scharwenka and Moszkowski, although of Polish descent, have been too
greatly influenced by the modern German School to be justly regarded as
representative Polish composers.

The remaining European countries possessing musical interest are Spain,
Portugal, and Hungary. They cannot be said to be of considerable im-
portance if the number of their representatives in musical art be held to
be an indication, although their gift in other subjects cannot be denied.
But of whatever nature it may be, it has never, to our knowledge, been dis-
seminated beyond their respective borders ; it cannot, therefore, expect any

1264 HISTOKY OF MUSIC.

critical attention, since it has not submitted itself to the judgment of
musical opinion either in the English, French, Italian, or German capitals.
Although it might be urged that the fame of such operas as those of
Hallstrom has been widespread, in spite of their performances being con-
fined to the native lands of the composers, yet the greater part of Spanish,
Hungarian, and Portuguese music can only be regarded as salon music,
consisting almost exclusively as it does of songs and dances. Thus we see
that the Spaniards, with their brilliant poetry and their achievements in the
plastic art, and even in music, possess few composers that have aspired to
anything beyond the " fashionable " in music. These exceptions are Juan
Arrieta, Baltasar Saldoni, and Pablo de Sarasate. The first, Arrieta, born in
1823 at Puente la Reina, studied at the Milan Conservatorium. By the
performance of his first opera, Ildegonda, at Milan, he at once gained
celebrity as a dramatic composer. He subsequently composed other operas
and operettas, and had in 1878 completed the thirty-fifth. All these have
been performed in the Spanish capital ; the most popular of them, the
zarzuelas (operettas), being well known throughout Spain. In 1857 he
became director of the Madrid Conservatorium, and has been since 1875
a member of the Spanish Council of Education.

Baltasar Saldoni, born in 1807 at Barcelona, a composer and musical
savant of note, was educated in the Music School of Montserrat, and was
appointed in 1829 organist to the Church of Santa Maria del Mar. In
1839 he proceeded to Paris to study the classic method of vocalisation,
returning a year later to Madrid, when he was appointed professor of sing-
ing at the Conservatorium. He has written a number of organ compositions
in the strict polyphonic style, and other sacred works. A symphony,
entitled " A mi Patria," " A Hymn to the God of Art/' Italian operas,
and Spanish zarzuelas, have secured him considerable favour. He is further
known as the author of " A History of the Montserrat School of Music "
(1856), and " Effemerides de Musicos Espafioles " (1860).

We cannot take leave of Spain without referring to one of the greatest
violinists of the present day. Pablo de Sarasate, born at Pampeluna in
1844, exhibits, as a virtuoso, an almost marvellous perfection. His brilliant
artistic conceptions of works such as those of Mendelssohn and Spohr,
besides his arrangements and compositions of Spanish airs, have gained him
the greatest popularity. He has always rendered his performances, in our

THE PRESENT.

1265

opinion, as interesting to the critic as to the audience — unfortunately an
uncommon occurrence."*

With regard to Portuguese composers, we should first mention Vicomte
Ferreira d'Arneiro, born in 1838 at Macao, China; he studied for the law

Fig. 295. — Pablo de Sarasate.

at the University of Coimbra, but afterwards, from 1859 to 1862, turned
his attention to music. In 1866 he wrote a pantomimic ballet, performed

* Among Spanish composers and writers on music it would be wrong to omit all mention
of Don Miguel Hilarion Eslava. This eminent man was born in 1807, and died in 1878. Ho
was educated in the choir of the Cathedral of Pampeluna, became Maestro de Capilla at
Osuna in 1828, and in 1832 was appointed to a similar post at Seville, where he was ordained
priest. In 1844 Queen Isabella made him her chapel- master. He composed several operas,
about 140 compositions for the Church, and soniR for the organ. But his greatest work is
undoubtedly his admirable collection of Spanish Church music from the sixteenth century to
the pr'sent day, entitled "Lira Sacro-Hispana," published at Madrid in 1869, in ten volumes.
He also published his " Museo organico Espanol" at Madrid, " El Metodo de Solfeo " (1846\
and "Escuela de Armonia y Composicion," of which the second edition appeared at Madrid in
1861.— F. A. G. 0.

C C C C

1266 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

at the San Carlos Theatre, Lisbon, but his talent revealed itself in the
" Te Peum " performed in Paris, 1871, under the title "Symphonic
Cantata/' and, further, the successful opera, performed at Lisbon, entitled
The Elixir of Youth.

Carlo Gomez, born in 1839 in Brazil, of Portuguese parents, gained
considerable success in Italy with his operas, Fosca (1873) and Salvador
Rosa, &c., the latter being performed in Genoa in 1874, with the greatest
success.*

We exclude from the list of Hungarian composers, &c., those famous
conductors and virtuosi that do not fall within the limits we previously
laid down. If we omit Keler Bela, the gifted writer of dances, marches,
and potpourris, there remain for mention 6ermak (pronounced CsermaK),
born in 1771 in Bohemia, died in 1822 at Veszprim. We do not include
Liszt, though an Hungarian by birth, because of his position as founder
of the New German Romantic School. Cermak's compositions are. still
little known, but Count Stephan Fay, the historian of Hungarian music,
has asserted that they possess as much classic skill as original genius.
Cermak was one of the most prominent violin performers of Hungary, and
in this respect Count Dessewffy is disposed to consider him greater than
the celebrated B/ode. He had considerable success as a violinist at Vienna,
but it is sad to relate that an unhappy attachment ended in his insanity.
Of less importance than Cermak is Michael Mosonni, born in 1814 at
Boldog-Aszony, died in 1870 at Pesth. His principal works consist of a
funeral symphony, an overture on the national air a Szozat," a symphonic
poem " Triumph und Trauer des Honved/' a German and two Hungarian
operas. The former, entitled Maximilian, was destroyed in anger by the
composer, on the suggestion by Liszt of certain alterations before its
intended production.

That which now remains to us is the task of referring to the most
prominent virtuosi of the present, whether as vocalists or instrumentalists.

* One excellent Portuguese composer is here omitted most unaccountably and un-
deservedly. Joas Domingos Bomtempo was born in 1775 at Lisbon, and came to Paris at
the age of twenty. After visiting London, he went back to Lisbon in 1820, where he
became head of the Conservatoire. He died in 1842. Perhaps his most successful work
was the Requiem Mass which he composed to commemorate the poet Camoens, which was
published in full score, and is a most able and effective work. But he also wrote many
other very admirable pieces of Church music, besides operas and pianoforte music.— F. A. G. 0.

THE PRESENT. 1267

But this we shall do only in so far as they fall within the limits of our
consideration, which, as previously stated, are held subservient to oui
review of music as a history. We have previously advanced the opinion
that music is the most masculine of all arts, for art essentially depends on
the creative idea. All creative work in music is well known as being
the exclusive work of man ; the totality of woman's labours being, com-
paratively speaking, nil. But it is altogether a different matter when
we consider the relative proportion of male and female vocalists. The latter
then not only equal, but frequently exceed, numerically, the former. Of
the lady artistes of Germany we may name Alvsleben, Brandt, Joachim,
Koster, Lehmann, Lucca, Mallinger, Papier, Sembrich, Schuch, Spietz,
Wagner, and Wilt ; and it is peculiar that Southern Germany can justly
claim credit as the birthplace of the majority of those just mentioned.
Louise Koster (Schlegel), born in 1823 at Liibeck, an artiste of rare intel-
ligence, appeared principally at the Leipzig and Berlin Operas, and showed
excellence in the accurate interpretation of the works of Gluck, Mozart,
Beethoven, Weber, and Meyerbeer. She assumed the chief characters in
Armida, Iphigenie in Aulis, Alceste, Pamina, Donna Anna, Fidelio, Rezia,
Valentine, Alice, and Bertha. Johanna Wagner (Jachmann), Richard
Wagner's niece, was born in 1828 near Hanover, and was connected with
the Dresden and Berlin Operas. She appeared principally in the operas of
her uncle, in Gluck's Orpheus and Clytemnestra, Fidelio, Romeo, and in
Meyerbeer's Fides. Marie Wilt, born in 1835 at Vienna, made her debut
in 1865 at Gratz, as Donna Anna, and proved herself a charming ex-
ponent of the classical opera. Melita Otto Alvsleben, born in 1842 at
Dresden, and engaged at the Dresden Opera from 1860, was an excellent
interpreter of such conceptions of Mozart's as Ilia, Elvira, Donna Anna,
Susanne, Fiordiligi ; of Madame Uhlig (in Schauspieldirector) , and those
of Margarethe, Isabella, Alice, and Bertha, by Meyerbeer ; of Mrs. Ford
in Nicolai's Merry Wives of Windsor, Agathe in Der Freisc/iutz, and
Matilda in William Tell.

Pauline Lucca, born in 1841 at Vienna, is of remarkably prepossessing
appearance, and has performed with the rarest perfection the most opposite
characters. She has charmed French and American audiences with her
representation of Marguerite, Carmen, Mozart's Zerlina, Selika, the Page
in Figaro, and Valentine in Les Huguenots*
c c c c 2

1268

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Mariana Brandt, born in 1842 at Vienna, is a vocalist of considerable
tragic ability. As Armida, Orpheus, Fides, and in Rubinstein's Macca-
baus, she has no compeer. Mathilde Mallinger, born in 1847 at Agram,
has exhibited, as prima donna of the Munich and Berlin Operas, much
talent in classic and romantic roles. Of Lilli Lehmann, born in 1848 at

Fig. 296.— Pauline Lucca.
(Original published by R. Krziwanelc, Vienna.)

Wiirzburg, we cannot say whether her Norma excites our admiration more
than her Rosina, her Carmen than the Baroness in Lortzing's Wildschutz,
her Elvira or Fidelio than Mrs. Ford in the Merry Wives. To a re-
markable dramatic power, that recalls to one's mind that of Schroeder-
Devrient and Pauline Garcia, she unites a perfect mastery of Italian
vocalisation. Marcella Sembrich (a Slavonian by Irirth) is of similar
ability to Lehmann, and possesses a remarkably high voice, reaching wit!

THE PRESENT. 1269

facility G on the fourth ledger-line, i.e., one note beyond that required
by Mozarfs Queen of 'the Night in the Magic Flute, a part written
by the composer for his sister-in-law, Aloysia Weber, whose precursor,
Lucrezia Agujari (died in 1783), possessed a similar range. Amalie
Joachim, born in 1839 at Marburg, did not gain the celebrity she now
possesses till she had quitted the opera-house for the concert-room. She
shows her powerful mezzo-soprano voice and excellent delivery to the greatest
advantage in the oratorios and cantatas of Bach, Handel, and Mendelssohn,
and in the songs of Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, Brahms, Rubinstem,
and Robert Franz. Hermine Spiesz, born in 1860 near Weilburg (Nassau),
a pupil of Sieber and Stockhausen, may here be mentioned as the principal
contralto of Germany, as no adequate conception can be formed of her
beautiful rendering of the contralto parts in Elijah and Samson. An
entirely dramatic talent is that of Clementine Schuch-Proska (nee Pro-
chazka), born in 1853 at Vienna. As an excellent soubrette, with remark-
able skill in vocalisation, she includes among her roles, Rosina (Barbiere),
Madeleine (Postilion de Lonjumeau), Isabelle (Robert le Diable), Javotte
(Le Roi I' a di£), Sulamith (La Heine de Saba), Baucis (Philemon et
Baucis] , Lady Harriet (Martha), Zerlina (Don Giovanni and Fra Diavolo),
Dorabella (Cosifan tutte), &c. Frau Rosa Papier, of considerable dramatic
talent, possesses an extensive register, having an unusually deep contralto
united to a mezzo-soprano. She secured her greatest popularity in Alceste
and Orpheus, in Fides and Amneris, and is especially excellent in oratorio
and song.

Among Italian vocalists of the present day, the sisters Patti, daughters
of the Italian tenor, Salvator Patti, stand foremost. Carlotta, born in
1840 at Florence, gained notoriety chiefly as a concert artiste, whilst
Adelina, born in 1843 (at Madrid), the incomparable dramatic artiste,
gained her celebrity chiefly through operatic works. They each possess all
the refinement that is to be gained from the Italian vocal school.

Turning to Northern Europe, we meet with an eminent representative
of the vocal art in the Scandinavian, Christine Nilsson, born in 1843. She
has devoted herself principally to Italian and French operas, and in son£
displays much emotion and feeling, especially when rendering the national
airs of her native land.

Of French artists, Desiree Artot (a pupil, like Aglaja Orgeny, of

1270

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Pauline Viardot Garcia) was in 1858 engaged at the Paris Grand Opera,
on the recommendation of Meyerbeer; but on joining an Italian opera
company the following year in Berlin, she so ingratiated herself with the
public that she was appointed in 1876 court vocalist. She was most
excellent in her interpretation of the works of Auber, Rossini, Verdi,

Fig. 297.— Joseph Joachim.

Gounod, and Meyerbeer. Her husband, Padilla y Ramos, may here be
mentioned as one of the principal vocalists of Spain.

With regard to English artists, we are chiefly concerned with John
Braham, who died in 1856, the most celebrated of English tenors. His
perfection in oratorios was as great as his ability on the operatic stage.

Of German tenors, Mierzwynski (by birth a Pole), Ander, Nie-
mann, Walter, Riese, Vogl, and Goetze ; and of baritones, Betz, Bulsz,

THE PRESENT.

1271

Stockhausen, Gura, and Henschel, may be referred to as artists of great
excellence.

Turning to those instrumental performers (many of whom have been
already mentioned) whose popularity is as great in the new as in the old
world, we have as pianists, Liszt's pupil Sophie Menter (born in 1848 at
Munich)/ Marie Krebs (born in 1851 at Dresden), Annette Essipoff, and

Fig. 298.— August Wilhelmj.

Eugene D'Albert (also a pupil of Liszt). Also those perfect violinists
Joachim, Wilhelmj, and Madame Norman-Neruda, the Polish violinist
Wieniawski, the Scandinavian Ole Bull, and the violoncellist Popper.
Of D'Albert we may remark that he has, in addition to his merit as
a pianist, considerable claim to be regarded as a composer of classical works.
Joseph Joachim, born in 1831 near Preszburg, and August Wilhelmj,
born in 1845 in Nassau, were pupils of Ferdinand David, and, for
theory specially, of Hauptmann. Each shows consummate ability in the

1272 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

interpretation not only of the works of the classical masters Bach and
Beethoven, but also in the interpretation of Mendelssohn, Schumann,
Brahms, and Bruch, who succeeded them. Each also shows himself the true
artist in holding- in constant subjection his marvellous skill as a virtuoso
in order that he may the more perfectly express the composer's intention.
Each also possesses an exquisite fulness of tone ; but here we may remark
that in our opinion Wilhelrnj has of late acquired a fulness that is almost
inconceivable.

If it be assumed that Joachim is the best interpreter of Bach and
Beethoven, it must be conceded that Wilhelmj has more energy and bril-
liancy. But a marked difference in their artistic tendencies is the enthu-
siasm of Wilhelmj for Richard Wagner, and the antipathy of Joachim for
the New German School, as proved by his resigning the position of leader
of the Weimar orchestra in 1849, owing to its increasing influence. In
1854 he held a similar appointment at Hanover, and in 1866 removed to
Berlin after the Prussian annexation of Hanover. Two years later he
became director of the Berlin Conservatoire. Both masters deservedly
enjoy a world-wide reputation. As composers it may be stated that
Joachim has written a Hungarian concerto, and that Wilhelmj has para-
phrased in a remarkably able manner certain of Wagner's motivi. In the
foremost rank of violinists we meet the lady artiste, Wilhelmina Neruda,
born in 1840 at Briinn. In 1864, while at Paris, she excited considerable
interest by her extraordinary skill. In the same year she married the
Swedish musician Norman. Since 1869 Neruda has regularly appeared at
the concerts of the London season, and it is not too much to say of her
that she need not fear the result of a comparison with even such a master
of his art as Joachim.

Of the French virtuosi of modern times, we can only refer to that
excellent violoncellist Franchomme, born in 1808, who with the violinist
Allard, and the pianist Charles Halle, instituted chamber concerts. The
first violinist of an excellent quartet t society, Chevillard, may here be
mentioned, as well as the pianist Alkan, born in 1813 at Paris.

The far-famed Scandinavian violinist, Ole Bull, who was born in
1810 at Bergen, where he died in 1880, was first a pupil of Spohr, and
subsequeatly of Paganini ; but, as was the case with the Polish violinist
Henri Wieniawski (born in 1835 at Lublin, Poland, died in 1880 at

THE PRESENT. 1273

Moscow), and the violoncellist Popper (born in 1846 at Prague), he is
rather to be considered as a virtuoso more anxious for public applause
than for the realisation of an artistic ideal. We have referred to these
because they were really eminent instrumentalists, but from a purely
artistic consideration would preferably have discussed those who have been
connected with the development of music during the latter part of the
present century as leaders of orchestras, string quartetts, &c.* These are
best represented by such first violinists as Lipinski, Hartmann, Lauter-
bach, Konigslow, De Anna, Rappoldi, &c. ; and by such violoncellists as
Griitzmacher, Goltermann, Coszmann, and Hausmann, as well as by such
quartetts as that of the Miillers, of Liuterbach, Joachim, Chevillard, and
the Florentine. Although Lauterbach and Griitzmacher (both born in
1832) are solo performers of the first order, yet the praise due to them
is chiefly on account of their good work in orchestral and chamber music.

We have now completed our task. A reference to all those that have
assisted in the construction of the temple of art will be seen to be entirely
beyond our province. All that not only Germany but Europe has contri-
buted to that temple during the last two generations, though most inte-
resting to the musician, but not of sufficient general interest, may well
be left to the department of special biography. For example, the interest
of the majority of the public is rather for the vocalist, and especially for
the dramatic artiste ; for these, by standing out in bolder relief than the
instrumentalist, necessarily excite the attention more, and thereby cause a
greater impression than that produced by the orchestral, quartett, or solo
performer. Furthermore, vocalists are numerically much fewer than instru-
mentalists, and this is an additional reason for the greater attraction they
possess.

It will be observed that we have refrained from referring to many
prominent conductors and professors, if exclusively such, but this we felt
compelled to do, unless they had gained any celebrity, as, for instance,
musical litterateurs. As in music, so in the history of the human race, do
we find that many important factors of civilisation have been overlooked,

* For the above-mentioned reason we have refrained from reference to Teresina Tua and
Arma Senkrah, &c., and other lady artistes, as well as to certain male artists, on account of
their not having aimed at a higher artistic position than that of mere virtuosi.

1274 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

and that frequently the less important have attracted most attention and
gained rewards totally out of proportion to the results of their labours.

Although this history embraces a period of more than 3,000 years, we
venture to hope that it will serve as an aid in dissipating party dissensions.
We have throughout considered our duty to be, as historians, that of
awakening a sense and understanding of the schools and master- works of
all times and creeds, a duty most admirably performed in literature by
Winckelmann, Lessing, Herder, Schlegel, Tieck, Goethe, and Schiller. In
writing a history one has to prove that one can be classic without discarding
the magic of romance ; and further, that one can also adopt the romantic
without denying the beauty of classical form. To exclusively uphold one
school, one period, or one master, is but to show poverty of art, and thereby
to rob oneself of a world of pure happiness. Goethe has promulgated his
idea of a world's literature, and Alexander von Humboldt a comparative
method, out of which grew his " Cosmos ; " and so in music. A universality
is proved by Mozart's works ; and we may well refer to the two-hundredth
anniversary in 1885, that caused the adherents of both the Romantic and
Classical Schools to join in warm appreciation of the two great masters,
Bach and Handel. All restriction in music induces one-sidedness, but
this we feel must vanish before a universal conception of the art. This
can, however, only be when in the realm of all the arts the comparative
method has been established. By that alone can it be decided to what
degree music is to be subjected to those eternal laws to which all other arts
owe their existence, whether as regards idea, extension, aesthetic beauty,
proportion, form, or artistic style.

CHAPTER XL.

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC.

IN the 31st chapter we brought down the history of music in England to
the end of the eighteenth century. It will be remembered that it was not
at that time in a very flourishing condition. Of really national opera there
was practically none. Dramatic music was chiefly confined to musical
ballads, accompanied with glees, choruses, and instrumental overtures and

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC. 1275

interludes inserted in the course of spoken dialogues, and thus producing a
modernised development of the more ancient " masque " rather than a true
opera. William Shield (1748—1829), Thomas Linley (1725 ?— 1795),
Thomas Linley, jun. (1757—1758), William Linley (1767 ? — 1835),
William Jackson (1730—1803), Stephen Storace (1763—1796), and a
few others, carried down the old traditional English dramatical mode of
writing, in a more or less enfeebled form, from Dr. Arne to the beginning
of the present century. Many of them, however, excelled as song-writers
and glee-composers, as has been already stated in a former chapter. Instru-
mental music for the concert or chamber was not in a much better condition.
The exclusive admiration which the public bestowed on Italian opera, and
on the works of Handel, rendered all indigenous attempts at composition
hopeless failures, and most injuriously affected English musical ait. Only
one kind of secular music then flourished in England, and that was the
glee, a description of which has been already given. This kind of music
had reached its culminating point of excellence at the close of the last
century. And it is sad to reflect how entirely this most pleasing-, though
not profound, species of music has of late years been allowed to decline.
The composer who was most active in supplying a number of really flrst-
class compositions of this nature at the time we are discussing, was un-
questionably Dr. John Wall Callcott. This able man was born in 1766,
and died in 1821. He was self-taught, but began to show his remarkable
talent at a very early age. He graduated Bachelor of Music at Oxford in
1785, and proceeded to the Doctorate in 1800. In 1720 he took lessons in
composition from Haydn, but they do not appear to have much modified
his own peculiar style, which remained ever truly English. He published
some excellent songs, and a few pieces of Church music ; but it was as a
composer of glees and catches that he chiefly excelled. In this branch of
art no one has surpassed him. He also brought out a very good Grammar
of Music in 1806, of which several editions subsequently appeared, but
which has now been entirely superseded by newer works. We would
mention, as examples of Dr. Callcott's skill in the art of glee-writing, the
following :— « Go, Idle Boy ; " " Thyrsis, when He Left Me ; » " Peace to
the Souls of the Heroes ; " " Queen of the Valley ; " " Father of Heroes ; "
and "Blow, Warder, Blow."

In connection with Callcott we must not omit to mention his son-in-

1276 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

law, William Horsley, who was a worthy successor to him. This excellent
musician was born in 1774, and was an organist at various churches in
London, where he was much looked up to both as a player, a composer, and
a most worthy man. As a contrapuntist he holds a high rank, and espe-
cially as a composer of canons and catches, in which he greatly distinguished
himself. The writer of this notice has in his possession two admirably
written anthems by Horsley, in twelve real parts, in MS., which would do
honour to any nation or period. Still, it is doubtless in such glees as " See
the Chariot at Hand/' or " By Celia's Arbour/' that Horsley's fame will
survive. The two examples here mentioned are truly masterpieces.
Horsley took the degree of Mus. Bac. at Oxford in 1800, and died in 1858.

Another very popular composer of glees was Richard J. S. Stevens (born
in 1757, and died in 1837), whose glees are still sung by all glee-clubs and
vocal unions, and are certainly of great excellence. We would specify the
following as among his best : " From Oberon in Fairy Land ; " " Sigh no
more, Ladies;" "Ye Spotted Snakes;" "The Cloud-Capped Towers;"
and " Crabbed Age and Youth."

John Stafford Smith should also be mentioned as a glee-writer in this
place, though he was eminent also in other branches of our art. He was
born at Gloucester in 1750, where his father was cathedral organist, and
became a pupil of Dr. Boyce. His death occurred in 1836. As a well-read
musical antiquarian he rendered good service, especially by the publication
of his learned work, " Musica Antiqua," 2 vols. folio, in 1812, and his
curious collection of English songs in score, for three and four voices, com-
posed about 1500, and taken from MSS. of the same age, published in
1779. He also composed a few anthems for the Church. But it is as a
glee- composer that he claims mention in this place, to which he would be
entitled if he had never written anything but that magnificent glee, "Blest
Pair of Sirens," or such specimens as " Return, Blest Days," and " While
Fools their Time," which will ever remain favourites.

Dr. Crotch was a glee- writer, and a good one, but we reserve our notice
of him till we come to speak of oratorios and Church music.

We come now to one of the most prolific and popular of all our English
composers of songs, glees, rounds, and choruses. Sir Henry Rowley Bishop
was born in 1786, and was a pupil of F. Bianchi. He was musical director
of Drury Lane Theatre in 1810. In 1813 he was one of the original

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC. 1277

founders of the Philharmonic Society, which has done more perhaps than
any other institution in London for the improvement of musical taste, and
is still a nourishing and most useful organisation. Bishop became con-
ductor at Drury Lane Theatre in 1825, and musical director at Vauxhall in
1830. In 1839 he took the degree of Mus. Bac. at Oxford. In 1841 and
1842 he directed the music in Covent Garden Theatre. In 1840 he became
conductor of the Concerts of Ancient Music, which post he held for eight
years. The University of Edinburgh conferred on him the professorship
of music in 1841, in succession to John Thomson, which honourable post he
held for about two years. In 1842 he received the honour of knighthood,
then but seldom conferred on musicians.

On the death of Dr. Crotch in 1848 Sir Henry R. Bishop succeeded
him in the chair of music at the University of Oxford, and in 1853 he
took the degree of Mus. Doc. Oxon., thus putting the coping-stone on the
" monumentum sere perennius " which his great talents had reared for him
during a long and laborious life. Sir Henry Bishop died in London on the
30th April, 1855. He was a most voluminous composer of what were
formerly called English operas, of which he composed eighty-two, besides
several adaptations of foreign operas to English words (often brought out,
be it added with shame, without reference to the original composer, after
an evil fashion much in vogue towards the beginning of the present
century) . In his own dramatic works we find, however, a number of very
beautiful songs, glees, and choruses, many of which still retain their popu-
larity. It is true, indeed, that the majority of Bishop's so-called glees
require instrumental accompaniment, and are so far an innovation on the
genuine English glee ; such is the case with those effective compositions,
" When the Wind Blows/' " Mynheer Van Dunck," " Blow, Gentle Gales, '
and " To See His Face." Yet he also wrote some real unaccompanied
glees ; of these perhaps the best are, " Sleep, Gentle Lady," and " Where
art Thou, Beam of Light?" His choruses are really grand, and he
excelled especially in the composition of vocal " rounds," such as " Hark,
'tis the Indian Drum," in which particular branch he may be said to be
nulli secundus. His instrumentation was always masterly and effective,
though generally devoid of startling contrasts and unexpected combinations,
such as are now the prevailing fashion. Probably Bishop's greatest merit
was his admirable way of writing well for the voices. His music is always

1278 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

singable, and is admirably adapted to the works he had to set. On the
whole he may be ranked among the best English composers of the present
century.

The gradual introduction of the German part-song into En gland, although
in itself an unquestionable gain, yet had this disadvantage, that it tended
to supersede the older and more national glee. The modern part-song differs
from the glee in that it is sung in chorus, whereas the glee is intended for
single voices to each part. The style of the part-song, too, is very different
from that of the glee ; for whereas the glee mainly depends for its effect
on the delicacy of the execution, the neatness of the various shakes, turns,
and other graces with which it is adorned, the balance of the voices both as
to power and quality of tone, and the accurate rendering of the words
(most of which things are incompatible with chorus-singing) — the part-
song, on the other hand, is constructed of sterner stuff; force and vigour
are often more important elements of its effect than delicate refinement,
although, of course, as much of the latter should be employed as is possible
where the voices are multiplied. The part-song, indeed, is essentially a
chorus, and must rely mostly on chorus effects. But it agrees both with
the glee and the madrigal in being unaccompanied by instruments.
During the last thirty years the number of part-songs produced in England
has very greatly exceeded that of the glees, and it is much to be feared
that the older and more truly English form will ere long be entirely lost
— a result which is, in the writer's opinion, very much to be deprecated.
Still there have been a few good glee composers amongst us who have
persevered in spite of the opposing fashion, among whom we would
specially name Sir John Goss and J. L. Hatton.

Of Sir John Goss an account will be given when we come to speak
of composers for the Church. All that need be said now will be to com-
memorate his admirable glees, " There is Beauty on the Mountain,"
" Ossian's Hymn," and " Hark, Heard Ye Not ? " which are equal to any
of Webbe's or Callcott's.

John Liphott Hatton was born in Liverpool in 1809, and soon developed
a great talent for composition, in which he was almost entirely self-taught.
He was a composer of dramatic music, in which branch his opera of Pascal
Bruno (produced at Vienna in 1844) was perhaps his greatest success. He
also produced a number of very good and popular songs, of which many

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC. 1279

were published under the pseudonym of Czapek. But it is as a composer
of part-songs that he comes under our notice in this place. Of these he
produced a large number. But amongst them we find many which are
essentially glees, though called part-songs, and which are best adapted for
performance with but one voice to a part. Hence there need be no scruple
in classing Hatton among English glee-writers, although he did not adopt
the name of glee for his compositions. Hatton composed two cathedral
services and a few anthems; also in 1877 he produced his <•' sacred drama "
of HezeJeiah, at the Crystal Palace. Still it is upon his songs, part-
songs, and glees, that his fame will chiefly rest.

We have spoken of writers of glees and part-songs. But some of these
composers also attempted, with more or less success, to revive the old
Elizabethan madrigal. Callcott composed one to Petrarch's words, " O voi
che sospirate," which is a good imitation well carried out. Wesley and Wal-
misley also, of whom we shall have to speak as Church composers, were each
also the author of a madrigal. But the most successful of all modern Eng-
lish attempts in this direction were made by R. L. de Pearsall. This clever
and original composer was born at Clifton in 1795, and died at Wartensee
in 1856. He composed only vocal concerted music, glees, part-songs, madri-
gals, and Church music, and it was in his madrigals and part-songs that he
achieved his greatest triumphs. Although intentionally adopting the style of
a former period, yet his music was always spontaneous, original, and tuneful;
and consequently it still retains its popularity. There is hardly a choral
society in England which is not familiar with Pearsall's " Hardy Norse-
man," or " Who shall Win my Lady Fair ?" or "Oh, Who will o'er the Downs
with Me ? " Nor can any musician fail to recognise the contrapuntal skill
displayed, and the good effects realised in " Lay a Garland/' and " Great
God of Love/' Pearsall's Church compositions are not equal to his secular
works, though they display no small ability. He published an essay ff On
Consecutive Fifths and Octaves in Counterpoint," which is not without
merit, though it does not go very deeply into the matter, nor does it
originate any very novel views.

Many other composers of lyrical part-music will have to be treated of
under the head of Church composers or opera writers further on.

Perhaps the most popular composer of what may be called ballad-operas
this country ever produced was Michael Henry Balfe. He was born in

1280 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Dublin in 1808, and studied there under C. E. Horn and Rooke (whose
real name was O'Rourke, and who had made himself known favourably by
his opera of Amilie, or the Love Test). He was a violinist at Drury Lane
Theatre in 1824, when he also came out as a baritone vocalist. His patron,
Count Mazzara, took him to Italy with him, where he doubtless perfected
himself as a singer, and married Lina Roser, a vocalist. In 1835 he re-
appeared in London as a singer, and became conductor at various theatres.
He was engaged as composer at Her Majesty's Theatre from 1852 to 1870.
His death occurred in October, 1870. Balfe was essentially a dramatic
composer ; the stage was his peculiar province, and he may be said to have
done more to establish a real and permanent English opera than any one
else. Unfortunately, he adopted so .entirely Italian a style and method in
order to accomplish that good object, that he incurred the just reproach of
being an imitator, in spite of the original and often decidedly Irish cha-
racter of his beautiful melodies. It is this devotion to Italian models which
has mostly hindered the permanent appreciation of his works. There is
also a want of harmonic vigour about his choruses, and instrumental accom-
paniments and overtures, which has detracted not a little from the high
reputation he gained as a writer of pure and most lovely melodies. The
result is a certain effeminacy of style which is in the strongest contrast to
the hyper-Teutonic taste of the present day. Still, in justice it must
be admitted that no British composer, since the days of Purcell and
Arne, ever had such a gift of spontaneous and original melody as Balfe.
This is particularly observable in some of his detached songs and duets, of
which he composed a large number. Of his operas, perhaps the best are
The Bohemian Girt, The Siege of Rochelle, The Bondman, The Talisman,
The Daughter of St. Mark, Satanella, and The Rose of Castille. He pub-
lished a few cantatas and some glees, besides an edition of Moore's " Irish
Melodies ; " but it is as a pure melodist that his fame will mainly survive.

Another composer of signal merit, who belongs to the same school as
Balfe, was William Vincent Wallace. He was of Scottish parentage, but
was born at Waterford, in Ireland, in 1814. He began his musical career
as a violinist, in which capacity he was attached to various orchestras. In
1836 he began to travel, and visited Australia, New Zealand, India, and
South America, re-appearing in London in 1845, and dying in France in
1865. He was a composer of operas, pianoforte music, and detached songs.

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC. 1281

His best opera is undoubtedly Maritana, to which Lurline may rank as a
good second. These two achieved a popularity quite equal to that of any
of Balfe's, whose style is very similar. In some respects it may be said
that Wallace was superior to Balfe, for his scoring was more vigorous and
effective, and his harmonic resources greater. But he had not the prolific
genius of his Irish contemporary. His pianoforte compositions are elegant
and pleasing, but have now gone out of fashion. On the whole, Wallace
may fairly be reckoned amongst our best English composers.

John Barnett is another English composer, mostly of dramatic works.
He was born at Bedford in 1802, and studied harmony at Frankfort under
Schnyder von Wartensee. He has resided since 1841 at Cheltenham. He
has composed a large number of operas and operettas, some of which have
been eminently popular. Of these the most notable is The Mountain Sylph,
because it is perhaps the earliest English work written in strictly opera
form, and probably served as a model in this respect to Balfe, Wallace, and
others. To show what a prolific writer Barnett has been, it will suffice to
refer to " A selection from Mr. Barnett's concerted vocal pieces and songs
which have been published, the total number of such works being about
two thousand, issued between 1816 and 1880." He composed two oratorios
which were never performed, and some instrumental works, besides a treatise
on singing and some strictures on the " Hullah-system." There can be no
doubt that if ever English opera obtains a permanent footing it will be
very greatly due to John Barnett's admirable efforts in that direction.

The only other English dramatic composer who need be mentioned in this
place is E. J. Loder (born at Bath in 1813, and died in London in 1865).
He composed many songs and ballads of a popular character, and also
several operas, of which the best was The Night Dancers, composed and
brought out in 1848.

We shall speak hereafter of one or two composers, under another head,
who also brought out operas and operettas with great success. But from
what has been already said it will be sufficiently plain that there have not
been wanting, during the last fifty years, English composers with both the
will and the power to establish and make perfect a regular school of
national opera, if only the public could be persuaded to encourage native
dramatic talent more than they have hitherto done. We have been obliged
to omit all detailed account of several song-writers who achieved great
D D D D

1282 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

popularity in their day, such as Charles Dibdin (1745—1814), C. E. Horn
(1762 — 1830), the brothers C. W. and Stephen Glover, George Linley
(1795—1865), Sir John A. Stevenson (1762—1833), &c. &c., in order to
leave more space for others who aimed at higher walks of art.

We come now to the few Englishmen who have chiefly made their name
as composers of instrumental music. Many of these have also been famous
as performers on various instruments, but it is more in accordance with the
plan of the present work to regard them mainly as composers, and with a
special view to the influence they have exercised on the progress of musical
art in this country.

Probably the most distinguished British pianoforte player and composer
in the early part of the present century was John Field (born in Dublin in
1782, and died at Moscow in 1837), but as he has been already sufficiently
described in this work, it will be unnecessary to say more about him in this
place, unless it be to observe that while his peculiar style of playing and
composition in some respects anticipated Chopin, the form of his celebrated
nocturnes rendered them, as it were, precursors of the well-known " Lieder
ohne Worte " of Mendelssohn. There can be no doubt that Chopin took
Field's nocturnes as a model.

The next instrumental performer and composer who comes before us is
Thomas Adams (born 1785 and died 1858), who was certainly one of the
best organists England has ever produced. The writer of these lines has
many a time listened to Adams's marvellous extemporaneous performances
of fugues and other contrapuntal pieces, in which he was second only to
Mendelssohn and Dr. S. S. Wesley. He was often employed to show off
new organs before they left the builder's factory, and it was mostly on these
occasions that his remarkable talents were fully displayed. After studying
under Busby, he became organist of Carlisle Chapel, at Lambeth, from
1802 to 1814, when he held a similar post at St. Paul's, Deptford. In
1824 he was appointed organist of St. George's, Camberwell ; and in 1838
he migrated to St. Dunstan's, Fleet Street, of which church he remained
organist till his death. He composed many fugues and other pieces for the
organ, besides a few anthems, hymns, and pianoforte pieces. In his organ
fugues he showed himself a most admirable and ingenious contrapuntist,
and his compositions, though complicated and difficult to execute, are very
effective and never dull. It is much to be wished that his organ fugues

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC. 1283

were transcribed for modern organs. In his days English organs were
of imperfect compass and deficient in pedal, and now that we have every-
where adopted the true compass and arrangement of pedals and manuals,
all good music composed to suit the older and more imperfect system should
be carefully adapted to modern requirements. No organ fugues deserve
such treatment more than those of Thomas Adams.

We come now to speak of an English musician whose works have been,
in the writer's opinion, most unaccountably and undeservedly neglected.
Philip Cipriani Hambly Potter was born in London in 1792, and died there
in 1871. He made his debut as a pianist at a concert of the Philharmonic
Society in 1816, and then went to study at Vienna under Fdrster. It was
then that he made the acquaintance of Beethoven, an event which had
no inconsiderable influence on his subsequent career. * In 1822 he was
appointed Professor of the Pianoforte at the Royal Academy of Music, of
which excellent institution he became Principal, in succession to Dr. Crotch,
in 1832. This honourable and useful appointment he held till 1859, when
he resigned it in favour of Sterndale Bennett. Potter composed no less
than nine symphonies for full orchestra, of which four were performed by
the Philharmonic Society with great success. These have, however, never
been published, which is much to be regretted. The remainder of his com-
positions were mostly for his own instrument — the pianoforte — and were
almost all published. His "Studies" for that instrument, which \vere
composed for the use of the Royal Academy of Music, are admirably
adapted to their purpose, and have formed many excellent pianists. Potter
did much to enlarge and improve the Royal Academy, and it is, in a great
measure, owing to his good management that it finally emerged from the
financial struggle which for many years threatened its continued existence.

Potter's eminent successor in the Principalship of the Royal Academy
of Music is the next musician whose name comes before us. William
Sterndale Bennett was born at Sheffield on April 13th, 1816, and died
February 1st, 1875. No English composer since Henry Purcell has earned
so wide or so high a reputation, nor has any had so strong an individuality
and originality of style. Coming as he did from a family of musicians,

* In a letter to Ries, dated March oth, 1818, Beethoven says: "Potter has visited me
several times. He seems to be a good man, and has talent for composition." (See Grove's
" Dictionary of Music.")

D D D D 2

1284 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

he not only inherited an unusual portion of musical talent, but he had the
great advantage of having that talent judiciously cultivated from his earliest
youth. At the age of eight he was made a chorister of King's College,
Cambridge, but only remained there for two years, being then entered as a
student at the Royal Academy of Music, where he learnt the pianoforte,
first from Mr. W. H. Holmes, and then from Cipriani Potter, while in
composition he was a pupil of Charles Lucas and of Dr. Crotch. Under
such able tutors his progress was exceptionally rapid, and before he had
completed his seventeenth year he had an opportunity of performing his
concerto in D minor at a Prize Concert of the Academy, in the presence of
Mendelssohn, who greatly commended the work, and spoke words of en-
couragement to the young composer. In 1836, so great an impression was
created by some of his works that Messrs. J. Broadwood and Sons, the
eminent pianoforte makers, were induced to send him, at their expense, to
Leipzig for a year — an event of no slight advantage to Bennett, who was
not only able to make many valuable musical acquaintances, but was also
enabled to make his talents known outside his own country. But perhaps
the greatest benefit to him was the opportunity which he had in Leipzig
of cultivating the friendship of two such musical giants as Mendelssohn
and Schumann, who became his warmest admirers. Probably no English-
man ever achieved such a musical reputation out of his own country as
Sterndale Bennett, and, what is more curious, he appears to have been more
highly appreciated at Leipzig than he ever was at home. So greatly did
he enjoy his sojourn at Leipzig that he returned thither foi a second visit in.
1841. In 1844 he married Mary Ann, daughter of Captain J. Wood, R.N.
Five years later he founded the London Bach Society for the encourage-
ment of a study of Sebastian Bach's works, by which much good was done
to public taste in England. In 1853 the conductorship of the Leipzig
Gewandhaus Concerts was offered to him — no slight honour; while in
1856 he became permanent conductor of the Philharmonic Society's concerts,
a post which he filled for ten years. At the same date he was elected Pro-
fessor of Music in the University of Cambridge, and he continued to occupy
this chair till his death. In 1866 he became Principal of the Royal Academy
of Music, a post for which he was eminently qualified. At Cambridge
he was so highly appreciated that in 1856 that University conferred on him
the degree of Doctor of Music, and the following year added also the degree

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC.

1285

of Master of Arts, attaching at the same time a salary of £100 to his pro-
fessorship. Up to this time Bennett had published only instrumental music,
bat in 1858 his May Queen was produced at the Leeds Musical Festival
with great success, and then published. Although the libretto of this
cantata is but a feeble performance, yet such is the graceful beauty of the

Fig. 299.— Sir W. Sterndale Bennett.

solos, the excellence of the choral writing, and the admirable skill dis-
played in the instrumentation, that the work has continued a general
favourite with the public, and will probably live long. In 1867, however,
Bennett produced a far more deserving choral work, The Woman of
Samaria, at the Birmingham Festival. This composition, though by no
means of so popular a character as the May Queen, is yet far more
interesting to the cultivated musician, as it contains original beauties of a
iar higher order. It is, unquestionably, Bennett's best choral composition.

1286 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

In 1870 the University of Oxford conferred upon him the degree of D.C.L.
honoris causa, and in the following year he received the honour of knight-
hood. In 1872 a public testimonial was presented to him, and the money sub-
scribed on that occasion was devoted to the foundation of a ' ' Sterndale Bennett
Scholarship " at the Royal Academy of Music, which he had been connected
with from his boyhood, and which he had loved and served so well. Bennett
was a very fine pianist, and the pianoforte was naturally the instrument for
which the greater part of his works were composed. They are calculated to
display the peculiar characteristics of that instrument to the best advantage,
and although by no means easy of performance, are yet well worthy of
serious study. His style is emphatically his own. It has been said by many
writers that he was an imitator of Mendelssohn ; but it is hardly credible
that any competent critic could form such a judgment if he had taken the
trouble to examine Bennett's works at all minutely. The stamp of origin-
ality pervades them all, and to accuse their author of plagiarism can only
be taken as a proof of ignorance or prejudice. His compositions are likely
to live, and to be more and more appreciated as time goes on, and may it
be long before the musicians of England cease to revere in Sterndale
Bennett the finest instrumental composer this country has yet produced.
In addition to the compositions already mentioned, Bennett was a com-
poser of anthems and hymn tunes, and his songs are among the very best
the English School has produced.

Another composer of instrumental music whose name deserves special
mention is Henry Smart. This eminent organist and composer was born
October 26th, 1813, and died July 6th, 1879. He came of a very musical
stock, his father having been a good violinist, and his uncle, Sir George
Thomas Smart, having been well known as a conductor and teacher of
music, and remarkable as one of those who handed down the old tradition
of performing Handel's music from Joah Bates to our own times. Sir
George Smart was also, it is believed, the first English musician who re-
ceived the honour of knighthood. Henry Smart studied music under his
father and W. H. Kearns, but he was mainly ^elf-taught. He had been
intended for the law, but, his musical proclivities proving irresistible, he
soon devoted himself wholly to the " science of sweet sounds/' He was
successively organist at Blackburn; St. Philip's, Regent Street, London ;
St. Luke's, Old Street, City ; and St. Pancras, Euston Road, London,

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC. 1287

which last post he only resigned in 1864, in consequence of his almost
total loss of sight. He composed a few operas and cantatas, of which the
Bride of Dunkerron was, perhaps, his best. He also was the author of
cathedral services in F, G, and B flat, which would suffice to perpetuate
his fame, had he written nothing besides. Some few anthems also he wrote,
which are deserving of commendation. As a composer of part-songs, too,
he greatly distinguished himself, nor are his single songs by any means
to be despised. But it is for his admirable organ compositions that he
will be best remembered. Of these he composed a large number, but as
yet they have not been collected into one set of volumes, having been
brought out by different publishers and in various forms. The best of
them appeared in the Organist's Quarterly Journal, published by Novello.
Probably no English composer for the organ has furnished us with so large
a number of original works at once masterly and pleasing as Henry
Smart. He had an inexhaustible store of lovely melody, which invested all
his works with a charm peculiarly their own, while his harmonies were
always masterly, his counterpoint irreproachable, and his power of bringing
out the best points of his instrument unrivalled.

Of Sir Julius Benedict enough has been said in another chapter of this
work, especially as, although an Englishman by residence and naturalisation,
he was a German by birth and education. He was born at Stutgardt in
1804, and died in 1885 in London.

Henry Brinley Richards is a composer of whom a few words must be
said in this place, although he never rose to so high a level as those
last mentioned. He was born at Caermarthen in 1817, and died in
London in 1885. He composed one or two orchestral pieces and a good
many brilliant arrangements, with some few original pieces for the
pianoforte. He also wrote some meritorious part-songs and vocal duets.
Among his songs is one which, from circumstances, has acquired a great
popularity — this is lt God Bless the Prince of Wales," composed in 1862,
and subsequently arranged as a chorus and also for various combinations
of instruments.

Postponing for the present all notice of living composers, we must now
speak of those who have chiefly distinguished themselves during the pre-
sent century as composers of oratorios, sacred cantatas, and Church music.
Of these the first who comes before us is Thomas Attwood. This well-

1288 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

known and justly-admired composer was born in 1767 and died in 1838.
He was educated in the Chapel Royal under Nares and Ayrton. While yet
a youth he attracted the notice of George, Prince of Wales (afterwards
George IV.), who most liberally sent him abroad in 1783 to study under
Latilla at Naples, and then under Mozart at Vienna, who expressed the
highest opinion of his talents. On his return to London, Attwood became
organist of St. George the Martyr, in London, and member of the Prince
of Wales's chamber band. In 1796 he was appointed organist of St. Paul's
Cathedral, which post he retained till his death. To this he added the duties
of composer to the Chapel Royal in 1796, and organist also to the same
in 1836. In the earlier part of his career Attwood devoted himself almost
exclusively to dramatic composition, in which he was very successful ; but
as all such music is now entirely laid aside and forgotten, it is not on that
portion of his life that his reputation now rests. It was not until his
appointments to be organist of St. Paul's and composer to the Chapel Royal
that Attwood began to compose services and anthems; but after that
period he did little else. Although his Church music will not compare
advantageously with the old English cathedral compositions, either of the
madrigalian epoch or of the days of Purcell and Croft, yet it must be
admitted that it is in every respect far superior to any other English sacred
music of its own date.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century Church composition had
sunk to a very low ebb in this country. A sort of effeminate vulgarity
seems to have invaded the music of the sanctuary. Ineffective adaptations
of foreign works, intended for the services of the Roman Communion, to
English words bearing no analogy to the style of the music adapted to
them, had taken possession of our cathedrals, and the most vapid and ill-
chosen metrical psalmody reigned' supreme in our parish churches. It was
no small gain, then, to have in Attwood a composer of original Church
music, comparatively free from the abuses then prevalent, and able to supply
a series of services and anthems of no inconsiderable contrapuntal merit,
well written for the voices, and suitable to the words to which they were
set, which still retain much of their pristine popularity in our choirs and
bid fair to live for many future generations. Attwood's services in F and
D are still household words in most cathedrals, while many of his anthems
are as fresh now as when first composed. But Attwood did more than this.

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC. 1289

It was not for nothing that he had been the disciple of the greatest
orchestral composer the world had yet seen. The influence of Mozart's
teaching was unmistakably seen in Attwood' s compositions for the orchestra.
As examples of this we would refer to his two magnificent coronation
anthems for full orchestra and chorus, of which the former,, " I was glad/'
was written for the coronation of his patron and friend, George IV., while
the latter, " O Lord, grant the King a long life/' was written for the
coronation of William IV., in 1831. These are indeed, both of them, works
of the highest merit. Attwood had begun to compose a third anthem of
the same kind for the coronation of Queen Victoria, when his career was
cut short by death, and the intended work was never completed. He also
composed some excellent glees and songs, which show his admirable power
of vocal writing to great advantage. Mendelssohn formed a very intimate
friendship with Attwood when he visited England, and dedicated to him
some of his best works.

The next great English composer of sacred music whom we must notice
is Samuel Wesley. This gifted man was the nephew of the celebrated E/ev.
John Wesley, from whom the Wesleyans take their name. Samuel Wesley
was born at Bristol in 1766, and died in London in 1837, In his childhood
he exhibited such a wonderful precocity in music that the greatest interest
was excited in his talents and progress, and several notices of him were
published. He studied music under his elder brother, Charles Wesley, who
was also a well-known and much-admired organist and composer. Samuel
held several organ appointments, among them one at a Nonconformist place
of worship and another at a Roman Catholic chapel. He was himself,
however, it is believed, a member of the Church of England, for whose
service he wrote several anthems, and one very clever, though somewhat
fragmentary, service in F, " dedicated to all choirs/' He also composed
some really splendid Latin motets, for unaccompanied chorus and in many
vocal parts, of which his " Dixit Dominus," " Exultate Deo," and " In
Exitu Israel" may be cited as good samples. He likewise composed
original hymn tunes adapted to every metre in the collection of the Rev.
John Wesley. His fugues and voluntaries for the organ contain merit of
a no mean order. But he has laid all English musicians under a deep
obligation by being the first of our countrymen who made known to us the
works of John Sebastian Bach, of whose " Wohltemperirte Clavier1" he

1290 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

brought out a good English edition, in conjunction with a co-editor, Horn.
Samuel Wesley was admitted to be the best organist of his day,
and he excelled specially in the (now neglected) art of fugal extempori-
sation.

Wesley had a rival in a childish musical phenomenon, who excited even
greater wonder by his very early performances on the pianoforte and organ.
This was William Crotch, who was born at Norwich in 1775, and died at
Taunton in 1847. Both Dr. Burney and the Hon. Daines Barrington
published accounts of the wonderful proofs of musical genius displayed by
Crotch in his childhood. Burney's account was printed in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1779. In 1786 the young musician was taken to Cam-
bridge, where he studied under Dr. Randall, whose assistant he became.
At the age of fourteen he composed his first oratorio, The Captivity,
which was performed in Cambridge, June 4th, 1789. About this time he
migrated to Oxford, where, in 1790, he became organist of Christ Church.
He took the degree of Bachelor of Music at Oxford in 1794, and on the
death of Philip Hayes, in 1797, Crotch was appointed to the Professorship
of Music in that University, an office which he held till his death. He
took his Doctor's degree in 1799, his exercise for which was a setting of
Dr. Warton's " Ode to Fancy/' afterwards published in full score. His
greatest work, however, Palestine^ was not brought out till 1812. This
oratorio was, unquestionably, the greatest and most successful work of the
kind composed by an Englishman up to that time, and for force, vigour,
beauty, orchestral effect, and proper setting of the words has seldom been
excelled. In some places, indeed, it rises to real sublimity (e.g., the grand
chorus, " Let Sinai tell ") , and it is a work which has stood, and will
stand, the test of time. In 1820 Crotch was appointed lecturer on music
at the Royal Institution, and ia 1822 he was chosen to be the first
Principal of the newly -founded Royal Academy of Music. On the in-
stallation of the Duke of Wellington as Chancellor of the University of
Oxford, in 1834, Dr. Crotch composed the music to an ode written for
the occasion by the Professor of Poetry, the Rev. John Keble, and, at
the same time, produced a new oratorio on the same subject as his first
boyish attempt, The Captivity of Judah. This was prepared for publica-
tion, but, shame to say, a sufficient number of subscribers was never got
together to render publication practicable. Besides his oratorios and odes,

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC 1291

Dr. Crotch was also the composer of several anthems, of various pianoforte
pieces and organ fugues, of some excellent glees, and of two treatises which
have only been superseded quite recently. He also published some very
useful lectures on music in 1831, together with three volumes of " Specimens
of Various Styles of Music/'' to illustrate them. These lectures deserve to
be read by all musical students, although many of the views maintained
in them must now be considered antiquated and narrow, Crotch was a
thoroughly well-educated man, and understood several languages. He also
had a great talent for drawing, in which he might have become quite as
eminent as in music had he thought it worth his while. On the whole,
Crotch is a musician who deservedly holds a very high place among the
English composers of the nineteenth century.

We have only space to mention very cursorily John Clarke- Whitfield, an
organist and composer who had a certain celebrity in his day. He was born
at Gloucester in 1770, and died at Holmer, near Hereford, in 1835. He
was successively organist at Ludlow, 1789; Armagh Cathedral, 1794;
Christ Church and St. Patrick's Cathedrals, Dublin, 1798; St. John's and
Trinity Colleges, Cambridge, 1798; Hereford Cathedral, 1820 to 1833.
He graduated in music at Dublin, Cambridge, and Oxford, and was
appointed Professor of Music in the University of Cambridge in 1821. He
published four volumes of services and anthems in 1805, besides an oratorio
and a cantata. He also composed many glees and songs. All these works
are now well-nigh forgotten, but he has the merit of being among the
earliest to publish editions of Handel's oratorios in vocal score with piano-
forte accompaniments.

The next name which comes before us is that of a most eminent Church
composer, John Goss (born at Fareham in 1800, and died in London in
1880). He was a chorister under John Stafford Smith at the Chapel Royal,
and afterwards became a pupil of Attwood* In 1824 he had the place of
organist at St. Luke's, Chelsea, and succeeded Attwood as organist of St.
Paul's Cathedral in 1838. In 1856 he was appointed composer to the
Chapel Royal, which office, together with his appointment at St. Paul's, he
resigned in 1872, in which year he received the honour of knighthood.
He was presented with the honorary degree of Doctor of Music by the
University of Cambridge in 1876, four years before his death. He com-
posed several cathedral services, of which one, his -'Magnificat" and "Nunc

1292 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Dimittis " in E, is a permanent favourite in every choir where genuine
English Church music is cultivated. But it is by his many and most ex-
cellent anthems that he is best known : these are, indeed, a repertory of
solid beauty, and pure part-writing, sometimes almost rising to sublimity,
which have probably done more than the writings of any other Church
composer of recent times to preserve and hand down the true old English
cathedral style, while, at the same time, they are by no means devoid of
more modern resources in harmony and construction. Few composers have
equalled Sir John Goss as a writer for voices; the inner parts of his
anthems are always melodious and easy to sing, the words are most cor-
rectly set to music, while the counterpoint is always good, often masterly.
Among Sir John Goss's anthems it is hard to assign the chief place to any
in particular, as they are so uniformly good. But among those best known
we would mention the following:- — "If we believe," "O Saviour of the
world," " O taste and see," " Praise the Lord, O my soul/7 and " The
Wilderness." But Goss was not exclusively a Church composer. He also
composed some most admirable glees and one madrigal, not to mention some
orchestral works of value and some organ arrangements. He published, in
1835, his " Introduction to Harmony and Thorough Bass," a work which
had considerable success in its day, though now superseded by subsequent
treatises and instruction books.

The next composer who comes before us was likewise a pupil of
AttwoodP and a son of an excellent musician, Thomas Forbes Walmisley
(also himself a pupil of Attwood), who was born in 1783, and died in
1866. Thomas Attwood Walmisley was born in 1814 and died in 1856.
Under so able a teacher as Attwood, young Walmisley made very rapid
progress, both as a composer and a player. In 1830 he was appointed
organist of Croydon Church, and three years later he was elected organist
of Trinity and St. John's Colleges, at Cambridge, and took the degree of
Bachelor of Music at that University. In 1838 he took his B.A. degree,
and in 1841 that of M.A., while in 1846 he took the degree of Mus.
Doc. He is best known by his cathedral services and anthems, of which
a collection was published in 1857, posthumously, edited by his father,
who survived him ten years. He also composed some vocal and instru-
mental music of no small merit. He was a distinguished organist and
an admirable extemporaneous performer. In this too much neglected

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC. 1293

branch of the art, however, he was excelled by the next composer who
comes before us.

Samuel Sebastian Wesley (born in 1810 and died in 1876) was a son of
Samuel Wesley, whom we have mentioned above, and was a worthy suc-
cessor to his father's musical eminence. He was educated in the Chapel
Royal, where his talents soon made themselves apparent. In 1833 he
became organist of Hereford Cathedral in succession to Dr. Clarke-
WThitfield. After his marriage with Miss Merewether, sister of the Dean
of Hereford, he left that cathedral, and in 1835 was appointed organist
of Exeter Cathedral. In 1839 he accumulated the degrees of Bachelor and
Doctor of Music at Oxford, by special grace of the University. He became
organist of Leeds Parish Church in 1842, which post he retained for six
years. In 1849 he was appointed to the organ of Winchester Cathedral,
and to that of Gloucester in 1865, which last post he held till his
death in 1876. His service in E was probably the first of his works which
earned him his great reputation as a Church composer. In this work, com-
posed in 1845, he departed considerably from the old-established models,
and inaugurated what may be termed the most modern phase of English
Church music. This was also very much the case in his admirable
anthems, which, although they are now, as it were, household words in every
good choir, were looked upon as dangerous novelties when the earlier of
them were first composed. It is not that they are unsuited to the service
of the sanctuary, or at all secular in style, for that they most assuredly
are not ; but they are full of very original harmonies, some of which had
never been heard of before in this country, and a few of which must be
deemed experiments in harmonisation of somewhat doubtful success. Now
we have become accustomed to these modernisms, but when Wesley first
ventured upon them many old-fashioned professors were shocked at what
they deemed unwarrantable licences, and joined in condemning them as
innovations. It was thus, doubtless, that his finest anthem, " The
Wilderness/' failed to secure the Gresham Prize in 1834, for which he was
a candidate. In spite of all opposition, however, Wesley's Church music
soon acquired that popularity and general appreciation to which it is un-
questionably entitled. And we may well condone the contrapuntal laches
and harmonic crudities which it unquestionably contains, when we consider
the wonderful power and originality it displays, the successful manner in

1294 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

which the sense and accent of the words are attended to, the uncommon
beauty of the melodies which abound in it, and the frequent instances we
find in it of breadth and grandeur, sometimes amounting1 to true sublimity.
Besides his Church music, however, Wesley also composed some good glees
and part-songs, not to mention a few very fine songs of great beauty.
He was also the composer of organ pieces of very considerable merit, but
often of exceeding difficulty, all written in his own peculiar style. It is
evident that he made Bach, Spohr, and Mendelssohn his models, and that
his music is built up on that triple foundation. Yet it would not be just
to call him an imitator, still less a plagiarist, as his own individuality was
able to make itself apparent in all his varied works. Wesley was also the
author of some clever letters and pamphlets on subjects connected with
cathedrals. He inherited from his father a wonderful power of fugal
extemporisation, in which he was unrivalled in his day. It were much to
be wished that this faculty were more cultivated amongst modern English
musicians than it appears to be now-a-days. On the whole, Wesley was a
man who supplied a connecting link between the Old and New Schools of
English Ecclesiastical Music, and who displayed, both in his playing and
in his compositions, a very unusual amount of talent of a very high order,
which will render his name permanent among those who have distinguished
themselves in the annals of English musical history.

Among the composers of oratorios we cannot pass over Henry Hugo
Pierson (otherwise Pearson), who was born at Oxford in 1815, and died at
Leipzig in 1873. He was not intended for the musical profession, but
after studying first at Harrow and then at Trinity College, Cambridge, had
thoughts of entering upon a medical career. While at Cambridge, however,
his musical talent became so evident that he changed his studies, and
worked at musical composition under Attwood and Arthur Corfe. In 1839
he went to Germany and became a pupil of Rinck, Tomaschek, and
Reissiger. At Leipzig he met Mendelssohn, and also became acquainted
with Meyerbeer, Spohr, and Schumann. In 1844 he accepted the Reid
Professorship of Music in the University of Edinburgh, but he soon gave
this up in order to go back to Germany, where he mostly resided during
the rest of his life. He at one time published many of his minor com-
positions under the pseudonym of "Edgar Mansfeldt." His greatest
work was an oratorio, Jermalemy brought out at the Norwich Festival in

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC. 1295

1852 with marked success. He subsequently composed a second oratorio
on the subject of Hezekiah. But it does not appear that this work was
ever finished, although certain portions were performed at a Norwich
Festival in. 1869. In 1854 Pierson composed music to the second part of
Goethe's Faust. This was greatly appreciated in Germany. He also
wrote two operas, a few part-songs, and many single songs of great merit.
Pierson appears to have been much more valued in Germany than in
England, which accounts for his spending the greater part of his life
abroad.

Another oratorio composer who claims a place here is Charles Edward
Horsley (born in 1821 and died in 1876), whose father, William Horsley,
we have already mentioned in this chapter. He was a pupil of his father
and of Moscheles in London, and of Hauptmann and Mendelssohn at
Leipzig. Charles Horsley is best known by his oratorios, David, Joseph,
and Gideon. But he also composed a cantata, Comus, besides several
pianoforte pieces, chamber music, and sundry songs and part-songs. In
1860 he went to Australia, and subsequently settled in New York, where
he died.

Nor can we pass over the name of Dr. Henry John Gauntlett, who was
born in 1806 and died in 1876. He was originally a solicitor, but afterwards
devoted himself entirely to music. As an organist he was well known, and
he it was who inaugurated the wonderful improvement in the construction
of organs in this country, when the old and imperfect GG compass of
the manuals, and the short pedal-board with " return pedal-pipes," were
gradually superseded by the true C compass, now universally adopted. He
composed anthems and hymns, many of which are still favourites, and was
also the author of several musical pamphlets, and a few minor compositions.
Dr. Gauntlett was the second musician who received a degree of Mus. Doc.
from the Archbishop of Canterbury, the first having been Dr. John Blow.

The next name which comes before us is that of the Rev. John
Bacchus Dykes, whose hymn-tunes, &c., are probably more popular than
those of any other English composer. Dykes was born at Hull in 1823,
and died at St. Leonards in 1876. He took the degree of B.A. at Cam-
bridge in 1847, and M. A. in 1851. In 1861 the University of Durham con-
ferred on him the degree of Mus. Doc., this being one of the earliest degrees
in music awarded by that University. After serving as an assistant curate

1296 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

at Malton, in Yorkshire, he was appointed minor canon and precentor of
Durham Cathedral in 1849. In 1862 he became vicar of St. Oswald's,
Durham, still retaining his minor canonry, though not the precentorship.
He composed a cathedral service in F and several good anthems ; but it is
as a composer of metrical hymn-tunes that he is best and most deservedly
known. He had a very fine power of extemporisation on the organ and
on the pianoforte, and was in every respect a thoroughly well-educated
musician.

It is time now to turn to several admirable English musical men who
are still living, and whom we have therefore placed last. Of these the first
in point of date, and also in importance, is Sir George Alexander Mac-
farren. This excellent and talented man was born in London in 1813, and
was a pupil first of his father, then of Charles Lucas, and thirdly of Cipriani
Potter, at the Royal Academy of Music, of which institution he became a
professor in 1834, and Principal in 1876. In the year 1875, on the death
of Sterndale Bennett, Macfarren was elected his successor as Professor of
Music in the University of Cambridge, and in the following year he
graduated as Bachelor and Doctor of Music by accumulation in that
University. The honour of knighthood was conferred upon him in 1883.
It is probable that no .English musician has ever done so much good work
for the improvement and advancement of the science and art of music in
England as Macfarren. His whole career has not only been one of the
greatest credit to himself, but also of the utmost benefit to music and
musicians. Whether as a composer, a teacher, a lecturer, or a didactic
writer, it is impossible to over-estimate the value of his efforts in the good
cause of sweet sounds, and undoubtedly his name will be handed down to
future generations among the greatest men who have devoted their time
and talents to the«development of musical art. There is no branch of music
in which he has not done good and fruitful work. His oratorios, St. John
the Baptist (INS), The Resurrection (1876), Joseph (1877), and King David
(1883), are admirable works, destined to live ; and of these and other of his
more recent works the merit is enhanced by the sad fact of his total blind-
ness at the time of their composition. His cantatas, Lenora (1852), Old
May-Day (1857), Christmas (1860), Freya's Gift (1863), and The Lady of
the Lake (1877), are equally excellent and effective. He has also composed
much orchestral music of great excellence. This includes seven symphonies

THE ORGAN AT KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

24

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC. 1297

and many overtures. Nor has he been less successful with his chamber
music. As an English opera-writer, Macfarren did much in the earlier
part of his career, and it is to be lamented that his dramatic works have
been so completely laid on the shelf; they deserved a better fate. Mac-
farren has also composed services and anthems, many of which are in use
in our cathedrals. His songs, part-songs, and other smaller vocal compo-
sitions are too numerous to be mentioned in detail ; but, like his larger
works, they bear the impress of high talent, and many of them will
probably long retain their popularity. Lastly, Macfarren's name will live
to future ages in his valuable contributions to musical literature. His
' ' Rudiments of Harmony/' his ' ' Six Lectures on Harmony " delivered at
the Royal Institution, his " Eighty Musical Sentences," his work " On
the Construction of a Sonata/' his " Treatise on Counterpoint/' his various
articles in different periodicals, and his various analyses of classical works
— all these constitute a mass of most valuable matter, for which English
musicians cannot be too grateful. On the whole, then, Sir George Alexander
Macfarren must be admitted to be deserving of occupying an exalted niche
in the gallery of England's musical worthies.

The next living composer whose name we must by no means omit is
Sir George Job Elvey, who was born at Canterbury in 1816, and was a
pupil first of Highmore Skeats, and then of his elder brother, Dr. Stephen
Elvey (born 1805 and died 1860), for thirty years organist of New College,
Oxford. George Elvey certainly made the most of his opportunities, and
was appointed organist of St. George's Chapel, Windsor, in 1838, when
only twenty-two years of age. This honourable post he continued to hold
till his retirement in 1882. He took the degree of Mus. Bac. at Oxford
in 1838, and of Mus. Doc. in 1840. In 1871 he received the honour of
knighthood. He has been a very prolific composer of useful and effective
anthems and other sacred compositions, some of which are of a very high
standard of merit, and will long retain their popularity. He understands
the art of writing well for voices, making the inner parts of his choruses
interesting and pleasant to sing, an art often somewhat neglected by
younger composers. His counterpoint is always good, and his style massive
and striking. Perhaps sometimes we may detect in his works too rigid an
adherence to the ultra-Handelian method of composition which prevailed
when he was a young man; but by this we do not intend by any means

E E E E

1298 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

to accuse him of plagiarism. He has published an oratorio, The 'Resurrec-
tion and Ascension, and some pieces for the organ, songs, and glees.

Another Church composer who comes before us in this place is Edward
John Hopkins, perhaps one of the best living authorities on the subject
of organ-construction. He was born in 1818, and educated in the Chapel
Royal under William Hawes, also studying under T. F. Walmisley, of
whom we have spoken above. After holding several organ appointments,
he was elected organist of the Temple Church in 1843. In 1882 he
obtained the degree of Mus. Doc. from the Archbishop of Canterbury,
and a similar degree in 1886 from the University of Toronto. He is the
composer of several excellent and effective services and anthems, as well as
of some most useful compositions for the organ. But he is best known as
the joint author, with the late Dr. Rimbault, of a work of considerable
value, of which the title is "The Organ, its History and Construction/'
published in 8vo in 1855, and of which other editions have appeared in
1870 and 1877. He has also lectured on the same subject, and contributed
some very useful articles about organs and organ-building to Grove's
" Dictionary of Music/' He has acquired a great reputation also as one
of our best Church organists.

We must now mention a very clever composer, chiefly of instrumental
music of various kinds, Charles Edward Stephens (born 1821), who is a
nephew of the celebrated singer, Catherine Stephens, afterwards Countess
of Essex. Mr. Stephens is well known as a very successful pianist and
teacher, and is also the author of some very excellent chamber music for
pianoforte and stringed instruments, as well as some good pieces for the
organ and for pianoforte solo. He has likewise composed a symphony for
orchestra, and some services and anthems, besides sundry part-songs, glees,
and single songs. His music deserves to be better known than it has
hitherto been.

Henry David Leslie was born in 1822, and studied music under
Charles Lucas. Leslie is the composer of two oratorios, two cantatas,
two operas, an orchestral symphony and overture, a few anthems, a number
of very good part-songs, and some single songs. But it is as a successful
trainer and conductor of choirs that he is best known. His celebrated
" Leslie Choir " gained the first prize for part-singing at the Paris Inter-
national Competition in 1878 — no slight honour. In this respect he stands

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC. 1299

on a lofty eminence, and has done a great deal of good service to the
cultivation and appreciation of choral music in London and elsewhere.

Following our chronological order, we now come to Sir Robert Prescott
Stewart, who was born in Dublin in the year 1825. He received his
musical education in the choir of Christ Church Cathedral in that city, and
became organist of the same in 1844, at which time he also received the1
appointment of organist at Trinity College, Dublin. To these appoint-
ments he added that of organist of St. Patrick's Cathedral in 1852,
having taken the degree of Mus. Doc. at Dublin the preceding year. In
1871 he received the honour of knighthood — an honour which was well
deserved. He is known as the composer of two cantatas, two odes, two
cathedral services, and several effective anthems. He has also won more
than one prize for glees and part-songs, and has delivered many valuable
lectures on musical subjects in his capacity of Professor of Music at the
University of Dublin, which office he has filled most efficiently since the
year 1861. He is an exceptionally good organist, and his admirable style
of accompanying a choral service is beyond praise.

Probably one of the most accomplished executants on the organ now
living is William Thomas Best (born at Carlisle in 1826). He held organ
appointments at several churches and chapels successively, but has made
his name chiefly by his admirable performances on the magnificent organ
at St. George's Hall, Liverpool, where he has been organist since 1856.
He has composed and arranged a vast number of pieces for his instrument
in a masterly manner, and has thus laid all lovers of the organ under a
deep obligation. He has also published some pianoforte music; nor has he
neglected sacred vocal art, having composed services, anthems, and hymns,
some of which have been widely used. But his fame rests mainly on his
wonderful skill as an organist, where he need fear no rival in England or
on the Continent.

In the year 1830 was born Sir Herbert Stanley Oakeley, who has done
very good work for the advancement of music in Scotland. He is the
second son of Sir Herbert Oakeley, Baronet, and brother of the present
Sir Charles Oakeley, Baronet. He was educated at Rugby, and Christ
Church, Oxford, where he graduated as B.A. in 1853 and M.A. in 1856.
He had always evinced great talent for music from his early boyhood, but
did not make the most of his powers till he went to study in Germany,

E S 2 E 2

1300 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

under Plaidy, Moscheles, and Papperitz, at Leipzig; under J. Schneider
of Dresden, for the organ; and under Breidenstein at Bonn. In 1865
he succeeded John Donaldson as Professor of Music in the University of
Edinburgh, which has ever since been the principal scene of his labours.
On the occasion of the inauguration of the monument to the late Prince
Consort at Edinburgh in 1876, he received the honour of knighthood. In
1871 he was made a Mus. Doc. by the Archbishop of Canterbury ; in 1879
the University of Oxford conferred on him the same degree, honoris causa ;
while in 1881 he was complimented with that of LL.D. by the University
of Aberdeen. His compositions have been chiefly vocal, consisting of a
cathedral service in E flat, several anthems, many songs, part-songs, and
choruses; but he has also published some pianoforte music and a few
orchestral pieces. As Professor of Music at Edinburgh he has greatly
advanced the study and appreciation of classical music in the Scottish
capital, both by his lectures and classes, and also by the admirable concerts
he has given, especially in connection with the " Reid " festival. He is a
good pianist and organist, and his organ recitals deserve high praise.

Ebenezer Prout is the next composer who comes before us in the order
of time. He was born in 1835 at Oundle, in Northamptonshire, and took
the degree of B.A. at London University in 1854. He was a pupil of
Salaman for the pianoforte. He has composed some very excellent works
for the orchestra, including four symphonies, and a concerto for organ and
orchestra. He has also published some services and anthems, some piano-
forte pieces, and some very good chamber music for pianoforte and strings.
His little " Music Primer " on Instrumentation is most admirable and
useful, and has been translated into German. He is also well known as
an accomplished musical critic.

We spoke of John Barnett just now, and we must not omit in this place
to say a few words about his nephew, John Francis Barnett, who was born
in 1837, and studied under Dr. Wylde. In 1850 and 1852 he gained
scholarships at the Royal Academy of Music, and came out as a pianist.
He subsequently studied at Leipzig, returning to London in 1859. He
is now one of the professors at the Royal College of Music. As a
composer he has made his mark by an oratorio, The Raising of Lazams,
and several very good cantatas. He has also produced an orchestral
symphony and several concert overtures. His other works consist of

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC. 1301

pianoforte pieces and songs. Probably his most popular composition is bis
cantata The Ancient Mariner ; but bis music is always melodious and
thoroughly well written.

The present well-known organist of St. Paul's Cathedral, John Stainer,
was born in 1840, and was educated in the choir of that church. In 1857
he became organist of St. Michael's College, Tenbury, where he remained
two years. Thence he went to be organist of Magdalen College, Oxford,
which post he occupied till he was appointed to St. Paul's Cathedral in
1872. He graduated at Oxford as Mus. Bac. in 1859, B.A. 1863,
Mus. Doc. 1865, and M.A. 1866. While in Oxford he also filled the
post of organist to the University. He has composed an oratorio, two
cantatas, and many cathedral services and anthems. As an author he
is known by the following works : — " A Dictionary of Musical Terms "
(edited conjointly with Mr. W. A. Barrett), 1875; "A Theory of Har-
mony, Founded on the Tempered Scale," 1869; "Harmony" (music
primer), 1877; " The Organ » (music primer), 1877; "The Music of the
Bible," 1879; "Composition" (music primer), 1880; " Tutor for the
American Organ," 1883. His cantatas contain some very effective points,
and among his anthems are some of the best we possess. As an organist
he is much and justly admired, and he has undoubtedly done good
service as a Government inspector of music in schools, to which office he
was appointed in succession to Dr. Hullah in 1882.

We come now to a many-sided and most conspicuous English musician^
Sir Arthur Seymour Sullivan, who was born in 1842, and received his early
musical training in the Chapel Royal, under the Rev. Thomas Helmore. In
1856 he was elected to a "Mendelssohn Scholarship" at the Royal Academy
of Music, where he studied under Sir John Goss and Sir William Sterndale
Bennett for two years. He then spent three years at Leipzig, completing
his musical studies there, till 1861, when he returned to London. Here he
very quickly made a name for himself as a composer, as a conductor, and as
Principal of the National Training School of Music, which office he held
from 1876 to 1881. He received the degree of Doctor of Music, honoris
causa, at Cambridge in 1876, and at Oxford in 1879, and was knighted in
1883. Sullivan is undoubtedly the most popular English composer now
living, and he owes this popularity mainly to his very clever and most
successful operas and operettas, such as The Contrabandists, Box and Cox,

1302 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Trial by Jury, The Sorcerer, H.M.S. Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance,
Patience, lolanthe, Princess Ida, and The Mikado. He is also the com-
poser of a large number of songs and part-songs, many of which have
won a well-deserved popularity. But it will not be, probably, by these
more ephemeral works that he will be best known to future generations ;
he has also composed more serious and classical things, which will hand
down his name among the best of England's musical worthies. His three
oratorios, The Prodigal Son, The Light of the World, The Martyr of
Antioch, his cantatas, and his admirable orchestral compositions, will live
long after his lighter works have gone out of fashion. The same may
be said of his Church music, most of which is truly excellent. All that
he has done, be it great or small, has always been the work of a thorough
musician; and it may be said of him that in whatever walk of the art he
has exerted his talent, he has never yet failed to succeed.

Joseph Barnby was born at York in 1838, and was educated in the
choir of York Minster, and afterwards in the Royal Academy of Music.
From 1863 to 1871 he was organist of St. Andrew's Church, Wells Street,
London, where the choral services have always been most carefully and
efficiently rendered. In 1871 he became choirmaster at St. Anne's, Soho,
London, and four years later he accepted the important post of Director
of Musical Instruction at Eton College, which he still holds. He has
written an oratorio, Rebekah, which he calls a " sacred idyll/' besides a
large number of services, anthems, and hymn tunes ; also songs and part-
songs, and some organ music. He is well known as one of our best
conductors and organisers of concerts and choral societies.

A Scottish composer claims the next place in these pages. Alexander
Campbell Mackenzie was born in Edinburgh in 1847. He soon became
known as a violinist in Germany, and was elected a king's scholar at the
Royal Academy of Music in 1862. He resided in Edinburgh till 1879,
since which time he has lived principally in Germany. He has composed
a good deal of pianoforte and other chamber music, as well as vocal pieces of
various kinds. But his three greatest works, on which his now well-earned
reputation rests, are the two dramatic works, Jason and Colomba, and his
oratorio, The Rose of Sharon, which was brought out with great success at
the Norwich Festival in 1884.

We have only space for two more living British composers. One of

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC. 1303

these is an Irishman by birth, Charles Villiers Stanford, who was born in
1852, and became a pupil of Arthur O'Leary and Sir Robert Stewart in
Dublin, and afterwards of Reinecke at Leipzig, and Kiel at Berlin. He
took his B.A., with classical honours, at Cambridge, in 1874, and his M.A.
three years later. In 1873 he was appointed organist of Trinity College,
Cambridge, and had the degree of Doctor of Music, honoris causa, conferred
upon him by the University of Oxford in 1883. Dr. Stanford has published
music of almost every kind — sacred, dramatic, vocal, instrumental, and
elementary — in which very great talent is displayed, and bids us hope for
many future productions of the highest merit from his facile pen. Mr.
Stanford is one of the professors at the Royal College of Music, and is also
well known as a good conductor.

The other composer whom we have to mention is Frederic Hymen Cowen.
This excellent and popular musician was born in Jamaica in 1852, and came
to England when four years old. Here he studied under Sir Julius Benedict
and Sir John Goss, and afterwards prosecuted his studies in Germany under
Hauptmann, Moscheles, and Reinecke. He has written operas, cantatas, and
one oratorio, besides four very admirable symphonies and other orchestral
pieces. He is also the composer of a good deal of pianoforte music and
many very popular songs and part-songs.

Did space admit of it there are many other very promising English
musicians of whom we could say much ; and there is likewise much more
to be said concerning those of whose life and works we have only been able
to write mere sketches. But we are obliged, unwillingly, to go on to give
a brief account of English writers about music, historians, biographers,
and theorists ; and even of these we can only take a few. In order to do
justice to this branch of our subject, we must go back to the early part of
the eighteenth century, in order to give some notice of Sir John Hawkins,
who was born in 1719 and died in 1789. He was a lawyer by profession,
but also an amateur musician, and the author of various works which are
now forgotten. But he has rendered good service to the art of music by
his well-known " History of Music," which he published in five large
quarto volumes in 1776, and which was reprinted in two volumes, 8vo,
by Novello in 1853. This is a wonderfully accurate work, and contains
a great mass of useful information. Unfortunatel}', it is somewhat ill-
arranged, and is not written in a very interesting style. In consequence

1304 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

of these blemishes it was for a long time almost superseded by Dr. Barney's
more popular history, of which we must now go on to speak.

Charles Burney was born at Shrewsbury in 1726. He received an
excellent education at the free school of his native town, and afterwards at
the public school at Chester. While at the latter place he studied music
under Baker, organist of Chester Cathedral, and subsequently in London
under Dr. Arne. In 1749 he became organist of St. Dionis Backchurch,
in the City of London, and two years later he held a similar appointment
at Lynn Regis. He accumulated the degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of
Music at Oxford in 1769, and spent the greater part of the three following
years in travels in Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands, with a view of
collecting materials for his great " History of Music." Of his foreign
travels he published very entertaining and well-written accounts, of which
the titles were — " The Present State of Music in France and Italy, or the
Journal of a Tour through those Countries/' &c. &c., 8vo, 1771; and
" The Present State of Music in Germany, the Netherlands, and United
Province, or the Journal of a Tour through those Countries/' &c. &c.,
2 vols. 8vo, 1773. But interesting as these works are, they sink into
insignificance by the side of Dr. Burney's magnum opus, the " General
History of Music " in four large quarto volumes, of which the first came out
in 1776, and the last in 1789. From a literary point of view this im-
portant work is vastly superior to the rival work by Sir John Hawkins.
It is written in a much more readable style, and is far better arranged.
But as a history it is not by any means so trustworthy. Dates are often
omitted, and when given are not unfrequently erroneous; the criticisms,
though often elaborate, betray a want of musical discrimination ; and
much valuable space is wasted on trivial details. Still it is a very
excellent work, and deserves the long course of popularity which it has
enjoyed. In 1785 Burney published an interesting and valuable " Account
of the Musical Performances in Westminster Abbey and the Pantheon,
&c. &c., in Commemoration of Handel/' This work is one of his best
writings, and is of considerable value and interest still. He also published
many other biographical, historical, and critical works, and some musical
compositions, long since forgotten. Dr. Burney died at Chelsea in 1814.

The histories of music by Hawkins and Burney were a storehouse of
facts of which many authors availed themselves in the compilation of

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC. 1305

smaller historical works. Among these plagiarists and imitators none
deserve mention, unless it be Dr. Thomas Busby, whose works rise some-
what above the common level. Busby was born in 1755 and died in 1838.
He was a pupil of Battishill, and composed an oratorio, three odes, and a few
dramatic pieces, all of which have long since passed out of memory. He
also was the author of a small " Dictionary of Music/' published in 1786 ;
a " Grammar of Music/" published in 1818 ; a " General History of Music,"
published in two 8vo volumes in 1819; "Anecdotes of Musicians/' in
3 vols., 12mo, in 1825 ; and a few smaller works. In these publications
Busby copied Burney and Hawkins freely ; but his own critical remarks,
few in number unfortunately, are superior to those of either of his pre-
decessors. He was certainly a sound and well-read musician, and had some
reputation as an organist.

We come now to a man who has done a great deal to improve English
musical taste and knowledge. John Ella was born at Thirsk, in Yorkshire,
in 1802, and was originally intended for the profession of the law; but
this he abandoned in favour of music, for which he had evinced a very early
predilection. He began his musical career as a violinist in the principal
orchestras of London ; but he also cultivated music theoretically, studying
it under Attwood and Fetis. The year 1845 was a memorable one for him,
and for the art of music in England, for he then established his celebrated
" Musical Union/' as well as his most useful " Musical Winter Evenings,"
both of which continued to flourish till his retirement in 1880. He pub-
lished " Lectures on Dramatic Music and Musical Education Abroad and
at Home/' in 1872; "Musical Sketches Abroad and at Home/' 1869-78;
" Records of the Musical Union/' consisting of analytical programmes,
criticisms, and biographical notices, 1845-78 ; and some smaller brochures,
all of considerable value and interest. At the meetings of the Musical
Union the very best and most classical chamber music was always executed
to perfection by the most gifted performers of the day, and thus the taste for
that high style of art was fostered among the leaders of amateur taste and
fashion ; and it is obvious that by this means a very powerful impetus was
given to the cultivation of the best classical style of music. It is therefore
not too much to say that the appreciation of really good music has been
encouraged and improved by Mr. Ella to an extent which demands the
warmest acknowledgment. Many are the artists and many are the

1306 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

classical works which obtained a first hearing- in London through the agency
of Ella's Musical Union.

Henry Fothergill Chorley claims mention here as a writer about music,
He was born in 1808 and died in 1872. He wrote musical articles,
notices, and criticisms in the Athenaum from 1830 nearly till his death.
He also published many works on subjects connected with music, such as
" Music and Manners in France and Germany," 3 vols. 8vo, 1841;
" Modern German Music, Recollections and Criticisms/'' 3 vols. 8vo, 1854;
" Thirty Years' Musical Recollections," 2 vols. 8vo, 1862; many librettos
supplied to composers, &c. &c, His works are well written, and his
criticisms generally, though not always, fair. Many of his views are now
considered obsolete.

In quite a different line the English musical world is much indebted to
the next author who comes before us. William Chappell was born in 1809,
and was brought up to the music publishing business. He devoted him-
self, however, to antiquarian pursuits and researches, chiefly connected with
English music. In 1840 he was one .of the founders of the " Percy "
Society. In the same year he founded the Musical Antiquarian Society,
when he also became a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. He rescued
England from the unjust stigma cast upon her of possessing no indigenous
popular music, by the publication, in 1838, of a " Collection of National
English Airs, Consisting of Ancient Song, Ballad, and Dance Tunes/' of
which a second part appeared in 1839, and a third in 1840. This was fol-
lowed by a still more useful work of the same kind, entitled " Popular
Music of the Olden Time/' in 2 vols. 8vo, published in 1845 and 1859.
This is, unquestionably, a most valuable and important book, and forms an
epoch in the history of our national folk-songs. In 1874 appeared the first
volume of Chappell's " History of Music/' a work of very considerable
learning and research, of which no further continuation has as yet appeared,
which is greatly to be lamented. On the whole, William Chappell may
fairly claim to be recognised as the most learned musical antiquarian we
possess.

We now come to a great name among English musicians, John Hullah
(born 1812 and died 1884). His musical studies were commenced under
William Horsley in 1829, and completed at the Royal Academy of Music
in 1832. He then became celebrated as a successful teacher of vocal music

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC. 1307

in classes on the Wilhelm system, which he imported from France. He
became Musical Instructor in Sir James Kay Shuttleworth's Training
College at Battersea in 1840, and in the following year he taught music
on the same system to schoolmasters in Exeter Hall. In 1847 he established
musical classes in St. Martin's Hall, which continued for about three years.
He held the post of Professor of Vocal Music at King's College, London,
from 1844 to 1874, and combined therewith similar appointments at
Queen's College, London, and Bedford College. In 1858 he was appointed
organist of the Charterhouse. He also held the honourable post of Musical
Inspector of Training Schools for the United Kingdom from 1872 to 1883.
In 1870 he received the degree of LL.D. from the University of Edinburgh.
His published works are both numerous and useful. We would particu-
larise the following : — " Method of Teaching Singing by Wilhelm," 8vo,
1842 (second edition 1850); "Grammar of Vocal Music," &c., 8vo,
1843 ; " Duty and Advantages of Learning to Sing," 8vo, 1846 ;
"Grammar of Musical Harmony/' 8vo, 1853 (new edition and exercises,
1873) ; " History of Modern Music " (a course of lectures at the Royal
Institution), 8 vo, 1862; " Lectures on the Third or Transition Period of
Musical History," 8vo, 1865 (second edition 1876); " Cultivation of the
Speaking Voice/' 8vo, 1870 (second edition 1874) ; " Grammar of Coun-
terpoint;" "Musical Notation;" "Music in the House," 8vo, 1877.
Hullah also composed some operettas, and published good collections of songs
and part-music. Some of his own single songs have also achieved popu-
larity. But it is as the inaugurator of the vast improvement which has
taken place of late years in pur church and school choirs throughout the
length and breadth of the country that Hullah's name will be best re-
membered; and although some persons may prefer other systems to his,
yet even they must in fairness acknowledge the great debt we owe to him
for setting on foot the rapid progress which has taken place since he first
established his vocal classes.

One of our best musical antiquarians was Edward Francis Rimbault.
He was born in 1816 and died in 1876. He composed and arranged much
music for the organ, as well as for the pianoforte and the harmonium ; but
it is not on his music that his fame depends, but rather on his admirable '
literary labours on subjects connected with music. These are, indeed, so
numerous that we cannot do more than allude to the more conspicuous

1308

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

among them. One of these has already been mentioned in connection with
his collaborateur Dr. E. J. Hopkins, their great joint work on the History
and Construction of the Organ. On this subject Eimbault published
several smaller works of considerable value. He edited several volumes of
reprints of ancient English music for the Musical Antiquarian Society, and
also a volume of old English services and anthems. For the Motett Society

he edited three volumes of services and
anthems mostly adapted to English words
from the works of Italian Church com-
posers of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. But he did good work chiefly
in rescuing from oblivion many sacred
and secular compositions by English com-
posers of the Elizabethan, and Jacobean
age. Though not always quite accurate,
yet he was generally so, and his zeal and
perseverance in ransacking archives and
disinterring ancient MSS. are above all
praise. In 1842 he became an F.S.A.
and, also a Doctor of Philosophy at Stock-
holm.

The last English writer on musical subjects whom we shall mention
is Sir George Grove. He was born in 1820, and was originally a civil
engineer, but in 1849 he became secretary to the Society of Arts, and
three years later he devoted himself to the Crystal Palace Company, in
connection with which he acted as secretary, manager, and director for
about thirty years. The admirable analytical programmes of the Crystal
Palace Concerts, signed " G." were written by him, and in conjunction with
their excellent conductor, Mr. Manns, Sir George Grove may be credited
with the main part of the success which these celebrated concerts attained.
In 1883 he was appointed the first Principal of the newly-founded Royal
College of Music, and on the inauguration of that institution he received
the honour of knighthood. In 1885 the University of Glasgow conferred
upon him the honorary degree of LL.D., in addition to that of D.C.L.,
which he already held from the University of Durham. This is not tne
place to enlarge upon his valuable labours and writings in connection with

Fig. 300. — Sir George Grove.

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC. 1309

Dr. Smith's " Dictionary of the Bible/' nor with his exertions as one of
the original promoters of the Palestine Exploration Fund. Probably his
most valuable work is the " Dictionary of Music and Musicians/' of which
he is the editor. Many of the best articles in this most useful book are
of his writing.

It only remains for us now to give a hasty sketch of some of the
Musical Institutions of England, which have had a very great share in
improving our national taste in matters musical.

There can be no doubt that a very important step was taken in the
cultivation ,of native talent in England by the foundation, in 1822, of the
Royal Academy of Music. This most excellent institution, after many
struggles against pecuniary difficulties, succeeded in securing a Royal
Charter of Incorporation in 1830. In 1864 a yearly grant of £500 was
obtained from Government to subsidise the small funds of the Academy.
This, however, was withdrawn in 1867, md, in consequence, it was almost
determined to resign the charter and close the institution. By the strenuous
exertions of the professional members of the staff this calamity was averted,
and the Academy was reconstructed under the presidentship of the late Lord
Dudley. In 1868 the Government grant was restored, and is still in force,
since which time the Academy has continued to flourish, and has main-
tained its great influence for good. The first principal was Dr. Crotch,
who was appointed in 1823 and resigned in 1832 ; then followed Cipriani
Potter, 1832 to 1859; Charles Lucas, 1859 to 1866; Sir William Stern-
dale Bennett, 1866 to 1875; and Sir George Alexander Macfarren, who has
held the post from 1875 to the present day.

Among the many excellent vocalists whom the Royal Academy of Music
has trained, we may mention Arthur Edward Shelden Seguin (born 1809,
died 1852), an extremely good bass singer, and his wife, Ann Seguin, nee
Childe, an equally successful soprano ; also Mrs. Alfred Shaw, nee Postans
(born 1814, died 1876), who made a good name for herself as a con-
tralto; and Miss Dolby, afterwards Mme. Sainton (born 1821, died
1885), celebrated as a contralto. The Academy has also trained many
eminent instrumentalists, of whom we may mention the following : — Henry
Gamble Blagrove (born 1811, died 1872), perhaps the best known violinist
England has produced; Charles Lucas (born 1808, died 1869), a first-
class violoncellist ; John Thomas (born in 1826), celebrated as a harpist;

1310 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Thomas John Harper (son of the celebrated virtuoso on the trumpet) , who
inherited all his father's skill, and equalled him in his reputation ; and
William Lovell Phillips (born 1816, died 1860), well known as a violoncello
player. But perhaps the greatest success of the Academy has been in the
composers who have been trained within its walls. When we mention
such names as Sir William Sterndale Bennett, Sir George A. Macfarren,
R. Brinley Richards, John Hullah, and last, but by no means least, Sir
Arthur Sullivan, besides many others who have been already spoken of in
previous pages, we shall have no difficulty in showing the immense amount
of good which the cause of music in this country has received from the
Royal Academy of Music.

Of late years another institution, the Royal College of Music, has been
inaugurated under most favourable circumstances and Royal patronage,
under the able presidency of Sir George Grove, and with a powerful staff of
teachers. It is too early as yet to speak of its results, but it promises to
furnish us with well-trained performers of every description, and will be, no
doubt, a most valuable agent in promoting the advancement of the art of
music in England. Of other kindred institutions, such as Trinity College,
London, and the Guildhall School of Music, we have not space to say much.
But it cannot be but they must each in their degree exercise a great in-
fluence on the art for good. The saine may be said of the excellent College
of Organists, which we heartily wish God-speed. But it is not by any of
these institutions that the taste of the British public is most directly culti-
vated. It is rather by opportunities of hearing the best music well done
that this can best be achieved. In the early part of the present century
the only institutions which aimed at such an object were the Italian opera,
the Concerts of Ancient Music, and the Philharmonic Society. The first
impulse to Italian opera in London had been given early in the eighteenth
century, as we have already shown. All the greatest dramatic singers,
principally foreign indeed, though sometimes native, were heard in Italian
opera. Such names as Mme. Mara, Mrs. Billington, and others in the latter
part of the last century, were followed up in Italian opera by Catalani,
the far-famed soprano, our own Braham, equally celebrated as a tenor, and
such artists as Grassini, Pisaroni, and others. Then came the epoch of.^
Pasta, Malibran, Grisi, Persiani, and their male contemporaries, Rubini,
Mario, Tamburini, and Lablache, forming such a combination of talent as

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC. 1311

will probably never be brought tog-ether again, and which many of us can
still remember with delight. And after these were others, such as the
magnificent contralto Alboni, the matchless soprano Jenny Lind (now
Mme. Goldschmidt) , and many more whom to name is almost super-
fluous, as they belong more or less to the present generation — such names,
that is, as Tietjens, Faure, Giuglini, Trebelli, and Albani, for whose pre-
sentation to English ears we are indebted to Italian opera. Nor are we
without almost equal indebtedness to English opera for bringing before us
such singers as Parepa, Marie Roze, and Joseph Maas. At the same time,
the Triennial Festivals at the Cathedrals of Worcester, Gloucester, and
Hereford have been of nearly as much use in introducing some of the best
of our English and foreign singers and instrumentalists to the inhabitants
of the provinces, and thus spreading a taste for good music through a very
wide area. To these must be added the eminently successful festivals held
every third year at Birmingham, not to mention those at Norwich and
many other local centres.

Then, besides these various institutions, there have been others intended
for the encouragement of a pure taste for serious and classical music of
various kinds. Of these, the first which claims notice is the " Concerts
of Ancient Music/' an excellent institution, founded in 1776, of which
the fundamental rule was that no music composed within the previous
twenty years should be performed. At these concerts the highest style of
music, both secular and sacred, was performed in the best possible manner
by an excellent orchestra and chorus, and all the best singers of the day
were employed as soloists. It was at these concerts that the writer of
this account first heard those two incomparable and inseparable performers,
Lindley, the violoncellist, and Dragonetti, the contra-bassist. It was at
the Concerts of Ancient Music that Catalani and Miss Stephens (afterwards
Countess of Essex) made their debuts. It is not creditable to English
public taste to record the ultimate cessation of these admirable concerts
through want of adequate support.

The next society which we must mention is the "Philharmonic
Society," which was founded in London in the year 1813 for the en-
couragement and performance of music for the orchestra. Probably no
musical institution has had so uninterrupted a career of success in this
country as the Philharmonic Society. None has produced so many new

1312 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

works of first-class excellence, nor given a first hearing to so many de-
serving artists. This admirable Society still flourishes, and contrives
to hold its own amid the crowd of rival institutions which have sprung
up of late years in our midst for the advancement of kindred objects.
Of some of these institutions we must now go on to speak.

The first which claims notice is the Sacred Harmonic Society. This
excellent organisation was originated in 1832, and its objects were, chiefly,
the performance of oratorios and other great sacred choral works in the best
possible manner. In 1834 the Society, after sundry migrations, made its
home at Exeter Hall, in the Strand, where it remained till 1880. The
chorus consisted mainly of amateurs, and the orchestra included the best
executants to be found in London, while care was taken to secure first-class
vocalists for the solos, &c. In 1837 the first steps were taken by this
Society for the formation of what ultimately grew to be the finest musical
library in England. This library has recently been purchased for the Royal
College of Music. The first conductor of the Sacred Harmonic Society
was Joseph Surman, who was succeeded (after a short interval), in 1848,
by Sir Michael Costa. Soon after this the band and chorus numbered
700 efficient performers. In 1857 the first Handel Festival was organised
by this Society at the Crystal Palace at Sydenham ; the marvellous success
of this <f monster gathering/' and of all the Handel Festivals which have
succeeded it, is too well known to need further notice here. In 1880 the
Society had to leave their old quarters at Exeter Hall, owing to a change
of proprietorship, and this soon led to the dissolution of the institution, a
result greatly to be deplored in the interests of the art. The massive way
in which Handel's oratorios were rendered by the Sacred Harmonic band
and chorus was grand in the extreme, nor can those who have had the
privilege of attending these performances easily forget the effect produced
at them by such singers as Mme. Clara Novello (whose ringing soprano
voice filled the vast space of the Crystal Palace as no other has ever
done) ; or that prince among tenors, Sims Beeves, the worthy successor
to the popularity of Braham ; or Santley, the justly celebrated baritone ;
or Miss M. B. Hawes, the contralto ; or Miss Dolby, afterwards married
to the excellent violinist, Prospere Sainton, who also formed a principal
feature in the Sacred Harmonic orchestra.

Then we must not forget the " Musical Union " which we have

MODERN ENGLISH MUSIC. 13] 3

already alluded to, in speaking of John Ella. This society was inaugurated
in 1844, and had for its object the presentation to its members of the best
possible performances of classical chamber music. Probably no similar
society, here or abroad, has ever maintained so uniformly high a standard
of excellence, both in the choice and in the performance of chamber com-
positions, as Ella's Musical Union. When we mention that 75 first-rate
pianists, 112 performers on stringed instruments, and 27 on wind instru-
ments, every one of them of the very best, have been heard (many of them
for the first time in England) at these concerts, it will be seen what a great
influence this society has had in spreading and encouraging a taste for high-
class music among the nobility and the upper class of society in London.
Still, this was after all but a limited sphere of good influence. It was
reserved for another institution to carry a similar good influence into
other strata of society, and thus to improve the taste of a vast number
of persons who otherwise would have been without any opportunities
of becoming familiar with high-class music. The firm of music pub-
lishers, Messrs. Chappell and Co., were the projectors of the Monday
Popular Concerts, by which this great end has been achieved. Never
before in England had it been possible to hear the best instrumental
chamber music performed by the very best artists for the sum of one
shilling. At these concerts the public had opportunities of hearing such
pianists as Charles Halle, Arabella Goddard, Mme. Schumann, Herr von
Billow, and others equally great. There, too, were constantly heard
Joachim and Mme. Norman-Neruda, the celebrated violinists, or the no
less well-known violoncellist Piatti. And although at first the attendance
hardly seemed to justify the 'continuance of so bold and novel an experi-
ment, yet at length these concerts completely answered to their name, and
became popular indeed; so much so, that in 1865 additional Popular
Concerts of exactly the same kind began to be given also on Saturdays, a
practice which has prevailed ever since with the most marked success.

There are yet many other societies and associations which have in their
degree tended to a similar result. But space forbids us to enlarge upon
them farther in this place.

We must, however, before we conclude this chapter, say a few words
about the astonishing improvement which has taken place in the Church
music of England during the last half-century. This is mostly due to the
F F p P

1314 HISTORY OF MUSIC.

formation of choral unions and associations in connection with the different
dioceses or archdeaconries, and may be considered to have been indirectly a
consequence of the spread of the well-known system of teaching music
to large classes which was introduced by Dr. John Hullah. These choral
unions employ teachers who go about among the various parish choirs, training
them upon a uniform system, and thus preparing them for collective meet-
ings at various central churches, where great effects are produced by the
large bodies of the rural choristers who join in the service. In some cathe-
drals over two thousand voices have sometimes been thus brought together
with the happiest results. The whole country has been now brought under
this excellent organisation, more or less, and a vastly increased interest in
Church music has been the natural result. Choral services may now be
heard in many a village church, where formerly only a few bad voices
roared or howled to the accompaniment of a barrel-organ, or to that of a
few rural fiddlers in a gallery. It is impossible to overrate the importance
of this onward step from every point of view, and it is a pleasant feature
to contemplate in the general aspect of musical culture and development in
England.

From what has been mentioned in this chapter, it is surely evident that
the love of music is increasing apace amongst us. We have now good
music by English composers of every kind — sacred and secular, vocal and
instrumental, dramatic, ecclesiastical, or martial. We have admirable
organists, pianists, violinists, vocalists, &c., fit to compete with any other
nation in the world. We have also an ever-increasing popular appreciation
of what is really good, which cannot but lead to even more satisfactory
results in the future.

When, therefore, we find England stigmatised as an essentially un-
musical country, not only by foreigners, but also by Englishmen who
ought to, know better, we can confidently point to the facts here sketched
out, and claim them as irrefragable proofs that such a low estimate of our
national taste and powers is in truth nothing less than a calumny.

F. A. G. O.

INDEX.

Abert, Joseph, composer, 1215

Abt, Franz, song writer, 1050, 1217

Abyngton, Henry, 804

Achmed ben Muhamed, writer on music, 91

Adam, A. Ch., French comic opera composer,

1098
Adam, famous Church vocalist and composer

of sequences, 203
Adam von Fulda, 202, 433
Adams, T., composer, 1282
Adufe, an Israelitic timbrel, 64
^Eschylus, 143
Agazzari, Ag., 534
d'Agoult, Countess, friend of Liszt, known as a

gifted writer under the name of Daniel

Stern, 1190

Agricola, Alex., motet writer, 361
Agujari, Lucrezia, singer, 1268
Aichinger, Gregor, German composer, 617
Aist, Dietmar von, 239
Albani, soprano, 1311
d' Albert, Eugene, pianist, 1270
Alberti, Domenico, 543

Albinoni, Tommasso, violinist and composer, 545
Alboni, M., contralto, 1005, 1137
Albrechtsberger, J. G., 731, 879
Albrici, B., 653

Albuzzi-Todeschini, Teresa, 732
Alcseus, 127, 131

Alcock, John, Church composer, 925
Aldrich, Henry, 753
d'Alembert, Jean le Rond, 836
Alfred, King of England, 399
Alkan, Ch. H. B., 1105
Alkman, 129

Allard, D., violinist, 1272
Allegri, Gregorio, 69, 85, 172, 366, 512
Altnikol, J. Ch., 781
Alvsleben, M. Otto, singer, 1267
Alygius, 156

Amati, violin maker, 530
Ambros, A. W., historian, 1223
Ambrose, St., 181
Ambrosian or authentic scales, 185
Amiot, 11
Ammergau, 771
Ammon, A. B., composer, 618
Amorevoli, Angelo, tenor, 703
Amphion, 118
Anacker, 1201
Ander, Al., singer, 1270
Ane, Hartmann von, 245

Anerio, Felice and Giovanni, Italian composers,
512

F P F P 2

Anfossi, P., 1131

Animuccia, Giov., 373

Anton, 75

Antonia, Maria, of Saxony, 727

Apollo (Phoebus), patron deity of Egyptian

song, 37

Apostles of Netherland School, 354
d'Aquila, Marco, composer, 497
Aquinos, Thomas, known as "Dr. Angelicus,"

204

Arabians, their knowledge of harmony, 89
Archilei, Vittoria, a singer, 523
Arion, 127
Ariosti, Attilio, 800
Aristonimos, 156
Aristote, old French writer, 292
Aristotle, Greek, 113
Aristotle, German, 399
Aristoxenos, 126
Arkadelt, Jacob, a famous Dutch master, 343;

his compositions, 372
Arnaud, Abbe, 835
Arne, Thomas Augustine, English opera com

poser, 916

d'Arneiro, Ferreira, Portuguese composer, 1265
Arrietta, Juan, Spanish writer, 1264
Ars organandi, earliest attempts at part-writing

Arston, Hugh, English composer, 668

Artot, Desiree, singer, 1269

Artus (aux Couteaux), composer, 591

Artusi, G. M., 521

Asaph, 72, 84

Ashwell, Thomas, 668, 681

Assyrians, Instruments of, 55

Astarte, 56

Aston, H., 668

Astorga, Emanuele, Church composer, 577

Athenodor, 156

Attwood, T., 1287

Auber, D. F. E., French opera composer, 1058;
the father of modern French opera, his
Masaniello, 1066 ; his operas analysed, 1096

Auxcouste, 612

Averie, 681

Avicenna, 91

B

Babbi, Gregorio, singer, 703
Babylonians, Music of, 56
Bach, A. Magdalina, 777
Bach, Christopher, 639, 770, 771
Bach, Christopher Friedr., 792

1316

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Bach, Fried mann, 77?'

Bach, Hans, 771

Bach, Heinrich, 637

Bach, Joh., 775

Bach, Joh. Ambros, 773

Bach, Joh. Christopher, 636, 773

Bach, Joh. Mich., 636

Bach, Joh. Sebastian, his work, 768 ; originator
of a new period in art, 769 ; his progenitors,
771 ; his organ playing, 789 ; his hand-
writing, 790 ; marries, 775 ; his 48 pre-
ludes and fugues, 776 ; remarries, 777 ; his
emoluments, 778 ; contention with Leipzig
Town Council, 779 ; his compositions, 780 ;
Frederick the Great and Bach, 781 ; dies,
783 ; amalgamation of his works, 783 ;
summary, 794

Bach, Maria Barbara, 775

Bach, Michael, 638, 771

Bach, Phil. Em., 781

Bach, Veit, 771

Bachelor degree in music, 671

Bader, C., tenor, 1004, 1025, 1027

Bai, Tomaso, 366

Baillot, Fr., violinist, 1101

Bailly du Rollet, 834

Balfe, Michael William, opera composer, 1248,
1279

Banchieri, A., organist, 546

Banck, C., critic, 1038

Banister, Gilbert, English composer, 668

Barak, 64

Barbaja, 1128

Bardi, Giov., Count de Bernio, 516; part-
proprietor of the opera, 521

Barer, H., 953

Bargiel, Woldemar, pupil of S. Dehn, 1029,
composer, 1203

Bariola, Ottavio, organist, composer, and pub-
lisher, 546

Barmann, Heinrich, 964

Barnby, J., 1302

Barnett, J., 1281

Barnett, J. F., 1300

Baroque in music, 408

Barrow, 11

Bassani, G., violin composer, 532

Bateson, T., composer, 685

Batten, D. A., English composer, 739

Battishill, J., composer, 925

Becker, Albert, pupil of S. Dehn, 1029, 1213

Becker, K. F., 1217, 1229

Beech, 681

Beethoven, Ludwig von, 927 ; instrumental
music, 929 ; his symphonies, 930 — 932 ; an
ardent republican, his birth, 934 ; early
works, 935 ; the generosity of three of his
patrons, 936 ; fond of the country, 937 ; his
generosity, 940 ; his compositions, 942 ;
analysis of his symphony form, 943 ; choral
symphony form, 945 ; his religion, 947 ; his
domestic worries, 948 ; his bearing towards
nobility, 952

Behaim, 253

B61a, Keler, composer, 1266

Bellermann, Fr., 1224

Bellermann, H., 1224, 1226

Belli, Giov., 732

Bellini, Vincenzo, 1131 ; his Norma considerecL
1132

Benda, Franz, 989

Benda, George, 728 ; composer, 909

Benedict, J., German pianist and composer, 1250,
1287

Benet, J., composer, 684

Benevoli, Orazio, 515

Bennett, Sir Sterndale, 1035 ; English com-
poser, 1249, 1283, 1309, 1310

Benoit, Peter, Flemish composer, 1256

Benserade, ballet writer, 592

Berchem, Jacob, 371

Bergen, Phil., 392

Berger, Ludwig, 973, 1024

Beriot, Ch. A. de, violinist, 1104

Berlioz, Hector, on Gluck, 849, 1040, 1163;
birth, 1165; his first compositions, 1166;
remarkable scoring, 1167 ; programme music,
1168; his criticism on Kichard Wagner,
1168 ; as a litterateur, 1170

Bernachi, 704

Bernard of Clairvaux, famous Church vocalist
and composer of sequences, 203

Bernardi, called Senesino (mezzo-soprano), 703

Bernasconi, later Wagele, A., prima donna,
709

Bernhard, the German organ builder, 547, 548

Berti, organist, 546

Bertini, pianist and composer, 1105

Berton (father), early French opera composer,

Berton, H. M. (son), French composer, 1062

Best, W. T., composer, 1299

Betz, Franz, singer, 1185, 1270

Bevin, Elway, English composer, 737

Bharata (demi-god), 33

Bianciardi, Franc., 494

Biber, H. F. von, Venetian master, 589, 623;

improver of the sonata form, 623
Billington, Mrs., singer 1310
Binchois, Egidius. or Gilles de Bins, early

theorist and composer, 317, 357
Bini, Italian violinist, 707
Bird, Wm., see Byrd
Bird, writer on Hindoo music, 24
Bisconti, Catarina, singer, 703
Bishop, Sir H., composer, 1276
Bitter, K. H., 1227

Bizet, G., French opera composer, 1242
Blagrove, H. G., violinist, 1309
Blaise, St., 182
Blanc, Ad., 1240
Blangini, G., 1094
" Blest Pair of Sirens," Smith, 1276
Blitheman, William, 687
Blow, Dr., 752

" Blow, Gentle Gales," Bishop, 1277
"Blow, Warder, Blow," Callcott, 1275
Blume, H., baritone, 1025, 1027
Blumner, Martin, pupil of S. Dehn, 1029, 1218
Boccherini, Luigi, composer, 707
Bockh, A., 1224

Bodenschatz, Ehrhard, German composer, 614
Boes (Buus), Jakob van, organist and composer,

371

Boesset, Antoine, composer and ballet writer, 591
Boethius, 396

INDEX.

1317

Bohemian Girl, The, Balfe, 1280
Bohme, Magnus, collector, 1228
Boieldieu, F. A., French opera composer, 1067,

1087

Boi'to, Arrigo, Italian opera composer, 1236
Bondman, The, Balfe, 1280
Bononcini, G. B., 543
Bononcini, or Buononcini, composer, 702, 912,

1029

Bontempi, G. A., 653

Bordoni, Faustina (see Hasse, F. ), singer, 703
Borghesi, organist, 546
Borodin, Alex., Russian composer, 1260
Bortnianski, D., Russian composer, 1260
Both, Jean, 989
Box and Cox, Sullivan, 1301
Boyce, William, sacred composer, 922
Braham, John, English tenor, 1270, 1310
Brahms, Joh., composer, 1042 ; his birth, 1198 ;

his works discussed, 1200.
Brambach, Jos., 1217
Bramston, 681
Brandt, Karoline (Karl Maria von Weber's

wife), 964

Brandt, Mariana, singer, 1267
Bratfisch, musik-director, 1035
Breitkopf and Hartel, 899, 901
Brendel, Franz, one of Wagner's biographers,

1186 ; and historian, 1224
Breteuil, 1062

Breuning, Steph. von, 934, 942
Bride of Dunkerron, The, Smart, 1287
Bronsart, Hans von, pianist and composer, 1192,

Broschi, Carlo, called Farinelli, soprano, 703

Brossard, Sebastian de, 612

Brown, English composer, 668

Bruch, Max, composer, 1207

Bruhl, Graf (Count), 1118

Brull, Ignaz, 1099

Brumel, Ant., Nether land composer, 339

Brunelli, 615

Brunetti, G., of Pisa, violinist, 707; com-
poser, 1139

Bruni, Caletti (see Cavalli, FT.), 535

Buchner, E., 1035

Bulesz, singer, 1270

Bull, Dr. John, 687 ; author of "God Save the
King, "737

Bull, Ole, Scandinavian violinist, 1271

Billow, Cosima von, after Cosima Wagner, 1184

Bulow, Hans von, eminent pianist and Wag-
nerian conductor, 1186 ; pupil of Liszt, 1212,

Bungert, Aug., 1216

Buononcini, Giov., 603, 912

Burbure, L. de, Belgian historian, 1256

Burck, Joachim, Protestant composer, 478

Biirde-Ney, J., 1133

Burgmuller, Norb., pupil of M. Hauptmann,

1032, 1050

Burlington, Count, 807
Burney, Dr. C., 1304
Burton, Avery, 668
Busby, Dr. T., 1305
Busnois, Ant. de, harmonist and theorist, 318,

321, 356
Buxtehude, Dietrich, celebrated organist, 629

"By Celia's Arbour," Horsley, 1276
Byrd (or Bird or Byrde), William, English
composer, 678, 681

Caccini, Giulio, composer, singer, and author, 522
Calcott, John Wall, Dr., glee writer, 919, 1275
Caldara, Antonio, opera composer, 544
Calvisius, Sethus (Jak. Kallwitz), see Kallwitz,

477

Calzabigi, Raniero, 830

Cambert, Robert, first French operatic com-
poser, 592

Campana, song writer, 1240
Campra, Andrea, 602
Cannabich, Chr., 875
Canon, Use of, 286
Cantus firmus, used by Evangelical composers of

the Reformation period, 428
Canzonets, first use of them, 232
Captivity, The, Crotch, 1290
Carafa, M., opera composer, 1094
Carestini (Cusanino), contralto, 703
Carey, Henry, the first who sang "God Save

the King," and supposed to be the real

composer of it, 914
Carissimi, Giacomo, originator of the Cantata da

Camera (oratorio), 515
Carlton, R., composer, 684
Carmen, 314
Caron, Firmin, 298, 317
Carpani, G.,879
Casella, P., 368
Caselli, 704

Castanets, used by the Israelites, 73
Castil-Blaze, French composer, 1246
Catalani, Aug., singer, 1026, 1136
Catel, Ch. S., French historian, theorist, 1106
Caustun, English composer, 676
Cavaliere, Emilio del, ducal superintendent of

fine arts, 521 ; first writer of a play the

whole of which was told in music, 523
Cavalli, Francesco, opera writer, 535
Cavendish, M., composer, 685
Cecilia, St., 174, 178
Celano, Thomas of, writer of Italian sequence.

204

Celestine I., Pope, 189
Cellini, 515

Cerma"k, Luid., composer, 1266
Cernohofsky, Bohuslav, 1261
Cesaris, 314

Cesti, Marc Antonio, 536
Chaldseans, Music of, 56
ChalU, 91
Chamber music, Schumann and Mendelssohn,

685, 1051

Chandos, Duke of, 757
Chappell, William, historian, 286, 395, 400,

556, 559, 1306
Chapuy, Lorenz, 265
Charlemagne, Emperor, 193
Charles I. of England, 740
Charles X., 1072
Charlier, Jean, 277
Che', Chinese stringed instrument, 15
Chelard, H., French comic opera composer, 1098

1318

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Chelys, Greek stringed instrument, 148
Cheng, Chinese wind instrument, 15
Cherubini, M. L. : Mendelssohn taken to, 1030,

1058, 1059; and Napoleon L, 1060; sacred

and opera composer, 1109 ; idealist, 1114
Chevalier de Guise, 593
Chevillard, 1272
Chezy, Helmine von, 966
Chifonie (see Organistrum), 195
Chinese, 7
Chiron, 118
Chladni, F., 609, 1232
Chopin, Frederick, pianist and composer, 1041 ;

creator of a new pianoforte style, 1043 ;

possessed a most poetical and refined nature,

1042 ; raises the dance form into an art-

form, 1043; his works, 1044; birth, his

respect for women, 1045 ; on Mendelssohn,

1046 ; in London, 1047, 1263
Chorale, its introduction into the Protestant

Church, 430

Chorley, H., critic, 1251, 1306
Choron, Alex., profound French theorist, 1106
Chouquet, A. G., musical savant, 1247
Christmas, Macfarren, 1296
Chromatic scale, first extensive use of, 491
Chrysander, Frederick, biographer, 821, 1229
Chrysostomus, 180

Church music and English writers, 401, 920, 1314
Church song, introduction of popular secular

melodies, 309
Cratinus, 156
Ciconia, Johannes, of Lieges, composer and

poet, 356

Cimarosa, Dom., opera composer, 701
Cithar, Greek instrument, 148
Clark, Jeremiah, organist, 756
Clark- Whitfield, J., 1291
Clauss, Wilhelmine, pianist, 1024, 1207
Clavicembalo, forerunner of the pianoforte, 499
Clavichord, 583

Clemens non Papa, Netherland writer, 345
Clementi, Muzio, 909
Cobbold, W., composer, 685
Coclicus, Adrian Petit, 343
Colasse, 596
Colbran, Mile., 1128
CoUege of Organists, 1310
Colombo,, Mackenzie, 1302
Commer, Franz, 616

Compere, Louis, Netherland composer, 339
Comus, C. Horsley, 1295
Concertos, best English written were by Dr.

Arne, John Stanley, John Alcock, and

William Felton, 919
Conduit, musical form, 284
Constantin, 180
Conti, Francesco, 696
Contrabandists, The, Sullivan, 1301
Cooke, Dr. Benjamin, glee writer, 919
Cooper, Dr., 681
Coperario, John, 738
Corbrand, 681
Corelli, Arcang., 532, 552
Corneille, Thomas, 596
Cornelius, Peter, composer of the New German

School, 1210
Cornello, Antonio del, 520

Cornysh, "William, English composer, 668

Cornysh, William, Junr., English composer, 668

Corsi, Jac., 521

Cortesi, Francesco, Italian opera composer, 1236

Costa, Sir Michael, Italian conductor and com-
poser, 1249, 1312

Coszmann, B., violoncellist, 1273

Cotton, John, English writer, 560

Coucy, Chatelain de, 233

Counterpoint, first use of, 278

Country church choirs, 926

Couperin, Armand Louis, organist, 611

Couperin, Francois, composer for organ and
piano, 611

Couperin, Louis, organist, 611

Couperin, Louise, singer, 611

Couperin, Marg. Antoin., pianist, 611

Couperin, Nicholas, organist, 611

Coussemaker, F. D., musical historian, 275, 1256

Couteaux, Maitre aux, better known by his
sobriquet Artus, composer, 591

Co wen, F. H., 1303

Cramer, F. B., pianist and composer, 1249

Crane, William, 804

Crates, 152

Cratinus, 156

Crescentini, G., singer, 1135

Creyghton, Dr. R., 754

Cristofori, Bartolom., inventor of the pianoforte,

Croce, Giovanni, Venetian master, 494, 685

Croft, William, 756, 921

Crotch, W., composer, 1290, 1306

Crotta, 396

Grout (French), see Kota, 196

Crwt (Welsh), see Kota, 196 ; ancient violin of

Wales, 396
Curschmann, K. Fr., pupil of Moritz Haupt-

mann, 1032, 1050
Cusanino (see Carestini), 703
Cuzzoni, Francesca, singer, 704
Cymbals, 77
Cyprian, 180

Czartoryska, Katharine, 1047
Czerny, K., composer, 1262

D

Da capo, invented by Tenaglia, 575

Da Foggia, 615

Dalayrac, N., French comic opera composer, 1080

Damm, Fr., 1235

Damon of Athens, musical tutor of Socrates,

153
Damrosch, Leopold, composer of the New

German School, 1211
Danby. glee writer, 919
Dance tune, Old English, 554
Daughter of St. Mark, The, Balfe, 1280
David, Fel., violinist and composer, 1100, 1244
David, Ferd., 1032; violinist, pupil of Spohr,

David, King, 65, 66, 67

Davis, Robert, 681

Davy, Richard, English composer, 668

Day, John, composer, 675

De Ahna, violinist, 1272

Deborah, 64

INDEX.

1319

De Handle, R., writer, 561

Dehn, Siegfried, theorist and historian, 1232

Deiters, H., 1251

Dejazet, 1105

Delaborde, J. B., French comic opera composer,

1079

De la Croix, Pierre, 297
De la Guerre, Marin, 602
De la Hale, Adam, 591, 1076
Delibes, Leo, French opera composer, 1243
Demantius, Christoph., theorist, 619
Derabukkeh, Islamitic drum, 109
Desaides, 1077
Desbordes, singer, 1063
Descartes, 604
Desmarets, 602

Des Pres, Josquin, 340, 342, 358
Dessauer, Jos., composer, 1050
Destouches, A. C., 602
Devrient, Ed., 1031

Devrient, Schroeder-, great dramatic singer, 1022
Diaphonic system, propagated in Italy, 209
Dibdin, C., composer, 1282
Dido and JEneas, Purcell, 751
Dietrich, A., pupil of M. Hauptmann, 1032, 1204
Dio Cassius, 41
Diodorus, 157, 176
Diodorus (monk), musician, 165
Dionysos, 121

Diruta, Girolamo, organist, 546
Discantus, Origin of, 214
Dittersdorf , Karl von, composer and comic opera

writer, 909

"Dixit Dominus," Wesley, 1289
Doctor of Music, first use of title, 563
Dohler, Theodore, 1262
Doles, Johann Friedr., composer, 716
Dommer, Arrey von, historian, 1224
Donati, B., Venetian composer, 494, 615
Doni, Battista, 521
Donizetti, Gaetano, opera composer, 1133 ; his

works analysed, 1134
Donndorf, 1030
Dorer, 123
Dorffel, A., 1229
Dorn, Heinr., 1036
Dowland, John, composer, 688
Draghi of Ferrara, 536
Dragonetti, contrabassist, 1311
Draseke, Felix, composer, 1212
Dreyschock, Al., 1262
Drobisch, M. W., 609
Drouet, L., flautist, 1104
Duchemin, 373
Dufay, G., head of the Gallo-Belgic School, 300 ;

his compositions, 308; introduces secular

melodies into Church song, 309
Dufour, French violinist and violoncellist, 984
Dumanoir I. and II., 266
Dumont, Henri, composer, 591
Duni, F. K., 1077

Dimstable, J., theorist and composer, 562
Dupont, F. A., 1035
Duport, L., violoncellist, 1100
Duprez, Louis, great French tenor, 1076
Durante, Francesco, Church composer, 577
Durastani, singer, 703
Durer, Albrecht, 796

Dussek, 1024

Dux (Ducis), Benedict or Hertoghs, Netherland

composer, 344

Dvofak, Anton, composer, 1262
Dygon, John, English composer, 671
Dykes, Rev. J. B., composer, 1295

Eberlin, J. F., 875

Eberstorff, Peter, 264

Eccard, Johannes, Protestant composer, 479

Eck, Franz, violinist, 984

Eckert, K., 1116 ; composer, 1209

Edward VI. of England, good amateur musician,
674

Eeden, Van der, 934

Egyptians, a musical people, 34

Ehrlich, Heinrich, musical savant, 1235

Eitner, Robert, 1229

Ella, J., 1305

Elleviou, 1063

Eloy, 317

Elvey, Sir G. J., composer, 1297

Engel, Gustave, musical savant, 1235

English music : early, 395 ; in the Middle Ages,
552 ; in reigns of Henry VIII. , Edward VI.,
and Mary, 664 ; in reign of Elizabeth,
675; 1600-1660, 733; after Restoration',
746 ; old songs, 913

Enzemuller, 615

Ephraim, St., 182

' ' Epigones, " 1193

Erard, J. Baptiste, wealthy and renowned piano-
forte manufacturer, 1115

Erato, 120

Erbach, Christian, organist and composer, 616

Erdody, Marie, 952

Ernst, Heinr. Wilh., violinist, 993

Eslava, Don Miguel Hilarion, Spanish composer
and writer, 1265

Essipoff, Annette, Russian pianist, 1270

Este, Michael, 684

Este, Thomas, 689

Esterhazy, Karoline, 861

Esterhazy, Prince : Haydn enters the service of
the Esterhazy family, 861

Ethan, 72

Ethiopians, Music of, 53

Euclid, 156

Euripides, 144, 831

Euterpe, 120

"Exultate Deo," Wesley, 1289

Eyck, H. van, 320, 771

Faccio, Franco, 1239
Farina, Carlo, violin composer, 531
Farinelli (see Broschi, Carlo), 703
Farmer, J., composer, 684
Farnaby, Giles, 687

Farrant, Richard, English composer, 679
Fasch, K. F., composer, 1025
Faszmann, Aug., singer, 1025, 1027
"Father of Heroes," Calcott, 1275
Fattorini, organist, 546

Faugues, Vincentius (1415 A.D.), composer, 317:
his compositions, 356

1320

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Faure, singer, 1311

Faustina (see Hasse, Faustina), 568

Fay, Count Stephan, Hungarian historian, 1266

Fayolle, F. J. M., theorist, 1106

Fayrfax, Kobert, English composer, 668

Ferat, 24

Ferrabosco, Alfonso, 738

Ferrari, D., Italian violinist, 707

Festa, Constanzo, 503

Fetis, F. J., historian, celebrated critic, 1256

Fibich, Zdenko, composer, 1263

Field, John, English composer, 1043, 1249, 1282

Fievee, 1088

Figured bass, in Church music, 534, 545

Fillago, organist, 546

Fink, Heinrich, song writer, 440

Fink, Herm., 440

Fioravanti, Val., 701

Flavian, 176

Florimo, Franc., composer, 1239

Flotow, Friedr. von, opera composer, 1003

Flutes, used by Egyptians, 52

Fo-Hi, 8

Folk-music, The rise of, 226

Folz, 253

Ford, 738

Fording, 681

Forkel, J. N., 294, 698

Francesina, singer, 703

Franchomme, A., 1047 ; violoncellist, 1272

Franck, Melchior, sacred composer, 633

Franco of Cologne, early writer on harmony,
216 ; first to adopt the signs longa, brevis,
the maxima or duplex longa, 217 ; and the
mensural theory, 270

Franco of Paris, theorist, 293

Franz, Robert, song writer, 1202

Frasi, singer, 703

Frauenlob, Heinrich, 249

Frederick George, 480

Frederick William III., 1116

Frederick William IV., 1118

Frege, Livia, 1036

French comic opera, its growth, 1077

French opera, Auber, Halevy, Rossini, Meyer-
beer, Gluck, Spontini, Cherubim, 1058

Frescobaldi, G., organist, 546, 548

Freya's Gift, Macfarren, 1296

Friedlander, Max, 975

Froberger, Joh. Jakob, organist and composer,
619 ; first employs modern five-line staff, 621

" From Oberon in Fairyland," Stevens, 1276

Fugger, Jacob, merchant prince, 616

Fugue, initiatory stages, 496 ; Kuhnau, 633

Fiirnberg, Baron, 861

Furstenau, A. B., 967, 1228

Flirstenau, K., 1228

Furstenau, M., 1228

Fux, Joh. Jos., sacred and operatic composer, 657

G

Gabrieli, Andrea, Venetian master and com-
poser, 492, 614

Gabrieli, Giovanni, composer and organist, 493
Gade, Niels, 1034 ; Danish composer, 1252
Galilei, Vincenzo, composer, lutist, mathe-
matician, and litterateur, 521

Gallus (Handl), German composer, 614

Galuppi, Baldassare, excellent composer of
opera buffa, 543, 701

Gamucci, 1240

Gandharven, 21

Garcia, Manuel, 704, 1104

Garcia, Pauline Viardot, singer, 704, 1005, 1104

Garlande, Jean de, theorist and composer, 28(3 ;
his theory, 292

Gasparini, Gaetano, 1240

Gasparo di Salo, 530

Gastoldi, G. G., Venetian composer, 494, 615

Gatti, Teobaldo, 602

Gauntlett, Dr. H. J., composer, 1295

Gaveaux, P., 1080

Gavinies, P., 1100

Generali, P., opera composer, 1131

Gennzinger, Frau von, 878

George II., 822

George IV., 1128

Gerarde, D., writer, 667

Gerbert, Hornau, 294

Gerhardt, Paul, 431

Gerle, H., 624

Germiniani, A., 533

Gernsheim, Fr., pupil of Moritz Hauptmann.
1032 ; composer, 1209

Gervinus, G. G., 1230

Gesius, Bartholomew, 479

Gevaert, F. A., savant, 1257

Geyer, FL, theorist, 1232

Gibbons, E., composer, 684

Gibbons, Orlando, 687, 734, 748

Gideon, C. Horsley, 1295

Giga, a dance, 908

Gilbert, 595

Giles, Nath., 805

Ginguene", P. L., 836

Giuglini, singer, 1311

Gladkowska, Const., singer, 1045

Glareanus, C. F., 339

Glasenapp, one of Wagner's biographers, 1186

Glee, origin in England, English glee, 917, 919

Glinka, M. J. von, pupil of Siegfried Dehn,
1029 ; Russian composer, 1259

Glover, C. W., composer, 1282

Glover, S., composer, 1282

Gluck, Alex., 823

Gluck, Chr. Wilib., known as Chevalier de
Gluck, 823 ; early lessons, 824 ; first operas,
825 ; in London, 825 ; marries, in Italy,
Marianna Perrin, 827 I his works, 828—838 ;
birth of the music-drama, 830 ; his views of
what opera should be, 832 ; his popularity,
835 ; Gluckists, 835 ; a consideration of his
operas, 838 ; wise words, 845 — 847 ; a poet,
845 ; as a conductor, 848 ; fearless, 848 ; his
influence upon subsequent great masters,
850, 851 ; his death, 851

Gluck, Marie Anna, 827

Gluck, Walburga, 1067

" God Bless the Prince of Wales," 1287

"God Save the King," origin of, 914 ; Beet
hoven's opinion of the melody, 914

Godard, Benjamin, French composer, 1246

Goddard, A., pianist, 1313

Goes, Damian, a Portuguese tone-master, 361

Goethe, J. W. von, 1010

INDEX.

1321

Goetz, Herm., composer, 1221

Goetze, Franz, tenor, 1270

"Go, Idle Boy," Callcott, 1275

Goldmark, Karl, composer, 1220

Goldschmidt, A., pupil of Moritz Hauptmann,

1032 ; composer of the New German School,

1210

Gollinelli, S., piano composer, 1240
Goltermann, G., violoncellist, 1273
Gombert, Nikolas, early Church writer, 344, 360
Gomez, C., composer, 1266
Gordigiani, composer, 1240
Goss, Sir J., composer, 1291
Gossec, Fr. Jos., 1058 ; French opera composer,

1061

Gottfried von Strasburg, 245
Goudimel, Claude, Netherland writer, 345 ;

founder of a School at Rome, 373 ; his

compositions, 374

Gounod, Ch. F., sacred and opera composer, 1241
Gouvy, Theod., composer, 1209
Gradener, Karl, composer, 1204
Grammann, K., opera composer of the New

German School, 1210
Grassi-Bach, Mme., 793
Grassini, singer, 1135, 1310
Graun, Karl H., violinist, 707, 714
"Great God of Love," Pearsall, 1279
Greeks, Music of, 118 ; their scales, 132 ; their

instruments, 148
Greene, Maurice, composer, 921
Gregorian chant, 184
Gregory the Great, 183, 189, 415
Grell, Ed., composer, 1025, 1217
Gre'try, A. E. M., French opera composer, 1082
Greville, Rev. Richard, glee writer, 919
Grieg, Edward, Norwegian composer, 1253
Grig, Morgan, 681
Grillo, organist, 546
Grimaldi (Nicolini), singer, 703
Grimm, F. M., 610
Grimm, Otto, composer, 1215
Grisi, Giuditta, singer, 1137
Grisi, Giulla, great singer, 1005, 1137, 1310
Gritti, Doge, 369
Grove, Sir G., writer, 1308
Griitzmacher, Fr., violoncellist, 1273
Guadagni, 831

Guammi, Giuseppe, organist, 546
Guarducci, Tomaso, tenor, 703
Guarnerius, William, 362
Guerre, Marin de la, 602
Guglielmi, Pietro, opera composer, 700
Guicciardi, Julia, 952
Guidiccioni, Laura, a poetess, 523
Guido of Arezzo, attempts at harmony notation,

said to have originated solfeggi, 209 ; author

of several works on musical theory and

practice, 213

Guignon, Jean Pierre (1741 A. I).), 266
Guildhall School of Music, 1310
Guilds, French, of the fourteenth century, 350
Guinneth, John, 681
Gumpeltzhaimer, Adam, German song writer,

615

Gumprecht, Otto, 1228
Gura, Dr. E., singer, 1270
Gurlitt, Corn., German composer, 1213

Guzmann, 1047

Gyrowetz, Adalbert, opera composer, 719

H

Habeneck, 1245

Hadlaub, 253

Hagen, F. H., critic, 1226

Hahnel, E. J., 614

Halevy, J. F. E., French opera composer, 1058 ;
his birth, 1075 ; operas discussed, 1097

Halle, Charles, German pianist, 1250, 1313

Hallstrom, J., Swedish composer, 1254

Hamboys, first receiver of the title of Doctor of
Music, 563

Hammerschmidt, Andreas, composer, 635

Hamshere, English composer, 668

Handel, George Fr., 795; compared with Bach,
796 ; birth, 799 ; studies law, 800 ; fights a
duel, 801 ; first operas, 802 ; in England,
804 ; his income, 806 ; his English patrons,
806; opera-house founded in Haymarket,
807; his works 808, 809; Parliamentary
opposition to him, 809 ; more works, 810 ;
analysis of his compositions, 810 — 819 ; his
relation to the oratorio considered, 814 ; his
charities and temper, 821 ; Mozart scores
four of Handel's oratorios, 820

Handle, Robert de, an English writer on music,
fourteenth century, 561

Hanslick, Ed., critic, 1234

" Hardy Norseman," Pearsall, 1279

" Hark, Heard Ye Not? " Goss, 1278

"Hark, 'tis the Indian Drum," Bishop, 1277

Harmony, known to the Egyptians, 46 ; its
growth, 278 ; in Wales, 398 ; known to the
English, 552 ; advances under Rameau, 608 ;
its climax, 767

Harp, most important of Egyptian instruments,
49

Harper, J., 1310

Harpsichord, precursor of the piano, 585, 587

Harrach, Count, 881

Harriers- Wippern, L., 1207

Hartmann, Emil, Danish composer, 1253

Hartung, organist, 984

Hasler, Leo Hans, German Church composer, 616

Hasse, Faustina, 713

Hasse, Johann Adolf, composer, 712

Hassler, Hans Leo, 460, 568, 1226, 1229

Hasur (Asor Nassor), Hebraic cithar, 76

Hatton, J. L., composer, 1278

Hauptmann, Moritz, historian, 626, 1031

Hausmann, R., violoncellist, 1273

Hawes, Miss, 1312

Hawkins, Sir J., 1303

Haydn, Jos., 852 ; father of the modern or-
chestra, 853 ; he and Mozart, humour in
music, the father of musical humour, 856 ;
vast works, chamber music, 856 ; elevates
sonata form, 857; his younger contemporaries
called him "Father Haydn, "858; story of
his life, 858 ; service in Esterhazy family,
861 ; marries, his works, 862 ; in London,
864 ; a consideration of his compositions,
867; raises the string quartett, 876; his
temper and character, 877 ; his relations
with Mozart, 878 ; his religion, 879 ; num-
ber of his compositions, 880

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Haydn, Michael, brother to Joseph, 717

Hayes, Dr. William, glee writer, 919, 923

Hayes, Philip, son of Dr. William Hayes, 924

Haymarket opera-house founded, 807

Heath, English composer, 676

Heather, or Heyther, founder of Professorship

at Oxford, 740
Hebenstreit, Pantaleon, 731
Heidegger, 808
Heidel, 821

Heimsoeth, theorist and historian, 1224
Heine, H., 1092
Heinefetter, Sabina, 990
Heinichen, J. D., 705
Heinrich of Meiszen, 248
Heinrich of Beldeke, 239
Helena, Empress, 180
Heliogabalus, 165
Hell, Th., 970

Hellborn, Dr. H. K. von, 1231
Helmholz, H., professor of acoustics, 1232
Heman, 72, 84

Henry VIII. of England, composer, 664
Henschel, George, singer, 1270
Hensel, Fanny, 1024
Henselt, Ad., composer, 1043
Herbeck, Joh., composer, 1215
Hercules, 835
Herold, L. J. F., French opera composer, 1093;

Le Pr$ aux Clercs, 1095
Herz, Henry, 1041 ; pianist, 1099
Herzogenberg, Heinrich von, 1222
Hesse, A., a great organist and composer, 994,

1049

Hezekiah, Hatton, 1279

Hierotheus, Bishop of the Greek Church, 180
Hilarius (Hilary), Bishop of Poitiers, 180
Hiller, Adam, operetta composer, 1002
Hiller, Ferd., 1034, 1039, 1204
Hiller, Johann Adam, 711, 716, 1201
Hilton, John, composer, 680
Hindoos, 7 ; their scales related to those of the

ancient Greeks, 24 ; their number and

names, 24

Hippeau, Edm., 1167
Hiuen, Chinese wind instrument, 15
Hiuen-kou, Chinese giant drum, 13
Hobrecht, Jacob, Netherland composer, 339
Hochberg, Count B., 1222
Hodges, 681
Hofer, 624

Hoffmann, H., pupil of Dehn, 1029 ; opera com-
poser of the New German School, 1210
Hofhaimer, Paul, 433
Hollander, Chr. Jan, composer, 375
Holmes, J., composer, 684
Holstein, Franz von, pupil of M. Hauptmann,

1032, 1221

Homilius, G. A., 793
Hooper, 687

Hopffer, Bernhardt, composer, 1215
Hopkins, E. J., composer, 1298
Horn, C. E., composer, 1282
Horn, Golden, used by Hindoos, 32
Horsley, C. E., composer, 1295
Horsley, W., composer, 1276
Hothby, English writer, 563
Houpfeld, 875

Huber, Hans, 1213

Huber, Joseph, composer, 1212, 1216

Hucbald, Ubaldus, 289, 395

Hullah, J., 1251, 1309, 1310

Hummel, Joh. Nep., pianist and composer, 909,

1043

Humour in music, Haydn father of, 856
Humphrey (or rather Humfrey), composer, 750
Hunt, T., composer, 685
Hiinten, Franz, pianist, 1041, 1099
Hykaert (Ykaert), Bernhard, 362
Hymnology, Early Christian, 183

Ignatius, St., 176

Imitation, when used, 285

" In exitu Israel," Wesley, 1289

Ingeborg, wife of Hans von Bronsart, pianist
and composer, pupil of Liszt, 1212

Ingegneri, M. A., 526

Inglott, 687

Instrumental music, employment of it in
churches, 494

lolanthe, Sullivan, 1302

Irish melodies, 915

Isaak, Heinrich, German composer of the
fifteenth century, 433

Isis-Hathor, 38

Islamites. 85 ; their instruments, 106

Isouard, Nic., French opera composer, 1086

Israelites, 58; possessed a knowledge of har-
mony, 75 ; characteristic tunes, 81

" I was glad," Attwood, 1289

Jacket, English writer, 681

Jackson, W., composer, 1275

Jacopone, early Italian composer, 204

Jacquet, Elis. Claude, 602

Jadasohn, Sal., pupil of M. Hauptmann, 1032 ;
professor at Leipzig, 1206

Jadin, H., opera composer, 1101

Jadin, L. E., French comic opera composer,
1080, 1101

Jahn, Otto, biographer, 899, 1230

Jan, K. von, 1224

Jannequin, Clement, realistic composer, 358,
853

Jans, Christian, Netherland composer, 346

Japanese, 7

Jason, Mackenzie, 1302

Jeanrenaud, Cecilia, Mendelssohn's wife, 1034

Jeduthun, 84

Jenkins, John, lutenist, 754

Jensen, Adolf, composer, 1203

Jerusalem, Pierson, 1294

Jesius, 815

Jews of fame as musicians : Meyerbeer, Men*
delssohn, Moscheles, H. Herz, HaleVy, Fer-
dinand Hiller, J. Rosenhain, Schulhoff,
Felicien David, Goldmark, and Anton
Rubinstein, 995

Joachim, Amalie, singer, 1268

Joachim, Jos., violinist and pupil of Moritz
Hauptmann, 1032^ 1034, 1270, 1313

INDEX.

1323

Johannes von Salzburg, 430

John, theorist, 201

Johnson, Edward, 687

Jornelli, Nicolo, Neapolitan opera composer, 698

Jones, Robert, 681

Joseph, C. Horsley, 1295

Joseph II., 265, 867

Joseph, Macfarren, 1296

Josquin des Pres, Netherland composer and
theorist, 340 ; his compositions, 342, 358

Jouy, librettist, 1063

Juan IV., of Portugal (King), patron of art
and composer, wrote in orthodox manner,
579

Jubal, inventor of stringed and wind instru-
ments, 60

Jullien, M., 1247

K

Kade, Otto, historian, 1227

Kalkbrenner, Friedr. , pianist, 1105

Kallinatha, 24

Kalliwoda, Wenzeslaus, composer, 1006, 1051

Kallwitz, Jakob, mathematician, chronologist,

composer, and musical savant, 477
Kang-Hi, 9

Karasowsky, Moritz, biographer of Chopin, 1047
Karl August, Grand Duke of Weimar, 847
Kastner, G., musical savant, 1247
Kauer, Ferd., 980

Keiser, Reinhard, composer of 120 operas, 725
Keler, Bela, 1266

Kemengeh, Islamitic stringed instrument, 95
Kent, James, Church writer, 924
Keol, J. K., organist and composer, 619
Kiel, Friedrich, pupil of S. Dehn, 1029, 1032,

1217

Kiese wetter, E. G., 41, 289, 825
Kilmansegge, Baron von, 804
Kin, an old Chinese stringed instrument, 8 ;

used by Japanese, 18
Kindersley, Robert, 738
King Arthur, Purcell, 751
King, Chinese instrument, 13 ; also Nio-King,

13,32

King David, Macfarren, 1296
" King Harry VIII. 's Pavyn," 665
Kinnor, little triangular-shaped harp, 60
Kirby, Dr., 681

Kirchner, Theod., composer, 1204
Kirnberger, J. Ph., 617, 731
Kittel, J. Chr., 653
Kittl, Friedr., 1262
Klein, Bernh., composer, 1048
Klengel, Alex., 1049
Klopstock, Fr. G., 1194
Klughardt, August, composer, 1215
Knorr, Jul., 1037
Kochel, Ludwig von, Chevalier, antiquary and

musical historian, 1229
Konigslow, C., violinist, 1272
Konrad of Wiirzburg, 245
Korner, Theodore, 973
Koster, Louise, 1267
Kostlin, H., 1224
Kostlin, Carl, musical savant, 1235
Kozeluch, L., composer, 901

Kramer, 848

Krates (see Crates), 152

Kratinos (Cratinus), 156

Krebs, Joh. Ludwig, 794

Krebs, Marie, pianist, 1270

Kretschmer, Edmund, composer, 1220

Kreutzer, Konradin, 969, 992

Kreutzer, Rod., 1006 ; violinist, 1100

Krischna, 22

Krug, Arnold, composer, New German School,

1213

Kriiger, Ed., theorist and historian, 1224, 1225
Kiicken, Fr. W., song composer, 1050
Kufferath, J. H., 989
Kuhnau, Johann, 588, composer, and said to be

the inventor of the sonata form in many

parts, 632

Kullak, Theod., pupil of S. Dehn, 1029
Kurenberger, 239
Kurz, comic actor, 859
Kusse, Siegmund, opera-composer, 724

Labitzky, Jos., dance composer, 1051

Lablache, L., singer (bass), 1005, 1310

Laborde, B. de, historian and theorist, 1105

Lachner, Franz, composer, 881, 970, 980

Lachner, Ignaz, 979

Lachner, Vincenz, 979

Lacombe, L. B., 1105; composer, 1245

Lady of the Lake, Macfarren, 1296

La Harpe, J. F., 836

Lahoussaye, French violinist, 707

Lalande, H. Cl., 1132

Lalouette, 597

La Mara (Marie Lipsius), 1228

Lamia, celebrated flute-player, 156, 166

Landino, Francesco, 312

Landsberg, 1120

Lane, Sir Ed. "William, Egyptian historian, 43

Lanner, J., dance composer, 1051

La Rote, instrument (see Rota), 196, 340

La Rue, P. de, Netherland composer, 327, 330,
340

Lasos, arranged dithyrambic contests, 132

Lassen, Edward, opera composer of the New
German School, 1211

Lassus, Ferdinand, 391

Lassus, Orlandus, the greatest of the Nether-
land tone-poets, 346-376 ; his celebrated
Penitential Psalms, 378 ; most prolific of all
composers, 382

Lassus, Rudolf, 391, 619

Laube, H., 1180

Lauffensteiner, 624

Lauska, Meyerbeer's master, 996

Lauterbach, Joh., violinist, 1272

Lawes, Henry, composer, 741

" Lay a Garland," Pearsall, 1279

Leclair, J. M., violinist, 1100

Ledebur, K., lexicographer, 1235

Le Fage, de, 511

Legrenzi, Giovanni, 536

Lehman, Lilli, singer, 1267

Leighton, Sir William, 738

Lenora, Macfarren, 1296

1324

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Lenz, "William von, musical litterateur, 1261

Leo, Leonardo, prolific Neapolitan composer,
578

Leonard, H., 1110

Leoni, Leone, Venetian master, 494

Leonin (Magister Leoninus), early French com-
poser and organist, 290

Leslie, H. D., 1298

Lesueur, J. Fran9., 1058 ; French opera com-
poser, 1064

Leveridge, first English opera composer, 915

Levi, Hermann, Wagnerian conductor, 1186

Liberati, Antonio, 515

Lichnowski, Prince, 953

Lind, Jenny, singer, 1004, 1311

Lindblad, F., 1254

Lindley, 1311

Lindpaintner, P. J., composer, 1006

Linley, G., composer, 1282

Linley, T., composer, 1275

Linley, T., Junr., composer, 1275

Linley, "W., composer, 1275

Linos, 39

Lipinski, K. J. von, violinist, 993, 1272

Lipsius, Marie (La Mara), 1228

Lisley, J., composer, 685

Liszt, Franz, as a literary man, 1040 ; pianist
and composer, 1086

Literary activity among great musicians : Schu-
mann, Karl Maria von Weber, Franz Liszt,
Richard Wagner, Berlioz, 1040

Lobe, J. C., theorist, 1232, 1233

Lobkowitz, Prince, 824, 953

Lobwasser, Ambrosius, 476

Locatelli, P., 552

Lock, Matthew, composer of chamber music, 755

Loder, E. J., composer, 1281

Logier, J. B., 1105

Logroscino, Nicolo, opera bouffe composer, 589

Lolli, Ant., opera writer, 540

Lolli of Bergamo, violinist, 707

Lombardini, Maddalena, violinist, 707

Lorenzo (il Magnifico), 434, 517

Lortzing, Alb., opera composer, 1001

Lossius, Lukas, German hymn composer, 476

Lotti, Antonio, 172

Louis XIV., 599

Lowe, Karl, song composer, 976

Lowe, Sophie, singer, 1004

Lucas, C., 1309

Lucca, Pauline, singer, 1004, 1267

Ludford, 681

Ludwig I. of Bavaria, 392

Ludwig II. of Bavaria, 851

Lulli, Giov. Batt., or Lully, violinist and com-
poser, 593 ; his compositions, 596 ; father of
the French opera, 602, 1057, 1059

Lurline, Balfe, 1281

Luther, M., and the music of Protestant Church,
417 ; his skill as a polyphonic writer, 446 ;
his power of detecting incorrect passages
and offences against strict canonical part-
writing, 450 ; was a practical musician,
453 ; a flautist and organist, 456 ; his ori-
ginal compositions, 458 ; letter addressed to
his friend Senfel, 488

Luzzaschi, Farrarese. considered the greatest
organist of his time, 546

Luzzoni, singer, 703

Lwoff, A., Russian composer, 1260

Lyre, used by Egyptians, 51

M

Maas, J., singer, 1311

Mace, Thomas, luteriist, 755

Macfarren, Nathalie, now Lady Macfarren, 1248

Macfarren, Sir George, composer, 1248, 1296,
1309, 1310

Machaut, Guillaume de, poet and musician,
298, 590

Mackenzie, A. C., 1302

Macrobius, 166

Madrigal, invented by Willaert, 367, 682

Maflueroy, Clotilde, 1088

Maggini, G. P., 530

Magoudi, Hindoo guitar, 32

Mahu, Steph., 460

Maillart, Aime, composer, 1242

Maldeghem, Van, 1255

Malibran, Alex., 1104

Malibran, M., singer, 1005, 1104, 1310

Mallinger, Mathilde, singer, 1267

Malten, Theresa, singer, 1185

Mancina, Giambattista, tenor, 703

Manelli, Fr., 535

Maneros, 38

Manfredi, Italian violinist, 707

Mangold, K., 1222

Mannerism, 954—958

Mantius, Ed., singer, 1025, 1027

Mara (see Schmeling, Elis.), 715, 716

Mara, singer, 1310

Marais, Marin, a dramatic composer, 601

Marbecke, John, 668

Marcello, Benedetto, 543; a celebrated com-
poser of Psalms, 545

Marchand, Louis, Court organist, 604

Marchart, 687

Marchesi, L., singer, 1135

Marchetti, Sil., 1239

Marchetto da Padova, early writer on theory
(1307 A.D.), 219

Marenzio, Luca di, 524

Maria Antonia, 727

Maria, Giov., 515

Maria Theresa, Gluck's patroness, 834

Marie Antoinette, 846

Marini, Biagio, violin composer, 531

Mario, singer, 1310

Maritana, Balfe, 1281

Marius, 730

Marmontel, A. F., 836, 1105

Marpurg, F. W., piano maker, 731

Marschner, Heinr., composer of opera, 970, 1043

Marson, G., 684

Marsyas, celebrated flute player, 120

Martinez, Marianne von, 860

Martini, composer, 909

Martini, Giambattista, priest, philosopher,
mathematician, musical historian, contra-
puntist, 706

Martini, P. A., French opera composer, 1079

Martini, Padre, 829, 904

Marx, Ad. ^ theorist and historian, 1028, 1232

INDEX

1325

Maschera of Cremona, organist, noted for fugue
imitations of the French canzone, 546

Mason, John, 671, 681

Masse, Victor, French opera composer, 1244

Massenet, J., French opera composer, 1243

Mastersingers, 248

Materna, Amalie, singer, 1185

Mattei, 1124

Mattheson, Johann, composer, and friend of
Handel, 801

Mauduit, Jacques, French composer, 591

Maurer, Ludw. Wilh., violin composer, 993

May Queen, The, Bennett, 1285

Mayrhofer, 974

Mayseder, Joseph, symphonist, 1006

Mazzocchi, Gebr., 515

Medes, Music of, 56

Mehul, C. N., French opera composer, 1082,
1084

Mei, Girolamo, Italian writer and theorist,
522

Meiland, Jacob, German composer, 614

Meinardus, Ludwig, 1218

Melzi, Prince, 824

Mendel, Hermann, lexicographer, 1235

Mendelssohn, Felix, 1007 ; and Schumann com-
pared, 1008 ; his pianoforte compositions,
1009 ; a failure as an opera composer, 1010 ;
is a decided classic, 1010 ; oratorios, 1011 ;
influenced by the great masters, 1014 ; his
songs, 1017 ; his birth and early works,
1024 ; connected with the theorists, musical
historian and antiquary S. Dehn, and Marx,
1028 ; besides musical knowledge had a
sound education, 1030; his tutors, 1030;
iaken to Paris, his compositions, 1030 ;
meets Moscheles in London, 1031 ; Leipzig
and the Gewandhaus concerts, 1031 ; his St.
Paul, 1034 ; Elijah and the Birmingham
Festival, 1036 ; folk-song, 1043*

Meheghini, Italian violinist, 707

Mengs, Raphael, painter, 698

Menter, Sophie, pianist, 1270

Mercadante, S., opera composer, 1131

Merkel, Gustave, organist and composer, 1216

Mersenne, Marie, theorist, 591, 604

Merulo, Claudio, famous organist, 495

Mestrini, N., of Milan, violinist, 707

Metastasio, operatic librettist, 860

Methfessel, A. G., 1050

Metrical psalmody, 688

Mettenleiter,, J. G., organist, collector, 1226

Metternich, Prince, 1128

Meyerbeer, Giac., 981 ; his birth, 994 ; as a
pianist, his operas, 996 ; his compositions
analysed, 998 ; said to be connected with
the introduction of certain brass instru-
ments, 1005, 1058

Middle Ages, The development of music in the,
168

Mieksch, J. A., 1036

Mieksch, Marie, singer, 704

Mierzwynsky, tenor, 1270

Mihalovich, E., 1162

Mikado, The, Sullivan, 1302

Milano, Francesco da, composer, 497

Milanollo, Maria, violinist, 1103
Milanollo, Teresa, violinist, 1103

Milder, singer, 1185

Milder-Hauptmann, P. A., singer, 1i)25

Milleville, Alex., organist, 546 '

Milleville, Franz, organist, 546

Milton, J., composer, 685

Minnesingers (see Folk-music), 226 ; tbeir music,
238

Miriam, 64

Mislivecek (Venturini), 709

Mitterwurzer, A., singer, 1185

Mizler, L. Oh., 663

Monday Popular Concerts, 1313

Monochord or trumscheit, 261

Monsigny, P. A., French comic opera composer,
1078

Monte, Philippus de, Netherland writer, 347,
392, 393

Monteclair, 602

Monteverde, Claudio, early opera writer, 525 ;
originator of the modern orchestra, 527

Monticelli, 732

Morales, Chr., composer, 582

Moravie, Jerome de, old French theorist, 295

Morlacchi, Fr., composer, 1135

Morley, Thomas, composer, 680

Mornington, Lord, glee writer, 919

Morzin, Count, 861

Moscheles, Ign., 1031 ; pianist and composer,
1033, 1043

Moschus, 147

Moses, acquainted with music, 60

Mosevius, I. Th., 1048

Mosonnyi, Michael, composer, 1266

Moszkowski, M., 1263

Motet, 281

Moulu, Pierre, 343

Mountain Sylph, The, Barnett, 1281

Mouret, Joseph, 602

Mouton, Jean, composer, 343

Mozart, Constance (nee Weber), 903, 962

Mozart, Leopold, 875, 902

Mozart, Wolf., 882 ; the most universal of the
six great tone-poets, 884 ; see 885—887 ;
th'e mirthful in music, 886 ; invents the
conversational opera, 889 ; also the romantic
opera, 890 ; the fairy opera, 892 ; his com-
positions, 894—901; his birch, his filial
devotion, 902 ; marries under the most
painful anxieties for daily bread, 904 ;
Italian hatred, 904 ; early skill in com-
position, 908 ; invents the art-song, 908 ;
on Beethoven, 909 ; his love for Haydn,
911.

| Muffat, George, composer, 623 ; organ composer,
623

Muffat, Gottlieb, composer, 661

Muhamed ben Issa, 92

Miiller, 973

Miiller-Hartung, 1273

Miiller, Ottfried, 1224

Miiller, Wenzel, fairy burlesque writer, 909

Munday, John, 687

Muris, Jean de, French theorist, 297

Musical drama, 516 ; birth of the music-drama,
830

Musical Union, 1312

Musiol, Robert, lexicographer, 1236

"Mynheer van Dunck," Bishop, 1277

1326

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

N

Nablium, an ancient harp of Phoenician origin,

48

Naldini, Sante, 512
Nanini, Bernardo, 373, 503
Nanini, Giov. Maria, fellow-pupil of Palestrina,

503, 512

Napoleon I., 1060

Naprawnik, Edward, composer, 1263
Nardini, Pietro, Italian violinist, 707
Nareda, god of Hindoo music, 20
Nares, James, Church writer, 924
Nationality in music, Gluck, 845, Haydn, 857
Naumann, Emil, pupil of Moritz Hauptmann,

1032

Naumann, Ernst, German violinist, 707, 1204
Naumann, Johann Gottlieb, composer, 718
Neefe, Chr. G., 934
Nefyr, Arabian trumpet, 110
Neithard, Heinr., 1035
Neri, Filippo, organist, 533, 546
Nero, 164

Neruda, Norman-, violinist, 1104, 1272, 1313
Neswadba, Joseph, composer, 1263
Neszler, Viktor, opera composer, 1222
Neukomm, S., 881

Neumes, first attempt at Christian notation, 182
Neusiedler, 624

Newark, William, English composer, 668
New Romantic School, 1143
Newton, Dr., 681
Ngai-Tai, 9

Nichelmann, Chr., 875
Nicholson, R., composer, 684
Nicode, L.,1213
Nicolai, Otto, organist and opera composer,

1002

Nicolini (see Grimaldi), 703
Niemann, Albert, great tenor, 1004, 1185, 1270
Nietzsche, Fr., 1186
Night Dancers, The, Loder, 1281
Nikomachus, 156

Nilsson, Christine, singer, 1133, 1269
Nisard, Th., 394
Nithart of Reuenthal, 245
Nohl, Ludwig, 1186
Norcome, D., composer, 684
Nordraak, Rikard, 1254
Norman, John, composer, 668
Norman music, 400

Norman (or Nisard), Theodore, theorist, 1256
Notation, specimens of the Neume, 198 ; origin

of mensural notation, 215 ; first employ

ment of five-line staff, 622
Notker, Balbulus, early writer on music, and

composer, 202

Nottebohm, M. G., biographer, 1231
Nourrit, Ad., great French tenor, 1076
Novello, Clara, soprano, 1312

O

Oakeley, Sir H. S., composer, 1299
Oboe, used by Chinese, 18
Odyngton, Walter, theorist, 281 ; earliest Eng-
lish writer of note, 560
Oclande, 681

Oettingen, A., theorist, 1232

Offenbach, J., opera bouffe composer, 1244

" Oh ! Who will o'er the Downs with Me ? "
PearsaU, 1279

Okeghem, J., 325; real founder of the Nether
land School, 327, 358

Oldfield, Thomas, 687

" Old Mayday," Macfarren, 1296

" O Lord, grant the King a long Life," Attwood,
1289

Olympos, J., 127

Omar, Caliph, 105

Onslow, G., 1051 ; composer of French chamber
music, 1102

Opera, early stage of, 368 ; its beginning, 516 ;
the first, 524 ; called drama per musica,
melodrama, 525 ; introduction of word re-
petition, 535 ; over a hundred composed by
Alessandro Scarlatti, 572 ; origin of opera
bufta, opera comic, 589 ; opera seria, 589,
592; under Rameau, 606; Schultz, first
German composer of opera, 649 ; opera
buffa, 696, 697, 704 ; Gluck, 830 ; birth of
the music-drama, 830 ; conversational opera
invented by Mozart, 889; also romantic
opera by Mozart, 890 ; Mozart fairy opera,
892 ; first English opera, 915 ; the Grand
Opera and Meyerbeer, 998 ; Berlin opera,
1025 ; the Grand Opera, Paris, and the
French comic romantic opera, 1056, 1077

Oratorio, initiatory stages of, 515 ; Handel's re-
lation to it, 814 ; Mendelssohn as the reno-
vator, 1048

Orchestra, the modern, first steps to wards forma-
tion of, 527 ; increased, 539, 582 ; improve-
ment under Rameau, 606 ; arrangement of,
at Dresden, 729; Haydn, father of the
modern orchestra, 853 ; Schumann a writer
for orchestra, 1018

Organ, growth and development of, 193 ; largest
in Anglo-Saxon times at Winchester, 398 ;
Bach the greatest performer, 789 ; im-
provement in playing it, 546 ; of the Middle
Ages, 548 ; destroyed in England, 747

Organistrum, 195

Organum (see Ars organandi), 207

Orgeny, Agl., singer, 1269

Orpheus, 118

Ortiz, Diego, composer, 582

Orwel, Robert, 681

" O Saviour of the World," Goss, 1292

Osiander, Lucas, 460, 470

Osiris, 37

Ossian, 1253

"Ossian's Hymn," Goss, 1298

"O Taste and See," Goss, 1292

Otto, Jul., 1217

Oulibicheff, Alexander von, musical litterateur,
1261

Ouseley, Sir F. A. G., historian and composer,
1250

Oxford school of music founded by Alfred the
Great, 201

Pachelbel, Johann, organist and composer, 638
Pacini, G., 1131

INDEX.

1327

Padilla y Ramos, 1269

Paer, Ferd., opera composer, 703, 1123

Paesiello (see Paisiello)

Paganini, Nicolo, great violinist, 1139 ; self-
taught, 1140

Pagin, French violinist, 707

Paisiello, Giovanni, comic opera composer, 700,
999, 1060, 1061, 1123

Paita, Giovanni, tenor, 703

Palestrina, G. P., 503 ; his style, 505 ; founds a
school at Rome, 506 ; his compositions, 507

Pallavicini, C., 536

Pallavicino, B., Venetian composer, 494

Pan, 327

Panseron, A., singing master, 1104

Papier, Rosa, singer, 1269

Parabosco, 371

Parbuti, 23

Parepa, singer, 1311

Paris, the first purely national school of music,
270

Part-writing, first attempts at, 204, 491 ; ela-
borated working of, 545

Pascal Bruno, Hatton, 1278

Pasdeloup, 1245

Pashe, 681

Pasi, Antonio, singer, 703

Pasquini, B., 422

Pasta, Guiditta, 1133, 1137

Pastourelle, 233

Patience, Sullivan, 1302

Patini, singer, 732

Patti, Adelina, singer, 1269

Patti, Carlotta, singer, 1269

Patti, Salvator, Italian tenor, father of Carlotta
and Adelina, 1269

Paul, Osk., lexicographer, 1235

Paumann, Conr., 433

Paxton, S., glee writer, 919

" Peace to the Souls of the Heroes," 1275

Pearsall, R. L., 1279

Pearson, Martin, 687

Pedal bass, used by Chinese, 12

Pedrotti, C., composer, 1239

Penhyn, W., 397

Pepusch, John Christopher, of German birth,
757

Pergin, Marianna, Gluck's wife, 827

Pergolesi, Giov, Batt., sacred and opera com-
poser, 697

Pepin, King, 193

Peri, Ach., 987

Peri, Jacopo, writer of the first opera, 524 ; his
Eurydice, called Tragedia per Musica, or
Tragicomedia, 525

Pericles, 143

Perotin, early French composer and organist, 291

Perrin, P., French opera composer, 595

Persiani, Fanny, singer, 1005, 1137, 1310

Persians, Music of, 56

Persons, 681

Persuis, Lpiseau de, French opera composer, 1066

Peruzzi, singer, 703

Pes, or ground bass, 221

Pescetti, 543

Pevernage, Andreas, part-song writer, 348

Pfretzschner, 1035

Philharmonic Society, 1311

Philidor, 1061

Philidor, F. A. D., 1076 ; French comic opera
writer, 1077

Philip, Sir Thomas, English composer, 668

Philis, Jeanne, 1090

Phillipps, W. L., 1310

Phillips, Peter, 687

Phoenicians, Music of, 56

Phrygians and Lydians, Music of, 56

Phrynis, 146

Pianoforte, its predecessors, 499 ; early history
of, 583; invented by Cristofori, 587; in-
vention of hammer mechanism, 731 ; Bach's
48 preludes and fugues, 786 ; Mendelssohn
and Schumann, 1009

Piccini, Nicoli, opera composer, 699 ; ' ' Pic-
cinists," 836

Pien-tschung, Chinese bell instrument, 13

Pierchon, see La Rue, P. de

Pierson, EL, composer, 1294

Pierson, Martin, composer, 744

Pietri, Giovanni, 687

Pilkinson, Francis, 738

Pinafore, Sullivan, 1302

Pindar, 140

Pinsuti, Giro, composer, 1239

Pipe, Shepherd's, 260

Pirates of Penzance, Sullivan, 1302

Pisaroni, singer, 1310

Pisendel, George, 728

Pisistratps, 142

Pistocchi, Antonio, founder of a school of
singing, 704

Pius IX., 1192

Plagal or oblique scales, 185

Planer, M. (Richard Wagner's first wife), 1181

Plato, 134

Plectrum, Greek instrument, 148

Pleyel, J. J., 881

Pleyel, M. F. D., pianist, 1105

Po-fou, Chinese small drum, 15

Poglietti, Alessandro, 658

Pohl, K. F., biographer, 1231

Polchau, G., 1228

Polidoro, Fed., Italian composer, 1239

Polietti, or Poglietti, composer, 658

Polledro, G. B., violinist, 1141

Polymnestus, 134

Polyphony, its growth, from the twelfth to the
sixteenth century, 269 ; as used by Josquin
des Pre's, 328, 491 ; its climax, 767

Ponchietti, Am., Italian opera composer, 1236

Popeliniere, 605

Popper, D., violoncellist, married Sophie
Menter, 1271

Porpara, Nic., composer, 697

Porta, Costanzo, 369

Potocka, Countess, 1047

Potter, P. C. H., composer, 1283, 1309

Pougin, Arthur, musical savant, 1247

Power, Leonel, 681

Praeger, Ferdinand, composer of the New Ger-
man school, 1213 ; litterateur and critic, 1250

Praetorius, Hieronymus, 195, 628,

Praetorius, Jakob (see Schultz, J.), 349

Prsetorius, Michael, composer and historian, 639

"Praise the Lord, O my Soul," 1292

Pratinas, 143

Princess Ida, Sullivan, 1302

Proch, Heinrich, 1050

1328

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

" Professor of Music," first used in England,
201

Programme music, 1052 ; the resuscitator of,
1168

Proske, K., collector, 1226

Protestants adopt Catholic hymnology and Gre-
gorian melodies, 428

Prudent, E., pianist, 1105

Psalter, Greek instrument, 148

Psaltery, Israelitic instrument, 75

Ptolemy, 126

Pugnani, G., of Turin, violinist, 707

Purcell, Henry, English composer, 751

Puschmann, 253

Pyggot, 681

Py thagoras, added an eighth string to the seven-
stringed lyre of Terpander, 130, 139

Quanz, Job. Joach., flautist, 662, 728
"Queen of the Valley," Callcott, 1275
Quinault, Phil., 596

R

Raaff, Anton, famous German tenor, 715

Rabanus, Maurus, 202

Radecke, Robert, composer, 1209

Radziwill, Prince, 1046

Raff, Joachim, composer, New German School,

1214

Raimondi, P., composer, 1135
Raising of Lazarus, Barnetb, 1300
Rameau, Jean Philippe, great French opera

composer, 602, 1057, 1059
Ramos, Padilla y, Spanish singer, 1270
Rappoldi, Ed., violinist, 1272
Rehab, Islamitic stringed instrument, 95
Rebekah, Barnby, 1302
Rebel (see Organistrum), 195
Reber, H. Napoleon, composer, 1245
Rebling, Gustave, 1049
Redford, 681
Regis, Job. (Jean), 356
Reicha, Anton, French comic opera composer,

1086

Reichardt, J. Fr., song composer, 909
Reicher-Kindermann, singer, 1185
Reinecke, Karl, composer, 1205
Reinken, Job. Ad., organist, 349, 629
Reinmar, Hagenau, 245, 482
Reinmar of Zweter, the Minnesinger, 246
Reinthaler, K., composer, 1208
Reise, Carl, librettist, 1239
Reissiger, J. G., composer, 1006, 1048
Reiszmann, A., historian and composer, 1224,

1234

Rellstab, Ludwig, critic, 1118
Resurrection and Ascension, The, Elvey, 1298
Resurrection, The, Macfarren, 1296
"Return, Blest Days," Smith, 1276
Rezio, Mile., singer, 1167
Rhau, George, 460
Rheinberger, Joseph, 1219
Ribecchino, instrument of the violin kind, 528
Ricci, F., opera composer, 1136
Ricci, L. , opera composer, 1136

Richafort, Jean, 343

Richards, H. B., composer, 1287, 1310

Richardson, Ferdinand, 687

Richter, G. F., theorist, 1234

Richter, Hans, Wagnerian conductor, 1186

Ricordi, publisher, Milan, 1135

Riedel, Hermann, song writer and conductor,
1212

Riedel, Karl, composer of the New German
School, 1212

Riehl, W. H., theorist, 1234

Riemann, H., lexicographer, 1235

Ries, Ferdinand, 938, 1189

Ries, Frz., composer, 1216

Ries, Hubert, 939

Riese, singer, 1270

Riese, Dr. Karl, 1239

Rietsehel, G., 968

Rietz, Jul., violoncellist, 1034, 1206

Righini, Vincenzo, 703

Rimbault, E. F., writer, 673, 1308

Rinck, J. Ch. H., 1049

Rinuccini, Qttavio, poet, 521

Risby, 681

Ritschl, Fr. W., 1231

Ritter, A. G., 1049

Robert, King of France, writer and singer of
sequences, 203

Roger, Hippolyte, 1090

Rochlitz, Fr., 660, 964

Rococo in music, 408

Rode, Pierre, violinist, 1101

Roeckel, Fraulein, the lady to whom Beethoven
made an offer which was declined, she
being engaged to Hummel, whom she mar-
ried, 952

Roger, G. H., tenor, 1005, 1090

Roi, Jean de (see Regis), 356

Roland, Lattre (see Lassus, Orl.), 346

Roland's horn, 259

Romani, Felice, 1132

Romanina, singer, 703

Romans, music of, 158; their instruments, 159

Romberg, Andreas, violinist and composer, 993

Romberg, Bernhardt, violoncellist and composer,
993

Rondo (Rondeau), 282

Roquette, O., librettist, 1188

Rore, Cyprian van, Netherland writer, 345, 369

Rosenplut, 253

Rose of Castile, The, Balf e, 1280

Rose of Sharon, Mackenzie, 1302

Rosetti (see Rosier, Franz), 536

Rosier, Franz, 709

Rossini, G., 1041 ; opera composer, 1058 ; Guil-
laume Tell, 1072 ; compared with Cherubini
and Spontini, 1122; his birth, 1123; his
operas, 1124 ; his humour, 1125 ; his inap-
propriate tone painting, 1127 ; in London,
1128 ; his disgust of the world, 1130

Rota, favoured instrument of English minstrels,
French Trouveres, German Minne- and
Meister-singers, 196

Rouget de 1'Isle, 1061

Roundelays, 233

Rousseau, J. J., 836

Royal Academy of Music, 1309

Royal College of Music, 1310

Roze, Maria, singer, 1311

INDEX.

1329

Rubebe, stringed instrument of the Trouveres,

258

Rubelle (see Organistrum), 195
Rubinelli, singer, 1135
Rubini, G. B., tenor, 1005, 1137, 1310
Rubinstein, Anton, pupil of S. Dehn, 1029;

great pianist and composer, 1259
Rudolph, Archduke, 614, 936
Rudorn, Ernst, 1209
Riifar, Ph. B., 1213
Rungenhagen, C. Fr., 1025
Rupff (see Ruppich), 455
Ruppich, 455

Rust, W., biographer, 1230
Ruziezka, organist, teacher of Schubert, 971

S

Sabillon, Robert de, distinguished dechanteur,
292

Sablieres, de (Sieur), 595

Sacchini, Gasparo, opera composer, 700, 851

Sachs, Hans, 250

Sacrati, 536

Sacred Harmonic Society, 1312

Sagittarius (see Schutz, H.), 649

St. John the Baptist, Macfarren, 1290

Sainton-Dolby, 1309

Sainton, P., 1312

Saint-Saens, C., 1084, 1245 ; pianist, organist,
and composer, 1245

Sala, Nic., 1114

Saldoni, B., Spanish writer, 1264

Salieri, A., 909, 991

Salo (see Gasparo), 530

Salomon, Joh., violinist, 864, 868

Samise, Japanese lute, 18

Sammartini, G. B., of Milan, great violinist, 707

Sand, George, 1046 ; she and Chopin, 1047

Sauta, Stella, singer and wife of Lotti, 543

Santley, baritone, 1312

Sappho, 127, 130

Sarasate, P. de, violinist and composer, 1264

Saratelli, Giuseppe, 543

Sarti, Giuseppe, 589 ; opera composer, 702, 909

Satanella, Balfe, 1280

Sax, Adolphe, 1005

Saxon music, 398

Scandellus, Antonius, German hymn composer,
476, 815

Scaria, Emil, singer, 1185

Scarlatti, Alessandro, prolific Neapolitan com-
poser, 571 ; father of Italian operatic
writers, 574 ; his compositions, 576

Scarlatti, Domenico, 768, 803, 874

Schiiffer, Julius, composer, 1216

Schah, Iwan, Hindoo musician, 30

Schaller, 973

Scharwenka, Phil. , composer, 1216

Scharwenka, Xaver, pianist and composer, 1216

Schaul, Baptist, composer, 707

Scheibe, J. A., 725, 875

Scheible, Nepom., 1049

Scheidemann, Heinrich, organist, 349, 627, 650

Scheidler, 624

Scheidler, Dorette, 989

Scheidt, Samuel, organist, 349, 627, 650

Schein, Joh. Herm., composer, 635

G G G O

Schenk, J., opera writer, 909

Schernberk, Theod., 423

Schicht, J. G., composer, 720

Schikaneder, E. J., 894

Schilcl, Melchior, organist, 349

Schindler, Ant., 624, 951

Schletterer, H. M., historian, 1227

Schlottmann, Louis, composer, 1216

Schmeling, Elisabeth, known as Mara, 715

Schmid, Anton, biographer, 1232

Schmidt, Gustave, composer, 1006

Schmitt, Aloys, 1204

Schneider, Fr., 1048

Schneider, Joh., organist, 1220

Schnorr, Carolsfeld von, singer, 1185

Schofar, sacred Temple horn, 61

Scholtz, Hermann, composer, 1043-

Scholz, Bernh., pupil of S. Dehn, 1029, 1221

Schroeder-Devrient, Wilhelmine, singer, 1185

Schroter, Christopher Gottlieb, piano maker.
731

Schroter, Corona, 731

Schubert, Frz., 958 ; birth and early works, 971;
his songs, 973 ; his operas, 973 ; his geniality,
974 ; his songs analysed, 976, 1043

Schuch-Proska, Clementine, singer, 1269

Schulhoff, Jules, pianist and composer, 1043, 1047

Schultz, Jakob, organist, 349, 628

Schulz, J. A. P., song composer, 969

Schumann, Clara, Schumann's wife, great pianist
(see Wieck, Clara), 1013, 1313

Schumann, Robert, 1007 ; a failure as an opera
composer, 1010 ; his style, 1011 ; his ap-
preciation of Mendelssohn, 1013 ; his songs,
1017 ; as a writer, 1018 ; his birth and early
life, 1036 ; foundation of his musical paper,
Neue Zeitschrift fur Musik, 1037 ; his
criticism, 1037 ; marries, his compositions,
1038 ; his praise of women, 1040 ; a classic
in the New Romantic School, his musical
paper, 1041 ; his opinion of Chopin, 1042,
1043

Schunke, L., 1037

Schuster, Joseph, composer, 719

Schutz, Heinrich, first German composer of
opera, 649 ; his compositions, 653, 815

Schwartzendorff (see Martini), 1079

Scottish airs, 915

Scribe, librettist, 1095

Sebastian of Weimar, 815

" See the Chariot," Horsley, 1276

Seguin, A., singer, 1309

Seguin, Mrs., singer, 1309

Seidler, Karol, singer, 1025

Selby, 681

Selnecker, Nikolaus, 4

Sembrich, Marcella, singer, 1268

Semper, G., 1182

Senesino (see Bernardi), 703

Senfel, Ludwig, German composer of the
Reformation, 438, 488

Senkrah, A., 1273

Serinda, Hindoo instrument, 32

Servais, Francois, Belgian violoncellist and com-
poser, 1255

Servantes, songs of the Middle Ages, 233

Setzkorn, 624

Seyffert, Paul, organist, 349

1330

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Sforza, Galeazzo, Duke of Milan, 357

Sgambati, G., composer, pupil of Liszt, 1240

Shaw, Mrs., singer, 1309

Sheppard, John, English composer, 668, 674

Sheryngham, English composer, 668

Shield, W., composer, 1275

Siao, Chinese pan-pipes, 15

Sieber, F., 1269

Siege of Rochelle, Balfe, 1280

"Sigh no More, Ladies," Stevens, 1276

Sigismondi, G., 1114

Silbermann, Gottfr., piano and organ builder,
729

Silcher, Fred., song writer, 1050

Sims Reeves, tenor, 1312

Sistrum (Kemkem or Isis clapper), Egyptian
instrument, 52

" Sleep, gentle Lady," Bishop, 1277

Smart, H., composer, 1286

Smart, Sir George, 968, 1286

Smetana, Fr., composer, 1263

Smith, J. Chr., 820

Smith, J. S., 1276

Smithson, Henrietta, 1166

Solfeggi (Solfaing), its invention, 209

Sonata da Camera and Sonata da Chiesa, de-
velopment of, 533, 588; form of, 588; im-
proved by Biber, 623 ; form in many parts,
632 ; two thousand composed by Sammar-
tini, 707 ; elevated by Haydn, 857 ; growth
of the form under Haydn, 874 ; Beethoven
and sonata form, 931, 945

Song-dances, composed by Meiland, 615 ; art-
song invented by Mozart, 908 ; old English
songs, 557, 913

Sontag, Henriette, singer, 1025

Sophie Charlotte, 800

Sophocles, 118

Sorcerer, Sullivan, 1302

Sourdeac, Marquis de, 595

Spangler, 859

Speier, Wilh., 1051

Spervogel, 239

Spiesz, Herminee, singer, 1269

Spinetto, forerunner of the pianoforte, 499

Spitta, Ph., 1230

Spofforth, R., glee writer, 919

Spohr, L. , 981 ; compared with Meyerbeer, 982 ;
romantic opera composer, his birth, 983;
his violin-playing, 984 ; marries, 989 ; in
London, 989; his compositions considered,
990 ; programme music. 991

Spontini, G. L. P., 1058, 1059 ; opera composer,
1062, 1067 ; realist, 1114 ; as a conductor,
1116

Staden, Joh. Gottlieb, composer, 722

Stadler, Fr. Ant., 875

Stainer, Gebr., 329, 476

Stainer, J., 1301

Stamatz, 1105

Stamitz, K., 728, 857

Stanford, C., 1303

Steffani, Agostino, 815

Stephani, 479

Stephens, C. E., composer, 1298

Stevens, R., composer, 1276

Stevenson, Sir J. A., composer, 1282

Stewart, Sir R. P., composer, 1299

Stockel, Clara, 990

Stockhausen, Julius, singer, 1270

Stollberg, 973

Stolzel, inventor of the ventil horn, 1006

Stone, English composer, 676

Storace, S., 1275

Strada, Anna Maria, singer, 703

Stradella, Allessandro, Neapolitan composer,

571

Stradivari, Ant., 530
Straeten, Edmund van der, musical savant,

1257

Straube, 624 '. •

Strauss, J., 1051
Strausz, Richard, 1222
Strogers, Nicholas, 687
Strozzi, Pietro, poet and composer, 521, 592
Stuton, 681
Style, 954—958
Suard, 836

Suite, constituent parts, Cll
Sullivan, A. S., English composer, 1250,1301, 1310
" Sumer is icumen in," 221
Siiszmayr, Frz. H., 909

Svendsen, Johann, Norwegian composer, 1253
Swelinck, Jan Pieters, Protestant Netherland

writer and organist, 348, 687
Swert, J. de, Belgian violoncellist, 1255
Swieten, G. van, 935
Sybilla, Duchess of Wurtemburg, 622
Syfert, Paul, 628
Sylvester II. (Pope), 180, 204
Symphonic (see Organistrum), 195
Sympson, C., composer, 755

Table music in Germany, 267

Tadolini, opera composer, 1131

Taglichsbeck, Thomas, composer, 1006

Talisman, The, Balfe, 1280

Tallis, English composer, 676

Tambourine, 109

Tamburini, Ant., 1005; singer, 1137, 1310

Tamtam, Chinese gong, 14 ; used by the Hindoos,

32

Tannhauser, 1172
Tapherumnes, 40
Tapissier, 298, 314
Tare, Hindoo trombone, 32
Tartini, Giuseppe, violinist and composer, 700
Taubert, W., 1052 ; pianist and composer, 120G
Taverner, John, 668, 681
Tcheidt, organist, 349
Tchoung-fou, Chinese time-beating instrument,

14

Telemann, G. Phi], composer, 712
Tenaglia, inventor of Da capo, 575
Tenor, origin of term, 215

Tenzone, quarrelsome or qontentious songs, 233
Teophrastus, 151
Terpander, 127, 138
Terpsichore, 120
Terradellas, D., 698
Teschner, 704
Tesi, Vittoria, singer, 703
Testwood, 681
Thais, 155

INDEX.

1331

Thalberg, S., pianist, 1190

Thaietas, 129

Thamyris, 122

Thayer, A. W., biographer, 1251

The Cloud-capped Towers," Stevens, 1276
Theinred, Aeldred, English writer, 562
" There is Beauty on the Mountain," Goss, 1278
Thespis, 143
Thibaut, A. Fr. J., 234
Thibaut of Champagne, a troubadour, 233
Thomas, Ambroise, 1105; French opera com-
poser, 1243

Thomas, J., harpist, 1309
Thorne, 681

Thorough bass, Invention of, 533
Thuret, 605

" Thyrsis, when he left me," Callcott, 1275
Tichatschek, Joseph, great tenor, 1004, 1185
Tieffenbrucker, Kaspar, violin maker, 529
Tietjens, singer, 1311
Tilesius, Hieron., 423
Timaeus, 152
Timotheus, 147, 156
Tinctor, Johann, celebrated Netherland theorist,

340 ; his compositions, 361
Tisdall, W., 687

Tisias, to him is ascribed the division of the
chorus into three parts, called strophe, anti-
strophe, and epode, 131
Todi, L., singer, 703
Tomaczek, J. W., composer, 1262
Tomkins, Thomas, 687, 742
Torelli, Giuseppe, violin composer, 532, 592

To see his Face," Bishop, 1277
Tosi, Francesco, tenor, 703
Tourette, Cecile, 1110
Traetta, Tommasso, opera composer, 700
Travers, John, composer of sacred music, 923
Trebelli, 1311
Trial by Jury, 1302
Trigon, Greek lyre, 148
Trinity College, 1310
Tritto,1114

Troubadours (see Folk-music), 226
Truhn Hieronymus, pupil of S. Dehn, 1029
Tschaikowsky, P., .Russian composer, 1260
Tsche, Chinese flute, 15
Tscheng, Chinese and Japanese instrument,

lo, lo

Tschirch, Wffli., 1213, 1217
Tua, Teresa, 1273
Tudway, T., 750

Tunstede, Simon, English writer, 561
ruotilo, renowned monk, 202
Turges, Edmund, English composer, 668
Turner, W., 750
Tuscan School, 516
Tutor, English composer, 668
Tye, Dr. , English composer, 668
Tyrtaeus, 127

U

Ubaldus (Hucbald, or Hugbald, 840—930 A.D.),
Benedictine monk and founder of an har-
monic theory, 206

Ugab, a flute, 60

Ulrich, Hugo, pupil of S. Dehn, 1029, 1215
Ulrich von Lichtenstein, 245
linger, Karol, 939
Ungle, 681
Urban, H., 1213

Vaccai, N., composer, 1135

Vaet, Jacob, composer, 375

Valentini, G., 1054

Vaqueras, 361

Vecchi, Orazio, 1226

Venice, Tone school established at, 363

Venturini (see Mislivecek), 709

Veracini, Francesco, 552, 985

Verdi, Giuseppe, Italian opera composer. 1236

Verdelot, Ph., Netherland writer, 370

Verdonck, Cornelius, part-song writer, 348

Verhulst, Jean, Dutch composer, 1255

Viadana, Lodovico, first master to employ

figured bass in Church music, 534
Viardot-Garcia, Pauline, 1104
Vidal, A., 1247
Vielle, favourite instrument of the Trouveres,

Vierling, George, composer, 1219

Vieuxtemps, Henri, Belgian composer, celebrated

violinist, 1255
Villoteau, G., historian, valuable work on the

music of the Oriental nations, 1105
Vina, Hindoo instrument, 19 ; description of, 31
Vincent, Alex., French composer, 1247
Vinci, Leonardo da, opera composer, 698
Viola, Delia, 369

Violin, first instruments of the kind, 256 ; im-
provements in, 528
Violino, Viola d'amore, Viola da braccia, Viola

da gamba, 528
Violoncello, 540

Viotti, G. B., violinist, 1100, 1139
Virdung, Sebastian, 586
Virginal, precursor of the piano, 584
Visconti, Catarina, singer, 703
Vitali, Antonio, violin composer, inventor of the

variation form, 532

Vitali, Battista, violin composer, 532, 552
Vitruvius, 193
Vitry, Philippe de, 296
Vittoria, T. L. da, Neapolitan composer, 581
Vivaldi, Antonio, a great violinist, composer,

and writer of operas, 545
Vivier, horn player, 1104
Vogel, Heinrich, singer, 1185, 1270
Vogel, Therese, singer, 1185
Vogler, Abbe", 963
Vogt, Jean, composer, 1216
Volkmann, Robert, composer, 1200
Voltaire, 846
Vulpius, cantor at Weimar, 619

W

Wagele, Antoine, 709
Wagenseit, G. Ch., 875
Wagner, Albert, 1181
Wagner, Cosima, 1184
Wagner, David, 1235

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Wagner, Johanna, great singer, niece of Richard,
1185, 1267

Wagner, Richard, a poet, 1040, 1084, 1163 ; and
the New Romantic School, 1171 ; his Rienzi
and the Flying Dutchman, 1171 ; Tann-
ktiuser and Lohengrin, 1172 ; the Meister-
singer, Tristan und Isolde, Ring des Nibel-
ungen, his musical dramas analysed, 1173 ;
criticism upon Wagner, 1176 ; his art
theories argued, 1177 ; his great literary
activity, 1178 ; his birth, his love for Weber,
1179 ; his early studies, 1180 ; marries,
1181 ; order of his compositions, 1182

Wallace, W. V., English composer, 1249, 1280

Walmisley, T. A., 1292

Walmisley, T. F., 1292

Walter, G., singer, 1270

Walter, instrument maker, 650

Walther, Joh., composer and friend of Luther,
472 ; harmonises sacred melodies, 473

Walther, J. Ch., 875

Walther von Vogelweide, 245

Warrock, Thomas, 687

Wasielewski, J., 1035

Webbe, Samuel, glee writer, 919

Weber, Aloysia, 1269

Weber, Karl Maria von, 958 ; birth, early com-
positions, 963 ; as a conductor, Der Frei-
schutz, 965 ; he and Beethoven, 966 ; studies
English in London, 967 ; a romantic com-
poser, 968 ; his instrumentation, 968 ; his
songs, 969 ; his influence on modern music,
970 ; a renowned critic, 1040

Weber, Max von, 1232

Weelkes, T., composer, 685

Weigl, Joseph, composer, 720

Weinlig, Christian Theod., master of Richard
Wagner, 720

Weiss, S. L., 624

Weissensee, prolific composer, 618

AVeitzmann, K. Frederick, 1186

Weldon, John, Church music composer, 757

Welsh harp, 367

Welsh music, 396, 914

Wesley, S., composer, 1289

Wesley, S. S., composer, 1293

Westphal, Rud., 1224, 1225

"When the Wind Blows," Bishop, 1277

" Where art thou, Beam of Light ? " 1277

" mile Fools their Time," Smith, 1276

Whitbroke, English composer, 676

White, 681

" Who shall win my Lady Fair? " Pearsall, 1279

Wieck Clara (see Schumann), pianist, 1036

Wieck, Fred., 1036

Wieck, Marie, pianist, 1036

Wieniawski, H., violinist, 1271

Wieprecht, W. F., instrument maker, 1005

Wilbye, J., 685

Wilderness, The, Goss, 1292

Wilhelm of Poitiers (1087—1127 A.D.), a famous
troubadour, 232

Wilhelm j, A., great violinist, 1034, 1270

Wilkinson, 681

Willaert, Adr., Netherland writer, 345, 363, and
compositions for two choirs, 364; his ad-
vances in harmony, 365; the alternating
chant first used in the service of the Psalms,
365 ; his compositions for twelve and fifteen
voices, the inventor of the madrigal, 367

Wilt, Max, 1267

Winter, Peter von, opera composer, 719

Winterfeld, Karl von, historian, 1226

Wise, M., 750

Wittgenstein, Countess Karoline, 1191

Witzlav, Prince, 242, 243

Wolfram von Eschenbach, 174, 245

Wolzogen, Hans von, 1186

Woman of Samaria, The, Bennett, 1285

Wiierst, Rich., 1035; composer, 1207

Wiillner, Franz, 1217

Xenokrates, 155

Ya-ku, Chinese small drum, 14
" Ye Spotted Snakes," Stevens, 1276
Ykaert (see Hykaert, B.), 362
Yo, Chinese clarionet, 15
Yuen-lo, Chinese instrument, 13

Zachau, F. W., 821

Zachino, 609

Zarlino, G., 349

Zeelandia, H. de, harmonist of the Gallo-Belgic

School, 306

Zelenka, Joh. Dism., composer, 658
Zelter, Fred., 1031
Ziani, P. A., 536

Zimmermann, J. G., pianist, 1104
Zingarelli, A., 1060, 1135
Zollner, K., 1217
"Zopf "in music, 690
Zumbusch, 953
Zumsteeg, J. R., discoverer of the ballad form

of the Schubert kind, 976

THE END.

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