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PREFACE 


Naval  Orientation  has  been  prepared  mainly  foi 
programs.  It  is  a  source  of  useful  information,  howev 
the  Department  of  the  Navy  and  the  U.S.  Coast  G 
valuable  background  information  for  all  hands  and  : 
Navy  life  and  the  rules,  customs,  and  traditions  that  g 

This  text  was  prepared  by  the  Naval  Educatior 
Development  Center,  Pensacola,  Florida,  for  the  Q 
and  Training.  Suggestions,  comments,  and  criticisms  a 


Revised  1977 


Published  by 
NAVAL  EDUCATION  AND  TRAINING  SUPP 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


GUARDIAN  OF  OUR  COUN1 

The  United  States  Navy  is  responsible  for  maintainin 
sea  and  is  a  ready  force  on  watch  at  home  and  over 
strong  action  to  preserve  the  peace  or  of  instant  off* 
win  in  war. 

It  is  upon  the  maintenance  of  this  control  that  our  co 
future  depends;  the  United  States  Navy  exists  to  mak< 


WE  SERVi  WITH  HONOR 

Tradition,  valor,  and  victory  are  the  Navy's  heritage  fr< 
these  may  be  added  dedication,  discipline,  and  \ 
watchwords  of  the  present  and  the  future. 

At  home  or  on  distant  stations  we  serve  with  pride,  c 
respect  of  our  country,  our  shipmates,  and  our  familie 

Our  responsibilities  sober  us;  our  adversities  strengther 

Service  to  God  and  Country  is  our  special  privilege, 
honor. 


THE  FUTURE  OF  THE  NAV1 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER 

1 .  The  Navy  and  seapower     

2.  Makers  of  Naval  tradition     

3.  The  Naval  Officer's  career 

4.  Naval  terms  and  customs 

5.  Uniforms  and  insignia     

6.  Military  courtesy    

7.  Discipline  and  the  Uniform  Code  of  Militai 

8.  Leadership 

9.  Department  of  the  Navy 

1 0.  Components  and  supporting  elements  of  tt 


CHAPTER 

20.  Antiair  warfare     

21.  Undersea  warfare 

22.  Antisubmarine  warfare 

23.  Amphibious  warfare     

24.  Logistics 

25.  Naval  telecommunications 

26.  Security     

27.  Naval  intelligence 

28.  Research  and  development 

APPENDIX 

L  Personnel  records 

II.  Officer  fitness  reports     

III.  Classification  and  distribution  of  officers 

IV.  Morse  code,  semaphore,  and  alphabet  flags 

V.  Honors  and  ceremonies 

VI.  Awards 

VII.  Histoiy  of  the  U.S.  Naval  Academy 

INDEX  .... 


CHAPTER  1 


THE  NAVY  AND  SEAPC 


Seapower  as  a  concept  means  more  than 
military  power  at  sea.  According  to  an  OPNAV 
definition— 

"Seapower  is  the  sum  of  a  nation's 
capabilities  to  implement  its  interests  in 
the  ocean,  by  using  the  ocean  areas  for 
political,  economic,  and  military 
activities  in  peace  or  war  in  order  to 
attain  national  objectives— with  principal 
components  of  seapower  being  naval 
power,  ocean  science,  ocean  industry, 
and  ocean  commerce." 

The  first  use  of  the  term  "seapower"  was  by 
Captain  Alfred  Thayer  Mahan,  USN3  in  his 
principal  work,  The  Influence  of  Seapower 
Upon  History,  1660-1783,  published  in  1890. 
Mahan  explained  seapower  as  a  function  of  a 
nation's  (1)  geographic  position  conducive  to 
the  use  of  seapower,  (2)  physical  conformation, 


sole  detern 
complex.  Ac 
little  if  she 
conformatioi 
numerous,  fi 
climate  are 
physical  con 
climate  and 
own  wants, 
England,  lad 
compelled  tc 

Mahan's 
of  territory 
interdepende 
adequate  sez 
population  r 
accessible  sh 
seacoasts  am 
nation's  co 
penetration  I 

The  gist 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


in  the  forefront  of  the  major  maritime  powers 
endorsed  Mahan's  doctrine  based  on  the  belief 
that  history  provides  clues  to  achieving  maritime 
supremacy.  Mahan's  concept,  therefore,  became 
the  intellectual  force  behind  the  physical 
development  of  the  Navy. 


HISTORY  OF  SEAPOWER 

There  is  evidence  that  seapower  was  an 
important  influence  in  history  as  far  back  as 
4000  years  ago.  The  ancient  Cretans,  who  are 
credited  with  being  the  first  possessors  of  a  navy 
and  a  merchant  marine,  were  at  that  time 
dominating  the  peoples  who  lived  on  the  shores 
of  the  Aegean  Sea-now  Greece  and  Turkey.  The 
Phoenicians  were  next  to  prosper  from  their 
mastery  of  the  sea,  and  they  are  often  referred 
to  as  the  real  pioneers  in  the  use  of  maritime 
power.  Their  sea  rule  was  long,  but  for  various 
reasons  eventually  ended. 

Then  came  the  Greeks.  Greece,  a  land  of 
peninsulas,  was  marked  for  conquest  by  Persia  in 
492  B.C.  The  Greeks  managed  to  repel  the 
invaders  twice  in  ensuing  years,  but  the  Persians 
reigned  supreme  on  the  sea.  Then  the  Greek 
gods  told  the  Athenians  to  put  their  trust  in 
wooden  walls,  which  the  Greek  commander 
Themistocles  interpreted  to  mean  ships. 

In  the  decisive  battle  of  Salamis  in  480  B.C., 
the  Persians  moved  to  bottle  up  the  Greek  fleet, 
thus  falling  into  the  trap  set  by  Themistocles.  In 
order  to  engage  the  Greeks,  Persian  ships  had  to 
transit  a  narrow  opening  between  the  Greek 
mainland  and  the  island  of  Salamis.  This 
maneuver  forced  the  Persians  to  fight  with  just  a 
few  ships  at  a  time,  more  or  less  on  even  terms 
in  spite  of  their  superior  numbers.  For  the  first 
time  in  naval  warfare,  these  tactics  presented  the 
chance  for  one  fleet  to  flank  the  advance  of 
another.  And  this  the  Greeks  did,  closing  and 
ramming  time  and  again.  Badly  outmaneuvered, 
Persian  "King  of  Kings"  Xerxes  witnessed  the 
loss  of  half  his  ships,  and  thus  the  end  of  his 
hopes  to  conquer  Greece.  The  ensuing  period  of 
peace,  prosperity,  and  productivity  in  the  arts, 
known  as  the  Golden  Age  of  Athens, 
lasted— significantly  enough— just  about  as  long 
as  the  Greek  city-states  maintained  their 
collective  seapower. 


Rome,  which  succeeded  to  greatness  first  by 
alliance  with  the  powerful  Greek  city-states,  and 
more  enduringjy  by  absorption  of  Greek  culture, 
found  a  formidable  rival.  This  was  Carthage, 
which  had  been  a  Phoenician  colony. 

At  the  outset  of  the  Punic  wars,  Rome, 
recognizing  the  need  for  seapower,  greatly 
enlarged  her  modest  navy.  At  this  early  age  the 
Romans  were  not  particularly  able  sailors  nor 
were  they  adept  tacticians.  With  ships  superior 
in  size  and  numbers  plus  some  clever 
innovations,  however,  they  eventually  were  able 
to  sweep  the  more  skillful  Carthaginians  in  their 
lighter  vessels  from  the  sea.  Roman  seamanship 
improved  rapidly,  and  it  was  Rome's  seapower 
that  forced  Hannibal  to  take  the  difficult 
overland  route  to  Italy  via  Spain  and  the  Alps, 
thereby  losing  about  half  his  forces.  It  was 
Roman  seapower  also  that  enabled  her  to  move 
her  powerful  legions  over  the  Mediterranean 
almost  at  will,  building  an  empire  which  endured 
for  almost  600  years. 

Following  the  fall  of  Rome,  Constantinople 
on  the  Bosporus— Watergate  between  Europe  and 
the  Near  East— became  the  center  of  ancient 
culture.  Renaissance  Venice  succeeded 
Constantinople  as  a  great  seapower  of  its  era, 
but  much  of  the  Mediterranean  was  now  a 
Moorish  lake.  This  put  a  halt  to  European 
commerce  with  Asia  and  Africa,  except  at  the 
extravagant  risk  of  paying  tribute  to  one  pirate 
ruler  after  another— a  custom  that  was  to  prevail 
until  American  seapower  helped  abolish  it  more 
than  3  50  years  later. 

The  age  of  exploration  and  colonization  was 
the  age  of  seapower  in  its  broadest  applications. 
The  nations  employing  it  became  rich  and 
powerful.  They  profited  by  what  ships  brought 
them,  and  the  world  profited  by  what  they  sent 
forth  in  ships.  Inevitably  there  were  collisions 
between  the  maritime  rivals,  and  many  wars 
were  fought  between  opposing  seapowers.  When 
seapower  meets  seapower,  what  factors 
determine  who  shall  be  the  victor? 

All  other  things  being  equal,  victory  is 
assured  the  contestant  who  has  the  soundest 
knowledge  of  the  sea  and  use  of  ships  on  the  sea. 
It  was  know-how-the  combination  of  technical 


Chapter  1-THE  NAVY  AND  SEAPOWER 


knowledge  and  practical  skill— that  made  Drake 
the  master  of  the  Duke  of  Medina-Sidonia  and 
set  Nelson  above  Villeneuve. 

Three  great  maritime  powers-Spain, 
Portugal,  and  France -each  made  great  and 
enduring  contributions  to  discovery, 
exploration,  and  colonization  overseas,  but 
finally  dwindled  either  because  they  did  not 
fully  understand  the  use  of  the  sea,  or  because 
their  comprehension  was  inferior  to  that  of  their 
opponents. 

Portugal's  gaudy  but  brief  career  as  a 
seapower  was  extinguished  by  her  stronger  rival 
and  enveloping  neighbor,  Spain. 

Spain  gained  through  seapower  an  empire 
that  has  since  been  divided  into  half-a-hundred 
sovereignties,  but  the  Spanish  language  and 
Spanish  customs  still  persist  from  the  Philippine 
Republic  to  Mexico  and  Patagonia. 

Probably  no  investment  in  history  yielded 
greater  dividends  than  the  $5000  or  so  with 
which  Queen  Isabella  financed  the  voyage  of 
Columbus  into  the  western  sea.  Before  long,  the 
steady  stream  of  silver  and  gold  from  distant 
shores  was  pouring  millions  a  year  into  the  royal 
coffers.  Treasure-laden  ships  sailed  not  singly 
but  in  groups  shepherded  by  warships.  This  was 
an  early  example  of  a  protective  convoy. 

From  1492  to  1588  Spain  stood  in  the 
forefront  of  the  nations  of  Europe.  But  Spain 
was  a  classic  example  of  seapower  expressed  in 
terms  of  quantity  rather  than  of  quality. 

In  1588  her  king,  Philip  II,  determined 
finally  to  end  the  successful  English  raids  on 
Spanish  ships  and  ports  and  to  bring  England 
back  into  the  Catholic  fold  by  attacking  her 
with  what  seemed  an  irresistible  military  force. 
A  fleet  of  124  ships,  manned  by  8,000  sailors 
and  carrying  19,000  soldiers,  made  up  the 
Spanish  Grand  Invincible  Armada  when  it 
entered  the  English  Channel.  To  oppose  it,  the 
English  had  only  90  ships,  plus  a  mosquito  fleet 
which  had  never  seen  action.  However,  they  also 
had  the  know-how  personified  in  Sir  Francis 
Drake  and  his  men. 

The  Armada  was  organized  along  the  same 
lines  as  an  army;  it  was  under  the  command  of  a 


general,  the  Duke  of  Medina-Sidonia,  who  knew 
little  of  naval  warfare.  On  the  other  hand, 
Drake,  a  master  mariner,  knew  how  to  use  wind 
and  tide  as  allies.  The  confrontation  that  ensued 
marked  the  turning  point  in  naval  tactics. 
Previously,  naval  battles  had  been  virtually 
infantry  fights  on  floating  platforms.  If  ramming 
did  not  sink  an  enemy  ship,  soldiers  were  sent 
swarming  over  her  side  to  engage  in 
hand-to-hand  conflict.  The  English,  however, 
planned  something  quite  different  on  this 
occasion.  They  maneuvered  to  windward  of  the 
Spaniards  and  pounded  them  with  artillery  from 
a  distance.  This  deprived  the  soldiers  of  the 
opportunity  to  come  to  grips  with  the  enemy. 
The  big  lumbering  Spanish  ships,  with  their 
towering  upper  works,  were  splendid  targets. 

The  Spanish,  ignoring  a  chance  to  attack  the 
English  off  Plymouth,  sailed  on  up  the  Channel. 
The  English  pecked  away  at  the  Armada  on  its 
trip  up  the  Channel,  but  did  little  damage  except 
to  induce  the  Spaniards  to  fire  all  their  heavy 
shot  with  no  telling  effects.  The  Spaniards 
anchored  in  Calais,  and  during  the  night  the 
English  forced  them  out  by  floating  several 
burning  hulks  down  on  them.  The  combined 
English  and  Dutch  fleets  attacked  the  Armada 
the  next  day  and  might  have  crushed  it  if  they 
had  had  ample  powder  and  shot.  As  it  was,  the 
demoralized  Spaniards  fled  north  and  rounded 
the  British  Isles  to  the  Atlantic  where  storms 
nearly  succeeded  in  finishing  what  the  English 
had  started.  The  defeat  of  the  Armada  ushered 
in  the  decline  of  Spain's  world  dominance,  while 
England  went  on  to  become  mistress  of  the  sea. 

While  not  achieving  any  great  destruction  of 
the  enemy,  the  English  demonstrated  superior 
adaptability  of  tactics  to  weapons.  From  that 
time  on,  gunnery  gradually  replaced  shock 
action  in  battles  at  sea.  The  cries  of  "Boarders 
away!"  and  "Stand  by  to  repel  boarders!" 
gradually  became  less  frequent.  The  day  was  still 
far  distant  when  ships  would  become  targets 
while  still  hull  down  on  the  horizon,  but  that 
was  the  direction  of  naval  progress  after  the 
decisive  Armada  defeat. 

The  French  did  not  have  the  compulsion  to 
take  to  the  sea  as  did  the  British  and  Dutch. 
Their  national  policy  was  to  develop  their  rich 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


land  and  defend  it  against  predatory  neighbors 
while  expending  minimum  resources  toward 
extending  the  nation's  seapower.  French  naval 
captains  were  ordered  to  avoid  risk-a  policy  not 
designed  to  control  the  seas  by  destruction  of 
enemy  naval  forces,  but  merely  to  dispute  them 
by  commerce  raiding.  In  the  end,  this  policy 
cost  France  both  her  navy  and  her  merchant 
fleets,  and  contributed  to  the  loss  of  Canada  and 
other  overseas  colonies. 

The  American  Revolution  had  elements  of  a 
maritime  war,  and  it  was  seapower  that 
eventually  helped  to  win  independence  for  the 
colonies. 

The  final  and  decisive  battle  at  Yorktown 
would  never  have  occurred  had  not  the  French 
fleet  under  de  Grasse  attained  command  of  the 
sea  in  the  Virginia  Capes  area.  Thus  Cornwallis, 
the  British  commander,  surrounded  on  the 
landward  side  by  the  combined 
Franco- American  army  and  on  the  seaward  side 
by  the  French  fleet,  was  forced  to  surrender. 

General  George  Washington  understood 
seapower  and  appreciated  its  use  as  indicated  in 
his  statements  below: 

"In  any  operation,  and  under  all 
circumstances,  a  decisive  naval 
superiority  is  to  be  considered  as  a 
fundamental  principle,  and  the  basis 
upon  which  every  hope  of  success  must 
ultimately  depend." 

Again,  he  said: 

"Whatever  efforts  are  made  by  land 
armies,  the  navy  must  have  the  casting 

vote     in     the     present    conflict A 

constant  naval  superiority  would 
terminate  the  war  speedily;  without  it,  I 
do  not  know  that  it  will  ever  be 
terminated  honorably." 

Later,  as  President,  Washington  pointed  out 
that  U.S.  commerce  required  a  naval  force  to 
protect  it  and  then  added  something  the 
American  people  promptly  forgot:  that  the  most 
sincere  neutrality  offered  in  itself  little 
protection  against  the  depredations  of  nations  at 
war.  Only  a  navy  organized  and  ready  to 


vindicate  it  from  insult  or  aggression  could  secure 
respect  to  a  neutral  flag.  He  added  that  such  a 
force  might  even  prevent  the  necessity  of  going 
to  war  at  all. 

Napoleon,  although  a  master  strategist  on 
land,  had  little  knowledge  of  war  at  sea.  He 
looked  in  vain  for  a  naval  officer  who  really 
understood  seapower.  He  said: 

"The  great  weakness  of  our  navy  is  that 
the  men  who  command  it  are 
inexperienced  in  all  the  hazards  of 
command.  I  look  increasingly  for  the 
right  naval  officer  without  being  able  to 
find  him.  In  that  profession  there  is  a 
specialty,  a  technicality,  which  put  a 
limit  to  all  my  conceptions." 

Characteristic    of    the     superior     use    of 
seapower  by  the  British  are  the  naval  aspects  of 
the  Napoleonic  Wars.  It  was  the  combined  land 
forces  of  Britain  and  her  allies  that  eventually 
crushed  Napoleon's  armies  and  broke  his  power. 
But  seapower  had  been  working  steadily  and 
relentlessly  to  contribute  to  that  end.  Seapower 
enabled  first  Sir  John  Moore  and  then  the  Duke 
of  Wellington  to  conduct  a  war  on  the  extended 
flanks  of  the  French  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  and 
then  at  the  strategic  moment  to  shift  those  same 
troops  to  Flanders  on  the   way  to  Waterloo. 
Nelson  laid  the  foundations  for  this  mobility  in 
the  great  victories  of  the  Nile,  Cape  St.  Vincent, 
and   Trafalgar,   which   closed    the    sea    to  the 
French  but  made  it  an  open  highway  for  the 
British.  British  land  forces  were  never  more  than 
fractional   compared    with    Napoleon's    Grand 
Army.    But    Napoleonic    strategy    demanded 
troops  stationed  everywhere  in   Europe,  while 
the  British  needed  to  strike  only  in  selected 
spots  of  their  own  choosing.  Seapower  enabled 
the  British  to  apply  concentrated  power  against 
Napoleon's  weak  point  on  his  own  territory. 

It  was  during  the  Napoleonic  Wars  that 
Amencan  seapower  first  was  used  to  implement 
the  foreign  policy  of  the  recently  created  United 
States.  The  United  States,  along  with  other 
nations,  had  for  some  time  been  paying  tribute 
to  the  so-called  Barbary  Powers  in  order  to 
prevent  the  seizure  of  shipping  by  pirates  of 
these  countries.  This  practice  was  ended  when  it 


was   imany   aecmea   inai  gunpower  msieaa  01 
tribute  was  the  best  solution  to  the  problem. 


inn   *jrK.c,.ai 
WHITE  FLEET 


In  the  war  of  1812,  despite  a  few  highly 
successful  frigate  duels,  the  few  American 
saltwater  warships  and  merchantships  were 
eventually  tightly  blockaded  by  overwhelming 
British  forces.  It  was  American  privateers,  on 
commerce-raiding  missions,  who  achieved 
surprising  success  against  England's  merchant 
marine.  Although  they  by  no  means  inhibited 
the  power  of  the  British  fleet  or  caused  any 
lasting  effect  on  the  British  economy,  the  British 
Government,  heavily  engaged  in  European 
struggles,  felt  it  best  to  negotiate  a  reasonable 
peace. 

In  the  Civil  War,  control  of  the  sea  was 
overwhelmingly  in  the  hands  of  the  North.  For  4 
years  the  Union  Navy  was  constantly  occupied 
with  the  task  of  blockading  more  than  3000 
miles  of  coastline,  running  down  Southern 
commerce  raiders,  cooperating  with  the  Army  in 
capturing  coastal  strongholds,  and  opening  the 
Mississippi  and  other  waterways  that  led  into  the 
South.  Hie  South  countered  with  commerce 
raiders,  but  the  strangling  effect  of  the  Union 
blockade  eventually  took  its  toll.  It  crippled  the 
finances  of  the  Confederacy,  shut  out  foodstuffs 
and  munitions,  and  proved  a  major  factor  in 
deciding  the  outcome  of  the  war.  The  country 
learned  from  this  war  that  a  navy  could  not  be 
quickly  and  readily  improvised  in  an  emergency. 
Even  then,  the  days  were  past  when  merchant 
vessels  could  be  converted  rapidly  into  efficient 
men-of-war. 

When  the  Spanish-American  War  broke  out, 
it  was  at  once  recognized  that  the  conflict  would 
be  primarily  naval  and  would  be  won  by  the 
nation  that  secured  control  of  the  sea.  The 
Spanish  Navy  at  that  time,  was  characterized  by 
poor  equipment,  incompetence,  and  lack  of 
trained  personnel,  while  the  U.S.  Navy,  though 
small,  was  soon  prepared  for  aggressive  actions 
at  sea.  Both  at  Manila  Bay  and  Santiago  the 
enemy's  fleet  was  destroyed.  Although  Dewey's 
victory  at  Manila  Bay  had  little  material  effect 
on  the  war,  the  destruction  of  Admiral  Cervera's 
ships  off  Santiago,  Cuba,  established  the  Navy's 
command  of  the  Caribbean. 


In  1907  President  Theodore  Roosevelt 
ordered  the  bulk  of  U.S.  seapower  to  sail  around 
the  world.  This  composite  of  1 6  battleships  was 
designed  to  impress  upon  the  world,  and 
particularly  upon  the  Japanese  who  were  posing 
a  growing  threat  in  the  Pacific,  the  fact  that  the 
U.S.  Navy  was  second  in  strength  only  to  that  of 
Great  Britain.  By  the  time  the  White  Fleet 
finished  its  2-year  cruise,  the  United  States 
already  had  launched  an  even  more  impressive 
addition  to  her  fleet,  the  USS  Delaware,  built  tc 
keep  pace  with  HMS  Dreadnought  which  was 
setting  the  pattern  for  a  new  era  of  naval 
warfare. 


SEAPOWER  IN 
MODERN  TIMES 

World  War  I  was  similar  to  the  Napoleonic 
Wars  in  that  it  was  a  struggle  between  landpowei 
predominant  on  the  continent  and  naval  powei 
supreme  on  the  seas.  It  should  have  beer 
obvious  that  the  British  Navy,  rather  than  the 
French  Army,  was  the  principal  barrier  tc 
German  success.  A  correct  appraisal  of  this 
situation  as  early  as  1905,  when  Germany  begar 
in  earnest  to  build  up  her  naval  strength,  migh 
have  resulted  in  a  reallocation  of  Germany': 
war-making  resources  in  order  to  provide  a  nav) 
strong  enough  to  defeat  Great  Britain's.  As  i 
was,  Germany's  leaders  were  land  minded,  anc 
the  Imperial  Army  was  the  favored  service— i 
fact  that  caused  Admiral  von  Tirpitz  to  lament 
"We  Germans  do  not  understand  the  sea!"  Toe 
late  the  U-boat  force  was  recognized  a: 
Germany's  deadliest  offensive  weapon.  Althougl 
measures  were  taken  to  expand  the  naval  arm 
the  German  Navy,  planned  and  constructed  b} 
von  Tirpitz,  was  almost,  but  never  quite,  bij 
enough. 

In  World  War  II  the  Germans  once  mor< 
demonstrated  shortsightedness  and  incapacity  t( 
make  the  best  use  of  their  resources  in  seapowei 
Again  they  failed  to  make  provision  fo 
contesting  control  of  the  sea  by  building  ai 
adequate  number  of  ships.  Even  so,  if  the  Axi 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Powers  had  correctly  estimated  the  strategic 
importance  of  the  Mediterranean  and  if,  early  in 
the  war,  they  had  concentrated  all  possible  naval 
resources  in  that  area  with  the  Italian  fleet  as  the 
main  striking  force  and  with  their  other  military 
forces  operating  in  support,  the  story  might  have 
been  different  and  the  Mediterranean  might  weU 
have  become  an  Axis  lake.  Under  such 
circumstances  the  Allies'  African  campaign 
would  have  faced  almost  insurmountable 
difficulties. 

England  held  an  uncertain  tenure  in  the 
Mediterranean  while  U.S.  seapower  was  being 
assembled.  Later,  with  combined  strength,  the 
U.S.  and  England  conducted  the  great 
amphibious  campaigns  that  were  each  a 
steppingstone  to  final  victory-North  Africa, 
Sicily,  Italy,  Normandy,  and  the  Mediterranean 
coast  of  France. 

In  the  Pacific,  with  local  control  of  the  sea, 
Japan  was  able  to  capture  Singapore,  the 
Western  Aleutians,  the  East  Indies,  the 
Solomons,  and  to  threaten  Australia.  When  she 
lost  this  control,  she  was  unable  to  send  men, 
supplies,  and  ships  even  to  the  aid  of  Okinawa, 
threshold  of  the  homeland.  In  the  first  years  of 
the  war,  the  U.S.  range  of  operation  was  limited. 
As  the  United  States  reduced  Japan's  Navy  and 
as  her  own  grew,  especially  with  respect  to  naval 
air  superiority,  it  became  possible  to  range  more 
freely,  to  bypass  enemy  strongholds,  and  to 
omit  many  grueling  campaigns. 

Because  of  the  effects  of  seapower,  U.S. 
landings  in  Leyte  and  Lingayen  were  ahead  of 
schedule.  Inability  to  move  on  the  sea  prevented 
the  Japanese  from  exploiting  their  strength 
in  the  Philippines  and  from  satisfactorily 
reinforcing  their  troops  at  the  point  of  attack. 
Control  of  the  sea  made  it  possible  for  U.S. 
forces  to  bypass  many  islands  and  avoid  waters 
controlled  by  the  enemy. 

Seapower  permits  multiple  use  of  the  same 
force;  a  small  army  becomes  in  effect  many 
armies.  With  a  handful  of  divisions,  the  Pacific 
Area  forces  drove  steadily  toward  the  Japanese 
home  islands.  In  much  of  the  central  and 
western  Pacific,  the  Japanese  had  a  strong 
numerical  superiority,  but  a  large  portion  of  her 


••         •• 

troops  never  got  into  combat.  Without  adequate 
shipping  and  naval  air  power,  the  Japanese 
legions  were  helpless;  with  a  sufficiency,  the  few 
U.S.  divisions  were  superior  to  the  many  that 
opposed  them. 


SEAPOWER  AND 
NAVAL  BLOCKADE 

Seapower  means  more  than  controlling  the 
sea  for  one's  own  use;  it  means  denying  its  use 
to  .the  enemy.  This  can  be  partly  accomplished 
by  blockade-closing  the  sea  roads  to  starve  the 
economy  of  the  nation.  Some  understanding  of 
a  blockade's  numbing  grip  can  be  gained  from 
figures  released  in  a  report  from  General 
MacArthur's  headquarters  in  Japan  following 
World  War  II.  (General  Mac  Arthur  was 
Commander  in  Chief,  Far  East  Command 
(CINCFE)). 

The  peak  wartime  production  of  steel  ingots 
in  the  Japanese  Empire  occurred  in  1 943  when 
approximately  9,600,000  tons  were  produced. 
By  1945  Japan's  steel  industry  was  producing  at 
the  rate  of  only  120,000  tons  a  year.  The  report 
indicated  that  1,800,000  tons  of  the  annual 
capacity  were  erased  by  bombing.  The  remaining 
7,680,000-ton  loss  in  production  was  due  to 
naval  blockade. 

Further  tangible  evidence  of  the  manner  in 
which  our  sea  warfare  helped  break  down 
Japan's  economy  is  found  in  another  part  of  this 
report.  In  1 941  a  total  of  4,000,000  tons  of  iron 
ore  was  required  by  the  Japanese  steel  industry. 
Of  this,  some  3,000,000  tons  had  to  be 
imported  from  the  Asiatic  mainland  and  from 
the  Philippines.  As  the  naval  blockade  tightened, 
imports  dropped  off,  and  by  1944  the 
iron  content  of  imported  ores  added  up  to  less 
than  30%  of  the  tonnage  imported  in  1941. 

In  common  with  those  of  other  nations, 
Japan's  sea  and  air  fleets  were  entirely 
dependent  on  petroleum  for  fuel.  Nearly  all  of 
Japan's  petroleum  supply  was  imported.  When 
the  blockade  .applied  by  American  submarines 
cut  this  vital  supply  line  in  1 944,  Japanese  naval 
and  air  forces  were  doomed  to  eventual 


Chapter  1-THE  NAVY  AND  SEAPOWER 


134.1 

Figure  1-1.— The  day  of  infamy.  Although  the  Japanese  sank  our  battleships  at  Pearl  Harbor,  our  great  force  of 
warships,  transports,  aircraft,  and  other  components  of  United  States  seapower  brought  final  victory. 


paralysis.  The  industrial  atrophy  induced  in 
Japan  by  blockade  was  somewhat  slower  to  take 
effect,  but  it  was  equally  fatal  to  that  nation's 
war  effort.  It  is  axiomatic  that  since  the 
industrial  potential  is  so  essential  in  developing 
seapower,  the  destruction  of  that  potential  in  an 
enemy  nation  is  of  equal  importance  in 
weakening  its  seapower. 

Admiral  Ernest  J.  King,  appointed 
Commander  in  Chief,  United  States  Fleet 
(COMINCH)  2  weeks  after  the  attack  on  Pearl 
Harbor  (figure  1-1),  summarized  the  part  played 
by  seapower  in  World  War  II: 

"In  the  European  war,  seapower  was 
an  essential  factor  because  of  the 
necessity  of  transmitting  our  entire 
military  effort  across  the  Atlantic  and 
supporting  it  there.  Without  command 
of  the  sea,  this  could  not  have  been 
done.  Nevertheless,  the  surrender  of 
land,  sea,  and  air  forces  of  the  German 


Reich  on  8  May  1 945  was  the  direct 
result  of  the  application  of  airpower  over 
land  and  the  power  of  the  allied  ground 
forces. 

"In  the  Pacific  war,  the  power  of  our 
ground  and  strategic  air  forces,  like 
seapower  in  the  Atlantic,  was  an 
essential  factor.  By  contrast  with 
Germany,  however,  Japan's  armies  were 
intact  and  undefeated  and  her  air  forces 
only  weakened  when  she  surrendered, 
but  her  navy  had  been  destroyed  and  her 
merchant  tleet  had  been  fatally  crippled. 
Dependent  upon  imported  food  and  raw 
materials  and  relying  upon  sea  transport 
to  supply  her  armies  at  home  and 
overseas,  Japan  lost  the  war  because  she 
lost  command  of  the  sea,  and  in  doing  so 
lost— to  the  U.S.— the  island  bases  from 
which  her  warmaking  potential  could  be 
destroyed  by  air." 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Scenes  of  Allied  naval  forces  and  of  the 
ceremonies  aboard  the  L -'V.V  Missouri  on  V-J  Day 
are  shown  in  figures  1-2  and  1-3,  respectively. 

THE  CUBAN 
QUARANTINE 

More  recently,  the  U.S.  Navy's  seapower  was 
displayed  in  the  Cuban  quarantine  of  1962.  The 
quarantine  was  ordered  by  the  President  when 
aerial  photography  of  the  island  disclosed  ICBM 
launching  pads  being  constructed,  as  well  as  the 
presence  of  ICBM  missiles.  Since  only  two 
countries  in  the  world  had  a  nuclear 
missile-production  capability,  it  was  obvious 
where  the  missiles  came  from.  The  President  was 


convinced  that  a  missile-launching  capability  in 
Communist-controlled  Cuba  constituted  a  clear 
and  present  danger  to  the  Americas.  He 
therefore,  on  a  unilateral  basis,  imposed  a 
quarantine  to  prevent  the  further  delivery  of 
missiles.  The  Navy  was  alerted  immediately  to 
search  for,  intercept,  and  turn  back  any 
missile-carrying  vessels  that  were  en  route  to  the 
Cuban  area. 

Within  a  matter  of  days,  some  1 80  ships  and 
85,000  men  were  directly  involved.  Ten  Marine 
battalions  were  afloat,  ready  for  whatever 
assignment  they  might  be  given.  Navy  forces 
were  searching,  around  the  clock,  an  area  of 
about  3.5  million  square  miles  for  merchant 


Chapter   1-THE  NAVY  AND  SEAPOWER 


ships  and  submarines.  In  support  of  the 
quarantine,  naval  aircraft  completed  9,000 
flights  during  30,000  flight  hours. 

The  Cuban  quarantine  was  a  dramatic  test  of 
the  readiness  and  ability  of  our  naval  forces  to 
respond. 

THE  EVOLUTION 
OF  SEAPOWER 

Mahan's  seapower  doctrine  had  its  basis  in  a 
world  that  no  longer  exists.  The  passing  of  that 


world  and  a  reappraisal  of  Mahan's  philosophy, 
in  the  light  of  today's  naval  responsibilities  and 
capabilities,  has  shown  flaws  inherent  in  his 
original  concept.  Mahan  did  not  envision  the 
relative  decline  of  English  seapower  and  the 
corresponding  rise  of  three  competing 
industrialized  seapowers— the  United  States, 
Japan,  and  Germany.  Also,  he  advocated  an 
arrangement  whereby  a  mother  country  was 
enriched  and  supported  by  her  colonies.  This 
concept  has  been  largely  supplanted  in  the  West 
by  capitalistic  industrialization  and  trade.  A 


134.3 

Figure  1-3.— V-J    Day  aboard  the  USS  Missouri.   Fleet  Admiral  Nimitz  signs  the  Japanese  surrender  document  on 

2  September  1945. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


concomitant  feature  of  industry  allied  with 
science  has  been  the  introduction  of  refined  and 
diverse  methods  of  warfare.  The  submarine,  the 
supersonic  aircraft,  and  the  guided  missile  were 
unknown  in  Mahan s  age;  and  their  introduction 
has  necessitated  changes  in  the  present 
connotation  of  the  term  "seapower."  Finally, 
Mahan  viewed  the  struggle  for  seapower 
supremacy  as  centered  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and 
looked  upon  the  Pacific  Ocean  as  an  area  of  only 
subsidiary  importance.  A  look  at  World  War  II 
shows  that  this  is  not  so. 

These  apparent  flaws  in  Mahan 's  doctrine 
raise  the  question  whether  a  seapower  concept  is 
still  tenable  and  applicable  to  modem  navies.  A 
close  analysis  will  show  the  growing  importance 
of  seapower  today  and  tomorrow. 

No  nation  has  ever  been  economically 
self-sufficient.  As  in  the  past,  nations  in  the 
future  will  need  the  natural  resources  and 
manufactured  goods  of  other  nations. 

To  get  these  commodities,  it  is  obvious  that 
a  means  of  transportation  is  necessary  to  carry 
the  resources  and  goods  to  a  nation's  homeland. 
Water  transportation  is  presently  the  most 
economical  and  practicable  means  of 
transporting  this  great  bulk  of  material  between 
nations.  In  peace  or  war,  more  than  99%  of  all 
international  trade  moves  on  the  sea. 

Use  of  the  sea  as  a  means  of  transport 
implies  a  control  of  the  sea  when  that  use  is 
opposed  by  other  nations.  Thus,  the  initial  and 
primary  mission  of  a  nation's  navy  is  to  gain 
control  of  the  sea  for  that  nation  and,  if 
necessary,  to  deny  the  use  of  the  sea  to  others. 
The  importance  of  controlling  the  sea  and 
denying  its  use  to  enemies  is  as  great  today  as  it 
was  in  the  past.  The  new  inland  reach  of 
seapower  has  had  a  far-reaching  effect  on  all 
military  strategy.  With  the  advent  of  missiles 
from  beneath  the  ocean,  supersonic  jets  carrying 
nuclear  warheads,  and  the  ability  to  project 
combat-ready  marines  far  inland,  the  strategies 
put  forth  by  Mahan  must  be  drastically  revised 
to  include  the  naval  forces  in  any  consideration 
of  land  hostilities-in  offense  or  defense. 

Marian's  theories  show  a  complete 
absorption  in  the  importance  of  seapower.  He 
entertained  little  hope  of  an  aspiring  landpower 
attaining  world  pre-eminence  in  the  face  of 
opposing  seapowers.  However,  a  philosophy 


diametrically  opposed  to  Mahan's  appeared  in 
1919  with  the  publication  of  Halford  J; 
Mackinder's  Democratic  Ideas  and  Reality. 

Mackinder  did  not  believe  that  past  history 
was  a  record  of  unbroken  seapower  mastery,  but 
rather  that  it  was  a  constant  alternation  of 
landpower  supremacy  and  seapower  supremacy. 

Mackinder's  main  tenet  was  that  a  nation 
situated  in  the  Heartland  of  Eurasia  (i.e., 
European  Russia  and  Siberia)  ^could,  with 
improved  overland  communications  and  a 
developing  industry,  expand  to  the  coastlines  of 
the  continent  and  capture  the  seapower  bases 
from  the  landward  side.  A  nation  controlling  all 
of  Eurasia  could  easily  capture  Africa, 
Therefore,  with  the  combined  resources  and 
manpower  of  the  World  Island  (Eurasia  and 
Africa),  the  world  balance  of  power  would  be 
altered  and  it  would  be  only  a  matter  of  time 
until  the  outlying  lands  (i.e.,  North  and  South 
America,  England,  and  Japan)  would  fall 
beneath  its  domination. 

Mackinder  made  assumptions  that  have  yet 
to  materialize.  He  took  for  granted  that  the 
Heartland  would  be  an  area  of  extensive, 
modernized  overland  communications  and  the 
seat  of  industrial  might.  The  Heartland  has 
developed  since  Mackinder's  time,  but  not  to  the 
extent  where  it  possesses  a  network  of  roads  and 
railroads  necessary  for  the  shifting  of  massive 
landpower  from  point  to  point.  The  Heartland 
today  is  still  a  vast  waste  in  the  outskirts  of 
Siberia  and  the  other  hinterlands  of  the  Soviet 
Union.  The  industrial  progress  of  the  last  few 
decades  has  not  made  Mackinder's  Heartland  a 
center  of  industry. 

From  time  to  time,  other  writers  have 
questioned  the  value  of  seapower  in  establishing 
and  maintaining  a  nation  as  a  world  power.  One 
of  these  is  Robert  Strausz-Hupe.  In  his 
Geopolitics,  the  Struggle  for  Space  and  Power 
(published  in  1942),  he  stresses  the  value  of 
mobility  of  forces,  and  contends  that  landpower 
plus  rail  transport  appeared  to  overwhelm  and 
shatter  the  British  Empire.  To  strengthen  his 
point,  he  cites  several  examples,  one  of  which  is 
the  threat  imposed  on  outlying  British 
possessions  during  World  War  I  by 
German-Turkish  landpower  "operating  along  rail 
lines  flung  to  the  gates  of  Egypt  and  to  the 
shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf." 


10 


While  it  is  true  that  Britain  was  forced  to 
counter  land  force  with  land  force,  the  fact 
remains  that  sea  transport  brought  the  necessary 
troops  within  striking  distance  of  the 
threatening  enemy.  Indeed,  history  does  not 
bear  out  Mr.  Strausz-Hupe  as  can  be  seen  when 
one  considers  the  events  of  World  Wars  I  and  II. 
In  both  cases,  the  pendulum  of  advantage 
commenced  its  swing  to  the  side  of  Britain  upon 
America's  entry  into  the  war.  Without  eventual 
control  of  the  sea,  America  would  have  been  as 
powerless  to  assist  her  as  might  some  tiny  South 
Pacific  island. 

Regardless  of  the  many  theories  presented 
by  various  writers  and  the  merit  or  lack  of  merit 
of  those  theories,  the  reader  must  remember 
that  the  free  world  today  faces  the  most 
ominous  threat  in  history.  To  oppose  this  threat, 
the  United  States  and  her  allies  must  maintain  a 
well-balanced  weapons  system:  sea,  land,  and  air 
power.  Recognizing  this  fact,  the  Congress  and 
Armed  Forces  of  the  United  States  are  dedicated 
to  building  and  maintaining  the  best  system 
possible  for  the  defense  of  the  free  world. 


THE  CURRENT 
WORLD  SITUATION 

For  all  practical  purposes,  the  world  today  is 
divided  into  various  camps:  those  nations  under 
Communist  rule  behind  the  Iron  Curtain  and 
those  free  nations  outside  the  Iron  Curtain.  In 
addition,  there  are  many  countries  that  maintain 
a  policy  of  national  neutrality.  Through  various 
agreements  (NATO,  SEATO,  etc.),  the  United 
States  can  assist  with  the  defense  of  the  free 
world.  The  Soviet  Union  and  her  satellites, 
whose  boundaries  correspond  to  those  of  the 
free  world,  occupy  that  portion  of  the  world 
which  Mackinder  called  the  Heartland.  Thus,  the 
area  inside  the  perimeter  is,  essentially,  all  land. 

The  area  outside  the  Iron  Curtain  is  mostly 
water.  However,  added  together,  all  the  lands 
outside  the  perimeter  amount  to  three  times  as 
much  land  area  and  twice  as  many  people 
outside  in  the  free  world  as  inside  in  the 
Communist  world.  The  free  world,  moreover, 
contains  most  of  the  areas  that  are  highly 
developed  industrially  and  agriculturally;  and  it 


provides  every  strategic  material  necessary  for 
the  conduct  of  modern  war. 

Viewed  thus,  the  situation  for  the  free  world 
appears  far  less  critical  than  it  does  in  the  world 
Mackinder  pictured.  In  1947,  Mackinder 
admitted  in  his  last  published  article  that,  if 
enormously  productive  Western  Europe  and 
North  America  combined  forces,  they  could 
offset  the  potential  of  the  Heartland.  These 
areas  and  much  of  the  free  world  are  now  linked 
together  by  an  interlocking  series  of  treaties. 

Militarily,  the  United  States  has 
implemented  these  agreements  with  airbases  in 
friendly  foreign  countries,  and  by  deployment 
of  the  6th  Fleet  in  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
7th  Fleet  off  Asia.  Geographically,  a  major 
unifying  factor  in  the  free  world  is  the  sea,  the 
only  means  in  our  present  state  of  technology 
for  intercontinental  assembly  or  projection  of 
power  involving  many  personnel  and  much 
material. 

The  U.S.  Navy's  current  responsibilities,  set 
forth  in  the  Department  of  Defense 
Reorganization  Act  of  1958,  encompass  areas 
inconceivable  at  the  turn  of  the  century. 

The  primary  functions  of  the  Navy  and  the 
Marine  Corps  are  to  organize,  train,  and  equip 
Navy  and  Marine  Corps  forces  for  the  conduct 
of  prompt  and  sustained  combat  operations  at 
sea.  Operations  include  sea-based  aircraft  and 
land-based  naval  air  components.  Specifically, 
the  forces  seek  out  and  destroy  enemy  naval 
forces  and  suppress  enemy  sea  commerce,  gain 
and  maintain  general  naval  supremacy,  and 
control  vital  sea  areas  and  protect  vital  sea  lines 
of  communication.  They  also  establish  and 
maintain  local  superiority  (including  air)  in  an 
area  of  naval  operations,  seize  and  defend 
advanced  naval  bases,  and  conduct  such  land  and 
air  operations  as  may  be  essential  to  the 
prosecution  of  a  naval  campaign. 

The  Navy  also  provides  forces  for  joint 
amphibious  operations  and  is  responsible  for 
training  all  forces  assigned  to  these  operations  in 
amphibious  doctrine  established  by  the  Joint 
Chiefs  of  Staff.  Other  specific  responsibilities 
assigned  to  the  Navy  are  naval  reconnaissance, 
antisubmarine  warfare,  protection  of  shipping, 


11 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Figure  1-4.-Artist's  concept  of  the  guided-missile  frigate  (FFG-7)  Oliver  Hazard  Perry. 


134.181 


minelaying,  and  controlled  minefield  operations. 
In  conjunction  with  the  other  services,  the  Navy 
must  provide  forces  for  the  defense  of  the 
United  States  against  air  attack. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  Navy's  mission  has 
increased  in  complexity  since  the  time  of 
Mahan.  As  a  result  of  this  in  creased  complexity, 
a  massive  modernization  of  Navy  ships,  aircraft, 
and  weapons  has  been  undertaken.  Basically,  the 
program  has  taken  three  forms:  (1)  the  speedup 
of  research  and  development  in  order  to  find 
new  weapons.  (2)  laying  up  of  old  ships,  in  order 
to  save  operating  and  overhaul  cost,  and  putting 
tills  money  into  new  construction,  (3)  the 
"hi-low  balanced  mix"  concept;  that  is, 
purchasing  a  few  highly  effective  ships  and 
aircraft  (such  as  CVNs,  SSNs,  and  the  F-14 
aircraft)  while  at  the  same  time  developing  new 
classes  of  low-cost  ships  such  as  the 
guided-missile  frigate  and  sea  control  ship.  (See 
figure  1-4.) 

Hie    Navy    has  entered   a   new   phase  of 
scientific  warfare-one  in  which  nuclear  weapons 


and  guided  missiles  are  the  primary  destructive 
weapons.  Conventional  weapons,  of  course,  are 
still  maintained  and  improved.  Such  weapons 
enable  the  Navy,  with  its  Marine  component,  to 
deploy  rapidly  and  to  apply  the  force  necessary 
to  contain  a  limited  war. 

The  Navy's  current  scientific  projects  range 
from  Earth  navigation  and  communication 
satellites  to  the  improvement  of  nuclear 
propulsion  in  which  the  Navy  continues  to  lead 
the  world.  The  Navy's  Polaris  missile, 
operational  in  nuclear-powered  submarines  at 
sea,  was  the  first  IRBM  (intermediate-range 
ballistic  missile)  to  employ  the  solid-propellant 
motor  with  its  greatly  increased  simplicity  and 
reliability.  Following  the  success  of  the  Polaris 
missile,  the  Poseidon  and  Trident  missiles,  with 
extended  range  and  multiple  warheads,  were 
developed. 

Other  Navy  achievements  include  pioneering 
the  route  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic 
beneath  the  north  polar  ice  cap  and  the  new 
departures  in  communications,  radar, 


19 


Chapter   1-THJti  NAVY   AND 


underwater  acoustics,  oceanography,  and  a  host 
of  other  scientific  fields. 

Historically,  the  Navy's  radius  of  action  was 
limited  to  the  enemy's  coastline,  plus  the  range 
of  the  ship's  guns.  With  the  development  of 
high-performance  aircraft  and  ballistic  missiles, 
the  Navy's  radius  of  action  now  spans 
continents. 

Ships,  because  of  their  mobility,  are  not  the 
accessible  targets  that  shore  bases  are. 
Furthermore,  as  a  partial  deterrent  to  the 
destructive  capabilities  of  nuclear  weapons,  the 
dispersal  concept  has  been  added  to  fleet 
doctrine. 

The  Navy's  paramount  objective  in  wartime 
is  to  maintain  control  of  the  sea  for  the  United 
States  and  her  allies,  and  to  destroy  the  enemy's 
seapower,  including  access  to  his  ports.  A  sea 
blockade,  which  will  eventually  break  down  a 
hostile  nation's  economic  system,  is  used  to 
accomplish  this  objective.  Should  the  blockade 
fail  to  destroy  the  enemy's  seapower 
completely,  the  fleet  will  still  provide  a 
peripheral  defense  on  the  farthermost  frontier. 

Such  a  peripheral  defense,  composed  of 
surface  ships,  submarines,  and  aircraft,  is  both 
effective  and  economical.  Its  principal  strength 
lies  in  its  ability  to  shift  readily  from  defense  to 
offense  without  long  preparations  and 
accumulation  of  forces. 

At  the  international  level,  treaties  of  mutual 
defense  obligate  the  United  States  to  defend 
distant  parts  of  the  Earth— parts  distant  but 
reachable  by  moving  over  the  sea.  These  treaties 
represent  a  voluntary  association  of  free  people 
to  oppose  attacks  by  hostile  nations. 

In  the  Caribbean,  an  amphibious  ready 
group  with  an  embarked  Marine  Corps  battalion 
landing  team  is  on  station  to  contribute  by  its 
continual  presence  to  maintaining  the  stability 
of  that  area.  A  battalion  of  Marines  also  is 
stationed  in  Guantanamo  for  the  security  of  the 
naval  base. 

U.S.  NAVY  DEPLOYMENT 

Four  American  fleets  (figure  1-5)  stand 
worldwide  watch,  each  serving  the  Navy's  basic 
mission  of  protecting  national  security.  The  2nd 
Fleet,  operating  from  the  world's  largest  naval 


base  at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  patrols  the  western 
Atlantic  across  some  of  the  world's  most 
important  trade  routes.  Ships  and  personnel  of 
the  2nd  Fleet  rotate  with  those  of  the  6th  Fleet, 
which  moves  in  the  nearly  landlocked 
Mediterranean  Sea.  We  could  describe  the  6th  as 
"keeper  of  the  doors." 

The  Mediterranean  has  been  an  influential 
factor  in  world  affairs  since  the  dawn  of  history. 
Gibraltar,  the  front  door  of  the  Mediterranean, 
is  a  vital  commercial  chokepoint.  Whether  it  is 
open  or  closed,  it  affects  the  destiny  of  nations. 
There  is  also  a  side  door  to  the  Mediterranean— 
the  Bosporus  and  Dardanelles— through  which 
Soviet  ships  enter. 

During  the  Arab-Israeli  wars  in  June  1967 
and  November  1973,  there  were  marked 
increases  in  the  size  of  the  Soviet  Mediterranean 
squadron.  From  a  previous  high  of  23  ships, 
Soviet  naval  strength  rose  from  35  to  40  vessels. 
It  was  the  first  time  in  recent  years  that  the 
Soviets  have  so  deliberately  used  their  fleet  to 
support  their  foreign  policy.  Since  the  war  in  the 
Middle  East,  a  stepped-up  program  of 
Mediterranean  port  visits  by  Soviet  ships  seems 
clearly  aimed  at  increasing  Soviet  influence  in 
that  area.  The  level  of  Soviet  naval  activity 
provides  additional  reasons  for  the  continued 
presence  of  a  strong  6th  Fleet.  The  6th  Fleet  is 
built  around  two  attack  carriers  and  an 
amphibious  striking  force  with  an  embarked 
Marine  Corps  battalion  landing  team.  The 
frequency  of  deployment  of  antisubmarine 
groups  to  the  Mediterranean  from  the  Atlantic 
has  been  increased  because  the  Soviets  maintain 
a  submarine  force  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Across  the  world  from  the  Mediterranean, 
the  3rd  Fleet,  operating  off  the  west  coast  of  the 
United  States,  trains  and  shakes  down  the 
personnel  and  ships  that  will  rotate  to  the  7th 
Fleet  in  the  Pacific. 

Like  the  6th  Fleet,  the  7th  is  in  a  forward 
trouble  area— the  whole  of  the  Western  Pacific 
where  raged  the  unforgettable  sea  battles  of 
World  War  II. 

The  Vietnam  conflict  exemplified  the  kind 
of  war  the  Communists  have  promised  in  many 
lands  for  years  to  come— intermingling  the  most 
primitive  guerrilla  operations  with  futuristic 
combat  of  the  electronic  age.  To  counter  this 


13 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


i  —  i  Hi-/    i>.n.  v  i 


threat,  the  7th  Fleet  provided  dramatic  evidence 
of  the  Navy's  ability  to  project  the  national 
policy  of  the  United  States  wherever  water 
permits  navigation. 

Five  attack  carriers  were  deployed  to 
WESTPAC,  with  three  of  them  constantly  on 
line  in  the  Tonkin  Gulf  area.  Embarked  carrier 
air  wings,  which  furnished  almost  half  of  the 
total  tactical  effort  in  Vietnam,  destroyed  or 
heavily  damaged  hundreds  of  military  targets  in 
North  Vietnam  and  successfully  interdicted  land 
transport  as  well  as  waterborne  logistic  craft  on 
rivers,  bays,  and  along  the  coastal  routes. 

Sharing  importance  with  attack  carrier 
operations  were  amphibious  operations  on  the 
coast  of  the  Republic  of  Vietnam.  Two 
amphibious  ready  groups  with  embarked  Marine 
special  landing  forces  were  committed  to  the 
Vietnam  effort.  Each  group  was  capable  of 
conducting  assault  over  the  beach  by  landing 
craft  and/or  by  helicopter  envelopment.  More 
than  50  battalion-size  amphibious  operations 
were  conducted  after  the  initial  landings  in 
March  1965.  Hie  mobility  of  the  amphibious 
groups  and  their  readiness  to  strike  on  short 
notice  kept  the  enemy  off  balance,  disrupted  his 
logistical  support,  and  denied  him  profitable 
coastal  areas. 

The  Navy  provided  gunfire  support  from 
May  1965  until  the  end  of  the  United  States 
involvement.  Targets  destroyed  or  damaged 
included  storage  areas,  military  areas,  missile 
sites,  and  railroads.  The  battleship  USS  New 
Jersey  was  recommissioned  in  order  to  provide"  a 
much  needed  punch  in  gun  range  and  explosive 
weight  to  gunfire  support  requirements.  A  heavy 
cruiser,  during  this  era,  could  fire  an  8" 
projectile  about  14  miles.  Any  one  of  the  New 
Jersey's  16"  guns  could  hurl  a  projectile  four 
times  the  weight  of  the  cruiser's,  a  distance  of 
20  miles,  and  it  could  penetrate  30  feet  of 
reinforced  concrete.  After  successfully 
completing  its  mission  the  New  Jersey  was  again 
decommissioned. 

Other  direct  supporting  operations  included 
coastal  surveillance  (Market  Time)  to  interdict 
Viet  Cong  sea  lines  of  communications  along  the 
coast  of  the  Republic  of  Vietnam;  river  patrol 
(Game  Warden)  operations  along  major 


waterways  from  the  Cambodian  border  to  the 
South  China  Sea  to  exert  pressure  on  insurgents 
in  the  strategically  important  Mekong  Delta;  and 
also  in  the  Mekong  Delta,  an  Army-Navy  riverine 
shallow-draft  strike  force  that  had  the  primary 
function  of  penetrating  Viet  Cong  fortified  areas 
along  the  rivers  and  canals  of  the  Delta. 

COMMERCE  AND 
OCEANOGRAPHY 

To  this  point,  the  main  tenor  of  the  chapter 
has  been  raw  seapower.  Naval  power,  however,  is 
only  a  part  of  total  national  seapower.  Since  the 
ocean  is  the  Navy's  operating  environment,  the 
Navy  is  necessarily  concerned  with  all  of  the 
Nation's  interests  in  that  environment.  There  are 
many  other  facets  to  the  term  "seapower"  that 
could  be  mentioned  here,  but  two  certainly 
must  be  considered.  One,  maritime  commerce 
(mentioned  several  times  previously),  has  been 
in  existence  for  thousands  of  years.  The  other, 
oceanography  (the  study  and  exploitation  of  the 
sea),  is  a  relatively  recent  undertaking. 

Maritime  Commerce 

There  was  a  time  when  Americans  believed 
that  the  country's  raw  materials  were 
inexhaustible  and,  thus,  that  the  United  States 
could  exist  independent  of  other  nations.  The 
increasing  population  and  growing  rate  of 
consumption  of  practically  every  commodity 
has  completely  altered  this  concept.  Today  the 
United  States  is  dependent  on  other  nations  for 
many  commodities  needed  to  keep  the  economy 
strong,  to  keep  people  at  work,  and  to 
manufacture  needed  goods. 

There  are  no  less  than  77  resources  that  the 
United  States  cannot  do  without  if  it  is  to 
maintain  the  present  economy.  For  example, 
manganese  is  needed  to  make  steel;  85%  of  that 
needed  is  imported.  Of  the  columbite  used  in 
the  construction  of  nuclear  reactors,  as  a 
stabilizer  in  stainless  steel,  and  for  the 
manufacture  of  rockets  and  missiles,  90%  is 
imported.  Eighty -six  percent  of  the  country's 
bauxite,  from  which  aluminum  is  refined,  is 
imported.  Ninety  percent  of  the  chromite  used 


15 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


,o  toughen  steel  and  other  defense  materials, 
and  more  than  90%  of  the  tjn  needed  «e 
imported  In  addition,  the  United  States 
annually  consumes  one-third  of  the  enure  world 
supply  of  oil. 

Almost  half  of  the  free-world  mineral 
production  is  channeled  to  the  needs  of  the  U£ 
industrial  machine.  Of  the  77  vital  resources 
only  11  are  found  within  her  own  borders,  in 
other  words,  the  United  States  is  a 
raw-materials-deficit  nation,  dependent  upon 
waterborne  commerce  to  bring  to  her  shores 
from  all  corners  of  the  Earth  many  primary 
products  so  essential  to  a  20th-century  industrial 
system.  (The  United  States  could  not  produce, 
in  generations,  enough  planes  to  move  all  the 
goods  that  now  travel  by  ships.)  In  this  context, 
each  of  the  states  individually  depends  on 
shipping.  Illinois,  for  example,  probably  first  in 
exports  of  farm  products,  is  among  the  first  in 
imports  of  other  commodities.  On  the  other  side 
of  the  coin,  foreign  nations  depend  on  American 
raw  materials  to  maintain  healthy  economies  at 
home. 

The  doctrine  of  freedom  of  the  sea  is 
acknowledged  by  all  nations  under  international 
law.  Whatever  the  law  of  the  sea,  when  nations 
fight  they  cross  the  sea  at  their  own  risk.  The 
forces  of  each  will  do  their  utmost  to  deny 
passage  of  commerical  shipping  to  the  other(s) 
whenever  and  wherever  they  can.  Throughout 
history,  the  great  and  powerful  nations  have 
been  those  able  to  maintain  control.  Loss  of 
seapower  has  caused  the  fall  of  empires  dating 
from  that  of  Persia,  in  ancient  times,  to  that  of 
Japan  more  recently. 

Because  a  strong  American  defense  posture 
depends  upon  a  modern,  often  revolutionary, 
highly  productive  industrial  system,  shortages  of 
essential  raw  materials  would  strike  a  blow  at 
the  national  security  as  well  as  the  health  and 
stability  of  the  domestic  economy. 

To  ensure  national  security  and  sustain  the 
economic  vitality  of  200-million  Americans,  it  is 
critically  important  that- 

1.  Raw  materials  from  throughout  the 
world  be  fed  into  the  U.S.  industrial  machine  by 
waterborne  commerce. 


2.  Manufactured   products  be  moved  onto 
the  world  marketplace  by  ocean  shipping. 

3.  Sealanes  be  kept  open  and  secure  in  time 
of  peace  and  tension,  and  denied  to  the  enemy 
in  case  of  war. 

Keeping  the  sealanes  open  is  a  vital  mission 
of  the  U.S.  Navy.  These  lanes  are  truly  the 
lifelines  of  America. 

The  Navy's  effort  in  Vietnam  was  a  classic 
portrayal  of  the  effectiveness  and  flexibility  of 
this  facet  of  seapower.  At  least  97%  of  all 
military  equipment  and  supplies  needed  to 
support  the  United  States  and  its  allies  in 
Southeast  Asia  was  provided  by  sealift.  This  was 
possible  only  because  the  U.S.  Navy  controlled 
the  sealanes  to  that  area,  permitting  dozens  of 
cargo  ships  to  enter  Vietnamese  ports  every  day. 

Oceanography 

All  the  oceans  on  l-.arth  form  a  single,  vast 
sea  some  40  times  the  si/e  of  tlte  United  States, 
National  interest  in  the  sea  is  growing  rapidly, 
and  attitudes  toward  the  sea  are  changing 
dramatically. 

At  varying  depths  extending  to  thousands  of 
feet  live  more  forms  of  animal  life  than  upon 
dry  land.  Many  minerals,  such  as  gold,  iron, 
magnesium,  and  diamonds,  are  available  beneath 
the  waters;  but  to  what  extent  is  not  known. 
Food  has  always  been  known  to  be  there.  Again, 
however,  the  potential  is  not  known;  and  this 
knowledge  could  be  a  vital  element  of  future 
survival. 

Man  is  increasingly  timiinj1.  to  the  sea  for 
uses  heretofore  restricted  to  the  terrestrial 
environment  food,  freshwater,  minerals, 
energy,  perhaps  a  key  to  weather  control, 
perhaps  even  living  space.  Only  time  will  tell 
what  man's  ventures  on  the  floor  of  the  sea  will 
bring.  His  technology  may  offer  a  whole  new 
world.  Already  there  has  been  conceived  an 
oilfield  on  the  ocean  bottom  where  people  can 
work  and  live.  The  science  of  aquaeulture  may 
in  time  make  possible  underwater  farms  where 
plants  and  fish  are  cultivated  and  processed  fora 
protein-hungry  world. 


Chapter   1-THE  NAVY  AND  SEAPOWER 


As  a  source  of  food  and  resources,  perhaps 
for  future  prosperity  or  survival,  the  sea  has 
become  the  birthplace  of  the  age  of 
oceanography.  To  explore  this  realm,  the  Navy 
has  an  oceanographic  fleet  of  surface  ships  and 
submersibles  that  studies  the  nature  of  the 
bottom,  winds,  weather,  and  migration  of  fish, 
and  that  listens  to  the  nature  of  sounds  within 
the  waters  to  improve  sonar  for  antisubmarine 
warfare  and  to  find  ways  to  communicate  from 
the  ocean  depths. 

The  knowledge  and  technology  gained  by 
the  Navy  in  implementing  its  security  mission 
will  contribute  to  and  accelerate  this  expansion 
into  the  ocean.  The  Navy,  in  effect,  will  exert  a 
large  influence  on  the  move  to  utilize  the  sea.  It 
appears  certain  that  new  Navy  missions,  tasks, 
and  capabilities  will  develop.  The  Navy  will 
require,  and  in  fact  is  working  toward,  a 
capability  to  operate  anywhere  in  the  world 
ocean  at  any  time.  Scientific  knowledge  of  the 
ocean  has  become  a  prerequisite  to  operations  as 
a  global  seapower. 

The  sea  belongs  to  all  people  and  all  nations. 
Just  as  the  protection  of  great  navies  nourishes 
seaborne  commerce,  so  today  the  Navy  uses  and 
enhances  its  seapower  to  protect  and  encourage 
the  right  to  explore  and  prospect  this  newest  of 
man's  frontiers  on  Earth. 


NATIONAL  STRATEGY 

Balanced  seapower  is  an  essential  ingredient 
of  a  flexible  national  strategy.  Seapower  is 
selective  of  time  and  place  in  its  application  and 
discriminate  in  the  means  and  degree  with  which 
it  can  be  used.  It  is  not  constrained  by  any  one 
course  of  action.  U.S.  naval  forces  can 
contribute  significantly  to  the  entire  spectrum 
of  warfare,  from  counterinsurgency  to  and 
including  general  war.  Exploitation  of  the  sea  as 
an  effective  dispersal  area  is  increasingly 
desirable  and  necessary. 

The  forces  of  today's  Navy  can  meet  any 
type  of  aggression  from  the  most  primitive  to 
the  most  sophisticated.  The  variety  of  options 
inherent  in  U.S.  naval  forces  is  in  itself  a  strong 
deterrent.  If  deterrence  fails,  however,  these 
same  forces  will  permit  the  United  States  to 
control  a  conflict  within  selected  limits  or  to 
escalate  the  conflict,  if  so  ordered. 

Remembering  the  lessons  of  World  War  II,  of 
Korea  and  Lebanon  and  Cuba  and  Vietnam,  the 
United  States  has  learned  that  strength  has  a 
logic  of  its  own.  Being  right  is  not  sufficient;  it 
takes  might  to  preserve  that  right.  The  power  of 
the  U.S.  fleet  reflects  the  power  of  the  land  it 
must  defend  and  of  all  lands  that  join  with  her 
in  a  mutual  need.  The  United  States  Navy  is  a 
result  of  past  lessons  learned,  of  a  troubled 
present,  and  of  an  unpredictable  future. 


CHAPTER  2 


MAKERS  OF  NAVAL  TRADITION 


A  visitor  to  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis 
is  impressed  by  the  innumerable  reminders  of 
our  naval  heritage.  Here  is  found  the  memorial 
to  John  Paul  Jones,  which  keeps  alive  his 
memory  so  that  those  who  follow  may  go  on 
with  lasting  inspiration.  In  Bancroft  Hall  hangs 
Perry's  flag  of  blue,  bearing  in  rough,  white 
muslin  letters  Lawrence's  famous  slogan,  "Don't 
give  up  the  ship."  On  all  sides  appear 
monuments  commemorating  the  names  and 
deeds  of  great  American  naval  heroes.  There  is 
the  wide  brick  walk,  called  Decatur  Walk,  that 
leads  to  the  Tripoli  Monument;  the  gymnasium, 
known  as  Macdonough  Hall;  and  the  massive 
armory— Dahlgren  Hall.  There  are  Luce  Hall, 
Mahan  Hall,  Maury  Hall,  and  Sampson  Hall, 
which  contain  the  recitation  rooms  for  the 
midshipmen. 

These  men  who  have  been  so  honored,  and 
many  others,  are  the  makers  of  naval  tradition. 


AMERICAN  REVOLUTION 

The  Revolutionary  War  presents  the  only 
period  in  its  history  when  the  United  States 
stood  in  desperate  straits  because  of  lack  of 
imported  strategic  materials.  Thanks  to  the  low 
state  of  efficiency  of  the  usually  invincible 
Royal  Navy  and  to  the  resourcefulness  of  the 
little  American  Navy  and  other  Yankee 
mariners.  General  Washington  was  able  to  secure 
what  he  needed  from  beyond  the  seas.  Also,  in 
1778,  France,  sympathetic  from  the  first  with 
the  revolting  colonies,  openly  entered  the  war 
on  our  side,  and  she  was  soon  followed  by  Spain 
and  Holland.  British  possessions  in  every  quarter 
of  the  world  were  attacked  by  the  powerful 
French  forces,  and  Britain's  internal  struggle 


against  her  colonies  was  transformed  into  a 
world  war  in  which  all  the  great  maritime 
powers  were  engaged.  The  chief  theater  of  naval 
activity  was  the  West  Indies,  where  British 
interests  clashed  with  those  of  her 
enemies-France,  Spain,  and  Holland. 

Unlike  the  Navy  of  today,  the  Continental 
Navy  that  fought  America's  war  for 
independence  was  small  and  weak.  It  was 
handicapped  by  coming  into  existence  only  after 
fighting  had  begun.  In  this  makeshift  force, 
two-thirds  of  the  ships  were  converted 
merchantmen.  The  crews  were  drawn  from 
merchant  vessels,  fishing  craft,  and  even  from 
the  Army.  In  addition,  there  were  state  navies, 
but  these  vessels  were  small  and  were  designed 
for  river  and  harbor  defense.  There  were  also 
swarms  of  American  privateers  (privately  owned 
craft  outfitted  for  war),  which  engaged  primarily 
in  the  capture  of  British  prizes.  But  the 
American  ships  were  pitifully  few  compared 
with  the  hundreds  flying  the  white  ensign  of  the 
Royal  Navy. 

JOHN  PAUL  JONES 

Emerging  from  this  war  was  one  of  the 
Navy's  greatest  heroes  and  tradition-makers- 
John  Paul  Jones  (figure  2-1).  There  were  others, 
among  them  John  Barry,  Lambert  Wickes,  and 
Gustavus  Conyngham.  But  Jones  embodies 
many  of  the  attributes  that  a  nation  traditionally 
assigns  to  a  great  leader. 

Of  his  many  contributions  to  the  Navy's 
great  traditions,  none  stands  out  more 
conspicuously  than  his  refusal  to  acknowledge 
defeat.  After  the  classic  action  between  Jones' 
ship,  the  Bonhommc  Richard,  and  the  British 


18 


nni.tr,' 


1Q 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


frigate  Serapis,  Jones  reported  that  he  faced  an 
enemy  of  greatly  superior  force.  Bonhomme 
Richard  was  an  old,  converted  merchant  hull 
mounting  about  40  guns,  only  six  of  which  were 
18-pounders.  James  Fenimore  Cooper  in  his 
History  of  the  \ary  of  the  United  States  of 
America  conceded  that  without  the 
1 8-pounders,  so  far  as  her  guns  were  concerned, 
she  was  about  the  equal  of  a  32-gun  frigate. 
Serapis,  rated  as  a  44-gun  frigate,  then  mounted 
50  guns.  She  was  new  and  superior  to 
Bonhomme  Richard  in  maneuverability. 

Upon  firing  the  first  broadside,  two  of 
Jones'  18-pounders  burst  causing  the  rest  to  be 
abandoned.  At  this  point  the  battle  became  a 
contest  between  a  battery  of  1  2-pounders  and  a 
battery  of  18-pounders.  Several  more  broadsides 
delivered  at  close  range  soon  reduced 
Bonhomme  Richard  to  a  critical  state.  Her  hold 
was  flooded  with  three  feet  of  water;  her  heavy 
guns  were  out  of  commission;  half  the  crew  had 
been  killed  or  wounded;  her  rudder  and  rigging 
had  been  shot  away;  and  fires  were  fast 
approaching  the  magazine.  It  was  at  this  point 
that  Captain  Pearson  of  the  Serapis  called  to 
Jones,  asking  whether  he  had  struck  his  colors. 
Though  barely  able  to  keep  afloat,  Jones 
thundered  back  his  famous  answer,  "I  have  not 
yet  begun  to  fight."  These  fighting  words 
inspired  his  men  with  his  own  determined  will  to 
win. 

After  fighting  for  nearly  4  hours,  the  British 
surrendered;  and  since  no  one  else  dared  venture 
on  deck,  Captain  Pearson  himself  hauled  down 
the  colors  on  his  battered  ship.  The  spirit  of  the 
offensive,  the  will  to  victory,  was  never  better 
demonstrated  than  by  John  Paul  Jones.  His 
immortal  "I  have  not  yet  begun  to  fight" 
inspires  Americans  today  as  it  did  nearly  200 
years  ago. 

Jones'  victories  were  not  accidents.  In 
moments  of  stress,  he  mingled  with  his  crew, 
cheering  them  on.  He  declared,  "I  like  my  men, 
and  I  know  how  to  make  them  like  me."  A 
shipmate  once  said  of  Jones:  "He  was  in 
everybody's  watch  and  everybody's  mess  all  the 
time.  In  fact,  I  may  say  that  any  ship  Paul  Jones 
commanded  was  full  of  himself  all  of  the  time." 


After  losing  the  Serapis,  Captain  Pearson  at 
his  court-martial  made  the  amazing  and 
illuminating  statement  about  Jones: 

"Although  more  than  half  the  crew 
were  French-at  any  rate  not 
Americans-long  before  the  close  of  the 
action  it  because  apparent  that  the 
American  ship  was  dominated  by  a 
commanding  will  of  the  most  unalterable 
resolution,  and  there  could  be  no  doubt 
that  the  intention  of  her  commander 
was,  if  he  could  not  conquer,  to  sink 
alongside.  And  this  desperate  resolve  was 
fully  shared  and  fiercely  seconded  by 
every  one  of  his  ship's  company.  And  if 
the  Honorable  Court  may  be  pleased  to 
enter  an  expression  of  opinion,  I  will 
venture  to  say  that  if  French  seamen  can 
ever  be  induced  by  their  own  officers  to 
fight  in  their  own  ships  as  Captain  Jones 
induced  them  to  fight  in  his  American 
one,  the  future  burdens  of  His  Majesty's 
Navy  will  be  heavier  than  they  have 
heretofore  been." 

Lord  Sandwich,  first  Lord  of  the  british 
Admiralty,  wrote  to  one  of  his  commanders, 
"For  God's  sake  get  to  sea  immediately.  If  you 
take  Paul  Jones  you  will  be  as  high  in  the 
estimation  of  the  public  as  if  you  had  beat  the 
combined  fleets."  Such  was  the  British 
evaluation  of  the  American  Navy's  greatest 
combat  leader. 

This  sailor  of  fortune  was  born  in  Scotland 
in  1747.  As  a  youth  he  served  several  years  as 
midshipman  in  the  Royal  Navy  and  studied  both 
seamanship  and  English  by  the  forecastle  lamp. 
His  concept  of  what  an  American  naval  officer 
should  be  is  evident  in  his  statement,  "None 
other  than  a  gentleman  as  well  as  a  seaman  both 
in  theory  and  practice  is  qualified  to  support  the 
character  of  a  commissioned  officer  in  the  navy 
nor  is  any  man  fit  to  command  a  ship  of  war 
who  is  not  also  capable  of  communicating  his 
ideas  on  paper,  in  language  that  becomes  his 
rank." 

His  attitude  on  peace  and  war  appears 
frequently  in  his  writings:  "In  time  of  peace  it  is 
necessary  to  prepare,  and  be  always  prepared, 


20 


Chapter  2 -MAKERS  OF  NAVAL  TRADITION 


for  war  at  sea."  He  added,  however,  "I  have 
always  regarded  war  as  the  scourge  of  the  human 


race. 


WAR  WITH  FRANCE 

After  the  Revolutionary  War  the  fortunes  of 
the  Navy  declined,  and  by  1 785  its  last  ship  had 
been  sold.  Little  remained  except  fighting 
traditions.  When  the  new  Federal  Constitution 
went  into  effect  in  1789,  the  War  Department 
was  charged  with  both  the  Army  and  the  Navy, 
a  burden  then  consisting  of  a  few  hundred 
soldiers— and  no  ships  or  marines. 

This  absence  of  naval  strength  soon  proved 
disastrous,  because  Barbary  pirates  began 
capturing  our  merchant  ships  and  imprisoning 
their  crews.  In  1794  public  sentiment  moved 
Congress  to  authorize  the  building  of  six  frigates 
to  protect  our  interests.  Here  was  the  beginning 
of  the  permanent  Navy  of  the  United  States. 

JOSHUA  HUMPHREYS 

President  Washington  allocated  the  task  of 
designing  these  ships  to  Joshua  Humphreys,  a 
Philadelphia  Quaker,  who  thus  became  our  first 
naval  constructor.  Not  only  a  technical  genius, 
Humphreys  was  also  a  farseeing  student  of  naval 
history  and  exerted  a  tremendous  influence 
upon  the  American  Navy.  He  believed  that  our 
'Vessels  should  combine  such  qualities  of 
strength,  durability,  and  swiftness  of  sailing,  and 
force,  as  to  render  them  superior  to  any  frigate 
belonging  to  the  European  Powers."  He 
departed  from  the  conventional  standards  and 
designed  the  best  frigates  that  sailed  the 
seas-frigates  that  could  run  or  fight  at  will, 
frigates  that  could  fight  on  their  own  terms.  The 
chief  innovations  were  provisions  for  heavier 
batteries,  thicker  timber,  finer  lines,  and  longer, 
stouter  spars  than  those  of  frigates  of  other 
powers.  Several  years  later  the  Royal  Navy  paid 
a  compliment  to  Humphreys'  skill  by 
constructing  frigates  according  to  his  designs. 

Humphreys  drew  up  plans  for  the  six  famous 
frigates,  the  United  States,  Constitution,  (figure 
2-2),  Constellation,  President,  Chesapeake,  and 
Congress.  Two  of  these  ships,  the  Constitution 


and  the  Constellation,  are  still  afloat!  In  building 
them,  Humphreys  broke  sharply  with  current 
naval  ideas,  displaying  virtues  tremendously 
valuable  to  any  nation— a  friendliness  to 
innovation,  a  willingness  to  experiment. 

OPENING  HOSTILITIES 

Enemies  other  than  the  Barbary  pirates  soon 
harassed  the  defenseless  United  States,  for  both 
France  and  England,  then  in  a  death  struggle, 
began  to  plunder  American  merchantmen.  While 
a  treaty  with  Great  Britain  relieved  the  friction 
with  that  country,  our  relations  grew  worse  with 
France,  who  charged  us  with  treaty  violation. 
Captures  continued,  and  when  French  privateers 
began  operating  off  American  harbors,  even  the 


134.5 

Figure  2-2.— The  new  and  radical  USS  Constitution, 
built  for  speed  and  firepower,  helped  to  rid  the 
Mediterranean  of  the  Barbary  pirates. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


patient   Congress  was  aroused  and  decided  to 
take  immediate  and  vigorous  action. 

Hie  Navy  Department  was  established  in 
1798  and  Benjamin  Stoddert  of  Georgetown, 
Md.,  was  appointed  the  first  Secretary  of  the 
Navy.  Again,  as  in  the  Revolutionary  War,  a  fleet 
had  to  be  created  with  war  already  in  progress. 
Our  small  Navy,  therefore,  was  immediately 
expanded;  numerous  naval  officers  were 
appointed  for  active  duty;  recruiting  officers  in 
the  principal  ports  along  the  Atlantic  coast  put 
on  a  drive  for  seamen.  John  Adams  wrote  for 
the  service  a  set  of  Navy  regulations. 

The  Marine  Corps  was  formally  organized. 
Although  no  actual  declaration  of  war  was 
made,  Congress  authorized  the  Navy  to  retaliate 
and  to  seize  armed  French  vessels  within  the 
jurisdictional  limits  of  the  United  States  or  on 
the  high  seas.  The  quasi-war  with  France  was  on. 

A  naval  war,  this  conflict  was  waged  for  the 
most  part  in  the  Caribbean.  The  cost  to  France 
proved  so  high  that  the  French  Directory  was 
ready  to  sue  for  peace  by  1801.  American 
victory  was  largely  due  to  another  leader  who 
endowed  the  Navy  with  great  traditions. 

THOMAS  TRUXTUN 

"Care  for  your  men;  see  that  each 
understands  his  duties;  exact  instant  obedience; 
superintend  everthing;  practice  daily  with  the 
guns." 

This  simple  formula  for  victory  over  an 
enemy  fleet  was  devised  by  Thomas  Truxtun, 
the  outstanding  officer  in  the  war  with  France. 
An  expert  seaman  and  a  strict  disciplinarian, 
Captain  Truxtun  (figure  2-3)  was  one  of  the  first 
to  work  out  a  basic  philosophy  on  the  relations 
of  officers  and  men  that  still  is  applicable  today, 

Although  his  fame  is  derived  principally 
from  two  decisive  victories  that  he  attained  over 
the  French,  he  may  best  be  remembered  by  the 
examples  he  set  in  the  handling  of  men.  The 
bluejackets  who  today  look  up  to  their  officers, 
and  the  officers  who  interest  themselves  in  the 
well-being  and  work  of  their  men  are  following 


be 


practices  initiated  by  Captain  Truxtun.  One 
hundred  and  fifty  years  ago,  when  enlisted  men 
were  often  punished  savagely  and  without 
justice-and  looked  upon  as  fighting  mechanisms 
rather  than  as  human  beings-he  insisted  that  his 
officers  treat  their  men  courteously  but  firmly 
and  that  the  men  respect  and  obey  their  officers. 
In  language  that  could  not  u- 
misunderstood,  Captain  Truxtun  wrote: 

"It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the 
Lieutenants  of  Ships  are  to  remain  idle 
and  indifferent  spectators  of  what  is 
going  on,  but  on  the  contrary  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  they  overlook 
the  duty  of  every  department  on  board. 

"An  officer  in  carrying  on  his  duty 
should  be  civil  and  polite  to  everyone, 
for  civility  does  not  interfere  with 
discipline. 


134.6 

Figure  2-3.-"Take  care  of  your  men."  Captain  Truxtun 
insisted  on  justice  and  consideration  for  enlisted 
men. 


Chapter  2-MAKERS  OF  NAVAL  TRADITION 


"An  officer  is  never  to  lose  sight  of 
the  humanity  and  care  that  is  due  to 
those  who  may  really  be  sick  or 
otherwise  stand  in  need  of  his 
assistance." 

Truxtun's  attitude  toward  his  men 
developed  as  a  result  of  his  experience  during 
the  Revolutionary  War  when  he  was  a  successful 
privateer  captain  working  closely  with  the  Navy. 
He  could  not  help  noticing  and  regretting  that 
many  naval  officers,  slack  and  indolent,  cared 
too  little  about  a  taut  ship.  As  a  captain  of  the 
Constellation  during  the  war  with  France  in 
1799,  he  defeated  L'Insurgente  (figure  2-4)  and 
the  Vengeance  and  found  here  an  opportunity 
to  instill  his  own  martial  spirit  in  his  crews. 


The  battle  against  the  Vengeance  began  at 
2000  and  lasted  until  0100.  In  it,  a  teen-aged 
boy,  a  midshipman,  lived  up  to  what  the  Navy 
today  calls  "the  highest  traditions  of  the  naval 
service."  When  a  sailor  told  Midshipman  Jarvis 
that  the  mainmast  was  tottering  and  that  he 
should  come  down  before  he  be  killed,  Jarvis 
replied,  "If  the  mast  goes,  we  go  with  it.  Our 
post  is  here." 

The  next  roll  of  the  ship  sent  the  mast 
crashing  and  splintering  over  the  side  and  threw 
Jarvis  to  his  death,  far  out  into  the  black  water. 
In  tribute  to  the  courage  and  magnificent 
discipline  that  characterized  this  boy's  act, 
Congress  passed  the  following  resolution:  "The 
conduct  of  James  Jarvis,  a  midshipman  of  the 
Constellation,  who  gloriously  preferred  certain 


134.7 

Figure  2-4.-No  rangefinder  was  needed  in  this  slugging  match.  The  Constellation,  under  Truxtun,  defeated  L'Insurgente 
in  1799.  Strict— but  fair— discipline  and  daily  gun  practice  were  partly  responsible  for  the  ship's  efficiency 
in  battle. 


23 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


death  to  the  abandoning  of  his  post,  deserves  the 
highest  praise;  and  the  loss  of  so  promising  an 
officer  is  a  subject  of  national  regret." 

Good  leadership  means  good  followership. 
Dedicated  to  his  duty,  Truxtun  evoked  a  similar 
response  from  his  men. 

WAR  WITH  TRIPOLI 

Tempted  by  the  lure  of  unprotected 
American  commerce  and  dissatisfied  with  the 
small  tributes  the  United  States  was  paying 
under  the  terms  of  an  earlier  treaty,  the  Bashaw 
of  Tripoli  in  1801  declared  war  on  the  United 
States. 

In  answer  to  this  challenge,  Commodore 
Hdward  Preble  in  the  Constitution  was  sent  to 
the  Mediterranean  in  command  of  a  squadron. 

STEPHEN  DECATUR 

During  the  war  with  the  pirates  in  the 
Mediterranean,  a  dramatic  incident  occurred 
that  was  influential  in  molding  the  traditions  of 
our  youthful  Navy.  The  frigate  Philadelphia  had 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  Tripolitans  and  was  now 
an  important  addition  to  their  harbor  defenses. 
It  was  young  Lieutenant  Stephen  Decatur  who 
went  to  Commodore  Preble  and  volunteered  to 
destroy  this  captive  frigate,  built  by  popular 
subscription  in  his  home  city  and  first 
commanded  by  his  father.  He,  with  74 
comrades,  including  Charles  Morris,  James 
Lawrence,  and  Thomas  Macdonough,  stealthily 
entered  the  harbor  at  night  in  a  small  ketch; 
they  were  guided  by  Salvadore  Catalano,  a 
Sicilian  pilot  who  knew  the  harbor  of  Tripoli 
and  could  speak  Arabic.  Within  minutes  they 
had  complete  possession  of  the  ship,  the  foe 
having  been  cut  down  or  driven  into  the  sea. 
Combustibles  were  passed  aboard,  and  soon  the 
ship  was  burning  fiercely.  Several  minutes  later 
the  boarders,  with  but  one  man  wounded,  were 
back  in  their  ketch  and,  under  fire  from  shore 
batteries,  they  left  the  illuminated  harbor. 

Perhaps  no  act  in  the  first  half  of  the  1 9th 
century  thrilled  Americans  more  than  the 
destruction  of  the  Philadelphia.  This  spectacular 
feat  made  Decatur  the  most  striking  figure  of 
the  time  and  prompted  Admiral  Nelson  to  call  it 
"the  most  daring  act  of  the  age."  Spectacular 
exploits  were  commonplace  in  Decatur's  career, 


but  they  were  not  the  feats  of  a  reckless  warrior. 
He  was  a  thoughtful  strategist  and  an  expert 
tactician.  He  was,  as  well,  an  adept  diplomat  and 
a  skilled  administrator.  Like  Paul  Jones  (who 
could  turn  an  excellent  phrase)  and  Truxtun 
(who  wrote  a  book  on  navigation),  Decatur  was 
not  one-sided.  Versatility,  too,  is  a  Navy 
tradition. 

PREBLE  AND 
"HIS  BOYS" 

Commodore  Edward  Preble  (figure  2-5) 
fought  as  a  lieutenant  in  the  American 
Revolution  and  later  in  the  war  with  France.  He 


134.8 

Figure  2-5.— "Take  care  of  your  officers."  Commodore 
Edward  Preble  commanded  the  American  squadron 
that  smashed  the  might  of  the  Barbary  pirates  in  the 
Mediterranean  during  1803-4.  The  training  that  he 
gave  his  young  subordinates  (who  came  to  be  known 
as  Preble's  boys)  at  that  time  paid  dividends  in  the 
War  of  1812,  when  they  achieved  17  out  of  the  total 
of  18  naval  victories. 


24 


Chapter  2-MAKERS  OF  NAVAL  TRADITION 


believed  in  Truxtun's  ideas  and  expanded  them. 
Having  served  during  the  Revolution,  he,  too, 
realized  the  need  for  justly  administered 
discipline.  Like  Truxtun,  he  was  keenly 
interested  in  his  bluejackets;  their  care  and  fair 
treatment  absorbed  his  attention.  Preble  also 
shared  responsibility  with  his  officers  and 
encouraged  them  to  offer  new  ideas.  He  was 
generous  in  giving  his  subordinates  due  credit  for 
achievements  in  the  squadron  and  in  urging 
promotions  and  honors  for  those  who  had 
earned  them.  The  mutual  regard  between  the 
commodore  and  his  young  officers  (all  the 
captains  and  lieutenants  were  under  30  years  of 
age)  made  the  fleet  singularly  united  in  spirit. 

Preble  taught  his  subordinates  the  necessity 
for  absolute  obedience,  unyielding  courage,  and 
24-hour-a-day  efficiency,  which  have  continued 
to  be  the  standards  of  the  American  Navy.  Proof 
of  Preble 's  stellar  leadership  was  attested  in  the 
War  of  1812,  when  his  "boys"  scored  17  of  18 
victories  won  by  the  American  Navy  in  combat. 

WAR  OF   1812 

Although  the  Navy  was  outnumbered  40  to 
1  in  the  second  war  with  Great  Britain,  and  by 
1814  had  suffered  severe  reverses  (our  coast  was 
tightly  blockaded,  our  ships  were  driven  from 
the  high  seas,  and  our  capital,  Washington,  had 
been  burned),  nevertheless,  early  in  the  war  it 
fought  a  series  of  frigate  and  sloop-of-war  duels 
that  resulted  in  astounding  victories  and  gained 
for  the  Navy  a  world  reputation.  The  reasons  for 
these  victories  are  not  hard  to  find.  We  had  the. 
best  frigates  in  the  world -the  tradition  of 
Humphreys;  we  had  the  best  gunnery  in  the 
world— the  tradition  of  Truxtun;  our  moral  was 
high -the  tradition  of  Preble;  and  our  Navy  had 
a  great  fighting  spirit— the  tradition  of  John  Paul 
Jones. 

These  brilliant  frigate  victories  on  the  high 
seas  had  little  effect  on  the  course  of  the  war 
itself,  but  they  contributed  much  to  the  building 
of  traditions  in  our  Navy. 

ISAAC  HULL 

Captain  Isaac  Hull,  commanding  the 
Constitution  gained  first  honors  when  he  met 
the  Guerriere  under  Captain  Dacres.  During  the 
battle,  Hull  quietly  moved  among  the  officers 


and  men,  addressing  to  them  words  of 
confidence  and  encouragement.  "Men,  now  do 
your  duty."  And  every  man  stood  firm  to  his 
post. 

Within  45  minutes  the  Guerriere  had  been 
reduced  to  a  wreck— a  feat  which  astonished 
both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  It  was  in  this  battle 
that  our  most  famous  and  historic  ship,  the 
Constitution,  won  her  sobriquet  "Old  Ironsides" 
as  enemy  shot  bounced  harmlessly  off  her  thick 
wooden  hull. 

STEPHAN  DECATUR 

As  already  pointed  out,  Decatur  (figure  2-6) 
received  his  training  in  Preble 's  "school"  in  the 


134.9 

Figure  2-6.— Praise  can  be  a  motivating  force.  Captain 
Stephen  Decatur  substituted  praise  for  oaths  and 
flogging— and  his  gunners  poured  100  shots  at  long 
range  into  the  enemy  Macedonian  in  the  War 
of  1812. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Mediterranean.  Now  in  command  of  the  United 
States,  he  faced  the  Macedonian,  one  of  the 
finest  ships  of  her  class  in  the  Royal  Navy. 
Decatur,  choosing  his  position  well,  decided  to 
fight  at  long  range  and  gradually  wear  down  his 
opponent. 

Quickly  analyzing  the  battle  situation, 
Decatur  saw  that  the  greater  range  of  his  guns 
would  enable  him  to  outshoot  and  cripple  the 
British.  He  cleverly  maneuvered  his  ship  and 
prevented  the  enemy  from  closing  in.  His 
gunners  fired  rapidly  and  accurately,  and  more 
than  a  hundred  shots  penetrated  the 
Macedonian's  hull.  Down  came  her  mizzenmast. 
Both  the  fore  and  main  topmasts  were  shot  off. 
After  2  hours  of  fighting,  the  battle  was  over. 
The  victory  was  a  great  exhibition  of  leadership 
by  Decatur,  who  possessed  to  an  exceptional 
degree  the  ability  to  infuse  his  own  spirit  into 
his  men.  The  spirit  he  describes  as  follows:  "The 
enthusiasm  of  every  officer,  seaman,  and  marine 
on  board  this  ship,  on  discovering  the  enemy, 
their  steady  conduct  in  battle,  and  precision  of 
their  fire,  could  not  be  surpassed." 

Decatur  was  popular  with  his  men.  He 
deplored  oaths  and  flogging-trie  customary 
methods  of  gaining  discipline  at  that  time.  He 


often  addressed  his  men,  explaining  the  kind  of 
conduct  that  he  expected  of  them.  Decatur  won 
respect  not  by  demanding  it,  but  by  deserving  it. 

OLIVER  HAZARD  PERRY 

This  was  an  era  when  fighting  slogans  were 
coined.  And  James  Lawrence's  dying  words 
uttered  in  the  ill-fated  Chesapeake,  "Don't  give 
up  the  ship!"  became  the  battle  cry  of  the  Navy. 
Oliver  Hazard  Perry  carried  them  to  Lake  Erie 
where  he  hoisted  on  his  ship  (named  in  honor  of 
Lawrence)  a  flag  upon  which  was  stitched  the 
legend,  "Don't  give  up  the  ship." 

During  the  Battle  of  Lake  Erie,  with 
four-fifths  of  the  crew  dead  or  wounded,  and  his 
ship,  the  Lawrence,  crippled,  Perry  faced  defeat. 
He  made  a  "cliffhanger"  passage  in  an  open  boat 
to  another  ship,  the  Niagara,  under  the  guns  of 
the  enemy.  Using  a  surprise  maneuver,  he  sailed 
the  Niagara  aggressively  through  the  enemy's 
lines  (figure  2-7)  and  within  1 5  minutes  the 
battle  was  won— an  exhibition  of  extraordinary 
acumen  and  courage.  The  Navy  will  long 
remember  Perry's  famous  dispatch:  "We  have 
met  the  enemy  and  they  are  ours." 


134.10 


Figure  2-7.-A  surprise  maneuver  turns  defeat  into  victory.  Leaving  the  crippled  Lawrence,  Perry  boarded  the  Niagara 
sailed  through  the  British  lines,  and  attained  victory  in  15  minutes. 


26 


Chapter  2-MAKERS  OF  NAVAL  TRADITION 


Perry  really  won  the  Battle  of  Lake  Erie  in 
the  months  before  he  faced  the  fire  of  the 
British  fleet— won  it  when  he  was  working  night 
and  day  to  build,  equip,  and  man  a  squadron 
stronger  than  the  enemy's.  He  used  sound 
judgment  and  foresight  in  his  preparations.  The 
night  before  the  battle  he  went  over  his  plans  of 
attack  repeatedly  with  his  officers  until  he  was 
convinced  that  each  knew  the  part  he  was  to 
play.  It  was  his  preparation  and  forehanded  ness, 
as  much  as  his  dramatic  crossing  of  the  line  of 
fire  in  an  open  boat,  that  place  him  in  the 
forefront  of  our  tradition-makers. 

DR.  USHER  PARSONS 

A  hero  and  tradition-maker,  but  seldom 
mentioned  in  descriptions  of  the  Battle  of  Lake 
Erie,  was  Dr.  Usher  Parsons,  the  only  surgeon 
available  for  duty  during  the  fight. 

Dr.  Parsons  served  under  Perry  on  board  the 
Lawrence.  Since  this  ship  was  shallow  built  and 
had  no  protected  cockpit,  as  was  customary,  the 
doctor  received  the  wounded  on  the  wardroom 
floor,  which  was  nearly  level  with  the  surface  of 
the  water.  Here,  in  this  unprotected,  crowded 
spot,  Parsons  and  his  assistants  carried  on  their 
work. 

It  was  hot  work  and  bloody,  and  at  combat's 
height,  when  all  able  men  were  needed  on  deck 
to  fight  the  guns,  the  doctor  carried  on 
single-handed.  During  the  battle  five  cannon 
balls  crashed  through  the  wardroom,  one  of 
them  killing  two  men  lying  on  the  operating 
table.  In  all,  Dr.  Parsons  amputated  six  limbs  and 
dressed  the  wounds  of  many  men  before  he 
finally  transferred  with  Perry  to  the  Niagara. 

Of  the  96  men  wounded  in  the  battle,  only  3 
died-a  remarkable  tribute  to  the  skill  of  the 
25-year-old  surgeon.  In  a  letter  to  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  Perry  wrote:  "Of  Dr.  Parsons, 
surgeon's  mate,  I  cannot  say  too  much."  But  Dr. 
Parsons  was  only  one  of  many  doctors  who 
composed  naval  tradition.  During  the  quasi-war 
with  France  and  the  War  of  1  812,  the  names  of 


134.11 

Figure  2-8.— The  greatest  naval  victory  of  the  War  of 
1812  and  perhaps  the  most  decisive  of  all  battles 
fought  on  land  or  sea  in  that  conflict  was  won  by 
Captain  Thomas  MacDonough,  "The  hero  of  Lake 
Champlain."  The  action  halted  a  British  invasion  of 
New  York  that  stood  little  chance  of  defeat  at  the 
hands  of  the  American  Army. 


THOMAS  MACDONOUGH 

Of  perhaps  greater  importance  than  Perry's 
victory  was  Thomas  Macdonough's  brilliant 
triumph  over  the  British  tleet  on  Lake 
Champlain.  As  the  enemy  ships  stood  in,  "young 
Macclonough,  who  feared  his  foes  not  at  all,  but 
his  God  a  great  deal,  knelt  for  a  moment  with 
his  officers  on  quarterdeck." 

Macdonough  (figure  2-8)  was  everywhere 
during  the  battle,  trying  to  instill  organization 
and  fighting  spirit  into  his  crew.  His  calm 
determination  was  remarkably  contagious.  It  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  the  credit  of  this 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


position  that  imposed  upon  the  British  an 
approach  under  a  raking  fire,  he  won  the 
opening  gambit  of  the  battle.  Meantime,  he  was 
wise  enough  to  hold  several  tactical  tricks  in 
reserve.  With  these  he  managed  to  rally  when  the 
enemy  thought  him  beaten. 

Macdonough's  Champlain  victory 
characterized  the  American  naval  effort  in  the 
War  of  1812.  Pitted  against  the  greatest  naval 
power  in  the  world,  our  miniature  Navy  fought 
with  monumental  valor.  In  accomplishing  much 
with  little,  it  bequeathed  the  service  another 
tradition-one  expressed  by  the  Navy's  slogan  in 
World  War  II:  We  must  all  do  all  that  we  can 
with  what  we  have. 


THE  CIVIL  WAR 

The  naval  history  of  the  Civil  War  vividly 
portrays  the  employment  of  sea  forces  against 
an  enemy  economically  dependent  on  shipping. 
The  Confederate  States  were  a  consolidated  land 
power  with  the  advantage  of  interior  lines,  and 
they  possessed  many  sea  and  river  ports 
affording  access  to  world  commerce  which  they 
vitally  needed.  But  war  imports  were  denied 
them  by  an  effective  Union  blockade.  The 
spectacular  Confederate  achievements  were 
accomplished  with  shoestring  resources  which 
were  soon  expended. 

The  Union  Navy  simultaneously  assumed 
three  huge  strategic  tasks,  largely  amphibious  in 
nature.  It  attempted  to  blockade  the  whole 
southern  coast,  to  force  its  way  into  various 
southern  ports,  and  to  cooperate  with  the  Army 
on  the  Mississippi  front.  Union  naval  forces  were 
also  called  upon  to  protect  northern  shipping 
from  enemy  raiders.  A  graphic  illustration  of  the 
Navy's  ability  to  adjust  itself  to  new  conditions 
may  be  found  in  the  way  in  which,  both  afloat 
and  ashore,  it  met  the  complex  demands  of  the 
Civil  War.  To  complicate  matters,  naval  warfare 
was  at  that  time  in  a  transitional  period,  a 
veritable  naval  revolution.  Although  steam  had 
been  introduced  some  time  earlier,  armor  was 
just  coming  into  use.  In  the  field  of  ordnance, 
rifled  guns  and  shell  ammunition  demanded  new 
methods  of  fire  control. 

Produced  by  this  rapid  transition  was  one  of 
the  oddest  assortments  of  warships  ever 


assembled.  The  Union  fleet  contained  old 
wooden  frigates  like  the  Constitution,  converted 
East  River  ferryboats,  scores  of  armed  steamers 
and  a  number  of  experimental  ironclads.  The 
South  used  armored  vessels,  steam  commerce 
raiders,  electrical  mines,  and  even  primitive 
submarines. 

Under  the  superior  leadership  of  Secretary 
of  Navy  Gideon  Welles,  and  his  able  assistant, 
Gustavus  V.  Fox,  who  was  first  to  hold  the 
newly  created  office  of  Assistant  Secretary  of 
the  Navy,  the  naval  establishment  rose 
magnificently  to  the  occasion.  The  Nation's 
scientists  and  inventors  contributed  many 
innovations,  and  by  war's  end  the  U.S.  Navy  was 
technically  the  equal  of  any  on  the  sea. 

The  most  famous  naval  battle  of  the  war  was 
significant  as  a  preview  of  things  to  come.  This 
was  the  battle  between  the  USS  Monitor  and 
CSS  Virginia  (ex-USS  Merrimac).  It  has  been 
said  that  probably  no  naval  conflict  in  the 
history  of  the  world  attracted  as  much  attention 
as  did  this  one.  Fighting  the  first  action  of  its 
kind  in  history,  the  ironclads  conclusively 
demonstrated  the  superiority  of  metal  over 
wood.  The  futility  of  the  long  and  furious 
cannonade,  contrasted  with  the  outstanding 
victories  of  the  Virginia  over  the  unarmored 
ships  Cumberland  and  Congress,  on  the  previous 
day,  made  the  battle  a  significant  step  in  the 
development  of  the  warship. 

DAVID  G.  FARRAGUT 

The  outstanding  battle  leader  of  the  Civil 
War  was  our  first  admiral,  David  G.  Farragut 
(1801-70). 

Like  many  others  in  the  early  days  of  the 
Navy,  Farragut  (figure  2-9)  entered  the  service  as 
a  lad.  He  was  a  midshipman  before  he  was  10 
years  old  and  had  command  of  a  ship  (for  a  brief 
time)  at  the  age  of  12.  By  the  time  he  reached 
his  majority,  he  was  experienced  at  shiphandling 
and  leadership. 

When  the  Civil  War  broke  out  in  1861, 
Farragut,  then  aged  60,  had  already  served  49 
years  in  the  Navy  and  at  this  time  was  awaiting 
orders  in  Norfolk  where  he  and  his  wife  had 
made  their  home  for  almost  17  years.  Southern 


28 


Chapter  2-MAKERS  OF  NAVAL  TRADITION 


134.12 

Figure  2-9.— The  statement  of  David  G.  Farragut, 
tactician  and  strategist,  that  "the  best  defense  is  a 
well-directed  fire  from  your  own  guns,"  became  a 
Navy  axiom. 


At  Mobile  Bay  occurred  the  incident  for 
which  Farragut  is  best  remembered.  The 
Admiral  was  stationed  on  the  Hartford,  and 
during  the  critical  phase  of  the  battle,  mines 
(then  called  torpedoes)  were  reported  ahead. 
Farragut  knew  that  the  monitor  Tecumseh,  with 
almost  all  hands,  had  just  gone  down  in  that 
area.  His  response  would  echo  through  history  as 
a  slogan  for  driving  leadership.  "Damn  the 
torpedoes!  Full  speed  ahead!"  As  Farragut 
suspected,  most  of  the  enemy's  underwater 
weapons  had  deteriorated  from  long  submersion. 
And  the  fleet  got  through. 

The  engagement  affords  another  example  of 
Farragut's  genius  for  planning.  He  had  spent  2 
days  making  sure  that  his  ships  were  prepared 
for  the  run.  Heavy  anchor  cables  were  fastened 
alongside  the  wooden  sides  to  serve  as  "chain 
armor"  for  the  engines  and  boilers.  The  ships 
were  daubed  with  mud  (primitive  camouflage), 
and  water  buckets  were  readied  for  firefighting. 
As  a  tactician  and  strategist  Farragut  was 
unexcelled  by  any  contemporary.  And  his 
statement  "the  best  protection  against  the 
enemy's  fire  is  a  well-directed  fire  from  your 
own  guns"  became  a  Navy  axiom.  But  Farragut 
bequeathed  the  service  something  more  than 
valiant  slogans.  He  left  us  a  reminder  that  major 
plans  are  composed  of  minor  details.  And  even 
so  minute  a  detail  as  water  buckets  received 
Farragut's  attention. 

DAVID  D.  PORTER 


friends,  urging  him  to  espouse  the  Confederate 
cause,  were  left  in  no  doubt  as  to  his  sympathies 
and  convictions.  "I  would  see  every  man  of  you 
damned  before  I  would  raise  my  hand  against  the 
flag."  With  this  declaration  of  allegiance,  he 
hurried  North  to  serve  with  the  United  States 
Navy. 

Farragut's  New  Orleans  campaign  was  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  of  the  war.  Where  logistics  was 
concerned,  Farragut  displayed  an  impressive 
knowledge  of  the  art  of  moving  men  and 
supplies.  He  is  credited,  too,  with  being  the  first 
American  officer  who  fully  comprehended  the 
strategic  deployment  of  a  fleet  and  coordinated 
the  operations  of  his  vessels  accordingly. 


David  D.  Porter  (figure  2-10),  son  of  the 
famous  David  Porter  who  commanded  the  raider 
Essex  during  the  War  of  1812,  saw  more 
continuous  fighting  than  any  American  naval 
officer  of  note  during  the  Civil  War-much  of  it 
on  the  Mississippi  River.  Competent,  aggressive, 
and  resourceful,  Porter  rose  from  the  rank  of 
lieutenant  at  the  beginning  of  the  conflict  to 
that  of  rear  admiral  at  its  close.  It  was  through 
Porter's  urging  that  Farragut  was  chosen  to  lead 
the  New  Orleans  expedition.  Porter  himself 
devised  and  led  the  famous  mortar  flotilla  that 
did  much  to  crack  the  Delta  defenses. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  juniors  were  eager  to 
serve  under  the  dynamic  Porter.  Besides  being  a 


29 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


fine  seaman  and  able  administrator,  he  possessed 
many  personal  traits  that  contributed  to  the 
spectacular  success  of  his  naval  career.  He  was 
impulsive,  frank,  and  honest.  He  was  endowed 
with  a  creative  imagination.  He  abhorred  sham, 
and  valued  performance  above  protocol.  His 
sense  of  humor  was  unquenchable;  situations 
never  became  so  desperate  that  he  could  not 
find  an  opportunity  for  a  jest.  He  was  able  to 
estimate  accurately  the  potentialities  of  his 
subordinates  and  never  failed  to  praise  them 
when  they  lived  up  to  his  expectations.  Above 
all,  he  was  unafraid  of  innovation.  Not  satisfied 
with  "good  enough,"  he  was  open-minded 
toward  anything  which  might  be  better.  His 


134.128 

Rgure  2-10.- Rear  Admiral  David  D.  Porter  was  the 
second  admiral  in  the  U.S.  Navy,  preceded  only  by 
Farragut.  Porter  commanded  the  Mississippi  River 
Flotilla  in  its  campaign  down  the  big  waterway  that 
climaxed  at  Vicksburg.  Later  he  inflicted  a  brilliant 
and  crushing  defeat  on  the  Confederates  at  Fort 
Fisher  in  1865. 


progressive  outlook  kept  him  a  step  ahead  of  his 
contemporaries. 

RAPHAEL  SEMMES 

A  miniature  of  this  distinguished 
Confederate  naval  leader  conveys  an  impression 
best  described  by  the  term  "knightly."  Few 
warriors  of  this  stamp  ever  existed  outside  the 
pages  of  fiction,  but  Semmes  (figure  2-11)  lived 
the  part  in  the  best  Paul  Jones'  tradition. 
Captaining  raiders  Sumter  and  Alabama,  he  left 
a  record  that  reads  like  a  saga  of  valor  and 
derring-do.  Like  Jones  he  refused  to  be  defeated 
by  adversity.  Deprived  of  Sumter  at  Gibraltar, 
he  wrote,  "I  could  sweep  the  whole 
Mediterranean  in  from  1 5  to  20  days  if  I  had  the 
means  of  locomotion."  Eventually  he  acquired 
the  means,  and  his  raiding  cruiser  Alabama 
struck  the  North  harder  blows  than  any  other 
Confederate  vessel. 


134.129 

Figure  2-11. -Raphael  Semmes,  while  skipper  of  the 
Confederate  raider  Alabama,  ruthlessly  burned  ship 
after  ship,  virtually  driving  merchantmen  flying  the 
Stars  and  Stripes  off  the  seas. 


Chapter  2-MAKERS  OF  NAVAL  TRADITION 


TRADITION  MAKERS 
IN  PEACETIME 

In  peacetime  many  officers  have  served  their 
nation  and  their  Navy  with  distinction.  They, 
too,  have  added  breadth  and  depth  to  the  great 
current  of  tradition. 

MATTHEW  FONTAINE  MAURY 

Chief  among  these  peacetime  contributors 
was  Matthew  Fontaine  Maury  (figure  2-12).  In 
the  field  of  science  no  officer  in  the  19th 
century  rendered  a  service  equal  to  that  of  the 
"Pathfinder  of  the  Seas." 

Starting  as  a  midshipman  in  1825,  Maury 
served  a  number  of  years  at  sea.  During  this 
period  he  was  distressed  to  learn  that  practically 
no  helpful  information  was  available  to  the 
mariner  on  such  matters  as  winds,  currents,  and 
best  courses.  In  1839  Maury  sustained  an  injury 
that  rendered  him  unfit  for  further  sea  duty. 
Refusing  to  bow  to  misfortune,  he  turned  his 
talents  to  science. 

When  he  was  in  his  mid-thirties,  the  Navy 
Department  appointed  him  Superintendent  of 
the  Depot  of  Charts  and  Instruments  in 
Washington.  He  soon  conceived  the  unique  idea 
of  collating  available  data  found  in  the 
numberless  old  log  books  stored  in  the  Navy 
Department.  These  he  supplemented  with 
observations  made  several  times  daily  by  ships  in 
our  Navy  as  well  as  by  American  and  foreign 
merchant  ships.  Soon  more  than  1000 
shipmasters  in  every  ocean  were  making  day  and 
night  observations  according  to  a  uniform  plan. 
The  temperature  of  air  and  water,  direction  of 
wind,  set  of  currents,  and  height  of  barometer 
were  recorded.  Navigators  were  instructed  to 
cast  overboard  at  stated  periods  bottles 
containing  a  record  of  ship's  latitude,  longitude, 
and  date.  They  were  requested  to  pick  up  similar 
bottles  wherever  found,  noting  the  exact 
position  and  time,  and  to  forward  these  data  to 
Washington.  On  the  basis  of  this  information, 
Maury  drew  important  conclusions  about  winds 
and  currents,  paths  of  storms,  quickest  routes 
between  great  shipping  ports,  and  other 
fundamentals  of  modern  navigation.  To  this  day, 
Maury's  pilot  charts,  brought  up  to  date,  are 


indispensable  in  making  ocean  travel  safe  and 
expeditious.  His  studies  of  the  little-known  Gulf 
Stream,  then  termed  the  "river  in  the  ocean," 
provided  science  with  much  valuable  data  on 
that  phenomenon. 

The  Navy  also  profited  by  his  interests  in 
other  areas.  He  outlined  the  original  system  of 
naval  education  adopted  by  the  Naval  Academy. 
When  the  Atlantic  cable  was  laid,  Cyrus  W.  Field 
said,  "Maury  furnished  the  brains,  England  gave 
the  money,  and  I  did  the  work."  Geography, 
mineralogy,  geology,  astronomy,  occupied 
Maury's  interest.  "Navies  are  not  all  for  war,"  he 
wrote.  "Peace  has  its  conquests,  science  its 
glories;  and  no  Navy  can  boast  of  brighter 
chaplets  than  those  which  have  gathered  in  the 
fields  of  geographical  exploration  and  physical 
research. 

Maury's  contribution  gave  impetus  and 
direction  to  the  Navy's  collateral  work  during 
times  of  peace.  It  has  been  followed  by 


134.13 

Figure  2-12.— Maury  learned  secrets  of  tides,  reefs, 
currents,  and  storms,  and  in  his  charts  made  the 
information  available  to  navigators. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


continuous  effort  in  exploration,  oceanography, 
astronomy,  and  other  fields.  Commander  Peary, 
for  example,  discovered  the  North  Pole.  Admiral 
Byrd,  who  flew  over  both  the  North  and  South 
Poles,  was  the  first  person  to  fly  over  either  one 
of  them. 

Today's  Oceanographic  Office  has  continued 
with  navigational  and  astronomical  studies,  and 
the  distribution  of  its  publications  furnishes 


evidence  of  the  Navy's  continuing  interest  in  the 
program  pioneered  by  Matthew  Fontaine  Maury. 

JOHN  A.  DAHLGREN 

Another  officer  whose  greatest  contribution 
was  made  in  peacetime  (in  the  main  before  the 
Civil  War)  was  John  A.  Dahlgren  (1809-70), 
often  called  the  father  of  modern  ordnance  and 
gunnery  (figure  2-13). 


Figure  2-13.-Rear  Admiral  John 


t  xu  134>14 


32 


Chapter  2-MAKERS  OF  NAVAL  TRADITION 


After  gaining  sea  experience,  Dahlgren 
entered  the  Navy  in  1826  as  a  midshipman.  He 
was  plagued  with  ill  health,  particularly  in  his 
early  years  (for  a  time  he  was  threatened  with 
total  blindness).  Nevertheless,  he  wrote  many 
books  and  articles  and  contributed  numerous 
inventions  to  the  field  of  ordnance.  Dahlgren 's 
naval  duties  before  the  Civil  War  included, 
beside  his  sea  duty,  heading  the  Bureau  of 
Ordnance  in  Washington,  instructing  in  gunnery 
at  Annapolis,  and  commanding  the  Washington 
Navy  Yard.  He  was  successful  in  renovating 
naval  ordnance  and  established  a  regular  system 
of  ordnance  workshops,  gun-carriage  shops,  a 
cannon  foundry,  and  an  experimental 
laboratory. 

Against  strong  protest  from  the  service,  he 
persisted  in  demanding  improved  weapons.  He 
designed  a  new,  reinforced  gun-breech, 
advocated  the  first  real  sights,  and  urged  the 
rifling  of  cannon.  Indirectly,  he  was  partly 
responsible  for  the  construction  of  ironclads. 
The  Dahlgren  gun  was  the  most  widely  used 
type  in  the  Union  fleet  during  the  Civil  War. 
This  gun  was  a  major  technological  contribution 
to  the  Union  naval  victory  in  the  Civil  War.  An 
account  in  a  London  paper  of  the 
Kearsarge- Alabama  duel  said  that  it  was  a 
"contest  for  superiority  between  the  ordnance 
of  Europe  and  America"  in  which  the  Dahlgren 
guns  of  the  Kearsarge  showed  marked 
superiority. 

A  scientist  and  an  inventor,  Dahlgren  devoted 
himself  to  blueprints  instead  of  charts.  His 
career  was  not  a  romantic  story,  nor  was  he 
a  popular  hero,  but  his  enthusiasm  and  his  love 
for  the  Navy  have  rarely  been  surpassed.  He, 
too,  created  tradition.  And  the  Navy  would  not 
forget  his  admonition,  "The  officer  should  wear 
his  uniform,  as  the  judge  his  ermine,  without  a 
stain."  This  observation  could  be  applied  to  few 
more  fittingly  than  to  Dahlgren  himself. 

STEPHEN  B.  LUCE 

Stephen  B.  Luce  (figure  2-14),  one  of  the 
Navy's  outstanding  educators,  was  born  in  1 827 
and  entered  the  service  as  a  midshipman  at  the 
age  of  14.  During  most  of  the  Civil  War  he 


served  with  the  Atlantic  coast  blockaders  and, 
for  a  time,  commanded  a  monitor  at  the  siege  of 
Charleston,  South  Carolina.  Luce  was  deeply 
interested  in  training  of  personnel,  and  in  1 862, 
while  on  a  tour  of  duty  at  the  Naval  Academy, 
he  prepared  one  of  the  best-known  seamanship 
textbooks. 

After  the  war,  Luce  commanded  the  Naval 
Academy  Practice  Squadron  for  5  years,  and  in 


134.130 

Figure  2-14.— One  of  the  foremost  seamen  of  his  day, 
Rear  Admiral  Luce  was  the  driving  influence  behind 
the  institution  of  the  U.S.  Naval  War  College  in  1884 
and  the  use  of  Fleet  exercises  as  battle  practice  for 
our  expanding  naval  armada. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


1875  lie  ortiani/ed  the  Navy's  apprentice 
training  system.  Its  purpose  was  to  train 
American  boys  to  take  their  places  in  the  fleet  as 
seamen  and  petty  officers.  Throughout  his  life 
Luce  insisted  that  the  Navy  should  be  an 
educational  institution  for  all  hands-with  all 
hands  working  to  get  ahead  and  with 
advancement  always  open  to  trained  personnel. 

Captain  Luce  was  appointed  Inspector  of 
Training  Ships  from  1878  to  1881,  and  as 
Commodore,  he  commanded  the  United  States 
Training  Squadron  from  1 88 1  to  1 884,  hauling 
down  the  flag  when  he  was  transferred  to 
command  the  North  Atlantic  Squadron.  By  this 
time  the  training  system  had  been  firmly 
established,  and  its  later  development  into  the 
Naval  Training  Stations  at  Newport,  Great 
Lakes,  and  elsewhere,  followed  directly  from 
Luce's  pioneer  work. 

Luce  took  the  lead  in  urging  the 
establishment  of  a  war  college  where  senior 
officers  might  study  the  art  of  war-strategy  and 
tactics.  He  once  said  that  good  gunners,  good 
engineers,  and  good  communicators  are  found 
abundantly  in  every  navy  in  time  of  war,  but 
that  good  admirals  are  always  too  few  in 
mini  her. 

Finally,  in  1884,  Luce  was  successful  in 
having  the  Naval  War  College  established  at 
Newport,  R.I.  The  primary  function  of  this 
institution  was  to  train  senior  officers  to  think 
in  terms  of  up-to-date  fleet  evolutions;  to  study 
and  master  broad  strategic  concepts;  to  prepare 
themselves  for  the  handling  of  modern  fleets  in 
battle.  It  was  the  first  institution  of  its  kind  in 
the  world. 

During  his  professional  life  and  until  he  died 
in  1917  at  the  age  of  90,  Admiral  Luce  fought 
tirelessly  for  improvement  in  ship  and  gun 
design;  for  the  introduction  of  efficient  methods 
of  administration  into  the  Navy  Department.  His 
work  contributed  immeasurably  to  bracing  the 
morale  of  the  service  in  the  letdown  period 
which  followed  the  Civil  War.  Today's  naval 
training  program  stems  directly  from  the  efforts 
of  this  farsighted  officer. 

ALFRED  T.  MAHAN 

Alfred  T.  Mahan  is  a  notable  example  of  a 
naval  officer  who  gained  worldwide  fame  but 


134.15 

Figure  2-15.— A  philosopher  of  naval  strategy,  Mahan 's 
researches  in  military  history  proves  that  the  nation 
controlling  the  oceans  is  the  nation  that  maintains 
its  supremacy  in  war  or  peace. 


not  in  battle;  it  was  achieved  in  his  regular  line 
of  duty  in  the  pursuit  of  his  profession  in  peace. 
He  occupies  a  supreme  position  in  the  Navy  as  a 
writer.  His  particular  theme  is  seapower. 

Born  at  West  Point  in  1 840,  Mahan  (figure 
2-15)  attended  Columbia  University  for  2  years, 
and  in  1856  he  was  admitted  to  the  second  year 
at  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis.  Graduating 
second  in  his  class,  he  served  at  sea  during  the 
Civil  War,  and  this  duty  was  followed  by  routine 
and  uneventful  service  until  1885.  At  the 
request  of  Stephen  B.  Luce,  his  former 
commanding  officer,  he  was  called  to  duty  as  a 
lecturer  at  the  Naval  War  College  at  Newport 
R.I.  ' 

Mahan  entered  his  new  work  with 
consuming  zeal.  He  felt  that  the  War  College 
should  train  officers  to  go  beyond  the  mere 
mechanics  of  their  profession;  that  it  should 


34 


Chapter  2-MAKERS  OF  NAVAL  TRADITION 


seek  through  historical  studies  to  develop  the 
rarer  and  more  intangible  qualities  of  "the  artist 
in  war  ....  intuition,  sagacity,  judgment,  daring, 
inspiration -which  place  great  captains  among 
creators,  and  war  itself  among  the  fine  arts." 

In  1 890  he  published  the  first  of  his  many 
great  works.  Titled  "The  Influence  ofSeapower 
upon  History,  1660-1783,"  it  was  based  upon 
his  lectures  on  naval  history  and  seapower. 
Mahan's  volume  stressed  the  theme  that  victory 
for  a  nation  at  war  ordinarily  depends  upon 
control  of  the  sea.  It  was  one  of  the  most 
influential  books  ever  written  and  was  received 
with  great  enthusiasm  throughout  the  entire 
world.  In  Germany  the  Kaiser  wrote,  "I  am  just 
now  not  reading  but  devouring  Captain  Mahan's 
book;  and  I  am  trying  to  learn  it  by  heart.  It  is  a 
first-class  work  and  classical  in  all  points.  It  is  on 
board  all  my  ships  and  constantly  quoted  by  my 
captains  and  officers." 

Mahan's  writings  were  promptly  translated 
by  the  Japanese  and  it  is  said  that  Japanese 
midshipmen  read  him  in  the  original  to  learn 
English.  His  work  was  studied  also  by 
contemporary  Secretaries  of  the  Navy,  by  the 
Congress,  and  by  President  Theodore  Roosevelt. 

Mahan's  work  marked  the  final  transition 
from  sail  to  steam,  not  only  in  naval 
construction  but  in  naval  thinking.  He  believed 
the  best  time  to  stop  an  attack  was  before  it 
arrived.  A  shore-hugging  navy,  he  foresaw,  could 
no  longer  be  considered  a  worthy  defense.  As  a 
consequence,  the  buildup  of  our  Navy, 
commenced  under  President  Cleveland,  was 
continued  under  President  Theodore  Roosevelt. 
By  1898,  the  Navy  was  in  a  position  to  assure 
the  United  States  a  role  as  a  world  power. 


SPANISH-AMERICAN  WAR 

The  Spanish- American  War  in  1 898  resulted 
from  a  long  series  of  incidents  arising  in  part 
from  unsettled  conditions  in  Spain's  Caribbean 
possessions.  It  was  evident  from  the  first  that 
the  war  would  be  primarily  naval,  and  would  be 
decided  in  favor  of  the  nation  able  to  establish 
control  of  the  western  Atlantic.  While  the  naval 
strength  of  the  two  countries  was  about  equal 


on  paper,  Spain's  ships  were  poorly  equipped, 
her  personnel  lacked  training,  and  her  officers 
displayed  incredibly  incompetent  leadership. 

Theodore  Roosevelt,  Assistant  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  in  1 897,  and  an  enthusiastic  disciple  of 
Mahan,  was  influential  in  getting  the  Navy  into 
shape  for  the  war.  In  the  overwhelming  victory 
won  by  the  United  States,  the  Navy  played  a 
notable  part. 

GEORGE  DEWEY 

Perhaps  the  outstanding  exploit  of  the 
Spanish-American  War  was  Commodore  George 
Dewey's  seizure  of  Manila  Bay.  The  Spanish 
admiral  knew  that  Dewey's  fleet  was  somewhere 
in  the  vicinity.  However,  he  did  not  suspect  that 
the  American  would  have  the  audacity  to  steam 
in  during  the  night,  with  forts  on  either  side  and 
the  Spanish  squadron  ready  to  receive  him 
(figure  2- 16). 

While  laying  his  plans,  Dewey  said  he  tried 
to  figure  out  what  Farragut  would  have  done 
when  so  confronted,  for  Farragut  had  been  the 
inspiration  of  his  life.  The  influence  of  a  great 
leader  is  borne  out  in  Dewey's  statement: 
"Valuable  as  the  training  of  Annapolis  was,  it 
was  poor  schooling  beside  that  of  serving  under 
Farragut  in  time  of  war."  Dewey's  dramatic 
decision  to  force  Manila  Bay  was  inspired  by  his 
admiration  for  Farragut. 

As  it  eventuated,  this  unexpected  blow,  so 
timed,  was  half  the  victory.  "We  shall  enter 
Manila  Bay  tonight,"  Dewey  informed  his 
subordinates,  "and  you  will  follow  the  motions 
and  movements  of  the  flagship,  which  will  lead." 

At  0540,  when  the  range  had  been  reduced 
to  2-1/2  miles,  Dewey,  standing  on  the  bridge  of 
the  Olympia,  quietly  gave  the  order  to  the 
commanding  officer  of  his  flagship,  "You  may 
fire  when  you  are  ready,  Gridley."  By  noon, 
every  enemy  ship  was  sunk,  burned,  or 
abandoned.  While  it  was  true  that  the  enemy 
defense  was  weak,  this  was  nonetheless  a  signal 
victory.  In  one  morning,  Dewey  eliminated 
Spanish  naval  strength  in  the  Pacific  without  the 
loss  of  one  American  life. 

Dewey  stressed  preparedness.  Before  leaving 
the  United  States  he  had  obtained  all  the 


35 


information  available  on  the  Spanish  fleet;  he 
secured  charts  and  other  data  on  the  Philippines 
and  made  a  detailed  study  of  international  law. 
Before  the  battle  he  discussed  with  his  officers 
every  detail  of  tactics  and  strategy.  Every  ship 
captain  knew  each  detail  of  how  and  when  to 
act. 

"It  was  the  ceaseless  routine  of  hard  work 
and  preparation  in  time  of  peace,"  wrote 
Dewey,  "that  won  Manila  and  Santiago." 


NAVY  ENTERS  THE 
20TH  CENTURY 

From  the  Spanish-American  War  the  United 
States  emerged  with  the  majority  of  her 
present-day  insular  possessions:  Hawaii  (annexed 
before  end  of  war),  Puerto  Rico,  Guam, 
Midway,  and  Wake.  In  addition,  we  had  gained 
control  of  the  Philippines  and  assumed  a 
protectorate  over  Cuba. 

Immediately  following  every  war  there 
comes  the  cry  to  do  away  with  armaments. 
Beginning  with  the  Revolution  it  became  the 
rule,  upon  the  termination  of  hostilities,  to 


decrease  the  naval  establishment  drastically  both 
in  men  and  ships.  The  Spanish-American  War 
stands  out  as  the  conspicuous  exception.  Instead 
of  drifting  into  a  decline,  the  new  Navy  sailed 
forward.  Two  reasons  for  this  continued 
expansion  were  the  obvious  need  for  a  large 
Navy  to  protect  our  new  possessions,  and  the 
enthusiasm  of  President  Theodore  Roosevelt  for 
the  Navy— an  enthusiasm  entertained  especially 
since  his  holding  of  the  office  of  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  Navy.  A  big  navy  gave 
Roosevelt  the  opportunity  of  carrying  out  his 
policy  of  "speaking  softly  and  carrying  a  big 
stick." 

Programs  of  the  various  navies  of  the  world 
between  1 900  and  the  beginning  of  World  War  I 
were  based  primarily  on  the  development  of  the 
capital  ship  theory  and  the  development  of  the 
submarine  and  airplane.  Although  the  ideas  of 
these  innovations  were  the  result  of  American 
genius,  the  Navy  was  not  always  prompt  in 
recognizing  their  potentialities. 

WILLIAM  S.  SIMS 

Admiral  William  S.  Sims  was  a  driver  in  the 
naval  service  both  in  peace  and  in  war.  Like 


of  the  Phillip,-™*. 


past  *•  shore  i— 

al  Mont°l°.  °P'iing  the  way  for  the  American  occupation 


1 


36 


134.16 

Figure  2-1 7. —To  improve  gunnery,  Sims  developed  a 
keen  competitive  spirit  in  the  Fleet.  He  raised  the 
accuracy  of  Fleet  gunnery  to  near-perfection  during 
the  years  that  he  served  as  Inspector  of  Target 
Practice. 


Maury,  Dahlgren,  Luce,  and  Mahan,  Sims  (figure 
2-17)  encountered  opposition  in  his  progressive 
ideas  from  the  Navy  itself.  It  is  not  surprising 
that  many  of  his  superiors,  comfortably  settled 
in  conventional  routine,  regarded  him  as  an 
intolerable  nuisance.  He  was  always  seeing 
something  that  needed  correction  and  he  was 
not  afraid  to  speak  up  with  constructive 
criticism. 

At  the  turn  of  the  century  our  deplorable 
showing  aj  target  practice  worried  Lieutenant 
Sims.  Analysis  revealed  that  at  Santiago  1  20  hits 
were  scored  and  9000  projectiles  fired.  The 
rationalization,  "Well,  we  annihilated  them  at 
Manila  and  Santiago,  didn't  we?"  was  not 
convincing  to  Lieutenant  Sims.  He  agreed  with 


Mahan 's  wise  comment  that  "We  cannot  expect 
ever  again  to  have  an  enemy  so  entirely  inept  as 
Spain  showed  herself  to  be."  The  climax  came  in 
the  Far  East,  where  Sims  was  serving  as  fleet 
intelligence  officer  of  the  Asiatic  Squadron. 
There  the  fleet's  target  practice  was  so 
indifferent  that  he  became  convinced  the 
gunnery  of  the  United  States  Navy  could— and 
should -be  improved.  So  effective  were  his 
suggestions  that  he  was  ordered  home  in  1903 
and  installed  as  inspector  of  target  practice. 
Pitching  in  to  rectify  a  deplorable  situation, 
Sims  revolutionized  fleet  gunnery. 

Improved  methods  of  rangefinding  and 
spotting  were  adopted.  A  keen  competitive  spirit 
in  the  gun  crews  was  developed.  Gunnery  prizes 
were  offered  and  records  for  all  calibers  were 
broken  every  year.  In  1 903  the  fleet  average  for 
all  guns  was  approximately  40%;  in  1906  it  was 
almost  78%.  When  Sims  left  the  Target  Practice 
Office  in  1909,  the  United  States  Navy  led  the 
world  in  gunnery. 

By  publicizing  an  urgent  need  for 
modification  in  ship  construction,  Sims  was 
instrumental  in  bringing  about  other  important 
changes. 

He  was  admired  and  supported  by  many  of 
the  fleet's  ablest  officers,  among  them 
Commander  (later  Admiral)  Bradley  A.  Fiske, 
one  of  the  Navy's  foremost  scientists  and 
inventors.  Back  in  the  1890's  Fiske  invented  the 
telescopic  sight,  the  stadimeter  for  rangefinding 
and  station  keeping,  the  electric  rangefinder,  and 
the  turret  rangefinder.  In  1912  he  spurred  the 
development  of  the  torpedo-carrying  airplane. 
An  innovator,  Fiske  worked  well  in  harness  with 
Sims. 

Selected  to  command  United  States  naval 
forces  in  European  waters  during  World  War  I, 
Sims  successfully  coordinated  American  and 
British  naval  operations,  and  played  a  major  role 
in  the  development  of  the  convoy  system,  an 
offensive-defensive  system  against  the  German 
submarine  threat.  Like  Farragut,  Dewey,  and 
other  great  leaders,  he  had  the  capacity  for 
securing  the  enthusiastic  and  loyal  support  of  his 
subordinates. 


37 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


WORLD  WAR  I 

Several  days  after  our  declaration  of  war 
aguniNt  Germany  in  April  1917,  Rear  Admiral 
Sims,  who  had  just  come  from  Newport  where 
lie  had  served  as  President  of  the  Naval  War 
College,  arrived  in  London  to  confer  with  British 
First  Sea  Lord,  Admiral  Jellicoc.  Explaining  the 
status  of  the  submarine  war,  Jellicoe  revealed 
that  available  Allied  shipping  had  been  depleted 
by  one-fourth,  and  that  losses  were  mounting  at 
an  appalling  rate.  April  losses  alone  threatened 
to  reach  the  unprecedented  figure  of  900,000 
tons.  Sims  realized  that  at  this  rate  England, 
with  only  a  month's  grain  supply  on  hand,  must 
starve  or  surrender  within  a  few  weeks  time. 
Germany  was  winning  the  war. 

With  Germany  building  U-boats  at  the  rate 
of  three  a  week,  it  was  obvious  that  the 
submarine  menace  had  to  be  drastically  dispelled 
if  the  Allies  were  to  survive.  Sims  appealed  to 
the  Navy  Department  for  immediate  dispatch  of 


all  available  destroyers  and  other  antisubmarine 
craft,  auxiliaries,  and  merchantmen.  (See  figure 
2-18.)  Within  a  month  after  our  entry  into  the 
war,  the  first  American  naval  forces  began  to 
arrive  in  Britain  ready  for  duty. 

From  a  naval  point  of  view,  World  War  I  was 
a  conflict  of  two  blockades-the  Allies 
maintaining  a  long-distance  blockade  of  German 
ports,  and  the  Germans,  with  the  submarine, 
trying  to  blockade  British  and  French  ports  by 
attacking  Allied  shipping.  The  unrestricted 
sinking  of  neutral  American  merchant  ships  was 
one  reason  for  our  entry  into  the  war.  And  the 
cruiser,  the  destroyer,  and  the  newly 
constructed  sub-chaser  performed  yeoman 
service  in  this  campaign  against  German 
submarines. 

The  Allied  victory  resulted  in  part  from  the 
Sims-inspired  convoy  system  employed  in 
transporting  about  2  million  American  fighting 
men  to  France.  Navy  convoys  also  transported 


Sims  and   Rodman  „ 

for  world  domination. 


the  munitions  and  supplies  needed  to  sustain 
Pershing's  armies  and  the  Allies. 

THE  CASSIN  INCIDENT 

In  October  1917,  the  destroyer  Cassin  was 
patrolling  off  the  Irish  coast.  Gunner's  Mate 
O.  K.  Ingram  suddenly  sighted  a  German 
torpedo  racing  toward  the  stern  of  the  Cassin. 
He  realized  that  if  the  "fish"  struck  the  vessel 
where  the  depth  charges  were  stowed,  the  ship 
would  be  blown  up.  Instead  of  saving  himself,  he 
deliberately  rushed  aft  to  throw  the  charges 
overboard.  The  torpedo  found  its  mark— and  the 
explosion  killed  Ingram  and  temporarily 
disabled  the  ship.  But  this  bluejacket's  sacrifice 
saved  his  ship  and  the  lives  of  the  officers  and 
men  on  board.  The  destroyer  Ingram 
commemorates  his  name. 


others  live.  Their  heroism  lives  on  in  traditions 
that  become  the  motivating  force  of  future 
generations— traditions  of  courage,  hard  work, 
lightning  and  shrewd  judgment,  and  generous 
self-sacrifice. 

CHESTER  WILLIAM  NIMITZ 


When  he  hoisted  his  flag  as  Commander  in 
Chief,  U.S.  Pacific  Fleet  on  31  December  1941 
aboard  the  submarine  Grayling  in  a  harbor 
littered  with  the  wreckage  of  American 
warships,  Admiral  Nimitz  (figure  2-19)  was 
faced  with  one  of  the  most  difficult  tasks  ever 
presented  a  man.  The  Japanese  on  7  December 
had  successfully  perpetrated  one  of  the  most 
damaging  air  raids  in  history.  Of  eight 


CHARLES  L.  AUSBURNE 

Another  incident  that  occurred  in  World  War 
I  contributed  to  our  store  of  memorable  naval 
traditions.  The  transport  Antilles,  bound  for  the 
United  States  from  Europe  in  October  1917, 
was  sunk  by  torpedo  attack.  Radio  Electrician 
Ausburne  at  the  wireless  station  frantically  sent 
out  distress  signals.  The  ship  was  sinking  rapidly, 
but  Ausburne,  disregarding  his  own  safety,  stuck 
to  his  post  to  the  end,  vainly  attempting  to 
obtain  help.  Ausburne's  sacrifice,  like  Ingram 's, 
was  in  keeping  with  the  highest  traditions  of 
naval  service.  The  heroism  of  such  men  reminds 
us  that  the  bluejackets  we  command  are  worthy 
of  the  best  in  leadership. 


WORLD  WAR  II 

Deeds  of  yesterday  furnish  the  inspiration 
for  today.  In  warfare  the  immediate  stakes  are 
death  and  life,  and  the  long-term  stakes  are  the 
survival  of  a  way  of  life  and  of  a  civilization. 
Men  are  forced  for  a  period  to  show  their 
supreme  best.  During  such  crises  they  must  work 
beyond  their  strength;  hit  harder  and  faster  than 
their  opponents;  make  split-second -and 
correct-decisions;  and  risk  their  own  lives  to  let 


134.132 

Figure  2-1 9. -By  his  brilliant  leadership  and  skill  as  a 
strategist.  Admiral  Nimitz  moved  his  forces  in  the 
Pacific  from  a  series  of  peripheral  engagements  to 
strategic  encirclement  of  the  enemy,  cutting  the 
enemy's  lines  of  supply  and  isolating  his  land  forces. 


39 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


battleships  in  Pearl  Harbor,  Arizona  was 
wrecked,  Oklahoma  capsized,  and  six  were 
damaged,  of  which  three  were  resting  on  the 
bottom.  Ail  told,  19  ships  were  hit.  The 
Japanese  had  practically  eliminated  the  Navy's 
striking  air  power  there,  knocking  out  150  of 
202  planes.  The  Navy  and  Marine  Corps  suffered 
2117  dead  plus  779  wounded. 

Despite  a  tragic  shortage  of  ships,  aircraft, 
and    supplies.    Admiral    Nimitz   organized   his 
remaining    forces    and    carried    on    defensive 
warfare,  trying  to  delay  the  enemy's  advance 
until  such  time  as  we  could  muster  sufficient 
strength  to  put  up  any  real  resistance.  As  rapidly 
as  ships,  personnel,  and  material  became  avail- 
able, however,  he  shifted  to  the  offense.  By  his 
brilliant  leadership  and  outstanding  skill  as  a 
strategist,  he  enabled  units  under  his  command 
to   defeat   the   enemy   in    the  Coral   Sea,  off 
Midway,  and  in   the  Solomons,  as  well  as  to 
conduct     offensive     raids    on     Japanese-held 
territory    such   as   the    Gilbert   and    Marshall 
Islands.    The  battle  of  Midway  was  the  first 
decisive  defeat  suffered  by  the  Japanese  Navy  in 
350  years.  It  put  an  end  to  the  long  period  of 
Japanese    offensive   action,   and   restored    the 
balance  of  naval  power  in  the  Pacific. 

Gradually,  Admiral  Nimitz's  forces  fought 
their  way  across  the  Pacific  to  the  Japanese 
mainland.  Initiating  the  final  phase  in  the  battle 
for  victory,  he  attacked  the  Marianas  and 
inflicted  a  decisive  defeat  in  the  battle  of  the 
Philippine  Sea,  and  captured  Guam  and  Tinian. 
Continuing  onward,  his  forces  isolated 
enemy-held  bastions  (the  strategy  of 
island-hopping)  in  the  Central  and  Eastern 
Carolines.  An  engagement  with  Japanese  task 
forces  then  resulted  in  a  historic  victory  in  the 
Battle  of  Leyte  Gulf.  His  long-range  strategy  was 
culminated  by  successful  amphibious  assaults 
on,  among  other  landings,  Iwo  Jima  and 
Okinawa,  the  outstanding  operations  of  this 
type  during  the  last  months  of  the  war. 

Finally,  Nimitz  placed  representative  forces 
of  the  U.S.  Navy  in  the  harbor  of  Tokyo  for  the 
capitulation  of  the  Japanese  Imperial 
Government.  The  formal  surrender  document 
was  signed  on  2  September  1945  aboard  the 
battleship  Missouri  in  Tokyo  Bay.  General  of  the 


Army  Douglas  MacArthur  signed  as  Supreme 
Commander  for  Allied  Powers;  Fleet  Admiral 
Nimitz  signed  as  representative  for  the  United 
States. 

On  1 1  December  1 944,  Congress  authorized 
the  establishment  of  the  grades  of  Fleet  Admiral 
and  General  of  the  Army  (the  highest  grades 
ever),  with  the  proviso  that  four  Navy  and  four 
Army  officers  could  be  elevated  to  that  5-star 
grade.  The  President  immediately  recommended 
Admirals  Nimitz,  William  D.  Leahy  (Chief  of 
Staff  to  the  President),  and  Ernest  J.  King 
(Commander  in  Chief/CNO,  U.S.  Fleet)1  for  the 
grade.  Congress  approved  the  recommendations, 
and  Nimitz  took  his  oath  of  office  on  19 
December.  (Admiral  Halsey,  the  fourth  Navy 
recipient  of  the  new  grade,  received  his 
promotion  the  following  year.) 

Following  the  surrender  of  Japan,  Fleet 
Admiral  Nimitz  took  over  the  top  naval  post, 
relieving  Fleet  Admiral  King  as  Chief  of  Naval 
Operations  on  1 5  December  1 945. 

Nimitz  received  some  15  decorations  and 
awards  from  foreign  governments.  After  his 
release  from  active  duty,  he  served  for  8  years  as 
Regent  for  the  University  of  California,  and 
received  honorary  degrees  from  19  universities 
and  colleges,  including  Notre  Dame,  Columbia, 
Northwestern,  Syracuse,  Tulane,  Harvard,  and 
Princeton. 

WILLIAM  FREDERICK 
HALSEY,  JR. 

Admiral  Nimitz  was  fortunate  to  have  under 
his  command  many  extremely  resourceful, 
intelligent,  dedicated,  and  courageous  officers. 
There  are  too  many  to  be  listed  here,  but 
anyone  familiar  with  operations  in  the  Pacific 
during  World  War  II  will  have  no  difficulty 

An  interesting  sidelight  to  his  title  was  that 
King  thought  the  original  abbreviation- 
CINCUS-was  hardly  appropriate  in  view  of 
the  successful  raid  on  Pearl  Harbor.  Conse- 
quently, he  changed  it  on  12  March  1942  to 
COMINCH.  During  World  War  II,  he  also 
was  CNO. 


Chapter  2-MAKERS  OF  NAVAL  TRADITION 


recalling  the  feats  of  such  commanders  as 
Raymond  A.  Spruance,  Thomas  C.  Kinkaid, 
Marc  A.  Mitscher,  John  S.  McCain,  and  R.  K. 
Turner,  to  name  a  few.  Probably  the  most 
famous  sea  fighter  of  the  war,  however,  was 
Admiral  William  F.  "Bill"  Halsey  (figure  2-20). 
(Although  reporters  tagged  him  with  the 
nickname  "Bull,"  Halsey  disliked  it  as  seeming 
flamboyant.) 

During  the  attack  on  Pearl  Harbor,  Halsey 
was  about  200  miles  at  sea,  returning  to  Pearl  in 
his  flagship  Enterprise  from  Wake  Island  where 
he  had  delivered  Marine  Fighter  Squadron  221. 
He  took  no  part  in  the  action  except  to  launch 
aircraft  in  a  fruitless  search  for  the  enemy. 

Halsey's  actions  were  characteristically 
audacious  and  brilliantly  planned,  exemplifying 
his  slogan  to  "Hit  hard,  hit  fast,  hit  often!"  As 
an  example  of  his  determination  to  succeed,  he 
was  designated  a  Naval  Aviator  at  the  age  of  52, 
a  prerequisite  to  being  assigned  as  captain  of  an 
aircraft  carrier. 

Early  in  1 942,  Admiral  Nimitz  chose  Halsey 
to  conduct  the  first  offensive  raid  in  the  Central 
Pacific.  Halsey's  force  of  2  carriers,  5  cruisers, 
and  10  destroyers  made  a  bold  foray  beginning 
on  1  February  against  the  Japanese-held  Gilbert 
and  Marshall  Islands,  bombing  and  bombarding 
enemy  bases  on  nine  separate  islands.  During  the 
action,  the  heavy  cruiser  Chester  took  one  bomb 
hit;  the  flagship  Enterprise  was  grazed  on  the 
flight  deck  by  a  suicide  pilot.  No  other  ships 
were  damaged  during  the  entire  operation. 
Among  other  benefits,  the  raid  reestablished 
offensive  spirit  within  the  Navy,  and  answered  a 
question  being  asked  at  home— "Where  is  the 
Navy?" 

Within  4  months  of  the  "Day  of  Infamy," 
Halsey's  forces  conducted  a  unique  and 
dangerous  carrier  operation  by  transporting  16 
B-25  Army  bombers  across  an  ocean  and 
launching  them  off  enemy  shores.  The  squadron 
of  planes,  led  by  Lieutenant  Colonel  James 
Doolittle,  took  off  from  the  Hornet  while  650 
miles  from  the  Japanese  mainland  for  the  initial 
bombing  raid  on  Tokyo.  Whatever  the  damage 
inflicted  by  the  raid,  the  attack  was  a  shot  in  the 
arm  for  American  morale,  which  at  that  time 
was  at  a  very  low  ebb. 


134.133 

Figure  2-20.— Admiral  Halsey  was  an  exceptional  com- 
mander. Although  he  had  a  flair  for  doing  the 
spectacular  in  a  dashing  way,  his  valor  and  audacity 
were  tempered  by  tactical  discretion.  Admiral 
Nimitz,  then  CSNCPAC,  once  said  of  him,  "He  .  . . 
can  calculate  to  a  cat's  whisker  the  risk  involved." 


Halsey's  flagship,  the  Enterprise,  was  the 
first  carrier  awarded  a  Presidential  Unit  Citation 
in  World  War  II.  It  was  presented  for 
consistently  outstanding  performance  and 
distinguished  achievements  during  repeated 
action  against  Japanese  forces.  The  Enterprise 
under  Halsey's  leadership,  participated  in  nearly 
every  major  carrier  engagement  in  the  first  year 
of  the  war.  Exclusive  of  the  damage  and 
destruction  of  hostile  shore  installations 
throughout  the  battle  area,  she  sank  or  damaged 
35  enemy  ships  and  shot  down  185  aircraft.  She 
was  reported  sunk  by  the  Japanese  so  many 
times  she  became  known  as  "the  galloping  ghost 
of  the  Oahu  coast." 

On  1 8  October  1 942,  Halsey  was  appointed 
Commander  South  Pacific  Force  and  South 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Pacific  .Area.  Starting  with  the  decisive  American 
victory  in  November  at  Guadalcanal,  which 
stopped  the  Japanese  advance  in  the  South 
Pacific  (although  sporadic  action  on  or  near 
Guadalcanal  continued  into  the  following 
February),  Halsey  conducted  a  brilliantly 
planned  and  consistently  sustained  offensive 
through  December  1943,  driving  the  enemy 
steadily  northward,  and  occupying  strategic 
positions  through  the  Solomons,  thereby 
securing  the  South  Pacific  area. 

After  Halsey  lead  his  forces  to  victory  at 
Guadalcanal,  President  Roosevelt  nominated 
him  for  the  unheard-of  fourth  star  (it  was 
unheard  of  to  have  more  than  four  full  admirals 
on  active  duty  in  the  Navy,  and  we  already  had 
them-King,  Nimitz,  Stark,  and  Ingersoll).  A 
grateful  Congress  approved  the  nomination 
anyhow. 

In  June  1 944,  Halsey  assumed  command  of 
the  Third  Fleet.  Beginning  in  August,  his  forces 
left  a  trail  of  enemy  ruin  and  destruction  from 
the  Palaus  (a  small  group  of  islands  north  of 
New  Guinea')  and  the  South  Qiina  Sea  up 
through  the  Philippines,  Formosa,  and  Okinawa, 
inflicting  greater  loss  on  the  Japanese  Navy  than 
had  ever  before  been  suffered  by  any  fleet.  In  a 
magnificent  sweep  into  enemy  waters  between 
August  1944  and  January  1945,  the  Third  Fleet 
destroyed  4370  enemy  aircraft  and  sank  82 
combatant  ships  and  327  auxiliaries  against  a 
loss  in  combat  of  449  aircraft  and  the  light 
cruiser  Princeton, 

After  the  Okinawa  campaign,  Halsey  headed 
for  Tokyo  to  conduct  pre-invasion  operations. 
His  fast  carrier  task  force  comprised  the  greatest 
mass  of  seapower  ever  assembled  (three  task 
groups,  each  consisting  of  five  carriers  and  a 
battleship-cruiser-destroyer  screen).  In 
operations  conducted  with  military  precision 
and  characteristic  aggressiveness,  ships  and 
planes  of  Task  Force  38  blasted  every  industry 
and  resource  which  enabled  Japan  to  make  war, 
and  knocked  out  remnants  of  the  once  mighty' 
Japanese  fleet  hiding  in  camouflaged  nets 
throughout  the  length  of  the  Honshu  Island. 
When  the  "Cease  fire"  order  was  flashed  on  15 
August,  Halsey's  forces  (including  units  of  the 
Bntish  Pacific  Reet  that  joined  him  in  July 


with  Halsey  in  overall  command)  had  destroyed 
or  damaged  nearly  3000  aircraft  and  sunk  or 
disabled  1650  combatant  and  merchant  ships. 

In  recognition  of  his  exceptional  war  record, 
Admiral  Halsey  was  nominated  for  the  grade  of 
fleet  admiral  in  November  1945,  his  nomination 
was  confirmed  by  the  Senate,  and  he  took  the 
oath  as  fleet  admiral  on  11  December  1945, 
becoming  the  fourth,  and  last,  officer  to  hold 
that  grade. 

After  his  return  to  the  United  States  in 
October  1945,  Halsey  made  a  6-week  trip 
through  Central  and  South  America,  serving  as  a 
good-will  ambassador.  He  was  given 'numerous 
awards  in  the  form  of  parades,  reviews,  gifts,  and 
military  decorations. 

At  his  own  request,  he  was  transferred  to  the 
Retired  List  of  the  Navy  on  1  March  1947. 

SEAMAN  JOHNNIE  HUTCHINS 

In  1943  Seaman  Johnnie  Hutchins  took  his 
place  among  the  tradition-makers  of  the  United 
States  Navy.  At  that  time  the  LST  473,  carrying 
men,  tanks,  and  supplies,  was  part  of  a  landing 
force  that  was  heading  for  a  Japanese  position 
on  New  Guinea.  Stiff  opposition  was  being  met, 
and  as  the  ship  advanced,  shells  were  dropping  in 
the  water  close  aboard.  Suddenly  a  Jap  torpedo 
plane  dived  low  out  of  the  sky  and  launched  its 
torpedo  directly  at  the  LST.  In  the  pilothouse 
the  steersman  saw  the  torpedo  coming,  as  did 
Seaman  Hutchins  who  stood  at  his  battle  station 
nearby.  Before  the  steersman  could  swing  the 
ship  out  of  the  torpedo's  path,  he  was  killed  by 
a  bomb  that  hit  the  pilothouse.  Although 
Hutchins  was  fatally  wounded,  he  summoned 
enough  strength  to  stagger  to  the  wheel  and  turn 
the  ship  clear  of  the  torpedo.  The  ship  was 
saved,  but  Hutchins  died  a  short  time  later.  In 
the  face  of  death  this  man's  last  thought  was  not 
of  himself  but  of  others. 

COMMANDER  HOWARD  W.  GILMORE 

The  unrelaxed  vigilance,  skill,  and  daring  of 
the  submarine  service  furnished  many 
tradition-makers  in  World  War  II.  The  story  of 
Commander  Howard  W.  Gilmore  is  classic. 


42 


Chapter  2-MAKERS  OF  NAVAL  TRADITION 


In  command  of  the  submarine  Growler  in 
:he  Southwest  Pacific,  he  had  just  sunk  one 
Japanese  freighter  and  damaged  another,  when 
le  found  himself  fighting  a  surface  engagement 
tfith  a  Japanese  gunboat. 

Gunfire  had  badly  wounded  Gilmore  and 
lad  seriously  damaged  his  submarine.  To  save 
iis  ship  he  calmly  gave  the  order  to  clear  the 
Bridge,  knowing  that  his  own  life  would  be 
sacrificed,  since  time  did  not  permit  even  the 
*ew  seconds'  delay  needed  to  help  him  below. 
Jnhesitatingly  he  voiced  the  order  "Take  her 
lown."  The  well-trained  crew,  inspired  by 
jilmore's  fighting  spirit,  brought  the  damaged 
submarine  to  port. 

FLAG-RAISING 
3N  IWO  JIM  A 

Iwo  Jima  goes  down  in  history  as  one  of  the 
nost  costly  and  frightful  battles  ever  waged, 
tfen  had  to  die  and  keep  on  dying,  for  the 
Japanese,  hidden  in  caves  and  camouflaged 
)lockhouses,  possessed  plenty  of  ammunition 
ind  courage  and  knew  just  what  the  attack 
itrategy  would  be.  United  States  Marines  from 
SOO  invasion  ships  lying  off  the  island  had  to 
leliver  the  knockout  blows;  had  to  go  in  and 
)our  out  their  sweat  and  blood  to  take  the 
sland. 

Landing  on  a  most  difficult  beach,  the 
Marines  dug  in  and  inched  forward,  while  the 
apanese,  sheltered  in  concrete  pillboxes  and 
mderground  caves,  continued  to  slaughter  them 
vith  a  murderous  fire  that  kept  raking  the 
anding  beaches  from  the  very  flanks  of  Mount 
Suribachi.  The  peak  had  to  be  captured,  and  the 
smelling  battle  continued  for  days. 

The  symbol  of  victory  is  perpetuated  in  the 
;roup  of  six  men-five  marines  and  a 
)harmacist's  mate-who  raised  an  American  Flag 
>n  the  first  piece  of  Japanese  territory  captured 
n  World  War  II  (figure  2-21).  The  date  was  23 
"ebruary  1945. 

These  six  men  (Sergeant  Michael  Strank  of 
Jennsylvania,  Corporal  Harlan  H.  Block  of 
rexas,  Privates  First  Class  Franklin  R.  Sousley 
>f  Kentucky,  Rene  A.  Gagnon  of  New 
lampshire,  and  Ira  H.  Hayes  of  Arizona;  and 
'harmacist's  Mate  Second  Class  John  H.  Bradley 


of  Wisconsin)  are  singled  out  to  stand  as 
representatives  of  what  Admiral  Chester  W. 
Nimitz  called  the  "uncommon  valor"  shown  by 
the  Marines  on  Iwo  Jima  at  a  cost  of  501 7  dead 
and  17,145  wounded. 

These  sacrifices  live  on  in  the  minds  and 
hearts  of  Americans.  A  monument  and  flagstaff 
were  dedicated  to  those  heroes  on  top  of  Mount 
Suribachi,  and  The  United  States  Marine  Corps 
War  Memorial  (a  bronze  statue  with  figures  32 
feet  high),  immortalizing  their  deed,  stands  just 
outside  Arlington  National  Cemetery,  Arlington, 
Virginia. 


KOREAN  WAR 

The  Korean  War  had  its  acts  of  heroism  also. 
There  are  innumerable  accounts  of  men  of  the 
Navy  and  Marine  Corps  who  gave  their  lives  in 
this  conflict. 


134.18 

Figure   2-21.— Raising  the  colors   under  fire  after  the 
charge  up  Mount  Suribachi. 


43 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Representative  of  their  stories  is  that  of 
Private  First  Gass  Walter  C.  Monegan,  Jr.,  who 
when  his  battalion  encountered  six  I-J4 
medium  tanks  destroyed  one  and  halted  the 
advance  of  the  other  five  tanks  with  his  rocket 
launcher.  A  few  days  later,  North  Korean  tanks 
again  menaced  his  battalion.  Monegan  snatched 
up  his  rocket  launcher  and  started  toward  the 
enemy.  He  spotted  three  T-34s.  He  sent  a  round 
slamming  into  the  nearest  tanks,  piercing  its 
armored  hull,  and  spraying  the  crew  with 
fragments  of  steel.  Turning  quickly,  he  fired  on 
the  second,  and  it  erupted  in  flames.  Caught  in 
the  light  of  this  roaring  fire,  he  raised  his 
weapon  and  advanced  upon  the  third  vehicle. 
Just  as  he  was  about  to  touch  the  trigger,  he  was 
killed  by  fire  from  an  enemy  machinegun. 

VIETNAM 

Most  heroes  are  very  much  like  the  boy  next 
door-nice  guys,  but  not  particularly  unusual 
until,  in  time  of  crisis,  they  do  most 
extraordinary  things. 

This  section  describes  the  actions  of  four 
men  who  distinguished  themselves  in  combat  in 
Vietnam  by  gallantry  and  intrepidity  at  the  risk 
of  their  own  lives  above  and  beyond  the  call  of 
duty.  All  four  were  awarded  the  Nation's  highest 
award-the  Medal  of  Honor;  only  one  (James 
Williams)  lived  to  receive  the  award  personally. 

MARVIN  G.  SHIELDS 

Marvin  G.  Shields,  CMS,  was  a  Seabee 
attached  to  Mobile  Construction  Battalion  1 1  at 
Dong  Xoai.  Near  midnight  on  9  June  1965  the 
Viet  Cong  lobbed  a  mortar  shell  (or  perhaps  it 
was  a  rocket)  over  the  compound.  Everyone 
immediately  grabbed  his  weapons  and  manned 
the  defenses. 

The  attack  was  a  heavy  one,  and  although 
Shields  was  wounded  early  in  the  action,  it 
didn't  seem  to  slow  down  his  fighting  ability. 
When  ammunition  ran  low,  it  was  Shields  who 
made  several  resupply  trips  to  the  ammo  trailer, 
crossing  1 50  feet  of  ground  exposed  to  mortar 
fire.  When  the  VC  came  pouring  in  and  the 


defenders  fell  back  to  new  positions,  Shields  and 
another  man  took  the  time  to  move  an  officer 
with  both  legs  broken  through  a  hail  of  bullets 
to  the  relative  safety  of  the  district  headquarters 
building. 

The  attack  continued  through  the  night. 
Shields,  although  by  now  wounded  three  times, 
stayed  in  the  action,  repeatedly  exposing  himself 
to  the  enemy  while  tossing  grenades.  During  the 
morning  hours,  a  lieutenant  asked  for  one 
volunteer  to  go  with  him  and  knock  out  a 
machine  gun  that  was  spraying  the  building  with 
lethal  effect.  Shields,  the  boy  next  door, 
immediately  offered  his  services.  Although  the 
two  men  accomplished  what  they  set  out  to  do, 
both  men  were  hit,  Shields  fatally. 

JAMES  E.  WILLIAMS 

During  much  of  his  tour  of  duty  in  Vietnam, 
James  E.  Williams,  BM1 ,  directed  operations  of  a 
group  of  four  PBRs  (Patrol  Boat  Riverine)  along 
the  Mekong  River  as  part  of  the  River  Patrol 
Force. 

On  31  October  1966,  Williams'  patrol  was 
suddenly  taken  under  fire  by  two  Viet  Cong 
sampans.  The  patrol's  return  fire  killed  the  crew 
of  one.  Pursuing  the  other,  the  PBRs 
maneuvered  through  a  heavy  volume  of  small 
arms  fire  from  VC  forces  hidden  along  the  river 
bank,  only  to  be  confronted  in  a  nearby  inlet  by 
two  junks  and  eight  more  sampans.  The  patrol 
immediately  came  under  savage  attack 
augmented  by  heavy  automatic  weapons  fire 
from  ashore. 

To  make  matters  worse,  when  Williams 
deployed  his  group  to  await  reinforcements  in 
the  form  of  armed  helicopters,  it  ran  into  a 
much  larger  force  of  enemy  craft.  It  being  fairly 
obvious  that  the  PBRs  were  not  going  to  be 
permitted  the  luxury  of  simply  waiting  around 
for  help,  Williams  counterattacked.  During  the 
ensuing  action,  he  exposed  himself  to  enemy  fire 
with  complete  disregard  for  his  own  safety. 
Leading  his  patrol  through  intense  fire,  the 
patrol  damaged  or  destroyed  50  sampans  and  7 
junks  before  the  helicopters  arrived.  Williams 
then  directed  the  attack  on  the  remaining  craft 
and  the  enemy  ashore. 


44 


Chapter  2-MAKERS  OF  NAVAL  TRADITION 


Demonstrating  indomitable  courage 
hroughout  the  3-hour  battle,  Williams  was 
esponsible  for  the  loss  or  destruction  of  no  less 
han  65  enemy  boats  and  numerous  VC 
asualties. 

During  his  8-month  tour  of  duty,  the  57 
nen  serving  on  the  4  boats  Williams  directed 
arned  a  total  of  131  combat  decorations  plus 
50  Purple  Heart  awards. 

7RANK  S.  REASONER 

On  1 2  July  1 965,  a  reconnaissance  patrol  led 
>y  company  commander  First  Lieutenant  Frank 
>.  Reasoner,  USMC,  had  deeply  penetrated 
leavily  controlled  enemy  territory  when  the 
>atrol  came  under  fire  from  50  to  100  Viet 
]ong  insurgents  in  concealed  positions, 
leasoner  at  the  time  was  with  the  advance  party 
.nd  point;  the  slashing  fury  of  the  VC 
nachinegun  and  automatic  weapons  fire  made  it 
mpossible  for  the  main  body  to  move  up. 
fo  provide  covering  fire,  Reasoner  repeatedly 
;xposed  himself  to  the  devastating  attack. 
Shouting  encouragement  to  his  men,  he 
>rganized  a  base  of  fire  for  an  assault  on  enemy 
>ositions.  He  killed  two  VC  and  silenced  an 
Automatic  weapons  position  in  an  attempt  to 
iffect  evacuation  of  a  wounded  man. 

When  his  radio  operator  was  hit,  Lieutenant 
leasoner  himself  tended  his  wounds.  The 
adioman  then  tried  to  reach  a  covered  position 
>ut  was  hit  again.  In  the  face  of  almost  certain 
leath,  Reasoner  left  cover  to  help  him  a  second 
ime,  and  in  the  attempt  was  cut  down  'by 
nachinegun  fire. 

The  first  Navy  ship  to  be  named  after  a 
Marine  Corps  Medal  of  Honor  recipient  in 
/ietnam,  USS  Frank  S.  Reasoner  (DEI  063),  was 
:ommissioned  in  1971. 

DOUGLAS  E.  DICKEY 

During  Operation  Beacon  Hill  on  26  March 
.967,  the  platoon  of  which  Douglas  E.  Dickey, 
>FC,  USMC  was  a  member  engaged  in  a  fierce 


battle  with  the  Viet  Cong  at  close  range  in  dense 
jungle  foliage. 

Dickey  had  come  forward  to  replace  a 
wounded  radio  operator.  Without  warning,  an 
enemy  grenade  fell  in  the  middle  of  the  group  of 
men  that  included  the  immobilized  radio 
operator,  the  Corpsman  treating  him,  Dickey, 
and  several  other  Marines.  Fully  realizing  that  it 
meant  certain  death,  Dickey  unhesitatingly 
threw  himself  on  the  grenade,  absorbing  with  his 
own  body  the  full  and  complete  force  of  the 
explosion.  PFC  Dickey's  personal  heroism, 
extraordinary  valor,  and  selfless  courage  saved 
his  comrades  from  certain  injury  and  possible 
death. 

Another  boy  from  next  door  had  done  a 
most  extraordinary  thing. 

CHAPLAIN  VINCENT  R.  CAPODANNO 

At  mid-afternoon  on  September  4,  1967, 
Company  M,  3rd  Battalion,  5th  Marines  made 
contact  with  North  Vietnamese  Army  Forces  in 
Quang  Tin  Province,  Republic  of  Vietnam.  The 
5th  Marines  Regimental  Chaplain,  Vincent  R. 
Capodanno,  LT,  CHC,  USNR,  who  was 
accompanying  this  element  of  his  regiment,  was 
positioned  with  the  Command  Group.  When 
word  was  received  that  one  of  the  platoons  had 
made  contact  and  was  in  danger  of  being 
overrun,  Chaplain  Capodanno  ran  directly  to  the 
beleagured  Marines.  He  proceeded  to  assist  the 
Corpsmen,  provide  comfort  and  reassurance  to 
the  wounded,  and  administer  Last  Rites  to  the 
dying.  In  the  midst  of  heavy  mortar  and 
automatic  weapons  fire,  he  ministered  to  his 
men  calmly  and  without  faltering.  Although 
wounded,  he  refused  treatment  for  himself. 
When  it  became  necessary  to  use  gas  masks,  he 
gave  his  own  to  a  Marine.  At  a  point  of 
particularly  heavy  attack,  he  placed  himself 
directly  in  the  line  of  fire  in  order  to  protect  a 
wounded  Navy  Corpsman.  In  this  act  he 
gallantly  gave  his  life  in  the  service  of  his 
fellowman,  his  God,  and  his  country.  For  his 
selfless  courage,  Chaplain  Capodanno  was 
posthumously  awarded  the  Medal  of  Honor. 


CHAPTER  3 


THE  NAVAL  OFFICER'S  CAREER 


What  moves  an  individual  to  become  a  naval 
officer?  A  representative  and  fully  honest  listing 
of  motivating  factors  must  include  not  only 
varying  shades  of  patriotism  and  the  desire  to 
serve,  but  also  a  number  of  other  reasons  that 
demand  examination.  Rarely  is  anyone  impelled 
to  any  action  by  a  single  force.  As  people  are 
complicated,  so  also  are  the  things  that  influence 
them  to  act. 

That  there  must  be  dedication  is  obvious. 
That  a  naval  officer  is  a  professional  in  the  truest 
sense  of  the  word  is  equally  obvious.  Dedication 
will  smooth  the  rough  spots  that  invariably  lie  in 
the  path  of  any  endeavor.  Professional 
knowledge  and  competence  must  exist  if  the 
complex  and  perplexing  problems  and  situations 
that  often  are  the  naval  officer's  lot  are  to  be 
properly  resolved. 

Individuals,  upon  entering  the  Navy,  are 
administered  an  oath  by  which  they  swear  to 
uphold  and  defend  the  Constitution  against  all 
enemies;  to  bear  true  faith  and  allegiance;  and  to 
faithfully  discharge  the  duties  of  their  office. 
There  is  little  doubt  as  to  what  is  demanded  of 
an  individual  making  such  an  oath. 

When  a  man  or  woman  is  commissioned, 
they  reaffirm  the  basic  oath  but  there  is  a  good 
deal  that  is  added  by  the  fact  of  their 
commission;  many  newly  commissioned  officers 
are  not  certain  of  the  total  implications  of  their 
new  responsibility.  The  President,  as  a 
representative  of  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  having  "special  trust  and  confidence"  in 
the  abilities  of  the  officer,  has  granted  them 
extensive  authority.  These  officers  have  become 
party  to  a  contract  with  the  Nation.  The  terms 
have  been  previously  spelled  out.  The  Nation 
will  keep  its  bond;  it  expects  no  less  from  them. 


The  most  concise  way  of  expressing  the 
officer's  responsibility  is  to  say  that  they  acquire 
a  strict  moral  obligation  to  do  all  in  their  power 
to  render  themselves  fully  capable  of  leading 
men  and  women  in  war.  These  are  the 
irreducible  terms  of  the  commission. 

Career  officers  are  of  necessity  aware  of 
their  tremendous  responsibility,  and  it  must 
constitute  at  least  a  part  of  their  justification  to 
themselves  for  choosing  this  way  of  life.  Their 
measure  of  dedication  will  be  closely 
proportional  to  their  full  understanding  of  what 
lies  at  the  base  of  the  authority  vested  in  them. 

We  are  a  Nation  that  has  finally  learned  that 
possessing  strength  of  arms  is  a  necessary  part  of 
ensuring  security.  We  never  seek  war;  but,  by 
staying  prepared  and  vigilant,  we  offer  any 
aggressor  the  spectre  of  his  defeat,  and  in 
retaliation  for  aggression,  the  solid  prospect  of 
his  destruction.  If  armed  conflict  becomes 
necessary,  the  officer  will  be  called  upon  to  lead 
into  battle  the  Nation's  most  prized 
possession-her  young  men. 

In  the  uneasy  peace  in  which  we  live,  the 
officer's  responsibility  is  similarly  impressive, 
They  are  charged  with  doing  everything  in  their 
power  to  maintain  and  increase  national 
strength.  This  they  accomplish  by  proficiency  in 
professional  skills,  proper  training  and  guidance 
of  their  subordinates,  development  of  improved 
devices  and  methods,  and  by  exercising  the  most 
exacting  and  unremitting  care  of  the  men, 
women,  and  materials  placed  in  their  trust. 

In  considering  the  demanding  nature  of  the 
calling,  the  career  officer  is  entitled  to  ask:  "How 
do  I  conduct  myself  so  that  while  following  the 


46 


Chapter  3 -THE  NAVAL  OFFICER'S  CAREER 


clear  line  of  duty  I  may  ensure  some  benefit  to 
myself?"  This  question  passes  to  the  other  major 
aspect  of  our  postulated  "dedicated  career." 
Naval  service  must  have  some  attraction  beyond 
the  selfless  ideals  of  patriotism.  Later  in  this 
chapter  we  will  discuss  this  aspect  in  some 
detail.  Here  only  the  most  general  comment  will 
be  made. 

First  of  all,  career  officers  may  expect  the 
gratitude  of  their  Nation.  This  gratitude  is 
expressed  in  tangible  ways.  Their  pay  and 
allowances  are  established  and  maintained  by 
law.  In  the  event  of  their  sickness  or 
disablement,  their  welfare  is  ensured.  By  virtue 
of  their  status  as  officers,  they  are  held  in 
respect  by  their  fellow  citizens  and  have  an 
inherent  prestige  that  few  other  professions  can 
equal.  Second,  they  will  find  in  their  tours  of 
duty  a  varied  and  challenging  life.  Their  active 
duty  eventually  takes  them  to  many  parts  of  the 
world  and,  regardless  of  their  position  as  a  line 
or  staff  officer,  they  will  be  called  upon  to 
perform  a  great  number  of  different  tasks.  They 
have  educational  opportunities  that  not  only 
will  enhance  their  career  but  also  may  serve 
them  upon  their  eventual  return  to  civilian  life. 
They  serve  and  become  comrades  with  an  almost 
infinite  variety  of  men  and  women.  They 
encounter  a  minimum  of  personal  favoritism  and 
consequently  a  continuing  opportunity  to 
advance  by  virtue  of  their  own  merits  and 
abilities.  In  short,  their  lives  are  seldom  routine 
and  never  dull.  It  is  not  a  haphazard  existence, 
despite  its  intriguing  variety.  The  leveler  is  the 
fact  of  membership  in  a  competently 
administered,  well-organized  professional  Navy. 


OFFICER  PROCUREMENT 

The  current  requirement  for  naval  officers 
on  active  duty  is  about  63,000.  Approximately 
8,000  persons  are  commissioned  as  Regular  or 
Reserve  officers  and  ordered  to  active  duty  each 
year.  The  Navy's  active  duty  officer  programs 
are  aimed  at  the  fulfillment  of  established  goals 
based  on  projected  requirements.  Because  the 
Regular  officer  procurement  programs  do  not 
provide  sufficient  officers  to  maintain  the  USN 
structure,  qualified  Reserve  officers  who  apply 


are    selected    for    USN    status    as    needed    to 
maintain  the  career  officer  cadre  of  the  Navy. 

REGULAR  NAVY 
OFFICERS 

In  the  Navy  of  several  decades  past,  it  was 
axiomatic  that  the  only  path  to  flag  rank  started 
with  a  Naval  Academy  education.  While  it  is  true 
that  there  were  career  officers  who  had  come  up 
from  enlisted  status,  it  was  equally  true  that  if  a 
person  aspired  to  high  positions  of  command 
responsibility,  they  had  almost  perforce  to  be  an 
Academy  graduate. 

This  is  no  longer  true.  The  Naval  Academy 
still  holds  a  preeminent  position  as  a  source  of 
career  officers;  but  because  of  the  continuing 
increase  in  the  Navy's  size  and  complexity,  there 
now  exist  other  programs  to  supplement  the 
Academy  as  a  primary  source  of  educated  and 
basically  trained  officers.  (See  figure  3-1 .) 

United  States 
Naval  Academy 

An  outstanding  weakness  of  the  service  in 
the  early  days  was  lack  of  adequate  training  for 
young  officers.  Although  chaplains  and 
schoolmasters  were  carried  aboard  ship, 
midshipmen  frequently  received  rudimentary 
and  haphazard  instruction.  The  advent  of  steam 
warships  and  the  need  for  midshipmen  who 
could  qualify  in  engineering,  together  with  the 
threat  of  a  war  with  Mexico,  played  their  part  in 
the  founding  of  the  Naval  Academy  in  1845. 
The  major  credit  for  establishing  this  institution 
goes  to  Secretary  of  Navy  George  Bancroft,  who 
had  earlier  distinguished  himself  as  an  educator, 
diplomat,  and  historian. 

The  Naval  Academy  was  a  major  reform  in 
the  training  of  young  men  as  future  officers. 
Prior  to  the  Academy's  founding,  midshipmen 
had  secured  most  of  their  training  aboard  ships 
of  the  fleet.  There  were  no  accepted  standards 
of  performance  nor  governing  regulations  on 
training.  Though  many  acquired  a  reasonably 
good,  practical  education  under  the  guidance  of 
well-intentioned  ship's  captains,  there  were  at 


47 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


CIVILIANS 


CIVILIANS 


QUALIFIED 
ENLISTED 


NROTC  (REG] 


USNA 


-MSN 

•>USN 


USNR 

OFFICER  PROGRAMS 
OCS,  AOC,  NAOC, 
ROC,  NROTC  (CONT)3 
ETC 


AUGMENTATION 

SELECTION  BOARDS 
CHOOSE  THOSE  BEST 
QUALIFIED  FOR  USN 


USNA 


NESEP 


WARRANT 


LOO  (T) 


Figure  3-1. -A  number  of  programs  exist  to  supplement  the  Naval  Academy  as  a  source  of  trained  officers. 


134.19 


least  an  equal  number  who  suffered  the  ill 
effects  of  the  haphazard  training  and  bad 
example  inherent  in  such  a  system. 

The  Naval  Academy  is  located  on  the  site  of 
Old  Fort  Severn  in  Annapolis,  Maryland.  It  has 
been  there  since  its  inception,  except  for  a 
temporary  move  to  Newport,  Rhode  Island 
during  the  Civil  War  as  a  measure  to  avoid 
capture  by  the  Confederates.  It  has  grown  into 
an  impressive  array  of  buildings  and  facilities 
located  where  the  Severn  River  flows  into 
Chesapeake  Bay.  Its  enrollment,  like  its  physical 
growth,  has  been  dynamic.  From  an  initial 
enrollment  of  50  students,  there  are  now  more 
than  4000  midshipmen  in  the  Brigade. 

In  general,  candidates  for  the  Academy  must 
be  United  States  citizens,  between  the  ages  of  1 7 


and  22,  of  good  moral  character,  and  unmarried. 
A  small  number  of  nationals  from  certain 
foreign  countries  are  permitted  by  law  to  attend. 
They  are  not  eligible  for  commissions,  but 
receive  the  same  training  and  are  governed  by 
the  same  regulations  as  are  other  students. 

Candidates  receiving  Vice  Presidential  and 
Congressional  appointments,  and  those  who  are 
sons  of  holders  of  the  Medal  of  Honor  are 
appointed  directly.  The  Vice  President  and  each 
Congressman  may  have  five  of  their  appointees 
m  the  Academy  at  any  one  time.  They  may 
allocate  these  on  the  basis  of  one  principal  and 
nine  alternates  on  an  appointive  basis  or  award 
them  competitively  with  ten  applicants  vying  for 
each  vacancy  existing  at  that  time. 

Remaining  appointments  are  strictly 
competitive  and  are  awarded  on  the  basis  of 


48 


Chapter  3 -THE  NAVAL  OFFICER'S  CAREER 


those  considered  best  qualified  as  set  in  the 
Academy's  "Whole-Person  Evaluation." 
Competitive  appointments  are  available  in  the 
following  general  classes: 


1.  Presidential 


2.  Regular  Navy 
and  Marine  Corps 

3.  Naval  and  Marine 
Corps  Reserve 

4.  NROTC  students, 
and  graduates  of 
honor  military  and 
naval  schools 

5.  Deceased  and 
disabled  veterans 


6.  District  of 
Columbia 

7.  Virgin  Islands, 
Guam,  American 
Samoa,  Puerto 
Rico,  and  Canal 
Zone 


100  available  each  year 
to  sons  and  daughters  of 
members  of:  the  regular 
and  reserve  components 
of  the  armed  services 
who  are  on  active  duty 
and  have  served 
continuously  on  active 
duty  for  at  least  8  years; 
retired  personnel;  and 
those  who  died  while  in 
receipt  of  retired  pay. 

85  enlisted  members  a 
year. 

85  enlisted  members  a 
year. 

20  annually  (normally 
1 0  from  each  category). 


40  vacancies  are  set 
aside  for  the  sons  and 
daughters  of  members 
of  the  Armed  Forces 
who  were  killed  in 
action  or  died  of,  or 
have  a  100  per  cent 
disability  resulting 
from,  wounds  or 
injuries  received  or 
diseases  contracted  in, 
or  preexisting  injury  or 
disease  aggravated  by, 
active  service. 

5  at  any  one  time. 


1  at  any  one  time. 


American 
Republics 


9.  Congressional 
Qualified 
Alternates 


20  at  any  one  time;  no 
more  than  3  from  any 
country . 

The  first  150  vacancies 
of  an  unfilled  class 
quota  are  reserved  for 
congressionally  ap- 
pointed alternates. 


To  bring  an  entering  class  up  to  strength,  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  (SECNAV)  may  appoint 
additional  nominees  from  the  remaining 
qualified  alternates  and  competitors  in  order  of 
merit.  Three-fourths  of  these  appointments  must 
be  filled  by  Congressional  Qualified  Alternates. 

To  gain  admission  to  Annapolis  a  candidate 
must  (1)  meet  general  eligibility  requirements, 
(2)  obtain  a  nomination,  and  (3)  qualify  both 
scholastically  and  medically. 

During  the  4  years  at  the  Academy, 
midshipmen  receive  an  excellent  academic  and 
professional  education.  Every  attempt  is  made 
to  supplement  classroom  and  laboratory  work 
with  practical  application  at  Academy  facilities 
and  on  summer  cruises.  Each  midshipman 
participates  in  summer  training  periods  with  the 
exception  of  women  candidates  which  last 
about  5  weeks  and  introduce  the  future  officer 
to  the  personnel— methods,  facilities,  and 
problems  of  the  service.  During  summer 
indoctrination  periods,  midshipmen  are 
introduced  to  all  areas  of  the  service  including 
submarines,  aviation  and  the  Marine  Corps. 

The  academic  life  is  complemented  with  a 
variety  of  athletic  and  social  activities  to  round 
out  the  individual's  personality  and  develop  the 
comradeship  that  is  the  basis  for  Brigade  and 
Navy  esprit  de  corps.  Considerable  emphasis  also 
is  placed  on  the  religious  life  of  the  midshipmen. 
Services  of  every  denomination  are  available  at 
the  Academy  or  in  Annapolis. 

Upon  graduation,  the  new  officer  receives  a 
bachelor  of  science  degree  and  a  commission  as 
an  ensign  in  the  United  States  Navy  or,  if 
desired,  as  a  second  lieutenant  in  the  Marine 
Corps. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Naval  Reserve  Officer  Training 
Corps  Scholarship  Program 


The  NROTC  Scholarship  Program  (the 
College  program  is  discussed  in  a  later  section) 
produces  Regular  Navy  officers  from  NROTC 
units  in  operation  at  many  colleges  and 
universities  throughout  the  United  States.  It  is 
the  most  highly  competitive  officer  candidate 
procurement  program  in  the  Navy,  only  about 
10  percent  of  those  applying  being  selected  for 
enrollment.  The  annual  output  is  approximately 
1 200  new  officers  commissioned  mainly  in  the 
unrestricted  line. 

The  Naval  Science  courses  which  the 
students  take  are  in  addition  to  the  courses 
required  for  graduation  in  their  majors.  A  basic 
concept  of  this  program  is  that  the  output 
complements  the  Naval  Academy,  which  lacks 
the  capacity  to  produce  all  of  the  Regular  offi- 
cers necessary  to  meet  strength  requirements. 

Applications  for  NROTC  scholarships  are 
accepted  annually.  A  qualified  applicant  will  be 
required  to  undergo  a  physical  examination  and 
a  series  of  interviews  at  a  naval  recruiting  station. 
If  physically  qualified,  the  application,  which 
contains  the  results  of  college  board  test  scores, 
physical  exam,  and  comments  of  the 
interviewers,  plus  complete  academic 
background  information,  is  forwarded  to  a 
selection  committee  for  determination  of  those 
to  be  awarded  principal  and  alternate 
appointments.  The  selection  committee  selects 
candidates  within  a  fair  share  limitation  based 
on  the  total  number  to  be  appointed  nationally. 
Successful  candidates  indicate  their  college 
choices  and  usually  will  be  nominated  to  their 
first  choice  (if  a  principal  candidate).  If  not 
admitted  by  the  college  under  the  quota 
authorized,  they  will  be  nominated  to  the 
highest  of  their  choices  where  NROTC  vacancies 
exist.  If  accepted  they  are  officially  sworn  into 
the  Navy  and  appointed  midshipmen,  USNR. 
Alternates  are  chosen  in  the  event  principal 
selectees  resign  from  the  program  before  the 
academic  year  begins. 

Eligibility  requirements  are  that  a  candidate 
must- 

1 .  Be  a  citizen  of  the  United  States. 


2.  Have  reached  the  seventeenth  anniversary 
of   birth   by   1    Sept   of   the   year    in   which 
application  is  made. 

3.  Not    have     reached     the     twenty-first 
anniversary  of  birth  by  30  June  of  the  year  in 
which     application     is     made.     (Those 
contemplating    a    baccalaureate     degree    that 
requires  five  years  to  complete  must  not  have 
reached  their  twentieth  anniversary  of  birth.) 

4.  Be   physically    qualified    in    accordance 
with  the  standards  prescribed  for  midshipmen. 

5.  Be  a  high  school  graduate  or  possess  an 
equivalent  certificate. 

6.  Plan  to  participate  not  less  than  four 
years  in  the  program;  that  is,  must  successfully 
complete  four  years  of  naval  science  and  all 
requirements  for  commissioning. 

7.  Have  no  moral  obligations  or  personal 
convictions  that   will   prevent    conscientiously 
bearing  arms  and  supporting  and  defending  the 
Constitution  of  the   United   States  against  all 
enemies,  foreign  and  domestic. 

The  NROTC  organization  of  the  college  or 
university  is  centered  in  a  Department  of  Naval 
Science  normally  headed  by  a  Navy  captain  or 
Marine  Corps  colonel  with  the  title  of  Professor 
of  Naval  Science.  The  instructors,  Navy  and 
Marine  Corps  officers,  hold  academic  ranks  as 
assistant  professors.  A  dominant  factor  in 
selecting  officers  for  this  important  duty  is  that 
they  must  possess  academic  ability  and  have  had 
diversified  duty  experience.  The  latter  adds  to 
the  store  of  academic  knowledge  that  they 
impart  to  the  midshipmen  and  provides  a 
realistic  framework  from  which  they  can  instill 
in  their  students  a  highly  motivated  interest  in 
the  naval  service. 

Normally,  eight  naval  professional  courses 
(Navy  faculty  taught)  are  taught  along  with 
weekly  laboratory  periods  for  practical  work  in 
the  naval  courses  studied.  In  the  early  fall  and 
late  spring,  this  time  is  utilized  for  close  order 
drill. 

Future  Marine  lieutenants  make  their  choice 
during  the  first  two  years.  For  the  last  two  years 
their  program  of  instruction  and  training  differs 
from  that  given  prospective  ensigns.  (See 
chapter  1 1 .) 

NROTC  Scholarship  students  are  permitted 
to  select,  with  the  approval  of  academic 


uiapter  6— LtitL  JNAVAJL  <jrjt<u_£JK. 


authorities,  a  field  of  study  leading  to  a 
baccalaureate  degree,  subject  to  certain 
limitations.  Exempted  as  majors,  for  example, 
are  studies  in  such  academic  fields  as  music, 
theology,  and  others  deemed  of  limited  value  to 
naval  officers. 

The  Navy  requires  that  midshipmen  acquire 
a  background  in  physics  and  mathematics,  and  a 
general  proficiency  in  written  and  oral 
expression.  Students  are  encouraged  to 
participate  in  any  of  the  extracurricular 
activities  offered  by  the  school  as  long  as  they 
do  not  directly  conflict  with  the  schedule  of 
Navy  classes  and  drills. 

The  NROTC  midshipman  has  approximately 
equal  summer  cruise  obligations  as  the 
contemporary  from  the  Naval  Academy.  The 
student  receives  tuition,  laboratory  and 
administrative  fees,  uniforms,  and  a  $100  a 
month  subsistence  to  defray  other  expenses. 

Upon  graduation  and  commissioning,  a 
student  is  required  to  serve  on  active  duty  for 
four  years.  At  the  end  of  this  period  the  officer 
is  retained  in  the  Regular  Navy  or  Marine  Corps 
unless  he/she  requests  release  from  active  duty 
and  a  Reserve  commission. 

Augmentation  Program 

The  Augmentation  Program  provides  an 
avenue  for  Reserve  and  temporary  officers  to 
transfer  to  the  Regular  Navy.  The  program  has 
two  objectives:  (1)  to  increase  the  total  number 
of  officers  in  the  Regular  Navy,  and  (2)  to  meet 
deficiencies  in  (augment)  numbers  of  officers 
existing  in  certain  year  groups. 

Eligibility  requirements  and  application 
processing  procedures  are  set  forth  in  the  Bureau 
of  Naval  Personnel  Manual.  The  program  is 
essentially  competitive  and  selection  is  based  on 
past  performance  of  duties  as  well  as  career 
potential. 

Officers  desiring  augmentation  apply 
through  their  commanding  officer,  including  in 
the  request  information  pertaining  to  their 
backgrounds,  training,  and  experience.  The 
commanding  officer's  endorsement  discusses  the 
applicant's  motivation  and  potential,  and  makes 


a    specific    recommendation    concerning    the 
request. 

Selection  is  made  by  a  SECNAV-convened 
continuous  selection  board  that  meets  at  least 
quarterly.  A  successful  candidate  normally  is 
designated  in  the  same  category  requested  and 
with  the  same  date  of  rank  that  he/she  holds  on 
the  date  the  Regular  Navy  appointment  is 
effected. 

NESEP.-The  NESEP  is  an  uninterrupted 
4-y ear-maximum  college  education  program 
available  to  outstanding  petty  officers  (men  and 
women)  in  the  Regular  Navy  or  Naval  Reserve 
serving  on  active  duty.  The  program  leads  to  a 
baccalaureate  degree  in  engineering,  science,  or 
mathematics.  A  Bureau  of  Naval  Personnel 
(BUPERS)  selection  board  nominates  only  those 
candidates  who  are  considered  capable  of 
high-level  college  performance  and  qualified  to 
be  future  line  officers. 

In  the  summer  before  entering  college, 
selectees  receive,  at  one  of  two  naval 
preparatory  schools,  about  nine  weeks  of 
refresher  training  in  mathematics,  chemistry, 
physics,  and  English,  plus  orientation  in  college 
academic  requirements. 

Upon  completion  of  the  preparatory  training 
and  acceptance  at  a  participating  college  or 
university,  the  trainees  obligate  themselves  to 
serve  for  six  years  in  the  Regular  Navy.  While  in 
school,  students  maintain  their  enlisted  status 
and  receive  full  pay  and  allowances.  They  pay 
for  their  subsistence,  lodging,  tuition  and  books. 
The  student  can  obtain  assistance  in  paying 
these  expenses  by  utilizing  their  in  service 
benefits. 

Having  completed  an  officer  indoctrination 
course  at  OCS  in  the  summer  prior  to  graduation 
and  after  receiving  their  degrees,  NESEP 
graduates  are  appointed  ensigns,  primarily  in  the 
unrestricted  line. 

The  minimum  service  payback  requirement 
for  participation  in  NESEP  is  four  years.  NESEP 
participants  who  terminate  or  complete  their 
undergraduate  training  after  commencement  of 
the  third  academic  year  will  be  required  to  serve 
on  active  duty  for  five  years. 


51 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


NOTE:  The  Navy  canceled  the  NESEP 
program  in  September  1977. 

WARRANT  OFFICER  PROGRAM.-The 
mounting  sophistication  of  ships,  aircraft,  and 
weapons  requires  not  only  capable  enlisted 
technicians  but  also  commissioned  officer 
specialists  who  can  closely  supervise  complicated 
machinery  and  weapons  and  the  persons  who 
maintain  and  operate  them. 

A  warrant  officer,  although  commissioned 
from  the  enlisted  ranks,  may  be  considered  as 
the  person  who  bridges  the  gap  between  the 
enlisted  and  commissioned  structures.  The  WO 
structure  provides  flexibility  in  at  least  two 
areas:  (1)  a  warrant  officer  grows  in  the  level 
and  scope  of  competence  during  his  or  her 
progression  through  the  enlisted  and  warrant 
fields,  but  remains  within  the  specialization 
category;  and  (2)  can  be  assigned  repeatedly  to 
similar  billets  largely  irrespective  of  grade  within 
the  structure.  A  WO  is  not  "promoted-out"  of 
billet  levels;  regardless  of  grade  or  assignment, 
he/she  remains  an  officer-technician-supervisor. 

The  WO  program,  open  to  both  men  and 
women,  provides  a  path  of  advancement  to 
warrant  status  for  outstanding  chief  and  first 
class  petty  officers  of  the  Regular  Navy  and 
Naval  Reserve  for  the  performance  of  duty  in 
the  technical  fields  indicated  by  their  enlisted 
ratings.  All  applicants  must  take  the  officer 
selection  battery  test.  They  must  be  on  active 
duty  to  be  considered  by  the  selection  board, 
and,  if  selected,  remain  on  active  duty  until  the 
time  the  appointments  are  tendered.  Selectees 
receive  six  or  eight  weeks'  training  (depending 
on  their  categories)  at  an  officer  indoctrination 
school,  followed  by  technical  training  as 
appropriate.  (Supply  Corps  personnel,  however, 
receive  six  months'  training.) 

The  appointment  of  each  chief  and  senior 
chief  petty  officer  will  be  to  the  grade  of  chief 
warrant  officer,  W-2.  Master  chief  petty  officers 
will  also  be  appointed  to  W-2  but  can  be 
recommended  for  appointment  to  W-3  if  they 
fulfill  the  following  requirements: 

1.  Must  have  served  a  minimum  of  two 
years  during  the  20  to  24  years  of  service  period 
performing  duties  which  equate  to  those  of  a 
chief  warrant  officer,  W-2. 


2.  Must  have  performed  such  duties  in  the 
warrant  technical  speciality  for  whic}l 
application  is  made. 

LIMITED  DUTY  OFFICER  (LDO) 
PROGRAM.-The  most  attractive  asset  of  the 
LDO  Program  is  that,  somewhat  like  the  W0,jf 
permits  an  officer  the  opportunity  to  continue 
working  in  the  broad  technical  field  associated 
with  his  rating. 

Inputs  are  limited  to  selected  male  warrant 
officers  and  senior  male  enlisted  personnel.  The 
appointment  of  each  selected  commissioned 
warrant  applicant  will  be  in  the  temporary  grade 
of  lieutenant  (junior  grade).  Selected  enlisted 
applicants  will  be  appointed  to  the  temporary 
grade  of  ensign. 

NAVAL  RESERVE  OFFICERS 

Reserve  officers  on  active  duty  are  those 
serving  under  an  obligation  and  those  who  have 
voluntarily  agreed  to  remain  on  active  duty 
beyond  their  initial  obligation. 

In  general,  applicants  for  commissions  in  the 
Reserve  programs  must  have  baccalaureate 
degrees  or  higher.  Those  who  have  not 
completed  their  military  service  obligations 
under  the  law  (see  chapter  1  2)  are  eligible  to 
apply  only  for  a  program  that  leads  to 
immediate  active  duty  on  appointment  (unless 
they  are  medical,  dental,  or  theological  students 
and  certain  licensed  officers  of  the  merchant 
marine).  Applicants  who  have  completed  their 
military  obligation  are  eligible  for  direct 
appointments,  but  they  must  agree  to 
participate  in  inactive  duty  Reserve  training, 
Officers  directly  appointed  may  volunteer  for 
recall  to  active  duty,  and  orders  are  issued  if 
there  is  a  need  for  their  services. 

Reserve  officers,  active  and  inactive,  are  vital 
to  the  successful  accomplishment  of  the  Navy's 
mission.  Their  backgrounds  are  tremendously 
varied,  but  they  all  have  one  common 
denominator -a  preference  to  serve  their 
country  in  a  Navy  uniform. 

Programs  for  appointing  officers  in  the  staff 
corps  that  are  not  discussed  here,  and  for 
appointing  women  officers  in  the  unrestricted 
line  and  some  staff  corps  can  be  found  in  the 
Career  Counseling  Manual  (NAVPERS  15878), 


uiapter  J—  iHJb  INAVAJL 


UAKJb±iK 


The  following  are  brief  descriptions  of  the 
major  programs  that  produce  Reserve  officers  of 

the  Navy. 

NROTC  COLLEGE  PROGRAM 

The  NROTC  College  Program  is  very  similar 
to  the  NROTC  Scholarship  Program.  The 
differences  that  exist  pertain  mainly  to  selection 
methods  and  requirements,  amount  and  kind  of 
academic  subsidization,  and  active  duty 
obligation  upon  commissioning. 

The  selection  of  student  candidates  is  made 
by  the  Professor  of  Naval  Science  of  the  NROTC 
unit  from  newly  enrolled  freshmen  or 
sophomores  in  4-  or  5-year  courses.  The  students 
participate  in  one  summer  cruise.  They  receive 
their  uniforms,  naval  texts,  and  a  subsistence  of 
$100  a  month  in  the  last  two  academic  years. 
Graduates  are  commissioned  in  the  reserve  of 
the  line,  and  currently  must  serve  on  active  duty 
for  not  less  than  three  years. 

NROTC  (TWO-YEAR 
COLLEGE  PROGRAM) 

Candidates  selected  for  the  Two-Year 
Contract  NROTC  Program  must  successfully 
complete  a  six-week  course  of  instruction  at  a 
Naval  Science  Institute  during  the  summer  prior 
to  enrollment;  the  Science  Institute  fulfills  the 
requirements  of  the  first  two  years  of  the 
program  missed  by  selectees.  The  remaining 
junior  and  senior  years  of  the  Two-Year  College 
Program  are  identical  to  other  NROTC 
programs. 

Two- Year  NROTC  College  students  receive 
the  same  benefits  as  Four-Year  NROTC  College 
students.  They  receive  Reserve  commissions  in 
the  unrestricted  line,  and  Marine  Corps,  and 
they  are  required  to  serve  on  active  duty  for 
three  years. 

Officer  Candidate 
School  Program 

The  Officer  Candidate  School  was 
established  in  February  1951  as  a  temproary 


means  of  providing  a  source  of  Reserve  officers 
to  meet  increasing  personnel  demands 
occasioned  by  the  Korean  conflict.  Continuation 
of  the  "Cold  War"  and  consequent  maintenance 
of  a  Navy  requiring  an  officer  output  greater 
than  the  USNA  and  NROTC  sources  could 
provide  has  resulted  in  continuous  operation  of 
OCS.  OCS  produces  the  largest  share  of  the  great 
pool  of  trained  Reserve  officers  upon  which 
rapid  emergency  expansion  depends.  It  is  a 
pathway  to  a  commission  for  two  important 
groups— the  college  graduate  and  the  enlisted 
member  with  the  required  academic 
qualifications. 

The  pace  of  OCS  is  strenuous  in  that  officer 
candidates  are  required  to  complete  a  highly 
concentrated  course  in  Naval  Science  in  19 
weeks;  the  fundamentals  of  Naval  Science  are 
crammed  into  approximately  470  classroom 
hours.  This  is  a  large  order,  but  it  can  be  done 
inasmuch  as  officer  candidates  have  already 
received  their  baccalaureate  degrees  and  are  not 
concerned  with  academic  subjects  as  are  Naval 
Academy  and  NROTC  midshipmen.  Students 
can  concentrate  on  Naval  Science  utilizing  the 
study  habits  sharpened  in  4  years  of  college. 

Among  the  Naval  Science  subjects  taught  are 
seamanship,  navigation,  naval  weapons,  naval 
operations,  engineering,  principles  of  leadership, 
military  justice,  management,  communications, 
and  naval  orientation. 

Between  classroom  instruction  periods 
candidates  have  at  least  1  hour  per  day  of  close 
order  drill,  first  aid  instruction,  pistol  practice, 
swimming,  or  some  of  the  other  skills  that  are  a 
part  of  a  naval  officer's  training. 

Leadership,  as  an  art,  is  stressed  at  OCS. 
Thus,  the  officer  candidate  is  closely  evaluated 
for  the  qualities  upon  which  leadership  is  based. 

Upon  successful  completion  of  OCS,  the 
officer  candidate  is  commissioned  an  ensign  in 
the  Naval  Reserve  and  serves  3  years  on  active 
duty.  If  he  or  she  desires,  they  may 
subsequently  apply  for  a  Regular  Navy 
commission.  If  they  do  not  choose  to  make  the 
Navy  a  lifetime  career,  they  can  return  to 
civilian  life  at  the  end  of  their  active  duty  and 
complete  the  remainder  of  their  military 
obligation  on  inactive  duty  in  the  Naval  Reserve. 


53 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


AOC  and  NFOC 
Programs 

The  Aviation  Officer  Candidate  and  Naval 
Flight  Officer  Candidate  Programs  are  basically 
similar  except  for  the  last  part  of  training.  The 
AOC  Program  is  designed  for  those  who  wish  to 
become  Naval  Aviators;  the  NFOC  for  those 
desiring  billets  in  airborne  technical  specialities 
such  as  Radar  Intercept  Officers  (RIOs), 
Advanced  Radar  Navigators  (ARNs),  Celestial 
Navigators  and  Airborne  Tactical  Data  Systems 
Operators  (ATDs). 

Applicants  for  either  program  must  be  at 
least  19  years  of  age  and  either  recent  college 
graduates  or  in  their  senior  college  year.  Selected 
candidates  are  ordered  to  the  Aviation  Officer 
Candidate  School  at  Pensacola,  Florida  for  16 
weeks  of  indoctrination  training,  upon 
successful  completion  of  which  they  receive 
their  commissions  as  ensigns.  They  then  receive 
basic  and  advance  training,  the  AOC  for  16 
months  and  the  NFOC  for  from  7  to  1 1  months, 
depending  on  the  type  of  billet  for  which  in 
training. 

Reserve  Officer 
Candidate  Program 

The  Reserve  Officer  Candidate  Program  is 
open    to     college    undergraduates,    including 
enlisted    members   of  the   Naval    Reserve   on 
inactive  duty.  Selected  candidates  are,  if  not 
already  members,  enlisted  in  the  Naval  Reserve 
for  6  years.  College  students  participating  in  the 
program  attend  OCS  for  two  periods  of  9  weeks 
each:    once   for   their   basic   training,   usually 
during  the  summer  between  junior  and  senior 
year;  and  again  upon  graduation  from  college  for 
advanced  training.  In  essence,  the  program  of 
studies  offered  the  ROC  students  is  identical 
with  that  of  Regular  officer  candidates  except 
that  it  is  carried  over  two  different  training 
periods.    Successful    completion    of  the    two 
training  periods  and  receipt  of  a  baccalaureate 
degree   is   required    prior  to   appointment   as 
ensign,    USNR.    Participation    in    the    Naval 
Reserve  program  in  a  drill  status  is  not  required 
Satisfactory   performance   in   the   program 
defers   candidates   from  induction  into  active 


military  service.  Each  candidate  must  agree  in 
writing  to  accept  a  commission,  if  tendered,  and 
to  serve  on  active  duty  for  a  period  of  3  years 
following  appointment.  ROCs  who  have  fulfilled 
the  requirements  of  the  Military  Selective 
Service  Act  of  1967  (discussed  in  chapter  12) 
are  not  required  to  serve  on  active  duty. 
Disenrolled  ROCs  must  fulfill  the  obligation 
incurred  upon  enlistment  in  the  Naval  Reserve. 

Direct  Appointment 

Civilian  college  graduates  who  are  qualified 
in  appropriate  specialties  may  be  appointed 
directly  from  civilian  life  in  certain  categories  of 
the  line  and  staff  corps. 

Specific  requirements  for  and  availability  of 
direct  appointment  programs  vary  according  to 
needs  of  the  Navy.  Current  information 
concerning  such  programs  may  be  obtained  from 
Navy  Recruiting  Main  Stations. 


DISTRIBUTION  AND 
PROMOTION  OPPORTUNITIES 

The  Navy  prior  to  1 940,  as  compared  with 
that  of  today,  was  a  relatively  small  and  stable 
organization.  The  officer  corps  was  comprised 
nearly  100%  of  career  officers.  Their  assignment 
and  rotation  followed  an  established  pattern 
that  was  common  knowledge  to  all.  World  War 
II,  the  Korean  conflict,  complex  international 
commitments,  and  modern  technological 
advances  have  resulted  in  a  change  in  the 
composition  of  our  officer  corps,  our  fleets,  and 
in  the  establishment  of  joint  defense  commands 
in  which  the  Navy  plays  a  key  role.  These 
factors  necessitate  a  larger  and  more  complex 
Navy  than  that  which  existed  prior  to  World  War 

The  Navy,  therefore,  makes  its  personnel 
predictions  based  on  the  expectation  of 
remaining  at  or  very  near  its  present  manning 
level  and,  at  the  same  time,  retaining  a  sufficient 
cadre  of  career  officers  so  that  it  can  expand 
rapidly  in  the  event  that  international  tensions 
erupt  into  armed  conflict. 

Because  many  junior  officers  return  to 
cmhan  life  after  completing  their  minimum 


54 


Chapter  j-mt  JNAVAL 


active  duty  obligations,  there  is  a  large  drop  in 
numbers  between  the  grades  of  LTJG  and  LT. 
Career- wise,  this  results  in  an  unprecedented 
opportunity  today,  and  in  the  foreseeable 
future,  for  young  officers  to  reach  the  top  of  the 
promotion  ladder.  Juniors  have  unparalleled 
chances  to  assume  positions  of  leadership  and 
responsibility.  Many  lieutenants  junior  grade 
and,  at  times,  ensigns,  are  ordered  to  billets 
normally  filled  by  more  senior  officers. 

Regulations  governing  officer  promotions 
are  the  result  of  an  evolutionary  process. 
Beginning  in  1947,  with  passage  of  the  Officer 
Personnel  Act,  several  major  pieces  of  legislation 
have  been  collected  and  codified  in  Title  10  of 
the  United  States  Code.  Laws  pertaining  to 
promotion  represent  the  product  of  much 
experience  and  progress.  They  are  designed  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  naval  service  and  to 
provide  an  equitable  opportunity  for  a  full  and 
rewarding  career  for  all  who  cherish  the  naval 
profession. 

The  following  definitions  and  terms  identify 
the  status  of  officers  as  prescribed  by  Title  10, 
U.S.  Code: 

1.  A  line  officer  is  an  officer  serving  in  the 
grade  of  ensign  or  above  in   the  line  of  the 
Regular  Navy  or  Naval  Reserve. 

2.  A  staff  corps  officer  is  one  serving  in  the 
grade  of  ensign  or  above  in  one  of  the  staff  corps 
of  the  Regular  Navy  or  Naval  Reserve. 

3.  An  officer  restricted  in  the  performance 
of  duty  is  a  line  officer  individually  designated 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  for  special  duty 
(such     as     communications,     intelligence,     or 
cryptology),  or  restricted  duty  (e.g.,  engineering 
duty,  ordnance  engineering);  or  a  line  or  staff 
corps  of  the  Regular  Navy  designated  for  limited 
duty. 

4.  TAR  is  an  abbreviation  commonly  used 
to  identify   Reserve  officers  serving  on  active 
duty     in     connection     with     the     training, 
administration,  recruiting,  and  organization  of 
the  Reserve  component  of  the  Navy.  The  TAR 
officers  are  excluded  from  the  lineal  list  of  the 
Navy. 


Promotions  are  effected  under  the  dual 
system  which  specifies  that,  initially,  all 
promotions  for  male  commissioned  officers  are 
temporary;  as  vacancies  occur  in  the  permanent 
structure,  an  officer  with  a  temporary 
promotion  receives  a  permanent  one  for  that 
grade.  Pay,  eligibility  rights,  and  retirement 
benefits  are  computed  on  the  basis  of  the  initial 
or  temporary  appointment.  A  temporary 
appointment  may  be  terminated  by  the 
President  and  an  individual  reverted  to  the  grade 
of  their  permanent  appointment.  This  usually 
occurs  only  in  the  event  of  drastic  reductions  in 
the  size  of  the  Navy  that  would  reduce  the 
authorized  numbers  within  each  grade.  A 
permanent  appointment  may  not  be  revoked, 
suspended,  or  canceled  except  by  formal  legal 
proceedings. 

The  overall  promotional  picture  is  essentially 
that  of  a  pyramid  rising  from  a  broad  base  of 
junior  officers  to  the  few  senior  flag  officers 
near  the  top  and  to  the  one  Chief  of  Naval 
Operations.  If  there  is  to  be  a  realistic  flow  of 
promotions  up  the  pyramid,  all  who  enter  at  the 
bottom  cannot  reach  the  top,  although  each 
officer  has  the  same  opportunity  as  their 
contemporaries  to  vie  for  the  top  grades. 

In  the  area  of  officer  promotions,  there  are 
three  interdependent  controls:  distribution,  flow 
rate,  and  attrition.  Promotion  controls  are 
necessary  to  ensure  that  those  who  reach  the 
senior  grades  are  best  fitted  to  perform  the 
military  requirements  of  those  grades,  and  that 
they  reach  those  grades  at  ages  consistent  with 
the  military  requirements. 

Distribution  refers  to  the  required  number 
of  officers  in  each  grade.  Maximum  ceilings  are 
set  by  law;  but  otherwise  annual  vacancies  are 
prescribed  by  SECNAV,  based  on  current  and 
anticipated  needs  of  the  Navy. 

Flow  rate  is  the  rate  at  which  officers  are 
promoted  to  higher  grades.  It  has  been 
determined  on  the  basic  principle  that,  except 
for  the  relatively  few  officers  selected  to  flag 
rank,  the  maximum  career  will  be  30  years  in 
length  for  those  who  achieve  promotion  to 
captain. 

By  attrition  is  meant  the  percentage  of 
officers  who  must  be  separated  as  others  in  their 


55 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


promotional  group  ascend  to  a  higher  grade. 
Unless  vacancies  were  created  in  the  higher 
grades,  promotions  would  be  slowed  to  an 
unacceptable  degree,  resulting  in  less  than  equal 
opportunities  for  succeeding  year  groups  ot 
officers.  A  number  of  vacancies  are  created 
through  natural  attrition -deaths,  resignations, 
discharges,  voluntary  retirement.  The  rate  is 
fairly  constant,  but  not  great  enough  to  meet 
the  desired  promotion  flow  rate. 

To  maintain  a  normal  promotion  flow  rate 
within  the  limits  of  grade  distribution,  the  Navy 
utilizes  forced  attrition,  which  is  determined  by 
a  long-range  study  that  projects  promotions  over 
a  5-year  period.  An  attrition  percentage  is 
applied,  for  each  grade,  to  the  current  year's 
promotions  to  determine  the  number  of  officers 
who  must  fail  of  selection.  As  a  rule,  rate  of 
attrition  increases  with  grade,  and  may  be 
tabulated  somewhat  as  follows: 


For  promotion  to 

Captain 
Commander 
Lieutenant  commander 
Lieutenant 
Lieutenant  junior  grade 


%  of  attrition 

40 
30 

25 
5 
0 


The  number  of  officers  placed  in  each 
promotion  zone  in  excess  of  the  number  to  be 
selected  represents  the  minimum  number  that 
must  fail  selection  to  provide  the  percentage  of 
forced  attrition  required  by  the  long-range 
studies.  The  size  of  a  promotion  zone,  then, 
reflects  vacancies  that  will  exist  during  the 
ensuing  year  plus  application  of  the  forced 
attrition  variable. 

This  might  better  be  explained  by  an 
example.  Assume  that  the  promotion 
opportunity  for  unrestricted  line  officers  to  the 
grade  of  LCDR  is  85%.  This  means  that  of  every 
100  officers  eligible  for  promotion,  15  must  be 
passed  over.  But  another  factor  enters  the 
picture:  those  promoted  from  above  and  below 
the  promotion  zone.  Officers  within  the  zone 
who  fail  of  selection  are  placed  above  the 
following  year's  promotion  zone  for  further 
consideration.  Every  selection  made  from  either 
above  or  below  the  normal  promotion  zone 
means  a  passover  in  the  zone  itself. 


A  temporary  appointment  to  the  grade  of 
lieutenant  junior  grade  is  delivered  to  an  ensign 
upon  his  completion  of  24  months  satisfactory 
service  in  grade.  For  other  than  promotion  to 
LTJG  selection  for  promotion  up  to  and 
including  rear  admiral  is  made  by 
SECNAV-convened  selection  boards  composed 
of  officers  nominated  by  the  Chief  of  Naval 
Personnel  and  selected  by  SECNAV.  A  selection 
board  is  charged  to- 

1.  Consider   impartially   the    cases    of  all 
officers  submitted  to  it. 

2.  Select  those  best  fitted  for  promotion 
within  prescribed  numerical  limitations. 

3.  Report  the  names  of  any  officers  who 
have  less  than  20  years  of  service  and  whose 
records,  in  the  opinion  of  the  board,  indicate 
unsatisfactory  performance  of  duty  and  unlikely 
prospect  of  promotion  to  higher  grade.  This 
reporting  is  done  so  that  they  may  be  separated 
from  the  active  list. 

4.  Submit  its  report  to  SECNAV  for  his 
recommendation    and    final    approval    of   the 
President. 

Because  officers  on  the  board  are  responsible 
for  selecting  "the  best  fitted,"  it  is  appropriate 
that  they  themselves  be  in  this  category. 
Therefore,  they  are  chosen  not  only  on  the  basis 
of  integrity  and  experience  but  must  never  have 
failed  selection  to  any  grade. 

In  addition  to  their  duties  of  evaluation  and 
selection,  the  boards  are  required  to  reconstitute 
themselves  as  examining  boards  after  completing 
the  initial  selection  process.  This  has  the  effect 
of  rendering  a  second  or  confirming  opinion  on 
those  selected  for  the  next  higher  grade  or  for 
those  officers  selected  for  separation.  This 
double  screening  may  appear  to  be  a  duplication 
of  effort,  but  actually  the  functions  are 
complementary  rather  than  parallel.  Selection 
board  action  is  based  on  comparing  the  abilities 
of  an  officer  with  those  of  his  contemporaries. 
When  acting  as  an  examining  board,  that  board 
compares  the  performance  of  the  individual  with 
a  set  of  standards  prescribed  by  the  Navy 
Department. 


56 


Chapter  3-THE  NAVAL  OFFICER'S  CAREER 


Their  entire  function  is  extremely  serious 
and  imposing.  It  calls  for  exercising  the  most 
mature  judgment  in  making  evaluations  of 
relative  merit.  In  this  connection  it  should  be 
noted  that  those  officers  failing  selection  are  not 
necessarily  poor  officers  nor  are  they 
unqualified.  The  attrition,  particularly  to  the 
more  senior  grades,  dictates  that  many 
completely  satisfactory  officers  are  being  left 
behind.  This  is  one  of  the  unfortunate  features 
of  the  pyramid  system.  Some  officers  must,  by 
law,  be  left  behind  as  their  contemporaries 
advance  to  each  successively  higher  grade. 

Lieutenants  and  lieutenants  junior  grade 
who  twice  fail  of  selection  are  honorably 
discharged  on  the  last  day  of  the  fiscal  year  in 
which  the  second  failure  occurs.  LCDRs,  CDRs, 
and  CAPTs  who  twice  fail  of  selection  may 
continue  to  serve  and  remain  eligible  for 
consideration.  They  are  involuntarily  retired,  if 
not  on  a  promotion  list,  upon  completing  20, 
26,  and  30  years,  respectively,  of  total 
commissioned  service. 

Promotions  above  rear  admiral  are 
appointive  and  therefore  beyond  the  scope  of 
selection  board  recommendation.  When  rear 
admirals  complete  stipulated  periods  of  time  in 
grade  and  commissioned  service  (5  years  and  30 
years  for  unrestricted  line,  for  example), 
selection  boards,  at  that  time  and  at  ensuing 
3 -year  periods,  recommend  either  their 
continuation  on  the  active  list  of  the  Navy  or 
their  retirement. 

During  the  course  of  a  year,  from  40  to  50 
selection  boards  may  convene  in  BUPERS  for 
the  purpose  of  selecting  officers  for  promotion. 
The  panels  may  be  in  session  for  anywhere  from 
10  days  to  about  6  weeks,  depending  on  the 
numbers  of  officers  eligible  for  promotion. 
(Other  boards,  such  as  those  selecting  E-8s  and 
E-9s,  enlisteds  for  warrant,  warrants  for  LDO, 
NESEP  students,  and  students  for  the 
Postgraduate  School  may  exceed  100  each  year, 
deliberating  from  less  than  a  day  up  to  8  weeks.) 

PROMOTION  OPPORTUNITIES 
FOR  WOMEN; 
PUBLIC  LAW  90-130 

The  permanent  women  components  of  the 
Navy,  for  other  than  the  several  Medical 


Department  corps,  were  created  by  the  Women's 
Armed  Services  Integration  Act  of  1948. 
Personnel  management  policies  that  previously 
had  applied  only  to  men  were  thereafter  to 
apply  also  to  women  "except  where  obviously 
inapplicable."  Even  so,  there  were  inadequacies 
in  the  act  that  limited  promotion  opportunities 
and  restricted  career  tenure  for  women  officers 
in  all  services. 

For  one  thing,  there  was  very  little  prospect 
for  a  woman  naval  officer  to  attain  a  grade 
higher  than  commander.  The  Assistant  Chief  of 
Naval  Personnel  for  Women  was  a  captain,  and 
there  were  a  few  female  captains  in  some  staff 
corps  (e.g.,  Nurse  and  Medical),  but  these  were 
exceptions  to  the  rule.  There  was  also  a 
statutory  provision  limiting  the  number  of 
female  officers  in  the  grades  of  commander  and 
lieutenant  commander  to  30%  of  the  total 
number  of  women  line  officers,  including 
Reserves.  These  two  factors  combined  created  a 
large  surplus  of  junior  officers.  By  1 967  it  was 
estimated  that  the  attrition  rate  of  women  line 
lieutenants  would  average  50%  for  the  next  5 
years  (as  compared  to  about  5%  for  male 
lieutenants).  The  necessarily  high  forced 
separation  rate  brought  about  a  very  difficult 
situation,  and  many  fine  women  officers  were 
being  lost  to  the  Navy  because  of  it.  It  became 
apparent  to  all  services  that  policies  which  for 
some  20  years  had  been  "obviously 
inapplicable"  to  women  were  no  longer  so. 

Public  Law  90-130,  enacted  8  November 
1967,  amended  the  Women's  Integration  Act  to 
enhance  both  promotion  opportunities  and 
tenure. 

Changes  relating  to  promotion  increase  the 
prospects  for  advancement  to  more  senior 
grades;  Congress  also  eliminated  percentage 
restrictions  on  the  number  of  women  appointed 
to  those  grades,  authorizing  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  to  decide  how  many  officers  are  needed  in 
each  grade,  as  he  does  for  male  officers. 

Promotion  to  the  grade  of  captain  is  now 
part  of  a  woman  officer's  normal  career  pattern; 
commanders  are  eligible  for  consideration  for 
promotion  after  4  years  in  grade.  Public  Law 
90-130  also  authorizes  promotion  of  women  to 
the  grade  of  rear  admiral.  Such  a  promotion, 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


however,  not  being  within  the  career  pattern, 
depends  on  two  circumstances:  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  must  make  a  determination  that  (1)  a 
position  is  of  sufficient  importance  and 
responsibility  to  require  an  incumbent  of  flag 
rank,  and  (2)  a  woman  is  as  equally  qualified  as 
a  man  to  perform  the  duties  of  that  position. 
There  is  no  minimum  quota  of  women  flag 
officers;  hence,  there  is  no  guarantee  that  a 
woman  will  attain  the  grade. 

Career  prospects  for  women  were  further 
improved  by  changes  in  the  system  of 
promotions.  Under  the  1947  act,  a  woman 
officer  became  eligible  for  consideration  for 
promotion  after  completing  prescribed  periods 
of  service  in  grade,  and  there  were  no  other 
limitations  as  to  whom  a  selection  board  could 
consider.  In  other  words,  because  one  was 
eligible  for  consideration  was  no  guarantee  she 
would  be  considered.  The  concept  of  failure  of 
selection  (up  or  out)  did  not  apply,  and  a 
woman  lieutenant  might  be  faced  with  career 
uncertainty  for  years. 

To  prevent  the  stagnation  of  young  officers 
in  junior  grades,  Public  Law  90-130  adopts  the 
promotion  zone  system  for  women  officers;  like 
their  male  contemporaries,  all  eligible  women 
within  a  stipulated  seniority  group  are  now 
considered  annually  for  promotion  to 
appropriate  grades.  Under  the  promotion  zone 
method,  women  officers  no  longer  face  the 
prospect  of  being  forced  out  of  service  simply 
because  they  were  not  considered  for 
promotion. 

Career  incentives  for  women  officers  are 
greatly  increased  by  Public  Law  90-130,  and 
opportunities  for  women  now  more  nearly 
approximate  those  of  men.  There  is  similarity  in 
the  opportunity  for  promotion  to  grades 
through  captain;  there  is  substantial  similarity  of 
promotion  procedures;  and  terms  governing 
involuntary  separation  are  basically  now  the 
same  for  women  as  for  men. 


ASSIGNMENT  AND 
ROTATION  PATTERNS 

In  the  assignment  of  officer  personnel   the 
Navy   is   influenced  by  needs  of  the  service, 


current  composition  of  the  officer  corps,  and 
the  professional  development  of  each  officer. 
Every  effort  is  made  to  place  officers  in  billets 
of  their  choice  while  still  following  practical 
considerations  of  service  needs  and  individual 
qualifications. 

Service  need  is  simply  the  day-to-day 
requirement  of  Navy  activities  for  specific  grades 
with  certain  talents.  Professional  development 
has  a  dual  nature.  In  ordering  officers  to  varied 
types  of  duties  and  schools,  the  Navy  not  only  is 
furthering  its  own  mission  of  preparing  these 
officers  for  future  command  responsibilities  but 
also  is  performing  a  genuine  service  for  them  in 
filling  out  their  experience  and  thus  increasing 
their  promotional  prospects.  The  desires  of  the 
individual  officer  are  also  of  importance  as  they 
have  an  obvious  bearing  on  his/her  morale. 

Marital  and  dependent  status,  geographical 
and  fleet  preference,  school  requests,  and  other 
personal  considerations  play  an  important  part 
in  the  final  determination  of  duty  assignment. 

We  limit  our  discussion  in  this  section  to 
rotational  patterns  of  the  unrestricted  line 
(surface,  submarine,  aviation)  and  supply.  In 
these  patterns,  as  well  as  in  those  not 
mentioned,  a  common  factor  is  present.  Both 
the  individual  officer  and  his/her  succession  of 
detailing  officers  must  be  aware  that  only 
through  a  concentrated  and  continuing  effort  to 
develop  knowledge  and  experience  can  the 
proficiency  be  gained  that  will  see  the  officer 
successfully  through  rigors  of  responsibility  and 
challenge  of  command. 

With  few  exceptions,  orders  involving 
permanent  change  of  station  for  officers  are 
originated  by  the  Chief  of  Naval  Personnel.  The 
BUPERS  Manual  contains  basic  policy 
pertaining  to  officer  rotation.  This  policy  is 
concerned  with  varying  the  types  of  duty 
assignments,  inasmuch  as  this  is  the  basic 
requirement  in  developing  an  officer's 
capabilities  and  in  providing  the  officer  with  a 
full  career.  Deviations  from  basic  policy  are 
provided  as  necessary  to  meet  problems  that 
arise.  At  the  present  time,  these  occur  due  to  the 
increasing  size  of  the  shore  establishment  and 
the  shortage  of  "hard  core"  career  officers 


Chapter  3-THE  NAVAL  OFFICER'S  CAREER 


In  addition  to  the  requirements  for  rotation, 
assignment  patterns  reflect  the  need  for— 

1.  Educational    opportunities    for    overall 
career  value  or  for  utilization  in  a  particular 
billet. 

2.  A  progression  of  responsibility. 

3.  Assignment     to     duty     with     Reserve 
components. 

4.  Assignment  to  duty  with  Joint  or  Allied 
staffs   or  with  the  Office  of  the  Secretary  of 
Defense. 

5.  Utilization  of  specialized  training. 

Many  officers  do  not  fully  realize  that  they 
have  primary  responsibility  for  their  own 
individual  career  planning.  There  are  several 
ways  to  indicate  preferences  to  the  assignment 
section  of  the  Bureau  of  Naval  Personnel. 

An  Officer  Preference  and  Personal 
Information  Card  is  completed  by  all 
commissioned  officers  on  initial  appointment 
and  upon  recall  to  active  duty.  This  card 
contains  a  wealth  of  information  that  is  very 
useful  to  the  detailing  officer.  It  is  construed  as 
a  current  reflection  of  the  individual  officer's 
preferences,  and  its  timely  and  accurate 
submission  is  extremely  important. 

Personal  letters  may  be  submitted  if 
circumstances  arise  which  are  not  appropriate 
for  inclusion  on  the  Preference  Card.  They  are 
answered  promptly  whenever  possible  and  the 
information  is  made  a  part  of  the  detailing 
record  and  is  acted  upon  if  practicable.  The 
letters  do  not  become  a  part  of  the  officer's 
permanent  record.  Amplifying  information  may 
also  be  submitted  on  a  5x7  card  attached  to 
the  Preference  Card.  This  procedure  is 
recommended  unless  a  reply  is  desired. 

Officers  desiring  special  courses  of 
instruction,  changes  of  duty,  clarification  of 
orders  or  date  of  release  from  active  duty, 
extensions  of  duty  in  present  assignment, 
transfer  to  or  retention  in  the  Regular  Navy, 
extensions  of  active  duty  beyond  expiration  of 
obligated  service,  etc.,  should  indicate  this  by  a 
letter  via  the  chain  of  command.  Such  letters 


become  a  permanent  part  of  an  officer's  record 
and  are  available  for  review  within  the  Bureau  of 
Naval  Personnel. 

When  in  the  area  of  Washington,  D.C.,  it  is 
advisable  for  an  officer  to  review  his  or  her 
fitness  report  and  correspondence  jacket  in  the 
Bureau  of  Naval  Personnel.  It  is  also  wise  to  visit 
the  respective  detail  officer  or  corps  sponsor  to 
review  and  plan  the  officer's  career,  obtain  the 
latest  information  concerning  promotions, 
postgraduate  instruction,  etc.,  and  exchange 
information  of  mutual  benefit. 

LINE  OFFICER 
PATTERNS 

The  detailing  of  code  1 1 1 X  unrestricted  line 
officers  (figure  3-2)  is  directed  toward  qualifying 
them  for  surface  warfare  officers  and  command 
at  sea. 

Normally,  a  code  11 IX  officer  can  expect 
sea  duty  on  his  first  tour.  This  sea  duty  is 
usually  in  one  of  the  three  functional  areas  of 
operations,  engineering,  or  weapons.  The  type  of 
ship  that  he  will  serve  on  will  be  determined  by 
a  compromise  between  his  personal  preference 
and  the  current  needs  of  the  Operating  Forces 
when  he  is  detailed.  He  can  expect  to  remain 
aboard  ship  for  about  3  to  4  years.  In  general,  he 
will  remain  in  his  first  duty  station  about  1-1/2 
years.  If  during  this  tour  he  qualifies  for  a  more 
demanding  billet,  he  probably  will  be  reassigned 
to  such  a  billet  in  another  ship.  Officers  who 
have  a  basic  3-year  obligation  may  remain  in 
their  initial  duty  assignment,  be  assigned  to 
another  ship  or  staff,  or  may  be  ordered  to  duty 
ashore.  Depending  on  the  particular  situation, 
some  may  qualify  early  for  command  or  an 
executive  officer's  billet  aboard  a  small  fleet 
unit,  or  for  duty  with  an  afloat  staff. 

At  some  time  during  the  first  operational 
phase,  an  officer  may  be  ordered  to  a  functional 
school  to  help  him  qualify  for  duty  in  a  new 
functional  area  after  he  leaves  his  first  ship  and 
before  he  reports  to  the  next  one.  This  rotation, 
as  has  been  pointed  out,  takes  place  after  a 
period  of  1-1/2  years.  Normally  he  will  rotate  to 
a  different  type  ship,  perhaps  from  a  destroyer 
to  an  amphibious  type. 


59 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


GRD 

YCS 

25 

5TH  SHORE:          •   SUBSPECIALTY 
•   MAJOR  SHORE  STAFF 
•   SHORE  COMMAND 

CAPT 

23 

CAPTAIN  COMMAND                                            M*{ 

AD/CGNVCG/AMPHIB/UNREP                            SHR 
CMD 

21 

4TH  SHORE:      •  SUBSPECIALTY 

20- 

PQST                                                                                                                               •   WASHINGTON 
CO  STAFF                                                                                                                 •  SR  SVC  COLLEGE 

COR 

18- 

OTHER 
CDR  COMMAND                                                    SEA 
CVAN  ENG/REACTOR  OFF* 

15- 

14  -i 

XO  STAFF                                                                                        *   MAJOR  SHORE  STAFF 

LCDR 

13- 

LCOR  XO/CO                                                                             SEA  STAFF/DEPT  HEAD 
CGN  ENG  OFF/CVAN  ASST  ENG* 

12- 

11- 

2ND  SHORE:            •   P.G.  SCHOOL  (NON  TECH) 
•  SHORE  STAFF 

9  — 

•  JR  SVC  COLLEGE 
•   P.G.  UTILIZATION 

8  - 

SPLIT  TOUR  TO  DEPT  HEAD 
SFrnwn  TVPF  SHIP                                              —         ,—  _- 

IT 

7  - 

6  — 

OTHER  AFLOAT 
DEPARTMENT  HEAD                                                                                         NUC  PWR  SPLIT* 
—  TOUR  CGN/CVAN* 

DEPT  HEAD  CRS  SWO  SCHOOLS  CMD 

5  - 

1ST  SHORE:       •  STAFF 
•   PG  SCHOOL  (TECH  CURRICULA) 

LTJG 

3  - 

FIRST  SEA  TOUR 

ENS 

1  - 

DIVISION  OFFICER  LEVEL 
(BASIC  SWO  QUALIFICATION) 
(NUC  EN.G  QUALIFICATION)' 

. 

__  -BASIC  COURSE  SWO  SCHOOLS  CMD                                                      '~"  
NUCLEAR  ratlHfn  ncrir>cDe                                                                   —————__  ___  _____  

Figure  3-2.-Surface  warfare  officer  professional  development  path. 


134.180 


At  the  completion  of  the  first  operational 
phase,  a  code  11 IX  officer  may  be  ordered  to 
technical,  n  on- technical,  or  professional 
education  under  the  Navy's  postgraduate 
educational  program.  This  education  normally  is 
conducted  at  the  Naval  Postgraduate  School, 
Monterey,  California,  although  certain  other 
courses  are  conducted  at  various  selected  civilian 
educational  institutions.  This  is  the  first 
subspeciality  and  educational  phase  of  an 
officer's  development.  The  officer  can  expect 
orders  to  a  shore  billet  which  is  allied  with  the 
training  he  has  received  when  he  next  rotates 
ashore. 

The  subspecialty  concept  is  an  integral  part 
of  career  development  and  was  adopted  to 
increase  the  depth  of  knowledge  of  unrestricted 
line  officers  in  specific  fields  and  to  better 
utilize  the  abilities  of  those  officers  in  meeting 
the  needs  of  the  Navy.  Subspecialty  is  defined  as 
a  particular  field  of  naval  endeavor,  other  than 
the  warfare  specialty,  or  a  significant 
qualification  in  one  of  these  fields  obtained 
through  a  combination  of  formal  education, 
functional  training,  and  practical  experience. 
Broad  areas  of  naval  warfare  and  qualifications 
such  as  aviation  and  submarines  are  not 
considered  subspecialties  but  as  the  unrestricted 
line  officer's  warfare  specialty  of  naval  warfare 
and  command  at  sea.  Subspecialty,  therefore, 
can  be  further  defined  as  a  secondary  career 
development  field. 

The  second  operational  phase  is  a  cruise  of  2 
to  3  years'  duration.  It  may  be  a  split  tour, 
depending  greatly  on  circumstances  of  the 
individual  officer's  career.  The  overall  aim  of 
this  phase  is  to  round  out  the  officer's  shipboard 
experience  and  qualifications  by  assignment  at 
the  department  head  level.  Many  officers  will 
attend  Surface  Warfare  School  prior  to  this 
assignment. 

The  second  subspecialty  and/or  educational 
phase  follows  this,  and  usually  consists  of  a 
planning  or  policy  position  in  the  shore 
establishment.  In  some  cases,  postgraduate 
instruction  is  obtained  during  this  tour. 

After  this  comes  the  first  advanced 
operational  phase,  the  third  subspecialty  and/or 
educational  phase,  the  second  advanced 


operational,  subspecialty,  and/or  educational, 
etc.,  as  indicated  in  figure  3-2.  With  each 
succeeding  phase  there  will  be  more  complex 
duties  and  a  higher  degree  of  responsibility, 
including  at  least  one  command  at  sea.  In  the 
final  development  phase  some  officers  end  their 
active  careers  and  retire,  while  others  go  on  to 
assume  the  responsibilities  of  flag  rank. 

For  a  code  1 1 2X  officer  qualified  for 
submarine  duty,  the  career  pattern  is  somewhat 
different  as  seen  in  figure  3-3.  After  graduation 
from  submarine  school,  he  usually  is  ordered  to 
an  initial  afloat  unit  tour.  His  subsequent 
assignment  depends  on  current  needs,  but 
normally  is  another  tour  in  a  different 
submarine.  He  may  then  be  ordered  ashore  for 
postgraduate  instruction,  administrative  duties, 
or  specialized  instruction  in  advanced  ordnance 
or  nucleonics.  The  second  tour  of  sea  duty,  if  he 
is  a  diesel-electric  officer,  will  likely  be  as  third 
officer,  with  the  aim  of  obtaining  executive 
officer  qualifications  at  the  tour's  end,  whereas 
if  he  is  a  nuclear-trained  officer,  it  will  likely  be 
as  a  nuclear  submarine  department  head.  After 
this  is  shore  duty  similar  to  the  first  advanced 
educational  phase  for  surface  officers.  His  next 
sea  tour  will  likely  be  as  commanding  officer  or 
executive  officer,  respectively,  of  a 
diesel-electric  or  nuclear  submarine,  as 
appropriate.  If  not  returned  to  surface  rotation 
after  a  tour  as  commanding  officer,  he  possibly 
will  have  duty  as  a  division  and  then  squadron 
commander. 

AVIATION  PATTERN 

Aviation  assignment  patterns  are  designed  to 
give  code  1310  officers  necessary  command 
qualification  for  aircraft  units  and  those  ships 
whose  mission  is  primarily  associated  with 
aviation  units.  Sea  and  shore  duty  assignments 
are  made  as  varied  as  possible  to  offer  ample 
opportunity  to  develop  the  background 
necessary  for  eventual  command  assignments. 

Figure  3-4  depicts  a  typical  career  pattern 
for  aviation  officers.  Upon  designation  as  naval 
aviators  or  flight  officers,  virtually  all  officers 
are  assigned  to  fleet  operational  squadrons  for  a 
2-1/2  year  tour.  This  tour  is  a  critical  period  of 


61 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


NUCLEAR 


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STAFF  SUBSPECIALTY 
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DEPT  HEAD  (NAV)  SSBN 

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WASHINGTON 
FLEET  STAFF 
MAJOR  PROJECT  SUPPORT 

MAJOR  SHORE  STAFF 
SR  SVC  COLLEGE 

SUBSPECIALTY  (SOSUS  CMD) 

15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 

WASHINGTON 
FLEET  STAFF 
MAJOR  PROJECT  SUPPORT 
SUBSPECIALTY  (SOSUS  C.O.) 
SR  SVC  COLLEGE 
MAJOR  SHORE  STAFF 

CDR 

CAPT 

22 
23 
24 
25 

CAPTAIN  COMMAND 

SHORE 

GRADE 

YRS 

"          ~~        ASSIGNMENT  AREAS 

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s 

LTJG 

m 

LT 
LCDR 

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NUCLEAR  POWER  TRAINING 

2 

3 

DIVISION  OFFICER 

4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

SO  AC                       _J 

PG  SCHOOL 
SHORE/STAFF 

|                         SOAC 

DEPT. 
HEAD 

JR  SVC/COLLEGE                     PG  SCHOOL 
STAFF/SHORE                          SUBSPECIALTY 

XO 

PG  EDUCATION                          WASHINGTON 
STAFF                                       SUBSPECIALTY 

CDR 

PCO 

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SR  SVC  COLLEGE 
MAJOR  PROJECT  SUPPORT 

CAPT 

SUBSPECIALTY 
CO  AS 
Fl   FFT  STAFF 

RONCOM                                WASHINGTON 
MAJOR  SHORE  STAFF 

Figure  3-3.— Typical  professional  development  pattern  for  submarine  warfare  officers. 


134.181 


development  since  during  it  the  young  officer 
develops  his  reputation  as  a  professional,  highly 
skilled,  operational  naval  aviation  officer. 

Aviation  officers  coming  ashore  after  their 
initial  sea  duty  normally  are  serving  in  the  grade 
of  lieutenant.  Most  are  assigned  to  flying  duties 
in  a  carrier  replacement  air  wing  (CRAW)  or 
training  command  squadron.  The  remainder  are 
assigned  to  duties  in  the  aviation  shore 
establishment.  For  a  certain  percentage  of 
officers,  the  first  shore  tour  includes 
undergraduate  or  postgraduate  education. 

The  second  sea  tour  is  approximately  2-1/2 
years,  in  a  squadron,  ship,  staff,  or  overseas 
assignment. 


About  a  third  of  the  officers  rotating  ashore 
after  the  second  sea  tour  are  ordered  to  flying 
billets,  the  remainder  being  assigned  to  various 
shore  activities.  Officers  with  previous 
postgraduate  training  may  anticipate  duty 
appropriate  thereto.  Postgraduate  training  may 
be  made  available  to  those  who  did  not  receive  it 
during  their  first  tour. 

The  operational  command  development  and 
advanced  phases  entail  squadron  and  air  group 
command,  deep  draft  command,  attendance  at 
service  colleges,  assignments  to  Joint  and 
combined  staffs,  and  duties  in  the  Navy 
Department  and  other  governmental  activities. 
The  assignments  in  this  phase  are  dependent 


62 


Chapter  3-THE  NAVAL  OFFICER'S  CAREER 


upon    career   needs   and  qualifications  of  the 
individuals,  and  the  needs  of  the  service. 


STAFF  CORPS 
OFFICERS  PATTERN 

For  officers  of  the  staff  corps,  a  regular 
alternation  between  sea  and  shore  cannot  always 
be  effected.  The  normal  assignment  and  rotation 
sequence  may  be  modified  by  exigencies  of  the 
service  and  the  necessity  to  equalize  the 
character  of  total  service  performed  by  officers 
of  the  same  grades. 

Our  discussion  of  the  typical  staff  rotation 
pattern  is  confined  to  the  Supply  Corps.  The  SC 
career  development  program  (figure  3-5)  is 
considered  fairly  typical  of  assignment  and 
rotation  patterns  for  officers  of  all  the  staff 
corps.  The  program  is  established  to  develop 
proficiency  in  the  administration  of  supply 
operations  afloat  and  shore,  and  also  in  one  or 
more  of  the  functional  areas  of  financial 


management,  clothing  and  textiles,  fuel 
distribution,  merchandising,  procurement,  food 
service,  system  inventory  management,  and 
transportation  management.  Because  it  is 
necessary  to  have  a  continuous  input  of  officers 
into  various  functional  proficiency  areas  to 
replace  normal  losses,  there  is  always  ample 
opportunity  for  new  officers  to  enter  these 
fields.  The  usual  procedure  is  for  the  officer  to 
indicate  choice  upon  promotion  to  lieutenant, 
the  preference  being  considered  in  making  duty 
assignments  thereafter. 

Ensigns  and  lieutenants  junior  grade  follow  a 
sequence  of  assignments  aimed  at  giving  them  a 
broad  basic  training.  In  the  grades  of  lieutenant 
and  lieutenant  commander,  emphasis  is  on 
technical  development  in  supply  and  fiscal 
matters  and  in  the  functional  specialty.  Every 
effort  is  made  to  divide  equally  the  time  spent  in 
assignments  between  the  two  areas.  In  the  grades 
of  commander  and  captain,  assignments  are  to 
positions  of  greater  responsibility,  including 
senior  staff  and  commanding  officer  billets. 


GRADE 

YRS             PERIOD 

PHASE 

ASSIGNMB-JT  AREAS 

. 

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SHORE 

TRAINING  COMMAND 

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LTJG 

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ASSISTANT  DEPARTMENT  HEAD 

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TRAINING  COMMAND/REPLACEMENT  SQUADRON  /OPERATIONAL 

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TRAINING  COMMAND 

NAVAL  AIR  STATION             POSTGRADUATE  SCHOOL 

14                  £    d 

5 

NAVY   DEPARTMENT 
JUNIOR  SERVICE  COLLEGE 

-I5  „           ^    ° 

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STAFF:                                                               COMMANDING  OFFICER 

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DEVELOPMENT 

SHORE                                                                     AIR  GROUP  COMMANDER 

19                       °- 

4 

NAVAL  AIR  STATION 

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NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

134.23 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


WOMEN  OFFICERS' 
PATTERN 

For  the  majority  of  Unrestricted  Line  (URL) 
women  officers  a  Navy  career  does  not 
encompass  association  with  a  warfare  specialty. 
But  with  legislative  change-anticipated  in  the 
not  too  distant  future -URL  women  officers  will 
be  competing  with  warfare  specialists  for 
promotions.  Consequently,  in  order  for  the 
woman  officer  to  remain  promotionally 
competitive,  her  successive  assignments  should 
progress  through  levels  of  responsibility  and 
authority  which  are  essentially  equivalent  to 
those  experienced  by  warfare  specialists  (figure 
3-6). 


EDUCATION 

Any  career  Navy  officer  who,  after  being 
commissioned,  feels  that  the  academic  life  is 
over  is  sadly  mistaken.  Formal  education  is  a 


recurring  part  of  the  entire  career,  and  the  use 
the  officer  makes  of  it  determines  to  a  great 
measure  success  of  a  naval  officer. 

There  are  two  primary  reasons  behind 
the  importance  that  the  Navy  puts  on  formal 
officer  education.  First  of  all,  the  overall  mission 
of  the  Navy,  and  the  "hardware"  necessary  for 
this  mission,  have  increased  tremendously  in 
scope  and  complexity.  The  people  primarily 
responsible  for  this  mission  must  be  thoroughly 
trained.  The  second  — and  equally 
important -reason  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
eventual  aim  of  every  career  officer  is  to 
command.  Succession  to  command  presumes  a 
sound  knowledge  of  the  operations  of  the  unit 
to  be  commanded. 

IN-SERVICE  TRAINING 

It  is  difficult  to  acquire  that  knowledge 
without  the  benefit  of  specialized,  formal 
training.  This  is  not  the  only  training  that  is 
necessary  but  it  is  an  invaluable  starting  point.  It 


GRADE         i      YRS 

i 

PERIOD 

PHASE 

SEA 

CONTINENTAL 
UNITED  STATES 

OVERSEAS 

01           i 

BASIC 
DEVELOPMENT 

1ST  OPERATIONAL 

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INDEPENDENT  OR  DEPENDENT  DUTY  AFLOAT 

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IF  REQUIRED 

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INDEPENDENT  OR 
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AFLOAT 

ASSISTANT   SUPPLY 
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FUNCTIONAL 
DEVELOPMfrJT 

1ST  OPERATIONAL 
OR  EDUCATIONAL 

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OR  SPECIFIC      FUNCTIONAL 
MANAGEMENT  ASHORE 
POST  GRADUATE 
EDUCATION 

8 

9 

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2ND  OPERATIONAL 
OR  EDUCATIONAL 

SUPPLY  OFFICER 
OF  SHIP  OR 
AFLOAT  STAFF 

SUPPLY  OR 
FISCAL  OFFICER 

12 

LCDR           
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OR  EDUCATIONAL 

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AND  FISCAL 
FUNCTIONAL     TOUR 
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1ST  OPERATIONAL 

SUPPLY  OFFICER  OF 
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DEPARTMENT  HEAD  OR 
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19 

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2ND  OPERATIONAL 
OR  EDUCATIONAL 

•  

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LARGE  SUPPLY 
ACTIVITY 
DEPARTMENT 

HEAD 
SERVICE  COLLEGE 

•  —  —  

20 

'  "                , 

Figure  3-5.-Typical  professional  development  pattern  for  supply  corps  officers. 


134.24 


6RD    YCS 


26- 

SENIOR  SERVICE  COLLEGE 

25- 

WASHINGTON  HQ  TOUR 

CAPT 

24  — 

MAJOR  SHORE  COMMAND 

£  J 

22- 

SUBSPECIALTY  TOUR 

21  - 

JOINT  STAFF 

20- 

MAJOR  FLEET  STAFF 

CDR 

19- 

CO  TOUR 

18- 

1  / 

16- 

WASHINGTON  HQ  TOUR 

15- 

PROVEN  SUBSPECIALIST  DESIGNATION 

14- 

XO  TOUR 

LCDR 

13- 

JUNIOR  SERVICE  COLLEGE 

12- 
11  — 

10- 

SUBSPECIALTY  TOUR 

9  - 

STAFF  DUTY 

8  - 

SUBSPECIALIST  DESIGNATION 

LT 

7  - 

POSTGRADUATE  SCHOOL 

6  """ 

SUBSPECIALTY  DEVELOPMENT 

DIVISION  OFFICER/DEPT  HD  EXPERIENCE 

4  - 

LTJG 

FIELD  ACTIVITY  ASSIGNMENT 

2  - 

GENERAL  TOURS 

ENS 

1  - 

134.182 

Figure   3-6.— Woman   officer   professional    development 
path. 


expanded    with    the    knowledge    gained    from 
on-the-job  experience. 

The  Catalog  of  Navy  Training  Courses 
(CANTRAC),  NAVEDTRA  10500,  contains  a 
complete  list  of  instruction  provided  for  officers 
and  enlisted  personnel  by  the  Chief  of  Naval 
Education  and  Training.  In  general,  there  are 
three  types  of  courses: 

1 .  Officer  professional  courses  are  designed 
for  general  professional  development,  included, 
for  example,  are  the  Command  and  Staff  Course 
conducted  at  the  Naval  War  College,  Newport, 
R.I.,  and   Defense   Language   Institute   courses 
held  in  Monterey,  California. 

2.  Officer  skill  courses  that  train  an  officer 
for,  or  enhance  his  capability  in,  some  skill  or 
speciality.  This  category  includes  all  courses  of 
instruction     not     considered     professional     in 
nature. 

3.  Enlisted  skill  courses,  which  are  similar 
in  purpose  to  officer  skill  courses. 

Functional  Training 

Functional  training  comprises  those  schools 
that  provide  training  to  both  enlisted  personnel 
and  officers  in  the  performance  of  specialized 
tasks  or  functions  which,  in  general,  are  not 
normal  to  rating  training  of  enlisted  members  or 
professional  training  of  officers.  Types  of 
functional  programs  are: 

1.  Submarine  and  nuclear  power  training, 
including  training  on  missiles  launchable  from 
submarines  and  surface  ships. 

2.  Fleet  schools  ashore.  These  principally 
provide     training     on     antisubmarine     and 
antiaircraft  weapons,  other  shipboard  weapons, 
and  amphibious  and  other  operations. 

3.  Specialized    training    in    such    areas   as 
harbor    defense,    mine    warfare,    mobilization 
coordination,  damage  control,  firefighting,  and 
cold  weather  operations. 

Staff  Corps  Training 

All  newly  commissioned  Supply  Corps 
officers  are  ordered  to  the  Navy  Supply  Corps 
School,  Athens,  Georgia  where  they  undergo  a 


65 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


6-month  Basic  Qualification  Course.  To  prepare 
for  or  supplement  on-the-job  experience,  a 
number  of  relatively  short  functional  training 
courses  are  available.  These  include,  among 
others,  contract  administration,  food  service 
supervision,  property  disposal,  and  commissary 
and  Navy  Exchange  management. 

The  professional  education  and  training  of 
Medical  Department  personnel  is  a  responsibility 
of  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Medicine  and 
Surgery.  All  Medical,  Dental,  and  Nurse  Corps 
officers,  and  certain  officers  of  the  Medical 
Service  Corps,  acquire  formal  academic  and 
professional  backgrounds  at  college  and 
professional  schools  before  entering  on  active 
duty.  In-service  training  is  provided  to  increase 
their  professional  growth  and  further  their 
specialty  and  subspecialty  development. 

Catholic,  Protestant,  and  Jewish  clergymen 
who  comprise  the  Navy  Chaplain  Corps  are  not 
commissioned  until  they  have  completed  college 
and  seminary  training.  After  about  5  years  of 
commissioned  service,  a  chaplain  may  apply  for 
and,  upon  selection,  be  assigned  to  1  academic 
year  of  postgraduate  training  in  a  recognized 
theological  institution.  To  further  their 
professional  competence,  many  chaplains  take 
advantage  of  educational  resources  in  the  areas 
in  which  they  are  stationed. 

Normally,  Civil  Engineer  Corps  officers  are 
graduates  of  accredited  institutions  in  one  of  the 
engineering  fields  such  as  civil,  nuclear, 
electrical,  architectural,  or  construction.  All 
newly  commissioned  CEC  officers  attend  the 
CEC  Officer  School,  Port  Hueneme,  Calif.  Also 
available  at  that  school  are  courses  in  public 
works,  construction  engineering,  atomic  defense, 
disaster  engineering,  and  others. 

Members  of  the  Judge  Advocate  General's 
Corps  commissioned  after  they  have  become 
accredited  members  of  the  bar  are  ordered  to 
Newport,  R.I.,  where  they  receive  6  weeks  of 
officer  indoctrination  plus  8  weeks  of  training  at 
the  Naval  Justice  School.  Active  duty  officers 
may  be  selected  to  attend  law  school  in 
accordance  with  SECNAVINST  1520.7,  and 
then  become  JAGC  officers. 


Aviation  and 
Submarine  Training 

Selections  of  officers  for  flight  training  are 
made  by  the  Chief  of  Naval  Personnel  from 
officers  who  make  application  and  who  are 
physically  qualified.  Detailed  information 
concerning  eligibility  requirements  and 
application  procedures  for  flight  training  is 
published  in  the  Navy  Directives  System. 

Instructions  for  requesting  submarine 
training  are  issued  in  the  Bureau  of  Naval 
Personnel  Manual. 

Each  application  must  be  accompanied  by  a 
statement  from  a  medical  officer  that  the 
applicant  is  physically  qualified  in  accordance 
with  existing  instructions  of  the  Bureau  of 
Medicine  and  Surgery.  Officers  selected  are 
issued  permanent  duty  orders.  Classes  assemble 
at  the  Submarine  Base,  New  London,  Conn. 

FORMAL  EDUCATION 

In  addition  to  training  in  areas  of  particular 
naval  interest,  the  Navy's  officer-education 
program  embraces  many  formal  academic 
courses  of  instruction.  Every  officer  is  afforded 
opportunities  to  grow  professionally  in  order  to 
assume  progressively  broader  responsibilities. 

Undergraduate  Education 

The  goal  of  the  College  Degree  Program  is  to 
raise  the  educational  level  of  certain  officers  not 
holding  baccalaureate  degrees,  thus  increasing 
the  number  of  persons  that  may  qualify  for 
graduate  education. 

Although  many  officers  voluntarily  continue 
their  academic  education  during  off-duty  hours, 
they  are  unable  to  qualify  for  a  degree  because 
most  colleges  and  universities  require  that  the 
last  academic  year  (about  30  semester  hours)  be 
completed  in  residence.  The  College  Degree 
Program  attempts  to  fill  the  need  of  some  of 
those  so  handicapped.  The  program  is  available 
to  eligible  warrant  and  commissioned  officers 
(except  Medical  Corps  and  Nurse  Corps)  through 
the  grade  of  captain  who  have  earned  sufficient 


Chapter  3-THE  NAVAL  OFFICER'S  CAREER 


redits  to  make  it  possible  for  them  to  obtain  a 
accalaureate  degree  in  a  period  not  to  exceed 
8  consecutive  months  through  full-time  study 
t  a  civilian  educational  institution.  Individual 
pplications  are  required;  those  chosen  by 
election  board  are  responsible  for  gaining 
dmission  to  the  school  of  their  choice.  Officers 
articipating  in  the  program  receive  regular  pay 
id  allowances,  and  bear  the  full  cost  of  tuition 
id  other  school  expenses.  Procedures  for 
pplying  are  contained  in  CNETINST  1520.4 
iries. 

ostgraduate  Education 

The  goal  of  the  Navy  postgraduate 
ducational  program  is  to  meet  billet 
squirements  by  providing  necessary 
ostgraduate  education  for  qualified  active  duty 
fficers.  The  program  is  designed  to  capitalize 
pon  the  individual  officer's  abilities  and 
otential  by  extension  of  studies  to  include 
Decialized  areas,  and  to  equip  some  officers 
ith  postgraduate  education  at  the  master's  and 
octor's  degree  level,  in  both  technical  and 
ontechnical  fields  of  study. 

NAVAL  POSTGRADUATE  SCHOOL.-The 
'PS  conducts  for  the  Chief  of  Naval  Education 
nd  Training  the  on-duty  postgraduate 
du  cation  of  naval  officers  (except  for 
ppropriate  curricula  provided  by  other 
'epartment  of  Defense  components).  Some 
fficers  study  at  civilian  universities  such  as  the 
niversity  of  California  or  Massachusetts 
istitute  of  Technology  for  highly  advanced 
;chnical  study. 

NPS  offers  advanced  technical  curricula  in 
uch  diverse  fields  as  aeronautics, 
Dmmunications,  electronics,  data  processing, 
•capons  engineering,  and  operations  analysis, 
n  engineering  science  curriculum  offers  basic 
reparatory  programs  according  to  the 
iucational  backgrounds  of  officers  attending.  A 
-year  nontechnical  naval  management 
.irriculum  is  designed  to  improve  students' 
ipabilities  for  organizing  and  directing  activities 
i  which  resources  of  men,  money,  and  materials 
re  combined  to  accomplish  Navy  objectives. 

Those  who  meet  the  criteria  for 
ostgraduate  education  at  NPS  are,  for  the  most 


part,  limited  to  obtaining  a  master's  (MA  or  MS) 
degree.  Further  education  ending  in  a  doctoral 
degree  is  available  only  to  exceptionally 
competent  officers. 

SERVICE  COLLEGES  OF  THE  ARMED 
FORCES.— Many  professional  courses  are 
available  for  the  mid-career  and  senior  officers 
through  the  Naval  War  College;  Joint  colleges, 
such  as  the  National  War  College  and  Industrial 
College  of  the  Armed  Forces;  and  various  staff 
colleges  and  senior  officer  courses  of  the  other 
services.  Each  service  has  at  least  one  "think 
tank,"  and  each  may  be  attended  by  a  limited 
number  of  officers  from  the  sister  services.  A 
common  purpose  of  the  colleges  is  to  prepare 
officers  for  major  tactical  command,  Joint  and 
combined  staffs,  and  for  policy-making  billets  in 
the  shore  establishment. 

There  are  two  levels  of  study  available  at  the 
various  service  colleges:  (1)  The  "Operation, 
Staff,  and  Command"  courses  that  prepare 
mid-career  officers  (in  general,  LCDR  and  CDR) 
for  the  exercise  of  command  and  staff  duties; 
and  (2)  The  senior  college  courses,  largely  a 
continuation  of  (1),  that  provide  CDRs  and 
CAPTs  with  a  review  of  essentials  in  the  exercise 
of  command  and  a  study  of  advanced  phases  of 
strategic  warfare,  management  and  tactics. 

Eligible  officers  are  automatically  considered 
for  selection  for  one  of  the  service  colleges  as 
they  become  available.  Eligibility  criteria  vary 
according  to  designator,  and  availability  for  the 
assignment  depends  on  planned  rotation. 
Eligible  year  groups  are  screened  in  their 
entirety  by  the  annual  Service  Colleges  Selection 
Board  prior  to  the  10th,  16th,  and  21st  years  of 
commissioned  service.  The  10th  year  of  service 
marks  selection  for  junior  colleges,  for 
attendance  during  the  10-1 6th  years.  The  16th 
year  point  is  the  initial  selection  for  senior 
colleges  during  the  16th-20th  years.  The 
21st-year  point  is  the  final  selection  for 
attendance  at  a  senior  college  during  the 
21st-25thyears. 

The  selection  board  regards  all  junior  and 
senior  colleges  equally;  that  is,  selectees  may  be 
ordered  to  any  college  appropriate  to  their  year 
group. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


SPECIAL  POSTGRADUATE  PROGRAM.- 

Separate  and  apart  from  the  Navy's  regular 
postgraduate  educational  program  is  a  specia 
program  for  a  limited  number  of  highly  qualified 
junior  officers.  The  Junior  Line  Officer 
Advanced  Educational  (better  known  as  Burke) 
Program  provides  master-degree-level  education 
to  the  majority  of  selected  students.  Candidates 
for  the  program  are  selected  during  their  senior 
midshipman  year  at  the  Naval  Academy  or  in 
the  NROTC  program.  The  Burke  Program 
involves  an  operational  sea  tour  of  2  years 
before  commencing  graduate  work. 

DOD-SPONSORED  PROGRAM.-The  De- 
partment of  Defense  sponsors  the  Defense 
Intelligence  School  curriculum. 

The  Defense  Intelligence  curriculum 
provides  instruction  in  basic  principles  and 
techniques  of  intelligence  operations.  Upon 
graduation,  qualified  officers  may  continue  their 
instruction  in  a  foreign  language  and  area  study 
program  at  the  Defense  Language  Institute. 

SCHOLARSHIP  PROG  RAM. -Under  Public 
Law  87-555  (passed  in  July  1962),  selected 
personnel  may  request  permission  to  accept 
academic  honors  conferred  by  scholarships, 
fellowships,  and  grants  including,  with  certain 
restrictions,  associated  financial  benefits. 
Approval  to  accept  such  an  honor  is  based  on 
needs  of  the  service,  and  a  successful  candidate 
is  ordered  to  the  appropriate  school  or  activity 
in  an  active  duty  status.  Procedures  for  applying 
are  contained  in  SECNAVINST  1500.4  series. 

CORRESPONDENCE  COURSES 

Correspondence  courses  were  first  used  as  a 
method  of  instruction  in  1914  and  have 
increased  in  number  and  scope  since  that  time. 
They  have  achieved  full  recognition  as  an 
effective  method  of  instruction  and  offer  certain 
unique  advantages: 

1.  The  student  gets  instruction  that  may 
not  be  available  through  other  means.  However 
remote   he    may    be   from    training   facilities, 
correspondence  courses  are  still  available  to  him. 

2.  Correspondence   courses   can  be  fitted 
easily  into  a  busy  work  schedule. 


3.  The  student  can  set  his  own  pace.  If  he 
doesn't  understand  a  lesson  completely,  he  is 
under  no   pressure   to   go    on    until   he  does 
understand. 

4.  The  student  can  plan  his  course  of  study 
systematically,  avoiding  last  minute  cramming, 

5.  Active    duty    personnel    engaged    in  a 
particular  technical  field  can  study  theory  and 
principles    and     utilize     them     by     practical 
application.     In     this    sense,     correspondence 
courses  provide  a  good  blend  of  the  theoretical 
and  practical. 

In  addition,  officer  correspondence  courses 
are  an  important  part  of  an  officer's  education, 
Courses  are  available  from  seven  main  sources: 
(1)  Naval  Education  and  Training  Program 
Development  Center  (2)  Naval  Security  Group, 
(3)  Defense  Intelligence  School,  (4)  Naval  War 
College,  (5)  Naval  Medical  School,  (6)  Naval 
Dental  School,  and  (7)  The  Industrial  College  of 
the  Armed  Forces. 

NAVY  CAMPUS  FOR 
ACHIEVEMENT  (NCFA) 

All  off-duty  education  programs  are 
centralized  under  the  Navy  Campus  For 
Achievement.  Officially  implemented  in  March 
1973,  the  Navy  Campus  For  Achievement  brings 
coordination,  structure,  and  financial 
management  to  such  programs  as  Tuition 
Assistance,  the  Program  for  Afloat  College 
Education  (PACE),  and  Instructor  Hire.  In  the 
past,  these  programs  had  been  separately 
administered.  A  College  Degree  Component  is 
also  available  through  the  NCFA  management 
system. 

The  Navy  Campus  For  Achievement  also 
makes  non-Navy  funded  programs  available  to 
Navy  personnel,  such  as  the  services  of  the 
Defense  Activity  for  Nontraditional  Education 
Support  (D ANTES),  the  Predischarge  Education 
Program  (PREP),  the  In-service  G.I.  Bill,  and  the 
Servicemen's  Opportunity  College. 

Educational  Advisors 

The  backbone  of  the  Navy  Campus  For 
Achievement  is  a  network  of  civilian 
professional  Educational  Advisors.  These 


68 


Educational  Advisors  are  located  or  available  in 
all  areas  of  Navy  personnel  concentration.  They 
provide  educational  counseling  services  to 
individual  Navy  personnel  in  person  or  by 
telephone  or  letter.  For  shipboard  personnel, 
Educational  Advisors  are  available  at  all  large 
homeports. 

NCFA  Educational  Advisors  also  provide 
advice  and  assistance  to  commanding  officers 
regarding  off-duty  educational  programs  on  base 
or  station  and  aboard  ship.  They  maintain 
contact  with  civilian  educational  institutions 
attended  by  Navy  personnel.  Broadly  speaking, 
NCFA  Educational  Advisors  are  the  experts  on 
all  of  the  programs  under  the  management 
umbrella  of  the  Navy  Campus  For  Achievement 
and  associated  with  off-duty  education.  They 
render  advice  and  assistance  to  Career 
Counselors  and  Educational  Services  Officers 
and  act  upon  referrals  from  the  latter  on 
educational  matters. 

Servicemen's  Opportunity 
College  (SOC) 

The  Servicemen's  Opportunity  College 
(SOC)  is  a  group  of  approximately  270  two-year 
and  four-year  institutions  of  higher  learning  that 
are  pledged  to  follow  general  criteria  in  support 
of  college  educational  opportunities  for  service 
personnel.  These  criteria  include  the  adoption  of 
liberal  entrance  requirements,  reduced  residency 
for  degrees,  generous  credit  transfer,  maximum 
recognition  of  educational  experiences  obtained 
in  the  armed  services,  and  the  expansion  of 
nontraditional  educational  delivery  systems. 

NCFA  Educational  Advisors  will  assist  a 
Navy  member  in  locating  the  nearest  and  most 
appropriate  SOC  institution.  Unfortunately, 
many  SOC  institutions  are  not  in  proximity  to 
Navy  bases  and  stations  and,  of  course,  are  not 
available  to  seagoing  personnel.  In  addition,  the 
SOC  criteria  mentioned  above  are  interpreted 
differently  by  SOC  institutions,  particularly 
"reduced  residency."  While  the  Navy  Campus 
For  Achievement  supports  the  concept  of  SOC 
and  urges  its  use,  it  should  be  recognized  that 
many  Navy  personnel  need  a  more  definite 
commitment  from  a  college  or  university  than  is 


offered  by  many  SOC  institutions.  In  response 
to  very  special  academic  needs  of  many  Navy 
personnel,  the  Navy  Campus  For  Achievement 
has  asked  SOC  institutions  in  several  specific 
locations  to  define  SOC  criteria  more  exactly  for 
the  benefit  of  Navy  personnel.  These  special 
SOC  institutions  constitute  the  NCFA  degree 
component. 

NCFA  Degree  Component 

The  degree  component  of  the  NCFA  enables 
Navy  personnel  to  obtain  college  degrees  or 
certificates  during  off-duty  hours.  Frequent 
transfers  and  tours  at  sea  were  not  compatible 
with  academic  accomplishment  until  the  advent 
of  the  NCFA  degree  component. 

The  Navy  Campus  For  Achievement  has 
agreements  with  a  number  of  civilian  colleges 
and  universities  to  eliminate  the  roadblocks  that 
have  always  hampered  a  Navy  man  or  woman 
from  earning  a  college  degree  or  certificate. 
NCFA  degree-component  colleges  and 
universities  have  recognized  the  academic  plight 
of  the  Navy  man  or  woman.  They  are  all  located 
near  Navy  bases  and  stations  and  subscribe  to 
the  following  conditions: 

a.  To  accept  all  credits  earned   at  other 
regionally    accredited    institutions    which    are 
applicable  to  the  academic  major  of  the  Navy 
student. 

b.  To  eliminate  residency  as  a  requirement 
for  a  degree  or  certificate. 

c.  To  maintain  a  transcript  on  the  Navy 
student  even  if  he  or  she  is  not  in  residence. 

d.  To  accept  up  to  75%  of  the  requirements 
for  a  degree  or  certificate  from  nontraditional 
sources;     for     example,     the     College     Level 
Examination  Program  (CLEP),  the  service  school 
credit     recommendations     of     the     American 
Council     on     Education,     validated     work 
experience,  correspondence  courses  offered  by 
accredited   colleges  and  universities,  extension 
courses    offered    by    accredited    colleges    and 
universities,  etc. 

Any  Navy  man  or  woman  who  wants  to  take 
advantage  of  the  NCFA  degree  component  need 


69 


only  contact  an  NCFA  Educational  Advisor, 
either  individually  or  through  his  educational 
services  officer  or  career  counselor.  The  NCFA 
Educational  Advisor  will  study  the  individual's 
work  and  school  record  and  will  suggest  a 
program  and  an  NCFA  degree  component 
institution.  The  NCFA  Educatonal  Advisor  will 
then  bring  the  Navy  student  and  the  institution 
together  as  parties  to  an  "NCFA  letter  of 
agreement."  This  letter  of  agreement  is  an 
academic  contract  between  the  institution  and 
the  Navy  student. 

Specifically,  the  NCFA  letter  of  agreement  is 
a  two-part  instrument.  Part  I  sets  forth  the 
standard  conditions  mentioned  above.  The  Navy 
student  agrees  to  pay  a  one-time  fee  for  the 
letter  of  agreement  and  a  small  annual  fee  for 
maintaining  the  transcript  when  he  is  not  in 
residence. 

Part  II  of  the  letter  of  agreement  documents 
the  accepted  credits  earned  by  the  Navy  student 
prior  to  the  date  of  the  letter  and  specifies  those 
courses  which  must  be  completed  at  any 
accredited  institution  before  a  degree  or 
certificate  is  granted.  If  the  Navy  student  is 
transferred,  the  parent  institution  agrees  to 
accept  comparable  courses  completed  at  other 
accredited  institutions  on  the  basis  of  prior 
approval.  When  the  course  requirements 
specified  in  Part  II  of  the  letter  of  agreement 
have  been  met,  the  parent  institution  grants  the 
degree  or  certificate.  It  is  possible  for  a  Navy 
student  to  earn  a  degree  or  certificate  without 
ever  setting  foot  on  the  campus  of  the 
institution  with  which  he  has  entered  into  an 
NCFA  letter  of  agreement. 

Tuition  Assistance 

To  help  Navy  students  realize  their 
educational  ambitions  during  off-duty  time,  the 
Navy  Campus  For  Achievement  may  pay  up  to 
IS^c  of  tuition  costs. 

Before  tuition  assistance  is  approved,  the 
institution  that  the  Navy  student  wishes  to 
attend  must  be  accredited.  Courses  and 
programs  that  have  been  planned  with  the 
guidance  and  cooperation  of  an  NCFA 
Educational  Advisor  are  assured  of  making  the 


best  use  of  available  tuition  assistance  money 
and  are  assured  of  supporting  the  Navy's  needs. 
A  Navy  student  who  has  entered  into  an  NCFA 
letter  of  agreement  with  an  NCFA 
degree-component  institution  is  assured  of  a 
planned  program  and  of  consideration  for 
tuition  assistance. 

Tuition  assistance,  however,  is  not  limited  to 
college  courses  and  programs.  A  Navy  man  or 
woman  who  is  motivated  for  vocational, 
technical,  or  trade  courses  may  receive  tuition 
assistance  if  the  course  supports  his  current 
rating  or  Navy  Enlisted  Classification,  fills  a 
current  Navy  need,  or  meets  his  career 
aspirations. 

Although  the  Navy  Campus  For 
Achievement  may  provide  tuition  assistance  up 
to  a  maximum  of  75%  of  tuition,  there  are 
course-load  limitations.  If  the  course  is  for 
college  credit,  the  Navy  student  is  limited  to  10 
academic  hours  per  semester  or  its  quarter-hour 
equivalent.  If  a  vocational,  technical,  or  trade 
course,  the  Navy  student  is  limited  to  1 5  clock 
hours  per  week  or  270  clock  hours  per  1 8-week 
course  increment. 

Officers  are  required  to  remain  on  active 
duty  for  2  years  following  completion  of  a 
course  for  which  they  accept  tuition  assistance. 
Enlisted  personnel  must  have  sufficient  time 
remaining  in  their  enlistments  to  complete 
courses  for  which  tuition  assistance  has  been 
requested. 

Program  for  Afloat 
College  Education  (PACE) 

The  Navy  Campus  For  Achievement  also 
provides  a  shipboard  education  program  for 
college  credit.  In  this  program,  called  the 
Program  for  Afloat  College  Education  (PACE), 
the  Navy  student  assigned  to  a  ship  pays  only 
for  his  books,  supplies,  and  an  occasional 
enrollment  fee  out  of  his  own  pocket.  The  Navy 
Campus  For  Achievment  pays  the  entire  cost  of 
the  tuition. 

PACE  courses  are  taught  by  seagoing 
professors.  These  college-level  professors  have 
been  certified  as  faculty  members  of  an 


70 


accredited  institution  of  higher  learning  with 
which  the  Navy  Campus  For  Achievement  has  a 
contract.  By  the  terms  of  the  contract  with  the 
Navy,  the  instructor  is  required  to  be  present  for 
a  specific  number  of  hours  during  each  course. 
If  10  or  more  personnel  aboard  ship  need  a 
specific  course  to  fulfill  an  educational 
objective,  the  commanding  officer  can  request, 
with  the  assistance  of  an  NCFA  Educational 
Advisor,  the  assignment  of  a  PACE  instructor. 

In-Service  G.I.  Bill 

Personnel  on  active  duty  before  the  end  of 
fiscal  year  1976  may  also  defray  the  cost  of 
their  off-duty  education  by  using  the  in-service 
provisions  of  the  Veterans  Readjustment 
Assistance  Act  (commonly  called  the  G.I.  Bill). 
The  in-service  benefits  of  the  G.I.  Bill  provide 
educational  assistance  to  servicemen  who  have 
been  on  active  duty  for  more  than  1 80  days. 

While  on  active  duty,  a  serviceman  has 
earned  educational  benefits  at  the  rate  of  1-1/2 
months  of  education  for  each  month  of  service 
up  to  a  maximum  of  36  months.  When  a 
serviceman  attends  an  institution  on  a  part-time 
basis  during  off-duty  time,  the  expenditure  of 
this  entitlement  would  be  scaled  down 
accordingly.  For  example,  if  a  member  enrolled 
in  one  3-semester-hour  course,  he  would  be 
charged  for  only  1 ,  rather  than  4,  educational 
months  of  his  entitlement.  Accordingly,  he 
would  receive  only  one-fourth  of  the  maximum 
monthly  compensation  or  an  amount  sufficient 
to  pay  his  tuition,  whichever  is  less.  A 
serviceman  receives  no  in-service  G.I.  Bill 
compensation  for  dependents. 

Educational  assistance  under  the  in-service 
provisions  of  the  G.I.  Bill  has  certain  advantages 
over  the  Navy  Tuition  Assistance  Program. 
Unlike  the  latter,  it  is  a  specific  entitlement  not 
subject  to  budgetary  fluctuations.  Further,  it  is 
available  for  a  wider  range  of  courses,  including 
vocational  correspondence  courses. 


officers  for  an  Instructor  Hire  Program.  The 
Instructor  Hire  Program  is  designed  to  provide  a 
commanding  officer  with  the  means  to  hire  a 
civilian  instructor  for  teaching  any  subject  which 
is  of  legitimate  interest  to  1 0  or  more  personnel 
of  the  command.  Courses  may  be  conducted  at 
the  high  school,  college,  or  technical  school 
level. 

In  the  past,  the  Instructor  Hire  Program  has 
been  used  to  prepare  Navy  personnel  for 
equivalency  examinations  at  the  high  school  and 
college  levels.  Commanding  officers  have  used 
the  Instructor  Hire  Program  to  offer  native 
language  courses  in  overseas  locations.  The 
Instructor  Hire  Program  has  been  used  to  offer 
courses  in  speedreading  and  for  instruction  in 
English  writing  and  reading  for  those  for  whom 
English  is  a  second  language. 

Defense  Activity  For 
N  on  traditional  Education 
Support  (D ANTES) 

Through  NCFA  Educational  Advisors,  the 
services  of  DANTES  are  made  available  to  Navy 
personnel.  DANTES  provides  high  school 
equivalency  tests  free  of  charge  to  overseas 
personnel  and  to  most  seagoing  personnel. 
NCFA  Educational  Advisors  and  designated 
educational  services  officers  may  also  obtain 
CLEP  (College  Level  Examination  Program) 
tests  from  DANTES  for  free-of-charge 
administration  to  Navy  personnel.  CLEP  tests 
are  widely  used  to  earn  college  credit  in  lieu  of 
classroom  study.  NCFA  Educational  Advisors 
also  make  wide  use  of  a  special  catalog  prepared 
by  DANTES  which  outlines  many  self-study 
opportunities  at  the  college,  high  school,  and 
vocational-technical  levels. 

The  educational  programs  offered  by  the 
Navy  are  constantly  changing  as  the  need  for 
these  programs  change.  Up-to-date  information 
on  the  current  programs  can  be  obtained  from 
the  enlisted  Navy  counselor. 


Instructor  Hire 

The  Navy   Campus  For  Achievement  also 
provides  funds  and  assistance  to  commanding 


PAY  AND  ALLOWANCES 

Two  general  statements  can  safely  be  made 
about  military  pay.  Few,  if  any,  people  become 


71 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


wealthy  on  the  basis  of  their  military  pay  alone. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  budgeted  wisely,  military 
pay  provides  a  comfortable  standard  of  living. 

From  a  career  standpoint,  there  are  certain 
factors  to  keep  in  mind  when  making 
dollar-for-dollar  comparisons  of  military  and 
civilian  pay.  Military  pay  is  guaranteed  and 
predictable.  The  current  trend  in  military  pay  is 
upward.  It  should  be  pointed  out  that  periods  of 
business  recession  do  not  adversely  affect 
military  pay. 

A  portion  of  the  total  military  pay  is  not 
taxable,  and  provisions  are  made  for  additional 
pay  for  various  forms  of  special  or  hazardous 

duty. 

Many  publications  contain  descriptions  of 
the  entire  matter  of  military  pay.  Our  purpose 
here  is  to  give  an  overview  and  to  define  and 
briefly  discuss  elements  that  compose  the  total 
pay  structure. 

Commissioned  officers  and  warrant  officers 
are  assigned  by  law  to  pay  grades  on  the  basis  of 
the  grades  in  which  they  are  serving,  whether 
under  temporary  or  permanent  appointment. 
Enlisted  personnel,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
assigned  to  pay  grades  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy. 

BASIC,  SPECIAL,  AND 
INCENTIVE  PAY 

Basic  pay,  which  accrues  for  all  personnel  on 
the  basis  of  pay  grade  and  cumulative  years  of 
service,  is  the  major  portion  of  a  person's  total 
pay.  The  cumulative  years  of  service  may  have 
been  in  any  branch  of  the  armed  service  or  their 
Reserve  components. 

Special  pay  is  added  compensation  received 
for  performing  special  duties.  For  officers, 
"special  duty"  is  limited  to  medical  and  dental 
billets,  and  duties  involving  diving  and  coming 
under  hostile  fire.  Special  pay  for  doctors  and 
dentists  is  prorated  on  the  number  of  years  they 
have  been  on  active  duty  (although  there  is  also 
a  Special  Continuation  Pay  for  certain  medical 
officers  serving  in  critical  specialties).  Hostile  fire 
pay  and  diving  pay  involve  flat  monthly  sums 
regardless  of  grade  or  years  of  service.  As  a 
matter  of  interest,  hostile  fire  pay  is  not  payable 
in  time  of  war  declared  by  Congress. 


Incentive  pay,  prorated  according  to  grade 
and  years  of  service,  is  additional  pay  received 
for  performing  hazardous  duty.  Included  in  this 
category  are  flight  pay  for  both  crew  and 
noncrew  members,  submarine  pay,  and  extra 
pay  received  for  parachute,  aircraft  carrier  flight 
deck,  explosive  demolition,  experimental  stress, 
and  leprosarium  duty. 

ALLOWANCES 

An  allowance  is  a  contribution  or  its 
equivalent  "in  kind"  to  help  meet  expenses 
incurred  as  the  result  of  membership  in  the  naval 
service. 

Subsistence 

An  officer  is  entitled  to  a  monthly  allowance 
for  subsistence  without  regard  to  grade  or 
dependency  status.  All  officers,  whether  on 
board  ship  or  ashore,  whether  married  or  single, 
receive  a  subsistence  allowance  and  pay  their 
own  mess  bills. 


Quarters 

An  officer  without  dependents  receives  a 
quarters  allowance  except  when  Government 
quarters  are  available.  Consequently,  if  he  is 
assigned  to  duty  at  sea,  or  to  a  station  where 
bachelor  officer  quarters  (BOQ)  are  available,  he 
does  not  receive  a  quarters  allowance. 

An  officer  with  dependents  is  allowed  a 
quarters  allowance  regardless  of  whether  he  is 
serving  ashore,  at  sea,  or  overseas,  unless 
Government  quarters  have  been  provided  for 
him  and  his  dependents. 

Dislocation 

Men  with  dependents  are  allowed  dislocation 
pay  upon  a  permanent  change  of  station.  It  is 
paid  to  help  defray  the  abnormal  expenses 
incurred  in  such  a  move.  The  amount  is  equal  to 
1  month's  basic  allowance  for  quarters  to  which 
the  person  is  entitled. 


72 


LJiapier  j— iruc, 


Miscellaneous 

There  are  additional  allowances  paid  for 
such  things  as  initial  uniform  allowance,  mileage 
expenses  in  traveling  under  orders,  and  per  diem 
payments  for  temporary  additional  duty.  Their 
specifications  differ,  but  the  basic  idea  is  the 
same:  a  temporary  payment  to  help  defray 
expenses  of  an  unusual  nature  arising  from 
official  duty. 


BENEFITS 

From  the  commencement  of  active  duty,  a 
naval  officer  is  entitled  to  many  valuable 
benefits.  Those  considered  traditional  include 
medical  and  dental  care,  exchange  and 
commissary  privileges,  various  assistance 
programs,  and  retirement,  among  others.  It  is 
estimated  that  benefits  add  about  15%  to  an 
individual's  pay. 

MEDICAL  AND 
DENTAL  CARE 

Medical  and  dental  care  are  available  to  all 
members  of  the  armed  services  on  active  duty. 
Regardless  of  where  an  individual  is  stationed, 
there  is  immediate  access  to  full  and  complete 
care  through  the  facilities  of  all  the  Armed 
Forces  and  the  Public  Health  Service. 

The  Navy  naturally  is  vitally  concerned  with 
the  health  of  its  members.  It  establishes  physical 
qualifications  for  procurement  and  ensures  the 
maintenance  of  these  standards  throughout  the 
entire  period  of  active  service.  There  are 
additional  physical  qualifications  for  aviation, 
submarine  duty,  and  other  special  programs.  The 
rigors  of  a  career  in  the  Navy  cannot  be 
withstood  by  a  person  in  subpar  physical 
condition.  Should  a  person  become  injured  or  ill 
while  on  active  duty,  however,  it  is  obviously  in 
the  person's  best  interest  as  well  as  the  Navy's  to 
restore  the  individual  to  health  as  soon  as 
possible. 

Regulations  governing  medical  care  for 
retirees  and  dependents  are  contained  in 
SECNAV  Instruction  6320.8  series,  which 
represents  a  joint  statement  by  the  Armed 


Forces,  Coast  Guard,  and  Public  Health  Service. 
The  regulations  prescribe  policies  and 
procedures  for  administering  the  Uniformed 
Services  Health  Benefits  Program  (previously 
known  as  Medicare)  as  authorized  by  Title  10, 
U.S.  Code,  for  all  the  uniformed  services. 

The  law  provides  a  uniform  level  of  care, 
through  either  military  or  civilian  facilities,  for 
(1)  retired  personnel,  (2)  dependents  of  both 
active  duty  and  retired  members,  and  (3) 
dependents  of  deceased  members  who  died 
while  on  active  duty  or  retired.  Retired  persons 
are  entitled  to  the  same  health  benefits  in 
uniformed  services  facilities  as  active  duty 
members,  subject  to  space  availability  and  staff 
capabilities.  (The  Veterans  Administration, 
however,  is  responsible  for  the  hospitalization, 
for  certain  chronic  conditions,  of  persons  retired 
for  physical  disability.)  Exceptions  to 
entitlement  of  medical  care  for  dependents  are 
few,  being  concerned  mainly  with  dental  care, 
domiciliary  or  custodial  care,  prosthetic  devices, 
hearing  aids,  spectacles,  and  orthopedic 
footwear.  Medical  services  at  uniformed  services 
facilities  may  be  provided  to  dependents,  subject 
to  space  availability  and  capabilities  of  the 
professional  staff. 

In  general,  retirees  and  all  dependents  should 
use  service  medical  facilities,  if  they  are  available 
and  adequate  as  determined  by  the  commanding 
officer  of  the  appropriate  facility.  An  integral 
part  of  the  Health  Benefits  Program,  however,  is 
the  Civilian  Health  and  Medical  Program  of  the 
Uniformed  Services  (CHAMPUS).  This  aspect  of 
medical  care  is  of  particular  benefit  to  eligible 
beneficiaries  residing  in  areas  where  service 
medical  facilities  are  unavailable  or  unable  to 
accommodate  them.  Under  CHAMPUS,  a  wide 
range  of  civilian  health  care  services  is 
authorized  with  a  significant  share  of  the  cost 
being  paid  by  the  Government. 

Participation  in  CHAMPUS  by  sources  of 
care  is  entirely  voluntary.  Beneficiaries  desiring 
treatment  or  hospitalization  under  CHAMPUS 
must  locate  a  "participating"  physician  or  other 
source  of  health  care  willing  to  provide 
authorized  care  to  the  beneficiary  and,  after 
payment  of  a  stipulated  amount  by  the 
beneficiary,  submit  a  claim  to  the  proper 


73 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Government  fiscal  agent  for  payment  of  the 
remainder  of  the  fee,  and  accepting  the  amount 
the  Government  determines  to  be  allowable  for 
the  services. 

Inherent  in  CHAMPUS  is  a  "reasonable  fee" 
concept,  meaning  that  the  Government  will  pay 
only  those  charges  it  determines  to  be 
reasonable.  If  a  fee  charged  is  considered 
unreasonable,  the  difference  between  the  fee  for 
treatment  and  the  amount  paid  under 
CHAMPUS  will  have  to  be  borne  by  the 
beneficiary.  This  can  be  costly  if  not 
understood.  There  have  been  instances  when 
beneficiaries  thought  the  Government  would 
pay  the  full  charge  made  by  ANY  civilian  source 
for  authorized  health  care.  If  treated  by  a 
nonparticipating  party,  however,  the  patient 
must  pay  the  bill  for  any  extra  money  charged. 
The  patient  should  always  ask,  at  the  time  of  the 
initial  visit,  whether  the  physician  or  hospital 
participates  in  CHAMPUS  and  will  accept  (after 
the  patient's  contribution)  the  Government  fee 
as  payment  in  full.  Claims  submitted  to  the 
Government  by  participating  parties  include  an 
agreement  to  accept  as  full  payment  the 
amount  authorized  as  payable  under  the 
program. 

Except  for  emergency  care,  hospitals  that 
practice  discrimination  in  the  admission  or 
treatment  of  patients  on  the  basis  of  race,  color, 
or  national  origin  may  not  participate  in 
CHAMPUS.  In  other  words,  the  Government 
won't  pay  for  their  services,  and  beneficiaries 
receiving  treatment  at  those  institutions  will 
foot  the  entire  bill. 

Unless  it  is  required  as  a  necessary  adjunct  to 
medical  or  surgical  treatment  payable  under 
CHAMPUS,  dental  care  is  not  authorized  at  a 
civilian  source  (that  is,  if  received  the  recipient 
pays  for  it). 

Routine  dental  care  for  dependents  is 
authorized  at  uniformed  service  facilities  outside 
the  United  States.  Within  the  United  States,  it  is 
authorized  only  at  specifically  designated 
installations  located  in  remote  areas.  Emergency 
dental  care  is  available  worldwide,  as  in  any 
dental  care  considered  necessary  in  connection 
with  medical  or  surgical  treatment. 


COMMISSARY  AND 
EXCHANGE  PRIVILEGES 

One  feature  of  Navy  life  that  a  service 
dependent  will  especially  appreciate  is  the 
privilege  of  purchasing  food,  household,  and 
personal  items  at  reasonable  cost  through 
commissaries  and  service  exchanges.  Wherever 
stationed,  these  Government  facilities  permit 
service  personnel  and  their  dependents  to 
purchase  basic  commodities  at  fair  prices. 

In  overseas  branches  of  those  activities,  one 
may  buy  foodstuffs  and  exchange  items  that 
otherwise  might  not  be  available.  Many 
commodities  ordinarily  obtainable  overseas 
through  other  means  carry  a  much  higher  price 
tag.  In  addition,  particularly  for  foreign  goods  or 
unfamiliar  brands,  the  exchange  ensures  good 
quality.  Their  buyers  are  experts;  most  of  us  are 
not.  Exchanges  and  commissaries  base  their 
prices  on  the  same  price  scale  used  by  their 
stateside  counterparts. 

The  extent  and  type  of  items  carried  in 
commissaries  and  exchanges  in  overseas  facilities 
are  usually  described  in  considerable  detail  in 
the  Information  on  Living  Conditions  pamphlets 
issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Naval  Personnel. 

DEPENDENT  SCHOOLING 

Elementary  and  secondary  schooling  is 
available  overseas  at  Government  expense  for 
eligible  minor  dependents  of  Department  of 
Defense  (military  and  civilian)  personnel.  To  be 
eligible,  a  dependent  must  be  between  the  ages 
of  5  and  20,  must  be  authorized  by  competent 
authority  to  be  in  the  overseas  area,  and  must  be 
the  unmarried  child,  stepchild,  legally  adopted 
child,  or  legal  ward  of  the  DOD  member 
stationed  overseas. 

Schooling  is  provided  in  schools  operated  by 
the  services,  in  tuition-fee  schools  (schools  under 
local  government,  private,  church,  or 
cooperative  administration),  or  by 
correspondence  courses,  depending  on  the 
number  of  eligible  dependents  in  an  area  and 
availability  of  private  schools  that  use  English  as 
the  language  of  instruction. 


74 


V_,IUIJJ  LCI      J  — 


i>.tt.V.fVLy 


Schools  operated  by  the  military 
departments  are  designed  to  meet  the  special 
problems  created  by  change  of  duty  stations  in 
midyear.  Teachers  for  these  schools  must  meet 
U.S.  qualifications,  must  be  U.S.  citizens,  and 
usually  are  recruited  from  the  United  States. 
Servicemen's  wives  who  meet  necessary 
qualifications  may  be  hired  locally  for 
employment  in  service-operated  schools. 

Above  the  high-school  level,  children  of 
naval  personnel  are  eligible  for  scholarship 
assistance  at  a  number  of  colleges  and 
universities  in  the  United  States. 

OFFICERS'  MESS 

A  commissioned  officers'  mess  provides 
social  and  recreational  facilities,  meals,  and 
refreshments  to  commissioned  and  warrant 
officers.  Where  facilities  permit,  privileges  of  the 
mess  frequently  are  extended  to  officers  of  the 
other  armed  services  and  to  Reserve  officers,  as 
well  as  to  officers'  dependents.  At  large 
activities  a  mess  may  be  comprised  of  a  dining 
room,  snack  bars,  cocktail  lounges,  lounge  areas, 
rooms  for  private  parties,  and,  in  some  cases, 
swimming  pools,  golf  courses,  and  tennis  courts. 

ASSISTANCE  PROGRAMS 

To  promote  and  preserve  peace  of  mind  for 
its  officers  and  their  dependents,  the  Navy  offers 
a  number  of  special  assistance  programs,  some  of 
which  have  substantial  cash  value. 

Legal  Assistance 

Personnel  may  obtain  confidential  guidance, 
without  cost,  from  legal  assistance  officers  at 
most  duty  stations.  Advice  rendered  generally  is 
on  legal,  personal,  and  property  problems,  or  the 
drafting  of  legal  documents.  Assistance  does  not 
include  representation  in  civil  court. 

Casualty  Assistance 
Calls  Program 

The  family  of  a  Navy  man  who  dies  on 
active  duty  is  visited  promptly  by  a  Casualty 


Assistance  Calls  Officer  who  offers  help  in 
obtaining  rights,  benefits,  and  privileges  to 
which  the  dependents  are  entitled,  and  advises 
on  funeral  arrangements  and  financial 
assistance,  if  needed.  The  visit  by  the  CACO  is 
automatic;  the  deceased's  family  need  not 
initiate  the  action. 

Navy  Relief  Society 

Known  as  the  "Navy's  own  organization  to 
take  care  of  its  own,"  the  Navy  Relief  Society  is 
privately  supported,  primarily  by  means  of 
annual  requests  for  contributions.  At  the  service 
of  naval  and  Marine  personnel  and  dependents 
who  need  emergency  help,  it  limits  itself, 
generally,  to  nonrecurring  situations  of  distress 
involving  clothing,  medical  care,  burial  and  the 
like.  It  cannot  underwrite  permanent  need.  The 
Society  may  make  interest-free  loans  or  outright 
grants,  or  a  combination  of  the  two. 

Navy  Mutual 
Aid  Association 

The  aim  of  the  nonprofit  Mutual  Aid 
Association  is  to  provide  a  limited  amount  of 
life  insurance  at  cost  and  immediate  aid  to 
dependents  of  deceased  officers  through  a 
$1000  cash  payment  wired  or  cabled  anywhere 
in  the  world  on  notice  of  a  member's  death.  This 
sum  is  part  of  a  $7500  life  insurance  coverage 
open  to  active  duty  Regular  and  Reserve 
Officers  of  the  Navy,  Marines,  and  Coast  Guard 
under  62  years  of  age.  There  is  an  additional 
death  benefit  to  dependents  of  $4500,  bringing 
total  benefits  to  $12,000  (at  present).  Premiums 
vary  with  age.  Other  services  include  quick 
loans,  central  depository  for  documents,  and 
assistance  to  the  family  in  obtaining  all 
survivor's  rights  and  benefits  to  which  entitled. 

Family  Services  Centers 

At  many  Navy  shore  installations  in  the 
United  States,  particularly  in  areas  of  Fleet 
concentration,  Family  Services  Centers  are 
established  to  assist  new  arrivals  in  obtaining 
personal  services  they  may  need. 


75 


The  Centers  ensure  that  newcomers  to  the 
area  receive  a  personal  welcome,  either  by  home 
call  or  at  the  Centers.  In  most  instances,  the  new 
arrival  is  issued  a  brochure  that  includes  such 
information  as— 

1 .  A  map  of  the  area. 

2.  A  letter  of  welcome. 

3.  An  area  directory. 

4.  A  base  information  guide. 

5.  Data   on  available  medical  care,  Navy 
Relief,  Red  Cross,  churches,  commissaries  and 
exchanges,  educational  facilities,  base  facilities, 
and  so  on. 

In  addition,  Centers  will  refer  members  and 
their  dependents  to  the  proper  facility  to  obtain 
needed  information  on,  among  other  things, 
passport  applications,  voting,  insurance,  career 
counseling,  base  and  off-base  housing,  and 
financial  assistance.  They  may  provide 
hospitality  kits  containing  necessary  items  of 
household  items  that  new  arrivals  can  borrow 
until  their  household  goods  are  delivered. 

For  the  benefit  of  attached  personnel 
receiving  orders,  Centers  maintain  an  inventory 
of  brochures  containing  information  on  many 
overseas  and  continental  United  States  naval 
installations. 

Navy  Chaplains 

In  addition  to  religious  duties,  the  chaplain 
is  available  for  personal  spiritual  and  moral 
guidance,  and  for  performance  of  marriages  and 
funeral  ceremonies. 

RECREATION  AND 
SPORTS  PROGRAMS 

Commanding  officers  make  every  attempt  to 
provide  recreation  and  sports  programs  designed 
to  meet  varied  interests  and  desires,  and  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  personnel  and  facilities  available. 

Recreation 

Most  naval  stations  provide  motion  picture 
entertainment,  well-stocked  libraries,  hobby 


craft  shops,  station  newspapers,  dances,  parties, 
and  shows.  In  larger  metropolitan  areas,  theater, 
concert,  and  sporting  event  tickets  may  be 
offered  to  service  personnel  at  reduced  prices, 
and  in  many  cases  free  of  charge. 

Sports 

Sports  programs  include  organized 
competitions  at  intramural,  intra-district, 
intra-area,  and  intra-type  (or  inter-type)  levels. 
Games  and  matches  between  fleet  and  shore 
activities  are  stressed.  All-Navy  sports 
championships  are  a  natural  outgrowth  of  the 
extensive  intra/intermural  programs,  and 
interservice  championships  also  are  held  in  many 
instances. 

Outstanding  Navy  athletes  who  believe  they 
possess  the  necessary  capability  and  potential 
may  apply  to  the  Chief  of  Naval  Personnel  for 
permission  to  train  for  and  participate  in  Pan 
American,  Olympic,  and  other  international 
sports  competitions. 

RETIREMENT 

Retirement  benefits  available  at  the 
conclusion  of  a  Navy  career  are,  in  many 
respects,  superior  to  similar  plans  in  civilian  life. 
On  a  day-to-day  basis,  the  most  important  factor 
is  that  the  individuals  to  whom  the  benefits 
accrue  pay  nothing  toward  their  accumulation. 
Although  it  is  certainly  not  recommended,  it  is 
possible  for  one  to  finish  their  Navy  career 
without  benefit  of  any  personal  savings  or 
investments,  yet  look  forward  with  confidence 
to  meeting  at  least  the  necessities  of  the 
remaining  years  based  solely  on  retirement  pay 
and  subsidiary  benefits. 

There  are  three  types  of  retirement: 
voluntary,  statutory,  and  retirement  for  physical 
disability. 

Voluntary  Retirement 

Officers,  including  warrants,  are  eligible  for 
voluntary  retirement  after  completing  20  years 
of  active  service  as  indicated  in  figure  3-7. 
Reserve  officers  (not  on  active  duty)  are  entitled 


76 


Chapter  3 -THE  NAVAL  OFFICER'S  CAREER 


LAW- 

TYPE  OF 

CREDITABLE 

GRADE  ON  RETIRED 

TITLE  10 

RETIRE- 

APPLICABLE TO 

SERVICE 

LIST 

PAY 

MENT 

Sec.  6321 

40  years 

Permanent  officers 

Full  time  active  duty 

Grade  held  at  time  of 

service 

in  Regular  or  Re- 

retirement (unless 

serve  components  of 

entitled  to  higher 

Armed  Forces 

grade  under  other  law) 

Sec.  6322 

30  years 

Permanent  officers 

Same  as  above 

Same  as  above 

1%  %  times  the  basic 
pay  of  the  grade 

service 

in  which  retired 

times  the  sum  of 

Sec.  6326 

30  years 
service 

Temporary  officers 
and  warrant  offi- 

Same as  above,  less 
time  lost  for  AWOL, 

Same  as  above 

the  following  (a) 
service  credited 
for  basic  pay 

cers  with  perma- 

SKMC or  NPDI 

purposes  as  of  31 

nent  enlisted  sta- 

May 1958,  and 

tus 

(b)  active  service 

(including  active 

Sec.  6323 

20  years 
service 

Permanent  officers 
and  officers  whose 
permanent  status 
is  enlisted 

Active  duty  in  Navy, 
Army,  Marine 
Corps,  Air  Force, 
Coast  Guard  or  Re- 
serve components 
thereof,  including 
active  duty  for 
training,  at  least  10 
years  of  which  shall 
have  been  commis- 

Same as  above 

duty  for  training, 
inactive  duty 
training,  point 
credit  for  corre- 
spondence 
courses,  etc.) 
subsequent  to  31 
May  1958.    (Re- 
tired pay  may 
not  exceed  75% 
of  the  basic  pay 
on  which  such 

sioned 

pay  is  based) 

Sec.  1293 

20  years 

Warrant  officers 

Full  time  active  duty 

Warrant  officer  grade 

service 

in  Armed  Forces  or 

held  at  time  of  retire- 

Reserve components 

ment  (unless  entitled  to 

higher  grade  under 

other  law) 

Figure  3-7.— Voluntary  retirement  programs  for  Regular  commissioned  and  warrant  officers. 


134.25 


to  retired  pay  benefits  after  reaching  age  60  if 
they  have  completed  20  years  of  satisfactory 
Federal  service  (of  which  the  last  8  years  were  in 
a  Reserve  component). 

Figure  3-7  presents  the  essential  points  of  all 
the  voluntary  retirement  programs.  Application 
for  retirement  is  normally  instituted  by  the 
officer  desiring  retirement,  but  acceptance  rests 
with  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy.  The  full 
administrative  process  involved  in  retirement  is 
too  lengthy  for  the  purposes  of  this  discussion, 
but  one  aspect  should  be  emphasized.  A  physical 
examination  is  a  very  important  part  of  the 
retirement  procedure.  Discovery  of  any  defects 
that  will  alter  the  retirement  status  will  be  acted 
upon,  but  once  the  processing  is  complete,  there 


except  by  reason   of  disability  incurred   as  a 
result  of  being  called  back  to  active  duty. 

Statutory  (Involuntary)  Retirement 

To  ensure  youth  and  vigor  in  responsible 
positions  and  to  prevent  stagnation  in  grade,  the 
Navy  has  laws  which  require  the  retirement  of 
permanent  officers  and  warrant  officers  after 
reaching  a  certain  age,  after  failing  of  selection 
for  promotion  or  continuation,  after  completion 
of  a  certain  number  of  years  of  service,  or  a 
combination  of  these  elements.  A  compilation 
of  the  statutory  requirements  for  permanent 
Regular  male  officers  is  shown  in  figure  3-8. 
Statutory  requirements  require  no  application 


1  1  I  1 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


All  Reserve  officers  holding  a  grade  above 
chief  warrant  officer,  W-4,  are  transferred  to  the 
Retired  Reserve  upon  reaching  the  age  of  62. 
Transfer  to  the  Retired  Reserve  by  reason  of  age 
carries  with  it  no  retired  pay  unless  the  officer  is 
otherwise  eligible  for  such  pay. 

Disability  Retirement 

The  provisions  of  the  physical  disability 
retirement  law  are  beyond  the  scope  of  this  text, 
because  they  apply  only  to  a  small  minority  of 
naval  personnel  and  involve  such  diverse 
considerations  as  the  degree  (percentage)  of 


disability,  whether  misconduct  is  involved,  the 
numbers  of  years  served  on  active  duty,  and 
whether  the  disability  is  of  a  permanent  or 
temporary  nature. 

Members  of  the  service  retired  because  of 
physical  disability  receive  certain  tax  benefits.  If 
an  officer  retires  for  other  than  physical  reasons, 
the  entire  amount  of  retired  pay  is  taxable.  If  an 
officer  is  retired  for  physical  reasons,  however, 
and  elects  retired  pay  on  the  basis  of  percentage 
of  disability,  such  pay  is  tax  exempt.  If  the  offi- 
cer elects  retired  pay  based  on  years  of  service, 
the  amount  of  retired  pay  that  is  in  excess  of 
that  one  would  receive  if  elected  on  the  basis  of 
percentage  of  disability  is  taxable. 


GRADE 

CATEGORY   (OR   GRADE) 

YEARS  OF 
SERVICE 

YEARS  IN 
GRADE 

SELECTION  STATUS 

RADM 

Unrestricted  Line 

35 

5 

Not  Selected  for  Continuation 

Restricted  Line  or  Staff 

35 

7 

Not  Selected  for  Continuation 

CAPT 
CDR 

All 

31 

Not  Applicable 

Not  on  Promotion  List 

.30 

Twice  Failed  for  Selection 

NOTE.  —  A  Limited  Number  of  Restricted  Line  and  Staff  Corps  Captains  may  be  Continued  until  Completion 
35  years. 

All,  except  LDO 

26 

Not  Applicable 

Twice  Failed  for  Selection 

LCDR 

All,  except  LDO 

20 

LDO 
Officers 

ALL 

30 

Not  Applicable 

LCDR* 

Not  Applicable 

Twice  Failed  for  Selection 

*If  held  the  permanent  status  of  a  warrant  officer  when  first  appointed  as  an  LDO,  has  the  option,  instead  of  being 
retired,  of  reverting  to  the  grade  he  would  hold  had  he  not  been  appointed  an  LDO.     If  held  a  permanent 
grade  below  warrant  officer,  W-l,  when  first  appointed  as  an  LDO,  has  the  option,  instead  of  being  retired    of 
reverting  to  the  grade  he  would  hold  had  he  not  been  appointed  as  an  LDO,  but  had  instead  been  appointed  a 
warrant  officer,  \V-  1. 

!'A\Hro?  '""'Vvf  ba,So\ry  ?  K^  grade  '"  WhlCh  reUred  UmeS  the  S"m  °f  the  followin«  (a>  8ervice  cr*d^d  f°r  basic  pay 
purpose,  a>  of  May  1958,  and  <b)  act.ve  service  (including  active  duty  for  training,  inactive  duty  training,  point  credit  for 
cum.-s.ondi.nce  courses,  etc.)  sub^uent  to  31  May  1958.     (Maximum  retired  pay  75%  of  bufc  pay). 
C.HADK  ON  RETIRKD  LIST:  Grade  in  which  serving  at  time  of  retirement  (unless  en  titled  to  higher  grade  under  other  law). 
NOTE:  Captains  and  Commanders,  except  those  of  the  MC,  DC,  MSC  or  NC  will  be  rPt  r*H  »f»0,           i  ,-        ,  ,„ 
total  commisMoned  .service  ,f  considered  for,  and  not  selected  for  conU  uatt           e  ac   ve  1  so  Zan  7"  ,°h        """ 
of  PL  86-  155  (the  so-called  "HUMP  BILL").                                                                                  pursuant  to  the  provisions 
Total  communed  service  is  computed  from  30  June  of  the  "Service  Date"  shown  in  the  current  Navy  register. 

Figure  3-8.-Statutory  service  retirement  for  permanent  Regular  male  officers. 


134.26 


Chapter  3 -THE  NAVAL  OFFICER'S  CAREER 


Social  Security  Benefits 

Active  duty  military  personnel  are  placed 
under  full  Social  Security  coverage  immediately 
upon  entering  service.  Credits  based  on  military 
service  are  not  lost  regardless  of  retirement  or 
release  from  the  service.  A  service  person  may 
receive  retirement  pay,  or  any  form  of 
compensation  or  pension  from  the  Veterans 
Administration,  PLUS  Social  Security  old  age 
insurance  payments  at  the  age  of  65  (or 
optionally  at  age  62).  If  totally  disabled,  one 
may  apply  for  Social  Security  benefits 
immediately. 

Survivor  Benefit 
Plan  (SBP) 

A  new  program  that  assures  financial 
protection  for  survivors  of  retired  Uniformed 
Service  members  went  into  effect  on  September 
21,  1972,  as  Public  Law  92-425.  This  program  is 
called  the  Survivor  Benefit  Plan  (SBP)  which 
provides  survivor  income  of  up  to  55%  of  the 
retired  pay  of  retirees'  to  their  widows  or 
widowers  and  dependent  children. 

In  the  past,  surviving  members  of  retirees' 
families  often  found  themselves  with  little  or  no 
income  following  the  retirees'  deaths.  The  new 
SBP  fills  that  gap  in  the  area  of  service  benefits. 
Until  passage  of  the  new  law,  the  retired  pay  of 
a  retired  member  of  the  Uniformed  Services 
ended  with  his  or  her  death,  unless  they  had 
elected  voluntarily  to  participate  in  the  Retired 
Servicemans  Family  Protection  Plan 
(RSFPP)— known  originally  as  the  Contingency 
Option  Act. 

Under  the  Survivor  Benefit  Plan  an 
individual  will  be  automatically  enrolled  in  the 
plan  with  maximum  coverage  when  they  retire  if 
they  have  spouses  or  dependent  children  at 
retirement  time,  unless  they  elect  a  lesser 
coverage  or  decline  participation  before 
becoming  entitled  to  retired  pay.  To  ensure  that 
the  SBP  decision  gets  in  with  other  retirement 
documents,  this  must  be  done  30  days  before 
the  first  day  for  which  the  retiree  can  receive 
retired  pay. 

Since  the  Federal  Government  pays  a 
substantial  part  of  the  SBP  cost,  a  retiree  gives 


up  only  a  small  part  of  his  or  her  retired  pay  to 
provide  maximum  coverage  for  their 
dependents. 

Benefits  of  Retirement 

In  time  of  peace,  retired  officers  may  not  be 
ordered  to  active  duty  without  their  consent. 
Although  they  may  be  ordered  to  active  duty  in 
time  of  war  or  national  emergency,  they  are  not 
required  to  hold  themselves  in  readiness  for 
active  service. 

Officers  may  use  their  military  titles  in 
commercial  enterprises,  and  they  are  entitled  to 
wear  the  prescribed  uniform  of  the  grade  held 
on  the  retired  list  when  the  wearing  is 
appropriate. 

Retired  officers  and  their  dependents  are 
entitled  for  life  to  the  same  medical  and  dental 
services  provided  their  active  duty  counterparts, 
as  well  as  the  privilege  of  making  purchases  in 
commissaries,  exchanges,  and  ship's  service 
stores. 

Retired,  as  well  as  active,  personnel  often 
overlook  the  fact  that  they  may  have  acquired 
veteran  status  and  are  thus  entitled  to  many 
benefits  available  from  the  Veterans 
Administration  and  from  the  state  in  which 
residing.  These  may  include  employment 
counseling,  home  and  farm  loans, 
unemployment  compensation,  burial  rights,  and 
VA  benefits  for  veterans  with  disabilities. 

SURVIVORS*  BENEFITS 

Younger  men  usually  are  so  busy  living  and 
making  a  living  that  they  put  off  systematic 
planning  for  their  families  until  they  approach 
middle  age  and  maximum  earnings.  Before  that 
time,  in  most  cases,  they  cannot  afford  adequate 
protection  anyhow.  If  they  choose  a  Navy 
career,  this  is  one  worry  they  can  forget. 
Provision  for  their  dependents  begins  the 
moment  they  enter  the  naval  service  and 
continues  into  retirement. 

Financial  security  for  dependents  of 
deceased  naval  officers  is  guaranteed  under  the 


79 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Serviceman's  and  Veteran's  Survivor  Benefits 
Act,  which  places  all  members  of  the  Armed 
Forces  under  Social  Security. 

The  Survivor  Benefits  Act  is  a  package  deal 
for  long-range  security  of  service  families.  It 
combines  full  and  permanent  Social  Security 
eligibility  with  increased  death  and  indemnity 
benefits  paid  by  the  VA  to  dependents  of 
persons  who  die  as  a  result  of  military  service. 
The  latter  benefits  are  separate  from  Social 
Security,  and  accrue  whether  death  occurred 
during  peace  or  war,  so  long  as  it  resulted  from  a 
service-connected  cause.  When  sums  paid  by 
both  sources  are  added,  they  amount  to  a 
monthly  income  for  your  family  that  only  those 
in  the  most  fortunate  financial  circumstances 
could  provide  in  civil  life.  And  that  income  can 
be  augmented  by  a  retirement  annuity  made 
possible  through  the  Survivor  Benefit  Plan. 

In  addition  to  a  liberal  schedule  of  death 
gratuities  and  monthly  compensation  payments, 
the  act  provides  for  a  considerable  number  of 
miscellaneous  benefits.  These  include,  for 
example,  shipment  of  household  effects, 
dependents'  transportation,  homestead  privileges 
for  establishing  a  home  on  Government  land, 
Federal  employment  privileges,  commissary  and 
exchange  privileges,  and  Medicare. 

If  a  naval  officer  dies  on  active  service,  or  of 
service-connected  causes  within  120  days  after 
release,  the  designated  survivor  also  is  entitled  to 
the  following  benefits: 

1.  Navy  death  gratuity  equal  to  one-half  a 
year's  pay.  The  amount  may  not  be  less  than 
S800  or  more  than  $3000.  It  is  paid  as  promptly 
as  possible  and  is  not  taxable. 

2.  Social  Security  lump-sum  death  payment 
ranging  from  SI 3 2  to  $255,  based  on  average 
earnings. 

3.  Payment   up   to    S250  toward   private 
funeral   and   burial  expenses,  for  services  not 
provided  by  the  Government;  or  interment  at  no 
expense    in    any   open   national   cemetery.   A 
headstone  for  the  deceased  is  furnished  in  either 
case. 

In  addition  to  other  survivor  benefits,  all 
persons  on  active  duty  in  excess  of  30  days'  are 
covered  by  $20,000  Servicemen's  Group  Life 


Insurance  at  a  cost  to  the  serviceman  of  only 
$3.40  per  month.  Although  coverage  may  be 
reduced  or  terminated  if  requested  in  writing, 
this  is  extremely  inexpensive.  A  life  insurance 
program  is  an  important  factor  for  any  officer  to 
consider,  especially  if  one  has  family 
responsibilities. 


THE  NAVY  WAY 
OF  LIFE 

Navy  life  is  a  demanding  life.  It  calls  for 
complete  loyalty  and  dedication,  and  for  a  great 
measure  of  selflessness.  There  are  pleasant 
assignments  and  those  that  are  not  so  pleasant. 
But  every  billet  that  you  fill  can  be  opportunity 
for  gain  for  the  Navy,  your  shipmates,  and 
yourself.  It  takes  a  mature  and  observant  person 
to  always  see  these  opportunities,  but  they  are 
there.  At  times  it  can  be  a  dangerous  life.  This  is 
inherent  in  an  armed  service  and  particularly  a 
service  with  worldwide  commitments.  But  for 
the  person  with  a  desire  to  serve  country  and 
oneself  in  a  variety  of  interesting  and  challenging 
ways,  it  is  a  stimulating,  satisfying  way  of  life. 

The  family  of  the  naval  officer  is  a  vital  part 
of  the  Navy  team.  Far  more  so  than  in  civilian 
life,  a  Navy  wife  has  the  opportunity  to  further 
her  husband's  career.  Her  patience, 
understanding,  and  her  acceptance  of  additional 
family  responsibility  contribute  immeasurably 
to  his  peace  of  mind.  Considering  the 
responsibilities  of  an  officer  in  the  world's 
foremost  Navy,  it  is  readily  apparent  that  his 
peace  of  mind  is  essential  to  the  best 
performance  of  his  duty.  It  is  no  wonder,  then, 
that  the  welfare  of  his  wife  and  family,  leading 
to  a  happy  home  life,  play  such  a  major  role 
toward  the  success  of  the  Navy. 

The  Navy  recognizes  the  importance  of  the 
role  played  by  the  officer's  family  and  realizes 
that  service  families  can  best  do  their  part  only 
when  they  are  taken  care  of  and  kept  informed 
of  the  Navy's  functions  and  missions  to  the 
fullest  possible  extent.  Families  should  be 
encouraged,  therefore,  to  learn  about  the  great 
responsibility  that  devolves  upon  a  naval  officer, 
and  realize  how  much  they  can  contribute 
toward  achieving  the  Navy's  goals. 


Chapter  3 -THE  NAVAL  OFFICER'S  CAREER 


The  very  nature  of  a  naval  officer's 
occupation  gives  his  family  a  range  of  experience 
unparalleled  by  their  civilian  counterparts  in  the 
world  today.  Inherently  this  range  gives  rise  to 
equally  unparalleled  social  and  cultural 
opportunities  for  the  entire  family.  How  an 
individual  profits  from  these  opportunities  is  up 
to  him;  the  doorway  is  there  and  it  is  invitingly 
open. 


Because  of  their  mutual  importance  to  the 
Navy,  officers  and  their  families  have  every  right 
to  expect  the  Navy  to  work  for  their  benefit  and 
interest— and  this  will  always  be  done.  In  return, 
the  Navy  counts  on  every  service  family  to  do  its 
part  by  taking  advantage  of  the  benefits  offered, 
and  also  to  cooperate  by  contributing  toward 
the  betterment  of  the  naval  organization  and  the 
fulfillment  of  its  mission. 


CHAPTER  4 


NAVAL  TERMS  AND  CUSTOMS 


Naval  regulations  and  naval  customs  are 
practically  synonymous.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
majority  of  our  present  naval  regulations  have 
been  derived  from  naval  customs  developed  in 
the  past.  Salutes  to  the  quarterdeck,  ceremonies 
for  relieving  of  command,  rendering  of  side 
honors,  precedence  of  officers  in  entering  boats, 
visits  of  courtesy  upon  reporting  to  a  ship  or 
station,  for  example,  are  popularly  referred  to  as 
naval  customs,  and  yet  are  now  fully  covered  by 
specific  regulations.  It  is  more  than  probable 
that  changes  or  extensions  of  these  regulations 
in  the  future  will  originate  from  customs  that 
are  building  up  within  the  service  today.  The 
fact  that  the  Navy  recognizes  valid  customs  as 
having  substantially  the  same  effect  as 
regulations,  therefore,  makes  the  lack  of  clear 
distinction  between  customs  and  regulations 
relatively  unimportant. 

Unfortunately  there  is  no  official  text  for 
the  study  of  naval  customs  which  have  not  yet 
become  regulations.  They  are  of  limited  number, 
and  actual  association  with  the  service  is  the  best 
means  of  becoming  familiar  with  them. 


is  not  to  be  confused  with  usage.  Custom  has  the 
force  of  law;  usage  is  merely  a  fact.  There  can  be 
no  custom  unless  accompanied  by  usage. 

An  act  or  condition  acquires  the  status  of  a 
custom  when  it  is  continued  consistently  over  a 
long  period  of  time;  when  it  is  well  defined  and 
uniformly  followed;  when  it  is  generally 
accepted  so  as  to  seem  almost  compulsory;  and 
when  it  is  not  in  opposition  to  the  terms  and 
provisions  of  a  statute,  lawful  regulation,  or 
order.  It  is  the  obligatory  force  which  attaches 
to  custom  that  enables  it  finally  to  ripen  into 
law. 

In  the  establishment  of  custom,  on  the  other 
hand,  omission  is  sometimes  as  important  as 
commission.  Long-continued  nonusage  may 
operate  to  deprive  a  particular  custom  of  its 
obligatory  character.  Some  customs,  indeed, 
have  the  form  of  "do  not"  rather  than  "do." 
Taboos  are  often  more  stringently  enforced  than 
customs.  The  breach  of  some  naval  customs 
merely  brands  the  offender  as  ill-bred;  the 
violation  of  others  brings  disciplinary  action. 


CUSTOMS 

There  can  be  no  such  thing  as  a  custom 
that  is  contrary  to  existing  law  or 
regulation. 

Manual  for  Courts-Martial 

From  time  to  time,  situations  arise  that  are 
not  covered  by  written  rules.  Conduct  in  such 
cases  is  governed  by  customs  of  the  service. 
These  customs  may  be  likened,  in  their  origin 
and  development,  to  portions  of  the  common 
law  of  England  similarly  established.  But  custom 


CUSTOMS  AND  TRADITION 

Customs  are  closely  linked  with  tradition, 
and  much  esprit  de  corps  of  the  naval  service 
depends  on  their  continued  maintenance.  Many 
customs  have  been  passed  on  to  us  from  great 
navies  of  the  world,  especially  the  British.  (See 
figure  4-1.)  But  the  customs  which  we  have 
adopted  have  been  supplemented  by  traditions 
all  our  own.  Customs-unwritten,  but 
nonetheless  potent  factors  in  the  government  of 
the  Navy,  which  time  and  experience  have 
proved  to  make  for  better  order,  discipline,  and 


134.27 

Figure  4-1. -Many  of  our  present-day  customs  were  in  force  aboard  Lord  Nelson's  flagship,  HMS  Victory.  The  historic 

vessel  is  tied  up  at  Portsmouth,  England. 


increased  efficiency -have,  in  obedience  to  a 
natural  law,  changed  their  form  by  being  merged 
into  written  regulations. 

Our  naval   tradition,    on    the   other  hand, 
has  been  developed  from  the  performance  of  our 


own  naval  personnel.  No  one  knew  better  than 
John  Paul  Jones  the  importance  of  great 
tradition.  Thus,  in  the  battle  against  the  Serapis, 
he  created  two  of  the  great  American  traditions 
by  showing  that  he  didn't  know  when  he  was 


83 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


beaten,  and  later  by  generously  returning  to  the 
British  captain  the  sword  which  his  daring 
behavior  had  won.  Jones  was  preeminent  among 
our  tradition  makers  and  marked  the  way  for  a 
memorable  group  to  follow-Truxtun,  Preble, 
Macdonough,  Lawrence,  Porter,  Farragut,  and 
Dewey.  The  traditions  of  our  Navy  spring  from 
the  gallant  deeds  of  our  officers  and  men.  Our 
customs  are  patterns  of  behavior  which  we  have 
developed  for  ourselves  or  borrowed  from 
others. 


NAVAL  TERMS 
AND  EXPRESSIONS 

Persons  entering  a  new  profession  must  learn 
the  vocabulary  peculiar  to  that  profession  to 
understand  and  make  themselves  understood  by 
their  associates.  The  Navy,  too,  has  its  own 
vocabulary,  containing  unique  terms  for  many 
commonplace  items.  To  a  young  midshipman, 
going  aboard  ship  for  the  first  time,  this  will  be 
confusing  and  perhaps  seem  unnecessary.  If  he  is 
alert,  however,  he  will  soon  realize  that  there  is  a 
great  deal  of  merit  in  the  language  of  the  sea.  He 
will  come  to  understand  that,  under  certain 
circumstances,  a  word  or  a  few  words  mean  a 
precise  thing  or  a  certain  sequence  of  actions.  He 
will  notice  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  accompany 
an  order  with  extended  explanatory  details. 
When  the  proper  order  is  given,  the  desired 
response  is  obtained.  He  will  notice,  too,  that 
when  there  is  a  chance  for  confusion,  a  strange, 
new  term  may  be  substituted  for  an  old,  familiar 
one. 

For  example,  the  word  stop  may  be  used  in 
orders  for  the  ship's  engines  but  never  for  the 
anchor  windlass  or  for  the  helm.  An  officer 
conning  a  ship  issues  a  veritable  stream  of  orders 
when  a  ship  is  getting  underway  or  mooring  or 
anchoring.  Yet,  when  couched  in  proper, 
seaman-like  language,  the  orders  are  understood 
and  are  carried  out  by  the  proper  individual  or 
group.  If  the  conning  officer  wants  to  stop  all 
the  engines,  to  stop  the  swing  of  the  ship,  or  to 
stop  the  anchor  windlass  he  gives  the  order  "All 
engines  stop,"  "Meet  her,"  or  "Avast  heaving," 
respectively.  There  is  no  chance  for  confusion; 
the  person  on  the  engine  order  telegraph  rings' 
up  stop,  the  steersman  puts  the  rudder  over,  or 


the   proper   talker   relays    the    order,    "Avast 
heaving,"  to  the  anchor  detail  on  the  forecastle. 

An  order  or  a  term  may  have  its  origin  in 
antiquity  or  it  may  have  been  recently  coined, 
but  that  is  not  important.  What  is  important  is 
that  the  expression  conveys,  in  as  few  words  as 
possible,  an  exact  meaning  with  little  or  no 
chance  for  confusion.  Those  that  fit  this 
requirement  live  on  as  long  as  there  is  need  for 
them;  those  that  do  not  are  soon  replaced. 

It  behooves  a  young  officer  to  learn  and  use 
this  language  because  it  is  a  necessary  tool  of  his 
trade. 

This  chapter  discusses  a  few  of  the  many 
expressions  that  form  our  nautical  language. 
(See  figure  4-2.) 

ANCHOR  WATCH 

Years  ago  when  ships  were  equipped  with 
anchor  cables  of  hempen  rope  and  oil-burning 
riding  lights,  special  care  was  taken  while  riding 
at  anchor,  to  see  that  these  lamps  were  not 
extinguished,  that  the  cables  did  not  part,  and 
that  the  ship  did  not  drag  her  anchor.  The  watch 
responsible  for  this  particular  duty  was 
designated  the  "anchor  watch."  The  anchor 
watch,  as  a  sea  term,  is  still  retained  although  its 
duties  have  been  changed  considerably  since  the 
old  days.  Today,  the  anchor  watch  is  a  detail  of 
personnel  on  deck  at  night  safeguarding  the 
vessel  when  at  anchor. 

AVAST 

"Avast"  is  a  corruption  of  the  original  form 
which  meant  "hold  fast"  or  "stand  fast."  Today 
it  is  an  order  to  stop  or  cease,  as  "Avast 
heaving!" 

AYE,  AYE 

The  present  meaning  of  the  expression 
"Aye,  aye,"  which  originally  was  "Yes,  yes" 
(old  English)  is  "I  understand,  and  I  will  doit." 

BELLS 

Certain  words  and  expressions  preserve  for 
us  old  customs,  as  in  the  instance  of  bells  struck 
aboard  ship.  They  are  not  primarily  intended  to 


M    T3 


85 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


replace  clocks  for  telling  time.  But  they  do  tell 
clock  time  by  measuring  the  periods  when 
certain  members  of  the  crew  are  standing  watch. 
It  started  with  the  hourglass-which  really 
wasn't  an  hourglass  but  a  half-hour  glass.  The 
quartermaster  on  watch  turned  the  glass  at  the 
end  of  his  first  half-hour,  striking  the  bell  an 
additional  stroke  each  time,  until  at  the  end  of  4 
hours  he  would  strike  the  bell  eight  times, 
signaling  the  completion  of  his  watch  and  the 
beginning  of  the  next  4-hour  watch.  So  it  went 
during  the  six  watches  of  the  24  hours,  ending  at 
midnight.  (Length  of  the  watch  sometimes 
varies.  See  "Dog  Watch.")  While  the  hourglass 
has  long  been  out  of  date,  the  bells  are  still  used 
aboard  ship. 

BILGE 

"Bilge"  usually  refers  to  the  bottom  of  a 
ship,  or  more  correctly  to  the  curved  part  of  the 
ship's  hull.  It  also  has  another  connotation. 
Midshipmen  who  are  dropped  from  school  for 
academic  reasons  are  said  to  be  "bilged."  Thus5 
when  used  as  a  verb,  the  term  means  to  be 
dropped  out  of  the  bottom— in  this  case  the 
bottom  of  the  class. 

BINNACLE  LIST 

The  binnacle  list  gets  its  name  from  the  old 
nautical  practice  of  placing  the  sicklist  on  the 
binnacle  (stand  containing  ship's  compass)  each 
morning,  so  that  it  would  be  readily  available  for 
the  captain.  The  modern  binnacle  list  contains 
the  names  of  personnel  suffering  minor 
complaints  which  preclude  their  employment  on 
strenuous  duty.  Hospitalized  personnel  go  on 
the  sicklist. 

BITTER  END 

"Bitter  end"  was  the  turn  of  the  cable's  end 
around  the  bitts.  It  is  now  used  to  define  the 
end  of  the  chain  cable  which  is  secured  in  the 
chain  locker  or  the  loose  end  of  a  line.  In  all 
cases  the  inboard  end  is  referred  to  as  the  bitter 
end. 


BLUEJACKET 

Uniforms  first  adopted  for  the  Royal  Navy 
included  a  short,  blue  jacket.  Although  no 
universal  uniform  was  prescribed  for  U.S.  Navy 
enlisted  personnel  until  the  1850s,  many  men 
wore  the  Royal  Navy  blue  jacket  unofficially  in 
the  early  days  of  that  century.  Enlisted 
personnel  are  sometime  referred  to  as 
Bluejackets.  Although  the  white  hat  is  no  longer 
a  part  of  the  enlisted  personnel's  uniform  the 
term  "white  hat,"  is  still  used  to  refer  to  Navy 
enlisted  personnel  below  the  rate  of  chief  petty 
officer. 

BOATSWAIN 

Boatswain  in  pronounced  BO-sun.  "Swain" 
or  "swein"  is  the  Saxon  word  for  servant  or  boy. 
In  this  instance  the  word  refers  to  a  warrant  or 
petty  officer  in  charge  of  the  deck  crew  and  is 
responsible  for  the  maintenance  of  the  ship's 
hull  and  external  equipment. 

BOATSWAIN'S  PIPE 

The  boatswain's  pipe,  or  whistle,  is  an  article 
of  great  antiquity.  Originally  employed  to  "call 
the  stroke"  in  ancient  row-galleys,  it  became,  in 
the  early  English  Navy,  a  badge  of  office  and  of 
honor.  Later  the  pipe  became  the  distinctive 
emblem  of  the  boatswain  and  his  mates.  Today 
(figure  4-3)  the  boatswain's  mate  uses  his  pipe 
when  the  "word  is  passed,"  when  officers  are 
piped  over  the  side,  etc. 

BRIG 

Lord  Nelson  used  a  brig  (a  type  of  sailing 
ship)  in  battle  for  removing  prisoners  from  his 
ships,  hence  prisons  at  sea  came  to  be  known  as 
brigs. 

BUMBOAT 

The  bumboat  is  a  boat  employed  by  civilians 
to  carry  salable  provisions,  vegetables,  and  small 
merchandise  to  ships.  The  term  may  have  been 
derived  from  "boom-boat,"  indicating  boats 
permitted  to  lie  at  booms. 


Chapter  4-NAVAL  TERMS  AND  CUSTOMS 


CAPTAIN 

This  term  comes  from  the  Latin  caput 
meaning  "head." 

CAULK 

"Caulk,"  commonly  mispronounced  "cork," 
means  to  pack  a  seam  in  the  planking  of  a  ship. 
When  wooden  ships  were  caulked  in  drydock, 
workmen  usually  had  to  lie  on  their  backs 
underneath  the  hull.  In  this  position  it  was  not 
difficult  to  fall  asleep.  Hence,  to  "take  a  caulk," 
or  to  "caulk  off"— the  sailor's  expression  for 
sleeping,  or  taking  a  nap. 

CHAINS 

On  many  sailing  ships,  shrouds  supporting  the 
masts  were  secured  to  links  of  chain  attached  to 


the  ships'  sides.  To  get  a  better  lead  for  the 
shrouds  and  to  keep  them  from  bearing  on  the 
bulwarks,  the  chains  were  led  up  around  thick 
planks  jutting  from  the  ships'  sides.  These  planks 
made  convenient  platforms  from  which  to  heave 
the  lead,  and  the  leadsman  was  "in  the  chains." 
Later,  as  now,  shrouds  were  secured  on  deck 
inboard  of  bulwarks  or  lifelines.  Special 
platforms  were  built  for  the  leadsman,  but  the 
term  "chains"  was  retained. 

CHARLIE  NOBLE 

The  term  "Charlie  Noble"  is  applied  to  the 
galley  smoke  pipe.  While  its  origin  is  obscure,  it 
is  generally  believed  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  British  merchant  skipper,  Charlie  Noble, 
who  demanded  a  high  polish  on  the  galley 
funnel.  His  bright  copper  galley  funnel  became 
well  known  in  the  ports  he  visited. 


80.1 

Figure  4-3.— The  boatswain's  pipe  was  in  use  long  before 
loudspeaker  systems  were  invented.  It  is  being  used 

here    tO    hrinn   thfl    ri*P\n/'<5    attpntinn   tn   a   uirtrrl  ahnut 


CHIT 

Derived  from  Hindi,  the  term  was  used  by 
the  old  East  India  Company  to  signify  almost 
any  sort  of  paper  used  in  everyday  business 
transactions. 

CHRISTENING 
A  SHIP 

Launching  ceremonies  have  had  a  religious 
significance  from  the  earliest  days.  The 
christening  ceremony  originated  as  a 
propitiation  to  the  gods  of  the  elements.  In 
some  countries  as  recently  as  a  hundred  years 
ago  a  launching  frequently  resembled  a 
baptismal  ceremony  and  was  performed  by 
priests. 

Early  in  the  1 9th  century,  women  and  those 
other  than  the  clergy  and  high  officials  began  to 
take  part  in  the  ceremony  of  launching  ships. 

Today  the  ceremony  usually  consists  in  the 
naming  of  the  vessel  by  a  sponsor,  and  the 
breaking  of  a  bottle  of  wine  against  the  ship's 
bow  as  she  slides  into  the  water.  People  have 
been  known  to  miss  the  ship  entirely,  and  so 
today  the  bottle  is  secured  by  a  lanyard  to  the 

r\f       fViP       eViin. etc       a        oofotw       mt>oont-u>       f/-\r 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


COMMISSION  PENNANT 

The  origin  of  the  commission  pennant  is  said 
to  date  back  to  the  1 7th  century,  when  the 
Dutch  were  fighting  the  English.  Admiral  Tromp 
hoisted  a  broom  at  his  masthead,  to  indicate  his 
intention  to  sweep  the  English  from  the  sea.  The 
gesture  was  soon  answered  by  the  English 
admiral  who  hoisted  a  horsewhip,  to  indicate  his 
intention  to  chastise  the  Dutch.  The  British 
carried  out  their  boast  and  ever  since,  the 
narrow,  or  coachwhip,  pennant  (symbolizing  the 
original  horsewhip)  has  been  the  distinctive 
mark  of  a  vessel  of  war  and  has  been  adopted  by 
all  nations. 

The  commission  pennant,  as  it  is  called 
today,  is  blue  at  the  hoist,  with  a  union  of  seven 
white  stars;  it  is  red  and  white  at  the  fly,  in  two 
horizontal  stripes.  The  number  of  stars  has  no 
special  significance  but  was  arbitrarily  selected 
as  providing  the  most  suitable  display.  The 
pennant  is  flown  at  the  main  by  vessels  not 
carrying  flag  officers.  In  lieu  of  the  commission 
pennant,  a  vessel  with  an  admiral  or  other 
officer  in  command  of  a  squadron,  group,  etc., 
or  a  high-ranking  civil  official  aboard,  flies  the 
personal  flag  or  command  pennant  of  that 
person. 

THE  CONN 

To  "conn"  means  to  control,  or  direct  by 
rudder  and  engine  order  telegraph,  the 
movements  of  a  ship.  When  a  person  has  the 
conn,  it  indicates  he  is  the  one  and  only  person 
who  can  give  orders  to  the  wheel  and  engine 
order  telegraph  at  any  one  time.  The  exact 
derivation  of  the  word  "conn"  is  not  known. 

COXSWAIN  (COCKSWAIN) 

From  "cock,"  a  small  boat,  and  "swain,"  a 
servant.  Enlisted  man  in  charge  of  a  boat  in  the 
absence  of  a  line  officer.  Pronounced  COX-un. 

CROSSING  THE  LINE 

The  boisterous  ceremonies  of  crossing  the 
line  (Equator)  are  so  ancient  that  their 


derivation  is  lost.  It  is  said  that  this  custom  had 
its  origin  in  propitiatory  offerings  to  the  deities 
of  the  sea  by  mariners  who  thought  that  gods 
and  goddesses  controlled  the  elements. 

Today  when  naval  ships  cross  the  Equator, 
those  members  of  the  crew  (called  "pollywogs") 
who  have  never  before  crossed  the  line  are 
initiated  by  the  more  experienced  members  of 
the  crew  ("shellbacks").  The  usual  formula  is  for 
the  "shellbacks"  to  attire  themselves  in  strange 
costumes  representing  Neptune,  Amphi trite,  and 
other  favorites  of  the  sea.  A  court  is  held  among 
Neptune's  subjects,  and  the  novices  are 
summoned  to  trial.  The  fate  administered  to 
each  is  in  the  nature  of  ridicule,  such  as  a  parade 
of  the  person's  particular  idiosyncrasies  and  a 
caricature  of  his  foibles.  The  victim  is  usually 
lathered  with  some  frightful  concoction,  shaved 
(with  a  wooden  razor),  and  ducked  backward 
into  a  tank  of  water.  He  is  then  issued  a 
certificate,  signed  by  Neptunus  Rex, 
documenting  the  fact  that  he  has  crossed  the 
line  and  is  now  a  full-fledged  "shellback." 

CUT  OF  HIS  JIB 

The  nationality  of  the  early  sailing  ships  was 
frequently  determined  by  the  shape  or  cut  of 
their  jib  sails.  Use  of  the  phrase  as  applied  to  a 
man  originally  referred  to  his  nose-which,  like  a 
jib,  is  the  first  feature  of  its  wearer  to  come  into 
view.  Ultimately  it  was  extended  to  describe  a 
man's  general  appearance. 

DIPPING  THE  ENSIGN 

Dipping  the  flag  in  salute  is  a  relic  of  an 
old-time  custom  by  which  a  merchant  vessel  was 
required  not  only  to  heave  to  when  approaching 
a  warship  on  the  high  seas,  but  also  to  clew  up 
all  her  canvas  to  indicate  her  honesty  and 
willingness  to  be  searched.  Delays  resulted,  and 
in  later  years  the  rule  of  dipping  the  flag  was 
authorized  as  a  timesaving  substitute.  Ships  of 
the  U.S.  Navy  return  such  salutes  dip  for  dip, 
except  for  dips  rendered  by  ships  under  the  flags 
of  nations  not  formally  recognized  by  the 
United  States.  No  ship  of  our  Navy  initiates  a 
dip. 


DOG  WATCH 

The  term  "dog  watch"  is  a  corruption  of 
"dock  watch,"  that  is,  a  watch  that  has  been 
docked  or  shortened .  Usually  the  term  is  applied 
to  the  two  sections  into  which  the  1600-2000 
watch  is  divided,  and  they  are  referred  to  as  the 
first  and  second  dog  watch. 

EYES  OF  THE  SHIP 

Ships  in  the  early  days  generally  had  in  the 
bow  carved  heads  of  mythological  monsters  or 
patrons.  The  fore  part  of  the  ship  was  called  the 
"head."  The  term  "eyes  of  the  ship"  followed 
from  the  eyes  of  the  figures  placed  there. 

FLAG  AT 
HALF-MAST 

At  times  of  mourning  in  old  sailing  days,  the 
yards  were  "cockbilled"  and  the  rigging  was 
slacked  off,  to  indicate  that  the  grief  was  so 
great  that  it  was  impossible  to  keep  things 
shipshape.  Today  the  half-masting  of  the  colors 
is  a  survival  of  the  days  when  a  slovenly 
appearance  characterized  mourning  on 
shipboard. 

FORECASTLE 

"Forecastle"  is  pronounced  "focsul."  In  the 
days  of  Columbus,  ships  were  fitted  with 
castle-like  eminences  fore  and  aft.  While  both 
structures  have  disappeared,  the  term 
"forecastle,"  referring  to  the  same  general  part 
of  the  ship  as  the  original  "forward  castle,"  still 
remains. 

GANGWAY 

The  word  "gangway"  is  taken  from  the 
anglo-saxon  word  "gang,"  to  go,  make  a  passage 
in,  or  cut  out  (or  cut  through).  It  is  commonly 
used  as  an  order  to  stand  aside  or  to  stand  clear. 

GROG 

Admiral  Edward  Vernon  of  the  Royal  Navy 
is  responsible  for  the  term  "grog."  He  was  in  the 
habit  of  walking  the  deck  of  his  flagship  in  a 
boatcloak  of  grogram  cloth.  This  suggested  a 
nickname  for  the  popular  flag  officer,  and 
Admiral  Vernon  came  to  be  known 


134.29 

Figure  4-4.— This  is  the  grog  tub  aboard  the  USS 
Constitution,  a  reminder  of  the  days  when  a  mixture 
of  rum  and  water  was  served  as  a  ration  to  the  crew. 


affectionately  as  "Old  Grog."  In  1740  he 
introduced  West  Indian  rum  aboard  ship  and  had 
a  mixture  of  rum  and  water  served  as  a  ration  to 
the  crews.  (See  figure  4-4.)  It  was  intended  as  a 
preventive  against  fevers,  which  so  often 
decimated  expeditions  to  the  West  Indies.  This 
innovation  was  received  with  enthusiasm  by  the 
men  on  the  flagship  Burford,  who  promptly 
named  the  beverage  after  this  illustrious  leader. 
Forty  years  later  verses  were  composed  on 
the  cruiser  Berwick  which  bespeak  the 
popularity  of  the  officer  and  the  drink;  the  last 
two  stanzas  are: 

A  mighty  bowl  on  deck  he  drew, 

And  filled  it  to  the  brink; 
Such  drank  the  Burford's  gallant  crew, 

And  such  the  gods  shall  drink. 
The  sacred  robe  which  Vernon  wore 

Was  drenched  within  the  same; 
And  hence  his  virtues  guard  our  shore, 

And  grog  derives  its  name. 


89 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


GUN  SALUTES 

Originally,  a  vessel  saluting  another 
discharged  all  her  guns  rendering  herself 
powerless  until  a  reload  could  be  made-a 
process  requiring  considerable  time.  Thus  the 
ship  first  rendering  the  honors  showed  that  she 
would  not  attack  and  feared  no  attack-the 
gesture  was  one  of  friendship  and  confidence. 
Firing  blank  cartridges  is  a  comparatively 
modern  invention  occasioned,  it  is  said,  by  the 
fact  that  a  complimentary  cannonball  once 
proved  fatal  to  the  honored  personage.  (The 
"present  arms"  salute  of  today  was  originally  a 
gesture  of  literal  presentation.) 

The  origin  of  the  twenty-one-gun 
international  salute  is  of  interest.  Originally 
warships  fired  salutes  of  seven  guns,  the  number 


seven  probably  having  been  selected  because  of 
the  mystical  and  symbolical  significance  given  it 
in  the  Bible. 

Although  by  regulations  the  salute  at  sea  was 
seven  guns,  shore  batteries  were  allowed  to  fire 
three  guns  to  the  ship's  one.  The  difference  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  in  those  days  the  storage  of 
powder  aboard  ship  was  a  matter  of  serious 
concern,  because  of  lack  of  facilities  for 
maintaining  low  and  even  temperatures  in  the 
magazines.  Since  powder  easily  spoiled  at  sea 
but  could  be  better  kept  on  land,  three  times  as 
many  guns  were  prescribed.  Again,  the  figure 
three  was  probably  selected  as  a  multiple 
because  of  mystical  and  symbolical  significance. 

When  powder  that  was  not  so  difficult  to 
preserve  at  sea  came  into  general  use,  the 
number  of  guns  for  the  naval  international  salute 


shipmate.  Among  military 
for  centuries 

90 


was  raised  to  twenty-one.  By  common 
agreement  the  international  salutes  of  all  nations 
are  now  twenty-one  guns. 

International  salutes  grew  out  of  custom  and 
usage.  The  custom  began  with  the  strong  nations 
exacting  from  foreign  vessels  acts  of  submission, 
sometimes  even  by  force,  but  in  the  17th 
century  the  question  of  such  ceremonials 
became  a  matter  of  negotiation.  Although 
saluting  was  originally  forced  upon  the  vessels  of 
smaller  nations  to  compel  them  to  recognize 
the  superiority  of  the  greater,  in  the  final 
recognition  of  the  principle  of  equality  between 
nations,  it  became  customary  to  render  salutes 
"gun  for  gun." 

Salute  Over  a  Grave.  Originally  the  three 
volleys  fired  into  the  air  were  supposed  to  drive 
away  evil  spirits  as  they  escaped  from  the  hearts 
of  the  dead.  It  was  thought  that  the  doors  of 
men's  hearts  stood  ajar  at  such  times,  permitting 
devils  to  enter.  Today  the  gun  salutes  (figure 


4-5)    are    fired   as    a   ceremonious   gesture    of 
respect. 

HAWSER 

Heavy  line  of  hemp,  used  for  mooring  and 
towing.  Formerly  used  as  anchor  cable  (before 
chains).  From  the  French  hausser;  to  haul. 

HEAD 

The  ship's  lavatory  is  called  the  head  because 
these  facilities  in  the  old  days  were  located  in 
the  forward  part  of  the  ship. 

HOLYSTONE 

The  holystone,  as  we  see  it  today,  is  a  piece 
of  smooth  brick  or  stone,  in  the  top  of  which  a 
small  hole  has  been  gouged.  A  squilgee 
(pronounced  "squeegee")  handle  is  inserted  in 
the  hole  and  kept  there  by  pressure  exerted  on  it 
(figure  4-6)  while  scrubbing  the  deck.  Sand  and 


134.134 

Figure  4-6.-Members  of  the  deck  force  "assume  the  position"  for  scouring  a  deck.  Holystoning  originally  removed 
the  possibility  of  slivers  in  bare  feet.  It  is  still  considered  the  best  method  of  smoothing  and  cleaning  wooden  decks. 


91 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


water  are  used  with  the  holystone  to  scour  a 
wooden  deck. 

In  the  early  days  the  handle  was  not  in  use, 
and  the  seamen  knelt  on  the  deck  to  give  it  the 
necessary  scouring.  The  attitude  of  prayer  thus 
assumed  was  responsible,  many  think,  for  the 
stone  being  called  "holy."  There  are  those  who 
think  that  the  name  came  about  as  the  result  of 
the  fact  that  fragments  of  broken  monuments 
from  Saint  Nicholas'  church  in  England  were 
used  in  the  early  days  to  scrub  the  ships'  decks 
of  the  British  Navy. 


Today,  the  term  refers  to  any  storage  area  for 
loose  gear  picked  up  by  the  master-at-arms 
force. 


MAST 

The  term  "captain's  mast,"  or  merely 
"mast,"  derives  from  the  fact  that  in  early 
sailing  days  the  usual  setting  for  this  type  of 
naval  justice  was  on  the  weather  deck  near  the 
ship's  mainmast. 


JACOB'S  LADDER 

This  ladder  made  of  line  is  used  over  the  side 
and  aloft.  It  originally  led  to  the  skysail. 
Probably  the  allusion  was  to  Biblical  Jacob's 
dream  in  which  he  climbed  up  to  the  sky. 

KEELHAULING 

The  term  "keelhauling"  today  connotes  a 
verbal  reprimand.  Originally  it  comprised  a  cruel 
form  of  punishment  that  consisted  of  binding 
the  offender  hand  and  foot,  weighting  his  body, 
then  drawing  him  under  the  ship's  bottom  from 
one  fore  yardarm  to  the  other,  by  means  of 
whips.  If  the  bottom  were  covered  with  sharp 
barnacles,  the  torture  was  extreme  and  the 
punishment  often  fatal. 

LASHING  BROOM 
TO  MASTHEAD 

A  popular  custom  in  the  U.S.  Navy  is  that  of 
lashing  a  broom  to  the  masthead  of  a  ship  when 
it  has  participated  in  a  complete  victory  over  an 
enemy  force,  thus  indicating  her  ability  to  sweep 
the  seas.  (A  ship  making  the  highest  gunnery  or 
engineering  record  in  the  fleet  also  displays  a 
broom.)  As  has  been  noted,  Admiral  Tromp 
originated  the  custom  (see  Commission 
Pennant). 

LUCKY  BAG 

Formerly,  a  bag  in  which  personal 
possessions  that  had  been  left  adrift  were  stored. 


MIDSHIPMEN 

In  early  days  the  crew  was  quartered  in  the 
forecastle,  while  officers  lived  in  the  aftercastle. 
The  title  "midshipmen"  was  originally  given  to 
youngsters  of  the  British  Navy  who  acted  as 
messengers  and  carried  orders  from  officers  aft 
to  the  men  forward.  These  lads,  who  had  direct 
contact  with  the  officers,  were  continuously 
passing  back  and  forth  amidships  and  were 
regarded  as  apprentice  officers.  The  ancient  term 
has  survived,  and  today  officer  candidates  at 
Annapolis  (and  other  midshipmen's  schools)  are 
called  midshipmen. 

PIPING  THE  SIDE 

To  the  new  officer  the  custom  of  piping  the 
side,  a  heritage  from  the  British  Navy,  seems  one 
of  the  strangest  of  all  naval  customs.  It 
originated  in  the  days  of  sail,  when  captains 
visited  one  another  at  sea  and  were  hoisted  on 
board  in  net  or  basket  if  the  weather  was  too 
rough  to  permit  the  use  of  ladders. 

The  officer  of  the  deck  ordinarily  summoned 
from  the  crew  several  hands  to  assist  the  visitor 
in  making  the  landing  on  deck.  If  he  were 
young,  a  lieutenant  perhaps,  two  men  were 
required  to  help  him;  if  older,  a  commander 
perchance,  having  increased  his  girth  as  well  as 
his  grade  through  the  years,  he  might  require 
four.  If,  however,  he  happened  to  be  a  captain 
or  an  admiral,  he  may  have  required  six  or  eight 
to  enable  him  to  secure  a  stable  footing.  Thus 
there  came  about  the  custom  of  having  "side 
boys"  to  meet  officers.  When  the  custom 


Chapter  4-NAVAL  TERMS  AND  CUSTOMS 


became   a   regulation    courtesy,   the    side    was 
similarly  attended  upon  their  departure. 

The  custom  of  piping  the  officer  alongside 
and  over  the  gangway  is  a  relic  of  the  piping  that 
was  necessary  in  setting  taut  and  hoisting  away 
the  cargo  net  or  basket  containing  the  boarding 
officer. 

QUARTERDECK 

There  is  evidence  that  the  marked  respect 
paid  the  quarterdeck  aboard  ship  today  had  its 
origin  many  hundreds  of  years  ago.  In  the  days 
of  Greek  and  Roman  sea  power,  obeisances  were 
made  to  the  pagan  altar,  which  was  placed  aft. 
Later  the  same  respect  was  paid  the  shrines  of 
the  Virgin  similarly  located.  Still  later  the 
"king's  colors,"  which  were  a  symbol  of  the 
church  and  state  combined,  became  the  object 
of  respect.  One  is  impressed  with  the  thought 
that  the  quarterdeck  has  always  been  the 
honored  part  of  the  ship.  It  has  retained  its 
"sanctity"  today.  (The  name  "poop  deck" 
derives  from  the  Latin  word  puppis,  a  name 
given  the  sacred  deck  where  the  pupi  or  doll 
images  of  the  dieties  were  placed.) 

SCUTTLEBUTT 

A  butt  is  a  cask  or  hogshead.  To  "scuttle" 
means  to  make  one  or  more  holes  in  a  ship's  side 
or  bottom  to  sink  her.  A  "scuttlebutt"  in  the 
old  days  was  a  cask  that  had  an  opening  in  its 
side,  fitted  with  a  spigot.  Stout  casks  of  oak 
were  utilized  to  contain  freshwater  for  drinking 
purposes.  Today  any  drinking  fountain  in  the 
Navy  is  called  a  "scuttlebutt." 

Scuttlebutt— A  Type  of  Rumor.  Men 
naturally  congregate  at  drinking  fountains— and 
rumors  start.  Hence  the  term  "scuttlebutt"  for 
rumor.  (A  galley  yarn  is  a  similar  term.  In  the 
early  days  the  galley  was  frequently  a  place  of 
meeting,  and  cooks  had  the  reputation  for 
knowing  and  passing  on  the  "news.") 

SHOW  A  LEG 

The  term  "show  a  leg"  is  synonymous  with 
"rise  and  shine."  It  is  a  slang  expression,  used 
generally  by  boatswains'  mates  and 


masters-at-arms  when  turning  the  crew  out  of 
their  hammocks  or  bunks. 

The  call  "show  a  leg"  probably  derives  from 
the  days  when  women  were  carried  at  sea  in  the 
British  Navy,  "the  wives  of  seamen."  The 
women  who  put  out  a  stockinged  leg  for 
identification  were  not  required  to  turn  out  at 
first  call. 

SICKBAY 

Nelson,  who  was  responsible  for  many 
British  naval  customs,  forerunners  of  our  own> 
originated  the  term  "sick  berth"  in  his  order  to 
the  Mediterranean  fleet  in  1798.  In  line-of-battle 
ships  the  sick  berth  was  placed  in  the  bows. 
When  round  bows  were  introduced  in  181 1,  the 
sick  berth,  keeping  its  same  position,  found  itself 
in  a  bay  (semicircular  indentation).  Thus  in  1813 
began  the  use  of  the  term  "sickbay."  It  is 
customary  today  for  officers  to  remove  their 
caps  when  entering  sickbay.  It  may  be  that  this 
custom  stems  from  the  early  sailing  days  when 
men  were  not  admitted  to  sickbay  until  they 
were  about  ready  for  "slipping  the  cable" 
(dying). 

SKYLARK 

To  be  inattentive  or  engage  in  horseplay, 
usually  when  one  is  supposed  to  be  working. 
The  term  came  about  when  young  sailors  would 
climb  to  the  skysail  yardarms  and  slide  down  the 
stays. 

SMOKING  LAMP 

In  the  old  days  matches  were  prohibited  to 
members  of  the  crew,  and  for  their  convenience 
oil  lamps  were  swung  in  several  parts  of  the  ship 
where  they  could  light  a  pipe  or  cigar. 
(Cigarettes  did  not  become  popular  until 
Spanish  War  days.) 

During  routine  work,  smoking  was 
prohibited.  It  was  a  simple  matter  to  regulate 
this  practice.  The  officer  of  the  deck  needed 
only  to  order  the  smoking  lamps  extinguished. 

The  expression  is  retained  to  this  day. 
Before  drills,  fueling,  receiving  ammunition,  etc., 


93 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


the  officer  of  the  deck  orders  the  word  passed, 
'"The  smoking  lamp  is  out,"  which  means 
"knock  off  smoking." 

STARBOARD 
AND  PORT 

In  the  old  Viking  ships  the  right  side  of  the 
vessel  (looking  forward)  was  called  the 
"steerboard"  side,  because  ships  were  steered  by 
means  of  a  heavy  board  secured  to  the  right  side 
of  the  ship.  Loading  was  avoided  from  that  side 
because  of  the  possibility  of  damaging  the 
steering  gear.  Gradually  the  term  "steerboard" 
was  corrupted  to  "starboard." 

The  left  side  of  these  old  ships  (the  place  of 
loading)  was  called  the  "load  board"  side.  This 
finally  became  "larboard."  Because  "starboard" 
and  "larboard"  sounded  so  much  alike,  the  term 
"port"  was  substituted  in  the  United  States 
Navy  for  "larboard."  A  General  Order  (18 
February  1846)  reads:  "It  having  been 
repeatedly  represented  to  the  Department  that 
confusion  arises  from  the  use  of  the  words 
'Larboard'  and  'Starboard'  in  consequence  of 
their  similarity  of  sound,  the  word  'Port'  is 
hereafter  to  be  substituted  for  Larboard." 
(Perhaps  the  term  "port"  was  used  because,  as 
ships  became  larger  and  rose  higher  in  the  water, 
loading  took  place  through  openings  in  the  sides 
called  "ports." 

SUNDOWNER 

A  sundowner  is  a  harsh  disciplinarian.  The 
term  is  derived  from  the  practice  of  strict 
captains  in  the  early  days  who  ordered  all  hands 
to  be  aboard  by  sunset. 

TAR 

Sailors  once  covered  their  clothes  with  tar  or 
oil  to  make  them  waterproof,  hence  the 
nickname  often  applied  to  mariners. 

TATTOO 

^     This  term  is  derived  from  the  old  dutch 
"taptoe,"  meaning  the  time  to  close  the  taps  or 


taverns.  At  the  appointed  hours,  drummers 
marched  from  post  to  post  in  the  town,  beating 
their  drums.  "First  post"  was  the  signal  given 
when  they  had  taken  their  places  and  were  ready 
to  commence  their  rounds  (this  survives  in  the 
Navy  as  "first  call"),  while  "last  post"  was 
sounded  when  they  had  reached  the  end  of  their 
rounds  (this  survives  as  our  present  ''tattoo"). 
The  "first  call"  is  sounded  10  minutes  before 
"taps";  "tattoo,"  5  minutes  before  "taps." 
"Taps"  is  the  signal  for  lights  out. 

WARDROOM 

It  is  generally  believed  that  this  term  came 
from  the  British  Navy.  Back  in  the  1 8th  century 
there  was  a  compartment  aboard  ship  near  the 
officers'  staterooms,  which  was  used  as  a  storage 
room,  particularly  for  officers'  clothing.  It  was 
called  the  "wardroom."  When  this  compartment 
was  empty,  the  lieutenants  met  there  informally 
and  for  meals.  Gradually  it  was  used  entirely  as 
an  officers'  messroom,  and  such  was  the  custom 
when  the  United  States  Navy  came  into  being. 

WORKING  OFF 
A  DEAD  HORSE 

"Working  off  a  dead  horse"  refers  to  the  old 
custom  of  rigging  up  a  stuffed  horse  and  burning 
it  over  the  side  to  celebrate  the  fact  that  the  pay 
advanced  at  shipping  on  had  been  worked  off. 
After  this  ceremony  the  crew  started  to 
accumulate  wages  "on  the  books."  This  has 
become  a  common  expression  ashore.  A  lot  of 
"dead  horses"  were  worked  off  during  the 
depression  years  of  the  1 930s. 


UNIFORMS  AND  TRADITION 

The  uniform  promotes  a  feeling  of  unity  and 
contributes  smartness  to  the  appearance  of  an 
individual  or  group.  Insignia  worn  upon  the 
uniform  indicate  corps,  grade,  rate,  and 
specialty,  as  well  as  other  distinguishing  features, 
such  as  awards,  campaign  ribbons,  and  service 
stripes  to  which  the  wearer  is  entitled. 

The  meaning  of  the  uniform  is  well 
expressed  in  the  following  excerpt,  taken  from 


Chapter  4-NAVAL  TERMS  AND  CUSTOMS 


an  address  delivered  to  a  graduating  group  of 

midshipmen: 

"Have  an  exalted  pride  in  the  uniform  you 
wear  and  all  that  it  represents.  Wear  it 
correctly;  wear  it  proudly.  Salute  it  with 
respect  when  you  meet  it;  behave  in  it  in  a 
seemly  manner;  protect  it  when  it  is 
offended  or  in  danger.  It  represents  the  fleet, 
the  Nation,  your  home,  and  your  family.  It 
is  a  symbol  of  all  that  is  dear  to  you  and  of 
all  that  men  are  willing  to  die  for." 

OFFICERS'  UNIFORMS 

As  late  as  the  middle  of  the  18th  century, 
sailors'  dress  generally  lacked  uniformity.  A 
group  of  British  naval  officers,  habitues  of  Will's 
Coffee  House,  supposedly  set  the  fashion  of 
officers'  uniforms  in  the  Royal  Navy.  In  1745, 
after  much  discussion  these  officers  presented  a 
petition  to  the  Admiralty,  requesting  a 
prescribed  dress.  Various  patterns  and  colors 
were  accordingly  prepared,  and  final  selection 
was  made  by  the  King  himself.  Having  seen  the 
Duchess  of  Bedford  riding  in  a  blue  habit  which 
greatly  took  his  fancy,  George  II  designated  blue 
as  the  color  to  be  adopted  by  the  Royal  Navy. 

The  Continental  Navy  officer's  uniform  was 
much  like  the  one  worn  in  the  Royal  Navy.  No 
doubt  both  services  had  the  same  purpose  in 
adopting  a  uniform  that  made  it  possible  to 
distinguish  rank  and  also  improved  appearance 
and  lifted  morale. 

In  1877  our  Navy  adopted  the 
single-breasted  blouse  with  a  high  military  collar. 
The  present  double-breasted  coat  was  accepted 
in  1918. 

In  1830  naval  chaplains  were  authorized  to 
wear  "a  plain  black  coat,  vest  and  pantaloons," 
and  in  1841  the  Navy  Department  authorized 
chaplains  to  wear  the  official  eagle  button. 
Chaplains  wore  the  cross  on  their  uniforms  for 
the  first  time  in  1 864. 

The  oak  leaf  and  acorn  (symbol  of  the  druid 
priest-physicians)  was  first  used  to  symbolize  the 
surgeons  and  the  surgeon's  mate  in  1834.  A 
simplified  form  of  the  earliest  symbol  is  in  use 
today  as  the  medical  officer's  corps  device.  The 
caduceus  (classic  symbol  of  the  Greek  god  of 
medicine)  was  first  adopted  in  1886  as  the 
specialty  mark  for  the  enlisted  rating  of 


apothecary.  Upon  establishment  of  the  Hospital 
Corps  the  Geneva  cross  was  adopted  as  the  corps 
device  for  the  warrant  officers  and  enlisted  men 
of  that  corps.  In  1913  the  caduceus  was 
prescribed  as  corps  device  for  Hospital  Corps 
warrant  officers,  and  in  April  1948  it  replaced 
the  red  cross  as  the  specialty  mark  for  enlisted 
corpsmen. 

A  variation  of  the  medical  corps  oak  leaf  and 
acorn  is  the  corps  device  of  the  Navy  Dental 
Corps. 

Gold  insignia  to  denote  rank  (and  in  the  case 
of  staff  officers  also  their  special  branches) 
gradually  came  into  use. 

Today  comfort,  service,  and  appearance 
dictate  the  styling  of  the  naval  officer's  uniform, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  full-dress  attire,  most 
frills  have  disappeared. 

ENLISTED  UNIFORMS 

The  uniform  of  today's  bluejacket  was  also 
"custom-tailored."  The  sailors  of  the  American 
Navy  of  1776  had  no  official  uniform,  and  as 
late  as  1 852  the  seaman  ornamented  his  costume 
in  any  way  he  fancied.  But  standardization  then 
set  in. 

Jumper  Collars 
and  Cuffs 

The  old  salt  of  sailing  ship  days  wore  his  hair 
braided  into  a  pigtail  and  "clubbed"  or  doubled 
up  into  a  knot  and  tied  at  the  back  of  his  neck, 
perhaps  neatly  done  up  in  an  eel  skin.  Tar  was 
applied  to  keep  pigtail  or  clubbed  hair  in  shape. 
To  protect  the  collar  of  the  uniform  from 
tar-stain,  the  bluejacket  wore  a  bandanna.  The 
collar  was  often  ornamented  according  to  the 
personal  taste  of  the  men  who  wore  it. 

In  the  1860s,  enlisted  men  were  directed  to 
border  their  collars  with  two  rows  of  thread. 
The  third  row  was  added  after  the  turn  of  the 
century.  The  practice  of  sewing  three  rows  of 
tape  on  the  collar  was  no  doubt  selected  for 
decorative  effect  and  has  no  special  significance. 
Tradition  to  the  contrary,  it  did  not 
commemorate  the  three  famous  sea  victories  of 
Great  Britain's  Lord  Nelson. 

Use  of  stripes  on  the  cuffs  of  jumpers  was 
also  first  authorized  in  1 866,  one  or  more  stripes 


95 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


being  prescribed  to  indicate  petty  officers  and 
nonrated  men. 

Neckerchiefs 

The  tradition  that  the  black  neckerchief  was 
worn  for  the  first  time  at  Nelson's  funeral  and 
has  since  been  adopted  in  commemoration  of 
this  great  leader  is  not  based  on  fact.  Silk  ties, 
usually  black,  were  worn  by  enlisted  men  in  the 
United  States  Navy  as  early  as  1776.  The  black 
silk  neckerchief  had  been  officially  a  part  of  the 
uniform  of  enlisted  men  since  1841,  the  first 
time  enlisted  men's  uniforms  were  prescribed  in 
Uniform  Regulations. 

Trousers 

Although  there  are  several  legends 
concerning  bell-bottom  trousers,  there  is  no 
known  reason  for  their  introduction  or  wear.  At 
least  two  legends  are  wholly  believable.  First,  it 
was  easy  to  roll  up  bell-bottom  trousers  when 
washing  down  decks  or  working  in  wet  weather. 


Second,  if  a  sailor  found  himself  overboard,  he 
could  easily  kick  these  trousers  from  his  legs. 
The  square  (broadfall)  flap  that  is  buttoned 
in  front  at  the  waistband  may  also  have  been 
designed  for  speedy  removal  by  a  man 
overboard.  With  one  quick  yank  the  flap  can  be 
torn  loose.  If  there  is  any  significance  in  the 
number  of  buttons -13 -it  has  never  been 
officially  explained.  More  than  likely,  that 
number  was  chosen  because  it  resulted  in  a  more 
symmetrical  pattern. 

Uniform  Change 

In  July  of  1975,  a  radical  change  was 
brought  about  in  the  enlisted  uniform.  Gone  are 
the  traditional  white  hat,  jumper,  and  trousers 
that  have  been  a  part  of  the  enlisted  seabag  since 
the  early  1900s.  These  have  been  replaced  by 
the  officer-type  uniform,  with  minor 
differences. 

As  with  officers'  uniforms,  comfort, 
appearance,  uniformity,  and  the  reduction  in 
the  amount  of  uniforms  required  played  a  major 
role  in  the  adoption  of  the  new  style  uniform. 


96 


CHAPTER  5 


UNIFORMS  AND  INSIGNIA 


Every  naval  officer  should  be  an  authority 
on  the  grades,  ratings,  and  insignia  of  the 
Navy.  He  also  should  be  able  to  recognize 
and  know  the  meaning  of  most  of  the 
insignia  worn  by  other  branches  of  the 
Armed  Forces. 

This  chapter  describes  the  types  of 
uniforms  and  corps/grade  devices  of  naval 
officers  and  midshipmen,  and  the  uniforms, 
rating  insignia,  and  distinguishing  marks  of 
enlisted  personnel  in  the  Navy.  Included  are 
comparisons  of  rank/rate/grade  insignia  of  all 
service  members. 


OFFICER  PERSONNEL 

As  in  other  branches  of  the  armed 
services,  an  officer  of  the  Navy  takes 
precedence  according  to  his  grade,  and  within 
the  grade  according  to  the  date  of 
appointment  to  that  grade.  Normally,  officers 
below  him  in  grade  and  those  appointed  to 
his  grade  at  a  later  date  than  his  appointment 
are  junior  to  him.  Although  the  word  "rank" 
often  is  used  interchangeably  with  "grade," 
this  is  incorrect.  An  officer  holds  a  grade 
(captain,  commander,  etc.);  he  outRANKS  a 
junior;  or  he  RANKS  from  the  date  of 
appointment  to  his  grade  (date  of  rank). 

An  officer  can  be  either  a  commissioned 
or  warrant  officer.  The  former  (including  a 
chief  (commissioned)  warrant  officer)  holds  a 
commission  granted  by  the  President  and 
signed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy.  A 
noncommissioned  warrant  officer  derives  his 
authority  from  a  warrant  granted  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy. 


Naval  officers'  grades  as  they   correspond 
to  those  of  the  other  services  are  as  follows: 


Navy 

Admiral 

Vice  admiral 

Rear  admiral 

Commodore* 

Captain 

Commander 

Lieutenant 

commander 
Lieutenant 
Lieutenant 

(junior  grade) 
Ensign 
Chief  warrant 

officer,  W-4 
Chief  warrant 

officer,  W-3 
Chief  warrant 

officer,  W-2 
Warrant  officer, 

W-l 


*During  war  or  national  emergency 

Flag  officer.  Officers  of  the  grade  of 
commodore  and  above  are  known  as  flag 
officers;  each  has  the  privilege  of  flying  a 
personal  flag  on  the  ship  or  station  to  which 
they  are  attached,  the  flag  decorated  with 
stars  that  indicate  their  grade  are  as  follows: 


Army,  Marine  Corps, 
Air  Force 

General 

Lieutenant  general 
Major  general 
Brigadier  general 
Colonel 

Lieutenant  colonel 
Major 

Captain 

First  lieutenant 

Second  lieutenant 


Same  as  Navy 


Commodore 
Rear  admiral 
Vice  admiral 
Admiral 


1  star 

2  stars 

3  stars 

4  stars 


97 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


The  personal  flag  of  an  officer  of  the  line  has 
a  blue  field  with  white  stars  and  that  ot  a 
staff  corps  officer  a  white  field  with  blue 
stars. 

Admiral.  The  title  of  admiral  comes  from 
the  Arabic  "amir-al-bahr,"  meaning  ruler  of 
the  sea.  The  French  and  English  used  the 
title  long  before  the  discovery  of  America, 
but  the  grade  was  not  established  in  the  U.S. 
Navy  until  1862  (along  with  commodore). 

In  1944,  Congress  established  the  5-star 
grade  of  fleet  admiral  (and,  incidentally,  a 
comparable  grade  of  General  of  the  Army)  to 
which  were  appointed  Admirals  William  D. 
Leahy,  Ernest  J.  King,  Chester  W.  Nimitz, 
and  William  F.  Halsey,  Jr.  Authority  for  the 
grade  of  fleet  admiral  no  longer  exists  (it 
expired  with  the  death  of  Admiral  Nimitz  in 
1966).  Its  reestablishment  will  require 
another  act  of  Congress. 

Commodore.  Until  1862  all  captains  in 
the  United  States  Navy  commanding  or 
having  commanded  squadrons  (which  could  be 
any  number  of  ships  more  than  one)  were 
customarily  addressed  as  commodore,  though 
never  commissioned  as  such.  Commodore 
became  a  fixed  grade  in  1862,  then  was 
abandoned  as  a  grade  on  the  active  list  in 
1899.  In  1943  the  grade  of  commodore  was 
reestablished  for  temporary  service  in  time  of 
war  or  national  emergency.  "Commodore"  is 
still  retained  as  a  courtesy  title  for 
commanders  of  ship  squadrons  and  divisions. 

Line  and  staff  corps  officers.  Naval 
officers  who  are  eligible  to  assume  command 
of  ships  (and  stations)  are  designated 
unrestricted  line  officers,  being  in  line  of 
command.  Other  officers  are  members  of  the 
several  staff  corps  or  are  specialists  in  various 
fields. 

At  present  there  are  eight  staff  corps, 
listed  below  in  order  of  precedence: 

Medical, 
Supply, 
Chaplain, 
Civil  Engineer, 


Judge  Advocate  General's, 

Dental, 

Medical  Service,  and 

Nurse. 

(The  Medical  Corps  consists  entirely  Of 
physicians  and  surgeons.  The  Medical  Service 
Corps  is  made  up  of  pharmacists,  medical 
administrative  officers,  medical  technologists, 
and  so  on.) 

While  commissioned  members  of  staff 
corps  have  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of 
their  grades,  they  are  not  eligible  to  assume 
command  except  in  their  own  corps.  A 
medical  officer,  for  example,  can  command 
only  a  medical  activity  such  as  a  hospital  or 
dispensary.  Staff  corps  officers  should  not  be 
confused  with  staff  officers,  who  are  line  or 
staff  corps  officers  assigned  to  staffs  of 
high-ranking  officers. 

UNIFORMS  AND 
CORPS  DEVICES 

The  following  uniforms  (see  figure  5-1)  are 
worn  by  naval  officers:  service  dress,  evening 
dress,  full  dress,  dinner  dress,  working  and 
tropical.  The  aviation  winter  working  uniform 
(forestry  green)  is  worn  by  naval  aviators  and 
chief  petty  officers  serving  in  pilot  status,  and 
also  by  naval  flight  officers;  it  may  be  worn  by 
other  officers  and  chief  petty  officers  attached 
to  aviation  commands.  Full  details  regarding 
uniforms  and  insignia  are  set  forth  in  U.S.  Navy 
Uniform  Regulations.  The  commandants  of 
naval  districts  prescribe  the  uniform  of  the  day 
to  be  worn  in  their  respective  districts  and  the 
senior  officers  present  afloat  and  at  shore 
stations  outside  the  districts  prescribe  the 
uniform  of  the  day  for  personnel  of  their 
commands. 

An  officer's  grade  is  indicated  by  the  gold 
sleeve  stripes  on  blue  coats;  by  black  sleeve 
stripes  on  forestry  green  coats;  by  shoulder 
marks  on  white  coats,  white  tropical  shirts, 
and  blue  overcoats;  and  by  metal  grade 
insignia  on  the  shoulder  straps  of  blue 
raincoats,  aviation  winter  working  overcoats, 
and  on  collars  of  khaki  and  blue  flannel 
shirts.  Above  the  stripes  (inboard  of  them  on 


shoulder  boards),  line  officers  wear  a 
five-pointed  gold  star;  staff  corps  officers 
wear  the  appropriate  corps  device  as  shown  in 
figure  5-2. 

Line  and  corps  devices  for  commissioned 
warrant  and  warrant  officers  appear  in  figure 
5-3. 

Stripes  indicating  officers'  grades  are 
shown  in  figure  5-4.  Flag  officers'  sleeve 
markings  consist  of  at  least  one  2-inch  stripe 
(on  each  sleeve,  of  course).  Relative  seniority 
by  grade  is  indicated  by  the  addition  of 
1/2-inch  stripes  above  the  2-inch  band— one 
stripe  for  rear  admiral,  two  for  vice  admiral, 


and  three  for  full  admiral.  (Although  the 
grade  of  FADM  no  longer  exists,  it  is 
included  in  figure  5-4  for  informational 
purposes.)  As  can  be  seen,  the  grades  of 
other  commissioned  officers  are  indicated  by 
the  size  and  number  of  1/2-  and  1/4-inch 
stripes.  All  warrant  officers  wear  one  broken 
stripe:  1/2-inch  for  commissioned  warrants 
and  1/4-inch  for  warrant  officer  W-l. 

Officers  wear  pin-on  grade-indicating 
devices  on  the  collars  of  khaki  and  blue 
flannel  shirts.  Line  officers  wear  the  device 
on  both  collar  tips.  Staff  corps  officers  wear 
the  pin-on  device  of  grade  on  the  right  collar 
tip  and  the  corps  device  on  the  left. 


122.7 


Figure  5-1.-Basic  male  officers'  uniforms:  full  dress  white,  service  dress  blue,  working  blue,  and  working  khaki. 


99 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


LINE 


FIVE-POINTED  STAR 


CHAPLAIN  CORPS 
(Jewish) 


MEDICAL  CORPS 


SUPPLY  CORPS 


GOLD  OAK  LEAF, 

SILVER  ACORN  IN 

CENTER 

CIVIL  ENGINEER 
CORPS 


SPRIG  OF  THREE  OAK 

LEAVES  AND  THREE 

ACORNS 

DENTAL  CORPS 


STAR  OF  DAVID 
ATTACH  ED  TO  THE 

TOP  CENTER  OF 
TABLETS  OF  THE  LAW 

LEADER,  U.S. 
NAVY  BAND* 


TWO  GOLD  SPRIGS  OF 

TWO  OAK  LEAVES 

EACH,  SILVER  ACORN 

IN  EACH  SPRIG 


GOLD  OAK  LEAF  WITH 
SILVER  ACORN  ON 
EACH  SIDE  OF 
STEM 


CHAPLAIN  CORPS 
(Christian) 


LATIN  CROSS 


MEDICAL  SERVICE 
CORPS 


GOLD  OAK  LEAF 
ATTACHED  TO  A 
SLANTING  TWIG 


NURSE  CORPS 


JUDGE  ADVOCATE 
GENERAL'S  CORPS 


GOLD  LYRE 


Also  leader  of  U.  S.  Naval  Academy  Bond  and 
thoi*  commissioned  in  the  field  of  music 


GOLD  OAK  LEAF 


TWO  GOLD  OAK  LEAVES, 

SILVER  MILL  RINDE 

IN  CENTER 


Figure  5-2.-Commissioned  officers'  line  and  corps  devices. 


The  grade  devices  are  given  below;  they 
are  similar  in  form  to  grade  devices  worn  by 
Army,  Air  Force,  and  Marine  officers. 


Grade 

Admiral 
Vice  admiral 
Rear  admiral 
Commodore 
Captain 
Commander 
Lieutenant 
commander 


Pin-on  device 

Four  silver  stars 
Three  silver  stars 
Two  silver  stars 
One  silver  star 
Silver  spread  eagle 
Silver  oak  leaf 

Gold  oak  leaf 


Grade 

Lieutenant 

Lieutenant  Gg) 

Ensign 

Commissioned 
warrant  and 
warrant  officer 


Pin-on  device 

Two  silver  bars 

One  silver  bar 

One  gold  bar 

Dark  blue  bar  with  silve 

(W-4,  W-3)orgold  (W-2 

W-l)  breaks 


Three    types    of  caps   are   authorized    f 
wear',     combination,    garrison,    and    workir 
The  combination  cap  has  a  stiff  visor  and 
rigid    standing    front.    It    is    worn    with 
detachable   blue,   white,  khaki,  or  green   (1 


100 


Chapter  5-UNIFORMS  AND  INSIGNIA 


BOATSWAIN 


OPERATIONS 
TECHNICIAN 


SURFACE  ORDNANCE 

TECHNICIAN  OR 

ORDNANCE  CONTROL 

TECHNICIAN 


UNDERWATER 
ORDNANCE 
TECHNICIAN 


SHIP'S  CLERK 


CROSSED 

FOUL 
ANCHORS 


SHIP'S    HELM 

CIRCUMSCRI  BINS 

ARROW   AND   SPARK 


FLAMING 

SPHERICAL 

SHELL 


TORPEDO 


CROSSED 
QUI  LL 
PENS 


ELECTRONICS 
TECHNICIAN 

OR  NAVAL 
COMMUNICATOR 


ELECTRONICS 
TECHNICIAN 


MACHINIST 


SHIP  REPAIR 
TECHNICIAN 


ELECTRICIAN 


AVIATION 
BOATSWAIN 


FOUR    BOLTS 
OF    LIGHTNING 


HELIUM 
ATOM 


THREE-BLADED 
PROPELLER 


CARPENTER'S 
SQUARE 


GLOBE   OF 
THE   WORLD 


CROSSED    FOUL 
ANCHORS.    WINGED 


AVIATION 
ORDNANCE 
TECHNICIAN 


FLAMING 

SPHERICAL 

SHELL,    WINGED 


AVIATION 

MAINTENANCE 

TECHNICIAN 


TWO-BLADED 

PROPELLER, 

WINGED 


AVIATION 

ELECTRONICS 

TECHNICIAN 


HELIUM    ATOM. 
WINGED 


AEROGRAPHER 


WINGED  CIRCLE. 
ARROW  THROUGH 

CENTER 


PHOTOGRAPHER 


BANDMASTER 


AVIATION 

CONTROL 

TECHNICIAN 


WINGED 
MICROPHONE 


COMMUNICATIONS 
TECHNICIAN 


SUPPLY  CLERK 


CIVIL  ENGINEER 
CORPS 


CROSSED    QUILL 
PEN    AND   SPARK 


SPRIG    OF    THREE 
OAK    LEAVES 


TWO    GOLD    SPRIGS 

OF    TWO    OAK    LEAVES 

EACH.    SILVER    ACORN 

IN    EACH    SPRIG 


MEDICAL  SERVICE 

OR 
DENTAL  SERVICE 


AIR 

INTELLIGENCE 
TECHNICIAN 


DATA 

PROCESSING 
TECHNICIAN 


EXPLOSIVE 

ORDNANCE 

DISPOSAL 

TECHNICIAN 


AVIATION 

ANTISUBMARINE 

WARFARE  OPERATOR 


•o! 


C ADUC  EUS 


STEREOSCOPE   SUPER- 
IMPOSED  ON    LIGHT 
RAYS    PENETRATING 
A    LENS 


QUILL    PEN 

SUPERIMPOSED 

ON    GEAR 


MINE   SUPERIMPOSED 

ON    CROSSED    BOMB 

AND    TORPEDO 


TWO    CROSSED    ELECTRON 
ORBITS.    WINGED.    WITH 

LIGHTNING    BOLT 
PASSING    TOWARD    WAVES 


3.5 


Figure  5-3.—  Warrant  officers'  line  and  corps  devices. 

101 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


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CZD 


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AINU 


iviation  personnel)  cap  cover.  The  blue  is  a 
#ater-repellent  rain  cover  that  may  be  worn 
Dver  any  of  the  other  covers;  otherwise  the 
:olors  match  the  appropriate  uniform,  except 
:hat  the  white  cover  is  worn  with  both  blue 
md  white  uniforms.  The  garrison  and  working 
;aps  are  optional  items.  The  former  are  either 
rreen  or  khaki.  The  working  cap  may  be 
.vorn  with  any  working  uniform  except 
iviation  green. 

On  combination  caps  worn  by  officers 
Delow  the  grade  of  commander,  the  visor  is 
plain  black.  Captains'  and  commanders'  visors 
ire  partly  fretted  by  gold  embroidery;  flag 
officers'  caps  bear  full  visor  embroidery. 
Except  for  warrant  officers  (W-l),  cap  devices 
consist  of  two  crossed  foul  anchors  with  a 
silver  shield,  surmounted  by  a  spread  eagle. 
Ihe  W-l  cap  device  consists  simply  of  crossed 
inchors.  Chin  straps  are  faced  with  gold  lace. 

On  the  garrison  cap,  the  grade  device  is 
vorn  on  the  right  side,  near  the  front,  and  a 
niniature  form  of  the  cap  device  is  worn  on 
:he  left  side. 

\IGUILLETTES  AND 
MOURNING  BADGES 

Aiguillettes  are  worn  by  officers  when  on 
luty  as  personal  aide  to  the  President;  aide 
:o  the  Vice  President;  aide  at  the  White 
louse;  aide  to  the  Secretary  of  Defense;  aide 
:o  the  Secretary,  Under  Secretary,  and 
Assistant  Secretaries  of  the  Navy;  aide  to  the 
Deputy  or  Assistant  Secretaries  of  Defense; 
udes  to  flag  officers;  by  naval  attaches;  and 
tides  to  top  ranking  representatives  of  foreign 
lations  visiting  the  United  States.  They  may 
)e  worn  on  official  occasions  by  officers 
ippointed  as  aides  on  the  staff  of  a  governor 
)f  a  state  or  territory.  Aides  to  the  President, 
o  the  Vice  President,  at  the  White  House, 
ind  to  foreign  heads  of  state  wear  them  on 
he  right  side;  all  others  on  the  left.  With 
wercoats  they  are  worn  on  the  outside. 

Service  aiguillettes  consist  of  loops  of 
liguillette  cord  fastened  on  the  shoulder  and 
;oing  around  the  shoulder  just  under  the 


armpit.  The  aiguillette  cord  is  gold  with  blue 
silk  insertion,  except  that  aiguillettes  for  the 
aide  to  the  President  are  gold  cord  without 
the  insertion.  The  number  of  loops  indicates 
the  wearer's  status  as  shown  in  figure  5-5. 

Dress  aiguillettes  consist  of  two  single 
plaits  of  aiguillette  cord  with  two  loops.  At 
the  termination  of  the  plaits  there  are 
approximately  3  inches  of  plain  cord,  at  the 
end  of  which  are  secured  two  gilt  metal 
pencils,  approximately  3-1/2  inches  long, 
mounted  with  two  silver  anchors.  They  are 
worn  on  service  or  dress  uniforms  by  aides 
on  occasion  of  ceremony  and  on  social 
occasions  when  prescribed. 

Aiguillettes  are  worn  by  USNA 
midshipmen  as  prescribed  by  the 
Commandant  of  Midshipmen;  they  are  pinned 
on  the  shoulder  at  the  arm  seam. 

Mourning  badges  are  of  black  crepe,  3 
inches  wide,  and  are  worn  on  the  left  sleeve 
of  the  outer  coat,  halfway  between  the 
shoulder  and  elbow.  Officers  are  required  to 
wear  mourning  badges  when  serving  as 
honorary  pallbearers  at  military  funerals, 
when  attending  military  funerals  in  an  official 
capacity,  and  at  other  prescribed  times.  Those 
attending  civilian  funerals  may  wear  mourning 
badges  if  desired. 

WOMEN'S  UNIFORMS 

Uniforms  for  women  in  the  Navy  (figure 
5-6)  have  designations  similar  to  those  of 
male  personnel,  such  as  service  dress  blue  and 
service  dress  white.  Women  also  wear  a 
service  dress  light  blue  as  a  summer  uniform. 

Cap  and  sleeve  insignia  for  women  officers 
are  identical  to  those  of  male  officers.  Sleeve 
stripes  and  rating  badges  for  enlisted  women 
are  the  same  as  for  male  personnel  except 
that  they  are  smaller. 

UNITED  STATES 
COAST  GUARD 

The  distinguishing  mark  of  all  Coast 
Guard  uniforms  is  the  Coast  Guard  shield. 


103 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


SERVICE  AIGUILLETTES 


AIDE  TO  THE 
PRESIDENT 
(4  LOOPS) 


AIDE  TO  THE 
VICE  PRESIDENT; 
AIDE  TO  ADMIRAL 
OR  OFFICIAL  OF 

HIGHER  RANK; 
NAVAL  ATTACHE'S 

AND  ASSISTANT 
NAVAL  ATTACHE'S 

(4  LOOPS) 


AIDE  TO  VICE 
ADMIRAL 
(3  LOOPS) 


AIDE  TO  A  REAR 

ADMIRAL  OR  OFFICIAL 

OF  LOWER  RANK;  TO  A 

GOVERNOR  OF  A  STATE 

OR  TERRITORY 

(2  LOOPS) 


USNA  - 

HOP  COMMITTEE 
MEMBERS 
(1  LOOP) 


USNA  - 

MIDSHIPMEN 

OFFICERS  OF 

THE  WATCH 

(2  LOOPS) 


MANNER  OF  WEARING 


134.32 


Figure  5-5.— The  number  of  loops  in  the  aiguillettes  indicates  the  status  of  the  wearer. 


This  appears  above  the  stripes  on  the  sleeves 
and  shoulder  markings  of  commissioned 
officers,  It  accompanies  the  specialty  device 
on  uniforms  of  warrant  officers  and  is  worn 
on  the  right  sleeve  of  the  enlisted  man's 
uniform.  It  is  white  on  the  blues  and  blue  on 
the  whites. 

The  Coast  Guard  officer's  cap  device 
shows  a  gold  eagle  perched  on  a  horizontal 
anchor.  The  shield,  centered  on  the  eagle's 
breast,  is  of  silver. 

Although  the  Coast  Guard  uniform  is  of 
the  same  basic  design  as  the  Navy,  there  are 
some  notable  differences.  The  blue  uniform  is 


of  a   lighter   color  and  is  worn   with  a   pale 
blue  shirt. 

NAVAL  ACADEMY 
MIDSHIPMEN 

Naval  Academy  midshipmen  are  classified 
as  officers  of  the  line,  but  are  officers  only 
in  a  qualified  sense.  They  rank  between 
warrant  officers  and  chief  warrant  officers. 
Their  uniforms  are:  service  dress,  full  dress, 
dinner  dress,  working,  infantry,  and  tropical. 
Their  service  dress  and  working  uniforms  are 
similar  to  officers. 


104 


134.33 
Figure  5-6.— Basic  women's  uniforms:  service  dress  blue,  service  dress  light  blue,  summer  blue,  and  dungaree. 


On  the  combination  cap  a  3/8-inch  gold 
chin  strap  and  a  gold  foul  anchor  device  are 
worn.  A  small  gold  foul  anchor  device  is 
worn  on  the  left  side  of  the  garrison  cap. 

A  gold  anchor  pin-on  device  is  worn  on 
each  lapel  of  the  blue  service  blouse. 
Outstanding  midshipmen  of  each  class  wear  a 
pin-on  gold  star  above  each  collar  anchor  on 
the  full  dress  and  service  dress  blue  uniform. 
Class  insignia  (figure  5-7 A)  are  as  follows: 

First  class:  One  horizontal  gold  stripe 
around  each  sleeve. 

Second  class:  Two  diagonal  gold  stripes 
on  the  left  sleeve  only.  The  stripes  are 


between  the  elbow  and  cuff  with  the  higher 
end  along  the  rear  seam  and  lower  end  to  the 
front. 

Third  class:  One  diagonal  gold  stripe  on 
the  left  sleeve. 

Fourth  class:  No  sleeve  stripe. 

Shirt  collar  insignia.  Shirt  collar  insignia 
consist  of  gold  fouled  anchors,  eagle  and  bar 
(striper)  insignia,  to  be  worn  on  collar  tips  of 
blue  drill  shirts,  khaki  shirts,  and  green 
utilities. 

*  Midshipmen  first  class  of  other  than 
officer  rank  shall  wear  the  eagle  insignia  on 
both  collars. 


105 


MIDSHIPMAN 
FIRST  CLASS 


MIDSHIPMAN 
SECOND  CLASS 


MIDSHIPMAN 
THIRD  CLASS 


A     CLASS  STRIPES 


MIDSHIPMAN 
FOURTH  CLASS 


CAPT 


CDR 


LCD'R  LT 

B    RANK  STRIPES 


LTJG 


ENS 


5-7.-USNA  midsWpmen  class/rank  stri 


134.34 


106 


Chapter  5-UNIFORMS  AND  INSIGNIA 


•  Midshipmen     second    class    shall    wear 
the  anchor  insignia  on  both  collars. 

•  Midshipmen  third   class  shall  wear  the 
anchor  insignia  on  the  right  collar  only. 

•  'Midshipmen  fourth  class  shall  wear  no 
insignia  on  the  collar. 

•  Midshipmen    officers    shall    wear    from 
one    to    six    bars    representing    the    ranks   of 
Midshipman      Ensign      through      Midshipman 
Captain. 

In  lieu  of  sleeve  stripes  denoting  class, 
midshipmen  officers  of  the  first  class  wear 
gold  stripes  to  denote  grade  as  shown  in 
figure  5-7  B. 

The  uniforms  of  NROTC  midshipmen  are 
similar  to  the  uniforms  of  officers  and  USNA 
midshipmen.  The  variation  in  grade  stripes  is 
shown  in  figure  5-8. 

Officer  candidates  wear  uniforms  similar 
to  officer  service  dress,  working  blue,  and 


khaki  uniforms.  First  and  second  classmen 
wear  corps  or  line  insignia  on  service  dress 
uniforms  and  gold  anchor  pin-on  devices  on 
each  collar  tip  of  the  blue  and  khaki  shirts. 
Third  and  fourth  classmen  wear  no  class 
insignia.  Grade  stripes  for  officer  candidates 
are  shown  in  figure  5-8. 


ENLISTED  PERSONNEL 

In  the  enlisted  branch,  a  field  of  work  or 
an  occupation  is  called  a  rating;  levels  within 
the  rating  are  rates.  In  the  case  of  a 
Boatswain's  Mate  second  class  (BM2),  for 
example,  Boatswain's  Mate  is  the  rating  and 
second  class  is  the  rate. 

A  newcomer  without  previous  naval 
experience  normally  enters  the  service  as  a 
recruit  in  pay  grade  E-l,  the  basic  pay  grade 
in  the  Armed  Forces'  rating  structure.  From 
recruit  rate  he/she  begins  to  absorb  training 
in  a  broad  occupational  group  and  to  advance 
in  rate  or  rating  when  qualified.  After 
completing  recruit  training  and  qualifying  for 


NROTC  MIDSHIPMEN 


CAPT 


CDR 


LCDR 


LT.IG 


ENS 


AVIATION  OFFICER  CANDIDATE   AND  OFFICER  CANDIDATE  GRADE  STRIPES 


CDF? 


LCDR 


LTJG 


ENS 


CANDIDATE 


134.35 


Figure  5-8.— Grade  stripes  for  NROTC  midshipmen  and  officer  candidates. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


advancement  to  the  apprentice  level  (pay 
grade  E-2)  he/she  must  again  qualify  for  the 
next  higher  level  (pay  grade  E-3)-  After 
advancing  to  Seaman  (or  Fireman,  Airman,  or 
other  distinct  pay  grade  E-3  rate),  he/she 
attempts  to  qualify  for  the  lowest  petty 
officer  rate  of  a  particular  rating,  depending 
on  his/her  ability  and  inclinations.  It  is  at 
this  level  that  an  E-3  begins  the  occupational 
career  that  will  be  followed  for  the  remainder 
of  his/her  naval  service.  There  are  within 
most  ratings,  specialties  that  can  be  chosen 
from.  For  example,  in  the  Gunner's  Mate 
rating  there  are  Gunner's  Mate  Guns  and 
Gunner's  Mate  Missiles.  Normally,  once 
advanced  to  that  rating,  the  person  specializes 
only  in  that  field. 


Following      is      the      normal 
advancement  by  pay  grades: 

General  title 


Seaman 

Fireman 

Airman 

Construction 

Hospital 

Dental 

Seaman 

Fireman 

etc. 


path      of 

Pay  grade 
E-l 


Recruit 


Apprentice 


Seaman 

Fireman 

Airman 

Constructionman 

Hospitalman 

Dental  man 

Petty  officer,  third  class 
Petty  officer,  second  class 
Petty  officer,  first  class 
Chief  petty  officer 
Senior  CPO 
Master  CPO 


E-2 


E-3 


E-4 
E-5 
E-6 
E-7 
E-8 
E-9 


The  comparison  by  pay  grade  for 
personnel  of  the  Navy,  Marines,  Army,  and 
Air  Force  is  shown  in  figure  5-9. 


Let  us  trace  the  advancement  of  a  typical 
enlisted  naval  careerist,  Gaskins,  who 
specializes  in  the  occupational  field  of  a 
Gunner's  Mate  Guns.  Gaskins  first  enlists  as  a 
Seaman  Recruit  (SR).  After  receiving  basic 
training  at  a  recruit  training  center,  he 
expresses  interest  in  deck  seamanship.  Upon 
completion  of  his  training,  he  is  transferred 
to  sea  duty.  Aboard  ship  he  receives  general 
training  in  seamanship  and  in  time  qualifies 
for  advancement  to  Seaman  Apprentice  (SA), 
then  to  Seaman  (SN). 

Meantime,  having  demonstrated  an  interest 
in  the  rating  of  Gunner's  Mate  Guns,  Gaskins 
is  assigned  to  gunnery  maintenance  duties  in 
the  weapons  department.  Having  shown 
himself  proficient  in  that  field  of  work,  his 
commanding  officer  recommends  to  BUPERS 
that  Gaskins  be  officially  designated  as  a 
GMG  striker.  If  the  Bureau  approves  the 
recommendation,  Gaskins,  after  meeting 
certain  requirements  as  to  length  of  time  in 
service,  course  requirements,  and  his  pay 
grade,  may  compete  in  Navywide 
examinations  for  advancement  to  Gunner's 
Mate  third  (GMG3).  If  successful,  he  then  has 
recurring  opportunities  to  compete  for 
successive  advancement  to  GMG2,  GMG1,  and 
Chief  Gunner's  Mate.  Thereafter  he  becomes 
eligible  to  compete  for  advancement  to  senior 
and  master  chief  petty  officer,  respectively, 
the  latter  being  the  highest  enlisted  rate. 

Subject  to  standard  instructions,  lateral 
changes  from  one  group  to  another  are 
allowed  quite  freely  in  the  lower  pay  grades 
before  a  person  has  been  intensively  trained 
in  one  particular  field.  This  allows  time  to 
find  the  choice  of  work  in  the  Navy. 
However,  once  a  person  has  advanced  to  a 
senior  petty  officer  level,  lateral  changes  are 
seldom  permitted. 

UNIFORMS 

July,  1975  marked  the  beginning  of  an 
evolutionary  change  to  a  one-uniform  Navy. 
The  basic  uniform  that  was  adopted  for  all 
members  of  the  naval  service  symbolizes  an 
important  theme,  "One  Navy,  united  in 
purpose,  striving  for  common  goals." 


108 


Chapter  5-UNIFORMS  AND  INSIGNIA 


ENLISTED 


PAY 
GRADE 


E-l 


E-2 


E-3 


E-4 


E-5 


E-6 


E-7 


E-8 


E-9 


E-9 


NAVY 


SEAMAN 
RECRUIT 


SEAMAN 
APPREN- 
TICE 


PETTY 
OFFICER 
SECOND 

CLASS 


CHIEF 

PETTY 

OFFICER 


MASTER 

CHIEF 

PETTY 

OFFICER 

OF  THE 

NAVY 


SGT  MAJOR 


MARINES 


PRIVATE 


PRIVATE 
FIRST 
CLASS 


CORPORAL 


SERGEANT 


CORPORAL 


SERGEANT 


GUNNERY 
SERGEANT 


SGT  MAJOR 
OF  THE 
MARINE 
CORPS 


ARMY 


PRIVATE 
FIRST 
CLASS 


CORPORAL 


SERGEANT 


STAFF 
SERGEANT 


SPECIALIST 


SPECIALIST 
5 


SPECIALIST 
6 


SERGEANT 
FIRST 
CLASS 


SPECIALIST 
7 


MSGT 


SERGEANT 
MAJOR 


5ERGEANT 

MAJOR 

OF  THE 

ARMY 


AIR 
FORCE 


AIRMAN 
BASIC 


AIRMAN 
FIRST 
CLASS 


STAFF 
SERGEANT 


TECHNICAL 
SERGEANT 


MASTER 
SERGEANT 


CHIEF 

MASTER 

SERGEANT 

OF  THE 

AIR 
FORCE 


Figure  5-9.— Insignia  of  U.S.  Armed  Forces  enlisted  personnel. 


17.59.1 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


The  jumper  style  uniform,  worn  since  the 
turn  of  the  century,  with  few  modifications, 
is  no  longer  worn.  f 

Uniforms  for  enlisted,  like  officers,  are  or 
the  distinctive  and  traditional  double-breasted 
coat  and  tie  style  uniform.  The  differences 
being  in  identifying  insignia. 

Chief  petty  officers  wear  a  visor  cap  ol 
the  junior  officer  type;  the  chin  strap  is  black 
leather  and  the  insignia  is  a  gold  fouled 
anchor  on  which  are  superimposed  the  silver 
letters  USN.  Rates  of  senior  and  master  CPOs 
are  reflected  by  the  number  of  stars  atop  the 
anchor:  1  star  for  senior  and  2  for  master 


134.37 


Figure  5-11. -Uniform  for  CPO. 


134.36 
Figure  5-10.-Typical  uniforms  for  enlisted  below  CPO. 


(with  a  third  star  for  Master  Chief  Petty 
Officer  of  the  Navy).  Enlisted  below  the  rate 
of  CPO  wear  an  identical  cap  with  the 
exception  of  the  insignia.  It  consists  of  an 
oxidized  silver  colored  spread  eagle  with 
oxidized  silver  colored  block  letters  "USN" 
superimposed  horizontally  between  the  wing 
tips  and  centered  above  the  eagle's  head.  The 
buttons  on  the  service  dress  blue  coat  are  also 
of  the  oxidized  silver  color. 

As  shown  in  figures  5-10  and  5-1  i,  a 
petty  officer  wears,  midway  between  shoulder 
and  elbow  of  the  left  sleeve,  a  rating  badge 
consisting  of  a  perched  eagle,  the  specialty 
mark  of  his  or  her  rating  (see  figure  5-12), 


110 


Chapter  5-UNIFORMS  AND  INSIGNIA 


E-l 


E-2  E-3 

• 


In  a  small  percentage  of  cases,  personnel 
!n  E—1  are  authorized  to  wear  the  color 
or  the  striker  symbol  of  their  apprenticeship 
group 


1-GENERAL  SEAMAN-    ^ 

SHIP 

2-SHIP  OPERATIONS 
4-SHIP  MAINTENANCE 
8-WEAPONS  CONTROL 
9-ORDNANCE  SYSTEMS 

10-SENSOR  OPERATIONS 

12-DATA  SYSTEMS 

15-ADMINISTRATION 

16-LOGISTICS 

17-MEDIA 

18-MUSlCIAN 

20-CRYPTOLOGY 

21-COMMUNICATIONS 

22-INTELLIGENCE 


3-MARINE  ENGINEER- 
ING 
4-SHIP  MAINTENANCE 


13-CONSTRUCTION 


5-AVIATION  MAINTEN- 

NANCE/WEAPONS 
6-AVIATION  GROUND 

SUPPORT 

7-AIR  TRAFFIC  CON- 
TROL 
11-WEAPONS  SYSTEMS 

SUPPORT 
16-LOGISTICS 
17-MEDIA 

23-METEOROLOGY 
24-AVIATION  SENSOR 
OPERATIONS 


14-HEALTH  CARE 


14-HEALTH  CARE 


E-4 


PETTY  OFFICER 
3RD  CLASS 


E-5 


PETTY  OFFICER 
2ND  CLASS 


SENIOR  CHIEF 
PETTY  OFFICER 


E-6 


E-7 


E-8 


E-9 


RED 


GREEN 


S&ja LIGHT  BLUE 


MASTER  CHIEF 
PETTY  OFFICER 


Figure  5-12.— Enlisted  rate  and  rating  insignia. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


OCCUPATIONAL 

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Fi9ure5-12.-En,isted  rate  and  rating  insignia  (continued,. 

112 


3.10 


Chapter  5-UNIFORMS  AND  INSIGNIA 


OCCUPATIONAL 
FIELD  12 

DATA  SYSTEMS 

OCCUPATIONAL 
FIELD  13 

CONSTRUCTION 

OCCUPATIONAL 
FIILD  14 

HEALTH  CARE 

OCCUPATIONAL 
FIELD  13 

ADMINISTRATION 

OCCUPATIONAL 
FIELD  16 

LOGISTICS 

DP                                                  OS 
DATA     PROCESSING                     DATA      SYSTEMS 
TECHNICIAN                               TECHNICIAN 

OCCUPATIONAL 
FIELD  17 

MEDIA 

OCCUPATIONAL 
FIELD  18 

MUSICIAN 

OCCUPATIONAL 
FIELD  19 

MASTER-AT-ARMS 

OCCUPATIONAL 
FIELD  20 

CRYPTOLOGY 

OCCUPATIONAL 
FIELD  21 

COMMUNICATIONS 

OCCUPATIONAL 
FIELD  22 

INTELLIGENCE 

OCCUPATIONAL 
FIELD  23 

METEOROLOGY 

OCCUPATIONAL 
FIELD  24 

AVIATION  SENSOR 
OPERATIONS 

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3.10 


Figure  5-12.— Enlisted  rate  and  rating  insignia  (continued). 
113 


E-2 

E-7-E-9 

Uniform 

Badge 

Uniform 

Badge 

Blue  dress; 
peacoat 

White 

Blue 

Silver 

Blue  undress 
working 
jacket 

White 

White 

Blue 

Summer 
Blue 

Blue 

Dungaree 

Blue 
(stencil) 

Aviation 
green 
working 

Blue 

or  strikers'  marks,  indicates  the  general 
occupational  group  to  which  a  nonrated  man 
belongs,  as  follows: 


Figure  5-13.-Rating  badges  vary  in  color. 


and  chevrons  indicating  rate  (except  for  a 
senior  or  master  CPO  whose  rate  is  indicated 
by  stars  above  the  eagle  of  the  E-7  rating 
badge,  as  in  figure  5-9). 

The  color  of  a  rating  badge  varies 
according  to  the  uniform  on  which  it  is 
worn,  as  shown  in  figure  5-13.  Chevrons  are 
scarlet  on  blue  uniforms  and  blue  on  all 
others,  except  that  personnel  who  complete 
1 2  years  active  naval  service  (broken  or 
unbroken)  in  the  Navy  and  Naval  Reserve 
with  good  conduct  wear  gold  chevrons  with 
the  blue  uniform.  (Scarlet  chevrons  are 
authorized  for  wear  on  winter  working  blues, 
E-4  to  E-6,  by  personnel  eligible  for  gold.) 
Chief  petty  officers  wear  miniature  foul 
anchors  on  each  collar  tip  of  the  khaki, 
working  blue,  and  tropical  white  shirt. 

Personnel  below  pay  grade  E-4  wear  on 
the  left  sleeve,  in  place  of  the  PO  rating 
badge,  3-inch -long  rectangular  group-rate 
marks,  as  in  figure  5-12.  The'  color  of  the 
stripes,  alone  or  in  combination  with  specialty 


Seaman 

Hospitalman 
Dentalman 

Fireman 

Airman 

Constructionman 


White  stripes  on  blue 
uniforms,  Navy  blue 
on  white 

Red 

Emerald  green 
Light  blue 


Appropriate  petty  officer  specialty  marks 
are  centered  above  the  group-rate  mark  by 
designated  strikers. 

Service  stripes  (hashmarks)  are  7-inch-long 
diagonal  stripes  for  CPOs  and  5-inch-long 
diagonal  stripes  for  E-6  and  below.  They  are 
worn  on  the  left  lower  arm  with  each  stripe 
representing  4  years  of  service  in  the  Navy, 
Marine  Corps,  Coast  Guard,  Army,  Air  Force, 
or  Naval  Reserve.  The  stripes  are  red  when 
worn  on  blue  uniforms  and  blue  on  others. 
When  gold  rating  badges  are  worn,  service 
stripes  also  are  of  gold. 


MEDALS  AND 
OTHER  INSIGNIA 

According  to  legend,  Alexander  the  Great 
began  the  custom  of  awarding  medals  for 
heroism  on  the  battlefield  more  than  2000 
years  ago.  Thus  there  is  a  historic  precedent 
for  the  medals  worn  by  military  personnel 
the  world  over.  The  bewildering  array  of  little 
ribbons  on  the  left  breast  of  the  dress 
uniform  of  veterans  often  seems  quite 
puzzling  to  the  newcomer  in  the  Navy.  These 
distinctive  ribbons-and  there  are  many  of 
them— represent  the  medals  which  are  too 
cumbersome  to  be  worn  at  all  times.  They 
are  worn  in  horizontal  rows  of  three  each, 
arranged  in  order  of  precedence  from  the 
center  of  the  body  to  the  left  shoulder  and 
from  top  row  to  bottom  row.  (See  Appendix 
6  for  fuller  discussion  of  decorations  and 
medals.) 

Other  special  insignia  are  those  worn  on 
the  breast  to  indicate  special  qualifications  or 


Chapter  5-UNIFORMS  AND  INSIGNIA 


SURFACE  WARFARE 


COMMAND  AT  SEA 


COMMAND  ASHORE/PROJECT  MANAGER 


SUBMARINE 


AVIATOR 


SMALL  CRAFT  INSIGNIA 


SPECIAL  WARFARE 


EXPLOSIVE  ORDNANCE 
DISPOSAL      (EOD) 


SSBN  DETERRENT 
PATROL     INSIGNIA 


3.11 


Figure  5-14.— Breast  insignia  worn  to  indicate  a  special  qualification  or  designation. 


designations.   Examples  of  these  (figure  5-14) 
are: 

Command  at  Sea  insignia,  worn  by 
persons  below  flag  rank  who  have,  or  Had, 
command  of  commissioned  ships  or  aviation 
squadrons  at  sea.  Officers  currently  in 
command  wear  the  insignia  on  the  right 
breast.  Those  not  presently  in  command,  but 
who  have  held  command,  wear  it  on  the  left 
breast  below  any  ribbons,  medals,  or  other 
insignia. 

Command  Ashore /Project  Manager  insignia 
worn  by  officers  below  flag  rank  who  have, 
or  had,  command  ashore  or  served  as  project 
manager.  It  is  worn  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  Command  at  Sea  insignia. 

Small  Craft  insignia,  worn  by  personnel 
currently  serving,  or  having  previously  served, 
as  officer  in  charge  of  small  craft.  This 


insignia  is  also   worn   in   the  same  manner  as 
the  Command  at  Sea  insignia. 

The  following  insignia  are  worn  on  the 
left  breast  above  any  ribbons,  medals,  or 
insignia. 

Surface  Warfare  insignia,  worn  by  officers 
who  have  qualified  in  all  phases  of  surface 
warfare. 

Submarine  insignia,  worn  by  personnel 
who  have  qualified  to  serve  in  submarines.  In 
addition  to  the  basic  insignia,  other  submarine 
insignia  include  those  for  submarine  medical, 
engineering,  and  supply  officers,  and  for  all 
who  participated  successfully  in  combat 
patrols. 

Aviation  insignia,  worn  by  personnel 
qualified  to  serve  in  flight.  In  addition  to  the 


115 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


aviator  insignia,  insignia  are  worn  by  flight 
officers,  flight  surgeons,  flight  nurses, 
aircrewmen,  and  combat  aircrewmen. 

Special  Warfare  insignia,  worn  by 
personnel  qualified  in  underwater  and  beach 
reconnaissance,  demolition,  and  special 
warfare  tactics.  They  are  usually  associated 
with  underwater  demolition  or  SEAL  team 
detachments. 

Explosive  Ordnance  Disposal  insignia, 
worn  by  personnel  who  are  qualified  in  the 
identification  and  safing  of  a  full  spectrum  of 
ordnance  produced  by  the  U.S.,  our  allies  and 
enemies. 

SSBN  Deterrent  Patrol  insignia,  worn  by 
personnel  who  successfully  complete  a  patrol 
on  a  Fleet  Ballistic  Missile  submarine.  Gold 
stars  are  mounted  on  the  scroll  to  indicate 


each  successful  patrol  subsequent  to  that  for 
which  the  original  insignia  was  awarded. 

Most  insignia  that  are  worn  by  officers 
and  enlisted  personnel  are  identical  with  the 
exception  of  color.  Those  worn  by  officers 
are  of  a  gold  color  while  enlisted 's  are  silver. 
Examples  of  some  of  these  are  submarine, 
small  craft,  and  explosive  ordnance  disposal. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  special 
insignia  are  worn  by  naval  astronauts, 
parachutists,  balloon  pilots,  aerospace 
physiologists/experimental  psychologists, 
master  divers,  diving  officers,  and  explosive 
ordnance  disposal  personnel;  and  identification 
badges  are  displayed  by  those  engaged  in 
Presidential  service  or  assigned  to  certain 
staffs,  such  as  the  Organization  of  the  JCS  or 
the  Office  of  the  Secretary  of  Defense. 


NOTE:  As  this  text  was  going  to  press,  the 
Navy  announced  that  beginning  in  1978  enlisted 
men  in  pay  grades  E-l  thru  E-4  will,  on  a  trial 
basis,  gradually  return  to  the  traditional  uniform 
of  bell  bottoms,  junipers,  and  white  hats. 


CHAPTER  6 


MILITARY  COURTESY 


Traditionally  the  terms  "officer"  and 
"gentleman"  have  been  synonymous.  Some  of 
the  requisite  traits  of  the  true  officer  are 
integrity,  loyalty,  dependability,  regard  for  the 
rights  of  others,  tolerance,  self-confidence,  sense 
of  humor,  ability  to  treat  all  as  equals,  tact,  and 
good  manners. 

John  Paul  Jones  in  a  letter  to  Congress  in 
1775  wrote,  "It  is  by  no  means  enough  that  an 
officer  of  the  Navy  should  be  a  capable  mariner. 
He  must  be  that,  of  course,  but  also  a  great  deal 
more.  He  should  be  as  well  a  gentleman  of 
liberal  education,  refined  manners,  punctilious 
courtesy,  and  the  nicest  sense  of  personal 
honor." 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  introduce 
most  of  the  main  aspects  of  military  courtesy 
and  etiquette,  both  as  to  the  traditional 
elements  that  still  survive  and  those  that  have 
changed  with  the  passage  of  time. 


THE  SALUTE 

One  of  the  essentials  of  military  courtesy  is 
the  salute.  Regulations  governing  its  use  are 
founded  on  military  etiquette  and,  as  such,  are 
deeply  rooted  in  traditions  and  customs  of  the 
service.  A  military  organization  functions 
efficiently  only  as  a  unit,  and  any  common  bond 
or  identifying  symbol  that  furthers  the  feeling  of 
comradeship  strengthens  that  unity. 

The  custom  of  saluting  is  a  time-honored 
demonstration  of  courtesy  among  military 
personnel  the  world  over  and  expresses  mutual 
respect  and  pride  in  the  service. 

In  form,  the  salute  is  simple  and  dignified, 
but  there  is  great  significance  in  that  gesture. 
The  privilege  of  saluting  is  generally  denied 


prisoners  because  their  status  is  unworthy  of  the 
comradeship  of  military  personnel. 

The  salute  probably  originated  in  the  days 
of  chivalry,  when  it  was  customary  for  knights  in 
mail  to  raise  their  visors  to  friends  for  the 
purpose  of  identification.  Because  of  strict 
gradations  or  rank,  the  junior  was  required  to 
make  the  first  gesture.  Another  school  of 
thought  traces  the  salute  back  to  a  custom  at  the 
time  of  the  Borgias.  Assassinations  by  dagger 
were  not  uncommon  at  that  time  and  it  became 
the  custom  for  men  to  approach  each  other  with 
raised  hand,  palm  to  the  front,  to  show  that 
there  was  no  weapon  concealed. 

In  the  American  Navy,  however,  it  seems 
reasonable  to  assume  that  the  hand  salute  came 
to  us  directly  from  the  British  Navy.  There  is 
general  agreement  that  the  salute  as  now 
rendered  is  really  the  first  part  of  the  movement 
of  uncovering.  From  the  earliest  days  of  military 
units,  the  junior  uncovered  when  meeting  or 
addressing  a  senior.  Gradually,  the  act  of  taking 
off  one's  cap  was  simplified  into  merely 
touching  the  cap  or,  if  uncovered,  the  head 
(forelock),  and  finally  into  the  present  form  of 
salute. 

PROPER  MANNER 
OF  SALUTING 

Except  when  walking,  one  should  be  at 
attention  when  saluting.  In  any  case,  head  and 
eyes  are  turned  toward  the  person  saluted  unless 
inappropriate  to  do  so,  such  as  when  a  division 
in  ranks  salutes  an  inspecting  officer  on 
command.  The  right  hand  is  raised  smartly  until 
the  tip  of  the  forefinger  touches  the  lower  part 
of  the  headgear  or  forehead  above  and  slightly 
to  the  right  of  the  right  eye.  Thumb  and  fingers 


1 1 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


are  extended  and  joined.  The  palm  is  turned 
slightly  inward  until  the  person  saluting  can  just 
see  its  surface  from  the  corner  of  the  right  eye. 
The  upper  arm  is  parallel  to  the  ground,  the 
elbow  slightly  in  front  of  the  body.  The  forearm 
is  inclined  at  a  45°  angle;  hand  and  wrist  are  in  a 
straight  line.  One  completes  the  salute  (after  it  is 
returned)  by  dropping  the  arm  to  its  normal 
position  in  one  sharp,  clean  motion. 

The  first  position  of  the  hand  salute  is 
executed  when  six  paces  from  the  person 
saluted,  or  at  the  nearest  point  of  approach,  if 
more  than  six  paces.  (Thirty  paces  is  generally 
regarded  as  maximum  saluting  distance.)  The 
first  position  should  be  held  until  the  person 
saluted  has  passed  or  the  salute  is  returned. 

The   hand    salute,  under  naval  custom,  is 
accompanied  by  a  word  of  greeting.  The  junior 
stands  at  attention,  looks  the  senior  straight  in' 
the  eye  and  says,  depending  upon  the  time  of 
day,  as  follows: 

From  first  rising  until  noon-"Good 
morning, " 

From  noon  until  sunset -"Good  afternoon, 


From  sunset  until  turning  in-"Good 
evening " 

It  is  preferable  to  call  the  senior  by  grade 
and  name,  i.e.,  "Commander  Jones"  rather  than 
by  the  impersonal  "Sir." 

Naval  custom  permits  saluting  with  the  left 
hand  when  a  salute  cannot  be  rendered  with  the 
right  hand;  Army  and  Air  Force  custom  permits 
only  right-hand  salutes. 

Certain  common  errors  in  saluting  should  be 
avoided.  The  major  faults  to  watch  are  these: 

Bowing  the  head  as  the  salute  is  given. 
Dropping    the    salute    before   it   has   been 

returned. 
Holding  the  arm  awkwardly  high  or  letting  it 

sag  too  low. 
Saluting  on  the  double. 
Avoiding  the  gaze  of  the  person  saluted. 
Saluting  with  pipe,  cigar,  or  cigarette  in  the 

mouth  or  in  the  hand. 
Waiting  too  long  to  begin  the  salute. 
Saluting  in  a  casual  or  perfunctory  manner. 


WHEN  TO  SALUTE 

In  the  Navy,  as  in  practically  every  military 
service  in  the  world,  everybody  salutes-from 
the  bottom  to  the  top  and  down  again.  Enlisted 
personnel  salute  all  officers  and  every  officer 
salutes  his  seniors.  Salutes  are  returned  by  all 
who  are  saluted.  When  uncovered,  the  person 
saluted  usually  acknowledges  a  salute  by  an 
appropriate  oral  greeting  or  nod  of  the  head. 

Salutes  are  extended  to  officers  of  the  Navy, 
Army,  Air  Force,  Marine  Corps,  and  Coast 
Guard;  to  foreign  military  and  naval  officers 
whose  governments  are  formally  recognized  by 
the  Government  of  the  United  States;  and,  when 
in  uniform,  to  officers  of  the  Naval,  Army,  Air 
Force,  Marine  Corps,  and  Coast  Guard  Reserve, 
and  of  the  National  Guard.  Public  Health  and 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  officers,  when 
serving  with  the  Armed  Forces  of  the  United 
States,  rate  a  salute. 

When  several  officers  in  company  are 
saluted,  all  return  the  salute.  For  example,  if  an 
ensign  were  walking  with  a  commander  and  an 
Army  captain  approached,  it  would  be  improper 
for  the  ensign  to  salute  the  captain  until  the 
captain  first  saluted  the  commander.  As  the 
commander  returns  the  salute,  the  ensign  salutes 
simultaneously.  If  two  or  more  persons  of 
various  grades  accompany  the  senior  officer,  the 
same  rule  applies:  they  render  the  salute  when 
the  senior  officer  returns  the  salute  accorded. 

Civilians  entitled  by  reason  of  their  position 
to  gun  salutes  or  other  honors  also  are  entitled 
by  custom  to  the  hand  salute. 

There  are  five  types  of  personal  salutes;  hand 
salute,  hand  salute  under  arms,  present  arms, 
sword  salute,  and  "Eyes  right,"  given  by 
personnel  passing  in  review. 

Aboard  Ship 

When  boarding  a  ship  in  which  the  national 
ensign  is  flying,  all  persons  in  the  naval  service 
stop  on  reaching  the  upper  platform  of  the 
accommodation  ladder  or  the  shipboard  end  of 
the  brow,  face  the  ensign,  and  salute.  Following 
this,  they  salute  the  officer  of  the  deck.  On 
leaving  the  ship,  personnel  render  the  salutes  in 


118 


Chapter  6-MILITARY  COURTESY 


reverse  order:  first  to  the  OOD  and  then  to  the 
national  ensign.  These  salutes  also  are  rendered 
aboard  foreign  men-of-war. 

All  officers  and  enlisted  personnel  on  board 
a  ship  of  the  Navy  salute  all  flag  officers 
(officers  above  the  grade  of  captain),  the 
commanding  officer,  and  visiting  officers  senior 
to  themselves  on  every  occasion  of  meeting, 
passing  near,  or  being  addressed.  On  their  first 
daily  meeting  they  salute  all  senior  officers  who 
are  attached  to  their  ship.  Many  ships  consider 
salutes  rendered  at  quarters  to  suffice  for  this 
first  salute  of  the  day.  They  salute  whenever 
they  are  addressing  or  being  addressed  by  their 
seniors.  They  salute  an  inspecting  officer  during 
the  course  of  an  official  inspection.  When  the 
progress  of  a  senior  officer  may  be  impeded, 
officers  and  men  clear  a  gangway  and  stand  at 
attention  facing  the  senior  officer  until  he  has 
passed. 

In  Boats 

When  someone  is  in  charge  of  a  boat  that  is 
not  underway,  he  salutes  officers  that  come 
alongside  or  pass  nearby.  If  there  is  no  one  in 
charge,  all  those  in  the  boat  render  the  salute. 
Boat  coxswains  salute  all  officers  entering  or 
leaving  their  boats.  (Although  it  is  customary  to 
stand  when  saluting,  this  formality  is  dispensed 
with  if  the  safety  of  the  boat  is  imperiled  by  so 
doing.)  When  boat  awnings  are  spread,  enlisted 
personnel  sit  at  attention  while  saluting;  they  do 
not  rise.  Officers  seated  in  boats  rise  when 
rendering  salutes  to  seniors  who  are  entering  or 
leaving. 

When  boats  pass  each  other  with  embarked 
officers  or  officials  in  view,  hand  salutes  are 
rendered  by  the  senior  officer  and  coxswain  in 
each  boat.  Officers  seated  in  passing  boats  do 
not  rise  when  saluting;  coxswains  rise  to  salute 
unless  it  is  dangerous  or  impracticable  to  do  so. 

In  Civilian  Clothes 

The  proper  greeting  is  initiated  when  a 
junior  recognizes  a  senior  in  the  armed  services 
as  one  who  rates  a  salute,  even  though  the  senior 


may  be  in  civilian  clothing.  If  covered,  a  salute 
may  be  rendered.  In  time  of  war,  however,  an 
officer  not  in  uniform  may  be  deliberately 
avoiding  disclosure  of  his/her  naval  identity,  and 
one  should  be  discriminate  about  following  the 
normal  (peacetime)  rule. 

In  a  Group 

If  enlisted  personnel  or  officers  are  standing 
together  and  a  senior  officer  approaches,  the 
first  to  see  the  senior  calls  out  "Attention!"  and 
all  face  and  salute. 

Overtaking 

No  junior  should  overhaul  and  pass  a  senior 
without  permission.  When  for  any  reason  it 
becomes  necessary  for  the  junior  to  pass,  he 
does  so  to  the  left,  salutes  when  abreast  of  the 
senior,  and  asks,  "By  your  leave,  sir/ma'am?" 
The  senior  replies,  "Very  well,"  and  returns  the 
salute. 

Reporting 

When  reporting  on  deck  or  out-of-doors 
ashore,  one  is  covered  and  salutes  accordingly. 
When  reporting  in  an  office,  one  uncovers  upon 
approaching  the  senior,  and  therefore  does  not 
salute. 

Seated 

An  enlisted  person  being  seated  and  without 
particular  occupation  rises  upon  the  approach  of 
an  officer,  faces  and  salutes,  if  covered.  If  both 
remain  in  the  same  general  vicinity,  the 
compliments  need  not  be  repeated. 

Seniority  Unknown 

In  most  cases  officers  will  know  the  relative 
seniority  of  those  with  whom  they  are  in 
frequent  contact,  but  there  are  many  situations, 
especially  ashore,  where  that  is  an  obvious 
impossibility.  Perhaps  the  safest  advice  is,  at 
such  times,  to  salute,  doing  so  without  delay.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  in  practically  every  case  where 
uncertainty  exists,  regardless  of  grade,  the  rule  is 
to  render  the  salute. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Sentries 

Sentries  at  gangways  salute  all  officers  going 
or  coming  over  the  side,  and  when  passing  or 
being  passed  by  officers  close  aboard  in  boats  or 
otherwise. 

Vehicles 

Enlisted  personnel  and  officers  salute  all 
senior  officers  riding  in  vehicles,  while  those  in 
the  vehicle  both  render  and  return  salutes,  as 
may  be  required.  The  driver  of  a  vehicle  is 
obliged  to  salute  if  the  vehicle  is  at  a  halt;  to  do 
so  while  the  vehicle  is  in  motion  might  endanger 
the  safety  of  the  occupants  and  so  may  be 
omitted. 

WHEN  NOT  TO  SALUTE 

There  are  some  situations  in  which  it  is 
improper  to  salute.  These  are  as  follows: 

When  uncovered,  except  where  failure  to 
salute  might  cause  embarrassment  or 
misunderstanding. 

In  formation,  except  on  command. 

On  work  detail  (person  in  charge  of  detail 
salutes). 

When  engaged  in  athletics  or  assembled  for 
recreation  or  entertainment. 

When  carrying  articles  with  both  hands,  or 
otherwise  so  occupied  as  to  make 
saluting  impracticable. 

In  public  places  where  obviously 
inappropriate  (theaters,  restaurants,  etc.). 

In  public  conveyances. 

When  a  member  of  the  guard  engaged  in 
performance  of  a  duty  which  prevents 
saluting. 

In  action  or  under  simulated  combat 
conditions. 

At  mess.  (When  addressed,  stop  eating  and 
show  respectful  attention.) 


HAND  SALUTES  ON 
FORMAL  OCCASIONS 

During  national  anthem.  When  the  national 
anthem  is  played,  persons  in  the  naval  service 
stand  at  attention,  facing  toward  the  colors,  if 
displayed;  otherwise,  they  face  the  music.  If 
covered,  they  salute  at  the  first  note  of  the 
anthem 'and  remain  at  the  salute  until  the  last 
note.  When  in  ranks,  the  officer-in-charge  orders 
"Attention"  and  renders  the  appropriate  hand 
or  sword  salute  for  the  formation.  In  boats,  only 
the  boat  officer-or,  in  his  absence,  the 
coxswain-stands  and  salutes  when  the  national 
anthem  is  played.  Other  members  of  the  crew 
and  passengers  who  are  already  standing,  stand 
at  attention.  All  others  remain  seated  at 
attention.  Personnel  in  civilian  clothing  standing 
at  attention  in  a  boat  during  the  playing  of  the 
national  anthem  do  not  render  the 
"hand-over-heart"  salute.  This  is  an  exception  to 
the  general  rule. 

The  above  rules  apply  only  to  a  formal 
rendition  of  the  national  anthem.  For  example, 
if  a  person  in  uniform  heard  "The  Star-Spangled 
Banner"  being  broadcast  over  the  radio,  he/she 
would  not  be  expected  to  stop,  face  toward  the 
music,  and  salute.  On  the  other  hand,  at  a  public 
gathering  where  the  anthem  was  being  broadcast 
as  part  of  the  ceremony,  he/she  would  render 
the  required  honors. 

During  parades.  Military  personnel  salute  the 
flag  when  they  are  passed  by  or  pass  the  flag 
being  carried  uncased  in  a  parade  or  military 
formation. 

Funerals  and  religious  services.  During 
funerals  (figure  6-1),  officers  and  enlisted 
personnel  remain  covered  while  in  the  open  but 
uncover  during  the  committal  service  at  the 
grave.  During  burial  services  at  sea,  previously 
illustrated  in  figure  4-5,  they  remain  covered 
throughout  the  service. 

During  religious  services  aboard  ship  and 
during  formal  religious  ceremonies  outdoors 
ashore  (such  as  Easter  sunrise  service),  members 
remain  uncovered  throughout  the  ceremony. 

In  general,  a  military  person  uncovers  during 
a  religious  ceremony  but  remains  covered  during 
a  military  ceremony.  Church  services,  civilian 


Chapter  6-MILITARY  COURTESY 


134.38 


Figure  6-1.— During  military  funerals,  officers  and  men  remain  covered  while  in  the  open. 


funerals,  or  burial  services  which  the  officer  or 
enlisted  person  attends  as  a  friend  or  relative 
rather  than  as  a  representative  of  the  Navy  are 
religious  ceremonies.  Military  funerals  and  burial 
at  sea  are  regarded  as  primarily  military 
ceremonies. 

At  a  military  ceremony  when  the  occasion 
requires,  an  officer  or  enlisted  person  salutes 
rather  than  uncovers,  as  that  is  the  traditional 
mark  of  respect.  If  an  officer  were  attending  a 
military  funeral  officially,  a  salute  would  be 
appropriate  whenever  honors  are  rendered ;  when 
the  body  is  removed  from  the  hearse  to  the 
chapel,  from  the  chapel  to  the  caisson,  and  from 
the  caisson  to  the  grave;  when  the  volleys  are 
fired;  and  when  "Taps"  is  sounded. 

As  a  participant  at  a  nonmilitary  funeral  or 
burial  service,  an  individual  may  follow  the 
civilian  custom  and  uncover  (rather  than  salute) 
when  such  honors  are  called  for,  as  during  the 


procession   to   the   grave,   the   lowering  of  the 
body,  and  so  on. 

Jewish  custom  calls  for  remaining  covered 
during  all  religious  ceremonies.  The  usual  rules 
regarding  uncovering  do  not  apply  when  the 
service  is  being  conducted  by  a  representative  of 
that  faith. 

Service  personnel  wearing  civilian  clothing  at 
a  military  funeral  follow  the  etiquette  prescribed 
for  civilians. 

Honors  to  the  Colors.  Naval  ships 
underway  hoist  the  national  ensign  at 
flagstaff  aft  at  0800  and  lower  it  at  sunset.  The 
union  jack,  likewise,  is  hoisted  and  lowered  at 
the  jackstaff  forward  at  the  same  times.  At 
colors,  the  ensign  is  hoisted  smartly,  lowered 
slowly,  and  is  never  allowed  to  touch  the  deck. 
At  both  morning  and  evening  colors, 
"Attention"  is  sounded,  and  all  officers  and 
enlisted  personnel  topside  face  the  ensign  and 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


render  the  salute.  At  shore  stations  and,  in 
peacetime,  on  board  large  vessels  where  a  band  is 
present,  the  national  anthem  is  played  during 
the  ceremonies.  In  the  absence  of  a  band,  a 
bugler,  if  available,  sounds  'To  the  Colors"  at 
the  morning  ceremonies  and  "Retreat"  at  sunset 
formalities.  (When  a  naval  ship  is  underway,  the 
ensign  usually  is  flown  both  day  and  night  from 
the  mast  and  the  jack  is  not  hoisted.)  In 
half-masting  the  ensign,  it  is  first  raised  to  the 
truck  or  peak  and  then  lowered  to  half-mast. 
Before  being  lowered  from  half-mast,  the  ensign 
is  first  raised  to  the  truck  or  peak  and  lowered 
with  the  usual  ceremonies. 

During  colors,  a  boat  underway  within  sight 
or  hearing  of  the  ceremony  either  lies  to  or 
proceeds  at  the  slowest  safe  speed.  The  boat 
officer— or  in  his  absence,  the  coxswain-stands 
and  salutes  except  when  dangerous  to  do  so. 
Other  persons  in  the  boat  remain  seated  or 
standing  and  do  not  salute.  Vehicles  within  sight 
or  hearing  of  colors  are  stopped.  Persons  riding 
in  vehicles  sit  at  attention.  The  person  in  charge 
of  a  military  vehicle  (but  someone  other  than 
the  driver)  renders  the  hand  salute. 

When  a  vessel  under  the  flag  of  a  nation 
formally  recognized  by  the  Government  of  the 
United  States  salutes  a  ship  of  our  Navy  by 
dipping  her  ensign,  the  salute  is  returned  dip  for 
dip.  U.S.  naval  vessels  never  initiate  the  dipping 
of  the  ensign. 

In  the  large  assortment  of  flags  carried  by 
American  men-of-war,  only  one  flies  above  the 
ensign:  the  church  pennant  (figure  6-2), 
displayed  while  divine  service  is  being  held  by  a 
chaplain  or  visiting  church  dignitary. 


NAVAL  ETIQUETTE. 

The  phase  of  military  courtesy  which  covers 
relations  among  officers  and  between  officers 
and  enlisted  personnel  undergoes  little  change 
during  a  war,  probably  because  these  relations 
are  the  most  fundamental  part  of  all  military 
courtesy  and  the  main  source  of  most  naval 
etiquette. 

The  twin  foundations  of  military  courtesy 
among  officers  are:  (1)  precedence;  (2) 


134.39 

Figure  6-2.— The  church  pennant,  hoisted  while  divine 
services  are  being  held,  is  the  only  emblem  that  may 
be  flown  above  the  ensign. 


deference  to  seniors.  Officers  take  precedence 
according  to  their  grade,  and  this  precedence  is 
not  confined  to  strictly  military  relations  on 
ship  or  shore,  but  extends  to  the  mess,  to  the 
club,  and  to  social  life. 

Naval  courtesy  prescribes  that  junior  officers 
accord  their  seniors  certain  indications  of 
deference  and  respect  which  correspond  to  those 
which  younger  people  would  accord  to  their 
elders  under  the  usages  of  polite  society.  It  also 
prescribes  that  seniors  shall,  with  equal 
punctiliousness,  acknowledge  and  respond  to 
these  tokens  of  respect  required  of  juniors,  so 
that  there  exists  no  semblance  of  servility  in  the 
interchange,  but  rather  a  sort  of  ritual  for 


122 


observance  by  those  serving  their  country  in  a 
strictly  ordered  fraternity  of  military  service. 

GENERAL  RELATIONS  BETWEEN 
JUNIORS  AND  SENIORS 

A  junior  officer  approaching  a  senior  for  the 
purpose  of  making  an  official  report  remains  at 
attention  until  invited  to  be  seated  or  to  stand  at 
ease.  The  invitation  should  be  awaited  rather 
than  anticipated. 

Unless  on  watch,  a  person  in  the  naval 
service  uncovers  when  entering  a  room  in  which 
a  senior  is  present. 

When  a  senior  enters  a  room  in  which  junior 
officers  or  enlisted  persons  are  seated,  the  one 
who  first  sees  the  senior  calls  "Attention."  All 
present  remain  at  attention  until  ordered  to 
carry  on. 

When  addressed  by  a  senior,  the  junior,  if 
seated,  rises  and  remains  at  attention.  Personnel 
seated  at  work,  at  games,  or  at  mess  are  not 
required  to  rise  when  an  officer,  other  than  a 
flag  officer  or  the  captain  of  the  ship,  passes, 
unless  they  are  called  to  attention  or  when  it  is 
necessary  to  clear  a  gangway. 

The  place  of  honor  is  on  the  right. 
Accordingly,  when  a  junior  walks,  rides,  or  sits 
with  a  senior,  the  junior  takes  position  alongside 
and  to  the  left. 

When  entering  an  automobile  or  a  boat, 
officers  do  so  in  inverse  order  of  grade.  A 
lieutenant  and  a  captain  getting  into  an 
automobile  enter  in  that  order,  with  the 
lieutenant  taking  the  seat  in  the  far,  or  left-hand, 
corner,  the  captain  sitting  on  the  right  side. 
When  getting  out,  the  captain  leaves  first.  In 
entering  buildings  or  rooms,  however,  the  junior 
opens  doors  for  the  senior  and  enters  last. 

The  custom  of  the  "right-hand  rule"  is  an 
old  one,  quaintly  expressed  by  George 
Washington  in  his  30th  "Rule  of  Civility":  "In 
walking,  the  highest  place  in  most  countries 
seems  to  be  on  the  right  hand,  therefore,  place 
yourself  on  the  left  of  him  whom  you  desire  to 
honor." 

At  parties,  it  is  not  considered  good  taste  to 
leave  before  the  commanding  officer.  If 
necessary  to  do  so,  respects  are  paid  to  the 
commanding  officer  before  departing. 


A  junior  never  offers  to  shake  hands  with  a 
senior;  the  latter  makes  the  first  gesture. 

A  junior  officer  avoids  keeping  a  senior 
waiting.  Normal  courtesy  aside,  punctuality  is 
essential  in  the  service.  When  called  by  a  senior, 
a  junior  responds  immediately. 

In  replying  to  questions  from  a  senior,  a 
junior  officer  avoids  a  great  deal  of 
embarrassment  by  giving  complete  and  explicit 
answers.  If  the  desired  information  cannot  be 
supplied,  an  "I  don't  know,  sir/ma'am,  but  I  will 
find  out  and  let  you  know,"  is  much  better  than 
an  indirect  answer  that  conveys  misinformation 
on  which  a  senior  may  be  basing  an  important 
decision.  To  avoid  admitting  ignorance,  juniors 
sometimes  make  evasive  statements  that  not 
only  seriously  affect  their  reputation  but  also 
confuse  the  issue. 

It  is  an  excellent  practice  for  a  junior  who 
has  been  ordered  to  do  an  assigned  task  to 
report  back  promptly  to  the  senior  either  the 
completion  of  the  task  or  exactly  what  has  been 
done  about  its  completion. 

When  given  orders,  juniors  must  ensure  that 
they  know  what  is  required  and  when  it  is 
required.  They  should  not  hesitate  to  ask 
questions  to  clarify  points.  If  advice  is  needed, 
they  should  attempt  to  get  it  from  their  peers; 
but  should  not  hesitate  to  go  to  the  senior  who 
gave  the  orders.  Juniors  should  anticipate  the 
wishes  of  a  senior,  whenever  possible. 

An  officer  should  not  jump  the  chain  of 
command.  When  necessary  to  proceed  to 
someone  higher  in  the  chain  of  command,  one's 
immediate  supervisor  should  be  kept  informed. 

Suggestions  for 
Junior  Officers 

Excuses  for  failure  or  negligence  are  always 
unacceptable.  An  officer  should  assume 
responsibility  and  not  depend  on  alibis.  If  at 
fault  freely  accept  the  blame. 

Bootlicking,  a  deliberate  courting  of  favor,  is 
despised.  Such  tactics  may  be  temporarily 
mistaken  for  sincere  desire  to  please  and  to 
make  good  but  in  time  seniors  through  long 
experience  with  such  demeanor  recognize 
"greasing."  However,  a  genuine  effort  to  be 
friendly  and  cooperative  is  essential  to  a  junior 


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NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


officer's  success.  A  continued  willingness  to 
undertake  any  task  assigned  and  perform  it 
cheerfully  and  efficiently  will,  in  time,  gam  for 
the  young  officer  a  reputation  for  dependability 
and  ensure  popularity  with  fellow  officers. 
Continued  grouching  and  loafing  will  have 
exactly  the  opposite  effect.  The  satisfaction  of 
having'  done  a  good  job  should  be  sufficient 
reward  in  itself.  The  junior  officer  should  not 
report  such  accomplishments  to  the  senior 
officer.  Of  course  a  report  that  is  required  must 
be  made,  but  work  well  done  generally  reaches 
the  attention  of  superiors. 

The  conduct  of  members  of  the  service  must 
be  above  criticism.  The  Navy  will  be  judged  by 
an  officer's  appearance  and  behavior. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  all  undertakings 
and  projects  must  be  carefully  considered  in 
advance  and  that  all  preparations  necessary  to 
the  success  thereof  must  be  made  well  in 
advance.  Officers  hold  their  positions  because 
they  are  believed  to  be  capable  of  thinking 
ahead  and  making  intelligent  plans,  and  they 
must  always  strive  to  demonstrate  that  they  are 
entitled  to  the  grade  they  hold. 

One  of  the  best  things  that  can  be  said  about 
junior  officers  by  their  seniors  is  that  when  given 
a  job  they  can  always  be  depended  upon  for 
satisfactory  results. 

Suggestions  for 
Shipboard  Officers 

One  cannot  learn  too  soon  that  every  officer 
has  two  personalities,  the  official  and  the 
unofficial.  An  officer  who  plays  the  "good 
fellow"  on  watch  is  sooner  or  later  bound  to 
come  to  grief.  Holding  a  boat  for  a  brother 
officer  who  is  late  is  an  example.  It  is  a  poor 
excuse  to  offer  an  executive  officer  that  his 
written  order  contained  in  the  boat  schedule  has 
been  disobeyed  simply  because  another  officer 
requested  it. 

Whenever  an  officer  receives  an  order 
requiring  transmittal  to  subordinates  for  action, 
it  is  his/her  duty  to  see  that  the  order  is 
promptly  and  smartly  executed.  The  officer's 
responsibility  in  the  matter  does  not  end  until 


the  order  has  been  carried  through  to  its  proper 
completion. 

Sometimes  an  officer  may  dislike  certain 
orders  that  come  down  from  above. 
Nevertheless,  an  officer  must  follow  these  orders 
implicitly  and  see  that  they  are  obeyed  by  the 
personnel  in  his/her  charge.  The  promulgating  Of 
such  orders  may  seem  difficult,  but  an  officer 
should  never  apologize  for  them  and  should 
never  question  an  order  in  front  of  subordinates. 

When  a  young  officer  reports  on  board  ship, 
it  is  important  that  he  devote  most  of  his  spare 
time  to  professional  reading  and  getting 
acquainted  with  his  ship's  organization  and 
regulations.  A  certain  amount  of  time  each  day 
should  be  set  aside  for  professional  study. 

It  is  wise  procedure  for  an  officer  never  to 
request  permission  to  leave  ship  in  the  afternoon 
until  the  work  assigned  or  expected  of  him  has 
been  completed.  There  is  much  to  be  learned  in 
the  first  few  months  aboard  ship.  The  astute 
newcomer  will  not  let  himself  be  known  as  a 
"liberty  hound." 

A  junior  officer  of  a  division  should  always 
be  in  his  part  of  the  ship  in  the  morning 
BEFORE  his  division  officer  arrives.  He  should 
also  make  it  a  point  to  be  at  general  drills  before 
his  division  officer.  He  should  invariably  address 

that   officer   as    "Commander ,"   or  as 

appropriate. 

A  junior  division  officer  should  keep  a 
complete  notebook  of  his  division,  showing 
names,  initials,  rate,  bunk  and  billet  numbers, 
with  all  watch,  quarter,  and  station  assignments. 
The  book  should  be  small  enough  to  be  carried 
on  his  person.  It  is  also  a  good  idea  to  keep  in 
the  security  of  one's  room  confidential  notes 
concerning  various  men.  This  information  will 
be  of  service  when  giving  evaluation  marks  and 
recommending  men  for  advancement  in  rating. 

The  new  officer  will  be  critically  evaluated 
by  all  hands  shortly  after  he  comes  aboard 
ship.  Senior  officers  do  not  always  call  attention 
to  minor  faults  or  errors  made  by  juniors,  but 
they  are  sure  to  notice  them  and  will  form  their 
opinions  accordingly.  While  they  will  make  due 
allowance  for  lack  of  experience,  their  final 
estimate  will  be  based  entirely  on  what  the 


124 


Chapter  6-MILITARY  COURTESY 


young  officer  contributes.  He  should  be  alert 
and  analyze  his  conduct  frequently  to  determine 
if  by  chance  he  is  offending  unintentionally.  A 
lack  of  deference  toward  senior  officers  or  a 
tendency  to  become  familiar  with  them;  harsh, 
unreasonable  handling  of  enlisted  men;  or 
irresponsibility  and  lack  of  initiative  will  in  each 
case  produce  unfavorable  comment  and  an 
impression  that  may  be  lasting. 

Some  officers  are  prone  to  think  that  their 
badge  of  office  will  carry  them  through  all 
difficult  situations  even  though  they  are  not 
fully  qualified  for  the  responsibilities  of  that 
office.  Inevitably  they  suffer  a  rude  awakening. 
The  intelligent  and  effective  junior  officer 
knows  the  limits  of  his/her  abilities  and  is 
continually  striving  to  increase  those  limits  by 
learning  from  all  available  sources. 

An  officer's  appearance  is  very  important; 
therefore,  one's  good  clothes  should  be  worn  at 
quarters  and  best  clothes  at  inspections. 

An  outstanding  naval  officer  of  the  19th 
century,  Matthew  Fontaine  Maury,  said:  "Make 
it  a  rule  never  to  offend,  nor  to  seek  causes  of 
offense  in  the  conduct  of  others.  Be  polite  to  all, 
familiar  with  but  few.  The  rule  in  the  Navy  is  to 
treat  everybody  as  a  gentleman  until  he  proves 
himself  to  be  otherwise.  It  is  a  good 
rule-observe  it  well." 

It  has  long  been  the  custom  in  the  Navy  for 
officers  to  relieve  the  watch  not  later  than  15 
minutes  before  the  hour  that  the  watch  begins 
(usually  signaled  by  the  traditional  bell  system 
of  shipboard  timekeeping).  This  requires  being 
on  the  bridge  at  sea  30  minutes  before  the 
bell.  Late  relieving  is  not  only  a  breach  of  naval 
custom  but  is  discourteous  and  unpardonable. 

It  has  been  said  that  of  all  the  valuable 
qualities  an  officer  can  have,  few  of  them  are 
superior  in  importance  to  tact.  In  a  military 
sense  this  means  a  knowledge  and  an 
appreciation  of  when  and  how  to  do  things. 
Tactful  officers  know  how  to  deal  with  their 
shipmates-both  senior  and  junior.  The 
usefulness  of  many  an  otherwise  capable  officer 
has  been  marred  because  of  the  lack  of  tact. 

In  conclusion,  all  organizations  in  society 
have  certain  customs  and  etiquette.  These  are 


especially  necessary  for  smooth  cooperation 
between  men  living  close  together  as  is  done  on 
board  a  man-of-war.  Disregard  of  customs  and 
etiquette  marks  one  as  careless,  indifferent,  or 
ignorant. 

Every  professional  officer  and  man  takes 
pride  in  naval  traditions  and  eagerly  conforms  to 
the  customs  and  etiquette  of  the  service.  These 
traditions  and  customs  are  the  honorable 
heritage  of  men  who  "go  down  to  the  sea  in 
ships." 

FORMS  OF  ADDRESS 

Custom,  tradition,  and  social  change 
determine  the  form  of  verbal  address  of 
introduction  of  members  of  the  naval  service. 
Although  tradition  and  military  customs 
generally  predominate,  there  are  some 
differences  in  methods  of  addressing  and 
introducing  military  personnel,  according  to 
whether  you  are  in  civilian  or  military  circles  at 
the  time.  (See  figure  6-3.) 

Except  as  provided  in  the  paragraphs  that 
follow,  all  officers  in  the  naval  service  shall  be 
addressed  or  introduced  by  the  title  of  his  or  her 
grade  preceding  the  surname. 

Officers  of  the  Medical  Corps  or  Dental 
Corps,  and  officers  of  the  Medical  Service  Corps 
or  Nurse  Corps  having  a  doctoral  degree,  may  be 
addressed  as  "Doctor."  Likewise,  an  officer  of 
the  Chaplain  Corps  may  be  addressed  as 
"Chaplain."  However,  if  the  doctor  or  chaplain 
prefers  to  be  addressed  by  title,  such  preference 
should  be  honored.  When  addressing  an  officer 
whose  grade  includes  a  modifier  (e.g.,  lieutenant 
junior-grade),  the  modifier  may  be  dropped. 

In  general,  it  is  preferable  to  call  an  officer 
of  the  rank  of  Commander  or  above  by  his  title 

and  name;  that  is,  "Commander 1'  rather 

than  by  the  impersonal  "sir."  Other  officers  are 
addressed  in  the  same  manner.  In  prolonged 
conversation,  where  repetition  would  seem 
forced  or  awkward,  the  snorter  "sir"  naturally  is 
used  more  often. 

A    warrant    or    chief    warrant    officer    is 

addressed  as  "Warrant  Officer "  or  "Chief 

Warrant  Officer "  In  military  circles,  a 


125 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


PERSON  ADDRESSED 
OR  INTRODUCED 

TO  MILITARY 

TO  CIVILIAN 

Introduce  as: 

Address  as: 

Introduce  as: 

Address  as: 

CDR  or  above 

Captain  (or  ap- 
propriate rank) 
Smith 

Captain  Smith 

Captain  Smitlr 

Captain  Smith 

LCDR  or  below 

Mr.  (Mrs.  ,  Miss, 
Ms.)  Smith 

Mr.  Smith 

LCDR  Smith2 

Mr.  Smith 

Medical  Corps 
officer  and 
Dental  Corps 
officer 

Dr.  Smith3 

Dr.  Smith3 

Lt.  Smith  of  the 
Navy  Medical 
Corps 

Dr.  Smith3 

Chaplain  Corps 
officer 

Chaplain  Smith 

Chaplain  Smith 

Chaplain  Smith 

Chaplain 

Navy  Nurse 
Corps  officer 

Commander  (Mrs., 
Miss,  Ms.)  Smith 

Commander  (Mrs.  , 
Miss,  Ms.)  Smith 

Commander  Smith 
of  the  Navy 
Nurse  Corps 

Commander  (Mrs.  , 
Miss,  Ms.)  Smith 

Chief  Warrant 
officer 

Mr.  (Mrs.  ,  Miss, 
Ms.)  Smith 

Mr.  Smith 

Warrant  Officer 
Smith 

Mr.  Smith 

Midshipman 

Mr.  Smith 

Mr.  Smith 

Midshipman 
Smith 

Mr.  Smith 

Warrant  officer 

Mr.  (Mrs.  ,  Miss, 
Ms.)  Smith 

Mr.  Smith 

Warrant  Officer 
Smith 

Mr.  Smith 

Chief  Petty 
officer 

Chief  Petty 
Officer  Smitlr 

Chief,  or 
Chief  Smith 

Chief  Yeoman 
Smith 

Mr.  (Mrs.  ,  Miss, 
Ms.)  Smith 

Aviation  cadet 

Aviation  Cadet 
Smith 

Mr.  Smith 

Aviation  Cadet 
Smith 

Mr.  Smith 

Petty  officer 

Petty  Officer 
Smith 

Petty  Officer 
Smith 

Yeoman  Smith 
or  Petty 
Officer  Smith 

Mr.  (Mrs.  ,  Miss, 
Ms.)  Smith 

Seaman 

Seaman  Smith 

Seaman  Smith 

Seaman  Smith 

Mr.  (Mrs.  ,  Miss, 
Ms.)  Smith 

•^When  not  in  uniform  a  captain  or  lieutenant  would  be  introduced  as  "of  the  Navy" 
to  distinguish  the  grade  from  the  other  services. 

2A  suggested  form  of  introduction  is:  "This  is  LCDR  Smith.  Mr.  (Mrs.,  Miss,  Ms.) 
Smith  is  now  stationed  here."  This  indicates  both  (a)  the  officer's  grade  and  (b)  the 
form  of  address. 

3If  a  senior  officer  of  the  Medical  or  Dental  Corps  prefers  to  be  addressed  by  title, 
such  preference  should  be  honored. 

^Prefixed  by  "Senior"  or  "Master"  as  appropriate. 


Figure  6-3.— Introducing  and  addressing  naval  personnel. 


134.40 


126 


cnapier  o— IVJIJLII/VKI 


midshipman  is  addressed  as  "Mr ./Ms. ;" 

when   with    civilians   he/she   is   introduced   as 

"Midshipman "  and  addressed  as  "Mr./Ms. 

?? 

Aboard  ship,  the  regularly  assigned 
commanding  officer  is  addressed  as  "Captain" 
regardless  of  his  grade.  The  regularly  assigned 
executive  officer  may  be  addressed  as 
"Commander"  without  appending  his  name. 

A  naval  officer  is  introduced  to  civilians  by 
title,  and  the  method  of  introduction  should 
give  the  cue  as  to  how  he  should  be  addressed 
from  then  on.  If  you  were  introducing  an  officer 
below  the  grade  of  commander,  you  might  say, 
"This  is  Lieutenant  Jones.  Mr.  Jones  is  an  old 
shipmate  of  mine."  This  serves  a  double 
purpose;  it  gives  the  civilian  to  whom  you  are 
introducing  an  officer  knowledge  of  the  naval 
man's  grade  in  the  event  that  person  does  not 
know  it,  and  it  also  gives  the  correct  method  of 
address,  "Mr.  Jones." 

Because  many  people  are  not  familiar  with 
Navy  grade  insignia  and  corps  devices,  it  is 
usually  a  good  idea  to  make  any  introduction, 
however  brief,  reasonably  informative.  A  woman 
lieutenant  or  lieutenant  commander  may  be 
introduced  with  the  words,  "This  is  Lieutenant 
Johnson.  Miss  Johnson  is  in  the  Nurse  Corps"; 
or  "This  is  Lieutenant  Commander  Jones.  Miss 
Jones  is  on  duty  in  the  Navy  Department." 

The  Navy  today  is  a  cross-section  of 
America.  In  the  same  family,  one  man  may  be  a 
machinist's  mate  and  his  brother  a  lieutenant. 
An  ensign  may  have  a  sister  who  is  a  yeoman, 
and  so  on.  General  Pershing  held  the  highest 
United  States  military  rank,  General  of  the 
Armies,  but  his  son  entered  World  War  II  as  a 
private.  The  first  Secretary  of  Defense  entered 
World  War  I  as  a  seaman  second  class. 

Accordingly,  even  though  the  distinction 
between  officer  and  enlisted  personnel  still 
exists  in  all  formal  and  official  relations,  it  does 
so  less  and  less  in  non-military  relations. 

Military  and  civilian  practices  differ  in 
introducing  and  addressing  enlisted  personnel. 
Under  military  conditions,  petty  officers  of  the 
Navy  shall  be  addressed  and  introduced  by  their 
respective  title  followed  by  their  last  name.  Petty 
officers  in  the  pay  grades  of  E-7,  E-8,  and  E-9 

are  addressed  informally  as  "Chief " 

prefixed  by  "Senior"  or  "Master,"  as 


appropriate.  They  are  introduced  formally  as 

"Chief  Petty  Officer "  prefixed  by 

"Senior"  or  "Master,"  as  appropriate.  Petty 
officers  in  pay  grades  E-4  through  E-6  are 
introduced  and  addressed  both  formally  and 

informally  as  "Petty  Officer ."  There  is  no 

change  in  the  form  of  verbal  address  (by  last 
name)  of  pay  grades  E-3  and  below.  However, 
when  introducing  them,  their  last  name  will  be 
preceded  by  "Seaman,"  "Fireman,"  "Airman," 
or  "Constructionman,"  etc.,  as  appropriate. 

Civilians  feel  unnecessarily  curt  in  social 
gatherings  when  addressing  enlisted  personnel  as 
described  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  It  is 
customary,  therefore,  for  those  outside  the 
service  to  extend  to  enlisted  personnel  the  same 
courtesies  they  would  extend  to  them  in  civilian 
life  and  to  prefix  their  names  with  "Mr.," 
"Mrs.,"  "Miss,"  or  "Ms.,"  as  the  case  may  be.  In 
introducing  them,  one  should  give  their  title  and 
name,  then  the  mode  of  address,  as  "This  is 
Petty  Officer  Smith.  Mr.  Smith  will  be  visiting 
us  for  a  while."  Thereafter  he  will  be  addressed 
as  "Mr.  Smith." 

There  is  only  one  proper  response  to  an  oral 
order— "Aye,  aye,  sir/ma'am."  This  reply  means 
more  than  "yes."  It  indicates  that  "I  understand 
and  will  obey."  Such  responses  to  an  order  as 
"O.K.,  sir,"  or  "All  right,  sir,"  are  taboo.  "Very 
well"  is  proper  when  spoken  by  a  senior  in 
acknowledgment  of  a  report  made  by  a  junior, 
but  a  junior  never  says  "Very  well"  to  a  senior. 

The  word  "sir /ma'am"  should  be  employed 
as  a  prefix  to  an  official  report,  statement,  or 
question  addressed  to  a  senior.  It  should  also  be 
used  when  addressing  an  official  on  duty 
representing  a  senior.  For  example,  the  officer 
of  the  deck,  regardless  of  grade,  represents  the 
commanding  officer,  and  should  be  addressed  as 
"sir." 

A  junior  addressing  a  senior  should 
introduce  himself/herself  unless  certain  the 
senior  knows  him/her  by  sight. 

There  are  certain  differences  in  phrasing 
which  should  be  noted.  A  senior  officer  sends 
his/her  "compliments"  to  a  junior.  For  example, 
"Admiral  Smith  presents  his  compliments  to 
Captain  Brown."  A  junior  sends  his/her 
"respects."  When  making  a  call  upon  a 
commanding  officer,  one  is  correct  in  saying, 
"Captain,  I  came  to  pay  my  respects,"  or  to  say 


127 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


to  the  orderly  before  entering  her  office,  "Tell 
the  captain  that  Ensign  Jones  would  like  to  pay 
her  respects." 

In  written  correspondence,  a  senior  officer 
may  "call"  attention  to  something,  but  a  junior 
may  only  "invite"  it.  It  is  Navy  custom  that  a 
junior  writing  a  memorandum  to  a  senior 
subscribes  it  "Very  respectfully";  a  senior 
writing  to  a  junior  may  use  "Respectfully." 

QUARTERDECK  ETIQUETTE 

Quarterdeck  etiquette  remains  the  same  in 
peace  and  war.  It  is  well  to  remember  when  on 
the  quarterdeck  that  this  has  always  been  the 
honored,  ceremonial  part  of  the  ship  and  that  it 
still  retains  its  sanctity. 

When  an  officer  comes  on  board  ship,  he 
salutes  the  officer  of  the  deck  and  says,  "I 
report  my  return  aboard,  sir,"  if  it  is  his  own 
ship,  or  "I  request  permission  to  come  aboard, 
sir,"  if  visiting  the  ship.  Upon  leaving  his  own 
ship,  the  officer,  as  he  salutes  the  officer  of  the 
deck,  says,  "I  have  permission  to  leave  the  ship, 
sir."  If  a  visitor,  the  officer  says  as  he  salutes 
"With  your  permission.  I  shall  leave  the  ship, 
sir."  or  "I  request  permission  to  leave  the  ship, 
sir." 

The  etiquette  of  the  quarterdeck  should  be 
strictly  enforced  by  the  watch  officer.  The 
quarterdeck  should  be  kept  immaculate  and  its 
ceremonial  character  maintained.  For  officers 
and  enlisted  men  alike,  adherence  to  these  rules 
is  required: 

1 .  Avoid  appearing  out  of  uniform. 

2.  Never  smoke. 

3.  Refrain  from  putting  hands  in  pockets. 

4.  Refrain  from  horseplay. 

5.  Don't  engage  in  recreational  athletics  on 
the  quarterdeck  unless  it  is  sanctioned  by  the 
captain,  and  then  only  after  working  hours. 

The  officer  of  the  deck  is  the  officer  on 
watch  in  charge  of  the  ship  (normally  on  duty 
for  four  hours)  and  represents  the  captain.  He  is 
responsible  for  the  safety  of  the  ship,  subject, 
however,  to  any  orders  he  may  receive  from  the 


commanding  officer.  Every  officer  or  other 
person  on  board  ship,  whatever  his  rank,  who  is 
subject  to  the  orders  of  the  commanding  officer, 
except  the  executive  officer,  is  subordinate  to 
the  officer  of  the  deck.  However,  when  the 
commanding  officer  considers  that 
circumstances  warrant,  he  may  delegate  to 
another  officer  for  a  specified  watch,  (ex: 
Command  Duty  Officer)  authority  to  direct  the 
officer  of  the  deck  how  to  proceed  in  time  of 
danger  or  during  an  emergency.  Such  an  officer, 
while  on  watch,  bears  the  same  relation  to  the 
officer  of  the  deck,  both  in  authority  and 
responsibility,  as  that  prescribed  for  the 
executive  officer,  but  shall  be  subordinate  to  the 
executive  officer. 

It  is  important  for  the  officer  of  the  deck  to 
know  who  is  approaching  his  ship  at  all  times. 
Small  boats  nearing  a  vessel  at  anchor  at  night 
are  hailed  by  the  sentries,  gangway  watch,  or 
quartermaster  with  "Boat  ahoy!"  The  boat 
coxswain  returns  the  hail  according  to  personnel 
aboard  as  shown  by  the  following  selected 
examples: 

"United  States"-if  the  President  of  the 
United  States  is  aboard. 

"Navy"-if  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  is 
aboard. 

"Fleet"— if  the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
fleet  is  aboard. 

"Name  of  ship"— the  ship's  name  is  given 
indicating  that  its  commanding  officer  is  aboard. 

"Aye,  aye"— if  a  commissioned  officer  is 
aboard. 

"No,  no"— if  a  midshipman  or  noncom- 
missioned warrant  officer  is  aboard. 

"Hello"— if  an  enlisted  man  is  aboard. 

"Passing"— boats  not  intending  to  come 
alongside,  regardless  of  passenger  status. 

WARDROOM  ETIQUETTE 

The  officers'  mess  is  organized  on  a 
business-like  basis.  There  is  a  mess  fund  to  which 
each  officer  must  contribute  his  share  on  joining 
the  mess.  An  officer  receives  a  subsistence 
allowance  from  the  Navy  and  it  is  a  courteous 
gesture  for  him  to  ask  the  mess  treasurer,  within 


Chapter  6-MILITARY  COURTESY 


the  first  24  hours  aboard,  for  his  mess  bill  and 
mess  entrance  fee  and  pay  them  at  once.  The 
monthly  mess  assessments  defray  the  cost  of 
food  as  well  as  conveniences  such  as  periodicals. 

The  fund  is  administered  by  the  mess 
treasurer,  who  is  elected  by  the  members.  In 
messes  where  the  treasurer  does  not  also  act  as 
caterer,  the  commanding  officer  appoints  a  mess 
caterer.  The  treasurer  then  is  responsible  for 
accounting  for  all  receipts  and  expenditures, 
while  the  duties  of  the  caterer  involve  the 
purchase  of  food,  preparation  of  menus,  and 
supervision  of  service.  These  are  recognized  as 
collateral  duties,  and  attention  is  paid  to  them  in 
the  marking  of  officers'  reports  of  fitness.  As 
with  all  things,  study  and  application  are 
required  to  do  the  job  well.  Some  caterers 
perform  their  tasks  exceptionally  well  with  full 
attention  to  balanced  diets,  light  appetizing 
luncheons,  and  planning  with  the  Mess 
Management  Specialist  for  new  dishes  and 
variety  in  menus.  At  the  close  of  each  month, 
the  mess  treasurer  gives  the  mess  members  a 
statement  of  the  mess  accounts. 

The  senior  officer  of  the  wardroom  mess  will 
always  welcome  a  junior  officer  and  treat  him  as 
a  full-fledged  member  of  the  mess  in  every 
respect.  Nevertheless,  a  junior  officer  should  not 
be  too  forward  in  conversation  or  action.  An 
error  on  the  side  of  formality  is  more  readily 
pardoned  than  one  in  the  other  direction. 

Like  many  other  phases  of  naval  courtesy, 
wardroom  etiquette  of  necessity  undergoes 
many  changes  in  time  of  war.  In  the  interest  of 
completeness,  perhaps  the  best  approach  to  the 
subject  would  be  to  take  up  the  generally 
prevailing  rules  of  wardroom  etiquette  as  they 
are  in  peacetime  and  then  to  give  some  of  the 
variations  that  would  be  brought  about  by  war. 

In  peacetime.  The  wardroom  is  the 
commissioned  officers'  mess  and  lounge  room. 
The  main  peacetime  rules  of  etiquette  are: 

1 .  Don't  enter  or  lounge  in  the  wardroom 
out  of  uniform. 

2.  Except  at  breakfast,  don't  sit  down  to 
meals  before  the  presiding  officer  does. 

3.  If     necessary     to     leave     before     the 
completion  of  the  meal,  ask  to  be  excused. 

4.  Introduce  guests  to  wardroom  officers, 
especially  on  small  ships. 


5.  Never   be    late    for    meals.    If  you   are 
unavoidably  late,  make  your  apologies  to  the 
presiding  officer. 

6.  Don't    loiter    in    the   wardroom   during 
working  hours. 

7.  Avoid  wearing  a  cap  in  the  wardroom,- 
especially  when  your  shipmates  are  eating. 

8.  Avoid  being  boisterous  or  noisy. 

9.  Don't  talk  shop  continuously. 

10.  Pay  mess  bills  promptly. 

11.  In    general,   the   young  officer   pursues 
the    correct  course  by  being  the  best  listener  in 
the  mess. 

12.  Religion,  politics,  and  women  should  not 
be  discussed. 

13.  "B  u  Ikhe  ading,"     or     expressing 
unfavorable     comments    and    opinions    about 
senior  officers,  is  not  tolerated. 

Good  manners,  with  a  consideration  for 
other  members  and  their  guests,  constitute  the 
first  principles  to  which  all  others  are  secondary. 

The  executive  officer  normally  is  president 
of  the  mess.  On  a  small  ship  such  as  a  DD, 
however,  a  separate  mess  is  not  provided  for  the 
commanding  officer.  In  this  case  the  CO,  who 
eats  his  meals  in  the  wardroom,  is  president  of 
the  mess. 

Officers  are  assigned  permanent  seats  at  the 
table,  alternately,  in  the  order  of  grade,  to  the 
right  and  left  of  the  presiding  officer,  except 
that  the  seat  opposite  that  of  the  presiding 
officer  is  occupied  by  the  mess  caterer.  (Second 
ranking  officer  sits  on  the  right  of  the  presiding 
officer,  third  on  the  left,  and  so  on.) 

In  wartime.  During  a  war,  the  routine  of  the 
wardroom  is  vastly  different  from  that  just 
described.  Regular  mealtimes  are  out  of  the 
question  during  general  quarters.  If,  before 
starting  to  eat,  one  always  waited  for  the 
presiding  officer  to  sit  down,  meals  would  be 
too  irregular  and  delayed. 

Many  officers  who  have  served  in  wartime 
can  report  that,  instead  of  dining  in  the 
wardroom,  they  have  eaten  sandwiches  and 
coffee  served  topside  whenever  they  could 
snatch  a  hasty  bite.  A  rule  about  never  being  late 
for  meals  is  hardly  binding  under  such 
circumstances. 

The  seating  arrangements  in  wardrooms  may 
undergo  changes  during  a  war.  A  ship  may 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


scatter  her  higher  ranking  officers  among  many 
tables  rather  than  concentrate  them  at  one 
place,  where  a  chance  enemy  hit  might  wipe  out 
all  of  them  at  once.  It  is  sometimes  the  custom 
for  men  eating  in  shifts  to  be  cross-sectioned  by 
grade  among  the  various  shifts,  for  the  same 
reason. 

In  short,  in  peacetime,  wardroom  etiquette 
follows  the  old,  established  customs;  but  during 
a  war,  common  sense  and  necessity  dictate 
expedient  conduct. 

BOAT  ETIQUETTE 

Boat  etiquette  may  be  summed  up  as 
follows: 

1.  Unless  otherwise  directed  by  the  senior 
officer  present,  officers  enter  boats  in  inverse 
order  of  rank  (juniors  first)  and  leave  them  in 
order  or  rank  (juniors  last). 

2.  It  is  proper  to  stand  and  salute  when  a 
senior   enters   or  leaves  a  boat,  unless  as  an 
enlisted  man  you  have  an  officer  or  petty  officer 
in    charge    to    render    the    honors.    However, 
common  sense  and  safety  always  prevail. 

3.  When  a  senior  officer  is  present,  do  not 
sit  in  the  stern  seats  unless  asked  to  do  so. 

4.  The    seniors    are    accorded    the    most 
desirable  seats. 

5.  Always  offer  a  seat  to  a  senior. 

6.  When  leaving  a  ship,  get  in  the  boat  a 
minute   before   the   boat   gong,   or  when  the 
officer  of  the  deck  says  the  boat  is  ready— don't 
make  a  last-second  dash  down  the  gangway. 

7.  If  the  boat  is  crowded,  juniors  embark  in 
the  next  boat. 

8.  Juniors  in  boats  take  care  to  give  seniors 
room  to  move  about. 

9.  A  landing  over  another  boat  (using  the 
thwarts,  gunwales,  and  decking  of  another  boat 
as  a  walkway)  should  not  be  made  without 
permission,   and   permission   to   do   so  is  not 
requested  if  it  can  be  avoided. 

SOCIAL  CALLS 

Except  during  wartime,  when  the  practice  is 
almost  universally  canceled,  officers  first 


reporting  to  a  command  make  a  visit  of  courtesy 
to  the  commanding  officer  within  48  hours.  This 
is  done  even  though  they  may  have  met  the 
captain  when  they  reported  for  duty.  The 
executive  officer  usually  arranges  a  time  for  the 
visit.  Aboard  ship,  the  social  call  is  made  in  the 
captain's  cabin,  although  in  small  ships  the 
captain  may  dispense  with  the  formality  of 
courtesy  visits. 

At  an  activity  ashore,  the  commanding 
officer  may  designate  "at  home"  hours  during 
which  juniors  make  their  social  calls.  At  other 
stations,  there  may  be  periodic  "hail  and 
farewell"  cocktail  parties  during  which  calls  are 
considered  made  and  returned.  Newly  reported 
juniors  also  should  call  at  the  homes  of  their 
department  head  and  executive  officer  within 
about  2  weeks.  If  married,  the  spouse  should 
accompany  the  officer. 

Officers  making  courtesy  visits  to  the 
commanding  officer's  cabin  or  office  should 
never  settle  back  for  a  long  conversation  but 
should  remain  for  only  about  10  minutes  unless 
requested  to  remain  longer.  They  should  try  to 
be  attentive  and  polite  but  not  servile  or 
wooden,  and  although  they  should  allow  their 
host  to  direct  the  conversation,  they  should  try 
to  add  more  to  it  than  simple  affirmatives  and 
negatives.  It  would  be  wise  to  refrain  from 
asking  leading  questions  about  their  new  duty, 
about  military  problems  facing  their  host,  or 
about  intimate  details  concerning  the 
commanding  officers  private  life. 

An  officer  invited  to  dinner  should  take 
particular  pains  to  be  punctual  and  to  leave 
before  the  welcome  has  worn  out.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  stay  all  afternoon  or  evening.  A 
visit  of  from  three-fourths  to  one  hour  after  a 
meal  is  all  that  courtesy  demands,  and  one 
should  ask  to  be  excused  within  this  time  unless 
urged  to  remain.  If  there  is  present  a  guest  of 
honor  who  is  not  a  houseguest,  other  guests 
should  await  her  or  his  departure,  if  possible. 

Conduct  in 
Foreign  Countries 

When  ashore  in  uniform  in  foreign  countries, 
an  officer  or  student  officer  will  do  well  to 
remember  that  his/her  conduct  will  be 


130 


Chapter  6-MILITARY  COURTESY 


considered  as  representative  of  the  conduct  of 
all  members  of  the  United  States  naval  service. 
The  laws  and  customs  of  any  foreign  country 
must  be  scrupulously  respected.  Infractions  of  a 
seemingly  unimportant  nature,  even  though 
committed  unwittingly,  arouse  resentment  and 
may  result  in  serious  complications.  Under  no 
circumstances  should  an  officer  enter  into  an 
altercation  or  argument  with  anyone  abroad.  In 
case  of  trouble  of  any  nature,  the  officer  should 
refer  the  matter  to  appropriate  U.S.  naval 
authority  ashore  or  afloat.  If  senior  naval 
guidance  is  not  available,  the  consular  officer  of 
diplomatic  representatives  of  the  United  States 
should  be  consulted. 

United  States  customs  regulations  are  most 
explicit  in  stating  that  exemption  from  payment 
of  duty  for  articles  purchased  abroad  covers 
only  articles  intended  for  personal  use  of  the 
returning  traveler.  The  term  PERSONAL  USE  as 
used  in  the  regulations  is  intended  to  cover 
articles  purchased  with  the  traveler's  own 
money,  either  for  his/her  own  use  or  as  a  gift  to 
others.  The  importation  of  large  quantities  of 
material,  under  any  agreement  which  permits 
transfer  of  goods  after  importation,  is  an  evasion 
of  the  regulations.  Offenders  are  liable  to  heavy 
fines  as  well  as  to  imprisonment.  An  accurate 
record  of  purchases  made  abroad  should  be  kept 
so  that  a  correct  customs  declaration  can  be 
made.  The  prices  actually  paid  for  articles 
purchased  abroad,  either  in  the  currency  of  the 
country  where  purchased  or  the  equivalent  in 
United  States  currency,  must  be  stated  in  the 
customs  declaration. 


SHIPBOARD  RELATIONS  BETWEEN 
OFFICERS  AND  MEN 

A  shipboard  environment  increases  the 
difficulty  with  which  the  proper  relationship 
between  an  officer  and  enlisted  man  is 
maintained.  An  officer's  relations  with  his  men 
should  be  founded  on  mutual  respect.  An 
American  bluejacket  is  intelligent,  cooperative, 
and  ambitious.  He  wants  to  be  treated  like  a 
man  and  expects  his  abilities  to  be  appreciated. 
He  wants  to  respect  his  officers-to  admire  them 
and  to  be  able  to  boast  about  them  to  the  men 


\f  ^- 


An  inexperienced  officer,  in  his  relationship 
with  his  men,  is  likely  to  be  hesitant  and 
uncertain.  He  finds  himself  in  an  unfamiliar 
situation,  among  people  whd  are  strangers  to 
him.  By  virtue  of  his  commission  he  is  placed  in 
charge  of  enlisted  personnel  and  this  newly 
acquired  authority  is  strange  to  him.  He  wants 
to  be  liked  by  his  men,  to  know  them  as 
individuals,  and  yet  maintain  his  rightful 
authority  over  them. 

Personal  dignity  is  a  quality  which  the  young 
officer  must  cultivate.  It  is  that  undefinable 
something  possessed  by  successful  leaders  which 
enables  them  to  converse  at  length  with  their 
men  on  casual  and  unofficial  matters,  and  yet  at 
the  same  time  maintain  that  reserve  which 
discourages  undue  familiarity. 

However,  consideration  for  enlisted  men  is  a 
"must."  For  example,  if  an  officer  of  the  deck 
finds  it  necessary  to  send  a  boatcrew  away 
during  meal  hours,  he  should  order  the  mess 
deck  mast er-at -arms  and  duty  cook  to  save  hot 
meals  for  them.  A  good  leader  always 
remembers  the  welfare  of  his  men. 

Some  new  officers  feel  that  they  promote 
friendliness  between  themselves  and  their  men 
by  calling  the  men  by  their  first  names,  or, 
worse  still,  by  their  nicknames.  The  men  should 
be  addressed  appropriately  as  previously 
discussed  in  this  chapter. 

An  officer  should  never  permit  enlisted  men 
to  visit  him  in  his  room  or  in  the  wardroom 
country  unless  the  matter  is  extremely  urgent. 
He  should  arrange  to  see  them  in  his  department 
office  or  in  his  part  of  the  ship. 

Financial  transactions  between  officers  and 
enlisted  men  are  forbidden. 

Mess  Management  Specialists  are  in  charge  of 
the  wardroom,  pantries,  galley,  and  officers' 
rooms.  Since  they  are  constantly  in  close 
contact  with  officers  and  have  frequent  occasion 
to  be  in  the  wardroom  and  in  officers'  rooms, 
there  is  a  tendency  to  become  too  familiar  with 
them,  or  perhaps,  at  times,  to  be  brusque  with 
them.  An  officer  should  always  be  tactful  in  his 
dealings  with  them.  If  an  officer  feels  that  a 
complaint  is  in  order  or  disciplinary  action  is 
necessary,  he  should  deal  directly  with  the  mess 
caterer  who  has  charge  of  the  Mess  Management 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


In  summary,  relations  between  officers  and  and  bearing;  his  firmness  and   consistency  in 

men  are  founded  upon  the  same  mutual  respect  requiring  obedience  to  his  own,  or  the  captain's 

as  that  between  fellow  officers.  The  measure  of  orders;  and  his  interest  in  and  knowledge  of 

respect  which  an  officer  inspires  in  his  men  is  his    profession.   A    study    of  the    methods  of 

the  measure  of  that  officer  as  a  man  and  a  sailor;  officers  who  are  experts  in  handling  enlisted 

his  sincerity;  his  sense  of  justice;  his  interest  men   would   well   repay   the   novice    eager  to 

and  concern  for  his  men's  welfare;  his  dignity  acquire  the  technique. 


132 


CHAPTER  7 

DISCIPLINE  AND  THE  UNIFORM 
CODE  OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE 


Now  these  are  laws  of  the  Navy 

Unwritten  and  varied  they  be; 
And  he  that  is  wise  will  observe  them, 

Going  down  in  his  ship  to  the  sea. 
As  the  wave  rises  clear  to  the  hawse  pipe, 

Washes  aft,  and  is  lost  in  the  wake, 
So  shall  ye  drop  astern,  all  unheeded, 

Such  times  as  the  law  ye  forsake. 
Now  these  are  the  laws  of  the  Navy, 

And  many  and  mighty  are  they. 
But  the  hull  and  deck  and  the  keel 

And  the  truck  of  the  law  is-OBEY. 
Admiral  Ronald  Hopwood,  R.N. 


VALUE  OF  DISCIPLINE 

To  the  average  person  the  word  "discipline" 
carries  with  it  connotations  of  severity,  an 
unreasonable  curtailment  of  freedom, 
unnecessary  restraints  on  personal  conduct, 
endless  restrictions,  and  compliance  with 
arbitrary  demands  of  authority.  Actually, 
discipline  is  the  basis  of  true  democracy;  for, 
without  depriving  an  individual  of  his 
fundamental  rights,  it  nevertheless  requires 
adherence  to  a  set  of  rules  of  conduct  that  man, 
through  the  experience  of  the  ages,  has  found 
best  suited  to  govern  relations  among  members 
of  society.  Some  of  these  rules  are  made  by  duly 
constituted  authority  and  are  laid  down  in 
writing.  These  are  called  laws.  Others, 
sanctioned  by  custom  and  usage,  are  called 
conventions. 

Discipline  is  not  peculiar  to  military 
organizations.  Discipline  is  the  training  that 
develops  self-control,  character,  and  efficiency, 
or  is  the  result  of  such  training.  Discipline, 
rightly  viewed,  is  a  character  builder  rather  than 


a  destroyer  of  individuality.  Discipline  implies 
adherence  to  a  control  exerted  for  the  good  of 
the  whole—the  compliance  with  rules  or  policies 
intended  for  the  orderly  coordination  of  effort. 
In  a  study  on  this  subject  Admiral  Arleigh 
Burke,  USN  (Ret.)  stated:  "A  well-disciplined 
organization  is  one  whose  members  work  with 
enthusiasm,  willingness,  and  zest  as  individuals 
and  as  a  group,  to  fulfill  the  mission  of  the 
organization  with  expectation  of  success."  The 
signs  of  discipline  are  manifested  in  smart 
salutes,  proper  wearing  of  the  uniform,  prompt 
and  correct  action  in  any  emergency  (figure 
7-1),  and  in  battle  efficiency  that  brings  victory 
in  wars.  Discipline,  obviously,  is  indispensable  to 
a  military  organization.  Without  it  almost  any 
effort  would  be  defeated  by  lack  of 
organization.  True  discipline  demands  habitual 
but  reasoned  obedience  to  command— an 
obedience  that  preserves  initiative  and  functions 
unfalteringly  even  in  the  absence  of  the 
commander. 

The  purpose  of  discipline  in  the  military 
services  is  to  bring  about  an  efficient  military 
organization,  a  body  of  human  beings  trained 
and  controlled  for  concerted  action  for  the 
attainment  of  a  common  goal.  Each  individual 
understands  how  to  fit  into  the  organization  as  a 
whole.  The  members  understand  one  another 
through  the  sharing  of  common  knowledge  and 
are  bound  together  by  unity  of  will  and  interest 
that  is  expressed  by  their  willingness  to  follow 
and  obey  their  leader.  A  group  so  organized  is 
effective,  not  only  for  the  specific  purpose 
intended,  but  also  for  an  emergency.  Thus,  a  gun 
crew  may  be  readily  converted  into  a  repair 
party  for  carrying  out  any  essential  job  within 
its  capabilities;  a  company  of  midshipmen  may 
be  turned  into  a  fire  fighting  organization.  A 


133 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


134.42 

Figure  7-1.— The  fruits  of  discipline  are  manifested  in  prompt  and  correct  action  in  an  emergency,  and  especially  in 

the  battle  efficiency  that  brings  victory  in  war. 


well-disciplined  naval  unit  responds 
automatically  to  an  emergency  and  is  not 
subject  to  panic.  An  actual  wartime  incident 
illustrates  this  point. 

Two  sister  ships  lay  in  adjoining  anchorages. 
One  was  known  as  a  taut  ship.  Her  commanding 
officer  recognized  the  value  of  proper 
organization,  discipline,  and  training. 

Her  sister  ship  lying  nearby  was  an  example 
of  the  opposite  condition.  Her  decks  were  dirty, 
her  crew  was  slovenly  and  careless  in  salutes,  and 
her  records  were  cluttered  with  courts-martial. 

It  was  nearly  midnight  and  the  tide  was 
running  out  strongly  against  the  wind,  making  a 
nasty  chop.  A  motor  launch  from  the  slack  ship 
was  bucking  the  sea,  her  liberty  party  huddled  in 
the  stem  under  a  tarpaulin.  The  coxswain  had 
ordered  the  men  to  distribute  their  weight  farther 
forward  so  that  he  could  better  see  over  the  bow 


of  his  boat,  but  their  concept  of  obedience  was 
in  keeping  with  that  of  their  ship.  In  the 
blackness  the  launch  struck  a  channel  buoy, 
capsized,  and  sank  almost  immediately. 

On  the  taut  ship  the  cries  of  the  victims  were 
heard  coming  from  the  dark  waters.  All  her 
boats  were  hoisted,  and  most  of  the  crew, 
except  the  anchor  watch,  had  turned  in.  But  at 
the  first  cry  for  help,  the  words  "Man 
overboard!"  rang  through  the  ship.  The  ship's 
organization  had  provided  a  man  be  on  the 
lookout— and  he  was.  Men  and  officers  came 
promptly  from  their  quarters  in  pajamas, 
underwear,  or  any  clothing  within  reach.  Three 
boats  reached  the  water  almost  simultaneously, 
and  by  the  time  they  were  away  the  searchlights 
had  been  manned  and  were  playing  over  the 
water.  Before  the  tide  could  sweep  the  helpless 
victims  away,  sixteen  men  from  the  liberty  boat 
had  been  saved. 


Chapter  7-DISCIPLINE  AND  THE  UNIFORM  CODE  OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE 


Meanwhile,  what  was  happening  on  the 
second  ship?  No  one  knows  exactly.  Perhaps  the 
officer  of  the  deck  had  been  engaged  in  some 
duty  on  the  far  side  of  the  deck;  perhaps  he  had 
stepped  below  for  a  moment.  Whatever  the 
facts,  the  second  ship  did  nothing  until  the 
lifeboat  from  the  first  ship  hailed  it  in  passing  in 
its  search  for  survivors.  At  this  point  the  officer 
of  the  deck  innocently  inquired  about  the 
excitement.  The  reply  of  the  lifeboat  officer 
unfortunately  has  not  been  preserved  in  the 
records.  Sixteen  men  owed  their  lives  not  to 
their  shipmates,  but  to  the  hard-earned 
discipline  of  the  crew  of  their  sister  ship. 

A  taut  ship  is  not  only  an  effective  ship,  but 
to  quote  a  naval  axiom,  "A  taut  ship  is  a  happy 
ship."  Aboard  a  taut  ship  every  officer  and  every 
man  knows  exactly  where  he  stands.  Each  one 
knows  what  is  expected  of  him.  Each  has 
complete  confidence  in  his  associates  and  knows 
that  an  incompetent  shipmate  will  be  brought 
up  with  a  round  turn.  Aboard  a  taut  ship  there 
are  no  soft  billets,  and  there  is  no  man  or  group 
of  men  "getting  away  with  it."  The  shiftless  are 
dealt  with  promptly— and  dealt  with  while  their 
offenses  are  still  minor. 


SECURING  AND 

MAINTAINING  DISCIPLINE 

Various  ways  are  suggested  for  securing 
discipline.  The  method  that  is  based  on 
fear  of  the  consequences  of  disciplinary 
infractions- that  is,  the  discipline  of  fear-should 
be  less  and  less  necessary  in  the  modern  Navy. 
Current  Navy  discipline  is  based  on  what  we  like 
to  consider  the  American  ideal  of  discipline— a 
cheerful  and  spontaneous  one,  to  which  men 
willingly  and  gladly  subject  themselves  out  of 
belief  in  the  cause  for  which  they  are  striving 
and  out  of  respect  for  and  confidence  in  their 
leaders. 

Men  are  controlled  largely  by  one  of  two 
motives:  fear  of  punishment  and  hope  of 
reward.  Hope  of  reward  is  the  more  desirable 
stimulus  because  it  results  in  greater  efficiency 
and  harmony.  Nevertheless,  fear  of  punishment 
has  its  place  in  obtaining  immediate  results  in 
certain  cases.  To  use  punishment  as  a  club, 

1C   tr>    QHmit   foiln-ro    no   r.   lanAar- 


The  Navy  has  wholeheartedly  accepted  the 
preventive  theory  of  discipline,  which  holds  that 
preventing  disciplinary  problems  is  more 
important  than  trying  to  cure  them.  An 
extensive  welfare  and  recreation  program,  such 
as  is  carried  on  by  many  organizations  in  civilian 
life,  is  utilized  to  develop  healthy  interests  on 
the  part  of  Navy  personnel.  Naturally,  officers 
of  the  Chaplain  Corps  are  dedicated  to  this 
work,  but  the  program  must  be  administered  by 
line  officers,  particularly  division  officers  who 
are  constantly  in  contact  with  their  men. 

Add  to  this  the  Navy's  training  program, 
which  prepares  Navy  personnel  to  perform  their 
duties  effectively  and  efficiently,  with  or 
without  specific  instructions.  A  we  11- trained, 
capable  group  of  men  working  together  as  a 
team  soon  gains  a  feeling  of  group 
accomplishment  that  fosters  pride  and  loyalty  in 
the  organization.  This  group  pride  in  turn  tends 
to  prevent  disciplinary  breaches  that  would 
discredit  the  organization.  Men  who  know  their 
jobs  rarely  dislike  them,  and  men  who  like  their 
jobs  seldom  get  into  trouble. 

Junior  officers  and  petty  officers  may  have  a 
tendency  to  be  too  lenient  with  minor 
infractions  of  discipline,  thereby  penalizing  the 
good  man  while  favoring  the  poor  one.  When 
this  fact  is  pointed  out  to  the  junior  officers, 
they  may  become  uncertain  of  themselves  and, 
in  attempting  to  correct  the  fault,  become  too 
arbitrary.  In  either  case  they  lose  the  confidence 
of  their  men. 

An  officer  cannot  afford  to  lose  his  temper. 
He  may  not  always  find  it  easy  to  refrain  from 
anger,  but  he  must  make  a  conscious  effort  to 
do  so.  Otherwise,  he  loses  control  of  the 
situation  because  he  loses  control  of  himself.  In 
administering  punishment  he  must  be  calm, 
impersonal,  and  dignified.  If,  however,  he  is 
extremely  incensed,  precipitous  action  is  unwise; 
he  will  find  that  after  pacing  the  deck  for  a  few 
minutes,  he  will  be  better  able  to  handle  the 
situation  constructively.  The  offender,  also, 
should  be  given  the  opportunity  to  "cool  off." 
The  calmer  the  officer  is  in  his  usual 
performance  of  duty,  the  more  action  he  can  get 
when  the  occasion  demands.  An  officer  who  is 
constantly  shouting  creates  confusion  and  soon 
ceases  to  be  effective;  eventually  he  gets  little  or 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


The  relationship  that  exists  between  officers 
and  men  exerts  an  important  influence  on 
discipline.  Officers  cannot  successfully  fraternize 
with  enlisted  men  or  attempt  to  be  "one  of  the 
boys."  Discipline  is  undermined  quickly  by  this 
type  of  familiarity.  If  the  men  presume  to 
become  familiar,  it  is  the  fault  of  the  officer  and 
not  of  the  men.  His  actions  have  encouraged 
them  to  do  so. 

There  is  a  vast  difference,  however,  between 
familiarity  and  friendship.  The  officer  who  talks 
to  his  men  in  a  friendly  manner,  taking  a  warm, 
personal  interest  in  them  and  becoming 
concerned  with  their  problems,  quickly  gains 
their  confidence  and  respect.  The  men  like  to 
look  to  their  superior  for  guidance;  they  want  to 
be  proud  of  him  as  a  good  officer.  Such  an 
officer,  because  he  is  friendly  and  approachable, 
will  be  the  first  one  to  whom  his  men  will  turn 
for  advice.  If  he  is  lacking  in  these  qualities,  they 
will  not  come  to  him  and,  as  a  result,  they  may 
either  grow  dissatisfied  or  get  into  trouble  which 
his  counsel  might  have  prevented.  Being  friendly 
with  enlisted  men  does  not  mean  being  easy 
with  them.  An  officer  may  be  as  exacting  as  the 
situation  requires,  so  long  as  he  is  just. 

Another  aid  in  securing  discipline  lies  in  the 
division  officer's  method  of  explaining  to  his 
men  the  rules  under  which  the  Navy 
functions— the  Uniform  Code  of  Military  Justice. 
The  Code  is  the  basis  of  authority  and  discipline 
in  all  the  services.  If  these  rules  are  violated,  men 
are  punished  by  a  system,  not  by  an  individual. 
Officers  and  men  are  urged  to  study  the  Code 
and  review  it  frequently.  An  officer  should 
encourage  his  men  to  ask  questions  on  points 
that  are  confusing  to  them.  Worthwhile 
dividends  will  accrue  in  the  form  of  higher 
standards  of  discipline. 

PRAISE  AND  BLAME 

At  this  point  it  may  be  well  to  consider 
carefully  the  words  of  John  Paul  Jones:  "No 
meritorious  act  of  a  subordinate  should  escape 
attention  or  be  left  to  pass  without  reward,  even 
if  the  reward  be  only  one  word  of  approval.  An 
officer  should  be  universal  and  impartial  in  his 
rewards  and  approval  of  merit,  so  should  he  be 


judicial  and  unbending  in  his  punishment  or 
reproof  of  misconduct."  It  is  to  be  noted  that 
Jones  stresses  appreciation  first  and,  only  if  that 
fails,  disciplinary  action.  The  officer  who  is 
unfamiliar  with  the  meaning  and  use  of 
commendation  is  laboring  under  a  tremendous 
disadvantage.  It  is  just  as  important  to  notice 
and  praise  a  job  well  done  as  it  is  to  censure  one 
poorly  done.  A  word  of  friendly  counsel  to  the 
new  men,  a  little  encouragement  to  the  easily 
discouraged,  a  look  of  approval  to  a  smart 
turnout  at  quarters,  a  nod  of  recognition  to  the 
missile  launcher  crew  after  an  exceptionally 
good  performance  at  drill,  or  a  willing  ear  to  the 
fellow  with  a  suggestion  will  do  much  to  keep 
men  loyal  to  their  officers. 

If  a  man  works  beyond  the  required  number 
of  hours,  as  frequently  happens  in  preparing  the 
ship  for  inspection,  his  effort  should  not  go 
without  a  word  of  praise;  and  the  captain  or 
inspecting  officer  should  be  told  of  the  extra 
effort  so  that  he  can  add  his  approbation  if  he 
considers  it  deserved.  If  a  Boatswain's  Mate  has 
been  working  at  some  job  in  charge  of  a  party  of 
men  and  has  handled  the  task  quietly  and 
efficiently,  he  might  be  commended  in  this  way: 
"Brown,  that  was  well  done."  The  next  time  he 
is  assigned  to  a  job,  he  will  take  pride  in  equaling 
or  surpassing  the  standard  that  he  has 
established.  However,  it  is  poor  judgment  to 
administer  praise  too  liberally.  The  men  dislike 
an  excess  of  it  and  feel  that  the  officer  who 
praises  profusely  is  either  insincere  or  trying  to 
make  himself  popular. 

On  the  other  hand,  what  should  be  done 
about  an  individual  like  coxswain  Smith  whose 
motorboat  has  continually  fallen  below  the 
required  standard  of  cleanliness? 

Heckling  and  driving  may  help,  but  if  Smith 
can  be  made  to  take  pride  and  an  intelligent 
interest  in  his  boat,  then  a  great  deal  has  been 
accomplished.  Not  only  is  the  boat  clean,  but 
Smith  has  become  an  asset  rather  than  a  likely 
disciplinary  case. 

Remember,  it  is  Smith  who  needs  changing. 
So,  encourage  him  or  reprimand  him;  teach  him 
or  guide  him;  handle  him  in  whatever 
constructive  way  your  experience  gives  you  the 
wisdom  to  do,  but  do  not  leave  him  to  muddle 
along  indefinitely. 


136 


Chapter  7-DISCIPLINE  AND  THE  UNIFORM  CODE  OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE 


CONTINUITY  OF  DISCIPLINE 

A  breach  of  discipline  cannot  be  smiled 
away  one  day  and  rebuked  the  next.  Under  such 
a  regime,  men  do  not  know  where  they  stand, 
and  confusion  results.  Discipline  deteriorates 
also  when  rules  are  not  enforced,  but  rather  are 
winked  at.  If  one  regulation  is  defied  openly  and 
with  impunity,  an  indifferent  attitude  toward 
other  regulations  naturally  follows.  Therefore,  a 
good  rule  is:  Never  make  a  regulation  that  you 
cannot  or  will  not  enforce. 

On  the  other  hand,  laxity  in  the 
performance  of  duty  cannot  be  tolerated,  and 
carelessness  cannot  be  condoned. 
Insubordination  must  be  routed  as  soon  as  it 
appears;  any  hint  of  trouble  must  be  promptly 
forestalled. 

Before  taking  any  kind  of  disciplinary 
action,  however,  it  is  wise  to  verify  all  the  facts. 
Situations  should  be  evaluated.  For  example,  it 
is  best  to  avoid  contact  with  or  argument  with  a 
drunken  man  since  his  judgment  and 
commonsense  are  not  at  their  best.  The 
master-at-arms  should  take  him  into  custody 
until  he  is  sober.  This  rule,  if  followed,  will  save 
the  junior  officer  many  problems. 

When  disciplinary  measures  are  deemed 
necessary,  they  should  be  administered 
promptly.  Immediate  action  leaves  no  doubt  in 
the  mind  of  the  offender  as  to  why  he  is  being 
disciplined.  Nothing  is  gained  by  delay.  Rather, 
delay  generates  resentment  toward  the  entire 
system. 

Disciplinary  action  should  be  appropriate  to 
the  offense.  Indiscriminately  bringing  men  to 
mast  for  trivial  offenses  is  unwise.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  "good  Joe,"  or  the  officer  who  under 
no  condition  reports  a  man,  is  a  menace  to 
discipline  and  a  nuisance  to  his  fellow  officers. 
An  officer  who  attempts  to  curry  favor  in  this 
way  will  find  his  men  despising  him. 

Discipline  can  be  strict  without  being  stiff 
and  formal.  Oral  reprimands,  admonitions, 
rebukes,  or  other  expressions  of  disapprobation 
employed  as  nonpunitive  measures  may  prove 

more    effective    than    a    stiff   murt    spnte.nrp.     A 


early  stage  may  prevent  an  appearance  at  mast 
or  a  court-martial  later. 

Navy  disciplinary  measures  must  be  justly 
administered.  To  accomplish  their  purpose,  such 
measures  must  be  recognized  as  just  by  the 
offender  as  well  as  by  his  shipmates.  The  penalty 
should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  not  to  lower  the 
man's  self-respect  nor  so  severe  as  to  be  out  of 
proportion  to  the  gravity  of  the  offense. 
Personal  likes  and  dislikes  should  never  motivate 
a  reprimand  nor  function  in  the  matter  of 
administering  discipline.  No  matter  how 
exacting  a  leader  may  be,  if  he  is  fair  and  just, 
his  subordinates  will  not  only  live  up  to  his 
demands  but  respect  and  admire  his  attitude  as 
well.  To  find  fault  with  a  man  who  is  doing  his 
best  is  only  to  discourage  him;  to  discipline  a 
man  for  incompetence  when  he  has  done  his 
best  is  useless. 

The  desired  goal  of  the  Navy  is  that  quality 
of  discipline  which  is  based  on  respect  for 
leaders,  confidence  in  justice  and  fairness,  and 
the  compulsion  of  moral  force.  Discipline  based 
on  force  alone  cannot  endure;  lasting  discipline 
must  be  induced.  True  discipline  develops 
loyalty  and  intelligent  initiative. 

Disciplinary  actions  are  not  personal, 
vindictive,  or  inflicted  as  revenge  for 
misconduct.  They  are  not  intended  to  right  the 
wrong  that  has  resulted  from  an  act  of 
dereliction.  A  young  officer  bears  in  mind  that 
when  a  senior  finds  it  necessary  to  reprimand 
him,  the  senior  is  acting  in  the  official  capacity 
of  discharging  his  duties.  It  is  a  fact  that  all 
persons  in  the  naval  service  are  required  to  obey 
readily  and  strictly,  and  to  execute  promptly, 
the  lawful  orders  of  their  superiors. 

Great  leaders  have  always  been  sound 
disciplinarians.  The  following  quotation  is  taken 
from  a  letter  that  George  Washington  wrote  to 
Colonel  William  Woodford  in  1776.  The  great 
general's  counsel  is  as  appropriate  today  as  it 
was  when  he  wrote  it. 

"The  best  general  advice  I  can  give,  and 
which  I  am  sure  you  stand  in  no  need  of, 
is  to  be  strict  in  your  discipline;  that  is, 

tn   rpniMrp  nnthincr  nnrpa'srmahlp   r\f 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


whatever  is  required  be  punctually 
complied  with.  Reward  and  punish  every 
man  according  to  his  merit,  without 
partiality  or  prejudice;  hear  his 
complaints;  if  well  founded  redress  them, 
in  order  to  prevent  frivolous  ones. 
Discourage  vice  in  every  shape,  and 
impress  upon  the  mind  of  every  man, 
from  the  first  to  the  lowest,  the 
importance  of  the  cause  and  what  it  is 
they  are  contending  for." 

PRECEPT  AND  EXAMPLE 

The  following  quotation  is  from  a  letter 
promulgated  by  Admiral  T.C.  Kinkaid,  USN, 
relative  to  officers'  conduct  and  its  influence  on 
enlisted  personnel: 

"Unless  and  until  officers  conduct  them- 
selves at  all  times  as  officers  should,  it  is 
useless  to  demand  and  hopeless  to  expect 
any  improvement  in  the  enlisted  ranks. 
Conduct  means  speech,  dress,  manner, 
attitude  toward  seniors  and  juniors  and 
vested  authority  in  general.  An  officer's 
basic  military  character  is  directly  and 
faithfully  reflected  in  all  of  these  things, 
and  he  can  expect  success  or  failure  as  a 
leader  in  direct  proportion  to  his  efforts 
along  these  lines.  It  is  not  enough  that  an 
officer  go  through  the  motions.  He  must 
constantly  strive  to  cultivate  the  correct 
attitude  and  to  make  it  part  and  parcel  of 
his  everyday  existence.  If  the  military 
philosophy  seems  all  wrong  and  the  en- 
listed men  are  unmilitary,  uninterested, 
and  irresponsible,  let  each  officer  look  to 
himself  for  the  source  of  trouble,  for  it  is 
the  attitude  and  conduct  of  the  officer 
group  that  make  or  break  the  entire 
democratic  military  system." 

Nothing  tends  to  destroy  discipline  more 
readily  than  the  attitude  of  an  officer  who  by 
work  and  deed  says  to  his  subordinates,  "Don't 
do  as  I  do.  Do  as  I  say."  To  promote  a  high 
quality  of  discipline,  an  officer  must  set  high 
standards  by  example  and  precept  and  insist  that 
they  be  maintained.  No  man  will  extend  respect 


and  loyalty  to  a  superior  who  allows  hypocrisy 
and  insincerity  to  govern  his  actions.  The  officer 
must  practice  what  he  preaches.  In  this 
connection,  it  is  well  to  remember  the  words  of 
Aristotle:  "Men  are  praised  for  knowing  both 
how  to  rule  and  how  to  obey,  and  he  is  said  to 
be  a  citizen  of  approved  virtue  who  is  able  to  do 
both." 

If  an  officer  hopes  to  receive  loyalty  and 
obedience  from  those  under  him,  he  must  earn 
them  by  demonstrating  like  qualities.  If  by  word 
or  action  he  is  disloyal  to  his  superiors,  the  men 
will  doubt  his  loyalty  to  them;  their  loyalty  to 
him  will  suffer  correspondingly.  It  is  essential 
for  the  officer  to  let  his  men  know  that  he 
respects  and  honors  the  policies  and  motives  of 
their  common  senior.  With  equal  zeal  he  renders 
loyalty  to  his  men  and  looks  out  for  them.  He 
takes  an  interest  in  them,  knows  them  by  name, 
is  zealous  about  their  rights  and  privileges. 

KNOW  YOUR  MEN 

It  is  the  duty  of  an  officer  to  study  his  men, 
watch  them,  learn  their  language  and  point  of 
view,  work  with  them,  guide  them,  and  counsel 
them.  Many  disciplinary  problems  can  be 
prevented  by  the  division  officer's  understanding 
of  his  men  and  knowing  their  abilities.  In  this 
manner  the  talents  and  limitations  of 
subordinates  can  be  truly  evaluated,  and  officers 
can  assign  them  tasks  and  responsibilities 
corresponding  to  their  abilities. 

If  discipline  is  to  be  maintained,  the  division 
officer  must  be  continually  concerned  about  his 
men,  continually,  not  merely  when  they  get  into 
difficulties.  This  means  ensuring  that  his  men  are 
as  comfortable,  well  cared  for,  and  contented  as 
circumstances  permit,  and  that  they  always  get 
their  fair  share  of  the  privileges.  They  will  then 
feel  that  their  interests  are  the  division  officer's 
first  concern. 

In  handling  his  division,  an  officer  should 
bear  in  mind  that  every  one  wants,  needs,  and 
responds  to  recognition.  It  is  well  to  remember 
that  each  man  is  to  himself  the  most  important 
person  in  the  world.  A  division  officer  should 
know  the  names  of  his  men  and  call  them  by 
their  names-last  names,  not  first  names  or 


Chapter  7-DISCIPLINE  AND  THE  UNIFORM  CODE  OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE 


nicknames.  When  making  the  rounds  in  the 
morning  before  quarters,  the  officer  should 
return  his  men's  salutes  smartly,  giving  them  a 
pleasant  "Good  morning,  Wilson,"  or  "Good 
morning,  Smith."  Should  the  officer  meet 
one  of  his  men  ashore,  he  might,  as  he 
returns  the  subordinate's  salute,  say  something 
appropriate— particularly  if  the  subordinate  is 
with  men  whom  the  officer  does  not  know.  This 
gives  the  enlisted  man  a  sense  of  recognition  just 
as  it  does  any  officer  when  he  is  identified  by 
name  by  a  superior. 

If  the  best  in  men  is  to  be  brought  out,  they 
must  feel  important  in  their  own  eyes,  they 
must  feel  respect  from  their  associates,  and  they 
must  definitely  feel  competent  in  the  eyes  of 
their  superiors.  A  sense  of  confidence  in 
themselves  and  in  each  other  is  desirable.  When  a 
man  is  given  a  job  to  do,  he  should  be  impressed 
with  the  fact  that  he  is  given  that  job  because  he 
has  the  ability  to  perform  it  satisfactorily.  He 
should  feel  his  importance;  he  should  feel 
respect  for  his  job  because  the  job  he  is  doing  is 
important. 

An  officer  will  need  to  use  all  the 
understanding  of  human  nature  that  he  can  gain 
through  experience  and  study.  The  better  his 
insight  into  human  nature,  the  more  effective  he 
will  be  in  handling  his  men.  Different  levels  of 
intelligence,  education,  and  background,  as  well 
as  many  other  human  variables,  dictate  a 
separate  and  well-considered  approach  to  each 
man's  problems. 

THE  IMPORTANCE 
OF  PETTY  OFFICERS 

Mastless  discipline  is  not  a  one-man  show, 
nor  is  it  dependent  on  officers  alone.  Every 
petty  officer  is  a  technical  expert  in  some  line, 
and  his  rating  badge  signifies  that  he  is  a  leader 
of  men.  He  is  an  important  part  of  the  ship's 
disciplinary  organization.  Therefore,  he  should 
be  vested  with  authority.  It  is  wise  to  work 
through  him,  support  him,  and  hold  him 
responsible  for  results. 

The  burden  of  developing  good  petty 
officers  rests  upon  division  officers.  Petty 
officers  require  officer  supervision.  However,  it 


is  not  required  that  officers  interrupt  them  in 
the  midst  of  a  task  except  in  unusual  cases 
involving  danger  to  personnel  or  valuable 
material.  Division  officers  often  irritate  petty 
officers  by  encroaching  on  the  sphere  of  the 
subordinate's  initiative.  Sometimes  an  officer 
changes  the  method  used  by  a  petty  officer  for 
one  of  his  own  that  is  no  better  and  sometimes 
is  worse.  The  weary  patience  with  which  the 
petty  officer  makes  the  change  indicates  that 
morale,  efficiency,  and  discipline  have  not  been 
enhanced. 

In  such  a  situation,  if  a  change  in  method  is 
imperative,  it  is  wise  to  discuss  the  matter  later 
with  the  petty  officer,  preferably  in  private, 
suggesting  better  methods  or  techniques  in  an 
encouraging  manner.  Under  normal 
circumstances,  nothing  is  more  unfair  or  creates 
greater  confusion  and  resentment  than  for  an 
officer  to  give  orders  over  a  petty  officer's  head 
without  first  advising  him  that  he  has  been 
relieved  of  direct  supervision  of  the  particular 
task. 

A  petty  officer  should  never  be  reproved  in 
public.  When  this  happens,  both  his  authority 
and  morale  are  undermined.  If  he  is  at  fault,  a 
private  talk  will  clear  up  the  matter.  Above  all, 
the  use  of  sarcasm  is  to  be  avoided;  a 
subordinate  resents  it  because  it  is  a  weapon  that 
gives  unfair  advantage  to  the  superior. 

Much  that  has  been  said  regarding  the 
handling  of  petty  officers  comes  under  the 
heading  of  tact,  which  may  at  times  be  termed 
plain  common  sense— or  even  uncommon  sense. 
Tact  is  the  oil  that  lubricates  human  relations 
and  helps  prevent  the  friction  that  frequently 
results  in  disciplinary  problems. 

If  petty  officers  are  to  be  held  responsible, 
they  must  be  supported  by  their  division 
officers.  They  must  be  made  to  feel  that  they 
have  the  confidence  and  trust  of  the  division 
officer  and  that  they  have  responsibility.  They 
must  know  that  they  will  be  allowed  to  do  the 
assigned  job  without  interference  as  long  as  they 
do  it  well.  They  should  be  made  to  feel  that 
they  have  a  share  and  a  voice  in  the  management 
of  the  division.  This  can  be  done  in  many  small 
ways  without  interfering  in  the  least  with  the 
military  authority  of  the  division  officer.  Above 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


all,  an  officer  should  always  be  willing  to  listen 
to  suggestions  from  his  men  and  accept  them  if 
they  are  good  ones. 

The  men  in  the  division  should  understand 
clearly  that  an  order  from  a  petty  officer  must 
be  obeyed  as  if  it  were  an  order  from  the 
division  officer,  because  the  petty  officer  is  a 
part  of  the  chain  of  command.  No  insolence  or 
disrespect  to  a  petty  officer  should  escape  its 
merited  attention.  On  the  other  hand,  the  petty 
officers  should  not  be  supported  blindly,  and 
any  tendency  on  their  part  to  bully  or  to  mete 
out  unnecessary  harshness  should  not  be 
tolerated. 

A  petty  officer's  responsibility  for  the 
conduct  of  naval  personnel  follows  him 
wherever  he  goes.  Even  after  he  leaves  the  ship, 
if  any  trouble  develops— such  as  a  fight  in  a 
liberty  boat  or  a  melee  ashore-it  is  the  duty  of 
the  senior  petty  officer  present  to  take  over  in 
the  absence  of  a  commissioned  officer.  Later  a 
report  to  the  proper  authority  is  in  order.  This 
responsibility  cannot  be  avoided. 

Petty  officers  have  an  increasingly  important 
role  in  the  disciplinary  system.  For  example,  if 
an  enlisted  man  makes  a  mistake  in  the  presence 
of  both  an  officer  and  a  petty  officer,  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  latter  to  instruct  the  man.  A  petty 
officer  who  stands  and  complacently  watches  a 
man  commit  a  breach  of  discipline,  without 
endeavoring  to  correct  him  immediately, 
commits  a  worse  offense  than  the  man  he 
watches.  There  is  no  room  for  the  petty  officer 
who  is  not  alert  and  who  is  not  actively  assertive 
for  the  good  of  the  ship. 

PRINCIPLES  OF 
EFFECTIVE  DISCIPLINE 

The  following  principles  of  effective 
discipline  present  in  summarized  form  the  ideas 
developed  in  this  discussion  of  discipline.  These 
are  guides  that  any  young  officer  will  find 
valuable  in  his  dealings  with  subordinates. 

The  happiest  and  most  efficient  ships  are 
those  wherein  the  discipline  is  firm  and 
infractions  are  punished  promptly,  uniformly, 
and  adequately. 


Men  feel  more  secure  if  they  know  that 
reward  and  punishment  come  to  them  because 
of  their  behavior  and  not  because  of  an  officer's 
whim,  mood,  or  preference. 

Consideration,  courtesy,  and  respect  from 
officers  toward  enlisted  men  are  not 
incompatible  with  discipline. 

It  is  not  the  severity  of  punishment  that 
restrains  men  but  the  certainty  of  it. 

A  "Dutch  uncle"  talk  or  a  private  reprimand 
may  save  a  mast  or  a  court  sentence  later. 

Emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  keeping 
men  out  of  trouble,  or  detecting  it  before  it 
becomes  serious  and  leading  them  from  it. 

Punishment  is  not  personal  or  vindictive;  it  is 
not  an  instrument  of  revenge  nor  a  means  of 
righting  a  wrong.  It  does,  however,  furnish  an 
object  lesson  to  the  wrongdoer  and  to  others. 

An  officer  must  be  loyal  to  his  men,  take  an 
interest  in  them,  and  make  sure  they  are  granted 
rights  and  privileges.  He  can  drive  men  to 
obedience,  but  he  cannot  drive  them  to  loyalty. 

An  officer  should  not  talk  or  argue  with  a 
drunken  man  but  should  turn  him  over  to  the 
master-at-arms  for  safekeeping  until  sober. 

An  officer  commends  publicly  and  reproves 
privately. 

He  gains  the  confidence  of  his  men  and  is 
worthy  of  it. 

He  does  not  lose  his  temper  or  use  sarcasm 
and  ridicule  in  dealing  with  his  men. 

He  does  not  nag  his  men,  neglect  them, 
coddle  them,  or  play  the  clown. 

He  is  unbending  in  the  reproof  of 
misconduct-does  not  allow  men  to  get  away 
with  anything. 

He  uses  the  Uniform  Code  of  Military 
Justice  as  a  tool  for  better  discipline. 

In  maintaining  discipline  an  officer  gives  his 
petty  officers  authority,  works  through  them, 
supports  them,  and  holds  them  responsible  for 
results. 

Good  example  on  the  part  of  the  officers  is  a 
prime  requisite  both  in  the  establishment  of 
discipline  and  in  its  maintenance.  Officers  must 
practice  what  they  preach. 

A  ship's  company  must  be  said  to  have  been 
brought  to  an  ideal  state  of  discipline  when 
there  exists  in  it  a  maximum  of  efficiency  and 
contentment,  combined  with  a  minimum  of 
punishment. 


140 


Chapter  7-DISCIPLINE  AND  THE  UNIFORM  CODE  OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE 


ROLE  OF  THE 
UNIFORM  CODE  OF 
MILITARY  JUSTICE 

In  civil  life,  criminal  law  seeks  to  protect 
society  from  the  depredations  of  its 
irresponsible  members  without  prejudice  to 
fundamental  individual  rights  by  hasty, 
ill-considered  action.  Military  law  must  not  only 
restrain  individuals  for  the  protection  of  military 
society  but  must  assist  in  assuring  that  all 
members  of  a  service  march  in  a  prescribed 
order.  For  this  reason,  certain  acts  which  are 
considered  inalienable  rights  in  civil  society  are 
offenses  in  military  society.  For  instance, 
"telling  off  the  boss"  is  an  inalienable  right  of 
the  American  civilian,  but  in  the  military  service 
it  may  well  constitute  an  offense  punishable  by 
court-martial.  In  civil  life,  if  a  man  does  not 
like  his  job  he  can  quit.  Such  action  in  the 
military  service  might  be  desertion.  In  civil  life, 
if  a  group  of  people  decide  they  do  not  like 
working  conditions  and  jointly  walk  off  the  job, 
that  is  a  strike.  In  the  military  service,  such 
action  is  mutiny. 

Discipline  is  considered  to  be  that  attribute 
of  a  military  organization  which  enables  it  to 
function  in  a  coordinated  manner  under  varying 
circumstances.  Many  factors  contribute  to  the 
attainment  of  a  well-disciplined  organization. 
One  of  the  instruments  for  achieving  and 
maintaining  a  high  state  of  discipline  is  military 
law. 

The  trial  and  punishment  of  offenders 
within  all  branches  of  the  Armed  Forces  of  the 
United  States  are  governed  by  a  single  set  of 
laws-the  Uniform  Code  of  Military  Justice 
(UCMJ).  The  courts  that  try  military  personnel 
are  of  the  same  types  and  operate  in  basically 
the  same  manner,  regardless  of  the  service 
involved. 

In  addition  to  the  Code,  the  publications 
governing  the  administration  of  the  law  in  the 
Navy  are  the  Manual  for  Courts-Martial  United 
States,  1969  (Revised  ed.),  which  is  abbreviated 
as  MCM,  1969  (Rev.  ed.);and  the  Manual  of  the 
Judge  Advocate  General,  which  supplements  the 
MCM. 

The  UCMJ  is  discussed  more  fully  in  the 
second  half  of  this  chapter.  Suffice  it  to  say  here 
that  a  naval  officer  is  responsible  for  ensuring 


that  his  own  knowledge  of  the  code  is  adequate. 
The  basic  essentials  of  military  law  and  the 
procedure  in  naval  courts  must  be  thoroughly 
familiar  to  him.  An  officer  may  be  called  upon 
at  any  time  to  fill  various  roles  in  the  conduct  of 
naval  courts. 

Naval  courts  are  conducted  with  all  the 
formality  and  gravity  of  similar  courts  in  civil 
life.  Every  individual  participating  is  there  for  a 
definite  purpose  and  has  a  great  responsibility 
assigned  him.  Each  participant  must  play  his 
part  in  maintaining  the  dignity  of  the  court  and 
ensuring  swift,  efficient  administration  of 
justice.  It  is  essential  that  the  individuals 
composing  such  a  court  have  as  a  background 
the  study  of  the  fundamentals  of  military  law 
and  that  they  be  instilled  with  a  thorough 
awareness  of  the  importance  of  their  roles  in  its 
practical  application. 


DEALING  WITH  BREACHES 
OF  DISCIPLINE 

When  an  officer  is  seeking  the  truth 
concerning  an  alleged  offense,  he  should  first 
question  the  man  making  the  report  and  then 
question  the  accused,  after  advising  him  of  his 
legal  rights  (discussed  later).  He  should  accord 
little  credence  to  the  story  of  either  party  until 
all  facts  are  clear.  Before  a  case  is  brought  to 
mast,  the  names  of  all  witnesses  should  be 
obtained  and  the  investigation  of  all  details 
should  be  completed.  If  the  inquiring  officer  is 
convinced  that  there  is  a  definite  case  against  the 
alleged  wrongdoer,  or  if  he  feels  that  further 
investigation  under  more  mature  judgment  of 
the  commanding  officer  is  needed,  then  and 
only  then  should  the  culprit  be  reported. 

APPREHENSION,  ARREST, 
RESTRICTION,  AND 
CONFINEMENT 

Apprehension  is  the  taking  of  a  person  into 
lawful  custody.  Arrest  is  the  restraint  of  a 
person  by  an  order  directing  him  to  remain 
within  certain  specified  limits.  Arrest  is  not 
imposed  as  punishment  for  an  offense,  and  the 
restraint  imposed  is  binding  upon  the  person 
arrested,  not  by  physical  force,  but  by  virtue  of 


1  A  1 


his  moral  and  legal  obligation  to  obey  the  order 
of  arrest.  A  person  in  arrest  cannot  be  required 
to  perform  his  full  military  duties.  Moreover,  the 
determinations  as  to  whether  there  is  probable 
cause  to  confine  the  accused  and  whether,  under 
the  circumstances,  he  should  be  confined  must 
be  made  by  a  neutral  and  detached  magistrate. 

In  lieu  of  arrest,  an  accused  person  may  be 
restricted  to  specified  areas,  without  imposing 
arrest,  and  it  may  be  provided  that  he  will 
participate  in  all  military  duties  and  activities  of 
his  organization  while  under  such  restriction. 

Confinement  is  physical  restraint,  imposed 
by  either  oral  or  written  orders,  depriving  a 
person  of  freedom.  Although  confinement  can 
be  imposed  by  an  oral  or  written  order,  it  is 
required  that  a  written  confinement  order  be 
delivered  to  the  individual  in  charge  of  the  place 
of  confinement.  Confinement  is  not  imposed 
pending  trial  unless  deemed  necessary  to  ensure 
the  presence  of  the  accused  at  the  trial  or 
because  of  the  seriousness  of  the  offense 
charged. 

INITIATING  AND 
PREFERRING  CHARGES 

The  usual  procedure  for  placing  enlisted 
personnel  on  report  aboard  ship  consists  of 
submitting  the  report  of  a  man's  charges  and 
necessary  details  in  writing  to  the  executive 
officer  of  the  ship  or  to  another  officer 
designated  by  the  commanding  officer.  For 
example,  anyone  making  a  charge  may  sign  a 
Report  and  Disposition  of  Offense(s)  slip,  which 
contains  the  name  of  the  alleged  offender,  the 
offense  charged,  the  name  of  the  person  making 
the  charge,  and  the  names  of  any  witnesses. 
Anyone  in  the  naval  service  may  place  a  person 
directly  on  report  for  a  breach  of  discipline 
either  afloat  or  ashore.  For  example,  if  a  man 
were  late  in  returning  to  his  ship  from  liberty, 
the  officer  of  the  deck  would  place  him  on 
report  as  he  came  over  the  gangway. 

In  each  instance,  the  report  is  sent  to  the 
executive  officer  (or  other  officer  designated  by 
the  commanding  officer),  who  makes,  or  causes 
to  be  made,  a  preliminary  investigation  of  the 
charges. 


If  the  investigating  officer,  as  a  result  of  his 
analysis  of  the  facts,  feels  that  the  offense 
warrants  disciplinary  action,  he  will  make  out  a 
charge  sheet,  swear  to  it,  and  sign  it.  If  the 
investigating  officer  feels  that  a  court-martial  is 
not  called  for,  as  is  the  case  for  most  reported 
offenses,  he  merely  reports  the  facts  to  the 
commanding  officer,  who  may  have  the  accused 
brought  to  mast  for  the  alleged  commission  of  a 
minor  military  offense. 

There  is  no  formal  method  of  initiating 
charges  against  naval  personnel  accused  of 
committing  offenses  against  the  Code.  It  might 
conceivably  consist  of  a  telephone  ca|l  or  a  letter 
from  a  civilian  to  the  commanding  officer  of  a 
ship  or  station.  The  initiating  of  charges,  either 
aboard  ship  or  ashore,  is  merely  the  process  of 
informing  the  proper  authority  that  an  offense 
has  been  committed  and  that  a  certain  individual 
is  suspected  of  having  committed  it.  Anyone 
may  initiate  charges,  but  only  a  person  subject 
to  UCMJ  may  prefer  them— that  is,  sign  and 
swear  to  them. 

When  the  commanding  officer  has  only  an 
official  interest  (see  next  paragraph)  in  the 
disposition  of  the  case,  it  is  customary  for  him 
to  direct  an  officer  of  his  command  to  make  a 
preliminary  inquiry  into  the  suspected  offense 
and  to  prefer  appropriate  charges  if  the  facts 
shown  by  such  inquiry  should  warrant  the 
preferring  of  charges. 

At  this  point  it  would  be  well  to  clarify  the 
legal  term,  "accuser."  An  "accuser"  is  defined 
by  the  code,  in  substance,  as  one  who  signs 
charges;  directs  that  charges,  which  he  is  in  fact 
preferring,  be  nominally  signed  by  another;  and 
has  other  than  an  official  interest  in  the 
prosecution.  A  commanding  officer  who  is,  in 
legal  fact,  the  accuser  is  precluded  from 
convening  either  a  general  or  a  special 
court-martial  in  the  particular  case.  It  is 
advisable,  therefore,  that  if  possible  he  avoid 
becoming  an  accuser.  A  commanding  officer 
who  convenes  a  summary  court-martial  may  be 
the  accuser,  but  if  the  accused  exercises  his  right 
to  refuse  trial  by  summary  court,  the 
commanding  officer  may  not  then  convene  the 
special  or  general  court-martial  for  the  trial.  A 
commanding  officer  in  those  cases  where  he 
does  not  in  truth  have  any  real  personal  interest 


142 


Chapter  7-DISCIPLINE  AND  THE  UNIFORM  CODE  OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE 


(which  will,  of  course,  be  the  vast  majority  of 
cases)  should  delegate  the  task  of  making  the 
preliminary  inquiry  and  the  preferring  of 
appropriate  charges  to  a  subordinate  officer. 

Self-incrimination  should  also  be  considered 
at  this  point,  as  it  relates  to  the  investigation  of 
a  suspected  offense.  Article  31  of  the  Code 
forbids  anyone  subject  to  the  Code  to  compel 
any  person  to  answer  any  question  the  answer  to 
which  might  tend  to  incriminate  that  person 

By  this  same  article  any  person  subject  to 
the  Code  is  forbidden  to  interrogate  or  to 
request  a  statement  from  an  accused  person  or 
from  a  person  suspected  of  any  offense  without 
first  informing  him  of— 

1 .  The  nature  of  the  accusation. 

2.  The  fact  that  he  does  not  have  to  make 
any  statement  regarding  the  offense  of  which  he 
is  accused  or  suspected. 

3.  The   fact   that  any  statement  he  does 
make  may  be  used  as  evidence  against  him  in  a 
trial  by  court-martial. 

In  addition,  persons  subjected  to  custodial 
interrogations  must  be  advised  that  they  have 
the  right  to  consult  with  a  civilian  lawyer  and 
have  him  present  during  the  interview,  and  that 
such  lawyer  may  be  retained  at  the  individual's 
own  expense  or  appointed  by  military  authority 
without  cost  to  the  individual  concerned. 
Custodial  interrogations  are  those  in  which  the 
accused  has  no  choice  about  reporting  to  an 
interrogator. 

No  statement  obtained  from  any  person  in 
violation  of  Article  31  or  through  the  use  of 
coercion,  unlawful  influence,  or  unlawful 
inducement  may  be  received  in  evidence  against 
the  accused  in  a  trial  by  court-martial. 

The  preliminary  inquiry  normally  is  an 
informal  proceeding  conducted  for  the  purpose 
of  making  inquiry  into  the  question  of  whether 
an  offense  chargeable  under  UCMJ  has  been 
committed  and  whether  reasonable  grounds 
exist  for  the  belief  that  the  accused  in  fact 
committed  the  offense.  The  officer  making  the 
preliminary  inquiry  collects  and  examines  all 
evidence  that  is  essential  to  a  determination  of 
the  guilt  or  innocence  of  the  accused  as  well  as 
evidence  in  mitigation  or  extenuation. 


If,  on  the  basis  of  his  findings,  the 
investigating  officer  believes  that  charges  should 
be  preferred  against  the  accused,  he  executes  a 
charge  sheet  under  oath.  The  charge  sheet  sets 
forth  the  name,  organization,  and  service 
number  of  the  accused;  identifies  witnesses, 
documents,  or  objects  that  may  be  introduced  in 
evidence;  and  most  importantly,  lists  the  charges 
and  specifications.  The  commanding  officer 
ensures  that  the  accused  receives  a  copy  of  the 
charge  sheet. 

Under  the  Code,  disposition  of  infractions  of 
discipline  or  violations  of  the  law  is 
accomplished  by  two  types  of  proceedings: 
nonjudicial  punishment  and  courts-martial. 

NONJUDICIAL  PUNISHMENT 

(NJP) 

Nonjudicial  punishment  is  better  known  in 
the  Navy  as  captain's  mast,  or  merely  mast,  a 
term  derived  from  the  fact  that  in  early  sailing 
days  the  usual  setting  for  application  of  this 
type  of  naval  justice  was  on  the  weather  deck  at 
the  foot  of  the  ship's  mainmast. 

A  commanding  officer  may,  for  minor 
offenses,  impose  nonjudicial  punishment  upon 
the  military  personnel  (including  officers)  of  his 
command.  This  authority  of  a  commanding 
officer  is  personal  and  may  not  be  delegated 
unless  he  is  a  general  or  flag  officer.  A  general  or 
flag  officer  may  delegate  the  authority  to  a 
principal  assistant  only  with  the  express  prior 
approval  of  the  Chief  of  Naval  Personnel  or 
Commandant  of  the  Marine  Corps.  Captain's 
mast  constitutes  the  cornerstone  of  the  whole 
structure  of  naval  justice  and  discipline. 

The  executive  officer  holds  a  preliminary 
investigation,  usually  just  before  captain's  mast. 
Although  he  cannot  assume  the  authority  to 
punish,  the  executive  officer  does  have  the  main 
responsibility  for  ship's  routine,  efficiency,  and 
discipline.  His  purpose  in  screening  mast  cases  is 
to  ensure  that  alleged  offenses  do,  in  fact, 
warrant  some  form  of  punishment.  If  conditions 
justify,  he  may  dismiss  the  charges  against  a 
man.  He  then  furnishes  the  commanding  officer 
with  a  list  of  personnel  against  whom  charges 
have  been  preferred  during  the  preceding  day(s) 
and  whom  he  believes  should  appear  at  mast. 


143 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


The  captain  holds  mast  for  those  persons  at  a 
time  most  convenient  for  all  concerned,  usually 
before  noon. 

The  executive  officer  may  stand  by  to  lend 
assistance  in  the  conduct  of  the  proceedings.  A 
Yeoman  or  Personnelman  stands  by  with  the 
service  records  of  all  men  brought  to  mast.  Also 
standing  by  are  the  master-at-arms,  accusers, 
witnesses,  and  division  officers  of  the  accused. 

The  first  action  of  the  commanding  officer  is 
to  warn  all  accused  as  well  as  any  witnesses 
about  the  possible  effect  of  their  answers  to  any 
of  his  questions;  at  the  same  time,  he  explains 
their  rights.  These  rights,  among  other  things, 
encompass  not  being  required  to  answer  any 
questions  that  degrade  or  tend  to  incriminate 
them;  not  being  required  to  make  any  statement 
regarding  the  offenses  of  which  accused;  the 
opportunity  to  present  any  matter  in  defense, 
mitigation,  or  extenuation  of  the  alleged 
offenses;  and  the  right  (unless  the  accused  are 
attached  to  or  embarked  in  a  vessel)  to  demand 
trail  by  court-martial  in  lieu  of  accepting 
nonjudicial  punishment.  To  save  time,  the 
captain  may  conduct  a  preliminary  hearing  in 
which  all  accused  and  witnesses  are  brought 
before  him;  he  warns  them,  explains  their  rights, 
dismisses  them,  and  then  calls  the  first  case. 

As  each  man  is  called  before  the  captain,  the 
reporting  individual  and  the  man's  division 
officer  also  step  forward.  The  offense  is  read. 
The  captain  then  hears  the  man's  statement,  if 
any,  and  those  of  any  witnesses.  The  division 
officer  may  wish  to  put  in  a  word,  or  the  captain 
may  wish  to  ask  some  questions  about  the 
man.  The  captain  carefully  examines  an 
accused's  service  record  before  he  makes  a 
decision.  During  the  entire  procedure  all  the 
dignity  and  seriousness  of  a  higher  court  are 
maintained. 

In  passing  judgment,  the  commanding 
officer  may  (1)  dismiss  the  case,  (2)  officially 
warn  the  accused,  (3)  administer  an  oral  or 
written  admonition  or  reprimand,  (4)  impose 
punishment,  or  (5)  order  the  accused  to  be  tried 
by  court-martial. 

Figure  7-2  shows  maximum  punishments 
that  may  be  imposed  in  the  Navy  as  nonjudicial 


punishment  Applicable  blocks  indicate  the 
section  of  the  Manual  of  the  Judge  Advocate 
General  (JAG  Manual)  that  authorizes  deviation 
from  article  15  of  the  Code  (the  article 
authorizing  and  placing  limitations  on 
nonjudicial  punishment,  quoted  fully  later  in 
this  chapter)  in  accordance  with  the  doctrine 
that  a  departmental  secretary  (SECNAV)  has 
latitude  in  applying  the  article  within  his 
department. 

In  regard  to  punishments  of  enlisted 
members,  reduction  in  grade  may  be  imposed 
only  by  a  commanding  officer  who  is  authorized 
to  promote  to  the  grade  from  which  demoted. 
Confinement  on  bread  and  water  or  diminished 
rations  may  be  imposed  only  upon  a  member 
attached  to  or  embarked  in  a  ship  but  may  not 
be  imposed  on  a  petty  officer;  nor  may 
correctional  custody  be  imposed  on  a  petty 
officer. 

An  officer  in  charge  cannot  impose 
disciplinary  punishment  upon  officers.  He  has 
the  same  power  as  a  commanding  officer  in 
disciplining  enlisted  personnel  assigned  to  his 
unit,  but  he  may  not  impose  a  punishment  that 
is  greater  than  that  authorized  by  a  commanding 
officer  of  pay  grade  0-3  and  below. 

At  the  time  the  commanding  officer  informs 
an  accused  of  his  punishment,  he  also  informs 
him  of  his  right  to  appeal. 

A  person  (officer  or  enlisted  man) 
who  deems  his  punishment  unjust  or  dis- 
proportionate to  the  offense  may,  through 
proper  channels,  make  a  written  appeal  to  the 
commanding  officer's  next  superior  authority. 
The  appeal  may  include  a  signed  statement  of 
the  reasons  for  regarding  the  punishment  as 
unjust  or  disproportionate.  Although  an  appeal 
is  forwarded,  the  person  ordered  to  be  punished 
may  in  the  meantime  be  required  to  undergo  the 
punishment  adjudged  only  if  attached  to  or 
embarked  in  a  vessel.  If  the  accused  is  not 
attached  to  or  embarked  in  a  vessel,  such 
punishment  will  be  stayed  pending  completion 
of  his  appeal.  The  superior  authority  ordinarily 
will  hear  no  witnesses.  If  he  feels  there  has  been 
a  miscarrriage  of  justice  he  may  modify  the 
punishment  or  set  it  aside,  but  he  may  not 
increase  it,  and  in  no  case  may  he  award  a 
different  kind  of  punishment. 


144 


Punishment 


PUNISHMENT      IMPOSED      BY 


Flag  or  general 

officer 
in  command 


CO  if  LCDR 
or  above 


CO  if  below 
LCDR 


OlC-any 
grade 


Admonition  or 
reprimand 


Yes 


Yes 


Yes 


No 


Restriction 


60  days 


30  days 


15  days 
-JAG  Man.  0101 


No 


Arrest  in 
quarters 


30  days 


No 


No 


No 


Forfeiture  of 
pay 


1/2  of  1  mo.  pay 
per  mo.  for  2  mo. 


No 


No 


No 


Detention  of 
pay 


1/2  of  1  mo.  pay 
per  mo.  for  3  mo. 


No 


No 


No 


Admonition  or 
reprimand 


Any  officer  commanding, 
LCDR  and  above 


Commanding  officers  below  LCDR; 
OICs,  any  grade 


Yes 


Yes 


Confinement  on 
B&W  or  dimin 
ished  rations 


3  consecutive  days  (only  on  E-3 
and  below,  aboard  ship) 
-JAG  Man.  0101- 


3  consecutive  days  (only  on  E-3 
and  below,  aboard  ship) 
-JAG  Man.  0101- 


orrectional 
custody 


30  consecutive  days  (only  on  E-3 

and  below) 
-JAG  Man..  0101- 


7  consecutive  days  (only  on  E-3 

and  below) 
-JAG  Man.  0101- 


Forfeiture  of 
pay 


1/2  of  1  mo.  pay  per  mo.  for  2  mo. 


7  days'  pay 


Reduction  in 
grade 


To  next  inferior  grade 
-JAG  Man.  0101- 


To  next  inferior  grade 


Extra  duty 


45  days 


14  days 


Restriction 


60  days 


14  days 


Detention  of 
pay 


1/2  of  1  mo.  pay  per  mo.  for  3  mo. 


14  days'  pay 


134.180 

Figure  7-2.-One  or  more  of  the  maximum  punishments  authorized  by  article  15,  UCMJ,  may  be  imposed  upon 
military  personnel  of  their  commands  by  the  categories  of  commanding  officers  (including  officers  in  charge) 
shown  above.  Punishments  authorized  by  article  15  are  primarily  corrective  in  nature. 


145 


When  a  commanding  officer's  punishment  is 
imposed  upon  a  naval  officer,  it  is  necessary  to 
make  a  report  by  letter  to  the  Chief  of  Naval 
Personnel.  A  notation  of  this  report  is  made  in 
the  next  report  of  fitness  submitted  upon  the 
officer. 

COURTS-MARTIAL 

Military  offenses,  as  distinguished  from 
conventional  misdemeanors  and  crimes,  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes:  those  involving  neglect 
of  duty,  and  those  involving  deliberate  violations 


of  instructions,  orders,  or  regulations.  Offenses 
classified  as  neglect  of  duty  may  result  in 
punishment  extending  from  restriction  to  that 
awarded  by  a  court-martial  (see  figure  7-3). 
Deliberate  violations  of  instruction,  orders,  or 
regulations  are  usually  tried  by  court-martial; 
such  offenses,  as  a  rule,  lie  not  so  much  in  the 
consequences  of  the  act  as  in  the  defiance  of 
authority.  Offenses  involving  moral  turpitude 
such  as  theft,,  forgery,  rape,  and  murder 
invariably  result  in  trial  by  either  naval 
court-martial,  or  by  civilian  courts  if  the  crime  is 
committed  apart  from  military  control  areas. 


134.43 


Figure  7-3.-The  court-martial  has  been  a  military  tribunal  for  hundreds  of  years.  Its  aim  always  has  been  prompt, 

efficient  administration  of  military  law. 


146 


Chapter  7-DISCIPLINE  AND  THE  UNIFORM  CODE  OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE 


When  nonjudicial  punishment  is  considered 
inadequate  for  an  offense  charged,  a 
commanding  officer  who  is  a  convening 
authority  may  refer  the  case  to  one  of  three 
types  of  courts-martial.  In  ascending  order  of 
severity  (punishment  that  may  be  awarded  by 
the  court)  these  are  the  summary,  special,  and 
general  courts-martial. 

Summary  Court-Martial  (SCM) 

The  function  of  a  summary  court-martial 
is  to  administer  justice  for  relatively  minor 
(noncapital)  offenses  promptly  and  through  a 
simple  procedure. 

The  jurisdiction  of  a  summary  court-martial 
extends  only  to  enlisted  personnel.  An  accused 
may  object  to  trial  by  summary  court-martial,  in 
which  case  he  may  be  ordered  to  trial  by  either 
special  or  general  court-martial,  whichever  is 
appropriate. 

COMPOSITION     AND     PROCEDURE.-A 

summary  court  consists  of  one  commissioned 
officer,  who  is  called  the  summary  court  officer, 
or  simply  the  summary  court.  Whenever 
practicable,  the  summary  court  is  an  officer 
whose  grade  is  equivalent  to  lieutenant  in  the 
Navy  or  above.  (If  the  commanding  officer  is  the 
only  officer  present,  he  is  the  summary  court.) 
It  is  advisable  to  have  a  summary  court-martial 
officer  appointed  who  is  not  the  accuser  or  who 
has  not  previously  investigated  the  case. 

The  summary  court  officer  is  not  sworn  in  as 
such;  he  performs  his  duties  under  the  sanction 
of  his  oath  of  office  as  a  commissioned  officer. 
The  convening  authority,  if  he  wishes,  may 
order  any  person  under  his  command  to  perform 
the  duties  of  reporter.  If  a  reporter  is  appointed, 
he  usually  is  an  enlisted  man  whose  task  it  is  to 
keep  a  true  record  of  the  case. 

The  formal  written  accusation  in 
court-martial  practice  consists  of  two  parts:  the 
technical  .charge  and  the  specification.  The 
charge  indicates  merely  what  article  of  the  code 
the  accused  is  alleged  to  have  violated,  while  the 
specification  sets  forth  the  specific  facts  and 
circumstances  constituting  the  violation.  A 
specification  is  written  in  simple,  concise 


language  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  enable  a 
person  of  common  understanding  to  know  with 
what  offense  he  is  charged.  The  facts  stated 
include  all  elements  of  the  offense  charged  and 
must  exclude  every  reasonable  hypothesis  of 
innocence. 

Prior  to  trial,  the  summary  court  officer, 
having  received  the  charge  sheet,  checks  the 
charges  and  specifications  to  be  sure  that  they 
are  legally  correct.  He  arranges  for  the  presence 
of  the  accused  and  advises  him  of— 

1 .  The  general  nature  of  the  charges. 

2.  The    fact    that    the  charges  have  been 
referred  to  a  summary  court-martial  for  trial. 

3.  The  name  of  the  officer  who  appointed 
the  court. 

4.  The  name  of  the  accuser 

5.  The  names  of  contemplated  witnesses. 

6.  His  (the  accused's)  right  to- 

a.  Cross-examine  witnesses  or  have  the 
court    ask    questions    which    the    accused 
desires  answered. 

b.  Call    witnesses    or    produce    other 
evidence,  with  the  assurance  that  the  court 
will  assist  him  to  do  so. 

c.  Testify  or  remain  silent. 

The  summary  court  advises  the  accused  of 
his  right  to  object  to  trial  by  summary 
court-martial,  regardless  of  whether  he  has  been 
permitted  and  elected  to  refuse  punishment 
under  article  15. 

During  the  trial  the  summary  court 
represents  both  the  Government  and  accused. 
Witnesses,  testifying  under  oath,  are  examined 
by  the  summary  court,  who  conducts  the  entire 
trial.  In  the  absence  of  a  plea  of  guilty,  he 
thoroughly  and  impartially  investigates  both 
sides  of  the  matter  and  ensures  that  the  interests 
of  both  the  Government  and  the  accused  are 
safeguarded.  If  the  accused  is  found  guilty  of  an 
offense,  the  summary  court  advises  him  of  his 
right  to  submit  any  matter  in  extenuation  or 
mitigation,  including  the  making  of  an  unsworn 
statement. 

AUTHORIZED     PUNISHMENTS. -A 

summary  court-martial  may  adjudge  any 
punishment  not  forbidden  by  the  Code 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


(forbidden  punishments  are  contained  in  article 
55,  which  is  discussed  later)  except  death, 
dismissal,  dishonorable  or  bad  conduct 
discharge,  confinement  for  more  than  1  month, 
hard  labor  without  confinement  for  more  than 
45  days,  restriction  to  specified  limits  for  more 
than  2  months,  forfeiture  of  more  than 
two-thirds  of  1  month's  pay,  or  detention  of 
more  than  two-thirds  of  1  month's  pay. 

In  addition  to,  or  in  lieu  of,  other 
punishments,  all  courts-martial  may  adjudge 
reprimand  or  admonition. 

The  maximum  amount  of  confinement  and 
forfeiture  of  pay,  or  of  confinement  and 
detention  of  pay,  may  be  adjudged  together  in 
one  sentence.  (Detention  of  pay  is  a  less  severe 
form  of  punishment  than  a  forfeiture,  because 
the  amount  detained  is  ultimately  returned  to 
the  accused.) 

Since  confinement  and  restriction  to 
specified  limits  are  both  forms  of  deprivation  of 
liberty,  only  one  of  those  punishments  may  be 
adjudged  in  maximum  amount  in  any  one 
sentence.  An  apportionment  must  be  formulated 
if  it  is  desired  to  adjudge  both  forms  of 
punishment— confinement  and  restriction  to 
specified  limits— in  the  same  sentence. 

In  case  of  enlisted  persons  above  the  fourth 
enlisted  pay  grade,  summary  courts-martial  may 
not  adjudge  confinement,  hard  labor  without 
confinement,  or  reduction  except  to  the  next 
inferior  rate. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  trial,  the  summary 
court  notifies  the  accused  of  its  findings  and,  if 
the  accused  is  convicted,  the  sentence  of  the 
court.  The  punishment,  if  any,  is  entered  in  the 
ship's  log,  and  an  entry  is  made  in  the  man's 
service  record. 

Special  Court-Martial 
(SpCM) 

For  offenses  that  warrant  greater 
punishment  than  a  summary  court-martial  can 
adjudge,  a  commanding  officer  may  convene  a 
special  court-martial  to  try  any  enlisted  person 
or  officer  in  his  command.  The  SpCM  has 


jurisdiction  to  try  anyone  subject  to  the  Code 
for  any  noncapital  offense  made  punishable  by 
UCMJ,  as  well  as  for  certain  capital  offenses. 
The  convening  authority  draws  up  a  convening 
order  that  specifies  the  time  and  place  of 
meeting  of  the  SpCM  and  indicates  the 
composition  of  the  court. 


COMPOSITION. -Special 

consist  of— 


courts-martial 


1 .  Not  less  than  three  members. 

2.  A  military  judge  (certified  as  a  judge  by 
the  Judge  Advocate  General)  and  not  less  than 
three  members. 

3.  Only  a  military  judge,  if  one  has  been 
detailed  to  the  court,  and  the  accused,  knowing 
the  identity  of  the  judge  and  after  consultation 
with  defense  counsel,  requests  in  writing  a  court 
composed  only  of  a  military  judge,   and  the 
military  judge  approves. 

The  convening  authority  appoints  a  reporter 
to  keep  a  record  of  the  proceedings  of  and 
testimony  taken  before  the  court-martial. 

An  accused  enlisted  person  may  request 
(unless  the  court  consists  of  only  a  military 
judge)  that  the  court's  membership  include 
enlisted  personnel.  There  are  two  restrictions 
upon  this  right:  first,  the  enlisted  members  of  a 
court  may  not  be  members  of  the  same  unit  as 
the  enlisted  person  being  tried;  and  second,  the 
accused  must  make  the  request  personally  and  in 
writing  before  the  court  is  assembled.  When  the 
request  is  granted,  enlisted  personnel  comprise 
at  least  one-third  of  the  court's  membership.  If 
enlisted  persons  meeting  the  qualifications 
cannot  be  obtained  because  of  physical 
conditions  or  military  exigencies,  the  convening 
authority  appends  to  the  record  of  trial  a 
statement  explaining  why  enlisted  persons  were 
unobtainable. 

When  it  can  be  avoided,  no  person  in  the 
Armed  Forces  is  tried  by  a  court-martial,  any 
member  of  which  is  junior  to  him  in  grade;  e.g., 
an  officer  should  be  tried  only  by  a 
court-martial  composed  of  officers  senior  to  him 
on  the  same  promotion  list. 

Members  of  courts-martial  should  be  of  the 
same  branch  of  the  Armed  Forces  as  the 


148 


Chapter  7-DISCIPLINE  AND  THE  UNIFORM  CODE  OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE 


accused.  A  commander  of  a  joint  command  or 
joint  task  force,  however,  when  specifically 
empowered  by  the  President  or  the  Secretary  of 
Defense,  may  appoint  as  court-martial  members 
any  eligible  persons  of  his  command  or  of 
another  command  when  they  are  made  available 
to  him.  In  exceptional  cases,  a  Judge  Advocate 
General  may  authorize  a  commanding  officer  of 
other  than  a  joint  command  or  task  force  to 
appoint  members  of  other  branches  of  the 
Armed  Forces  to  serve  on  courts-martial. 

COURT  PROCEDURE.-The  senior  member 
of  the  special  court-martial  is  the  president;  his 
grade  should  not  be  below  lieutenant.  The 
military  judge,  if  one  is  detailed  to  the  court, 
must  be  a  member  of  the  bar  of  a  Federal  court 
or  of  the  highest  court  of  a  state  and  must  be 
certified  as  qualified  for  such  duty  by  the  Judge 
Advocate  General. 

The  president  (or  military  judge,  if  one  is 
detailed)  presides  over  each  open  session  of  the 
court-martial,  assuming  responsibility  for  the 
fair  and  orderly  conduct  of  the  proceedings  in 
accordance  with  law.  During  the  trial  he  rules 
upon  interlocutory  questions  and  advises  the 
court  on  aspects  of  legal  procedure  that  arise. 
Before  the  court  closes  to  vote  on  the  findings, 
he  instructs  it  as  to  the  elements  of  each  offense 
charged,  the  presumption  of  innocence, 
reasonable  doubt,  and  burden  of  proof.  Before 
the  court  closes  to  vote  upon  a  sentence,  he 
advises  it  as  to  the  maximum  authorized 
punishment  for  each  offense  of  which  the 
accused  has  been  found  guilty. 

If  the  military  judge  is  the  only  member  of 
the  court,  he  of  course  has  sole  responsibility  for 
conduct  of  the  trial,  including  the  findings  and 
imposition  of  a  sentence  for  a  finding  of  guilty. 
Otherwise,  he  is  not  considered  a  member  of  the 
court  per  se,  and  does  not  vote  with  the 
members. 

The  convening  authority  appoints  an  officer 
as  trial  counsel  to  conduct  the  case  for  the 
Government  (act  as  prosecuting  attorney)  and 
another  officer  to  act  as  defense  counsel  for  the 
accused.  An  accused  will  be  afforded  the  right  to 
have  certified  counsel  for  his  defense.  If  at  all 
possible,  trial  counsel  should  be  certified  to  act 
as  judge  advocate. 


The  accused,  it  should  be  pointed  out,  has 
the  right  to  be  represented  (before  either  a 
special  or  general  court-martial)  by  civilian 
counsel  at  his  own  expense  if  he  so  desires,  by 
military  counsel  of  his  own  selection  if  such  is 
reasonably  available,  or  by  the  appointed 
defense  counsel. 

Members  of  special  courts-martial  hear  the 
evidence,  determine  the  guilt  or  innocence  of 
the  accused,  and,  if  the  accused  is  found  guilty, 
adjudge  a  proper  sentence.  Each  member  has  an 
equal  voice  and  votes  with  other  members  in 
deliberating  upon  and  deciding  all  questions 
submitted  to  vote. 

In  most  cases,  convictions  and  sentences 
require  a  two-thirds  majority.  In  special 
courts-martial  without  a  military  judge,  all  other 
questions,  such  as  those  on  challenges  and 
interlocutory  questions,  are  decided  by  a  simple 
majority.  A  tie  vote  on  a  challenge  disqualifies 
the  member  challenged.  A  tie  vote  on  a  motion 
for  a  finding  of  not  guilty  or  on  a  question  of 
accused's  sanity  is  a  determination  against  the 
accused.  A  tie  vote  on  any  other  question  is  a 
determination  in  favor  of  the  accused. 

Voting  is  by  secret  ballot,  and  each  member 
must  vote.  The  junior  member  counts  the  votes, 
and  the  president  verifies  the  count  and 
announces  the  result  of  the  ballot  to  the 
members  of  the  court. 

If  a  fraction  results  when  the  votes  are 
counted,  such  fraction  counts  as  one  in  favor  of 
the  accused;  thus,  if  five  members  are  to  vote,  a 
requirement  that  two-thirds  concur  is  not  met 
unless  four  concur. 

AUTHORIZED  PUNISHMENTS. -Special 
courts-martial  may,  under  such  limitations  as  the 
president  may  prescribe,  adjudge  any 
punishment  not  forbidden  by  the  Code,  except 
death,  dishonorable  discharge,  dismissal, 
confinement  for  more  than  6  months,  hard  labor 
without  confinement  for  more  than  3  months, 
forfeiture  of  pay  exceeding  two-thirds  pay  per 
month  for  6  months,  or  (for  enlisted)  detention 
of  pay  for  more  than  two-thirds  pay  per  month 
for  3  months.  A  bad-conduct  discharge  may  not 
be  adjudged  by  a  special  court-martial  unless  (1) 
a  military  judge  was  detailed  to  the  trial,  except 


149 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


in  any  case  in  which  a  military  judge  could  not 
be  detailed  because  of  physical  conditions  or 
military  exigencies;  (2)  a  qualified  counsel  was 
detailed  to  represent  the  accused;  and  (3)  a 
complete  and  verbatim  record  of  the 
proceedings  and  testimony  was  made. 

As  with  summary  courts-martial,  special 
courts-martial  are  not  limited  to  one  kind  of 
punishment.  Apportionment  of  confinement  or 
restriction,  and  of  forfeiture  or  detention  of  pay 
may  be  formulated  as  in  the  summary 
court-martial.  In  adjudging  a  bad  conduct 
discharge,  the  court-martial  cannot  also  adjudge 
forfeiture  of  all  pay  and  allowances,  but  it  may 
properly  adjudge  aTorfeiture  of  two-thirds  pay 
per  month  for  not  more  than  6  months. 

General  Court-Martial 
(GCM) 

A  general  court-martial  is  the  highest 
military  tribunal.  It  may  be  convened  only  by 
the  President,  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  a  flag 
officer  in  command  of  a  unit  or  activity  of  the 
Navy  or  Marine  Corps,  the  commanding  officer 
of  a  naval  station  or  larger  shore  activity  beyond 
the  continental  limits  of  the  United  States,  and 
such  other  officers  as  may  be  authorized  by  the 
President  or  SecNav. 

A  GCM  has  jurisdiction  to  try  any  person 
subject  to  the  code  for  any  offense  made 
punishable  by  the  code.  It  also  may  try  anyone 
who  by  the  law  of  war  is  subject  to  trial  by 
a  military  tribunal. 

No  charge  may  be  referred  to  a  general 
court-martial  for  trial  until  it  has  been 
thoroughly  and  impartially  investigated.  At  this 
pretrial  investigation  the  accused  has  the  rights 
to  be  represented  by  counsel,  to  cross-examine 
available  witnesses,  to  present  anything  he 
desires  in  his  own  behalf,  to  have  the 
investigating  officer  examine  available  witnesses, 
and  to  make  any  statement  he  desires.  If,  as  a 
result  of  the  investigation,  it  appears  that  the 
case  should  be  referred  to  a  general 
court-martial,  the  investigating  officer  makes  a 
formal  report  to  the  officer  who  directed  the 
investigation. 


Ordinarily,  the  pretrial  investigation  is 
ordered  by  the  commanding  officer  of  the 
accused  and  the  report  is  forwarded  by  him, 
with  appropriate  recommendation,  to  the 
officer  exercising  general  court-martial 
jurisdiction. 

When  an  officer  who  exercises  general 
court-martial  jurisdiction  receives  the  charges, 
report  of  investigation,  and  allied  papers,  he 
refers  them  to  his  staff  judge  advocate  for 
consideration  and  advice.  Before  he  refers  a 
charge  to  a  general  court-martial,  the  officer 
exercising  general  court-martial  jurisdiction 
assures  himself  that  the  charge  alleges  an  offense 
under  the  code  and  that  trial  is  warranted  by 
evidence  indicated  in  the  report. 

COMPOSITION. -A  general  court-martial 
consists  of  a  military  judge  and  not  less  than  five 
members.  The  convening  authority  appoints  a 
trial  counsel  and  a  defense  counsel-both  of 
whom  are  lawyers,  properly  certified— as  well  as 
such  assistants  as  he  deems  necessary.  Note  that 
the  presence  of  a  military  judge  is  mandatory,  as 
are  the  qualifications  of  counsel. 

Trial  provisions  (some  already  mentioned)  of 
special  courts-martial  apply  also  to  general 
courts-martial:  the  president  should  not  be 
below  the  grade  of  lieutenant;  officers  may  be 
tried  only  by  officers;  warrant  officers  may  be 
tried  only  by  officers  and/or  warrant  officers; 
enlisted  persons  may  be  members  under  certain 
conditions;  and,  if  possible,  no  member  of  the 
court  should  be  junior  to  the  accused. 

COURT  PROCEDURE. -The  responsibilities 
of  the  military  judge,  members  of  the  court,  and 
counsel  are  the  same  as  in  special  courts-martial. 
As  already  pointed  out,  the  principal  difference 
between  a  special  and  general  court-martial  is 
the  greater  severity  of  punishment  possible  at 
the  latter. 

A  conviction  of  any  offense  that  carries  a 
mandatory  death  penalty  requires  the 
concurrence  of  all  members  present;  and  no 
person  may  be  sentenced  to  death  unless  all 
members  present  concur.  A  three-fourths 
majority  of  all  members  present  is  required 
to  vote  a  penalty  of  life  imprisonment  or 


150 


Chapter   /—  jjiaL.irj_iiNn  AINU 


umruKM  L,UL>£,  ur   MiLilAKY 


confinement  in  excess  of  1 0  years.  Convictions 
of  offenses  not  carrying  a  mandatory  death 
penalty  require  a  two-thirds  majority;  and  all 
sentences,  other  than  death,  life  imprisonment, 
or  confinement  in  excess  of  1 0  years,  require  the 
vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present  when 
the  sentence  is  voted  on.  All  other  questions  to 
be  decided  by  the  members  require,  as  in  a 
special  court-martial,  a  simple  majority. 

AUTHORIZED  PUNISHMENTS. -A  general 
court-martial  can  adjudge  any  punishment  not 
forbidden  by  article  55  of  UCMJ,  including  death 
(when  specifically  authorized  by  the  Code,  such 
as  for  desertion  in  time  of  war,  mutiny,  sedition, 
or  spying),  confinement  for  life,  dishonorable 
discharge,  bad  conduct  discharge,  dismissal  of  an 
officer,  and  total  forfeiture  of  pay  during  the 
remaining  period  of  an  accused's  obligated 
service. 

Reviews  of 
Courts-Martial 

When  a  person  has  been  tried  and  convicted 
by  court-martial,  the  machinery  for  review  of 
the  court's  findings  and  sentence  is 
automatically  set  in  motion. 

Review  means  study  by  higher  authorities, 
or  by  a  higher  court,  to  determine  whether  the 
trial  court  acted  correctly,  whether  the  accused 
was  denied  any  rights  to  which  he  was  entitled, 
and  whether  the  sentence  was  illegal  or  too 
severe.  A  review  is  very  much  like  an  appeal 
from  a  civilian  trial  court  to  a  higher  court  and  is 
designed  to  accomplish  the  same  purpose.  The 
important  difference  is  that  reviews  of 
court-martial  trials  are  automatic;  that  is,  every 
convicted  person  in  the  service  is  entitled  to  a 
review  at  no  cost.  At  several  stages  before  the 
review  is  finished,  findings  may  be  set  aside  in 
whole  or  in  part;  charges  may  be  dismissed;  or 
the  sentence  may  be  reduced,  but  it  may  never 
be  increased. 

The  convening  authority  (CA)  reviews  the 
record  of  each  court-martial  convened  by  him, 
after  his  staff  judge  advocate  or  legal  officer  has 
studied  the  complete  record  and  rendered  an 
opinion  to  the  CA  concerning  adequacy  and 


weight  of  evidence  in  the  case,  irregularities 
respecting  the  proceedings,  and  so  on.  With  this 
opinion  before  him,  the  CA  may,  among  other 
actions,  approve  or  disapprove  the  findings  and 
sentence,  or  any  part  of  them,  direct  a  rehearing, 
or  take  such  other  action  as  is  provided  by  the 
Code.  When  a  trial  results  in  an  acquittal  or  a 
finding  of  not  guilty,  however,  the  CA  may  not 
disturb  the  result  or  send  the  case  back  to  the 
court  for  reconsideration. 

In  the  case  of  a  summary  or  special 
court-martial,  the  CA  forwards  the  record,  with 
his  recommendations,  to  the  superior  exercising 
general  court-martial  jurisdiction  over  the 
command  for  further  review.  A  staff  judge 
advocate  furnishes  that  superior  with  a  second 
legal  opinion  on  the  merits  of  the  case.  The 
officer  exercising  general  court-martial 
jurisdiction  may,  with  reason,  override  the 
action  of  the  CA.  There  might  be,  for  example,  a 
fatal  error  not  discovered  by  the  CA's  legal 
officer  which  would  necessitate  a  rehearing.  In 
any  event,  the  superior  exercising  general 
court-martial  jurisdiction  may,  in  the  interest  of 
justice,  set  aside  in  whole  or  in  part  the  findings 
of  guilty  and  the  sentence,  thereby  restoring  any 
rights  and  privileges  affected  by  the  part  of  the 
sentence  set  aside.  He  may  mitigate  or  suspend 
any  part  or  amount  of  the  unexecuted  portion 
of  the  sentence.  (Many  sentences  may  be  ordered 
executed  upon  their  approval  by  the  CA.) 

The  record  of  trial  for  a  special  court-martial 
involving  a  bad-conduct  discharge,  with  the 
recommendations  of  both  the  CA  and  the 
officer  exercising  general  court-martial 
jurisdiction,  is  forwarded  to  the  Office  of  the 
Judge  Advocate  General. 

The  CA  who  convenes  a  general 
court-martial  ordinarily  forwards  the  general 
court-martial  record  of  trial  by  self-convened 
general  court-martial  direct  to  the  Office  of  JAG 
(the  CA  having  general  court-martial 
jurisdiction,  no  intermediate  review  is  needed). 

Within  the  Office  of  the  Judge  Advocate 
General  is  a  Court  of  Military  Review,  consisting 
of  three-judge  appellate  review  panels,  which  has 
the  function  of  reviewing  the  record  of  every 
case  in  which  an  approved  sentence  affects  a  flag 
officer  or  in  which  a  sentence  imposes  the  death 


151 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


penalty,  the  dismissal  of  an  officer,  a 
dishonorable  or  bad-conduct  discharge,  or 
confinement  for  1  year  or  more  (the  appellate 
military  judges  may  be  commissioned  officers  or 
civilians).  General  courts-martial  not  included  in 
the  categories  of  those  automatically  reviewed 
by  the  Court  of  Military  Review  are  reviewed  by 
other  qualified  lawyers  in  the  Office  of  JAG. 

A  review  panel  considers  all  the  facts  and 
law  involved  in  any  case  under  review.  It  may, 
among  other  actions,  reduce  the  sentence  to 
whatever  penalty  it  thinks  appropriate,  set  aside 
the  entire  findings  and  sentence  and  order  a 
rehearing,  or  order  the  charges  dismissed.  The 
Judge  Advocate  General,  unless  there  is  to  be 
further  action  by  the  Court  of  Military  Appeals, 
normally  instructs  the  convening  authority  to 
take  action  in  accordance  with  the  decision  of 
the  Court  of  Military  Review. 

Upon  the  request  of  a  convicted  offender 
whose  trial  record  is  before  the  Court  of  Military 
Review  a  qualified  lawyer  is  assigned  to 
represent  him  before  the  court. 

COURT  OF  MILITARY  APPEALS. -Above 
the  Court  of  Military  Review  is  a  "supreme 
court"  of  military  justice,  the  Court  of  Military 
Appeals,  composed  of  three  civilian  judges 
appointed  by  the  President  and  confirmed  by 
the  Senate. 

Every  offender  whose  conviction  has  been 
passed  upon  and  upheld  by  the  Court  of  Military 
Review  has  the  right  to  petition  the  Court  of 
Military  Appeals  to  review  his  case.  Such  appeals 
are  automatic,  only  when  the  sentence  as 
affirmed  by  the  Court  of  Military  Review  affects 
a  general  or  flag  officer  or  extends  to  death.  In 
all  other  cases,  if  the  petition  is  granted  by  the 
high  court,  the  convicted  person  is  entitled  to  a 
lawyer,  who  will  prepare  a  brief  for  him  and 
argue  his  case  before  the  court.  If  the  accused 
desires,  he  may  employ  civilian  counsel. 

Naval  Personnel  and 
Civil  Court  Actions 

The  fact  that  a  man  is  in  the  naval  service 
does  not  free  him  from  his  obligation  to  obey 
the  laws  governing  the  civilian  population.  Naval 
personnel  are  subject  also  to  civil  courts  when 


they  are  within  their  jurisdiction.  Commanding 
officers  afloat  and  ashore  are  authorized  to 
permit  the  service  of  subpoenas  or  other  process 
upon  the  person  named  therein,  provided  such 
person  is  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court  out 
of  which  the  process  is  issued. 

In  some  circumstances  a  commanding  officer 
has  authority  to  deliver  naval  personnel  to  civil 
authorities  upon  proper  warrant;  in  others,  such 
delivery  requires  the  specific  authorization  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy.  For  example,  the 
commanding  officer  of  a  naval  station  located  in 
a  given  state  is  authorized  to  deliver  personnel  of 
his  command  to  civil  authorities  of  .that  state 
when  proper  warrant  is  presented.  If  delivery  is 
sought  by  some  other  state  and  extradition  is 
not  waived,  the  commanding  officer  must  not 
transfer  or  order  the  member  out  of  the  state  in 
which  he  is  then  located  without  the  permission 
of  SECNAV  (JAG).  Such  authorization  is  also 
required  if  disciplinary  proceedings  involving 
military  offenses  are  pending  or  if  the  person 
sought  is  undergoing  a  sentence  of  a 
court-martial. 

If  a  Navy  man  is  held  by  civil  authorities,  he 
should  take  steps  to  have  his  commanding 
officer  notified  at  once  of  the  pertinent  facts.  If 
he  is  acquitted,  of  the  offense  for  which  he  was 
apprehended  by  the  civilians,  his  enforced 
absence  normally  will  not  be  punished  when  he 
is  released.  If  he  is  already  absent  without  leave 
when  detained  by  civil  authority,  the  entire 
period  of  absence  is  considered  as  time  lost  for 
pay  purposes,  regardless  of  whether  he  is 
subsequently  released  without  trial  or  is  tried 
and  acquitted  by  civil  authority.  But  if  he  is 
convicted  by  the  civil  authorities  the  fact  that  he 
was  arrested,  held,  and  tried,  does  not  excuse 
any  unauthorized  absence. 

Vacation  of  Suspension 

If  either  a  general  court-martial  sentence,  or 
a  special  court-martial  sentence  that  includes  a 
bad  conduct  discharge,  has  been  suspended,  and 
the  serviceman  is  later  accused  of  violating 
probation,  he  must  be  given  a  hearing  by  an 
officer  having  special  court-martial  jurisdiction 
before  the  suspension  can  be  vacated  and  the 


152 


Chapter  7-DISCIPLINE  AND  THE  UNIFORM  CODE  OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE 


sentence  executed.  At  this  hearing  the  accused  is 
entitled  to  be  represented  by  a  competent 
counsel  if  he  so  requests.  The  record  of  the 
hearing  and  the  recommendations  of  the  officer 
having  special  court-martial  jurisdiction  are 
forwarded  for  action  to  the  officer  exercising 
general  court-martial  jurisdiction  over  the 
probationer.  In  any  case,  the  review  procedure 
which  has  been  described  must  be  completed 
before  any  suspended  sentence  may  be 
executed. 

An  official  letter  that  is  written  for  the  sole 
or  chief  purpose  of  making  a  final  adversely 
critical  determination  of  allegations  of 
misconduct,  error  in  judgment,  or  unsatisfactory 
performance  of  duty  on  the  part  of  an  officer, 
and  that  is  destined  for  inclusion  in  the  official 
record  of  that  officer  in  the  Bureau  of  Naval 
Personnel,  is  an  "admonition"  or  "reprimand," 
and  a  "punishment"  under  the  Uniform  Code  of 
Military  Justice.  Such  a  punitive  letter  of 
censure  may  be  imposed  as  commanding 
officer's  nonjudicial  punishment  or  as  a  result  of 
sentence  by  court-martial.  This  is  true  whether 
or  not  the  censorious  letter  has  the  word 
"admonition"  or  the  word  "reprimand"  as  its 
subject  or  in  the  body  of  the  letter. 

The  customary  form  for  such  a  letter  is  an 
official  letter  addressed  to  the  officer  concerned, 
bearing  the  subject  '"'Reprimand"  or 
"Admonition"  (in  descending  order  of  severity 
under  naval  usage).  It  contains  a  specific, 
narrative,  factual  description  of  the  time,  place, 
and  circumstances  of  the  acts  or  omissions  of 
the  officer  concerned  and  of  any  consequences 
thereof;  concluding  that  the  officer  is 
blameworthy  under  the  circumstances  set  forth 
and  that  he  is,  by  the  letter  addressed  to  him, 
"reprimanded"  or  "admonished."  It  informs 
him  that  a  copy  of  the  letter  will  be  filed  in  his 
official  record  and  advises  him  as  to  any  right 
that  he  may  have  to  appeal  and/or  submit  a 
written  statement  concerning  the  punitive  letter. 

Although  the  immediate  commanding 
officer  is  expressly  empowered  to  address  letters 
of  censure  to  officers  and  warrant  officers  of  his 
command  as  nonjudicial  punishment 
administered  in  accordance  with  article  15  of 
the  Code,  departmental  policy  discourages 


exercise  of  such  authority  by  commanders  who 
are  not  flag  officers.  Such  commanding  officers 
normally  recommend  to  a  superior  of  flag  grade 
in  the  chain  of  command  that  his  office  address 
the  punitive  letter  of  censure.  In  cases  of 
unusual  gravity  or  in  cases  involving  very  senior 
officers,  it  may  be  recommended  that  letters  of 
censure  be  addressed  by  the  Chief  of  Naval 
Personnel,  the  Chief  of  Naval  Operations,  or  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

Effect  of  Censure 

A  letter  of  censure  normally  represents  final 
determination,  adverse  to  the  officer  censured, 
of  charges,  allegations,  or  complaints  against 
him.  Under  the  code,  an  officer  who  has  been 
addressed  a  letter  of  censure  for  a  minor  offense 
may  not  be  thereafter  convicted  before  a 
court-martial  of  the  identical  offense  for  which 
he  was  censured.  If,  however,  the  offense  was  a 
major  one  initially,  or  if  a  more  serious  offense 
has  grown  out  of  a  minor  offense  for  which  the 
officer  was  censured,  a  letter  of  censure 
constitutes  no  bar  to  subsequent  court-martial 
trial. 

Whether  or  not  any  trial  or  other  action 
follows  the  letter  of  censure,  the  filing  of  such  a 
letter  in  an  officer's  official  record  is  a  matter  of 
serious  consequence,  both  immediate  and 
long-range.  The  record  is  utilized  in  numerous 
connections,  including  determination  of  future 
assignments  of  the  officer,  consideration  for 
selection  for  promotion,  consideration  for 
special  training,  consideration  for  transfer  to 
another  Corps  or  category,  and  evaluation  in  the 
Department  of  any  subsequent  adverse  reports 
or  complaints  concerning  the  officer.  Such  an 
officer  is  naturally  at  a  disadvantage  when  he  is 
being  considered  in  competition  with  others 
who  have  comparable  experience  and  ability  and 
whose  records  are  unblemished.  However, 
contrary  to  a  frequently  encountered 
assumption,  there  is  no  unwritten  law  of  the 
Navy  precluding  favorable  consideration  of  an 
officer  who  has  been  censured  on  one  or  even 
more  occasions.  Consistently  outstanding 
performance  on  the  part  of  the  censured  officer 
may  in  time  offset  the  effects  of  the  censure. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Among  the  more  frequently  occurring  causes 
for  censure  of  officers  are  carelessness  in  the 
custody  of  registered  publications  and 
negligence  in  the  performance  of  collateral 
duties,  such  as  mess  treasurer  or  auditing  board 
duties.  Such  duties  often  constitute  a  junior 
officer's  first  independent  responsibility  and  his 
first  experience  with  business  management  and 
accounting  procedures.  There  is,  therefore,  a 
great  temptation  to  drift  along,  blindly 
following  forms  and  procedures  previously 
employed,  and  relying  without  question  upon 
the  assurances  of  subordinates.  Among  other 
occasions  for  censure  of  officers  are  minor 
security  violations,  failure  to  comply  with 
censorship  regulations  and  procedures  when 
such  are  in  effect,  negligently  damaging  or 
failing  to  account  for  Government  property, 
neglect  of  obligations  to  creditors  or  legal 
dependents,  sharp  or  unethical  private  dealings, 
and  isolated  incidents  of  drunkenness  while  off 
duty  or  of  boorish  social  behavior.  Whether 
censure  or  more  serious  disciplinary  action 
results  from  any  of  the  actions  described  above 
depends,  of  course,  on  the  seriousness  of  the 
offense  and  on  the  surrounding  circumstances. 

DISCIPLINARY  SEPARATIONS 
FROM  THE  SERVICE 

In  addition  to  dismissal  pursuant  to  sentence 
of  a  general  court-martial  or  by  order  of  the 
President,  and  dropping  from  the  rolls  as 
provided  under  the  Code  and  other  sections  of 
the  legislation  which  enacted  the  Code,  statutes 
provide  other  means  for  separations  of  officers. 
Officers  are  subject  to  revocation  of  their 
commissions  prior  to  the  time  that  they 
complete  three  years  of  continuous 
commissioned  service.  Regular  Navy  officers 
who  hold  permanent  commissions  and  who  have 
completed  less  than  20  years'  service  are  subject 
to  discharge  if  reported  as  unsatisfactory  in  the 
approved  report  of  selection  boards  considering 
them  for  promotion.  Lieutenants  (junior  grade) 
and  lieutenants  are  subject  to  discharge  upon 
twice  failing  selection  for  promotion.  Congress 
may  at  any  time  by  law  provide  for  separation 
of  officers  under  other  stipulated  circumstances. 
An  officer  facing  or  anticipating  disciplinary 


action  may  submit  a  resignation  from  the 
service,  and  his  separation  may  be  effected  if  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  accepts  the  resignation. 

Officers  separated  from  the  service,  other 
than  by  dismissal  or  dropping  from  the  rolls, 
normally  receive  one  of  three  forms  of  discharge 
certificate,  i.e.,  Certificate  of  Honorable 
Discharge,  Certificate  of  General  Discharge 
(under  honorable  conditions),  or  Certificate  of 
Discharge  (under  conditions  other  than 
honorable).  The  type  of  discharge  certificate 
awarded  in  any  particular  case  is  governed  by 
the  circumstances  prompting  separation  and  the 
quantitative  and  qualitative  character  of 
previous  service  rendered. 

The  "character"  of  an  officers'  separation 
(i.e.,  whether  "under  honorable  conditions," 
"under  conditions  other  than  honorable,"  or 
other  descriptive  phraseology)  represents  the 
opinion  of  the  naval  service  relative  to  the 
circumstances  attending  the  separation.  The 
character  of  separation  is  important  in 
connection  with  veterans'  benefits.  Further, 
many  employers  are  inclined  to  refuse  either 
initial  or  continued  employment  to  persons  who 
have  been  separated  from  any  branch  of  the 
Armed  Forces  with  an  inferior  type  of 
separation.  Bar  associations  and  boards  of 
professional  and  occupational  groups  that  have 
regulatory  powers  sometimes  inquire  searchingly 
into  previous  armed  service  experience  and  the 
character  of  separation  received. 

Naval  Reserve  officers  on  active  duty  are 
subject  to  separation  in  the  same  manner  as 
officers  of  the  Regular  Navy.  They  are  subject  to 
the  Code  from  the  date  they  are  required  to 
obey  lawful  orders  for  duty  or  training  in  the 
Armed  Forces.  Reserve  officers  on  inactive  duty 
training  are  subject  to  the  Code  so  long  as  they 
have  voluntarily  accepted  written  orders 
authorizing  such  training  and  specifying  that 
they  are  subject  to  the  Code  while  undergoing 
such  training. 

While  not  on  active  duty,  Reserve  officers 
are  subject  to  discharge  (1)  if  they  are  found  not 
physically  qualified  for  active  service;  (2)  if  they 
have  attained  certain  stipulated  ages;  and  (3)  if 
there  is  full  and  sufficient  cause  in  the  discretion 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy.  Prior  to  discharge 


154 


Chapter  7-DISCIPLINE  AND  THE  UNIFORM  CODE  OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE 


for  cause,  a  Reserve  officer  is  required  to  be 
given  notice  by  letter  of  the  projected  action 
and  an  opportunity  for  a  hearing  concerning  it. 


FACT-FINDING  BODIES 

Incidents  that  require  investigation  occur 
almost  daily.  For  example,  when  a  ship  is 
involved  in  a  collision  or  has  an  accident  that 
requires  repairs,  when  an  aircraft  is  lost  or 
damaged,  when  there  is  a  serious  fire,  and  when 
naval  personnel  are  injured  or  die  from  an 
accident  or  under  peculiar  circumstances,  the 
commanding  officer  must  find  out  what 
happened,  why  it  happened,  how  it  happened, 
and  to  whom.  His  method  of  learning  the  facts 
in  the  case  is  to  appoint  a  fact-finding  body, 
usually  composed  of  one  or  more  officers,  to 
investigate  the  incident  for  him. 

The  reporting  of  facts  by  investigative  bodies 
is  necessary  in  order  that  the  Navy  may  be  more 
efficiently  managed.  For  instance,  fact-finding 
reports  on  aircraft  accidents  are  routed  to  the 
Naval  Air  Systems  Command.  If  an  accident 
discloses  a  material  or  equipment  failure,  that 
command  might  issue  new  regulations  or 
instructions  to  forestall  another  accident  of  the 
same  type.  In  another  field,  it  is  important  that 
all  the  facts  upon  which  may  depend  future 
rights  and  benefits  be  gathered  and  preserved  at 
the  time  a  personal  injury  occurs.  If  necessary  to 
determine  whether  misconduct  or  actions  not  in 
the  line  of  duty  are  involved,  favorable  findings 
should  be  made  a  matter  of  record  to  protect 
the  persons  involved. 

The  primary  function  of  a  fact-finding  body 
is  to  develop  and  consider  evidence  related  to 
the  matter  under  investigation;  to  arrive  at 
clearly  expressed  findings  of  fact  based  on  that 
evidence;  and,  if  directed,  to  offer  opinions  and 
recommendations. 

The  main  purpose  of  a  fact-finding  body  is 
to  provide  convening  and  reviewing  authorities 
with  adequate  information  on  which  to  base 
decisions  in  the  matters  involved.  Fact-finding 
bodies  are  administrative,  not  judicial.  Their 
reports,  therefore,  are  purely  advisory. 

There  are  two  types  of  administrative 
fact-finding  bodies:  courts  of  inquiry  and 


investigations.  The  composition  of  a  fact-finding 
body  depends  in  part  upon  the  nature  of  the 
investigation.  A  court  of  inquiry  is  always 
formal;  investigations  may  be  either  formal  or 
informal. 

The  order  appointing  a  court  of  inquiry  or  a 
formal  investigation  is  in  official  letter  form  and 
signed  by  the  convening  authority.  A  court  of 
inquiry  is  composed  of  at  least  three 
commissioned  officers  and  counsel;  a  formal 
investigation  must  be  conducted  by  one  or  more 
commissioned  officers.  An  informal 
investigation  may  be  appointed  orally  or  in 
writing,  and  may  consist  of  one  or  more  officers, 
senior  enlisted  persons,  or  senior  civilian 
employees  of  the  Department  of  Defense.  The 
appointing  order  contains  explicit  instructions  as 
to  the  scope  of  the  inquiry. 

A  formal  fact-finding  body  utilizes  a  formal 
hearing  procedure,  ordinarily  takes  all  testimony 
under  oath  and  maintains  a  verbatim  record  of 
all  evidence,  and  may  be  authorized  to  designate 
parties.  On  the  other  hand,  an  informal 
fact-finding  body  normally  employs  the  pre- 
liminary inquiry  method  of  gathering  evidence, 
using  telephone  inquiries,  correspondence,  and 
informal  interviews  to  assemble  the  required 
information;  it  is  not  authorized  to  designate 
parties. 

A  court  of  inquiry  always  is  a  formal 
investigative  proceeding,  authorized  by  statutes 
of  the  United  States  to  order  persons  subject  to 
the  laws  of  the  United  States  to  appear  before  it, 
answer  questions,  and  produce  written  matter  or 
other  material  in  their  custody.  It  is  convened 
by  a  written  order,  takes  all  testimony  under 
oath,  and  records  all  proceedings  verbatim.  A 
court  of  inquiry  has  the  power  to  subpoena 
witnesses. 

An  investigation  is  a  purely  internal 
investigative  proceeding  within  the  branch  of  the 
Armed  Forces  concerned.  It  is  established  and 
governed  solely  by  directives  of  the  Secretary, 
and,  at  the  utmost,  its  powers  cannot  extend 
beyond  those  of  the  Secretary.  In  the  naval 
service  an  investigation  may  be  made  by  one  or 
more  persons,  may  or  may  not  have  counsel  to 
assist  it,  and  may  be  conducted  in  a  manner 
similar  to  a  judicial  trial  (i.e.,  with  witnesses 
under  oath,  direct  and  cross-examination,  a 


verbatim  transcript  of  proceedings);  or  it  may  be 
conducted  less  formally,  with  narrative  sum- 
maries of  the  information  given  by  witnesses 
or  copies  of  written  statements  or  other 
material  supplied  by  them.  As  stated,  it  may 
be  formal  or  informal,  but  normally  it  does  not 
have  the  power  to  subpoena  civilian  witnesses. 
Based  upon  the  information  obtained  by  it, 
the  court  of  inquiry  or  investigation  makes 
"findings  of  fact,"  and  if-but  only  if-so 
directed  by  the  authority  ordering  the 
proceeding,  may  also  express  "opinions" 
concerning  the  matter  investigated  and/or 
"recommendations"  as  to  future  action  that 
should  be  taken.  To  illustrate,  a  court  of  inquiry 
that  was  directed  only  to  inquire  into 
circumstances  surrounding  the  destruction  of  a 
naval  airplane  might  include  in  its  "findings  of 
fact"  statements  to  the  effect  that  at  a  certain 
time  the  plane  was  proceeding  west  at  a  speed  of 

mph,  at  an  altitude  of feet 

above  the  eastern  end  of  the runway  of 

field;  that  at  such  time  the  wheels  of  the 

plane  and  its  landing  flaps  were  up;  and  that 

seconds    later    the   plane   struck   the 

ground ^_  feet  from  the  eastern  end  of  the 

runway.  The  court  would  not  "find"  that  the 
pilot  of  the  plane  was  "inadequately  trained"  or 
"incompetent,"  these  being  expressions  of 
opinion;  nor  would  it  "find"  that  training  of 
naval  pilots  in  landing  techniques  should  be 
amplified,  which  is  a  recommendation.  If  the 
appointing  order  specifically  directed  the  court 
to  express  opinions,  to  submit 
recommendations,  or  both,  then  it  should 
explore  the  "how"  and  the  "why,"  but  in  the 
absence  of  such  a  direction,  it  is  required  to 
limit  itself  to  "who,  what,  when,  and  where." 

EFFECT  OF 
PROCEEDINGS 

The  findings  of  facts,  opinions,  or 
recommendations  of  a  court  of  inquiry  or 
investigation  have  no  binding  legal  effect,  within 
or  outside  the  service.  That  is  to  say,  the  fact 
that  a  naval  court  of  inquiry  investigated  an 
automobile  collision  and  found  that  it  occurred 
in  a  certain  way  in  no  way  invalidates  or 
discredits  subsequent  different  and 


irreconcilable  findings  by  a  civil  court, 
administrative  body,  or  a  naval  court-martial! 
For  this  reason  the  expression  that  an  officer  has 
been  cleared  by  a  court  of  inquiry  (Of 
culpability  in  a  particular  connection)  is 
inaccurate.  A  court  of  inquiry  cannot  clear  any 
more  than  it  can  convict.  Its  findings  of  facts 
and  opinions  or  recommendations  are  only 
advisory.  The  appointing  authority,  his 
superiors,  or  any  person  who  is  subsequently 
required  to  re-examine  the  same  matter  in  any 
official  connection  may  accept  or  reject  all  or 
any  part  of  the  findings. 

The  court  of  inquiry  is  the  most  formal  type 
of  administrative  fact-finding  body.  Other 
fact-finding  bodies  may  be  conducted  with 
virtually  all,  some,  or  none  of  the  same 
formality,  depending  on  the  prevailing 
circumstances.  An  officer  assigned  to  conduct  or 
to  participate  in  an  investigation  should  (1)  read 
carefully  the  appointing  order;  (2)  review 
pertinent  provisions  of  the  Manual  of  the  Judge 
Advocate  General;  and  (3)  to  the  greatest  extent 
practicable,  in  advance  of  questioning  and 
writing,  familiarize  himself  with  the  matter  to  be 
investigated,  by  carefully  studying  any  pertinent 
written  material,  inspecting  the  locale,  and 
carrying  on  unrecorded  conversations  with 
witnesses,  in  which  the  investigator  confines  his 
activity  chiefly  to  listening  and  silent  analysis. 


UNIFORM  CODE 
OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE 

Until  1951,  the  various  branches  of  our 
Armed  Forces  functioned  under  different 
military  codes.  The  Army  and  Air  Force  were 
guided  in  the  administration  of  discipline  and  in 
legal  processes  by  the  Army's  Articles  of  War; 
the  Navy,  by  the  Articles  for  the  Government  of 
the  Navy  ("Rocks  and  Shoals");  and  the  Coast 
Guard,  by  the  Disciplinary  Laws  of  the  Coast 
Guard.  It  was  not  surprising,  then,  if  an  act  that 
was  considered  an  offense  in  the  eyes  of  the 
Navy  was  not  so  judged  by  the  Army.  Even  if  an 
act  was  a  breach  of  discipline  in  all  branches  of 
the  Armed  Forces,  there  were  variances  in  the 
type  of  trial  and  severity  of  punishment 
awarded. 


156 


Following  the  passage  of  the  National 
Security  Act  of  1 947,  it  was  recognized  that  a 
homogeneous  code  of  military  justice  was  a 
logical  and  necessary  unification  measure.  After 
long  investigation  by  various  committees,  James 
Forrestal,  the  Secretary  of  Defense,  appointed 
an  interservice  committee  to  prepare  a  uniform 
code  applicable  to  all  branches  of  the  Armed 
Forces.  Following  intensive  study,  the 
committee  drafted  what  is  now  known  as  the 
Uniform  Code  of  Military  Justice  (hereafter 
referred  to  as  the  Code),  which  was  passed  by 
Congress  on  5  May  1950,  signed  into  law  by  the 
President,  and  became  effective  31  May  1951. 
The  Manual  for  Courts-Martial,  United  States 
1951  (MCM,  1951),  which  consolidated  and 
standardized  varying  military  legal  procedures, 
became  effective  the  same  date. 

By  Act  of  10  August  1956,  the  original 
law,  as  amended,  was  repealed  and  reenacted, 
without  substantial  change,  as  Chapter  47  of 
Title  10,  United  States  Code.  Chapter  47 
contains,  as  sections  801-940  (10  USC  801-940), 
the  140  articles  of  the  Code. 

In  1963,  a  tri-service  committee  was 
appointed  to  revise  the  MCM,  mainly  because  of 
case  decisions  of  the  Court  of  Military  Appeals 
which  required  redefinition  of  some  punitive 
articles.  The  revised  manual  was  signed  by 
President  Johnson  on  1 1  September  1 968,  and 
became  effective  1  January  1969,  making  the 
Manual  for  Courts-Martial,  United  States  1969, 
the  new  touchstone  of  military  justice. 

About  a  month  after  he  signed  the  Executive 
Order  promulgating  the  1969  manual,  the 
President  signed  into  law  the  Military  Justice 
Act  of  1969,  which  requires  increased  lawyer 
participation  in  courts-martial  and  provides  for 
other  changes  in  court-martial  procedure.  The 
main  provisions  of  that  Act  became  effective  1 
August  1969,  but  they  made  necessary  a 
substantial  revision  of  the  new  MCM. 

Everyone  in  the  Armed  Forces  must  be 
familiar  with  the  Code.  The  Code  itself  (in 
article  137)  requires  that  certain  articles  of  the 
Code  be  explained  periodically  to  enlisted 
personnel: 


ART.  137. 
ARTICLES  TO 
BE  EXPLAINED 

"Articles  2,  3,  7  through  15,  25,  27, 
31,  37,  38,  55,  77  through  134,  and  137 
through  139  of  this  code  shall  be 
carefully  explained  to  each  enlisted 
member  at  the  time  of  his  entrance  on 
active  duty,  or  within  six  days 
thereafter.  They  shall  be  explained  again 
after  he  has  completed  six  months  of 
active  duty,  and  again  at  the  time  when 
he  reenlists.  A  complete  text  of  the 
Uniform  Code  of  Military  Justice  and  of 
the  regulations  prescribed  by  the 
President  thereunder  shall  be  made 
available  to  any  person  on  active  duty, 
upon  his  request,  for  his  personal 
examination." 

It  is  the  duty  of  each  naval  officer  to  be 
fujly  aware  of  the  substance  and  meaning  of  the 
specified  articles. 

The  "regulations  prescribed  by  the 
President"  are  contained  in  MCM,  1969  (Rev. 
ed.),  with  implementing  regulations  included  in 
the  Manual  of  the  Judge  Advocate  General. 
Texts  of  articles  designated  by  article  137 
should  be  posted  in  a  conspicuous  place,  readily 
accessible  to  personnel  of  the  command. 

The  remainder  of  this  chapter  consists  of  the 
articles  specified  by  article  137;  included,  where 
appropriate,  are  explanations.  The  notes  are 
based  on  the  Manual  for  Courts-Martial,  which 
should  be  consulted  for  more  complete 
information  on  the  provisions  of  the  code. 

ART.  2. 

PERSONS  SUBJECT 

TO  THIS  CODE 

"The  following  persons  are  subject 
to  this  code: 

"(1)  Members  of  a  regular 
component  of  the  armed  forces, 
including  those  awaiting  discharge  after 
expiration  of  their  terms  of  enlistment; 
volunteers  from  the  time  of  their  muster 


157 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


or  acceptance  into  the  armed  forces; 
inductees  from  the  time  of  their  actual 
induction  into  the  armed  forces;  and 
other  persons  lawfully  called  or  ordered 
into,  or  to  duty  in  or  for  training  in,  the 
armed  forces,  from  the  dates  when  they 
are  required  by  the  terms  of  the  call  or 
order  to  obey  it. 

"(2)  Cadets,  aviation  cadets,  and 
midshipmen. 

"(3)  Members  of  a  reserve 
component  while  they  are  on  inactive 
duty  training  authorized  by  written 
orders  which  are  voluntarily  accepted  by 
them  and  which  specify  that  they  are 
subject  to  this  code. 

"(4)  Retired  members  of  a  regular 
component  of  the  armed  forces  who  are 
entitled  to  pay. 

"(5)  Retired  members  of  a  reserve 
component  who  are  receiving 
hospitalization  from  an  armed  force. 

"(6)  Members  of  the  Fleet 
Reserve  and  Fleet  Marine  Corps  Reserve. 

"(7)  Persons  in  custody  of  the 
armed  forces  serving  a  sentence  imposed 
by  a  court-martial. 

"(8)  Members  of  the 
Environmental  Science  Services 
Administration,  Public  Health  Service, 
and  other  organizations,  when  assigned 
to  and  serving  with  the  armed  forces. 

"(9)  Prisoners  of  war  in  custody 
of  the  armed  forces. 

"(10)  In  time  of  war,  persons 
serving  with  or  accompanying  an  armed 
force  in  the  field. 

"(11)  Subject  to  any  treaty  or 
agreement  to  which  the  United  States  is 
or  may  be  a  party  or  to  any  accepted 
rule  of  international  law,  persons  serving 
with,  employed  by,  or  accompanying  the 
armed  forces  outside  the  United  States 
and  outside  the  following:  the  Canal 
Zone,  Puerto  Rico,  Guam,  and  the 
Virgin  Islands. 

"(12)  Subject  to  any  treaty  or 
agreement  to  which  the  United  States  is 


or  may  be  a  party  or  to  any  accepted 
rule  of  international  law,  persons  within 
an  area  leased  by  or  otherwise  reserved 
or  acquired  for  the  use  of  the  United 
States  which  is  under  the  control  of  the 
Secretary  concerned  and  which  is 
outside  the  United  States  and  outside 
the  following:  the  Canal  Zone,  Puerto 
Rico,  Guam,  and  the  Virgin  Islands." 

The  following  provisions  of  article  2  should 
be  noted  particularly: 

1.  Any  person  serving  a  sentence  imposed 
by  a  court-martial  remains  subject  to  the  Code. 
Thus,  a  prisoner  who  is  serving  a  court-martial 
sentence  may  be  tried  for  a  crime  he  commits 
while    a    prisoner,   even    though   his   term  of 
enlistment    had     expired     at     the     time    of 
commission  of  the  crime. 

2.  A  Reservist  on  inactive  duty  training  is 
subject  to  the  Code  when  (a)  the  training  is 
authorized  by  written  orders;  (b)  the  orders  are 
voluntarily  accepted  by  him;  and  (c)  the  orders 
specify  that  the  Reservist  is  subject  to  the  Code. 

3.  A    Reservist    ordered    into    the    active 
military  service  is  subject  to  the  Code  from  the 
date  he  is  required  by  his  orders  to  report  for 
active  duty. 

The  United  States  Supreme  Court  has  held 
unconstitutional  the  exercise  of  court-martial 
jurisdiction  over  civilians  in  time  of  peace. 

ART.  3. 

JURISDICTION  TO 

TRY  CERTAIN  PERSONNEL 

"(a)  Subject  to  article  43,1-no 
person  charged  with  having  committed, 
while  in  a  status  in  which  he  was  subject 
to  this  code,  an  offense  against  this  code, 
punishable  by  confinement  of  five  years 
or  more  and  for  which  the  person  cannot 
be  tried  in  the  courts  of  the  United 
States  or  of  a  State,  a  Territory,  or  the 
District  of  Columbia,  may  be  relieved 
from  amenability  to  trial  by 
court-martial  by  reason  of  the 
termination  of  that  status. 


-Concerns  statutes  of  limitations. 


158 


Chapter  7-DISCIPLINE  AND  THE  UNIFORM  CODE  OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE 


"(b)  Each  person  discharged  from 
the  armed  forces  who  is  later  charged 
with  having  fraudulently  obtained  his 
discharge  is,  subject  to  article  43,  subject 
to  trial  by  court-martial  on  that  charge 
and  is  after  apprehension  subject  to  this 
code  while  in  the  custody  of  the  armed 
forces  for  that  trial.  Upon  conviction  of 
that  charge  he  is  subject  to  trial  by 
court-martial  for  all  offenses  under  this 
code  committed  before  the  fraudulent 
discharge. 

"(c)  No  person  who  has  deserted 
from  the  armed  forces  may  be  relieved 
from  amenability  to  the  jurisdiction  of 
this  code  by  virtue  of  a  separation  from 
any  later  period  of  service." 

The  United  States  Supreme  Court  has 
declared  article  3 (a)  unconstitutional  in  so  far  as 
that  provision  would  place  under  court-martial 
jurisdiction  a  civilian  ex-serviceman  with  no 
remaining  military  status. 

ART.  7. 
APPREHENSION 

"(a)  Apprehension  is  the  taking  of 
a  person  into  custody. 

"(b)  Any  person  authorized  under 
regulations  governing  the  armed  forces 
to  apprehend  persons  subject  to  this 
code  or  to  trial  thereunder  may  do  so 
upon  reasonable  belief  that  an  offense 
has  been  committed  and  that  the  person 
apprehended  committed  it. 

"(c)  Commissioned  officers, 
warrant  officers,  petty  officers,  and 
noncommissioned  officers  have 
authority  to  quell  quarrels,  frays,  and 
disorders  among  persons  subject  to  this 
code  and  to  apprehend  persons  subject 
to  this  code  who  take  part  therein." 

In  addition  to  those  listed  in  7.c.,  air  police, 
military  police,  shore  patrolmen,  and  others 
designated  to  perform  guard  or  police  duties 
may  apprehend  persons  subject  to  the  code. 


Enlisted  persons  performing  police  duties 
should  not  apprehend  an  officer  except  on 
specific  orders  of  a  commissioned  officer,  unless 
such  action  is  necessary  to  prevent  disgrace  to 
the  service,  the  commission  of  a  serious  offense, 
or  the  escape  of  one  who  has  committed  a 
serious  offense.  In  such  cases,  the  apprehending 
individual  immediately  notifies  the  officer  to 
whom  he  is  responsible  or  an  officer  of  the  air 
police,  military  police,  or  the  shore  patrol. 

An  apprehension  is  effected  by  clearly 
notifying  the  offender  that  he  is  thereby  taken 
into  custody.  The  order  may  be  oral  or  written. 

There  is  a  clear  distinction  between  the 
authority  to  apprehend  and  the  authority  to 
arrest  or  confine  (article  9).  Any 
person  empowered  to  apprehend  an  offender, 
however,  is  authorized  to  secure  the  custody  of 
an  alleged  offender  until  proper  authority  may 
be  notified,  notwithstanding  limitations  on  his 
power  to  arrest  or  confine. 

ART.  8. 

APPREHENSION  OF  DESERTER 

"Any  civil  officer  having  authority 
to  apprehend  offenders  under  the  laws 
of  the  United  States  or  of  a  State, 
Territory,  Commonwealth,  or 
possession,  or  the  District  of  Columbia 
may  summarily  apprehend  a  deserter 
from  the  armed  forces  and  deliver  him 
into  the  custody  of  those  forces." 

When  a  military  service  sends  out  a 
description  of  a  deserter,  with  a  request  for  his 
apprehension,  the  notice  is  sufficient  authority 
for  his  apprehension  by  a  civil  officer. 

ART.  9. 

IMPOSITION  OF  RESTRAINT 

"(a)  Arrest  is  the  restraint  of  a 
person  by  an  order,  not  imposed  as  a 
punishment  for  an  offense,  directing  him 
to  remain  within  certain  specified  limits. 
Confinement  is  the  physical  restraint  of 
a  person. 

"(b)  An  enlisted  member  may  be 
ordered  into  arrest  or  confinement  by 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


any  commissioned  officer  by  an  order, 
oral  or  written,  delivered  in  person  or 
through  other  persons  subject  to  this 
code.  A  commanding  officer  may 
authorize  warrant  officers,  petty 
officers,  or  noncommissioned  officers  to 
order  enlisted  members  of  his  command 
or  subject  to  his  authority  into  arrest  or 
confinement. 

"(c)  A  commissioned  officer,  a 
warrant  officer  or  a  civilian  subject  to 
this  code  or  to  trial  thereunder  may  be 
ordered  into  arrest  or  confinement  only 
by  a  commanding  officer  to  whose 
authority  he  is  subject,  by  an  order,  oral 
or  written,  delivered  in  person  or  by 
another  commissioned  officer.  The 
authority  to  order  such  persons  into 
arrest  or  confinement  may  not  be 
delegated. 

"(d)  No  person  may  be  ordered 
into  arrest  or  confinement  except  for 
probable  cause. 

u(e)  Nothing  in  this  article  limits 
the  authority  of  persons  authorized  to 
apprehend  offenders  to  secure  the 
custody  of  an  alleged  offender  until 
proper  authority  may  be  notified." 

ART.  10. 

RESTRAINT  OF  PERSONS 

CHARGED  WITH  OFFENSES 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
charged  with  an  offense  under  this  code 
shall  be  ordered  into  arrest  or 
confinement,  as  circumstances  may 
require;  but  when  charged  only  with  an 
offense  normally  tried  by  a  summary 
court-martial,  he  shall  not  ordinarily  be 
placed  in  confinement.  When  any  person 
subject  to  this  code  is  placed  in  arrest  or 
confinement  prior  to  trial,  immediate 
steps  shall  be  taken  to  inform  him  of  the 
specific  wrong  of  which  he  is  accused 
and  to  try  him  or  to  dismiss  the  charges 
and  release  him." 

This  article,  requiring  "immediate  steps"  to 
try  the  accused,  is  strengthened  by  article  98 


which  makes  punishable  by  court-martial  any 
unnecessary  delay  in  the  disposition  of  a  case. 
However,  undue  haste  also  is  frowned  upon.  In 
time  of  peace  no  person  may,  against  his 
objection,  be  brought  to  trial  before  a  general 
court-martial  within  5  days  after  he  has  been 
served  with  the  charges,  or  before  a  special 
court-martial  within  3  days  after  the  service  of 
charges  (article  35). 

To  monitor  pretrial  confinement,  the  general 
court-martial  convening  authority  for  each  shore 
confinement  facility  appoints  one  or  more 
military  magistrates.  For  Navy  facilities  the 
magistrate  must  be  a  judge  advocate.  For  Marine 
correctional  facilities  the  magistrate  may  be  a 
judge  advocate. 

Every  officer  ordering  a  service  member  into 
pretrial  confinement  must  provide  the 
appropriate  military  magistrate  with  a  report 
containing  the  hour,  date,  and  place  of 
confinement;  the  offense(s)  allegedly 
committed;  the  general  circumstances  of  each 
offense;  the  previous  discipline  record  of  the 
individual;  any  mitigating  circumstances;  and  the 
reason  pretrial  confinement  is  deemed  necessary. 

Upon  receipt  of  this  report,  the  military 
magistrate  will  hold  an  informal  hearing,  with 
the  service  member  present,  to  determine 
whether  continued  confinement  is  necessary.  If 
continued  confinement  is  found  unjustified,  the 
military  magistrate  will  notify  the  commanding 
officer,  who  immediately  must  order  the  service 
member's  release. 

ART.  11. 
REPORTS  AND 
RECEIVING  OF  PRISONERS 

"(a)  No  provost  marshall, 
commander  of  a  guard,  or  master  at  arms 
may  refuse  to  receive  or  keep  any 
prisoner  committed  to  his  charge  by  a 
commissioned  officer  of  the  armed 
forces,  when  the  committing  officer 
furnishes  a  statement,  signed  by  him,  of 
the  offense  charged  against  the  prisoner. 

"(b)  Every  commander  of  a  guard 
or  master  at  arms  to  whose  charge  a 
prisoner  is  committed  shall,  within 
twenty-four  hours  after  that 
commitment  or  as  soon  as  he  is  relieved 


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from  guard,  report  to  the  commanding 
officer  the  name  of  the  prisoner,  the 
offense  charged  against  him,  and  the 
name  of  the  person  who  ordered  or 
authorized  the  commitment" 

An  arrest  is  imposed  by  notifying  the  person 
to  be  arrested  that  he  is  under  arrest  and 
informing  him  of  the  limits  of  his  arrest.  The 
order  of  arrest  may  be  oral  or  written.  A  person 
to  be  confined  is  placed  under  guard  and  taken 
to  the  place  of  confinement. 

ART.  12. 

CONFINEMENT  WITH  ENEMY 

PRISONERS  PROHIBITED 

"No  member  of  the  armed  forces 
may  be  placed  in  confinement  in 
immediate  association  with  enemy 
prisoners  or  other  foreign  nationals  not 
members  of  the  armed  forces." 

Members  of  the  Armed  Forces  may  be 
confined  in  the  same  jails,  prisons,  or  other 
confinement  facilities,  however,  so  long  as  they 
are  separated  from  the  other  categories 
mentioned. 

ART.  13. 

PUNISHMENT  PROHIBITED 

BEFORE  TRIAL 

"Subject  to  article  57,  no  person, 
while  being  held  for  trial,  may  be 
subjected  to  punishment  or  penalty 
other  than  arrest  or  confinement  upon 
the  charges  pending  against  him,  nor 
shall  the  arrest  or  confinement  imposed 
upon  him  be  any  more  rigorous  than  the 
circumstances  require  to  insure  his 
presence,  but  he  may  be  subjected  to 
minor  punishment  during  that  period  for 
infractions  of  discipline." 

The  minor  punishment  permitted  under 
article  13  includes  that  authorized  for  violations 
of  the  discipline  of  the  place  in  which  the  person 
is  confined.  The  article  does  not  prevent  a 
person  from  being  required  to  do  ordinary 
cleaning  or  policing,  or  from  taking  part  in 
routine  training  and  duties  not  involving  the 
bearing  of  arms. 


ART.   14. 

DELIVERY  OF  OFFENDERS 

TO  CIVIL  AUTHORITIES 

"(a)  Under  such  regulations  as  the 
Secretary  concerned  may  prescribe,  a 
member  of  the  armed  forces  accused  of 
an  offense  against  civil  authority  may  be 
delivered,  upon  request,  to  the  civil 
authority  for  trial. 

"(b)  When  delivery  under  this 
article  is  made  to  any  civil  authority  of  a 
person  undergoing  sentence  of  a 
court-martial,  the  delivery,  if  followed 
by  conviction  in  a  civil  tribunal, 
interrupts  the  execution  of  the  sentence 
of  the  court-martial,  and  the  offender 
after  having  answered  to  the  civil 
authorities  for  his  offense  shall,  upon 
the  request  of  competent  military 
authority,  be  returned  to  military 
custody  for  the  completion  of  his 
sentence." 

ART.   15. 

COMMANDING  OFFICER'S 

NONJUDICIAL  PUNISHMENT 

"(a)  Under  such  regulations  as  the 
President  may  prescribe,  and  under  such 
additional  regulations  as  may  be 
prescribed  by  the  Secretary  concerned, 
limitations  may  be  placed  on  the  powers 
granted  by  this  article  with  respect  to 
the  kind  and  amount  of  punishment 
authorized,  the  categories  of 
commanding  officers  and  warrant 
officers  exercising  command  authorized 
to  exercise  those  powers,  the 
applicability  of  this  article  to  an  accused 
who  demands  trial  by  court-martial,  and 
the  kinds  of  courts-martial  to  which  the 
case  may  be  referred  upon  such  a 
demand.  However,  except  in  the  case  of 
a  member  attached  to  or  embarked  in  a 
vessel,  punishment  may  not  be  imposed 
upon  any  member  of  the  armed  forces 
under  this  article  if  the  member 
has,  before  the  imposition  of  such 
punishment,  demanded  trial  by 


court-martial  in  lieu  of  such  punishment. 
Under  similar  regulations,  rules  may  be 
prescribed  with  respect  to  the  suspension 
of  punishment  authorized  hereunder.  If 
authorized  by  regulations  of  the 
Secretary  concerned,  a  commanding 
officer  exercising  general  court-martial 
jurisdiction  of  an  officer  of  general  or 
flag  rank  in  command  may  delegate  his 
powers  under  this  article  to  a  principal 
assistant. 

"(b)  Subject  to  subsection  (a)  of 
this  section,  any  commanding  officer 
may,  in  addition  to  or  in  lieu  of 
admonition  or  reprimand,  impose  one  or 
more  of  the  following  disciplinary 
punishments  for  minor  offenses  without 
the  intervention  of  a  court-martial— 

"(1)  upon     officers     of    his 
command— 

"(A)  restriction  to  certain 
specified  limits,  with  or  without 
suspension  from  duty,  for  not 
more  than  30  consecutive  days; 

"(B)  if  imposed  by  an 
officer  exercising  general 
court-martial  jurisdiction  or  an 
officer  of  general  or  flag  rank  in 
command— 

"(i)  arrest  in  quarters 
for  not  more  than  30 
consecutive  days; 

"(ii)  forfeiture  of  not 
more  than  one-half  of  one 
month's  pay  per  month  for 
two  months; 

"(iii)  restriction  to 
certain  specified  limits,  with 
or  without  suspension  from 
duty,  for  not  more  than  60 
consecutive  days; 

"(iv)  detention  of  not 
more  than  one-half  of  one 
month's  pay  per  month  for 
three  months; 


"(2)  upon  other  personnel  of 
his  command— 

"(A)  if  imposed  upon  a 
person  attached  to  or  embarked 
in  a  vessel,  confinement  on  bread 
and  water  or  diminished  rations 
for  not  more  than  three 
consecutive  days; 

"(B)  correctional  custody 
for  not  more  than  seven 
consecutive  days; 

"(C)  forfeiture  of  not 
more  than  seven  days'  pay; 

"(D)  reduction  to  the  next 
inferior  pay  grade,  if  the  grade 
from  which  demoted  is  within 
the  promotion  authority  of  the 
officer  imposing  the  reduction  or 
any  officer  subordinate  to  the 
one  who  imposes  the  reduction; 

"(E)  extra  duties,  includ- 
ing fatigue  or  other  duties, 
for  not  more  than  1  4  consecutive 
days; 

"(F)  restriction  to  certain 
specified  limits,  with  or  without 
suspension  from  duty,  for  not 
more  than  14  consecutive  days; 

"(G)  detention  of  not 
more  than  14  days'  pay; 

"(H)  if  imposed  by  an 
officer  of  the  grade  of  major  or 
lieutenant  commander,  or 
above— 

"(i)     the     punishment 
authorized  under  subsection 


"(ii)  correctional  cus- 
tody for  not  more  than  30 
consecutive  days; 

"(iii)  forfeiture  of  not 
more  than  one-half  of  one 
month's  pay  per  month  for 
two  months; 


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"(iv)  reduction  to  the 
lowest  or  any  intermediate 
pay  grade,  if  the  grade  from 
which  demoted  is  within  the 
promotion  authority  of  the 
officer  imposing  the 
reduction  or  any  officer 
subordinate  to  the  one  who 
imposes  the  reduction,  but 
an  enlisted  member  in  a  pay 
grade  above  E-4  may  not  be 
reduced  more  than  two  pay 
grades; 

"(v)  extra  duties, 
including  fatigue  or  other 
duties,  for  not  more  than  45 
consecutive  days; 

"(vi)  restriction  to 
certain  specified  limits,  with 
or  without  suspension  from 
duty,  for  not  more  than  60 
consecutive  days; 

"(vii)  detention  of  not 
more  than  one-half  of  one 
month's  pay  per  month  for 
three  months. 

"Detention  of  pay  shall  be  for  a 
stated  period  of  not  more  than  one  year 
but  if  the  offender's  term  of  service 
expires  earlier,  the  detention  shall 
terminate  upon  that  expiration.  No  two 
or  more  of  the  punishments  of  arrest  in 
quarters,  confinement  on  bread  and 
water  or  diminished  rations,  correctional 
custody,  extra  duties,  and  restriction 
may  be  combined  to  run  consecutively 
in  the  maximum  amount  impossible  for 
each.  Whenever  any  of  those 
punishments  are  combined  to  run 
consecutively,  there  must  be  an 
apportionment.  In  addition,  forfeiture  of 
pay  may  not  be  combined  with 
detention  of  pay  without  an 
apportionment.  For  the  purposes  of  this 
subsection,  'correctional  custody'  is  the 
physical  restraint  of  a  person  during 
duty  or  nonduty  hours  and  may  include 
extra  duties,  fatigue  duties,  or  hard 


labor.  If  practicable,  correctional 
custody  will  not  be  served  in  immediate 
association  with  persons  awaiting  trial  or 
held  in  confinement  pursuant  to  trial  by 
court-martial. 

"(c)  An  officer  in  charge  may 
impose  upon  enlisted  members  assigned 
to  the  unit  of  which  he  is  in  charge  such 
of  the  punishments  authorized  under 
subsection  (b)  (2)  (A)-(G)  as  the 
Secretary  concerned  may  specifically 
prescribe  by  regulation. 

"(d)  The  officer  who  imposes  the 
punishment  authorized  in  subsection  (b), 
or  his  successor  in  command,  may,  at 
any  time,  suspend  probationally  any  part 
or  amount  of  the  unexecuted 
punishment  imposed  and  may  suspend 
probationally  a  reduction  in  grade  or  a 
forfeiture  imposed  under  subsection  (b), 
whether  or  not  executed.  In  addition,  he 
may,  at  any  time,  remit  or  mitigate  any 
part  or  amount  of  the  unexecuted 
punishment  imposed  and  may  set  aside 
in  whole  or  in  part  the  punishment, 
whether  executed  or  unexecuted,  and 
restore  all  rights,  privileges,  and  property 
affected.  He  may  also  mitigate  reduction 
in  grade  to  forfeiture  or  detention  of 
pay.  When  mitigating— 

"(1)  arrest  in  quarters  to 
restriction; 

"(2)  confinement  on  bread 
and  water  or  diminished  rations  to 
correctional  custody; 

"(3)  correctional  custody  or 
confinement  on  bread  and  water  or 
diminished  rations  to  extra  duties  or 
restriction,  or  both;  or 

"(4)  extra  duties  to  restric- 
tion; "the  mitigated  punishment 
shall  not  be  for  a  greater 
period  than  the  punishment 
mitigated.  When  mitigating  forfeiture 
of  pay  to  detention  of  pay,  the 
amount  of  the  detection  shall  not  be 
greater  than  the  amount  of  the 


forfeiture.  When  mitigating 
reduction  in  grade  to  forfeiture  or 
detention  of  pay,  the  amount  of  the 
forfeiture  or  detention  shall  not  be 
greater  than  the  amount  that  could 
have  been  imposed  initially  under 
this  article  by  the  officer  who 
imposed  the  punishment  mitigated. 

"(e)  A  person  punished  under  this 
article  who  considers  his  punishment 
unjust  or  disproportionate  to  the  offense 
may,  through  the  proper  channel,  appeal 
to  the  next  superior  authority.  The 
appeal  shall  be  promptly  forwarded  and 
decided,  but  the  person  punished  may  in 
the  meantime  be  required  to  undergo  the 
punishment  adjudged  only  if  attached  to 
or  embarked  in  a  vessel.  If  the  accused  is 
not  attached  to  or  embarked  in  a  vessel 
such  punishment  will  be  stayed  pending 
completion  of  his  appeal.  The  superior 
authority  may  exercise  the  same  powers 
with  respect  to  the  punishment  imposed 
as  may  be  exercised  under  subsection  (d) 
by  the  officer  who  imposed  the 
punishment.  Before  acting  on  an  appeal 
from  the  punishment  of— 

"(1)  arrest  in  quarters  for 
more  than  seven  days; 

"(2)  correctional  custody  for 
more  than  seven  days; 

"(3)  forfeiture  of  more  than 
seven  days'  pay; 

"(4)  reduction  of  one  or  more 
pay  grades  from  the  fourth  or  a 
higher  pay  grade; 

"(5)  extra  duties  for  more 
than  14  days; 

"(6)  restriction  for  more  than 
14  days;  or 

"(7)  detention  of  more  than 
14  days'  pay;  "the  authority  who  is 
to  act  on  the  appeal  shall  refer  the 


case  to  a  judge  advocate  of  the 
Army,  Navy,  Air  Force,  or  Marine 
Corps,  or  a  law  specialist  or  lawyer 
of  the  Marine  Corps,  Coast  Guard,  or 
Treasury  Department  for 
consideration  and  advice,  and  may  so 
refer  the  case  upon  appeal  from  any 
punishment  imposed  under 
subsection(b).1/ 

"(f)  The  imposition  and 
enforcement  of  disciplinary  punishment 
under  this  article  for  any  act  or  omission 
is  not  a  bar  to  trial  by  court-martial  for 
a  serious  crime  or  offense  growing  out 
of  the  same  act  or  omission,  and  not 
properly  punishable  under  this  article; 
but  the  fact  that  disciplinary  punishment 
has  been  enforced  may  be  shown  by  the 
accused  upon  trial,  and  when  so  shown, 
shall  be  considered  in  determining  the 
measure  of  punishment  to  be  adjudged 
in  the  event  of  a  finding  of  guilty. 

"(g)  The  Secretary  concerned 
may,  by  regulation,  prescribe  the  form 
of  records  to  be  kept  of  proceedings 
under  this  article  and  may  also  prescribe 
that  certain  categories  of  those 
proceedings  shall  be  in  writing." 

Nonjudicial  punishment  is  authorized  for 
minor  offenses  that  constitute  a  violation  of  one 
of  the  punitive  articles  of  the  Code.  Whether  an 
offense  may  be  considered  minor  depends  upon 
factors  such  as  its  nature  and  the  circumstances 
surrounding  its  commission.  Generally,  the  term 
includes  misconduct  not  involving  a  greater 
degree  of  criminality  than  involved  in  the 
average  offense  tried  by  summary  court-martial. 

Minor  offenses  ordinarily  do  not  include 
those  involving  moral  turpitude,  such  as  larceny, 
forgery,  and  maiming;  escape  from  confinement; 
willful  disobedience;  prolonged  unauthorized 
absence;  or  any  offense  punishable  by 
dishonorable  discharge  or  confinement  for  more 
than  a  year. 


1  /  "Treasury  Department,"  for  purposes  of 
this  article,  is  now  "Department  of  Trans- 
portation." 


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ART.  25. 

WHO  MAY  SERVE  ON 

COURTS-MARTIAL 

"(a)  Any  commissioned  officer  on 
active  duty  is  eligible  to  serve  on  all 
courts-martial  for  the  trial  of  any  person 
who  may  lawfully  be  brought  before 
such  courts  for  trial. 

"(b)  Any  warrant  officer  on  active 
duty  is  eligible  to  serve  on  general  and 
special  courts-martial  for  the  trial  of  any 
person,  other  than  a  commissioned 
officer,  who  may  lawfully  be  brought 
before  such  courts  for  trial. 

"(c)  (1)  Any  enlisted  member 
of  an  armed  force  on  active  duty  who  is 
not  a  member  of  the  same  unit  as  the 
accused  is  eligible  to  serve  on  general  and 
special  courts-martial  for  the  trial  of  any 
enlisted  person  of  an  armed  force  who 
may  lawfully  be  brought  before  such 
courts  for  trial,  but  he  shall  serve  as  a 
member  of  court  only  if,  before  the 
conclusion  of  a  session  called  by  the 
military  judge  under  article  39(a)  prior 
to  trial  or,  in  the  absence  of  such  a 
session,  before  the  court  is  assembled  for 
the  trial  of  the  accused,  the  accused 
personally  has  requested  in  writing  that 
enlisted  persons  serve  on  it.  After  such  a 
request,  the  accused  may  not  be  tried  by 
a  general  or  special  court-martial  the 
membership  of  which  does  not  include 
enlisted  persons  in  a  number  comprising 
at  least  one-third  of  the  total  mem- 
bership of  the  court,  unless  eligible 
enlisted  persons  cannot  be  obtained  on 
account  of  physical  conditions  or  mili- 
tary exigencies.  If  such  members  cannot 
be  obtained,  the  court  may  be  assembled 
and  the  trial  held  without  them,  but  the 
convening  authority  shall  make  a  detailed 
written  statement,  to  be  appended  to  the 
record,  stating  why  they  could  not  be 
obtained. 

"(2)  In  this  article,  the  word 
"unit"  means  any  regularly  organized 
body  as  defined  by  the  Secretary 
concerned,  but  in  no  case  may  it  be  a 


body  larger  than  a  company,  squadron,  • 
ship's  crew,  or  body  corresponding  to 
one  of  them. 

"(d)  (1 )  When  it  can  be  avoided, 
no  member  of  an  armed  force  may  be 
tried  by  a  court-martial  any  member  of 
which  is  junior  to  him  in  rank  or  grade. 

"(2)  When  convening  a  court- 
martial,  the  convening  authority  shall 
detail  as  members  thereof  such  mem- 
bers of  the  armed  forces  as,  in  his 
opinion,  are  best  qualified  for  the  duty 
by  reason  of  age,  education,  training, 
experience,  length  of  service,  and  judicial 
temperament.  No  member  of  an  armed 
force  is  eligible  to  serve  as  a  member  of  a 
general  or  special  court-martial  when  he 
is  the  accuser  or  a  witness  for  the 
prosecution  or  has  acted  as  investigating 
officer  or  as  counsel  in  the  same  case." 

A  unit  of  the  Navy  or  Coast  Guard  in  the 
sense  of  section  25(c)  is  a  ship,  company, 
detached  command,  or  other  organization  for 
which  a  separate  unit  personnel  diary  is 
prepared. 

Whenever  practicable,  the  senior  member  of 
a  general  or  special  court-martial  should  be  an 
officer  whose  rank  is  not  below  that  of 
lieutenant  of  the  Navy  or  Coast  Guard  or 
captain  of  the  Army,  Air  Force,  or  Marine 
Corps.  Unless  it  cannot  be  avoided,  all  members 
are  senior  to  the  accused  in  grade  or  in 
precedence. 

An  accuser  is  a  person  who  (1)  signs  and 
swears  to  charges,  (2)  directs  that  charges 
nominally  be  signed  and  sworn  by  another,  or 
(3)  has  other  than  an  official  interest  in  the 
prosecution  of  the  accused. 

ART.   27. 

DETAIL  OF  TRIAL  COUNSEL 

AND  DEFENSE  COUNSEL 

"(a)  For  each  general  and  special 
court-martial  the  authority  convening 
the  court  shall  detail  trial  counsel  and 
defense  counsel,  and  such  assistants  as  he 
considers  appropriate.  No  person  who 
has  acted  as  investigating  officer, 


NAVAL 


military  judge,  or  court  member  in  any 
case  may  act  later  as  trial  counsel, 
assistant  trial  counsel,  or,  unless 
expressly  requested  by  the  accused,  as 
defense  counsel  or  assistant  defense 
counsel  in  the  same  case.  No  person  who 
has  acted  for  the  prosecution  may  act 
later  in  the  same  case  for  the  defense, 
nor  may  any  person  who  has  acted  for 
the  defense  act  later  in  the  same  case  for 
the  prosecution. 

"(b)  Trial  counsel  or  defense 
counsel  detailed  for  a  general 
court-mar  tial- 

"(1)  must' be  a  judge  advocate 
of  the  Army,  Navy,  Air  Force,  or 
Marine  Corps,  or  a  law  specialist  of 
the  Coast  Guard,  who  is  a  graduate 
of  an  accredited  law  school  or  is  a 
member  of  the  bar  of  a  Federal  court 
or  of  the  highest  court  of  a  State;  or 
must  be  a  member  of  the  bar  of  a 
Federal  court  or  of  the  highest  court 
of  a  State;  and 

"(2)  must  be  certified  as 
competent  to  perform  such  duties  by 
the  Judge  Advocate  General  of  the 
armed  force  of  which  he  is  a 
member. 

"(c)  In  case  of  a  special  court- 
martial- 

"(1)  the  accused  shall  be 
afforded  the  opportunity  to  be 
represented  at  the  trial  by  counsel 
having  the  qualifications  prescribed 
under  article  27(b)  unless  counsel 
having  such  qualifications  cannot  be 
obtained  on  account  of  physical 
conditions  or  military  exigencies.  If 
counsel  having  such  qualifications 
cannot  be  obtained,  the  court  may 
be  convened  and  the  trial  held  but 
the  convening  authority  shall  make  a 
detailed  written  statement,  to  be 
appended  to  the  record,  stating  why 
counsel  with  such  qualifications 
could  not  be  obtained; 


"(2)  if  the  trial  counsel  is 
qualified  to  act  as  counsel  before  a 
general  court-martial,  the  defense 
counsel  detailed  by  the  convening 
authority  must  be  a  person  similarly 
qualified ;  and 

"(3)  if  the  trial  counsel  is  a 
judge  advocate,  or  a  law  specialist,  or 
a  member  of  the  bar  of  a  Federal 
court  or  the  highest  court  in  the 
State,  the  defense  counsel  detailed 
by  the  convening  authority  must  be 
one  of  the  foregoing." 

The  requirements  of  this  article  ensure  that 
the  accused  is  adequately  represented.  His  right 
to  counsel  of  his  own  choosing  is  provided  for 
by  article  38(b).  The  gist  of  section  (2)  is  that 
changing  sides  is  forbidden-if  a  person  has  acted 
for  the  defense  he  may  not  subsequently  act  for 
the  prosecution,  or  vice  versa. 

The  Code  provides,  however,  that  the 
accused  shall  be  afforded  the  opportunity  to  be 
represented  at  the  trial  by  counsel  having  the 
qualifications  prescribed  under  article  27(b). 

ART.  31. 

COMPULSORY  SELF-INCRMINATION 

PROHIBITED 

"(a)  No  person  subject  to  this 
code  may  compel  any  person  to 
incriminate  himself  or  to  answer  any 
question  the  answer  to  which  may  tend 
to  incriminate  him. 

"(b)  No  person  subject  to  this 
code  may  interrogate,  or  request  any 
statement  from,  an  accused  or  a  person 
suspected  of  an  offense  without  first 
informing  him  of  the  nature  of  the 
accusation  and  advising  him  that  he  does 
not  have  to  make  any  statement 
regarding  the  offense  of  which  he  is 
accused  or  suspected  and  that  any 
statement  made  by  him  may  be  used  as 
evidence  against  him  in  a  trial  by 
court-martial. 

"(c)  No  person  subject  to  this 
code  may  compel  any  person  to  make  a 
statement  or  produce  evidence  before 


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Chapter  7 -DISCIPLINE  AND  THE  UNIFORM  CODE  OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE 


any  military  tribunal  if  the  statement  or 
evidence  is  not  material  to  the  issue  and 
may  tend  to  degrade  him. 

"(d)  No  statement  obtained  from 
any  person  in  violation  of  this  article,  or 
through  the  use  of  coercion,  unlawful 
influence,  or  unlawful  inducement  may 
be  received  in  evidence  against  him  in  a 
trial  by  court-martial." 

Article  31,  in  accordance  with  the  fifth 
amendment  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  provides  that  in  a  criminal  case  no  person 
may  be  compelled  to  be  a  witness  against 
himself.  The  article  applies  to  official 
investigations  as  well  as  to  courts-martial. 

Paragraph  (a)  applies  to  any  self- 
incrimination  whether  or  not  material  to  the 
issue,  and  it  may  be  invoked  by  a  witness,  an 
accused,  or  a  suspect.  However,  if  the  person 
invoking  3 1  (a)  could  for  any  reason  successfully 
object  to  being  tried  because  of  revelations 
developed  by  his  answer  (for  example,  the 
statute  of  limitations  for  an  admitted  criminal 
act  may  have  run  out),  he  may  be  compelled  to 
answer. 

Paragraph  (b)  requires  that  any  person 
charged  with  or  suspected  of  an  offense  must  be 
informed,  before  he  is  interrogated  concerning 
the  offense— 

1 .  Of  the  nature  of  the  offense. 

2.  That  he   does   not   have   to   make   any 
statement  regarding  the  offense. 

3.  That    anything    he    says    may    be   used 
against  him  in  a  trial. 

The  provisions  of  31(b)  also  apply  before, 
for  example,  a  suspect  is  asked  to  identify  his 
property,  provide  examples  of  his  handwriting, 
or  to  speak  for  the  purpose  of  voice 
identification.  Paragraphs  (b)  and  (d)  of  the 
article  have  the  effect  of  requiring  the  exclusion 
from  evidence  of  any  statement,  even  if 
voluntary,  or  of  any  compulsory  act,  if  the  prior 
warning  made  mandatory  by  31(b)  is  not  given. 
Since  the  wording  of  article  31  requires  the 
warning  only  when  a  person  who  is  himself 
subject  to  the  code  is  conducting  an 
interrogation  or  requesting  a  statement, 


provisions  of  the  article  do  not  exclude  from 
evidence  in  a  subsequent  trial  by  court-rnartial 
any  voluntary  statement  given  to  civil 
authorities,  or  to  any  person  not  officially 
inquiring  into  the  person's  conduct. 

The  privilege  against  compulsory 
self-degradation  (31(c))  applies  only  to  matters 
not  material  to  the  issue.  It  is  not  a  violation  of 
the  article,  for  instance,  to  order  an  accused  to 
expose  his  body  for  examination  by  a  court  or  a 
physician  who  will  later  testify  in  court  as  to  the 
results  of  his  examination.  Neither  is  the 
prohibition  violated  by  compelling  a  person  to 
try  on  a  pair  of  shoes,  to  shave  or  grow  a  beard, 
or  to  have  his  fingerprints  taken.  An  accused  may 
not,  however,  be  forced  to  perform  acts  that 
require  the  use  of  mental  or  physical  faculties. 
This  means,  for  example,  that  the  results  of  tests 
of  blood  or  urine  taken  from  an  accused  for 
other  than  clinical  purposes,  against  his  will,  are 
not  admissible  in  evidence. 

ART.  37. 

UNLAWFULLY  INFLUENCING 

ACTION  OF  COURT 

"(a)  No  authority  convening  a 
general,  special,  or  summary 
court-martial,  nor  any  other 
commanding  officer,  may  censure, 
reprimand,  or  admonish  the  court  or  any 
member,  military  judge,  or  counsel 
thereof,  with  respect  to  the  findings  or 
sentence  adjudged  by  the  court,  or  with 
respect  to  any  other  exercise  of  its  or  his 
functions  in  the  conduct  of  the 
proceedings.  No  person  subject  to  this 
code  may  attempt  to  coerce  or,  by  any 
unauthorized  means,  influence  the 
action  of  a  court-martial  or  any  other 
military  tribunal  or  any  member  thereof, 
in  reaching  the  findings  or  sentence  in 
any  case,  or  the  action  of  any  convening, 
approving,  or  reviewing  authority  with 
respect  to  his  judicial  acts.  The  foregoing 
provision  of  the  subsection  shall  not 
apply  with  respect  to  (1)  general 
instructional  or  informational  courses  in 
military  justice  if  such  courses  are 
designed  solely  for  the  purpose  of 
instructing  members  of  a  command  in 


the  substantive  and  procedural  aspects  of 
courts-martial  or  (2)  to  statements  and 
instructions  given  in  open  court  by  the 
military  judge,  president  of  a  special 
court-martial,  or  counsel 

"(b)  In  the  preparation  of  an 
effectiveness,  fitness,  or  efficiency 
report,  or  any  other  report  or  document 
used  in  whole  or  in  part  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  whether  a  member  of  the 
armed  forces  is  qualified  to  be  advanced, 
in  grade,  or  in  determining  the 
assignment  or  transfer  of  a  member  of 
the  armed  forces  or  in  determining 
whether  a  member  of  the  armed  forces 
should  be  retained  on  active  duty,  no 
person  subject  to  this  chapter  may,  in 
preparing  any  such  report  (1)  consider  or 
evaluate  the  performance  of  duty  of  any 
such  member  as  a  member  of  a 
court-martial,  or  (2)  give  a  less  favorable 
rating  or  evaluation  of  any  member  of 
the  armed  forces  because  of  the  zeal 
with  which  such  member,  as  counsel, 
represented  any  accused  before  a 
court-martial." 

Article  37  is  designed  to  ensure  that  every 
court,  its  members  and  officers,  shall  be 
completely  free  to  fulfill  its  functions  without 
fear  of  reprisal. 

ART.  38. 

DUTIES  OF  TRIAL  COUNSEL 

AND  DEFENSE  COUNSEL 

"(a)  The  trial  counsel  of  a  general 
or  special  court-martial  shall  prosecute  in 
the  name  of  the  United  States,  and  shall, 
under  the  direction  of  the  court,  prepare 
the  record  of  the  proceedings. 

"(b)  The  accused  has  the  right  to 
be  represented  in  his  defense  before  a 
general  or  special  court-martial  by 
civilian  counsel,  if  provided  by  him,  or 
by  military  counsel,  of  his  own  selection 
if  reasonably  available,  or  by  the  defense 
counsel  detailed  under  article  27.  Should 
the  accused  have  counsel  of  his  own 
selection,  the  defense  counsel,  and 


assistance  defense  counsel,  if  any,  who 
were  detailed,  shall,  if  the  accused  so 
desires,  act  as  his  associate  counsel; 
otherwise  they  shall  be  excused  by  the 
military  judge  or  by  the  president  of  a 
court-martial  without  a  military  judge. 

"(c)  In  every  court-martial 
proceeding,  the  defense  counsel  may,  in 
the  event  of  conviction,  forward  for 
attachment  to  the  record  of  proceedings 
a  brief  of  such  matters  as  he  feels  should 
be  considered  in  behalf  of  the  accused  on 
review,  including  any  objection  to  the 
contents  of  the  record  which  he 
considers  appropriate. 

"(d)  An  assistant  trial  counsel  of  a 
general  court-martial  may,  under  the 
direction  of  the  trial  counsel  or  when  he 
is  qualified  to  be  a  trial  counsel  as 
required  by  article  27,  perform  any  duty 
imposed  by  law,  regulation,  or  the 
custom  of  the  service  upon  the  trial 
counsel  of  the  court.  An  assistant  trial 
counsel  of  a  special  court-martial  may 
perform  any  duty  of  the  trial  counsel. 

"(e)  An  assistant  defense  counsel 
of  a  general  or  special  court-martial  may, 
under  the  direction  of  the  defense 
counsel  or  when  he  is  qualified  to  be  the 
defense  counsel  as  required  by  article  27, 
perform  any  duty  imposed  by  law, 
regulation,  or  the  custom  of  the  service 
upon  counsel  for  the  accused." 

Expenses  for  civilian  counsel  are  borne  by 
the  accused.  A  request  for  military  counsel  of 
the  accused's  selection  usually  is  forwarded  by 
the  regularly  appointed  defense  counsel,  through 
trial  counsel,  to  the  convening  authority. 

In  the  event  of  conviction,  defense  counsel, 
immediately  after  trial,  advises  the  accused  of 
his  right  (if  any)  to  be  represented  by  counsel 
before  the  Court  of  Military  Review  and  the 
Court  of  Military  Appeals,  each  of  which  has  the 
legal  power  to  reverse  the  decision  of  the 
court-martial  that  convicted  him.  In  an 
appropriate  case,  defense  counsel  assists  the 
appellant  (one  who  appeals  a  judicial  decision) 
to  secure  such  appellate  representation.  The 
accused  has  10  days  from  the  date  he  is  notified 


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of  the  convening  or  supervisory  authority's 
action  on  his  case  to  request  that  he  be 
represented  by  counsel  before  the  Court  of 
Military  Review. 

The  primary  duty  of  trial  counsel  is  to 
prosecute,  but  any  act  (such  as  conscious 
suppression  of  evidence  favorable  to  the 
defense)  inconsistent  with  a  genuine  desire  to 
have  the  whole  truth  revealed  is  prohibited.  It  is 
not  his  duty,  however,  to  assist  or  advise  the 
defense. 

ART.  55. 

CRUEL  AND  UNUSUAL 

PUNISHMENTS  PROHIBITED 

"Punishment  by  flogging,  or  by 
branding,  marking,  or  tattooing  on  the 
body,  or  any  other  cruel  or  unusual 
punishment,  may  not  be  adjudged  by 
any  court-martial  or  inflicted  upon  any 
person  subject  to  this  code.  The  use  of 
irons,  single  or  double,  except  for  the 
purpose  of  safe  custody,  is  prohibited." 

Courts-martial  may  not  impose  any 
punishment  not  sanctioned  by  the  custom  of  the 
service,  such  as  carrying  a  loaded  knapsack, 
shaving  the  head,  placarding,  pillorying,  placing 
in  stocks,  or  tying  up  by  the  thumbs.  Loss  of 
good-conduct  time  will  not  be  adjudged  as 
punishment  by  a  court-martial. 

ART.  77. 
PRINCIPALS 


"Any  person  punishable  under  this 
code  who— 

"(1)  commits  an  offense 
punishable  by  this  code,  or  aids,  abets, 
counsels,  commands,  or  procures  its 
commission;  or 

"(2)  causes  an  act  to  be  done 
which  if  directly  performed  by  him 
would  be  punishable  by  this  code; 

is  a  principal." 


Mere  presence  at  the  scene  of  a  crime  does 
not  make  one  a  principal.  There  must  be  an 
intent  to  aid  or  encourage  the  persons  who 
commit  the  crime  and  the  aider  or  abettor  must 
share  the  criminal  intent  or  purpose  of  the 
perpetrator.  If  there  is  a  concert  of  purpose  to 
commit  a  given  criminal  act,  and  the  act  is  done 
by  one  of  the  parties,  all  probable  results  that 
could  be  expected  from  the  act  are  chargeable  to 
all  parties  concerned. 

If  a  witness  to  a  crime  had  a  duty  to 
interfere  and  his  noninterference  was  designed 
by  him  to  operate  and  did  operate  as  an 
encouragement  to  or  protection  of  the 
perpetrator,  he  is  a  principal. 

One  who  counsels,  commands,  or  procures 
another  into  committing  an  offense  is  a  principal 
even  though  he  was  not  present  when  the 
offense  was  committed. 

ART.  78. 

ACCESSORY  AFTER 
THE  FACT 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who,  knowing  that  an  offense  punishable 
by  this  code  has  been  committed, 
receives,  comforts,  or  assists  the  offender 
in  order  to  hinder  or  prevent  his 
apprehension,  trial,  or  punishment,  shall 
be  punished  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct." 

ART.  79. 

CONVICTION  OF  LESSER 

INCLUDED  OFFENSE 

"An  accused  may  be  found  guilty  of 
an  offense  necessarily  included  in  the 
offense  charged  or  of  an  attempt  to 
commit  either  the  offense  charged  or  of 
an  offense  necessarily  included  therein." 

A  military  tribunal  may  only  try  a  person 
who  has  been  charged  with  violating  a  particular 
article  or  articles  of  UCMJ.  Quite  simply,  if  a 
man  committed  what  is  considered  a  crime  but 
the  code  did  not  include  that  crime  in  one  of  its 
punitive  articles,  no  court-martial  could  try  him. 
Articles  77,  78,  80,  81,  and  82  of  the  code  thus 
encompass  persons  who,  although  they  may  not 


169 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


have  participated  actively  in,  or  successfully 
accomplished,  the  commission  of  an  offense,  can 
be  convicted  of  having  had  "their  finger  in  the 
pie." 

Article  79  goes  a  step  further  by  authorizing 
the  finding  of  guilty  of  a  lesser  included  offense 
when  a  finding  of  guilty  cannot  be  sustained  for 
the  offense  charged.  For  this  reason,  there  are 
three  permissible  findings  as  to  a  charge:  guilty; 
not  guilty;  not  guilty,  but  guilty  of  a  violation  of 
article 

The  key  words  in  article  79  are  "offense 
necessarily  included  in  the  offense  charged."  For 
example,  a  violation  of  article  85,  "Desertion 
with  intent  to  remain  away  permanently," 
invariably  is  also  an  uncharged  violation  of  the 
lesser  charge  of  article  86,  "Absence  without 
proper  authority."  Proving  that  an  accused 
deserter  had  no  intention  of  ever  returning 
might  be  impossible.  But  the  facts  are  clear  as  to 
when  he  absented  himself  and  when  he  (was) 
returned  to  military  jurisdiction.  Thus,  many 
"deserters"  are,  for  lack  of  proof  of  intent, 
found  "Not  guilty,  but  guilty  of  a  violation  of 
article  86." 

Other  examples  of  what  are  generally  held  to 
be  "lesser  included  offenses"  contained  in  a 
principal  offense  include  the  following: 


Art. 
94 

94 
95 


Principal 
offense 

Mutiny 


Sedition 


Breach  of 
arrest 


1 1 8         Murder 
122         Robbery 
1 24         Maiming 


Art. 
92 

116 
134 

119 
121 
128 


Lesser  included 
offense 

Failure  to  obey 
lawful  order 

Breach  of  the 
peace 

Breach  of 
restriction 

Manslaughter 
Larceny 

Assault  with  a 
dangerous 
weapon 


ART.  80. 
ATTEMPTS 

"(a)  An  act,  done  with  specific 
intent  to  commit  an  offense  under  this 
code,  amounting  to  more  than  mere 
preparation  and  tending,  even  though 
failing,  to  effect  its  commission,  is  an 
attempt  to  commit  that  offense. 

"(b)  Any  person  subject  to  this 
code  who  attempts  to  commit  any 
offense  punishable  by  this  code  shall  be 
punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct; 
unless  otherwise  specifically  prescribed. 

"(c)  Any  person  subject  to  this 
code  may  be  convicted  of  an  attempt  to 
commit  an  offense  although  it  appears 
on  the  trial  that  the  offense  was 
consummated." 

To  constitute  an  attempt  there  must  be  a 
specific  intent  to  commit  the  particular  offense 
accompanied  by  an  overt  act  which  directly 
tends  to  accomplish  the  unlawful  purpose.  The 
overt  act  required  goes  beyond  preparatory  steps 
and  is  a  direct  movement  toward  commission  of 
the  offense. 

It  is  not  an  attempt  when  every  act  intended 
by  the  accused  could  be  completed  without 
committing  an  offense.  But  an  accused  may  be 
guilty  of  an  attempt  even  though  the  crime  turns 
out  to  be  impossible  of  commission  because  of 
an  outside  intervening  circumstance.  A 
pickpocket  who  puts  his  hand  in  the  pocket  of 
another  with  intent  to  steal  his  billfold  is  guilty 
of  an  attempt  to  commit  larceny,  even  though 
the  pocket  is  empty. 

ART.  81. 
CONSPIRACY 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who  conspires  with  any  other  person  to 
commit  an  offense  under  this  code  shall, 
if  one  or  more  of  the  conspirators  does 
an  act  to  effect  the  object  of  the 
conspiracy,  be  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct." 


The  agreement  in  a  conspiracy  need  not  be 
in  any  particular  form  not  manifested  in  any 
formal  words.  It  is  sufficient  if  the  minds  of  the 
parties  arrive  at  a  common  understanding  to 
accomplish  the  object  of  the  conspiracy. 

The  overt  act  of  a  conspiracy  must  be  an 
independent  act  by  one  or  more  of  the 
conspirators  following  the  agreement  and  done 
to  carry  into  effect  the  object  of  that  agreement. 
The  overt  act  need  not  be  in  itself  criminal,  but 
it  must  be  a  manifestation  that  the  conspiracy  is 
being  executed. 

A  conspiracy  to  commit  an  offense  is  a 
different  and  distinct  offense  from  the  offense 
which  is  the  object  of  the  conspiracy,  and  both 
the  conspiracy  and  the  consummated  offense 
which  was  its  object  may  be  charged  and  tried. 

A  party  to  a  conspiracy  may,  before  the 
performance  of  an  overt  act,  withdraw  from  the 
conspiracy,  but  there  must  be  some  affirmative 
act  of  withdrawal.  Such  withdrawal  neither 
creates  a  new  conspiracy  nor  changes  the  status 
of  the  remaining  members. 

ART.  82. 
SOLICITATION 

"(a)  Any  person  subject  to  this 
code  who  solicits  or  advises  another  or 
others  to  desert  in  violation  of  article  85 
or  mutiny  in  violation  of  article  94  shall, 
if  the  offense  solicited  or  advised  is 
attempted  or  committed,  be  punished 
with  the  punishment  provided  for  the 
commission  of  the  offense,  but,  if  the 
offense  solicited  or  advised  is  not 
committed  or  attempted,  he  shall  be 
punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct. 

"(b)  Any  person  subject  to  this 
code  who  solicits  or  advises  another  or 
others  to  commit  an  act  of  misbehavior 
before  the  enemy  in  violation  of  article 
99  or  sedition  in  violation  of  article  94 
shall,  if  the  offense  solicited  or  advised  is 
committed,  be  punished  with  the 
punishment  provided  for  the  commission 
of  the  offense,  but,  if  the  offense 
solicited  or  advised  is  not  committed,  he 
shall  be  punished  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct." 


Solicitation  may  be  accomplished  by  other 
means  than  by  word  of  mouth  or  by  writing. 
Any  act  or  conduct  that  reasonably  may  be 
construed  as  a  serious  request  or  advice  to 
commit  one  of  the  offenses  named  in  the  article 
may  constitute  solicitation.  The  accused  may  act 
through  other  persons  in  committing  this 
offense. 

Solicitation  to  commit  offenses  other  than 
violations  of  the  articles  enumerated  in  this 
article  may  be  charged  as  violations  of  article 
134. 

ART    83 

FRAUDULENT  ENLISTMENT, 

APPOINTMENT,  OR  SEPARATION 

"Any  person  who— 

"(1)  Procures  his  own  enlistment 
or  appointment  in  the  armed  forces 
by  knowingly  false  representation  or 
deliberate  concealment  as  to  his 
qualifications  for  that  enlistment  or 
appointment  and  receives  pay  or 
allowances  thereunder;  or 

"(2)  procures  his  own  separation 
from  the  armed  forces  by  means  of 
knowingly  false  representation  or 
deliberate  concealment  as  to  his 
eligibility  for  that  separation;  shall  be 
punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct." 

An  essential  element  of  the  offense  of 
fraudulent  enlistment  or  appointment  is  that  the 
accused  shall  have  received  pay  or  allowances 
thereunder.  Acceptance  of  food,  clothing, 
shelter,  or  transportation  from  the  Government 
constitutes  receipt  of  allowances. 

After  apprehension,  an  accused  who  is 
charged  with  having  fraudulently  obtained  his 
separation  from  a  branch  of  the  Armed  Forces  is 
subject  to  the  Code  while  in  the  custody  of  the 
Armed  Forces  and  awaiting  trial  for  the 
fraudulent  separation  (article  3(b)). 

ART.  84. 

UNLAWFUL  ENLISTMENT, 

APPOINTMENT,  OR  SEPARATION 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who  effects  an  enlistment  or 


171 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


appointment  in  or  a  separation  from  the 
armed  forces  of  any  person  who  is 
known  to  him  to  be  ineligible  for  that 
enlistment,  appointment,  or  separation 
because  it  is  prohibited  by  law, 
regulation,  or  order  shall  be  punished  as 
a  court-martial  may  direct." 

ART.  85. 
DESERTION 

"(a)  Any  member  of  the  armed 
forces  who— 

"( 1 )  without  authority  goes  or 
remains  absent  from  his  unit, 
organization,  or  place  of  duty  with 
intent  to  remain  away  therefrom 
permanently; 

"(2)  quits  his  unit,  organiza- 
tion, or  place  of  duty  with  intent 
to  avoid  hazardous  duty  or  to  shirk 
important  service;  or 

"(3)  without  being  regularly 
separated  from  one  of  the  armed 
forces  enlists  or  accepts  an 
appointment  in  the  same  or  another 
one  of  the  armed  forces  without 
fully  disclosing  the  fact  that  he  has 
not  been  regularly  separated,  or 
enters  any  foreign  armed  service 
except  when  authorized  by  the 
United  States; 

"is  guilty  of  desertion. 

"(b)  Any  commissioned  officer  of 
the  armed  forces  who,  after  tender 
of  his  resignation  and  before  notice 
of  its  acceptance,  quits  his  post  or 
proper  duties  without  leave  and  with 
intent  to  remain  away  therefrom  perma- 
nently is  guilty  of  desertion. 

"(c)  Any  person  found  guilty  of 
desertion  or  attempt  to  desert  shall  be 
punished,  if  the  offense  is  committed  in 
time  of  war,  by  death  or  such  other 
punishment  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct,  but  if  the  desertion  or  attempt  to 
desert  occurs  at  any  other  time,  by  such 
punishment,  other  than  death,  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct." 


Both  absence  without  authority  and  the 
intent  to  remain  away  permanently  are  essential 
elements  of  a  charge  of  desertion. 

"Hazardous  duty"  or  "important  service" 
may  include  such  service  as  duty  in  a  combat  or 
other  dangerous  area,  embarkation  for  foreign 
duty  or  for  sea  duty,  movement  to  a  port  of 
embarkation,  etc.  Drill,  target  practice, 
maneuvers,  and  practice  marches  are  not 
ordinarily  regarded  as  included. 

The  fact  that  a  person  intends  to  report  or 
actually  reports  at  another  station  does  not 
prevent  a  conviction  for  desertion,  as  that  fact  in 
connection  with  other  circumstances  may  tend 
to  establish  his  intentions  not  to  return  to  his 
proper  place  of  duty.  However,  a  person  absent 
without  leave  from  his  place  of  service  and 
without  funds  may  report  to  another  station  for 
transportation  back  to  his  original  place  of  duty, 
which  circumstance  would  tend  to  negate  the 
existence  of  an  intent  to  desert.  No  general  rule 
can  be  laid  down  as  the  effect  to  be  given  to  an 
intention  to  report  or  an  actual  reporting  at 
another  station.  Return  to  military  control  may 
be  effected  by  return  to  any  of  the  Armed 
Forces,  whether  or  not  that  of  which  the 
accused  is  a  member. 

A  man  who  is  absent  without  authority  from 
his  command  is  placed  in  the  status  of  an 
absentee  and  may  become  liable  to  severe 
penalties  upon  his  return  to  naval  jurisdiction 
unless  a  satisfactory  explanation  can  be 
furnished.  When  a  man  has  been  in  an  absentee 
status  for  more  than  30  days,  notification  is 
forwarded  to  his  next  of  kin,  to  the  chief  of 
police  in  his  home  town,  and  to  various  other 
law  enforcement  agencies,  as  well  as  to  certain 
activities  of  the  other  Armed  Forces.  The 
foregoing  authorities  are  requested  to  assist  in 
the  apprehension  of  the  absentee  and,  except  in 
the  cases  of  Federal  officers,  are  paid  any 
necessary  expenses  up  to  twenty-five  dollars 
incurred  in  effecting  the  man's  return  to  military 
or  naval  control.  This  amount  is  subsequently 
checked  against  the  returned  absentee's  pay. 

The  status  of  an  absentee  changes  to  that  of 
a  deserter  after  30  days  of  absence,  or  sooner  if 
the  intent  to  desert  is  manifest.  For  example,  if 
an  enlisted  man  were  to  go  ashore  without 
permission,  taking  all  his  personal  belongings 
with  him  and  announcing  to  his  shipmates  that 


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he  was  leaving  the  service  for  good,  he  should  be 
immediately  declared  a  deserter. 

After  a  man  is  declared  a  deserter,  the 
Federal  Bureau  of  Investigation  enters  into  the 
search  for  the  man.  The  expenses  involved  in 
returning  him  are  chargeable  to  the  deserter. 

When  a  person  is  convicted  of  desertion  in 
time  of  war  and  such  conviction  results  in  a 
dishonorable  discharge,  the  law  provides  that  the 
person  never  again  hold  any  office  of  trust  or 
profit  in  the  United  States  Government. 

ART.  86. 

ABSENCE  WITHOUT  LEAVE 

"Any  member  of  the  armed  forces 
who,  without  authority- 

"(1)  fails  to  go  to  his  appointed 
place  of  duty  at  the  time  prescribed; 

"(2)      goes  from  that  place;  or 

"(3)  absents  himself  or  remains 
absent  from  his  unit,  organization,  or 
place  of  duty  at  which  he  is  required  to 
be  at  the  time  prescribed; 

shall  be  punished  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct." 

This  article  is  designed  to  cover  every  case 
not  elsewhere  provided  for  in  which  any 
member  of  the  Armed  Forces  is,  through  his 
own  fault,  not  at  the  place  where  he  is  required 
to  be  at  a  prescribed  time.  Specific  intent  is  not 
an  element  of  this  offense,  that  is,  the  accused 
need  not  form  the  express  intention  of 
remaining  away.  The  intent  is  expressed  by  the 
mere  fact  of  his  absence. 

A  member  of  the  Armed  Forces  turned  over 
to  the  civil  authorities  upon  request  (article  14) 
is  not  absent  without  leave  while  held  by  them 
under  such  delivery.  When  a  member  of  the 
Armed  Forces,  being  absent  with  leave,  or 
absent  without  leave,  is  held,  tried,  and 
acquitted  by  civil  authorities,  his  status  as  absent 
with  leave  or  without  leave  is  not  thereby 
changed,  however  long  he  may  be  held.  If  a 
member  of  the  Armed  Forces  is  convicted  by 
the  civil  authorities,  the  fact  that  he  was 
arrested,  held,  and  tried  does  not  excuse  any 
unauthorized  absence. 


ART.  87. 

MISSING  MOVEMENT 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who  through  neglect  or  design  misses  the 
movement  of  a  ship,  aircraft,  or  unit 
with  which  he  is  required  in  the  course 
of  duty  to  move  shall  be  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct." 

The  word  "movement"  as  used  here  does 
not  include  minor  changes  in  location  of  ships, 
aircraft,  or  units,  as  when  a  ship  is  shifted  from 
one  berth  to  another. 

To  be  guilty  of  article  87,  the  accused  must 
have  known  of  the  prospective  movement  that 
he  missed.  His  knowledge  of  the  approximate 
date  is  sufficient  for  conviction— he  need  not 
have  been  aware  of  the  exact  hour  or  date. 

ART.  88. 

CONTEMPT  TOWARD  OFFICIALS 

"Any  commissioned  officer  who  uses 
contemptuous  words  against  the 
President,  the  Vice  President,  Congress, 
the  Secretary  of  Defense,  the  Secretary 
of  a  military  department,  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  or  the  Governor  or 
legislature  of  any  State,  Territory, 
Commonwealth,  or  possession  in  which 
he  is  on  duty  or  present  shall  be 
punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct." 

"Congress,"  as  used  here,  does  not  include  a 
member  as  an  individual;  "legislature"  does  not 
include  its  members  individually;  nor  does 
"governor"  include  a  "lieutenant  governor." 

Adverse  criticism  of  one  of  the  officials  or 
groups  named  in  the  article,  in  the  course  of  a 
political  discussion,  even  though  emphatically 
expressed,  if  not  personally  contemptous,  may 
not  be  charged  as  a  violation  of  this  article. 
Similarly,  expressions  of  opinion  made  in  a 
purely  private  conversation  are  not  ordinarily  a 
basis  for  a  court-martial  charge. 

It  is  immaterial  whether  contemptuous 
words  are  used  against  an  official  in  his  official 
or  private  capacity.  Truth  or  falsity  of  the 
statements  may  be  immaterial;  the  gist  of  the 


offense   is  the  contemptuous  character  of  the 
language  and  the  malice  with  which  it  is  used. 

ART.  89. 

DISRESPECT  TOWARD  SUPERIOR 

COMMISSIONED  OFFICER 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who  behaves  with  disrespect  toward  his 
superior  commissioned  officer  shall  be 
punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct." 

A  "superior  commissioned  officer"  may  be 
superior  in  either  grade  or  command,  and  the 
term  includes  an  officer  of  another  service  if  he 
has  been  placed  in  the  chain  of  command. 

One  officer  may  be  inferior  in  grade  to 
another,  yet  be  the  superior  because  of  his 
command  position.  A  line  officer  commanding, 
for  example,  may  be  junior  in  grade  to  a  staff 
officer  in  the  organization;  because  he  is  the 
commanding  officer,  however,  the  line  officer  is 
the  "superior  commissioned  officer." 

Disrespectful  behavior  can  take  many  forms, 
the  most  obvious  perhaps  involving 
contemptuous  language.  Disrespectful  acts  may 
include  failure  to  salute,  disdain,  indifference, 
insolence,  or  undue  familiarity  or  other 
rudeness. 

ART.  90. 

ASSAULTING  OR 
WILLFULLY  DISOBEYING 
COMMISSIONED  OFFICER 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who- 
'll) strikes  his  superior  commis- 
sioned officer  or  draws  or  lifts  up 
any  weapon  or  offers  any  violence 
against  him  while  he  is  in  the  execution 
of  his  office;  or 

"(2)  willfully  disobeys  a  lawful 
command  of  his  superior  commissioned 
officer; 

"shall  be  punished,  if  the  offense  is 
committed  in  time  of  war,  by  death  or 
such  other  punishment  as  a  court-martial 
may  direct,  and  if  the  offense  is 


committed  at  any  other  time,  by  such 
punishment,  other  than  death,  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct." 

The  phrase  "his  superior  commissioned 
officer"  has  the  same  meaning  here  as  it  does  in 
article  89.  That  an  accused  did  not  know  that  a 
commissioned  officer  was  his  superior 
commissioned  officer  is  a  defense. 

An  officer  is  in  the  execution  of  his  office 
when  engaged  in  any  act  or  service  required  or 
authorized  to  be  done  by  him  by  statute, 
regulation,  the  order  of  a  superior,  or  military 
usage.  In  general,  any  striking  or  use  of  violence 
against  any  superior  by  a  person  subject  to 
military  law,  over  whom  it  is  the  duty  of  that 
superior  officer  to  maintain  discipline  at  the 
time,  would  be  striking  or  using  violence  against 
him  in  the  execution  of  his  office. 

A  discharged  prisoner  or  other  civilian 
subject  to  military  law  and  under  the  command 
of  an  officer  is  subject  to  the  provisions  of  this 
article. 

Willful  disobedience  covered  by  this  article  is 
such  as  shows  an  intentional  defiance  of 
authority.  Neglect  to  comply  with  an  order 
through  heedlessness,  carelessness,  or 
forgetfulness  is  punishable  under  article  92. 

A  person  cannot  be  convicted  under  this 
article  if  the  order  was  illegal;  but  an  order 
requiring  the  performance  of  a  military  duty  or 
act  is  presumed  to  be  lawful  and  is  disobeyed  at 
the  peril  of  the  subordinate.  Acts  involved  in  the 
disobedience  of  an  illegal  order  might  under 
some  circumstances  be  charged  as 
insubordination  under  article  134. 

ART.  91. 

INSUBORDINATE  CONDUCT 
TOWARD  WARRANT  OFFICER, 
NONCOMMISSIONED  OFFICER, 
OR  PETTY  OFFICER 

"Any  warrant  officer  or  enlisted 
person  who- 

"(1)  strikes  or  assaults  a  warrant 
officer,  noncommissioned  officer,  or 
petty  officer,  while  that  officer  is  in  the 
execution  of  his  office; 

"(2)  willfully  disobeys  the  lawful 
order  of  a  warrant  officer, 


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n  o  n  commissioned 
officer;  or 


officer,     or     petty 


"(3)  treats  with  contempt  or  is 
disrespectful  in  language  or  deportment 
toward  a  warrant  officer, 
noncommissioned  officer,  or  petty 
officer  while  that  officer  is  in  the 
execution  of  his  office;  shall  be  punished 
as  a  court-martial  may  direct." 

This  article  has  the  same  general  objects  with 
respect  to  warrant  officers,  noncommissioned 
officers,  and  petty  officers  as  articles  89  and  90 
have  with  respect  to  commissioned  officers; 
namely,  to  insure  obedience  to  their  lawful 
orders,  and  to  protect  them  from  violence, 
insult,  or  disrespect. 

ART.  92. 

FAILURE  TO  OBEY 

ORDER  OR  REGULATION 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who— 

"(1)  violates  or  fails  to  obey  any 
lawful  general  order  or  regulation; 

"(2)  having  knowledge  of  any 
other  lawful  order  issued  by  a  member 
of  the  armed  forces,  which  it  is  his 
duty  to  obey,  fails  to  obey  the  order; 
or 

"(3)  is  derelict  in  the  performance 
of  his  duties; 

"shall   be   punished   as  a  court-martial 
may  direct." 

A  general  order  or  regulation  is  lawful  if  it  is 
not  contrary  to  or  forbidden  by  the 
Constitution,  the  provisions  of  an  act  of 
Congress,  or  the  lawful  order  of  a  superior.  A 
general  order  or  regulation  is  one  which  is  issued 
by  the  President  or  by  the  Secretary  of  Defense, 
the  Secretary  of  Transportation,  or  the  secretary 
of  a  military  department,  and  which  applies 
generally  to  an  armed  force;  or  one  which  is 
promulgated  by  an  officer  having  general 


court-martial  jurisdiction,  a  general  or  flag 
officer  in  command,  or  by  a  commander 
superior  to  one  of  these. 

Disobedience  of  "any  other  lawful  order" 
requires  that  the  person  must  have  had  a  duty  to 
obey  the  order  and  must  have  had  knowledge  of 
the  order.  An  accused  may  be  charged  with 
disobedience  of  the  lawful  order  of  one  not  a 
superior,  provided  the  accused  had  a  duty  to 
obey  such  order.  Examples  are  lawful  orders  of  a 
sentinel  or  of  members  of  the  Armed  Forces 
Police. 

A  person  is  derelict  in  the  performance  of 
duties  when  he  willfully  or  negligently  fails  to 
perform  them,  or  when  he  performs  them  in  a 
culpably  inefficient  manner.  To  be  culpably 
inefficient  an  accused  must  have  had  the  ability 
and  opportunity  to  perform  his  duties 
efficiently,  but  performed  them  inefficiently 
nevertheless. 

ART.  93. 
CRUELTY  AND 
MALTREATMENT 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who  is  guilty  of  cruelty  toward,  or 
oppression  or  maltreatment  of,  any 
person  subject  to  his  orders  shall  be 
punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct." 

The  cruelty,  oppression,  or  maltreatment 
must  be  real,  although  not  necessarily  physical. 
To  assault  and  to  subject  to  improper 
punishment  are  examples  of  this  offense.  The 
imposition  of  necessary  or  proper  duties  and  the 
exaction  of  their  performance  will  not 
constitute  this  offense  even  though  such  duties 
are  arduous  or  hazardous  or  both. 

ART.  94. 

MUTINY  OR  SEDITION 

"(a)  Any  person  subject  to  this 
code  who— 

"(1)  with  intent  to  usurp  or 
override  lawful  military  authority, 
refuses,  in  concert  with  any  other 
person,  to  obey  orders  or  otherwise 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


do  his  duty  or  creates  any  violence 
or  disturbance  is  guilty  of  mutiny; 

"(2)  with  intent  to  cause  the 
overthrow  or  destruction  of  lawful 
civil  authority,  creates,  in  concert 
with  any  other  person,  revolt, 
violence,  or  other  disturbance  against 
that  authority  is  guilty  of  sedition; 

"(3)  fails  to  do  his  utmost  to 
prevent  and  suppress  mutiny  or 
sedition  being  committed  in  his 
presence,  or  fails  to  take  all 
reasonable  means  to  inform  his 
superior  commissioned  officer  or 
commanding  officer  of  a  mutiny  or 
sedition  which  he  knows  or  has 
reason  to  believe  is  taking  place,  is 
guilty  of  a  failure  to  suppress  or 
report  a  mutiny  or  sedition. 

"(b)  A  person  who  is  found  guilty 
of  attempted  mutiny,  mutiny,  sedition, 
or  failure  to  suppress  or  report  a  mutiny 
or  sedition,  shall  be  punished  by  death 
or  such  other  punishment  as  a  court- 
martial  may  direct." 

There  are  two  distinct  types  of  mutiny,  both 
requiring  an  intent  to  usurp  or  override  military 
authority.  One  consists  of  the  creation  of 
violence  or  disturbance  with  that  intent,  and 
may  be  committed  by  one  person  acting  alone 
or  by  more  than  one.  The  other,  consisting  of  a 
refusal  in  concert  with  any  other  person  to  obey 
orders  or  otherwise  do  one's  duty,  imports 
collective  insubordination,  and  necessarily 
includes  some  combination  of  two  or  more 
persons  in  resisting  lawful  military  authority. 

The  act  of  insubordination  need  not  be 
active  or  violent.  It  may  consist  simply  of  a 
consistent  and  concerted  refusal  or  omission  to 
obey  orders,  or  to  do  duty,  with  an  intent  to 
usurp  or  override  lawful  military  authority.  The 
intent  may  be  stated  in  words  or  inferred  from 
acts  or  surrounding  circumstances. 

Sedition  differs  from  mutiny  in  that  it 
implies  a  resistance  to  civil  power,  as 
distinguished  from  military  power. 


Persons  subject  to  the  code  must  take  such 
measures  to  prevent  or  suppress  acts  of  sedition 
or  mutiny  being  committed  in  their  presence  as 
may  properly  be  called  for  by  the  circumstances, 
having  in  mind  the  grade  and  responsibilities  or 
the  employment  of  the  individual  concerned. 
However,  the  use  of  more  force  than  is 
reasonably  necessary  is  an  offense. 

ART.  95. 

RESISTANCE,  BREACH  OF 

ARREST,  AND  ESCAPE 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who  resists  apprehension  or  breaks  arrest 
or  who  escapes  from  custody  or 
confinement  shall  be  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct." 

Resisting  apprehension  consists  of  an  active 
resistance  to  a  legal  restraint  attempted  to  be 
imposed  by  the  person  apprehending.  Active 
resistance  may  be  accomplished  by  flight  or  by 
assaulting  the  apprehending  person.  Mere  words 
of  remonstrance,  argument,  or  abuse,  and 
attempts  to  escape  from  custody  after  the 
apprehension  is  complete,  will  not  constitute  the 
offense  of  resisting  apprehension  though  they 
may  constitute  other  offenses. 

The  distinction  between  arrest  and  custody 
or  confinement  lies  in  the  difference  between 
the  kinds  of  restraint  imposed.  Arrest  is  moral 
restraint  imposed  by  orders  fixing  the  limits  of 
arrest.  Custody  and  confinement  include  some 
physical  restraint. 

Breach  of  arrest  is  committed  when  the 
person  under  legal  arrest  exceeds  the  limits  set 
by  orders.  Escape  from  custody  or  confinement 
is  any  completed  casting  off  of  the  custody  or 
restraint  of  confinement,  before  being  set  at 
liberty  by  proper  authority. 

Offenses  against  correctional  custody 
imposed  as  nonjudicial  punishment  under  article 
15,  i.e.,  escape  from  correctional  custody  (when 
physical  restraint  is  cast  off)  and  breach  of 
correctional  custody  (when  a  nonphysical 
restraint  is  broken),  are  punishable  as  violations 
of  article  134. 


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Chapter  7-DISCIPLINE  AND  THE  UNIFORM  CODE  OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE 


ART.  96. 

RELEASING  PRISONER 

WITHOUT  PROPER  AUTHORITY 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who,  without  proper  authority,  releases 
any  prisoner  committed  to  his  charge,  or 
who  through  neglect  or  design  suffers 
any  such  prisoner  to  escape,  shall  be 
punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct, 
whether  or  not  the  prisoner  was 
committed  in  strict  compliance  with 
law." 

ART.  97. 

UNLAWFUL  DETENTION 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who,  except  as  provided  by  law, 
apprehends,  arrests,  or  confines  any 
person  shall  be  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct." 

Any  unlawful  restraint  of  another's  freedom 
will  result  in  a  violation  of  this  article,  whether 
or  not  such  action  is  taken  under  color  of 
authority.  The  offense  may  be  committed  by 
one  who,  being  duly  authorized  to  apprehend, 
arrest,  or  confine  others,  exercises  such 
authority  unlawfully,  or  by  one  not  so 
authorized  who  effects  the  restraint  of  another 
unlawfully.  The  apprehension,  arrest,  or 
confinement  must  be  against  the  will  of  the 
person  restrained. 

ART.  98. 

NONCOMPLIANCE  WITH 
PROCEDURAL  RULES 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who- 

"(1 )  is  responsible  for  unnecessary 
delay  in  the  disposition  of  any  case  of  a 
person  accused  of  an  offense  under  this 
code; or 

"(2)  knowingly  and  intentionally 
fails  to  enforce  or  comply  with  any 
provision  of  this  code  regulating  the 
proceedings  before,  during  or  after  trial 
of  an  accused; 


shall  be  punished  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct." 

ART.  99. 

MISBEHAVIOR  BEFORE 
THE  ENEMY 

"Any  member  of  the  armed  forces 
who  before  or  in  the  presence  of  the 
enemy— 

"(1)      runs  aw  ay; 

"(2)  shamefully  abandons, 
surrenders,  or  delivers  up  any  command, 
unit,  place,  or  military  property  which  it 
is  his  duty  to  defend; 

"(3)  through  disobedience, 
neglect,  or  intentional  misconduct 
endangers  the  safety  of  any  such 
command,  unit,  place,  or  military 
property; 


"(4)      casts 
ammunition; 


away     his     arms    or 


"(5)  is  guilty  of  cowardly 
conduct; 

"(6)  quits  his  place  of  duty  to 
plunder  or  pillage; 

"(7)  causes  false  alarms  in  any 
command,  unit,  or  place  under  control 
of  the  armed  forces; 

"(8)  willfully  fails  to  do  his 
utmost  to  encounter,  engage,  capture,  or 
destroy  any  enemy  troops,  combatants, 
vessels,  aircraft,  or  any  other  thing, 
which  it  is  his  duty  so  to  encounter, 
engage,  capture,  or  destroy;  or 

"(9)  does  not  afford  all 
practicable  relief  and  assistance  to  any 
troops,  combatants,  vessels,  or  aircraft  of 
the  armed  forces  belonging  to  the  United 
States  or  their  allies  when  engaged  in 
battle; 

shall  be  punished  by  death  or  such  other 
punishment  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct." 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


The  "enemy"  includes  any  hostile  body  that 
our  forces  may  be  opposing.  Whether  a  person  is 
"before  the  enemy"  is  not  a  question  of 
distance,  but  of  tactical  relation. 

Abandonment  by  a  subordinate  would 
ordinarily  be  charged  as  "running  away";  the 
running  away  must  be  to  avoid  actual  or 
impending  combat  but  need  not  be  the  result  of 
fear.  Abandoning,  surrendering,  or  delivering  up 
a  command  primarily  concerns  commanders. 

"Cowardly  conduct,"  as  used  in  section  5,  is 
an  act  of  cowardice  such  as  refusal  or 
abandonment  of  a  performance  of  duty  as  the 
result  of  fear  before  or  in  the  presence  of  the 
enemy. 

"All  practicable  relief  and  assistance,"  as 
used  in  section  9,  means  all  relief  and  assistance 
which  should  be  afforded  within  the  limitations 
imposed  upon  one  by  reason  of  his  own  specific 
task  or  mission.  No  offense  is  committed  by 
failing  to  afford  relief  when  one's  own  mission 
would  tolerate  no  delay  or  deviation. 

ART.   100. 

SUBORDINATE  COMPELLING 

SURRENDER 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who  compels  or  attempts  to  compel  the 
commander  of  any  place,  vessel,  aircraft, 
or  other  military  property,  or  of  any 
body  of  members  of  the  armed  forces,  to 
give  it  up  to  an  enemy  or  to  abandon  it, 
or  who  strikes  the  colors  or  flag  to  an 
enemy  without  proper  authority,  shall 
be  punished  by  death  or  such  other 
punishment  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct." 

The  offenses  here  contemplated  are  similar 
to  mutiny,  but  do  not  require  concert  of  action. 
The  compulsion  to  surrender  must  be  by  acts 
rather  than  by  words.  To  "strike  the  colors  or 
flag"  is  to  surrender.  The  offense  is  committed 
by  anyone  subject  to  the  Code  who  assumes  to 
himself  the  authority  to  surrender  a  military 
force  or  position  when  he  is  not  authorized  to 
do  so  either  by  competent  authority  or  by  the 
necessities  of  battle. 


ART.  101. 
IMPROPER  USE 
OF  COUNTERSIGN 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who  in  time  of  war  discloses  the  parole 
or  countersign  to  any  person  not  entitled 
to  receive  it  or  who  gives  to  another  who 
is  entitled  to  receive  and  use  the  parole 
or  countersign  a  different  parole  or 
countersign  from  that  which,  to  his 
knowledge,  he  was  authorized  and 
required  to  give,  shall  be  punished  by 
death  or  such  other  punishment  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct." 

A  countersign  is  a  word  given  from  the 
principal  headquarters  of  a  command  to  aid 
guards  and  sentinels  in  their  scrutiny  of  persons 
who  apply  to  pass  the  lines.  It  consists  of  a 
secret  challenge  and  a  password.  A  parole  is  a 
word  used  as  a  check  on  the  countersign;  it  is 
imparted  only  to  those  who  are  entitled  to 
inspect  guards  and  to  commanders  of  guards. 

It  is  no  defense  under  the  terms  of  this 
article  that  the  accused  did  not  know  that  the 
person  to  whom  he  communicated  the 
countersign  or  parole  was  not  entitled  to  receive 
it.  Before  imparting  such  a  word  a  person 
subject  to  military  law  must  determine  that  the 
person  to  whom  he  presumes  to  make  known 
the  word  is  a  person  authorized  to  receive  it. 

ART.   102. 

FORCING  A  SAFEGUARD 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who  forces  a  safeguard  shall  suffer  death 
or  such  other  punishment  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct." 

A  safeguard  is  a  detachment,  guard,  or  detail 
posted  by  a  commander  for  the  protection  of 
persons,  places,  or  property  of  the  enemy,  or  of 
a  neutral  affected  by  the  relationship  of 
belligerent  forces  in  their  prosecution  of  war  or 
during  circumstances  amounting  to  a  state  of 
belligerency.  The  term  also  includes  a  written 
order  left  by  a  commander  with  an  enemy 
subject  or  posted  upon  enemy  property  for  the 
protection  of  the  individual  or  property 


178 


concerned.  The  effect  of  a  safeguard  is  to  pledge 
the  honor  of  the  Nation  that  the  person  or 
property  shall  be  respected  by  the  national 
armed  force. 

Provided  that  the  accused  was  or  should 
have  been  aware  of  the  existence  of  the 
safeguard,  any  trespass  on  the  protection  of  the 
safeguard  will  constitute  an  offense  under  the 
article,  whether  the  safeguard  was  imposed  in 
time  of  war  or  in  circumstances  amounting  to  a 
state  of  belligerency  short  of  a  formal  state  of 
war. 

ART.  103. 
CAPTURED  OR 
ABANDONED  PROPERTY 

"(a)  All  persons  subject  to  this 
code  shall  secure  all  public  property 
taken  from  the  enemy  for  the  service  of 
the  United  States,  and  shall  give  notice 
and  turn  over  to  the  proper  authority 
without  delay  all  captured  or  abandoned 
property  in  their  possession,  custody,  or 
control. 

"(b)      Any   person   subject  to  this 
code  who- 
'll) fails    to    carry    out    the 
duties  prescribed  in  subsection(a); 

"(2)  buys,  sells,  trades,  or  in 
any  way  deals  in  or  disposes  of 
captured  or  abandoned  property, 
whereby  he  receives  or  expects  any 
profit,  benefit,  or  advantage  to 
himself  or  another  directly  or 
indirectly  connected  with  himself;  or 

"(3)  engages  in  looting  or 
pillaging; 

shall  be  punished  as  a  court  martial  may 
direct." 

Immediately  upon  its  capture  from  the 
enemy,  public  property  becomes  the  property  of 
the  United  States.  Every  person  subject  to 
military  law  has  an  immediate  duty  to  take  such 
steps  as  are  within  his  powers  and  functions  to 
secure  such  property  to  the  service  of  the  United 
States  and  to  protect  it  from  destruction  or  loss. 


Reports  of  receipt  of  captured  or  abandoned 
property,  private  as  well  as  public,  are  to  be 
made  through  such  channels  as  are  required  by 
current  regulations  or  orders  or  the  customs  of 
the  service. 

Disposal  as  well  as  receipt  of  captured  or 
abandoned  property  for  personal  profit,  benefit, 
or  advantage  is  prohibited,  as  is  destruction  or 
abandonment  of  such  property. 

"Looting  or  pillaging"  means  unlawfully 
seizing  or  appropriating  property  located  in 
enemy  or  occupied  territory,  which  has  been  left 
behind,  or  was  owned  by,  or  in  the  custody  of, 
the  enemy  or  occupied  state  or  a  person  who  is 
or  was  under  the  protection  of  the  enemy  or 
occupied  state.  The  unauthorized  removal  or 
appropriation  of  any  part  of  the  equipment  of  a 
seized  or  captured  vessel,  or  the  unlawful  seizure 
or  appropriation  of  property  owned  by  or  in  the 
custody  of  the  officers,  crew,  or  passengers  on 
board  a  seized  or  captured  vessel,  constitutes  the 
offense  of  looting  and  pillaging  wherever  the 
vessel  may  be  located. 

ART.   104. 

AIDING  THE  ENEMY 

"Any  person  who- 
'll)      aids,  or  attempts  to  aid,  the 

enemy  with  arms,  ammunition,  supplies, 

money,  or  other  things;  or 

"(2)  without  proper  authority, 
knowingly  harbors  or  protects  or  gives 
intelligence  to,  or  communicates  or 
corresponds  with  or  holds  any 
intercourse  with  the  enemy,  either 
directly  or  indirectly; 

shall  suffer  death  or  such  other 
punishment  as  a  court-martial  or  military 
commission  may  direct." 

Article  104  applies  to  all  persons,  whether  or 
not  they  are  otherwise  subject  to  military  law. 
"Enemy"  denotes  citizens  as  well  as  members  of 
military  organizations,  for  all  the  citizens  of  one 
belligerent  are  enemies  of  the  government  and  of 
all  the  citizens  of  the  other. 

An  enemy  is  harbored  or  protected  when, 
without  proper  authority,  he  is  shielded,  either 
physically  or  by  use  of  any  artifice,  aid,  or 


179 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


representation,  from  any  injury  or  misfortune 
which  in  the  chance  of  war  may  befall  him.  It 
must  appear  that  the  offense  is  knowingly 
committed. 

Giving  intelligence  to  the  enemy  is  a 
particular  case  of  corresponding  with  the  enemy, 
rendered  more  heinous  by  the  fact  that  the 
communication  contains  intelligence  that  may 
be  useful  to  the  enemy.  The  word  "intelligence" 
connotes  that  the  information  conveyed  is  true 
or  implies  the  truth,  at  least  in  part. 

Aiiy  unauthorized  communication  with  the 
enemy,  no  matter  what  may  be  its  tenor  or 
intent,  is  denounced  by  this  article.  The  offense 
is  complete  the  moment  the  communication 
issues  from  the  accused,  whether  it  reaches  its 
destination  or  not.  It  is  essential  to  prove  that 
the  offense  was  knowingly  committed. 

ART.  105. 

MISCONDUCT  AS  A  PRISONER 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who,  while  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy  in 
time  of  war— 

"(1)  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
favorable  treatment  by  his  captors  acts 
without  proper  authority  in  a  manner 
contrary  to  law,  custom,  or  regulation, 
to  the  detriment  of  others  of  whatever 
nationality  held  by  the  enemy  as  civilian 
or  military  prisoners;  or 

"(2)  while  in  a  position  of 
authority  over  such  persons  maltreats 
them  without  justifiable  cause; 

shall  be  punished  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct." 

The  offense  under  article  105  (1)  covers 
unauthorized  conduct  by  a  prisoner  of  war  in 
the  hands  of  the  enemy  which  tends  to 
ameliorate  his  condition  to  the  detriment  of 
other  prisoners.  Such  acts  may  be  the  reporting 
of  plans  to  escape  or  the  reporting  of  secret 
caches  of  food,  equipment,  or  arms.  The  acts 
must  be  related  to  the  captors  and  tend  to  have 
the  probable  effect  of  bestowing  upon  the 
accused  some  favor  with,  or  advantage  from,  the 
captors.  The  act  of  the  accused  must  be  contrary 


to  law,  custom,  or  regulation.  For  example,  the 
escape  of  a  prisoner  might  result  in  closer 
confinement  or  other  measures  against  fellow 
prisoners  still  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  Such 
escape,  however,  is  not  an  offense  under  this 
article,  as  escape  from  the  enemy  is  regarded  as 
authorized  by  custom. 

To  constitute  an  offense  under  article  105 
(2),  maltreatment  of  fellow  prisoners  under 
one's  authority  must  be  real,  although  not 
necessarily  physical,  and  it  must  be  without 
justifiable  cause.  Abuse  of  an  inferior  by 
inflammatory  and  derogatory  words  may, 
through  mental  anguish,  constitute  this  offense. 
To  assault,  to  strike,  to  subject  to  improper 
punishment,  or  to  deprive  of  benefits  would 
constitute  maltreatment  if  done  without 
justifiable  cause. 

ART.   106. 
SPIES 

"Any  person  who  in  time  of  war  is 
found  lurking  as  a  spy  or  acting  as  a  spy 
in  or  about  any  place,  vessel,  or  aircraft, 
within  the  control  or  jurisdiction  of  any 
of  the  armed  forces,  or  in  or  about  any 
shipyard,  any  manufacturing  or 
industrial  plant,  or  any  other  place  or 
institution  engaged  in  work  in  aid  of  the 
prosecution  of  the  war  by  the  United 
States,  or  elsewhere,  shall  be  tried  by  a 
general  court-martial  or  by  a  military 
commission  and  on  conviction  shall  be 
punished  by  death." 

The  words  "any  person"  bring  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  courts-martial  and  military 
commissions  all  persons  of  whatever  nationality 
or  status  who  commit  the  offense  of  spying. 

The  principal  characteristic  of  this  offense 
is  a  clandestine  dissimulation  of  the  true 
object  sought,  which  object  is  an  endeavor  to 
obtain  information  with  the  intention  of 
communicating  it  to  the  hostile  party.  Thus, 
members  of  a  military  organization  not  wearing 
disguise,  dispatch  drivers,  whether  members  of  a 
military  organization  or  civilians,  and  persons  in 
ships  and  aircraft,  who  carry  out  their  missions 
openly  and  who  have  penetrated  hostile  lines  are 
not  to  be  considered  spies,  for  while  they  may 


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Chapter  7-DISCIPLINE  AND  THE  UNIFORM  CODE  OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE 


have  resorted   to   concealment  they  have  not 
practiced  dissimulation. 

To  be  guilty  of  this  offense,  it  is  not 
essential  that  the  accused  obtain  the  information 
sought  or  that  he  communicate  it  to  the  enemy. 

ART.  107. 
FALSE  OFFICIAL 
STATEMENTS 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who,  with  intent  to  deceive,  signs  any 
false  record,  return,  regulation,  order,  or 
other  official  document,  knowing  it  to 
be  false,  or  makes  any  other  false  official 
statement  knowing  it  to  be  false,  shall  be 
punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct." 

The  false  representation  must  be  made 
officially  with  the  intent  to  deceive,  and  it  must 
be  one  which  the  accused  does  not  believe  to  be 
true.  The  expectation  of  material  gain  is  not  an 
essential  element  of  the  offense. 

A  statement  made  by  a  suspected  or  accused 
person,  under  interrogation,  is  not  official 
within  the  meaning  of  article  107  unless  the 
person  has  an  independent  official  obligation  to 
speak  in  the  matter  under  investigation  and  he 
elects  to  speak  rather  than  remain  silent  as  he 
has  a  right  to  do  under  article  31. 

ART.   108. 

MILITARY  PROPERTY  OF 
THE  UNITED  STATES- 
LOSS,  DAMAGE,  DESTRUCTION, 
OR  WRONGFUL  DISPOSITION 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who,  without  proper  authority— 

"(1)      sells  or  otherwise  disposes  of; 

"(2)  willfully  or  through  neglect 
damages,  destroys,  or  loses;  or 

"(3)  willfully  or  through  neglect 
suffers  to  be  lost,  damaged,  destroyed, 
sold,  or  wrongfully  disposed  of; 

"any  military  property  of  the  United 
States,  shall  be  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct." 


Whether  the  property  involved  was  issued  at 
all  or  whether  it  was  issued  to  someone  other 
than  the  accused  is  immaterial.  However,  as  far 
as  the  offenses  of  willfully  or  through  neglect 
damaging,  destroying,  or  losing  military 
property  are  concerned,  if  it  is  shown  that  the 
property  was  issued  to  the  accused,  it  may  be 
presumed  that  the  damage,  destruction,  or  loss 
shown,  unless  satisfactorily  explained,  was  due 
to  the  neglect  of  the  accused;  this  rule  applies 
only  to  items  of  individual  issue. 

A  willful  damage,  destruction,  or  loss  is  one 
that  is  intentionally  occasioned.  Loss, 
destruction,  or  damage  is  occasioned  through 
neglect  due  to  lack  of  proper  attention  to  the 
natural  or  foreseeable  consequences  of  an  act 
or  due  to  omission  of  appropriate  action. 

The  loss,  damage,  destruction,  sale,  or 
disposition  may  be  said  to  be  willfully  suffered 
by  one  who,  knowing  the  act  to  be  imminent  or 
actually  occurring,  takes  no  steps  to  prevent  it; 
for  example,  a  member  of  the  boat  crew  who, 
seeing  a  small  boat  tied  alongside,  allows  the 
boat  to  be  damaged  or  lost  by  chafing  or 
striking. 

ART.   109. 

PROPERTY  OTHER  THAN 
MILITARY  PROPERTY  OF 
UNITED  STATES-WASTE, 
SPOILAGE  OR  DESTRUCTION 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who  willfully  or  recklessly  wastes,  spoils, 
or  otherwise  willfully  and  wrongfully 
destroys  or  damages  any  property  other 
than  military  property  of  the  United 
States  shall  be  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct." 

"'Wastes"  and  "spoils"  refer  to  wrongful  acts 
of  voluntary  destruction,  such  as  burning  down 
buildings,  burning  piers,  tearing  down  fences,  or 
cutting  down  trees.  To  be  destroyed,  property 
need  be  only  sufficiently  injured  to  be  useless  for 
the  purpose  for  which  it  was  intended. 
"Damage"  consists  of  any  physical  injury  to  the 
property.  The  property  must  be  other  than 
military  property  of  the  United  States  and  must 
belong  to  one  other  than  the  accused. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


ART.  110. 

IMPROPER  HAZARDING 

OF  VESSEL 

"(a)  Any  person  subject  to  this 
code  who  willfully  and  wrongfully 
hazards  or  suffers  to  be  hazarded  any 
vessel  of  the  armed  forces  shall  suffer 
death  or  such  other  punishment  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct. 

"(b)  Any  person  subject  to  this 
code  who  negligently  hazards  or  suffers 
to  be  hazarded  any  vessel  of  the  armed 
forces  shall  be  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct." 

The  words  "to  suffer"  mean  to  allow  or 
permit,  and  a  ship  is  willfully  suffered  to  be 
hazarded  by  one  who,  although  not  in  direct 
control  of  the  vessel,  knows  a  danger  to  be 
imminent  but  takes  no  steps  to  prevent  it;  for 
example,  a  plotting  officer  of  a  ship  underway 
who  fails  to  report  to  the  officer  of  the  deck  a 
radar  target  that  he  observes  to  be  on  a  collision 
course  with,  and  dangerously  close  to,  his  own 
ship. 

Stranded  means  run  aground  so  that  the 
vessel  is  fast  for  a  time.  If  a  vessel  "touches  and 
goes,"  she  is  not  stranded;  if  she  "touches  and 
sticks,"  she  is. 

No  person  is  relieved  of  culpability  who  fails 
to  perform  duties  such  as  are  imposed  upon  him 
by  the  general  responsibilities  of  his  grade,  or  by 
the  customs  of  the  service,  for  the  safety  and 
protection  of  vessels  of  the  Armed  Forces, 
simply  because  such  duties  are  not  specifically 
enumerated  in  a  regulation  or  an  order. 
However,  a  mere  error  in  judgment  such  as  a 
reasonably  able  person  might  have  committed 
under  the  same  circumstances,  will  not 
constitute  an  offense  under  this  article. 

ART.  111. 
DRUNKEN  OR 
RECKLESS  DRIVING 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who  operates  any  vehicle  while  drunk,  or 
in  a  reckless  or  wanton  manner,  shall  be 
punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct." 


Operating  a  vehicle  includes  not  only  driving 
or  guiding  it  while  in  motion,  either  in  person  or 
through  the  agency  of  another,  but  also  the 
setting  of  its  motive  power  in  action  or  the 
manipulation  of  its  controls  so  as  to  cause  the 
vehicle  to  move.  The  term  "vehicle"  applies  to 
all  types  of  land  transportation  whether  or  not 
motor  driven  or  passenger-carrying.  Drunken  or 
reckless  operation  of  water  or  air  transportation 
may  be  charged  as  a  violation  of  article  1 34.  For 
the  meaning  of  drunk,  see  the  remarks  following 
article  112. 

Recklessness  depends  upon  the  ultimate 
question:  whether,  under  all  the  circumstances, 
the  accused's  manner  of  operation  of  the  vehicle 
was  of  that  heedless  nature  which  made  it 
actually  or  imminently  dangerous  to  the 
occupants  or  to  the  rights  or  safety  of  others. 

While  the  same  course  of  conduct  may 
constitute  both  drunken  and  reckless  driving, 
the  article  proscribes  these  as  separate  offenses, 
and  under  certain  circumstances,  both  offenses 
may  be  charged. 

ART.  112. 
DRUNK  ON  DUTY 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code, 
other  than  a  sentinel  or  lookout,  who  is 
found  drunk  on  duty,  shall  be  punished 
as  a  court-martial  may  direct." 

The  term  "duty"  as  used  in  this  article 
means  military  duty,  but  it  is  important  to  note 
that  every  duty  that  an  officer  or  enlisted  person 
may  legally  be  required  by  superior  authority  to 
execute  is  necessarily  a  military  duty. 

Whether  the  drunkenness  was  caused  by 
liquor  or  drugs  is  immaterial;  and  any 
intoxication  that  is  sufficient  to  impair  the 
rational  and  full  exercise  of  the  mental  and 
physical  facilities  is  drunkenness  within  the 
meaning  of  the. article. 

It  is  necessary  that  the  accused  be  found 
drunk  while  actually  on  the  duty  alleged,  and 
the  fact  that  he  became  drunk  before  going  on 
duty  does  not  affect  the  question  of  his  guilt. 
The  drunkenness  must  coincide  with  the  duty  in 
point  of  time.  If,  however,  he  does  not 
undertake  the  responsibility  or  enter  upon  the 


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duty  at  all,  his  conduct  does  not  fall  within  the 
terms  of  this  article,  nor  does  that  of  a  person 
who  absents  himself  from  his  duty  and  is  found 
drunk  while  so  absent.  Included  within  this 
article,  however,  is  drunkenness  while  on  duty 
of  an  anticipatory  nature,  such  as  that  of  an 
aircraft  crew  ordered  to  stand  by  for  flight  duty, 
or  for  an  enlisted  person  ordered  to  stand  by  for 
guard  duty. 

Within  the  meaning  of  this  article,  when  in 
actual  exercise  of  command,  the  commanding 
officer  of  a  post,  a  command,  a  detachment  in 
the  field,  or  a  ship  is  constantly  on  duty. 

In  the  case  of  enlisted  persons,  the  term  "on 
duty"  relates  to  duties  of  routine  or  detail,  in 
garrison,  at  a  station,  or  in  the  field,  and  does 
not  relate  to  those  periods  when,  no  duty  being 
required  of  them  by  orders  or  regulations,  men 
occupy  the  status  of  leisure  known  as  "off 
duty"  or  "liberty." 

In  a  region  of  active  hostilities  the 
circumstances  are  often  such  that  all  members  of 
a  command  may  properly  be  considered  as  being 
continuously  on  duty  within  the  meaning  of  this 
article. 

ART.  113. 
MISBEHAVIOR 
OF  SENTINEL 

"Any  sentinel  or  lookout  who  is 
found  drunk  or  sleeping  upon  his  post, 
or  leaves  it  before  he  is  regularly 
relieved,  shall  be  punished,  if  the  offense 
is  committed  in  time  of  war,  by  death  or 
such  other  punishment  as  a  court-martial 
may  direct,  but  if  the  offense  is 
committed  at  any  other  time,  by  such 
punishment  other  than  death  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct." 

A  post  is  not  limited  by  an  imaginary  line, 
but  includes,  according  to  orders  or 
circumstances,  such  surrounding  area  as  may  be 
necessary  for  the  proper  performance  of  the 
duties  for  which  the  sentinel  or  lookout  was 
posted.  A  sentinel  or  lookout  is  on  post  within 
the  meaning  of  this  article  not  only  when  he  is 
at  a  post  physically  defined,  as  is  ordinarily  the 
case  in  garrison  or  aboard  ship,  but  also,  for 


example,  when  he  may  be  stationed  in 
observation  against  the  approach  of  an  enemy, 
or  detailed  to  use  any  equipment  designed  to 
locate  friend,  foe,  or  possible  danger,  or  at  a 
designated  place  to  maintain  internal  discipline, 
or  to  guard  stores,  or  to  guard  prisoners  while  in 
confinement  or  at  work. 

This  article  does  not  include  an  officer  or 
enlisted  person  of  the  guard,  or  of  a  ship's 
watch,  not  posted  or  performing  the  duties  of  a 
sentinel  or  lookout,  nor  does  it  include  a  person 
whose  duties  as  a  watchman  or  attendant  do  not 
require  that  he  be  constantly  alert.  Misbehavior 
by  such  persons  would  constitute  violation  of 
articles  92(3)  or  134. 

ART.  114. 
DUELING 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who  fights  or  promotes,  or  is  concerned 
in  or  connives  at  fighting  a  duel,  or  who, 
having  knowledge  of  a  challenge  sent  or 
about  to  be  sent,  fails  to  report  the  fact 
promptly  to  the  proper  authority,  shall 
be  punished  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct." 

A  duel  is  a  prearranged  deadly  combat 
between  two  persons  for  private  reasons.  Urging 
or  taunting  another  to  challenge  to  duel,  acting 
as  a  second  or  as  carrier  of  a  challenge  or 
acceptance,  or  otherwise  furthering  or 
contributing  toward  the  fighting  of  a  duel  are 
examples  of  promoting  a  duel.  Knowledge  of 
preparations  for  a  duel  creates  an  obligation  to 
notify  appropriate  authorities  and  to  take  other 
reasonable  preventive  action,  and  failure  to  do 
so  constitutes  an  offense  against  this  article. 

ART.   115. 
MALINGERING 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  work, 
duty,  or  service— 

"(1)  feigns  illness,  physical  dis- 
ablement, mental  lapse  or  derangement; 
or 


183 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


"(2)  intentionally  inflicts  self- 
injury; 

shall  be  punished  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct." 

ART.   116. 

RIOT  OR 

BREACH  OF  PEACE 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who  causes  or  participates  in  any  riot  or 
breach  of  the  peace  shall  be  punished  as 
a  court-martial  may  direct." 

"Riot"  denotes  a  breach  of  the  peace 
causing  public  terror  committed  by  three  or 
more  persons,  with  a  common  purpose  to 
execute  action  against  any  who  may  oppose 
them.  Without  such  a  common  purpose  to  be 
effected  by  concerted  action,  the  acts  of  an 
assembly  of  three  or  more  persons,  even  though 
all  commit  breaches  of  the  peace  in  the  same 
manner,  do  not  constitute  a  riot.  For  example, 
in  the  case  of  a  group  of  people  discharging 
cannon  crackers  in  violation  of  law,  it  was  held 
that  each  person  was  intent  on  discharging  his 
own  cannon  crackers  and  that  there  was  no 
intent  among  the  persons  so  assembled  mutually 
to  assist  each  other. 

A  "breach  of  the  peace"  is  an  unlawful 
disturbance  of  the  peace  by  an  outward 
demonstration  of  a  violent  and  turbulent  nature. 

Engaging  in  an  affray,  unlawful  discharge  of 
firearms  in  a  public  street,  and  the  use  of  vile  or 
abusive  words  to  another  in  a  public  place  are  a 
few  instances  of  the  type  of  conduct  which  may 
constitute  a  breach  of  the  peace. 

ART.  117. 

PROVOKING  SPEECHES 
OR  GESTURES 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who  uses  provoking  or  reproachful 
words  or  gestures  towards  any  other 
person  subject  to  this  code  shall  be 
punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct." 

"Provoking"  and  "reproachful"  describe 
those  words  or  gestures  that  are  used  in  the 


presence  of  the  person  to  whom  they  are 
directed  and  that  tend  to  induce  breaches  of  the 
peace.  They  do  not  include  reprimands, 
censures,  reproofs,  and  the  like,  which  may 
properly  be  administered  in  the  interests  of 
training,  efficiency,  or  discipline  in  the  Armed 
Forces. 

ART.  118. 
MURDER 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who,  without  justification  or  excuse, 
unlawfully  kills  a  human  being,  when 
he- 

"(1)  has  a  premeditated  design 
to  kill; 

"(2)  intends  to  kill  or  inflict  great 
bodily  harm; 

"(3)  is  engaged  in  an  act  which  is 
inherently  dangerous  to  others  and 
evinces  a  wanton  disregard  of  human 
life;  or 

"(4)  is  engaged  in  the  perpetration 
or  attempted  perpetration  of  burglary, 
sodomy,  rape,  robbery,  or  aggravated 
arson; 

is  guilty  of  murder,  and  shall  suffer  such 
punishment  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct,  except  that  if  found  guilty  under 
clause  (1)  or  (4),  he  shall  suffer  death  or 
imprisonment  for  life  as  a  court-martial 
may  direct." 

Whether  an  unlawful  killing  constitutes 
murder  or  a  lesser  offense  depends  upon  the 
circumstances  under  which  it  occurred. 

A  homicide  committed  in  the  proper 
performance  of  a  legal  duty  is  justifiable.  Thus, 
killing  in  suppression  of  a  mutiny  or  riot,  and 
killing  to  prevent  the  commission  of  an  offense 
attempted  by  force  or  surprise,  such  as  burglary, 
are  cases  of  justifiable  homicide. 

The  general  rule  is  that  the  acts  of  a 
subordinate,  done  in  good  faith  in  compliance 
with  his  supposed  duty  or  orders,  are  justifiable. 
This  justification  does  not  exist,  however,  when 
those  acts  are  manifestly  beyond  the  scope  of 


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s  authority;  or  when  an  order  is  such  that  a 
an  of  ordinary  sense  and  understanding  would 
low  it  to  be  illegal;  or  when  the  subordinate 
illfully  or  through  negligence  performs  acts 
idangering  the  lives  of  innocent  parties  in  the 
scharge  of  his  duty  to  prevent  escape  or  effect 
i  arrest. 

A  homicide  that  is  the  result  of  an  accident 
•  misadventure  in  doing  a  lawful  act,  or  an  act 
iat  is  done  in  self-defense,  is  excusable.  To 
:cuse  a  person  for  killing  on  the  ground  of 
s  If -defense,  he  must  have  believed  on 
asonable  grounds  that  killing  was  necessary  to 
ve  his  life  or  the  lives  of  those  he  sought  to 
•otect.  One  matter  relating  to  such  necessity  is 
tiether  the  accused  could  have  retreated  with 
fety,  but  there  is  no  categorical  requirement  to 
>  so.  One  is  not  required  to  retreat  if  he 
;lieves  that  there  is  no  way  he  can  retreat 
insistent  with  his  own  safety,  or  if  he  is  in  his 
vn  home  or  other  place  where  he  has  a  right  to 
main.  To  avail  himself  of  the  right  of 
If-defense,  the  person  doing  the  killing  must 
>t  have  been  the  aggressor  or  intentionally 
•evoked  the  dispute. 

Premeditated  murder  is  murder  committed 
ter  the  formation  of  a  specific  intent  to  kill 
meone  and  full  consideration  of  the  intended 
t. 

An  unlawful  killing  without  premeditation  is 
urder  when  the  accused  intended  to  kill  or 
flict  great  bodily  harm.  The  intent  need  not  be 
rected  toward  the  person  killed,  nor  must 'it 
ist  for  any  particular  time  before  commission 
'  the  act  or  have  previously  existed  at  all.  It  is 
fficient  that  it  existed  at  the  time  of  the  act  or 
nission  (but  see  article  1 1 9).  Great  bodily 
.rm  refers  to  serious  injuries;  it  does  not 
elude  minor  injuries  such  as  a  black  eye  or  a 
oody  nose. 

Engaging  in  an  act  inherently  dangerous  to 

hers,  without  any  intent  to  cause  the  death  of, 

great  bodily  harm  to,  any  particular  person, 

even  with  a  wish  that  death  may  not  be 

.used,     may     constitute     murder     if     the 

rformance    of    the    act    shows    a    wanton 

sregard  of  human  life.  Examples  of  this  sort  of 

nduct   are:    throwing   a  live  grenade  in  "jest 


toward  others  or  flying  an  aircraft  very  low  over 
a  crowd  to  make  it  scatter. 

A  homicide  committed  during  the 
perpetration  or  attempted  perpetration  of  the 
offenses  specified  in  subparagraph  (4) 
constitutes  murder  even  though  the  slaying  may 
be  unintentional  or  accidental. 

ART.   119. 
MANSLAUGHTER 

"(a)  Any  person  subject  to  this 
code  who,  with  an  intent  to  kill  or  inflict 
great  bodily  harm,  unlawfully  kills  a 
human  being  in  the  heat  of  sudden 
passion  caused  by  adequate  provocation 
is  guilty  of  voluntary  manslaughter  and 
shall  be  punished  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct. 

"(b)  Any  person  subject  to  this 
code  who,  without  an  intent  to  kill  or 
inflict  great  bodily  harm,  unlawfully  kills 
a  human  being— 


'(1)  by    culpable    negligence; 


or 


"(2)  while  perpetrating  or 
attempting  to  perpetrate  an  offense, 
other  than  those  named  in  clause  (4) 
of  article  118,  directly  affecting  the 
person; 

is  guilty  of  involuntary  manslaughter  and 
shall  be  punished  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct." 

The  provocation  here  referred  to  must  be 
adequate  to  excite  uncontrollable  passion  in  the 
mind  of  a  reasonable  man,  and  the  killing  must 
be  committed  because  of  the  passion.  If,  judged 
by  the  standard  of  a  reasonable  man,  sufficient 
cooling  time  elapses  between  the  provocation 
and  the  killing,  it  is  murder,  even  if  the 
passion  of  the  particular  accused  persists.  The 
provocation  must  not  be  sought  or  induced 
as  an  excuse  for  killing.  Instances  of  adequate 
provocation  to  constitute  voluntary  man- 
slaughter are  assault  and  battery  inflicting 
great  or  grievous  bodily  harm,  or  an  unlawful 
imprisonment. 


185 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Culpable  negligence,  as  used  in  1 1 9(b),  is  a 
negligent  act  or  omission  accompanied  by  a 
culpable  disregard  for  its  foreseeable 
consequences  to  others.  Instances  are: 
negligently  conducting  target  practice  so  that 
bullets  go  in  the  direction  of  an  inhabited  house 
within  range,  or  carelessly  leaving  poisons  or 
dangerous  drugs  where  they  may  endanger  life. 

By  an  offense  "directly  affecting  the 
person"  is  meant  one  affecting  some  particular 
person  as  distinguished  from  one  affecting 
society  in  general.  Among  offenses  directly 
affecting  the  person  are  the  various  types  of 
assault,  battery,  false  imprisonment,  voluntary 
engagement  in  an  affray,  the  use  of  more  force 
than  is  reasonably  necessary  in  the  suppression 
of  a  mutiny  or  riot,  and  maiming. 

ART.  120. 

RAPE  AND 

CARNAL  KNOWLEDGE 

"(a)  Any  person  subject  to  this 
code  who  commits  an  act  of  sexual 
intercourse  with  a  female  not  his  wife,  by 
force  and  without  her  consent,  is  guilty 
of  rape  and  shall  be  punished  by  death 
or  such  other  punishment  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct. 

"(b)  Any  person  subject  to  this 
code  who,  under  circumstances  not 
amounting  to  rape,  commits  an  act  of 
sexual  intercourse  with  a  female  not  his 
wife  who  has  not  attained  the  age  of 
sixteen  years,  is  guilty  of  carnal 
knowledge  and  shall  by  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct. 

"(c)  Penetration,  however  slight, 
is  sufficient  to  complete  these  offenses." 

The  victim  of  rape  may  be  of  any  age.  Force 
and  lack  of  consent  are  indispensable  to  the 
offense.  Mere  verbal  protestations  and  a  pretense 
of  resistance  are  not  sufficient  to  show  lack  of 
consent,  and  if  a  woman  fails  to  take  such 
measures  to  frustrate  the  execution  of  a  man's 
design  as  she  is  able  to  make  and  as  are  called  for 
by  the  circumstances,  the  inference  may  be 
drawn  that  she  did  in  fact  consent.  All  the 
surrounding  circumstances  are  to  be  considered 


in  determining  whether  a  woman  gave  her 
consent. 

If  there  is  actual  consent,  although  obtained 
by  fraud,  the  act  is  not  rape;  but  if,  to  the 
accused's  knowledge,  the  woman  is  of  unsound 
mind  or  unconscious  to  an  extent  rendering  her 
incapable  of  giving  consent,  the  act  is  rape. 
Likewise,  the  acquiescence  of  a  female  of  such 
tender  years  that  she  is  incapable  of 
understanding  the  nature  of  the  act  is  not 
consent 

It  is  no  defense  to  a  charge  of  carnal 
knowledge  that  the  accused  is  ignorant  or 
misinformed  as  to  the  true  age  of  the  female,  or 
that  she  was  of  prior  unchaste  character;  it  is  the 
fact  of  the  girl's  age  and  not  his  knowledge  or 
belief  which  fixes  his  criminal  responsibility.  An 
accused  does  not  violate  this  article  by 
committing  an  act  of  sexual  intercourse  (with 
consent)  with  a  female  of  16  years  or  over. 
However,  if  the  statute  of  a  jurisdiction 
denounces  sexual  intercourse  with  a  female 
under  a  certain  age  greater  than  16  years,  the 
violation  of  such  a  statute  within  the  territorial 
limits  of  the  jurisdiction  may  constitute  conduct 
bringing  discredit  upon  the  Armed  Forces  in 
violation  of  article  134. 

ART.   121. 

LARCENY  AND 

WRONGFUL  APPROPRIATION 

"(a)  Any  person  subject  to  this 
code  who  wrongfully  takes,  obtains  or 
withholds  by  any  means,  from  the 
possession  of  the  owner  or  of  any  other 
person  any  money,  personal  property,  or 
article  of  value  of  any  kind— 

"(1)  with  intent  permanently 
to  deprive  or  defraud  another  person 
of  the  use  and  benefit  of  property  or 
to  appropriate  it  to  his  own  use  or 
the  use  of  any  person  other  than  the 
owner,  steals  that  property  and  is 
guilty  of  larceny;  or 

"(2)  with  intent  temporarily 
to  deprive  or  defraud  another  person 
of  the  use  and  benefit  of  property  or 
to  appropriate  it  to  his  own  use  or 
the  use  of  any  person  other  than  the 


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owner,     is     guilty     of     wrongful 
appropriation. 

"(b)  Any  person  found  guilty  of 
larceny  or  wrongful  appropriation  shall 
be  punished  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct." 

"Any  other  person"  means  any  person  (even 
i  person  who  himself  had  stolen  the  property) 
vho  is  an  owner  of  the  property  by  virtue  of  his 
)ossession  or  right  to  possession  thereof.  As  a 
;eneral  rule,  a  taking  or  withholding  is  wrongful 
f  done  without  the  consent  of  the  other,  and  an 
)btaining  of  property  from  the  possession  of 
mother  is  wrongful  if  the  obtaining  is  by  false 
>retense. 

The  existence  of  an  intent  to  steal  must,  in 
nost  cases,  be  inferred  from  the  circumstances, 
fhus,  if  a  person  secretly  takes  property,  hides 
t,  and  denies  that  he  knows  anything  about  it, 
in  intent  to  steal  may  well  be  inferred;  but  if  he 
akes  it  openly  and  returns  it,  this  would  tend 
o  negate  such  an  intent. 

Although  ordinarily  the  taking,  obtaining,  or 
vithholding  need  not  be  for  the  benefit  of  the 
hief  himself,  a  person  who  divests  another  of 
>roperty  intending  only  to  restore  it  to  the 
)ossession  of  the  true  owner,  as  when  he  takes 
tolen  property  from  a  thief  with  that  intent, 
loes  not  commit  larceny  or  wrongful 
ippropriation. 

A  taking  or  withholding  of  lost  property  by 
he  finder  is  larceny  if  accompanied  by  an  intent 
o  steal  and  if  a  clue  to  the  identity  of  the 
>wner,  or  through  which  such  identity  may  be 
raced,  is  furnished  by  the  character,  location,  or 
narking  of  the  property,  or  by  other 
:ircumstances. 

The  distinction  between  larceny  and 
vrongful  appropriation  lies  in  the  words 
'permanently,"  used  in  defining  larceny,  and 
'temporarily,"  used  in  defining  wrongful 
.ppropriation. 

Instances  of  wrongful  appropriation  are: 
aking  the  automobile  of  another  without 
)ermission,  with  intent  to  drive  it  a  short 
listance  and  then  return  it  or  cause  it  to  be 
eturned  to  the  owner;  obtaining  a  service 
veapon  by  falsely  pretending  to  be  about  to  go 
>n  guard  duty,  the  weapon  being  thus  obtained 


with  intent  to  use  it  on  a  hunting  trip  and 
thereafter  effect  its  return. 

ART.  122. 
ROBBERY 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who,  with  intent  to  steal,  takes  anything 
of  value  from  the  person  or  in  the 
presence  of  another,  against  his  will,  by 
means  of  force  or  violence  or  fear  of 
immediate  or  future  injury  to  his  person 
or  property  or  the  person  or  property  of 
a  relative  or  member  of  his  family  or  of 
anyone  in  his  company  at  the  time  of  the 
robbery,  is  guilty  of  robbery  and  shall  be 
punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct." 

When  a  robbery  is  committed  by  force  or 
violence,  there  must  be  actual  force  or  violence 
to  the  person,  preceding  or  accompanying  the 
taking  against  his  will,  and  it  is  immaterial  that 
there  is  no  fear  engendered  in  the  victim. 

When  a  robbery  is  committed  by  putting  the 
victim  in  fear,  there  need  be  no  actual  force  or 
violence,  but  there  must  be  demonstrations  of 
force  or  menaces  by  which  the  victim  is  placed 
in  such  fear  that  he  is  warranted  in  making  no 
resistance. 

ART.   123. 
FORGERY 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who,  with  intent  to  defraud— 

"(1)  falsely  makes  or  alters  any 
signature  to,  or  any  part  of,  any  writing 
which  would,  if  genuine,  apparently 
impose  a  legal  liability  on  another  or 
change  his  legal  right  or  liability  to  his 
prejudice ;  or 

"(2)  utters,  offers,  issues,  or 
transfers  such  a  writing,  known  by  him 
to  be  so  made  or  altered; 

is  guilty  of  forgery  and  shall  be  punished 
as  a  court-martial  may  direct." 

There  are  certain  aspects  common  to  both 
aspects  of  forgery.  These  are  (a)  a  writing  falsely 


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NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


made  or  altered;  (b)  an  apparent  capability  of 
the  writing  so  falsely  made  or  altered  to  impose 
a  legal  liability  to  his  prejudice;  and  (c)  an  intent 
to  defraud. 

Forgery  is  not  committed  by  the  genuine 
making  of  a  false  instrument  for  the  purpose  of 
defrauding  another.  For  example,  a  check 
bearing  the  signature  of  the  maker  has  no  money 
or  credit,  and  even  with  intent  to  defraud  the 
payee  or  the  bank,  is  not  a  forgery,  for  the 
check,  though  false,  is  not  falsely  made.  (Such 
act  would  constitute  a  violation  of  article  123a.) 
However,  signing  the  name  of  another  to  a  check 
without  authority  and  with  intent  to  defraud  is 
forgery,  as  the  signature  is  falsely  made. 

A  forgery  may  be  committed  by  a  person 
signing  his  own  name  to  an  instrument  For 
example,  if  a  check  payable  to  the  order  of  a 
certain  person  comes  into  the  hands  of  another 
person  of  the  same  name,  the  receiver  commits 
forgery  if,  knowing  the  check  to  be  another's,  he 
indorses  it  with  his  own  name,  intending  to 
defraud. 

Some  of  the  instruments  most  frequently 
subject  to  forgery  are  checks,  orders  for  delivery 
of  money  or  goods,  military  orders  directing 
travel,  and  receipts.  A  writing  may  be  falsely 
''made'1  by  materially  altering  an  existing 
writing,  by  filling  in  a  paper  signed  in  blank,  or 
by  signing  an  instrument  already  written. 

ART.   123a. 

MAKING,  DRAWING,  OR 
UTTERING  CHECK,  DRAFT, 
OR  ORDER  WITHOUT 
SUFFICIENT  FUNDS 

"Any   person   subject   to   this  code 

who- 
'll )      for  the  procurement  of  any 

article  or  thing  of  value,  with  intent  to 

defraud;  or 

"(2)  for  the  payment  of  any  past 
due  obligation,  or  for  any  other  purpose, 
with  intent  to  deceive; 

makes,  draws,  utters,  or  delivers  any 
check,  draft,  or  order  for  the  payment  of 
money  upon  any  bank  or  other 
depository,  knowing  at  the  time  that  the 


maker  or  drawer  has  not  or  will  not  have 
sufficient  funds  in,  or  credit  with,  the 
bank  or  other  depository  for  the 
payment  of  that  check,  draft,  or  order  in 
full  upon  its  presentment,  shall  be 
punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct. 
The  making,  drawing,  uttering,  or 
delivering  by  a  maker  or  drawer  of  a 
check,  draft,  or  order,  payment  of  which 
is  refused  by  the  drawee  because  of 
insufficient  funds  of  the  maker  or 
drawer  in  the  drawee's  possession  or 
control,  is  prima  facie  evidence  of  his 
intent  to  defraud  or  deceive  and  of  his 
knowledge  of  insufficient  funds  in,  or 
credit  with,  that  bank  or  other  deposi- 
tory, unless  the  maker  or  drawer  pays  the 
holder  the  amount  due  within  five  days 
after  receiving  notice,  orally  or  in  writ- 
ing, that  the  check,  draft,  or  order  was 
not  paid  on  presentment.  In  this  section, 
the  word  'credit'  means  an  arrangement 
or  understanding,  express  or  implied, 
with  the  bank  or  other  depository  for  the 
payment  of  that  check,  draft,  or  order." 

This  article  provides  specific  statutory 
authority  for  the  prosecution  of  bad  check 
offenses.  In  the  absence  of  evidence  indicating 
otherwise,  bad  faith  might  be  shown  by  the 
maker's  or  drawer's  failure  to  effect  redemption 
within  the  5-day  period  provided  for  in  the 
article.  The  offense  of  wrongfully  and 
dishonorably  failing  to  maintain  sufficient  funds 
for  payment  of  checks  upon  presentment,  in 
violation  of  article  134,  is  a  lesser  included 
offense  under  this  article,  not  requiring  proof  of 
fraudulent  intent. 

ART.   124. 
MAIMING 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who,  with  intent  to  injure,  disfigure,  or 
disable,  inflicts  upon  the  person  of 
another  an  injury  which— 

"(1 )  seriously  disfigures  his  person 
by  any  mutilation  thereof; 

"(2)  destroys  or  disables  any 
member  or  organ  of  his  body;  or 


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/  .L/J.LJV^JL.1.   J-.JU 


"(3)  seriously  diminishes  his 
physical  vigor  by  the  injury  of  any 
member  or  organ;  is  guilty  of  maiming 
and  shall  be  punished  as  a  court-martial 
may  direct." 

It  is  maiming  to  put  out  a  man's  eye,  to  cut 
off  his  hand,  foot,  or  finger,  or  to  knock  out  his 
front  teeth,  as  these  injuries  destroy  or  disable 
those  members  or  organs.  It  is  maiming  to  cut 
off  an  ear  or  to  scar  a  face  with  acid,  as  these 
injuries  seriously  disfigure  the  person.  It  is  also 
maiming  to  injure  an  internal  organ  so  as  to 
seriously  diminish  the  physical  vigor  of  a  person. 

The  disfigurement,  diminishment  of  vigor,  or 
destruction  or  disablement  of  any  member  or 
organ  must  be  a  serious  injury,  one  of  a 
substantially  permanent  nature.  The  offense  is 
complete  if  such  an  injury  is  inflicted,  however, 
even  though  there  is  a  possibility  that  the  victim 
may  eventually  recover  the  use  of  the  member 
or  organ,  or  that  the  disfigurement  may  be  cured 
by  surgery. 

Infliction  of  the  type  of  injuries  listed  above 
is  presumptive  evidence  of  an  intent  to  injure, 
disfigure,  or  disable  another.  Even  one  who 
intends  only  a  slight  injury  commits  maiming  if 
the  injury  inflicted  in  fact  is  within  the  terms  of 
the  article;  a  specific  intent  to  maim  is  not 
required.  If  the  injury  be  done  under 
circumstances  that  would  justify  or  excuse 
homicide,  the  offense  of  maiming  is  not 
committed. 

ART.  125. 
SODOMY 

"(a)  Any  person  subject  to  this 
code  who  engages  in  unnatural  carnal 
copulation  with  another  person  of  the 
same  or  opposite  sex  or  with  an  animal  is 
guilty  of  sodomy.  Penetration,  however 
slight,  is  sufficient  to  complete  the 
offense. 

"(b)  Any  person  found  guilty  of 
sodomy  shall  be  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct." 

Any  unnatural  method  of  carnal  copulation 
is  prohibited  by  this  article.  Any  penetration, 


however  slight,  is  sufficient  to  complete   the 
offense  and  emission  is  not  necessary. 

ART.   126. 
ARSON 

"(a)  Any  person  subject  to  this 
code  who  willfully  and  maliciously  burns 
or  sets  on  fire  an  inhabited  dwelling,  or 
any  other  structure,  movable  or 
immovable,  wherein  to  the  knowledge  of 
the  offender  there  is  at  the  time  a  human 
being,  is  guilty  of  aggravated  arson  and 
shall  be  punished  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct. 

"(b)  Any  person  subject  to  this 
code  who  willfully  and  maliciously  burns 
or  sets  fire  to  the  property  of  another, 
except  as  provided  in  subsection  (a),  is 
guilty  of  simple  arson  and  shall  be 
punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct." 

In  aggravated  arson  danger  to  human  life  is 
the  essential  element;  in  simple  arson  it  is  injury 
to  the  property  of  another.  In  either  case  it  is 
immaterial  that  no  one  is,  in  fact,  injured. 

ART.   127. 
EXTORTION 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who  communicates  threats  to  another 
person  with  the  intention  thereby  to 
obtain  anything  of  value  or  any 
acquittance,  advantage,  or  immunity  is 
guilty  of  extortion  and  shall  be  punished 
as  a  court-martial  may  direct." 

A  threat  may  be  communicated  by  word  of 
mouth  or  in  a  writing,  the  essential  element  of 
the  offense  being  the  knowledge  of  the  victim. 
An  acquittance  is,  in  general  terms,  a  release  or 
discharge  from  an  obligation.  An  intent  to  obtain 
any  advantage  or  immunity  of  any  description 
may  include  an  intent  to  make  a  person  do  an 
act  against  his  will. 

The  threat  sufficient  to  constitute  extortion 
may  be  a  threat  against  the  person  or  property 
of  the  individual  threatened  or  of  any  member 
of  his  family  or  any  other  person  held  dear  to 
him,  to  do  an  unlawful  injury,  to  accuse  of 


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NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


crime,  to  expose  or  impute  any  deformity  or 
disgrace,  or  to  expose  any  secret  or  to  do  any 
other  harm. 

ART.  128. 
ASSAULT 

"(a)  Any  person  subject  to  this 
code  who  attempts  or  offers  with 
unlawful  force  or  violence  to  do  bodily 
harm  to  another  person,  whether  or  not 
the  attempt  or  offer  is  consummated,  is 
guilty  of  assault  and  shall  be  punished  as 
a  court-martial  may  direct. 

"(b)  Any  person  subject  to  this 
code  who- 

"(1 )  commits  an  assault  with  a 
dangerous  weapon  or  other  means  or 
force  likely  to  produce  death  or 
grievous  bodily  harm;  or 

"(2)  commits  an  assault  and 
intentionally  inflicts  grievous  bodily 
harm  with  or  without  a  weapon ; 

is  guilty  of  aggravated  assault  and  shall 
be  punished  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct." 

An  offer  to  do  bodily  harm  to  another,  as 
distinguished  from  an  attempt  to  do  such 
harm,  is  a  placing  of  the  other  in  reasonable 
apprehension  that  force  will  at  once  be  applied 
to  his  person.  Pointing  an  unloaded  pistol  which 
the  assailant  knows  to  be  unloaded  at  another  is 
not  an  attempt  to  do  bodily  harm,  for  the 
assailant  knows  that  he  cannot  shoot  the  victim ; 
yet  such  an  act  may  be  an  assault  if  the  victim  is 
put  in  reasonable  fear  of  bodily  injury.  For 
example,  if  A  points  a  pistol  at  B  and  says  to  B, 
"If  you  don't  hand  over  your  watch,  you're 
dead,"  A  has  committed  an  assault  upon  B. 

An  assault  in  which  the  attempt  or  offer  to 
do  bodily  harm  is  consummated  by  the  inflic- 
tion of  harm  is  called  a  battery.  A  battery  is  an 
unlawful,  and  intentional  or  culpably  negligent, 
application  of  force  to  the  person  of  another 
by  a  material  agency  used  directly  or  in- 
directly. It  may  be  a  battery  to  set  a  dog 
to  biting  a  person,  to  shoot  a  person,  to  cause 
him  to  take  poison,  or  to  run  an  automobile 
into  him. 


In  order  to  constitute  an  assault,  the  act  of 
violence  must  be  unlawful.  It  must  be  done 
without  legal  justification  or  excuse  and  without 
the  consent  of  the  person  affected. 

Article  128  (b)  defines  two  kinds  of 
aggravated  assault.  One  is  an  assault  with  a 
dangerous  weapon  or  other  means  or  force  likely 
to  produce  death  or  grievous  bodily  harm.  The 
other  is  an  assault,  with  or  without  a  weapon,  in 
which  the  assailant  intentionally  inflicts  grievous 
bodily  harm. 

A  weapon  is  dangerous  when  used  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  is  likely  to  produce  death  or 
grievous  bodily  harm.  "Grievous  bodily  harm" 
does  not  include  minor  injuries,  such  as  a  black 
eye  or  a  bloody  nose,  but  does  include  fractured 
or  dislocated  bones,  deep  cuts,  torn  members  of 
the  body,  serious  damage  to  internal  organs,  and 
other  serious  injuries.  When  the  natural  and 
probable  consequence  of  a  particular  use  of  any 
means  or  force  would  be  death  or  bodily  harm, 
it  may  be  said  that  the  means  or  force  is  "likely" 
to  produce  that  result. 

With  respect  to  the  offense  of  aggravated 
assault  with  a  dangerous  weapon  or  other  means 
or  force  likely  to  produce  death  or  grievous 
bodily  harm,  it  is  not  necessary  that  death  or 
grievous  bodily  harm  actually  be  inflicted. 

ART.  129. 
BURGLARY 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who,  with  intent  to  commit  an  offense 
punishable  under  articles  118  through 
128,  breaks  and  enters,  in  the  nighttime, 
the  dwelling  house  of  another,  is  guilty 
of  burglary  and  shall  be  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct." 

The  house  must  be  occupied  at  the  time  of 
the  breaking  and  entry,  but  it  is  not  necessary 
that  anyone  actually  be  in  it.  Opening  a  closed 
door  or  window  or  other  similar  fixture,  or 
cutting  out  the  glass  of  a  window  or  the  netting 
of  a  screen  is  a  sufficient  breaking,  as  is  entry 
gained  through  a  trick,  false  pretense, 
impersonation,  intimidation,  or  collusion.  Entry 
of  any  part  of  the  body,  even  a  finger,  is 
sufficient  to  constitute  "entry."  It  is  not 
essential  that  the  intruder  succeed  in  carrying 


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Chapter  7-DISCIPLINE  AND  THE  UNIFORM  CODE  OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE 


out    the    intent    with    which    the    house    was 
broken  into. 

ART.   130. 
HOUSED  REARING 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who  unlawfully  enters  the  building  or 
structure  of  another  with  intent  to 
commit  a  criminal  offense  therein  is 
guilty  of  housebreaking  and  shall  be 
punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct." 

The  initial  entering  must  amount  to  trespass; 
this  article  is  not  violated  if  the  accused  entered 
the  building  or  structure  lawfully,  even  though 
he  had  the  intent  to  commit  an  offense  therein. 
This  offense  is  broader  than  burglary  in  that  the 
place  entered  need  not  be  a  dwelling  house;  it  is 
not  necessary  that  the  place  be  occupied;  it  is 
not  essential  that  there  be  a  breaking;  the  entry 
may  be  either  in  the  night  or  in  the  daytime;  and 
the  criminal  intent  is  not  limited  to  those 
offenses  punishable  under  articles  1 1 8  through 
128. 

ART.   131. 
PERJURY 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code 
who  in  a  judicial  proceeding  or  course  of 
justice  willfully  and  corruptly  gives, 
upon  a  lawful  oath  or  in  any  form 
allowed  by  law  to  be  substituted  for  an 
oath,  any  false  testimony  material  to  the 
issue  or  matter  of  inquiry  is  guilty  of 
perjury  and  shall  be  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct." 

"Judicial  proceeding"  includes  a  trial  by 
court-martial,  and  "course  of  justice"  includes 
an  investigation  conducted  under  article  32. 

For  false  testimony  to  be  "willfully  and 
corruptly"  given,  it  must  appear  that  the 
accused  did  not  believe  his  testimony  to  be  true. 

The  false  testimony  must  be  with  respect  to 
a  material  matter,  but  that  matter  need  not  be 
the  main  issue  in  the  case.  Thus  perjury  may  be 
committed  by  giving  false  testimony  with 
respect  to  the  credibility  of  a  material  witness, 


as  well  as  by  giving  false  testimony  concerning 
either  direct  or  circumstantial  evidence. 

ART.   132. 
FRAUDS  AGAINST 
THE  GOVERNMENT 

"Any  person  subject  to  this  code— 

"(1)  who,  knowing  it  to  be  false 
or  fraudulent— 

"(A)  makes  any  claim  against 
the  United  States  or  any  officer 
thereof;  or 

"(B)  presents  to  any  person  in 
the  civil  or  military  service  thereof, 
for  approval  or  payment,  any  claim 
against  the  United  States  or  any 
officer  thereof; 

"(2)  who,  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  the  approval,  allowance,  or 
payment  of  any  claim  against  the  United 
States  or  any  officer  thereof— 

"(A)  makes  or  uses  any  writing 
or  other  paper  knowing  it  to  contain 
any  false  or  fraudulent  statements; 

"(B)  makes  any  oath  to  any 
fact  or  to  any  writing  or  other  paper 
knowing  the  oath  to  be  false;  or 

"(C)  forges  or  counterfeits  any 
signature  upon  any  writing  or  other 
paper,  or  uses  any  such  signature 
knowing  it  to  be  forged  or 
counterfeited; 

"(3)  who,  having  charge, 
possession,  custody,  or  control  of  any 
money  or  other  property  of  the  United 
States,  furnished  or  intended  for  the 
armed  forces  thereof,  knowingly  delivers 
to  any  person  having  authority  to  receive 
it,  any  amount  thereof  less  than  that  for 
which  he  receives  a  certificate  or  receipt; 
or 

"(4)  who,  being  authorized  to 
make  or  deliver  any  paper  certifying  the 
receipt  of  any  property  of  the  United 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


States  furnished  or  intended  for  the 
armed  forces  thereof,  makes  or  delivers 
to  any  person  such  writing  without 
having  full  knowledge  of  the  truth  of  the 
statements  therein  contained  and  with 
intent  to  defraud  the  United  States, 

shall,  upon  conviction,  be  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct." 

To  constitute  the  offense  of  making  a  false 
or  fraudulent  claim,  it  is  not  necessary  that  the 
claim  be  allowed  or  paid  or  that  it  be  made  by 
the  person  to  be  benefited.  The  claim  must  be 
made  with  knowledge  of  its  fictitious  or 
dishonest  character.  As  an  example,  a  false  claim 
is  made  when  one  having  a  claim  respecting 
property  lost  in  the  military  service  knowingly 
includes  articles  that  were  not  in  fact  lost  and 
submits  the  claim. 

False  and  fraudulent  claims  include  not  only 
those  containing  some  material,  false  statement, 
but  also  claims  which  the  claimant  knows  he  is 
not  authorized  to  present  or  has  no  right  to 
collect.  A  false  claim  may  be  tacitly  presented, 
as  when  a  person  who  knows  he  is  not  entitled 
to  certain  pay  accepts  it  nevertheless,  without 
disclosing  his  disqualification. 

The  offense  of  making  a  writing  or  other 
paper  known  to  contain  a  false  or  fraudulent 
statement  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the 
approval,  allowance,  or  payment  of  a  claim  is 
complete  when  the  writing  or  paper  is  made  for 
that  purpose,  whether  or  not  any  use  of  the 
paper  has  been  attempted  and  whether  or  not 
the  claim  has  been  presented. 

To  constitute  an  offense  under  article 
132(2)  (B)  the  accused  must  know  that  the  oath 
was  false  and  have  made  it  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  the  approval,  allowance,  or  payment 
of  a  claim  against  the  United  States. 

With  respect  to  delivering  less  than  the 
amount  called  for  by  a  receipt,  it  is  immaterial 
by  what  means,  whether  deceit,  collusion,  or 
otherwise,  the  accused  effected  the  transaction, 
or  what  his  purpose  was  in  so  doing. 

Article  1 3  2  (4)  makes  it  an  offense  to  make 
or  deliver  a  receipt  without  having  full 
knowledge  that  it  is  true  and  with  intent  to 
defraud  the  United  States.  For  instance,  if  an 
officer  has  been  authorized  to  certify  the  receipt 


of  any  property  of  the  United  States  furnished 
or  intended  for  the  Armed  Forces,  and  a  receipt 
is  presented  for  his  signature,  stating  that  a 
certain  amount  of  supplies  has  been  furnished 
by  a  certain  contractor,  it  is  the  officer's  duty 
before  signing  the  paper  to  know  that  the  full 
amount  of  supplies  stated  in  the  receipt  has  in 
fact  been  furnished,  and  that  the  statements 
contained  in  the  paper  are  true.  If,  with  intent 
to  defraud  the  United  States,  he  signs  the  paper 
without  that  knowledge,  he  is  guilty  of  a 
violation  of  this  article. 

ART.  133. 

CONDUCT  UNBECOMING  AN 

OFFICER  AND  A  GENTLEMAN 

"Any  commissioned  officer,  cadet, 
or  midshipman  who  is  convicted  of 
conduct  unbecoming  an  officer  and  a 
gentleman  shall  be  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct." 

Conduct  that  violates  this  article  is  action  or 
behavior  in  an  official  capacity  which,  in 
dishonoring  or  disgracing  the  individual  as  an 
officer,  seriously  compromises  his  character  as  a 
gentleman;  or  action  or  behavior  in  an  unofficial 
or  private  capacity,  which,  in  dishonoring  or 
disgracing  the  individual  personally,  seriously 
compromises  his  standing  as  an  officer. 

Instances  of  violation  of  this  article  are 
dishonorable  failure  to  pay  debts;  opening  and 
reading  the  letters  of  another  without  authority; 
being  grossly  drunk  and  conspicuously 
disorderly  in  a  public  place,  committing  or 
attempting  to  commit  a  crime  involving  moral 
turpitude. 

This  article  includes  acts  made  punishable  by 
any  other  article,  provided  such  acts  amount  to 
conduct  unbecoming  an  officer  and  a  gentleman. 

ART.  134. 
GENERAL  ARTICLE 

"Though  not  specifically  mentioned 
in  this  code,  all  disorders  and  neglects  to 
the  prejudice  of  good  order  and 
discipline  in  the  armed  forces,  all 
conduct  of  a  nature  to  bring  discredit 
upon  the  armed  forces,  and  crimes  and 


Chapter  7-DISCIPLINE  AND  THE  UNIFORM  CODE  OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE 


£.  offenses  not  capital,  of  which  persons 
'"  subject  to  this  code  may  be  guilty,  shall 
be  taken  cognizance  of  by  a  general, 
special,  or  summary  court-martial, 
according  to  the  nature  and  degree  of 
the  offense,  and  shall  be  punished  at  the 
discretion  of  that  court." 

Article  134  makes  punishable  acts  or 
omissions  not  specifically  mentioned  in  other 
articles,  such  as  wearing  an  improper  uniform, 
abusive  use  of  a  mifitary  vehicle,  the  careless 
discharge  of  a  firearm,  impersonating  an  officer, 
offenses  involving  official  passes,  permits,  and 
certificates,  and  the  wrongful  possession  of  a 
habit-forming  narcotic  drug. 

"Discredit"  means  "to  injure  the  reputation 
of,"  that  is,  to  bring  the  service  into  disrepute. 
Examples  include  acts  in  violation  of  state  or 
foreign  law,  failure  to  pay  one's  debts,  adultery, 
bigamy,  and  indecent  acts. 

Crimes  and  offenses  not  capital  include 
those  acts  or  omissions,  not  made  punishable 
by  another  article,  which  are  denounced  as 
crimes  or  offenses  by  enactments  of  Congress,  or 
under  authority  of  Congress  and  made  triable  in 
the  Federal  civil  courts.  Certain  of  such  offenses 
are  made  punishable  wherever  committed; 
others  are  punishable  only  if  committed  within 
the  geographical  boundaries  of  the  areas  in 
which  they  are  applicable. 

ART.  138. 

COMPLAINTS  OF  WRONGS 

"Any  member  of  the  armed  forces 
who  believes  himself  wronged  by  his 
commanding  officer,  and  who,  upon  due 
application  to  that  commanding  officer, 
is  refused  redress,  may  complain  to  any 
superior  commissioned  officer,  who  shall 
forward  the  complaint  to  the  officer 
exercising  general  court-martial 
jurisdiction  over  the  officer  against 
whom  it  is  made.  The  officer  exercising 
general  court-martial  jurisdiction  shall 
examine  into  the  complaint  and  take 
proper  measures  for  redressing  the  wrong 
complained  of;  and  he  shall,  as  soon  as 
possible,  send  to  the  Secretary 
concerned  a  true  statement  of  that 


complaint,    with    the   proceedings   had 
thereon." 

This  article  provides  for  redress  of  wrongs 
inflicted  by  a  commanding  officer  ori  his 
subordinates,  and  it  prescribes  the  procedure  to 
be  followed  by  subordinates  to  apply  for  such 
redress. 

ART.   139. 

REDRESS  OF  INJURIES 

TO  PROPERTY 

"(a)  Whenever  complaint  is  made 
to  any  commanding  officer  that  willful 
damage  has  been  done  to  the  property  of 
any  person  or  that  his  property  has  been 
wrongfully  taken  by  members  of  the 
armed  forces,  he  may,  under  such 
regulations  as  the  Secretary  concerned 
may  prescribe,  convene  a  board  to 
investigate  the  complaint.  The  board 
shall  consist  of  from  one  to  three 
commissioned  officers  and,  for  the 
purpose  of  that  investigation,  it  has 
power  to  summon  witnesses  and 
examine  them  upon  oath,  to  receive 
depositions  or  other  documentary 
evidence,  and  to  assess  the  damages 
sustained  against  the  responsible  parties. 
The  assessment  of  damages  made  by  the 
board  is  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
commanding  officer,  and  in  the  amount 
approved  by  him  shall  be  charged  against 
the  pay  of  the  offenders.  The  order  of 
the  commanding  officer  directing 
charges  herein  authorized  is  conclusive 
on  any  disbursing  officer  for  the 
payment  by  him  to  the  injured  parties  of 
the  damages  so  assessed  and  approved. 

"(b)  If  the  offenders  cannot  be 
ascertained,  but  the  organization  or 
detachment  to  which  they  belong  is 
known,  charges  totaling  the  amount  of 
damages  assessed  and  approved  may  be 
made  in  such  proportion  as  may  be 
considered  just  upon  the  individual 
members  thereof  who  are  shown  to  have 
been  present  at  the  scene  at  the  time  the 
damages  complained  of  were  inflicted,  as 
determined  by  the  approved  findings  of 
the  board." 


CHAPTER  8 

LEADERSHIP 


Civilian  executives  lead  by  virtue  of  superior 
knowledge  (through  education  and/or 
experience),  and  strong  character  or  personality. 
There  is  no  law  that  sanctions  their  position,  and 
they  may  not  be  legally  responsible  for  those 
they  lead.  Their  responsibility,  if  any,  for  the 
well-being  of  their  followers  is  primarily  a  moral 
one.  On  the  other  hand,  military  officers,  by 
virtue  of  their  commissions,  have  a  legal  as  well 
as  a  moral  obligation.  They  represent  the 
Government's  responsibility  to  enforce  the  law 
of  the  land,  and  they  are  charged  with  the 
well-being  of  their  men  and  women. 

A  leader's  position  is,  to  an  extent, 
analogous  to  that  of  a  skilled  artisan  with  a  fine 
set  of  tools.  The  artisan  keeps  his  tools  in 
first-class  condition,  for  on  them  depends  his 
ability  to  turn  out  fine  work.  The  leader's  tools 
are  the  personnel  on  whom  he  depends  to 
accomplish  the  assigned  mission.  They,  like  the 
artisan's  tools,  must  be  in  good  physical 
condition.  But  here  the  analogy  ends;  personnel 
are  not  objects  to  be  polished  by  supplying  their 
physical  needs,  to  be  laid  aside  when  finished 
with  a  job,  and  to  be  picked  up  again  when 
needed. 

Even  though  the  Navy  does  everything 
feasible  to  provide  for  the  physical  well-being  of 
its  personnel,  the  young  officer  must  not  assume 
they  are,  therefore,  well  cared  for.  The  officer 
must  be  personally  concerned  with  their  welfare; 
must  know  each  individual-their  background, 
capabilities,  and  limitations.  The  officer  should 
be  aware  constantly  that  debts,  personal  health, 
or  any  one  of  many  problems  may  destroy  a 
person's  peace  of  mind  and,  hence,  efficiency. 

A  good  officer  gains  the  confidence  of  the 
personnel  so  that  they  feel  free  to  talk  about 
their  problems,  knowing  they  will  get  all 


possible  assistance.  The  occasional  person  who 
cannot  discuss  their  problems  with  a  superior 
sometimes  can  be  skillfully  drawn  out  and 
helped,  but  an  officer  should  use  care  and  tact 
when  attempting  this. 

In  every  group  there  are  a  few  people  whose 
sole  interest  in  life  is  to  complete  their  time  and 
leave  the  Navy.  Most  of  them  merely  are 
disinterested,  but  from  their  ranks  many 
troublemakers  arise.  Any  single  division  may 
have  only  one  or  two  of  them;  in  the  aggregate, 
however,  they  present  a  tremendous  problem. 
Properly  motivated  and  instilled  with  a  little 
moral  responsibility  they  can  be  a  great  asset. 
All  are  important,  and  we  must  not  lose  their 
services  through  failure  to  redirect  their  interests 
and  energies. 

The  rebellious  ones  must  be  made  to 
understand  that  it  is  not  only  in  the  Navy  but 
everywhere  they  go  that  they  will  be  required  to 
abide  by  rules  and  regulations.  It  must  be 
pointed  out  to  them  that  rules  and  regulations 
serve  as  guides  by  which  we  live  and,  if  followed 
by  all,  make  life  more  pleasant  and  easy  for  all 
of  us.  They  must  be  taught  that  the  more  they 
discipline  themselves,  the  less  they  will  be 
disciplined  by  others.  They  must  be  shown  their 
importance  to  the  team  and  that  their  shipmates 
must  be  able  to  depend  on  them  day  by  day,  as 
well  as  in  battle.  They,  along  with  those  that  are 
disinterested,  must  be  made  to  realize  that 
increasing  their  knowledge,  advancing  in  rating, 
and  assuming  more  responsibilities  are  no  longer 
matters  of  personal  preference  but  duties. 

It  is  no  secret  that  the  Navy  of  today  is 
besieged  by  many  difficult  leadership  challenges: 
recruiting  in  the  all-volunteer  force  environment, 
ensuring  equality  for  all,  eliminating  drug  and 
alcohol  abuse  and  retaining  valuable  personnel. 


1  QA 


Chapter  8-LEADERSHIP 


It  is  becoming  increasingly  apparent  that  we 
must  ensure  that  our  leaders  know  how  to 
maximize  their  capabilities  to  ensure  that  each 
problem  is  objectively  analyzed,  that  creative 
and  innovative  alternatives  are  developed,  and 
that  action  plans  \are  pursued  with  vigorous 
enthusiasm.  With  these  goals  in  mind,  leadership 
schools  have  been  established  for  officers  and 
petty  officers. 


QUALITIES  OF  A 
LEADER 

No  two  leaders  are  exactly  alike.  They  do 
not  possess  the  same  qualities  in  equal 
proportions,  nor  do  they  accomplish  their  ends 
in  the  same  manner.  One  thing  is  certain, 
however,  all  great  leaders  are  imbued  with 
certain  characteristics  and  abilities  which  they 
utilize  to  the  greatest  advantage.  Some  have 
turned  weaknesses  into  strengths  and,  by 
exercise  of  willpower  and  dint  of  hard  work, 
risen  far  above  what  normally  might  have  been 
expected  of  them. 

Every  leader  will  not  possess  every  quality 
discussed  here,  but  every  good  leader  will  have  a 
substantial  number  of  them.  Moreover,  the  less 
natural  ability  a  leader  has,  the  more  important 
it  is  to  cultivate  the  leadership  qualities  needed 
to  be  effective.  All  truly  great  leaders  share  one 
common  characteristic.  They  are  bound  by 
personal  codes  of  conduct  — moral 
responsibility— which  do  not  permit  them  to 
exploit  their  abilities  and  positions  to  .the 
detriment  of  their  followers. 

Most  of  us  understand  about  written  and 
unwritten  laws  that  guide  our  actions  and  define 
our  duties-"thou  shalts"  and  "thou  shalt  nots" 
by  which  we  are  required  to  abide.  Those  are 
rules  established  by  governments  and  by 
common  usage.  If  we  break  the  laws  or  neglect 
the  duties,  authorities  may  bestow  suitable 
punishments  on  us. 

There  are,  however,  other  laws  and  other 
duties  that  have  no  legal  standing  as  far  as  any 
lawmaking  or  law  enforcing  branch  of 
government  is  concerned.  These  are  moral  laws 
and  duties.  Each  person  establishes  these  for 
himself,  based  on  his  own  principles.  Depending 
on  the  character  of  the  person,  they  can  be 


extensive  and  more  binding  than  any  statutory 
laws,  or  they  can  be  completely  nonexistent 
There  is  no  legal  punishment  for  ignoring  these 
laws  and  duties,  and  the  only  enforcer  is  each 
person's  own  conscience. 

In  various  places  throughout  this  text  we 
quote  rules  and  regulations,  at  times  explaining 
them  in  more  or  less  detail.  Therefore,  we  feel 
we  may  assume  the  reader  is,  by  now,  familiar 
with  legal  responsibilities.  But  what  about  those 
moral  responsibilities?  The  Navy  expects  its 
personnel  to  demonstrate  more  than  minimum 
standards  of  moral  responsibility.  Commanding 
officers  and  others  in  authority,  for  example,  are 
required  to  set  good  examples  of  virtue,  honor, 
patriotism,  and  subordination;  to  be  vigilant  in 
inspecting  the  conduct  of  persons  under  their 
command;  to  suppress  all  dissolute  and  immoral 
practices;  and  to  take  necessary  and  proper 
procedures  to  promote  and  safeguard  the 
morale,  physical  well-being,  and  general  welfare 
of  persons  under  their  command. 

The  history  of  effective  naval  leadership  has 
isolated  additional  moral  principles  that  have 
characterized  successful  leaders  from  the  very 
beginning,  down  to  our  present  time. 

LOYALTY 


Loyalty  means  a  true,  faithful,  strong  (even 
enthusiastic)  devotion  to  one's  country. 
Ordinarily,  this  type  of  loyalty  will  be  assumed 
and  never  questioned,  but  loyalty  must  also  be 
broadened  to  include  one's  superiors  and  one's 
subordinates. 

Human  nature  is  such  that  the  ordinary 
person  wants  to  and  will  extend  loyalty  to  others 
in  his  organization.  In  the  long  run,  however, 
everyone  must  earn  the  right  to  that  loyalty,  and 
part  of  the  price  paid  for  this  loyalty  is  loyalty 
to  others.  Enlisted  personnel  are  particularly 
sensitive  about  loyalty  extended  to  them  and  are 
quick  to  discern  and  resent  its  absence.  The 
degree  of  loyalty  a  division  officer  shows  toward 
the  division  has  a  direct  bearing  on  the  morale  of 
division  personnel.  Most  persons  have  a  high 
sense  of  duty,  and  self-respect  will  not  allow 
them  to  neglect  that  duty  merely  to  spite  a 
superior.  But  the  officer  who  has  not  earned  the 


195 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


loyalty  of  the  personnel  cannot  expect  to 
receive  that  extra  effort  above  the  call  of  duty 
which  is  so  often  necessary  to  accomplish  a 
mission.  This  brings  us  to  another  important 
quality,  devotion  to  duty. 

DEVOTION  TO  DUTY 

Devotion  to  duty  is  closely  allied  to  loyalty. 
In  fact,  it  might  be  defined  as  loyalty  to  the  post 
or  position  one  holds.  Occasionally  immature 
young  persons  endowed  with  talents  which  they 
feel  are  superior  to  those  required  to  fill  the 
minor  positions  in  which  they  find  themselves 
may  become  resentful  because  their  abilities  are 
not  utilized  to  better  advantage.  Consequently, 
their  performance  falls  off. 

A  more  enlightened  individual  might  assume 
that,  because  the  post  exists,  it  must  be 
important  even  though  the  importance  is  not 
readily  apparent.  Assuming  this,  such  an  in- 
dividual gives  a  little  more  to  the  position  than  it 
seems  to  require.  He  spends  his  extra  energy  and 
talents  learning  a  new  and  more  important  job. 
Thus  he  fulfills  his  obligation  to  his  organi- 
zation, inspires  other  personnel  to  greater 
efforts,  and  earns  the  respect  of  all  concerned. 
There  is  little  doubt  as  to  the  choice  between 
these  two  individuals  to  fill  the  first  important 
opening. 

The  ambitious  individual  described  above 
would  be  considered  a  satisfying  asset  in  any 
civilian  firm;  employers  would  keep  their  eyes 
on  him  and  perhaps  expect  great  things  of  him. 
However,  mere  ambition  is  not  enough  in  the 
military  service.  An  officer  or  enlisted  person  in 
any  service  is  expected  to  place  duty  above  self. 
Everyone  at  all  times  must  do  their  duty  to  the 
best  of  their  ability— not  because  of  the  personal 
gain  involved  but  because  that  is  the  most 
expeditious  and  perhaps  only  way  of 
accomplishing  the  mission. 

Each  person  who  refuses  to  shoulder  their 
share  of  the  load  makes  it  that  much  heavier  for 
the  rest  of  the  unit.  Hardships  may  be  increased, 
lives  may  be  sacrificed  needlessly,  and  the  unit 
may  fail  in  its  mission.  The  well-known  parable 
of  the  loss  of  a  kingdom  through  want  of  a  horse 
describes  the  situation  perfectly. 


The  ability  to  take  orders  is  a  quality  that 
should  be  discussed  along  with  devotion  to  duty. 
One  so  closely  follows  the  other  that  it  is 
difficult  to  distinguish  between  them.  Any 
position  is  usually  covered  by  standing  orders 
designed  to  assist  the  person  holding  the 
position  in  doing  the  job  effectively;  an  order 
received  immediately  becomes  a  duty  of  the 
recipient.  Therefore,  the  most  trivial  order,  even 
one  given  in  the  nature  of  a  reminder-necessary 
or  not-must  not  be  resented.  It  must  be  quickly 
and  cheerfully  obeyed  and  its  accomplishment 
reported  to  the  superior  who  gave  it. 

Devotion  to  duty  and  the  ability  to  take 
orders  are  so  important  that  the  Navy  has  no 
place  for  the  immature  people  who  refuse  to 
grow  up,  the  self-seekers  who  do  their  best  only 
when  it  is  advantageous  to  them  to  do  so,  or  the 
resentful,  hard-headed,  self-important 
individuals  who  cannot  take  orders. 

PROFESSIONAL  KNOWLEDGE 


Of  greatest  importance,  a  person  who 
thoroughly  knows  his  job  is  far  better  qualified 
to  lead  than  one  who  does  not,  but 
unfortunately,  professional  experience  does  not 
burst  into  full  bloom  merely  because  one  wishes 
it  so.  Although  he  has  the  knowledge,  the  young 
officer  usually  steps  aboard  ship  for  the  first 
time  lacking  in  professional  experience.  Yet,  he 
is  placed  in  the  position  of  a  leader,  given  a  job 
to  do,  and  then  seemingly  left  to  his  own 
devices.  The  job  probably  appears  monumental 
to  him,  and  the  probability  of  his  making  a 
serious  error  which  will  expose  his  inexperience 
must  be  uppermost  in  his  mind. 

There  are  people  on  all  sides,  however,  ready 
to  assist  him.  The  officer  he  relieves  usually  will 
use  all  possible  available  time  to  instruct  him  in 
his  duties;  outline  the  present  program,  pointing 
out  what  has  and  has  not  been  done;  discuss  the 
inherent  difficulties  of  the  job;  and  briefly 
describe  the  abilities  and  personalities  of  his 
men.  His  senior  officers  always  stand  ready  to 
give  him  a  hand.  While  tolerant  of  his 
inexperience,  they  will  insist  that  he  do  his  duty 
and  master  his  job  as  quickly  as  possible.  His 
petty  officers,  too,  will  teach  him  if  he  shows 


the  inclination  to  benefit  from  their  experience. 
If  necessary,  they  will  "carry  him"  (as  the 
expression  goes)  as  long  as  he  tries  to  learn.  The 
instructions  may  be  subtle  or  frank,  depending 
on  the  teacher.  A  few  old  hands  may  persist  in 
their  offers  of  aid  even  when  rebuffed,  but  the 
majority  will  promptly  lose  the  desire  to  help  as 
soon  as  the  officer  loses  the  desire  to  learn. 
Therefore,  it  pays  to  be  willing  to  listen  to 
advice  and  suggestions.  Even  the  newest  seaman 
apprentice  might  be  able  to  make  a  worthwhile 
contribution. 

SELF-CONFIDENCE 

As  an  officer's  knowledge  grows, 
self-confidence,  a  most  important  quality  of 
leadership,  should  grow  apace,  for  even  a  vast 
store  of  knowledge  is  meaningless  without  the 
confidence  and  ability  to  use  it.  Never,  however, 
should  a  leader  become  so  swelled  with  the 
importance  of  "superior"  education,  "vast" 
professional  knowledge,  or  "noteworthy" 
accomplishments  that  he  displays  arrogance.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  the  ordinary  enlisted 
person  is  not  overly  impressed  with  the  number 
of  academic  degrees  an  officer  holds;  the  main 
point  is  the  officer's  ability.  Enlisted  personnel 
can  understand  self-confidence  in  an  officer  who 
has  proven  himself,  but  arrogance  in  a  new, 
untried  ensign  will  be  regarded  as  sheer 
buffoonery,  and  will  be  met  with  indifference 
and  resentment.  The  officer's  accompanying  loss 
of  respect  will  greatly  diminish  control  over  the 
personnel. 

INITIATIVE 
AND  INGENUITY 

When  confronted  with  the  multitude  of 
Navy  rules,  regulations,  operating  instructions, 
procedures,  and  the  policies  of  the  senior 
officers,  a  young  ensign  may  assume  that  there  is 
little  room  for  personal  initiative  and  ingenuity 
in  the  Navy  today.  Actually,  the  reverse  is  true. 
With  new  ships,  new  equipment,  new  weapons 
systems,  and  new  concepts  in  naval  warfare, 
there  is  a  demand  for  officers  with  the 
imagination  to  realize  their  potentialities  and  the 


skill  and  daring  to  develop  their  uses  to  their  full 
extent. 

While  an  officer  must  observe  the  limitations 
placed  on  actions  by  rules  and  regulations,  there 
is  scarcely  a  day  which  in  passing  does  not 
present  an  opportunity  to  exercise  initiative  and 
ingenuity.  At  first,  these  opportunities  may 
entail  only  small  problems  requiring  but  little  of 
either  ingenuity  or  initiative,  but  if  one  doesn't 
take  advantage  of  the  small  chances  offered,  one 
will  never  gain  enough  self-confidence  to  tackle 
the  bigger  problems. 

COURAGE 

Courage,  one  of  the  more  necessary 
characteristics  of  a  leader,  is  that  quality  of  the 
mind  which  enables  one  to  meet  danger  and 
difficulties  with  firmness.  It  is  that  quality 
which  enables  us  to  overcome  the  fear  of  failure, 
injury,  or  death,  which  normally  precedes  any 
difficult  or  dangerous  act  we  may  attempt  to 
perform.  Further,  courage  is  that  quality  which 
enables  us  to  acknowledge  our  responsibilities 
and  to  carry  them  out  regardless  of 
consequences. 

When  speaking  of  courage,  there  is  a 
tendency  to  divide  it  into  two  forms,  moral  and 
physical.  Courage  is  a  quality  of  the  mind  and, 
as  such,  may  be  developed.  Like  a  muscle,  it 
may  be  strengthened  with  use,  and  the  more  it  is 
exercised  the  stronger  it  grows.  Each  time  a 
person  meets  and  tackles  an  obstacle,  whether  it 
be  a  particularly  tough  assignment  or 
examination  in  school  or  a  hard  charging 
fullback  on  the  football  field,  he  strengthens  his 
courage  a  bit  more.  While  bringing  an  attempt  to 
a  successful  conclusion  might  provide  a  great 
deal  of  satisfaction  to  the  person,  success  itself  is 
not  completely  essential  to  the  development  of 
the  person's  courage.  In  fact,  a  person  who 
frequently  is  frustrated  in  his  attempts  and  goes 
back  to  try  again  and  again  wOl  probably 
develop  his  courage  faster  than  one  whose  every 
endeavor  is  attended  by  success. 

It  may  be  difficult  to  convince  a  young 
person  contemplating  going  into  battle  for  the 
first  time  that  anything  in  his  background  has 


197 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


prepared  him  to  overcome  the  fear  he  will  be 
certain  to  experience.  It  is  normal  for  him  to 
doubt  his  ability  to  conduct  himself  with  honor. 
However,  military  services  from  time 
immemorial  have  recognized  this  fact  and  have 
conditioned  and  trained  their  warriors  under  the 
most  realistic  conditions  possible. 

Our  Navy  is  no  exception.  Before  going  into 
battle,  each  person  is  well  acquainted  with  the 
smell  of  gunpowder,  and  has  been  trained  and 
drilled  at  the  battle  station  until  his  actions  are 
almost  automatic  and  second  nature.  Because  of 
this  training,  the  fast  action  involved,  his  sense 
of  duty,  the  inspiration  of  his  cause  and  his 
leaders,  and  the  close  proximity  of  others,  even 
a  timid  person  can  muster  enough  courage  to 
endure  without  faltering  during  the 
comparatively  short,  though  terrible,  periods  of 
battle. 

A  courageous  person  is  not  necessarily 
fearless,  but  has  learned  to  conquer  his  fear  and 
concentrate  on  the  mechanics  of  fighting. 

ABILITY  TO  ORGANIZE 
AND  MAKE  DECISIONS 

Essentially  a  junior  officer's  primary  job  is 
to  coordinate  the  efforts  of  the  personnel  to 
achieve  a  common  purpose.  The  normal 
day-to-day  activity  of  the  maintenance  program 
of  the  peacetime  Navy  may  not  readily  reflect 
this.  The  objective  is  more  difficult  to  achieve 
when  the  goal  is  less  easy  to  define.  However,  an 
overall  view  of  the  maintenance  and  training 
programs  together  shows  how  each  minor 
accomplishment  fits  into  the  whole.  An  officer 
must  be  able  to  organize  the  personnel  so  that 
their  labors  and  training  will  be  utilized  to  the 
best  possible  advantage. 

To  organize  effectively,  the  officer  must 
have  intimate  knowledge  of  the  skills  and 
physical  capabilities  of  the  personnel.  Without 
that  knowledge  he  must  rely  on  a  senior  petty 
officer  to  do  the  job.  We  must  emphasize  here 
that  it  is  entirely  proper  and  desirable  for  the 
officer  to  rely  on  the  petty  officers  to  the  extent 
of  their  abilities.  However,  officers  should  never 
allow  themselves  to  be  reduced  to  the  position 


of  an  old-time  midshipman-a  messenger  running 
between  the  wardroom  and  the  forecastle. 

While  a  young  ensign  cannot  help  but  profit 
from  careful  observation  of  the  methods  of 
skilled  organizers,  he  eventually  must  attempt 
some  organization  of  his  own.  To  do  so,  the 
officer  must  learn  to  make  decisions;  without 
the  power  of  decision,  he  is  useless  as  a  leader. 
When  personnel  present  a  problem  to  an  officer, 
they  expect  a  clear-cut  decision.  Complicated 
questions  or  those  clearly  beyond  the  officer's 
authority  to  decide,  he  will  wish  to  discuss  with 
the  immediate  superior,  but  the  lesser  ones  he 
should  dispose  of  himself.  The  officer  should 
never  allow  dread  of  making  a  mistake  which 
might  cause  him  to  appear  ridiculous  to  deter 
him  from  attempting  to  solve  a  problem.  To  be 
sure,  he  will  make  mistakes  occasionally,  but  an 
honest  mistake  seldom  invokes  scorn  or  censure 
if  all  the  factors  involved  in  the  problem  were 
duly  considered.  From  mistakes  comes 
experience,  and  from  experience  comes  wisdom. 

PERSONAL  EXAMPLE 


Every  young  person  has  a  strong  personal 
need  for  examples  to  live  by,  at  least  until  they 
have  formulated  their  own  principles.  This  need 
is  expressed  by  following  the  example  of 
someone  ad  mired -father,  brother,  teacher, 
officer,  a  great  leader  in  history,  or  even 
someone  with  antisocial  tendencies  or  habits. 
The  young  person  will,  in  some  way,  attempt  to 
attach  to  and  be  like  the  person  admired.  As 
long  as  a  person  is  not  disillusioned  and  as  long 
as  the  need  is  felt,  he  will  continue  to  emulate 
the  hero. 

A  naval  officer  should  have  such  total 
dignity  and  competence  in  all  respects  that 
he/she  inspires  the  enlisted  personnel  to  emulate 
and  deeply  respect  the  officer.  There  is  no 
denying  the  value  of  setting  a  good  personal 
example  in  daily  life. 

An  officer  cannot  live  by  the  rule  of  "don't 
do  as  I  do-do  as  I  say,"  without  the  risk  of  the 
personnel  regarding  him  with  suspicion  or 
distaste.  And,  once  that  suspicion  or  distaste  is 
established,  the  officer's  use  as  a  leader  is  greatly 


Q« 


Chapter  8-LEADERSHIP 


diminished.  On  the  other  hand,  if  conduct  is 
outstanding,  it  could  very  well  inspire  those 
about  to  follow  the  same  pattern  to  the  good  of 
the  entire  Navy. 

When  we  speak  of  conduct,  we  mean 
conduct  ashore  as  well  as  aboard  ship.  A  person 
in  uniform  is  consciously  or  unconsciously 
watched  by  everyone  around.  In  the  minds  of 
the  observers,  that  person's  actions  are 
interpreted  as  typical  of  everyone  who  wears  a 
similar  uniform.  It  is  imperative,  therefore,  that 
the  officer  do  nothing  to  dishonor  the  uniform 
lest,  in  so  doing,  it  dishonors  the  entire  Navy. 

An  officer  cannot  expect  personnel  to 
follow  the  regulations  laid  down  if  the  officer 
ignores  them.  Depending  on  the  extent  of  the 
digressions,  the  officer  may,  for  all  practical 
purposes,  completely  lose  control  of  the 
personnel.  This  may  not  be  readily  apparent  to 
the  officer  at  first,  for  a  petty  officer  may  keep 
the  personnel  in  line.  However,  sooner  or  later 
the  officer  will  realize  that  control  is  gone,  but 
by  that  time  it  may  be  too  late.  In  any  event,  to 
regain  the  respect  of  the  personnel  and  to 
reestablish  control  over  them  will  require 
extraordinary  effort.  "Rank  has  its  privileges," 
but  those  privileges  are  not  extended  to  cover 
deviations  from  accepted  conduct.  Rather,  when 
it  comes  to  conduct,  it  is  "rank  has  its 
responsibilities"  that  must  be  stressed. 

It  might  be  helpful  at  this  point  to 
enumerate  a  number  of  facets  considered  by 
former  Chief  of  Naval  Operations  George  W. 
Anderson,  Jr.  to  be  involved  in  the  makeup  of  a 
truly  outstanding  officer.  Many  have  a  direct 
relationship  to  effective  leadership  and  thus  are 
considered  when  officers  are  evaluated  for 
reports  of  fitness: 

Achievements.  An  outstanding  officer 
produces  results;  many  are  industrious.  The 
measure  is  the  effectiveness  of  the  work. 

Ability  to  make  decisions.  This  is  closely 
allied  to  achievement.  An  officer  must  learn  to 
evaluate  his  information,  analyze  the  problem, 
and  then  integrate  the  two  into  a  sound  and 
incisive  decision. 

Breadth  of  vision.  An  effective  officer 
brings  to  the  profession  a  knowledge  of  all  the 


political,     social,     scientific,     economic,     and 
military  factors  that  impinge  upon  the  Navy. 

Personal  appearance.  It  is  unbelievable  how 
often  this  completely  self-evident  requirement  is 
ignored  in  essential  detail  by  otherwise 
promising  officers. 

Military  bearing.  A  mature  officer  is  a 
military  person  afloat  or  ashore,  24  hours  a  day, 
every  day. 

Mental  alertness.  Continual  attention  to 
detail  coupled  with  an  awareness  of  the  big 
picture. 

Ability  to  express  himself.  The  greatest 
thinker  or  the  smartest  man  finds  himself 
bypassed  if  he  is  unable  to  communicate  his 
ideas  and  decisions  orally  or  in  writing. 

Contacts  with  people  outside  the  service.  An 
officer  who  allows  himself  and  his  interests  to 
become  completely  ingrown  into  his  profession 
will  find  that  he  has  exhausted  his  potential 
growth. 

Being  a  good  shipmate.  An  officer  must  not 
lose  sight  of  his  relationships  with  others  in  the 
Navy.  No  one  can  go  it  alone;  he  can  be  effective 
only  through  others. 

Imagination.  A  fitness  report  that  states 
"This  officer  performs  all  ASSIGNED  duties  in 
an  excellent  manner"  could  easily  describe  an 
officer  who  has  stopped  growing.  Imagination 
and  its  companion  virtue,  initiative,  are  vital. 

Knowledge  of  the  job.  This  is  easily 
described  but  difficult  to  achieve.  It  implies 
complete  mastery  of  the  job  plus  a  detailed 
knowledge  of  all  its  responsibilities,  including 
those  of  subordinates. 

Manner  of  performance.  There  are  four 
general  approaches  to  getting  a  job  done.  An 
officer  can  do  it  himself,  drive  others  to  do  it, 
inspire  others  to  do  it,  or  combine  the  three  in 
the  best  manner.  The  outstanding  leader  knows 
oneself,  job,  enlisted  personnel,  and  the 
immediate  situation;  and  knows  how  to  combine 
these  approaches  to  solve  best  the  problem  at 
hand. 

Social  grace.  Knowing  which  fork  to  use  is 
necessary,  but  the  basic  requirement  is  to  be 
sincerely  interested  in  the  people  one  meets. 


199 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Sense  of  humor.  This  is  really  a  matter  of 
keeping  everything  in  the  proper  perspective,  ot 
being  able  to  distinguish  between  the  important 
and  the  trivial. 

Personal  behavior.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  no 
Navy  officer  should  be  in  a  position  ot 
responsibility  if  the  entire  behavior  pattern  does 
not  reflect  absolute  integrity  and  honor. 


LEADERSHIP  AND  THE 
CODE  OF  CONDUCT 

The  "Code  of  Conduct  for  Members  of  the 
Armed  Forces  of  the  United  States,"  usually 
referred  to  simply  as  the  "Code  of  Conduct," 
was  promulgated  by  President  Eisenhower  as 
Executive  Order  10631  on  17  August  1955.  It 
was  distributed  throughout  the  Navy  by  means 
of  General  Order  No.  4. 

In  its  written  form  the  code  grew  out  of  the 
Korean  War  in  which  the  conduct  of  a  few 
American  men  cast  a  shadow  over  the  great 
majority  of  their  comrades  who  had  acquitted 
themselves  honorably  and  with  distinction. 
Although  young  in  years,  the  code  is  timeless  in 
the  sense  that,  with  few  exceptions,  American 
men-at-arms  have  honored  its  provisions  in  all 
the  wars  this  country  has  fought. 

In  Korea,  the  Chinese  Communists  added  a 
new  dimension  to  warfare  by  extending  it  to 
prisoner-of-war  camps.  In  addition  to  the  usual 
hardships  imposed  on  prisoners,  the  moment  an 
American  POW  fell  into  Communist  hands,  his 
captors  launched  an  assault  to  progressively 
weaken  his  physical  and  moral  strength. 
Originally  called  "brainwashing,"  persistent 
interrogation  was  aimed  at  (1)  undermining  the 
Americans'  loyalty  to  their  country  and  faith  in 
the  democratic  way  of  life,  and  (2)  conditioning 
them  to  Communism.  These  were  attempted  in 
any  number  of  ways-threats,  torture,  pretended 
kindness,  bribes,  harassment,  fear. 

The  Communists'  goal  was  achieved  if  they 
could  induce  a  prisoner  to  sign  a  spurious 
statement  designed  to  destroy  the  image  of  the 
United  States  in  the  eyes  of  the  world;  if  they 
could  obtain  his  cooperation  to  the  extent  of 
broadcasting  propaganda  messages  to  the  "folks 


back  home;"  or  perhaps  only  get  him  to  act  as 
an  informer  on  other  prisoners.  The  Americans 
expected  only  hardship  and  brutality.  They 
didn't  know  how  to  cope  with  this  sort  of 
treatment-this  new  type  of  warfare  that 
revolved  around  personal  descriptions  such  as 
"progressive"  (one  who  cooperated  with  his 
captors)  and  "reactionary"  (one  who  did  not) 
and,  perhaps  inevitably,  a  few  of  those  captured 
did,  willingly  or  unknowingly,  cooperate  with 
the  enemy. 

The  Code  of  Conduct  was  developed  with 
the  idea  that  henceforth  our  fighting  forces 
would  have  available  to  them  specific  guidelines 
for  behavior  in  the  event  of  any  future  conflict. 
Prior  to  its  issuance,  the  Armed  Forces  had 
never  had  a  clearly  defined  wartime  code  of 
conduct. 

Following  are  the  articles  comprising  the 
United  States  fighting  man's  code: 

Article  I 

I  am  an  American  fighting  man.  I 
serve  in  the  forces  which  guard  my 
country  and  our  way  of  life.  I  am 
prepared  to  give  my  life  in  their  defense. 

Article  II 

I  will  never  surrender  of  my  own  free 
will.  If  in  command  I  will  never 
surrender  my  men  while  they  still  have 
the  means  to  resist. 

Article  HI 

If  I  am  captured  I  will  continue  to 
resist  by  all  means  available.  I  will  make 
every  effort  to  escape  and  aid  others  to 
escape.  I  will  accept  neither  parole  nor 
special  favors  from  the  enemy. 

Article  IV 

If  I  become  a  prisoner  of  war,  I  will 
keep  faith  with  my  fellow  prisoners.  I 
will  give  no  information  nor  take  part  in 
any  action  which  might  be  harmful  to 
my  comrades.  If  I  am  senior,  I  will  take 


Chapter  8-LEADERSHIP 


command.  If  not,  I  will  obey  the  lawful 
orders  of  those  appointed  over  me  and 
will  back  them  up  in  every  way. 

Article  V 

When  questioned,  should  I  become  a 
prisoner  of  war,  I  am  bound  to  give  only 
name,  rank,  service  number  and  date  of 
birth.  I  will  evade  answering  further 
questions  to  the  utmost  of  my  ability.  I 
will  make  no  oral  or  written  statements 
disloyal  to  my  country  and  its  allies  or 
harmful  to  their  cause. 

Article  VI 

I  will  never  forget  that  I  am  an 
American  fighting  man,  responsible  for 
my  actions,  and  dedicated  to  the 
principles  which  made  my  country  free. 
I  will  trust  in  the  United  States  of 
America. 

Articles  I  and  VI  comprise  a  sort  of  creed, 
affirming  dedication  to  American  national 
security  and  devotion  to  American  principles. 
The  keynote  of  Article  II,  resistance,  prescribes 
behavior  in  battle.  Remembering  the  lessons 
learned  in  Korea,  the  remaining  articles  (bulk  of 
the  code)  explain  what  is  expected  of  an 
American  fighting  man  who  has  the  misfortune 
to  be  captured  by  an  enemy.  Although  relatively 
few  men  become  prisoners  of  war,  all  those  who 
go  into  combat  must  do  so  fully  prepared  for 
the  possibility  of  capture.  For  men  who  are 
taken  prisoner,  Articles  III,  IV,  and  V  are  of 
vital  importance;  they  comprise  one  weapon 
(knowledge)  a  man  takes  into  captivity  that  the 
enemy  cannot  strip  from  him. 

Articles  III,  IV,  and  V  are  directly  related  to 
the  Geneva  Convention  of  1949  pertaining 'to 
the  treatment  of  prisoners  of  war.  The  Geneva 
Conventions  formulate  internationally 
recognized  agreements  governing  participants  in 
war.  Their  history  goes  back  to  the  Civil  War, 
when  it  became  generally  apparent  that  even 
prisoners  of  war  were  people  and  thus  deserved  a 
better  fate  than  being  tortured,  executed,  or 
enslaved. 


There  have  been  a  number  of  international 
convention  conferences,  the  latest  of  which 
resulted  in  the  "Geneva  Conventions  for  the 
Protection  of  War  Victims,"  referred  to  as  the 
"Four  Geneva  Conventions  of  1949." 
Conventions  I  and  II  concern  themselves  with 
the  care  and  treatment  of  wounded  and  sick 
armed  forces  personnel  in  the  field  and  at  sea, 
respectively.  Convention  III  relates  to  prisoners 
of  war;  and  the  last  covers  the  protection  of 
civilians  in  time  of  war.  The  1 949  conventions 
are  based  on  experiences  gathered  in  World  War 
II  and  a  realization  that  more  stringent 
provisions  for  the  protection  of  war  victims  were 
necessary  than  existed  under  previously  written 
conventions. 

The  conventions  are  extremely  complex,  and 
for  those  interested,  full  texts  are  contained  in 
NWIP  10-2,  Law  of  Naval  Warfare,  appendixes 
C,  D,  E,  and  F.  Very  briefly,  Convention  HI, 
which  is  our  area  of  concern,  outlines  POW 
duties  and  rights.  The  former  covers  legal  status 
as  a  prisoner,  laws  by  which  bound,  rules  of 
military  courtesy  while  a  prisoner,  and  work 
rules.  The  POWs'  rights  encompass  rules  of 
interrogation;  selection  of  a  POW  representative 
to  speak  for  the  body  of  POWs  before  military 
authorities,  the  International  Committee  of  the 
Red  Cross,  and  others;  escapes  and  attempted 
escapes;  food  and  quarters;  mail;  medical 
treatment;  and  religious  worship. 

The  Geneva  Conventions  of  1949, 
embodying  as  they  do  major  rules  of  warfare, 
are  prime  sources  of  codified  international  law 
ratified  or  adhered  to  by  all  major  nations  of  the 
world.  As  with  many  laws  and  all  treaties, 
however,  compliance  often  is  difficult  to  secure. 
North  Vietnam,  for  example,  acceded  to  the 
conventions  in  1957,  but  had  no  scruples  about 
violating  Convention  III.  To  put  a  legal  face  on 
the  matter,  Hanoi  simply  refused  to  admit,  for 
instance,  that  they  held  any  pilots  as  prisoners 
of  war-aviators  are  "air  pirates"  and  therefore 
criminals. 

In  a  POW  compound,  strong  leadership  is 
essential  to  discipline  because  without  it  survival 
may  be  impossible.  Even  in  the  face  of 
defeatism,  the  seemingly  unimportant  military 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


•equirements     of    personal     hygiene,     camp  This  responsibility  for  camp  leadership  cannot 

lanitation,  and  care  of  the  sick  are  imperative.  be  evaded. 

Officers,  noncommissioned  officers,  and  petty 

>fficers     continue     to     carry     out     their  SUGGESTED  READING: 

•esponsibilities  and  exercise  their  authority  after 

capture;  those  who  are  senior  assume  command  The  Armed  Forces  Officer,  NAVEDTRA  46905 

iccording  to  grade  or  rate  without  regard  to 

ervice.  The  U.S.  Navy  Manual  for  Leadership  Support, 

As  a  prisoner,  bear  in  mind  at  all  times  that  NAVPERS  15934  series 
miry  and  discipline  are  vitally  needed  in  a  POW 

:amp.  If  you  are  the  senior  officer  or  man  but  The    U.S.    Fighting   Man's    Code,    NAVPERS 

;annot  assume  command  openly,  do  it  covertly.  92638 A 


CHAPTER  9 


DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  NAVY 


At  the  end  of  World  War  II  there  were  two 
nilitary  (executive)  departments  in  the  United 
States:  Department  of  the  Navy,  including  naval 
iviation  and  the  U.S.  Marine  Corps;  and  the 
Department  of  War,  which  included  Army  Air 
7orces.  Each  of  the  departments  was  headed  by 
L  secretary  who  was  a  member  of  the  President's 
Cabinet 

In  1947,  Congress  passed  the  National 
Security  Act  which  created  the  National  Military 
establishment  (NME)  to  be  headed  by  a 
Secretary  of  Defense;  established  a  Department 
>f  the  Air  Force  as  a  third  military  (executive) 
lepartment;  changed  the  title  of  the  Department 
)f  War  to  Department  of  the  Army;  and 
>rovided  for  transfer  of  air  force  functions  from 
he  Department  of  the  Army  to  the  Department 
)f  the  Air  Force.  It  further  provided  for 
;stablishment  of  unified  commands  in  strategic 
.reas.  In  1949,  amendments  to  the  Act 
;sta Wished  the  Department  of  Defense  as  an 
executive  department,  with  the  Departments  of 
he  Army,  Navy,  and  Air  Force  as  military 
[epartments  therein,  to  replace  the  NME. 
Secretaries  of  the  military  departments  were 
eplaced  as  cabinet  members  by  the  Secretary  of 
)efense.  These  amendments  also  created  the 
>osition  of  Chairman  of  the  Joint  Chiefs  of 
itaff.  (See  figure  9-1.) 

The  Department  of  Defense  was  created  as 
>art  of  a  comprehensive  program  for  the  future 
ecurity  of  the  United  States  through  the 
stablishment  of  integrated  policies  and 
•rocedures  for  the  departments,  agencies,  and 
unctions  of  the  Government  relating  to  the 
lational  security.  In  enacting  such  legislation,  it 
/as  the  intent  of  Congress  to- 

1 .  Provide  a  Department  of  Defense  which 
rould  include  the  departments  of  the  Army, 


Navy  (including  naval  aviation  and  the  United 
States  Marine  Corps),  and  Air  Force  under  the 
direction,  authority,  and  control  of  the 
Secretary  of  Defense; 

2.  Provide  that  each  military  department 
would   be  separately  organized  under  its  own 
Secretary    and    function   under    the    direction, 
authority,    and    control    of   the    Secretary    of 
Defense; 

3.  Provide  for  their  unified  direction  under 
civilian  control  of  the  Secretary  of  Defense  but 
not  to  merge  the  departments  or  services; 

4.  Provide  for  the  establishment  of  unified 
or  specified  combatant  commands,  and  a  clear 
and  direct  line  of  command  to  such  commands; 

5.  Eliminate  unnecessary  duplication  in  the 
Department  of  Defense,  and  particularly  in  the 
field  of  research  and  engineering  by  vesting  its 
overall  direction  and  control  in  the  Secretary  of 
Defense ; 

6.  Provide    more    effective,    efficient,   and 
economical  administration  in  the  Department  of 
Defense;  and 

7.  Provide     for     the     unified     strategic 
direction   of   the  combatant  forces,  for   their 
operation  under  unified  command,  and  for  their 
integration  into  an  efficient  team  of  land,  naval, 
and  air  forces. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE 
DEPARTMENT  OF  DEFENSE 

The  Department  of  Defense  maintains  and 
employs  armed  forces  to— 

1.  Support  and  defend  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  against  all  enemies,  foreign 
and  domestic; 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


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Chapter  9-DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  NAVY 


2.  Ensure,  by  timely  and  effective  military 
action,   the  security   of  the  United  States,  its 
possessions,  and  areas  vital  to  its  interest; 

3.  Uphold  and  advance  the  national  policies 
and  interests  of  the  United  States;  and 

4.  Safeguard   the   internal   security  of  the 
United  States. 

The  Department  of  Defense  includes: 

1.  The  Office  of  the  Secretary  of  Defense; 

2.  The  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff  and  the  Joint 
Staff; 

3.  The  three  military  departments  and  the 
military  services  within  those  departments; 

4.  Unified  and  specified  commands;  and 

5.  Other  agencies  the  Secretary  of  Defense 
may  establish  to  meet  specific  requirements. 

SECRETARY  OF  DEFENSE 

The  Secretary  of  Defense  is  the  principal 
assistant  to  the  President  in  all  matters  relating 
to  the  Department  of  Defense.  All  functions  in 
the  Department  are  performed  under  his 
direction,  authority,  and  control. 

The  Deputy  Secretary  of  Defense  performs 
such  duties  and  exercises  such ,  powers  as  the 
Secretary  of  Defense  prescribes.  He  acts  for,  and 
exercises  the  powers  of,  the  Secretary  when  the 
latter  is  absent  or  disabled. 

The  Secretary  and  Deputy  Secretary  are 
appointed  from  civilian  life  by  the  President 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate.  They 
may  not  have  been  Regular  commissioned 
officers  of  the  Armed  Forces  within  10  years 
preceding  their  appointments. 

The  Office  of  the  Secretary  of  Defense 
(OSD),  which  provides  immediate  staff 
assistance  and  advice  to  the  Secretary,  includes 
the  offices  of  the  Director  of  Defense  Research 
and  Engineering,  a  number  of  Assistant 
Secretaries  of  Defense,  the  General  Counsel  of 
the  Department  of  Defense  (DOD),  and  other 
staff  offices  the  Secretary  may  establish  to  assist 
him  in  carrying  out  his  duties  and 
responsibilities. 


Duties  of  the  Director  of  Defense  Research 
and  Engineering  include: 

1.  Acting  as  principal  advisor  to  Secretary 
of  Defense  (SECDEF)  on  scientific  and  technical 
matters, 

2.  Supervising     all     DOD     research     and 
engineering  activities,  and 

3.  Directing  and   controlling  research  and 
engineering  activities  that  the  Secretary  deems 
to  require  centralized  management. 

JOINT  CHIEFS 
OF  STAFF 

The  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff  (JCS)  consist  of  a 
chairman  who  may  be  of  any  service,  and  who  is 
appointed  by  the  President  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  Senate;  Chief  of  Staff,  U.S. 
Army;  Chief  of  Naval  Operations;  and  Chief  of 
Staff,  U.S.  Air  Force.  The  Commandant  of  the 
Marine  Corps  attends  meetings  regularly  and  has 
coequal  status  with  other  members  of  the  JCS 
on  matters  that  directly  concern  the  Marine 
Corps.  The  JCS,  supported  by  the  Joint  Staff, 
constitute  the  immediate  military  staff  of  the 
Secretary  of  Defense.  In  addition,  the  Joint 
Chiefs  of  Staff  are  the  principal  military  advisors 
to  the  President  and  the  National  Security 
Council. 

Subject  to  the  authority  and  direction  of  the 
President  and  the  Secretary  of  Defense,  the 
Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff,  in  addition  to  such  other 
duties  as  the  President  and  SECDEF  may 
direct— 

1.  Prepare  strategic  plans  and  provide  for 
the   strategic   direction   of  the  Armed  Forces, 
including  the  direction  of  operations  conducted 
by     commanders     of     unified     and     specified 
commands. 

2.  Prepare    integrated    plans    for    military 
mobilization  and  integrated  logistic  plans. 

3.  Recommend  to  the  Secretary  of  Defense 
the  establishment  and  force  structure  of  unified 
and  specified  commands. 

4.  Review    the    plans    and    programs    of 
commanders  of  unified  and  specified  commands. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


5.  Review  major  personnel,  material,  and 
logistic   requirements  of  the  Armed  Forces  in 
relation  to  strategic  and  logistic  plans. 

6.  Establish     doctrines     for     unified 
operations  and  training  and  for  coordination  of 
the  military  education  of  members  of  the  Armed 
Forces. 

7.  Provide  the  Secretary  of  Defense  with 
statements     of     military     requirements     and 
strategic  guidance  for  use  in  the  development  of 
budgets,  foreign  military  aid  programs,  industrial 
mobilization  plans,  and  programs  of  scientific 
research  and  development. 

8.  Recommend  to  the  Secretary  of  Defense 
the  assignment  of  primary  responsibility  for  any 
function  of  the  Armed  Forces  requiring  such 
determination,  and  the  transfer,  reassignment, 
abolition,  or  consolidation  of  such  functions. 

9.  Provide  United  States  representation  on 
the    Military    Staff  Committee  of  the  United 
Nations;  and  when  authorized  on  other  military 
staffs,  boards,  councils,  and  missions. 

UNIFIED  AND 
SPECIFIED  COMMANDS 

Unified  and  specified  commands  (figure  9-1) 
are  established  under  the  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff  to 
exercise  command  over  all  forces  in  a  specific 
area  of  the  world  or  to  otherwise  carry  out  a 
broad,  continuing  mission.  The  chain  of 
command  leads  from  the  President  to  the 
Secretary  of  Defense  and  through  the  Joint 
Chiefs  of  Staff  to  the  commanders  of  unified  or 
specified  commands. 

The  main  distinction  between  a  unified  and 
specified  command  is  that  the  former  is 
composed  of  two  or  more  services  while  the 
latter  normally  consists  of  forces  of  only  one 
service. 

Periodically  the  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff  must 
decide  which  service  will  exercise  command 
responsibility  in  a  given  area  of  the  world.  They 
then  select  a  man  from  the  chosen  service  to 
represent  them  as  unified  commander,  the 
ippointment  being  confirmed  by  the  Secretary 
Df  Defense  and  the  President.  The  unified 
:ommander  has  operational  control  over  all 
forces  in  his  area;  service  commanders  are 


referred  to  as  his  component  commanders.  In 
the  Pacific,  for  example,  the  JCS  unified 
commander  has  the  title  of  Commander  in 
Chief,  Pacific  (CINCPAC).  His  component 
commanders  are  the  Commander  in  Chief,  U.S. 
Pacific  Fleet  (CINCPACFLT)  and  the  area  Army 
(USARPAC),  Air  Force  (PACAF),  and  Marine 
Corps  (FMFPAC)  commanders.  Component 
commanders  retain  direct  control  over  their  own 
forces,  but  are  responsible  to  CINCPAC  for  the 
readiness  of  those  forces. 

A  specified  command  is  responsible  for  the 
performance  of  a  specific  mission.  The  Strategic 
Air'  Command,  currently  (1976)  the  only 
specified  command,  is  responsible  for  preparing 
strategic  air  forces  for  combat  and  conducting 
strategic  air  operations. 

DEFENSE  AGENCIES 

The  directors  of  the  Defense  Nuclear 
Agency,  Defense  Communications  Agency, 
Defense  Intelligence  Agency,  and  the  Defense 
Mapping  Agency  are  responsible  to  the  Joint 
Chiefs  of  Staff  for  the  operations  and  efficiency 
of  their  agencies.  The  Directors  of  the  Defense 
Supply  Agency,  Defense  Contract  Audit 
Agency,  Defense  Civil  Preparedness  Agency, 
Defense  Security  Assistance  Agency,  and  the 
Defense  Advanced  Research  Projects  Agency  are 
responsible  directly  to  the  Secretary  of  Defense. 

MILITARY  DEPARTMENTS 

The  chain  of  command  for  purposes  other 
than  the  operational  direction  of  unified  and 
specified  command  runs  from  the  President  to 
the  Secretary  of  Defense  to  the  secretaries  of  the 
military  departments. 

The  duties  of  the  military  departments 
under  their  respective  secretaries  are  to  prepare 
forces  and  establish  reserves  of  equipment  and 
personnel  equipped  and  trained  for  employment 
to  meet  the  needs  of  war  or  an  emergency;  to 
organize,  train  and  equip  forces  for  assignment 
to  unified  or  specified  commands;  to  prepare 
and  submit  to  the  Secretary  of  Defense  budgets 
for  their  respective  departments;  conduct 
research;  develop  tactics,  techniques,  and 


Chapter  9-DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  NAVY 


weapons;  and  to  assist  each  other  in  the 
accomplishment  of  their  respective  functions, 
including  the  provisions  of  personnel, 
intelligence,  training,  facilities,  equipment, 
supplies,  and  services. 

The  Army  is  responsible  primarily  for  the 
conduct  of  prompt  and  sustained  combat 
operations  on  land. 

The  Air  Force  is  responsible  mainly  for 
prompt  and  sustained  offensive  and  defensive 
aerospace  operations. 

The  purpose  of  the  remainder  of  this  chapter 
is  to  provide  a  clear  picture  of  the  function  of 
the  Navy  within  the  Department  of  Defense. 


COMPOSITION  OF  THE 
DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  NAVY 

The  Department  of  the  Navy  (DON) 
includes  the  entire  naval  component  of  the 
Department  of  Defense.  It  is  composed  of  the 
Navy  Department  (the  executive  part  of  the 
DON,  located  at  the  seat  of  Government); 
Headquarters,  United  States  Marine  Corps;  all 
operating  forces,  including  naval  aviation,  of  the 
Navy  and  Marine  Corps,  and  the  Reserve 
components  of  the  operating  forces;  and  all 
shore  (field)  activities,  headquarters,  forces, 
bases,  installations,  and  functions  under  the 
control  or  supervision  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  (SECNAV).  The  Department  (figure  9-2) 
includes  the  U.S.  Coast  Guard  when  it  is 
operating  as  a  service  in  the  Navy  (in  time  of  war 
or  when  the  President  so  directs). 

The  fundamental  objectives  of  the 
Department  of  the  Navy  are  to  (1)  organize, 
train,  equip,  prepare,  and  maintain  the  readiness 
of  the  Navy  and  Marine  Corps  forces  for 
the  performance  of  military  missions  as  directed 
by  the  President  or  the  Secretary  of  Defense, 
and  (2)  support  Navy  and  Marine  Corps  forces, 
as  well  as  the  forces  of  other  military 
departments,  as  directed  by  the  Secretary  of 
Defense,'  that  are  assigned  to  unified  or  specified 
commands.  As  here  used,  support  includes 
administrative,  personnel,  material,  and  fiscal 
support,  and  technological  support  through 
research  and  development. 


EXECUTIVE  ADMINISTRATION 
OF  THE  DEPARTMENT 

OF  THE  NAVY 

Members  of  the  executive  administration  of 
the  DON  include  the- 

1 .  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 

2.  His  Civilian  Executive  Assistants,  and 

3.  Staff  assistants  to  the  Secretary. 

4.  Chief  of  Naval  Operations. 

5.  Chief  of  Naval  Material.  ^* 

6.  Chief  of  the   Bureau   of  Medicine  and 
Surgery.  -!•/  * 

7.  Chief  of  Naval  Personnel.  -i/  * 

8.  Commandant  of  the  Marine  Corps. 

9.  Judge  Advocate  General  of  the  Navy. 
1 0.  Chief  of  Naval  Research. 

Secretary  of 

the  Navy 

The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  is  the  head  of  the 
Department  of  the  Navy.  Under  the  direction, 
authority,  and  control  of  the  Secretary  of 
Defense,  he  is  responsible  for  the  policies  and 
control  of  the  DON,  including  its  organization, 
administration,  operation,  and  efficiency. 

Civilian  Executive 
Assistants  to  SECNAV 

The  Civilian  Executive  Assistants  to  the 
Secretary  are  his  principal  policy  advisors  and 
assistants  on  the  administration  of  the  affairs  of 
the  Department  as  a  whole.  Within  his  assigned 
area,  each  Civilian  Executive  Assistant  is 
authorized  to  act  for  SECNAV. 

UNDER   SECRETARY  OF  THE  NAVY.- 

The  Under  Secretary  of  the  Navy  is  the  deputy 
and  principal  assistant  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy.  He  acts  with  full  authority  of  the 
Secretary  in  the  general  management  of  the 
Department  of  the  Navy.  He  is  responsible  for 
transportation  matters  and  for  supervision  of  the 
following  boards  and  offices: 

1.  Office  of  Program  Appraisal; 

2.  Office  of  General  Counsel; 


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3.  Office  of  Information; 

4.  Office  of  the  Judge  Advocate  General; 
and 

5.  Office  of  Legislative  Affairs. 

ASSISTANT  SECRETARY  OF  THE  NAVY 
(FINANCIAL  MANAGEMENT).-The  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  (Financial  Management)  is 
Comptroller  of  the  Navy.  He  is  responsible  for 
all  matters  related  to  financial  management  of 
the  DON,  including  budgeting,  accounting, 
disbursing,  financing,  progress  and  statistical 
reporting,  and  auditing.  He  supervises  the  Office 
of  the  Comptroller  of  the  Navy,  the  Office  of 
Special  Asssitant  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
and  the  Office  of  Management  Information. 

ASSISTANT  SECRETARY  OF  THE  NAVY 
(INSTALLATIONS  AND  LOGISTICS).-The 

Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy  (Installations 
and  Logistics)  is  responsible  for  all  matters 
related  to  the  procurement,  production,  supply, 
distribution,  alteration,  maintenance,  and 
disposal  of  material;  the  acquisition, 
construction,  utilization,  improvement, 
alteration,  maintenance,  and  disposal  of  real 
estate  and  facilities,  including  capital  equipment, 
utilities,  housing,  and  public  quarters;  printing 
and  publications;  labor  relations  with  respect  to 
Navy  contractors;  industrial  security;  and  the 
Mutual  Defense  Assistance  Program  as  related  to 
the  supplying  of  material.  He  supervises  the 
Office  of  Naval  Petroleum  and  Oil  Shale 
Reserves,  with  full  and  final  authority  to  take 
action  as  Acting  SECNAV  under  all  statutes  and 
regulations  relating  to  petroleum  and  oil  shale 
reserves. 

ASSISTANT  SECRETARY  OF  THE  NAVY 
(MANPOWER  AND  RESERVE  AFFAIRS).- 

The  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy  (Manpower 
and  Reserve  Affairs)  is  responsible  for  all 
matters  related  to  manpower  and  Reserve 
component  affairs  of  the  Department,  in- 
cluding policy  and  administration  applicable 
to  both  military  (active  and  Reserve)  and 
civilian  personnel.  He  supervises  the  Office 
of  Civilian  Manpower  Management  and  the 
Naval  Personnel  Boards  (Naval  Examining 
Board,  Physical  Disability  Review  Board,  Naval 


Clemency    and    Parole    Board,    and    the    Navy 
Discharge  Review  Board). 

ASSISTANT  SECRETARY  OF  THE  NAVY 
(RESEARCH  AND  DEVELOPMENT).-The 
Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy  (Research  and 
Development)  is  responsible  for  matters  related 
to  research,  development,  engineering,  test,  and 
evaluation  efforts  within  the  Department  of  the 
Navy;  and  for  oceanography,  ocean  engineering 
and  closely  related  matters.  He  is  Chairman  of 
the  Navy  Research  and  Development  Committee 
and  is  responsible  for  supervision  of  the  Office 
of  Naval  Research. 

Staff  Assistants 
to  the  Secretary 

Staff  assistants  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
which  include,  as  a  few  examples,  the 
Administrative  Officer,  Navy  Department; Chief 
of  Legislative  Affairs;  Director,  Office  of 
Management  Information;  and  Director,  Office 
of  Civilian  Manpower  Management;  assist  the 
Secretary,  or  one  or  more  of  his  Civilian 
Executive  Assistants,  in  the  administration  of 
the  department. 

Each  staff  assistant  commands/supervises  all 
functions  and  activities  internal  to  his  office  and 
assigned  shore  activities,  if  any.  Specific  duties 
of  individual  assistants  are  as  provided  by  law  or 
as  assigned  by  the  Secretary. 

Chief  of 

Naval  Operations 

The  Chief  of  Naval  Operations  (CNO)  is  the 
senior  military  officer  of  the  Department  of  the 
Navy.  He  takes  precedence  above  all  other 
officers  of  the  naval  service  except  one  who  may 
be  serving  as  Chairman  of  the  Joint  Chiefs  of 
Staff.  He  is  the  principal  naval  adviser  to  the 
President  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  on  the 
conduct  of  war,  and  the  principal  naval  adviser 
and  naval  executive  to  the  Secretary  on  the 
conduct  of  the  activities  of  the  Department  of 
the  Navy.  The  CNO  is  the  Navy  member  of  the 
Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff;  he  is  responsible  for 
keeping  SECNAV  fully  informed  on  matters 


209 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


considered  or  acted  upon  by  the  JCS.  In  this 
capacity,  he  is  responsible  under  the  President 
and  SECDEF  for  duties  external  to  the 
Department  of  the  Navy  as  prescribed  by  law. 

Internal  to  the  administration  of  the 
Department  of  the  Navy,  CNO  commands  (1) 
the  Operating  Forces  of  the  Navy,  and  (2)  at  the 
Navy  Department  level,  the  Naval  Material 
Command,  the  Bureau  of  Naval  Personnel,  the 
Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery,  and  assigned 
shore  activities.  Except  for  those  areas  in  which 
responsibility  rests  with  the  Commandant  of  the 
Marine  Corps,  CNO  exercises  overall  authority 
throughout  the  Department  of  the  Navy  in 
matters  essential  to  naval  military 
administration,  such  as  security,  intelligence, 
discipline,  communications,  and  matters  related 
to  the  customs  and  traditions  of  the  naval 
service. 

With  respect  to  the  Operating  Forces  of  the 
Navy,  the  Chief  of  Naval  Operations  has  the 
following  specific  responsibilities: 

1.  To  organize,  train,  prepare,  and  maintain 
the  readiness  of  Navy  forces,  including  those  to 
be  assigned  to  unified  or  specified  combatant 
commands,    for   the   performance    of  military 
missions    as     directed    by    the    President    or 
SECDEF.   This   includes  the  responsibility  to 
make  or  initiate  any  special  provisions  that  may 
be  required  within  the  Department  of  the  Navy 
for  the  administration  of  naval  forces  that  are 
assigned     to     such     combatant     commands. 
Inherently,     this     responsibility     includes 
determination     of    the    training    required    to 
prepare     Navy     personnel,    including    Reserve 
personnel,    for    combat.    Naval    forces,    when 
assigned,     are     under     the     full     operational 
command  of  the  commander  of  the  unified  or 
specified  combatant  command  to  which  they  are 
assigned. 

2.  To  plan  for  and  determine  the  material 
support  needs  of  the  Operating  Forces  of  the 
Navy    (less    Fleet    Marine    Forces    and    other 
assigned     Marine     Corps     forces)     including 
equipment,     weapons     or    weapons    systems, 
materials,  supplies,  facilities,  maintenance,  and 
supporting  services. 

3.  To  plan  for  and  determine  the  present 
and     future     needs,     both     quantitative    and 


qualitative,  for  personnel  (including  Reserve 
personnel)  of  the  Navy.  This  includes 
responsibility  for  leadership  in  maintaining  (1)  a 
high  degree  of  competence  among  officers  and 
enlisted  personnel  through  education,  training, 
and  equal  opportunities  for  advancement,  and 
(2)  the  morale  and  motivation  of  Navy 
personnel  and  the  prestige  of  a  Navy  career. 

4.  To  plan  for  and  determine  the  needs  for 
the  care  of  the  health  of  the  personnel  of  the 
Navy  and  their  dependents. 

5.  To      direct      the      organization, 
administration,  training,  and  supply  of  the  Naval 
Reserve. 

CHIEF  OF  NAVAL  MATERIAL. -The 
Chief  of  Naval  Material,  under  CNO,  commands 
all  activities  of  the  Naval  Material  Command 
(NMC).  He  is  responsible  to  the  CNO  for 
providing  the  material  support  of  the  Operating 
Forces,  and  to  the  Commandant  of  the  Marine 
Corps  for  providing  certain  material  support  for 
the  Marine  Corps. 

The  NMC  includes  the  Headquarters,  Naval 
Material  Command  and  five  principal 
subordinate  commands,  each  of  which  comprises 
a  headquarters  and  shore  activities  as  assigned: 

1 .  Naval  Air  Systems  Command, 

2.  Naval  Electronic  Systems  Command, 

3.  Naval  Facilities  Engineering  Command, 

4.  Naval  Sea  Systems  Command,  and 

5.  Naval  Supply  Systems  Command. 

The  Naval  Air  Systems  Command 
(NAVAIR)  is  responsible  for  Navy /Marine  Corps 
aircraft  and  airborne  weapon  systems  and  other 
aviation-related  equipment;  and  the  systems 
integration  of  aircraft  weapon  systems. 

General  areas  of  responsibility  for  the  Naval 
Electronic  Systems  Command  (NAVELEX) 
include  shore-based  electronic  systems  and 
certain  common-use  airborne  and  shipboard 
electronic  equipment,  such  as  navigation, 
communications,  and  general  test  equipment. 
NAVELEX  serves  as  a  central  technical 
authority  on  electronic  standards,  technology, 
and  compatibility. 


210 


Chapter  9-DEPAR1TMENT  OF  THE  NAVY 


The  Naval  Facilities  Engineering  Command 
(NAVFAC)  is  responsible  for  administration  of 
the  Navy  military  construction  program, 
facilities  planning,  facility  maintenance  and 
utility  operations,  real  property  inventory 
management,  and  natural  resources  and 
pollution  control  programs.  It  performs  material 
support  functions  related  to  public  works, 
floating  cranes,  pontoons  and  moorings,  ocean 
structures,  and  to  transportation,  construction, 
and  weight-handling  equipment.  The  Command 
also  provides  engineering  and  technical  services 
in  nuclear  shore  power  and  radioisotope  power 
devices. 

The  Naval  Sea  Systems  Command 
(NAVSEA)  is  responsible  for  whole  ships  and 
craft  including  shipboard  weapons  systems,  their 
components,  and  expendable  ordnance.  In 
addition,  NAVSEASYSCOM's  responsibility 
extends  to  the  coordination  of  system 
integration  of  all  shipboard  subsystems, 
procurement,  technical  guidance,  and 
supervision  of  operations  related  to  salvage  of 
stranded  and  sunken  ships  and  craft. 
NAVSEASYSCOM  is  the  central  technical 
authority  for  ship  and  ordnance  safety  including 
nuclear  power  and  explosives. 

The  Naval  Supply  Systems  Command 
(NAVSUP)  is  responsible  for  supply 
management  policies  and  methods; 
administration  of  the  Navy  Supply  System, 
publications  and  printing,  the  resale  program,  the 
Navy  Stock  Fund,  the  field  purchasing  service, 
and  transportation  of  Navy  property;  and 
material  functions  related  to  materials  handling 
equipment,  food  service,  and  special  clothing. 

CHIEF  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  MEDICINE 
AND  SURGERY.-Under  the  Chief  of  Naval 
Operations,  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Medicine 
and  Surgery  commands  that  bureau  and  its 
assigned  shore  activities.  He  is  responsible  for 
safeguarding  the  health  of  those  in  the  Navy; 
providing  care  and  treatment  for  sick  and 
injured  members  of  the  naval  service  (including 
the  Marine  Corps)  and  their  dependents; 
operating  training  programs  for  all  categories  of 
Medical  Department  personnel;  maintaining  a 
continuing  program  of  medical  and  dental 
research;  and  maintaining  programs  for  the 
prevention  and  control  of  diseases,  injuries,  and 


occupational  illnesses  of  civilian  employees  of 
the  Navy. 

CHIEF  OF  NAVAL  PERSONNEL.-Under 
CNO,  the  Chief  of  Naval  Personnel  commands 
the  Bureau  of  Naval  Personnel  and  assigned 
shore  activities.  He  is  responsible  for  the 
procurement,  promotion,  distribution, 
discipline,  retirement,  religious  guidance,  and 
the  welfare  and  morale  of  officer  and  enlisted 
personnel  of  the  Navy,  including  the  Naval 
Reserve  and  the  Naval  Reserve  Officer  Training 
Corps;  and  for  regulations  concerning  uniforms, 
naval  ceremonies,  and  naval  etiquette  as 
delegated  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

Chief  of  Naval 
Education  and  Training 

Under  CNO,  the  Chief  of  Naval  Education 
and  Training  (CNET)  commands  the  Naval 
Education  and  Training  Command.  He  is  the 
manager  of  the  funds,  the  facilities,  the 
curricula,  and  the  support  of  all  training,  except 
certain  aspects  of  fleet  training  and  training 
assigned  to  the  Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery. 
He  is  responsible  for  all  surface,  subsurface  and 
aviation  technical  training.  Under  him  are  the 
Chief  of  Naval  Technical  Training,  the  Chief  of 
Naval  Air  Training,  and  the  Chief  of  Naval 
Education  and  Training  Support. 

Commandant  of  the 
Marine  Corps 

Functions  and  responsibilities  of  the 
Commandant  of  the  U.S.  Marine  Corps  are 
discussed  in  chapter  1 1 . 

Staff  Offices 
of  SECNAV 

OFFICE  OF  THE  COMPTROLLER.- 
Under  the  Comptroller,  who  is  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  (Financial  Management), 
the  Deputy  Comptroller  of  the  Navy  commands 
the  Office  of  the  Comptroller.  This  Office 
formulates  principles  and  policies  for  financial 
management  in  the  Navy  and  prescribes 


211 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


procedures  in  the  areas  of  budget,  accounting, 
audit,  and  progress  and  statistical  reporting 
throughout  the  DON  to  the  end  that  their  use 
will  result  in  meeting  the  operating  and  planning 
requirements  of  management  with  efficiency 
and  economy. 

OFFICE  OF  THE  JUDGE  ADVOCATE 
GENERAL.-The  Office  of  the  Judge  Advocate 
General  (JAG)  has  cognizance  of  all  phases  of 
law,  other  than  business  and  commercial  law, 
incident  to  operation  of  the  Department  of  the 
Navy.  The  major  areas  of  legal  acitivity  are 
military  law,  international  law,  admiralty  law, 
tort  claims,  administrative  law,  and  civil  law. 
The  Judge  Advocate  General  is  principal  advisor 
to  CNO  and  the  Chief  of  Naval  Personnel  for  the 
legal  aspects  of  military  personnel  matters. 

OFFICE  OF  NAVAL  RESEARCH.-The 
Office  of  Naval  Research  (ONR)  is  charged  with 
encouraging,  promoting,  planning,  initiating,  and 
coordinating  naval  research,  and  conducting 
naval  research  in  augmentation  of  and  in 
conjunction  with  the  research  and  development 
conducted  by  bureaus,  offices,  and  other 
agencies  of  the  DON.  The  Chief  of  Naval 
Research  reports  to  the  Assistant  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  (Research  and  Development).  He  is 
Assistant  Oceanographer  of  the  Navy  for  Ocean 
Science  matters. 

OFFICE  OF  INFORMATION.-The  mission 
of  the  Office  of  Information  is  to  initiate, 
develop,  collect,  and  disseminate  to  the  public 
and  the  naval  service  information  concerning, 
among  other  things,  the  Navy  as  an  instrument 
of  national  policy  and  security,  and  activities  of 
the  Navy  as  compatible  with  national  security. 
The  Office  ensures  that  appropriate  information 
concerning  policies  and  programs  of  the  Navy 
Department  is  available  to  naval  personnel. 

OTHER  STAFF  OFFICES.-In  addition  to 
those  described  above,  staff  offices  of  SECNAV 
include  the  Office  of  General  Counsel,  Office  of 
Civilian  Manpower  Management,  Office  of 
Legislative  Affairs,  Office  of  Naval  Petroleum 
and  Oil  Shale  Reserves,  and  Office  of  Program 
Appraisal. 


OPERATING  FORCES 

OF  THE  NAVY 

The  Chief  of  Naval  Operations  is  responsible 
to  SECNAV  for  the  command,  use,  and 
administration  of  the  Operating  Forces  of  the 
Navy.  With  respect  to  Navy  and  Marine  Corps 
forces  assigned  to  unified  and  specified 
commands,  this  responsibility  is  discharged  in  a 
manner  consistent  with  the  full  operational 
command  vested  in  those  commanders. 

The  Operating  Forces  are  comprised  of  the 
several  fleets,  seagoing  forces,  the  Military 
Sealift  Command,  district  forces,  the  Coast 
Guard  (when  operating  as  a  service  in  the  Navy), 
Fleet  Marine  Forces  (discussed  in  chapter  1 1) 
and  other  assigned  Marine  Corps  forces,  and 
such  other  forces  and  Navy  shore  activities  and 
commands  as  are  assigned  by  SECNAV. 

Major  Commands 

Major  commands  afloat,  operating  directly 
under  the  command  of  CNO,  are  shown  in  figure 
9-3. 

The  composition  of  both  Pacific  and 
Atlantic  Fleets  includes  ships  and  craft  classified 
and  organized  into  commands  by  types,  the 
titles  of  which  are  self-explanatory: 

Training  commands, 
Surface  forces, 
Fleet  Marine  forces, 
Naval  Air  forces, 
Submarine  Forces. 

Type  commanders  report  to  the  Commander 
in  Chief  U.S.  Pacific  Fleet  (CINCPACFLT)  or 
Commander  in  Chief,  U.S.  Atlantic  Fleet 
(CINCLANTFLT),  as  appropriate. 

The  Commander  in  Chief,  Pacific  Fleet  has 
under  his  command  the  3rd  and  7th  Fleets;  the 
Commander  in  Chief,  Atlantic  Fleet  has  the  2nd 
Fleet;  and  the  Commander  in  Chief,  U.S.  Naval 
Forces,  Europe  has  the  6th  Fleet.  Ships  that 
make  up  the  operational  (numbered)  fleets  are 
provided  by  type  commanders.  Thus,  an  aircraft 
carrier  might  be  under  the  operational  control  of 
Commander,  3rd  Fleet  but  under  the 
administrative  command  of  Commander  Naval 
Air  Force  Pacific.  Fleet  Marine  forces,  which  are 


Chapter  9- DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  NAVY 


CINCPACFLT 


THIRD  a  SEVENTH 
FLEETS 


NAVAL  &  SPECIAL 
FORCE  COMMANDS 


TYPE  COMMANDS  ' 


SPECIAL  COMMANDS, 
GROUPS  ft   UNITS 


OTHER  COMMANDS 
UNITS 


SHORE  ACTIVITIES 
ASSIGNED 


CHIEF  OF  NAVAL  OPERATIONS 


CINCLANTFLT 


CINCUSNAVEUR 


SECOND   FLEET 


NAVAL  a   SPECIAL 
FORCE  COMMANDS 


TYPE  COMMANDS 


SIXTH   FLEET 


SPECIAL   FORCE 
COMMANDS 


AREA   &   SUBAREA 
COMMANDS  &   OFFICES 


COAST  GUARD  | 

(When  operating  as  a          \ 
service  in  the  Navy)          \ 


SHIPS  ASSIGNED 


SHORE  ACTIVITIES 
.ASSIGNED 


SPECIAL  COMMANDS, 
GROUPS  &    UNITS 


OTHER  COMMANDS  & 
UNITS 


SHORE  ACTIVITIES 
ASSIGNED 


TYPE  COMMANDS 

SUBMARINE  FORCES 
SURFACE   FORCES 
TRAINING  COMMANDS 
FLEET  MARINE   FORCES 
NAVAL  AIR   FORCES 


30.5 


Figure  9-3.— Operating  forces  of  the  Navy. 


type  commands  under  the  administrative  control 
of  the  Commandant  of  the  Marine  Corps,  bear 
the  same  relation  to  the  respective  commanders 
in  chief  as  do  other  type  commands. 

The  Commander  in  Chief,  U.S.  Naval  Forces, 
Europe  (CINCUSNAVEUR)  is  the  naval 
component  commander  of  the  unified  command 
under  U.S.  Commander  in  Chief,  Europe. 

The  Military  Sealift  Command,  operated  by 
the  Navy  for  the  use  of  all  the  armed  services, 
consists  of  civil  service-manned  ships  and 
commercial  ships  employed  on  a  contract  basis. 
The  ships  are  no  longer  utilized  to  transport 
servicemen  and  their  dependents. 

The  primary  mission  of  MSC  is  to  provide 
immediate  sealift  capability  in  an  emergency. 
MSC  also  operates  fleet  support  ships  and  ships 
in  support  of  scientific  projects  and  other 
programs  for  agencies  and  departments  of  the 
United  States. 


Shore  Activities  Assigned 
to  Operating  Forces 

A  shore  activity  (discussed  in  the  next 
section)  may  be  placed  under  the  command  of 
the  Operating  Forces  if  it  is  outside  the 
boundaries  of  a  naval  district  or  if  it  provides 
support  only  to  units  of  the  Operating  Forces. 
There  are  numerous  activities  so  assigned, 
including  naval  air  facilities,  communication 
facilities,  naval  and  submarine  bases,  ship  repair 
facilities,  and  supply  depots. 

SHORE  ACTIVITIES 

Although  a  number  of  shore  activities  exist 
at  the  Navy  Department  level  (e.g.,  systems 
commands  under  CNM:  Naval  Weather  Service 
Command  under  CNO),  this  discussion  concerns 
itself  mainly  with  those  shore  activities  which 
have  the  primary  function  of  supplying, 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


maintaining,  and  supporting  the  Operating 
Forces  through  the  delivery  or  furnishing  of 
material,  services,  and  personnel. 

A  representative  list  of  such  activities 
includes  naval  district  headquarters,  air  facilities 
and  stations,  Reserve  training  units,  ammunition 
depots,  communication  stations,  fleet 
intelligence  centers,  fuel  depots,  naval  hospitals, 
laboratories,  medical  centers,  recruiting  stations, 
shipyards,  supply  centers,  and  schools. 
Generally,  these  activities  form  a  complex  of 
installations  engaged  in  a  wide  variety  of 
functions  including  military  operations  such  as 
flight  training,  service  functions  such  as 
movement  and  storage  of  supplies,  and  industrial 
production  such  as  ship  construction  and  repair. 

Many  shore  activities  are  distributed  at 
strategic  points  along  our  coastal  regions  and 
overseas  where  they  can  most  directly  serve  the 
needs  of  the  Operating  Forces.  Activities  for 
which  nearness  to  the  forces  afloat  is  not 
essential  or  practical,  however,  are  distributed  at 
vantage  points  within  the  United  States.  Among 
the  latter  are  finance  offices,  recruiting  stations, 
research  and  development  activities,  training 
centers,  and  others. 

Command  of  a 
Shore  Activity 

Authority  to  approve  the  establishment  or 
disestablishment  of  all  shore  activities  rests  with 
SECNAV.  He  approves  proposed  missions  and 
assigns  responsibility  for  command  to  the  Chief 
of  Naval  Operations,  Commandant  of  the  Marine 
Corps,  Chief  of  Naval  Research,  Judge  Advocate 
General,  or  one  of  SECNAV's  Staff  Assistants. 
Those  officials  may  delegate  such  command  (or 
supervision,  as  appropriate)  to  other  officials  in 
their  chain  of  command  or  supervision. 

The  exercise  of  command  over  a  shore 
activity  encompasses  overall  authority, 
direction,  control,  and  coordination  necessary  to 
carry  out  the  assigned  mission  and  responsibility 
for  the  operating  efficiency  of  the  activity.  It 
includes  administrative,  personnel,  and  material 
support;  guidance  and  assistance  in  such  matters 
as  organization,  procedures,  budgeting, 


accounting,    and    staffing;    and    utilization   of 
personnel,  funds,  material,  and  facilities. 

The  assignment  of  command  is  determined 
by  the  degree  to  which  the  mission  of  a  shore 
activity  is  related  to  provision  of  operational  or 
training  support  to  combatant  forces  as 
distinguished  from  other  types  of  support.  Thus, 
CNO  has  ultimate  command  of  such  activities  as 
systems  commands,  bureaus,  type  commands, 
naval  stations,  naval  air  stations,  naval  bases,  and 
naval  districts.  On  the  other  hand,  as  a  very 
limited  example,  the  Chief  of  Naval  Material  and 
other  chiefs  are  delegated  command 
responsibilities  as  follows: 


Activity 

Ordnance  laboratory 
Missile  facility 
Hospital 
Medical  center 
Recruiting  station 

Service  school  command 


Command 

CNM 
CNM 

Chief,  BUMED 
Chief,  BUMED 
Chief  of  Naval 

Personnel 
Chief  of  Naval 
Education 
and  Training 


The  Commandant  of  the  Marine  Corps  has 
command  responsibility  for  most  Marine  shore 
activities  such  as  recruiting  stations  and  recruit 
depots,  Marine  supply  installations,  and  USMC 
Reserve  training  centers. 

Area  Coordination 

To  ensure  that  the  total  efforts  of  shore 
activities  afford  adequate  support  to  the 
combatant  forces  and  are  adequately 
coordinated  among  themselves,  the  Chief  of 
Naval  Operations  is  responsible  for  worldwide 
coordination  of  all  shore  activities.  This  overall 
direction  is  exercised  by  designated  area 
coordinators,  commanders  subordinate  to  CNO, 
who  direct  the  efforts  of  shore  activities  in  their 
areas  to  the  extent  necessary  to  assure  that  the 
support  rendered  is  effective  and  continuous. 

An  area  coordinator  has  no  authoritative 
direction  over  specific  field  activities  because 
responsibility  for  internal  affairs  is  assigned  to 


Chapter  9-DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  NAVY 


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215 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


command  authorities.  The  task  of  the  area 
coordinator  is  to  ensure  that  within  his 
geographic  area  there  is  a  coordinated  effort  to 
provide  for  support  of  the  fleet,  effective 
administration,  readiness,  and  a  balance  of  effort 
among  the  shore  activities. 

With  comparatively  few  exceptions,  the 
assignment  of  area  coordination  responsibilities 
is  based  on  the  following:  (1)  activities  located 
in  a  naval  district  are  assigned  to  the  district 
commandant,  and  (2)  overseas  (non-naval 
district)  activities  are  assigned  to  the  appropriate 
fleet  commander  in  chief. 

Area  coordinators  may  subdelegate  area 
coordination  to  appropriate  commands  and 
activities  within  their  jurisdictions.  Thus, 
although  the  Commandant  of  the  First  Naval 
District  is  area  coordinator  for  all  shore  activities 
within  his  district,  the  commanders  of  the  naval 
bases  in  Boston  and  Newport  are  delegated 
immediate  area  coordinators  for  those  activities 
in  their  geographic  areas. 


(Charleston)  currently  are  additional  duties  of 
the  Naval  base  commanders  at  those  locations; 
COMEIGHT  (New  Orleans)  responsibilities  were 
transferred  to  the  Chief  of  Naval  Reserve; 
Commander,  Naval  Base,  San  Diego  assumed 
COMELEVEN  (San  Diego)  and  COMTWELVE 
(San  Francisco)  responsibilities,  and 
COMFOURTEEN  (Pearl  Harbor)  responsibilities 
were  transferred  to  a  subordinate  commander  of 
CINCPACFLT. 

In  general,  district  commandants  have 
substantial  responsibility  in  the  following  areas: 
Naval  Reserve  training;  coordination  of  the 
efforts  of  shore  field  activities;  continuous 
evaluation  of  the  capabilities  and  readiness  of  all 
shore  activities  for  furnishing  support  to  fleet 
units-  consistent  with  requirements;  defense  of 
the  districts  and  control  of  local  disasters  or 
emergencies;  initiation  of  integrated 
relationships  among  shore  activities  to  ensure 
military  effectiveness;  and  the  coordination  of 
public  affair  matters  throughout  their  districts. 


NAVAL  DISTRICTS 

Commandants  of  the  1 1  continental  and  1 
extra-continental  naval  districts  (figure  9-4)  are 
regional  representatives  of  the  Chief  of  Naval 
Operations  for  matters  that  fall  within  his 
responsibility,  and  for  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
on  matters  of  direct  secretarial  interest. 

The  1 2  naval  districts  have  been  reorganized 
and  the  number  of  primary  duty  commandants 
reduced  to  four.  Under  the  restructuring,  there 
still  are  12  districts,  but  only  four  primary  duty 
commandants:  COMFOUR,  Philadelphia; 
COM  NOW,  Washington;  COMNINE,  Great 
Lakes,  IL;  and  COMTHIRTEEN,  Seattle. 

COMONE  (Boston)  and  COMTHREE  (New 
York)  each  became  an  additional  duty  of 
COMFOUR;  COMF1  VE  (Norfolk)  and  COMSIX 


NAVAL  BASES 

A  naval  base  includes  all  naval  shore 
activities  in  a  given  locality.  The  primary 
purpose  of  a  naval  base  is  to  coordinate  services 
provided  to  the  fleet  by  naval  activities  in  close 
geographical  proximity.  Each  naval  base 
commander  has  under  his  jurisdiction  such 
activities,  including  in  some  cases  air  stations,  as 
may  be  directed  by  the  Chief  of  Naval 
Operations.  These  activities  may  include  a 
shipyard  and  other  activities  providing  direct 
logistic  support  to  the  fleet.  A  naval  base 
commander  exercises  military  command  over 
the  component  activities,  unless  command 
relationships  are  otherwise  prescribed.  The  naval 
base  commander  is  under  the  military  command 
of  the  district  commandant. 


216 


CHAPTER  10 

COMPONENTS  AND  SUPPORTING 
ELEMENTS  OF  THE  NAVY 


Essential  to  the  Navy  in  the  performance  of 
its  mission  are  various  components.  Some  of 
these  are  discussed  in  this  chapter,  as  are  such 
supporting  elements  as  the  U.S.  Coast  Guard, 
which  becomes  part  of  the  Navy  in  time  of  war, 
and  the  U.S.  merchant  marine.  Other 
:omponents,  such  as  U.S.  Marine  Corps  and  the 
Naval  Reserve,  are  discussed  "\  in  •^ubsequent 
:hapters.  ° 


CIVIL  ENGINEER  CORPS 

Officers  of  the  Civil  Engineer  Corps  (CEC), 
who  administer  the  work  of  the  Naval  Facilities 
Engineering  Command  (NAVFACENGCOM), 
ire  commissioned  naval  officers  having  special 
technical  qualifications.  They  are  engineers, 
planners,  estimators,  analysts  of  the  Navy's 
shore  facilities,  and  overseers  of  the  construction 
ind  maintenance  of  the  shore  establishment. 
Additionally,  they  command  the  field  forces 
that  construct  advance  bases  for  support  of 
Marine  and  Navy  contingency  operations. 

The  Commander,  Naval  Facilities 
Engineering  Command  also  is  the  Chief  of  Civil 
Engineers  (that  is,  the  head  of  the  Corps).  He 
exercises  technical  direction  over  the  Naval 
Construction  Forces,  generally  known  as  the 
Seabees.  NAVFACENGCOM  also  has  support 
responsibility  of  commands  and  organizations 
[such  as  construction  battalion  centers) 
established  as  separate  activities  of  the 
Department  of  the  Navy  whose  primary 
function  is  the  organizing  and  equipping  of  the 
Naval  Construction  Forces. 

The  World  War  II  job  of  NAVFACENGCOM 
'then  the  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks)  as  an 
idministrative  component  and  of  the  CEC  as  an 


operational  force  was  tremendous.  Fueling  and 
docking  facilities  had  to  be  established;  food  and 
equipment  depots  were  needed  to  handle 
supplies  for  the  combat  areas;  hospitals  were 
necessary  to  receive  the  wounded  and  sick;  and 
repair  facilities  for  ships  had  to  be  equipped  and 
re$dy  for  instant  action.  Most  pressing  of  all  was 
the  need  for  airstrips. 

Many  CEC  officers  supervised  the  specialized 
work  of  Seabee  maintenance  units  which  took 
over  maintenance  of  advanced  bases,  thereby 
releasing  construction  battalions  for 
participation  in  new  landings;  some  were  in 
charge  of  pontoon  detachments,  smoke 
generation  units,  malaria-control  units,  and 
underwater  demolition  teams. 

An  outstanding  example  of  World  War  II 
NAVFACENGCOM  accomplishments  was  the 
floating  drydock  program.  The  few  floating 
drydocks  constructed  before  the  outbreak  of 
war  were  designed  for  use  in  quiet  harbors  where 
outside  facilities  existed  for  power  and  crew 
accommodations.  This  war,  however,  involved 
naval  warfare  on  a  scale  previously  unknown, 
and  it  became  imperative  that  a  way  be  found  to 
repair  ships  thousands  of  miles  from  home  ports. 
To  this  end,  the  Civil  Engineers  prepared 
radically  new  designs  for  a  fleet  of  floating 
drydocks  that  could  repair  ships  close  to  the 
scene  of  battle,  making  it  possible  for  damaged 
ships  to  return  quickly  to  the  fight. 

The  designs  included  docks  that  carried  their 
own  power  machinery  and  crew  quarters,  docks 
with  ship-like  hulls  for  fast  towing,  and,  most 
important,  docks  of  a  size  that  could  handle  the 
largest  ships  afloat.  Originally,  it  was  planned  to 
build  a  single-unit  dock  capable  of  cradling  a 
battleship.  Because  such  a  structure  could  have 
been  sunk  by  a  single  torpedo,  the  plan  was 


217 


134.44 

Figure  10-1.— CEC-conceived  sectional  drydocks  made  it 
possible  to  repair  the  largest  ships  close  to  the  scene 
of  battle. 


abandoned  in  favor  of  a  dock  built  in  sections 
that  could  be  towed  to  an  advance  base  and 
there  welded  together  into  a  single  dock,  as  in 
figure  10- 1. 

Called  the  advanced  base  sectional  dock 
(ABSD),  the  structure  consisted  of  ten  sections 
that  were  interchangeable,  so  that,  if  hit,  a 
damaged  section  could  be  cradled  in  the  other 
sections  and  repaired. 

During  the  last  year  of  World  War  II.  the  1  50 
war-built  floating  drydocks  serviced  7000  ships 
in  combat  areas. 

Equally  or  even  more  spectacular  was  the 
development  of  the  Navy  pontoon,  the  famed 
"magic  boxes"1  of  World  War  II.  The  concept 
came  from  a  cigarbox  model  made  by  a  CEC 
captain.  Pontoon  causeways,  beached  from 
shipside  while  underway,  enabled  Allied  forces 
to  bridge  the  shallow  waters  along  the  southern 
coast  of  Sicily-to  the  surprise  of  the  Germans, 
who  had  considered  those  waters  a  natural 
barrier.  Some  1 0,000  Army  vehicles  rolled  from 
ship  to  shore  over  the  steel  pontoon  bridges,  as 


in  figure    10-2,  setting   the   pattern   for  every 
ensuing  invasion  in  the  war. 

The  pontoon  was  put  to  many  uses.  Various 
assemblies  were  made,  including  net  tenders, 
causeways,  floating  cranes,  drydocks,  finger 
piers,  seaplane  service  piers  and  ramps,  and  even 
an  experimental  aircraft  landing  field. 

Post-World  War  II  years  have  seen  rapid 
technological  and  management  system 
expansion  throughout  the  engineering  world  and 
the  Department  of  Defense.  NAVFACENGCOM 
has  been  a  leader  in  developing  advanced 
management  systems  and  adapting  these. to  the 
latest  computer  hardware;  examples  are  the 
Shore  Facilities  Planning  and  Programming 
System  and  the  Seabee  management  tool, 
Seabee  Tactically  Installed  Navy  Generated 
Engineer  Resources  System  (STINGER). 

In  the  areas  of  engineering  development, 
NAVFACENGCOM  strives  to  turn  the  most 
up-to-date  technological  advances  into  the  basis 
for  efficient,  economical  shore  facilities  for  the 
Navy.  NAVFACENGCOM  research  also  is 
deeply  involved  in  the  future,  with  such 
concepts  as  underwater  construction  being 
studied  in  detail. 

A  major  engineering  accomplishment  of  the 
CEC  was  its  direction  of  the  massive  Vietnam 
construction  program.  Over  100  CEC  officers 
directed  the  efforts  of  a  25,000-man  civilian 
work  force  under  the  control  of  United  States 
contractors  in  accomplishing  a  S2  billion 
program  that  considerably  upgraded  the  entire 
face  of  the  nation. 

Many  new  engineering  concepts  have 
developed  from  the  Vietnam  experiences 
including  a  new  lightweight,  high-strength 
replacement  for  the  old  pontoons  discussed 
previously. 

Throughout  the  years  1942-1968,  however, 
the  proudest  CEC  accomplishment  has  been  the 
meteoric  growth  and  fame  of  the  Seabees. 

THE  SEABEES 

The  forerunners  of  the  Naval  Construction 
Forces  date  back  to  World  War  I  when  a 


218 


Chapter   1 0-COMPONENTS  AND  SUPPORTING  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  NAVY 


3.85 

Figure  10-2.— LSTs  can  launch  pontoon  causeways  while  underway  or  upon  beaching,  momentum  carrying  the 
causeways  to  the  beach.  When  the  marriage  between  LST  and  causeway  is  made,  vehicles  leave  the  ship  under  their 
own  power. 


construction  regiment  was  formed  to 
supplement  the  public  works  department  in  the 
construction  of  recruit  training  facilities  at  Great 
Lakes.  A  small  detachment  of  the  regiment  also 
went  overseas  to  build  communication  facilities 
in  France.  After  the  war,  the  regiment  was 
decommissioned. 

With  the  advent  of  World  War  II,  the  services 
of  contractors  and  their  civilian  employees 
engaged  in  building  naval  projects  overseas  could 
not  be  utilized  for  construction  work  in  combat 
zones.  Under  military  law  their  status  as  civilians 
prevented  them  from  offering  resistance  to  an 
enemy  without  becoming  liable  to  summary 
execution  as  guerrillas  in  the  event  of  capture. 


Further,    civilian    workers    lacked    the   training 
necessary  to  defend  themselves. 

The  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Yards  and 
Docks,  Admiral  Ben  Moreell  (now  referred  to  as 
the  King  Bee),  therefore  proposed  the  creation 
of  a  construction  force  within  the  Navy  to  meet 
the  needs  for  uniformed  men  to  perform 
construction  work  in  combat  areas.  Three  naval 
construction  battalions  (NCBs)  were  authorized 
in  January  1942;  they  served  under  officers  of 
the  Civil  Engineer  Corps.  The  name  "Seabees" 
derives  from  the  initials  of  the  term 
"construction  battalion."  (See  figure  10-3.) 

A  battalion,  still  the  fundamental  unit  of  the 
Seabee  organization,  was  composed  of  four 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


construction  companies,  which  included 
necessary  skills  for  any  job,  plus  a  headquarters 
company  consisting  of  yeomen,  storekeepers, 
cooks,  and  so  on.  As  a  complete  operating  unit  a 
battalion  could  be  sent  into  the  field  on  its  own. 
The  complement  was  set  at  32  officers  and  1073 
men. 

In  the  early  stages  of  the  war,  the  NCB 
operated  overseas  as  an  independent  unit,  with 
the  officer  in  charge  responsible  for  making  all 
decisions  of  an  engineering  and  military 
character.  As  the  number  of  battalions  in  a  given 
area  increased,  and  as  large  construction  projects 
were  undertaken,  a  higher  command  echelon 
became  necessary  to  coordinate  the  work. 
Consequently,  naval  construction  regiments 
were  established.  In  large  areas,  where  many 
battalions  operated,  brigades  were  formed. 
Finally,  at  Okinawa,  a  task  force  unit  was 
created,  embracing  more  than  100,000  Seabee 
and  United  States  Army  and  British  engineers. 
Altogether,  12  brigades,  54  regiments,  and  more 


134.137 

Figure  10-3.— The  CB  insigne,  appropriately  enough,  is  a 
bee.  Fighting  mad,  it  is  going  into  action  carrying 
some  of  the  tools  of  its  trade— wrench,  hammer,  and 
spitting  machinegun. 


than  150  battalions  were  formed.  Peak  strength 
was  a  quarter  of  a  million  men. 

Construction  of  an  advance  base -the 
Seabees'  primary  function— was  a  complex  task. 
A  typical  project  was  the  construction  of  an 
airbase.  The  first  job  was  to  get  equipment 
ashore  despite  enemy  resistance.  After  the 
beachhead  was  established,  roads  had  to  be  cut 
inland  to  the  site  of  camp  and  airstrip.  Supplies 
and  equipment  had  to  be  moved  off  the  exposed 
beach.  Following  this,  many  activities  got 
underway  simultaneously:  a  campsite  was 
cleared  and  a  source  of  water  found  and 
developed;  hospital  and  messing  facilities  were 
set  up;  gun  emplacements  were  built  and  radar 
protection  installed;  access  roads  were  pushed 
through;  and  construction  of  the  airstrip  started. 
The  menace  of  enemy  aircraft  was  always 
present,  with  snipers  sometimes  operating  from 
the  jungle's  edge.  It  took  about  2  weeks  to 
develop  a  fighter  strip  to  the  point  where  planes 
could  land  and  take  off.  ^ 

Meanwhile,  construction  of  other  facilities 
had  kept  pace.  A  pier  and  dock  had  been  built, 
and  fuel  tanks  for  aviation  gas  erected  and 
camouflaged;  powerplants,  warehouses,  and 
shops  had  been  put  up  and  permanent  structures 
for  personnel  replaced  makeshift  quarters;  an 
administration  building,  dispensary,  post  office, 
and  utility  structures  were  made  ready  for  use. 

Such  a  base  was  built  by  a  single  battalion  of 
Seabees,  serving  as  part  of  an  all-service  airbase 
unit.  For  more  extensive  bases,  such  as  an 
all-purpose  base  to  fuel  and  repair  ships,  supply 
the  fleet,  and  serve  the  fleet's  air  arm,  three  or 
more  battalions  were  required. 

The  Seabees  were  assigned  the  construction 
of  shipbuilding  and  ship  repair  plants;  port  and 
harbor  workc;  aviation  training  and  operating 
stations;  ammunition  depots  and  ordnance 
production  facilities;  supply  depots,  hospitals, 
fleet  operating  bases,  and  fuel  depots;  housing 
for  officers,  enlisted  men,  and  civilians;  and 
floating  and  graving  docks  of  all  sizes  and 
characters.  They  constructed  bases  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  Iceland,  Newfoundland,  Bermuda,  the 
Caribbean  area,  Panama,  South  America,  Africa, 
Alaska,  and  wherever  the  fighting  forces  went  in 
the  Pacific.  Worldwide,  Seabees  constructed 


more  than  400  advance  bases— some 
accommodating  50,000  men-and  housing 
facilities  for  1.5  million  men. 

In  1946  the  Seabees,  originally  established 
only  as  a  wartime  force,  were  made  a  permanent 
part  of  the  Navy.  In  1948,  "Group  VIII" 
(construction)  ratings  were  established  for 
enlisted  Seabee  personnel.  Prior  to  that  time, 
there  were  no  construction  ratings  as  such. 

The  main  assignment  of  early  postwar 
Seabees  was  to  perform  maintenance  work  at 
Navy  overseas  bases.  Occasionally,  they  received 
assignments  to  perform  special  missions  such  as 
constructing  housing  at  an  advance  base,  or 
participating  in  special  operations  such  as  the 
atomic  bomb  tests  and  expeditions  to  the 
Antarctic. 

The  most  ambitious  postwar  project 
involved  construction  of  Cubi  Point  Naval  Air 
Station  at  Subic  Bay  in  the  Philippines.  Seven 
years  in  the  doing,  construction  of  the  field 
turned  out  to  be  an  earth-moving  chore 
comparable  to  digging  the  Panama  Canal.  The 
Seabees  literally  tore  down  a  mountain  to  get 
the  17  million  cubic  yards  of  earth  and  rock 
needed  to  complete  the  job. 

Cubi  Point  construction  was  accomplished  in 
part  for  support  of  Korean  operations. 
Amphibious  construction  battalions  (described 
later,  but  mainly  concerned  with  pontoonery 
and  across-the-beach  operations)  played  a  key 
role  in  supporting  the  Inchon  landing.  Other 
Seabee  units  built  airfields  and  maintained 
Marine  facilities.  Several  battalions  were 
deployed  to  the  Philippines  (such  as  those 
involved  in  the  Cubi  job),  Okinawa,  and  other 
Pacific  island  bases  to  build  support  facilities 
vital  to  the  Korean  logistics  chain. 

From  1953  onward  Seabee  battalions  (now 
called  naval  mobile  construction  battalions 
(NMCBs)-the  term  truly  fits;  every  piece  of 
today's  specially  designed  Seabee  equipment  can 
be  airlifted)  worked  in  such  places  as  Cuba, 
Spain,  Newfoundland,  Guam,  Okinawa,  and  the 
Philippines,  to  mention  a  few. 

In  May  of  1965  the  then  10,000-man  Seabee 
force  was  called  on  again  and  MCBs  went  across 
the  beach  in  Chu  Lai,  Republic  of  Vietnam. 
During  the  peak  of  the  conflict  Seabee  strength 


more  than  doubled  to  25,000  men  in  21 
battalions.  Nearly  $100  million  of  construction 
had  been  placed  during  more  than  3  million 
man-days  of  grueling  effort  by  the  Seabees.  Jobs 
were  diverse,  ranging  from  construction  of  huge 
logistics  complexes  in  Da  Nang  and  Chu  Lai  in 
the  early  phases  of  the  conflict,  to  building 
camps  in  remote  locations  for  the  Army  Special 
Forces  (Green  Beret)  troops. 

The    breakdown     of    Naval    Construction 
Forces  includes  the  following  basic  elements: 

Naval  construction  brigade  (NCB) 
Naval  construction  regiment  (NCR) 
Amphibious     construction     battalion 

(PHIBCB) 

Naval  mobile  construction  battalion  (NMCB) 
Construction    battalion    maintenance    unit 

(CBMU) 

Construction  battalion  unit  (CBU) 
Naval  support  unit  (NSU) 

Seabee  Team 


A  brigade  consists  of  two  or  more  regiments; 
a  regiment  is  composed  of  two  or  more  mobile 
construction  battalions;  and  the  battalion  still 
consists  of  five  companies,  although  manning  is 
now  at  550  to  750  as  opposed  to  the  World  War 
II  1000-man  battalion.  The  basic  operational 
component  is  the  battalion,  as  it  has  been  since 
the  construction  forces  were  created  in  1942. 
The  brigade  commander  directs  and  coordinates 
activities  of  Seabee  regiments.  Regimental 
commanders  coordinate  the  efforts  of  attached 
battalions,  provide  "home  base"  facilities,  issue 
needed  material  and  equipment,  and  provide 
administrative  support  training. 

The  function  of  an  ACB  (or  PHIBCB)  is  to 
provide  engineering  support  required  by  a  naval 
beach  group  during  an  amphibious  operation. 
The  task  of  a  beach  group  is  to  support  a 
division  of  troops  during,  as  a  minimum,  the 
assault  phase  of  the  operation.  The  role  of  a 
PHIBCB  is,  as  an  example,  to  provide  pontoon 
causeways,  beach  salvage  teams,  beach 
improvement  teams,  and  ship-shore  fuel  systems, 
each  function  being  performed  by  a  platoon 
specially  trained  for  the  job.  A  PHIBCB  is 


221 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


self-sufficient  but  normally  is  not  intended  for 
lengthy  deployment  in  the  field;  when  the  beach 
group's  operation  is  completed,  the  PHIBCB's 
mission  also  has  been  accomplished. 

An  NMCB  is  an  independent,  self-sustaining 
unit  organizationally  designed  to  operate  alone. 
It  can  accomplish  a  large  variety  of  construction 
missions-roads,  bridges,  airstrips,  fuel  storage 
tanks,  water  supply  system,  and  electric 
installations,  to  name  just  a  few— in  addition  to 
erecting  probably  any  type  of  building.  The 
composition  of  an  NMCB  necessarily  represents 
a  large  cross  section  of  the  building 
trades— carpenters,  plumbers,  electricians, 
engineers,  surveyors,  heavy  equipment 
operators,  and  so  on. 

The  primary  job  of  the  Seabees  is  to  build, 
but  based  on  the  theory  that  they  can't  build 
unless  they  control  the  jobsite,  all  Seabees 
receive  training  in  defensive  combat  tactics. 
Controlling  the  jobsite  involves  the  second  part 
of  being  a  Seabee,  the  fighting  part,  as 
exemplified  by  the  Seabee  motto  "Construmus 
batuimus"  meaning  "We  build— we  fight." 

Each  company  in  a  battalion  organization  is 
divided  into  combat  platoons,  squads,  and  teams 
(fire,  machinegun,  and  rocket).  A  Marine 
gunnery  sergeant  is  assigned  on  an  augmented 
basis  as  a  military  advisor  and  training  specialist 
to  the  commanding  officer  of  the  battalion. 

As  a  self-sustaining  unit,  the  NMCB  in 
particular  must  be  capable  of  self-defense  for  a 
limited  time.  Each  battalion  subdivision  has  a 
construction/military  support  assignment  and 
every  officer  and  man  fills  a  construction/ 
military  support  billet.  The  construction  aspect, 
of  course,  predominates;  the  mission  is  to  build. 
Platoons  are  organized  into  work  crews  that 
correspond  to  the  weapon  squad  organization. 
The  basic  construction/military  support  units, 
then,  are  the  work  crew/rifle  fire  team,  work 
crew/automatic  weapons  team,  and  the  work 
crew/rocket  launcher  team. 

The  function  of  a  CBMU  is  upkeep  and 
maintenance  of  completed  bases.  It  is  also 
equipped,  however,  to  accomplish  relatively 
light  construction  projects. 

Seabees  have  constructed  numerous 
Antarctic  bases  since  1955.  CBU  did  the  base 
construction  during  the  "summer"  season  while 
a  maintenance  unit  wintered  over  for  the 


purpose  of  upkeep.  Presently  CBUs  are 
constructing  and  working  on  bases  around  the 
world. 

The  Naval  Support  Unit  (NSU),  State 
Department,  provides  construction  support  to 
the  U.S.  Department  of  State.  The  duty  involves 
the  inspection  of  foreign  contract  construction 
and  the  accomplishment  of  minor  construction 
and  repairs  within  secure  areas  of  foreign  service 
buildings  overseas.  The  activity  has  a  personnel 
strength  of  volunteers  and  is  commanded  by  a 
CEC  lieutenant  commander  or  lieutenant.  The 
enlisted  personnel  are  second-class  petty  officers 
or  higher.  Married  personnel  are  assigned  to 
unaccompanied  tours  initially  and  then  to  a 
two-year  accompanied  tour.  Unmarried 
personnel  customarily  remain  in  a  "transit" 
status  during  most  of  their  tour.  The  Navy  is 
reimbursed  by  the  Department  of  State  for  all 
costs  associated  with  this  unit. 

Seabee  teams  consist  of  1  CEC  officer  and 
1 2  enlisted  men.  Every  man  is  cross-trained  in  at 
least  one  rate  other  than  his  own,  so  that  in 
essence  the  capability  of  each  highly  diversified 
team  actually  is  more  than  double  that  of  the 
indicated  manpower.  The  teams  comprise  a 
breed  of  civic  action/counterinsurgency 
builder-fighters  that  can  be  flown,  with  their 
equipment,  anywhere  in  the  world  on  short 
notice.  They  are  self-sufficient  in  the  field  and 
can  do  a  variety  of  construction  tasks.  In 
general,  teams  serve  as  goodwill  ambassadors, 
building  or  advising  on  the  construction  of 
public  works  projects  in  small  nations  unable  to 
accomplish  the  tasks  themselves.  They  have  been 
assigned  to  a  number  of  countries  and  trust 
territories  in  the  Pacific  to  build  roads,  drill 
water  wells,  and  erect  schools,  for  example. 

In  Vietnam,  teams  went  out  among  the 
people  for  months  at  a  time  as  part  of  the 
people-to-people  civic  action  program,  to  advise 
on  sanitation  and  health  matters,  take  care  of 
the  sick  (a  specially  trained  hospital  corpsman 
was  assigned  to  each  team),  and  to  teach  basic 
construction  skills  to  villagers.  A  Seabee  team 
member,  Marvin  Shields,  CM3  (whose  deeds 
were  described  in  chapter  2),  was  the  first  Navy 
man  to  win  the  Medal  of  Honor  in  Vietnam. 

Figure  10-4  illustrates  the  diversity  of 
Seabee  functions  in  Vietnam. 


Chapter  10-COMPONENTS  AND  SUPPORTING  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  NAVY 


A.    STEELWORKERS  REMOVE  ROCKET-DAMAGED 
STEEL  MATTING  FROM  AN  AIRFIELD  PARKING  APRON. 


C.    UNITS  OF  AN  NMCB  CONSTRUCTING  A  BRIDGE. 


B.     BRIDGE  EXPERTS  SURVEY  VIET  CONG-BLOWN  BRIDGE. 


D.     ERECTING  A  HANGAR  FOR  THE  MARINES. 


F.    PERIMETER  PATROL  RETURNING  TO  BASE. 


E.    WORKING  ON  A  CANTONMENT  FOR  ROK  TROOPS. 


134.138 


THE  SUPPLY  CORPS 

Officers  of  the  Supply  Corps  are  the  Navy's 
business  administrators.  As  such,  they  are 
responsible  for  ensuring  that  the  vast  logistics 
requirements  of  the  Navy,  as  set  forth  by  the 
Chief  of  Naval  Operations,  are  provided 
efficiently  and  economically  to  ships  and 
activities  around  the  world.  This  entails  the 
management  of  a  supply  system  that  must 
furnish  well  over  a  million  items  essential  to  the 
operations  of  ships,  missiles,  aircraft,  and 
facilities.  In  addition,  Supply  Corps  officers 
manage  the  operation  of  food  service,  ship's 
store,  and  Navy  Exchange  facilities;  and  disburse 
pay  and  allowances  of  Navy  men  and  women. 

Duty  assignments  of  Supply  Corps  officers 
range  from  that  of  supply  officer  aboard  a 
destroyer  to  the  Commander,  Naval  Supply 
Systems  Command,  a  rear  admiral,  who  also 
serves  as  the  Chief  of  the  Supply  Corps.  The 
Naval  Supply  Systems  Command  is  responsible 
for  overall  management  of  supply  ashore  and 
afloat.  Disbursing  and  certain  other 
comptrollership  billets  to  which  Corps  officers 
may  be  assigned  are  under  the  management  of 
Comptroller  of  the  Navy. 

The  afloat  supply  officer  is  chiefly 
concerned  with  procurement,  receipt,  custody, 
stowage,  and  expenditure  of  material  for  ship's 
use;  maintenance  of  stock  records  and  inventory 
control;  food  service  and  ship's  store  operations; 
and  payment  of  the  crew.  Ashore,  billets  involve 
requisitioning  and  local  procurement,  contract 
purchasing,  material  inspection  and  receipt, 
stock  management  at  field  supply  points,  supply 
systems  management,  storage  and  materials 
handling,  and  financial  management. 

Current  Corps  strength  is  about  4500 
officers,  50%  of  whom  serve  afloat  and  overseas. 
The  main  source  of  Supply  Corps  officer  input  is 
the  NROTC  (Regular)  Program  including  some 
"hard  science"  majors.  Others  are  received  from 
the  Naval  Academy,  OCS  programs,  the  LDO 
Program,  and  line  officer  transfers.  While  not 
officially  members  of  the  Corps,  about  300 
warrant  and  chief  warrant  officers  serving  in  the 
technical  specialty  of  Supply  Clerk  also  are 


assigned  to  Supply  Corps  billets  both  afloat  and 
ashore. 

Newly  commissioned  Supply  Corps  officers, 
including  line  transferees,  and  newly  appointed 
warrant  Supply  Clerks  are  sent  to  the  Navy 
Supply  Corps  School,  Athens,  Georgia,  for  26 
weeks  of  intensive  training  in  Basic  Supply 
Management.  In  addition  they  receive 
instructions  in  a  wide  range  of  sophisticated 
management  techniques,  including  automatic 
data  processing.  On  completion  of  the  course, 
most  Corps  officers  are  initially  assigned  to 
afloat  billets  followed  by  tours  ashore  in 
CONUS  and  overseas.  The  typical  rotation 
pattern  of  Corps  officers  is  discussed  in  chapter 
3.  By  his  or  her  third  tour,  the  typical  Supply 
Corps  officer  is  expected  to  develop  a  functional 
proficiency  in  one  of  the  following  fields: 
clothing  and  textiles,  financial  management,  fuel 
distribution,  merchandising,  procurement, 
subsistence  technology,  system  inventory 
management,  or  transportation  management. 

Courses  in  Navy  Exchange  Management  (6 
weeks)  and  Commissary  Store  Management  (4 
weeks)  are  conducted  several  times  yearly  at  the 
Navy  Ship's  Store  Office,  Brooklyn,  New  York. 
A  6-month  course  in  Transportation  Manage- 
ment conducted  at  the  Naval  Supply  Center, 
Oakland,  California,  covers  material  on  terminal 
operations  and  stevedoring,  traffic  management, 
and  warehousing.  Supply  Corps  officers  also  are 
eligible  to  attend  other  courses  of  varying  length 
conducted  at  both  military  and  civilian  facilities 
on  subjects  ranging  from  petroleum  storage  to 
computer  systems. 

Development  of  a  functional  proficiency  in 
no  way  detracts  from  the  Supply  Officer's 
overall  opportunity  to  upgrade  his  or  her 
professional  qualifications  as  a  naval  officer. 
Each  year  approximately  100  Supply  Corps 
officers  are  selected  for  postgraduate  training  at 
military  and  civilian  institutions,  some  at  the 
doctorate  level.  Studies  range  from  logistics  and 
management  sciences  to  law  and  personnel 
administration.  Long-range  plans  for  the  Supply 
Corps  officer  envision  him  as  a 
tech  no-economist  skilled  in  mathematical 
sciences,  analytical  methods,  and  behavioral 
sciences  essential  to  future  Navy  operations. 


224 


Chapter  1 0-COMPONENTS  AND  SUPPORTING  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  NAVY 


THE  NAVY  MEDICAL 
DEPARTMENT 

The  term  "Medical  Department"  designates 
the  worldwide  medical  and  dental  services  and 
facilities  maintained  by  the  Department  of  the 
Navy  in  accomplishing  its  assigned  mission 
within  the  national  defense  structure  of  the 
United  States.  The  mission  of  the  Medical 
Department  is  to  safeguard  the  health  of  the 
Navy  and  Marine  Corps.  This  includes  care  and 
treatment  of  sick  and  injured  members  of  the 
naval  service  and  their  dependents;  training 
programs  for  Medical  Department  personnel; 
continuing  programs  of  medical  and  dental 
research;  prevention  and  control  of  diseases  and 
injuries;  promotion  of  physical  fitness  in 
members  of  the  naval  service;  care  for  on-the-job 
injuries  and  illness  of  civilian  employees;  and 
supervision  of  the  care  and  preparation  for 
shipment  and  interment  of  deceased  military 
members  and  of  civilian  personnel  for  whom  the 
Navy  is  responsible. 

Members  of  the  medical  profession  have 
always  played  an  important  role  in  the  Navy. 
They  have  served  with  gallantry  and  distinction 
on  every  type  of  fighting  ship,  from  the  Alfred, 
the  vessel  on  which  John  Paul  Jones  hoisted  the 
first  American  flag  in  1775,  to  the  modern 
nuclear-powered  submarines. 

The  history  of  the  Navy's  medical 
department  shows  that  it  is  increasing  in 
professional  competence,  specialization, 
mobility,  and  prestige— results  due,  in  no  small 
part,  to  the  organized  efforts  of  its  members:  In 
the  early  days  of  the  Navy,  however,  physicians 
were  selected  by  commanders  of  naval  vessels 
for  individual  voyages.  Medical  officers  were  not 
formally  organized  and  had  little,  if  any,  relation 
to  one  another.  Interesting  travel  and  a  share  in 
any  booty  a  ship  might  capture  served  as 
inducements  to  join  the  Navy. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  Navy,  medical  and 
surgical  attention  was  provided  by  Surgeons  or 
Surgeons'  Mates.  Their  assistants,  selected  from 
the  crew,  were  known  as  "loblolly  boys,"  a 
designation  used  in  the  British  Navy,  the  term 
was  derived  from  the  name  of  a  porridge  served 
to  the  sick  and  injured.  Loblolly  boys  were 
ill-trained,  but  undoubtedly  many  of  them  gave 


of  themselves  a  full  measure  of  their  capabilities; 
they  were  the  nucleus  of  a  group  much  later 
organized  into  what  is  now  the  Hospital  Corps. 

While  naval  regulations,  as  early  as  1798, 
called  for  "a  convenient  place  to  be  set  apart  for 
sick  and  hurt  men"  aboard  naval  vessels,  the 
ill-ventilated,  poorly  lit,  and  inadequately 
equipped  spaces  reserved  for  the  care  of  the  sick 
on  early  ships  was  a  far  cry  from  the  completely 
appointed  sickbays  of  today. 

The  lifesaving  drugs  and  effective  techniques 
of  modern  medicine  were  unknown.  Surgeons 
lacked  adequate  anesthetics  and  antiseptics. 
Great  faith  was  placed  in  vinegar  as  a  germ  killer; 
rum  and  opium  compounds  were  the  most 
frequently  used  agents  for  deadening  pain. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE 
MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT 


The  first  real  effort  to  provide  a  distinct 
medical  organization  within  the  Navy 
Department  was  made  in  August  1842,  when 
Congress  established  the  Bureau  of  Medicine  and 
Surgery.  Surgeon  William  P.  C.  Barton,  who  27 
years  before  had  published  a  Scheme  for 
Systematizing  the  Medical  Department  of  the 
Navy,  was  chosen  as  first  chief  of  the  bureau.  He 
was  offered,  but  refused,  the  additional  title  of 
surgeon  general.  He  was  selected  from  a  list  of 
60  surgeons  then  serving  in  the  Navy. 

In  the  1860's  the  Medical  Department 
expanded  with  the  growth  of  the  Navy.  During 
this  decade  the  hospital  at  Washington,  D.C., 
was  built;  the  Annual  Reports  of  the  Surgeon 
General,  later  to  be  of  much  value  to  public 
health  authorities  and  other  officials,  were 
continued;  and  the  Navy's  first  so-designated 
hospital  ship,  the  Red  Rover  (figure  10-5),  was 
commissioned.  This  ship,  a  sidewheeler  captured 
from  the  Confederates,  was  converted  into  a 
hospital  ship  at  St.  Louis.  Virtually  a  "floating 
palace"  for  its  time,  it  had  elevators  between 
decks,  fully  equipped  wards,  screened  windows, 
well-appointed  operating  rooms,  and  nine 
"water  closets."  The  Navy's  first  female  nurses 
also  served  aboard  the  Red  Rover. 

In  1871  medical  officers  were  no  longer 
listed  simply  as  surgeons,  but  as  members  of  a 
staff  corps  of  the  Navy.  They  were  given  grades 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


134.47 

Figure  10-5.-USS  Red  Rover,  the  Navy's  first  regular 
hospital  ship,  was  in  use  during  the  Civil  War.  The 
Navy's  first  female  nurses  served  aboard  her. 


of  medical  director,  medical  inspector,  surgeon, 
and  past  assistant  surgeon,  the  grades  being 
generally  comparable  to  captain,  commander, 
lieutenant  commander,  and  lieutenant, 
respectively.  Assistant  surgeons  on  their  first 
cruise  had  the  "relative  rank"  of  ensign. 

Rating  designations  of  enlisted  personnel 
have  gone  through  many  changes.  The  loblolly 
boy  was  succeeded,  in  1843,  by  surgeons' 
steward.  During  the  Civil  War  male  nurses  were 
enlisted  and  assigned  to  receiving  ships  "in  a 
number  proportionate  to  the  necessities  of  the 
case."  The  designation  of  surgeons'  steward  was 
changed  to  that  of  apothecary  in  1866;  about 
1873,  the  male  nurse  became  a  "bayman." 
These  designations  remained  until  1898,  when 
the  present  Hospital  Corps  was  established. 

In  1  883  the  Museum  of  Naval  Hygiene  was 
founded  in  Washington.  The  first  Instruction  for 
Medical  Officers,  a  compilation  of  naval 
regulations  affecting  the  Medical  Department, 
was  revised.  It  had  first  been  published  in  1867 
when  Gideon  Welles  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 
After  the  1909  edition,  this  book  was  titled 
Manual  of  the  Medical  Department,  United 
States  Navv,  with  a  drastically  improved  edition 
in  1914. 

The  grade  of  rear  admiral  was  given  to  the 
Surgeon  General  of  the  Navy  in  1 899,  and  the 
Medical  Department  thus  acquired  added 
prestige. 


Under  Surgeon  General  Rixey  and  President 
Theodore  Roosevelt,  annual  physical 
examinations  for  officers  were  inaugurated. 

The  Nurse  Corps  (female),  forerunner  of  the 
present-day  Navy  Nurse  Corps,  was  created  by 
an  act  of  Congress  in  1908. 

In  1911  antityphoid  vaccination  was  made 
mandatory,  and  the  systematic  teaching  of  first 
aid  was  instituted.  In  the  following  year  the 
Dental  Corps  was  established  under  the  new 
Surgeon  General,  Charles  F.  Stokes. 

The  rating  of  hospital  steward  was  officially 
changed  to  pharmacist's  mate  (PHM)  in  1916; 
the'  Hospital  Corps  was  established  by  Congress 
at  3-1/2%  of  the  enlisted  strength  of  the  Navy 
and  the  Marine  Corps. 

In  1947  the  Medical  Service  Corps  was 
established  to  provide  commissioned  grades  for 
personnel  in  administration  and  supply, 
pharmacy,  optometry,  and  medical  allied 
sciences;  the  Nurse  Corps,  a  component  of  the 
Medical  Department,  was  established  as  a  staff 
corps  of  the  Navy  in  April  1947;  and  the  rating 
of  pharmacist's  mate  was  changed  to  hospital 
corpsman. 

During  World  War  I,  the  Medical  Corps  made 
notable  improvements  in  sanitation  and  the 
control  of  infectious  and  contagious  diseases, 
such  as  typhoid  and  scrub  typhus. 

Medical  Department  personnel  rendered 
outstanding  service  to  the  men  of  the  Fourth 
Marine  Brigade,  part  of  our  Second  Division,  in 
France.  At  Belleau  Wood,  Chateau-Thierry,  and 
St.  Mihie  1,  among  other  battles,  hospital 
corpsmen  and  officers  shared  the  dangers  and 
brought  succor  to  the  wounded.  A  total  of  60 
Medical  Corps  officers,  1  2  Dental  Corps  officers, 
and  500  hospital  corpsmen  of  the  Navy  were 
assigned  to  field  service  with  the  Marines.  Of  17 
Medals  of  Honor  awarded  to  the  Armed  Forces 
during  the  war,  3  were  won  by  officers  of  the 
Navy  Medical  Department. 

In  preparation  for  overseas  assignments, 
corpsmen  and  doctors  trained  with  the  ground 
troops  from  the  first  days  at  Quantico,  Virginia. 
Out  of  these  weeks  of  training,  an  organization 
of  medical  facilities  was  developed-the  first 
practical  school  of  field  medicine  in  the  United 
States,  which  foreshadowed  the  later 
development  of  medical  support  for  Marine 
Corps  amphibious  landings  in  World  War  II. 


During  World  War  II,  the  largest  waterborne 
medical  department  in  the  history  of  warfare 
was  created.  By  August  1945,  there  were  42 
established  naval  hospitals,  as  well  as  1 2  special 
hospitals,  with  a  patient  load  of  81 ,445,  and  also 
many  smaller  medical  units  for  medical 
treatment,  physical  examinations, 
immunizations,  and  short-term  care.  In  this,  the 
most  destructive  of  all  wars,  the  Medical 
Department  achieved  a  remarkable  record  in. 
saving  human  lives.  Despite  the  fact  that  bombs 
and  high  explosives  produced  wounds  of  a  far 
more  serious  nature  than  in  any  previous 
warfare,  about  97  of  every  100  wounded  men 
managed  to  survive.  This  mortality  rate  of  less 
than  3%,  compared  with  1 1.1%  in  World  War  I, 
was  due  to  several  factors. 

Casualty  evacuation  from  beachheads  to 
advanced  base  hospitals,  a  joint  operation  with 
line  personnel  of  ships  and  aircraft,  was  a  highly 
important  contributing  factor  to  this  high  rate 
of  survival.  In  many  cases,  transport  by  water  or 
air  was  so  rapid  that  casualties  were  being 
operated  on  at  a  rear  base  hospital  2  hours  or 
less  after  being  wounded.  Hospital  ships 
incorporated  the  most  advanced  improvements 
of  permanent  hospitals  ashore  and  were 
completely  air-conditioned.  Air  evacuation, 
pioneered  on  a  large  scale  by  Navy  medical 
officers  and  hospital  corpsmen  attached  to  the 
Marine  Corps  in  the  early  campaigns  in  the 
South  Pacific,  likewise  ranks  high  among  factors 
resulting  in  such  low  mortality. 

Hospital  corpsmen,  who  braved  death  to  aid 
the  wounded  where  they  fell,  deserve  the  highest 
credit  for  their  contribution  to  the  achievement 
of  the  Medical  Department's  mission.  In  some 
cases,  their  casualty  rate  was  higher  than  that  of 
the  troops  they  were  supporting.  The  Hospital 
Corps  won  its  deserved  reward  in  the  form  of  a 
Presidential  Citation,  the  first  time  in  naval 
history  that  an  entire  combat  organization  was 
cited  for  heroism. 

In  previous  conflicts  in  which  this  nation 
engaged,  deaths  of  naval  personnel  from  disease 
far  outweighed  those  of  enemy  action.  World 
War  II  reversed  the  ratio.  The  early  and 
successful  use  of  vaccines,  antitoxins,  and  other 
preventive  measures  accounts  for  the  unusually 
low  disease  rate  among  servicemen. 


The  effectiveness  of  preventive  medicine  is 
dramatically  shown  by  the  low  mortality  rate 
from  diseases  among  American  combat  troops 
on  Guadalcanal,  where  jungles  were  sources  of 
malaria  and  jungle  fevers.  Thousands  of  Japanese 
on  that  island  perished  from  disease.  But 
Americans  listed  as  dead  (from  all  causes)  or 
missing  on  Guadalcanal  totaled  only  1500. 

In  addition  to  its  highly  important  task  of 
caring  for  the  wounded,  the  Medical  Department 
during  World  War  II  handled  an  enormous  case 
load  of  ordinary  sickness  and  injuries.  Some 
90,000  wounded  were  treated,  but  over  50  times 
that  number  of  cases  of  disease  and  noncombat 
injury  were  handled.  Many  new  and  improved 
methods  of  treatment  were  developed. 

During  the  war  the  Medical  Department 
expanded  its  personnel  to  a  strength  of 
1  70,000— a  total  larger  than  the  regular  force  of 
the  Navy  before  the  war.  Of  this  number  about 
21,000  were  medical  and  dental  officers  and 
1 1,000  were  nurses. 

Since  World  War  II  Navy  physicians  and 
dentists  have  further  advanced  their  professional 
techniques  and  have  made  more  mobile  the 
medical  care  they  provide  combat  forces. 

In  the  Republic  of  Vietnam,  wounded  men 
were  quickly  evacuated  by  helicopter  directly  to 
the  decks  of  hospital  ships.  Patients  requiring 
long-term  specialized  care  were  evacuated  by  air 
to  appropriate  facilities  in  the  United  States. 
Physicians  participated  in  the  planning  of 
operations,  to  avoid  strategic  assaults  in 
disease-ridden  areas  or  to  assure  that  control 
measures  would  be  ready  if  such  assaults  were 
made.  A  mobile  dental  laboratory  with  its  own 
powerplant  provided  most  types  of  dental  care 
close  to  the  front  lines.  Surgical  teams  with  their 
equipment  moved  about  by  air  to  supplement 
regular  medical  support  wherever  they  were 
needed,  particularly  in  combined  Navy  and 
Marine  Corps  amphibious  assault  operations. 
Devices  such  as  fully  equipped  surgical  trailers 
brought  definitive  care  to  frontline  troops. 

In  Vietnam,  hospital  corpsmen  served  with 
elements  of  the  Fleet  Marine  Force  while  under 
fire.  In  figure  10-6,  a  hospital  corpsman 
bandages  the  leg  of  a  wounded  Marine  prior  to 
the  •  Marine's  evacuation  by  helicopter.  The 
benefit  of  quick  evacuation  to  the  morale  of  the 
fighting  man  is  an  important  answer  to  the  why 


227 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


of  aeromedical  airlift.  Only  1%  of  personnel 
injured  by  hostile  action  in  Vietnam  died  after 
reaching  a  medical  facility.  In  Korea,  where 
fewer  than  159?  of  the  wounded  were  moved  by 
helicopter,  the  rate  was  2%;  and  in  World  War  II, 
with  no  helos,  the  rate  was  4.5%. 

Medical  personnel  also  were  active  in  the 
Vietnam  civic  action  program  (CAP), 
administering  to  the  medical  needs  of  the 
people.  The  hospital  corpsman  in  figure  10-7  is 
treating  an  injured  85-year-old  woman  while 


134.139 

Figure  10-6.— A  hospital  corpsman  bandages  the  leg  of  a 
wounded  Marine  during  a  search-and-destroy  sweep 
near  An  Hoa,  South  Vietnam.  The  helicopter  in  the 
background  brings  in  more  troops  and  will  evacuate 
the  wounded. 


she  talks  to  the  chaplain  and  other  members  of 
the  MedCAP  team  of  which  he  is  a  part. 

THE  MEDICAL 
DEPARTMENT  TODAY 

The  first  naval  hospital  was  opened  in 
Portsmouth,  Virginia,  in  1830.  In  its  earliest 
.days,  the  medical  staff  was  limited  to  five  men 
and  very  little  equipment.  The  steady  progress 
made  in  the  naval  hospitalization  system  since 
1830  has  kept  pace  with  the  rapid  strides  made 
in  civilian  hospital  services  and  medical 
education  in  the  United  States  during  the  past 
century.  As  of  1976  the  Navy  had  14  hospitals, 
21  medical  centers,  and  198  clinics. 

A  naval  hospital  provides  relatively  full 
diagnostic  and  therapeutic  service  together 
with  bed  care,  nursing,  and  dietetic  services. 
Because  accessibility  and  capacity  to  serve  the 
Operating  Forces  are  prime  site  considerations, 
most  hospitals  are  located  along  the  coastal 
states.  Station  hospitals  can  offer  ex  tended  care 
to  patients,  but  they  are  smaller  and  more 
limited  in  scope.  A  medical  center  is  one 
equipped  and  manned  to  provide  temporary 
in-patient  treatment  for  those  with  a  favorable 
prognosis  for  early  release.  A  clinic  is  designed 
mainly  to  provide  examination  and  treatment 
for  ambulatory  patients  and  first  aid  for 
emergency  cases. 

The  largest  dental  facilities  ashore  are  naval 
dental  clinics,  established  in  areas  of  heavy 
personnel  concentration.  Equipped  and  manned 
to  furnish  complete  dental  care,  there  are  about 
10  clinics  worldwide.  Services  rendered  by 
dental  departments  at  other  shore  installations 
depend  on  the  size  of  the  dental  facility,  which 
in  turn  relates  to  the  number  of  personnel 
served. 

Aboard  ship,  the  scope  of  Medical 
Department  facilities  is  contingent  upon  the 
complement  of  medical  personnel,  available 
space  and  equipment,  capability  of  the  staff,  and 
mission  of  the  ship.  Facilities  thus  range  from 
the  scantily  furnished  sickbay  of  a  destroyer  to 
one  that  is  fully  equipped  aboard  a  carrier. 
Personnel  assigned  vary  from  2  hospital 


228 


Chapter  1 0-COMPONENTS  AND  SUPPORTING  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  NAVY 


'tt-^&^&tttti^Z'-"     :      ,   -,  -  ••^lT-?£    -.  l^-:^.-.     '^^*S^ 

?;-2!^:-;  ^•: 


134.140 

Figure  10-7.— Participating  in  the  civic  action  program,  members  of  the  MedCAP  team  journeyed  to  the  island  of 
Ky  Xuan  twice  each  week  to  minister  to  the  medical  needs  of  the  people. 


corpsmen  on  destroyer  types  (the  senior  being 
specially  trained  for  independent  duty)  to 
perhaps  40  or  45  officers  and  men  on  aircraft 
carriers.  The  type  or  class  of  a  ship  normally 
determines  the  size  and  capacity  of  its  dental 
facility. 


THE  CHAPLAIN  CORPS 

Among  the  various  needs  of  naval  personnel 
is  that  of  religious  ministry.  Just  as  he  is 
responsible  for  the  military  performance  of  the 
personnel  of  his  command,  the  commanding 
officer  also  has  a  definite  responsibility  for 
ensuring  that  the  religious  needs  of  the  men  and 
women  under  his  command  are  met.  Chaplains 
are  assigned  to  commands,  therefore,  to  assist  in 
the  fulfillment  of  that  responsibility  and  to 

SUDDOrt    the    nre.sp.rvatinn    xrtr\    p.nhanrpmp.nt    nf 


the  moral  and  spiritual  well-being  of  the 
personnel  of  the  command. 

The  Navy  Chaplaincy,  established  November 
28,  1775,  has  played  a  significant  role  in  the 
providing  of  such  support  and  spiritual  guidance 
for  naval  personnel  and  their  dependents. 
Though  commissioned  as  an  officer,  the  chaplain 
is  first  an  ordained  member  of  the  clergy  in  one 
of  the  religious  bodies  of  the  country.  In  the 
wearing  of  the  naval  uniform,  it  is  believed  the 
chaplain's  effectiveness  is  enhanced  as  he 
attempts  to  provide  ministry  within  and  to  the 
military  organization.  The  uniform,  itself, 
indicates  responsibility  to  the  naval  service  and 
the  nation.  The  insignia  worn,  the  Cross  or  the 
Tablets  of  the  Law,  identify  the  chaplain  and 
emphasize  responsibility  to  church  and  spiritual 
values. 

Standards  for  appointment  as  a  chaplain  are 

annrnnfp.p.      must      he,      nhvsirallv 


qualified.  Each  must  have  completed  at  least 
1 20  semester  hours  of  undergraduate  study  in  an 
accredited  college  or  university  and  a  minimum 
of  90  semester  hours  in  an  approved  theological 
school.  Before  the  appointment  can  be  made, 
the  chaplain  must  be  duly  ordained  by  his  own 
Church  and  provided  with  an  ecclesiastical 
endorsement  by  that  Church. 

As  a  religious  leader,  the  chaplain  is  an 
advisor  to  the  commanding  officer  on  all  matters 
pertaining  to  the  moral,  spiritual,  and  religious 
welfare  of  Navy  and  Marine  personnel.  Divine 
services  conducted  by  the  chaplain  are  always  in 
accordance  with  the  customs,  traditions,  and 
regulations  of  the  chaplain's  own  Church. 
Frequently  called  upon  to  provide  religious 
services  for  those  of  other  faiths,  however,  the 
chaplain's  responsibility  includes  such  functions 
as  inviting  appropriate  clergy  aboard,  training 
lay  leaders,  and  providing  proper  material  and 
ecclesiastical  support  to  facilitate  appropriate 
services  for  men  and  women  of  all  faiths.  Each 
chaplain  is  called  upon  to  use  ideas,  techniques, 
and  methods  which  will  assist  the  development 
of  personal  growth  and  good  character  in  all 
persons  in  the  command. 

Additionally,  home  and  domestic  problems, 
troubling  personal  issues  and  crises,  as  well  as 
general  welfare  concerns  shape  the  pastoral  care 
dimension  of  the  chaplain's  responsibility.  Often 
the  bulk  of  the  chaplain's  effort  is  devoted  to 
pastoral  care  and  pastoral  counseling.  Every 
chaplain  soon  learns  of  persons  who  are 
perplexed  or  distraught  and  who  are  in  need  of 
counsel  and  assistance.  And,  too,  chaplains 
regularly  receive  requests  for  instruction  for 
baptism,  confirmation,  and  for  marriage. 

Chaplains  serve  at  sea  on  a  normal  rotational 
basis.  Some  are  assigned  directly  to  ships' 
companies.  Others  have  become  "circuit  riders" 
to  meet  the  needs  of  those  on  small  ships  and 
stations  or  when  units  are  widely  dispersed.  For 
example,  a  chaplain  assigned  to  minister  to 
destroyer  personnel  will  in  fact  serve  many  ships 
operating  over  great  distances.  Over  50%  of  the 
Navy  Chaplains  are  in  sea  or  overseas  billets.  In 
addition,  Navy  Chaplains  accompany  major 
tactical  and  support  units  of  the  U.S.  Marine 
Corps.  Approximately  20%  of  the  total  number 
on  active  duty  are  attached  to  Marine  Corps 


Units  at  any  given  time.  Ashore,  three  or  more 
chaplains  may  be  assigned  to  larger  Navy,  Marine 
Corps,  and  Coast  Guard  stations,  many  of  which 
have  well-equipped  chapels  and  educational 
facilities  (figure  10-8). 

Chaplains  serve  in  commissioned  grades  from 
lieutenant  Gunior  grades)  through  captain  and 
are  promoted  in  accordance  with  the  same 
precepts  and  regulations  which  govern  all  other 
naval  officer  promotions.  The  Corps,  itself,  is 
directed  by  the  Chief  of  Chaplains,  a  rear 
admiral.  A  second  rear  admiral  serves  as  detailed 
by  the  Chief  of,  Naval  Personnel. 


JUDGE  ADVOCATE 
GENERAL'S  CORPS 

Although  the  American  Fleet  was  authorized 
in  1775,  and  the  Department  of  the  Navy 
established  by  Act  of  Congress  in  1798,  the 
Navy  had  no  official  legal  counsel  until  well  into 
the  19th  century. 

FORMATION  OF  THE 
OFFICE  OF  JUDGE 
ADVOCATE  GENERAL 

In  1864,  because  of  contract  frauds  arising 
under  Civil  War  naval  programs,  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  Gideon  Welles  created  the  position  of 
Solicitor  for  the  Navy  Department.  The  quickly 
proven  value  of  the  Solicitor's  function  moved 
Secretary  Welles  to  request  legislative 
ratification  of  the  new  legal  office,  and  by  the 
Act  of  2  March  1865  Congress  established  the 
Office  of  Solicitor  and  Naval  Judge  Advocate. 

The  Act  of  8  June  1880  established  the 
Office  of  the  Judge  Advocate  General  of  the 
Navy  as  we  know  it  today.  This  legislation 
placed  upon  the  Judge  Advocate  General  the 
duty  to  "receive,  revise,  and  have  recorded  the 
proceedings  of  all  courts-martial,  courts  of 
inquiry,  and  boards  for  the  examination  of 
officers  for  retirement  and  promotion  in  the 
naval  service,  and  to  perform  such  other  duties 
as  have  heretofore  been  performed  by  the 
Solicitor  and  Naval  Judge  Advocate  General." 
The  Judge  Advocate  General  was  given 


230 


Chapter  1 0-COMPONENTS  AND  SUPPORTING  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  NAVY 


134.50 

Figure  10-8.— On  the  naval  base  at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  are  the  chapels  of  three  faiths  under  one  roof.  To  the  left  is  the 
Protestant  chapel;  to  the  right,  the  Catholic  chapel;  and  connecting  the  two,  the  Jewish  chapel. 


cognizance  over  all  legal  matters,  of  whatever 
kind,  that  affected  the  interest  of  the  Navy. 

Tremendous  legal  problems,  some  of  a 
highly  intricate  character,  were  generated  by 
World  War  II.  In  particular,  great  difficulty  arose 
in  connection  with  the  preparation  and 
administration  of  the  Navy's  contracts  for  the 
procurement  of  goods  and  services.  To  solve  the 
immediate  crisis,  a  unit  of  civilian  attorneys 
were  gathered,  which  in  1 944,  evolved  into  the 
Office  of  the  General  Counsel  of  the  Navy. 

Establishment  of  the  Office  of  General 
Counsel  brought  about  a  dichotomy  in  the 
Navy's  legal  heirarchy  that  exists  today.  The 
Judge  Advocate  General  is  given,  in  addition  to 
military  justice  and  military  law  functions, 
cognizance  of  all  legal  duties  and  services 
throughout  the  Department  of  the  Navy  other 
than  those  specially  assigned  to  the  General 
Counsel  for  the  Department  of  the  Navy. 


Functions  assigned  to  the  Office  of  the  General 
Counsel  are  in  the  fields  of  business  and 
commercial  law. 

FORMATION  OF  THE 
JUDGE  ADVOCATE 
GENERAL'S  CORPS 

Prior  to  World  War  II,  Navy  lawyers  were 
generally  line  officers  with  legal  training,  and 
their  tours  of  legal  duty,  usually  in  the  Office  of 
the  Judge  Advocate  General,  alternated  with 
tours  of  line  duty  at  sea.  During  the  war,  large 
numbers  of  lawyers  served  in  an  admixture  of 
line  and  legal  functions  throughout  the  world. 

The  idea  of  organizing  the  Navy's  uniformed 
lawyers  into  a  distinctive  professional  group 
performing  only  legal  functions  was  first 
considered  a  number  of  years  ago.  In  1945  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  convened  the  McGuire 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Committee  (chaired  by  Matthew  JF.  McGuire,  a 
prominent  civilian  lawyer)  to  examine 
court-martial  procedures  under  the  Articles  for 
the  Government  of  the  Navy.  In  its  November 
1945  report  to  the  Secretary,  the  committee 
formally  recommended,  among  other  things, 
establishment  of  a  Judge  Advocate  General's 
Corps  in  which  officers  would  perform  legal 
duties  only,  with  promotions  in  the  Corps  to  be 
predicated  mainly  upon  professional 
competence  in  the  performance  of  such  duties. 
The  committee  reasoned  that  combining  legal 
functions  with  line  functions  was  no  longer 
feasible  in  that  legal  difficulties  incident  to 
modern  warfare  require  full-time,  first-rate 
lawyers  just  as  operational  aspects  of  naval 
warfare  require  full-time,  first-rate  line  officers. 
It  was  considered  unrealistic  to  expect  efficiency 
in  these  increasingly  divergent  and  technical 
areas  from  the  same  individuals. 

The  recommendation  of  the  McGuire 
Committee  for  creation  of  a  Judge  Advocate 
General's  Corps  prompted  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
Forrestal  to^appoint  a  board  headed  by  Arthur 
A.  Ballantine  of  the  New  York  Bar  to  look 
further  into  the  question.  In  April  1946,  the 
Ballantine  report  concluded  that  World  War  II 
had  demonstrated  beyond  all  question  the  need 
to  employ  a  large  number  of  lawyers  for  the 
performance  of  legal  duties  on  a  continuous 
basis,  but  recommended  the  creation  of  "law 
specialist"  as  a  category  in  the  restricted  line  as 
_  being  more  advantageous  to  the  Navy  than 
'creation  of  a  JAG  corps.  In  June  1946  the 
procurement  of  300  lawyers  was  authorized  and 
the  law  specialist  program  was  implemented. 

It  was  assumed  originally  that  law  specialists 
would  supplement,  not  replace,  line  officers 
trained  in  law.  The  authorization  for  300  law 
specialists  was  predicated  on  this  assumption 
and  upon  the  requirements  of  a  Navy  operating 
under  the  Articles  for  the  Government  of  the 
Navy.  In  May  1950,  however,  enactment  of  the 
Uniform  Code  of  Military  Justice  to  supplant 
the  Articles  established  new  requirements  for 
legal  services.  Many  functions  in  the 
court-martial  system  created  by  the  code  had  to 
be  performed  by  law  specialists,  and  could  not 
be  performed  by  other  officers,  even  though 
trained  in  law.  As  a  result,  in  the  years  after 
enactment  of  the  code,  the  number  of  required 


law  specialists  almost  doubled.  It  became 
apparent  that  law  specialists  should  supplant, 
rather  than  merely  supplement,  unrestricted  line 
officers  in  the  performance  of  legal  duties. 

During  ensuing  years  numerous 
recommendations  for  establishment  of  a  JAG 
corps  were  made.  The  attempts  were 
unsuccessful  until  late  in  1967  when  a 
subcommittee  of  the  House  Armed  Services 
Committee  scheduled  a  hearing  on  provisions  for 
the  establishment  of  a  JAG  corps  in  the  Navy. 
The  Judge  Advocate  General  of  the  Navy, 
appearing  at  the  hearing,  presented  convincing 
testimony  to  show  that  membership  in  a  legal 
corps  would  give  the  Navy  lawyer  a  sense  of 
professional  identity  and  was  expected  to 
provide  a  potent  career  incentive. 

The  proposed  legislation  made  the  full 
course  through  a  receptive  Congress  from 
subcommittee  hearings  to  final  passage  within  a 
period  of  little  more  than  2  months.  Public  Law 
90-179,  the  bill  establishing  the  JAG  Corps  as  a 
staff  corps  of  the  Navy,  was  signed  into  law  by 
the  President  on  8  December  1967. 

All  law  specialists,  including  women,  of  the 
Regular  Navy  and  Naval  Reserve  were 
redesignated  as  judge  advocates  in  the  JAG 
Corps.  The  statute  also  provides  that,  upon 
request,  the  Judge  Advocate  General  may 
designate  qualified  Marine  Corps  lawyers  as 
judge  advocates,  thereby  entitling  them  to 
perform  the  same  functions  as  Navy  judge 
advocates,  although  Marine  Corps  officers  do 
not  become  members  of  the  Navy  JAG  Corps  by 
virtue  of  such  designation. 

The  JAG  Corps  is  identified  by  a  device 
(shown  in  chapter  5)  comprised  of  two  gold  oak 
leaves  curved  to  form  a  semicircle,  the  center  of 
which  is  a  balanced  silver  "mill  rinde."  A  mill 
rinde  is  the  metal  bar  inserted  between  the  two 
stones  of  a  mill  to  bear  and  guide  the  upper 
stone  equally  in  its  course— to  prevent  it  from 
inclining  too  much  on  either  side— thus  ensuring 
that  all  the  grist  is  ground  evenly.  For  some  six 
centuries  the  mill  rinde  has  been  construed  in 
the  English-speaking  world  to  symbolize 
equality  and  justice  and  has  been  associated  with 
the  legal  profession. 

The  JAG  Corps  legislation  entitles  the  Judge 
Advocate  General  and  Deputy  Advocate  General 
to  the  grades  of  rear  admiral  (upper  half)  or 


232 


Chapter  1 0-COMPONENTS  AND  SUPPORTING  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  NAVY 


major  general,  U.S.  Marine  Corps.  The  statute 
also  created  two  positions  for  Assistant  Judge 
Advocates  General  and  authorized  the  two 
officers  detailed  to  those  positions  to  hold  the 
grades  of  rear  admiral  (lower  half)  or  brigadier 
general,  U.S.  Marine  Corps. 

FUNCTIONS  OF 
THE  JAG  CORPS 

Military  justice  is  only  one  of  the  many  areas 
of  responsibility  that  are  handled  by  Navy 
lawyers.  JAs  also  are  responsible  for  legal  advice 
in  the  fields  of  international  law,  admiralty, 
claims,  litigation,  promotions  and  retirements, 
investigations,  administrative  law,  taxation,  and 
legal  assistance  to  service  members  and  their 
dependents. 

Activity  in  these  fields  and  in  military  justice 
is  constantly  expanding  and  changing.  The 
largest  change,  in  terms  of  expanded  rights  to 
military  people,  occurred  with  passage  of  the 
Military  Justice  Act  of  1968.  This  act  expanded 
the  rights  of  the  accused  to  include  lawyer 
counsel  before  special  courts-martial  and 
inaugurated  the  use  of  military  judges  to  preside 
over  special  courts-martial. 

JAG  Corps  members  serve  in  the  offices  of 
the  Secretary  of  Defense,  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
Chief  of  Naval  Operations,  Chief  of  Naval 
Material,  Chief  of  Naval  Personnel,  Chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery,  Chief  of  Naval 
Research,  Comptroller  of  the  Navy,  and  the 
Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff,  among  others. 

Additionally,  JAs  are  assigned  to  the  staffs 
of  the  commandants  of  the  various  naval 
districts  to  handle  legal  work  generated  within 
the  district.  Locally,  they  serve  on  the  staffs  of 
fleet,  force  and  type  commanders  and  at  many 
naval  bases,  stations  and  schools. 

Since  1969,  the  JAG  Corps  has  been 
organized  into  four  basic  components:  the 
Office  of  the  Judge  Advocate  General,  staff  and 
activity  judge  advocates,  law  centers,  and  a 
training  component.  Under  that  organizational 
structure,  the  corps  experienced  problems  in 
personnel  distribution,  uniformity  of  funding 
and  support,  and  standardization  of  operations. 
These  problems  impeded  the  corps'  efforts  to 
render  nntimnm 


Following  an  extensive  study  of  the 
problem,  the  Naval  Legal  Service  was  established 
in  1973  with  the  following  mission:  To 
administer  the  legal  services  program  and 
provide  command  direction  for  all  Naval  Legal 
Service  activities  and  resources  as  may  be 
assigned;  and  to  perform  such  other  functions  or 
tasks  as  may  be  related  to  the  Naval  Legal 
Service  as  directed  by  the  Chief  of  Naval 
Operations. 

Basically,  the  mission  of  the  Legal  Service 
Offices  is  substantially  the  same  as  the  former 
law  centers.  Headquartered  in  Washington,  the 
Naval  Legal  Service  was  authorized  18  offices 
and  15  branch  offices  throughout  the  world. 
Technically,  the  offices  serve  as  legal-service 
centers  in  areas  of  major  concentrations  of  naval 
activities.  Within  the  limits  of  strength 
authorizations,  they  provide  a  full  array  of  legal 
services  to  commands  which  have  no  judge 
advocate  assigned.  A  primary  purpose  of  the 
reorganization,  and  the  Naval  Legal  Service,  was 
to  bring  all  trial  and  defense  counsels  under  the 
direct  authority  of  the  Judge  Advocate  General, 
thus  making  them  independent  of  court-martial 
convening  authorities. 

Even  though  they  are  relatively  new  on  the 
scene  as  an  organization,  the  responsibilities  of 
the  Navy  JAG  Corps  continues  to  expand 
concomitantly  with  the  passage  of  legislation  by 
Congress  and  the  increased  need  for  legal 
services  by  Navy  members. 


WOMEN  IN  THE  NAVY 

Women  are  an  integral  part  of  the  Navy; 
they  are  recruited,  trained,  and  assigned  under 
the  same  regulations  as  the  men  and  are  entitled 
to  the  same  benefits.  They  serve  in  a  wide 
variety  of  assignments  within  the  United  States 
and  in  overseas  areas.  The  law  does  not  permit 
them  to  serve  aboard  Navy  combatant  ships,  nor 
may  they  serve  on  aircraft  engaged  in  combat 
missions. 

Although  nurses  had  served  with  the  U.S. 
Navy  for  many  years,  it  was  not  until  World  War 
I  that  women,  other  than  nurses,  became  a  part 
of  the  Navy.  These  Yeomen  (F)  were  enlisted  in 


1    1 


cer-warl      i« 


United  States  as  well  as  in  Hawaii,  France, 
Guam,  and  Panama,  primarily  in  stenographic 
billets!  They  also  served  in  billets  as  translators, 
draftsmen,  fingerprint  experts,  camouflage 
designers,  and  recruiters.  At  the  end  of  the  war, 
all  women  were  released  from  active  duty. 

Early  in  World  War  II,  the  Navy  again  faced 
acute  personnel  shortages.  Recognizing  the  fact 
that  women  could  be  used  to  expedite  the  war 
effort,  Congress  on  30  July  1942  passed 
legislation  authorizing  the  procurement  of  1,000 
officers  and  10,000  enlisted  women  for  the 
Naval  Reserve.  WAVES  (Women  Accepted  for 
Volunteer  Emergency  Service)  were  from  the 
beginning  an  integral  part  of  the  naval  service. 
They  have  never  been  a  separate  corps  or  an 
auxiliary.  Later,  the  original  legislation  was  so 
modified  that  by  the  end  of  World  War  II,  more 
than  86,000  women  were  on  duty  in  the 
continental  United  States  and  Hawaii.  This 
spectacular  growth  was  due  to  the  fact  that 
WAVES  proved  able  to  take  over  many  more 
jobs  than  was  at  first  believed  possible.  WAVES, 
officer  and  enlisted,  were  on  duty  in  nearly 
every  type  of  shore  activity,  including  naval  air 
stations,  naval  hospitals,  naval  district 
headquarters,  and  supply  depots.  Enlisted 
WAVES  served  as  yeomen,  disbursing  clerks,  and 
Link  trainer  instructors.  They  packed 
parachutes,  collected  weather  information,  and 
directed  air  traffic  from  control  towers. 

WAVES  composed  55%  of  the  uniformed 
personnel  in  the  Navy  Department  in 
Washington.  In  "Radio  Washington,"  the  nerve 
center  of  the  entire  Navy  communications 
system,  women  composed  75%  of  the  total 
allowance.  Seventy  percent  of  all  naval 
personnel  on  duty  in  the  Bureau  of  Naval 
Personnel  were  WAVES.  About  13,000  WAVES 
were  in  the  Hospital  Corps,  serving  in  naval 
hospitals  and  dispensaries. 

Women  officers  served  as  line  officers  in 
assignments  which  used  their  knowledge  and 
education  as  administrators,  language  specialists, 
communicators,  and  educational  service  officers. 

The  outstanding  record  established  by 
women  in  the  military  service  during  World  War 
II  paved  the  way  for  passage  of  the  Women's 
Armed  Services  Integration  Act  in  1948;  under 


this  law  Navy  women  became  a  permanent  part 
of  the  Regular  Navy  and  Naval  Reserve.  The 
basic  philosophy  underlying  the  Navy's 
endorsement  and  subsequent  implementation  of 
the  1948  Act  was  two-fold-to  make  available  to 
the  Navy  the  skills  of  women  in  noncombat 
assignments  and  to  maintain  within  the 
permanent  naval  establishment  a  nucleus  of 
officers  and  enlisted  women  upon  which  to 
build  in  the  event  of  a  national  emergency.  The 
women  in  the  Navy  would  provide  the  necessary 
training,  leadership,  and  experience  for  the 
substantial  numbers  who  would  be  needed  to 
meet  the  Navy's  personnel  requirements  in  the 
event  of  mobilization.  Officer  and  enlisted 
women  are  now  assigned  within  authorized 
allowances  and  are  included  within  the  total 
manpower  personnel  requirements.  As  a 
permanent  part  of  the  regular  Navy  and  Naval 
Reserve,  Navy  women  are  no  longer  officially 
designated  Waves,  though  the  term  "Waves"  has 
been  retained  as  a  nickname. 

In  the  not  too  distant  past  it  was  believed 
women  were  only  capable  of  filling  the 
traditional  personnel  and  administrative  billets. 
Realizing  the  inequity  of  this  belief,  some 
changes  have  been  instituted  to  consider  women 
on  an  equal  basis  with  their  male  counterparts 
(figure  10-9).  For  example,  women  are  now 
eligible  to  enter  the  Naval  Academy  and  are 
accepted  for  flight  training  as  jet  and  helicopter 
pilots.  With  expected  legislation  in  the  near 
future,  it  is  evident  a  single  standard  for  men 
and  women  will  evolve. 

WOMEN  OFFICERS 

To  be  eligible  for  appointment  from  civilian 
life  to  officer  candidate  status,  a  woman  must  be 
a  U.S.  citizen,  hold  a  baccalaureate  degree  from 
an  accredited  university,  and  be  between  the 
ages  of  19  and  27-1/2  at  the  time  of 
commissioning.  She  may  be  single  or  married, 
and  may  have  dependents  under  18  years  of  age. 
She  must  meet  the  mental,  moral,  and  physical 
standards  established  by  the  Navy. 

Women  officer  candidates  attend  Officer 
Candidate  School  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  and 
participate  in  an  integrated  19-week  curriculum 


234 


Chapter   1 0-COMPONENTS  AND  SUPPORTING  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  NAVY 


vvith  male  officer  candidates.  The  curriculum  is 
:omposed  of  courses  in  leadership/management, 
discipline  administration,  material  management 
'3M),  personnel  administration,  naval  warfare, 
Seamanship,  piloting,  celestial  navigation, 
:ommunications,  engineering,  human  resource 
management  and  damage  control. 

Upon  successful  completion  of  OCS  the 
vvoman  officer  is  commissioned  an  ensign  in  the 
unrestricted  or  restricted  line  or  Supply  Corps 
ind  has  a  four-year  obligation  to  complete. 
Women  commissioned  in  the  Supply  Corps 
•eceive  a  period  of  additional  training  at  the 
sfavy  Supply  Corps  School,  Athens,  Georgia. 
For  her  initial  assignment,  she  may  be  ordered 
;o  a  1-4  year  tour  of  duty  within  the  continental 
J.S.  or  overseas.  During  this  period,  she  may 
ipply  for  augmentation  to  the  Regular  Navy. 


134.215 

:igure  10-9.-Rear  Admiral  Fran  McKee  is  the  first 
woman  unrestricted  line  officer  promoted  to  flag 
rank  in  the  1 1  .9 


A  woman  officer  is  normally  screened  for 
postgraduate  education  in  the  grade  of 
lieutenant  (junior  grade)  or  lieutenant.  Women 
officers  selected  for  postgraduate  education 
participate  in  the  same  programs  as  their  male 
counterparts. 

ENLISTED  WOMEN 

To  be  eligible  for  enlistment  in  the  Navy,  a 
woman  must  be  between  the  ages  of  18  and  30, 
be  a  high  school  graduate,  and  may  be  single  or 
married. 

Enlisted  women  undergo  integrated  recruit 
training  with  male  recruits  at  Orlando,  Florida. 
Some  of  the  courses  included  in  the  12-week 
training  period  are  naval  orientation, 
indoctrination  in  Navy  ratings,  ship  and  aircraft 
identification,  naval  history,  firefighting,  and 
seamanship. 

Enlisted  women  can  strike  for  ratings  based 
on  the  same  criterion  as  men;  there  are, 
however,  certain  seagoing  ratings  which  are 
closed  to  women  due  to  legislation.  The 
majority  of  recruit  graduates  are  ordered 
directly  to  specialized  schools  for  training  in  the 
ratings  available  to  them. 

Upon  completion  of  training,  enlisted 
women  are  assigned  to  naval  activities 
throughout  the  world.  In  those  assignments  they 
have  demonstrated  their  ability  to  fulfill  the 
requirements  in  billets  once  held  exclusively  by 
men  (figure  10-10).  Some  examples  of  these  are 
aircraft  mechanics,  electricians,  and  machinists. 
This  ability  has  brought  about  an  expanded  role 
for  enlisted  women  in  today's  Navy. 


THE  UNITED  STATES 
COAST  GUARD 

The  United  States  Coast  Guard  has  a  dual 
role  that  is  unique  among  the  services.  By. 
statute,  organization,  and  operation,  the  Coast 
Guard  is  a  military  service  and  a  branch  of  the 
Armed  Forces  always,  but  normally  it  operates 
as  a  service  in  the  Department  of 
Transportation.  In  time  of  war  or  when  the 


oirl  Atrf     cr\     A  irAr>+o 


f  V\ 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


134.216 

Figure  10-10.— An  enlisted  woman  demonstrating  her 
ability  to  fulfill  the  requirements  of  a  billet  once 
held  exclusively  by  men. 


Navy,  but  continues  to  perform  its  normal 
specialized  duties. 

The  Coast  Guard  is  responsible  for  a  large 
part  of  all  federal  operations  connected  with 
peacetime  maritime  activities.  In  time  of  war  or 
other  national  emergency,  these  peacetime 
activities  take  on  added  importance  because  of 
the  need  for  prompt  and  dependable  movement 
of  military  personnel  and  supplies.  The  Coast 
Guard  assists  other  Government  agencies  in 
special  undertakings  and  missions  for  which  its 
personnel  and  facilities  are  especially  qualified. 

The  Coast  Guard  maintains  a  state  of 
military  readiness  so  that  it  can  operate 
immediately  and  effectively  as  a  service  of  the 
Navy  in  time  of  war  or  when  so  directed  by  the 
President.  In  order  to  make  such  a  transition 
with  a  minimum  of  friction,  the  Coast  Guard's 
peacetime  organization,  regulations,  training, 


and  customs  parallel  those  of  the  Navy  insofar  as 
operations  permit.  Personnel  receive  the  same 
pay  and  allowances  as  prescribed  for 
corresponding  grades  and  rates  in  the  Navy. 

Whenever  the  Coast  Guard  operates  as  a 
service  in  the  Navy,  its  personnel  are  subject  to 
the  laws  prescribed  for  governing  the  Navy,  and 
precedence  between  commissioned  officers  of 
corresponding  grades  of  the  two  services  is 
determined  by  date  of  rank. 

Coast  Guard  officers  and  enlisted  men  are 
eligible  to  attend  the  various  schools  of 
instruction  maintained  by  the  Navy,  Army,  and 
Air  Force. 

Transfer  without  compensation  therefore  of 
military  stores,  supplies,  and  equipment  of  every 
character  is  authorized  between  the  Navy, 
Army,  and  Coast  Guard.  The  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  is  authorized  to  build  vessels  for  the  Coast 
Guard  at  naval  shipyards. 

In  1967,  the  Coast  Guard  was  removed  from 
the  Treasury  Department  (with  which  it  had 
been  associated  since  1790)  and  placed  in  the 
newly-created  Department  of  Transportation. 
When  operating  in  the  Department  of 
Transportation,  the  Commandant  of  the  Coast 
Guard  is  responsible  to  the  Secretary  of 
Transportation.  When  operating  in  the  Navy 
Department,  the  Commandant  reports  to  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  and  the  Chief  of  Naval 
Operations. 

FUNCTIONS  OF 
THE  COAST  GUARD 

Law  Enforcement 

The  Coast  Guard  is  the  Nation's  foremost 
maritime  safety  and  law  enforcement  agency  in 
time  of  peace.  A  primary  function  is  the 
enforcement  of  all  applicable  Federal  laws  upon 
the  high  seas  and  in  waters  that  are  subject  to 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States.  This 
includes  the  administration  of  laws  and  the 
promulgation  and  enforcement  of  regulations 
for  the  promotion  of  safety  of  life  and  property, 
and  covers  all  matters  not  specifically  delegated 
by  law  to  some  other  executive  agency.  Among 
the  more  important  duties  in  this  field  are 
enforcement  of  the  navigation  and  inspection 
laws,  anchorage  regulations,  and  laws  relating  to 


Chapter  1 0-COMPONENTS  AND  SUPPORTING  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  NAVY 


internal  revenue,  customs,  immigration, 
neutrality,  and  conservation  and  protection  of 
fisheries  and  wildlife  which  require  marine  or 
aviation  personnel  and  facilities  for  effective 
enforcement. 

Port  Security 

Among  the  Coast  Guard's  major  duties  in 
the  national  defense  program  is  port 
security— safeguarding  against  destruction  or  loss 
from  sabotage  or  other  subversive  acts,  all 
vessels,  harbors,  ports,  and  waterfront  facilities 
in  the  United  States  and  its  territories.  This  duty 
includes:  prevention  of  illegal  entry  from  the  sea 
of  persons  or  things  inimical  to  the  United 
States;  supervision  and  control  of  the  loading  of 
explosives  and  other  dangerous  cargoes;  security 
checks  of  merchant  marine  officers  and 
crewmembers;  security  screening  of  waterfront 
workers  to  ensure  that  subversives  and  other 
undesirable  persons  are  denied  access  to 
restricted  waterfront  areas  and  vessels;  and 
patrolling  approaches  to  principal  harbors. 
Figure  10-11  is  a  class  of  medium-endurance 


cutter    capable   of  cruising    5000  miles   at    15 
knots. 

Search  and  Rescue 

The  Coast  Guard  maintains  an  established 
organization  of  inshore  and  offshore  rescue 
surface  ships,  aircraft,  lifeboat  stations,  and 
rescue  coordination  centers  in  each  Coast  Guard 
district.  It  extends  medical  aid  to  crews  of 
vessels  at  sea,  cares  for  and  transports 
shipwrecked  and  destitute  persons,  and  engages 
in  flood  relief  work.  Figure  10-12  shows  a 
self-bailing,  nonsinkable  lifeboat  used  by  USCG. 
In  one  recent  year,  the  Coast  Guard  responded 
to  70,000  calls  for  assistance  with  about  4,200 
persons  saved  from  death,  more  than  140,000 
other  persons  were  aided,  and  $280,000,000 
worth  of  property  was  saved. 

Icebreaking  and 
Ice  Patrol 

The  Coast  Guard  removes  or  destroys 
derelicts,  wrecks,  and  other  dangers  to 


134.141 


Figure  10-11.— Features  of  this  medium-endurance  cutter  include  a  3-inch  gun  and  helicopter  deck  aft. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


134.142 

Figure  10-12.-Among  its  many  duties,  the  Coast  Guard  stands  ready  to  rescue  shipwrecked  survivors.  This  nonsinkable 

surf  boat  enhances  that  capability. 


navigation  and,  with  its  icebreaking  facilities, 
assists  marine  commerce  by  opening  ice-blocked 
channels  and  ports.  It  conducts  the  International 
Ice  Patrol  in  the  North  Atlantic  (figure  10-13)  to 
protect  shipping  from  the  danger  of  icebergs, 
and  carries  out  oceanographic  studies. 

Ocean  Stations 

The  Coast  Guard  operates  and  maintains 
ocean  stations  in  the  North  Atlantic  and  North 
Pacific.  The  function  of  an  ocean  station  is  to 
provide,  in  addition  to  meteorological  services  in 
ocean  areas  regularly  traversed  by  ships  and 
aircraft,  search  and  rescue,  communication,  and 
air  navigation  facilities. 


Merchant  Marine  Safety 

Functions  of  the  Coast  Guard  that  relate  to 
the  merchant  marine  include  the  following: 
investigation  of  marine  disasters  and  collection 
of  statistics  relating  to  such  disasters;  approval 
of  plans  for  construction,  repair,  and  alteration 
of  vessels;  issuance  of  certificates  of  inspection 
and  permits  indicating  approval  of  ships  for 
operations  that  may  be  hazardous  to  life  and 
property;  regulation  of  the  transportation  of 
explosives  and  other  dangerous  articles  on 
vessels;  licensing  and  certificating  of  officers, 
pilots,  and  seamen;  enforcement  of  manning 
requirements  for  the  mustering  and  drilling  of 
crews;  suspension  and  revocation  of  licenses  and 


Chapter  1 0-COMPONENTS  AND  SUPPORTING  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  NAVY 


certificates;  licensing  of  motorboat  operators; 
shipment,  discharge,  protection,  and  welfare  of 
merchant  seamen;  and  the  promulgation  and 
enforcement  of  rules  for  lights,  signals,  speed, 
steering,  sailing,  passing,  anchorage,  movement, 
and  towlines  of  vessels. 

Aids  to  Navigation 

The  Coast  Guard  establishes  and  maintains 
marine  aids  to  navigation  such  as  lighthouses, 
lights,  radio  beacons,  radio  direction-finder 
stations,  buoys,  unlighted  beacons,  and  VTS 


(Vessel  Traffic  Services),  as  required  to  serve  the 
needs  of  commerce  and  of  the  Armed  Forces.  It 
maintains  the  United  States  system  of  loran 
(long-range  aid  to  navigation)  to  serve  the  needs 
of  the  Armed  Forces,  mariners,  and  maritime 
airborne  commerce. 

The  Coast  Guard  maintains  about  40,000 
aids  to  navigation  in  the  United  States,  its 
territories  and  possessions,  the  Trust  Territory 
of  the  Pacific  Islands,  and  at  overseas  military 
bases.  These  aids  include  some  60  loran  stations, 
350  manned  light  stations,  and  30  offshore  light 
structures. 


134.53 
Figure  10-13.—  Infesting  Arctic  waters,  monster  chunks  of  ice  await  unsuspecting  ships.  The  SS  Titanic  ripped  out  her 


£     1C  A/I 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Marine  Environmental  Protection 


Although  the  Coast  Guard  has  been 
enforcing  our  fisheries  laws  since  1793  to 
conserve  marine  life,  the  increased  pollution  in 
and  near  our  coastal  waters  required  increased 
surveillance  and  new  techniques  to  combat  this 
serious  threat  to  our  marine  environment.  With 
the  enactment  of  the  Federal  Water  Pollution 
Control  Act  of  1 972  a  National  Strike  Force 
(NSF)  was  formed.  This  force  consists  of  three 
18-man  teams,  one  each  on  the  Pacific, 
Atlantic,  and  Gulf  Coast,  composed  of  people 
who  are  specially  trained  and  equipped  for 
antipollution  work.  Not  only  are  these  teams 
capable  of  handling  domestic  problems,  but  can 
also  be  deployed  at  a  moment's  notice  anywhere 
in  the  world  when  the  need  arises. 

ORGANIZATION  AND 
ADMINISTRATION  OF 
THE  COAST  GUARD 

The  Commandant  of  the  Coast  Guard  is  the 
chief  of  the  service  and  its  senior  officer,  with 
the  rank  of  admiral.  He  is  appointed  by  the 
President  for  a  term  of  4  years,  from  the  active 
list  of  line  officers  who  hold  a  permanent 
commission  as  commander  or  above  and  who 
have  completed  at  least  10  years'  service  as 
commissioned  officers  in  the  Coast  Guard.  From 
the  Coast  Guard  Headquarters  in  Washington  the 
Commandant  directs  the  policy,  legislation,  and 
administrative  affairs  of  the  service,  under  the 
general  supervision  of  the  Secretary  of 
Transportation. 

The  basic  organization  pattern  of  the  Coast 
Guard  reflects  an  assignment  of  military 
command  and  operational  and  administrative 
responsibility  and  authority  among  components 
in  Headquarters,  in  district  offices,  and  in 
individual  units  in  the  field.  Duties  of  the  Coast 
Guard  in  most  instances  actually  are  performed 
by  individual  operating  units,  such  as  ships  and 
aircraft;  air,  light,  radio,  and  lifeboat  stations; 
marine  inspection  offices;  and  individual  logistic 
units  such  as  recruiting,  receiving,  and  training 
stations,  and  bases,  depots,  and  repair  shops. 

For  the  purposes  of  administration  the 
United  States  and  its  territories  and  possessions 


are  divided  into  12  districts,  each  under  a 
district  commander.  The  Commandant,  assisted 
by  the  headquarters  staff,  plans,  supervises,  and 
coordinates  activities  within  the  various  districts 
and  gives  immediate  direction  to  those  special 
service  units  in  the  field  which  report  directly  to 
headquarters: 

The  district  commander,  assisted  by  his 
staff,  provides  regional  direction  and 
coordination  in  the  performance  of  duties  by 
individual  field  units.  The  chain  of  military 
command  and  operational  and  administrative 
control  ordinarily  runs  from  the  Commandant 
to  the  district  commander,  and  in  turn  from  the 
district  commander  to  the  commanding  officer 
or  officer  in  charge  of  a  particular  operating 
logistic  unit. 

HISTORY  AND 
ACCOMPLISHMENTS  OF 
THE  COAST  GUARD 


Created  by  Act  of  Congress  on  4  August 
1790  at  the  request  of  the  first  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  Alexander  Hamilton,  as  a  seagoing 
service  of  10  boats  to  be  employed  "for  the 
security  of  the  revenue,"  the  Coast  Guard  was 
variously  known  by  such  names  as  the  Revenue 
Marine,  Revenue  Service,  and  Revenue  Cutter 
Service.  As  early  as  1799  Congress  provided  that 
the  cutters  should,  whenever  the  President 
directed,  cooperate  with  the  Navy.  On  28 
January  1915,  the  President  signed  a  law 
consolidating  the  Life  Saving  Service  and  the 
Revenue  Cutter  Service,  both  of  the  Treasury 
Department,  into  a  single  service  of  the  Treasury 
under  the  name  of  the  Coast  Guard. 

Early  Accomplishments.  The  early  Revenue 
Marine  found  itself  invested  with  many  other 
duties  besides  enforcing  the  revenue  laws.  The 
enforcement  of  state  quarantine  statutes,  the 
suppression  of  piracy  and  the  slave  trade,  and 
the  enforcement  of  neutrality  laws  and  of 
immigration  laws  were  included  in  its  manifold 
undertakings. 

Eight  vessels  of  the  Revenue  Marine  were 
assigned  to  cooperate  with  the  newly  organized 
Navy  in  1 798  in  the  quasi-war  with  France. 

To  enforce  President  Jefferson's  1807 
embargo,  12  new  vessels  were  authorized  in 


1809,  and  these  helped  to  carry  the  naval 
burden  in  the  War  of  1812.  In  this  war  the 
Revenue  Marine  helped  to  protect  our  coastal 
trade  by  providing  convoy  between  ports.  It 
attacked  or  warded  off  attacks  of  privateers  and 
armed  flotillas  sent  out  by  British  squadrons 
ranging  freely  along  our  coasts,  and  it  captured 
hostile  armed  merchantmen. 

When  the  Seminole  War  broke  out  in  1836, 
eight  revenue  cutters  cooperated  with  the  Army 
and  Navy  in  blockading  rivers,  carrying 
dispatches,  transporting  troops  and  ammunition, 
and  providing  landing  parties  for  the  defense  of 
settlements  menaced  by  the  Indians. 

Eleven  cutters  participated  in  the  Mexican 
War  from  1846  to  1848,  principally  in 
cooperation  with  the  armies  under  Taylor  and 
Scott. 

In  1849  Captain  Frazer,  the  first  military 
commandant,  found  San  Francisco  a  difficult 
station  with  the  inrush  of  the  gold-seeking 
'49-ers.  There  were  some  600  vessels  riding  at 
anchor,  many  with  insubordinate,  lawless  crews. 
As  yet  there  were  no  civil  tribunals,  and  Captain 
Frazer  and  his  aides  worked  day  and  night 
enforcing  the  revenue  laws  and  helping 
shipmasters  suppress  mutiny  and  violence. 

Life  Saving  Service.  One  of  the  Coast 
Guard's  major  activities  has  always  been  the 
assisting  of  vessels  in  distress  and  the  saving  of 
life  and  property  at  sea.  Andrew  Jackson's 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  first  designated  the 
Revenue  Marine  for  this  duty  in  1 83 1  when  he 
detailed  seven  cutters  to  patrol  areas  near  their 
stations  and  perform  such  functions.  The  first 
appropriation  for  saving  life  from  shore  was 
made  by  Congress  in  1 847.  By  1 847  there  were 
lifesaving  stations  at  many  points  along  the  coast 
of  New  England,  the  South  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
coasts,  and  the  Great  Lakes.  Lifesaving  medals 
were  authorized,  personnel  matters  reorganized, 
beach  patrols  and  signals  introduced,  and  the 
technique  of  using  the  breeches  buoy  developed. 

In  1854  the  Life  Saving  Service  had  been 
established  as  a  separate  bureau  of  the  Treasury. 
Officers  of  the  Revenue  Cutter  Service  were 
assigned  to  inspect,  drill,  and  discipline  the 
crews  of  the  lifesaving  stations.  Through  the 
combined  efforts  of  the  two  services,  over 


200,000  lives  and  more  than  a  billion  dollars 
worth  of  property  were  saved  in  the  years 
between  1871  and  1941. 

The  Civil  War.  The  revenue  cutter  Harriet 
Lane,  one  of  a  group  of  ships  sent  to  the  relief 
of  Federal  forces  at  Fort  Sumter,  was  present 
during  the  bombardment  of  that  fort.  Just  prior 
to  the  bombardment,  Harriet  Lane  hailed  the 
steamer  Nashville  to  show  her  colors.  When 
Nashville  failed  to  do  so,  Harriet  Lane  fired  a 
shot  across  her  bow  and  is  credited  with  firing 
the  first  shot  from  any  vessel  during  the  Civil 
War. 

The  Miami  was  Lincoln's  personal  transport 
from  which  he  landed  to  reconnoiter  on 
Confederate  soil  the  night  before  the  capture  of 
Norfolk.  Other  cutters  rendered  important 
services  in  the  waters  of  North  Carolina  and 
cooperated  with  the  naval  forces  in  the  gunboat 
flotilla  in  the  Chesapeake. 

Activities  from  1867  to  1917.  The  revenue 
cutter  Lincoln  was  the  first  American  ship  to 
explore  Alaskan  waters  following  our  purchase 
of  that  territory  from  Russia  in  1867.  From  the 
beginning,  Alaska  was  the  particular 
responsibility  of  the  Coast  Guard.  Its  cutters 
were  in  Alaskan  waters  from  early  May  until  late 
December  each  year,  rendering  aid  to  shipping, 
caring  for  the  shipwrecked,  and  assisting  the 
natives.  Public  Health  surgeons  detailed  to  the 
cutters  of  the  Alaska  Patrol  prescribed  for  and 
aided  the  sick. 

Organized  training  was  initiated  in  1876.  In 
that  year,  Congress  provided  for  the 
appointment  of  cadets  to  fill  the  lower 
commissioned  grades,  and  the  first  training  ship, 
Dobbin,  was  outfitted  as  a  floating  school  of 
instruction. 

In  cooperation  with  the  Navy,  13  cutters 
took  part  in  the  Spanish- American  War;  8  were 
with  Sampson's  fleet  on  the  Havana  blockade,  1 
was  with  Dewey's  fleet,  and  4  worked  with  the 
Navy  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Following  the  sinking  of  the  Titanic  by 
collision  with  an  iceberg,  the  International  Ice 
Patrol  was  initiated  by  the  United  States  in 
1912.  Its  purpose  is  to  locate  icebergs  and  field 
ice  nearest  to  transatlantic  lanes  of  ocean  travel 


241 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


and  to  warn  ships  of  their  locations.  The  patrol 
also  conducts  oceanographic  research. 

Coast  Guard  in  World  War  I.  On  6  April 

1917,  when  we  declared  war  on  Germany,  the 
Navy  was  augmented  by  1 5  cruising  cutters,  over 
200  commissioned  officers,  and  5000  warrant 
officers  and  enlisted  men  of  the  Coast  Guard. 
They    were    entrusted    with    the    hunting    of 
submarines  and  raiders  and  with  guarding  the 
transport  of  troops.  A  squadron  of  Coast  Guard 
cutters,   based   at  Gibraltar,   performed   escort 
duty  between  that  port  and  the  British  Isles.  The 
cutter  Tampa,  bound  for  Milford  Haven  after 
escorting   a    convoy   to   Gibraltar,   disappeared 
during  a  storm  on  the  night  of  26  September 

1918,  leaving  no  trace  other  than  some  floating 
wreckage.    Over    100   Coast   Guardsmen   were 
among  the  130  persons  lost.  In  proportion  to  its 
strength,  the  Coast  Guard  suffered  the  highest 
losses  of  any  of  the  armed  services  in  World  War 
I. 

Development  Between  Wars.  Following 
World  War  I  the  experiment  of  Prohibition 
added  many  problems  to  the  Coast  Guard's 
work  of  preventing  smuggling.  Enforcement  of 
the  Prohibition  law  was  unpleasant  and  often 
dangerous,  but  funds  were  allotted  for 
expansion  to  an  extent  never  before  equalled. 
The  service  was  augmented  and  greatly 
improved,  especially  in  the  fields  of 
communications  and  intelligence. 

In  1932  the  Coast  Guard  Academy  was 
established  on  the  Thames  River  at  New 
London,  Connecticut. 

On  1  July  1939  the  Lighthouse  Service  of 
the  Department  of  Commerce  was  transferred  to 
the  Coast  Guard.  Its  functions  are  the 
construction,  operation,  maintenance,  repair, 
illumination,  and  inspection  of  all  aids  to 
navigation,  including  lighthouses,  lightships, 
buoys,  beacons,  fog  signals,  and  daymarks. 

In  1939  Congress  created  the  Auxiliary.  This 
was  a  voluntary  nonmilitary  organization  of 
civilians,  intended  to  train  and  instruct  those 
using  the  high  seas  and  navigable  waters  of  the 
United  States.  Another  purpose  was  to  secure 
the  cooperation  of  yachtsmen  and  other 
small-boat  owners  in  the  observance  of  the  laws 
and  the  adoption  of  safety  devices  on  their 


boats.  Later  some  3000  of  these  members  of  the 
Auxiliary  with  their  boats  became  available  as 
"coastal  pickets"  when  enemy  submarines  began 
to  prey  on  our  coastal  shipping. 

The  purpose  of  the  Auxiliary  today  is  to 
assist  the  Coast  Guard  in  promoting  marine 
safety  and  effecting  rescues;  in  promoting 
efficiency  in  the  operation  of  motorboats  and 
yachts;  in  fostering  a  wider  knowledge  of,  and 
better  compliance  with  all  regulations  governing 
the  operation  of  motorboats  and  yachts;  and  in 
facilitating  the  operations  of  the  Coast  Guard. 

When  the  President  proclaimed  our 
neutrality  on  5  September  1939  in'  the  war 
which  had  broken  out  in  Europe,  the  Coast 
Guard  assumed  a  wide  field  of  responsibility  in 
the  prevention  of  unneutral  acts  by  merchant 
vessels.  A  systematic  and  extensive  patrol  by 
aircraft,  vessels,  and  coastal  stations  was  carried 
out  all  along  our  coasts.  Radio  apparatus  aboard 
merchant  vessels  of  belligerent  nations,  while 
within  our  waters,  was  inspected  and  sealed. 

On  27  June  1940  the  President  invoked  by 
proclamation  and  delegated  to  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  his  powers  under  the  Espionage 
Act  of  1917.  These  powers  included  the  right  to 
govern  the  anchorage  and  movement  of  all 
vessels  in  United  States  waters;  to  inspect  them 
and  place  guards  on  them;  to  take  full  possession 
and  control  of  them,  removing  the  officers  and 
crew  and  all  other  persons  not  specifically 
authorized  by  him  to  go  or  remain  on  board;  to 
secure  them  from  danger  or  injury;  and  to 
prevent  damage  to  harbors  and  waters  of  the 
United  States.  Shortly  afterward,  the  Dangerous 
Cargo  Act  gave  the  Coast  Guard,  jointly  with  the 
Bureau  of  Marine  Inspection  and  Navigation  of 
the  Department  of  Commerce,  wide  jurisdiction 
over  every  vessel  on  the  navigable  waters  of  the 
United  States  carrying  specified  high  explosives 
or  other  dangerous  cargo.  This  marked  the 
beginning  of  the  Coast  Guard's  wartime  port 
security  activities  designed  to  protect  navigable 
waterfront  property  and  shipping. 

The  Coast  Guard  Reserve  Act  of  1941 
established  the  Coast  Guard  Reserve  which, 
during  the  war  years,  grew  to  a  considerable  size. 
Numerous  volunteer  port  security  forces  were 
organized  by  utilizing  temporary  members  of 


Chapter  1 0-COMPONENTS  AND  SUPPORTING  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  NAVY 


the  Reserve  in  all  the  major  ports  to  guard 
wharves,  shipyards,  and  waterfront  property  on 
a  part-time  basis  and  with  all  services  donated  to 
the  Government. 

On  1  November  1941  the  entire  Coast  Guard 
was  ordered  to  operate  as  part  of  the  Navy. 
Coast  Guard  districts  automatically  went  under 
control  of  the  naval  districts  in  which  they  were 
located.  On  30  March  1942  the  Coast  Guard  was 
designated  as  a  service  of  the  Navy  Department, 
to  be  administered  by  the  Commandant  of  the 
Coast  Guard  under  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  in 
accordance  with  general  directives  issued  by  the 
Commander  in  Chief  (the  President),  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  the  Chief  of  Naval 
Operations.  Before  the  declaration  of  war,  the 
larger  cutters  and  patrol  boats  capable  of 
offshore  operations  had  been  assigned  to  the 
fleet,  to  sea  frontiers,  or  task  forces  for  convoy, 
antisubmarine,  and  patrol  duty. 

Coast  Guard  in  World  War  II.  Shortly  after 
the  declaration  of  war  on  8  December  1941, 
Coast  Guard  vessels  got  into  action.  On  9  May 
1942  the  cutter  Icarus  sank  a  German  U-boat 
and  took  33  prisoners,  including  the  submarine's 
commanding  officer.  The  cutter  Campbell  was 
the  next  Coast  Guard  vessel  to  register  a  definite 
kill  in  the  gruelling  antisubmarine  war.  Postwar 
investigation  confirmed  the  sinkings  by  Coast 
Guard  vessels  of  seven  enemy  submarines. 

The  Coast  Guard  acquired  a  number  of 
civilian  craft,  including  sailboats  as  well  as 
powerboats,  that  were  capable  of  remaining  at 
sea  for  at  least  48  hours.  Some  carried  depth 
charges  and  were  armed  with  machineguns;  all 
were  equipped  with  radios.  They  functioned  as 
coastal  pickets  and  their  duties  were  to  observe 
and  report  actions  of  all  hostile  submarines, 
surface  craft,  and  air  forces,  and  to  attack  and 
destroy  when  their  armament  permitted.  They 
also  conducted  rescue  operations  offshore. 

New  scientific  developments  aided  the  Coast 
Guard  in  performing  wartime  duties.  In  addition 
to  loran  and  radar,  racon  and  anrac  were 
utilized.  Racon,  a  fixed  frequency  transponder 
that  gives  distance  and  bearing  within  1 20  miles 
of  a  plane  or  ship,  can  be  used  for  coastwise 
piloting  in  peace.  Anrac  is  a  form  of  remote 
radio  control  employed  to  light  and  extinguish 
electrically  lighted  unattended  beacons  and 
operate  fog  signals. 


During  1942  Coast  Guard  vessels  of  65  feet 
or  longer  increased  in  number  from  3732  to 
8357.  This  expanded  fleet,  together  with  the 
Coast  Guard's  regular  cutters,  brought  in  over 
1 500  survivors  of  enemy  torpedoings  along  the 
Atlantic  Coast,  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  in  the 
Caribbean.  They  were  assisted  by  Coast  Guard 
planes,  which  numbered  around  200  during  the 
war.  Lifeboat  stations  along  the  Atlantic  Coast 
picked  up  hundreds  of  survivors,,  in  lifeboats 
after  they  had  been  spotted  by  Coast  Guard 
aircraft  on  antisubmarine  patrols  off  the  coasts. 
The  planes  guided  fishing  vessels  and  other  craft 
to  submarine  victims  in  the  water.  As  the 
submarine  menace  along  our  coasts  subsided, 
most  of  the  24,000  Coast  Guardsmen  that  had 
been  patrolling  40,000  miles  of  our  coast  were 
released  for  sea  duty.  Temporary  reservists  and 
SPARS  (the  Coast  Guard's  counterpart  to  the 
WAVES)  relieved  many  others  for  more  active 
service  in  the  frontline  of  amphibious  and 
antisubmarine  attack. 

A  total  of  351  Navy  vessels  were  manned  by 
Coast  Guardsmen.  These  included  destroyer 
escorts,  troop  transports,  cargo  vessels,  tankers, 
landing  craft,  and  a  variety  of  patrol  craft.  In 
addition,  many  other  types  of  Navy  ships  had 
Coast  Guardsmen  in  their  crews.  The  Coast 
Guard  also  manned  291  Army  vessels,  including 
freight  and  supply  vessels,  large  tugs,  tankers, 
and  freight  boats  which  constituted  supply 
echelons  for  Southwest  Pacific  and  Philippine 
Army  bases.  Out  of  a  total  of  1035  Coast 
Guardsmen  who  died  aboard  ship,  572  were 
killed  in  action.  Altogether  over  1800  died  in 
the  war. 

Return  to  Peacetime  Duties.  Following 
World  War  II,  the  Coast  Guard  was  demobilized 
until  it  reached  a  low  of  18,687  officers  and 
men  in  1947.  The  Korean  conflict,  commencing 
in  June  1950,  had  tremendous  impact  on  the 
Coast  Guard  even  though  it  was  not  transferred 
to  the  Navy  as  in  previous  emergencies. 

The  impact  of  defense  mobilization  was 
reflected  in  added  operational  demands  for  all 
phases  of  the  peacetime  missions  of  the  Coast 
Guard.  Presidential  Executive  Order  10173 
instituted  a  port  program  designed  to  protect 
ships,  harbors,  ports,  and  waterfront  facilities. 
To  carry  out  the  program,  the  Coast  Guard 
assigned  Captains  of  the  Port  to  all  major  cities. 


243 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


The  Coast  Guard  operated  five  weather 
stations  in  the  Pacific  during  the  conflict  to 
provide  more  reliable  weather  data,  and  a 
number  of  loran  (long-range  aids  to  navigation) 
transmitting  stations  were  built  to  provide  better 
ship  and  aircraft  navigation  in  the  area. 

Faced  with  a  problem  of  enemy  infiltration 
along  the  long,  irregular  coastline  of  the 
Republic  of  Vietnam  in  1965,  the  Navy  turned 
to  the  Coast  Guard  for  assistance.  Highly 
maneuverable  Coast  Guard  82-foot  patrol  craft 
were  determined  to  be  the  best  vessels  for  use  in 
combating  the  Viet  Cong  infiltrators,  so  17 
heavily  armed  cutters  were  sent  to  Vietnam  to 
form  the  backbone  of  the  Navy's  operation 
"Market  Time." 

An  additional  9  cutters  were  later  sent  to 
Vietnam,  and  the  26  vessels  were  divided  into  3 
squadrons  which  patrolled  the  entire  coast, 
boarding  suspicious  vessels  and  searching  for 
weapons,  ammunition,  and  other  contraband. 

A  major  encounter  with  the  enemy  took 
place  in  May  1966  when  the  cutter  Point  Grey 
spotted  two  bonfires  on  the  beach  which 
appeared  to  be  signals  for  infiltrators.  The  Point 
Grey  waited  in  darkness  for  the  enemy  to  make 
a  move,  and  after  making  radar  contact  with  an 
unidentified  vessel,  the  cutter  went  into  action 
and  forced  it  aground. 

The  enemy  ship,  a  125-foot  trawler,  was 
ripped  apart  by  the  Point  Grey  and  other  cutters 
and  aircraft.  Salvage  crews  later  removed  15  tons 
of  weapons  and  ammunition  from  her  charred 
and  broken  hull. 

In  mid-1967,  in  response  to  a  Navy  request 
the  Coast  Guard  sent  five  of  its  larger  cutters 
into  action  to  strengthen  Vietnam  coastal 
defenses.  By  the  end  of  the  conflict  nearly  all 
major  Coast  Guard  cutters  had  been  on  a 
Vietnam  deployment. 

On  April  1.  1967,  after  nearly  177  years  in 
the  Treasury  Department,  the  Coast  Guard  was 
transferred  to  the  new  Department  of 
Transportation  (DOT). 

The  Coast  Guard  today  is  always  mindful 
that  it  is  a  branch  of  the  Armed  Forces.  Units 
and  personnel  are  trained  to  meet  or  exceed 
Navy  fleet  performance  standards.  Energy 
restrictions  during  1974  curtailed  Navy  refresher 
training  for  45  cutters,  but  particular  emphasis 
was  placed  on  refresher  training  for  the  crew  of 


high-endurance  cutters.  Present  policy  calls  for 
all  cutters  of  the  378-foot  Hamilton  class  to 
undergo  four  weeks  of  training  annually. 

The  Coast  Guard  Today.  Today's  peacetime 
Coast  Guard  is  adding  exciting  new  pages  to  its 
history  almost  daily  in  search  and  rescue 
missions,  prevention  and  cleanup  of  pollution, 
by  fighting  crime  on  the  high  seas,  and  in  the 
protection  of  U.S.  fisheries. 

The  numerous  missions  of  the  Coast  Guard 
are  carried  out  by  37,000  military  and  6,000 
civilian  personnel.  From  scattered  bases,  they 
operate  a  fleet  of  250  ships,  160  aircraft,  and 
more  than  2,000  small  craft.  They  also  maintain 
more  than  45,000  aids  to  navigation.  Others  are 
busy  ensuring  the  safety  of  the  merchant 
marine,  recreational  boaters,  and  the  Nation's 
bridges.  America's  entire  icebreaking  fleet, 
which  operates  in  the  Arctic,  Antarctic,  and  on 
the  Great  Lakes  during  the  winter  season,  flies 
the  Coast  Guard  ensign. 

More  than  11,700  Coast  Guard  reservists 
augment  regular  forces  in  peak ,  periods  and 
emergency  situations.  Last  year  reservists 
provided  approximately  2.8  million  man-hours 
of  support  to  the  regular  Coast  Guard. 
Additionally,  45,000  citizen  volunteers  of  the 
Coast  Guard  Auxiliary  lend  valuable  assistance 
to  the  Coast  Guard. 

The  prevention  of  smuggling,  another  duty 
that  dates  back  to  the  Coast  Guard's  earliest 
days,  is  still  a  major  mission  and  very  much  in 
the  limelight.  Coast  Guard  forces  are  extensively 
involved  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the 
Caribbean  assisting  the  Drug  Enforcement 
Agency  and  the  Bureau  of  Customs  in 
operations  designed  to  stem  the  flow  of 
narcotics  into  the  country. 

In  addition  to  these  traditional  assignments, 
the  Coast  Guard  has  recently  undertaken  major 
new  missions,  especially  in  the  area  of 
environmental  protection.  Three  strategically 
located  "strike  teams"  respond  to  about  60 
major  pollution  incidents  each  year. 

Looking  to  the  future,  the  Coast  Guard  is 
planning  for  increased  offshore  law-enforcement 
patrols  with  the  enactment  of  the  200-mile 
maritime  economic  zone.  The  new  zone  will 
equal  about  one-third  the  size  of  the  Nation. 


Chapter   1 0-COMPONENTS  AND  SUPPORTING  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  NAVY 


UNITED  STATES 
MERCHANT  MARINE 

A  nation's  merchant  ships  are  an  important 
part  of  her  seapower.  They  are  far  more  than  a 
means  of  transportation.  They  make  the  entire 
world  a  market  for  our  products,  thus 
contributing  to  our  economic  well-being.  They 
bring  back  to  our  ports  the  materials  that  we 
lack,  and  that  are  essential  to  our  industries. 
Their  visits  to  remote  ports  convey  American 
ideas  and  ideals  to  foreign  nations. 

During  a  war,  merchant  shipping  provides  a 
vital  link  between  the  fighting  force  overseas  and 
the  production  army  on  the  homefront. 

American  merchant  shipping  has 
experienced  some  extreme  stages  of  expansion 
and  decline.  It  flourished  in  the  early  days  of  the 
republic  while  Europe  was  at  war.  Its  peak  was 
reached  in  the  1850's,  due  in  part  to  the 
superiority  of  American-built  clipper  ships. 
Following  the  Civil  War,  a  period  of  decline  set 
in.  American  expansion  at  this  time  was  inland, 
so  that  capital  shifted  away  from  shipping.  Great 
Britain  was  better  equipped  to  build  iron-hulled 
steamships,  and  during  this  period  she 
constructed  them  in  large  numbers.  As  a  result, 
at  the  start  of  World  War  I  our  tonnage  was 
about  one-quarter  that  of  Great  Britain.  While 
our  exports  and  imports  continued  to  grow, 
most  of  them  were  carried  in  foreign  vessels, 
U.S.  flagships  carrying  only  10%. 

World  War  I  brought  about  a  brief,  frenzied 
attempt  to  remedy  this  situation,  and  as  a  result 
of  the  increased  shipbuilding  during  this  time, 
by  30  June  1921  we  had  2752  steamships  of 
1 000  gross  tons  or  over.  One  permanent 
achievement  in  this  period  was  the  establishing 
of  a  network  of  subsidized  American  lines  to  the 
principal  ports  of  the  world.  It  was  not  until 
1936,  however,  when  Congress  passed  the 
Merchant  Marine  Act  providing  for  the  payment 
of  construction  and  operating  differential 
subsidies,  that  American  ship  owners  were 
encouraged  to  consider  expansion. 

The  Merchant  Marine  Act  of  1936 
established  a  Maritime  Commission  to 
administer  the  Act.  After  a  survey  of  the 
country's  need  for  ships,  the  Commission 


suggested  a  building  program  of  500  ships  over  a 
10-year  period.  From  1939  to  1941,  185  ships 
were  built.  The  Japanese  attack  on  Pearl  Harbor 
shifted  shipbuilding  into  high  gear. 

To  offset  heavy  submarine  losses,  2708  large 
but  relatively  slow  Liberty  ships  were  turned  out 
from  1939  to  1945,  principally  in  new, 
improvised  yards.  In  addition,  3069  other 
merchant-type  ships  were  built,  for  a  total  of 
5777.  Close  cooperation  with  naval  authorities 
had  resulted  in  types  of  ships  ready  for  fast 
production  and  designed  to  meet  the  auxiliary 
needs  of  the  United  States,  Navy  and  to  fit 
war-use  specifications. 

Many  faster  ships  designed  under  the 
Maritime  Commission's  long-range  policy  had 
been  built  by  shipyards,  encouraged  by  the 
nation's  new  maritime  program.  Building 
schedules  were  stepped  up. 

It  was  soon  apparent  that  the  immense 
shipbuilding  phase  of  its  duties  would  be  a 
full-time  job  for  the  Maritime  Commission  and 
that  an  agency  was  needed  to  handle  wartime 
merchant  fleet  operational  problems.  Such  an 
agency,  the  War  Shipping  Administration 
(WSA),  was  formed  in  February  1943. 

The  responsibility  of  WSA  included  the 
purchase  or  requisition  of  vessels  for  its  own  use 
or  for  use  by  the  Army,  Navy,  and  other 
Government  agencies;  the  repairing,  arming,  and 
installation  of  defense  equipment  on 
WSA-controlled  vessels  and  Allied  vessels  under 
lend-lease  provision;  and  the  conversion  of 
vessels  to  troop  transports,  hospital  ships,  and 
for  other  special  purposes.  Their  responsibility 
embraced  also  training  and  providing  shipboard 
personnel;  operation,  loading,  discharging,  and 
general  control  of  the  movement  of  the  ships; 
administering  marine  and  war-risk  insurance  laws 
and  funds;  and  control  of  port  and  terminal 
facilities,  forwarding,  and  related  matters.  With 
all  merchant  ships  subject  to  WSA  requisition, 
qualified  ship  operators  became  operating  agents 
for  the  United  States  Government.  Thus, 
although  the  American  maritime  industry  was 
placed  under  wartime  orders,  it  remained  intact 
in  its  organization. 

The  full  story  of  the  accomplishments  of  the 
merchant  marine  in  World  War  II  is  related  in 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


The  United  States  Merchant  Marine  at  War,  a 
report  submitted  in  January  1946  to  the 
President  of  the  United  States  by  Vice  Admiral 
Emory  S.  Land,  Chairman  of  the  Maritime 
Commission  and  War  Shipping  Administrator.  A 
brief  summary  will  serve  to  indicate  the  scope  of 
merchant  marine  activity  in  World  War  II. 

The  summit  was  attained  in  the  hazardous 
Murmansk  Run.  The  war  with  Japan  prevented 
full  use  of  our  World  War  I  shipping  lane  to 
Russia  through  the  port  of  Vladivostok.  The 
Mediterranean  was  closed  as  a  gateway  to 
Russian  ports;  the  Persian  Gulf  entailed  a  long 
voyage  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The 
most  direct  route  was  through  the  Straits  of 
Denmark  between  Iceland  and  Greenland,  then 
around  the  North  Cape  of  Norway  into 
Murmansk.  This  was  the  Murmansk  Run,  a 
voyage  that  combined  all  the  elements  of  danger 
from  man  and  nature  alike.  But  the  slow,  gray 
convoys  made  that  trip,  through  icy  fogbound 
seas,  where  they  were  exposed  to  attack  by  dive 
bombers,  surface  raiders,  and  submarines  moving 
out  from  the  Nazi-held  fjords  of  Norway.  Even 
after  they  had  reached  their  destination  and 
were  unloading  their  cargo,  they  were  subjected 
to  attack  by  planes  of  the  Luftwaffe. 

The  merchant  marine  carried  millions  of 
tons  of  cargo  across  every  ocean.  These  cargoes 
were  as  varied  as  the  sealanes  they  traveled  and 
ranged  in  size  from  pins  to  locomotives. 
Strategic  materials  were  sometimes  brought  back 
in  these  ships,  as  were  goods  that  were 
considered  essential  for  civilian  use. 

By  the  end  of  the  war  with  Japan  the 
WSA-controlled  fleet  numbered  3,956  ships, 
with  a  deadweight  tonnage  of  about  40,750. 
Some  54%  of  the  vessels  under  WSA  control 
consisted  of  the  well-known  Liberty  ships,  with 
a  speed  of  about  1 1  knots.  Construction  of 
Victory  ships  began  in  1944,  when  turbines 
became  available  for  merchant  ships.  The 
Victory  ships  had  approximately  the  same 
tonnage  as  the  Liberty's  (about  11,000  tons), 
but  its  more  modern  propulsion  machinery 
made  it  a  faster  ship,  with  a  speed  of  15-17 
knots. 

Other  ships  in  the  merchant  fleet  include  the 
C-types,  which  vary  from  coastal  vessels  of 


9,000  deadweight  tons  to  freighters  of  more 
than  13,000  tons.  In  addition,  there  are  special 
types-primarily  freighters,  combination 
passenger-cargo  ships,  refrigerator  ships,  and 
bulk  carriers. 

To  meet  the  need  for  large,  fast  cargo  ships 
capable  of  service  in  forward  areas  in  wartime,  a 
need  pointed  up  by  the  demands  of  the  Korean 
War,  the  Maritime  Administration  of  the  U.S. 
Department  of  Commerce  undertook  a 
construction  program  of  35  ships  of  the  Mariner 
class. 

MERCHANT  MARINE  TRAINING 

The  program  for  training  personnel  for 
service  in  the  merchant  marine  was  established 
in  1938  by  the  U.S.  Maritime  Commission. 
Training  stations  and  supplementary  training 
ships  were  established  on  the  Atlantic,  Gulf,  and 
Pacific  coasts.  In  postwar  years  merchant  marine 
training  became  a  function  of  the  Maritime 
Administration,  under  which  a  peacetime 
training  program  now  functions  through  the 
U.S.  Merchant  Marine  Academy  and  state 
maritime  academies. 

The  Merchant  Marine  Academy  trains 
American  citizens,  high  school  graduates  and 
under  21  years  of  age,  to  become  officers  in  the 
merchant  marine.  The  course  is  4  years:  the  first 
year  at  the  Academy,  located  at  King's  Point, 
New  York,  the  second  year  aboard  merchant 
ships,  and  the  last  2  years  at  the  Academy. 
Graduates  receive  a  merchant  marine  license  as 
third  mate  or  third  assistant  engineer  and  are 
eligible  to  apply  for  a  commission  as  ensign  in 
the  Naval  Reserve.  The  Academy  grants  a 
bachelor  of  science  degree. 

In  addition  to  the  academy  at  King's  Point, 
the  Maritime  Administration  supervises  five 
merchant  marine  schools  in  Maine,  New  York, 
Massachusetts,  California,  and  Texas.  These  state 
institutions  operate  partially  with  the  aid  of 
Federal  funds  under  Federal  requirements.  Upon 
graduation,  students  receive  a  license  similar  to 
those  awarded  King's  Point  graduates  and  upon 
individual  application  and  acceptance,  a 
commission  as  ensign  in  the  Naval  Reserve. 


Chapter  1 0-COMPONENTS  AND  SUPPORTING  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  NAVY 


PEACETIME  ORGANIZATION 

The  Merchant  Marine  Act  of  1936  in  its 
Declaration  of  Policy  states: 

"It  is  necessary  for  the  national 
defense  and  development  of  its  foreign 
and  domestic  commerce  that  the  United 
States  shall  have  a  merchant  marine  (a) 
sufficient  to  its  domestic  waterborne 
commerce  and  a  substantial  portion  of 
the  waterborne  export  and  import 
foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States 
and  to  provide  shipping  service  on  all 
routes  essential  for  maintaining  the  flow 
of  such  domestic  and  foreign  waterborne 
commerce  at  all  times,  (b)  capable  of 
serving  as  a  naval  and  military  auxiliary 
in  time  of  war  or  national  emergency,  (c) 
owned  and  operated  under  the  United 
States  flag  by  citizens  of  the  United 
States  insofar  as  may  be  practicable,  and 
(d)  composed  of  the  best-equipped, 
safest,  and  most  suitable  types  of  vessels, 
constructed  in  the  United  States  and 
manned  with  a  trained  and  efficient 
citizen  personnel.  It  is  hereby  declared 
to  be  the  policy  of  the  United  States  to 
foster  the  development  and  encourage 
the  maintenance  of  such  a  merchant 
marine." 

The  United  States  Maritime  Commission, 
which  came  into  being  under  the  act  of  1936, 
was  created  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  this 
policy. 


Since  1961,  responsibility  for  administering 
Federal  programs  concerned  with  the  promotion 
and  development  of  the  merchant  marine  has 
been  vested  in  the  Federal  Maritime 
Commission,  an  independent  regulatory  agency, 
and  the  Maritime  Administration  in  the 
Department  of  Commerce. 

The  Federal  Maritime  Commission  exercises 
regulatory  control  over  rates  and  practices  of 
ocean  shipping  lines,  and  reviews  agreements 
among  ship  operators  and  freight  forwarders  for 
evidence  of  discriminatory  practices. 

Located  within  the  Maritime 
Administration,  the  Maritime  Subsidy  Board 
holds  hearings  to  decide  whether  charter  of 
war-built,  dry-cargo,  Government-owned  vessels 
is  necessary  to  provide  essential  services  for 
which  privately  owned  tonnage  is  not  available 
or  unavailable  at  reasonable  rates  and 
conditions.  The  Maritime  Subsidy  Board  also 
makes  determinations  regarding  the  recipients 
and  amounts  of  ship  construction  and  operating 
subsidies. 

The  Maritime  Administration  carries  out  the 
administration  of  subsidies  and  directs  programs 
of  shipbuilding,  ship  operation,  and  reserve  fleet 
maintenance  when  required  in  the  national 
interest.  Through  the  National  Shipping 
Authority,  established  in  March  1951,  it 
operates  vessels  through  general  agents 
appointed  from  private  shipping  companies,  to 
supply  services  such  as  the  carrying  of  military 
goods  when  privately  owned  or  chartered  vessels 
are  not  available  at  reasonable  rates. 


CHAPTER  1 1 


UNITED  STATES  MARINE  CORPS 


The  U.S.  Marine  Corps  consists  of  not  less 
than  three  combat  divisions  and  three  aircraft 
wings,  and  such  other  land  combat,  aviation,  and 
other  services  as  necessary  to  support  them.  It  is 
organized,  trained,  and  equipped  to  provide 
Fleet  Marine  Forces  of  combined  arms,  together 
with  supporting  air  components,  for  service  with 
the  fleet  in  the  seizure  or  defense  of  advanced 
naval  bases,  and  for  the  conduct  of  such  land 
operations  as  may  be  essential  to  the 
prosecution  of  a  naval  campaign.  In  addition, 
the  Corps  provides  detachments  and 
organizations  for  service  on  ships  of  the  Navy; 
provides  security  detachments  at  naval  stations, 
naval  bases,  and  embassies  and  legations  in 
foreign  countries;  and  performs  such  other 
duties  as  the  President  may  direct. 

The  Corps  has  primary  responsibility  for 
developing,  in  coordination  with  the  other 
military  services,  the  doctrines,  tactics, 
techniques,  and  equipment  employed  by  landing 
forces  in  amphibious  operations. 

The  peacetime  regular  strength  of  the  Corps 
is  limited  to  a  maximum  of  196,000  personnel. 

The  Commandant  of  the  Marine  Corps  has 
coequal  status  with  the  members  of  the  Joint 
Chiefs  of  Staff  in  matters  of  direct  concern  to 
the  Corps.  He  is  responsible  for  its 
administration,  discipline,  internal  organization, 
training,  efficiency,  and  readiness;  for  the 
operation  of  its  material  support  system;  and  for 
the  total  performance  of  the  Corps.  When 
performing  these  functions,  the  Commandant  is 
responsible  directly  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy;  he  is  not  a  part  of  the  command  structure 
of  the  Chief  of  Naval  Operations.  There  is  a 
close  cooperative  relationship,  however,  between 


CNO,  as  the  senior  military  officer  of  the 
Department  of  the  Navy,  and  the  Commandant 
of  the  Marine  Corps,  who  has  command 
responsibility  over  that  organization.  The 
Commandant  is  responsible  to  CNO  for  the 
readiness  of  those  elements  of  the  operating 
forces  of  the  Marine  Corps  assigned  to  the 
Operating  Forces  of  the  Navy.  Marine  Corps 
forces,  when  so  assigned,  are  subject  to  the 
command  exercised  by  CNO  over  the  Operating 
Forces  of  the  Navy.  Units  also  may  be  assigned 
under  the  operational  control  of  unified  or 
specified  commanders,  as  part  of  the  naval 
components  within  those  commands. 

The  Commandant  of  the  Marine  Corps 
advises  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  on  all  matters 
pertaining  to  the  Corps. 

The  Chief  of  Naval  Material  is  responsive  to 
the  Commandant  in  meeting  the  material 
support  needs  of  the  Marine  Corps  that  are  to  be 
provided  by  the  Naval  Material  Command. 

Figure  11-1  shows  the  general  organization 
of  the  Corps.  Major  elements  of  Marine  Corps 
operating  forces  normally  are  assigned  to  Fleet 
Marine  Forces,  which  are  integral  parts  of  the 
fleets,  having  the  status  of  type  commands. 

Bureaus  and  offices  of  the  Navy  Department 
perform  certain  technical  and  service  functions 
for  the  Marine  Corps,  just  as  they  do  for  the 
Navy.  For  example,  medical  services  are 
provided  by  the  Bureau  of  Medicine  and 
Surgery.  Legal  advice  and  legislative  services  are 
provided  by  the  Judge  Advocate  General  of  the 
Navy.  Navy  personnel  for  service  in  Marine 
Corps  units  are  provided  by  the  Bureau  of  Naval 
Personnel.  Reciprocally,  the  Marine  Corps 
provides  security  detachments  for  the  protection 


248 


HEADQUARTERS 
U.  S.  MARINE  CORPS 


THE  MARINE  CORPS  RESERVE 


MARINE  CORPS  OPERATING  FORCES 


J_ 


FLEET  MARINE 
FORCES 


_L 


FORCES 
AFLOAT 


MARINE  DIVISIONS 


MARINE  AIRCRAFT 
WINGS 


OTHER  FLEET  MARINE 
FORCE  UNITS 


_L 


OTHER  MARINE 
COMBAT  FORCES 


1 


SECURITY 
FORCES 


WITH  SHORE  ACTIVITIES 
OF  THE  NAVY 


WITH  DEPARTMENT 
OF  STATE 


WITH  OTHER  AGENCIES 
OF  THE  GOVERNMENT 


MARINE  CORPS  SUPPORTING  ESTABLISHMENT 


TRAINING  AND  SUPPORTING 
ACTIVITIES 


MARINE  CORPS  BASES, 
AIR  BASES  AND  AIR  STATIONS 


MARINE  CORPS  EDUCATIONAL 
AND  DEVELOPMENT  ACTIVITIES 


MARINE  CORPS 
RECRUIT  DEPOTS 


MARINE  CORPS  RESERVE  AND 
RECRUITMENT  DISTRICTS 


SUPPLY  INSTALLATIONS 

MARINE  CORPS 

SUPPLY  CENTERS 

MARINE  CORPS 

CLOTHING 

DEPOT 

MARINE  CORPS  SUPPLY 

FORWARDING 

ANNEXES 

134.143 

Figure  11-1.— General  organization  of  the  U.S.  Marine  Corps.  The  illustration  does  not  delineate  specific  command 

structure. 


249 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


of  bases  and  stations  of  the  Navy,  units 
(including  squadrons)  for  service  on  Navy 
vessels,  and  Marine  Corps  personnel  for  duty 
with  those  bureaus  and  offices  performing 
significant  service  for  the  Marine  Corps. 

The  Marine  Corps  Supporting  Establishment 
includes  the  Marine  Corps  recruit  depots  at  San 
Diego  and  Parris  Island,  the  Marine  Corps 
Development  and  Education  Command  at 
Quantico,  the  Marine  Corps  Recruiting  Service, 
the  Marine  Corps  supply  installations,  and  the 
various  Marine  barracks  and  Marine  Corps  air 
stations. 


The  relationship  between  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  and  the  Commandant  of  the  Marine 
Corps  is  direct.  When  the  President  orders  units 
of  the  Marine  Corps  to  perform  duties  that  are 
not  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy,  the  President  may  require  the 
Commandant  to  report  to  some  other 
department  head  for  that  purpose.  As  an 
example,  during  World  War  I  the  President 
directed  the  Commandant  to  report  to  the 
Secretary  of  War  with  respect  to  Marine  Corps 
units  detached  for  service  with  the  Army.  In 
1921  and  again  in  1926  the  Commandant,  at  the 


s.*         ,       *1     «  -    >*  •      -i1*."-'.    ^- f 

,     «,;.   ,-l  -t^J*-',-  ,    ,  V*  -:'*-  *    '•      .»   *     ' 
V*i      .  "j     _    "     %•>,.'•      "      ,      - 


134.54 


Figure  11-2.-Rugged  in  combat,  U.S.  Marines  on  parade  present  the  perfect  example  of  proper  military  bearing. 
This  ceremony  is  taking  place  at  the  Marine  Barracks,  Washington,  D.C. 


250 


direction  of  the  President,  reported  to  the 
Postmaster  General  with  respect  to  Marine  Corps 
units  ordered  to  guard  the  U.S.  mail. 


MARINE  CORPS  TRADITION 

The  U.S.  Marine  Corps,  perhaps  to  a  greater 
degree  than  any  other  military  group, 
demonstrates  the  power  of  pride  in  tradition  to 
unify  and  motivate  a  fighting  force.  Almost  as 
soon  as  he  becomes  a  member  of  the 
organization,  the  Marine  learns  that  his 
traditions  are  as  much  a  part  of  his  equipment  as 
his  pack  or  his  rifle.  These  traditions  have  been 
growing  since  the  Continental  Marines  were 
organized  on  10  November  1775,  the  birthday 
of  the  Corps.  Marine  Corps  tradition  has  many 
phases:  discipline,  devotion  to  duty,  leadership, 
loyalty,  self-sacrifice,  versatility,  and  pride  in  a 
job  well  done  (figure  11-2).  Reflections  of 
Marine  tradition  can  be  found  in  the  uniform, 
the  insignia,  the  words  of  the  "Marines'  Hymn," 
and  the  nicknames  earned  through  the  years. 

The  familiar  emblem  of  the  eagle,  globe,  and 
anchor  (figure  1 1-3),  officially  adopted  in  1868, 
is  symbolic  of  worldwide  service  in  a  seagoing 
force-the  "soldiers  of  the  sea."  The  spread 
eagle,  the  national  symbol,  holds  in  its  beak 
streamers  that  bear  the  Marines'  motto,  Semper 
Fidelis  (Always  Faithful),  officially  adopted  in 
1883. 

According  to  tradition,  the  origin  of  the 
"Marines'  Hymn"  dates  back  to  the  Mexican 
War  when  an  unknown  Marine  on  duty  in 
Mexico  wrote  the  first  verse,  "From  the  Halls  of 
Montezuma  to  the  Shores  of  Tripoli"  (figure 
11-4). 

The  Marine  Corps  march,  "Semper  Fidelis," 
was  composed  in  1888  by  John  Philip  Sousa,  at 
that  time  leader  of  the  Marine  Band.  The  band 
played  for  the  first  presidential  inauguration  in 
Washington  in  1801  and  became  known  as  "the 
President's  own"  during  the  early  years  of  the 
1 9th  century,  a  title  it  holds  today. 

The  term  "leatherneck"  dates  back  to  the 
time  when  Marines  wore  leather  stocks,  or 
collars,  to  improve  military  bearing  by  forcing 
the  wearer  to  keep  his  head  up.  The  nickname 


134.55 
Figure  11-3.-Emblem  of  the  U.S.  Marine  Corps. 


"Devil  Dogs"  reputedly  was  assigned  to  Marines 
by  the  Germans  in  World  War  I  after  the  action 
at  Belleau  Wood,  in  which  the  Fourth  Marine 
Brigade  distinguished  itself.  The  German  reports 
were  said  to  have  referred  to  the  Marines  as 
Teufelshunden. 


HISTORY  OF  THE 
CORPS 

Fighting  men  have  been  assigned  to  ships 
since  the  time  of  the  Phoenicians,  about  five 
centuries  before  the  Christian  Era.  The  Greeks 
and  Romans  followed  this  practice,  and  later  the 
British.  In  1664,  during  the  reign  of  Charles  II, 
the  Duke  of  York  and  Albany's  Maritime 
Regiment  of  Foot  was  organized,  from  which 
the  Royal  Marines  are  descended. 

In  1740  the  American  Colonial  Marines 
came  into  being,  and  served  under  Admiral 
Vernon  of  the  Royal  Navy,  chiefly  in  the  West 
Indies.  Lawrence  Washington,  half-brother  of 
George  Washington,  was  an  officer  in  the 


251 


Chapter  11 -UNITED  STATES  MARINE  CORPS 


Lieutenant  Presley  O'Bannon 


134.144 

Figure  11-4.-(continued) .  .  .  and  in  the  war  with  the  Barbary  Powers.  An  official  version  of  the  Hymn  was  issued 

in  1929. 


from  Alfred  v.  Glasgow  (1776)  to  Alliance  v. 
Sybil^  (1783).  Not  to  be  mistaken  for 
Continental  Marines  were  the  many  Marines  in 
various  state  navies  of  the  revolutionary  era. 

After  independence  was  won,  the  Marines, 
like  the  rest  of  the  Continental  forces  except  for 
one  small  Army  unit,  went  out  of  existence. 
During  the  trouble  with  Algerian  pirates  in 
1794,  Marines  were  authorized  by  Congress  to 
complement  the  small  naval  force  contemplated 
at  the  time.  When  the  crisis  passed  without  war, 
however,  naval  construction  was  cut  back  to 


such  an  extent  that  the  enlistment  of  Marines 
was  never  begun. 

Marines  were  not  actually  recruited  until  the 
revival  of  the  Navy  in  1798  during  the 
controversy  with  France  over  American 
neutrality  at  sea.  After  the  separation  of  the 
Navy  from  the  War  Department  in  April  1798, 
the  Marines  already  in  service,  as  well  as  those  to 
be  raised  thereafter,  were  brought  into  one  corps 
by  the  act  of  1 1  July  1 798. 

During  the  quasi-war  resulting  from  the 
diplomatic  impasse  with  France,  the  Marines 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


11         "From  the  Halls  of  Montezumo.  .   ."    General  Quitman  leads  his  battered  battalion  of 
|W     Marines  into  Mexico  City  on  14  September  1847,  ending  the  Mexican  War  with  American 
victory.    The  red  strip  on  the  trousers  of  the  Marine  dress  uniform  commemorates  the 
blood  shed  in  the  desperate  fight  at  Chapultepec  on  the  previous  day. 


134.144 


Figure  11-4.-The  first  lines  of  the  "Marines'  Hymn,"  "From  the  Halls  of  Montezuma  to  the  Shores  of  Tripoli," 
commemorate,  in  reverse  chronological  order,  the  accomplishments  of  the  Marine  Corps  in  the  Mexican  War . . . 


Colonial  Marines  at  the  time  the  organization 
was  assigned  as  the  43d  Regiment  of  Foot  in 
the  British  Army. 

The  U.S.  Marine  Corps  dates  from  the 
resolution  of  the  Continental  Congress  on  10 
November  1775,  authorizing  two  battalions  of 
Marines.  Never  larger  than  one  battalion  in 
actual  strength,  the  Continental  Marines  served 
gallantly  throughout  the  Revolution.  Recruiting 
was  begun  at  Tun  Tavern  in  Philadelphia,  and 
Major  Samuel  Nicholas,  regarded  now  as  the  first 
commandant,  led  the  first  overseas  expedition  in 


1776-a    raid    on    New    Providence,    Bahama 
Islands. 

The  Marines  fought  with  Washington  in  the 
Trenton-Princeton  campaign  (1776-77).  They 
served  with  Clark  in  the  West  (1778-79);  and 
French  Marines  in  the  American  service  were 
part  of  John  Paul  Jones'  descent  on  Whitehaven, 
England,  and  spectacular  defeat  of  the  Serapis 
(1779).  American  Marines  participated  in  the 
ill-fated  Penobscot  expedition  (1779)  and  in  the 
defense  of  Charleston  (1780).  Marines  fought  in 
most  of  the  important  sea  battles  of  the  war, 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


fought  in  all  the  major  sea  actions,  as  well  as 
innumerable  encounters  with  privateers  and 
pirates  in  the  West  Indies.  They  also  carried  out 
landings  on  Curacao  (1800)  and  Puerto  Plata, 
Santo  Domingo  (1800),  and  guarded  French 
prisoners  of  war  in  the  United  States. 

In  the  War  with  Tripoli,  commencing  in 
1 801,  Marines  took  part  in  naval  engagements  in 
the  Mediterranean  and  in  the  blockade  of  Tripoli 
City.  Marines,  led  by  First  Lieutenant  Presley  N. 
O'Bannon,  after  a  600-mile  march  from  Egypt, 
participated  in  the  only  land  campaign  of  the 
war— the  capture  of  Derne  (1 805). 

In  the  War  of  1812,  Marines  fought  in  every 
major  naval  engagement,  including  the  Battle  of 
Lake  Erie  under  Oliver  Hazard  Perry.  On  land 
they  are  best  remembered  for  the  defense  of 
Sackett's  Harbor,  N.Y.,  and  Norfolk,  Va. 
(1813),  and  for  the  Battles  of  Bladensburg 
(1814)  and  New  Orleans  (181 5). 

General  lawlessness  in  the  Caribbean  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  growing  out  of  the  collapse  of 
the  Spanish  Empire  led  to  many  naval 
encounters  with  pirates  and  revolutionaries  in 
the  second  and  third  decades  of  the  19th 
century.  Marine  landings  against  pirate 
strongholds  were  made  at  Grand  Barataria 
(1814),  Amelia  Island  (1817),  Port-au-Prince, 
Haiti  (1817,  1821),  and  Fajardo,  Puerto  Rico 
(1824).  On  the  other  side  of  the  world, 
plundering  of  American  merchantmen  in  the 
East  Indies  led  to  Marine  landings  in  Sumatra  in 
1832,  1838,  and  1839.  Under  the  provisions  of 
the  act  of  30  June  1 834,  which  established  the 
land  warfare  responsibilities  of  the  Marine 
Corps,  Marines  commenced  in  1836  a  6-year 
land  campaign  against  the  Creek  and  Seminole 
Indians  in  Georgia  and  Florida  in  conjunction 
with  the  Army.  Colonel  Archibald  Henderson, 
the  "grand  old  man  of  the  Marine  Corps"  who 
served  as  commandant  for  39  years  under  nine 
presidents,  led  the  expedition  against  the 
Indians.  Marines  were  also  active  with  the 
"Mosquito  Fleet"  which  the  Navy  sent  into  the 
Everglades  during  the  war. 

Marines  with  the  Wilkes  Exploring 
Expedition  (1838-42)  made  several  landings  in 
Fiji,  Samoan,  and  Gilbert  island  groups,  to 
pacify  hostile  inhabitants  or  redress  injuries  to 


American  merchant  seamen.  Attacks  on 
merchant  vessels  by  coastal  tribes  took  Marines 
ashore  in  West  Africa  several  times  in  1843. 
Marines  got  their  first  acquaintance  with  China 
in  1844  when  they  landed  at  Canton  during  an 
anti-American  riot. 

Marines  served  in  both  theaters  of  operations 
during  the  Mexican  War.  Marines  were  the  first 
U.S.  troops  in  Mexico  with  their  landing  at 
Burrita,  15  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rio 
Grande.  Marines,  in  conjunction  with 
Commodore  Matthew  C.  Perry's  Gulf  Squadron 
and  Major  General  Winfield  Scott's  army,  took 
part  in  the  landing  at  and  capture  of  Vera  Cruz. 
A  Marine  battalion  served  as  part  of  General 
Quitman's  division  in  the  capture  of  Mexico 
City.  Marine  Captain  George  C.  Terrett's 
company  was  joined  by  Second  Lieutenant 
Ulysses  S.  Grant  and  26  soldiers  in  an  assault  on 
the  city's  San  Cosme  gate.  Thus,  Marines  were 
among  the  first  forces  to  enter  the  city.  When 
the  battalion  returned  to  Washington,  D.C.,  the 
city  presented  the  Commandant  a  standard 
emblazoned  with  "From  Tripoli  to  the  Halls  of 
the  Montezumas". 

In  the  West,  Marines  made  the  landings 
which  initially  secured  the  coast  of  California 
(July-October  1846),  fought  ashore  in  the 
reconquest  of  the  interior  (December 
1846- January  1847),  and  occupied  several  towns 
in  Baja,  California  and  Western  Mexico  (March 
1847-April  1848). 

A  number  of  landings  in  support  of 
American  commerce  were  carried  out  by 
Marines  in  the  1850s,  the  most  important  being 
the  reduction  of  the  Barrier  Forts  at  Canton, 
China  (November  1856).  A  formidable  Marine 
guard  accompanied  Perry's  mission  to  Japan  in 
1853-54.  In  the  United  States,  Marines  were 
involved  in  the  capture  of  John  Brown  at 
Harpers  Ferry,  Va.  (October  1859).  The  senior 
Federal  officer  present  who  exercised  overall 
command  was  Brevet  Colonel  Robert  E.  Lee,  2d 
U.S.  Cavalry. 

Although  their  part  in  the  Civil  War  was 
comparatively  minor,  Marines  were  among  the 
first  U.S.  troops  to  feel  the  impact  of  the 
coming  conflict  when  the  barracks  at  Pensacola, 
Florida,  was  compelled  to  surrender  to  local 


Chapter   11 -UNITED  STATES  MARINE  CORPS 


forces  in  January  1  861 ,  and  the  barracks  at  Nor- 
folk was  evacuated  in  April.  A  Marine  battalion 
fought  in  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run  (July  1861). 
Marines  were  aboard  all  major  vessels  of  the 
blockading  fleets,  and  a  Marine  battalion  serving 
in  Admiral  DuPont's  squadron  (October  1861- 
March  1862)  carried  out  a  number  of  armed  re- 
connaissances along  the  south  Atlantic  coast. 
Other  operations  of  the  war  in  which  Marines 
took  part  were  the  landing  at  Hatteras  Inlet,  N.C. 
(August  186 1 );  the  attacks  by  the  Virginia  on  the 
Cumberland  and  Congress  (March  1862);  the 
Battle  of  Drewry's  Bluff,  Va.  (May  1862);  the 
siege  of  Charleston,  S.C.  (1863-1864);  suppres- 
sion of  the  New  York  Draft  Riots  (July  1863); 
the  defense  of  Gunpowder  Bridge,  Md.  (July 
1864);  the  Battle  of  Mobile  Bay  (August  1864); 
the  expedition  up  Broad  River,  S.C.  (November- 
December  1  864);  and  the  capture  of  Ft.  Fisher, 
N.C.  (January  1865).  For  heroism  at  Drewry's 
Bluff,  Corporal  John  F.  Mackie  became  the  first 
Marine  recipient  of  the  Medal  of  Honor. 

In  the  33  years  of  peace  following  the  Civil 
War,  the  Marines  saw  action  on  foreign  soil  32 
times,  most  memorably  in  the  assault  on  the 
Salee  River  forts  in  Korea  (June  1871)  and  on 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama  (April-May  1 885). 

During  the  period  between  1876  and  1891, 
when  Colonel  Charles  G.  McCawley  was 
commandant,  the  organization  of  the  Marine 
Corps  was  considerably  improved.  One  inno- 
vation with  which  he  is  credited  was  obtaining 
an  annual  quota  of  graduates  from  the  Naval 
Academy  for  commissioning  as  Marine  officers. 

At  Guantanamo  Bay,  Cuba  (June  1898) 
Marines  seized  an  advance  base  for  naval 
operations.  During  the  battle  for  Cuzco  Well,  6 
miles  southeast  of  Guantanamo,  naval  gunfire 
meant  to  support  the  battalion  fell  directly  on 
Marine  positions  instead.  Sergeant  John  H. 
Quick  stood  calmly  exposed  between  the  fire  of 
the  enemy  and  that  of  the  ship  and  sent  a  signal 
to  cease  fire  with  an  improvised  flag.  The 
shelling  ceased;  Quick  emerged  unscathed  and 
was  later  awarded  the  Medal  of  Honor  for  his 
courageous  act. 

With  the  fleet,  Marines  manned  secondary 
batteries  in  the  Battles  of  Manila  Bay  and 
Santiago  (May-July  1898)  and  provided  the 


landing  parties  which  took  possession  of  Guam 
(June  1898)  and  various  ports  in  Puerto  Rico 
(July-August  1898).  Marines  on  occupation  duty 
in  the  Philippines  after  the  Spanish  surrender 
were  drawn  immediately  into  the  suppression  of 
the  insurrection  attendant  upon  the  American 
occupation  (June  1898- July  1902).  During  the 
Boxer  Rebellion,  Marines  defended  the 
American  Legation  in  Peking  and  formed  part  of 
the  allied  relief  column  that  captured  the 
Chinese  capital  (June-August  1900). 
Establishment  of  formal  Marine  guards  for 
American  diplomatic  posts  also  dates  from  this 
era. 

During  the  relief  of  Peking  at  the  siege  of 
Tientsin,  the  Marines  alternately  helped  and 
were  helped  by  the  Royal  Welsh  Fusiliers  during 
various  critical  stages  of  the  fighting.  This 
two-way  support  gave  rise  to  mutual  admiration 
between  fighting  men,  which  to  this  day  is 
commemorated  by  an  exchange  of  cables  on  1 
March,  Saint  David's  Day.  The  message  reads 
simply,  "And  Saint  David,"  the  ancient  Welsh 
password. 

The  years  1903-04  saw  Marines  in  Santo 
Domingo  and  Panama,  and  a  special  detail  served 
as  guards  for  a  U.S.  diplomatic  mission  traveling 
to  Abyssinia  by  camel  caravan.  From  1906  to 
1909  the  Marines  participated  in  the  Army  of 
Occupation  in  the  Cuban  Pacification;  in  1914 
an  expedition  was  sent  to  Vera  Cruz,  Mexico; 
from  1909  through  the  1 920s  (except  for  1911) 
Marine  units  remained  in  Nicaragua;  in  1912  and 
again  in  1916-24  Marines  occupied  the 
Dominican  Republic;  and  in  1915  they  occupied 
Haiti. 

During  this  period  forward-looking  officers 
of  the  Corps,  such  as  John  A.  Lejeune  and  John 
H.  Russell  (both  subsequently  to  become 
commandants)  had  already  visualized  the 
modern  Marine  Corps  as  a  fleet  expeditionary 
force  designed  for  the  seizure  and  defense  of 
advanced  bases,  as  the  means  whereby  a 
balanced  fleet  projects  its  power  into  the 
shoreline.  In  line  with  this  thinking,  an  Advance 
Base  Force  (ancestor  of  the  Fleet  Marine  Force) 
was  organized  within  the  Corps  for  just  such 
missions;  and  prior  to  our  entry  into  the 
European  war,  pioneer  steps  toward  modern 
amphibious  techniques  were  taken. 


255 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


New  weapons  and  equipment  came  into  the 
hands  of  Marines  in  the  decade  before  World 
War  I,  and  new  tactics  based  on  the  use  of  these 
weapons  were  developed.  Gasoline-powered 
trucks  facilitated  transportation  and  supply 
problems,  and  radio  provided  rapid  long-distance 
communications.  Improved  artillery,  more 
reliable  machineguns,  and  automatic  rifles  gave 
Marine  units  greatly  increased  firepower.  The 
airplane  gave  promise  of  unlimited  possibilities, 
and  on  22  May  1912,  First  Lieutenant  Alfred  A. 
Cunningham  was  assigned  to  naval  aviation  duty 
as  the  first  Marine  pilot. 

WORLD  WAR  I 

During  World  War  I,  the  4th  Marine  Brigade 
served  as  one  of  the  infantry  brigades  of  the 
Army's  2d  Division.  In  its  first  offensive  action 
of  the  war,  the  brigade  was  thrown  in  to  stop 
the  determined  German  attack  pointed  toward 
Paris.  Fighting  furiously,  the  Marines  attacked 


the  well-entrenched  Germans  at  Belleau  Wood 
and  finally  cleared  them  out  by  26  June  1918. 
In  20  days  of  heroic  fighting,  the  Marine  brigade 
had  met  and  defeated  part  of  two  of  Germany's 
most  distinguished  divisions. 

For  heroic  conduct  by  the  brigade  in  that 
battle,  the  French  Army  commander  changed 
the  name  of  the  wood  to  Bo  is  de  la  Brigade  de 
Marine,  or  Marine  Brigade  Wood,  and  awarded 
the  Croix  de  Guerre,  or  Cross  of  Gallantry,  to 
this  spirited  American  unit. 

After  further  action  at  Soissons,  St.  Mihiel, 
and  Blanc  Mont  Ridge,  November  of  1918 
found  the  brigade,  along  with  other  American 
units,  in  the  final  phase  of  the  great 
Meuse-Argonne  offensive  (figure  11-5).  The  2d 
Infantry  Division,  with  the  Marines  leading  it, 
was  assigned  the  mission  of  driving  a 
wedge-shaped  attack  through  the  backbone  of 
hostile  resistance.  The  attack  was  completely 
successful,  and  the  Marines  were  still  advancing 
when  news  of  the  armistice  was  announced. 


29.322 


Figure  11-5.-Marines  set  up  a  light  gun  against  the  Germans  during  the  Meuse-Argonne  offensive  of  World  War  I. 


256 


Chapter  11 -UNITED  STATES  MARINE  CORPS 


Prior  to  leaving  France,  the  4th  Marine 
Brigade  had  three  times  been  awarded  the  Croix 
de  Guerre,  the  only  American  unit  so  honored. 

The  5th  Marine  Brigade  served  mainly  on 
military  police  and  line  of  communications  duty 
in  France. 

Marine  aviation  units  under  Cunningham,  the 
Corps'  first  aviator,  formed  the  Day  Wing  of  the 
Northern  Bombing  Group  in  northern  France  and 
Belgium.  Fifty-seven  bombing  missions  were 
flown  by  Marine  pilots,  and  they  accounted  for 
a  dozen  German  planes.  An  antisubmarine  patrol 
station  was  operated  in  the  Azores  from  21 
January  1918  until  the  armistice  of  1 1 
November  1918. 

BETWEEN  WORLD  WARS 

The  period  of  peace  between  World  War  I 
and  World  War  II  was  anything  but  peaceful  for 
the  U.S.  Marines.  In  three  Caribbean  countries 
(Haiti,  Santo  Domingo,  and  Nicaragua)  they 
quelled  armed  revolt  and  organized  efficient 
native  police  forces  that  could  handle 
insurrections  after  they  had  withdrawn. 

During  these  years  the  Corps'  few  Marine 
aviators  began  to  develop  the  doctrine  of  close 
air  support  for  troops  on  the  ground  that  reached 
perfection  in  the  latter  stages  of  World  War  II 
and  in  Korea.  In  1927  Major  Ross  E.  Rowell 
led  the  first  organized  dive  bombing  attack  in 
history  against  an  organized  enemy  (Sandino's 
rebels  in  Nicaragua).  Aircraft  were  used  for 
reconnaissance,  observation,  supply  drops 
(including  replenishment  of  emergency  medical 
stores),  and  casualty  evacuation. 

In  1928  First  Lieutenant  Christian  F.  Schilt 
made  a  series  of  remarkable  rescue  flights  near 
Quilali,  Nicaragua.  Several  Marines  had  been 
wounded  by  bandits  and  had  no  way  to  reach 
medical  aid.  Lieutenant  Schilt  used  the  main 
street  of  the  village  for  an  airstrip,  once  the 
buildings  on  each  side  had  been  razed  to  make 
room  for  his  wings.  For  3  days  he  flew  out 
wounded  men,  bringing  ammunition  and 
supplies  on  each  return  trip.  For  his 
demonstrated  "almost  superhuman  skill,"  he 
was  awarded  the  Medal  of  Honor. 


Constantly  recurring  duty  in  China  took 
Marines  there  on  several  occasions  after  1 854 
when  internal  strife  necessitated  their  presence 
to  protect  American  interests.  In  1911  they 
landed  in  China  during  the  overthrow  of  the 
Manchu  Dynasty.  Troublesome  conditions  in 
1 924  again  required  the  strong  protective  arm  of 
the  Marines,  and  in  1927  a  force  of  about  5000 
Marines  was  stationed  at  various  points, 
principally  Shanghai  and  Tientsin.  Most  of  the 
force  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1929, 
leaving  only  the  4th  Regiment  in  Shanghai. 

In  1941  Marines  were  stationed  throughout 
the  world.  About  2000  were  serving  in  China 
and  the  Philippines,  under  the  Commander  in 
Chief  of  the  Asiatic  Fleet.  Several  thousand 
Marines  were  on  duty  at  naval  stations  in  the 
Hawaiian  Islands,  Guam,  Wake,  Midway, 
American  Samoa,  the  Panama  Canal  Zone,  and 
Cuba.  Marines  were  in  Iceland,  on  various  islands 
in  the  Atlantic  and  Caribbean  area,  and  in 
England  and  northern  Ireland. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  contribution  of 
the  Marine  Corps  to  the  Nation  during  this 
period— or  during  the  entire  existence  of  the 
Corps,  for  that  matter— was  its  evolution  of  the 
techniques  and  doctrine  for  successful 
amphibious  warfare,  which  were  brought  into 
being  at  the  Marine  Corps  Schools,  Quantico, 
Virginia,  primarily  between  1922  and  1935.  As  a 
necessary  concomitant  to  this  doctrinal 
development,  the  Fleet  Marine  Force,  basic 
instrument  for  execution  of  these  doctrines,  was 
organized  in  1933.  Both  the  Fleet  Marine  Force 
organization  and  the  doctrines  upon  which  it 
was  shaped  served  virtually  unchanged  in 
concept  throughout  all  of  World  War  II.  And  in 
1941,  when  the  Army  began  to  show  interest  in 
landing  operations  (which  had  hitherto  been 
exclusively  within  the  Marine  Corps  province), 
Marines  provided  a  working  doctrine  and  trained 
seven  Army  divisions,  including  the  first  three 
divisions  to  receive  amphibious  training. 

WORLD  WAR  II 

'Any  story  of  the  war  against  Japan  in  the 
Pacific,  the  greatest  naval  war  of  all  time,  brings 
into  sharp  focus  the  activities  of  U.S.  Marines. 


257 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


They  were  part  and  parcel  of  that  war  from  the 
day  of  the  attack  against  Pearl  Harbor  to  the 
occupation  of  conquered  Japan.  Marines  served 
at.  Corregidor  and  Bataan.  The  U.S.  outpost 
island  of  Guam  fell  to  the  Japanese  only  after  a 
determined  but  futile  stand  by  the  handful  of 
Marines  stationed  there.  The  stubborn  defense 
of  Wake  waged  by  the  naval  command  with  the 
fighting  Marine  detachment  evoked  the 
admiration  of  the  Nation  in  its  darkest  hour  and 
won  grudging  respect  from  the  enemy. 

Throughout  the  early  part  of  1942,  while 
the  enemy  roamed  the  Pacific  at  will,  Marine 
defense  battalions  were  sent  to  critical  outlying 
islands  in  the  Pacific  to  defend  and  hold  them 
until  a  counteroffensive  could  be  launched.  The 
first  concerted  U.S.  offensive  of  World  War  II 
began  in  the  Pacific  with  the  landing  of  Marines 
at  Guadalcanal  in  August  1942.  For  over  4 
months  the  battle  raged  as  fresh  Japanese  troops 
were  landed,  only  to  be  fought  down  by  General 
Vandegrift's  Marines.  The  long  channel  between 
Guadalcanal  and  Tulagi  became  an 


iron-bottomed    sea,    cluttered    with   US 
Japanese     ships     sunk     in     furious   ' 
engagements.  From  Henderson  Field,  the 
airstrip    on    Guadalcanal,    Navy,    Marine    aH 
Army  planes  rose  to  shoot  down  Japan's  best 
pilots. 

With  Guadalcanal  secured,  Marines  of  newly 
created  divisions  fought  the  Japanese  from  two 
directions.  Two  divisions  drove  through  th 
upper  Solomons  to  New  Britain  and 
Bougainville,  making  the  reduction  of  Rabaul 
one  of  Japan's  strongest  island  fortresses  a 
foregone  conclusion.  Meantime,  another  division 
landed  at  Tarawa,  first  step  in  the  central 
Pacific. 

More  than  3300  casualties  within  76  hours 
made  the  battle  of  Tarawa  extremely  costly;  yet 
it  was  unique.  For  the  first  time  in  history,  a 
seaborne  assault  was  launched  against  a  heavily 
defended  coral  atoll,  and  assault  amphibians 
(figure  11-6)  were  used  in  an  assault  landing. 
The  operation  demonstrated  the  soundness  of 
existing  Marine  Corps  doctrines,  but  brought  to 


Figure  1 1-6.-Armored  assault  amphibians  of  a  Marine  battalion  form  i 


134.57 


into  line  for  the  drive  to  the  beach. 


134.146 

Figure  11-7.— Beaches  on  Iwo  Jima  (Iwo  Island)  are  covered  with  volcanic  ash  and  cinders  that  make  running  almost 
impossible.  The  Marine  amphibious  landing  in  February  1945  began  what  General  Holland  Smith  said  was 
".  .  .  the  most  savage  and  costly  battle  in  the  history  of  the  Marine  Corps"  against  a  well-fortified,  almost 
impregnable  defense. 


light    other    areas    requiring    improvement   for 
future  operations. 

Then  came  the  Marshalls,  another  step  in  the 
central  Pacific,  and  the  4th  Marine  Division,  part 
of  the  Marine  V  Amphibious  Corps,  gained  its 
first  combat  experience  in  an  operation  where 
tactical  surprise  and  crushing  air  and  naval 
bombardment  put  the  Japanese  at  an  immediate 
disadvantage.  From  the  Marshalls  the  offensive 
moved  on  westward,  the  next  amphibious 
assault  being  against  the  Marianas.  Here,  in 
mid-1944,  a  task  force  of  field  army  size,  under 
an  overall  Marine  command  comprising  two 
Marine  amphibious  corps,  three  Marine  divisions, 
a  Marine  brigade,  and  two  Army  divisions, 
wrested  the  strategic  islands  of  Saipan,  Tinian, 
and  Guam  from  a  stubborn  enemy  and  breached 
the  Japanese  inner  island  defense  chain. 


After  the  Marianas  came  the  Palaus,  where 
the  1st  Marine  Division,  in  its  third  major 
operation,  landed  on  the  bitterly  defended 
island  of  Peleliu  and  seized  it,  providing  General 
MacArthur  with  protection  on  his  eastern  flank 
as  he  prepared  to  move  into  the  Philippines. 

In  February  1945  the  V  Amphibious  Corps 
landed  on  the  island  of  Iwo  Jima  to  fight  one  of 
the  bitterest  actions  of  the  war  (figure  11-7). 
The  Japanese,  having  profited  from  earlier 
experiences  against  Marines,  organized  the 
island's  excellent  terrain  to  a  degree  never 
encountered  before  and  staged  a  bloody, 
last-ditch  fight.  Fewer  than  1 100  prisoners  were 
taken.  The  hard-won  victory  at  Iwo  paved  the 
way  for  landing  on  Okinawa  and  helped  to 
secure  the  airlanes  followed  by  B-29s  to  the 
main  Japanese  islands. 


259 


Probably  the  most  fitting  tribute  to  the  men 
who  fought  on  Iwo  was  expressed  by  Admiral 
Chester  W.  Nimitz  when  he  said,  "Among  the 
Americans  who  served  on  Iwo  Island, 
uncommon  valor  was  a  common  virtue." 

After  82  days  of  bitter  fighting,  the  island  of 
Okinawa,  last  obstacle  before  the  main  Japanese 
islands,  fell  to  American  forces.  Here  as  before, 
the  Marine  divisions  demonstrated  their 
versatility,  taking  part  in  the  amphibious  assault 
and  in  the  extensive  land  fighting  that  followed. 
Here  again  the  Marines  fought  under  the  guns  of 
the  fleet,  operating  over  6000  miles  from  home 
waters  and  threatened  continuously  by  the 
Japanese  kamikaze  planes. 

The  war  saw  the  Fleet  Marine  Force  expand 
from  two  divisions  operating  under  an 
amphibious  corps,  to  six  divisions  and  four 
aircraft  wings,  comprising  two  corps  which  were 
earmarked  to  spearhead  the  final  landings  on 
Japan  proper.  On  30  August  1945,  3  days  before 
the  formal  surrender  document  was  signed 
aboard  USS  Missouri,  10,000  Marines  and  naval 
forces  landed  and  took  possession  of  the 
Yokosuka  naval  base  and  neighboring  islands. 
While  they  landed  as  assault  troops,  they  met  no 
opposition,  and  they  became  a  part  of  the  Allied 
occupation  forces. 

KOREA 

As  a  result  of  cuts  in  appropriations  after 
World  War  II,  Marine  Corps  strength  by  June 
1 950  had  dropped  to  just  a  shade  under  75,000. 
Of  this  number,  approximately  28,000  were 
serving  in  the  Fleet  Marine  Forces.  Others  served 
at  posts  and  stations,  naval  bases,  on  ships,  in 
supply  and  administrative  billets,  and  in  a 
variety  of  special  assignments. 

Although  the  Corps  had  one  division  and 
one  aircraft  wing  on  each  coast,  all  units  therein 
were  considerably  undermanned.  In  fact, 
regiments  were  hardly  more  than  understrength 
battalions;  service  and  support  units  also  were 
reduced  or  eliminated.  The  Marine  Corps  in 
1 950,  then,  was  little  more  than  a  skeleton  of  its 
former  self;  but  when  North  Korean 
Communists  launched  their  attack  on  the 
Republic  of  Korea,  the  Corps  again  lived  up  to 


its  tradition  of  a  force  in  readiness.  The  1st 
Provisional  Marine  Brigade  departed  the  United 
States  for  the  Far  East  on  14  July  1950,  only  7 
days  after  its  activation.  A  balanced  air-ground 
team,  the  brigade  distinguished  itself  in  the  role 
of  mobile  reserve,  or  "fire  brigade,"  during  the 
fierce  August  battles  in  defense  of  the  perimeter 
around  the  port  of  Pusan. 

Even  while  the  defensive  battle  was  in 
progress,  United  Nations  forces  prepared  to  take 
the  offensive.  The  Marines  made  an  amphibious 
assault  landing  deep  in  the  enemy  rear  to  seize 
the  port  of  Inchon  and  the  Korean  capital, 
Seoul.  For  the  Inchon-Seoul  operation,  the  1st 
Marine  Division  and  1st  Marine  Aircraft  Wing 
were  teamed  with  an  Army  division  in  X  Corps. 
This  operation  on  15  September  1950  severed 
the  enemy  line  of  communications  and,  coupled 
with  Army  pressure  from  the  Pusan  perimeter, 
forced  him  to  withdraw  rapidly  northward. 

The  North  Korean  armies  retreated  across 
the  38th  parallel.  To  complete  their  destruction, 
a  double  envelopment  was  planned,  including  an 
amphibious  landing  by  X  Corps  at  Wonsan  in 
northeast  Korea,  as  one  arm  of  the  pincer.  But 
so  rapidly  did  the  enemy  resistance  collapse  that 
the  Wonsan  landing  was  unopposed.  U.N.  forces 
advanced  toward  the  Yalu  River,  mopping  up 
the  remnants  of  defeated  enemy  forces  and 
occupying  the  country. 

By  the  end  of  November,  the  1st  Marine 
Division  had  reached  the  Chosin  Reservoir  far 
into  North  Korea.  But  the  Chinese  Communists, 
having  stealthily  crossed  the  Yalu  River,  struck 
advancing  U.N.  forces  in  great  strength.  The  1st 
Marine  Division  was  attacked  by  elements  of 
eight  Chinese  divisions  and  was  cut  off  from  its 
base  on  the  coast.  From  Yudam-ni,  the  point  of 
farthest  advance,  the  Marines  began  to  fight 
their  way  out  of  encirclement.  The  weather  was 
almost  as  bitter  an  enemy  as  the  Communists. 
Temperatures  ranged  around  -20°  to  -25°,  the 
ground  was  covered  with  ice  and  snow,  and 
knife-edged  winds  slashed  across  the  barren 
landscape.  Using  their  firepower  to  the  best 
advantage,  and  with  excellent  air  support  from 
Marine  and  Navy  planes,  the  division  fought  its 
way  back  to  the  coast,  bringing  its  equipment, 
and  its  wounded  and  dead  (figure  1 1-8).  Marine 
casualties  were  heavy,  but  Chinese  losses  were 
estimated  to  be  eight  times  those  of  the  Marines. 


260 


Chapter  11 -UNITED  STATES  MARINE  CORPS 


The  beginning  of  1951  found  the  1st  Marine 
Division  and  1st  Marine  Aircraft  Wing 
redeployed  to  South  Korea  and  integrated  in  the 
8th  Army  and  5th  Air  Force.  Following  a  period 
of  reorganization,  the  8th  Army  resumed  the 
offensive  in  Operations  Killer  and  Ripper,  and 
advanced  steadily  to  the  vicinity  of  the  38th 
parallel.  In  April  and  May,  the  Chinese  struck 
back  in  two  major  efforts.  They  made  some 
penetration,  but  the  8th  Army  held  firm  and 
late  in  May  went  back  on  the  offensive.  With  the 
opening  of  truce  talks,  major  offensive  action  by 
both  sides  ceased  and  the  situation  remained 
substantially  static  thereafter. 

KOREA  TO  VIETNAM 

After  Korea,  the  Marine  Corps  maintained  a 
division-wing  team  in  readiness  in  the  Far  East. 
The  division,  starting  in  August  1960,  also  kept 
a  battalion  landing  team  afloat  with  the  7th 
Fleet,  poised  for  action  at  a  moment's  notice.  A 


Marine  brigade,  composed  of  a  regiment  and  an 
aircraft  group  in  Hawaii,  provided  a  backup  to 
the  first  line  of  defense. 

The  principal  role  of  the  Corps  during  the 
period  of  cold  war  has  been  to  provide  a  force  in 
readiness  for  immediate  use  in  crisis  or  disaster 
relief  and  as  part  of  the  Strategic  Reserve. 

In  the  Mediterranean  area  Marines  have  been 
in  the  forefront  helping  to  implement  national 
policy.  As  early  as  1948,  Marine  battalions  were 
serving  afloat  with  the  6th  Fleet.  The  wisdom  of 
this  policy  first  became  evident  in  1956  during 
the  brief  war  which  pitted  Israel,  France,  and 
Britain  against  Egypt.  On  1  and  2  November  of 
that  year,  in  spite  of  the  danger  from  air  raids, 
Marines  landed  at  Alexandria,  Egypt,  to  help 
evacuate  some  1500  American  civilians  and 
other  nationals.  More  vital  to  the  safety  of  the 
free  world  was  the  landing  of  Marines  in 
Lebanon  during  July  1958.  Here  the  prompt 
deployment  of  American's  force  in  readiness 
forestalled  an  attempt  to  overthrow  the  lawful 


134.59 

Figure  11 -8.- Bitter  weather  as  well  as  elements  of  eight  Chinese  Communist  divisions  lashed  the  1st  Marine  Division 
during  its  breakout  from  the  Chosin  Reservoir  in  December  1950. 


government  and  thwarted  possible  Communist 
penetration  of  that  area. 

Marines  assigned  to  the  7th  Fleet  aided  in 
the  evacuation  of  refugees  from  North  to  South 
Vietnam  in  1954.  In  February  of  the  following 
year,  they  assisted  in  the  evacuation  of  Chinese 
Nationalist  troops  from  the  Tachen  Islands.  The 
winter  "of  1957-1958  saw  Marine  helicopters 
being  employed  in  Ceylon  to  bring  food  and 
medicine  to  those  left  destitute  by  devastating 
floods.  During  the  Chinese  Communist  threat 
against  Quemoy  in  the  fall  of  1958,  a  Marine 
aircraft  group  was  stationed  on  Taiwan  to 
bolster  the  air  defenses  of  that  vital  island.  A 
Marine  task  force  served  ashore  in  Thailand  from 
May  through  August  1962  during  the  continuing 
Laotian  crisis. 

In  the  Cuban  missile  crisis  (October- 
November  1962)  a  sizable  Marine  force  was 
deployed  to  the  Caribbean  from  east  coast 
bases,  while  a  second  force  was  lifted  by  air  and 
sea  from  the  west  coast.  Marine  photo  pilots 
attached  to  a  Navy  photographic  reconnaissance 
squadron  flew  low-level  missions  over  Cuba  that 
yielded  valuable  information  on  the  missile 
buildup. 

Marine  helicopters  began  operating  in  the 
Republic  of  Vietnam  in  April  1962,  providing 
support  and  mobility  to  the  Republic  of 
Vietnam  army  in  its  struggle  with  the 
Communist  Viet  Cong.  This  helicopter  unit  and 
its  supporting  personnel  compiled  an  enviable 
record,  both  in  the  Mekong  Delta  and  the 
mountainous  jungles  of  the  north.  At  the  same 
time,  Marine  officers  and  NCOs  served  as 
advisers  to  the  Vietnamese  Marine  Corps,  which 
quickly  became  the  elite  of  the  Vietnamese 
armed  forces.  When  the  United  States  stepped 
up  its  aid  program  to  that  country  (forming  the 
Military  Assistance  Command,  Vietnam,  as  part 
of  that  assistance)  senior  Marine  officers  served 
in  key  billets  on  the  staff  of  the  MACV.  In 
February  1965,  a  Marine  antiaircraft  unit  was 
landed  in  the  Republic  of  Vietnam  to  provide 
protection  for  the  vital  airbase  at  Da  Nang. 

Even  while  significant  numbers  of  Marines 
were  being  deployed  to  the  Republic  of 
Vietnam,  events  taking  place  nearer  home-the 
Dominican  Republic  in  the  Caribbean-also 


necessitated  Marine  participation.  In  April  1965, 
as  the  result  of  a  reported  coup  attempt  against 
the  president  of  the  triumvirate  then  running  the 
Dominican  Republic,  CINCLANTFLT  ordered 
CTG  44.9  to  move  his  amphibious  squadron  of 
ships  to  a  position  off  the  coast  of  Hispaniola, 
and  to  be  prepared  to  evacuate  some  3600 
American  citizens  and  friendly  foreign  nationals. 

By  26  April,  rebels  appeared  to  be  in  control 
of  the  streets  of  the  capital,  Santo  Domingo,  and 
the  loyal  Dominican  troops  had  been  pushed  out 
of  the  National  Palace.  The  U.S.  Embassy  was 
receiving  sporadic  sniper  fire.  On  28  April 
Dominican  police  said  they  no  longer  could 
guarantee  the  safety  of  evacuees;  as  a  result, 
more  than  1500  Marines  of  1 800  embarked  were 
sent  ashore  to  protect  the  lives  and  property  of 
American  citizens.  At  the  height  of  its 
involvement,  the  Marine  Corps  had  three 
battalions  ashore  and  one  afloat  in  reserve. 
Including  Marine  aviation  and  other  support, 
total  reinforced  troop  strength  was  about  8000; 
casualties  were  9  killed  and  30  wounded  at  the 
hands  of  Dominican  rebels.  Army  casualties 
were  about  the  same,  elements  of  the  82d 
Airborne  Division  having  arrived  on  30  April. 

Marine  forces  remained  in  the  Republic  until 
6  June  1965  when  the  Inter-American  Peace 
Force,  consisting  of  troops  from  Paraguay, 
Honduras,  Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica,  and  Brazil, 
undertook  the  task  of  restoring  peace  and 
constitutional  government  to  the  Republic. 

On  8  March  1965,  the  9th  Marine 
Expeditionary  Brigade,  under  Brigadier  General 
Frederick  J.  Karch,  landed  at  Da  Nang,  South 
Vietnam,  beginning  the  large  and  rapid  Marine 
troop  buildup  of  the  3d  Marine  Division,  the 
formation  of  III  Marine  Amphibious  Force,  the 
arrival  of  the  1st  Marine  Aircraft  Wing,  and  the 
construction  of  an  expeditionary  airfield  south 
of  Da  Nang  at  Chu  Lai. 

During  the  middle  of  August  1965,  the  7th 
Marines  fought  the  first  U.S.  regimental-size 
battle  since  Korea.  Operation  Starlight, 
conducted  on  the  Van  Tuong  peninsula  south  of 
Chu  Lai,  accounted  for  nearly  1 000  Viet  Cong 
casualties. 

The  Marines  quickly  recognized  that  a  key 
to  winning  the  "hearts  and  minds"  of  the 


262 


Chapter  11 -UNITED  STATES  MARINE  CORPS 


Vietnamese  people  and  incidently  to  cutting 
down  on  Communist  activity  was  a  pacification 
concept  which  placed  a  squad  of  U.S.  Marines 
with  each  local  village's  Popular  Force  platoon. 
The  concept,  reminiscent  of  Marine  experiences 
in  Haiti,  Santo  Domingo,  and  Nicaragua,  was 
first  tried  in  late  1965  and  continued  until  the 
Marine  withdrawal.  In  a  conflict  unfortunately 
characterized  by  protest  and  criticism  at  home, 
the  Marine  civic  action  efforts  were  nearly 
universally  praised. 

In  March  1966,  the  1st  Marine  Division 
completed  its  move  to  Vietnam;  and  during  July 
the  3d  Division  moved  north  to  Quang  Tri 
province  just  south  of  the  DMZ  (demilitarized 
zone)  for  its  first  fight  with  North  Vietnamese 
(NVA)  regulars,  Operation  Hastings.  The  move 
established  Marine  division  operating  areas  for 
the  remainder  of  the  war;  the  3d  Division 
operated  in  the  north  along  the  DMZ  and 
around  Khe  Sanh,  Dong  Ha,  Camp  Carroll,  and 
Con  Thien,  while  the  1  st  Division  was  based  to 
the  south  around  Da  Nang,  An  Hoa,  Chu  Lai, 
and  the  Hai  Van  Pass. 

The  fighting  in  1967  centered  around  the 
Khe  Sanh  hills  881  north,  881  south,  and  861 
south,  Con  Thien,  and  the  Que  Son  Valley  to 
the  south. 

During  Tet  (the  celebration  of  the 
Vietnamese  lunar  New  Year)  in  1968,  the  NVA 
launched  major  coordinated  attacks  against  both 
the  Khe  Sanh  combat  base  and  the  old  imperial 
city  of  Hue.  In  the  fierce  fighting  which 
followed,  Khe  Sanh  held  and  Hue  was 
recaptured.  The  remainder  of  1968  was 
highlighted  by  mobile  warfare  in  the  northern 
half  of  I  Corps  and  the  breaking  of  a  concerted 
attack  on  Da  Nang  in  the  south.  Operation 
Meade  River,  a  1st  Division  cordon  and  search 
operation  south  of  Da  Nang,  netted  over  1200 
enemy  prisoners. 

The  next  year  began  auspiciously  with  the 
9th  Marines'  Operation  Dewey  Canyon,  perhaps 
the  most  successful  regimental-size  operation 
conducted  by  the  3d  Marine  Division.  A 
Communist  attack  on  Da  Nang  during  Tet  in 
February  fizzled  in  3  days.  The  year  also  marked 
the  beginning  of  Marine  withdrawals.  By 
October,  the  3d  Marine  Division  and  elements  of 


the  1st  Marine  Aircraft  Wing  had  left  Vietnam. 
Withdrawals  continued  during  the  next  year  and 
into  1971,  and  on  26  June  of  that  year  the  last 
Marine  combat  units  departed  Vietnam.  Marine 
advisors  stayed  with  their  Vietnamese 
counterparts  through  the  NVA  1972  Easter 
offensive  until  the  cease-fire  in  January  1973. 
The  war  had  cost  the  Marine  Corps  over  100,000 
casualties. 

Marines  returned  to  Southeast  Asia  in  1975 
for  the  evacuation  of  Saigon,  took  part  in  the 
evacuation  of  Pnom  Penh,  and  recaptured  the 
container  ship  SS  Mayaquez  from  Cambodian 
forces. 

On  10  November  1975,  Marines  around  the 
world  celebrated  the  200th  birthday  of  their 
Corps. 


The  Marine  Corps  stands  ready  to  carry  out 
a  wide  variety  of  missions  assigned  by  higher 
authority.  First  among  them  is  preparation  for 
and  execution  of  assault  amphibious  operations. 
Other  missions  include  service  afloat,  security  of 
naval  installations  and  diplomatic  missions, 
airborne  operations  as  required,  training  of 
foreign  military  forces,  and  support  of  other 
services  as  necessary  in  carrying  out  their 
missions.  The  legal  authority  for  Marine  Corps 
missions  is  the  National  Security  Act  of  1947, 
codified  in  Title  1 0,  United  States  Code. 

Figure  11-1,  which  shows  the  general 
organization  of  the  Marine  Corps,  does  not 
delineate  the  specific  command  structure. 

FLEET  MARINE  FORCE 

The  Fleet  Marine  Force  (FMF),  which  has 
been  in  existence  since  1933,  comprises  the 
main  fighting  strength  of  Marines  assigned  to  the 
Operating  Forces  of  the  Navy.  The  FMF 
includes  all  air  and  ground  tactical  units  of  the 
Marine  Corps.  It  is  organized  into  two  type 
commands,  designated  Fleet  Marine  Force 
Atlantic  and  Fleet  Marine  Force  Pacific. 

The  type  commands  are  organized  into 
air-ground  task  forces  combining  all  air  and 


263 


ground  arms  in  powerful,  fully  mobile  striking 
forces,  each  under  a  single  commander.  These 
forces  may  be  built  around  units  as  small  as 
battalions  and  air  squadrons,  or  may  be  large 
enough  to  include  a  division  and  air  wing  team. 

The  primary  mission  of  the  FMF  is  to 
conduct  oversea  amphibious  operations  for  the 
seizure  and  defense  of  advanced  bases  as  part  of 
a  naval  campaign.  The  nature  of  this  mission 
therefore  requires  that  it  be  kept  in  a  very  high 
state  of  readiness  for  employment,  and  that  all 
its  units-which  include  infantry,  artillery, 
armor,  communications,  engineer,  and  logistic 
troops,  as  well  as  aviation  organizations  to 
provide  air  support— be  completely  mobile.  One 
Marine  base  on  each  coast  is  set  aside  as  the 
point  at  which  the  bulk  of  FMF  ground  units  for 
the  fleet  in  question  is  concentrated  just  as  one 
Marine  Corps  air  station,  similarly  located, 
affords  a  home  station  on  each  coast  for  FMF 
air  units. 

Because  of  its  completely  self-supporting 
character— even  to  possession  of  its  own 
tailormade,  tactical  air  force— the  FMF  presents 
a  working  example  of  unification  of  all  arms  and 
branches,  and  can  perform  virtually  any  military 
mission  ashore,  including  extensive  land  warfare 
such  as  in  Korea  and  Vietnam. 

Marine  Division 

The  Marine  division  is  the  basic  Marine 
Corps  ground  organization  of  combined  arms 
and  services  capable  of  sustained  combat.  A 
division  consists  of  three  infantry  regiments;  an 
artillery  regiment;  a  division  support  group  with 
shore  party,  service,  motor  transport,  and 
engineer  capabilities;  a  headquarters  battalion; 
and  a  reconnaissance  battalion.  Each  infantry 
regiment  is  composed  of  three  infantry 
battalions.  A  battalion,  the  basic  tactical  unit  of 
the  division,  contains  four  rifle  companies  and  a 
headquarters/service  company.  Companies  are 
further  divided  into  weapons  platoons/squads/ 
teams. 

Marine  Air  Wing 

The  Marine  air  wing  (MAW)  is  a  task 
organization  consisting  of  two  or  more  aircraft 


groups  plus  headquarters  and  service  units.  Each 
group  is  made  up  of  two  or  more  tactical 
squadrons  (the  basic  aviation  unit)  in  addition  to 
a  headquarters  and  service  squadron.  In  practice, 
a  wing  normally  includes  three  groups,  each  of 
which  contains  four  squadrons.  A  variety  of 
fighter,  attack,  reconnaissance,  transport,  rotary 
wing,  and  light  antiair  missiles  may  be  found  in 
each  wing.  Depending  on  the  model  of  aircraft 
assigned,  a  squadron  will  have  from  12  to  20 
aircraft. 

Force  Troops/Force  Service 
Support  Group  (FSSG) 

The  force  troops/FSSG  maintained  by  each 
FMF  comprise  a  reservoir  of  additional 
manpower  available  for  support  of  (but  not 
organic  to)  a  division  or  air  wing  that  is  to 
conduct  extended  operations.  Force 
troops/FSSG  include  service  and  service  support 
organizations  for  prolonged  logistic  and  combat 
support  to  include  motor  transport,  engineer, 
maintenance,  medical,  and  dental  units  as  well  as 
a  field  artillery  group,  a  tank  battalion, 
amphibian  battalion,  and  others. 

MARINE  CORPS  RESERVE 

Ready  to  increase  the  combat  strength  of 
the  Marine  Corps  by  one-third  in  a  matter  of 
weeks  is  the  4th  Marine  Division/Wing  team  of 
the  Organized  Marine  Corps  Reserve.  This  force 
is  organized,  equipped,  and  trained  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  regular  Fleet  Marine  Forces.  Also 
in  the  Organized  Reserve  are  companies  to 
provide  personnel  augmentation  and  force  troop 
units. 

The  Organized  Reserve  totals  nearly  30,000 
personnel  in  both  ground  and  aviation  units. 
Also  in  the  Ready  Reserve,  not  in  units,  are  over 
57,000  additional  officers  and  enlisted  personnel 
who  also  are  trained  and  prepared  for  quick 
response. 

The  Commandant  has  stated  that  he  plans  to 
call  the  Marine  Corps  Reserve  only  when  regular 
forces  are  committed.  Necessarily  then,  the 
Reserve  must  be  ready  to  respond  in  a  matter  of 
weeks.  The  training  program  reflects  this 
Reserve  responsibility  with  combat-realistic 


264 


air-ground  training  1  weekend  a  month  and  2 
weeks  each  summer.  During  the  latter,  reserve 
and  regular  units  train  together  and  frequently 
join  forces  in  exercises  which  duplicate,  insofar 
as  possible,  their  indistinguishable  roles  in 
combat. 

WOMEN  MARINES 

During  World  War  I,  305  women  reservists, 
or  "Marinettes,"  served  in  clerical  jobs  in  order 
to  free  male  Marines  to  fight  in  France.  In 
February  1943,  the  Marine  Corps  again  called 
for  women  to  release  men  for  combat.  By  June 
1944,  the  authorized  quota  of  18,000  enlisted 
had  been  met  and  approximately  800  officers 
trained  and  assigned. 

Unlike  World  War  I  women  marines,  the 
World  War  II  women  reservists  performed  over 
200  different  military  assignments  at  every 
major  post  and  station  in  the  United  States  and 
Hawaii.  By  July  1946,  all  women  reservists 
became  eligible  for  discharge.  They  had 
performed  well  in  answering  the  Corps'  call  to 
"Free  a  man  to  fight." 

By  Act  of  Congress  of  12  June  1948, 
authority  was  given  to  enlist  women  in  the 
regular  Marine  Corps.  Soon  thereafter  a  woman's 
officer  training  detachment  was  set  up  at 
Quantico,  and  the  3rd  Recruit  Training 
Battalion  was  activated  at  Parris  Island  for  the 
training  of  enlisted  women. 

Today  women  marines  serve  in  almost  all  the 
noncombat  fields,  but  they  are  found  most 
often  in  personnel  administration,  informational 
services,  automatic  data  processing,  Marine 
Corps  exchange,  aviation,  supply,  and 
disbursing.  An  integral  part  of  the  regular  Marine 
Corps  team,  they  provide  a  nucleus  which  could 
be  expanded  rapidly  in  the  event  of 
mobilization. 

MARINE  CORPS 
EQUIPMENT 

Heavy  equipment  of  the  Corps  includes 
tanks,  amphibians,  artillery  pieces,  missiles,  and 
aircraft. 


Tanks 

There  is  a  single  model  tank  in  use  in  the 
Marine  Corps,  the  M-60  medium  tank.  Its 
armament  consists  of  a  105-mrn  (1  inch  equals 
approximately  25.50  millimeters)  gun,  a 
7.62-mm  machinegun,  and  a  .50-caliber 
machinegun.  The  M-60  tank  weighs  53  tons  and 
can  travel  30  mph,  climb  60%  grades,  scale 
3-foot-high  obstacles,  ford  8-foot-deep  streams 
(this  capability  is  provided  by  a  special  kit),  and 
cross  8-1  /2  foot  ditches. 

Amphibian  Vehicles 

The  current  amphibian  vehicle  used  by  the 
Marine  Corps  is  the  LVTP-7  (landing  vehicle, 
tracked,  personnel).  It  can  carry  25  combat 
equipped  Marines  or  5  tons  of  supplies  in  the 
amphibious  assault.  Waterborne  speed  is  8.4 
knots.  Ashore  it  can  travel  40  mph,  climb  60% 
grades,  surmount  3-foot-high  obstacles,  and 
traverse  8-foot- wide  ditches. 

Other  versions  of  the  assault  amphibian 
include  the  LVTC-7  (command),  which  has  the 
necessary  electronic  equipment  installed  to 
provide  command  and  control  during 
ship-to-shore  and  subsequent  operations,  and  the 
LVTR-7  (recovery),  which  provides  mobile 
repair  and  retrieval  facilities  for  disabled 
vehicles. 

Artillery 

Artillery  pieces  of  the  Marine  Corps  consist 
of  towed  and  self-propelled  howitzers,  and 
self-propelled  guns. 

The  standard  artillery  piece  is  the  105-mm 
towed  howitzer.  Mounted  on  a  wheeled  carriage, 
it  fires  a  33-pound  high-explosive  (HE)  shell  to 
an  effective  range  of  1 1 ,400  meters.  It  also  can 
fire  white  phosphorus,  illumination,  smoke,  and 
"beehive"  rounds  (a  beehive  is  composed  of  tiny 
darts  used  for  repelling  human-wave  attacks). 

Mounted  on  a  tanklike  body  propelled  by 
tracks,  the  155-mm  self-propelled  howitzer  fires 
a  97-pound  HE  shell  to  an  effective  range  of 
14,000  meters. 

The  155-mm  towed  howitzer  is  the  heaviest 
helo-transportable  artillery  piece  in  the  Corps.  Its 
ability  to  go  where  the  self-propelled  version 


265 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


cannot  was  the  reason  for  its  retrieval  from 
mothballs  during  the  Vietnam  Conflict  and  for 
its  continued  survival  today. 

The  8-inch  self-propelled  howitzer,  probably 
the  Corps'  most  accurate  artillery  piece,  fires  a 
200-pound  HE  round  to  an  effective  range  of 
about  16,000  meters.  Classed  as  heavy  artillery, 
this  weapon  is  not  included  in  artillery 
regimental  organization.  It  is  deployed  by  force 
troops  as  required. 

Currently  the  longest  ranging  artillery  piece 
used  by  the  Marine  Corps  is  the  175-mm  gun. 
Employing  the  same  carriage  as  the  8-inch 
howitzer,  the  175-mm  gun  fires  a  147-pound  HE 
shell  to  an  effective  range  of  nearly  33,000 
meters. 

Missiles 

In  addition  to  conventional  weapons, 
Marines  utilize  surface-to-air  missiles  to  defend 


ground  forces  from  low-level  air  attack  (figure 
11-9). 

Aircraft 

In  addition  to  helicopters,  Marine  aircraft 
units  include  attack  (VMA),  all-weather  attack 
(VMA(AW)),  fighter  (VMF),  fighter/attack 
(VMFA),  photo  reconnaissance  (VMFP), 
electronic  countermeasures  (VMAQ),  transport 
(VMR),  observation  (VMO),  and  aerial  refueler 
transport  (VMGR)  squadrons.  A  number  of 
aircraft  flown  by  the  Corps  are  shown  in  figure 
1 1-1-0. 


OFFICER  PROCUREMENT 

The  Marine  Corps  has  officer  procurement 
programs  similar  to  those  of  the  Navy.  They  are 
based  on  provisions  of  Federal  statutes  as 


Figure  11-9.-ln  addition  to  conventional  weapons.  Marines  use  surface-to-air  missiles  for  ground  defense. 


134.150 


Chapter  11 -UNITED  STATES  MARINE  CORPS 


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NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


implemented  by  instructions  issued  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  and  the  Commandant  of 
the  Marine  Corps.  Candidates  for  appointment 
to  commissioned  grade  in  the  Marine  Corps  and 
Marine  Corps  Reserve  must  be  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  and  they  must  be  mentally, 
morally,  physically,  and  professionally  qualified. 
They  must  be  at  least  20  years  of  age  and, 
depending  on  the  program,  not  over  30  years  of 
age  (exclusive  of  limited-duty  officers  and 
warrant  officers).  Appointments  are  made  in 
such  numbers,  within  the  limitation  imposed  by 
law,  as  may  be  prescribed  by  the  Commandant 
of  the  Marine  Corps  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
Corps. 

NAVAL  ACADEMY 

The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  allots  to  the 
regular  Marine  Corps  each  year  a  quota  (16-2/3% 
at  present)  from  the  current  graduating  class  of 
the  Naval  Academy.  This  quota  is  filled  by  the 
appointment,  upon  graduation,  of  members  of 
the  class  whose  applications  for  commissions  in 
the  Marine  Corps  are  submitted  to  and  approved 
by  the  Superintendent  of  the  Naval  Academy. 
Preference  for  appointment  is  given  to 
applicants  who  were  formerly  enlisted  in  the 
Marine  Corps  or  Marine  Corps  Reserve,  and  to 
those  who  are  sons  or  daughters  of  career 
Marines. 

NROTC 

For  a  general  discussion  of  the  NROTC 
program,  see  chapter  3.  In  brief,  at  the  beginning 
of  his  sophomore  year,  a  selected  NROTC 
midshipman  may  elect  the  Marine  Option  and 
pursue  specialized  courses  during  his  last  2  years. 
Between  his  third  and  fourth  years,  Marine 
Options  attend  training  at  Officer  Candidate 
School,  Quantico,  Va.  Upon  successful 
completion  of  the  course  of  study,  Naval 
Science  courses,  and  the  training  at  OCS,  the 
midshipman  is  appointed  a  second  lieutenant  in 
the  Marine  Corps  or  Marine  Corps  Reserve. 

PLATOON  LEADERS  PROGRAM 

The  Platoon  Leaders  Program  is  a  Marine 
Corps  officer  program  for  college  students 


attending  regionally  accredited  colleges  who, 
upon  successful  completion  of  all  requirements, 
are  commissioned  as  second  lieutenants  in  the 
Marine  Corps  Reserve. 

FORMER  REGULAR  OFFICERS 

A  former  officer  of  the  Marine  Corps  who 
resigned  while  in  good  standing  may,  if  he  meets 
certain  qualifications,  be  reappointed.  Such  an 
officer  must  be  of  an  age  that  will  allow  him  to 
complete  30  years  of  service  before  he  becomes 
62  years  of  age. 

ENLISTED  COMMISSIONING 
PROGRAM 

A  noncommissioned  officer  of  the  Marine 
Corps  whose  service  has  been  meritorious  may 
be  appointed  to  commissioned  grade  in  the 
Marine  Corps  Reserve,  if  he  is  serving  in  the 
Corps,  is  recommended  by  his  commanding 
officer,  and  has  established  his  mental  fitness  by 
attaining  an  educational  level  prescribed  by  the 
Commandant  of  the  Marine  Corps. 

WARRANT  OFFICER 


Sergeants  and  above  with  a  minimum  of  5 
and  a  maximum  of  12  years  enlisted  service  may 
apply  for  appointment  to  the  grade  of  warrant 
officer,  W-l,  in  the  Marine  Corps  and  Marine 
Corps  Reserve.  Selections  provide  for 
advancement  to  warrant  rank  in  certain 
administrative  and  technical  fields  for  Marines 
who  display  exceptional  proficiency  and 
leadership  potential. 

LIMITED-DUTY  OFFICERS 

A  permanent  male  warrant  officer,  W-2 
through  W-4,  may  be  appointed  to 
commissioned  grade  for  limited  duty  in  a 
technical  field  in  which  he  is  proficient, 
provided  he  has  completed  at  least  10  and  not 
more  than  20  years  of  active  service,  and  has  not 
reached  his  43d  birthday. 


268 


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134.63 

Figure    11-11.— Basic    School    at    Quantico,    Virginia,    teaches    new    lieutenants    tactics,   weapons,  and    leadership. 
Approximately  half  the  training  time  is  spent  in  the  field,  learning  combat  techniques  such  as  crossing  rope  bridges. 


NESEP 

The  Navy  Enlisted  Scientific  Education 
Program  is  a  4-year  course  of  study  in 
engineering,  mathematics,  or  the  physical 


sciences  at  selected  universities.  It  is  open  to  all 
enlisted  Marines  on  active  duty  who  have 
completed  recruit  training.  To  be  selected,  the 
Marine  must  pass  a  competitive  examination  and 
be  recommended  by  his  commanding  officer. 


269 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


During  the  course  of  study  he  draws  the  pay  and 
allowances  of  his  grade;  his  book  expenses, 
tuition,  and  fees  are  paid  by  the  Marine  Corps. 
The  Marine  must  successfully  pass  a  10-week 
training  course  at  OCS,  Quantico,  Va.,  normally 
between  his  sophomore  and  junior  years.  Upon 
receipt  of  his  baccalaureate  degree  the  Marine  is 
appointed  a  second  lieutenant,  U.S.  Marine 
Corps. 


OFFICER  TRAINING 

The  Marine  Corps  schools  at  Quantico,  Va., 
are  the  principal  media  through  which  Marine 
officers  receive  their  education.  Established  in 
the  District  of  Columbia  in  1891  as  a  School  of 
Application  for  second  lieutenants,  it  was 
reorganized  followmg  World  War  I  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  modern  warfare. 

©wring  World  War  II,  Marine  training 
facilities  were  expanded  tremendously.  But  soon 
after  the  close  of  hostilities,  the  Marine  Corps 
schools,  which  had  trained  34,000  officers  in 
wartime, .  were  reorganized  to  provide  formal 
ppefessioRal  education  similar  to  that  offered  in 
the  prewar. period. 

Upon  .entry  into  the  Marine  Corps,  all 
second  lieutenants,  are  sent  to  Basic  School 
(figure  11-11  and  11-12)  for  indoctrination  and 
instruction  HI  fundamental  military  subjects. 
Emphasis  is  placed  ori  in&vidaial  and  crew-served 
weapons,  with  study  of  marksmanship  and 
technique  of  fire;  on  small-unit  tactics;  on  basic 
administration  and  -naval  law;  and  on  small-unit 
leadership.  After  graduation  from  Basic  School, 
the  young  officer  is  normally  assigned  to  duty  in 
a  unit  of  the  Fleet  Marine  Force,  a  post  or 
station,  or  a  detachment  aboard  ship,  where  he 
gains  practical  experience.  Depending  upon 
jlferine  Corps  requirements,  some  graduates  may 
be  assigned  directly  to  a  specialist  school  for  a 
.course  of  formal  mstructioa. 

Specialist  schools  include  the 
Communication  Officers  School  and  the  Data 
Systems  School,  which  are  located  in  Quantico. 
For  training  in  the  specialist  fields  not 
represented  in  the  Marine  Corps  schools  system, 
personnel  are  sent  to  appropriate  Army  and 
Navy  schools.  There  is  also  an  extension  division 
which  offers  correspondence  courses  for  Marine 


YEARS 
SERVICE  RANK 


134.65 

Figure   11-12.— General  assignment  pattern  for  Marine 
Corps  officers. 


Corps  Regulars  and  Reserves,  enabling  them  to 
pursue  their  military  education  even  though 
they  may  not  be  able  to  attend  resident  classes. 

As  the  officer  rounds  out  8  years  of  service, 
he  becomes  eligible  for  assignment  to  the 
Amphibious  Warfare  School  conducted  by  the 
Marine  Corps  schools  in  Quantico.  Here  he 
undergoes  9  months  of  intensive  instruction  on 
the  battalion  and  regimental  level,  directed 
toward  the  training  of  captains  and  majors  for 
command  and  staff  duties  within  a  regimental 
combat  team  or  an  air  group  of  a  Fleet  Marine 
Force.  Particular  emphasis  is  placed  on  the 
coordinate  employment  of  air,  naval,  and 
ground  elements  in  amphibious  operations. 

When  the  officer  has  accumulated 
approximately  14  years'  service,  he  becomes 
eligible  for  assignment  to  the  Marine  Corps 
Command  and  Staff  College.  The  purpose  of  this 
course  is  to  train  officers  in  staff  and  command 
duties  at  the  division  and  corps  level.  The  course 
extends  over  a  period  of  9  months  and  includes 
a  generous  leavening  of  practical  field  work. 

Through  this  training  system  the  Marine 
Corps  officer  is  afforded  a  progressive, 


Chapter  11 -UNITED  STATES  MARINE  CORPS 


professional  military  education  that  extends 
over  20  years.  In  addition  to  those  schools 
maintained  by  the  Marine  Corps  itself,  the 
officer  may  attend  other  high-level  and  top-level 
schools  such  as  the  Armed  Forces  Staff  College, 
the  Naval  War  College,  and  the  National  War 
College. 

USEFUL  PUBLICATIONS 

Soldiers  of  the  Sea:  the  United  States  Marine 
Corps.  Heinl,  Robert  D.,  Jr.,  Annapolis: 
United  States  Naval  Institute 


The  U.S.  Marines  and  Amphibious  War.  Isely, 
Jeter  A.  and  Philip  H.  Crowl 

History  of  Marine  Corps  Aviation  in  World 
War  II.  Sherrod,  Robert 

History  of  U.S.  Marine  Corps  Operations  in 
World  War  II  and  U.S.  Marine  Operations  in 
Korea.  (Headquarters,  USMC,  historical 
monographs) 

The  United  States  Marines,  1775-1975. 
Simmons,  Edwin  H.  The  Viking  Press,  N.Y. 


CHAPTER  12 


THE  NAVAL  RESERVE 


The  size,  composition,  and  deployment 
requirements  of  the  military  forces  at  any  given 
time  depend  on  this  Nation's  posture  and  goals 
in  a  constantly  changing  world.  It  is 
economically  unsound  to  maintain  an  optimum 
active  military  force  capable  of  handling  all 
contingencies  which  might  arise.  Federal  law, 
therefore,  establishes  within  each  armed  service 
a  reserve  component  to  provide  trained  units 
and  individuals  in  sufficient  number  to  meet 
immediate  mobilization  needs  of  the  service 
until  stepped-up  procurement  and  training 
programs  can  fulfill  all  further  mobilization 
requirements. 

The  first  utilization  of  a  reserve  source  of 
naval  manpower  took  place  in  1888  when 
Massachusetts  organized  a  naval  battalion  as  part 
of  the  state  militia.  By  1897,  16  states  had 
organized  naval  units  as  part  of  their  state 
militia.  Officers  and  men  from  these 
organizations  served  with  the  Regular  Navy 
during  the  Spanish  American  War. 

State  militia  organizations  looked  to  the 
Federal  Government  for  certain  logistic  support. 
The  Government  was  encouraged  by  this  to 
exercise  an  initial  hegemony  which  became 
absolute  in  March  1915  when  Congress  approved 
legislation  establishing  a  Federal  Naval  Reserve. 
Although  an  Office  of  Naval  Militia  was  set  up  in 
the  Navy  Department  as  far  back  as  1891,  the 
Naval  Reserve  did  not  come  into  being  until 
World  War  I. 

At  the  end  of  World  War  I,  there  were 
330,000  Naval  Reserve  officers  and  personnel  on 
active  duty.  By  the  end  of  World  War  II,  over 
three-fourths  of  the  3,220,000  persons  on  active 
duty  in  the  Navy  were  members  of  the  Naval 
Reserve. 

By  law  the  total  Ready  Reserve  of  the 
Armed  Forces  may  not  exceed  2,900,000 


officers  and  personnel.  Within  this  total,  the 
Navy  is  authorized  a  Ready  Reserve  of  530,000. 
Presidential  authority  for  involuntary  recall  also 
is  limited  by  law,  however,  to  'a  total  of 
1,000,000,  of  which  approximately  252,000 
may  be  called  from  the  Ready  Reserve  of  the 
Navy. 

The  primary  mission  of  the  Naval  Reserve  is 
to  provide  trained  units  and  individuals  available 
for  active  duty  in  time  of  war,  national 
emergency,  or  when  otherwise  authorized  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  Navy  which 
exceed  the  strength  and  capability  of  the  active 
force.  Its  secondary  mission  is  to  assist  the  active 
force  in  accomplishing  its  peacetime  mission  as  a 
byproduct  or  adjunct  of  training. 

The  Navy's  early  mobilization  requirements 
are  many:  additional  ships;  aircraft  and  special 
units  must  be  added  to  the  active  forces 
immediately;  peacetime  personnel  strength  must 
be  increased  to  wartime  complement;  fleet 
support  and  shorebased  activities  must  be 
augmented;  newly  procured  officers  and  enlisted 
personnel  must  be  indoctrinated  and  trained.  In 
some  instances,  (e.g.,  minesweepers,  riverine 
warfare,  mobile  inshore  undersea  warfare) 
virtually  the  entire  mission  capability  of  the 
Navy  is  maintained  by  the  reserve  forces. 

Although  the  ships  of  the  Nation's  reserve 
fleet  may  be  reactivated,  the  time  required  to  do 
so  makes  this  resource  available  only  over  a 
much  greater  period  of  time  when  considering 
early  mobilization  requirements. 


TOTAL  FORCE  POLICY 

The  total  force  includes  all  the  resources 
available  to  perform  the  national  defense 
missions.  It  includes  the  active  and  reserve 


T7"> 


Chapter  12-THE  NAVAL  RESERVE 


(National  Guard  and  Reserve)  component 
forces,  civilian  and,  in  some  contingency  plans, 
appropriate  forces  of  our  allies. 

The  total  force  within  the  Navy  embraces  all 
assets  including  active  duty  members,  ships  and 
aircraft  that  make  up  the  fleet,  and  the  reserve 
force  and  hardware  that  will  be  called  upon  to 
augment  the  fleet  and  shore  establishments  in 
time  of  national  emergency  or  contingency.  As  a 
result,  Naval  Reserve  strength  is  directly  related 
to  the  inventory  of  ships,  aircraft,  and  support 
equipment  and  is  fully  integrated  into  force 
strength  planning.  Reservists  are  full  partners  in 
the  naval  establishment  with  a  militarily 
meaningful  role  to  whom  the  active  Navy  can 
turn  quickly  for  added  manpower  and  hardware. 
Each  individual  reservist  has  the  opportunity  to 
make  a  real  contribution  to  the  Navy's  mission. 


RESERVE  MANPOWER 
CATEGORIES 

'Reservists  are  assigned  to  one  of  the 
following  categories  which  define  both  their 
situation  regarding  training  and  their  liability 
for  call  to  active  duty:  Ready  Reserve, 
Standby  Reserve,  or  Retired  Reserve.  Some 
reservists  are  required  by  law  to  participate  in 
training  programs  while  others  do  so  on  a 
voluntary  billet-availability  basis. 


MILITARY  OBLIGATIONS 
FOR  RESERVISTS 

Those  men  and  women  who  volunteer  for 
military  service  in  the  Naval  Reserve  assume  a 
6-year  military  obligation.  This  obligation  may 
be  fulfilled  on  either  active  or  inactive  duty  or 
may  be  divided  between  the  two.  The  exact 
combination  of  active  duty  and  inactive  duty 
depends  upon  the  plan  under  which  the 
individual  entered  the  Navy. 

Current  enlistment  programs  call  for  a 
specified  period  of  active  duty  with  the 
remainder  of  the  6-year  obligation  served  in  a 
reserve  status.  One  example  of  these  enlistment 
programs  is  the  Active  Mariner  (3  years  active 
duty  followed  by  three  years  reserve  obligation). 


Except  for  the  Ready  Mariner  Program  which 
provides  for  a  period  of  4  to  10  months  active 
duty  for  training  (ACDUTRA)  with  the  remain- 
ing time  on  inactive  duty,  the  minimum  active 
duty  requirement  for  enlisted  naval  reservists  is  3 
years.  Other  programs  permit  enlistment  for 
varying  periods  of  required  active  duty, 
assignment  to  an  advanced  pay  grade  or  give 
credit  for  prior  service. 

Enlisted  personnel,  USN  or  USNR,  released 
from  active  duty  prior  to  completion  of  6  years' 
service  normally  are  transferred  to  the  Ready 
Reserve.  Personnel  who  have  served  on  active 
duty  for  at  least  five  years,  or  a  combination  of 
active  duty  and  satisfactory  participation  in  the 
Ready  Reserve  for  a  total  of  5  years,  are 
authorized  by  law  to  be  transferred  at  their 
request  to  the  Standby  Reserve  for  the 
remainder  of  their  6-year  obligation.  Regular 
Navy  officers  released  from  active  duty  must 
accept  a  USNR  commission  if  they  wish  to 
participate  in  the  reserve  program. 

Those  individuals  who  have  completed  their 
obligated  service  may  continue  to  maintain  a 
voluntary  affiliation  and  it  is  from  this  source 
that  the  Naval  Reserve  obtains  most  of  its  senior 
personnel. 


THE  CAREER  RESERVIST 

Several  factors  generally  motivate  the  officer 
or  enlisted  member  of  the  Naval  Reserve  to 
participate  in  the  reserve  program.  One  of  these, 
the  satisfaction  of  the  military  obligation,  has 
been  mentioned.  Others  are  promotion,  pay  and 
retirement  benefits.  Some  reservists  continue 
their  participation  only  for  the  purpose  of 
maintaining  their  military  readiness  and  involve- 
ment with  the  Navy. 

It  is  the  policy  of  the  Chief  of  Naval  Reserve 
to  ensure  that  the  best  qualified  individuals  are 
assigned  to  drill  pay  billets.  They  are  assigned  to 
these  billets  on  the  basis  of  rate,  rating,  Navy 
Enlisted  Classification  (NEC)  code  number,  rank 
and  Naval  Officers  Billet  Code  requirements. 
This  is  an  important  policy  in  the  development 
of  the  high  state  of  readiness  required  in  the 
Naval  Reserve. 

The  enlisted  reservist  studies,  in  general,  the 
same  materials  for  advancement  as  the 


counterpart  on  active  duty.  Like  the  member  on 
active  duty,  the  reservist  must  meet  specific 
requirements  for  promotion  which  include 
commanding  officer's  recommendation  and 
attainment  of  a  satisfactory  score  on  an 
appropriate  examination.  Actual  advancement 
to  the  next  higher  rate  is  determined  by  the 
needs  of  the  Navy  and  is  not  automatic.  He/she 
prepares  for  the  examination  through 
participation  in  unit  drills,  by  taking  Navy 
enlisted  nonresident  career  courses,  and  by 
acquiring  knowledge  and  skills  on  Annual  Active 
Duty  for  Training  (ACDUTRA). 

A  reserve  officer  must  be  in  an  active  status 
to  be  eligible  for  consideration  for  promotion. 
The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  has  prescribed  that  a 
minimum  of  12  points  must  be  earned  each  year 
for  an  officer  to  be  eligible  for  retention  in  an 
active  status.  The  12-point  rule  applies  only  to 
those  inactive  duty  officers  who  have  not 
attained  retirement  eligibility.  Current  directives 
require  that  such  officers  who  have  20  or  more 
years  of  qualifying  service  shall  maintain  50 
points  each  year  in  order  to  remain  in  an  active 
status.  These  points  are  retirement  points  and 
are  earned  and  credited  in  the  manner  prescribed 
for  retirement  based  on  nonactive  service. 
Retirement  points  may  be  earned  through 
participation  in  a  reserve  unit,  performance 
of  ACDUTRA  and/or  completion  of  corre- 
spondence courses. 

Reservists  on  inactive  duty  participate  in 
either  pay  or  non-pay  programs.  In  general,  the 
Selected  Reserve  comprises  the  pay  programs. 
The  unit  to  which  a  reservist  is  assigned 
identifies  the  individual  as  a  pay  or  non-pay 
participant  and  determines  the  ACDUTRA 
obligations. 


NAVAL  RESERVE 
ADMINISTRATION 

CHIEF  OF 
NAVAL  RESERVE 

Since  1973  the  surface  and  air  communities 
of  the  Naval  Reserve  have  been  consolidated 
into  a  single  command  under  the  Chief  of  Naval 


Reserve  (CNAVRES),  a  vice  admiral,  with 
headquarters  at  New  Orleans,  Louisiana.  The 
Chief  of  Naval  Reserve  is  responsible  for  reserve 
readiness  and  mobilization  training.  He  is  the 
manager  of  all  resources-manpower,  money  and 
materials-within  the  Naval  Reserve. 
Concurrently,  the  Chief  of  Naval  Reserve  is  also 
the  Director  of  Naval  Reserve  in  the  Office  of 
the  Chief  of  Naval  Operations  (CNO).  As  such, 
he  is  the  principal  advisor  to  the  CNO  on  reserve 
matters,  responsible  for  establishing  and 
justifying  reserve  funds  appropriated  by 
Congress  for  operations,  maintenance  and 
construction,  and  for  the  development  of  Naval 
Reserve  plans,  policies  and  programs.  Thus, 
responsibility  for  the  Naval  Reserve  is  centered 
at  the  highest  level  within  the  Navy.  CNAVRES 
also  sponsors  a  recruiting  program  but  its 
primary  objective  is  the  reenlistment  of  the 
veteran. 

COMMANDER  NAVAL 
AIR  RESERVE  FORCE 

The  Naval  Air  Reserve  Force 
(NAVAIRESFOR)  is  an  operational  command 
composed  of  the  aviation  squadrons  of  the  Naval 
Air  Reserve  assigned  to  the  Chief  of  Naval 
Reserve.  NAVAIRESFOR  commander  is  a  flag 
officer  and  a  designated  aviator.  The 
Commander  NAVAIRESFOR  is  normally  the 
Chief  of  Naval  Reserve  or  the  Deputy  Chief  of 
Naval  Reserve. 

ASSISTANT  CHIEF  OF  STAFF 
FOR  SURFACE  PROGRAMS 

The  Assistant  Chief  of  Staff  for  Surface 
Programs  is  responsible  for  Naval  Reserve 
training  and  readiness  afloat  and  ashore. 
Working  through  the  Naval  Reserve  Readiness 
Commands  and  coordinating  with  Chief  of  Naval 
Education  and  Training  (CNET)  and  other 
commands  concerned  with  the  readiness  of  the 
reserve,  he  directs  and  supervises  the  state  of 
readiness,  training,  and  administration  of  the 
selected  reserve  and  other  participating  reservists 
associated  with  the  surface  program  of  the  Naval 
Reserve. 


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Chapter  12-THE  NAVAL  RESERVE 


ASSISTANT  CHIEF  OF 
STAFF  FOR  AIR  PROGRAMS 

The  Assistant  Chief  of  Staff  for  Air 
Programs  advises  and  assists  the  Commander 
Naval  Air  Reserve  Force  in  all  matters  involving 
the  Naval  Air  Reserve  Program.  He  is  responsible 
for  maintaining  assigned  personnel,  aircraft  and 
associated  equipment  in  a  state  of  combat 
readiness  and  availability  to  permit  immediate 
and  effective  employment  in  the  event  of  full  or 
partial  mobilization.  In  addition  to  the  aviation 
programs,  he  is  responsible  for  the  Naval  Reserve 
Intelligence  Program. 

NAVAL  RESERVE 
READINESS  COMMANDS 

Naval  Reserve  Readiness  Commands 
(NAVRESREDCOM)  provide  optimum 
management  of  assigned  Naval  Reserve  units  and 
increase  the  training  readiness  of  Naval  Reserve 
units  and  individuals.  The  continental  United 
States  is  divided  into  16  geographical  Naval 
Reserve  Readiness  Command  areas.  Each 
readiness  commander  is  responsible  for  the 
Naval  Reserve  Surface  Program  units  within  a 
designated  area  and  reports  to  CNAVRES. 
NAVRESREDCOM  tasks  and  functions  are 
assigned  by  the  Chief  of  Naval  Operations  and 
the  Chief  of  Naval  Reserve.  The  mission  of  the 
Naval  Reserve  Readiness  Commander  is  to 
command  assigned  Naval  Reserve  units  and 
direct  their  prescribed  programs  to  assure  unit 
mobilization  readiness. 

RESERVE  UNIT  COMMANDERS 
AND  COMMANDING  OFFICERS 

Each  Naval  Reserve  unit  is  administered  by  a 
:ommander  or  commanding  officer  in 
iccordance  with  the  instructions  of  CNAVRES. 
Commanding  officers  of  the  Naval  Air  Reserve 
squadrons  receive  base  and  administrative 
support  from  the  commanding  officers  of  host 
SJaval  Air  Stations,  Facilities,  Units  and 
Detachments.  In  the  Surface  Program,  unit 
:ommanding  officers  receive  support/ 
coordination  assistance  from  the  commanding 


officers  of  the  Naval   Reserve  Center/Facility 
where  the  unit  drills. 


The  Chief  of  Naval  Personnel  is  responsible 
for  Naval  Reserve  personnel  administration  in 
the  area  of  recruiting,  personnel  accounting, 
personnel  administration  procedures,  discipline, 
distribution  of  personnel  in  support  of  the  Naval 
Reserve  and  organization  and  planning  for 
manpower  mobilization  procedures. 

The  Assistant  Chief  of  Naval  Personnel  for 
Naval  Reserve  (PERS  R)  advises  the  Chief  and 
Deputy  Chief  of  Naval  Personnel  on  matters 
related  to  the  Naval  Reserve  which  are  under  the 
purview  of  Bureau  of  Naval  Personnel. 

CHIEFS  OF  NAVAL 
EDUCATION  AND  TRAINING 

(CNET) 

In  his  relationship  to  the  Naval  Reserve, 
CNET  functions  as  a  training  support  agency 
providing  instruction,  instructor  training,  quotas 
to  naval  schools  for  Selected  Reservists,  develops 
training  standards,  curricula,  training  aids  and 
devices  and  provides  technical  advice,  guidance 
and  assistance  to  CNAVRES. 

READY  RESERVE 

The  Ready  Reserve  is  composed  of  those 
members,  not  on  active  duty,  who  are  subject  to 
call  to  active  service  if  a  national  emergency  is 
declared  by  the  President.  Ready  Reservists  are 
also  subject  to  call  in  event  of  war  declared  by 
Congress  or  when  otherwise  authorized  by  law. 
While  members  of  the  Ready  Reserve  are 
expected  to  be  available  for  active  duty 
immediately  upon  receiving  orders,  current 
policy  provides  that  a  reasonable  time  shall  be 
allowed  between  the  date  a  reservist  is  alerted  or 
ordered  to  active  duty  and  the  date  required  to 
report  for  duty. 

Participation  or  nonparticipation  in  a  drilling 
program  has  no  effect  on  the  liability  of  a  Ready 
Reservist  for  recall-all  are  equally  liable.  Under 


275 


the  current  concept  of  partial  mobilization, 
however,  those  participating  in  Selected  Reserve 
units  are  more  likely  to  receive  involuntary 
orders  to  active  duty  than  are  other  reservists. 
Members  who  are  serving  voluntarily  in  the 
Ready  Reserve  must  volunteer  for  a  specific 
period  of  time  (Ready  Reserve  Agreement). 

Of  the  three  reserve  categories,  only 
members  of  the  Ready  Reserve  may  receive  pay 
for  participation  in  reserve  training. 

SELECTED  RESERVE 

Within  the  Ready  Reserve  the  Navy 
maintains  Selected  Reserve  forces  which  are 
defined  by  the  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff  (JCS)  as 
those  units  and  individuals  within  the  Ready 
Reserve  that  are  designated  by  their  respective 
service  chiefs  as  so  essential  to  initial  wartime 
missions  as  to  require  a  high  degree  of 
mobilization  readiness. 

The  Selected  Reserve  provides 
Mobilization-Day  (M-Day)  Augmentation 
Forces— those  forces,  units,  and  individuals 
needed  on  M-Day-from  drill  pay  personnel.  It  is 
composed  of  all  drill  pay  units  and  assigned 
personnel,  including  their  assigned  ships  and 
aircraft. 

This  availability  of  a  trained  and  ready 
Selected  Reserve  with  the  capability  of  meeting 
mobilization  contingencies  from  a  limited 
emergency  to  full  mobilization  is  the  basis  of  the 
Navy's  readiness  posture.  The  Selected  Reserve, 
as  the  initial  and  primary  source  of  active  fleet 
augmentation  immediately  deployable  upon 
mobilization,  must  be  continuously  combat 
ready  and  immediately  responsive  in  times  of 
crisis. 


INDIVIDUAL  READY 
RESERVE  (IRR) 

Limitation  of  billets  available  in  the  pay 
programs  of  the  Selected  Reserve,  absence  of 
drilling  units  within  commuting  distance, 
conflicting  employment  and  other  factors  may 
preclude  reservists  from  participating  in  Selected 
Reserve  training  programs  in  a  drill  pay  status 


even  though  they  are  members  of  the  Ready 
Reserve. 

The  IRR  is  composed  of  those  members  in 
the  Ready  Reserve  who  are  not  in  the  Selected 
Reserve.  These  reservists  remain  within  the 
Navy's  mobilization  potential.  Assignment  to 
the  IRR  does  not  preclude  participation  in  one 
or  more  aspects  of  the  Naval  Reserve  training 
program.  Correspondence  courses  are  available 
to  both  officer  and  enlisted  personnel,  enabling 
them  to  prepare  for  promotion  and 
advancement. 

Within  the  limitation  of  funds,  personnel  in 
the  IRR  who  have  maintained  an  active  status 
may  take  12  to  14  days  ACDUTRA  annually. 

STANDBY  RESERVE 

The  Standby  Reserve  consists  of  reservists 
who  have  been  transferred  from  the  Ready 
Reserve  after  having  fulfilled  certain 
requirements  established  by  law.  Ready  and 
Standby  status  differ  mainly  in  the  degree  of 
liability  for  recall  to  active  duty.  Standby 
reservists  can  be  ordered  to  active  duty  without 
their  consent  only  in  the  event  of  war  or  an 
emergency  declared  by  Congress  or  when 
otherwise  authorized  by  law.  The  Navy  cannot 
recall  a  standby  reservist  to  active  duty 
involuntarily  until  the  Director  of  the  Selective 
Service  has  determined  the  availability  for  duty. 

Standby  Reserve,  Active 

In  accordance  with  Department  of  Defense 
(DOD)  policy  the  active  status  list  of  the 
Standby  Reserve  is  composed  of  reservists  who: 

1.  have  completed   5  years  of  satisfactory 
active/ selected    reserve    participation   and  have 
requested     transfer     to      the     Standby 
Reserve-Active  for  the  final  year  of  the  6-year 
military  service  obligation. 

2.  are   being  retained   in   an   active  status 
under  Section   1006,  Title    10,   United   States 
Code  (officers  credited  with  at  least  18  but  less 
than  20  years  satisfactory  Federal  service  toward 
retired  pay  for  non-regular  service). 


276 


Chapter  12-THE  NAVAL  RESERVE 


3.  have    been   screened    from   the    Ready 
Reserve  as  Key  Federal  Employees. 

4.  may    be    temporarily    assigned    to    the 
Standby  Reserve  for  hardship  or  other  reasons 
with  the  expectation  of  being  returned  to  the 
Ready  Reserve. 

Standby  Reserve,  Inactive 

The  Standby  Reserve-Inactive  (also 
described  as  the  Inactive  Status  List  or  ISL) 
consists  of  those  reservists  who  have  been 
screened  from  the  Ready  Reserve  because  of 
failure  to  maintain  a  satisfactory  level  of 
participation  and/or  those  individuals  who  have 
allowed  their  Ready  Reserve  Agreement  to 
expire  while  in  this  category.  While  in  this 
category  a  member  is  not  authorized  to 
participate  in  training  programs,  earn  retirement 
points  or  be  considered  for  promotion. 
Reservists  transferred  to  the  Standby 
Reserve-Inactive  may  apply  for  reinstatement  in 
the  Ready  Reserve  at  any  time  within  the 
following  3  years.  Those  members  who  do  not 
voluntarily  return  to  a  Ready  Reserve  status  will 
be  discharged  or  transferred  to  a  retired  status, 
as  appropriate  to  the  individual  case,  at  the 
completion  of  the  3-year  period. 

Members  on  the  inactive  status  list  may  be 
called  to  active  duty  under  the  same  conditions 
as  other  members  of  the  Standby  Reserve  but 
only  when  it  has  been  determined  that  adequate 
numbers  of  qualified  personnel  in  active  status 
(Ready  and  Standby  Reserve-Active)  are  not 
available. 

RETIRED  RESERVE 

The  Retired  Reserve-Inactive  (USNR-RET) 
consists  of  reservists  who  (1)  are  drawing  retired 
pay,  (2)  are  qualified  for  retired  pay  upon 
reaching  age  60,  or  (3)  will  not  qualify  for 
retired  pay  at  any  time  but  need  service  or  other 
requirements  for  voluntary  assignment  to  the 
Retired  Reserve  in  recognition  of  their 
contribution  to  the  Navy.  Their  liability  for 
active  service  is  the  same  as  the  Standby 
Reserve. 


NATURE  OF 
RESERVE  TRAINING 

Training  in  the  Selected  Reserve  is  an 
on-going  process  and  continues  throughout  the 
year.  The  nature  of  the  training  a  reservist 
receives  depends  on  individual  designator /rating, 
job  skill  and  the  type  of  unit  to  which  attached. 
Training  takes  place  during  both  the  unit  drills 
and  while  the  reservist  is  performing 
ACDUTRA.  A  drill  is  a  period  of  training 
authorized  for  members  of  the  reserve  on 
inactive  duty.  Drills  are  performed  in  either  a 
pay  or  non-pay  status. 

Members  of  the  Selected  Reserve  normally 
are  scheduled  for  and  perform  either  24  or  48 
drills  each  year.  Each  "drill"  consists  of  a  4-hour 
time  period.  For  most  units  regularly  scheduled 
drills  are  conducted  one  weekend  per  month. 
This  multiple  drill  permits  a  greater 
concentration  of  effort  and  extended 
involvement.  In  some  instances,  the  unit's 
mission  and/or  configuration  is  better  served  by 
drilling  one  evening  a  week. 

Certain  units  are  scheduled  for  Weekend 
Away  Training  (WET)  at  fleet  training  sites  or 
aboard  ship. 

Selected  individuals  and  units  (e.g., 
flightcrews,  certain  critical  units)  may  be 
authorized  to  perform  additional  paid  drills  to 
maintain  peak  efficiency  and/or  complete  their 
assigned  mission.  The  number  of  regularly 
scheduled  or  additional  paid  drills  may  vary  with 
need  and  the  availability  of  funds. 

Although  not  members  of  the  Selected 
Reserve,  Ready  Reservists  in  the  IRR  category 
and  members  of  the  Standby  Reserve-Active, 
may  participate  in  regularly  scheduled  drill 
periods  on  a  voluntary  basis.  Such  members  are 
ineligible  for  drill  pay  but  may  otherwise 
participate  in  training  programs  and  earn 
retirement  points  by  their  participation. 

ACTIVE  DUTY 
FOR  TRAINING 


ACDUTRA  for  members  of  the  Selected 
Reserve  is  carefully  coordinated  with  their 
drilling  sessions  to  provide  the  practical 
experience  that  will  clarify  or  supplement  other 


instruction.  Shipboard  training  is  provided 
wherever  feasible  and  appropriate  with  both 
Naval  Reserve  Force  and  active  fleet  ships 
serving  as  training  platforms  for  reservists  who 
report  as  units,  teams,  or  as  individuals. 

ACDUTRA  for  a  minimum  duration  of  12 
to  14  days  is  required  of  all  members  of  the 
Selected  Reserve  and  for  many  individuals  of  tlie 
Ready  Reserve  depending  on  the  type  of 
training  category  to  which  they  arc  assigned 
within  the  1RR.  Selected  Reserve  units  usually 
perform  their  ACDUTRA  as  a  unit.  This 
enhances  their  ability  to  perform  the  unit's 
assigned  mission.  Although  unit  ACDUTRA  is 
the  ideal  goal,  individual  ACDUTRA  for 
members  of  the  Selected  Reserve  may  be 
authorized  in  certain  circumstances. 

While  serving  on  ACDUTRA,  reserve  units 
receive  training  and  practical  experience  to 
maintain  skills  at  active  fleet  standards.  Unit, 
team,  and  individual  readiness  are  emphasized. 
Important  team  skills  may  be  developed  through 
combined  exercises  that  involve  reserve  and 
active  air,  surface,  and  subsurface  groups  in 
underway  operational  problems  and  exercises. 

Aviation  Reserve  squadrons  designated  to 
mobilize  with  their  aircraft  normally  perform 
their  ACDUTRA  at  a  fleet  base  under  the 
cognizance  of  the  fleet  commander  to  whom 
they  report  on  mobilization.  During  this  period 
reserve  squadrons  receive  a  modified  fleet 
operational  readiness  inspection. 

In  addition  to  ACDUTRA,  all  aviation 
squadrons  periodically  participate  in  fleet 
operational  exercises  alongside  their  regular 
Navy  counterparts.  Special  ACDUTRA  is 
granted  for  this  purpose.  This  integration  with 
fleet  units  permits  reserve  squadrons  to 
participate  in  surveillance  patrols  and  other 
routine  operations  and  combines  training  with 
actual  support  of  fleet  activities. 

Ready  Reservists  in  the  IRR  category  or 
members  of  the  Standby  Reserve-Active  may 
volunteer  to  perform  active  duty  for  training. 

In  addition  to  ACDUTRA  aboard  ships, 
numerous  possibilities  exist  for  training  ashore 
where  the  reservist  may  receive  practical 
experience  or  study  new  procedures  through 
formal  instruction. 


When    a   reservist    is    required    to   perfo 
ACDUTRA,  full  pay  and  allowances  plus  tra 
expenses  are  received.   When   performed  or 
voluntary   basis,  ACDUTRA  may  be   with 
without   pay,  travel  and  allowances  depend 
upon  the   availability   of  funds.  However,  a 
ACDUTRA    performed     by    members    in    '• 
Standby     Reserve-Active     category     must 
without  pay  or  other  allowances. 


RETIREMENT  POINT  CREDIT 

To  qualify  for  retired  pay,  a  member  of 
reserve  forces  must  be  credited  with  at  least 
retirement  points  a  year  for  20  years.  The  t( 
number  of  points  earned  is  a  factor 
computing  retirement  pay.  If  otherwise  eligil 
the  member  may  begin  drawing  retirement  | 
at  age  60. 

Earning  35  retirement  points  per  y 
satisfies  the  requirement  because  a  reservis 
allowed  15  gratuitous  points  for  maintaining 
active  status.  The  reservist  is  credited  will 
retirement  point  for  each  day  of  active  scr 
whether  it  is  extended  active  duly 
ACDUTRA.  When  not  on  active  duty, 
receives  1  retirement  point  for  each  com  pie 
drill.  He  may  earn  additional  points 
completing  approved  correspondence  cou 
from  the  Naval  liduaition  and  Train 
Program  Development  Center,  other  K 
sources  or  from  the  other  Armed  Forces.  1: 
course  has  been  assigned  an  appropriate  mini 
of  retirement  points.  When  not  on  extcin 
active  dvity.  the  member  may  be  credited  wil 
maximum  of  60  points  per  year  plus  tl 
received  lor  ACDUTRA. 


NAVAL  RESERVL  PROGRAMS 

Considerations    of    the    total    force    po 
demand      that     the     Naval     Reserve     assi 
responsibility    for    providing    crucially    nee( 
first-reaction  capabilities  required  by  the  ac 
forces  in  an  emergency.  The  Naval  Reserve 
been  organized  to  more  effectively  satisfy 
most    urgent    demand.    The    Selected    Res< 
structure     is     almost     entirely     composed 
mis  si  on -capable,     task-performing,     recall: 


278 


units.  These  units  are  specifically  tailored  to 
provide  capabilities  for  the  active  Navy  as  part 
of  a  committed  force  or  to  fill  in  behind  that 
force  in  supporting  and  sustaining  a  maximum 
tempo  of  operation.  With  these  combat  and 
combat  support  units  the  Naval  Reserve  can 
respond  effectively  in  any  contingency  from 
small  "brush  fire"  emergencies  to  the  vital  first 
step  capabilities  needed  in  reacting  to  major 
conflicts  involving  full  or  total  mobilization. 

The  structure  of  the  Naval  Reserve  contains 
11  basic  programs  that  parallel  those  of  the 
active  Navy; 

Program  1     -  Submarine  Force  Program 
Program  2    -  Mine  Forces  Program 

Program  3    -  Mobile  Logistics  Support  Pro- 
gra  m 

Program  4    -  Surface     Combatant     Forces 
Program 

Program  5    -  Air  Forces  Program 

Program  6    -  Cargo    Handling    Forces   Pro- 
gram 

Program  7  --  Construction  Forces  Program 
Program  8  -  Amphibious  Forces  Program 
Program  CJ  -  Marine  Corps  Forces  Program 

Program  10  -  Naval  Inshore  Warfare  Forces 
Program 

Program  I  1  -  Special  and  General  Support 
Program 

The  first  10  programs  (major 
mission/platform  programs)  are  mission-oriented 
and  relate  directly  to  ships,  aircraft  and/or 
hardware,  and  their  direct  support.  Program  1  I 
involves  a  number  of  specializations  :md  is 
divided  into  subprograms  such  as  law,  medicine, 
ship  systems,  fleet  commands  staffs,  intelligence, 
supply  systems,  etc. 

Each  program  and  subprogram  is  under  the 
sponsorship  of  a  Navywide  manager,  which  is 


usually  the  office  or  command  that  provides 
technical  advice  and  assistance  in  both  the 
administration  of  the  program  and  in  the 
execution  of  training  essential  to  meet  the 
mobilization  requirements  with  which  the 
program  is  identified. 

The  appropriate  office  of  CNO  acts  as 
sponsor  for  each  Naval  Reserve  program  with 
the  exception  of"  Program  6,  Cargo  Handling 
Program  sponsored  by  Naval  Supply  Systems 
Command;  Program  7,  Construction  Forces 
Program  sponsored  by  Naval  Facilities 
Engineering  Command;  and  Program  9,  Marine 
Corps  Forces  Program  sponsored  by  the 
Commandant  of  the  Marine  Corps.  Technical 
guidance  is  provided  by  an  assigned  Reserve 
Program  Technical  Manager. 

UNIT  CLASSIFICATIONS 

Selected  Reserve  units  are  grouped  in  three 
basic  categories,  each  with  its  own  mission  and 
mobilization  element.  These  primary  categories 
are  supplemented  by  other  Selected  Reserve 
units  and  individuals  of  the  Ready  Reserve  as 
described  below: 

CATEGORY  1-Units  with  Organic 
Equipment.  A  self-contained  unit  designed  to 
provide  complete  capabilities  upon  recall,  i.e.,  a 
ship,  squadron  or  battalion.  Selected  reservists 
fill  all  manpower  requirements  but  may  be 
combined,  as  in  many  instances,  with  an  active 
duty  nucleus,  bach  unit  has  its  own  hardware, 
which  it  "owns  and  lives  with,"  or  will  use 
p  re  design  a  ted  hardware  upon  recall.  Hardware 
required  varies  from  weapons  systems,  ships,  and 
aircraft  to  equipment  and  tools  necessary  for 
mission  performance. 

CATEGORY  II  -  Augmentec  Units  for 
Active  Navy  Ships,  Squadrons,  and  Mobile 
Units.  A  mission-oriented,  task-performing 
augmentation  unit  with  a  mix  of  specific  skills 
needed  to  bring  an  active  duty  Navy  operating 
platform  (a  ship  or  aircraft  squadron)  up  to 
organ  i'/.a  tional  (battle)  manning  or  full 
complement.  It  is  tailored  to  a  specific  ship  class 
or  a  ircraf  t  sq  u  ad  con  ty  pe ,  and  operates 
equipment  and  uses  facilities  of  the  parent  unit. 


279 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


CATEGORY  III-Augmentee  Units  for 
Shore  Establishment.  These  units,  similar  in 
character  to  Category  II,  represent  the 
mobilization  billets  required  to  bring  the  shore 
establishment  to  organizational  manning. 
Category  III  activities  are  geographically  fixed 
rather  than  mobile  units.  Each  is  tailored  to 
augment  a  specific  type  non-platform  activity, 
such  as  shipyard,  air  station  or  staff.  They 
normally  operate  the  equipment  and  use  the 
facilities  of  the  mobilization  activity.  It  is  noted 
that  the  requirements  of  this  category  are 
equally  important  in  the  accomplishment  of  the 
wartime  mission  as  are  the  combat  requirements. 

In  some  instances  units  of  the  three  primary 
categories  are  unable  to  fill  all  authorized 
mobilization  billets  due  to  a  lack  of  required 
skills  within  their  particular  geographic 
locations.  Additional  units  are  organized  in  these 
areas  where  the  necessary  skills  are  available  and 
provide  a  source  of  selected  reservists  for 
immediate  mobilization  as  individual 
augmentees  for  the  three  primary  categories. 
Upon  mobilization,  they  would  join  with 
Selected  Reserve  units  from  other  locations  at 
the  appropriate  mobilization  site. 

In  addition  to  the  units  of  the  Selected 
Reserve,  there  are  volunteer  units  which  provide 
meaningful  and  productive  training  for  qualified 
Ready  Reservists  who  are  required  for  full 
mobilization  but  who  are  not  members  of  the 
Selected  Reserve.  These  personnel  remain 
affiliated  with  the  Naval  Reserve  in  an  active 
capacity  and  are  available  for  recall  in 
accordance  with  public  law.  These  units  train  in 
a  non-pay  status  and  serve  as  a  skill  resource 
from  which  billets  in  the  Selected  Reserve  can 
be  filled  as  vacancies  develop. 

SURFACE  PROGRAMS 

Reserve  Surface  Programs  include  both 
afloat  and  ashore  programs  and  training  systems 
development.  Afloat  and  shore  programs  are 
composed  of  units  within  the  categories  noted 
previously  as  well  as  volunteer  units  of  Ready 
Reservists. 

The  afloat  program  includes  units  assigned 
missions  as  or  in  surface  combatants,  mine 


warfare,     submarine     and     service    forces 
amphibious  and  inshore  undersea  warfare. 

The  ashore  organization  contains  such 
programs  as  construction  forces,  cargo  handling, 
supply,  medical,  dental,  security  groups^ 
telecommunications,  law,  public  affairs,  and 
other  specialities  under  Program  1 1 . 

Selected  Reserve  units  within  Categories  I, 
II,  and  III  all  have  specific  missions  and/or 
assignment  upon  mobilization.  Upon 
mobilization,  Selected  Reserve  units  will  be 
recalled  to  active  duty  as  units.  Other  members 
of  the  Ready  Reserve  will  be  individually 
recalled  to  fill  specific  mobilization 
requirements  in  addition  to  those  established  for 
the  Selected  Reserve. 

Selected  Reserve  units  are  sized  in  direct 
relationship  to  the  mobilization  requirements  of 
the  active  fleet.  Although  some  ship-type  units 
utilize  Naval  Reserve  Force  ships  for  training, 
most  drilling  reservists  designated  as  "fleet 
augmented"  use  active  fleet  hardware  for 
ACDUTRA. 

Reserve  centers  serve  as  the  primary  training 
sites  for  most  of  the  surface  reserve.  These 
activities  may  be  utilized  entirely  by  the  Naval 
Reserve  or  shared  with  other  military  services. 

Assigned  to  each  reserve  center  are  officers 
and  enlisted  personnel  who  are  on  full-time 
active  duty.  The  enlisted  personnel  support  the 
various  training  programs  and  maintain  the 
reserve  centers.  They  cooperate  with  and 
supplement  the  work  of  the  officers  and  petty 
officers  of  the  individual  drilling  units  who 
assume  major  responsibilities  for  the  training  of 
their  own  units. 

The  centers  are  supplied  with  equipment  for 
training  in  various  areas  (e.g.,  shops,  radio, 
gunnery,  damage  control).  A  new  dimension  is 
being  added  to  the  surface  training  environment 
through  the  installation  of  Shipboard  Simulators 
(SBS).  These  trainers  are  capable  of  simulating 
various  shipboard  functions  (command  and 
control,  bridge,  damage  control,  engineering  and 
communications)  aboard  a  number  of  different 
ship  types.  Working  closely  with  the  Chief  of 
Naval  Education  and  Training,  surface  reserve 
planners  are  continually  upgrading  the  training 
capabilities  of  the  reserve  centers. 

A  continuing  challenge  to  the  surface  reserve 
program  has  been  the  geographic  distance  of 


280 


Chapter  12-THE  NAVAL  RESERVE 


inland  units  from  fleet  installations.  In  addition 
to  improving  onsite  training  as  noted  above,  the 
Navy  and  Air  Force  airlift  these  reservists  to 
their  key  training  platforms  for  Weekend  Away 
Training  (WET). 

Surface  planners,  along  with  CNO  and 
elements  of  the  active  fleet,  are  identifying  and 
developing  new  and  expanded  missions  for  the 
Naval  Reserve  which  complement  total  force 
requirements.  A  prime  example  of  such 
mission-oriented  units  is  the  Mobile  Inshore 
Undersea  Warfare  (MIUW)  units.  When  reserve 
MIUW  units  are  fully  equipped  and  trained,  they 
will  represent  almost  1 00%  of  the  Navy's  total 
inshore  undersea  warfare  capability. 

The  twin  goals  of  the  surface  reserve 
programs  are  readiness  and  responsibility.  In 
obtaining  these  goals,  the  surface  reserve  will  be 
a  full  and  equal  partner  with  the  active  forces  in 
the  defense  of  this  nation. 

AIR  FORCES  PROGRAM 

The  Naval  Air  Reserve  Force  is  a  command 
entity  under  the  Chief  of  Naval  Reserve  charged 
with  the  responsibility  for  providing 
mission-capable,  task-performing  units  available 
for  immediate  mobilization  and  deployment  as 
may  be  dictated  by  the  contingency.  It  is  an 
operating  command  of  the  Chief  of  Naval 
Operations  under  the  direction  of  Commander 
Naval  Air  Reserve  Force.  The  Air  Program's 
sponsor,  representative  and  technical  manager,  is 
the  Deputy  Chief  of  Naval  Operations  for  Air 
Warfare.  In  this  event  of  full  or  partial 
mobilization,  wings,  squadrons,  and  units  would 
be  assigned  as  needed  by  CNO  to  various  active 
fleet-type  commanders  as  an  integral  part  of 
their  command. 

Composition  and  size  of  the  Naval  Air 
Reserve  Force  are  determined  by  high  level 
defense  planners  based  on  the  needs  of  the 
active  forces  to  meet  various  contingencies. 
Currently,  this  force  consists  of  two  carrier  air 
wings,  a  helicopter  wing,  two  patrol  wings,  a 
tactical  support  wing  and  approximately  200 
various  other  direct  and  indirect  support  units. 
All  are  organized  along  active  fleet  lines. 

Air  reserve  squadrons  normally  operate  their 
own  assigned  aircraft  and  equipment  making 
them  a  striking  example  of  the 


hardware-oriented  type  of  reserve  which  the 
total  force  Navy  requires.  Squadrons  are,  for  the 
most  part,  equipped  with  combat-deploy  able, 
fleet-compatible  aircraft.  A  continuing  program 
is  in  existence  to  ensure  that  units  are 
re-equipped,  and  retrained  to  the  most  current 
fleet  requirements  consistent  with  mission 
objectives  and  budgetary  constraints. 

Women  play  a  significant  role  in  the  Air 
Programs.  They  serve  in  patrol  and  transport 
squadrons  as  well  as  noncombat  units  in  billets 
for  which  they  are  qualified.  Women  pilots  and 
aircrew  members,  of  which  there  are  a  growing 
number,  may  be  assigned  to  flying  billets  in 
transport  squadrons. 

By  virtue  of  the  mission,  complexity  of  the 
equipment  and  inherent  problems  in  the 
operation  and  use  of  such  systems,  training  in 
the  Naval  Air  Reserve  Force  is  extensive  and 
continuous  to  reach  and  maintain  a  high  state  of 
readiness.  Training  is  conducted  at  Naval  Air 
Stations,  facilities  and  satellite  activities  (Naval 
Air  Reserve  Units  and  Detachments)  throughout 
the  United  States.  Currently  the  Naval  Reserve 
"owns  and  operates"  air  stations,  an  air  facility 
and  is  tenant  at  several  regular  Navy  activities 
which  comprise  the  flying  sites  and  non-flying 
activities  around  the  nation.  They  are  staffed  by 
active  duty  personnel,  and  their  commanding 
officers  report  to  the  Chief  of  Naval  Reserve. 
Squadrons/units  assigned  to  each  activity  enjoy 
a  tenant/host  relationship  with  base  support  and 
services  provided  by  the  activities. 

SPECIAL  AND  GENERAL 
SUPPORT  PROGRAM 

The  Special  and  General  Support  Program 
was  established  to  provide  mission-capable, 
task-performing  units  and  individuals  whose 
specific  skills  and  expertise  will  be  required  by 
the  Navy  in  the  event  of  an  emergency.  They  are 
Selected  Reserve  units  and  are  available  for 
immediate  mobilization.  These  programs  include 
the  scientists,  engineers,  professional  specialists, 
program  coordinators,  educators,  service  and 
general  support  personnel  without  which  the 
combat  forces  could  not  be  expanded  or 
sustained. 

It  should  be  recognized  that  these  programs 
are  not  finite.  The  Navy  is  a  flexible  force  as  it 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


must   be    to   keep    pace  with  an   advancing,  The  Naval  Reserve  is  a  full  partner  with  th 

changing  world.  New  skills  and  expertise  may  be  active  forces.  The  existence  of  task-orient  A 

identified  and  others  modified  which  may  cause  mission-capable    units    has    made    the    Na  I 

additions,     deletions,    or    changes    in    these  Reserve  a  vital  and  contributing  participant 

programs.  the  defense  of  the  nation.  In 


CHAPTER  13 


SHIPBOARD  ORGANIZATION 


A  warship's  manning  is  composed  of  such 
numbers,  grades,  and  ratings  of  officers  and 
enlisted  personnel  as  are  necessary  to  fight  the 
ship  most  efficiently.  The  ship's  organization  is 
essentially  a  war  organization,  developed  on  the 
theory  that  ships  should  operate  in  peacetime 
with  an  organization  that  can  be  expanded 
quickly  without  basic  change  when  the 
transition  to  a  wartime  operating  condition 
becomes  necessary.  It  is  based  on  a  grouping  of 
functions  and  personnel  that  is  intended  to 
reduce  to  a  minimum  both  the  possible 
overlapping  of  responsibility  within  the 
command  and  the  duplication  of  personnel. 

Guidance  in  the  preparation  of  the  standard 
ship's  organization  for  all  types  of  ships  is 
provided  by  the  Ship's  Manning  Document  and 
the  effective  edition  of  Standard  Organization 
and  Regulations  of  the  U.S.  Navy  (OPNAVINST 
3120.32). 


ADMINISTRATIVE  ORGANIZATION 

The  basic  shipboard  departments  are 
navigation,  operations,  weapons  (or  deck), 
engineering,  and  supply.  There  may  be  a  number 
of  others,  however,  as  can  be  seen  in  figure  13-1 . 

The  most  common  types  of  naval  ships  in 
service  are  included  in  the  table  of  departmental 
organization  (figure  13-2),  which  is  used  in 
determining  the  departments  that  must  be 
included  in  the  administrative  organization  of  a 
particular  ship  type.  Variations  should  occur 
only  in  exceptional  circumstances.  The  Chief  of 
Naval  Operations  authorizes  the  establishment 
of  such  other  departments  as  are  found 
necessary. 


Ship's  Manning  Documents  and 
OPNAVINST  3120.32  serve  as  guides  for  type 
commanders  in  preparing  detailed  standard  type 
administrative  and  battle  organizations  for  their 
ships.  A  type  commander  has  command  of  a 
group  of  ships  of  a  particular  type  or  types;  for 
example,  Commander  Surface  Force,  U.S. 
Atlantic  Fleet  and  Commander  Submarine 
Force,  U.S.  Pacific  Fleet. 

In  preparing  type  organizations,  type 
commanders  allow  for  missions  and  other 
considerations  peculiar  to  the  type  and  also  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  personnel  available. 
Administrative  and  battle  organizations  prepared 
by  corresponding  type  commanders  in  different 
fleets  are  coordinated  through  their  fleet 
commanders  and  are  made  similar  for  the  same 
types  and  classes  of  ships.  The  organization 
described  in  this  chapter  is,  in  general,  that  of  a 
large  fighting  ship. 

COMMANDING  OFFICER 

The  responsibility  of  the  commanding 
officer  for  his  command  is  absolute  except  when 
and  to  the  extent  he  is  relieved  therefrom  by 
competent  authority.  His  authority  is 
commensurate  with  his  responsibility,  subject  to 
the  limitations  prescribed  by  law  and 
regulations.  While  he  may  delegate  authority  to 
his  subordinates  for  the  execution  of  details, 
such  delegation  of  authority  in  no  way  relieves 
the  commanding  officer  of  his  continued 
responsibility  for  the  safety  and  efficiency  of  his 
entire  command. 

In  the  discharge  of  his  duties,  the 
commanding  officer  is  assisted  by  the  executive 
officer,  who  acts  as  his  direct  representative. 


283 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


The  commanding  officer  must  exert  every 
effort  to  maintain  his  command  in  a  state  of 
maximum  effectiveness  for  war  service 
consistent  with  the  required  degree  of  readiness. 
He  issues  the  necessary  directions  ^to  his 
executive  officer  who,  in  turn,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  various  department  heads, 
prepares  and  conducts  exercises  and  drills 
required  to  bring  about  the  necessary 
proficiency. 

The  details  of  training  and  education  of  the 
ship's  company  are  responsibilities  that  the 
commanding  officer  delegates  to  his  executive 
officer.  All  ships  must  have  an  organized 
program  for  shipboard  training. 

During  action,  the  commanding  officer  is 
required  to  engage  the  enemy  and  fight  to  the 
best  of  his  ability.  He  must  not  disengage  until 
the  action  is  complete. 

The  commanding  officer's  battle  station  is 
that  station  from  which  he  can  fight  the  ship  to 
best  advantage.  In  case  of  the  loss  of  his  ship, 
both  custom  and  regulations  require  that  the 
commanding  officer  assure  that  abandon  ship 
procedures  are  completed  and  all  personnel  are 
off  the  ship  before  he  leaves. 

The  commanding  officer  supervises  the 
conduct  of  all  persons  under  his  command. 
Should  he  not  suppress  unlawful  activities  or 
conduct,  he  himself  is  subject  to  trial  by 
court-martial.  In  the  investigation  of  offenses 
and  the  assignment  of  punishments,  he  cannot 
delegate  his  authority.  He  is  required  to  have 
specified  articles  of  the  Uniform  Code  of 
Military  Justice  published  to  the  crew  at  stated 
intervals. 

The  commanding  officer's  position  is 
quasi-judicial.  It  is,  in  fact,  legislative,  judicial, 
and  executive.  His  power  is  authoritarian  and 
complete  and  has  been  so  from  time 
immemorial.  He  has  ultimate  responsibility  for 
the  ship  and  everything  pertaining  to  the  ship. 
Obviously,  that  great  responsibility  requires 
commensurate  authority.  It  is  essential  to 
efficiency  and  discipline  that  a  commanding 
officer  have  the  power  to  enforce  prompt 
obedience  to  his  orders.  By  the  Uniform  Code  of 
Military  Justice,  the  power  is  vested  in  the 
commanding  officer  to  impose  limited 


punishment.  This  power  is  an  attribute  of 
command  and  may  not  be  delegated  to  a 
subordinate. 

The  welfare,  morale,  and  living  conditions  of 
the  crew  are  a  commanding  officer's  constant 
concern.  To  assist  him  in  these  matters  he 
appoints  a  master  chief  petty  officer  of  the 
command  (MCPOC)  as  an  enlisted  advisor.  The 
medical  officer  assists  him  in  maintaining  the 
ship  in  a  sanitary  condition,  and  provides  for 
proper  care  and  isolation  in  the  case  of 
infectious  diseases. 

If  the  officer  regularly  ordered  to  command 
the  ship  is  absent,  disabled,  relieved  from  duty, 
or  detached  without  relief,  the  command 
devolves  upon  the  line  officer  next  in  grade  who 
is  regularly  attached  to  and  on  board  the  ship, 
and  who  is  eligible  for  command  at  sea  (this 
excludes  such  officers  as  may  be  restricted  to 
the  performance  of  engineering  or  other  special 
duties). 

EXECUTIVE  OFFICER 

The  executive  officer  functions  as  an  aide  or 
executive  to  the  commanding  officer.  He  is 
detailed  as  such  by  the  Chief  of  Naval  Personnel, 
As  the  next  ranking  officer  aboard  ship,  he  is  the 
direct  representative  of  the  commanding  officer 
in  maintaining  the  military  and  general 
efficiency  of  the  ship.  The  executive  officer  has 
no  authority  independent  of  the  commanding 
officer,  and  the  details  of  his  duties  are  regarded 
as  execution  of  the  captain's  orders.  All  heads  of 
departments  and  other  officers  and  enlisted 
personnel  are  under  the  executive  officer's 
orders  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  operation  and 
maintenance  of  the  ship  and  to  the  preservation 
of  order  and  discipline  on  board. 

Under  the  commanding  officer,  the 
executive  officer  is  responsible  for  the  ship's 
administration,  routine,  and  efficiency  in  such 
matters  as— 

1.  Coordination    and    supervision    of  all 
departments. 

2.  Maintenance    of    morale,   welfare,  and 
discipline. 

3.  Assignment     of     personnel    and 
maintenance  of  their  records. 


OQA 


C                                                                              NOTES 

COMMAND  NO  OFFICER             •———,.. 

TRATIVE  FUNCTIONS. 

.. 

FLAG  DIVISION 

X  DIVISION  FOR  MILITARY  AND  ADMINISTRAT  VE  FUNCT  ONS.   (II  a  uml  „  nol  authoiiird  an  X  dntsioa. 

1  hnlislcd  I'ersnrmel  ol                  ***** 
Staff  l:.mbarkedt 

C  DIV 

X  DIV  Mdmmslm 
1  DIV<M,,rir™i 

COMMAND  DEPARTMENTS 

1 

NAVIGATION  DEPARTMENT 
EQUIPMENT 

, 

AIRCRAFT  IHTERMED  ATE 
MAINTENANCE  DEPARTMENT 

INTERMEDIATE  MAINTENANCE  SUPPORT  OF  ALL 

WEAPONS  'DECK  DEPART 
ARMAMENT 

SCHEDULES 

N  01  V 

INTELLIGENCE 
COMBAT  INFORMATION 

ASSIGNED  AIRCRAFT 

OF  ASSIGNED  GROUND  SUPPORT  EQUIPMENT 
MAINTENANCE  FACILITIES  FOR  THE  EMBARKED 
AIR  WING 

MINE  WARFARE 
HANDLING  AND  STOWAGE  OF  AMMUNIT 

RADIO  AND  VISUAL  COMMUNICATIONS2 
ISSUANCE  CONTROL  OF  CMS-DISTRIBUT  ED 
PUBLICATIONS 
PHOTO  INTELLIGENCE 

ELECTRONIC  EQUIPMENT 
FUNCTIONS  OF  AIR  DEPARTMENT  la,, 
,™Mrt,W. 
MARINE  DETACHMENT 
HANDLING  OF  ORDNANCE 
GUIDED  MISSILES 
NUCLEAR  WEAPONS 

AIR  DEPARTMENT 
AIRCRAFT  LANDING.  LAUNCHING.  AND  HANDLING            J 

V.I  OIV 
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ORD 

AVIATION  STORES                                                                                                                                                                                                                PHOTODOSlMETRY 

Figure  13-1.— Shipboard  organization. 


Chapter  13-SHIPBOARD  ORGANIZATION 


DEPARTMENT  ORGANIZATION 

SHIP 
TYPES 

MAJOR  COMMAND  DEPARTMENTS 

STAFF  DEPTS. 

SPECIAL 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

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MSO  MSC 

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Submarines 

X 

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Auxiliary 

AD 

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NOTES 


On  small  ships,  the  navigation  department  shall  he  integrated  into  tne  operations  deoa  '-en'  v  ar!-i  " 
report  to  the  navigator  lor  technical  control 

On  some  small  ships,  supply  duties  may  be  delegated  to  a  line  o'l.cer  and  as  such  he  Shan  become  a  aepart'i'eni  head 

On  llag-conligured  ships  only 

On  those  ships  having  reac'.o's. 

Applies  to  llolilla  llagships  only. 

When  a  LAMPS  'VERTREP  detachment  is  embarked. 

On  small  ships,  the  communications  department  may  be  integrated  into  the  operations  depar'"ie:it 

On  AD  37  class  only. 

On  hospital  ships,  the  medical  and  dental  departments  are  integrated  with  the  hospital. 


Figure  13-2.— Shipboard  departmental  organization. 


134.185 


285 


4.  Preparation   and   maintenance  of  ship's 
bills  and  orders. 

5.  Supervision  and  coordination  of  work, 
exercises,  training,  and  education. 

6.  Supervision    of    loading    and    berthing 
plans. 

7.  Supervision  of  ship's  correspondence. 

With  the  assistance  of  department  heads,  the 
executive  officer  arranges  and  coordinates  all 
ship's  work,  drills  and  exercises,  the  personnel 
organization,  policing  of  the  ship,  and 
inspections  of  the  ship.  He  is  charged  with  the 
maintenance  and  cleanliness,  good  order,  and 
the  trim  appearance  of  ship  and  crew. 

The  executive  officer  keeps  in  close  touch 
with  all  activities  of  the  ship  and  supervises 
department  heads  in  the  performance  of  their 
duties,  including  the  instruction  of  junior 
officers. 

The  executive  officer  is  responsible  for  the 
accuracy  of  entries  made  in  the  crew's  service 
records.  He  investigates,  or  causes  to  be 
investigated,  matters  involving  conduct  and 
breaches  of  discipline;  and  he  usually  approves 
and  disapproves  all  liberty  lists  and  leave 
requests. 

He  exercises  general  supervision  whenever  all 
hands  are  called  for  any  particular  duty, 
exercise,  or  evolution,  except  during  action. 
Except  on  small  ships,  he  is  not  required  to 
stand  a  watch;  but  he  may  relieve  the  officer  of 
the  deck  for  short  periods  as  a  matter  of 
accomodation  or  whenever  required  for  the 
safety  of  the  ship. 

If  the  executive  officer  is  incapacitated  or 
otherwise  unable  to  carry  on,  his  duties  are 
normally  assumed  by  the  next  senior  officer  of 
the  line  assigned  to  the  ship. 

When  the  ship  is  cleared  for  action,  the 
executive  officer  inspects  it,  receives  reports 
from  the  various  departments,  and  in  turn 
reports  to  the  commanding  officer  that  the  ship 
is,  in  all  respects,  ready.  In  case  the  captain  is 
incapacitated,  the  executive  officer  becomes  the 
acting  commanding  officer.  For  this  reason  his 
battle  station,  determined  by  the  captain,  is 


preferably  located  some  distance  from  the 
captain's-a  safety  measure  to  prevent 
simultaneous  disablement  of  both  officers.  It  is 
usually  in  the  secondary  ship  control  station, 
and  from  there  he  maintains  communication 
with  the  primary  control  station.  After  battle, 
the  executive  officer  makes  a  detailed  report  to 
the  commanding  officer,  citing  all  details  of  the 
action  observed,  together  with  a  statement  of 
the  conduct  of  subordinates  in  praise  or  censure 
as  the  case  may  be. 

Executive's  Assistants 

The  standard  organization  and  regulations 
manual  shows  the  personnel  that  may  be 
assigned  under  the  executive  officer  to  assist  him 
in  the  performance  of  varied  duties.  The  size  of 
the  executive's  organization  depends  on  the  size 
of  the  ship  and  the  number  of  officers  available 
for  assignment  to  those  duties.  These  assistants, 
along  with  a  description  of  their  basic  duties,  are 
as  follows: 

The  ADMINISTRATIVE  ASSISTANT 
assists  the  executive  officer  in  details  of 
administration. 

The  PERSONNEL  OFFICER  assigns  enlisted 
personnel  in  accordance  with  the  personnel 
assignment  bill  and  is  responsible  for  the 
administration  and  custody  of  enlisted  service 
records.  The  billets  of  personnel  officer  and 
administrative  assistant  may  be  combined. 

The    EDUCATION    SERVICES    OFFICER 

assists  the  executive  officer  in  administering  the 
shipboard  educational  programs.  He  publicizes, 
usually  through  division  officers,  educational 
opportunities  available  and  counsels  and  assists 
those  who  wish  to  enroll  in  courses.  Duties  in 
connection  with  officer  and  enlisted 
correspondence  courses,  Navy  rate  training 
manuals,  and  other  matters  of  an  essentially 
professional  nature  may  be  assigned  to  the 
educational  services  officer  or  the  training 
officer. 

The  SHIP'S  SECRETARY  is  responsible  for 
the  administration  and  accountability  of  ship's 
correspondence  and  directives,  and  for  the 
administration  and  custody  of  officers' 
personnel  records.  As  captain's  writer,  he 


286 


Chapter   13 -SHIPBOARD  ORGANIZATION 


supervises  preparation  of  the  commanding 
officer's  personal  correspondence.  The  ship's 
secretary  normally  is  a  junior  officer;  on  small 
ships  he  may  be  a  senior  petty  officer  in  one  of 
the  clerical  ratings. 

The  CHAPLAIN,  who  is  detailed  to  duty 
under  the  executive  officer  or  chief  of  staff,  as 
appropriate,  is  responsible  for  the  performance 
of  all  duties  relating  to  religious  activities  of  the 
command  (figure  13-3)  and  for  ministering  to 
the  spiritual  needs  of  the  ship's  personnel. 

A  TRAINING  OFFICER  may  be  designated 
by  the  commanding  officer  to  assist  the 
executive  officer  with  his  training  duties.  As  a 
member  of  the  planning  board  for  training,  he 
assists  in  the  formulation  of  training  policies  and 
training  programs. 


The  LEGAL  OFFICER  functions  as  an 
adviser  and  staff  assistant  to  the  commanding 
officer  and  executive  officer  in  the  maintenance 
of  discipline  and  the  administration  of  justice. 
Although  many  legal  officers  are  graduates  of 
the  Naval  Justice  School,  it  is  not  necessary  that 
they  have  any  formal  legal  training. 

The  PUBLIC  AFFAIRS  ASSISTANT  carries 
out  the  public  affairs  program  of  the  ship.  His 
main  duties  are  to  keep  the  commanding  officer 
and  executive  officer  informed  concerning 
public  relations  and  to  supervise  preparation  of 
material  for  release. 

The  principal  responsibility  of  the  POSTAL 
OFFICER  is  to  ensure  efficient  administration 
of  mail  services  to  the  command. 


134.67 

l-igure  13-3.-The  primary  responsibility  of  the  chaplain  is  to  minister  to  the  spiritual  needs  of  command  personnel. 

Here  the  ship's  chaplain  celebrates  midnight  mass. 


287 


The     COMBAT     CARGO     OFFICER    on 

amphibious-type  ships  assists  the  executive 
officer  in  matters  concerning  embarkation  and 
debarkation  of  troops;  loading,  stowage,  and 
unloading  of  troop  cargo;  billeting  and  messing 
of  embarked  troops;  and  the  performance  of 
necessary  liaison  with  troop  units. 

The     SPECIAL     SERVICES     OFFICER 

administers  the  special  services  program  of  the 
ship,  comprising  all  organized  welfare, 
recreational,  and  athletic  activities  not  assigned 
to  other  officers  or  departments. 

Under  the  direction  of  the  executive  officer, 
the  SENIOR  WATCH  OFFICER  is  responsible 
to  the  commanding  officer  for  assignment  and 
general  supervision  of  all  deck  watchstanders, 
both  underway  and  in  port.  He  coordinates  and 
directs  the  training  of  deck  watch  officers.  He 
prepares  officer  deck  watch  bills  for  the 
commanding  officer's  approval  and  enlisted  deck 
watch  bills  for  the  executive  officer's  approval. 

The  CHIEF  MASTER  AT  ARMS  (CMAA)  is 
responsible  for  enforcement  of  regulations, 
maintenance  of  good  order  and  discipline,  and 
the  security  and  welfare  of  brig  prisoners. 

HEADS  OF 
DEPARTMENTS 

The  number  of  departments  included  in  a 
shipboard  organization  depends  on  the  type  of 
ship  for  which  the  organization  is  prepared.  As 
seen  in  figure  13-1,  departments  are  grouped 
together  as  either  command  or  support 
departments.  Except  in  isolated  instances,  an 
officer  heading  a  command  department  is  a  line 
officer  eligible  to  exercise  command  in  the  event 
of  the  loss  of  his  superior  officers.  In  aircraft 
carriers,  the  operations  and  air  departments  are 
headed  by  naval  aviators. 

The  head  of  a  department  is  the 
representative  of  the  commanding  officer  in  all 
matters  that  pertain  to  the  department.  All 
persons  assigned  to  the  department  are 
subordinate  to  him  and  all  orders  issued  by  him 
are  obeyed  accordingly.  In  the  performance  of 
his  duties  as  a  head  of  department,  he  conforms 
to  the  policies  and  complies  with  the  orders  of 


the  commanding  officer.  Department  heads  have 
certain  common  duties  and  responsibilities. 

A  department  head  reports  to  the 
commanding  officer  for  the  operational 
readiness  of  his  department,  the  general 
condition  of  his  equipment,  and  any  other 
matters  relating  to  his  department  whenever  he 
believes  such  action  necessary.  He  reports  to  the 
executive  officer  for  administrative  matters  and 
keeps  the  executive  officer  informed  of  reports 
made  to  the  commanding  officer. 

The  department  head's  duties  and 
responsibilities  cover  a  broad  area.  He  assigns 
personnel  to  stations  and  duties  within  the 
department  and  organizes  and  trains  his 
personnel  to  ensure  readiness  for  battle.  He  is 
responsible  for  the  proper  operation,  care, 
preservation,  and  maintenance  of  his 
department's  equipment  as  well  as  the 
cleanliness  and  upkeep  of  spaces  assigned.  He 
frequently  inspects  both  personnel  and 
equipment  and  takes  action  to  correct  any  laxity 
or  malfunction. 

He  prepares  bills  and  orders  for  the 
organization  and  operation  of  the  department. 
He  controls  the  funds  allotted,  and  he  is 
expected  to  be  economical  in  their  use.  He  must 
anticipate  personnel  and  material  needs  and 
submit  timely  requests  to  fulfill  requirements. 
Records  must  be  kept  and  reports  submitted  by 
every  department  to  ensure  an  efficient  overall 
organization.  It  is  the  department  head's  duty  to 
see  that  these  matters  are  not  neglected.  He  also 
is  expected  to  cooperate  with  other  department 
heads  so  that  the  work  of  his  department  may 
be  smoothly  coordinated  with  that  of  the 
others. 

In  small  commands,  an  officer  may  be 
assigned  as  head  of  more  than  one  department. 

Heads  of  departments  and  their  principal 
assistants  are  assigned  battle  stations  where  they 
can  best  supervise  and  control  the  performance 
of  duties  regularly  prescribed  for  them,  or  such 
specific  battle  duties  as  the  commanding  officer 
may  assign. 

Operations  Officer 

The  operations  officer  is  responsible,  under 
the  commanding  officer,  for  the  collection, 


288 


Chapter  13-SHIPBOARD  ORGANIZATION 


59.41 


-  -rs  ssasss 


•  "  — 


evaluation,  and  dissemination   of  ™^**Q^ 


6  Conduct    of    underwater    search    and 
torpedo     detection     except     on     ships     with 
antisubmarine  armament  installed 

7  Maintenance  and  repair  of  all  electronic 
equipment  of  the   ship   except  as  assigned  to 


department  include- 

1.  Conduct  of  surface  and  air  search. 

2.  Execution  of  electronic  warfare. 

3  Control  of  aircraft  when  airborne,  except 
when  this  control  is  assigned  to  other  authority. 

4  Collection,     display,     analysis,     and 
dissemination  of  intelligence  information. 

5.    Preparation    of    operation    plans    and 
training  schedules. 


and  dissemi- 
nation oTmeteorological  information. 

9  In  ships  not  having  a  communication 
department,  the  functions  of  that  department. 

In  addition  to  the  normal  departmental 
administrative  and  training  assistants,  the 
operations  officer  may  be  assisted  by  the- 

1 .  Air  operations  officer. 

2.  Air  intelligence  officer. 


TOO 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


3.  Intelligence  officer. 

4.  Meteorological  officer. 

5.  Combat  information  center  officer. 

6.  Communication    officer    (when    not    a 
department  head). 

7.  Electronic  material  officer. 

8.  Electronic  warfare  officer. 

9.  Photographic  officer. 
10.  Strike  operations  officer. 

Communications  Officer 

In  most  ships  the  communications  officer  is 
a  division  officer  in  the  operations  department. 
In  some  large  ships,  however,  such  as  major 
communications  relay  ships  and  aircraft  carriers, 


he  is  a  department  head  responsible  directly  to 
the  commanding  officer. 

Whatever  his  administrative  position,  the 
communications  officer  is  responsible  for  all 
visual  and  electronic  exterior  communications 
and  communication  equipment,  and  for 
administration  of  associated  internal  systems.  He 
is  responsible  for  the  proper  internal  delivery  of 
incoming  messages  and  for  the  routing  and 
delivery  of  outgoing  messages.  He  must  be 
thoroughly  familiar  with  current  tactical  and 
communication  publications.  He  is  directly  in 
charge  of  communications  watch  and  signal 
officers,  conducting  their  training  and 
supervising  their  watchstanding.  He  should  have 
at  least  a  fundamental  knowledge  of  the 


158.30 

Figure  13-5.— The  communications  officer,  while  he  need  by  no  means  be  a  technician,  is  expected  to  acquire  at  least  a 
fundamental  knowledge  of  the  technical  aspects  of  shipboard  communication  equipment. 


290 


Chapter  13-SHIPBOARD  ORGANIZATION 


ichnical  aspects  of  communication  equipment 
igure  13-5).  He  supervises  the  handling  of 
ommunications  Material  Security  (CMS) 
/stem  publications  issued  to  the  ship  and  is 
^sponsible  for  secure  and  efficient 
ryptographic  operations,  including  the 
ipervision  and  training  of  crypto-operators. 

The  following  officers,  when  assigned,  report 
>  the  communications  officer:  radio  officer, 
gnal  officer,  CMS  publications  custodian, 
•yptosecurity  officer,  and  traffic  officer 
nessage  center). 

avigator 

The  navigator  is  directly  responsible  to  the 
)mmanding  officer  for  safe  navigation  of  the 


ship  (although  on  small  ships  the  navigation 
department  is  integrated  into  the  operations 
department).  Duties  of  the  navigator  include  the 
following: 

He  advises  the  commanding  officer  and  the 
officer  of  the  deck  as  to  the  ship's  movements 
and,  if  the  ship  is  running  into  danger,  as  to  a 
safe  course  to  be  steered.  To  carry  out  this  phase 
of  his  responsibilities,  he  must  maintain  an 
accurate  plot  of  the  ship's  position  (figure  13-6) 
by  astronomical,  visual,  electronic,  or  other 
appropriate  means;  study  all  available  sources  of 
information,  prior  to  entering  pilot  waters, 
regarding  navigation  of  the  ship  in  suqh  waters; 
and  give  careful  attention  to  the  course  of  the 
ship  and  the  depth  of  water  when  approaching 
land  or  shoals.  He  maintains  records  of  all 


134.69 

lure  13-6.— Plotting  a  course  in  the  chartroom.  The  navigator,  who  is  responsible  to  the  commanding  officer  for  safe 
navigation  of  the  ship,  must  maintain  an  accurate  plot  of  the  ship's  position. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


observations  and  computations  made  for  the 
purpose  of  navigating  the  ship;  reports  the  ship's 
position  at  such  times  as  the  commanding 
officer  may  request;  and  procures  and  keeps 
corrected  and  up  to  date  all  hydrographic  and 
navigational  charts,  sailing  directions,  light  lists, 
and  other  publications  and  devices  for 
navigation  as  may  be  required. 

He  is  responsible  for  operation,  care,  and 
maintenance  of  the  navigational  equipment.  To 
this  end  he  is  required  to  determine  daily, 
when  the  ship  is  underway  and  weather 
conditions  permit,  the  error  of  the  gyro  and 
standard  compasses.  He  reports  the  result  in 
writing  to  the  commanding  officer.  He 
compensates  the  magnetic  compasses  and 
prepares  tables  of  deviations,  copies  of  which 
are  posted  at  the  appropriate  compass  stations. 
He  is  responsible  for  the  accuracy  of  the  ship's 
chronometers  and  clocks.  He  ensures  that 
electronic  navigational  equipment  used  by  him  is 
kept  in  proper  adjustment  and  that  calibration 
curves  or  tables  are  maintained  and  checked  at 
prescribed  intervals. 

The  navigator  is  responsible  for  the  care  and 
proper  operation  of  the  steering  gear  in  general 
(except  the  steering  engines  and  steering 
motors). 

Daily,  and  more  often  if  necessary,  he 
inspects  the  deck  log  to  ensure  that  it  is  properly 
maintained.  He  prepares  such  reports  and 
records  as  are  necessary  in  connection  with  his 
navigational  duties,  including  those  pertaining  to 
the  compasses,  hydrography,  oceanography,  and 
meteorology. 

It  is  also  the  navigator's  responsibility  to 
ensure  the  required  navigational  training  of  all 
personnel  such  as  junior  officers,  boat 
coxswains,  and  boat  officers.  In  addition,  he  is 
charged  with  the  training  of  all  quarterdeck 
personnel  with  respect  to  honors  and 
ceremonies.  Operations  and  navigation  are 
combined  on  small  ships  and  submarines. 

Weapons  Officer 
(or  First  Lieutenant) 

All  ships  have  either  a  weapons  or  a  deck 
department,  with  the  exception  of  aircraft 
carriers  (CVs)  which  have  both. 


Ships  (other  than  CVs)  mainly  concerned 
with  offense  through  ordnance  or  aircraft  have  a 
weapons  department  headed  by  a  weapons 
officer  whose  responsibilities  also  embrace  those 
relating  to  deck  seamanship.  The  weapons 
officer  in  such  case  is  assisted  by  the  first 
lieutenant.  Other  ships  have  a  deck  department 
headed  by  the  first  lieutenant  who  is  assisted  by 
the  weapons  officer.  In  small  ships  the  duties  of 
the  two  billets  may  be  combined. 

Organized  aviation  units  regularly  attached 
to  and  embarked  in  a  ship  not  having  an  air 
department  are  assigned  to  the  weapons 
department  and  make  up  the  aviation  division; 
these  units  retain  their  basic  organization  even 
when  so  assigned.  An  embarked  Marine 
detachment  is  usually  assigned  to  the  weapons 
or  deck  department. 

The  weapons  officer  is  responsible  for  the 
operation  and  maintenance  of  the  ship's 
armament  and  fire  control  equipment;  the 
stowage  and  care  of  ammunition  including 
magazines  and  sprinkler  systems;  the  planning 
and  directing  of  seamanship  evolutions  through 
the  first  lieutenant;  and  the  care  of  the  ship's 
exterior  except  those  areas  assigned  to  another 
department. 

The  following  officers  may  assist  the 
weapons  officer  or  first  lieutenant  (bearing  in 
mind  that,  except  in  CVs,  the  first  lieutenant 
always  is  an  assistant  to  the  weapons  officer  and 
vice  versa): 

1 .  Gunnery  officer. 

2.  Missile  officer. 

3.  Ordnance  officer. 

4.  Antisubmarine  warfare  officer. 

5.  Fire  control  officer. 

6.  Torpedo  officer. 

7.  Nuclear  weapons  officer. 

8.  Commanding    officer,    Marine    detach- 
ment. 

9.  Senior  aviator  (in  ships  not  having  an  air 
department). 

10.  QIC     of     antisubmarine     helicopter 
detachment  (LAMPS),  when  embarked. 

11.  Ship's  boatswain. 


292 


Chapter  13-SHIPBOARD  ORGANIZATION 


,mmanding  Officer, 
irine  Detachment 

The  commanding  officer  of  the  ship's  Marine 
tachment,  although  not  a  department  head, 
cupies  a  somewhat  similar  position  with 
;pect  to  the  administration  of  the  Marines 
oard  in  matters  pertaining  strictly  to  the 
irine  Corps.  In  a  dual  role,  he  is  also  one  of 
3  division  officers  of  the  weapons  department, 
ismuch  as  the  Marine  detachment  is  a  regular 
rt  of  the  ship's  company. 

The  Marine  detachment  commander  is 
iponsible  to  the  ship's  captain  for  the 
Iciency  of  his  detachment  and  for  the  phases 
ship's  internal  administration  that  are 
plicable  to  the  detachment.  He  is  required  to 
nform  to  the  administrative  instructions 
Dmulgated  by  the  Commandant  of  the  Marine 
>rps  relative  to  preparation  and  submission  of 
yrolls  and  muster  rolls,  promotions, 
counting  for  Marine  Corps  property,  and 
lilar  details. 

He  is  responsible  to  the  department  head  for 
ining  conducted  under  his  supervision  and  for 
i  care,  preservation,  and  operation  of 
uipment,  supplies,  and  spaces  assigned  to  the 
tachment.  He  conducts  required  drills  and 
ly  be  detailed  to  superintend  small  arms 
ictice  and  landing  force  training  of  the  ship's 
mpany. 

Marine  officers  may  act  as  officers  of  the 
ck  or  junior  officers  of  the  deck,  according  to 
2ir  qualifications. 

Normally,  the  main  functions  of  a  Marine 
tachment  aboard  ship  are  to  provide— 

1.  A  unit  organized,  trained,  and  equipped 
•   operations    ashore,    as    part  of  the   ship's 
iding  force,   as   part  of  a  landing  force  of 
irines  from  ships  of  the  fleet  or  a  subdivision, 

as     an     independent     force     for     limited 
erations. 

2.  Additional  guncrews. 

3.  Internal  security  for  the  ship. 

The  detachment  forms  a  separate  division 
it,  as  far  as  practicable,  is  employed  intact  in 


the  battle  organization.  In  battle,  the 
detachment  mans  gunnery  stations;  detachment 
officers  ordinarily  perform  various  gunnery 
control  duties. 

All  Marines  aboard  volunteer,  work,  and 
train  for  the  privilege  of  becoming  seagoing 
Marines.  They  serve  as  orderlies  for  the  ship's 
commanding  officer  and  other  high-ranking 
officers  aboard.  They  act  as  security  guards  at 
sea  and  in  port.  When  so  ordered,  they  may  be 
assigned  to  other  duties  including,  but  not 
limited  to,  communications,  staff,  guard,  and 
aviation. 

All  Marines  except  orderlies  turn  out  with 
the  bluejackets  to  handle  ammunition  when  it  is 
brought  aboard.  They  generally  assist  in 
provisioning  the  ship  and  square  away  their  own 
compartment.  They  may  be  assigned  to  boarding 
parties  and  prize  crews. 

Engineer  Officer 

The  functions  of  operation  and  maintenance 
of  ship's  machinery  are  assigned  to  the 
engineering  department.  Damage  control  and 
certain  types  of  repair  also  are  in  the  charge  of 
various  divisions  that  the  department  may 
comprise.  Such  divisions  may  be  the  auxiliary, 
repair,  boiler,  main  engines,  and  electrical. 

The  head  of  the  engineering  department  is 
designated  the  engineer  officer.  He  is 
responsible,  under  the  captain,  for  operation, 
care,  and  maintenance  of  all  propulsion  and 
auxiliary  machinery;  for  control  of  damage;  for 
operation  and  maintenance  of  electric  power 
generators  and  distribution  systems;  and  upon 
request  from  the  head  of  a  department,  for 
accomplishment  of  repairs  that  are  beyond  the 
capacity  of  repair  personnel  or  equipment  of 
other  departments. 

Specifically,  he  is  charged  with  the 
operation,  care,  and  maintenance  of  all 
machinery,  piping  systems,  and  electrical  devices 
not  otherwise  assigned;  repairs  to  hull  and 
machinery;  furnishing  of  power,  light, 
ventilation,  heat,  refrigeration,  compressed  air, 
and  water;  maintenance  of  underwater  fittings; 
and  the  stowage,  care,  and  use  of  fuels  and 
lubricants  not  assigned  to  other  departments. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


134.151 

Figure  13-7.— Engines  may  not  be  turned  or  speed  altered  unless  directed  or  permitted  by  the  conning  officer.  To 
increase  speed,  the  throttleman  (right)  opens  the  throttle  to  admit  more  steam  to  the  ahead  turbines. 


In  connection  with  the  ship's  main 
propulsion  and  auxiliary  machinery,  the 
engineer  officer  is  responsible  for  effective 
operation  of  main  engines  and  boilers, 
particularly  when  unusual  care  is  required,  such 
as  when  getting  underway  or  during  critical 
speed  changes.  He  ensures  that  boiler  fires  are 
not  lighted  or  secured  without  permission  from 
the  captain  (except  in  emergencies)  and  that 
main  engines  are  not  turned  (figure  1 3-7)  except 
in  obedience  to  a  signal  from  or  by  permission 
of  the  officer  of  the  deck.  He  maintains  the 
engineering  log,  engineer's  bell  book,  and  other 
engineering  records. 

As  damage  control  officer,  the  engineer 
officer  establishes  and  maintains  an  effective 


damage  control  organization,  with  his 
responsibilities  extending  to  the  control  of 
stability,  list,  and  trim.  He  acts  as  technical 
assistant  to  the  executive  officer  in  carrying  out 
nuclear,  biological,  and  chemical  defense 
procedures.  He  supervises  placing  the  ship  in  the 
condition  of  watertight  and  airtight  closure 
ordered  by  the  captain,  coordinating  prescribed 
tests  of  compartments  and  spaces  for  tightness. 
The  engineer  officer  is  responsible  for  training 
ship's  personnel  in  damage  control,  including 
associated  instruction  in  nonmedical  defensive 
measures  against  gas  and  similar  weapons. 

Assigned  to  the  engineer  officer  may  be  a 
main   propulsion    assistant,    a   damage  control 


294 


Chapter  13-SHIPBOARD  ORGANIZATION 


assistant,  an  electrical  officer,  a  fire  marshal,  and 
special  assistants  for  NBC  defense. 

Reactor  Officer 

In  nuclear-powered  ships  having  a  reactor 
department,  the  department  is  headed  by  the 
reactor  officer,  whose  basic  function  is  the 
operation,  care,  and  safety  of  the  reactor  plants 
and  associated  auxiliaries.  He  must  maintain 
them  in  a  maximum  state  of  readiness  at  all 
times. 

The  reactor  officer  is  a  technical  assistant  to 
the  commanding  officer  on  matters  involving 
reactor  safety.  He  supervises  disposal  of 
radioactive  wastes  originated  in  the  reactor 
plants.  He  is  responsible  for  operation  of  main 
engine  throttles  and  maintains  the  engineer's  bell 
book.  He  exercises  close  coordination  and 
cooperation  with  the  engineer  officer  in  the 
operation  and  maintenance  of  the  propulsion 
plant.  In  this  regard,  the  reactor  officer  and  his 
assistants  are  responsible,  as  prescribed  in  their 
specific  duties,  for  some  duties  normally 
prescribed  for  the  engineer  officer  and  his 
assistants  on  nuclear-powered  ships  not  having  a 
reactor  department. 

When  assigned,  the  reactor  mechanical 
assistant  and  reactor  control  assistant  report  to 
the  reactor  officer. 

Air  Officer 

In  ships  that  have  an  air  department,  the 
head  of  that  department  is  the  air  officer.  Under 
the  commanding  officer,  he  supervises  and 
directs  launching  and  landing  operations  and  the 
servicing  and  handling  of  aircraft.  He  is 
responsible  for  crash  salvage  operations  and 
aircraft  firefighting  as  appropriate;  operation, 
care,  and  maintenance  of  aircraft  handling 
equipment  such  as  elevators,  catapults,  and 
arresting  gear;  and  the  care,  stowage,  and  issue 
of  aviation  fuels  and  lubricants. 

Assistants  to  the  air  officer  may  include 
flight  deck,  catapult,  arresting  gear,  hangar  deck, 
aviation  fuels,  and  aircraft  handling  officers. 


Aircraft  Intermediate 
Maintenance  Officer 

Aircraft  maintenance  functions  are  divided 
into  three  distinct  levels;  organizational, 
intermediate,  and  depot. 

Organizational  maintenance,  performed  by 
squadron  or  unit  personnel  on  a  day-to-day 
basis,  includes  routine  inspection,  servicing, 
handling,  and  "on-aircraft"  corrective 
maintenance  such  as  removal  and  installation  of 
parts  and  components. 

Intermediate  maintenance  is  shop-type 
repair  and  test  work  (e.g.,  minor  modifications, 
stipulated  periodic  inspections,  assembly,  and 
preservation)  on  aircraft  components  and 
equipment. 

Depot  maintenance,  which  includes 
overhaul,  major  repairs,  and  major 
modifications,  normally  is  accomplished  ashore. 

Aboard  carriers,  the  aircraft  intermediate 
maintenance  department  (AIMD)  is  manned  by 
a  nucleus  of  permanently  assigned  personnel 
who  normally  are  augmented  by  designated 
personnel  temporarily  assigned  from  embarked 
squadrons. 

The  aircraft  intermediate  maintenance 
officer  supervises  and  directs  the  intermediate 
maintenance  effort  in  support  of  embarked  air 
wing/group  aircraft,  and  the  intermediate  and 
organizational  maintenance  for  aircraft  assigned 
to  the  ship.  When  sufficient  squadron 
maintenance  personnel  are  embarked,  the  AIMD 
merely  provides  and  maintains  service  and  repair 
shop  facilities  for  their  use.  When  maintenance 
personnel  are  not  embarked  with  the  squadron, 
AIMD  personnel  also  perform  needed 
maintenance  and  repair  functions. 

Air  Wing  Commander 

The  embarked  air  wing  commander  (or 
aviation  officer  in  nonaviation  facility  ships  with 
a  helicopter  detachment  embarked)  has  the 
status  of  department  head  relative  to  the 
embarked  squadrons.  He  directs  tactical  training 
and  indoctrination  of  the  air  wing,  coordinates 
and  supervises  all  activities  of  the  several 


295 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


squadrons  and  detachments  in  the  execution  of 
employment  schedules,  and  ensures  the  material 
readiness  of  the  wing  as  a  whole. 

The  wing  commander  maintains  a  continuing 
safety  program  both  in  the  air  and  on  deck; 
instructs  embarked  personnel  on  ship's 
organization,  regulations,  and  procedures;  and 
coordinates  with  the  operations  officer  in 
matters  concerning  employment,  scheduling, 
training,  and  tactical  air  operations. 

Squadron  commanders  are  assistants  to  the 
air  wing  commander. 

Supply  Officer 

The  supply  officer,  who  heads  the  supply 
department,  is  responsible  for  procuring, 
receiving,  storing,  issuing,  shipping,  selling,  trans- 
ferring, accounting  for,  and  while  in  his  custody, 
maintaining  all  stores  and  equipment  of  the 
command  except  those  assigned  to  other 
departments. 

Specific  functions  of  the  supply  department 
include  the  receipt,  delivery,  and  shipment  of 
medical  and  dental  supplies  and  equipment; 
inspection  of  material  received  under  orders  and 
contracts  that  call  for  inspection  and  delivery; 
operation  of  the  general  mess,  including  the 
preparation  and  service  of  food,  operation  of  the 
ship's  store,  which  furnishes  articles  and  services 
for  the  ship's  crew;  operation  of  the  small  stores 
unit,  which  makes  available,  for  sale,  standard 
uniform  items;  and  upkeep  of  storeroom  spaces 
and  issue  rooms. 

The  supply  officer's  accounting  duties 
include  allotment,  cost,  appropriation,  and 
property  accounting.  He  maintains  stock 
records,  posted  to  date,  for  all  stores  for  which 
he  is  responsible.  These  records  are  maintained 
to  establish  accountability  for  stores  and  to 
provide  stock  control  information  that  will 
facilitate  replenishment  and  enable  proper  and 
adequate  stocks  of  material  to  be  maintained. 

Assistants  to  the  supply  officer  may  include 
an  assistant  for  disbursing,  a  stores  officer,  a 
ship's  store  officer,  and  a  food  service  officer.  A 
mess  deck  master-at-arms,  when  assigned,  assists 
the  supply  officer  in  such  matters  as  the 
maintenance  of  good  order  and  discipline 
connected  with  the  general  mess,  cleanliness  of 


messing  compartments,  and  care  and  upkeep  Of 
messing  equipment. 

When  an  assistant  for  disbursing  is  assigned 
the  supply  officer  is  relieved  by  that  office! 
from  responsibility  for  procurement,  custody 
transfer,  issue  of,  and  accounting  for  funds! 
Similarly,  if  the  commanding  officer  approves 
the  assignment  of  an  assistant  for  subsistence  or 
the  ship's  store,  the  supply  officer  is  relieved  by 
that  officer  from  personal  financial 
accountability  for  the  procurement,  receipt, 
stowage,  custody,  issue,  transfer,  maintenance  of 
proper  records,  accounting  for,  and  submission 
of  returns  for  subsistence  or  ship's  store 
material.  In  each  case,  however,  the  supply 
officer  exercises  general  supervision  over  and 
inspects  the  accounts  of  the  assistants. 

Medical  Officer 

The  head  of  the  medical  department  is  the 
medical  officer.  Normally  he  is  the  senior  officer 
of  the  medical  corps  attached  to  and  serving  on 
board.  He  is  directly  responsible  for  maintaining 
the  health  of  personnel  of  the  command.  He  acts 
in  an  advisory  capacity  to  the  commanding 
officer  in  matters  pertaining  to  sanitation  and 
hygiene. 

In  addition  to  furnishing  medical  care  and 
treatment  to  ship's  personnel,  the  medical 
officer  must,  when  directed  by  the  captain, 
provide  those  services  to  other  members  of  the 
Armed  Forces  who  may  require  them. 

When  circumstances  require,  he  cooperates 
with  local  health  authorities  in  matters  affecting 
the  health  of  the  community.  He  assists  those 
authorities  in  quarantine  inspections  and  also 
advises  the  commanding  officer  regarding  the 
medical  aspects  of  pertinent  quarantine 
regulations. 

Although  the  supply  officer  receives, 
delivers,  and  ships  medical  and  dental  supplies. 
the  medical  officer  is  charged  with  procuring, 
inspecting,  stowing,  issuing,  and  transferring 
medical  supplies.  (Dental  supplies  are  similarly 
handled  by  the  dental  officer.) 

The  medical  officer  conducts  routine 
inspections  of  the  ship's  messing,  food  service, 
living,  berthing,  and  working  spaces  to  ascertain 
the  sanitary  conditions  of  those  spaces,  and 


makes  a  weekly  physical  examination  of  food 
service  personnel,  barbers,  and  messmen.  He 
initiates  and  supervises  the  training  of  personnel 
in  personal  hygiene,  first  aid  and  self-aid, 
artificial  respiration,  and  NBC  warfare  medical 
defense.  He  identifies  and  cares  for  the  dead. 

When  embarked,  the  air  wing/group  flight 
surgeon  reports  to  the  ship's  medical  officer  on 
matters  pertaining  to  the  health,  medical 
treatment,  and  fitness  of  squadron  personnel  for 
the  control  of  aircraft. 

In  ships  having  no  medical  officer  attached, 
enlisted  medical  personnel  are  responsible 
directly  to  the  commanding  officer  for  medical 
matters.  For  military  and  administrative 
functions,  they  are  assigned  to  the  X  division  (if 
established),  the  operations  department,  or  the 
supply  department. 

In  small  ships  the  medical  and  dental 
departments  may  be  combined,  or  they  may  be 
nonexistent. 

Dental  Officer 

In  ships  that  have  a  dental  department,  the 
senior  officer  of  the  dental  corps  attached  to  the 
ship  is  the  department  head.  He  is  responsible 
for  the  dental  care  and  oral  health  of  ship's 
personnel,  ensuring,  by  periodic  dental 
examinations,  the  prevention  and  control  of 
dental  diseases  and  supervision  of  dental  hygiene 
within  the  command.  The  dental  officer  and  his 
subordinates  may,  in  emergency  situations  and 
in  other  circumstances  prescribed  in  the 
organization  of  the  command  for  battle, 
perform  such  duties  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and 
wounded  as  the  commanding  officer  may  direct. 

Repair  Officer 

Repair  ships  or  tenders  whose  primary 
function  is  to  repair  other  ships  have  a  repair 
department  headed  by  a  repair  officer. 

Planning  and  scheduling  are  important 
details,  and  the  repair  officer  ensures  timely 
completion  of  any  work  assigned  to  his 
department.  Inspection  of  completed  work  is 


performed  to  make  sure  that  work  is  done 
satisfactorily  and  in  conformance  to  prescribed 
methods  and  standards.  He  establishes  and 
maintains  a  job  order  system  and  keeps  records 
of  materials  used  and  charges  to  be  made.  He 
prepares  estimates  of  funds  required  for  repairs 
accomplished. 

Like  other  department  heads  he  is,  of 
course,  responsible  for  the  training  of  his 
personnel,  for  the  coordination  of  his 
department  with  others  in  the  ship,  for  the 
upkeep  and  cleanliness  of  assigned  spaces,  for 
the  maintenance  of  equipment  needed  in  his 
work,  and  for  any  records  and  reports  required. 

In  submarine  tenders  an  additional 
department  is  established— the  ordnance  repair 
department,  headed  by  the  ordnance  repair 
officer.  His  duties  parallel  those  of  repair 
officers  but  are  concerned  with  submarine 
ordnance. 

DIVISION  OFFICERS 

The  departments  of  a  ship  are  composed  of 
divisions,  which  in  turn  are  organized  into 
watches  and/or  sections.  The  division  is  the  basic 
unit  of  personnel  aboard  ship.  The  number  of 
divisions  in  a  department  varies  between  ships, 
and  division  complements  may  be  very  small  or 
include  perhaps  200  members.  As  far  as 
practicable,  divisions  are  assigned  battle  stations 
that  permit  their  employment  as  units  under 
their  own  officers  and  petty  officers. 

A  division  officer  is  one  assigned  by  the 
commanding  officer  to  command  a  division  of 
the  ship's  organization.  Division  officers  are 
responsible  to  and  in  general  act  as  assistants  to 
department  heads,  and  they  have  a  vital  role  in  a 
ship's  administrative  organization. 

The  assignment  as  division  officer  of  a  group 
of  personnel  responsible  for  certain  spaces, 
equipment,  and  functions  aboard  ship  is  usually 
a  young  officer's  first  really  important 
assignment.  Here  is  his  first  significant 
opportunity  to  develop  and  practice  the 
desirable  leadership  traits  discussed  in  chapter  8; 
i.e.,  to  manage  men  and  resources  effectively, 
and  to  organize  his  group  carefully  and 


297 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


efficiently,  following  the  accepted  principle  of 
delegating  authority  to  the  lowest  supervisory 
level. 

The  division  officer  is,  above  all,  a  guide, 
leader,  counselor,  and  supervisor.  He  exemplifies 
a  very  personal  type  of  leadership,  and  how  he 
exerts  that  leadership  can  truly  make  or  break 
his  division.  Particularly  in  a  small  ship,  he  is  the 
enlisted  person's  major  link  in  the  chain  of 
command.  Whatever  other  duties  he  may  have, 
the  division  officer  must  be  approachable-he 
must  find  time  to  exercise  daily,  almost 
constant,  direct  supervision  of  and  personal 
contact  with  his  subordinates. 

The  manner  in  which  a  division  officer 
executes  the  policies  of  his  superiors  sets  the 
pace  for  his  entire  division.  He  is  in  such  a 
position  that  almost  every  duty  he  performs 
produces  immediate  results.  Being  at  the 
working  level,  he  personally  is  responsible  for 
seeing  that  a  job  gets  done;  he  cannot  issue 
directives  or  vague  instructions  and  leave  the 
details  of  accomplishment  to  others.  How  he 
gets  the  job  done,  how  he  issues  orders,  how  he 
reacts  to  orders  from  above,  his  enthusiasm  or 
lack  of  it— all  these  contribute  to  the  morale  and 
spirit  of  the  division.  If  he  wants  an  alert 
division  that  is  eager  to  follow  his  lead, 
enthusiastic  in  responding  to  daily  work  and 
drill  requirements,  and  ready  to  do  a  little  more 
than  is  required,  he  must  set  the  example.  Even 
the  best  of  junior  division  officers  and  petty 
officers  will  be  handicapped  if  the  division 
officer  does  not  exert  close  coordination  and 
motivation. 

The  first  quality  enlisted  persons  look  for  in 
an  officer  is  competence.  Next  is  his  continuous 
interest  in  their  welfare;  superficial  concern, 
however,  will  have  a  negative  effect. 

Part  of  his  taking  a  personal  interest  is  being 
sure  the  personnel  understand  what  is  behind  his 
orders.  It  is  not  enough  that  the  division 
officer's  actions  seem  sensible  and  necessary  to 
him.  It  is  how  his  subordinates  look  at  his  orders 
and  participate  in  them  as  members  of  the  team 
that  increases  or  decreases  their  sense  of 
belonging.  They  must  be  made  to  feel  they  are 
an  important  and  solid  part  of  the  organization. 

The  duties  of  a  division  officer  are  many  and 
varied.  He  is  required  to  execute  all  methods 
prescribed  by  and  all  orders  received  from  his 


superiors.  He  must  be  cognizant  of  the  needs 
and  capabilities  of  his  subordinates  and,  within 
his  authority,  may  take  action  necessary  for  the 
efficiency  of  his  division  and  the  welfare  and 
morale  of  its  members. 

The  division  officer  has  the  responsibility  of 
training  his  subordinates  in  their  own  duties  and 
in  the  duties  to  which  they  may  succeed.  He 
should  encourage  them  to  strive  for 
advancement  and  educational  self-improvement. 
He  has  disciplinary  duties  also  and  is  charged 
with  suppressing  any  improper  language  or 
unseemly  noise  or  disturbance. 

Personal  supervision  and  frequent  inspection 
of  spaces,  equipment,  and  supplies  assigned  his 
division  are  required  of  him.  He  reports  to  the 
department  head  any  repairs  or  corrective 
measures  which  need  that  officer's  attention. 

It  is  his  responsibility  to  maintain  corrected 
copies  of  all  bills  and  orders  for  his  division  and 
to  have  pertinent  ones  conspicuously  posted. 

Personal  leadership  is  important  to  the 
division  officer.  He  has  frequent  direct  contact 
with  the  enlisted  personnel  and  must  see  to  it 
that  they  perform  with  diligence  all  duties 
assigned.  The  division  officer's  leadership  ability 
is  manifest  especially  through  his 
accomplishment  of  training  responsibilities.  His 
effectiveness  is  measured  by  the  extent  to  which 
he  fulfills  his  main  duty:  preparation  of  his 
subordinates  for  battle. 

Training 

One  of  the  most  important  jobs  of  a  division 
officer  is  supervising  the  training  program  of  his 
division.  The  Navy  today  suffers  from  a  rapid 
turnover  of  personnel;  therefore,  if  it  is  to  have 
properly  trained  personnel,  training  must  be  a 
continuing  task. 

While  the  majority  of  enlisted  persons  are 
interested  in  being  promoted  and  have  a  natural 
curiosity  that  prompts  them  to  learn  about  the 
things  with  which  they  come  into  contact,  there 
are  a  few  who  need  motivation  and  varying 
degrees  of  supervision. 

If  the  Navy  is  to  accomplish  its  mission  as 
efficiently  as  possible,  enlisted  persons  as  well  as 
officers  must  eagerly  increase  their  professional 
knowledge  and  willingly  assume  more  important 


298 


Chapter  13-SHIPBOARD  ORGANIZATION 


positions  with  the  accompanying  increased 
responsibilities. 

Standard  Organization  and  Regulations  of 
the  U.S.  Navy  (OPNAVINST  3120.32)  discusses 
various  aspects  of  shipboard  training  programs, 
including  organization,  administration, 
scheduling,  application,  and  evaluation.  It  also 
lists  several  other  publications  of  considerable 
training  value. 

The  objective  of  a  training  program  is  to 
increase  the  ability  of  personnel  to  administer 
and  operate  the  ship  effectively  under  all 
foreseeable  circumstances.  On  a  division  level, 
training  may  be  divided  into  two  phases:  (1)  the 
basic  training,  team  training,  and  drills  necessary 
to  develop  the  teamwork  of  the  crew,  and  (2) 
assistance  to  enlisted  personnel  in  their 
preparations  for  advancement.  The  first  phase 
usually  is  well  developed  in  the  ship's  training 
program  and  will,  naturally,  take  more  of  the 
training  time.  However,  the  latter  phase  must 
not  be  ignored  and  left  to  the  individual  whim. 

A  wise  division  officer  will  determine 
individual  training  needs  of  his  personnel  and,  as 
far  as  possible,  cover  those  needs  in  his  program. 
This  may  sound  like  a  task  of  monumental 
proportions,  but  most  of  the  needs  will  fall  into 
patterns  or  groups  which  can  be  dealt  with 
adequately  by  group  instruction.  A  group  of 
personnel  studying  for  the  same  rate  will  profit 
by  a  carefully  chosen  series  of  lectures  on 
required  subjects  and  demonstrations  on  the  uses 
of  various  pieces  of  equipment.  Each  petty 
officer  in  the  division  should  be  required  to 
conduct  a  few  of  the  lectures  and 
demonstrations,  but  a  division  officer  should 
make  certain  that  his  POs  are  capable  and 
understand  their  subjects. 

To  make  certain  that  subjects  are  covered 
thoroughly,  needless  repetition  is  eliminated, 
and  time  is  used  to  best  advantage,  a  division 
officer  should  discuss  the  instructors'  outlines 
with  them  and,  if  necessary,  assist  in  the 
preparation  of  the  outlines.  He  should  attend 
lectures  and  demonstrations  of  each  of  his  petty 
officers.  He  is  bound  to  learn  a  few  things,  and 
he  may  be  able  to  point  out  ways  in  which  the 
instructors  can  improve  their  presentations.  It 
may  be  necessary  to  give  many  POs  instructor 
training,  but  the  expenditure  of  time  for  this 
training  pays  huge  dividends  in  increased  results. 


A  good  training  program  with  good 
instructors  and  supervised  by  an  enthusiastic 
officer  eventually  will  build  an  outstanding 
division  of  which  all  concerned  will  be  justly 
proud. 

Counseling 

It  is  not  enough  for  the  division  officer  to 
see  that  his  personnel  are  trained— they  must  be 
retained  if  they  are  to  be  of  use  to  the  Navy.  In 
fact,  the  Navy  is  extremely  concerned  about  its 
inability  to  retain  sufficient  numbers  of  enlisted 
personnel  to  sustain  vitality  and  optimum 
effectiveness  of  the  naval  establishment.  Putting 
it  another  way,  the  low  reenlistment  rate  puts 
the  afloat  commanding  officer  and  his 
subordinate  officers  in  the  position  of  losing  key 
personnel  on  a  day-to-day  basis,  with  the 
consequent  adverse  effect  on  the  ship's 
operational  readiness.  Personnel  can  be  replaced, 
of  course,  but  recruits  cannot  take  the  place  of 
trained  men. 

With  this  in  mind,  BUPERS  has  in  effect  a 
career  counseling  program,  its  goal  being  to 
retain  in  the  Navy  as  many  trained  and  qualified 
enlisted  personnel  as  possible.  In  this  program 
the  career  counselor  is  one  of  the  main  sources 
of  information  to  the  personnel  of  the 
command,  and  it  is  especially  his  responsibility 
to  assure  that  current  programs  and 
opportunities  available  to  personnel  of  the  fleet 
are  expounded.  Ships  having  a  manning  level  of 
250  or  more  rate  a  command  career  counselor. 
In  addition  senior  petty  officers,  usually  E-5  or 
above,  are  assigned  as  departmental/divisional 
counselors  to  assist  the  command  career 
counselor. 

The  assigned  counselors,  as  one  of  their  most 
important  functions,  interview  personnel  at 
periodic,  stipulated  intervals  as  a  means  of 
establishing  motivation  for  reenlistment.  For 
example,  a  first-term  person  reporting  aboard  is 
interviewed  both  to  familiarize  him  with  his  new 
environment  and  to  guide  him  in  the  attainment 
of  his  career  goals.  This  initial  interview  is 
followed  by  two  or  more  (depending  on  his 
period  of  enlistment)  "progress"  interviews  at 
roughly  1-year  intervals  to  review  the  member's 
progress;  to  discuss  any  problems  he  may  have; 


299 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


to  apprise  him  of  opportunities  of  which  he  may 
be  unaware;  and  if  married,  to  acquaint  or 
reacquaint  him  with  family  benefits.  The 
counselor  interviews  each  person  recommended 
for  reenlistment  6  months  prior  to  expiration  of 
the  person's  obligated  service.  The  counselor 
discusses  the  opportunities  and  advantages  of 
the  Navy  compared  with  those  of  civilian  life. 

Although  a  trained  counselor  may  be 
assigned  to  the  division,  in  most  instances  it  is 
neither  intended  nor  possible  for  him  to  assume 
that  role  on  a  full-time  basis.  As  stated,  the 
division  career  counselor  accomplishes  his 
mission  by  periodic,  planned  interviews.  But 
personnel  do  not  plan  their  problems  or 
questions  in  such  a  way  that  the  answers  can 
wait  for  an  interview  that  may  not  take  place  for 
months.  In  the  day-to-day  business  of  personnel 
matters  and  management,  the  division  officer, 
junior  division  officer,  and  leading  petty  officer 
also  must  assume  their  inherent  responsibilities 
as  advocates  of  career  service  in  the  Navy. 

Because  the  division  officer  often  is  the  one 
from  whom  a  member  of  the  division  seeks 
advice,  it  is  necessary  that  that  officer  be 
familiar  with  various  programs  that  may  benefit 
or  enhance  the  servicemember's  career. 

Because  of  the  number  of  programs  and 
benefits  involved,  all  being  subject  to  frequent 
changes  regarding  eligibility,  scope,  and 
procedures,  this  text  does  not  attempt  to 
describe,  or  even  summarize,  all  of  those 
available.  The  Career  Counseling  Manual 
(NAVPERS  15878)  and  Enlisted  Transfer 
Manual  (NAVPERS  1  5909)  contain  much  useful 
information  in  the  areas  of  education  (STAR, 
SCORE,  NESEP),  various  training  programs, 
sea/shore  rotation  procedures,  and  others.  Most 
of  these  topics  also  are  the  subject  of 
instructions  and  notices  issued  through  the  Navy 
Directives  System. 

The  division  officer  must  acquire  all  the 
knowledge  he  can  that  pertains  to  advancement 
in  rate  of  the  members  of  his  division.  This  re- 
quires familiarity  with  the  Manual  of  Advance- 
ment in  Rate  (BUPERSINST  1430.16),  Manual 
of  Navy  Enlisted  Manpower  and  Personnel 
Classifications  and  Occupational  Standards 
(NAVPERS  18068-D),  and  Bibliography  for 
Advancement  Study  (NAVPERS  10052-W). 


Although  there  may  be  a  ship's  training  officer 
responsible  for  the  details  of  the  overall  training 
program,  the  division  officer  must  keep  informed 
since  he  decides  whether  a  servicemember  is 
qualified  to  be  recommended  for  advancement. 

The  division  officer  might  do  well  to 
compile  a  list  of  other  topics  on  which  he  often 
is  consulted.  The  list  would  include  such  items 
as  medical  care  for  dependents  and  family 
planning  services;  assistance  provided  by  the 
Navy  Relief  Society;  tuition  aid;  officer 
programs;  benefits  such  as  retirement, 
Servicemen's  Group  Life  Insurance,  and 
mortgage  insurance;  proficiency  pay;  and 
perhaps  social  security  and  dependent's 
indemnity  compensation  (DICOMP)  in  event  of 
the  servicemember's  death.  Almost  all  of  these 
topics  are  covered  by  various  instructions  issued 
through  the  Navy  Directives  System. 
Personnelman  3&2  (NAVEDTRA  10254-C) 
also  covers  these  as  well  as  other  topics 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraphs. 

Once  he  has  a  list  of  topics  compiled,  the 
division  officer  should,  if  time  permits,  read  the 
applicable  instructions  and  jot  down  for  future 
reference  all  pertinent  information  on  each 
subject  (the  career  counseling  manual  is  an 
excellent  guide  in  this  respect).  Thus,  he  will 
have  the  necessary  data  readily  available  when 
called  on  to  act  as  counselor. 

Being  prepared  will  enable  the  division 
officer  to  counsel  his  personnel  without 
referring  them  to  other  offices.  Such  individual 
assistance  and  concern  for  the  Navy's  goals  of 
human  awareness  generate  respect  for  and 
confidence  in  the  division  officer  and  the  Navy. 
Effective  counseling,  then,  can  create  attitudes 
which  will  contribute  to  increased  retention  of 
trained,  qualified  enlisted  personnel. 


FUNCTIONAL  ORGANIZATION 

A  standard  organization  and  regulations 
manual,  a  battle  organization  manual,  and  a 
watch,  quarter,  and  station  bill  are  required 
aboard  each  ship  to  ensure  that  the  ship's 
personnel  function  as  a  well-coordinated  team. 
These  guides  detail  for  that  particular  ship  the 
assignment  of  officers  and  men  in  the 


Chapter  13-SHIPBOARD  ORGANIZATION 


performance  of  their  duties.  For  units  under  the 
Ship's  Manning  Document  (SMD)  or  the 
Squadron  Manning  Document  (SQMD),  the 
particular  publication  also  serves  as  a  battle 
organization  manual  and  battle  bill. 

STANDARD  ORGANIZATION 
AND  REGULATIONS  MANUAL 

The  standard  organization  and  regulations 
manual  which,  although  a  general  directive,  has 
the  force  and  effect  of  regulations,  outlines  in  a 
specific  manner  the  ship's  organization.  It 
contains  the  administrative,  operational,  and 
emergency  bills  necessary  to  provide  for  almost 
any  contingency.  Routine  work  and  other 
details  of  duty  to  be  performed  by  or  assigned 
to  the  several  divisions  also  are  set  forth. 

BATTLE  ORGANIZATION 

MANUAL 

In  order  for  commanding  officers  to  fight 
their  ships  to  the  best  of  their  abilities,  it  is 
essential  that  ships  have  a  special  organization 
and  a  special  system  of  communications  for 
battle  conditions.  These  are  set  forth  in  the 
battle  organization  manual.  This  document 
contains  four  chapters  describing  battle 
organization,  conditions  of  readiness,  battle  bill, 
and  interior  communications  systems. 

The  chapter  on  battle  organization  discusses 
chain  of  command;  control  of  ship,  armament, 
communications,  aircraft,  casualties,  etc.;  and 
doctrines  necessary  to  fight  the  ship. 

The  chapter  on  conditions  of  readiness 
covers  considerations  affecting  the  selection  of 
the  proper  condition  of  readiness  and  measures 
that  individual  ships  take  to  comply  with  the 
specified  condition. 

There  are  several  conditions  of  readiness  for 
battle  or  for  simulated  war  operations.  The 
condition  in  operation  depends  on  the 
anticipated  danger. 

Condition  Watch  I:  the  maximum  state  of 
readiness  for  battle,  with  the  entire  crew  at 
battle  stations  prepared  for  imminent  action. 

Condition  Watch  IE:  a  condition  to  provide 
temporary  relaxation  from  the  first  degree  of 


readiness,  to  enable  personnel  to  rest  on 
stations,  and  to  permit  designated  personnel  to 
draw  and  distribute  action  meals  at  their  action 
stations. 

Condition  Watch  II:  a  special  watch 
applicable  to  gunfire  support  ships  for  situations 
such  as  extended  periods  of  shore 
bombardment 

Condition  Watch  III:  normal  wartime 
cruising  condition  when  surprise  attack  is 
possible.  Part  of  the  armament  is  manned  and 
ready  for  immediate  action. 

Condition  Watch  IV:  that  condition  to 
provide  effective  ship  and  aircraft  control  during 
peacetime  cruising. 

Condition  Watch  V:  ship  in  port,  no 
armament  manned. 

The  battle  bill  is  the  ship's  organized  plan 
for  action  against  the  enemy.  It  lists  the  stations 
which  must  be  manned  under  battle  conditions 
and  for  various  condition  watches  and  indicates 
the  personnel  requirements  for  manning  those 
stations.  Assignments  to  those  stations  are  made 
according  to  billet  numbers,  which  means  that 
rates  are  assigned,  rather  than  individuals,  to  the 
stations.  Division  officers  of  indicated  divisions, 
taking  into  account  personal  qualifications,  then 
assign  individuals  to  the  billets  and  enter  the 
names  on  the  divisions'  watch,  quarter,  and 
station  bills. 

Chapter  four  of  the  battle  organization 
manual  provides  descriptive  information  on  the 
various  interior  communication  systems  which 
include  alarms  and  warning  devices,  battle 
announcing  systems,  sound-powered  telephone 
circuits,  ship  service  telephones,  and  voice  tubes. 

WATCHES  AND 
WATCH  OFFICERS 

The  assignment  of  officers  and  enlisted 
personnel  to  watches  and  sections  within  a 
division  is  carried  out  in  a  manner  that  ensures 
effective  manning  of  the  battle  stations  required 
to  meet  the  several  prescribed  conditions  of 
readiness  for  action.  Consideration  is  given  to 
the  fact  that  the  normal  watches  may  be  kept 
and  that  the  force  on  board  at  any  time  is 
sufficient  and  is  organized  to  care  for  the  safety, 
operation,  and  maintenance  of  the  ship. 


301 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


With  the  exception  of  the  commanding 
officer  and  the  executive  officer,  every  officer 
and  every  enlisted  person  aboard  is  placed  in  a 
watch  section.  The  personnel  filling  the  offices 
and  stations  of  the  watch  are  temporarily 
removed  from  their  regular  stations  and  duties  in 
the  ship's  organization,  and  devote  their  entire 
attention  to  their  watch  duties. 

A  watch  officer  is  placed  in  charge  of  a  watch 
or  a  portion  of  a  watch.  The  commanding 
officer  assigns  to  such  duty  any  commissioned 
or  warrant 'officer  whom  he  considers  qualified; 
he  may,  when  conditions  require,  assign  a  petty 
officer  to  such  duty.  The  station  of  an  officer  in 
charge  of  the  watch  is  where  he  can  best 
perform  the  duties  assigned  him,  and  effectively 
supervise  and  control  the  performance  of  those 
on  watch  under  him.  He  must  remain  at  his 
station  until  relieved. 

Each  watch  section  is  approximately  equal 
in  number  and  in  experience  and  special 
qualifications  of  its  members.  In  the  past  there 
were  normally  three  sections.  CNO  directives 
have  allowed  a  more  liberal  policy  in 
determining  the  number  of  watch  sections 
required. 

At  sea,  watchkeeping  rotates  among  the 
watches.  Each  watchkeeping  detail  normally 
lasts  4  hours.  Those  not  on  watch  or  at  battle 
stations  engage  in  ship's  work,  drills,  recreation, 
and  rest.  Under  battle  conditions  the  ship  is  at 
general  quarters  and  all  officers  and  enlisted 
personnel  have  assigned  battle  stations. 

In  port,  after  working  hours  (usually  from 
1 600  to  0800),  the  watches  not  having  the  day's 
duty  may  have  permission  to  go  on  liberty.  The 
sections  in  the  duty  watch  rotate  the 
watchkeeping  details  over  the  24-hour  period. 
The  general  practice  is  to  have  at  least  a  sixth  of 
the  personnel  on  board  at  all  times  although  this 
practice  varies  with  conditions.  A  ship  in 
drydock,  for  example,  may  not  need  a  sixth  of 
the  personnel  on  board,  whereas  in  port  in  a 
battle  area,  most  of  the  personnel  would  be 
required  to  stay  on  board. 

Officer  of 
the  Deck 

The  officer  of  the  deck  (OOD)  is  the  officer 
on  watch  in  charge  of  the  ship.  With  the 


exception  of  the  executive  officer  (and  any 
officer  specifically  authorized  by  the 
commanding  officer,  such  as  the  command  duty 
officer  or  navigator),  every  person  on  board  who 
is  subject  to  the  orders  of  the  commanding 
officer  is  subordinate  to  the  officer  of  the  deck. 

The  executive  officer  may  direct  the  OOD  in 
matters  pertaining  to  general  duties  and  safety 
of  the  ship.  When  the  captain  considers  it 
advisable,  he  also  may  delegate  to  another 
officer  (command  duty  officer),  for  a  specified 
watch,  the  executive  officer's  duties  in 
connection  with  the  officer  of  the  deck.  In 
addition,  the  commanding  officer  may  authorize 
the  navigator  to  relieve  the  officer  of  the  deck  if 
in  his  opinion  such  action  is  necessary  to  ensure 
the  safety  of  the  ship. 

The  OOD  must  have  complete  knowledge  of 
and  follow  absolutely  the  policies  of  the  captain 
and  the  executive  officer.  In  no  position  more 
than  that  of  officer  of  the  deck  is  eternal 
vigilance  the  price  of  safety.  The  comfort  and 
contentment  of  others  must  receive  his 
consideration,  and  he  must  bear  in  mind  that 
every  request  handled  is  a  potential 
troublemaker  if  not  properly  decided.  By  his 
bearing,  alertness,  scrupulous  attention  to  details 
of  duty,  and  capable  manner  of  discharging 
authority,  the  officer  of  the  deck  is  a  vital  factor 
in  furthering  the  efficiency  of  the  ship.  He 
exerts  an  important  influence  upon  the 
personnel. 

Underway,  the  OOD  takes  a  position  on  the 
bridge  where  he  may  advantageously  determine 
the  proper  action  for  the  safe  handling  of  the 
ship.  In  port,  his  station  is  on  the  quarterdeck. 

An  officer  of  the  deck  is  the  commanding 
officer's  representative.  It  takes  months  of 
practice  and  experience  to  become  proficient  in 
the  performance  of  the  duties  of  this  position. 
He  should  have  a  sound  basis  of  technical 
knowledge  combined  with  forehandedness, 
vigilance,  commonsense,  and  experience.  He 
must  also  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
rules  of  the  road.  The  small  volume,  Watch 
Officer's  Guide,  is  an  invaluable  help  to  the 
young  officer  of  the  deck. 

He  may  be  assisted  by  a  junior  officer  of  the 
deck  (JOOD)  who  in  this  way  acquires  the 
experience  necessary  for  standing  regular 
watches  as  OOD. 


3D? 


i  j— 


NAVIGATIONAL      RESPONSIBILITIES.  - 

The  OOD  is  charged  with  responsibility  for 
the  ship's  safety.  When  at  sea  and  especially 
when  approaching  land  or  shoal  waters,  he 
is  required  to  keep  himself  informed  of  the 
position  of  the  ship  and  of  all  particulars 
that  may  be  of  use  in  keeping  the  ship  out  of 
danger.  He  must  be  able  to  anticipate  danger  as 
well  as  to  take  effective  measures  for  avoiding  it. 
During  low  visibility,  or  whenever  circumstances 
warrant,  he  is  authorized  to  assign  additional 
lookouts. 

He  must  see  to  it  that  the  lights  required  by 
law  for  prevention  of  collisions  are  correct  as  to 
number,  color,  and  location,  and  that  they  are 
kept  burning  from  sunset  to  sunrise.  Half-hourly 
inspections  must  be  made  in  this  regard. 

When  his  ship  is  steaming  in  formation,  its 
assigned  station  must  be  maintained.  It  must  be 
skillfully  steered  and  kept  on  its  course.  The 
navigator  advises  the  OOD  of  a  safe  course  to  be 
followed  and  he  regards  such  advice  as  sufficient 
authority  to  change  the  course.  Otherwise,  he  is 
not  authorized  to  change  either  course  or  speed 
unless  ordered  by  the  commanding  officer  or 
unless  such  action  is  necessary  to  comply  with 
maneuvering  signals  of  the  officer  in  tactical 
command,  or  to  prevent  collision  or  imminent 
danger.  In  any  instance  he  must  inform  the 
commanding  officer  at  once  of  any  change 
made.  (Minor  changes  in  course  and  speed  to 
maintain  station,  however,  need  not  be  referred 
to  the  captain.)  Further,  he  is  not  authorized  to 
make  official  signals  unless  the  captain  orders 
them  or  unless  they  are  necessary  to  warn  others 
in  company  of  immediate  danger. 

BOATS. -The  officer  of  the  deck  ensures 
that  boats  and  crews  at  all  times  present  a 
creditable  appearance;  that  boats  are  handled 
smartly,  properly  manned  and  equipped,  and  are 
not  loaded  beyond  their  capacity.  Crews  must 
observe  rules  for  preventing  collisions  and 
regulations  pertaining  to  honors  and  ceremonies. 
They  must  understand  how  to  use  the  boats  and 
observe  pertinent  safety  precautions. 

Other  boats  or  aircraft  sighted  must  be 
watched  so  that  aid  may  be  sent  to  them  if 
necessary.  The  OOD  must  be  informed  of  any 
boats  or  other  craft  that  come  alongside  or  leave 
the  ship.  When  materials  or  services  arrive  that 


require  the  knowledge  or  action  of  certain 
officers,  the  OOD  ensures  that  these  officers  are 
promptly  notified. 

INSPECTIONS. -The  officer  of  the  deck  has 
frequent  inspections  made  to  ensure  the  security 
of  the  ship.  Inspections  extend  to  matters  such 
as  watertight  integrity  and  condition  of  the 
armament  and  ground  tackle  or  mooring  lines  in 
use.  The  good  order  and  discipline  of  the  crew 
must  be  noted  by  him.  Inspections  below  decks 
may  be  made  by  the  junior  officer  of  the  deck. 

When  in  port,  coxswains  of  the  lifeboats  are 
required  to  inspect  and  report  to  him  at  sunset 
the  condition  of  their  boats  as  to  readiness  for 
service.  At  sea,  a  similar  inspection  and  report  is 
made  to  him  at  the  beginning  of  each  watch. 

When  at  anchor  the  officer  of  the  deck  must 
take  proper  precautions  to  detect  and  prevent 
dragging. 

REPORTS.-On  being  relieved,  the  OOD 
signs  the  deck  log  after  making  certain  that  the 
entries  for  his  watch  are  complete,  accurate,  and 
clear. 

In  matters  that  bear  on  the  safety  of  the 
ship,  its  personnel,  or  ships  in  company,  he 
reports  promptly  to  the  captain.  Vessels, 
aircraft,  or  wrecks  detected;  land,  shoals,  rocks, 
lighthouses,  beacons,  or  buoys  sighted;  marked 
changes  in  barometer,  wind,  state  of  the  sea;  or 
indications  or  warning  of  storms— in  short,  all 
occurrences  worthy  of  the  notice  of  the 
commanding  officer— are  reported  to  him  by  the 
officer  of  the  deck. 

Personnel  aboard  are  required  to  report  to 
the  OOD  any  occurrence  or  condition  that  may 
in  any  way  affect  the  safety  of  the  ship,  or  that 
should  be  included  in  the  record  for  his  watch. 

MISCELLANEOUS  DUTIES. -At  various 
times  the  officer  of  the  deck  may  function  as  an 
alert  policeman  or  as  a  gracious  host.  The 
personnel  performing  their  assigned  duties  about 
the  ship  are  constantly  under  his  observation, 
for  he  is  responsible  for  prompt  and  precise 
execution  of  the  ship's  established  routine  and 
of  any  special  orders.  He  must  see  that  the 
personnel  observe  all  pertinent  safety 
precautions,  especially  in  heavy  weather  and 


303 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


when  they  are  working  aloft  or  over  the  side. 
Their  safety  when  they  are  handling  explosives 
or  other  dangerous  materials  is  his  responsibility. 
He  must  ensure  that,  if  the  cry,  "Man 
overboard!"  is  heard,  the  means  for  rescue  are 
ready  for  instant  use. 

He  is  required  to  take  measures  for 
preventing  personnel  from  bringing  aboard 
unauthorized  articles.  He  sees  that  no  articles  are 
taken  from  the  ship  without  requisite 
permission.  Personnel  over  whom  he  has 
authority  report  to  him  or  to  his  representative 
on  leaving  or  returning  to  the  ship.  On  leaving, 
they  must  report  authority  to  do  so. 

All  persons  coming  aboard  or  alongside  must 
be  treated  courteously.  Unless  prevented  by 
urgent  duty,  the  officer  of  the  deck  is  expected 
to  be  at  the  gangway  to  receive  all  officers  or 
distinguished  visitors.  When  they  leave,  he 
accompanies  them  to  the  side.  When  salutes, 
honors,  and  ceremonies  are  in  order,  the  officer 
of  the  deck  sees  that  they  are  properly 
performed. 


Engineering  Officer 
of  the  Watch 


The  engineering  officer  of  the  watch  is  the 
officer  on  watch  in  charge  of  the  ship's  main 
propulsion  plant  and  of  associated  auxiliaries. 
He  ensures  that  the  engineering  log,  the 
engineer's  bell  book,  and  the  prescribed 
operating  records  are  properly  kept,  and  that  all 
orders  received  from  the  officer  of  the  deck  are 
promptly  and  properly  executed. 

He  may  be  directed  in  the  duties  of  the 
watch  by  the  engineer  officer  or  the  main 
propulsion  assistant,  either  of  whom  may 
assume  charge  of  the  watch  if  they  consider  such 
action  necessary.  The  engineering  officer  of  the 
watch  reports  to  the  officer  of  the  deck  and  to 
the  engineer  officer  any  defects  of  machinery, 
boiler,  or  auxiliaries  that  may  affect  the  proper 
operation  of  the  ship.  He  makes  frequent 
inspections  of  engines  and  boilers  and  sees  that 
all  relevant  safety  precautions  are  observed. 
When  relieved,  he  signs  the  engineering  log  and 
the  engineer's  bell  book  for  his  watch. 


WATCH,  QUARTER, 
AND  STATION  BILL 

Each  division  officer  is  responsible  for 
maintaining  a  watch,  quarter,  and  station  bill  for 
the  personnel  in  his  division.  This  is  based  on  the 
ship's  battle  bill  and  the  organization  and 
regulations  manual;  it  shows  each  person's  name, 
rate,  billet  number,  and  bunk  number.  In 
addition,  it  shows  each  person's  battle  station; 
his  watches  during  Conditions  1,  2,  and  3;  his 
station  or  duty  in  the  event  of  an  emergency 
such  as  fire  or  man  overboard;  his  at-sea  and  in- 
port  watch  station;  and  his  cleaning  station. 

LOGS 

A  ship's  deck  log  and  an  engineering  log  are 
maintained  by  each  ship  in  commission.  An 
engineer's  bell  book  is  required  as  an  adjunct  to 
those  logs. 

No  erasures  may  be  made  in  these  records. 
Corrections,  additions,  or  changes  are  made  only 
by  the  person  required  to  sign  the  record  for  the 
watch.  Changes  requested  by  the  commanding 
officer  are  made  by  the  person  keeping  the  log 
only  if  he  considers  them  correct;  otherwise  the 
commanding  officer  enters  over  his  signature 
such  remarks  as  he  deems  appropriate. 

Ship's  Deck  Log 

The  ship's  deck  log  is  a  complete  daily 
record,  by  watches,  in  which  is  described  every 
circumstance  and  occurrence  of  importance  or 
interest  that  concerns  the  crew  and  the  operation 
and  safety  of  the  ship,  or  that  may  be  of 
historical  value.  The  navigator  has  overall 
responsibility  for  preparation  and  care  of  the 
ship's  deck  log.  The  type  of  material  to  be  noted 
includes  data  such  as  the  ship's  operating  orders, 
its  courses  and  speeds,  position,  state  of  the  sea 
and  weather,  damage  or  accident  to  the  ship  or 
its  cargo,  deaths  or  injuries  to  personnel,  records 
of  meeting  or  adjourning  of  courts-martial  and 
other  formal  boards,  and  changes  in  the  status  of 
ship's  personnel  or  passengers.  Reports  of  all 
routine  inspections  must  be  entered  in  the  log 
which  thus  serves  as  a  record  of  whether  or  not 


Chapter  13-SHIPBOARD  ORGANIZATION 


such  inspections  are  made.  The  manner  and  form 
for  preparing  the  log  are  prescribed  in 
OPNAVINST3100.7. 

The  ship's  deck  log,  as  a  chronological 
record  of  the  events  occurring  during  each 
watch;  provides  necessary  information  to  the 
commanding  officer  and  ultimately  serves  as  a 
historical  document.  Accuracy  in  describing 
events  recorded  in  a  ship's  deck  log  is  essential 
because  such  entries  often  constitute  important 
legal  evidence  in  judicial  and  administrative 
factfinding  proceedings  arising  from  incidents 
involving  the  ship  or  its  personnel. 

Engineering  Log 

The  engineering  log  is  a  complete  daily 
record,  by  watches,  of  important  events  and 
data  pertaining  to  the  engineering  department 
and  the  operation  of  the  ship's  propulsion  plant. 
The  Commander,  Naval  Sea  Systems  Command, 
prescribes  the  manner  and  the  form  to  be 
employed  in  preparing  the  log. 

The  engineer's  bell  book  is  a  chronological 
record  of  orders  pertaining  to  the  speed  of  the 
engines.  It  shows,  for  each  shaft  to  which  it 
pertains,  the  time  each  order  regarding  a 
change  in  propeller  speed  is  received,  the 
meaning  of  such  order,  and  the  revolutions  per 
minute  resulting  from  action  taken  in  obedience 
to  such  order.  Entries  in  the  bell  book  are  made 
at  the  time  of  receipt  of  each  order. 

LIVING  QUARTERS 
AND  MESSES 

The  space  provided  for  officers'  living 
quarters  usually  is  located  near  the  wardroom. 


This  part  of  the  ship  is  called  "officers' 
country."  Senior  officers,  if  accommodations 
permit,  are  assigned  individual  staterooms. 
Junior  officers  share  staterooms  or  are  assigned 
to  a  bunkroom.  Warrant  officers  are  usually 
furnished  accommodations  similar  to  those  of 
junior  officers,  and  the  chief  petty  officers  are 
bunked  together  in  separate  compartments. 
Other  enlisted  personnel  are  bunked  in  large 
compartments  containing  tiered  bunks  and 
metal  lockers. 

Messes  on  flagships  normally  are  six  in 
number.  These  messes  are  in  general  as  follows: 

Flag  mess:  for  the  admiral. 

Captain's  mess:  for  the  captain. 

Wardroom  mess:  for  other  officers  of  the 
grade  of  ensign  and  above. 

Warrant  officers'  mess:  for  warrant  and  chief 
warrant  officers.  (May  be  combined  with  the 
wardroom  mess.) 

Chief  petty  officers'  mess:  for  all  chief  petty 
officers. 

General  mess:  for  all  enlisted  personnel 
except  chief  petty  officers.  On  large  ships  there 
usually  is  a  messing  compartment  set  aside  for 
the  use  of  first  class  petty  officers,  but  the  food 
is  supplied  by  the  general  mess.  (Enlisted 
personnel  are  furnished  their  food  by  the 
Government.  Officers  must  pay  for  their  food 
since  they  are  paid  a  subsistence  allowance  to 
cover  the  cost  of  meals.) 

On  smaller  vessels,  messes  are  combined.  For 
example,  on  a  destroyer  there  would  be  a 
wardroom  mess,  a  chief  petty  officers'  mess,  and 
a  general  mess. 


305 


CHAPTER  14 


SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


Major  factors  to  be  considered  in  the 
construction  of  any  naval  combatant  ship  are 
mission,  armament,  protection,  seaworthiness, 
strength,  stability,  maneuverability,  and  cruising 
range. 

The  mission  of  a  combatant  ship  is  a  prime 
determinant  in  the  construction  planning  for 
that  ship.  As  an  example,  for  an  ASW  destroyer 
the  sonar  gear,  associated  detection  gear, 
weapons,  and  required  personnel  are  the  basic 
units  about  which  a  hull  is  constructed.  The 
need  for  ships  of  different  sizes  and  shapes 
within  a  type,  that  is,  the  variance  between  two 
such  ships  as  a  guided-missile  destroyer  and  an 
ASW  destroyer,  is  an  indication  of  the  required 
mission. 

Armament  is  the  gage  by  which  the  offensive 
power  of  a  ship  is  measured.  Normally  we  think 
of  armament  as  meaning  guns,  torpedoes, 
missiles,  etc.  Depending  on  the  ship's  mission, 
however,  the  term  also  includes  aircraft  used  for 
offensive  purposes  and  landing  craft  (such  as 
LCVPs  and  LCMs)  suitable  for  amphibious 
operations. 

Protection  comprises  those  features  that  are 
provided  to  thwart  or  minimize  effects  of  enemy 
attack.  Included  in  this  category  are  such 
protective  installations  as  horizontal  and  vertical 
ballistic  plating  (armor),  and  internal  subdivision 
by  longitudinal  (in  large  ships)  and  transverse 
bulkheads  for  limiting  the  spread  of  flooding 
caused  by  damage.  Side  protective  systems  for 
protection,  against  weapons  such  as  torpedoes 
also  are  found  in  large  ships. 

Seaworthiness  is  the  term  used  to  describe  a 
ship's  ability  to  operate  in  all  kinds  of  wind, 
weather,  and  seas.  Again,  the  ability  of  a  ship  to 


accomplish  her  assigned  mission  must  be 
considered  in  the  proper  evaluation  of 
seaworthiness.  Stability,  size,  and  freeboard  are 
controlling  factors. 

Stability  concerns  the  ability  of  the  ship  to 
return  to  an  upright  position  when  heeled  over 
by  an  external  force.  This  is  a  partial  measure  of 
the  ship's  ability  to  absorb  punishment  involving 
underwater  damage  and  flooding.  In  addition, 
stability  has  an  important  influence  on  the 
period  of  roll  which,  to  some  extent,  determines 
a  ship's  utility  as  a  weapons  or  aircraft  platform. 

Maneuverability  is  the  characteristic  which 
permits  rapid  changes  of  course  and  speed  and 
includes  the  ability  to  turn  in  a  small  radius.  The 
need  for  maneuverability  varies  considerably  for 
the  various  types  of  ships,  from  the  highly 
maneuverable  CVs  and  DDs  to  the  slower 
moving  auxiliary  and  amphibious-type  ships. 

Speed  is  determined  by  the  displacement  of 
the  ship,  its  underwater  shape,  and  the  power 
and  efficiency  of  the  propulsion  plant. 

Cruising  range,  also  called  endurance,  is  the 
unsupported  distance  capability  of  a  ship 
measured  in  nautical  miles  at  various  speeds.  It  is 
determined  by  fuel  capacity,  freshwater 
capacity,  evaporator  capacity,  efficiency  of  the 
propulsion  plant  with  respect  to  fuel 
consumption,  and  provision  capacity  (dependent 
on  storage  space  and  refrigeration). 

Obviously  these  qualities  are  not 
independent  of  each  other.  For  example,  a 
change  in  speed  requirements  affects 
considerably  the  cruising  range.  Heavy  ballastic 
plating  reduces  the  proportion  of  weight  that 
can  be  used  for  machinery,  and  tends  to  reduce 
maximum  speed. 


306 


Chapter  14-SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


The  designer  of  a  ship  tries  to  incorporate  as 
many  favorable  features  as  possible,  in  keeping 
with  the  general  use  to  which  the  ship  will  be 
put.  All  ships  represent  a  compromise  in  which 
some  factors  must  dominate  others.  Destroyers, 
for  example,  sacrifice  protection  for  speed.  A 
very  important  consideration  in  all  types  of 
ships  is  the  habitability  features  that  must  be 
incorporated  for  the  comfort  of  personnel 
manning  the  ships. 


DESIGNING  AND 
PLANNING  STAGES 

The  Naval  Sea  Systems  Command 
(NAVSEASYSCOM)  is  responsible  for  design, 
procurement,  and  construction  of  ships  of  the 
Navy.  New  designs,  as  requested  by  CNO  and 
approved  by  SECNAV,  are  developed  by 
NAVSEASYSCOM  in  consultation  with  other 
appropriate  offices.  Consultations  encompass  all 
matters  affecting  the  required  military  and 
functional  characteristics  of  the  proposed  vessels 
and  current  engineering  improvements. 

The  design  of  a  ship  is  accomplished  in  four 
distinct  stages  with  an  increase  in  the  extent  of 
drawings  in  each  successive  stage.  These  stages 
are  inception,  conceptual  design,  contract 
design,  and  working  drawings. 

INCEPTION 


feasibility  studies.  Finally  a  set  of  tentative 
characteristics  for  the  ship  is  prepared  and 
submitted  to  the  Chief  of  Naval  Operations. 

CONCEPTUAL  DESIGN 

The  Concept  Design  Division  of  the  Naval 
Ship  Engineering  Center  (NAVSEC)  prepares  a 
set  of  drawings  and  data  sheets  showing 
principal  features  of  the  basic  design  based  on 
the  approved  ship  characteristics.  It  is  during 
this  stage  that  reasonably  firm  dimensions  are 
selected  that  define  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
hull,  and  the  Naval  Ship  Research  and 
Development  Center,  by  means  of  its  model 
basin  in  Carderock,  Md.,  tests  several  models  to 
determine  such  factors  as  the  propeller  design, 
the  actual  shaft  horsepower  required,  and  the 
hull  with  the  best  maneuvering  characteristics. 

CONTRACT  DESIGN 

Because  the  design  information  compiled 
thus  far  is  not  adequate  to  form  the  basis  of  a 
bid  from  a  shipbuilder,  every  element  of  the 
completed  preliminary  design  is  checked, 
refined,  and  redrawn  in  greater  detail  by  the 
Hull  Design  Division  of  NAVSEC.  The  work 
results  in  the  contract  drawings  and  ship 
specifications  that  become  an  integral  part  of 
the  contract  with  the  shipbuilder. 


The  Office  of  the  Chief  of  Naval  Operations 
(OPNAV),  taking  into  consideration  military 
requirements  and  the  budget,  determines  the 
number  and  types  of  ships  necessary  to  maintain 
an  adequate  naval  force  and  proposes  to  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  an  annual  shipbuilding 
program.  The  program  usually  will  entail  both 
new  construction  and  modernization  of  existing 
hulls  currently  in  service  or  in  reserve.  The 
request  for  a  new  design  usually  originates  in  the 
Ship  Characteristics  Board  of  OPNAV. 

Once  a  new  design  has  been  initiated, 
exploratory  studies  are  made  of  available  data, 
and  feasible  military  characteristics  are 
determined.  Assisting  in  this  work, 
NAVSEASYSCOM  prepares  many  design 


WORKING  DRAWINGS 

When  a  shipbuilder  has  signed  a  contract,  he, 
or  a  design  agent  he  hires,  prepares  the  working 
drawings  from  which  the  ship  will  be  built. 
These  drawings  reflect  the  guidance  he  has 
received  in  the  contract  drawings  and 
specifications. 


BASIC  SHIP  STRUCTURE 
PLATING 

A  ship   is  structurally   a  box  girder.  Shell 
plating  forms  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  box 


307 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


02  LEVEL 


MAIN  DECK 


FORECASTEL 
DECK  (01  LEVEL) 


3.95 


Figure  14-1.-Any  deck  or  portion  of  a  deck  that  is  exposed  to  the  elements  is  referred  to  as  a  weather  deck. 


girder  and  the  weather  deck  (figure  14-1)  forms 
the  top.  The  point  where  the  weather  deck 
(main  and  forecastle  decks)  and  the  side  plating 
meet  is  called  the  deck-edge  or  gunwale.  The 
location  where  the  bottom  plating  and  the  side 
plating  meet  is  called  the  bilge.  Usually  the 
bottom  is  rounded  into  the  side  of  the  ship  to 
some  degree;  this  rounding  is  called  the  turn  of 
the  bilge. 

Most  merchant  ships,  aircraft  carriers,  and 
auxiliary  ships  have  a  box-like  midship  section 
with  vertical  sides  and  a  flat  bottom,  as  in  figure 
14-2.  High-speed  ships  such  as  destroyers  and 
cruisers,  however,  have  rising  bottoms  and 
broad,  rounded  bilges,  although  this  shape  is  not 
entirely  responsible  for  their  high  speed. 

Individual  shell  plates  are  generally  rec- 
tangular in  shape;  the  short  sides  are  referred 
to  as  the  ends  and  the  long  sides  are  called  edges. 
End  joints  are  known  as  butts  and  edge  joints  as 
seams.  Plates  are  joined  together  at  the  butts  to 
form  long  strips  of  plating  running  lengthwise; 
these  fore-and-aft  rows  of  plating  are  called 
strakes.  The  uppermost  side  strake,  at  the 
gunwale,  is  the  sheer  strake;  this  is  an  important 
structural  member  of  the  ship  and  usually  is 
thicker  than  most  strakes  because  of  high 
stresses  at  these  corners  when  the  ship  is  bending 
over  wave  crests.  This  also  applies  to  the  outer 
weather-deck  strake,  known  as  the  stringer 
strake.  The  shell  plating,  together  with  the 


weather  deck,  forms  the  watertight  envelope  of 
the  ship  and  is  a  major  contributor  to  the 
strength  of  the  hull  structure-a  capacity 
enhanced  by  the  internal  structural  members  of 
the  hull. 

KEEL 

An  important  structural  member  of  a  ship  is 
the  keel,  which  runs  the  length  of  the  ship's 
bottom  from  stem  to  stern  post.  It  acts  as  a 
backbone,  performing  a  function  similar  to  that 
of  the  human  spine.  The  keel  of  a  metal  ship 
does  not  project  below  the  bottom  as  does  the 
fin  keel  of  a  sailboat,  but  lies  entirely  within  the 
ship.  It  is  built  up  of  plates  and  angles  into  an 
I-beam  shape.  The  lower  flange  of  the  I-beam 
structure  is  the  flat  plate  keel  that  forms  the 
center  strake  of  the  bottom  plating.  The  web  of 
the  I-beam  is  the  center  vertical  keel.  The  height 
of  the  center  vertical  keel  varies  from  about  2 
feet  in  small  ships  to  nearly  7  feet  in  large  ships. 
The  upper  flange  of  the  I-beam  is  called  the  rider 
plate.  If  the  vessel  is  fitted  with  an  inner 
bottom,  the  rider  plate  forms  the  center  strake 
of  the  inner  bottom  plating.  At  the  ends  of  the 
vessel  the  keel  is  joined  to  the  stem  and  stern 
posts  which  complete  the  backbone.  The  keel 
accepts  the  major  portion  of  load  during 
drydocking  of  the  ship. 


308 


The  shell  plating  is  assisted  in  resisting  the 
pressure  of  water,  wind,  and  wave  by  two  sets  of 
stiffening  members  called  frames.  Transverse 
frames  extend  from  the  keel  outward  around  the 
turn  of  the  bilge  and  up  the  sides  like  the  ribs  of 
a  human  skeleton.  They  are  closely  spaced  along 
the  length  of  the  ship  and  define  the  form  of  the 
ship.  Longitudinal  frames,  stringers,  or  more 
often  simply  longitudinals,  run  parallel  to  the 
keel  along  the  bottom,  bilge,  and  side  plating, 
and  tie  the  transverse  frames  and  bulkheads 
together  along  the  length  of  the  ship. 


the  other.  Those  which  are  not  cut  are  known  as 
continuous  frames.  Where  smaller  frames  butt 
into  larger  frames  without  being  continuous, 
they  are  called  intercostal  frames.  This  gives  rise 
to  two  important  ways  of  building  a  ship.  One 
method  is  to  make  the  transverse  rib-like  frames 
continuous  and  make  the  longitudinals 
intercostal  between  them,  or  provide  sufficient 
plating  thickness  and  eliminate  longitudinal 
members  altogether.  In  this  method  the 
transverse  frames  are  spaced  about  every  2  feet 
along  the  length  of  the  ship.  Most  merchant 


STRINGER 
STRAKE 


INNER    BOTTOM   PLATING 


TRANSVERSE 
FRAME 


BUTT 
CONNECTION 

SEAM 
CONNECTION 


STANCHION 


LONGITUDINAL 
FRAME 


'A"     STRAKE 


KEEL 


3.92 


Figure  14-2.— The  ship's  basic  structure. 
309 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


cargo  ships  and  wooden  ships  are  built  in  this 
fashion  and  they  are  known  as  transversely 
framed  vessels.  The  alternate  method  is  to  allow 
the  longitudinals  to  remain  continuous  along  the 
length  of  the  ship.  The  longitudinals  are  quite 
numerous,  but  the  transverse  frames  are  spaced 
farther  apart.  Most  naval  ships  are  built  this  way 
and  are  known  as  longitudinally  framed  ships. 
While  it  is  a  more  difficult  form  of  construction, 
ships  so  built  are  stronger  for  a  given  weight 
than  those  that  are  transversely  framed,  because 
the  plating  loaded  on  the  short  edges  has  a 
higher  buckling  strength  to  resist  the  loads. 

INNER  BOTTOM  AND 
TORPEDO  PROTECTION 

The  two  sets  of  stiffening  frames,  transverses 
and  longitudinals,  crisscross  each  other  like  a 
grating.  When  the  frames  are  designed  as  deep 
plate  members,  like  the  keel,  they  form  a 
box-like  framework  similar  to  a  honeycomb. 
This  method  of  designing  the  bottom  is  called 
grillage  (cellular)  construction.  The  transverse 
frames  are  called  floors  when  they  are  designed 
as  deep  girders.  The  longitudinal  frames  are  still 
called  longitudinals.  On  ships  larger  than 
destroyers,  the  grillage  double  bottom  is  usually 
covered  by  a  layer  of  watertight  plating,  called 
the  inner  bottom  or  tank  top,  that  provides  a 
barrier  against  flooding  in  the  event  that  the 
outer  bottom  is  ruptured.  It  also  contributes 
greatly  to  the  strength  of  the  ship  and  encloses 
the  grid  bottom  spaces,  thus  forming  a  series  of 
tanks  in  which  are  carried  fuel  oil,  freshwater, 
and  ballast.  Each  tank  is  composed  of  several 
cells  of  the  double  bottom.  The  floors  which 
form  the  partitions  of  the  tanks  are  watertight 
or  oiltight  and  are  called  solid  floors.  The  floors 
within  the  tank  have  large  holes  (called 
lightening  holes)  cut  in  them  both  to  save  weight 
and  to  allow  access  to  various  parts  of  the  tank. 
Such  floors  are  called  open  or  lightened  floors. 
This  system  of  outer  bottom  (or  shell  plating), 
inner  bottom  plating,  and  grillage  double 
bottom  results  in  a  tremendously  strong 
structure. 

The  double  bottoms  in  a  merchant-type  ship 
extend  across  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  from 
bilge  to  bilge.  The  inner  bottom  or  tank  top  is 


flat  and  acts  as  the  bottom  of  the  cargo  holds. 
Destroyers  and  smaller  vessels  do  not  usually 
have  two  bottoms.  Cruisers  have  an  extensive 
double-bottom  system  that  extends  from  the 
keel  around  the  bilge  and  up  the  side  to  above 
the  waterline.  Large  aircraft  carriers  have  the 
most  extensive  double-bottom  systems  afloat. 

Figure  14-3  shows  side  protective  systems 
that  have  been  developed  as  a  result  of  extensive 
research,  experimentation,  tests,  and  practical 
experience  with  heavy  ships  hit  by  torpedoes. 
The  inboard  bulkhead  is  called  the  holding 
bulkhead;  it  is  expected  to  withstand  damage 
and  deflection  without  leakage,  even  though 
bulkheads  outboard  of  it  are  ruptured. 

When  an  explosion  occurs,  the  shell  is 
ruptured  with  great  force.  As  the  distance  into 
the  ship  increases,  the  destruction  of  structure 
diminishes.  The  intent  of  the  design  is  to 
construct  the  system  so  that  each  of  the  side 
protective  bulkheads  will  deflect  as  far  as 
possible,  and  in  conjunction  with  the  foam 
absorb  a  maximum  of  the  energy  of  the 
explosion  before  rupture  occurs.  This  so 
weakens  the  effect  of  the  explosion  that  by  the 
time  the  remaining  force  acts  upon  the  holding 
bulkhead,  the  latter  is  strong  enough  to 
withstand  the  resulting  distortion  without 
failure.  Thus,  flooding  of  the  vital  inboard 
spaces  is  prevented  (although  wing  voids  may 
flood  over  a  considerable  length). 

At  the  same  time,  it  is  necessary  to  suppress 
fragmentation  and  flash.  Experience  has  proved 
that  one  layer  of  liquid,  either  oil  or  water 
(several  feet  in  transverse  depth),  is  required  to 
prevent  large  fragments  of  shell  plating  and 
other  material  from  penetrating,  causing 
fragment  damage  to  interior  bulkheads  with 
consequent  extension  of  flooding. 

BULKHEADS 

The  interior  of  the  ship  is  divided  into 
compartments  by  vertical  bulkheads  (walls)  that 
are  either  watertight  or  merely  partitions  called 
joiner  bulkheads.  Structural  bulkheads  give  the 
ship  contour,  shape,  rigidity,  and  strength;  and 
they  serve  to  divide  the  ship  into  numerous 
watertight  compartments.  They  may  be 


Chapter  14-SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


SHELL 


V-VOID 

L-LIQUID  STOWAGE 

F-FOAMED-IN-PLACE  PLASTIC 


3.93 


Figure  14-3.— Principle  of  the  side  protective  system  used  in  some  large  ships. 


transverse  bulkheads  extending  athwartships,  or 
longitudinal  bulkheads  extending  fore  and  aft. 
They  not  only  subdivide  the  ship  but  tie  the 
shell  plating,  framing,  and  decks  together  in  a 
rigid  structure.  Transverse  bulkheads  are 
numbered  to  correspond  with  the  transverse 
frames  at  which  they  are  located. 

BENTS 

Decks  over  large  open  spaces,  such  as  hangar 
bays  on  aircraft  carriers,  are  supported  by 
transverse  frames  called  bents,  which  are 
inverted  U-shaped  structures.  On  carriers,  the 
transverse  section  of  the  bent  is  formed  by 
bulkheads  between  the  flight  and  gallery  decks. 
Because  of  the  critical  nature  of  the  bents, 
access  openings  in  them  are  restricted  in 
number,  size,  and  sill  height. 

DECKS 

The  ship  is  divided  by  a  series  of  decks  and 
platforms  into  tiers  of  compartments.  The  floor 


of  a  ship's  compartment  always  is  called  the 
deck  and  the  ceiling  always  is  called  the 
overhead.  (The  words  "floor"  and  "ceiling"  have 
other  meanings  on  board  ship.  As  already  noted, 
a  floor  is  a  transverse  partition  in  the  double 
bottoms.  The  ceiling  is  a  term  applied  to  the 
planking  with  which  the  inside  of  a  cargo  ship  is 
sheathed.) 

The  deck  normally  is  composed  of 
rectangular  steel  plates  joined  into  strakes 
similar  to  the  shell  plating.  The  plates  in  the 
outermost  strake  of  deck  plating  are  stringer 
plates.  These  are  connected  to  the  shell  plating 
and  are  important  structural  members  of  the 
ship.  Deck  plating  is  strengthened  by  transverse 
and  longitudinal  deck  beams  and  deck  girders  on 
the  underside  of  the  deck.  The  beams  and 
girders  usually  are  I-  or  T-beams  fastened  to  the 
shell  frames  by  means  of  triangular  steel 
brackets.  Decks  above  the  waterline  usually  are 
arched  (cambered)  so  that  they  are  higher  at  the 
centerline.  The  camber  aids  in  drainage  of  water. 

A  deck  is  named  in  two  ways:  by  its  position 
in  the  ship  and  by  its  use  or  function.  Decks 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


extending  from  side  to  side  and  from  stem  to 
stern  are  complete  decks;  decks  occurring  only 
in  certain  portions  of  the  vessel  are  partial  decks. 
The  uppermost  complete  deck  is  the  main  deck. 
The  complete  decks  below  this  (figure  14-4)  are 
the  second  deck,  third  deck,  etc.,  normally  being 
numbered  downward.  Partial  decks  that  do  not 
extend  continuously  from  bow  to  stern  have 
special  names  such  as: 

1.  Forecastle  deck:  A  partial  deck  above 
the  main  deck  at  the  bow.  Applicable  primarily 
to  merchant  ships.  Designated  01  level  on  naval 
ships. 

2.  Upper  deck:  Above  the  main  deck  from 
the  bow  to  abaft  amidships  on  merchant  ships. 
It  is  referred  to  in  naval  ships  as  the  01  level. 
Succeeding  levels  above  are  named  02  level,  03 
level,  etc. 

3.  Poop  deck:  Above  the  main  deck  in  the 
stern,  usually  only  in  merchant  ships.  Designated 
the  01  level  on  naval  ships. 

4.  Platform     deck:     Below     the     lowest 
complete     deck.     Platforms     are     numbered 
downward,  as  first  platform,  second  platform, 
and  so  on. 

Miscellaneous  working  platforms  or  flats 
consisting  of  gratings  are  located  in  the 
machinery  spaces  to  aid  in  the  access  to  and 
operation  of  the  ship's  propulsion  equipment. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  nomenclature, 
some  decks  are  known  by  names  describing  their 


use  of  function.  In  aircraft  carriers  (figure  14.5) 
the  uppermost  complete  deck  is  the  flight  deck, 
and  the  deck  immediately  below  it  is  the  gallery 
deck.  The  main  deck  is  known  as  the  hangar 
deck.  The  levels  or  decks  above  the  hangar 
(main)  deck  are  designated  levels,  such  as  on  CV 
59  and  later  carriers- 

01  level:  first  level  above  the  hangar. 

02  level:  second  level  above  the  hangar. 

The  gallery  and  flight  decks  are  also  known  as 
the  03  and  04  levels,  respectively. 


COMPARTMENTATION 

In  a  cargo  ship  there  are  few  decks  and 
bulkheads  are  widely  spaced.  The  resulting 
compartments  are  designated  by  their  primary 
purposes,  such  as  cargo  holds,  that  are  large 
enough  to  accommodate,  in  some  cases,  many 
tons  of  cargo.  Passenger  ships  have  smaller  holds, 
the  remainder  of  the  space  being  divided  by 
decks  and  bulkheads  into  smaller  living 
compartments  for  passengers.  Naval  ships  are 
more  extensively  compartmentcd  than  merchant 
ships  as  a  whole.  This  is  because  their  watertight 
compartmentation  is  more  than  a  matter  of 
dividing  or  segregating  various  activities  aboard 
ship.  The  ability  of  a  naval  ship  to  withstand 
damage  depends  largely  upon  its 
compartmentation.  In  case  of  damage,  the 
watertight  boundaries  of  the  compartments 


05 


s 

POOP  (01) 
\            V     MAIN  DECK 

SUPER-       I 
TRUCTURE  | 

UPPER 

04 

FORECASTLE 

(01) 

03 

02 

DECK     0  1 

MAIN   DECK      >/ 

__/" 

\ 

SECOND  DECK 

\ 

THIRD  DECK                               / 

\ 

BOILER 

AND 

FIRST  PLATFORM 

I 

V 

MACHINERY  SPACES 

SECOND  PLATFORM                        / 

1        ^"5^  ' 

HOLD                                     / 

*L 

^• 


DOUBLE  BOTTOMS 


Figure  14-4.-Decks  and  platforms  divide  the  ship  into  tiers  of  compartments. 


3.106 


restrict  floodwaters  and  stand  as  a  barrier 
between  them  and  the  undamaged  portion  of 
the  vessel.  Extensive  compartmentation  lessens 
the  amount  of  sea  water  which  will  enter  the 
vessel  through  a  rupture  in  its  shell  plating. 


WATERTIGHT  INTEGRITY 

If  a  compartment  is  not  watertight,  it  is 
useless  as  a  barrier  to  flooding  of  the  ship.  The 
quality  of  watertightness  is  known  as  watertight 


134.7 

Figure  14-5.-lt  takes  4000  men  about  3-1/2  years  to  create  a  carrier.  Still  far  from  completed,  some  46,000  tons  o 
steel,  175,000  gallons  of  paint,  and  3  million  feet  of  electrical  cable  have  been  used  in  the  partial  constructio 
of  this  CV. 


313 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


integrity.  The  higher  the  watertight  integrity  of 
a  compartment,  the  more  effectively  it  limits 
flooding.  The  battle  to  maintain  the  watertight 
integrity  of  the  ship  as  a  whole  is  a  complicated 
and  never-ceasing  one.  The  waking  hours  of  a 
considerable  number  of  any  ship's  crew  are 
concerned  in  one  way  or  another  with  the 
ceaseless  patrol  and  inspection  necessary  to  keep 
the  watertight  integrity  high  and  the  ship  in 
battle  trim. 

Boundaries  of  watertight  compartments  are 
pierced  by  doors  and  hatches,  and  by  countless 
holes  to  accommodate  water,  steam,  oil  and  air 
piping,  electric  cables,  ventilation  ducts,  and 
other  necessary  utilities.  Each  hole  is  plugged  by 
a  stuffing  tube,  pipe  spool,  or  other  device  to 
prevent  water  from  leaking  in  around  piping  and 
cables.  Piping  and  ventilation  ducts  are  equipped 
with  cutoff  valves  or  other  closures  at  each  main 
bulkhead,  so  that  they  can  be  closed  off  if 
ruptured.  Rigid  restrictions  are  enforced  against 
opening  watertight  doors  or  hatches  during 
action  or  in  dangerous  waters.  All  of  these 
"defensive"  precautions  must  be  taken  to  ensure 
the  full  use  of  the  ship. 

The  main  transverse  watertight  bulkheads 
are  not  penetrated  for  access  below  the  damage 
control  deck.  The  damage  control  deck  is  the 
lowest  deck  to  which  fore-and-aft  access  is 
permitted  and  these  accesses  are  by  watertight 
doors.  The  damage  control  deck  is  in  most  cases 
the  first  deck  below  the  main  deck. 

COMPARTMENT  NUMBERING  IN 
SHIPS  CONSTRUCTED  BEFORE 
MARCH  1949 

Most  ships  constructed  before  March  1949 
are  divided,  from  forward  aft,  into  three 
divisions  (as  in  figure  1 4-4)  labeled  A,  B,  and  C. 
Division  A  extends  from  the  stem  to  the  forward 
transverse  bulkhead  of  the  forward  machinery 
compartment.  Division  B  includes  the  space 
from  that  bulkhead  to  the  after  bulkhead  of  the 
after  machinery  compartment.  Division  C 
comprises  the  remaining  space  aft.  Although  a 
ship  has  only  these  three  main  divisions,  this 
does  not  mean  that  there  are  only  three 
transverse  bulkheads.  There  are  many  others,  all 


supporting  the  structure  of  the  vessel  and 
contributing  to  its  compartmentation  and 
watertight  integrity. 

Compartments  are  designated  by  various 
letters  and  numbers  to  indicate  their  location 
and  use.  For  example,  in  the  designation 
B-215-L,  B  indicates  the  division  of  the  ship  in 
which  the  compartment  is  located,  the  first 
numeral  shows  which  deck  it  is  on,  and  the  last 
two  numerals  indicate  the  number  of  the 
compartment  within  the  division.  Odd  numbers 
are  used  for  compartments  on  the  starboard 
side;  those  on  the  port  side  are  identified  by 
even  numbers.  In  the  example  given,  the 
compartment  is  the  fifteenth  in  Division  B.  It  is 
on  the  starboard  side  and  on  the  second  deck. 

To  define  the  contents  or  use  of  a 
compartment,  the  numeral  group  is  followed  by 
a  designating  letter  as  follows: 


A— storeroom 
C— ship  control 
E— machinery 
F-fuel 


L— living  space 
M— ammunition 
T— trunks  and  passages 
V— void 
W— water 


As  a  general  rule,  compartments  on  the  main 
deck  are  numbered  from  101  to  199  in  each 
division  beginning  at  the  forward  end  of  the 
division.  Compartments  on  the  second  deck  are 
in  the  200  series,  those  on  the  third  deck  in  the 
300  series,  and  those  on  the  first  level  (above  the 
main  deck)  from  0101  to  0199.  The  series  901 
to  999  is  used  for  double-bottom  compartments. 
Compartments  on  halfdecks  have  the  same 
numeral  as  the  deck  below  but  are  indicated  by 
the  letter  H  which  is  added  after  the  division 
letter;e.g.,BH-215-V. 

For  compartments  extending  from  the  inner 
bottom  up  through  two  or  more  decks,  the 
designation  is  the  division  letter  followed  by  a 
number  in  the  series  1  to  100.  Examples  of 
compartments  of  this  type  are  the  engineroom, 
fireroom,  peak  tank,  and  cargo  hold.  Thus  a 
fireroom  might  have  the  designation  B-l. 

Every  door,  hatch,  manhole,  or  other  means 
of  ingress  to  a  compartment  has  a  metal  label  on 
it  that  gives  the  door's  number  and  location, 
plus  a  description  of  what  is  in  the 


314 


numeral 
example: 


assignation    just     discussed,     ror 


W.T.  D.4-16-6 
C.P.O  Stores 
A-412-A 

The  initials  W.T.D.  stand  for  watertight 
door.  The  "4"  indicates  that  the  compartment  is 
on  the  fourth  deck,  the  "16"  that  it  is  at  or  just 
abaft  the  16th  frame,  and  the  "6"  that  is  the 
third  opening,  from  inboard  out,  on  the  port 
side  (odd-numbered  openings  being  on  the 
starboard  side).  The  compartment  is  a  storeroom 
for  the  use  of  CPOs,  it.  is  located  in  Division  A, 
and  it  is  the  sixth  compartment  from  the  bow 
on  the  port  side. 

COMPARTMENT  NUMBERING 
IN  SHIPS  CONSTRUCTED 
AFTER  MARCH  1949 

In  ships  built  after  March  1949, 
compartment  numbers  contain  the  following 
information  in  the  order  given  and  each  part  is 
separated  by  a  hyphen:  deck  number,  frame 
number,  relation  to  centerline  of  ship,  and  usage 
of  compartment. 

Deck  Number 

The  main  deck  is  deck  number  1 .  The  first 
deck  or  horizontal  division  below  the  main  deck 
is  number  2;  the  second  below,  number  3,  etc., 
consecutively  for  subsequent  lower  division 
boundaries.  Where  a  compartment  extends  down 
to  the  shell  of  the  ship,  the  number  assigned  the 
bottom  compartment  is  used.  The  first 
horizontal  division  above  the  main  deck  is 
number  01,  the  second  above  02,  and  so  on.  The 
deck  number  established  as  above  becomes  the 
first  part  of  the  compartment  number  and 
indicates  the  vertical  position  within  the  ship. 

Frame  Number 

Horizontal  position  of  a  compartment 
within  the  ship  utilizes  its  position  relative  to  a 


foremost  bulkhead  ot  the  enclosing  boundary  ot 
a  compartment  is  its  frame  location  number. 
Where  a  forward  boundary  lies  between  frames, 
the  frame  number  forward  is  used.  Fractional 
numbers  are  not  utilized,  except  where  frame 
spacing  exceeds  4  feet. 

Relation  to  Centerline 

Compartments  located  so  that  the  centerline 
of  the  ship  passes  through  them  carry  the 
number  0.  Compartments  located  completely  to 
starboard  of  the  centerline  have  odd  numbers; 
those  completely  to  port  bear  even  numbers. 
Where  two  or  more  compartments  have  the  same 
deck  and  frame  number  and  are  entirely 
starboard  or  entirely  port  of  centerline,  they 
have  consecutively  higher  odd  or  even  numbers, 
as  the  case  may  be,  numbering  from  the 
centerline  outboard.  For  example,  the  first 
compartment  outboard  of  the  centerline  to 
starboard  is  1,  the  second,  3,  etc.  Similarly,  the 
first  compartment  outboard  of  the  centerline  to 
port  is  2,  the  second  4,  and  so  on. 

Compartment  Usage 

The  fourth  and  last  part  of  the  compartment 
number  is  a  capital  letter  that  identifies  the 
assigned  primary  usage  of  the  compartment. 
Secondary  usages  are  not  considered  and  only  a 
single-letter  assignment  is  made,  except  that  on 
dry  and  liquid  cargo  ships  a  double-Iettei 
identification  designates  compartments  assigned 
to  cargo  carrying.  The  letters  are  assigned  in 
accordance  with  the  following  categories: 


Letter  and 
Category 

A— dry  stowage 


C— ship  control  and 
fire  control 
operating  spaces 


Types  of 
Spaces 

Storerooms,  issue 
rooms,  refrigeratec 
spaces 

Plotting  rooms;  CIC 
radio,  radar,  anc 
sonar  operating 
spaces;  pilothouse 


315 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Letter  and 
Category 

E— engineering  spaces 


F— oil  stowage 

G— gasoline  stowage 

J-JP-5  tanks 

K— chemicals  and 

dangerous  materials 

L— Living  spaces 
M— ammunition 


T— vertical  access 
trunks 

V— voids 


W— water  stowage 


Q— spaces  not  otherwise 
covered 


Types  of 
Spaces 

Main  propulsion 
spaces;  pump  genera- 
tor, and  windlass 
rooms 

Fuel,  diesel  oil,  and 
lubricating  oil  tanks 

Gasoline  tank  com- 
partments, coffer- 
dams, trunks,  and 
pumprooms 


Stowage  of  chemicals 
and  semisafe  and 
dangerous  materials, 
except  oil  and 
gasoline  tanks 

Berthing  and  messing 
spaces,  medical  and 
dental  areas,  and 
passageways 

Stowage  and  han- 
dling 


Cofferdam  compart- 
ments other  than 
gasoline,  void  wing 
compartments 

Compartments 
s  t  o  ring  water , 
including  bilge, 
sump,  and  peak 
tanks 

Ships,  offices, 
laundry,  galley, 
pantries,  and  wiring 
trunks 


The  application  of  the  foregoing  principles  is 
illustrated  by  the  following  example: 


3-75-4-M 


3-third  deck 


The  double  letters  AA,  FF,  and  GG  identify 
spaces  utilized  to  carry  cargo. 


75-forward  boundary  is  at  or  immediately 
abaft  of  frame  75 

4-second  compartment  outboard  ofCLto 
port 

M-ammunition  compartment 


SHIPBUILDING  PROCEDURE 

The  procedure  followed  in  building  a  ship 
varies  widely,  depending  on  the  type  of  ship  and 
by  whom  it  is  built.  In  general,  however,  the 
primary  operations  are  similar.  The  ship  may  be 
erected  in  a  drydock  or  on  sloping  concrete 
building  ways.  The  slope  of  the  ways  is  their 
declivity  angle.  The  ways  are  sloped  so  that 
when  the  ship  is  launched  it  slides  into  the  water 
under  its  own  weight.  The  blocks  are  high 
enough  so  that  men  can  work  under  the  hull 
while  the  ship  is  being  built.  A  wooden  cradle, 
shaped  in  the  form  of  the  shell  of  the  ship  from 
the  keel  to  around  the  turn  of  the  bilge,  is 
erected  on  either  side  of  the  building  blocks. 
Bilge  cribs  and/or  shores  are  placed  along  the 
bilge  at  intervals  to  support  the  weight  of  the 
sides  as  the  ship  is  built.  As  the  hull  is  erected, 
scaffolding  is  raised  along  the  sides  to  facilitate 
construction. 

SUBASSEMBLY  BAYS 

The  modern  practice  is  to  assemble  rather 
large  portions  of  the  ship  in  subassembly  bays 
located  some  distance  from  the  building  site.  At 
one  point,  all  the  bulkheads  are  constructed, 
complete  with  stiffeners  and  other  fittings.  At 
other  bays,  whole  sections  of  the  side  plating 
with  frames  attached  are  welded.  Complete 
sections  of  double  bottoms,  consisting  of  shell 
plating,  transverse  floors,  longitudinals,  and 
inner  bottom,  equipped  with  piping  and  valves 
for  the  tanks  and  other  fittings,  are  assembled  at 


Chapter   14-SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


134.74 


Figure  14-6.— Keel  assembly  and  first  section  of  completed  inner  bottom  are  lowered  to  the  building  blocks. 


other  points.  Large  gantry  or  "whirly"  cranes 
carry  these  subassemblies,  some  of  which  weigh 
50  tons  or  more,  to  the  ship. 

ERECTING  THE  SHIP 

There  are  various  sequences  used  in  erecting 
a  ship,  depending  upon  the  type  and  size  of  the 
ship,  the  type  of  construction,  and  the  facilities 
for  subassembly.  There  are  certain  basic 
principles,  however,  that  must  be  adhered  to. 


is  to  work  from  the  center  outboard  and 
simultaneously  forward  and  aft.  The  first 
operation  in  building  a  ship  is  placing  the  keel 
sections  or  assemblies  on  the  building  blocks. 
For  some  ships,  the  keel  and  adjacent  inner 
bottom  may  be  assembled  elsewhere  and  swung 
into  place  as  a  unit,  as  in  figure  14-6.  When  size 
and  weight  are  prohibitive,  the  keel  and  bottom 
must  be  built  on  the  blocks.  After  the  keel,  or 
erection  section  that  includes  the  keel,  is  laid,  it 
is  extended  in  both  directions.  Bottom  sections 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


134.75 


,gure14-7.-CG   under  construction.  Although  the  hull  structure  assembly  a.most  fills  the  drydock,  insta.lation'of 
deck  plating  awaits  the  lowering  of  large  equipment  below  decks. 


318 


Chapter  14- SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


forward  and  aft.  Next,  the  main  transverse 
strength  bulkheads,  up  to  the  first  continuous 
deck,  are  erected  in  place  as  erection  of  the 
bottom  and  bilge  structure  progresses  forward 
and  aft.  Then  the  side  shell  assemblies  are 
erected,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  ship,  above 
the  intercostal  deck(s).  Generally,  longitudinal 
bulkheads  are  then  put  in  place  to  steady  the 
main  transverse  bulkheads  in  a  fore-and-aft 
direction,  followed  by  the  erection  of  transverse 
and  longitudinal  assemblies  between  continuous 
decks.  Additional  side  framing  and  shell  plating 
are  then  placed  in  position  and  fastened  to  the 
existing  structure.  The  frames  and  decks  are 
connected  to  the  previously  erected  structure. 

As  the  building  process  progresses  from 
amidships  toward  the  ends,  the  double-bottom 
and  side-shell  plating  are  carried  aft  at  the 
earliest  possible  date  to  join  the  stern  post 
assembly  and/or  propeller  struts.  This  is 
necessary  to  install  main  propulsion  and  major 
auxiliary  machinery  and  shafting  (figures  14-7 
and  14-8)  at  an  early  date.  The  whole  bow 
section  usually  is  constructed  at  a  subassembly 
point  and  placed  in  position  (figure  14-9)  rather 
late  in  the  building  schedule.  The  last  step  in  the 


134.76 

Figure     14-8.— Bull     gear     for     the    main     propulsion 
reduction  gear  is  lowered  into  No.  2  engineroom. 


134.77 

Figure  14-9.— The  completed  bow  section  being  readied 
for  positioning. 


prepunching     construction     schedule     is     the 
painting  of  the  exterior  of  the  vessel. 

LAUNCHING 

A  ship  can  be  launched  in  one  of  four  ways: 
dry  dock-launched,  side-launched,  end-launched, 
or  float-off-launched.  In  the  first  method,  the 
dock  is  simply  flooded  to  outside  water  level 
and  the  ship  is  floated  out.  Side  launching  is 
sometimes  used  for  naval  ships.  Ships  are 
end-launched  stern  first.  Even  before  the  keel  is 
laid,  launching  calculations  are  undertaken  to 


319 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


determine  the  declivity  of  the  ways  for  a  sliding 

launch  and  the  best  position  on  the  ways  for 

building  the  ship,  as  well  as  the  method  of 

launching  and  the  proper  time  to  launch.  In  the 

latest  and  most  unique  method  of  launching, 

called   float-off,    the    ship    is    constructed    in 

modules  in  an  integration  area  on  powered  pallet 

cars.  Adjacent  to  the  ship  integration  area  is  a 

submerged    concrete    gridwork    and    support 

platform.  Resting  on  top  of  this  platform  is  a 

huge   pontoon.   When   ballasted,  the  pontoon 

rests    firmly   on   the   concrete   platform.   The 

pontoon    is   equipped    with  pallet   car   tracks 

identical  to  those  in  the  ship  integration  area. 

Prior  to  moving  the  ship  onto  the  pontoon,  the 

pontoon  is  ballasted  and  the  pallet  car  tracks  are 

precisely  aligned  (pier-to-pontoon).  The  inboard 

wing  tanks  of  the  pontoon  are  removable  to 

permit  the  ship  to  be  translated  from  the  ship 

integration  area  to  the  pontoon.  The  ship  is 

slowly    moved    into    position    on   the   launch 

pontoon    and    made    ready    for   launch.    The 

inboard  wing  tanks  are  replaced  on  the  pontoon 

and  the  pontoon  is  deballasted  so  it  floats  free 

of  the  concrete  platform.  The  pontoon  is  then 

towed   into    the    deep    water    channel   where 

ballasting  begins.  During  this  time  the  pontoon 

is  under   positive   control  by  means  of  lines 

anchored  outboard  of  the  pontoon,  as  well  as  by 

restraining  lines  secured  to  the  pier.  When  the 

ship  is  afloat,  it  is  towed  clear  of  the  launch 

pontoon  and  then  to  the  outfitting  docks. 

During  construction  of  ships  in  the 
conventional  manner,  the  weight  of  the  ship  is 
supported  by  keel  blocks,  heavy  shores,  and 
cribbing.  Well  before  the  launching  date, 
shipwrights  prepare  the  launching  ways.  First, 
they  erect  ground  ways  for  a  sliding  launch. 
These  are  solid  wooden  structures  (tracks)  below 
and  on  either  side  of  the  ship;  the  tracks,  two  or 
four  in  number,  extend  well  into  the  water. 
Mounted  on  the  ground  ways  and  temporarily 
secured  to  the  ship  are  sliding  ways,  on  which 
the  ship  rides  into  the  water;  the  sliding  ways 
serve  much  as  do  runners  on  a  sled.  A  heavy 
layer  of  lubricating  grease  is  laid  between  the 
ways  to  reduce  friction  and  ease  the  ship  on  her 
first  trip. 

One  of  the  first  phases  of  transferring  the 
weight  of  the  ship  from  the  timbers  shoring  her 


up  to  the  sliding  ways  is  "wedging  up. 
consists  of  driving  scores  of  long  wooden  wedm 
under  the  ship,  at  right  angles  to  her,  h  sucha 
way  as  to  force  the  sliding  ways  hard  up  under 
the  ship  and  hard  down  on  the  fixed  ground 
ways.  Then,  workmen  gradually  remove  the 
shoring  and  cribbing,  in  accordance  with 
carefully  timed  plans,  to  shift  the  weight  of  the 
ship  to  the  launching  ways. 

The  ship  now  is  ready  to  slide  down  the 
incline  of  the  building  ways  by  her  own  weight, 
Holding  her  back,  however,  is  a  trigger 
mechanism  that  restrains  the  ship  until  the 
proper  time.  The  signal  to  launch  is  flashed- 
simultaneously  at  the  sponsor's  stand  and  in  the 
trigger  pit.  It  takes  about  30  seconds  for  the  ship 
to  slide  into  the  water.  Chain  drags  of  many  tons 
in  weight  usually  are  used  outboard  of  the 
sliding  ways,  and  attached  to  the  ship's  hull,  to 
slow  the  advance  and  to  stop  the  ship  after  it 
enters  the  water. 

The  name  of  the  ship  is  chosen  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  upon  recommendation  of 
the  Chief  of  Naval  Personnel.  The  sponsor  for 
the  ship  is  designated  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  in  accordance  with  naval  customs  and 
tradition. 


Launching  Ceremony 

At  the  time  of  launching,  the  sponsor, naval 
officers,  officials  of  the  shipbuilding  company, 
and  the  commandant  (or  his  representative)  of 
the  naval  district  in  which  the  vessel  is  being 
built,  assemble  on  a  Hag-decorated  platform 
erected  for  the  occasion  at  the  bow  of  the  ship. 
There  may  be  several  addresses,  and  a  chaplain 
offers  a  prayer.  For  the  ship's  future  service, he 
asks,  "May  this  new  vessel  of  our  Navy  be 
guarded  by  Thy  gracious  providence  and  care. 
May  she  bear  the  sword  to  bring  peace  on  Earth 
among  the  nations.  Let  her  be  a  terror  to  those 
who  do  evil  and  a  defense  to  those  who  do 
well." 

The  band  plays  the  national  anthem,  flags 
and  pennants  wave,  and  as  the  ship  begins  to 
move,  the  sponsor  breaks  upon  her  bow  (figu& 
14-10)  a  gaily  wrapped  bottle  of  wine  or  water, 
saying,  "I  name  you in  the  name  of  the 


Chapter  14-SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


134.80 

Figure  14-10.— Mrs.  Ulysses  S.  G.  Sharp,  Jr.,  wife  of  Admiral  Sharp,  breaks  the  traditional  bottle  of  wine  on  the  bow 

of  the  combat  store  ship  Concord. 


134.79 

Figure  14-11.— "May  she  bear  the  sword  to  bring  peace  on  earth  among  the  nations."  This  phrase  is  taken  from  the 
prayer  usually  spoken  by  a  chaplain  at  the  ship's  launching.  From  earliest  days,  launching  ceremonies  have  had 
some  religious  aspect. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


134.78 


Chapter  14-SHIP  CONSTRUCTION 


United    States,"    and    frequently    adds, 
success  always  attend  you." 

FITTING  OUT 


'May 


After  the  christening,  the  ship  slips  into  the 
water  (figure  14-11).  Then  tugs  tow  her  to  a 
fitting-out  pier.  Here  giant  cranes  move  the 
heavy  machinery  into  the  ship.  Superstructure, 
-masts  (figure  14-12),  guns,  turrets,  and  other 
equipment  are  installed.  Miscellaneous  auxiliary 
machinery  is  placed  in  position.  Living  quarters, 
galleys,  messing  compartments,  and  other  spaces 
are  painted  and  fitted  with  furniture  and 
equipment.  There  are  innumerable  items  that 


must  be  installed  on  board  before  a  ship  is 
pronounced  complete  and  ready  for 
commissioning.  A  year  may  elapse  between  the 
launching  and  commissioning  of  larger  ships. 

COMMISSIONING 


When  the  ship  is  ready  for  commissioning, 
orders  are  given  to  the  commandant  of  the  naval 
district,  or  of  the  naval  shipyard  where  she  is 
building,  to  place  her  in  commission. 

On  the  day  appointed,  her  officers  and  crew 
assemble  in  dress  uniform  (figure  14-13).  The 
commandant  and  members  of  his  staff  are 
present.  While  the  band  plays  and  all  stand  at 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


attention,  the  commandant  orders  the  national 
ensign  hoisted  to  designate  her  as  a  ship  in  the 
official  service  of  the  Government.  The 
commission  pennant  is  unfurled  at  the 
mainmast. 

Then  the  commandant  formally  turns  the 
ship  over  to  the  prospective  commanding 
officer.  The  latter  reads  aloud  his  orders  from 
the  Navy  Department  to  command  the  ship.  His 
first  order  is,  "Set  the  watch."  The  officers  and 
crew  take  their  stations  in  the  new  ship. 

After  commissioning,  the  ship  starts  her 
trials-acceptance  and  final  acceptance  trials, 
sound  surveys,  electromagnetic  radiation 
surveys,  antenna  pattern  surveys,  sonar  and  fire 
control  calibration,  weapons  qualification  trials, 
and  so  on.  The  ship  also  is  tested  for 
seaworthiness,  speed,  endurance,  and  ability  to 


maneuver.  Upon  completion  of  this 
"shakedown"  cruise,  the  ship  returns  to  the 
outfitting  yard  for  her  post-shakedown 
availability  to  have  all  discrepancies  corrected. 
Most  ships  built  on  the  east  coast  then 
proceed  to  Rockland,  Maine,  for  standardization 
trials  over  the  measured  mile.  (On  the  west 
coast,  ships  run  the  measured  mile  on  the  Torrey 
Pines  range  near  San  Diego.)  Standardization 
trials  are  conducted  by  the  Board  of  Inspection 
and  Survey.  Careful  checks  are  made  of  the 
ship's  fuel  consumption,  speeds,  propeller 
revolutions,  and  other  characteristics,  to  set  a 
standard  for  service  operation.  Upon  completion 
of  these  trials  and  any  additional  minor  items  of 
work  found  to  be  necessary,  ship's  personnel 
undergo  a  strenuous  6-  to  8-week  shakedown 
training  cruise  upon  the  successful  completion 
of  which  the  ship  is  ready  to  join  the  Fleet. 


CHAPTER  15 


EXTERNAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SHIPS 


The  external  equipment  described  in  this 
chapter  is  common  to  most  naval  vessels. 
Knowledge  and  use  of  the  correct  terminology, 
when  referring  to  the  hull,  ordnance  equipment, 
ground  tackle,  bridge  assembly,  etc.,  is  essential. 


THE  HULL 

In  the  description  of  a  ship,  the  term  "hull" 
usually  includes  her  interior  framework,  inside 
and  outside  plating  or  planking,  decks  and 
bulkheads,  and  deckhouses  (but  does  not 
include  masts,  rigging,  equipment,  and  items 
generally  classed  as  superstructure).  For  the 
purpose  of  this  section  we  shall  consider  the  hull 


as  a  single  watertight  shape.  It  is  covered  on  top 
with  a  deck,  or  with  parts  of  several  decks, 
referred  to  either  singly  or  collectively  as 
weather  deck.  (See  figure  15-1.) 

The  edges  of  the  weather  deck  from  the  bow 
to  the  stern" are  usually  guarded  by  light  cables 
or  chains  called  lifelines,  or  by  an  extension  of 
the  shell  plating  of  the  ship  above  the  deck  edge, 
called  bulwarks.  The  waterline  is  the  line  to 
which  a  hull  sinks  when  in  the  water 
(submarines  have  a  measurable  draft  except 
when  submerged).  The  vertical  distance  from 
this  line  to  the  lowest  exposed  deck  is  the 
freeboard. 

Draft  is  the  vertical  distance  from  keel  to 
waterline.  Since  the  drafts  forward  and  aft  may 


FANTAIL 


WEATHER     DECK 

BULWARK 


FORECASTLE 


EYES 


PROPELLER 
SHAFT 


WATERLINE        /        HAWSEPIPE 
FREEBOARD  DRAFT  STEM 


PROW 


3.94 


Figure  15-1.— Parts  of  a  ship's  hull. 


325 


numbers  are  painted  on  the  sides  of  the  ship  at 
both  bow  and  stern  to  measure  the  drafts.  The 
relation  between  the  drafts  forward  and  aft  is 
called  the  trim.  Many  ships  are  constructed  in 
such  a  way  that  these  two  drafts  are  equal  when 
they  are  in  trim.  (Trim  is  the  angle  to  the 
horizontal  in  which  a  vessel  rides.)  Some  ships, 
notably  landing  craft,  may  be  designed  to  have  a 
much  smaller  draft  forward  than  aft. 
Submarines,  on  the  other  hand,  normally  are 
trimmed  "heavy  forward"  for  submerged 
cruising.  When  unusual  conditions  of  loading  or 
underwater  damage  cause  a  ship  to  be  out  of 
trim,  she  is  said  to  be  "by  the  head"  or  "by  the 
stern."  Trim  may  be  adjusted  by  filling  or 
emptying  peak  tanks  in  the  bow  and  stern  of  the 
ship. 

Frequently  a  ship's  characteristics  are 
improved  if  she  has  a  slightly  greater  draft  aft. 
When  a  ship  is  so  designed,  she  is  said  to  have 
been  designed  with  a  drag. 

FORE  PART 
OF  THE  HULL 

The  general  area  of  the  weather  deck  in  the 
forward  part  of  the  ship  is  the  forecastle.  The 
nearly  vertical  structural  member  of  the  hull  at 
the  bow  is  called  the  stem.  The  bow  structure 
above  the  waterline  is  known  as  the  prow.  The 
part  of  the  weather  deck  nearest  the  stem  is 
called  the  eyes  of  the  ship.  (Under  conditions  of 
reduced  visibility  at  sea,  a  special  lookout  is 
normally  stationed  in  the  eyes.) 

AFTER  PART 
OF  THE  HULL 

The  quarterdeck  is  that  part  of  the  main  or 
other  appropriate  deck  designated  by  the 
commanding  officer  for  the  conduct  of  official 
and  ceremonial  functions.  It  is  the  watch  station 
of  the  OOD  in  port;  usually  it  is  an  area  adjacent 
to  the  gangway.  The  deck  area  at  the  stern  of  a 
flush-deck  ship  is  the  fantail.  The  part  of  the 
ship  which  literally  overhangs  the  water  and 
extends  abaft  the  rudder  is  the  overhang.  In  the 
after  part  of  the  vessel,  the  hull  usually  narrows 


ship.  Below  the  waterline  are  the  propeller 
shafts,  the  propellers  (screws),  and  the  rudder. 
In  multiple-screw  ships  the  propeller  shafts 
project  to  such  an  extent  that  they  must  be 
supported  by  braces,  called  propeller  struts 
(extending  from  the  hull).  To  protect  the 
propellers,  metal  frames  called  propeller  guards 
are  built  out  from  the  hull,  above  the  water. 
Otherwise,  because  of  the  run  of  the  ship,  the 
screws  might  be  damaged  when  the  ship  is  close 
by  a  pier. 

AMIDSHIPS 

"Amidships"  refers  to  an  area  of  somewhat 
arbitrary  length  located  midway  between  the 
bow  and  stern.  The  term  is  used  to  convey  the 
idea  of  general  locality,  but  not  of  definite 
extent. 


ORDNANCE  EQUIPMENT 

The  primary  mission  of  a  ship  includes  a 
number  of  designed  and  contingent  tasks. 
Compromises  involving  the  consideration  of 
these  tasks,  weight  and  space  limitations,  and 
the  cost  involved  determine  the  types  and 
amounts  of  ordnance  equipment  carried  by  a 
ship. 

Ordnance  equipment  most  widely  used 
aboard  ship  are  guns,  guided-missile  launching 
systems,  and  torpedo  tubes.  This  equipment  is 
used  in  association  with  the  many  types  of 
weapons  in  the  Navy  arsenal,  including 
torpedoes,  mines,  bombs,  guided  missiles,  etc. 
The  remainder  of  this  section  introduces  the 
ordnance  equipment.  Specific  weapons  are 
discussed  in  chapter  1 8. 

GUNS 

Of  the  ordnance  equipment  mentioned 
above,  the  gun  is  the  Navy's  oldest  and  is  the 
most  frequently  employed  aboard  ship.  Modern 
improvements  in  the  construction  of  guns  and 
ammunition  have  revolutionized  gunnery  by 
tremendously  increasing  the  destructive  power 


326 


Chapter  15-EXTERNAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SHIPS 


and  maximum  range  of  this  weapon.  During  the 
Revolutionary  War,  American  ships  fought  at 
ranges  of  only  several  hundred  yards,  using 
cast-iron  guns  without  sights.  Inaccurate,  they 
threw  solid  shot  that  usually  failed  to  penetrate. 
Modern  guns  hurl  explosive  shells  that  may 
weigh  up  to  260  pounds.  The  range  of  the 
largest  (8-inch)  gun  now  in  service  exceeds  15 
miles;  a  ship  or  other  target  can  be  destroyed  if 
struck  by  only  one  of  its  big  projectiles. 

Classification 

Naval  guns,  exclusive  of  small  arms,  are 
classified  according  to  size,  type  of  ammunition 
used,  and  method  of  fire. 

In  size,  they  may  be  grouped  as  major, 
intermediate,  and  minor  calibers.  Major  calibers 
are  8  inches  and  larger.  Intermediate  calibers  are 
greater  than  3  inches  and  less  than  8  inches. 
Minor  calibers  are  3  inches  and  below. 

The  U.S.  Navy  uses  fixed  and  separated 
ammunition.  An  example  of  fixed  ammunition 
is  that  for  the  3"/50  in  which  the  propelling 
charge,  primer,  and  projectile  are  one  unit.  In 
separated  ammunition,  the  primer  and  powder 
are  contained  in  a  case  similar  to  that  for  fixed 
ammunition,  but  the  projectile  is  separate.  The 

5"/54  fires  this  type  of  ammunition. 

'11 

Methods  of  fire  include  single, 
semiautomatic,  automatic,  and  rapid.  In  single 
fire,  the  breech  mechanism  is  always  opened  and 
closed  by  hand. 

Semiautomatic  fire  uses  the  force  of  the 
explosion  to  open  the  breech,  eject  the  cartridge 
case,  and  cock  the  firing  mechanism.  Loading, 
however,  requires  a  member  of  the  guncrew  to 
place  a  round  in  the  breech  or  tray.  The  5"/38 
and  6"/47  case  guns  are  examples  of 
semiautomatic  guns. 

Automatic  fire  uses  the  force  of  the 
explosion  to  perform  all  loading  and  reloading 
operations.  The  20-mrn  guns  are  automatic  guns. 

Rapid  fire  (RF)  uses  power-operated 
equipment  to  automatically  load  rounds  into  the 
breech  as  long  as  the  electrical  loading  circuits 
are  closed.  The  3"/50;  5"/54,  Mk  45  and  Mk  42; 


and  8"/55  case  guns  are  examples  of  rapid  fire 
guns. 

Mountings 

Large  guns  are  usually  mounted  in  turrets, 
boxlike  structures  of  armor  enclosing  the  breech 
end  of  two  or  three  guns.  The  turret  rotates 
within  and  on  top  of  a  barbette,  a  fixed  circular 
tube  of  armor  extending  down  to  the 
armored  decks.  The  barbette  encloses  the 
ammunition-handling  rooms,  hoists,  and  the 
gun-laying  machinery  for  the  turret.  There  are 
only  a  few  older  cruisers  with  this  type  of 
mounting. 

Smaller  guns  are  housed  in  gun  mounts, 
which  are  of  two  types:  open  and  closed.  The 
latter  type  (figure  15-2)  resembles  a  turret  but 
does  not  have  an  armored  barbette. 

The  mounts  or  turrets  of  all  naval  guns 
except  the  smallest  are  trained  (rotated  in  the 
deck  plane)  and  the  guns  are  elevated  by  electric 
or  electric-hydraulic  power  drives.  These  are 
usually  automatic  and  move  the  gun  to  a 
position  designated  by  a  fire  control  system. 

Batteries 

Navy  gun  mounts  are  sometimes  classed  by 
batteries,  using  the  terms  "main,"  "secondary," 
and  "antiaircraft"  or  "AA."  A  gun  such  as  a 
5"/54  may  be  part  of  the  AA  battery  on  a 
cruiser,  but  on  a  destroyer  it  may  be  considered 
part  of  the  ship's  main  battery.  The 
classification  of  gun  mounts  according  to  this 
plan  varies  from  one  type  of  ship  to  another  and 
is  a  matter  of  local  option.  Generally  speaking, 
the  main  battery  is  composed  of  the  ship's 
primary  fighting  weapons.  Secondary  batteries 
are  the  ship's  second  string  of  ordnance.  Usually 
these  guns  are  of  shorter  range  than  the  main 
battery,  but  have  a  better  rate  of  fire.  AA 
batteries  are  composed  of  guns  designed  to  be 
fired  against  aircraft. 

A  system  which  eliminates  much  of  this 
overlapping  of  classification  is  now  being  used  in 
several  official  publications.  Gun  mounts  under 
the  new  system  divide  guns  into  the  following 
three  classifications. 


327 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


GUN  LOADING  SYSTEM 
COMPONENTS 


UPPER  LOADING  STATION 


STRIKEDOWN 
HOIST 


LOWER  LOADING  STATION 


Figure  15-2.— A  5  /54  caliber  Mk  45  Mod  gun  mount  and  associated  equipment. 


84.405 


Chapter  15-EXTERNAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SHIPS 


SURFACE  BATTERY.-These  weapons  are 
designed  to  be  used  against  surface  or  shore 
targets  only. 

DUAL-PURPOSE     BATTERY.-These 

weapons  are  designed  to  be  used  against  both 
surface  (or  shore)  and  aircraft  targets.  Also,  the 
fire  control  system  with  which  they  are 
normally  associated  is  equipped  to  handle  both 
surface  and  AA  problems-for  example,  5"  guns. 

MACHINEGUN  BATTERY. -Guns  with  this 
classification  are  primarily  AA  weapons.  In 
emergency,  of  course,  they  could  be  used  against 
any  target,  but  their  associated  fire  control 
equipment  can  compute  accurately  for  AA 
targets  only. 

FIRE     CONTROL     EQUIPMENT. -Fire 

control  equipment  must  solve  a  difficult 
problem.  It  must  direct  the  guns  to  hit  a  moving 
target  with  a  projectile  that  takes  a  considerable 
length  of  time  to  arrive  at  its  destination. 
Accordingly,  the  gun  cannot  be  aimed  at  the 
point  where  the  target  is  when  detected;  it  must 
aim  at  the  point  where  the  target  will  be  when 
the  projectile  gets  there;  that  is,  the  predicted 
position  of  the  target.  Furthermore,  the  path  of 
the  projectile  is  not  a  straight  line  but  is  curved 
by  gravity;  and  the  projectile  is  acted  on  by 
wind,  variations  in  atmospheric  density,  and 
other  forces.  In  addition,  the  guns  and  the  fire 
control  equipment  are  mounted  on  a  ship  that  is 
rolling,  pitching,  and  moving  through  water. 

The  fire  control  equipment  that  solves  this 
problem  is  usually  known  as  a  gunfire  control 
system.  There  are  frequently  more  than  one  of 
these  systems  for  each  battery,  and  the  whole 
battery  may  be  controlled  by  one  system  or  may 
be  broken  down  into  smaller  groups,  each 
controlled  by  a  separate  system. 

A  gunfire  control  system  generally  consists 
of  two  parts,  one  above  deck  and  the  other 
below  deck  in  a  protected  position.  The 
abovedeck  portion  consists  principally  of  a  gun 
director  which  acts  as  the  eyes  of  the  battery.  It 
is  trained  and  elevated  so  that  its  optics  and/or 
radar  are  always  directed  toward  the  target,  thus 
establishing  a  line  of  sight.  Directors  vary  in  size 
and  complexity  from  very  large  rotating 
structures  with  complex  electrical  driving 


mechanisms,  to  small,  hand-operated  devices, 
often  little  more  than  a  pair  of  handlebars 
controlling  some  sort  of  sight. 

Introduction  of  radar  into  the  fire  control 
system  has  greatly  enhanced  its  flexibility  and 
accuracy  by  providing  more  accurate  range  and 
nearly  as  good  target  direction  data  as  the  best 
optics. 

The  below-deck  components  of  the  system 
usually  comprise  a  computer  and  other  related 
equipment,  although  the  computer  is  sometimes 
part  of  the  director.  To  compute  the  orders 
necessary  for  aiming  the  guns  properly  to  hit  the 
target,  the  computer  uses  data  concerning  target 
coordinates  as  determined  by  the  director 
and/or  radar.  It  also  uses  other  quantities  that 
depend  upon  the  wind,  motion  of  the  ship, 
atmosphere,  and  information  concerning  the 
projectile  path  which  is  built  into  the  computer. 
These  orders  are  transmitted  directly  to  the 
power  drives  of  the  gun  mounts  or  turrets. 
Computers  make  use  of  complex  electrical  and 
mechanical  components  to  perform  continuous 
complex  calculations.  Some  are  entirely 
mechanical,  with  quantities  represented  by 
positions  of  shafts;  others  are  electromechanical, 
with  quantities  represented  both  by  positions 
and  by  voltages. 

There  are  also  fire  control  systems  for 
torpedoes,  rockets,  and  guided  missiles.  The 
systems  used  for  rockets  are  basically  the  same 
as  for  guns,  but  since  rockets  are  not  precision 
weapons,  many  refinements  of  the  gunfire 
control  systems  are  not  needed. 

In  the  above  systems,  the  fire  control 
problem  is  solved  prior  to  firing  the  weapon. 
However,  since  many  guided  missiles  are 
directed  to  the  target  by  means  of  radar,  the 
problem  for  these  missiles  is  handled  in  a 
different  manner.  After  the  missile  is  launched,  a 
continuing  solution  is  computed,  and  necessary 
corrections  to  keep  the  missile  on  a  proper 
course  are  transmitted  to  the  missile. 

GUIDED-MISSILE 
LAUNCHING  SYSTEMS 

Man's  ingenuity  has  accelerated  the  pace  of 
modern  warfare  to  the  point  where  concepts  of 
time  and  space  must  be  revised.  Supersonic 


velocities  have  eliminated  distance  as  a  major 
defensive  factor  and  reduced  the  effectiveness  of 
gunfire  since  the  time  allowed  to  solve  the 
counterattack  problem  does  not  permit  human 
computation  or  mechanical  resolution.  To 
combat  enemy  supersonic  planes  and  missiles 
and  to  increase  the  range  of  our  weapons,  the 
United  States  has  developed  many  different 
types  of  guided  missiles.  The  launching  systems 
are  that  part  of  a  ship  installation  designed  to 


magazine    to  the 


deliver   a    missile    from    the 
launcher  ready  for  firing. 

The  overall  configuration  of  a  missile 
launching  system  is  determined  by  the  type  of 
missile  used  and  the  class  of  ship  on  which  it  is 
installed.  The  missile  type  is  the  most  important 
factor  to  be  considered. 

The  types  of  launching  systems;  however, 
are  designed  for  specific  classes  of  ships.  Many 
changes  have  evolved  since  the  USS  Gyatt  was 


33  263-3 

Figure  15-3.-Talos  guided  missiles  have  the  speed  and  punch  necessary  to  reach  out  and  kill  modern  high-speed 

aircraft  before  they  can  endanger  U.S.  ships. 


330 


Chapter  15-EXTERNAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SHIPS 


converted  from  a  conventional  DD  to  the  first 
guided-missile  ship. 

The  arrangement  of  the  major  components 
of  a  launching  system  that  handles  the  same 
type  missile  will  vary  with  the  mark  and  mod  of 
the  launching  system,  and  the  ship  on  which  it  is 
installed.  This  is  especially  the  case  with  the 
location  of  the  stowage  area  or  magazine. 

The  Talos  system  (figure  15-3),  being  large, 
is  placed  only  on  CGs  and  CGNs.  The  much 
smaller  Tartar  system  is  placed  on  smaller  ships, 
such  as  DDGs,  although  CGs  may  have  Tartar  as 
well  as  Talos  systems  aboard. 


TRAINING  HANDLE 
(ARM    ASSEMBLY) 


BREECH   MECHANISM 


BARREL 


TRAINING   GEAR 


TORPEDO  TUBES 

Submarines  fire  torpedoes  from  fixed  tubes 
located  in  the  bow,  both  bow  and  stern,  or  amid- 
ships. Aircraft  can  drop  torpedoes  from  launch- 
ing racks;  normally  this  is  confined  to  ASW 
(antisubmarine  warfare)  operations.  The 
following  discussion  on  launching  tubes 
concerns  those  on  surface  ships,  primarily 
destroyer  types. 

During  World  War  II  standard  destroyer-type 
ship  armament  included  one  or  two  quintuple 
(five-barrel)  torpedo  tubes.  Beginning  late  in  the 
war  and  continuing  thereafter,  this  arrangement 
obsolesced.  One  reason  for  this  was  that  the 
increased  need  for  AA  armament  placed  a 
premium  on  topside  deck  space.  Another  factor 
involved  a  change  in  doctrine.  The  concept  of 
direct  attack  by  conventional  torpedoes  against 
surface  targets  became  outmoded,  especially  so 
with  the  advent  of  supersonic  aircraft  and 
guided  missiles.  The  primary  concern  moved 
into  the  area  of  ASW  and  the  use  of  homing 
torpedoes  against  submarines.  At  any  rate,  for  a 
short  time  after  World  War  II,  the  DD  types 
were  fitted  with  only  one  quintuple  mount  and 
new  DD  and  DE  (now  designated  FFs)  designs 
had  fixed  tubes  mounted  away  from  the  weather 
deck. 

Above-water  torpedo  tubes  on  today's  ships 
are  either  fixed  or  trainable.  Fixed  tubes  are 
mounted,  singly  or  in  groups,  within  the 
superstructure,  their  muzzles  extending  through 
the  sides  of  the  deckhouse.  Normal  arrangement 


3.129 

Figure  15-4.— The  three-barrel  unit  found  on  most 
destroyers  and  cruisers  has  increased  their  offensive 
capability  against  the  submarine. 


is  two  tubes  mounted  on  either  side  within  the 
superstructure.  Their  location  (housed)  requires 
that  these  tubes  be  nontrainable. 

With  ASW  a  primary  concern,  the 
three-barrel  unit  shown  in  figure  1 5-4  was  placed 
on  operational  ships.  The  barrels,  fabricated  of 
fiberglass  reinforced  plastic,  are  arranged  in  a 
triangular  group  with  a  pair  below  surmounted 
by  a  third  above  them.  Although  each  barrel 
operates  independently,  the  three  are  mounted 
on  a  common  190°  training  gear.  Tubes  are 
loaded  through  the  breech  ends  of  the  barrels.  A 
firing  valve  in  the  breech  mechanism  releases  a 
blast  of  compressed  air  into  the  after  end  of  the 
tube  to  eject  the  torpedo. 


GROUND  TACKLE 

Ground  tackle  is  the  collective  term  for  the 
articles  of  equipment  used  in  connection  with 
anchoring  and  mooring.  A  vessel  is  anchored 
when  one  anchor  is  used  to  secure  it.  The  term 
"moor"  is  used  when  a  ship  is  made  fast  to  a 
mooring  buoy,  when  it  is  swinging  on  a  bight  of 
a  chain  between  two  anchors  in  line,  or  when  it 
is  moored  alongside  a  pier  or  another  ship.  The 
first  lieutenant  is  responsible  for  the  condition 
of  the  ground  tackle  on  board  ship,  and  he  keeps 


331 


WINDLASS- 


PELICAN  HOOK 


CHOCK 

STARBOARD  ANCHOR 
(SECURED  IN  HAWSE  PIPE) 


118.28 

Figure  15-5.— Ground  tackle  includes  all  equipment  used 
for  anchoring  and  mooring  with  anchors. 


a  complete  log  of  the  history  of  every  piece  of 
this  important  equipment. 

Anchors  vary  in  weight  from  1 5-pound  boat 
anchors  to  the  60,000-pound  anchors  on  the 
Forrestal  and  Kennedy  class  carriers.  Most  ships 
carry  two  main  anchors  forward,  the  starboard 
bower  and  the  port  bower. 

Hawsepipes  are  tubes  that  lead  the  anchor 
chain  from  the  deck  on  which  the  windlass  is 
located  (figure  1 5-5)  down  and  forward  through 
the  vessel's  bow  plating.  These  openings  are  just 
abaft  the  stem  on  both  sides  of  the  ship.  When  a 
ship  is  underway  or  tied  up  to  a  pier,  the 
anchors  are  housed  with  their  shanks  in  the 
hawsepipes  and  their  flukes  outside.  The  anchor 
chain  runs  freely  through  the  hawsepipe  when 
the  anchor  is  let  go. 

Anchor  chain  and  anchors  are  heaved  in  by 
means  of  an  anchor  windlass.  This  consists  of  an 
engine  — either  electrohydraulic,  steam,  or 


electric-which  turns  a  shaft  on  which  is 
mounted  a  wildcat  or  chain  grab.  The  wildcat  is 
a  concave,  drumlike  contrivance  with  ridges 
around  it,  the  ridges  so  shaped  as  to  engage  the 
links  of  the  anchor  chain.  The  wildcat  is  secured 
to  the  shaft  for  heaving  the  chain  or  paying  out 
small  amounts,  but  is  disconnected  from  the 
shaft  so  that  the  drum  turns  freely  when 
dropping  the  anchor.  When  the  ship  is  riding  at 
anchor,  the  wildcat  is  disconnected  from  the 
shaft,  and  the  brake  is  set  taut.  The  anchor  chain 
is  secured  on  deck  by  a  short  length  of  chain 
called  a  chain  stopper,  which  is  made  fast  to  a 
permanent  padeye  on  the  forecastle.  The  chain 
stopper  is  fitted  with  a  slip  hook,  called  a 
pelican  hook,  for  quick  releasing  of  the  anchor 
and  chain.  The  chain  passes  from  the  wildcat 
through  chain  pipes,  down  into  the  chain  locker 
where  it  is  stowed. 

Wire  ropes  or  hawsers  are  employed  when  a 
vessel  is  moored  alongside  a  pier.  On  the  ship 
these  lines  are  secured  to  pairs  of  vertical  metal 
heads  called  bitts,  and  they  pass  over  the  ship's 
side  through  metal  chocks.  They  are  secured  on 
the  pier  to  vertical  posts  called  bollards. 

Smaller  lines  may  be  secured  to  cleats.  These 
are  fittings  of  wood  or  metal  with  horns,  and 
they  are  located  in  various  appropriate  places  on 
board  ship.  The  concave  barrel-like  portion  of  a 
windlass  is  called  a  capstan  and  is  used  .  for 
handling  hawsers. 


BRIDGE  ASSEMBLY 

On  most  Navy  ships  there  is  a  high 
prominent  structure  (figure  15-6)  which  consists 
of  deckhouses,  platforms,  ladders,  and  spaces  for 
enclosing  gun,  ship,  and  fire  control  equipment. 
A  major  part  of  this  assembly  on  all  ships  is  the 
bridge.  The  bridge  is  the  main  control  point  and 
nerve  center  for  the  whole  ship.  All  orders  and 
commands  come  from  the  bridge  while  the  ship 
is  underway.  It  is  the  station  of  the  captain  and 
the  officer  of  the  deck  while  underway.  The 
latter  at  sea  has  an  organization  of  considerable 
size  to  assist  him  in  performing  his  duty  and  to 
feed  information  into  this  focal  center.  Interior 
communication  systems  enable  him  to  keep  in 
touch  with  all  parts  of  the  ship  from  his  post. 


332 


Chapter  1 5-EXTERNAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SHIPS 


SURFACE  SEARCH  RADAR 
ANTENNA 


HIGH  FREQUENCY  ANTENNA 


AIR  SEARCH  RADAR 
ANTENNA 


FIRE-CONTROL  RADAR 
ANTENRA 


3.97 

Figure  15-6.— While  underway,  the  bridge  is  the  main  control  point  and  nerve  center  of  the  ship.  Failure  to  use  proper 
nomenclature  in  referring  to  parts  of  a  ship  or  its  equipment  is  unprofessional  and  may  in  an  emergency  lead  to 
dangerous  confusion. 


A  list  of  the  equipment  to  be  found  on  the 
bridge  of  a  modern  warship  would  include  the 
wheel  for  steering  the  ship;  the  binnacle,  a  stand 
housing  the  magnetic  compass;  a  gyro  repeater, 
operated  by  the  gyrocompass;  the  engine  order 
telegraph  or  annunciator  for  transmitting  orders 
to  the  engineers;  switchboards  for  operating 
lights  and  alarms;  and  devices  for  tracking 
submarines  and  surface  craft.  Navigational 
equipment  such  as  sextants,  charts,  drawing 
instruments,  and  reference  books  may  be  stowed 
on  the  bridge;  but  more  often  these  are  kept  in  a 
separate  compartment  nearby  called  the 
charthouse,  in  which  also  is  located  a  fathometer 
depth  sounder  for  measuring  the  depth  of  water 
by  sound  waves.  Around  the  enclosed  bridge 
there  may  be  an  open  platform  where  lookouts, 
the  officer  of  the  deck,  and  other  members  of 


the  watch  may  have  the  best  possible  view  of  the 
area  surrounding  the  ship. 

SIGNAL  BRIDGE 

The  signal  bridge  is  an  open  platform  located 
near  the  navigation  bridge,  and  it  is  from  this 
point  that  signalmen  maintain  visual 
communications  with  other  ships  and  stations  in 
the  vicinity. 

Visual  Signaling  Methods 

Visual  signaling  is  accomplished  mainly  by 
three  methods:  flaghoist,  flashing  light,  and 
semaphore.  These  methods  are  used  for 
short-range  signaling  although  the  range  may  be 
increased  by  relaying.  Most  of  this  type  of 


equipment   is    located    on    or    near  the  signal 
bridge. 

Signal  flags  used  in  ilaghoist  signaling  are 
bent  on  (attached  to)  the  halyards  or  light  lines 
and  hoisted  to  the  yard.  When  not  in  use,  these 
flags  are  carefully  stowed  in  a  flagbag,  a 
container  in  which  the  flags  are  arranged 
alphabetically  and  numerically. 

Signal  searchlights  (figure  15-7)  are  also 
located  on  or  near  the  signal  bridge.  The 
searchlights  have  manually  operated  shutters  and 
are  used  to  transmit  messages  in  code  by 
alternately  flashing  and  obscuring  the  light. 

Yardarm  blinkers  are  two  electrically 
operated  lights  on  the  ends  of  the  yardarm. 


77.62 

Figure  15-7.— Much  of  the  communications  between 
ships  at  sea  is  done  by  means  of  flashing  light  and 
alpha  bet  flags. 


They  are  controlled  by  a  key  on  the  signal 
bridge  or  other  signal  station.  Blinkers,  because 
of  their  high  location,  are  visible  over  a  radius  of 
360°  and  thus  may  give  signals  to  several  ships  in 
formation.  The  searchlight,  on  the  other  hand, 
generally  directs  its  light  at  a  single  ship  or  spot 
on  shore. 

The  semaphore  system  of  signaling  uses  a 
semaphore  alphabet,  the  characters  of  which  are 
formed  by  changing  the  positions  of  the  arms. 
The  arm  positions  alone  give  the  message,  but 
flags  held  in  the  hands  give  a  greater  range  of 
visibility.  Semaphore  is  used  at  sea  between 
ships  in  formation.  In  port  it  is  used  for  daytime 
administrative  signaling  between  ships  close 
enough  to  make  this  method  practicable. 
Semaphore  is  quicker  than  flashing  light,  but  its 
range  is  less. 

Other  visual  signaling  equipment  carried  by 
ships  and  used  to  transmit  specific  kinds  of 
information  are  speed  indicators  (pennants, 
flags,  and  lights),  pyrotechnics,  and  lights  and 
shapes  required  by  the  rules  of  the  road.  This 
equipment  has  a  more  limited  purpose  than  the 
standard  methods  of  visual  communication,  but 
they  afford  quick  and  easy  means  of  transferring 
information. 

LIGHTS  REQUIRED  BY  RULES  OF  THE 

ROAD.— Although  ships  have  displayed 
nighttime  identification  lights  for  many  years, 
the  advent  of  steam  increased  the  number  of 
ships  of  various  nations  traveling  at  high  speeds 
in  the  same  sealanes,  and  made  standardized 
rules  and  regulations  necessary.  Consequently,  a 
conference  of  the  maritime  nations  of  the  world 
drew  up  the  International  Regulations  for 
Preventing  Collisions  at  Sea.  The  regulations 
were  then  approved  and  made  law  by  the  various 
nations.  A  few  minor  changes  have  been  made 
from  time  to  time,  the  latest  of  which  went  into 
effect  in  1965.  Now  known  simply  as  rules  of 
the  road,  the  regulations  are  compiled  by  the 
U.S.  Coast  Guard  into  a  pamphlet  governing 
waterborne  craft  (including  seaplanes)  navigating 
on  the  high  seas  and  on  certain  inland  waters  of 
the  United  States.  These  rules  comprise  the 
traffic  code  of  the  sea. 

Running  Lights.— A  masthead  (figure  15-8) 
light  is  a  fixed  white  light  usually  located  on  a 


334 


Chapter  1 5-EXTERNAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SHIPS 


small  shelf  extending  forward  from  the  foremast 
or  on  the  upper  part  of  the  bridge 
superstructure.  The  range  light,  also  white,  is 
positioned  above  the  masthead  light  on  ships 
1 50  feet  in  length  or  longer;  it  may  be  on  either 
the  foremast  or  the  mainmast.  When  the  range 
light  is  shown  in  conjunction  with  the  masthead 
light,  the  combination  is  termed  range  lights. 
Although  required  for  all  power-driven  ships 
underway  (except  for  ships  less  than  65  feet 


long),  the  white  lights  are  not  shown  on  sailing 
ships.  All  ships  carry  a  green  side  light  on  the 
starboard  side  and  a  red  light  on  the  port  side. 

Special  Lights. -High  up  on  the  mast  are  two 
red  lights  known  as  breakdown  lights.  These  are 
shown  at  night  when  a  ship  is  out  of  command. 

There  are  other  lights  required  by  the  rules 
of  the  road  for  special  circumstances  such  as 


YARDARM  BLINKER  LIGHTS 


RED  BREAKDOWN   LIGHTS 


SIGNAL 
SEARCHLIGHT 


SEARCHLIGHT 


MASTHEAD 
LIGHT 


3.98 

Figure  15-8.~The  location,  number,  and  color  of  lights  aboard  ship  follow  requirements  set  forth  in  the  rules  of  the 

road,  the  traffic  rules  of  the  sea. 


when  towing  or  at  anchor.  All  officers  of  the 
deck  must  know  the  meanings  of  these  lights. 

Sound  Signaling  Devices 

Sound  signaling  devices,  also  required  by  the 
rules  of  the  road,  include  the  ship's  bell,  whistle, 
siren,  and  gong.  The  ship's  bell,  which  usually  is 
near  the  navigation  or  the  signal  bridge,  is 
sounded  when  the  ship  is  at  anchor  in  fog,  mist, 
falling  snow,  or  heavy  rain.  In  international 
waters,  the  gong  (located  in  the  after  part  of  the 
vessel)  also  is  sounded.  The  rules  of  the  road 
require  that  the  bell  (and  gong  when 
appropriate)  be  rung  rapidly  for  about  5  seconds 
at  intervals  of  not  more  than  a  minute.  If  other 
men-of-war  are  present  or  expected,  it  is 
customary  to  strike  the  ship's  call  numerals  each 
time  the  bell  is  rung. 

The  ship's  bell  is  also  tolled  just  as  divine 
services  begin.  This  is  preceded  by  church  call  on 
the  bugle,  after  which  the  word  is  passed:  "The 
smoking  lamp  is  out.  Knock  off  all  card  games, 
and  keep  silence  about  the  decks  during  divine 
service."  In  many  ships,  however,  this  use  of  the 
bell  has  been  superseded  by  the  public  address 
system. 

The  whistle  or  siren  is  used  in  fog  and 
whenever  required  by  rules  of  the  road  when 
there  is  danger  of  collision  due  to  meeting, 
overtaking,  or  misunderstanding  of  other  ships' 
intentions. 


MASTS,  STAFFS, 
AND  STACKS 

Navy  ships  have  either  one  or  two  masts.  If 
there  are  two,  the  forward  mast  is  the  foremast, 
and  the  other  is  the  mainmast.  On  single-masted 
ships  the  mast  is  well  forward  of  amidships, 
usually  is  part  of  the  superstructure  bridge 
assembly,  and  is  referred  to  as  the  foremast  or 
simply  the  mast.  (Nautically  the  word  "mast"  is 
pronounced  "mist"  when  coupled  with  another 
word;  thus  "foremast"  is  pronounced 
"foremist")  Some  ships  are  equipped  with  one 
or  two  "macks,"  combinations  of  masts  and 
stacks,  such  as  that  shown  in  figure  14-13. 


Masts  are  of  many  sizes  and  shapes;  some  are 
built  up  of  heavy  structural  steel,  and  others  are 
simply  a  metal  or  wooden  pole.  On  larger  ships  a 
heavy  mast  may  support  an  upper  structure, 
called  the  foretop  or  maintop,  which  houses  gun 
directors,  rangefinders,  and  other  equipment  for 
the  control  of  gunfire.  On  ships  of  all  sizes,  at 
least  one  mast,  together  with  a  spar  running 
athwartships,  called  a  yard,  supports  signaling 
devices  rigged  in  such  a  position  that  they  are 
clearly  visible  from  other  ships.  The  lighter  type 
of  mast  is  held  rigid  by  standing  rigging, 
consisting  of  wire  rope  stays  running  in  a 
fore-and-aft  direction  and  shrouds  running 
athwartships  down  to  the  bulwarks. 

The  mast  tops  of  all  important  combatant 
units  are  fitted  with  a  platform  on  which  is 
installed  one  or  more  radar  antennas.  The  masts 
also  support  radio  antennas.  Every  naval  vessel 
in  commission  flies  from  the  main  truck  either  a 
commission  pennant  or  a  personal  flag  of  a  flag 
officer.  If  a  commission  pennant  is  flown,  it  is 
secured  to  a  pigstick  before  being  hoisted  aloft; 
but  if  a  personal  flag  is  flown,  the  flag  is  bent 
directly  on  the  halyards.  Extending  abaft  the 
mainmast  of  a  naval  vessel  is  a  small  spar  known 
as  the  gaff.  From  the  top  or  peak  of  the  gaff,  the 
national  ensign  normally  is  flow  when  the  ship  is 
underway. 

STAFFS  AND  STACKS 

Small  vertical  spars  at  the  bow  and  stern  of  a 
ship  are  the  jackstaff  and  flagstaff,  respectively. 
When  a  ship  is  at  anchor  or  moored,  it  flies  the 
jack  on  the  jackstaff  and  the  ensign  on  the 
flagstaff  from  0800  to  sunset. 

The  stacks  on  board  ship  are  pipes  utilized 
to  expel  smoke  and  gases  from  the  boilers.  Most 
ships  have  their  stacks  on  the  centerline, 
approximately  amidships.  The  notable  exception 
to  this  is  the  aircraft  carrier,  in  which  the  stacks 
are  located  on  the  "island"  at  one  side  of  the 
flight  deck,  or  protrude  from  the  side  of  the 
ship. 


ANTENNAS 

From      an     operational     standpoint, 
communications  and  radar  antennas  are  a  vital 


336 


Chapter  15 -EXTERNAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SHIPS 


part  of  a  ship's  equipment.  The  former,  for 
example,  is  aptly  considered  as  the  "voice  of 
command."  Commanders  must  be  able  to 
communicate  to  their  subordinates  whenever 
necessary,  between  and  among  ships  separated 
by  varying  distances,  and  from  ships  to  and  from 
shore  stations  and  aircraft.  The  ability  to 
communicate  makes  possible  effective  command 
and  control,  ensuring  that  every  unit  in  the  fleet 
is  responsive  to  the  tactical  and  strategic  needs 
and  services  of  other  units.  Radar  antennas  are 
used  mainly  to  electronically  search  the  sea  and 
sky  to  detect  objects  beyond  visual  range,  as 
navigational  aids,  and  for  fire  control  purposes, 
although  they  also  have  other  uses. 


Without  going  into  the  technicalities  of  the 
subject,  the  function  of  a  receiving  antenna  is  to 
intercept  a  portion  of  the  electromagnetic  wave 
of  energy  emitted  by  a  transmitting  antenna;  the 
function  of  a  transmitting  antenna  is  to  convert 
the  radio  frequency  energy  fed  to  it  by  a 
high-voltage  generator  into  an  electromagnetic 
wave  so  that  the  energy  may  be  propagated  to 
distant  points.  Radar  antennas  both  transmit 
and  receive;  some  communications  antennas  also 
have  that  capability. 

For  whatever  purpose  utilized,  antennas  are 
located  so  as  to  be  susceptible  to  the  least 
possible  amount  of  interference  from  each  other 
and  from  the  ship's  structure.  Most  of  the  masts, 


Figure  15-9.— A  tripod  mast  can  support  a  considerable  amount  of  heavy  equipment. 

337 


134.153 


stacks,  and  other  structures  abovedeck  .are 
grounded  to  the  ship's  hull  and,  through  the 
hull,  to  the  water.  To  obtain  adequate  coverage 
from  an  antenna,  it  must  be  installed  so  that 
minimum  distortion  of  the  electromagnetic 
radiation  pattern  results  from  grounded 
structures. 

Figures  15-6  and  15-9  show,  among  other 
things,  some  typical  shipboard  communication 
antennas,  which  include  wires,  whips,  and 
high-frequency  antennas.  Wire  and  whip  antennas 
are  designed  to  operate  through  frequencies  in 
the  medium  to  high  range;  various  types  are 
needed  to  ensure  the  widest  possible  range  of 
available  frequencies  consistent  with  available 
space. 

Wire  receiving  antennas  are 
corrosion-resistant,  nonmagnetic  wire  ropes 
strung  either  vertically  or  horizontally  (figure 
15-9)  from  the  yardarm  or  mast  to  outriggers, 


another  mast,  or  the  superstructure.  Wire 
antennas  used  for  transmitting  may  be  coaxial 
cable  or  metal  tubing  enclosed  in  rectangular 
metal  ducts. 

Whip  antennas  are  essentially  self-supporting 
and  may  be  installed  in  many  locations.  They 
may  be  deck-mounted  or  installed  in  brackets  on 
stacks  or  superstructure.  On  carriers,  tilting 
whips  are  located  along  the  edges  of  the  flight 
deck  (figure  15-10)  so  they  can  be  lowered 
during  flight  operations.  There  are  several  types 
of  tilting  mounts  used  aboard  submarines. 

Located  high  in  the  ship  and  as  clear  as 
possible  is  the  relatively  small  antenna  employed 
for  very-high  and  ultrahigh  frequency 
communications. 

Figure  15-9  illustrates  construction  features 
of  a  tripod  foremast  equipped  with  radar 
antenna  platforms. 


Figure  15-10.-Tilting  whip  antennas  are  typical  construction  features  of  aircraft  carriers. 

338 


134.154 


Chapter  15-EXTERNAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SHIPS 


BOATS  AND 
SURVIVAL  EQUIPMENT 

In  the  years  immediately  preceding  World 
War  II,  boating  needs  of  the  Navy  were,  in 


general,  satisfied  by  boats  of  three  types: 
motorboat,  motor  launch,  and  whaleboat. 
Whaleboats  were  of  two  kinds:  pulling  and 
motor.  During  the  war  many  different  boats 
were  designed  for  special  purposes,  and  some  of 


Figure  15-11.-Boats  used  in  the  U.S.  Navy.  Clockwise  from  the  top,  they  are  the  utility  boat,  LCVP,  personnel  boat, 

motorboat,  LCM,  and  motor  whaleboat. 


339 


these  (notably  the  LCVP  and  LCM)  are  still 
retained.  Since  World  War  II,  many  new  designs 
have  been  tested  and  approved.  Pulling 
whaleboats  are  no  longer  used  aboard  ship,  but 
the  extremely  seaworthy  motor  whaleboats  are 
still  utilized  as  lifeboats.  (See  figure  15-11.) 

Boats  may  be  handled  either  by  means  of 
davits  along  a  ship's  sides,  by  cranes,  or  by  cargo 
booms.  They  may  be  stowed  nested  one  inside 
another  on  deck  or  in  a  space  below  decks,  or 
they  may  be  suspended  from  davits  or  stowed 
one  above  another  between  davits.  Certain 
amphibious  landing  ships,  as  will  be  seen  in 
chapter  16,  are  equipped  with  a  huge  well  into 
which  landing  craft  manuever  under  their  own 
power.  These  boats  are  stowed  in  the  well  while 
the  ship  is  underway. 

For  years,  the  Navy  has  been  experimenting 
with  plastic  boats;  and  several  types  are  now  in 
use  throughout  the  fleet.  Plastic  boats  require 
less  maintenance  and  are  easier  to  repair  than 


wooden  or  steel  boats.  Since  they  are  lighter 
than  conventionally  constructed  boats,  the 
boat-handling  equipment  can  also  be  lighter. 

LIFESAVING  AND 
SURVIVAL  EQUIPMENT 

Experience  and  experiments  have  shown 
that  it  is  essential  that  persons  who  have 
abandoned  ship  in  water  below  70°  F  be  kept 
entirely  out  of  the  water  if  they  are  expected  to 
survive.  Therefore,  the  Navy  supplies  each  ship 
with  enough  CO2  inflatable  lifeboats  (figure 
15-12)  to  accommodate  a  large  percentage  of 
the  crew.  These  boats  keep  the  persons  out  of 
the  sea  and  have  canopies  that  provide  shelter 
from  the  elements. 

While  aircraft  are  provided  with  smaller 
boats,  the  most  common  size  found  aboard  ship 
is  the  1 5-person  boat  which  consists  essentially 
of  a  main  tube,  12  inches  in  diameter,  and  a 


17.12 

Figure  15-12.-C02  inflatable  boat.  In  case  the  ship  sinks  before  the  C02  lifeboat  can  be  launched,  a  hydrostatic  release 

frees  the  boat  and  it  rises  to  the  surface. 


340 


Chapter  15-EXTERNAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SHIPS 


gunwale  tube,  10  inches  in  diameter,  vulcanized 
to  the  top  of  the  main  tube.  Thwarts  for  each 
tube  act  as  stiff eners.  A  bow-shaped  tube  near 
each  end  supports  the  yellow-orange  canopy. 

C02  lifeboats,  folded  and  packed  in  carrying 
cases,  are  usually  stowed  about  the  ship  in 
hinged  racks.  Two  canvas  bands,  one  end  of  each 
secured  to  the  hinged  outboard  section  and  the 
other  end  to  a  hydrostatic  release,  hold  a  boat  in 
place.  Boats  may  be  launched  by  hand;  or  in 
case  the  ship  sinks  before  a  boat  can  be 
launched,  water  pressure  will  operate  the 
hydrostatic  release,  and  the  boat  will  float  to  the 
surface. 

Nylon  rope  boarding  ladders  are  attached  to 
each  end  of  a  boat,  and  a  sea  anchor  is  secured 
to  the  forward  end.  Inside  the  canopy  are  two 
hand  pumps,  a  heaving  line,  and  a  boat  repair 
kit. 

Emergency  equipment  such  as  rations, 
canned  water,  desalting  kits,  signaling  devices, 


and  first-aid  kits  are  packed  in  watertight, 
neoprene-coated  fabric  containers  and  stowed  in 
the  false  bottom  of  the  carrying  case. 

Action  reports  and  evidence  offered  by 
survivors  of  sinkings  during  World  War  II 
indicated  that  the  most  important  piece  of 
abandon-ship  equipment  is  the  life  preserver. 
The  jacket  style  is  most  commonly  used. 

The  fine  performance  of  the  emergency  gear 
furnished  by  the  U.S.  Navy  in  World  War  II  was 
largely  responsible  for  saving  the  lives  of  a  great 
majority  of  the  personnel  who  were  forced  to 
abandon  ship.  No  expense  was  spared  in 
research,  procurement,  and  training,  to, provide 
the  best  available  equipment.  The  basis  of  most 
experimentation  with  survival  equipment  is  the 
personal  narrative  of  the  survivor.  From  his 
experiences  the  Navy  learns  the  true  value  of  its 
survival  gear;  from  his  suggestions  the  Navy 
devises  new  gear  and  modifies  existing 
equipment. 


CHAPTER  16 


VESSEL  TYPES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS 


Navy  ships  are  broadly  classified  as  either 
combatants  or  auxiliaries.  Combatants  are 
further  classified  as  warships,  amphibious 
warfare  ships,  and  mine  warfare  ships.  Ships  that 
provide  specialized  naval  support  are  classified  as 
auxiliary  ships.  Smaller  vessels  are  classified  as 
combatant  craft  and  service  craft.  Combatant 
craft  include  patrol  craft,  landing  craft,  and 
riverine  warfare  craft.  Service  craft,  as  the  name 
implies,  perform  many  essential  services.  In  this 
chapter,  many  of  both  the  old  and  new  vessels 
of  each  classification  are  described. 

In  the  ship  characteristics  described  in  this 
chapter,  displacements  are  given  in  full-load 
tonnages,  beams  are  extreme  (for  aircraft 
carriers,  width  of  flight  decks),  and  drafts  are 
maximum.  Carrier  accommodations  include 
personnel  attached  to  embarked  air  wings. 


COMBATANT  SHIPS 

In  general,  the  combatant  ships  in  a 
particular  class  have  similar  characteristics 
because  each  is  constructed  according  to  the 
same  prototype.  The  class  designator  is  the  name 
and  hull  number  of  the  prototype.  As  of  1  July 
1975,  about  half  of  the  U.S.  combatant  types 
had  been  redesignated  to  eliminate  confusion 
between  such  terms  as  "frigate"  and  "escort" 
(the  latter  term  was  discontinued),  bringing  the 
U.S.  Navy's  ship  designation  system  into  line 
with  most  of  the  other  navies  of  the  world.  This 
system  reflects  more  accurately  the  mission  of 
these  ships  in  modern  warfare.  Following  is  a 
list,  according  to  type,  of  the  present  and  former 
ship  classes. 


Aircraft  Carrier 


ormer  Class 
CVA-41 

Present  Class 
CV-41 

Hull  No 
41-43 

CVA-59 

CV-59 

59-62 

CVA-63 

CV-63 

63,64 

CVAN-65 

CVN-65 

65 

CVA-67 

CV-67 

67 

CVAN-68 

CVN-68 

68-70 

Guided-Missile  Cruiser 


Former  Class 

Present  Class 

Hull  Nos. 

CLG-3 
DLG-16 
DLGN-25 
DLG-26 
DLGN-35 
DLGN-36 
DLGN-38 

CG-4 
CG-16 

CGN-25 
CG-26 
CGN-35 
CGN-36 

CGN-38 

4,5 
16-24 
25 
26-34 
35 
36,37 
38-42 

Guided-Missile  Destroyer 

Former  Class 

Present  Class 

Hull  Nos. 

DLG-6 

DDG-37 

37-46 

Guided-Missile  Frigate 


7ormer  Class 

Present  Class 

HuO 

DEG-1 
PF 

FFG-1 
FFG-7 

1-6 

7-56 

342 


Former  Class 

Present  Class 

HuU  Nos. 

DE-1037 

FF-1037 

1037,  1038 

DE-1040 

FF-1040 

1040-1051 

AGDE-1 

AGFF-1 

1 

DE-1052 

FF-1052 

1052-1097 

Patrol  Combatant 


Former  Class 

(None) 
(None) 


Present  Class 

Hull  Nos. 

PG-84 
PG-92 

84-90 
92-101 

Patrol  Combatant  Missile 


Former  Class 

Present  Class 

HuU  Nos. 

PHM 

PHM-1 

1-30 

WARSHIPS 

Warships  are  built  mainly  to  attack  an 
enemy,  using  gunfire,  missiles,  torpedoes,  and 
other  weapons.  Included  in  the  warship  category 
are— 

1.  Aircraft  carriers 

2.  Battleships  (none  in  commission) 

3.  Cruisers 

4.  Command  ships  (none  in  commission) 

5.  Destroyers 

6.  Submarines 

7.  Frigates 

8.  Patrol  combatants 

Aircraft  Carriers 

Although  ships  called  aircraft  carriers  made 
their  appearance  during  World  War  I,  none  had 
flight  decks  large  enough  to  permit  planes  to 
land  as  well  as  to  take  off.  The  first  vessel 
designed  with  a  deck  that  could  be  used  for 
taking  off  and  landing  was  the  British  ship 
Argus,  completed  in  September  1918,  too  late 
to  be  used  in  the  war. 


Langley,  nicknamed  "The  Covered  Wagon."  The 
partly  completed  battle  cruisers  USS  Lexington 
and  USS  Saratoga  were  converted  and 
commissioned  as  carriers  in  1927.  The  USS 
Ranger,  completed  in  1934,  was  our  first  ship 
originally  designed  as  an  aircraft  carrier. 

During  World  War  II,  Essex  class  carriers 
figured  predominantly  in  carrier  strikes  against 
the  enemy.  Over  20  of  these  were  built,  but 
some  did  not  see  action  as  they  were  completed 
as  much  as  a  year  after  cessation  of  hostilities. 
The  USS  Midway,  first  of  her  class,  was 
completed  toward  the  close  of  the  war,  also  too 
late  for  war  service. 

Post- World  War  II  developments,  found  on 
all  major  conversions  and  new  construction, 
include  angled  flight  decks  and  steam  catapults. 

The  chief  function  of  the  carrier  is  to  carry, 
launch,  and  handle  aircraft  quickly  and 
effectively.  It  strives  to  approach  the  enemy 
unseen  at  high  speed,  launch  its  planes  for  the 
attack,  recover  them,  and  get  away  before  its 
position  can  be  discovered.  Its  fighter  planes, 
AA  guns,  and  guided  missiles  aid  the  carrier  in 
protecting  itself  from  enemy  air  attack.  Because 
of  the  flexibility  of  aircraft  carriers 
demonstrated  during  Vietnam  operations,  the 
attack  carrier  has  been  converted  to  a 
multipurpose  CV  configuration.  This  class  of 
carrier  is  capable  of  serving  in  air,  surface,  and 
antisubmarine  warfare  roles,  depending  upon  the 
type  of  aircraft  carried. 

The  aircraft  carriers  (CVs)  have  four  main 
functions: 

1.  They  are  used  as  scouts  to  locate  and 
observe  enemy  forces  or  to  watch  for  hostile 
aircraft. 

2.  They    launch  initial  long-range  attacks 
against  targets  ashore  and  afloat. 

3.  They     provide     our     ships     with     air 
protection  against  enemy  airborne,  surface,  and 
subsurface  attack. 

4.  They    provide    for    sea-based    antisub- 
marine warfare. 

STRUCTURAL  FACTORS.-Featured  in  a 
carrier's  construction  are  a  large  flight  deck;  a 


343 


hangar  deck  for  plane  stowage;  elevators 
permitting  swift  transfer  of  planes  from  one 
deck  to  another;  extensive  space  for  repair 
shops,  living  quarters,  and  operational 
equipment;  and  a  powerplant  that  provides 
ship-speed  necessary  for  her  planes  to  take  off 
and  land.  The  main  emphasis  is  on  speed, 
seaworthiness,  and  plane-carrying  capacity. 

Below  the  carrier's  flight  deck  is  the  hangar 
deck.  Here  are  shops  which  make  it  a 
counterpart  of  the  modern  hangar  ashore. 
Opening  into  a  large  compartment  are  the  wing, 
engine,  electronic,  and  metal  shops.  Nearby  are 
storerooms  containing  parts  necessary  for  rapid 
repairs  to  damaged  planes. 

On  more  recent  carriers  each  aircraft 
squadron  has  an  individual  readyroom  located 


near  the  flight  deck.  Officers  assemble  here  for  a 
last-minute  briefing  prior  to  takeoff.  To 
facilitate  briefings,  blackboards  and 
teletypewriter  conference  screens  are  provided. 

Steam  catapults  of  various  lengths  enable  the 
planes  to  take  off  in  a  much  shorter  distance 
than  is  normally  required.  Arresting  gear  and 
special  safety  barriers  are  used  in  landing  aircraft 
on  the  carrier's  deck. 

CVs.— Present  CVs  include  the  Midway, 
Forrestal,  Kitty  Hawk,  Enterprise,  John  F. 
Kennedy,  and  Nimitz  classes.  The  Hancock 
(CV-19)  class  of  carriers  were  launched  during 
World  War  II.  In  general  they  were  considerably 
smaller  than  the  CVs  built  since  that  time.  Their 
complement,  for  example,  was  about  2200 


3.71 


Figure  16-1.-USS  America  (CV-66).  Attack  carriers  form  the  nucleus  of  U.S.  surface  striking  forces. 

344 


compared  to  4000  or  more  for  newer  ships.  All 
ships  in  the  class  were  modernized  during  the 
1950s,  receiving  angled  flight  decks,  enclosed 
(hurricane)  bows,  and  higher-capacity  steam 
catapults  and  arresting  gear  needed  to  handle 
modern  aircraft.  The  last  of  this  class  was 
decommissioned  in  1977. 

The  Midway  class  carriers  (USS  Midway 
(CV-41),  USS  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt  (CV-42), 
and  USS  Coral  Sea  (CV-43))  were  completed  in 
the  first  2  years  after  World  War  II,  but  have 
undergone  major  conversions  similar  to  those 
received  by  the  Hancock  class.  Strengthened 
flight  decks  enable  ships  of  the  Midway  class  to 
handle  today's  heavy,  fast  jets. 

Midway  Class  Data 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 

Shaft  horsepower 

Accommodations 


64,000  tons 
977  feet 
242  feet 
35.5  feet 
212,000 
4,600 


The  USS  Forrestal  (CV-59)  was  completed 
in  October  1955.  Other  ships  of  the  class  are  the 
USS  Saratoga  (CV-60),  USS  Ranger  (CV-61), 
and  USS  Independence  (CV-62).  The  Forrestal 
class  carriers  were  the  first  to  have  four 
catapults  instead  of  the  usual  two.  Also 
introduced  in  Forrestal  class  is  the  computerized 
Navy  Tactical  Data  System  (NTDS)  used  in  CIC. 

Forrestal  Class  Data 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 

Shaft  horsepower 

Accomm  odations 


78,000  tons 
1 ,046  feet 
258  feet 
3 5. 5  feet 
260,000 
5,100 


The  Kitty  Hawk  class  (USS  Kitty  Hawk 
(CV-63),  USS  Constellation  (CV-64),  and  USS 
America  (CV-66)  (figure  16-1))  were  designed 


3.71 

Figure  16-2.-USS  Enterprise  (CVN-65).  The  major  asset 
of  a  nuclear-powered  ship  lies  in  its  ability  to  steam 
for  months  without  refueling,  eliminating  much  of 
the  need  for  underway  logistic  support. 


basically  along  Forrestal  class  lines;  the  main 
difference  is  that  armament  consists  of  guided 
missiles  rather  than  guns. 

The  nuclear-powered  USS  Enterprise 
(CVN-65)  is  the  only  ship  in  its  class.  Four  fixed 
radar  antennas  (figure  16-2)  are  built  into  the 
superstructure.  A  new  concept  in  search  radar, 
employing  higher  powered  transmitters  and 
electronically  rotated  antennas,  doubles  normal 
radar  range.  For  maximum  maneuverability,  a 
rudder  is  placed  behind  each  of  her  four 
propellers.  A  second  nuclear  carrier,  USS  Nimitz 
(CVN-68),  joined  the  fleet  in  May  1975.  It  was 
named  after  the  late  Fleet  Admiral  Chester  W. 


345 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


134.186 


Figure  16-3.-USS  Nimitz  (CVN-68). 


Nimitz.  There  will  be  four  carriers  in  this  class 
by  1981. 

Enterprise  Class  Data 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 

Shaft  horsepower 

Accommodations 


Nuclear-powered  ships  have  the  unique 
ability  to  operate  for  extended  periods  over 
great  distances  independently  of  support  ships. 
In  1964  the  USS  Enterprise,  in  company  with 
the  USS  Long  Beach  (CGN-9)  and  USS 
Bainbridge  (DLGN-25),  made  a  self-sustaining 
30,000-rnile  voyage  around  the  world.  The  ships 
were  not  refueled  or  replenished  by  supplies  of 
any  kind  during  the  entire  trip. 

The  USS  John  F.  Kennedy  (CV-67),  named 
for  the  35th  President  of  the  United  States,  is  a 


modified  version  of  Forrestal  class  carriers. 
Launched  in  May  1967,  she  was  commissioned 
on  7  September  1968.  Her  overall  height  is 
equivalent  to  that  of  a  23-story  building. 

John  F.  Kennedy  Class  Data 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 

Shaft  horsepower 

Accommodations 


87,000  tons 
1,051  feet 
257  feet 
36  feet 
280,000 
5,727 


The  USS  Nimitz  (CVN-68)  (figure  16-3), 
first  of  four  of  the  newest  class  of 
nuclear-powered  carriers,  was  commissioned  on 
3  May  1975.  The  most  notable  improvement  to 
the  Nimitz  over  the  USS  Enterprise  is  its  two 
reactors  compared  to  eight  for  the  Enterprise. 
Each  Nimitz  reactor  can  produce  about  four 
times  the  power  of  an  Enterprise  reactor. 


346 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 

Shaft  horsepower 

Accomm  odations 

Battleships 


95,000  tons 
1,092  feet 
2  52  feet 
37  feet 
260,000 
6,200 


Battleships  were  designed  and  built  to 
accomplish  two  major  objectives:  engage  and 
sink  any  and  all  types  of  enemy  ships  by 
long-range  gunfire;  and  deliver  heavy  and 
continuous  bombardment  against  enemy  shore 
installations. 

Prior  to  World  War  II,  battleships  were  the 
principal  ships  of  the  fleet.  During  the  war,  the 
advent  of  fast  carrier  task  forces  brought  about  a 
shift  in  the  BB's  mission  to  that  of  furnishing 
antiaircraft  protection  for  those  task  forces. 
With  their  large-caliber  guns,  however,  they  also 
played  a  large  part  in  support  of  amphibious 
assaults.  Following  the  war,  most  were  disposed 
of  or  placed  in  mothballs. 

During  the  Korean  action  the  battleship 
took  part  in  shore  bombardment  operations. 
Following  this,  the  few  still  active  were  taken 
out  of  commission.  The  four  battleships  of  the 
Iowa  (BB-61)  class  are  the  only  remaining  U.S. 
Navy  battleships. 

To  reach  military  targets  in  Vietnam  that 
were  too  far  inland  to  be  within  range  of  other 
ships  in  the  7th  Fleet,  the  USS  New  Jersey 
(BB-62),  with  the  capability  of  hurling 
projectiles  more  than  20  miles  with  great 
accuracy,  was  reactivated  in  April  1968,  to  again 
serve  in  a  shore  bombardment  and  gunfire 
support  role.  With  the  cessation  of  hostilities  in 
Vietnam,  the  New  Jersey  was  again 
decommissioned  and  put  in  the  inactive  fleet. 
The  battleship  will  be  remembered  in  history  as 
the  most  formidable  warship  devised  in  its  time. 

The  New  Jersey's  main  battery  is  composed 
of  nine  16-inch  guns  disposed  in  three  triple-gun 
turrets,  two  of  which  are  forward  of  the  bridge, 
the  third  being  abaft  the  superstructure,  as  in 


3.74 

Figure  16-4.— In  addition  to  the  wallop  contained  in  her 
nine  16-inch  guns,  the  USS  New  Jersey  also  carries 
twenty  5-inch  guns  for  use  against  surface  and  air 

targets. 


figure  16-4.  This  arrangement  permits  all  nine 
guns  to  be  fired  simultaneously  on  either 
broadside.  Her  secondary  battery  consists 
essentially  of  5"/38  dual-purpose  (surface  and 
air)  guns. 


New  Jersey  Data 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 

Shaft  horsepower 

Accomodations 


57,950  tons 
888  feet 
108  feet 
38  feet 
212,000 
2,365 


347 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Cruisers 

Originally  cruisers  were  conveniently 
grouped  and  designated  as  CLs,  CAs,  and  CBs 
according  to  the  size  of  their  main  batteries, 
6-inch,  8-inch,  or  12-inch,  respectively.  They 
were  designed  as  general  utility  ships,  capable  of 
operating  alone,  in  groups,  or  with  a  battle  fleet. 
They  were  fast,  of  long  range,  and  powerfully 
armed.  They  served  as  scouts,  protective  screens 
against  destroyer  attacks,  leaders  of  destroyer 
flotillas,  leaders  of  destroyer  attacks  against  the 
enemy,  antiaircraft  screens,  and  aircraft  carrier 
guards.  They  also  provided  support  for 
amphibious  operations. 

The  increasing  threat  of  modern 
high-performance  aircraft  and  guided  missiles, 
however,  require  new  armaments  for  cruisers.  In 
order  to  meet  this  threat,  a  number  of  cruisers 
were  converted  to  carry  guided  missiles.  These 
will  eventually  be  replaced  by  the  new  nuclear 
guided-missile  cruisers  that  began  joining  the 
fleet  in  1974. 


Conventional  guided-missile  cruisers,  like 
nuclear-powered  CGs,  carry  missile  launchers 
plus  conventional  armament  and  the  most 
modern  facilities  and  equipment  for  air  control 
and  missile  and  gunfire  control.  With  striking 
forces  they  provide  protection  against  air, 
surface,  and  subsurface  threats.  In  amphibious 
operations,  in  addition  to  providing  protection 
to  the  landing  forces,  they  provide  missile  fire 
and  limited  gunfire  against  shore  targets  in 
support  of  ground  troops. 

These  ships  are  capable  of  carrying  out  the 
duties  originally  assigned  cruisers;  and  in 
addition,  installation  of  sonar  and  ASW  weapons 
plus  ASW  helicopters  provides  them  with 
powerful  antisubmarine  warfare  capabilities. 
Cruisers  currently  active  include  the  CG  and 
CGN -guided-missile  cruisers. 

Three  of  the  CA  and  CL  conversions  are  still 
active:  USS  Oklahoma  City  (CG-5),  USS 
Chicago  (CG-11),  and  USS  Albany  (CG-10) 
(figure  16-5).  It  is  anticipated  that  these  ships 
will  have  been  replaced  by  1980. 


134.187 


Chapter  16-VESSEL  TYPES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS 


Albany  Data 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 

Shaft  horsepower 

Accommodations 


18,950  tons 
674  feet 
71  feet 
33.5  feet 
120,000 
1,272 


The  latest  conventionally  powered  CGs  are 
those  in  the  Belknap  (CG-26)  class  (figure  16-6). 

Belknap  Class  Data 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 

Shaft  horsepower 

Accommodations 


7,940  tons 
547  feet 
54  feet 
29  feet 
85,000 
418 


The  nuclear-powered  prototype  USS  Long 
Beach  (CGN-9)  (figure  1 6-7)  is  our  first  cruiser 
since  World  War  II  to  be  designed  and  built  as 


such  from  the  keel  up.  Her  nuclear  propulsion 
and  guided  missiles,  along  with  the  latest  in 
electronic  equipment,  make  her  a  truly  modern 
man-of-war  capable  of  combating  surface  ships, 
submarines,  aircraft,  or  guided  missiles. 


Long  Beach  Data 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 

Shaft  horsepower 

Accommodations 


16,250  tons 
721  feet 
73  feet 
30  feet 
80,000 
1,160 


The  California  (CGN-36)  (figure  16-8) 
nuclear  class  cruiser,  followed  by  the  Virginia 
(CGN-38)  class  are  the  latest  cruisers  designed  to 
operate  independently  or  with  strike, 
antisubmarine,  and  amphibious  forces.  They  also 
provide  fast,  extended  range  protection  for 
nuclear  carriers. 


134.84 


Figure  16-6.~Guided-missile  cruiser  USS  Josephus  Daniels  (CG-27),  a  fine  strike  carrier  escort. 

349 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


grc 
ace 
6-ii 
we 
opi 
Thi 
arn 
aga 
flo- 
ene 
gui 
am 

hig 
ho~\ 
ord 
wei 
wil 
guii 
flee 


Figure  16-7.-USS  Long  Beach  (CGIM-9),  a  U.S.  cruiser  built  since  World  War  II.  Terrier  launchers  forward  and  Ta 
5-inch  guns  amidships  to  counter  the  threat  of  surface  attack. 


California  Class  Data 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 

Shaft  horsepower 

Accommodations 

Destroyers 


11, 100  tons 
596  feet 
61  feet 
32  feet 
70,000 
540 


Destroyers  (DD)  are  multipurpose  ships 
useful  in  almost  any  kind  of  naval  operation. 
They  are  designed  to  be  swiftly  moving 
platforms  for  armament  and  submarine 
detection  equipment.  Our  new  destroyers 
incorporate  the  latest  and  best  features  of 
mobility,  offense,  and  defense. 

Originally  designed  to  combat  torpedo 
boats,  the  first  destroyers  appeared  around 
1900.  By  process  of  evolution,  destroyers 
themselves  came  to  carry  torpedoes,  and  for  a 


time  they  were  expressly  used  to  deliver  to 
attacks.  With  the  advent  of  the  U-boat, 
became  submarine  hunters.  In  World  \ 
destroyers  also  performed  as  radar  picks 
guard  against  enemy  aircraft. 

Destroyers  are  well  armed,  carrying  dif 
combinations  of  5"/54,  5"/3'8,  and  3"/50 
torpedoes;  and  ASROC  or  other  ASWwe 

They  are  fast  ships,  with  exceptionall: 
powcrplants  tor  their  size.  They  have  no 
protection  except  against  bomb  and  prc 
fragments  in  vital  locations.  Their  pro! 
against  larger  vessels  is  their  speec 
maneuverability.  Although  the  destroyer 
easy  to  hit  from  the  air,  its  unarmored  ch; 
makes  it  susceptible  to  damage  even  frc 
lighter  types  of  bombs.  Another  weaknes 
limited  endurance.  A  destroyer,  steaming  i 
economical  speeds,  must  be  refueled  ever 
day  in  order  to  maintain  its  percentage 
on  board  at  a  prudent  level. 


Chapter  16-VESSEL  TYPES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS 


134.188 


Figure  16-8.-USS  California  (CGN-36). 


Destroyers'  jobs  are  to  operate  offensively 
and  defensively  against  submarines  and  surface 
ships,  to  defend  against  airborne  attack,  to 
provide  gunfire  support  for  amphibious  assaults 
and  land  forces,  and  to  a  limited  degree,  to 
exercise  aircraft  control  for  ASW  operations, 
patrol,  and  search  and  rescue  missions. 

The  mainstays  of  the  destroyer  fleet  during 
World  War  II  were  the  Fletcher  and  Allen  M. 
Sumner  classes.  There  are  no  ships  of  the 
FT.etch.er  class  in  commission  today,  and  the 
majority  of  the  remaining  Sumner  class 
destroyers  are  either  scheduled  for 
decommissioning  or  being  used  as  Naval  Reserve 
training  ships. 

The  Gearing  class  destroyer  first  appeared  in 
1 945.  Seventy-four  of  these  ships  were 
commissioned  within  the  next  year.  Most  of 
these  ships  that  are  still  in  commission  are 
operational  with  the  Naval  Reserve  Fleet.  Most 
of  the  destroyers  in  the  fleet  today  are  of  the 


Forrest  Sherman,  Hull  (figure  1 6-9)  or  Spruance 
classes. 

The  Spruance  class  destroyers  (figure  16-10) 
are  the  largest  and  most  ASW  capable  destroyers 
ever  built  for  the  U.S.  Navy.  This  class  is 
powered  by  four  marine  gas  turbine  engines, 
each  developing  20,000  shaft  horsepower. 
Controllable  pitch  propellers  permit  a  high 
degree  of  maneuverability.  Comparison  of 
Gearing,  Sherman,  and  Spruance  data 
emphasizes  the  growth  of  destroyers  during 
post-war  years. 

Gearing          Sherman         Spruance 
Class  Data       Class  Data      Class  Data 


Displacement 

3,540  tons 

4,050  tons 

7,800  tons 

Length 

391  feet 

418  feet 

563  feet 

Beam 

41  feet 

45  feet 

55  feet 

Draft 

20  feet 

22  feet 

29  feet 

Shaft  horsepower 

60,000 

70,000 

80,000 

Accommodations 

322 

338 

250 

Guided-missile  destroyers  (DDGs)  carry  both 
surface  missile  systems  and  conventional 
weapons  systems.  Their  missile  batteries, 
improved  antisubmarine  warfare  weapons,  and 
electronic  improvements  give  these  ships  much 
greater  capabilities  than  the  standard  DD.  The 
DDGs  are  used  to  screen  fast  striking  forces,  to 
escort  amphibious  forces  and  support  them  after 
their  landings,  and  to  work  with  other  ships 
when  attacking  submarines. 

DDGs  of  the  Charles  F.  Adams  class  (figure 
16-11)  are  similar  to  the  Forrest  Sherman  class, 
but  larger;  some  ships  of  the  Sherman  and  Hull 
classes  were  converted  to  DDGs.  Future  DDGs 
will  be  a  Spruance  DD  with  a  missile  system 
installed. 

Submarines 


The  submarine  (SS)  is  a  specialized  type  that 
has  become,  since  the  turn  of  the  century,  one 
of  the  most  important  weapons  in  naval  warfare. 
Originally,  the  submarine's  primary  mission  was 


to  scout  and  to  sink  enemy  surface  craft  by 
means  of  torpedoes.  Now,  however,  the  concept 
has  broadened;  and  by  means  of  homing 
torpedoes  or  ballistic  missiles,  submarines  can 
effectively  combat  enemy  submarines  or  launch 
an  attack  against  military  targets  ashore.  From 
the  crude  short-range  submersibles  propelled  by 
hand,  the  submarine  has  developed  into  a 
nuclear-powered,  high-speed  vessel  which  can 
cruise  for  months  without  refueling. 

The  submarine  first  achieved  widespread  use 
as  a  weapon  during  World  War  I.  The 
diesel-electric  submarines  of  World  War  II,  with 
only  a  small  percentage  of  the  men,  proved  their 
worth  by  destroying  the  most  tonnage.  The 
pride  instilled  by  the  accomplishments  of  these 
submarines,  a  few  of  which  are  still  in 
commission,  is  evident  even  in  today's 
submarine  force. 

Since  1955,  nuclear-powered  submarines 
have  opened  a  new  era  in  naval  warfare— the  era 
of  extended  submerged  operations.  Today  the 
U.S.  Navy's  submarine  force  consists  of  two 


3.76 


Figure  16-9.-USS  Richard  S.  Edwards  (DD-950),  a  Hull  class  destroyer. 

352 


Chapter   16- VESSEL  TYPES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS 


134.189 


Figure  16-10.-USS  Spruance  (DD-963). 


principal  types:  attack  submarines  (SSNs)  and 
ballistic  missile  submarines  (SSBNs). 


SSN  Data 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 

Propulsion 


4,450  tons 
314  feet 
33  feet 
29  feet 
Nuclear 


The  above  characteristics  will  vary  between 
classes  of  attack  submarines.  Attack  submarines 
employ  the  most  modern  sonar  and  weapons 
system  in  pursuit  of  their  primary  mission  of 
keeping  the  sealanes  open.  Their  armament 
consists  of  advanced  acoustic  torpedoes  and 
submerged-launched  missiles. 


Unlike  the  diesel-electric  submarines  of 
World  War  II,  the  nuclear-powered  submarine 
can  operate  for  months  at  a  time  independently 
of  the  Earth's  atmosphere.  It  dives  deeper,  runs 
faster,  and  employs  better  weapons,  making  it 
one  of  the  most  important  forces  of  our  modern 
Navy. 

The  ballistic  missile  submarines  (SSBNs) 
(figure  16-12)  are  the  United  States'  primary 
deterrent  to  an  enemy  attack.  The  SSBN 
incorporates  the  latest  developments  in  nuclear 
power,  sonar,  and  inertial  navigation.  Unlike 
airbases  and  missile  launching  sites,  which  can  be 
located  by  the  enemy  with  pinpoint  accuracy, 
the  SSBN  can  remain  submerged  and  undetected 
while  roaming  the  millions  of  square  miles  of 
ocean  for  periods  of  time  limited  only  by  the 
endurance  of  the  crew.  To  counter  the  human 


353 


3.77 

Figure  16-11.— USS  Claude  V.  Ricketts  (DDG-5)  represents  a  most  versatile  class  of  American  destroyers.  She  mounts 

Tartar  launchers,  5-inch  guns,  ASROC,  and  torpedoes. 


71.1 

Figure  16-12.-USS  Mariano  Vallejo  (SSBN-658).  Ballistic  submarines  carry  missiles  specifically  designed  for  submerged 

launch  against  military  targets  ashore. 


354 


Chapter   16-VESSEL  TYPES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS 


endurance  factor,  SSBNs  have  two  crews.  While 
one  is  on  patrol,  the  other  is  ashore  undergoing 
refresher  training  in  the  latest  war  techniques, 
receiving  medical  and  dental  care,  and  taking  a 
well-earned  rest. 


SSBN  Data 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 

Propulsion 


7,320  tons 
425  feet 
33  feet 
31  feet 
Nuclear 


The  above  characteristics  will  vary  between 
classes.  The  SSBN  is  armed  with  torpedoes  for 
self-defense  and  with  Polaris  or  Poseidon  missiles 
for  destroying  landbase  targets.  The 
Polaris/Poseidon  missiles  can  be  launched  while 
the  submarine  is  submerged  (figure  16-13). 

At  this  time  the  Trident  class  of  SSBNs  are 
under  construction,  they  will  incorporate  the 
latest  technology  in  submarines  and  weapons. 
The  Trident  will  be  armed  with  the  most 
advanced  torpedoes  and  long-range  Trident 
ballistic  missiles.  Each  submarine  will  carry  24 
missiles  that  can  be  launched  at  any  target  on 
Earth.  The  Trident  submarine  will  be  the  largest 
in  the  world,  with  more  fire  power  than  any 
other,  and  will  add  greatly  to  the  Nation's 
number  one  deterrent  to  attack. 

Frigates 

During  the  1950s,  it  became  apparent  that 
new  frigates  would  be  needed.  The  DLGs  and 
DDGs  of  the  time  were  primarily  antiair  warfare 
oriented  ships  and,  in  any  event,  too  expensive 
to  build  in  large  numbers.  As  a  result,  new 
frigate  designs  were  formulated  to  undertake 
specifically  the  problems  of  modern 
antisubmarine  warfare.  The  first  two  classes 
(Dealey  (FF-1006)  and  Courtney  (FF-1021)) 
were  essentially  extensions  of  World  War  II 
types;  but  with  the  Bronstein  (FF-1037)  in 
1963,  a  second  generation  of  ocean  escorts  was 
bom.  She  and  her  successors,  the  Garcia 
(FF-1040)  (figure  16-14)  and  Knox  (FF-1052) 
classes,  approach  or  exceed  the  size  of  World 
War  II  destroyers,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  following 
comparison  of  the  Garcia  class  FF  and  the  World 
War  II  Fletcher  class  DD. 


3.78 

Figure  16-13.-Launching  of  a  Polaris.  This  missile  is 
capable  of  carrying  nuclear  warheads  more  than 
2,000  miles. 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 

Accommodations 


Garcia 
Class  Data 

3,403  tons 
41 4  feet 
44  feet 
24  feet 
228 


Fletcher 
Class  Data 

2,976  tons 
376  feet 
40  feet 
20  feet 
271 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


134.87 


Figure  16-14.-USS  Voge  (FF-1047),  a  Garcia  class  frigate. 


Frigates  (FF  and  FFGs)  are  utilized  mainly 
to  screen  support  forces  and  shipping,  and  to 
operate  offensively  against  submarines.  The 
most  important  designed  task  of  the  FF  is  to 
detect  and  destroy  submarines,  either 
independently  or  as  part  of  a  coordinated  ASW 
system.  Except  for  the  latest  designs,  FFs  are 
not  as  large  or  as  fast  as  DDs;  but  they  are  larger, 
faster,  and  more  maneuverable  than  any  ship 
previously  designed  specifically  for  use  in 
antisubmarine  warfare. 

At  the  time  of  this  writing,  all  of  the  FFGs 
in  commission  are  of  the  Brook  (FFG-1)  class. 
These  ships  are  similar  to  the  Garcia  class  FFs 
except  that  a  Tartar  missile  system  is  installed 
aft  in  lieu  of  a  second  5-inch  gun.  The 
six  ships  of  this  class  are  well-equipped  for 
ASW.  They  feature  modern  sonar  detection 
systems,  ASROC,  and  torpedo  tubes,  and  are 
LAMPS  capable.  The  USS  Talbot  (FFG-4) 
was  used  extensively  as  an  experimental  plat- 
form for  equipment  destined  for  a  later  class 
of  FFGs. 


Brook  Class  Data 


Displacement 
Length 
Beam 
Draft 


3,425  tons 
41 4  feet 
44  feet 
24 


The  guided-missile  frigate  program, 
authorized  in  1973,  has  as  its  objective  the 
acquisition  for  the  1970s-1980s  time  frame,  a 
class  of  ships  which  will  provide  at  least  cost  the 
maximum  improvement  to  the  Navy  surface 
combatant  capability  to  support  noncarrier 
forces  and  conduct  ASW  operations  in 
conjunction  with  other  sea  control  forces.  The 
first  of  this  new  class,  the  O.H.  Perry  (FFG-7) 
will  have  an  overall  length  of  445  feet  and 
displace  approximately  3585  tons.  The 
propulsion  plant  will  utilize  a  single, 
controllable,  reversible  pitch  propeller  powered 
by  two  gas  turbines.  They  will  be  equipped  with 
LAMPS  helicopters,  torpedoes,  missiles,  and  the 
rapid-fire  76-mm  gun  in  addition  to  the  Harpoon 
missile. 


356 


Patrol  Combatants 

Patrol  combatants  fall  into  two  categories: 
patrol  combatant  (PG)  and  patrol  hydrofoil 
missile  (PHM). 

The  patrol  combatant  (figure  16-15)  was 
developed  because  of  the  increased  emphasis  on 
counterinsurgency  and  unconventional  warfare 
operations.  The  PG  is  designed  for  good 
seakeeping  qualities,  long  endurance,  and  a  high 
payload,  yet  is  capable  of  high  speed.  It  can 
operate  in  shallow  coastal  waters  and  is  capable 
of  combating  coastal  shipping  as  well  as  enemy 
PT  (torpedo  boat)-type  craft  although  the  PG 
itself  is  not  a  torpedo  boat. 

To  achieve  greatest  fuel  economy  and  thus 
enhance  endurance  time  on  station,  the  main 
propulsion  plant  of  the  gunboat  is  a  combined 
diesel  and  gas  (CODAG)  turbine.  When  speeds  in 
the  maneuvering  and  cruising  ranges  are  desired, 
the  twin  propellers  are  driven  by  two  diesel 


engines.  This  is  the  normal  operating  condition. 
Then,  when  high  speed  is  needed,  the  diesels  are 
declutched  and  the  gas  turbine  is  clutched  to  the 
propeller  shafts. 

Constructed  of  aluminum  and  fiberglass,  the 
PG  is  165  feet  long  and  has  a  beam  of  24  feet. 

Pegasus  (PHM-1)  (figure  16-16)  is  the  first  of 
the  new  class  of  patrol  hydrofoil  missile  ships.  In 
addition  to  being  small  and  mobile,  the  ship  is 
capable  of  speeds  in  excess  of  40  knots.  It  can 
operate  in  all  weather  conditions  and  can  move 
in  heavy  seas  with  a  stability  found  only  in 
much  larger  ships.  Pegasus  displaces  231  tons,  is 
131  feet  long  and  28  feet  wide,  and  carries  a 
crew  of  21  officers  and  enlisted  personnel. 
Designed  for  strike,  patrol,  and  surveillance 
missions,  she  will  be  equipped  with  an  eight-tube 
Harpoon  ship-to-ship  missile  launcher  and  a 
rapid-fire  76-mm  gun. 

AMPHIBIOUS  WARFARE  SHIPS 


3.269 

Figure  16-15.-USS  Asheville  (PG-84),  prototype  of  a 
new  class  of  aluminum-hulled  gunboats.  Armed  with 
a  3-inch  gun  forward  and  a  40-mm  gun  aft,  her  speed 
exceeds  33  knots. 


In  order  to  accomplish  successfully  an 
amphibious  operation,  it  is  necessary  to  land 
thousands  of  personnel  and  thousands  of  tons  of 
equipment,  ammunition,  and  supplies  on 
enemy-held  shores.  Various  types  of  ships  have 
been  designed  to  do  this  and  they  have  proved 
their  worth  many  times.  Demands  of  modern 
amphibious  warfare,  however,  have  made  it 
necessary  to  develop  new  types  and  have  caused 
some  older  designs  to  be  discarded. 

Most  of  the  currently  operational 
amphibious  warfare  ships  are  discussed  in  this 
section. 

Tank  Landing  Ships 

Tank  landing  ships  (LSTs)  were  a  World  War 
II  development  and  were  used  successfully  for 
transporting  troops,  tanks,  preloaded  vehicles, 
ammunition,  fuel,  and  all  sorts  of  supplies.  Until 
the  commissioning  of  the  Newport  class 
(LST-1179),  LSTs  built  since  the  war  were  of 
the  same  general  design,  but  were  larger,  faster, 
and  had  certain  added  features  which  enabled 
them  to  carry  out  their  missions  more 
effectively. 


357 


JNAVAJL   UKJLIMN 


Figure  16-16.-USS  Pegasus  (PHM-1),  patrol  hydrofoil  missile  ship. 


134.191 


134. 


Figure  16-17.-USS  Newport  (LST-1179). 


358 


Chapter  16- VESSEL  TYPES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS 


Bow  doors  and  bow  ramp  gave  access  to  a 
huge  hold  called  the  tank  deck.  Another  ramp 
from  the  main  deck  to  the  tank  deck  enabled 
vehicles  to  reach  the  main  deck  under  their  own 
power.  Some  of  the  added  features  in  the 
post-war  design  included  a  turntable  in  the 
forward  part  of  the  tank  to  turn  vehicles 
without  a  great  deal  of  maneuvering  and  booms 
and  winches  mounted  on  the  main  deck  forward 
of  the  deckhouse  to  facilitate  handling  cargo. 

The  first  LST  of  a  revolutionary  new  design 
was  commissioned  in  June  of  1969.  It  was  the 
USS  Newport  (LST- 11 79)  (figure  16-17).  This 
was  the  first  U.S.  Navy  combat  vessel  equipped 
with  a  bow  thruster  (side  propulsion  unit)  to  aid 
in  maneuvering. 

The  Newport  is  the  fastest  and  largest  LST 
ever  built.  The  new  design  features  clipper  bow, 
extended  bow  ramp  vice  bow  doors,  and  a 
rounded  bottom.  The  tank  deck  is  connected  to 
the  main  deck  by  a  ramp  forward  of  the  bridge. 
Stern  doors  facilitate  loading/unloading  of  cargo 
and  troops.  Vehicle  stowage  is  500  tons.  The 
stowage  area  is  19,000  square  feet,  5,000  more 
than  previous  LSTs. 

In  addition  to  transporting  and  landing 
amphibious  vehicles,  tanks,  combat  vehicles,  and 
equipment  in  amphibious  assaults,  these  ships 


can  transport  and  launch  a  pontoon  causeway 
section  in  the  amphibious  objective  area. 

In  the  interest  of  comparison,  data  is  given 
below  for  the  World  War  II  LST-542  class,  of 
which  non  are  in  active  service,  and  the 
relatively  new  LST- 1 179  class. 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 

Shaft  Horsepower 

Accommodations 

Officers/troops 


LST-542 
Class  Data 

4,080  tons 
328  feet 
50  feet 
12.4  feet 
9,000 
118 
18/116 


LST-1179 
Class  Data 

8,400  tons 
517  feet 
68  feet 
15  feet 
16,000 
186 
20/41 1 


Amphibious  Cargo  Ships 


Amphibious  cargo  ships  (LKAs)  are  used  in 
amphibious  assaults  to  transport  and  land  assault 
equipment,  ammunition,  and  supplies,  but  only 
a  limited  number  of  troops.  Offloading  is 
accomplished  by  ships'  personnel  using  installed 
cargo-handling  equipment  that  includes  jumbo 
cargo  booms  (figure  16-18)  of  up  to  70  tons 
capacity.  Cargo  and  personnel  are  transported  tc 


134.19 


1C.1  Q  _   I  ICO   Cl  Doon    /I    !/•  A    1f7\ 


Figure  16-19.— Amphibious  assault  ship  USS  Guam  (LPH-9). 


3.86 


Figure  1 6-20.-Marine  CH-53  helicopter. 
360 


134.193 


Chapter  16- VESSEL  TYPES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS 


the  beach  by  ships'  landing  craft  (the  Charleston 
class  carries  2  LCPLs,  4  LCM-8s5  and  5  LCM-6s) 
and  other  landing  and  amphibious  craft  included 
in  the  amphibious  forces.  Cargo  capacity  is  over 
5000  tons  or  about  300  vehicles. 

For  an  amphibious  assault,  LKAs  are  combat 
loaded;  that  is,  loaded  in  reverse  order  of 
probable  need.  When  this  is  done,  items  troops 
will  need  first  are  readily  available  and  can  be 
offloaded  first. 

Charleston  Class  Data 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Shaft  horsepower 

Accommodations 

Troops 

Amphibious  Transports 


18,657  tons 

575  feet 

82  feet 

22,000 

391 

226 


Amphibious  transports  (LPSs)  like  LKAs, 
transport  and  land  troops,  supplies,  and 
equipment  in  amphibious  assaults.  While  the 
LKA  is  utilized  mainly  for  supplies  and 
equipment,  the  LPA  is  designed  primarily  as  a 
troop  transport.  For  this  reason,  the  LPA  can 
transport  only  about  half  the  amount  of  cargo  as 
can  the  LKA,  but  she  can  carry  more  than  1 400 
troops  as  opposed  to  the  200-troop  capacity  of 
the  LKA. 

LPAs  are  equipped  with  numerous  landing 
craft  into  which  troops  are  embarked  for  the 
trip  to  the  beach.  With  the  advent  of  the  LPH, 
LPD,  and  LHA,  the  need  for  this  type  of  ship 
has  diminished.  Only  the  USS  Francis  Marion 
remains  in  commission  on  the  east  coast. 

Francis  Marion  Class  Data 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 

Shaft  horsepower 

Accommodations 

Troops 


16,838  tons 
564  feet 
76  feet 
24  feet 
22,000 
535 
1,470 


Amphibious  Assault  Ships 

One  amphibious  assault  ship  (LPH)  (figure 
16-19)  is  designed  to  embark,  transport,  and 
land  1800  troops  and  their  equipment  (figure 
16-20)  by  means  of  transport  helicopters  in 
conjunction  with  a  beach  assault.  This  vertical 
envelopment  is  more  effective  than  previous 
methods  of  amphibious  landings.  The  most 
significant  feature  is  the  ability  to  commit  the 
landing  force  in  assault  without  being  limited  to 
favorable  beaches.  It  provides  for  establishment 
of  a  beachhead  in  the  enemy's  territory  more 
quickly.  The  large  concentration  of  rnen  and 
equipment  that  existed  on  the  landing  beach  in 
early  stages  of  the  amphibious  assault  of  World 
War  II  is  eliminated.  With  this  dispersal  of 
forces,  there  is  less  likelihood  of  extensive 
casualties. 

When  not  employed  in  amphibious  assaults, 
LPHs  have  the  capability  to  assist  in 
antisubmarine  warfare. 

Jwo  Jima  Class  Data 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 

Shaft  horsepower 

Helicopters 

Accommodations 

Officers/troops 

Others 


18,000  tons 
602  feet 
84  feet 
29  feet 
22,000 
20  CH-46 
1,075 
143/1581 
93/181 


Another  amphibious  assault  ship  (LHA) 
(figure  16-21)  is  able  to  embark,  deploy,  and 
land  a  marine  battalion  landing  team  by 
helicopters,  landing  craft,  amphibious  vehicles, 
and  combinations  of  these  methods.  It  combines 
the  features  of  the  LPH,  LPD,  LKA,  and  LSD 
into  a  single  ship.  The  LHA  is  also  equipped 
with  facilities  to  provide  the  commander  of  an 
amphibious  squadron  and  the  marine  landing 
force  commander  flexibility  in  the  exercise  of 
their  control  and  coordination  of  functions  in  a 
landing  operation.  For  self-defense  against 
surface  and  air  attack,  the  LHA  is  equipped  with 
5-inch  guns  and  point  defense  missiles. 


361 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Tarawa  Class  Data 

Displacement  39,300  tons 

Length  778  feet 

Beam  106  feet 

Draft  27. 5  feet 

Shaft  horsepower  70,000 

Helicopters  30 

Accommodations  800 

Troops  1,825 

Amphibious  Transport  Dock 

The  amphibious  dock  transport  (LPD) 
(figure  16-22)  incorporates  features  of  the  LSD 
and  LPH,  and  also  is  designed  to  combine 
functions  of  both  the  LPA  and  LKA.  The 
system  of  utilizing  LPAs  and  LKAs  required  that 
troops  and  most  of  their  equipment  and  supplies 
be  separated.  The  LPD  eliminated  this 
undesirable  feature  and  achieved  a  long-sought 
goal  of  transporting  troops  and  their  equipment 
in  the  same  ship.  With  facilities  for  operating 
eight  helicopters,  the  LPD  frequently  serves  as  a 
satellite  to  the  LPH  during  vertical  assault 
operations. 

Difficulties  of  offloading  over  the  side  are 
eliminated  by  transporting  the  landing  craft 
internally  and  launching  them  through  an 
opening  in  the  stern,  as  in  figure  16-23.  Craft 
can  be  launched  while  the  ship  is  underway  or 
dead  in  the  water.  The  deck  over  the  well  that 
carries  the  landing  craft  provides  a  platform  for 
six  large  helicopters,  permitting  the  landing  of 
troops  by  air  as  well  as  by  landing  craft. 


Austin  Class  Data 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 

Shaft  horsepower 

Accommodations 

Officers/troops 

Dock  Landing  Ship 


16,900  tons 
570  feet 
105  feet 
21. 5  feet 
24,000 
474 
73/888 


loaded  amphibious  craft  and  vehicles.  It  can 
render  limited  docking  and  repair  services  to 
small  ships  and  craft  and  is  equipped  to  refuel 
helicopters  operating  from  the  ship's  helicopter 
landing  platform.  It  has,  between  its  wing  walls, 
a  well  over  300  feet  long  and  about  50  feet  wide, 
as  shown  in  figure  16-24B.  To  launch  the  craft, 
the  LSD  is  ballasted  down,  the  well  is  flooded, 
and  the  craft  move  out  under  their  own  power. 
The  LSD  can  transport  18-LCM-6s  plus  the 
ship's  allowance  of  four  landing  craft.  It  has  one 
helicopter  operating  spot  which  is  capable  of 
handling  a  CH-53  helicopter. 


The     dock    landing    ship    (LSD)     (figure 
16-24A)  can  transport  and  launch  a  variety  of 


134.194 


Figure  16-21.-USS  Tarawa  (LHA-1). 


362 


Chapter  16-VESSEL  TYPES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS 


3.8: 

Figure  16-22.-USS  Austin  (LPD-4).  The  dock  amphibious  transport  represents  a  considerable  improvement  over  th< 
LSD  design  in  that  it  can  simultaneously  transport  troops  together  with  their  equipment. 


3.8 

Figure  16-23.-Marine  amtracks  being  launched  from  the  partially  submerged  well  deck  of  USS  Ogden  (LPD-5)  whil 

the  ship  steams  at  5  knots. 


363 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Figure  16-24.-USS  Alamo  (LSD-33).  The  huge  well  of  this  type  of  ship  can  accommodate  numerous  landing  cr 


Chapter  16- VESSEL  TYPES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS 


Anchorage  Class  Data 

Displacement  13, 700  tons 

Length  562  feet 

Beam  84  feet 

Draft  19  feet 

Shaft  horsepower  24,000 

Accommodations  383 

Troops  338 

Amphibious  Command  Ships 

An  amphibious  command  ship  (LCC)  can 
serve  simultaneously  as  a  command  ship  for 
amphibious  task  force,  landing  force,  and  air 
support  commanders  during  amphibious 
operations.  It  provides  accomodations  and 
command  and  communication  facilities  for  the 
various  commanders  and  their  staffs.  This  ship 
has  the  most  modern  and  capable  command 
facilities  afloat.  At  the  time  of  this  writing,  only 
two  ships  of  this  type  (USS  Blue  Ridge  (figure 


16-25)     and     USS    Mount    Wliitney)    are    in 
commission. 

Blue  Ridge  Class  Data 

Displacement  17,100  tons 

Length  620  feet 

Beam  1 08  feet 

Draft  29  feet 

Shaft  horsepower  22,000 

Accommodations  775 

Troops  1 50 

MINE  WARFARE  SHIPS 
AND  HELICOPTERS 

All  mine  vessels  and  minesweeping 
helicopters  of  today  are  used  for  mine 
countermeasures.  With  the  exception  of  a  few 
minesweepers  (MSOs),  all  mine  vessels  are  in  the 
Naval  Reserve  Fleet  as  are  all  minelaying  ships. 
Minelaying,  however,  can  be  conducted  by 


134.195 


Figure  16-25.-USS  Mount  Whitney  (LCC-20). 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


3.88 


Figure  16-26.-For  the  same  amount  of  power,  hydrofoils  give  substantial  increase  in  speed. 


aircraft,  submarines,  and  in  a  limited  way,  from 
the  decks  of  some  of  the  countermeasures  ships. 

The  helicopter  has  proved  to  be  one  of  the 
most  effective  minesweeping  vehicles  for  coastal 
operations.  Although  there  are  some 
characteristics  that  limit  its  effectiveness 
(payload,  fuel  capacity,  crew  endurance),  its 
speed,  maneuverability,  safety,  flexibility,  and 
freedom  from  sea  limitations  enhance  its 
capabilities. 


COMBATANT  CRAFT 

Combatant  craft  (as  opposed  to  combatant 
ships)  are  classified  as  (1)  patrol  craft,  (2) 
landing  craft,  (3)  mine  countermeasures  craft, 
and  (4)  riverine  warfare  craft.  Each  type  is 
armed,  but  only  patrol  and  riverine  types  have 
the  mission  of  actively  seeking  out  and  engaging 
enemy  forces. 


PATROL  CRAFT 

Patrol  craft  include— 

1 .  Hydrofoil  patrol  craft  (PCH) 

2.  Hydrofoil  patrol  gunboat  (PGH) 

3.  Fast  patrol  boat  (PTF) 

Specific  missions  of  the  various  craft  are,  ol 
course,  varied,  but  in  general  they  are  designed 
to  operate  offensively  on  patrols  in  coastal  anc 
restricted  waterways.  Tasks  include  conduct  oi 
patrol  and  surveillance  operations,  interdictior 
of  coastal  shipping,  and  support  of  paramilitary 
operations. 

The  PCH  and  PGH  (figure  16-26)  are  th< 
first  hydrofoil  craft  designed  for  use  in  combat 
Constructed  of  aluminum,  with  foils  of  stainles; 
steel,  each  can  achieve  a  foilborne  speec 
exceeding  40  knots. 


366 


Chapter  16-VESSEL  TYPES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS 


LANDING  CRAFT 

Landing  craft  are  small  boats  designed  to 
transport  troops  and  equipment  from  ship  to 
shore.  They  are  carried  to  the  amphibious 
objective  area  aboard  LKAs  and  LPAs  or,  for  the 
larger  types,  aboard  LSDs,  LHAs,  and  LPDs. 
Most  are  equipped  with  a  bow  ramp  to  facilitate 
offloading. 

There  are  several  types  of  landing  craft,  of 
which  this  section  describes  four:  LCVP,  LCM, 
LCU,  and  AALC. 

Vehicle/Personnel 
Landing  Craft  (LCVP) 

LCVPs  form  the  largest  part  of  the  normal 
boat  complement  of  LKAs  and  LPAs.  They  are 
transported  to  the  launching  area  nested  on  deck 
or  hung  at  davits,  as  can  be  seen  in  figure  16-19. 
Displacing  about  1 0  tons,  they  are  3  6  feet  long 
with  a  beam  of  10.5  feet.  They  can  carry  36 
troops  or  4  tons  of  cargo. 


Mechanized  Landing 
Craft  (LCM) 

There  are  two  versions  of  the  LCM;  LCM(6) 
and  LCM(8).  The  number  reflects  the  mark;  for 
example,  the  full  name  of  the  LCM(6)  is  landing 
craft,  mechanized,  Mk  VI. 

The  LCM(8)  is  a  considerably  larger  version 
of  the  LCM(6),  as  seen  by  the  following  data: 


LCM(6) 
Data 

62  tons 
56  feet 
14  feet 
34  tons 
120 


LCM(8) 
Data 

127  tons 
73.6  feet 
21  feet 
60  tons 
200 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Cargo  capacity 

Troop  capacity 

Utility  Landing 
Craft  (LCU) 


Utility  landing  craft  (figure  16-27)  are 
designed  to  transport  very  heavy  vehicles,  such 
as  tanks,  trucks,  and  bulldozers.  Developed 


134.85 

Figure  16-27.— Designed  to  assist  in  ship-to-shore  movement  during  an  amphibious  assault,  utility  landing  craft  have  a 
cargo-carrying  capacity  exceeding  150  tons.  They  can  be  transported  in  the  well  decks  of  LSDs  and  LPDs. 


367 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Figure  16-28.-An  artist's  concept  of  an  amphibious  assault  landing  craft  air  cushion  vehicle. 


134.196 


during  World  War  II,  several  hundred  were  built 
and  originally  designated  as  tank  landing  craft 
(LCT). 

The  1696  class  displaces  393  tons,  has  a 
length  of  134.5  feet  and  a  beam  of  29  feet,  can 
carry  180  tons  of  cargo  or  400  troops,  and 
provides  living  and  berthing  accommodations  for 
14  enlisted  personnel. 

Assault  Landing 
Craft  (AALC). 

The  AALC  (figure  16-28)  was  constructed 
with  the  prevailing  idea  of  preventing  backlog  of 
cargo  and  personnel  on  the  beach  area.  With  the 
AALC  there  is  no  need  to  unload  cargo  on  the 
beach  and  then  load  again  to  take  cargo  inland. 
They  are  also  capable  of  marrying  with  LCUs  or 
other  AALCs  to  form  a  causeway  when 
operating  with  LSTs. 


Powered  by  a  gas  turbine  and  ai 
inboard-outboard  prop  engine,  the  craft  cai 
make  22  mph  on  land,  with  a  cruising  range  o 
400  miles.  She  uses  a  water-jet  propulsion 
system  when  in  the  water  and  a  tank  treat 
system  on  land.  She  can  ascend  a  60%  grad 
with  a  full  load  of  30  tons,  yet  is  si 
maneuverable,  she  can  stop  and  turn  in  th 
water  within  her  own  length. 

RIVERINE  WARFARE  CRAFT 

Operations  inland  on  restricted  waters  ar 
referred  to  as  riverine  warfare.  For  operations  i 
the  Republic  of  Vietnam,  with  its  extensiv 
inland  waterway  communications  system,  it  WE 
necessary  to  tailor  fighting  craft  to  th 
environment,  and  a  number  of  small  warcraj 
were  developed  to  fit  that  need.  Craft  that  wei 


368 


Chapter  16-VESSEL  TYPES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS 


utilized  for  riverine  operations  in  Vietnam  are 
discussed  in  chapter  23. 


AUXILIARY  SHIPS 

The  effectiveness  of  a  fleet  depends  to  a 
great  extent  on  the  quantity  and  type  of  its 
auxiliary  ships.  These  ships  back  up  the  fighting 
forces  with  supporting  services  that  keep  the 
fleet  operating  because  they  furnish,  when 
needed,  vital  supplies  such  as  fuel,  ammunition, 
repair  parts,  and  food.  Although  not  so  highly 
publicized  as  combatant  ships,  auxiliaries  fight 
just  as  hard  in  time  of  war  with  their  kind  of 
main  batteries— services. 

The  type  of  service  an  auxiliary  provides 
determines  its  classification.  The  initial  letter  in 
each  instance  is  the  letter  A.  An  AD  is  a 
destroyer  tender,  while  an  AS  is  a  submarine 
tender.  AO  means  oiler  and  AOR  means 
replenishment  oiler.  An  AE  is  an  ammunition 
(explosives)  supply  ship,  while  an  AOE  is  a 
multiple-product  fast  combat  support  ship.  An 
AF  is  a  stores  (refrigerator)  ship;  an  AFS,  a 
combat  stores  ship;  an  AR,  a  repair  ship;  and  an 
AG,  a  miscellaneous  category  that  includes  a 
variety  of  ships.  Because  the  AG  classification  is 
too  broad  to  indicate  a  ship's  mission,  a  suffix  is 
added.  These  suffixes  include,  as  examples,  R 
for  radar  picket  ship,  S  for  survey  ship,  OR  for 
oceanographic  research,  and  TR  for  technical 
research.  This  section  describes  a  number  of 
auxiliaries  now  in  use.  Space  limitations  prohibit 
a  discussion  of  all. 

REPLENISHMENT-AT-SEA  SHIPS 

"Replenishment  at  sea"  is  the  term  applied 
to  the  transfer  of  fuel,  munitions,  supplies,  and 
personnel  from  one  vessel  to  another  while  ships 
are  underway.  The  first  significant 
replenishment  operation  ever  performed  at  sea 
by  the  U.S.  Navy  was  in  1899  when  the  Navy 
Collier  Marcellus,  while  towing  the  USS 
Massachusetts,  transferred  coal  to  her.  During 
World  War  II,  replenishment  at  sea  (figure 
16-29)  was  developed  to  a  fine  art  of  seamanship 
which  today  is  taken  as  a  matter  of  course. 

Replenishment  is  accomplished  with  both 
the  replenishment  ship  and  the  ship(s)  being 


replenished  steaming  side  by  side  on  parallel 
courses  at  a  predetermined  speed.  In  most  cases 
the  replenishment  ship  maintains  her  course  and 
speed  and  the  other  ships  maneuver  into 
position  alongside.  A  separation  of  about  100 
feet  is  maintained  between  ships,  with  the 
replenishing  ship  frequently  serving  ships  both 
to  port  and  starboard.  Messenger  lines  are  passed 
to  the  receiving  ships  which  send  back  telephone 
and  distance  lines,  and  then  haul  over 
cargo-handling  gear  or  fuel  hoses  by  means  of 
the  messengers. 

Most  of  the  replenishment  is  done  by  ships 
designed  for  that  purpose,  but  major  combatant 
ships  are  capable  of  refueling  smaller  ships;  and 
even  the  smallest  ships  can  and  do  transfer  light 
freight,  mail,  and  personnel  by  means  of 
highlines. 

In  addition  to  the  standard  replenishment 
capabilities,  all  recently  constructed  as  well  as 
many  of  the  older  auxiliary  ships  have  helicopter 
platforms  for  the  transfer  of  munitions, 
personnel,  cargo,  and  stores  by  vertical 
replenishment.  Vertical  replenishment  permits  a 
receiving  ship  to  remain  on  station  in  combat 
formation,  thus  eliminating  the  necessity  of 
temporarily  immobilizing  itself  by  going 
alongside  another  ship  for  replenishment. 

AMMUNITION  SHIPS 

Ammunition  ships  (AEs)  (figure  16-30) 
operate  with  replenishment  groups  to  deliver 
ammunition  and  missiles  to  the  fleet  at  sea. 
Ships  of  the  Kilauea  class  (AE-26)  are  564  feet 
long  and  81  feet  wide,  draw  26  feet  of  water, 
and  displace  19,937  tons.  At  first  glance,  these 
figures  sound  unimpressive;  but  when  compared 
to  World  War  II  AEs,  they  are  a  substantial 
improvement  as  to  cargo  capacity,  cargo 
handling,  and  speed.  Their  design  incorporates  a 
mechanical  handling  system  for  more  rapid 
loading  and  offloading  of  ammunition.  This 
includes  such  equipment  as  dual  cantilevered 
elevators  in  the  holds,  forklift  trucks,  and 
low-lift,  power-operated  transporters  on  the 
main  deck  for  handling  palletized  ammunition 
from  the  elevators  to  the  transfer  stations. 
Universal  portable  metal  dunnage  provide 
maximum  stowage  with  ready  access  to  all  types 
of  ammunition.  A  tension  highline  system  is 


369 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


13' 

Figure  16-29.-Replenishment  at  sea.  the  "secret  weapon"  of  World  War  II,  enables  the  fleet  to  remain  at  sea  and  rr 
successive  strikes  without  returning  to  base  for  fuel,  ammunition,  and  supplies. 


370 


Chapter  16- VESSEL  TYPES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS 


134.197 


Figure  16-30.-USS  Butte  (AE-27). 


built  into  the  design,  along  with  new,  improved 
electrohy  draulic  cargo  winches  for 
replenishment  at  sea.  These  provide  for  much 
more  rapid  and  reliable  transfers  and 
conservation  of  deck  space.  These  ships  are 
capable  of  handling  all  types  of  missiles  (figure 
16-31)  up  to  and  including  Talos.  They  have 
been  modernized  to  include  STREAM  (standard 
tension  replenishment  alongside  method) 
systems  and  helicopter  platforms  for  vertical 
replenishment. 

Oilers  and  Tankers 

Oilers  (AOs),  carrying  naval  distillate, 
gasoline,  and  other  petroleum  products,  operate 
with  replenishment  groups  and  deliver  their 
cargo  to  ships  at  sea.  Oilers,  as  well  as 
ammunition  ships,  can  service  ships  on  both 
sides  simultaneously.  The  USS  Hassayampa 
(AO-1 45)  of  the  Neosho  class  is  shown  in  figure 
16-32. 


Neosho  Class  Data 


Displacement 
Length 
Beam 
Draft 


40, 177  tons 
655  feet 
86  feet 
36.4  feet 


Capacities 

Fuel  oil 

JP-5 

AVGAS 
Accommodations 

AO  (Jumbo) 


98,800  barrels 
8,000  barrels 
48,700  barrels 
362 


The  AO  (Jumbo)  is  a  conversion  of  the  AO 
that  includes  the  installation  of  a  new 
midsection  in  the  hull.  This  increases  the 
pay  load  and  provides  for  an  improved  balance  of 
cargo  fuel  products  to  meet  the  more  recent 
demands  placed  upon  the  AO  by  the  increase  in 
fleet  requirements  for  jet  aircraft  fuel. 

A  constant-tension  span  wire  system  is 
installed  at  all  fueling-at-sea  stations.  The  AO  is 
frequently  required  to  transport  fleet  freight, 
and  the  constant-tension  highline  stations 
provide  for  an  improved  rate  of  sending  and 
receiving  cargo. 

Fast  Combat 
Support  Ship 

The  fast  combat  support  ship  (AOE)  is  the 
largest  and  most  powerful  auxiliary  ship  in  the 
Navy.  Unlike  other  replenishment  ships,  the 


Figure  16-31.— A  Pacific  Fleet  AE  highlines  a  missile  to  a  guided-missile  ship  during  replenishment  at  sea. 


33.191 


AOE  is  designed  to  operate  as  an  integral  force 
rather  than  as  a  unit  of  an  underway 
replenishment  group. 

The  AOE  (figure  16-33)  is  a 
multiple-product  ship  (missiles,  fuel, 
ammunition,  and  general  cargo)  that  has  a 
cargo-fuel  capacity  greater  than  that  of  our 
largest  fleet  oilers,  plus  a  hold  capacity  equal  to 
the  largest  ammunition  ship.  In  addition,  the 


ship    carries   a   large    load    of  both  AKS-typ< 
material  and  refrigerated  cargo. 

With  a  full-load  displacement  of  more  thai 
50,000  tons,  a  full-load  draft  of  38  feet,  and  i 
length  of  almost  800  feet,  the  AOE  is  larger  thai 
almost  all  of  our  World  War  II  battleships.  The 
shaft  horsepower  is  100,000,  as  compared  tc 
6,000  for  many  of  our  wartime  replenishmeni 
ships. 


372 


Chapter  16-VESSEL  TYPES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS 


134.15; 

Figure  16-32.-Neosho  class  oilers,  such  as  USS  Hassayampa  (AO-145),  can  carry  more  than  130,000  barrels  of  fuel  oi 

plus  2-million  gallons  of  aviation  fuel. 


134.1£ 


Figure  16-33.-A  multiple-product  AOE  conducting  underway  replenishment. 


In  other  than  speed  and  capacity,  this  ship 
has  two  major  areas  of  improvement  over  other 
replenishment  vessels:  in  materials  handling  and 
in  replenishment  at  sea. 

Materials,  other  than  missiles  and  special 
weapons,  are  moved  vertically  by  elevators  or 
conveyors.  Horizontal  movement  of  general 
cargo  and  ammunition  is  mechanized  through 
the  use  of  pallet  transporters  and  forklift  trucks. 
Cargo  helicopters  are  available  to  replenish 
outlying  units  of  the  force  with  dry  cargo  and 
ammunition. 

The  missile  and  special-weapon  handling 
system  is  separate  from  the  cargo-handling 
system,  the  units  being  transported  by  an 
overhead  crane  and  bi-rail  hoist.  This 
arrangement  permits  a  continuous  flow  of 
missiles  from  the  cargo  holds  to  the 
missile-transfer  system,  port  or  starboard.  After 
a  missile  passes  through  one  of  the  special 
missile  hatches  in  the  01  level,  no  further 
horizontal  movement  of  the  missile  is  necessary 
prior  to  its  transfer.  As  a  result,  the  missile 
system  does  not  interfere  with  the  movement  of 
other  cargo  on  the  01  level.  (Because  the  size  of 
the  AOE  provides  a  more  stable  replenishment 
platform,  the  replenishment  deck  is  at  the  01 
level  rather  than  the  main  deck.) 

The  fuel  hoses  on  the  AOE  are  designed  to 
permit  an  average  ship  separation  of  200  feet, 
during  replenishment,  instead  of  the  normal  1 00 
feet.  The  greater  distance  reduces  the  possibility 
of  collision  and  makes  increased  replenishment 
speeds  feasible.  There  are  nine  replenishment 
stations  to  port  and  six  to  starboard. 

Combat  Stores  Ship 

The  combat  stores  ship  (AFS)  is  a  new 
concept  in  design,  providing  within  a  single  hull 
the  triple  logistic  capability  of  a  stores  issue 
ship,  a  refrigerator  ship,  and  an  aviation  supply 
ship. 

The  AFS  is  designed  for  high-speed 
replenishment  at  ship  separations  up  to  200  feet. 
Built-in  materials  handling  equipments 
consisting  of  elevators,  vertical  tray  lift 
conveyors,  and  pallet  conveyors  provide  for  the 
rapid  breakout  of  cargo.  Forklift  trucks  and 
pallet  trucks  are  utilized  for  horizontal 


movement  of  cargo  to  the  replenishment 
stations. 

In  addition  to  the  conventional 
replenishment  rigging,  constant-tension  highline 
transfer  systems  (figure  16-34)  are  available  al 
all  transfer  stations.  Large  free  deck  areas 
provide  space  for  prepositioning  loads  destined 
for  receiving  ships. 

A  helicopter  platform  and  hangar  fa 
launching  and  servicing  two  helicopters  adds  the 
capability  of  vertical  replenishment. 

REPAIR  SHIPS 

Repair  ships  (ARs)  perform  repair  anc 
maintenance  functions  that  are  beyond  th< 
capabilities  of  other  ships'  facilities  or  personnel 
They  are  floating  ships  with  skilled  worker 
representing  a  wide  variety  of  mechanical  am 
electrical  trades.  Many  delicate  optical  am 
navigational  instruments  can  be  repaired  or  part 
supplied  and  installed.  Underwater  cutting  am 
welding  can  be  done;  engine  and  hull  repair 
performed;  machine  work,  and  electrical  am 
electronic  repairs  accomplished.  Aboard  ther 
are  foundries,  forges  and  machine  tools  of  man; 
types.  There  are  instrument  shops,  carpentr 
shops,  boat  shops,  and  boat-engine  shop: 
Medical  and  dental  facilities  are  available,  as  ar 
the  services  of  laundry,  tailor,  and  cobble 
shops. 

Under  wartime  conditions,  the  function  c 
the  repair  ships  is  to  operate  in  advance  area 
and  restore  the  fleet  to  fighting  trim  afte 
suffering  battle  or  other  damage.  In  peacetim 
the  function  may  be  less  apparent.  The  wor 
they  do  could  be  done  as  efficiently  by 
shipyard  or  other  permanent  base,  but  it  : 
necessary  to  maintain  a  nucleus  of  ships  an 
personnel  ready  for  any  emergency.  In  case  c 
need,  this  group  could  be  readily  expanded  < 
was  the  case  during  World  War  II.  Then,  too,  th 
existence  of  the  repair  ships  frees  the  yards  froi 
many  smaller  tasks,  enabling  them  t 
concentrate  on  jobs  requiring  major  resource 
Repair  ships  serve  as  repair  facilities  whei 
shipyards  are  not  conveniently  available  and  i 
training  facilities  for  the  crews  of  the  ships  the 
service  as  well  as  their  own  crews. 

Formerly  repair  ships  were  intended  main! 
for  repairing  battleships  and  cruisers,  whl 


374 


134.199 


Figure  16-34.-USS  San  Jose  (AFS-7). 


tenders  serviced  destroyers  and  submarines. 
During  World  War  II  several  types  of  repair  ships 
were  developed  for  specialized  types  of  work, 
some  of  them  performing  tasks  previously 
undertaken  only  by  naval  shipyards.  Repair 
ships  added  during  the  war  are  the  battle-damage 
repair  ship  (ARB),  internal  combustion  engine 
repair  ship  (ARG),  landing  craft  repair  ship 
(ARL),  and  aircraft  repair  ship  (ARV).  Most  of 
these  were  modifications  of  the  basic  AR 
although  some  were  converted  LSTs.  Of  those 
added  during  the  war,  none  are  presently  in 
service. 

The  Vulcan  class  AR,  displacing  16,330 
tons,  530  feet  long  with  a  73-foot  beam,  is  fairly 
typical  of  the  Navy  repair  ship.  This  class 
provides  accommodations  for  a  ship's  company 
of  63  officers  and  1,272  enlisted  personnel. 

TENDERS 

Destroyer  tenders  (ADs)  and  submarine 
tenders  (ASs)  perform  repair  work  (although  not 


as  extensively  as  the  AR),  supply  repair  parts, 
and  render  other  services  to  ships  they  serve. 
Ships  may  moor  alongside,  or  boats  may  come 
from  the  ships  requesting  services  or  advice. 

Like  repair  ships,  tenders  usually  have  a 
chaplain  stationed  aboard.  They  provide  medical 
and  dental  aid,  and  may  have  recreation 
facilities,  supply  provisions  and  weapons 
replenishment,  and  on  an  AS,  disbursing 
facilities  for  submarine  crews. 

Ballistic  missile  submarines  are  tended  by 
repair  ships  specially  configured  for  the  purpose, 
as  in  figure  16-35. 


Samuel  Gompers 

(AD-37) 

Class  Data 


Simon  Lake 

(AS-33) 
Class  Data 


Displacement 

Length 

Beam 

Shaft  horsepower 

Accommodations 


20,700  tons 

21,000  tons 

643  feet 

644  feet 

85  feet 

85  feet 

20,000 

20,000 

1,803 

1,421 

375 


TOWING,  SALVAGE 
AND  RESCUE  SHIPS 

While  certain  types  of  naval  auxiliary  ships 
are  designed  and  equipped  specifically  for 
towing,  for  salvage,  or  for  rescue  operations, 
almost  any  of  these  types  may,  in  an  emergency 
and  to  a  limited  extent,  perform  all  of  these 
operations.  Among  ships  as  versatile  and  as 
adaptable  as  the  auxiliaries,  there  is  bound  to  be 
an  occasional  overlapping  of  functions  to  meet 
an  unexpected  situation. 

Oceangoing  Tug 

There  is  one  major  type  of  oceangoing  tug. 
The  ATF  (fleet  ocean  tug)  (figure  16-36)  has  a 
large  cruising  radius  and  a  limited  salvage 
capability. 


Tugs  are  equipped  with  automatic  to  win 
machines,  booms,  and  varying  amounts  o 
firefighting  equipment,  including  fire  monitors 
(A  fire  monitor  is  similar  in  appearance  to  a  gu 
and  permits  water  to  be  discharged  through 
horizontal  arc  of  360°.) 

In  addition  to  hauling  and  towing,  Navy  tuj 
have,  on  occasion,  patrolled,  laid  smokescreen 
and  pulled  landing  craft  off  beaches.  Durin 
World  War  II  a  fleet  tug  returned  two  damage 
LSTs  from  Normandy  to  the  United  State 
another  towed  a  warship  from  North  Africa  t 
the  United  States. 

Although  the  tug  is  not  a  salvage  vessel,  moi 
of  them  are  capable  of  performing  a  variety  c 
salvage  and  rescue  operations.  In  such  work  the 
may  operate  alone  or  in  cooperation  with  oth< 
ships.  They  have  saved  the  cargoes  of  sinkir 
merchant  ships  and  have  removed  casualtii 
from  ships  or  from  the  beach. 


3.2 


Figure  16-35.-USS  Hunley  (AS-31 )  offloading  a  Polaris  missile  from  an  SSBN. 

376 


Chapter  16-VESSEL  TYPES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS 


During  World  War  II,  ATFs  accompanied 
many  convoys  to  pick  up  stragglers.  Some  were 
equipped  with  sonar  and  depth  charges  and 
operated  with  convoy  screens.  In  peacetime  they 
frequently  assist  Coast  Guard  ships  in  rescue 
operations.  Most  tugs  are  now  operated  by  MSC 
personnel. 

Salvage  and  Rescue  Vessels 

The  ARS  is  a  specialized  salvage  vessel. 
Other  types  of  salvage  ships  were  developed  to 
meet  the  needs  of  World  War  II;  for  example, 
the  ARSD  is  a  salvage  lifting  vessel  equipped 
with  a  derrick.  This  discussion  takes  up  the 
ARS,  ATS,  and  the  ASR. 

The  Navy's  modern  salvage  ships  are  steel 
constructed  and  are  designed  for  offshore  work. 
Their  cruising  range  at  an  economical  speed  is 


about  14,000  miles.  As  part  of  the  ships' 
operating  crews,  each  ship  has  2  officers  and  21 
enlisted  personnel  who  are  specially  trained  in 
salvage  work. 

Qualified  divers  are  assigned  to  these  ships, 
and  in  wartime  this  hazardous  work  is  often 
undertaken  under  combat  conditions.  Sunken 
ships  may  have  to  be  cut  up,  moved,  or 
refloated.  Divers  may  have  to  salvage  material 
from  sunken  U.S.  ships  or  the  enemy's.  Stores  or 
machinery  may  be  salvaged  or  valuable 
documents  may  be  taken  from  ships  that  are 
under  water.  The  ARS  is  equipped  for  normal 
diving  operations  in  depths  to  about  200  feet. 

A  few  data  on  the  USS  Bolster  (ARS-38) 
will  furnish  a  general  idea  of  the  salvage  ships  oif 
the  auxiliary  fleet.  Its  length  is  214  feet,  beam 
44  feet,  draft  15  feet,  and  displacement  is  2,040 
tons.  She  has  a  shaft  horsepower  of  2,440. 


Figure  16-36.- Powered  by  diesel  engines,  the  fleet  ocean  tug  (ATF)  is  a  seaworthy  craft  with  many  capabilities. 

377 


3.91 


134.20 


Figure  16-37.-USS  Pigeon  {ASR-21 ). 


The  ATS  is  designed  as  a  combination 
salvage  and  rescue  vessel  capable  of  fighting  fires 
on  other  ships  and  supporting  dives  down  to 
depths  of  850  feet.  This  is  over  five  times  the 
depth  an  ARS  can  support.  As  compared  to 
ARSs  the  ATS  is  larger  and  has  increased 
capabilities  in  all  areas  of  operation.  It  carries  a 
crew  of  1 00. 

There  is  also  the  submarine  rescue  vessel 
(ASR),  designed  and  equipped  to  rescue  crews 
of  sunken  and  disabled  submarines.  ASRs  are 
equipped  with  automatic  towing  machines, 
booms,  and  varying  amounts  of  firefighting 
equipment.  As  a  part  of  the  operating  crew,  each 
ship  has  4  officers  and  22  enlisted  personnel 
who  are  deep-sea  divers  trained  in  submarine 


rescue  and  salvage  work.  They  are  the  only  ship 
in  the  U.S.  Navy  which  have  mixed  gas  (He02 
diving  capabilities.  This  permits  their  divers  t 
descend  to  400  feet. 

A  typical  ASR  is  251  feet  in  length,  and  hs 
a  44-foot  beam  and  a  draft  of  16  feet.  Althoug 
they  carry  the  latest  rescue  equipment,  they  ai 
not  equipped  for  deep  rescue. 

The  Pigeon  class  (ASR-21)  (figure  16-3' 
was  the  world's  first  ship  designed  specificall 
for  submarine  rescue,  all  others  being  adaptior 
of  tug  types.  Its  unique  design  is  the  catamara 
hull  which  has  not  been  used  in  the  Navy  sine 
1812.  It  provides  a  large  deck  area,  improve 
stability  when  operating  equipment  at  gre: 
depths,  and  a  helicopter  deck. 


378 


Chapter  16-VESSEL  TYPES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS 


Some  of  its  capabilities  include  surface 
support  ship  for  deep  submergence  rescue 
vehicles  (DSRVs),  major  deep-sea  diving  support 
ship,  and  operational  control  ship  for  salvage 
operations. 


SERVICE  CRAFT 

Among  the  hardest-working  ships  of  the 
Navy  are  the  service  craft.  Not  primarily  fighting 
ships,  they  are  for  the  most  part  unarmed.  These 
are  utilitarian  ships  that  serve  a  variety  of 


purposes  in  continental  and  overseas  harbors,  ir 
sea  frontiers,  convoys,  amphibious  forces,  and  ir 
task  forces.  Many  are  small,  but  of  incalculable 
use  to  the  Navy. 

With  a  few  exceptions,  service  crafl 
designations  start  with  the  letter  Y.  A  few  of  the 
class  names  will  serve  to  show  the  wide  variety 
of  duties  which  they  perform:  Auxiliary  floating 
drydock  (AFD);  floating  crane  (YD);  diving 
tender  (YDT);  ferryboat  or  launch  (YFB);  fuel 
oil  barge  (YO);  gasoline  barge  (YOG);  oil  storage 
barge  (YOS);  floating  workshop  (YR);  tug 
(YTL,  YTM,  or  YTB);  and  water  barge  (YW). 


CHAPTER  17 


NAVAL  AVIATION 


The  history  of  naval  aviation  goes  back  to 
the  turn  of  the  century  when  an  Army-Navy 
board,  after  studying  designs  for  the  Langley 
"flying  machine,"  agreed  that  aircraft  could  be 
developed  for  use  in  warfare. 

The  first  naval  officer  selected  for  flight 
training  was  Lieutenant  T.  G.  Ellyson,  who 
received  orders  in  December  1910  to  undergo 
instruction  with  Glenn  Curtiss,  producer  of  the 
first  practical  hydroplane.  The  first  shipboard 
takeoff  was  made  in  1910  from  the  USS 
Birmingham  by  a  Curtiss  pilot,  Eugene  Ely,  who 
later  also  became  the  first  pilot  in  history  to 
land  an  aircraft  successfully  on  a  ship  (the  deck 
of  the  armored  cruiser  Pennsylvania).  In  July 
1911  the  Navy  received  its  first  airplanes— a 
Wright  landplane,  a  Curtiss  slow-flying  landplane 
for  training,  and  a  Curtiss  hydroplane.  The  next 
year  Lieutenant  Ellyson  demonstrated  the 
feasibility  of  the  newly  devised  compressed  air 
catapult  by  flying  a  plane  shot  from  a  barge. 

On  the  eve  of  World  War  I,  the  Navy  had 
only  48  officers  and  239  enlisted  men  assigned 
to  aviation  duties,  plus  5  officers  and  30  men  of 
the  Marine  Corps,  and  54  airplanes  useful  only 
for  training.  By  the  time  the  Armistice  was 
signed,  the  Navy's  aeronautical  organization  had 
grown  to  some  39,900  officers  and  men. 

In  1921  the  Bureau  of  Aeronautics  was 
created.  The  following  year  brought  into 
existence  our  first  carrier,  the  Langley, 
converted  from  a  collier.  Two  battle  cruiser  hulls 
were  converted  to  the  carriers  Lexington  and 
Saratoga,  commissioned  in  1928. 

During  the  1930s,  experimentation  in 
aircraft  functions  progressed.  Speed  was 
increased,  folding  wings  were  introduced  to 


facilitate  stowage,  and  the  planes  were  j 
greater  cruising  ranges.  Some  types  of  air 
were  constructed  to  carry  heavier  offe 
armament  than  had  previously  been  possible 

The  first  ship  designed  from  the  keel  uj 
carrier  was  the  Ranger,  commissioned  in 
1934.  This  was  followed  within  4  years  b; 
construction  of  two  others,  Yorktown 
Enterprise. 

After  the  fall  of  France  in  June  1940,  i 
practically  certain  that  the  United  States  v 
be  drawn  into  the  conflict,  and  Cor 
authorized  an  immediate  ceiling  of  4500, 
10,000,  and  finally  15,000  naval  aircraft  d 
that  year.  But  as  in  the  first  war,  production 
already  falling  short  of  the  demands  placed 
it  by  the  Army,  Navy,  and  foreign  cour 
Government  funds  were  soon  granted  to  p: 
firms  to  increase  their  facilities  for  ai 
research  and  manufacture. 

In  1939,  President  Roosevelt  ordere< 
Navy  to  establish  an  Atlantic  neutrality  i 
for  the  purpose  of  detecting  and  reportin, 
belligerent  forces  nearing  our  east  coast, 
neutrality  patrol  was  first  confined  to  i 
hundred  miles  offshore.  Then  base 
Newfoundland,  Bermuda,  and  the  West  ] 
were  obtained  from  Great  Britain  unde 
so-called  "destroyers-for-bases"  exc 
agreement,  making  it  possible  for  ] 
operations  to  be  extended  much  farthe 
1941  the  air  and  surface  patrol  had 
extended  to  the  South  Atlantic  and  the 
portions  of  the  North  Atlantic.  Passage  c 
Lend- Lease  Act  in  1941  brought  with  i 
need  for  naval  patrol  planes  to  protect  shi 
some  distance  after  they  left  our  ports.  Ba 
Iceland  and  Greenland  and  along  the  noi 


380 


Chapter   17-NAVAL  AVIATION 


shore  of  South  America,'  established  to  protect 
supply  routes,  also  afforded  further  experience 
for  aircraft  operation-all  of  this  before  the 
United  States  had  entered  the  war. 


WORLD  WAR  II 

Any  doubt  as  to  the  effectiveness  of 
shipboard  aviation  was  effectively  dispelled  after 
the  first  blows  struck  at  Pearl  Harbor  on  7 
December  1941.  Fortunately,  American  carriers 
were  absent  from  the  scene  that  fateful  morning 
and  hence  could  deliver  some  retaliatory  blows 
soon  afterward  on  enemy  installations  in  the 
Pacific. 

The  following  discussion  of  naval  aviation  in 
World  War  II  does  not  attempt  to  recount  all  of 
the  many  achievements  of  naval  planes  and 
carriers.  It  is,  rather,  intended  to  set  forth  the 
manner  in  which  naval  aviation  was  employed 
during  the  conflict. 

The  steady  progress  of  enemy  forces  toward 
Australia  threatened  supply  lines  to  the 
Southwest  Pacific.  But  in  May  1942,  as  they 
were  ready  to  round  the  eastern  end  of  New 
Guinea  and  to  land  on  the  island's  southern 
shore  at  Port  Moresby,  they  met  their  first  major 
setback.  The  carriers  Lexington  and  Yorktown 
intercepted  their  advance,  and  after  a  series  of 
engagements  stretching  from  4  to  8  May,  they 
turned  back.  Tactically,  the  Battle  of  the  Coral 
Sea  was  perhaps  a  draw,  but  strategically  it  was 
of  the  greatest  importance.  The  following 
month,  the  small  forces  at  the  disposal  of 
CINCPAC  turned  back  a  superior  Japanese  force 
at  Midway.  The  battle,  on  3  and  4  June,  resolved 
itself  into  a  struggle  for  control  of  the  air,  and 
this  was  unquestionably  achieved  by  the  United 
States  forces,  which  succeeded  in  sinking  all  four 
of  the  enemy's  carriers.  After  they  lost  their  air 
cover,  the  Japanese  forces  turned  back  and  were 
pursued  for  two  more  days  until  they  passed  out 
of  range.  On  the  darker  side,  USS  Yorktown, 
badly  battered  by  air  attack,  was  sunk  by  an 
enemy  submarine  torpedo  while  being  towed  to 
Pearl  Harbor,  and  about  1 50  American  aircraft 
were  shot  down  in  what  both  sides  later  agreed 
was  the  turning  point  of  the  war. 

The   rlp.fp.nsivp.  war  in  flip.  Par.ifir  was  p.nHp.d 


could  move  forward  to  a  limited  counter-attack 
of  their  own.  The  push  began  on  7  August 
1942,  when  the  Marines  landed  at  Guadalcanal. 
Although  the  Marines  bore  the  brunt  of  the 
campaign,  we  lost  two  carriers  and  others  were 
damaged.  Carrier  aircraft  provided  protection 
for  some  time  after  the  initial  landings,  and 
several  patrol  squadrons  had  a  support  role 
throughout  the  campaign. 

After  Midway,  the  Japanese,  having  lost  a 
significant  portion  of  their  carriers,  land  based 
their  crack  air  groups  and  saw  them  gradually 
destroyed  by  the  mounting  United  States  air 
strength.  Many  of  their  skilled  airmen  were 
sacrificed  in  the  Solomons  campaign.  In 
February  1944  their  air  force  was  defeated  and 
their  troops  driven  out  of  the  South  Pacific  area. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  world  also,  aviation 
was  in  action.  Naval  carriers  covered  the  landings 
in  Morocco  in  1942  and  those  in  southern 
France  in  1944;  battleship  and  cruiser  aircraft 
spotted  naval  gunfire  in  Sicily  and  at  Salerno. 
Navy  observation  pilots,  flying  RAF  Spitfires 
from  bases  in  England,  also  spotted  for  naval 
gunfire  during  the  landings  in  Normandy.  A 
major  contribution  of  naval  aviation  in  the 
Atlantic  was  in  antisubmarine  operations  with 
the  purpose  not  so  much  of  sinking  U-boats  as 
of  getting  the  ships  carrying  men  and  supplies 
safely  to  their  destination.  Here  the  closely 
coordinated  action  of  the  air  and  surface  units 
brought  gratifying  results. 

Day  after  day,  flying  boats  and  land-based 
aircraft  set  out  from  bases  along  the  coasts  of 
North  and  South  America  and  North  Africa; 
from  the  islands  of  Newfoundland,  Greenland, 
Iceland,  Bermuda,  the  Azores,  and  of  the 
Caribbean;  and  from  the  shore  of  Britain  herself. 

The  effectiveness  of  the  new  fast  carriers  of 
the  Essex  and  Independence  classes  gave  further 
proof  of  the  dependability  of  the  flattops  in 
combat.  The  arrival  of  these  new  carriers  in  the 
Pacific  in  Mid- 1943,  and  the  rate  at  which  they 
continued  to  augment  fleet  strength,  permitted  a 
change  in  carrier  employment  and  the  mounting 
of  an  amphibious  campaign  that  started  in  the 
Gilberts  in  November  1943  and  marched 
steadily  across  the  Pacific,  gathering  momentum 
as  it  went. 

p  in  Taniiarv  1  Q44  thp.  samp,  fnrnes  mnverl 


Kwajalein  and  Majuro  Atolls.  With  Kwajalein 
secure,  the  carrier  task  forces  moved  on,  and 
after  raiding  the  Japanese  base  on  Truk,  they 
swung  northward  to  assault  Saipan,  Guam,  and 
Tinian  in  the  Marianas. 

From  the  early  operations  there  gradually 
emerged  a  pattern  which  had  reached  virtual 
completion  by  the  time  the  invasion  of  the 
Marianas  commenced  in  June  1944.  The  fast 
carriers  were  employed  in  initial  raids  on  the 
target  to  assist  in  softening  up;  then  moved  to 
isolate  the  area  by  attacking  enemy  air 
installations  within  operating  range;  and  finally 
prevented  the  enemy  from  bringing  up 
reinforcements  or  otherwise  coming  to  the  aid 
of  his  troops  under  attack. 

The  technique  of  close  air  support  which 
permitted  air  attacks  within  a  hundred  yards  of 
the  front  lines  was  constantly  elaborated  on  and 
perfected  during  the  war.  Land-based  Marine 
squadrons  also  used  these  methods  with 
particular  success,  and  in  1945  some  Marine  air 
units  were  based  on  escort  carriers  to  support 
landings.  In  case  of  emergency,  fast  carriers, 
escort  carriers,  and  (when  within  operating 
distance)  Marine  and  Navy  land-based  aircraft 
provided  mutual  support. 

In  the  battle  of  the  Philippine  Sea,  fought 
during  the  invasion  of  Saipan,  the  Japanese 
carrier  air  force  was  virtually  nullified  as  an 
effective  fighting  unit.  On  1 9  June  the  Japanese 
forces,  locating  our  fleet  off  Saipan,  launched 
attack  after  attack.  For  more  than  8  hours  there 
was  almost  continuous  air  action  over  or  near 
our  ships.  We  suffered  little  damage,  but  of  the 
373  enemy  planes  that  took  off  from  the 
Japanese  carriers,  only  130  re  turned.  Some  were 
shot  down  by  gunfire,  but  most  of  them  were 
downed  by  our  aptly  named  Hellcats.  On  the 
same  day  our  submarines  destroyed  two 
Japanese  carriers.  In  all,  the  enemy  lost  a  total 
of  456  planes  in  that  action,  which  has  since 
been  known  as  the  "Marianas  Turkey  Shoot." 

Late  the  next  day,  our  aircraft  discovered 
the  location  of  the  Japanese  forces.  In  the 
subsequent  strike,  launched  at  extreme  range, 
our  planes  accounted  for  another  carrier,  two 
fleet  oilers,  and  several  of  the  defending  planes. 
In  the  retreat  to  Okinawa  and  the  homeland,  the 


remaining  six  Japanese  carriers  bore  the  tota 
a  mere  3  5  operational  planes. 

Until  organized  resistance  ceased  on 
islands  of  Saipan,  Tinian,  and  Guam,  esc 
carriers  continued  to  provide  close  air  suppi 
while  fast  carriers  made  numerous  attacks 
islands  to  the  north  and  south  to  prevent 
enemy  from  sending  land-based  planes  aga 
our  forces  in  the  Marianas. 

In  the  battle  of  Leyte  Gulf  in  October  19 
naval  aviation  played  an  important  part 
eliminating  the  Japanese  Navy  as  an  effec 
fighting  force.  Air  action  alone  sank 
battleship,  3  carriers,  5  cruisers,  and 
destroyers;  and  assisted  in  sinking  anoi 
carrier,  cruiser,  and  destroyer.  This  was  the 
score  of  the  total  of  26  enemy  combatant  si 
sunk  by  all  agents  in  the  battle. 

Two  aspects  of  the  air  activity  in 
Philippines  engagements  are  signific 
Although  the  enemy  delivered  many  air  atta 
he  depended  on  land-based  aircraft  whose  soi 
were  poorly  coordinated  with  the  actions  ol 
surface  forces.  The  United  States,  on  the  o 
hand,  relied  mainly  on  carrier-based  pla 
whose  flexibility  in  meeting  unforei 
contingencies  and  cooperation  with  sur 
forces  were  amply  demonstrated.  Before  the 
many  students  of  aviation  questioned  whe 
carriers  could  operate  in  the  vicinity  of  1 
land  masses  amply  stocked  with  land-b; 
aircraft.  In  the  operations  against 
Philippines,  they  received  their  answer. 

Carriers  covered  the  landings  on  Mindor 
December  and  those  in  the  Ling  ay  en  ( 
section  of  Luzon  during  January.  After 
Lingayen  landings,  carrier  support  of  the 
phibious  landings  was  no  longer  required  in 
Philippines.  The  carrier  force  operated  on 
perimeter  from  the  beginning  of  the  campaig 
Leyte,  attacking  airfields  in  northern  Luzon 
Formosa,  in  the  Ryukyus,  and  down  the  c 
of  the  South  China  Sea  as  far  south  as  Sai, 
cutting  off  reinforcements  that  might  ] 
interfered  with  our  campaign  ashore. 

Throughout  the  remainder  of  the  war,  n 
aviation  continued  to  be  notably  effec 
Around  Iwo  Jima  escort  carriers  were  cluste 
giving  what  support  they  could  to  the  Mai 


382 


Chapter   17-NAVAL  AVIATION 


ashore.  The  fast  carrier  force  also  supported  the 
invasion  of  Iwo  Jima  and  during  it  cut  off 
reinforcements  from  Japan  with  air  strikes  on 
Tokyo  and  its  environs.  But  the  capture  of  Iwo 
Jima  turned  out  to  be  more  a  matter  for 
flamethrowers  and  handgrenades  than  it  was  for 
close  air  support. 

Air  support  on  Okinawa  was  provided  by 
attack  and  escort  carriers,  some  with  Marine  air 
units,  followed  by  Marine  and  Navy  land-based 
squadrons  and  by  Army  Air  Force  squadrons, 
arriving  as  soon  as  captured  airfields  had  been 
put  in  operating  condition.  Tender-based  naval 
flying  boats  furnished  search  and  reconnaissance 
before  the  troops  went  ashore  on  the  main 
objective.  When  adequate  facilities  were  ready, 
naval  land-based  patrol  planes  relieved  the  flying 
boats  and  conducted  search  and  antishipping 
sorties  as  far  north  as  the  shores  of  Korea. 

Okinawa  was  the  climax  of  the  Pacific  war, 
although  it  did  not  appear  so  at  the  time.  The 
requirements  of  the  battle,  urgent  as  they  were, 
did  not  halt  the  progress  of  plans  for  the 
invasion  of  Japan.  In  July,  Admiral  Halsey  and 
Vice  Admiral  McCain,  joined  by  a  British  carrier 
task  force,  led  the  Third  Fleet  against  the  main 
islands  of  Japan.  They  made  many  damaging 
attacks,  destroying  over  1200  aircraft  and 
sinking  more  than  250,000  tons  of  shipping 
before  the  enemy  surrendered. 


KOREAN  CAMPAIGN 

From  the  start  of  the  Korean  campaign  the 
ready  support  of  carrier  aircraft  played  an 
important  role.  As  the  campaign  continued,  the 
pattern  of  Navy  and  Marine  Corps  aviation 
operations  fell  into  a  fixed  routine.  One  to  three 
attack  carriers  worked  the  east  coast  of  Korea, 
while  at  least  one  other  was  in  Japan  for  rest  and 
replenishment.  At  times,  one  escort  carrier  with 
a  Marine  attack  squadron  aboard  worked  the 
west  coast  of  Korea.  These  vessels  served  as  a 
team  with  other  ships  whose  duties  were  escort, 
bombardment,  minesweeping,  and  blockading. 
The  fast  carriers  carried  both  jet  and  prop 
aircraft.  At  the  same  time,  other  Marine 
squadrons  were  shore  based  to  render  air 
support  to  ground  forces. 


Operations  fell  into  three  types:  air  support, 
interdiction,  and  combat  air  patrol. 

Air  support  consists  of  attacks— usually  near 
the  front  line— the  primary  purpose  of  which  is 
to  render  direct  assistance  to  ground  forces. 
These  attacks  may  involve  strafing,  bombing, 
rocket  fire,  or  napalm  (jellied  gasoline,  which  is 
ignited  on  contact). 

Interdiction,  an  attack  on  supply  lines,  is  an 
effort  to  destroy  railroad  rolling  stock,  trucks, 
bridges,  electric  powerplants,  and  so  on.  The 
operations  are  planned  so  that  the  maximum 
crippling  effect  is  obtained  with  a  minimum 
effort. 

Combat  air  patrols  consist  of  flying  fighter 
cover  for  the  ships  and  aircraft  that  are 
conducting  the  actual  attack  program. 

Of  no  great  surprise  to  the  Navy  was  the 
usefulness  of  the  carrier  in  a  dry-land  war.  The 
fast  carrier  provided  a  mobile  base  for  heavy 
attacks  in  the  northern  parts  of  Korea,  from 
which  the  striking  aircraft  could  fly  without 
carrying  excessive  fuel  loads. 

The  Korean  effort  was  made  especially 
difficult  by  the  necessity  of  keeping  up  a 
program  of  training,  research,  and  patrol  which 
had  no  relation  to  the  combat  operations  carried 
on  in  that  campaign.  Our  ships  patrolled  waters 
of  all  oceans  and  sea.  Combined  operations  with 
other  nations,  particularly  in  Europe,  required 
many  men,  ships,  and  aircraft.  Our  larger  carriers 
(Midway  class)  remained  in  the  Atlantic  or  in 
the  Mediterranean  areas.  At  the  same  time, 
building  of  new  models  of  ships  and  aircraft 
continued. 


POST-KOREA  DEVELOPMENTS 

The  Midway  (CVA  41)  and  Essex-  (CVS  9) 
class  carriers  that  had  been  the  Navy's  first  line 
of  airpower  since  the  end  of  World  War  II,  were 
dwarfed  in  the  late  1950s  by  the  mighty 
78,000-ton  attack  carriers  Forrestal  (CVA  59), 
Saratoga  (CVA  60),  Ranger  (CVA  61),  and 
Independence  (CVA)  62).  In  1961  the 
missile-armed  Kitty  Hawk  (CVA  63)  and 
Constellation  (CVA  64)  came  into  service.  The 


383 


following  year,  the  nuclear  powered  Enterprise 
(CYAN  65),  the  largest  combatant  ever  built, 
joined  the  fleet.  While  the  debate  over  the  value 
of  nuclear  powered  surface  ships  continued,  two 
more  conventionally  powered  CVAs,  America 
(66)  and  John  K  Kennedy  (67)  were 
commissioned  before  the  CVAN  68  (Nimitz) 
was  laid  down.  The  carriers  listed  above, 
beginning  with  the  Forrestal,  have  been 
re  designated  CVs. 

On  carrier  flight  decks,  steam-operated 
catapults  were  installed  to  handle  heavier 
aircraft,  while  the  mirror  (and  later,  the 
electronic  carrier-controlled)  landing  system 
made  it  safer  for  pilots  to  come  back  aboard 
ship.  Installation  of  hurricane  bows  reduced 
chances  of  storm  damage  to  flight  decks.  As  new 
aircraft  like  the  F-4  and  F-8  consistently  broke 
the  sound  barrier  under  operational  conditions, 
guided  missiles  supplemented  guns  on  fighters 
and  interceptors.  The  development  of  greatly 
sophisticated  electronic  devices  led  to  aircraft 
like  the  RA-5C  Vigilante,  the  A-6  Intruder,  and 
the  A-7E,  capable  of  flying  in  any  weather. 

Although  ships  can  move  around  the  world, 
the  availability  of  fully  operational,  prestocked 
land  bases  decreases  sharply  with  distance  away 
from  industrialized  nations.  A  carrier  is  a 
movable  airbase  complete  with  runways,  air 
traffic  control,  fuel  and  ammunition  storage  and 
handling  facilities,  base  defense, 
communications,  housing,  water,  and  use  rights 
(sovereignty). 

The  use  of  naval  units  as  a  deterrent  to 
direct  land  aggression  is  a  relatively  new 
function  of  seapower  that  came  into  being 
during  World  War  II  with  the  integration  of 
tactical  air  power  as  an  integral  part  of  the  fleet. 
The  aircraft  carrier  today  operates  daily  as  an 
instrument  of  national  policy  in  direct  support 
of  our  diplomatic  negotiations. 

In  addition  to  the  Korean  action,  in  which 
20%  of  U.S.  combat  sorties  came  from 
carrier-based  Navy  and  Marine  squadrons,  carrier 
forces  since  World  War  II  have  been  on  the 
scenes  of  action  or  ready  for  action  in 
furtherance  of  national  purposes  many  times: 

The  evacuation  of  the  Tachen  Islands  in 
1955; 


Suez  in  1956,  when  aircraft  from  fourCVA1 
provided  cover  for  the  evacuation  o 
U.S.  nationals  in  the  Near  East; 

In  1957  when  President  Eisenhower  warnet 
against  a  Communist  takeover  in  Jordan 

In  1958  six  CVAs  in  the  Formosa  Strait 
dampened  a  developing  Quemoy  an< 
Matsu  crisis,  while  two  CVAs  covered  a: 
Amphibious  Landing  in  Lebanon; 

In  1960  carriers  of  the  Seventh  Fleet  wer 
on  hand  for  possible  action  in  Laos; 

In  1961  two  CVAs  provided  prominer 
evidence  of  United  States  concern  whe 
a  general  uprising  seemed  about  t 
follow  the  assassination  of  Presider 
Trujillo  of  the  Dominican  Republic; 

In  1962  Seventh  Fleet  carriers  covered  tt 
deployment  of  Marines  in  Thailand,  ant 
throughout  the  Cuban  crisis  of  196! 
three  CVAs  were  in  readiness  in  Cuba 
waters; 

In  1963  and  1964  carriers  permitted  tt 
United  States  to  demonstrate  i 
presence  and  intentions  in  Haiti,  Lao 
Jordan/Lebanon,  Honduras,  and  Soul 
Vietnam. 

In  August  1964,  in  response  to  a  torpec 
boat  attack  on  U.S.  destroyers  in  the  Gulf  < 
Tonkin,  carrier  aircraft  struck  bases  in  Nor 
Vietnam.  Six  months  later  strikes  began  on 
daily  basis,  the  tempo  of  operations  steadi 
increasing.  Carrier  pilots  scored  the  fir 
confirmed  kills  of  Soviet-built  Mig  aircraft  ov 
North  Vietnam.  Nearly  half  of  all  sorties  flov 
over  North  Vietnam  came  from  carrier  decks. 

The  Navy  has  played  an  important  role 
support  of  United  States  space  activitie 
Recoveries  of  all  manned  spacecraft  to  date  ha 
been  made  at  sea  by  naval  units.  Floatii 
tracking  and  communication  stations  in  the  TC 
expanse  of  the  Pacific  helped  to  ensure  £ 
success  of  each  of  those  ventures.  The  Navy  h 
much  to  gain  from  the  region  beyond  t! 
atmosphere.  Navigational  satellite  systems  a 


384 


Chapter  17-NAVAL  AVIATION 


continually  utilized  by  Polaris  submarines  and 
other  units.  Communication  satellites  permit 
"instant"  contact  with  any  part  of  the  world. 
Weather,  upon  which  many  facets  of  naval 
operations  depend,  is  continually  tracked  and 
photographed  by  satellite. 


AIRCRAFT  NOMENCLATURE 
AND  MODEL  DESIGNATIONS 

FIXED-WING  AIRCRAFT 
NOMENCLATURE 

A  fixed-wing  aircraft  may  be  divided  into 
three  basic  parts— fuselage,  wings,  and 
empennage. 

The  fuselage  is  the  main  body  of  the  aircraft, 
containing  the  cockpit  and,  if  there  is  one,  the 
cabin.  On  virtually  all  naval  fighter  and  attack 
aircraft  operational  today,  engines  are  mounted 
within  the  fuselage,  as  are  some  of  the  fuel 
tanks. 

Wings  are  the  primary  lifting  devices  of  an 
aircraft,  although  some  lift  is  derived  from 
fuselage  and  tail.  Located  on  the  trailing  (rear) 
edge  of  the  wings  are  flaps,  which  may  be  used 
to  give  extra  lift  on  takeoff  or  to  slow  the 
aircraft  in  flight  or  landings;  ailerons,  that 
control  the  roll,  or  bank,  of  the  aircraft;  and 
trim  tabs,  used  to  aero  dynamic  ally  unload  the 
control  surfaces  to  relieve  some  of  the  pilot's 
work.  On  the  leading  (front)  edge  of  the  wing 
may  be  found  auxiliary  lifting  devices, 
resembling  flaps,  that  are  used  to  increase 
camber  (curvature)  of  the  wing  for  added  lift  on 
takeoff.  Most  Navy  jet  aircraft  carry  their  bomb 
loads  on  pylons  (called  stations)  under  the  wings 
and,  in  some  cases,  under  the  fuselage.  Some  jets 
have  missile  stations  on  the  sides  of  the  fuselage. 
In  the  wings  are  located  fuel  cells;  additional 
external  tanks  can  be  fitted  for  extra  range. 
Larger  jets  may  have  their  engines  slung  beneath 
the  wings  in  pods.  Some  low-wing  aircraft  have 
their  main  landing  gear  retract  into  the  wings 
while  the  nose  wheel  retracts  into  the  fuselage. 
On  most  high-wing  aircraft,  such  as  the  A-7,  all 
gear  retracts  into  the  fuselage. 

The  empennage  consists  of  the  stabilizing 
fins  mounted  on  the  tail  section  of  the  fuselage. 


These  include  the  vertical  stabilizer,  upon  which 
is  generally  mounted  the  rudder,  that  is  used  to 
control  yaw,  or  direction  of  the  nose  about  the 
vertical  axis;  and  the  horizontal  stabilizer,  on  the 
trailing  edge  of  which  are  the  elevators,  which 
determine  the  pitch  (climb  or  dive).  Some 
supersonic  aircraft  may  have  a  full  delta  wing,  in 
which  case  there  is  no  horizontal  stabilizer  and 
the  elevators  and  ailerons  are  combined  into 
control  surfaces  called  elevens.  In  aircraft  with 
internally  mounted  jet  engines,  exhausts 
normally  are  in  the  tail.  High  performance  jets 
have  afterburners  that  give  additional  thrust  at 
the  cost  of  greatly  increased  fuel  consumption. 

Rudder,  ailerons,  and  elevators  are 
collectively  grouped  as  control  surfaces.  These 
surfaces  are  controlled  by  the  "stick"  or  a 
similar  device  in  the  cockpit,  while  the  rudder  is 
controlled  by  foot  pedals.  On  high  performance 
aircraft,  aerodynamic  pressures  on  these  surfaces 
become  too  great  for  a  pilot  to  overcome 
manually;  hence,  all  high-speed  models  today 
have  power-assisted  controls. 

ROTARY-WING  AIRCRAFT 
NOMENCLATURE 

The  aerodynamics  of  rotary-wing  aircraft  are 
considerably  more  complex  than  those  of 
fixed-wing  aircraft.  A  helicopter  essentially 
consists  of  a  fuselage,  main  rotor  or  rotors,  and 
often  a  tail  rotor. 

The  fuselage,  as  in  fixed-wing  craft,  contains 
the  cockpit  and  cabin. 

The  main  rotor  is  the  approximate 
equivalent  of  the  wing  of  a  fixed-wing  aircraft. 
Each  rotor  blade  is  an  airfoil,  like  a  wing,  and 
the  lift  is  generated  by  the  rotation  of  the 
assembly  which  creates  a  flow  of  air  over  the 
blades.  A  helicopter  is  lifted  into  the  air  by  the 
aerodynamic  forces  on  the  rotor,  and  not 
pushed  up  by  the  downwash.  Some  helicopters 
have  twin  rotors  in  tandem  at  either  end  of  the 
fuselage,  but  most  have  a  single  main  rotor  with 
a  tail  rotor  mounted  at  right  angles.  A  few  have 
tandem  intermeshing  rotors. 

The  tail  rotor  (where  present)  is  used  for 
directional  control  and  stability.  It  is  mounted 


385 


at  right  angles  to  the  main  rotor  to  counteract 
the  torque  of  that  system.  By  varying  the  pitch 
of  the  tail  rotor  blades,  the  pilot  controls  yaw. 
Pitch  and  roll  are  determined  by  effectively 
tilting  the  entire  main  rotor.  To  climb,  the  pitch 
(essentially  how  much  of  a  bite  of  the  air  the 
blades  take,  as  distinct  from  aircraft  pitch)  is 
simultaneously  increased  on  all  blades  on  the 
main  rotor. 

Helicopter  engines  are  connected  to  the 
rotor  shaft(s)  by  a  transmission,  which  may  be 
disengaged.  This  permits  the  engine(s)  to  be 
operated  on  the  ground  without  engaging  the 
rotor  system  and  also  permits  a  mode  of  flight 
known  as  autorotation.  If  the  engines  should 
stop  while  in  flight,  they  can  be  disengaged,  and 
the  freewheeling  action  of  the  rotor  will  allow  a 
slower  descent. 

AIRCRAFT  MODEL 
DESIGNATIONS 

All  aircraft  have  tri-service  designations;  a 
given  aircraft  bears  the  same  alpha-numeric 
identification  symbol  regardless  of  whether  the 
craft  is  used  by  the  Navy,  Army,  or  Air  Force. 

Each  basic  designator  consists  of  a  letter  and 
a  number.  The  letter  specifies  the  basic  mission 
of  the  aircraft  as  follows: 


A-Attack 
B— Bomber 
C-Cargo/transport 
E— Special  electronic 

installation 
F— Fighter 
H— Helicopter 
K-Tanker 
0— Observation 
P-Patrol 


R— Reconnaissance 
S— Antisubmarine 
T— Trainer 
U-Utility 
V-VTOL  or  STOL 

(vertical  or  short 

takeoff  and 

landing  capability) 
X- Research 


The  number  (which  may  consist  of  1,  2,  or  3 
digits)  indicates  the  design  number  of  the  type 
of  aircraft.  The  .designator  A-7  shows  an  aircraft 
to  be  the  seventh  attack  design  (figure  1 7-1 ).  If  a 
particular  design  is  modified,  the  design  number 
is  followed  by  another  letter  (A,  B,  C,  etc.),  the 
alphabetical  order  of  which  identifies  the 
number  of  the  modification.  For  example,  the 
second  A  in  A-6A  tells  us  that  the  original  design 
of  this  attack  plane  has  been  modified  one  time. 


When  an  aircraft  is  modified  from  its  origin 
mission,  a  mission  modification  letter  preced 
the  basic  mission  symbol.  These  are  as  follow 


A-Attack 
C-Cargo/transport 
D— Director  (for 

control  of  drones) 
E— Special  electronic 

installation 
H- Search  and 

rescue 
K-Tanker 


L— Cold  weather 

M-Missile  carrier 

Q— Drone 

R— Reconnaissance 

S-Antisubmarine 

T— Trainer 

U-Utility 

V-Staff 

W-Weather 


Thus,  if  the  F-4A  is  modified  to  be  used  a 
training  aircraft,  it  is  identified  thereafter 
TF-4A. 

Other  letters  that  infrequently  appear  befc 
a  basic  mission  or  mission  modification  letters 
"special  use"  symbols  that  indicate  the  spec 
status  of  an  aircraft.  Currently,  speciak 
symbols  are  six  in  number: 

G-Permanently  grounded  (for  grou 
training) 

J  -Special  test,  temporary  (when  tests  : 
complete,  the  craft  will  be  restored  to 
original  design) 

N— Special  test,  permanent 


Figure    17-1.— A-7 


Corsair    limited 
plane. 


134 
all-weather   atti 


386 


X—  Experimental  stage  of  development 
Y-Prototype  (for  design  testing) 

Z-In     early     stages     of    planning     or 
development 

CURRENT  NAVY 
AIRCRAFT 

This  section  briefly  describes  some  of  the 
aircraft  currently  operational  with  the  Navy. 
Representative  types  are  shown  in  figure  17-2. 

Attack  Class 

Attack  planes  are  used  for  low-level 
bombing,  ground  support,  or  nuclear  strikes. 
They  do  not  need  the  speed  of  fighters,  but 
should  be  capable  of  heavy  payloads,  have  good 
stability,  and  be  able  to  carry  enough  fuel  to 
remain  on  station  long  enough  to  render 
extended  support  to  troops,  if  needed.  Attack 
aircraft  normally  operate  under  conditions  of 
good  visibility,  but  the  A-6  has  the  equipment 
needed  for  all-weather  and  night  attacks. 

A-7  CORSAIR  II:  Namesake  of  the  old  F4U 
that  served  so  well  in  World  War  II  and  Korea, 
the  A-7  Corsair  is  designed  as  a  replacement  for 
the  A-4.  The  airframe  is  basically  a  shortened 
Crusader  (the  F-8).  A  single-seat  all-weather 
craft,  the  Corsair  carries  bombs  and  rockets 
mounted  on  six  stations  under  the  wings  in 
addition  to  two  internal  20-mm  cannon  or  a 
20-mm  internally  mounted  "gatling  gun"  in  the 
A-7E  version. 

A-6  INTRUDER:  The  Intruder  is  an 
all-weather  attack  vehicle.  Fitted  with  complex 
and  sophisticated  electronic  gear,  the  A-6  has, 
among  other  things,  a  radar  that  can  be  set  to  fly 
automatically  over  any  terrain,  an  inertial 
guidance  system  that  operates  independently  of 
any  external  navigational  aids,  and  an  automated 
landing  system.  Pilot  and  bombardier-navigator 
sit  side  by  side. 

AV-8A  HARRIER:  The  Harrier  is  the 
western  world's  only  operational  fixed-wing 
vertical  short  takeoff  or  landing  (V/STOL)  strike 


aircraft.  It  is  an  integrated  V/STOL  weapon 
system  incorporating  inertial  navigation  and 
attack  system  (INAS)  with  an  electronic  display. 
The  aircraft  is  used  by  the  Marine  Corps  and  is 
operated  from  the  decks  of  aircraft  carriers  and 
amphibious  support  ships. 

Fighter  Class 

Fighters  are  high-performance  aircraft 
generally  employed  to  gain  air  superiority.  They 
may  be  deployed  defensively  as  interceptors, 
offensively  as  escorts  for  bombers  or  on  ground 
support  missions,  or  independently  to  counter 
enemy  aircraft.  Some  are  capable  of  carrying 
sufficient  payloads  for  collateral  bombing 
missions. 

F-4  PHANTOM  II:  The  Phantom  is  a 
two-place,  twin-engine,  Mach  2  vehicle  of  both 
air  intercept  and  ground  support  '  missions. 
Installed  equipment  permits  all-weather 
operations.  Bomb  loads  include  various 
combinations  of  weapons.  In  one  configuration, 
the  F-4  can  mount  twenty-four  500-pound 
bombs-twice  the  load  the  World  War  II  B-17 
bomber  could  carry. 

F-14  TOMCAT:  The  F-14  Tomcat  is  a 
high-speed,  aircraft-carrier  based,  jet-powered 
aircraft  of  the  fighter  variety.  The  aircraft  is 
mainly  missile  orientated,  carrying  the  new 
air-to-air  missile,  Phoenix,  and  also  capable  of 
carrying  the  older  Sidewinder  and  Sparrow.  The 
Tomcat  can  be  configured  for  bombing  and 
rocketry. 

Patrol  Class 

Patrol  craft  are  land-based,  long-range, 
multi-engine  aircraft  used  primarily  for  ASW 
patrol.  Patrol  squadrons  operate  from  CONUS 
and  overseas  bases.  The  last  seaplane  squadron 
was  retired  in  1967. 

P-3  ORION:  The  P-3  is  equipped  with 
magnetic  anomaly  detection  (MAD)  gear, 
sonobuoys,  radar,  Jezebel,  and  other  systems  for 
detection;  and  armed  with  torpedoes,  bombs, 
rockets,  and  depth  charges  for  kills.  It  has  the 
primary  mission  of  detecting,  locating,  and 


387 


. 

GO     LU 

D  Z 


- 


io 

i  oe. 


388 


Chapter  17-NAVAL  AVIATION 


destroying  enemy  submarines.  The  P-3  can 
respond  quickly  to  prosecute  submarine 
contacts  long  before  surface  units  could  arrive. 
Other  duties  include  convoy  escort,  certain 
photographic  missions,  and  aerial  mining. 

Antisubmarine  Qass 

Antisubmarine  aircraft  operate  from  CVs  in 
conjunction  with  hunter-killer  group  helicopters 
and  surface  craft. 

S-3  VIKING:  The  Viking  is  a  high-wing, 
jet-powered  twin-engine  carrier  ASW  aircraft.  It 
carries  surface  and  subsurface  search  equipment 
with  integrated  target  acquisition  and  sensor 
coordinating  systems  which  collect,  interpret, 
and  store  ASW  sensor  data. 

It  has  direct  attack  capability  with  a  variety 
of  armament. 

Reconnaissance-Attack  Class 

Reconnaissance-attach  aircraft  have  a  dual 
mission— to  gather  intelligence  while  retaining 
strike  capability. 

RA-5  VIGILANTE:  Originally  built  as  a 
Mach  2  heavy  attack  aircraft,  the  Vigilante 
was  converted  into  a  multisensor  reconnaissance- 
attack  vehicle  as  Polaris  took  over  the 
Navy's  strategic  strike  role.  It  carries  a 
large  assortment  of  electronic  devices,  sensors, 
and  photographic  equipment.  In  addition,  it 
retains  some  of  its  weapons  delivery  capability 
from  an  internal  bomb  bay.  It  is  manned  by  a 
pilot  and  reconnaissance  attack  navigator. 

Warning  Class 

Carrier-based  airborne  early  warning  (AEW) 
aircraft  maintain  station  at  some  distance  from  a 
task  force  to  provide  early  warning  of 
approaching  enemy  aircraft  and  direct 
interceptors  into  attack  position. 

E-2  HAWKEYE:  Long-range  antennas  of  the 
E-2  Hawkeye  are  enclosed  in  a  saucer-shaped, 
rotating  disc  atop  the  fuselage.  The  E-2  is 


equipped  with  the  airborne  tactical  data  system 
(ATDS)  used  in  conjunction  with  the  shipboard 
naval  tactical  data  system  (NTDS).  In  figure 
17-2,  note  the  quadruple  vertical  stabilizers. 
Hawkeye  is  manned  by  a  crew  of  five. 

Rotary-Wing  Aircraft 

Since  World  War  II,  the  helicopter  has 
become  an  indispensable  part  of  naval  warfare. 
Its  applications  seem  limitless— ASW;  pilot 
rescue;  transfer  of  supplies,  mail,  and  personnel 
within  dispersed  forces;  amphibious  warfare; 
evacuation  of  wounded;  counterinsurgency; 
mines  weeping;  and  others.  Representative  types 
are  shown  in  figure  1 7-3. 

CH-46  SEA  KNIGHT:  The  Sea  Knight  is  a 
twin-turbine  transport  vehicle  that  provides  the 
fleet  with  a  day/night  underway  replenishment 
capability.  It  is  used  primarily  for  supply 
missions  at  sea  and  for  casualty  evacuation. 
Carrying  capacity  is  25  troops,  15  litters  and 
attendants,  or  4000  pounds  of  cargo.  Rotor 
blades  fold  for  shipboard  use.  The  CH-46  is  a 
small  version  of  the  Army's  Chinook. 

SH-3  SEA  KING:  The  SH-3  is  a 
twin-turbine,  all-weather  helicopter  designed  for 
ASW  use.  It  carries  dipping  sonar,  torpedoes, 
and  depth  bombs.  It  utilizes  a  special  radar 
altimeter  that  automatically  maintains  altitude 
while  dipping.  The  two  turbines  are  mounted 
side  by  side  on  one  rotor  instead  of  in  tandem  as 
on  the  CH-46. 

H-2  SEASPRITE:  The  Seasprite,  an 
ex-utility  helicopter,  is  now  serving  in  the 
LAMPS  Program  (Light  Airborne  Multipurpose 
Program  System)  with  the  destroyer  navy. 

RH-53D  SEA  STALLION:  The  Sea  Stallion 
is  a  singular  aircraft  in  that  the  Navy  has  only 
one  squadron.  Its  mission  is  worldwide 
quick-reaction  mine  countermeasures,  capable  of 
rapid  mobility  and  deployment  of  highly  trained 
mine  countermeasure  detachments. 

Other  craft  shown  in  figure  1 7-3  include  the 
UH-2C  Seasprite  (utility)  and  TH-57A  Jet-ranger 
(training)  helicopters. 


389 


NAVAL,  UKJJiiM  /v  i  i^i> 


390 


Chapter  17-NAVAL  AVIATION 


ADMINISTRATION  OF 
NAVAL  AVIATION 

In  the  Navy  Department,  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy,  the  Deputy  Chief  of  Naval  Operations 
(Air),  the  Chief  of  Naval  Material,  and  the 
Commander,  Naval  Air  Systems  Command  have 
responsibilities  in  connection  with  naval 
aviation. 

Functions  of  DCNO  (Air)  pertain  in  general 
to  the  coordination  of  aviation  activities  within 
and  outside  the  service.  Specifically  he  ensures 
that  the  service  prepares  and  supports  an 
aviation  organization  ready  to  perform  tasks  set 
by  the  Chief  of  Naval  Operations. 

Under  the  Chief  of  Naval  Material  and  the 
Commander,  Naval  Air  Systems  Command,  the 
Naval  Air  Systems  Command  provides 
aeronautical  material  support  for  aviation 
activities  and  facilities  ashore  and  afloat.  To 
accomplish  its  mission,  the  command  frequently 
works  in  close  cooperation  with  other 
commands  and  offices;  for  example,  it 
collaborates  with  NAVSEASYSCOM  in  matters 
concerning  design,  procurement,  and  installation 
of  aeronautical  features  and  facilities  in  ships. 

The  naval  aviation  shore  establishments 
include  Navy  and  Marine  Corps  air  base 
commands,  air  stations,  and  less  extensive 
facilities;  the  Naval  Air  Training  Command  and 
its  functional  training  commands;  the  Aviation 
Supply  Office;  supply  depots  and  annexes;  and 
certain  naval  air  details  that  provide  services  for 
special  missions.  Also  supported  by  NAVAIR 
are  certain  other  special  activities,  such  as  the 
Naval  Air  Test  Center  and  the  Naval  Air 
Engineering  Center. 

FLEET  AVIATION 

Two  naval  air  forces  compose  fleet  aviation: 
Naval  Air  Force,  Atlantic  Fleet  and  Naval  Air 
Force,  Pacific  Fleet.  The  Commander  Naval  Air 
Force,  U.S.  Atlantic  Fleet 
(COMNAVAIRLANT)  and  Commander  Naval 
Air  Force,  U.S.  Pacific  Fleet 
(COMNAVAIRPAC)  have  broad  responsibilities 
in  fleet  aviation.  Briefly,  they  establish  policies 
pertaining  to  the  organization,  operation,  and 
employment  of  fleet  aviation;  they  study  the 


strategic  situation  and  make  recommendations 
concerning  the  distribution  of  naval  air  forces; 
they  advise  the  fleet  commanders  on  air 
operations.  In  addition  they  are  responsible  for 
implementing  aircraft  maintenance  programs, 
scheduling  aircraft  for  rework  (overhaul)  and 
developing  equipment  and  material 
requirements,  for  squadron  training,  and  for  the 
preparation  of  operational  doctrines  for  all  types 
of  aircraft.  In  all  these  duties  they  maintain 
close  liaison  with  DCNO  (Air)  and  NAVAIR. 

Smaller  units  of  the  fleet  aviation 
organization  are  the  carriers:  the  carrier  aircraft 
wings  (figure  17-4)  and  squadrons,  fleet  air 
wings,  utility  wings,  and  logistic  support  wings. 

NAVAL  AIR 
TRAINING  COMMAND 

The  Chief  of  Naval  Air  Training  at  Corpus 
Christi,  Texas,  is  responsible  for  the  flight 
training  of  Navy  and  Marine  aviators  for  the 
fleet 

There  are  three  definite  phases  of 
advancement  in  naval  air  training;  preflight 
(ground)  training,  limited  to  ground  school 
subjects  and  indoctrination;  basic  training, 
including  primary  and  basic  flight;  and  advanced 
training,  wherein  the  student  pilot  becomes 
skilled  in  the  operation  of  fleet-type  aircraft  and 
continues  his  ground  training  in  essential 
subjects. 

The  Naval  Aerospace  Medical  Institute 
(NAMI),  Pensacola,  Florida,  is  responsible  for 
training  aerospace  medical  personnel  for  duty 
with  aviation  units  throughout  the  Navy  and 
Marine  Corps.  Flight  surgeons,  naval  aviation 
medical  officers,  aerospace  physiologists, 
aerospace  psychologists,  aerospace  medical 
technicians,  aerospace  physiology  technicians 
and  audiometry  technicians  graduate  from  the 
institute  prepared  to  serve  the  medical  needs  of 
aviation  personnel  in  operational  fleet  units  and 
in  the  shore  establishment. 

MARINE  CORPS 
AVIATION 

For  a  complete  discussion  of  the  U.S.  Marine 
Corps,  see  chapter  1 1 . 


391 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


AIR  WING 


AIR  WING  COMMANDER 


AIR  WING  STAFF 


OPERATIONS  AND  SAFETY  OFFICER 
AIR  INTELLIGENCE  OFFICER 
FLIGHT  SURGEON 

AIRCRAFT  MAINTENANCE  OFFICER 
ELECTRONICS  MAINTENANCE  OFFICER 
ADMINISTRATION  AND  PERSONNEL 
LANDING  SIGNAL  OFFICER 
ORDNANCE  OFFICER 


ATTACK 

SQUADRON 

MEDIUM 

(VA) 


FIGHTER 
SQUADRON 

(VF) 


FIGHTER 
SQUADRON 

(VF) 


ATTACK 
SQUADRON 

(VA) 


ATTACK 
SQUADRON 

(VA) 


ANTISUBMARINE 
SQUADRON 

(VS) 


AIRCRAFT 
DETACHMENTS 


DETACHMENT  OF  AIRCRAFT  CONFIGURED  FOR  SPECIAL  PURPOSES  SUCH  AS: 
PHOTO  RECONNAISSANCE 
AIRBORNE  EARLY  WARNING 


Figure  17-4.— Administrative  organization  of  a  typical  shipboard  air  wing. 


134 


The  main  function  of  Marine  Corps  aviation 
is  to  support  FMF  operations.  To  do  the  job, 
public  law  provides  that  the  Corps,  in  addition 
to  its  combat  divisions,  is  so  organized  as  to 
include  not  less  than  three  air  wings.  Marine 
Corps  pilots  are  trained  by  the  Navy  in  Navy 
programs  and  are  designated  as  "naval  aviators." 

The  operational  relationship  between  the 
Marine  Corps  and  the  Navy  is  not  fully 
understood  by  all.  The  main  point  to  bear  in 
mind  is  that  the  combat  elements  of  the 
Corps—the  fleet  Marine  forces— are  assigned  to 
the  Operating  Forces  of  the  Navy.  As  an  integral 
part  of  a  balanced  fleet,  those  elements  are 
attached  to  the  operational  command  of  the 
area  unified  commander. 

An  important  part  of  the  fleet  is  the 
amphibious  task  force;  the  responsibility  for  the 
development  and  maintenance  of  an  effective 
amphibious  warfare  capability  is  incumbent 
upon  the  Navy  and  Marine  Corps  jointly. 


Marine  aviation  is  organized,  trained, 
equipped  as  a  completely  expeditionary 
component  of  an  integrated  air/ground  1 
(the  FMF).  Marine  aircraft  can  and  do  op< 
from  carriers;  but  the  particular  specialt; 
Marine  Corps  aviation  is  moving  into 
objective  area  expeditiously  to  provide  tac 
air  support  for  an  amphibious  landing  force. 


AEROSPACE  MEDICINE  AND 
SPACE  RESEARCH 

Rapid  strides  in  aeronautical  technc 
have  resulted  in  aircraft  of  constantly  in  ere; 
speed,  maneuverability,  range  of  action, 
power  and  rate  of  climb.  Frequent  changi 
design  have  altered  the  concepts  of  hi 
endurance  limitations.  The  linking  of  me 
science  to  the  art  of  flying  and  aeronai 
engineering  has  resolved  questions  of  '<. 
aerospace  medical  significance. 


392 


Chapter  17-NAVAL  AVIATION 


The  violent  forces  of  high-speed  flight 
combined  with  unfriendly  aerophysical 
phenomena  of  lowered  atmospheric  pressures 
and  bitter  cold  temperatures  conspire  to  prevent 
man's  invasion  of  spatial  regions  beyond  a  few 
thousand  feet  above  the  Earth's  surface  without 
protection.  The  scientific  skills  of  those  working 
in  aerospace  medicine  are  resolved  to  give  man 
that  protection  required  to  overcome  these 
obstacles  and  ultimately  provide  long-term  life 
support  and  environmental  systems  that  will 
permit  the  once  earthbound  human  to  travel  the 
limitless  skies  in  relative  comfort  and  safety. 

As  problems  and  needs  arose  or  were 
foreseen  they  were  studied  and  resolved.  Lap 
belts,  and  then  shoulder  harnesses,  to  keep  pilots 
from  being  thrown  from  planes  or  being 
slammed  into  the  aircraft  structure,  enabled 
many  pilots  to  survive  plane  crashes.  Today, 
advanced  and  complex  restraint  systems  have 
been  designed  to  maintain  the  astronaut  in  a 
supine  couch  within  a  space  capsule  during 
periods  of  rapid  acceleration  and  deceleration. 
Control  systems  have  been  devised  so  that  a 
pilot  can  control  his  vehicle  with  only  hand  and 
wrist  movements  while  the  rest  of  his  body, 
including  the  forearms,  is  fully  restrained. 

Need  for  escape  from  distressed  aircraft 
while  still  in  flight  forced  the  development  of 
reliable  escape  and  recovery  systems.  To  jump 
from  a  slow,  open  cockpit  plane  was  no  problem 
and  the  pilot  could  float  safely  to  Earth 
suspended  from  his  parachute.  However,  as 
speeds  increased,  the  aviator  was  forced  to  open 
his  aircraft  canopy  and  frequently  had  to  invert 
his  plane  to  get  out.  At  even  higher  speeds, 
escape  by  conventional  means  became 
impossible  as  windblast  frequently  pinned  the 
aviator  within  the  cockpit.  To  overcome  this 
hazard,  the  ejection  seat  was  developed, 
whereby  the  pilot  in  his  seat  is  catapulted  from 
the  plane  by  means  of  a  powder  charge  and/or  a 
rocket,  clearing  the  plane's  tail  surface  and 
providing  the  aviator  with  sufficient  height  to 
allow  seat  and  man  separation  and  parachute 
deployment  even  at  ground  level.  This  last 
sequence  is  done  automatically;  even  though  he 
is  unconscious,  the  avaitor  may  be  safely 
lowered. 

Another  new  design  is  the  integrated  escape 
capsule  which  can  be  sheared  from  the  rest  of  a 


distressed  plane  to  parachute  to  safety  and  serve 
as  a  survival  vessel  upon  landing  on  the  sea.  A 
long-burning  high-performance  rocket  system 
will  enable  an  astronaut  to  rocket  himself  to 
safety  if  something  goes  amiss  during  the 
booster  stage  of  a  space  vehicle  launching. 

High-flying  aircraft  necessitated  supplying 
oxygen  to  the  airman.  This  oxygen  was  first 
delivered  through  a  pipestem  contrivance  held 
between  the  teeth.  Soon,  oxygen  masks  attached 
to  the  helmet  were  developed.  Later, 
diluter-demand  type  oxygen  systems,  which 
meter  varying  percentages  of  the  gas  to  the  pilot 
dependent  upon  the  pressure  altitude  were 
adopted.  These,  in  turn,  give  way  to  the 
pressure-breathing  systems  as  flights  above 
35,000  feet  become  more  or  less  routine. 

Above  30,000  feet,  aeroembolism,  or  the 
bends,  becomes  an  important  enemy.  The  diver 
who  ascends  too  quickly  from  the  ocean  depths 
suffers  from  the  bends.  This  same  condition  is 
observed  in  pilots  subjected  to  rapid  changes  in 
pressure  or  exposed  to  high  altitudes  for 
prolonged  periods  without  protective  devices. 
However,  the  pressurized  cabin  and  use  of  full 
pressure  suits  permit  the  pilot  to  go  safely  to 
altitudes  limited  only  by  aircraft  performance. 

The  invasion  of  space  presents  myriad  new 
problems  and  compounds  many  old  ones.  Liquid 
oxygen  supplied  in  high-performance  aircraft 
greatly  extends  the  flight  time,  but  necessarily 
small-space  vehicles  preclude  generous  supplies 
of  oxygen  adequate  for  prolonged  space  travel. 
Hence,  new  methods  for  supplying  oxygen  must 
be  found.  Solid  oxygen  sources  such  as 
potassium  superoxide  (KO2)  and  the 
regeneration  of  O2  from  CO2  and  H2O,  and 
other  body  wastes,  by  electrolytic  or  chemical 
means  holds  promise.  In  tight-space  capsules  the 
concentration  of  carbon  dioxide,  water  vapor, 
and  other  noxious  gases  becomes  a  serious  threat 
to  the  astronaut.  Carbon  dioxide  and  other  gas 
scrubbers  and  water  vapor  condensers  are 
required  to  keep  the  vehicle  spaces  livable. 

Heretofore,  the  intense  cold  at  high  altitudes 
required  aviators  to  be  protected,  first  by  bulky 
clothing  and  later,  in  closed  cockpits,  by  heaters 
and  air  conditioners.  With  speeds  reaching  twice 
that  of  sound,  the  heat  of  friction  causes  cabin 
temperature  to  rise  so  that  it  is  unbearable. 
Ventilation  and  refrigeration  units  are  now 


393 


required  in  high-performance  jet  aircraft.  And, 
in  space  and  orbital  vehicles  where  boost  and 
re-entry  phases  produce  ultrasonic  speeds  with 
resultant  surface  temperatures  in  the  thousands 
of  degrees  Fahrenheit,  reflective  surfaces, 
ablative  heat  sink  systems,  ventilation  garments, 
and  heat  reflective  clothing  also  protect 
personnel. 

Greater  fuel  capacity  and  in-flight  fueling 
have  extended  flight  duration,  creating  problems 
of  fatigue,  feeding,  and  disposal  of  human 
wastes.  Space  travel  greatly  intensified  these 
problems.  Then  too,  boredom  and  monotony 
will  be  factors  of  paramount  importance  for  the 
space  traveler.  Thus,  psychological  as  well  as 
physiological  matters  demand  the  attention  of 
the  flight  surgeon.  Undoubtedly,  new  and 
undreamed  of  hazards  will  confront  the 
astronauts  as  they  extend  their  exploratory 
fields  from  lunar  landings  to  interplanetary 
probes  and  landings  and  beyond  to  the  interstellar 
space.  Following  are  examples  of  activities 
engaged  in  aerospace  medicine  and  space 
research  that  are  prepared  to  meet  the  challenge 
of  these  hazards. 

AEROSPACE  CREW  SYSTEMS 
DEPARTMENT  (ACSD) 

The  Aerospace  Crew  Systems  Department,  a 
part  of  the  Naval  Air  Development  Center, 
Warminster,  Pennsylvania,  has  been  for  many 
years  a  leader  in  the  design  and  development  of 
specialized  air  crew  equipment,  such  -as 
immersion  suits,  full  pressure  suits,  protective 
helmets,  restraint  apparatus,  ejection  seat 
equipment,  oxygen  masks  and  regulators,  and 
crash  protection  equipment. 

The  Laboratory  is  heavily  involved  in  various 
supporting  activities  of  the  national  space 
program.  The  full  pressure  suit  worn  by  the  first 
Mercury  astronauts  was  designed  and  developed 
here.  Human  engineering  studies  of  the  displays 
and  controls  for  the  Mercury  space  capsule, 
study  of  heat  stress  profiles  for  the  Mercury 
flights,  and  training  of  the  Mercury  astronauts  in 
a  full  scale  replica  of  the  Mercury  capsule  placed 
inside  of  one  of  the  Nations'  largest  low  pressure 
chambers  were  accomplished  here.  Much 


1; 

Figure  17-5.— Human  centrifuge  in  use  at  the  Aero 
Department,  Naval  Air  Development  Center. 


research  on  the  use  of  superoxides 
simultaneous  provision  of  adequate  sourcf 
oxygen  and  absorption  of  CO2  and  water  v 
has  been  carried  out. 

This  laboratory's  principal  role  lies  i: 
capability  of  applying  the  results  of  researc 
the  development  of  usable  items  of  harch 
Most  of  the  aviation  personal  prote 
equipment  used  in  the  fleet  has  been  devel 
or  evaluated  at  ACSD. 

Other  ACSD  activities  are  centered  ar 
one  of  the  largest  human  centrifuges  in  exisi 
(figure  17-5).  The  capabilities  of  the  centr 
are  unique;  in  addition  to  its  use  in  establi 
the  limits  of  human  susceptibility 
acceleration  stress,  it  lends  itself  to  combin 
with  an  analog  computer  to  provide  dyr 
flight  simulation.  In  this  system,  pilot-co 
signals  from  the  centrifuge  gondola 
transformed  by  the  computer  into  drive  si 
for  the  centrifuge;  at  the  same  time, 
computer  drives  the  cockpit  flight  instrur 
to  show  the  changing  conditions  of  the  f 
With  this  technique,  occupants  of  the  gond< 
the  centrifuge  can  "fly"  exact  replicas  of 
patterns  for  both  aircraft  and  space  vet 
before  the  craft  are  actually  flown.  The  go: 
environment  can  simulate  a  pressure  altitu 


394 


Chapter  1  7-NAVAL  AVIATION 


125,000  feet  up  to  20  Gs,  with  provision  for 
temperature  and  humidity. 

This  capability  has  been  invaluable  in 
detecting  many  potentially  fatal  situations 
involving  experimental  aircraft.  Additionally,  it 
has  proved  to  be  a  highly  effective  and  realistic 
training  for  astronauts,  by  making  it  possible  for 
them  to  "fly"  through  the  profiles  of  their 
expected  space  flights  before  actual  launching 
into  space.  Dynamic  flight  simulation  provides  a 
useful  tool  for  the  Armed  Forces,  NASA,  and 
industry  for  explaining  the  acceleration,  control, 
and  display  factors  involved  in  flights  of  aircraft 
and  space  vehicles. 

Many  ancillary  studies  are  conducted  at  the 
Aerospace  Crew  Systems  Department  in  the 
fields  of  instrumentation,  equipment  design, 
biopack  development,  performance  under  stress, 
and  biochemical  stress  indicators. 


NAVAL  AEROSPACE  MEDICAL 
RESEARCH  LABORATORY 

The  Naval  Aerospace  Medical  Research 
Laboratory  in  Pensacola,  Florida,  has  been 
involved  in  many  fields  of  aerospace  research, 
including  biological  effects  of  cosmic  radiation. 
Laboratory  personnel  have  accomplished 
significant  work  in  the  effects  of  noise  on 
personnel,  communication  problems, 
psychological  aspects  of  aerospace  medicine, 
physical  standards  and  qualifications  criteria. 
They  have  also  conducted  basic  research  and 
studies  in  respiration,  cardiology,  and  central 
nervous  system  functions. 

The  Laboratory's  department  of  psychology 
contributes  to  the  Naval  Air  Training  Command 
by  its  program  of  selection,  assessment  and 
quality  control  of  aviation  personnel. 


CHAPTER  18 


NAVAL  WEAPONS  SYSTEMS 


Before  the  discovery  of  gunpowder,  naval 
battles  were  fought  with  row-galley  tactics.  In 
general,  two  methods  were  employed.  A  galley 
could  maneuver  near  the  enemy  and  attempt  to 
ram  him,  overturn  him,  board  him  by  means  of 
grappling  hooks,  or  shave  off  oars  by  a  close  run. 
An  alternative  procedure  was  to  catapult  flaming 
sulphur,  pitch,  niter,  or  oil  onto  the  enemy  ship, 
row  away,  and  watch  the  fire.  Although 
crossbows  and  shipborne  spring-  or 
torsion-powered  artillery  did  allow  some  battle 
action  before  actual  ship-to-ship  contact,  the 
ram  was  the  main  weapon;  speed  and 
maneuverability  were  the  best  defenses. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF 
SHIPBOARD  WEAPONS 

The  first  recorded  use  of  naval  gunfire 
occurred  when  the  Spanish  fired  on  the  Turkish 
fleet  in  1453.  This  incident  and  others  following 
demonstrated  the  possibility  of  destroying  an 
adversary  without  physically  coming  in  contact 
with  him.  Even  so,  most  single-ship  actions 
throughout  the  days  of  sail  concluded  with 
boardings  or  at  least  with  ships  lashed  together. 
Ranges  of  early  naval  guns  were  spoken  of  as 
pistol  shot  and  half  pistol  shot.  Fire  control 
devices  were  nonexistent,  and  accuracy  was 
largely  a  matter  of  skillful  seamanship.  The 
development  of  fire  control  in  the  modern  sense 
had  to  wait  until  the  19th  and  20th  centuries 
when  refinements  in  the  manufacture  of  guns 
and  a  detailed  study  of  trajectory  made  accurate 
long-range  shooting  possible. 

The  first  major  engagement  between  modem 
u-nleships  occurred  at  the  Battle  of  the  Yalu  in 
I  between  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  fleets. 


Battle  ranges  increased  from  a  few  hand 
yards  at  the  Yalu  to  over  1 8,000  yards  dui 
the  great  fleet  action  at  Jutland  during  W( 
War  I. 

England  had  seaplane  carriers  in  commiss 
by  1916;  and  HMS  Argus,  her  first  flush  d 
carrier,  was  in  the  fleet  by  the  end  of  World 
I.  Battleships  and  cruisers  soon  had  flying 
platforms  for  scout  planes,  and  light  antiairc 
weapons  were  located  about  the  superstruc 
areas.  As  ASW  grew  in  importance,  destro 
assumed  the  role  of  primary  antisubma 
ships.  Depth  charges  were  developed  althc 
ramming  was  still  a  favorite  means  of  s 
ing  U-boats.  With  the  advent  of  directii 
hydrophones,  ASW  came  to  assume  the  role 
full-time  operation. 

Between  World  Wars  I  and  II,  antiairc 
devices  appeared  in  increasing,  the 
inadequate,  numbers  (aviation  was 
underrated  as  a  threat).  Catapults  repl; 
flying-off  platforms  as  seaplanes  were  fittei 
most  ships  of  cruiser  size  and  la: 
Dual-purpose  guns  and  improved  fire  cor 
appeared  in  the  1930s.  In  secrecy,  Ji 
developed  a  24-inch  oxygen-fed  torpedo,  w 
proved  superior  to  the  steam-driven  t 
employed  by  the  Allies  until  the  end  of  W 
War  II. 

The  loss  of  our  Pacific  Battle  Fleet  at  ] 
Harbor,  followed  by  the  sinking  ofHMSRei 
and  HMS  Prince  of  Wales  by  Japanese  land-b 
planes  shortly  thereafter,  ushered  out  the  e 
the  "omnipotent"  battleship  in  favor  of  air 
carriers  using  aircraft  as  main  weaj 
Antiaircraft  armaments  were  drasti 
augmented.  New  battleships  fairly  bristling 
5-inch,  40-mm,  and  20-mm  guns  were  atta 


396 


Chapter  18-NAVAL  WEAPONS  SYSTEMS 


134.161 

Figure  18-1.— "Flak"  is  the  term  used  for  heavy  antiaircraft  fire.  The  black  puffs  are  caused  by  exploding  shells  sent  up 
in  barrages  that  enemy  aircraft  must  fly  through  in  order  to  press  their  attack. 


as  flak  screens  (figure  18-1)  for  fast  aircraft 
carriers.  Proximity-fuzed  (VT-fuzed)  shells  were 
introduced  in  1 943.  A  VT  fuze  contains  a  radio 
transmitter/receiver  that  emits  pulses  of  radio 
energy  and  receives  a  portion  of  those  pulses 
when  reflected  from  an  object.  If  the  projectile 
comes  within  75  to  1 00  feet  of  its  target,  the 
returning  pulse  is  strong  enough  to  electrically 
activate  the  primer.  With  a  VT  fuze,  therefore,  a 


near  miss  can  be  nearly  as  effective  as  a  direct 
hit. 

In  antisubmarine  warfare,  the  seriousness  of 
the  U-boat  threat  brought  about  radical 
innovations. 

Depth  charges  were  improved  in  lethality 
and  depth  capability.  Because  K-guns  (depth 
charge  throwers  that  had  replaced  World 
War  I-vintage  devices)  required  passage  of  the 


attacking  ship  directly  over  the  submarine,  there 
resulted  a  loss  of  contact  during  the  last  few 
seconds  of  approach.  Ahead-thrown  devices 
were  therefore  developed  to  permit  standoff 
attacks.  Probably  the  most  familiar  of  these 
weapons  was  the  hedgehog,  which  fired  24 
charges  in  a  ring-shaped  pattern  to  a  range  of 
about  250  yards,  and  the  mousetrap,  a  small 
version  of  the  hedgehog,  designed  for  use  by 
torpedo  boats,  submarine  chasers,  and  other 
small  craft. 

Throughout  World  War  II,  the  21 -inch  steam 
torpedo  was  the  mainstay  of  most  navies  of  the 
world,  with  a  few  notable  exceptions.  Germany 
developed  a  wakeless  electric  torpedo,  and  the 
Japanese  oxygen-fed  24-inch  torpedo  (already 
noted)  remained  the  finest  conventional  torpedo 
of  any  nation  during  the  war.  After  a  great  deal 
of  trouble  with  exploders  and  depth  control 
devices,  U.S.  torpedoes  were  finally  perfected  in 
1943  and  gave  excellent  service  thereafter. 
Acoustical  homing  devices  appeared  in  1944. 

In  the  area  of  conventional  ordnance,  it  was 
discovered  that  neither  the  20-mm  nor  40-mm 
guns  were  very  effective  in  stopping  determined 
enemy  aircraft  pilots,  such  as  the  Japanese 
kamikazes  (see  chapter  2  under  Admiral  Halsey). 
A  heavier  automatic  antiaircraft  weapon  was 
therefore  developed— the  3"/50.  By  the  early 
1950s,  this  gun  had  replaced  the  quadruple 
40-mm  mounts  on  most  active  ships,  and  it  is 
still  in  use.  Later  a  3"/70  fully  automatic 
weapon,  capable  of  firing  90  rounds  per  minute 
per  barrel,  was  fitted  on  a  cruiser  and  a  few 
destroyers  for  use  against  high-speed  aircraft. 
None  of  these  remain  operational. 

To  provide  increased  range  over  the  5"/38, 
which  has  been  in  the  U.S.  arsenal  since  the  late 
1930s,  a  slow-fire  5"/54  gun  was  first  installed 
in  Midway  class  CVBs  in  1945.  A  rapid-fire 
version  was  fitted  mMitscher  class  destroyers  of 
1952.  This  rapid-fire  version,  with  some 
modifications,  was  installed  aboard  virtually  all 
destroyer  types  until  1974  when  the  new 
lightweight  5"/54  Mk  45  rapid-fire  gun  was 
introduced  with  the  launching  of  the  California 
class  cruisers.  This  gun  is  capable  of  firing  1 6  to 
20  rounds  per  minute  and  it  requires  no 
personnel  in  the  gunhouse.  It  offers  fully 
automatic  operation,  all-weather  capabilities, 


fire  mission  flexibility,  and  the  highest  miss 
availability  of  any  comparable  gun. 

As  aircraft  performance  (Spe 
maneuvering,  and  altitude  capabilit 
increased,  the  efficiency  of  gunfire  against  tt 
decreased  correspondingly.  This  led  to 
development  of  antiaircraft  missiles,  which  f 
became  operational  aboard  CAGs  USS  Bos 
and  USS  Canberra  in  1955.  Three  types 
missiles  were  developed:  (1)  Tartar,  of  relath 
short  range;  (2)  Terrier,  of  medium  range;; 
(3)  Tabs,  a  long-range  weapon.  The  1950s'; 
ushered  in  the  era  of  strategic  and  tact 
bombardment  vehicles.  The  Navy's  first  vent 
in  this  field  was  the  air-breathing  Regulus,  wl 
was  installed  aboard  a  few  submarines  and  t 
on  several  cruisers  and  carriers.  Polaris  m 
Regulus  obsolete.  (The  strategic  fleet  balli 
missile  systems  (Polaris/Poseidon/Trident) 
discussed  in  chapter  21.) 

Our  first  post-World  War  II  ASW  wea] 
was  Alfa.  Alfa  improved  on  the  hedge 
principle  in  that  the  hedgehog,  despite  its 
projectiles,  normally  did  not  "kill"  a  submar 
but  forced  it  to  surface.  Alfa  fired  a  sii 
512-pound  depth  charge  capable  of  sinkin 
submarine  with  one  hit.  Standoff  capability 
enhanced  in  the  1950s  by  AS  ROC  (figure  18 
which  essentially  is  a  rocket-assisted  torpedc 
nuclear  depth  charge  with  which  a  surface  s 
can  initiate  attacks  from  ranges  exceedini 
miles.  In  the  1960s,  the  submarine  receive 
similar  boost  in  effectiveness  with  the  adven 
SUBROC,  a  long-range,  underwater-launc 
weapon  designed  for  use  against  submarines. 

By  1960,  the  familiar  quintuple  torp 
tubes  of  World  War  II  had  given  way  to  01 
mount  configurations,  predominantly  the  Ml* 
triple-tube  nest  described  in  chapter  15.  Mod 
torpedoes  include  homing  devices,  as  opposei 
the  straight-running  types;  some  are  wire-gui 
(maneuvering  signals  generated  by  shipbc 
electrical  current). 

As  a  partial  reaction  to  Soviet  possessioi 
the  atomic  bomb  and  the  ICBM  race,  misi 
and  missile  ships  dominated  budgei 
considerations  throughout  the  1950s.  The  i 
trend  in  construction  culminated  in  sev 
"double-ended"  ships-missile  launchers  1 


398 


Chapter  18-NAVAL  WEAPONS  SYSTEMS 


and  aft  and  little  or  no  gun  armament.  By  the 
end  of  the  decade,  the  threat  of  nuclear 
conflagration  diminished  but  there  arose  an 
increasing  number  of  Communist-inspired  "wars 
of  national  liberation."  The  Navy  then  was 
caught  in  a  "gun  gap"  stemming  from  a  decade 
of  emphasis  on  missiles  and  missile  systems. 

Shortly  before  our  active  involvement  in 
Vietnam,  5" /38s  or  3 "/50s  were  installed  on  the 
double-enders  lacking  gunpower.  New  missile 
ships  were  designed  with  a  mixed  armament  of 
guns  and  missiles.  Removed  from  scrapped  ships, 
5"/38  mounts  were  installed  in  new  DEs  and 
DEGs;  those  which  were  primarily  missile-armed 
served  as  fleet  escorts  for  carrier  task  forces 
where  lack  of  gunpower  would  not  be  as 
significant.  Rocket-equipped  landing  ships 


(LSMRs)  were  recommissioned  as  inshore  fire 
support  ships  for  duty  in  Vietnam  as  were  a  few 
cruisers  and  the  battleship  New  Jersey . 

The  lightweight  8"/55  gun  was  developed  in 
the  mid  1970s  as  a  means  of  providing  heavy 
gunfire  support  from  acceptable  standoff  ranges. 
Because  of  its  radical  design,  the  lightweight 
8"/55  gun  can  be  installed  on  modern  cruisers 
and  destroyers.  It  is  the  smallest  and  lightest 
major-caliber  gun  mount  in  existence. 

Weaponry  on  the  whole  has  grown 
incredibly  in  complexity  and  sophistication 
during  the  past  three  decades.  Consider  the 
Polaris  ballistic  missile  as  an  example.  The  FBM 
system  first  became  operational  in  1960.  Within 
10  years,  we  installed  Poseidon,  the 
fourth-generation  missile.  The  range,  accuracy, 


144.73 


Figure  1 8-2.— Torpedo  form  of  ASROC  fired  from  launcher  on  deck. 


399 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


and  payload  of  each  succeeding  generation  has 
been  significantly  greater  than  that  of  its 
predecessor.  Trident,  being  introduced  at  the 
time  of  this  writing,  represents  the  ultimate  in 
today's  weapon  technology. 

In  both  antiair  and  antisubmarine  warfare, 
the  Navy's  foremost  challenge  today,  the  trend 
toward  greater  sophistication  will  undoubtedly 
continue.  But  it  has  been  proved  that  the  Navy 
must  maintain  a  balanced  mixture  of  armament 
and  weapons  to  cope  with  foreseen  as  well  as 
unforeseen  thrusts  from  diverse  directions. 
Guns,  guided  missiles,  and  rockets,  the  latter 
often  directed  by  visual  spotting,  will  be  with  us 
for  many  years.  The  pride  of  the  fleet  today 
may  be  of  little  value  in  a  different  situation 
tomorrow.  It  has  happened  before. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF 
AIRBORNE  WEAPONS 

In  the  early  days  of  airborne  weaponry, 
weapons  consisted  of  light  hand- thrown  bombs, 
machineguns,  and  sidearms.  Through  the  1920s 
and  1930s,  as  aircraft  became  faster  and  metal 
monoplanes  replaced  wood  and  cloth  biplanes, 
more  guns  and  heavier  payloads  became  the 
pattern.  During  the  1940s,  light  machineguns, 
synchronized  to  fire  through  propellers,  were 
replaced  or  augmented  by  wing-mounted 
machineguns  or  cannon.  The  Lewis  30-caliber 
machinegun  was  replaced  by  the  Browning 
50-caliber,  which  in  turn  was  replaced  in  1943 
by  the  20-mm  aircraft  gun.  Bombloads  increased 
from  two  230-pound  bombs  in  the  H-class  flying 
boats  of  World  War  I  to  an  8000-pound  mix 
capability  in  the  A-l  aircraft  of  1945.  During 
World  War  II,  the  aerial  torpedo,  under 
development  since  World  War  I,  proved  to  be  a 
formidable  weapon. 

Ordnance  experts  believe  that  superior 
firepower  and  tactics  enabled  U.S.  aircraft  to 
win  practically  every  air  battle  in  the  Pacific 
during  World  War  II.  Although  Japanese  bombs 
and  torpedoes  were  as  destructive  as  our  own, 
their  aircraft  guns  could  not  match  the 
50-caliber  Browning  machinegun,  and  their 
aircraft  were  not  equipped  to  carry  as  large  a 
payload  as  our  aircraft. 


Although  World  War  II  ushered  in  the  use  of 
aircraft-launched  rockets,  depth  charges,  and 
glider  bombs,  it  was  the  later  advent  of  jet 
aircraft  and  guided  missiles  that  resulted  in  the 
greatest  innovations  in  aerial  weaponry.  The 
introduction  of  supersonic  aircraft  after  the 
Korean  action  outmoded  the  concept  of  classical 
aerial  dogfights  with  guns.  The  speed  of  these 
aircraft  exceeds  the  limits  of  pilot  reaction  time 
at  close  quarters.  Radical  maneuvers  impose 
unacceptable  strains  on  airframes.  These 
conditions,  coupled  with  improved  airborne 
radars  and  the  need  for  longer  range  air  defense, 
brought  about  development  of  the  air-to-air 
missile.  Contracts  for  the  first  missile,  Sparrow, 
were  let  in  1951,  followed  shortly  by  those  for 
Sidewinder. 

Guided  missiles  have  become  increasingly 
important  in  aircraft  armament.  When  two  jet 
aircraft  approach  each  other  head-on,  closing 
speed  is  between  1/2  and  1  mile  per  second.  It  is 
difficult  even  to  see  an  enemy  aircraft,  and 
hitting  it  with  conventional  weapons  is  largely  a 
matter  of  luck.  An  air-to-air  missile  not  only  can 
"lock-on"  the  hostile  aircraft  while  it  still  is 
miles  away,  but  it  can  pursue  and  hit  the  target 
despjte  the  target's  evasive  maneuvers. 

Naval  aviators  today  have  a  variety  of 
weapons  available  -to  complete  any  mission 
within  the  capability  of  their  aircraft,  including 
air  defense,  nuclear  strikes,  and 
counterinsurgency.  Technological  advances 
paved  the  way  for  improved  versions  of  Sparrow 
and  Sidewinder;  air-to-ground  missiles,  such  as 
Bullpup,  have  added  punch  to  light  attack 
missions;  and  Shrike  includes  devices  to  counter 
enemy  radar  defenses. 


WEAPONS  OF  THE  FLEET 

The    remainder    of    this    chapter    briefly 
describes  weapons  operational  in  the  fleet  today. 

GUNS 


Gun  weapons  systems  are  designed  mainly 
for  engaging  air  and  surface  targets 
(dual-purpose  (DP)  systems). 


400 


134.201 


Figure  1 8-3.— Test  firing  of  the  Navy's  8-inch  lightweight  gun  from  the  destroyer  USS  Hull. 


8"/55 

The  8"/55  lightweight  gun  is  the  only  major 
caliber  weapon  in  the  fleet  today.  In  the  fully 
automatic  mode,  it  can  fire  12  rounds  per 
minute  with  a  crew  of  six.  This  gun  has  a 
maximum  range  of  over  1 5  miles.  Its  lightweight 
construction  makes  it  suitable  for  installation 
aboard  cruisers,  destroyers,  and  frigates  (figure 
18-3).  While  its  primary  mission  is  gunfire 
support,  it  can  also  be  employed  as  an  antiship 
weapon. 

5"/54 

The  5"/54  is  an  automatic  DP  gun  carried  by 
virtually  all  post-World  War  II  DDs,  DDGs,  and 
CGs.  Depending  on  the  class  of  ship,  the  weapon 
may  be  disposed  in  1,  2,  3,  or  4  single  mounts. 
Weight  of  the  shell  is  72  pounds,  and  effective 
range  is  24,500  yards.  Rate  of  fire  is  40  rounds 
per  minute. 


The  Mk  45  version  of  this  weapon  (figure 
18-4)  is  completely  automatic.  It  is  loaded, 
controlled,  and  fired  from  remote  positions, 
thereby  obviating  the  need  for  the  guncrew  to 
enter  the  mount. 

5"  {38 

The  5"/38  semiautomatic  DP  gun  was  the 
mainstay  of  the  U.S.  Navy  from  1939  until  the 
late  1960s.  Single  or  twin  mounts  made  up  the 
secondary  batteries  on  early  cruisers  and 
battleships.  Two  or  three  twin  mounts  now 
constitute  the  main  battery  of  many  older  DDs. 
For  short  periods,  an  efficient  guncrew  can  get 
off  1 5  rounds  per  minute  for  single  mounts  and 
30  rounds  per  minute  for  the  twins.  Weight  of 
the  projectile  is  55  pounds;  effective  range  is 
18,000  yards. 

3"/50 

The  dual-purpose,  semiautomatic  3"/50  gun 
was  planned  during  World  War  II  when  the  need 


401 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


134.202 


Figure  18-4.-Mk  45  Mod  0  5"/54. 


late  1960s  to  combat  increased  aircraft  target 
speeds  and  the  cruise  missile  threat.  Because  of 
its  light  weight,  it  is  suitable  for  installation  on 
the  new  guided-missile  frigates  and  missile 
hydrofoil  boats.  It  is  a  water-cooled  single 
mount  with  a  rate  of  fire  of  85  rounds  per 
minute  and  a  maximum  range  of  1 7,800  yards. 
The  gunhouse  is  not  manned  and  requires  only 
three  handlers  to  reload  the  magazine. 

20-mm 


The  Phalanx  close-in  weapon  system  (CIWS) 
(figure  1 8-5)  is  a  gun  system  designed  as  a  ship's 
last-ditch  weapon  against  an  antiship  cruise 
missile.  The  system  is  a  complete  unit  containing 
search  and  tracking  radar,  a  fire  control  system, 
a  20-mm  gun,  and  a  magazine.  The  unit  is 
capable  of  automatically  looking  for  and 
engaging  missiles  which  "leak  through"  the 
other  task  force  defenses.  The  mount  housing, 
gun,  and  magazine  have  a  high  slew  rate  and 
provide  330°  coverage.  The  gun  is  the  Vulcan 
Catling  gun  (20-mm),  capable  of  firing  3000 
rounds  per  minute;  and  it  has  a  magazine 
capacity  of  950  rounds.  The  entire  system  is 
bolted  to  the  deck  on  shock  mounts  and 
requires  only  electric  power,  firemain  cooling 
water,  and  gyro  input  from  the  ship. 


arose  for  a  rapid-fire  weapon  having  a  larger 
explosive  projectile  than  the  40-mm  to  combat 
suicide  planes  and  dive  bombers.  It  was  not 
completed  in  time  for  wartime  service,  but  it 
proved  to  be  a  very  effective  gun.  Becoming 
standard  throughout  much  of  the  fleet,  it 
replaced  the  40-mm  twin  and  quadruple  mounts 
on  all  combat  ships.  Open  twin  mounts  were 
most  common,  although  a  few  single  mounts 
were  installed. 

Designed  rate  of  fire  is  45  rounds  per  minute 
per  barrel;  range  is  14,200  yards.  However,  few 
of  these  mounts  remain. 

76-mm/62 

The  Oto  Melara  76-mm/62-caliber,  rapid-fire, 
dual-purpose  gun  mount  was  developed  in  the 


ANTIAIR  WARFARE 
(AAW)  MISSILES 

In  an  AAW  operation,  guided  missiles  are  the 
second  line  of  defense  (the  front  line  consists  of 
aircraft).     Surface-to-air     antiaircraft    guided 
missiles   may  be  classified  according   to  their 
effective  ranges  as- 
Short-range:  greater  than  5,000  yards 
Medium-range:  greater  than  25,000  yards 
Extended-range:  greater  than  60,000  yards 
Long-range:  greater  than  100,000 

The  method  of  designating  missiles  and 
rockets  by  type  is  described  briefly  in  chapter 
15,  as  are  missile  guidance  systems.  You  will 


402 


134.203 


Figure  18-5.— A  close-up  view  of  the  six-barrel  Vulcan  gun  of  the  Navy's  Phalanx  close-in  weapon  system. 


recall   that   the   initial  letter  of  a  designation 
indicates  the  usual  launch  environment: 

A  —air 

R  —surface  ship 

U  —submarine 

The  second  letter  denotes  mission: 

G  —surface  attack 
I    —aerial  intercept 
U  —underwater  attack 

The  last  letter  is  the  type  symbol: 

M  —missile 
R  —rocket 


There  are  many  additional  symbols,  but  those 
listed  encompass  the  missiles  and  rockets 
described  in  the  remainder  of  this  chapter.  See 
figure  1 8-6  for  comparative  sizes  of  the  weapons 
carried  aboard  ship  and  aircraft. 

Tartar  (RIM) 

Tartar  measures  15  by  1.5  feet  and  weighs 
1500  pounds.  It  is  a  solid-fuel  missile  with  a 
range  of  1 0  miles  plus  and  a  speed  of  Mach  2. 
The  warhead  is  high  explosive.  Tartar  is  carried 
by  DDGs,  FFGs,  and  Albany  (CG-10)  class 
cruisers. 

Terrier  (RIM) 

Terrier  was  the  Navy's  first  operational  AAW 
missile.  Dimensions  are  27  feet  by  1  foot;  weight 


403 


is  3000  pounds.  It  is  a  solid-fuel  missile  with  a 
range  exceeding  10  miles  and  a  speed  of  Mach  2 
plus.  The  warhead  is  nuclear  or  high  explosive. 
Terrier  was  fitted  in  the  USS  Boston  (CA-69)  in 
1955.  Additionally,  it  is  now  installed  in  some 
CGs,  the  USS  Long  Beach  (CGN-9)  and  Kitty 
Hawk  class  CVs. 

Standard  (RIM) 

Numerous  improvements  were  made  in  the 
Terrier  and  Tartar  missiles.  Because  of  this  a 
standardization  program  was  implemented.  Out 
of  this  program  came  the  Standard  missile  (SM) 
medium  range  (MR),  and  extended  range  (ER). 

Based  on  the  Tartar,  the  SM  (MR)  has  a 
range  in  excess  of  1 5  miles  and  a  ceiling  greater 


than  50,000  feet.  The  SM  (ER),  based  on  the 
Terrier,  has  a  range  exceeding  30  miles  and  a 
ceiling  greater  than  60,000  feet.  Although  both 
range  and  ceiling  were  increased,  the  SM  (MR) 
and  (ER)  are  comparable  in  size  and  weight  to 
the  Tartar  and  Terrier  respectively.  It  js 
anticipated  that  the  Standard  missile  will  phase 
out  the  Tartar  and  Terrier  by  1 980. 


Talos  (RIM) 

Tabs,  our  largest  shipboard  surface-to-air 
missile,  is  fitted  in  cruisers  for  long-range  air 
defense.  It  has  a  length  of  30  feet  and  a  diameter 
of  30  inches.  Weight  is  7,000  pounds.  It  is 
launched  by  a  solid-prop ellant  booster;  but 
unlike  Tartar,  Terrier,  or  Standard,  it  is 


POSEIDON 


WALLEYE 


STANDARD  (MR) 


Figure  18-6.-Navy  missiles  and  rockets;  comparative  sizes  and  silhouettes. 

404 


144.2 


Chpater  18-NAVAL  WEAPONS  SYSTEMS 


sustained  in  flight  by  a  ramjet  engine.  Range 
exceeds  50  miles  with  a  ceiling  of  more  than 
60,000  feet.  The  warhead  may  be  nuclear  or 
high  explosive.  Talos  first  went  to  sea  in  the  USS 
Galveston  (CLG-3).  It  is  currently  fitted  in  CGs 
and  CGN-9.  Although  designed  as  an  AAW 
missile,  Talos  can  be  used  against  surface  targets. 

Sea  Sparrow  (AIM) 

The  guided  missile  for  the  basic  point 
defense  (BPD)  is  the  Sparrow  III  missile 
designated  for  air  launch  from  fighter  aircraft. 
For  the  basic  point  defense  role,  the  missile  has 
been  modified  by  the  substitution  of  special 
wings  and  tail  fins  which  have  less  aerodynamic 
drag.  The  Sparrow  III  missile  is  a  supersonic, 
boost-glide,  semiactive  homing  missile.  Tactical 
mission  of  the  missile  is  to  intercept  and  destroy 
enemy  aircraft  and  guided  missiles  in  point 
defense  of  individual  surface  vessels.  It  has  a 
range  in  excess  of  5000  yards,  weighs  510 
pounds,  and  has  a  diameter  of  8  inches.  It  also 
has  limited  use  against  surface  targets.  The  basic 
point  defense  missile  is  designated  as 
guided-missile  AIM-7  series  Sparrow  III.  The 
first  installation  deployed  aboard  the  USS 
Enterprise  in  1967.  It  has  also  been  installed  in 
the  USS  John  F.  Kennedy;  in  the  second 
nuclear-powered  CV,  USS  Nimitz;  and  in  the 
newest  classes  of  frigates  and  destroyers. 

ANTISUBMARINE 
WARFARE  WEAPONS 

The  Navy's  primary  operational  weapons  are 
(1)  antisubmarine  rockets  (ASROC),  (2) 
submarine  rockets  (SUBROC),  and  (3) 
torpedoes. 

ASROC  (RUR) 

The  ASROC  missile  is  a  subsonic, 
shipboard-launched,  solid-fuel,  rocket-propelled, 
antisubmarine  ballistic  projectile.  The  missile 
has  two  configurations-one  with  a  depth  charge 
and  one  with  a  torpedo. 

The  purpose  of  ASROC  is  the  destruction  of 
submarines  at  long  ranges.  This  objective  is 


achieved  by  delivery  of  a  torpedo  or  nuclear 
depth  charge  through  the  air  to  a  point  in  the 
water  from  which  it  can  either  attack  under  the 
most  favorable  circumstances  or  have  the 
submarine  within  its  lethal  radius.  The  payload 
is  a  part  of  an  unguided  missile  that  is  propelled 
by  a  rocket  motor  and  stabilized  by  an  airframe 
throughout  its  powered  flight.  Because  of  its 
standoff  range,  ASROC  makes  it  possible  for  the 
ASW  ship  to  launch  its  weapons  before  the 
submarine  is  aware  that  it  is  under  attack. 

ASROC  launchers  are  installed  in  FFs,  DDs, 
DDGs,  and  CGs.  On  most  ships,  the  launcher  is  a 
boxlike  device  containing  eight  cells,  as  in  figure 
18-7,  each  containing  a  missile.  Some  ships  carry 
a  dual  Terrier/ASROC  launcher  that  eliminates 
the  need  for  separate  magazines  and  conserves 
deck  space. 

SUBROC  (UUM) 

The  SUBROC,  an  antisubmarine  rocket  with 
a  nuclear  warhead,  is  launched  from  a  submarine 
torpedo  tube  by  conventional  methods.  After 
clearing  the  submarine,  a  rocket  motor  ignites 
and  propels  the  weapon  upward  and  out  of  the 
water  as  in  figure  18-8.  An  inertial  guidance 
system  then  directs  SUBROC  toward  its  target. 
At  a  predetermined  range,  the  motor  and  depth 
bomb  separate,  the  latter  continuing  toward  the 
target  area.  Upon  reentry  into  the  water,  the 
bomb  sinks  to  a  preset  depth  and  the  warhead 
explodes.  The  target  may  be  a  surface  ship  as 
well  as  a  submarine.  The  SUBROC  system  can 
fire  missiles  in  rapid  succession,  an  important 
defense  against  enemy  wolfpack  tactics. 

SUBROC  systems  are  installed  in  the  Permit, 
Tullibee,  Sturgeon,  and  Los  Angeles  class  SSNs. 

Torpedoes 

A  torpedo  can  be  launched  from  submarines, 
surface  ships,  or  aircraft.  The  torpedo  guides 
itself  toward  its  target  either  by  devices  installed 
to  control  its  depth  and  direction  according  to  a 
preset  plan  or  as  influenced  by  an  outside 
source. 

This  discussion  is  confined  to  torpedoes  that 
are  designed  as  antisubmarine  weapons.  Most  of 
these  weapons  contain  acoustic  homing  devices. 


405 


MK  37  TORPEDO.-The  Mk  37,  launched 
only  from  submarines,  is  a  long-range, 
deep-diving,  electrically  driven  torpedo.  It  comes 
in  two  modifications  (Mods  2  and  3).  Standard 
diameter  is  19  inches;  length  varies  between  1 1 
and  14.5  feet;  weight  varies  between  1430  and 
1700  pounds.  Mod  2  is  wire-guided,  making  it 
invulnerable  to  several  enemy  countermeasures. 


LEFT  REAR 


RIGHT  FRONT 


Figure  18-7.-The  ASROC  cellular  launcher. 


15.106 


MK  44  TORPEDO.-The  Mk  44  is  a 
lightweight  (somewhat  over  400  pounds), 
electrically  driven  torpedo.  It  can  be  launched 
from  shipboard  and  by  many  aircraft,  and  is  the 
torpedo  payload  for  ASROC.  Length  is  about  8 
feet,  diameter  is  12.75  inches.  Guidance  is  active 
homing  coupled  to  a  search  pattern. 

MK  46  TORPEDO.-The  Mk  46  torpedo  is 
the  successor  to  the  Mk  44.  The  principal 
difference  between  the  two  is  the  improved 
propulsive  power  of  the  Mk  46,  which  gives  it 
greater  speed,  range,  and  depth  capabilities  than 
the  Mk  44.  The  Mk  46  is  8.5  feet  long,  has  a 
12.75-inch  diameter,  and  weighs  568  pounds. 

MK    48    TORPEDO.-The    Mk    48    is    a 

high-speed,  deep-running,  long-range  weapon 
used  against  submarines  and  surface  ships.  The 
weapon  can  be  launched  from  either  a 
submarine  or  surface  craft.  Both  acoustic  and 
nonacoustic  operating  modes  are  available.  The 
torpedo  may  be  operated  in  the  acoustic  mode 
when  used  against  surface  or  submerged  targets. 
Nonacoustic  operation  may  be  used  against 
surface  targets  only. 

Mines 


Like  torpedoes,  mines  can  be  planted  by 
surface  ships,  submarines,  and  aircraft. 
Presently,  only  aircraft  and  submarines  are 
utilized  for  planting  mines.  Planting  by  aircraft 
is  feasible  only  when  great  secrecy  is  not 
involved.  Submarine-laid  mines  can  be  planted  in 
secrecy  at  great  distances  from  home  ports;  they 
can  be  fired  into  harbors  in  a  torpedo 
configuration  or  merely  set  adrift  in  shipping 
lanes. 

Operational  mines  are  discussed  at  length  in 
chapter  21.  Aircraft-planted  mines  are  covered 
in  the  next  portion  of  this  chapter. 

ANTISHIP  WARFARE 
MISSILES  (CRUISE) 

Since  World  War  II,  the  U.S.  Navy  has  relied 
upon  carrier  aircraft  to  maintain  sea  control. 
Other  navies,  not  having  the  money  for  carriers, 


406 


Chapter  18-NAVAL  WEAPONS  SYSTEMS 


134.104 


Figure  18-8.— The  submarine  rocket  is  an  ASW  weapon  designed  for  underwater  launching. 

AH  7 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


developed  antiship  missiles.  These  missiles  were 
first  used  successfully  by  the  Egyptians  to  sink 
the  Israeli  destroyer  Elath  in  1967.  This  battle 
opened  a  new  era  in  naval  warfare.  Any  nation, 
with  a  relatively  modest  investment,  could 
successfully  challenge  the  most  powerful  naval 
forces. 

The  United  States  did  not  start  development 
of  a  similar  weapon  until  1971  when  it  became 
apparent  that  U.S.  ships  might  have  to  engage 
other  ships  equipped  with  antiship  missiles 
without  the  benefit  of  an  equal  weapon.  This  led 
to  the  development  of  the  Harpoon  cruise 
missile. 

Harpoon  Missile 

The  Harpoon  missile  is  an  antiship  missile 
designed  to  be  launched  from  surface  ships, 
submarines,  and  aircraft,  using  existing 
launching  and  weapons  control  equipments.  The 
missile  features  beyond-the-horizon  range,  a 
low-level  cruise  trajectory  (hence,  the 
name  cruise),  active  guidance,  counter- 
countermeasures,  and  a  large  payload.  The 
missile  is  15  feet  long  and  13  inches  in  diameter, 
and  weighs  1 400  pounds.  It  has  a  high-explosive 
warhead  and  is  powered  by  an  air-breathing 
turbojet  engine.  For  shipboard  launch,  a  solid- 
propellant  rocket  booster  is  added.  The  missile 
utilizes  active  radar  terminal  homing. 

Long-Range  Cruise  Missile 

Under  development  is  a  long-range  cruise 
missile  to  complement  Harpoon.  The  new 
missile  will  have  a  capability  for  employment 
against  ship  and  shore  targets,  will  have  both 
conventional  and  nuclear  warhead 
configurations,  and  will  be  designed  for  surface 
platforms,  submarine  torpedo  tube  launch,  and 
use  on  aircraft  with  both  warheads.  The  range  of 
the  tactical  version  will  be  up  to  300  nautical 
miles,  while  the  strategic  version  may  be 
employed  at  ranges  of  1 500  miles. 


AIRBORNE  WEAPONS 

In   today's   high-performance   aircraft,    the 
trend    is    toward    versatility    by    means   of   a 


multiple-stores  capability.  That  is,  rockets, 
bombs,  missiles,  and  guns  (in  some  aircraft)  are 
mounted  in  pods  that  permit  interchangeability 
of  armament.  Pods  provide  a  variable  choice  of 
weapons  to  complete  assigned  missions. 

20-MM  GUNS 

Although  20-mm  aircraft  guns  are  practically 
obsolete  for  air-to-air  combat,  they  still  are  the 
most  effective  weapons  under  certain  tactical 
conditions.  There  are  three  types-one  pod 
mounted,  the  other  two  mounted  internally. 

The  pod-mounted  gun  (figure  1 8-9),  located 
on  the  center  line  of  the  pod,  has  two 
over-and-under  barrels  with  a  combined  firing 
rate  of  some  4000  rounds  per  minute.  An 
aircraft  carrying  the  normal  load  of  three  pods 
thus  has  a  capability  of  firing  200  rounds  per 
second.  One  of  the  internal  20-mm  guns  is  a 
conventional  single-barrel.  It  can  be  mounted 
singly,  usually  one  near  the  base  of  each  wing;  or 
several  guns  may  be  grouped  within  the  fuselage 
(the  F-8,  for  example,  has  a  quadruple  fuselage 
mounting).  Rate  of  fire  is  1000  rounds  per 
minute  for  each  gun.  The  other  internally 
mounted  gun,  such  as  on  the  A7E  aircraft, 
consists  of  one  six -barrel  M61A1  20-mm  gun 
with  an  ammunition  drum  that  is  electrically 
controlled  and  hydraulic  ally  operated.  The  gun 
fires  at  a  rate  of  6000  rounds  per  minute  in  the 
GUNHI  position  and  4000  rounds  per  minute  in 
the  GUNLOW  position. 

AIR-TO-AIR  MISSILES 

(AIMs) 

Missile  research  is  continuously  producing 
changes  in  the  missile  field.  For  this  reason, 
missiles  discussed  here  and  in  the  following 
section,  although  operational  at  the  time  of  the 
preparation  of  this  text,  may  be  obsolete  by  the 
time  of  reading. 

Sparrow  III 

Sparrow  III,  which  also  can  be  employed  as 
a  surface-to-air  weapon,  is  the  third  generation 
of  a  family  of  solid-fueled,  supersonic  missiles 


408 


Chapter  18-NAVAL  WEAPONS  SYSTEMS 


134.163 

Figure  18-9.-Pod-mounted  20-mm  aircraft  gun.  Quick-disconnect  barrels  can  be  removed  without  taking  the  gun  out  of 
the  pod.  Quick-release  doors  provide  access  for  loading  the  magazine  and  for  maintenance. 


used  by  carrier  and  land-based  aircraft  for  fleet 
and  continental  air  defense.  It  is  a  radar  homing 
missile  with  a  range  exceeding  6  miles;  its  speed 
is  Mach  2.5;  the  warhead  is  60  pounds  of  high 
explosive;  and  its  weight  is  400  pounds. 
Dimensions  are  12  feet  by  9  .inches.  The 
combined  capabilities  of  the  missile  and  its 
armament  and  control  system  permit  an  attack 
on  an  enemy  aircraft  (figure  18-10)  from  any 
direction  in  all  types  of  weather. 

Sidewinder 

Sidewinder  was  the  Nation's  first  passive 
infrared  homing  AIM.  Infrared  homers  are  heat 
seekers  and  must  be  fired  from  a  tail  aspect  to 


detect  heat  from  jet  exhausts.  Early  models  are 
not  very  effective  in  bad  weather,  and  they  can 
be  launched  only  from  subsonic  aircraft.  Later 
models  can  be  fired  from  Mach  2  aircraft.  (See 
figure  18-11.) 

Characteristics  vary  somewhat  between 
modifications,  but  in  general  the  Sidewinder  is 
about  9  feet  long  by  5  inches  in  diameter, 
weighs  from  160  to  210  pounds,  has  a  speed  of 
Mach  2.5,  and  has  a  range  of  approximately  2 
miles. 

Phoenix 

The  Phoenix  AIM-54  (figure  18-12)  is 
utilized  with  the  F-14  Tomcat  aircraft.  The 


3.111 


Figure  18-11. -An  F-4  aircraft  with  its  hardware  mix  of  four  Sparrow  III  (under  fuselage)  and  four  Sidewinder  missiles. 


410 


Chapter  18-NAVAL  WEAPONS  SYSTEMS 


134.204 


Figure  18-12.-The  Phoenix  AIM-54  air  intercept  missile. 


missile  is  approximately  156  inches  long  and  15 
inches  in  diameter.  It  weighs  1 000  pounds  and 
employs  a  single-stage  solid-propellant  motor. 
The  Phoenix  has  a  multiple  missile  tracking  and 
launch  capability— the  interceptor  aircraft  can  be 
armed  with  six  Phoenix  missiles  which  can  be 
launched  from  the  aircraft  at  six  separate  targets 
in  rapid  sequence.  The  missile  is  designed  to 
operate  in  an  electronic  countermeasures 
environment  where  its  multiple  guidance  phases 
and  multiple  control  frequencies  make  it 
effective  against  all  predicted  ECM  techniques. 
Much  of  the  detailed  information  on  the 
Phoenix  is  classified  and,  therefore,  will  not  be 
covered  in  this  manual. 

AIR-TO-GROUND  MISSILES 
(AGMs) 

The  AGMs  discussed  below  are  operational 
at  the  time  of  this  writing. 

Shrike 

The  Shrike  AGM-45  is  an  antiradiation 
missile  (ARM)  weapon  system  designed  to 
destroy  or  neutralize  enemy  radars.  It  is 
compatible  with  all  currently  operational  Navy 


attack  aircraft.  Shrike  is  extremely  easy  to 
handle  and  requires  only  a  3-minute  shipboard 
checkout  procedure. 

Standard  ARM 

The  AGM-78  series  of  the  standard  ARM  is  a 
supersonic,  air-launched  guided  missile  that  is 
employed  against  surface  targets  which  radiate 
electromagnetic  energy.  The  missile  employs  a 
passive-homing  guidance  system  to  develop 
guidance  intelligence  from  the  energy  radiated 
by  the  target.  The  missile  control  system  is  used 
in  the  guidance  intelligence  in  conjunction  with 
the  information  from  missile  instruments  and 
prelaunch  instructions  from  the  aircraft  to 
control  defections  of  four  aerodynamic  control 
surfaces.  The  control  surface  defections  steer  the 
missile  on  an  optimum  course  to  target 
intercept. 

Walleye 

The  Mk  1  Mod  0  Walleye  (figure  18-13), 
although  not  classified  as  a  guided  missile,  is 
briefly  discussed  in  this  chapter  as  it  contains  a 
guidance  system  and  externally  mounted  control 
surfaces.  The  weapon  itself  contains  no 


411 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


221.47 


Figure  18-13.— The  Walleye  guided  weapon. 


propulsion  system  and  is  launched  as  a 
free-falling  bomb.  A  closed-circuit  television 
system  in  the  nose  of  the  weapon  provides  a 
picture  of  the  target  area  and  displays  this 
information  on  the  aircraft  radar  indicator.  This 
projected  picture  assists  the  pilot  in  alignment 
and  lock-on  of  the  weapon  on  a  selected  target 
within  the  area.  After  launch,  the  weapon  is 
self-controlled  and  guided  by  an  internal 
automatic  tracking  system. 

The  Walleye  weapon  is  approximately  136 
inches  in  length,  15  inches  in  diameter,  and 
weighs  1 1 00  pounds. 

Condor 

The  new  Condor  missile  system,  when  it 
becomes  operational,  will  provide  attack  aircraft 
with  a  flexible  capability  to  destroy  tactical 
targets  while  the  aircraft  remains  outside  the 
range  of  enemy  guns  and  most  missile  defenses. 
It  is  expected  to  have  a  range  of  about  40  miles 
and  interchangeable  nuclear  and  conventional 
warheads. 


AIRCRAFT  ROCKETS 

The  Navy  currently  uses  two  air-launched 
rockets:  the  2.75-  and  the  5.0-inch-diameter 
rocket.  The  2.75-inch  rocket  uses  a  variety  of 
warheads,  has  folding  fins,  and  is  nicknamed  the 
Mighty  Mouse  (figure  18-14).  The  5-inch  rocket 
also  uses  a  variety  of  warheads,  incorporates 
either  folding  fins  or  wraparound  fins,  and  is 
called  Zuni  (figure  18-15).  Both  of  these  types 
of  rockets  are  used  either  in  air-to-ground  or 
air-to-air  missions. 

Rocket  motors  currently  used  in  the 
2.75-inch  and  5.0-inch  air-launched  rockets 
employ  solid-propellant  motors.  The 
combination  of  the  warhead,  fuze,  and  motor 
give  the  Mighty  Mouse  a  weight  of 
approximately  20  pounds,  while  the  Zuni  weighs 
approximately  140  pounds. 

Warheads  used  in  these  rockets  include— 

1.  HIGH-EXPLOSIVE  FRAGMENTATION 
(HE-FRAG)  WARHEADS.  These  warheads  are 
designed  to  be  effective  against  personnel  and 


412 


Chapter  18-NAVAL  WEAPONS  SYSTEMS 


lightly  armored  targets.  The  warhead  explosive  is 
detonated  by  a  point  detonating  or  VT  fuze. 
Upon  detonation,  a  large  quantity  of  metal 
fragments  is  accelerated  to  a  high  velocity. 
Target  damage  is  caused  by  impact  of  these 
fragments. 

2.  HIGH-EXPLOSIVE     ANTI-TANK 
(HEAT)     WARHEADS.     Heat     warheads    are 
designed  to  be  effective  against  armored  targets 
such  as  tanks,  bunkers,  armored  vehicles,  etc. 
The  warheads  contain  a  shaped  charge  which, 
when  detonated,  produces  a  high-energy  jet  that 
penetrates  the   armored   targets.  This  warhead 
uses  a  point  detonating  fuze. 

3.  HIGH-EXPLOSIVE  ANTI-TANK/ANTI- 
PERSONNEL (AT/APERS)  WARHEADS.  These 


warheads  combine  the  effectiveness  of  the 
fragmentation  warhead  with  the  HEAT  warhead. 
"4.  HIGH-EXPLOSIVE  GENERAL- 
PURPOSE  (GP)  WARHEADS.  The  GP  warheads 
produce  fragments  and  may  be  fuzed  for 
contact,  proximity,  or  delayed  detonation. 

5.  FLECHETTE    WARHEADS.    Flechette 
warheads  are  designed  to  be  effective  against 
personnel    and   lightly   armored   targets.   These 
warheads    contain    a    large    number    of   small 
arrow-shaped    projectiles.    A    small    explosive 
charge  in  the  warhead  dispenses  the  flechettes 
after  rocket  motor  burnout.  Target  damage  is 
caused  by  impact  of  the  high-velocity  flechettes. 

6.  SMOKE  WARHEADS.  Smoke  warheads 
are    designed   to   produce   a  volume   of  heavy 


2.73  IN.  ROCKET    MOTOR     M*.    iMODi 

CONT  NO  NORO  1255S  LOT  378 


110.98 

Figure  18-14.— A.  Mighty  Mouse  2.75-inch  FFAR  (folding-fin  aircraft  rocket).  B.  Mighty  Mouse  7-round  and  19-round 

(with  nose  cones  removed)  launchers. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


smoke  for  target  marking.  The  warhead  contains 
a  burster  tube  of  explosive  which  bursts  the 
walls  of  the  warhead  and  disperses  the  smoke. 
These  warheads  are  designated  SMOKE, 
followed  by  the  abbreviation  for  the  smoke 
producing  agent  it  contains;  for  example,  WP  for 
white  phosphorus,  or  PWP  for  plasticized  white 
phosphorus. 

7.  FLARE   WARHEADS.    Flare  warheads 
are  designed  to  provide  illumination  for  tactical 
operations.  These  warheads  consist,  basically,  of 
a  delay  action  fuze,  illuminating  candle,  and 
parachute  assembly. 

8.  PRACTICE     WARHEADS.     Practice 
warheads  are  either  dummy  configurations  or 


inert-loaded  service  warheads  in  which  the 
weight  and  placement  of  an  inert  filler  gives  the 
practice  warhead  the  same  ballistic 
characteristics  as  those  of  the  explosive-loaded 
service  warhead. 

Rocket  fuzes  are  usually  classified  by  their 
location  in  the  warhead:  that  is,  nose  fuze  or 
base  fuze.  They  may  be  further  classified  by 
mode  of  operation,  such  as  impact  firing, 
mechanical  time,  acceleration  and  deceleration, 
or  proximity.  All  fuzes  contain  safety/arming 
devices  to  prevent  detonation  during  normal 
transporting,  handling,  and  launching  of  the 
complete  rocket.  Inert  fuzes  are  available  for 
drill  and  display. 


110.100 


Figure  18-15.-A.  Zuni  5-inch  HVAR  (high-velocity  aircraft  rocket).  B.  Zuni  rockets  pod-mounted  in  groups  of  four. 


414 


Chapter  18-NAVAL  WEAPONS  SYSTEMS 


AIRCRAFT  BOMBS 

Conventional  aircraft  bombs  are  designed  for 
release  over  enemy  targets  to  reduce  and 
neutralize  their  war  potential  by  destructive 
explosion,  fire,  or  gases.  The  efficient 
destruction  of  various  types  of  targets  requires 
bombs  that  vary  widely  in  size,  construction, 
content,  and  purpose. 

Aircraft  bombs  are  classified  according  to 
filler  (payload)  as  follows: 

1 .  High-explosive  (HE) 

2.  Fire 

3.  Drill 

4.  Practice 

5.  Chemical 

High-explosive  bombs  are  in  turn  classified 
according  to  use  as— 

1 .  General-purpose  (GP) 

2.  Low-drag  general-purpose 

3.  Semi-armor-piercing  (SAP) 

4.  Fragmentation  (Frag) 

5.  Aircraft  depth  (AD) 

Bomb  construction  varies  with  the  type  of 
bomb  and  the  amount  of  explosive  it  contains. 
Its  effectiveness  often  depends  on  the  ability  to 
penetrate  an  armored  target  (e.g.,  deck  armor  of 
a  cruiser)  before  detonation.  This  type  of  bomb 
must  have  a  thick,  heavy  case  and  a  consequent 
reduction  in  explosive-carrying  capacity.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  occasions  when 
penetration  is  relatively  unimportant  because 
the  bomb  need  merely  be  dropped  close  to  its 
target,  just  as  an  AAW  projectile  armed  with  a 
VT  fuze  need  not  score  a  direct  hit  to  cause 
damage.  An  example  of  this  type  of  bomb  is  one 
dropped  on  a  cluster  or  row  of  buildings  to 
destroy  them  by  blast  effect.  A  bomb  for  such 
purposes  has  thin  walls  that  allow  room  for  a 
large  load  of  explosive.  The  percentage  of  filler 
weight  compared  to  total  bomb  weight  is  known 
as  the  loading  factor.  If  a  1000-pound  bomb 


contains   300   pounds    of   explosive,    it  has  a 
loading  factor  of  30%. 

Figure  18-16  shows  relative  sizes  of  several 
bombs  discussed  in  this  section.  Figure  18-17  is 
a  cutaway  view  of  a  high-explosive  bomb 
assembled  and  ready  for  loading. 

GP  Bombs 

General-purpose  bombs  are  employed  in  the 
majority  of  bombing  operations.  The  GP  bomb 
cases  are  relatively  light,  the  explosive  filler 
making  up  about  50%  of  bomb  weight.  Bombs 
range  in  size  from  100  pounds  to  nearly  1  ton. 

Low-Drag  GP  Bombs 

Streamlined  low-drag  GP  bombs  are  designed 
to  increase  aerodynamic  performance  and 
bombing  accuracy  when  used  with  high-speed 
aircraft.  The  majority  of  new  bombs  are  of  this 
type;  all  are  VT  fuzed.  They  have  thicker 
sidewalls  and  nose  sections  than  standard  GP 
bombs.  Low-drag  GPs  are  manufactured  in  four 
sizes  weighing  from  260  to  1970  pounds. 
Loading  factors  vary  from  40%  to  about  48%. 

SAP  Bombs 

A  semi-armor-piercing  bomb  has  a  somewhat 
thicker  case  with  a  correspondingly  smaller 
amount  of  filler  (loading  factor  is  30%)  than  the 
GP  bomb.  The  thicker  body  gives  greater 
penetration  than  a  GP  of  comparable  weight. 
The  bomb  weighs  1042  pounds. 

Frag  Bombs 

Fragmentation  bombs,  fuzed  to  explode 
before  penetration,  contain  very  little  filler,  they 
cause  destruction  mainly  by  spraying  the 
surrounding  area  with  hundreds  of  case 
fragments.  They  are  designed  for  the  destruction 
or  disablement  of  personnel  and  light  targets 
such  as  motor  vehicles  and  ground  aircraft. 

Frag  bombs  range  in  sizes  from  4  to  260 
pounds.  Smaller  bombs  usually  are  dropped  in 
clusters. 


415 


F.  DEPTH  BOMB  -  350  LB 

G.  GP  BOMB  -  500  LB. 
H.    GP  BOMB  -  1000  LB 

SAP  BOMB  -  1000  LB 
FIRE  BOMB  -  760  LB. 
GP  BOMB  -  2000  LB. 


A.  FRAGMENTATION  BOMB  -  20  LB. 

(for  cluster) 

B.  FRAGMENTATION  BOMB  -  23  LB. 
GP  BOMB  -  100  LB. 

GP  BOMB  -  250  LB. 


E.   CHEMICAL  BOMB  -  115  LB. 


L.    LOW- DRAG  GP  BOMB  -  1000  LB. 


3.119 


Figure  18-16.— Comparative  sizes  of  some  conventional  bombs. 


AD  Bombs 

Although  the  aircraft  depth  bomb  is 
employed  mainly  against  underwater  targets 
(armed  to  explode  at  a  preset  depth),  it  has  a 
secondary  use  as  a  demolition  (impact)  bomb. 
The  AD  bomb  has  a  flat  nose  to  prevent  ricochet 
when  dropped  into  water.  The  current  AD  bomb 
weighs  350  pounds  and,  because  of  its  light  case, 
has  a  loading  factor  of  70%. 

Fire  Bombs 

All  explosive  bombs  cause  fires  if  conditions 
are  favorable;  a  fire  bomb,  however,  is  loaded 
with  material  that  cannot  be  extinguished  by 
ordinary  means  once  it  starts  to  burn. 

Fire  bombs  are  of  two  types.  Those  designed 
for  use  against  light,  flammable  targets  are 
"scatter"  bombs  that  contain  a  mixture  of  oil  or 
gasoline  and  a  thickening  or  gelling  agent.  This 
filler,  called  oil  gel,  is  ignited  and  scattered 'by  a 


small  black  powder  charge  when  the  bomb 
impacts.  The  gel  is  a  thick  material  somewhat 
like  rubber  cement,  and  it  adheres  to  the  sides  of 
frame  structures,  tents,  and  the  like,  setting 
them  afire. 

The  ignition  of  more  substantial  targets, 
such  as  well-constructed  buildings,  is 
accomplished  by  dropping  an  "intensive"  fire 
bomb  filled  with  a  mixture  of  aluminum  powder 
and  iron  oxide  (thermate  or  thermite),  which 
burns  at  temperatures  approximating  the 
melting  point  of  steel. 

Fire  bombs  range  in  filled  weight  between 
500  and  900  pounds.  They  carry  between  75 
and  112  gallons  of  filler. 

Chemical  Bombs 

Chemical  gas  bombs  (GBs)  are  designed  for 
antipersonnel  attack.  Some  bombs  contain 
casualty  agents  that  incapacitate  or  perhaps  kill 
personnel;  others  contain  harassing  agents  such 


416 


FAHNESTOCK   SAFETY 

CLIPS 
FIN  ASSEMBLY 


FAHNESTOCK  SAFETY 
CLIPS 


SUSPENSION  LUGS  BASE   PLUG 

ARMING   WIRE 


TAIL  FUZE 


ADAPTER  BOOSTER 


AUXILIARY  BOOSTER 


NOSE  FUZE 


FUZE   SEAT  LINER 


53.152 


Figure  18-17.— Conventional  bomb  components. 


as  tear  or  vomiting  gases,  which  are  of  less 
potency  but  force  the  enemy  to  use  masks  and 
otherwise  retard  his  operations.  Bomb  weights 
run  from  115  to  1000  pounds.  Chemical  bombs 
can  be  fuzed  to  explode  on  impact  or  to  provide 
an  aerial  blast. 

Smoke  and 
Incendiary  Bombs 

Smoke  bombs  are  generally  used  for 
screening  purposes  to  conceal  shore  areas  and 
movements  of  ships  and  troops.  Their  cases  are 
of  thin  construction.  The  bomb  shatters  on 
impact,  dispersing  the  smoke  agent  (perhaps 
white  phosphorus)  over  a  circular  area  of  30  to 
50  yards  in  radius.  Atmospheric  oxygen  then 
ignites  the  filler,  causing  it  to  burn  and  produce 
smoke.  An  effective  white  smokescreen  may  last 
up  to  5  minutes.  With  the  100-pound  bomb,  the 
same  body  can  be  used  either  as  a  smoke  or 
incendiary  bomb. 

Incendiary  bombs  are  designed  for  use 
against  combustible  land  targets  where 
numerous  fires  may  cause  serious  damage,  and 


over  water  to  ignite  oil  slicks.  For  land  targets, 
the  incendiary  is,  for  practical  purposes,  the 
same  as  a  fire  bomb  with  perhaps  some 
difference  in  type  of  filler.  When  an  incendiary 
equipped  with  a  sodium  igniter  impacts  in  water, 
it  bursts  and  scatters  burning  gobs  of  gel 
containing  particles  of  sodium.  The  gel  floats 
and  the  sodium  ignites  spontaneously  upon 
contact  with  water,  ensuring  ignition  of 
flammable  oil  slicks  that  may  be  the  result  of 
damaged  ships  or  oil  storage  tanks  in  or  near  a 
harbor.  The  burning  gel  can  produce 
temperatures  up  to  675°C  for  as  long  as  8 
minutes. 

Practice  Bombs 

The  use  of  practice  bombs  makes  it  possible 
to  train  crews  more  economically  and  safely 
than  can  be  done  with  live  bombs.  As  the  name 
indicates,  a  practice  bomb  simulates  the  ballistic 
properties  of  service-type  bombs  for  target 
practice. 

These  bombs  are  available  in  several  versions. 
The  25-pounder  is  designed  for  either  airburst  or 


417 


impact  firing.  The  21 -inch  long,  56-pound  model 
resembles  the  low-drag  GP  in 
configuration-slender  body  and  pointed  nose. 
It  also  has  a  dual  capability  for  airburst  or 
impact  firing.  The  5-pound  bomb,  designed  for 
low-altitude  drops,  is  18.75  inches  in  length  and 
4  inches  in  diameter. 

Full-scale  practice  bombs  have 
approximately  the  same  dimensions  as  currently 
used  GPs.  They  are  shipped  empty  and  before 
use  are  filled  with  wet  sand  or  water,  depending 
on  the  type  of  weapon  simulated.  When  filled, 
they  compare  in  weight  with  service  bombs  of 
equivalent  type. 

AIR-LAUNCHED  TORPEDOES 

Aircraft-launched  torpedoes  are 
acoustic-homing  antisubmarine  weapons.  They 
are  parachute  retarded  and  powered  by 
self-contained  propulsion  systems. 

Currently,  there  are  two  types  of  aircraft 
torpedoes  operational,  Mks  44  and  46.  They 
may  be  mounted  externally  or  internally.  Mk  44 
is  8,5  feet  long,  has  a  12.75-inch  diameter,  and 
weighs  433  pounds,  varying  with  modification. 

AIRCRAFT  MINES 

An  important  advantage  of  aircraft 
minelaying  is  that  aircraft  can  drop  mines  into 
enemy-controlled  harbors  and  coastal  waters 
that  cannot  be  mined  by  other  means.  A  second 
advantage  is  that  they  can  replenish  a  minefield 
without  danger  from  previously  laid  mines. 

Most  aircraft  mining  is  done  at  night,  drops 
being  controlled  visually  or  by  radar  from  low 
altitudes.  Total  secrecy  is,  of  course,  out  of  the 
question;  but  daylight  mining  would  simplify 
the  enemy's  defensive  and  sweeping  operations. 

Most  aircraft  mines  are  parachute  retarded, 
resulting  in  a  trajectory  differing  from  that  of  a 
bomb.  The  mine  falls  more  slowly  and,  when 
dropped  at  high  altitudes,  its  drift  due  to  wind 
velocity  must  be  taken  into  account  in  arriving 
at  the  drop  point.  To  ensure  opening  of  the 
parachute  and  proper  water-entry  velocity  of  the 
mine,  recommended  aircraft  planting  altitude  is 
not  less  than  200  feet. 

In  configuration,  most  air-launched  mines 
are  similar  to  aircraft  bombs,  i.e.,  cylindrical  in 


shape  with  a  tapered  tail  section.  Firing 
mechanisms  vary  between  both  marks  and 
modifications. 

Because  of  the  number  of  operational  mines, 
this  discussion  will  not  take  up  any  particular 
mine. 

The  following  aircraft  mines  are  operational: 
Mk  25,  52,  53,  55,  and  56.  Most  of  these  also 
have  modified  versions.  In  general,  they  are  6  or 
7  feet  in  length  and  have  diameters  of  1 8  to  24 
inches.  Weight  of  a  mine  usually  is  somewhere 
between  1000  and  2000  pounds,  and  all  carry  a 
high-explosive  filler.  All  mines  are  bottom  laid 
except  Mks  53  and  56,  which  are  moored.  Mks 
53  and  56  are  sweep  obstructors,  designed  to 
sever  sweep  wires  by  explosion  upon  contact  of 
the  wire  with  the  mine. 

NUCLEAR  WEAPONS 

The  United  States  has  pursued  a  policy  of 
making  the  fewest  number  of  nuclear  weapons 
cover  as  wide  a  range  of  military  applications  as 
possible.  This  capability  is  achieved  by  planned 
interchangeability.  By  use  of  adaptational  kits, 
nuclear  warheads  can  be  employed  with  rockets, 
torpedoes,  missiles,  and  depth  bombs.  It  has 
been  noted  previously,  for  example,  that  several 
Navy  weapons  (ASROC,  for  instance)  have  dual 
conventional/nuclear  capability. 

The  primary  air-launched  nuclear  weapon  is, 
of  course,  the  nuclear  bomb,  of  which  little  can 
be  said  regarding  specific  characteristics. 

Major  operational  components  and  nuclear 
components  contained  in  a  basic  assembly  are 
considered  part  of  the  bomb.  A  complete 
stock-piled  weapon,  however,  may  consist  of 
more  than  one  package.  The  reason  is  that 
additional  assemblies  such  as  fuze,  firing  set, 
radar,  and  power  supply  may  be  required  to 
constitute  the  complete  nuclear  weapon. 

Because  of  the  large  blast  damage  of  nuclear 
bombs,  the  deploying  aircraft  crew  must  be 
protected  once  a  bomb  is  dropped.  One  way  to 
accomplish  this  might  be  to  insert  a  timing 
mechanism  in  the  bomb  to  retard  detonation  to 
provide  a  safe  separation  time.  A  second  method 
is  to  slow  the  bomb  by  parachute  (retarded 
free-fall  bomb).  Either  method  allows  the 
aircraft  to  reach  a  point  of  safety  before  weapon 
detonation. 


418 


CHAPTER  19 


STRIKING  FORCE 


A  strike  is  an  attack  that  is  intended  to 
inflict  damage  to,  seize,  or  destroy  an  objective. 
A  striking  force  is  a  force  composed  of 
appropriate  units  necessary  to -conduct  strike, 
attack,  or  assault  operations. 

The  mobility  and  versatile  power  of  naval 
striking  forces  make  them  ideal  instruments  for 
enforcing  national  military  policy.  In  peacetime, 
when  unsettled  world  conditions  require 
readiness  for  the  instant  application  of  force,  the 
existence  of  a  naval  striking  force  may  serve  as  a 
stabilizing  influence  to  inhibit  the  outbreak  of 
hostilities. 

If  hostilities  should  occur  in  spite  of 
attempts  to  settle  international  disputes  by 
other  means,  the  carrier  striking  force  is 
available  immediately  for  the  prompt  and 
decisive  action  that  may  be  essential  for  the 
accomplishment  of  national  objectives. 

Mobility,  one  of  the  greatest  assets  of  naval 
striking  forces,  makes  surprise  attacks  possible 
from  any  point  on  the  periphery  of  an  enemy 
land  area  bounded  by  navigable  waters.  The 
versatility  of  a  striking  force  permits  the  use  of  a 
wide  variety  of  weapons  systems  from  either 
great  distances  or  from  close-in. 

Types  of  task  forces  organized  primarily  for 
striking  force  operations  are  carrier,  surface,  and 
submarine  striking  forces.  These  forces  may 
operate  independently  or  together,  as  needed. 

This  chapter  deals  mainly  with  the  carrier 
striking  force. 


CARRIER  STRIKING  FORCES 

As  developed  in  World  War  II,  the  fast 
carrier  task  force  represented  a  revolution  in 
naval  warfare.  World  War  II  naval  warfare  was 


unlike  that  of  World  War  I  and  wars  preceding. 
The  carrier  task  force  was  designed  as  a  naval 
striking  force  which  could  gain  and  hold 
command  of  vital  sea  areas. 

A  new  pattern  of  sea  war  was  set  on 
7  December  1941,  when  the  Japanese  used 
carrier-borne  aircraft  for  their  successful  attack 
on  our  battleship  force  at  Pearl  Harbor.  That 
assault  graphically  demonstrated  the  possibilities 
of  carrier  warfare.  It  also  placed  emphasis  on  the 
carrier  as  the  new  backbone  of  the  U.S.  Fleet; 
the  attack  immobilized  our  Pacific  battleship 
force  and,  in  terms  of  striking  power,  we  had 
nothing  left  in  the  Pacific  but  carriers  and 
cruisers. 

Forced  to  the  defensive  after  Pearl  Harbor, 
the  Navy  nevertheless  maintained  the  offensive 
spirit  by  ingenious  and  daring  use  of  its  few 
carriers  and  supporting  ships.  These  ships,  which 
had  to  be  spread  thin,  were  grouped  in  task 
forces.  The  general  notion  of  the  naval  task 
force  was  an  old  and  familiar  one:  a  group  of 
ships  assembled  to  do  a  specific  job  and 
possessing  the  fire  power,  speed,  and  defensive 
characteristics  estimated  as  essential  for  that  job. 

At  first,  the  carrier  task  force  was  made  up 
of  1  or  2  carriers,  2  or  more  heavy  cruisers,  and 
a  small  screen  of  destroyers. 

When  the  task  force  under  Admiral  W.  F. 
Halsey  raided  Wake  Island  late  in  February 
1942,  the  carrier  Enterprise,  2  cruisers,  and  7 
destroyers  were  employed.  Early  raids  on  the 
Gilbert  and  Marshall  Islands  were  made  with  2 
carriers,  Enterprise  and  Yorktown,  supported  by 
5  cruisers  and  10  destroyers. 

At  best,  such  a  force  had  175  fighter  and 
attack  aircraft.  The  task  forces  could  take  no 
reckless  chances  of  encountering  the  Japanese 
fleet.  They  therefore  made  hit-and-run  raids  on 


419 


the  outposts  of  Japanese  power  and  a  single 
defiant  gesture  against  Tokyo  with  16  B-25s 
from  the  Hornet.  Harassing  raids  and 
long-distance  jousting  with  the  enemy's  carrier 
forces  were  the  only  expedients  of  the  fleet  in 
that  period  when  we  had  no  heavy,  armored, 
gunfiring  ships.  Yet  those  harassing  operations 
on  the  rim  of  an  area  under  Japanese  control 
were  enough  to  slow  the  enemy's  advance 
toward  New  Caledonia,  Australia,  and  Hawaii. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE 
FAST  CARRIER  TASK  FORCE 

As  the  United  States  Fleet  as  a  whole  grew 
in  wartime,  the  fast  carrier  task  force  became  an 
increasingly  powerful  weapon.  New  construction 
sent  a  steadily  growing  stream  of  carriers  to  the 
fleets.  Two  new  types  of  fast  carriers  became 
available:  the  light  carrier,  of  the  Independence 
class,  on  a  cruiser  hull,  and  the  larger  Essex  class. 
Both  made  in  excess  of  30  knots,  and  the  term 
"fast  carrier  task  force"  was  used  to  emphasize 
the  speed  of  the  force,  in  contrast  to  the  more 
numerous  but  slower  escort  carriers,  used  for 
convoy  work,  for  the  close  support  of 
amphibious  landings,  and  for  ferrying 
operations. 

New  battleships  were  added  as  they  became 
available.  South  Dakota  and  two  other  ships  of 
her  class,  Indiana  and  Massachusetts,  were  in 
commission  by  the  summer  of  1942.  Although 
these  ships  could  not  match  the  top  speed  of  the 
fast  carriers,  they  were  fast  enough  to  fit  into 
the  fast  carrier  task  force  without  changing  its 
essential  formation  and  protective 
characteristics.  Then  came  the  Iowa-class 
battleships  with  ample  speed  for  the  mighty  new 
fleet  being  created. 

From  this  combination,  with  additional 
cruisers  and  destroyers,  there  emerged  a  swift, 
compact  striking  force,  retaining  all  the 
advantages  of  speed,  mobility,  and  surprise,  and 
yet  possessing  the  necessary  firepower  and 
protective  armor  to  meet  the  enemy  forces. 

By  1 945  the  fast  carrier  task  force  was  made 
up  of  up  to  16  carriers,  6  to  8  fast  battleships,  a 
dozen  cruisers,  and  75  destroyers. 


Slower  ships  such  as  old  battleships  and 
cruisers  were  assigned  to  the  amphibious  forces, 
where  the  tactical  speed  was  determined  by  that 
of  transports  and  other  amphibious  types. 

With  1 6  carriers,  the  fast  carrier  task  force 
normally  had  more  than  1000  operational 
aircraft,  with  pilots  and  aircrews,  repair 
facilities,  and  personnel  for  maintenance.  Each 
carrier  was  an  airbase  afloat,  capable  of 
extensive  operations  for  long  periods  of  time. 

Most  ships  of  the  carrier  task  force  were 
conventional  gun-firing  ships-battleships, 
cruisers,  and  destroyers.  The  battleships,  ensured 
offensive  strength  to  deal  with  a  hostile  surface 
fleet  which  might  be  encountered,  and  also 
contributed  very  important  antiaircraft 
protection,  mounting  a  large  number  of  20-mm, 
40-mm,  and  5-inch  guns.  Battleship  aircraft, 
along  with  those  of  the  cruisers,  provided  a 
valuable  seaplane  rescue  service  in  addition  to 
their  normal  duty  of  controlling  fire  during 
shore  bombardment  or  surface  action.  Cruiser 
forces  added  materially  to  the  antiaircraft 
protection  of  the  carriers,  and  they  participated 
along  with  battleships  and  destroyers  in 
bombardment  missions. 

The  destroyers,  steaming  on  the  perimeter  of 
task  group  formations,  were  valuable  in 
countless  ways,  furnishing  antisubmarine 
protection  for  the  force  as  a  whole,  detecting 
and  detonating  floating  mines,  providing 
antiaircraft  fire,  rescuing  pilots,  picking  up 
survivors  from  damaged  ships,  and  acting  as 
couriers  to  transfer  mail  and  personnel. 

A  fast  carrier  task  force  with  its  deployed 
task  groups  sometimes  covered  more  than  75 
miles  of  ocean. 

TASK  GROUPS 

Normally,  the  fast  carrier  task  force,  as  it 
operated  in  World  War  II,  was  deployed  in  three 
to  five  task  groups,  for  so  large  a  force  could  not 
be  maneuvered  easily  as  a  tactical  unit.  Each 
carrier  task  group  was  commanded  by  a  rear 
admiral.  From  his  flagship  were  sent  the  signals 
controlling  the  movements  of  all  ships  in  that 
group.  A  typical  fast  carrier  task  group  in  the 
latter  stages  of  the  war  consisted  of  4  to  5 


420 


Chapter  19-STRIKING  FORCES 


carriers,  3  battleships,  3  to  7  cruisers,  and  about 
24  destroyers.  These  figures  are  merely 
illustrative,  as  the  number  of  ships  frequently 
changed. 

LOGISTIC  SUPPORT 

United  States  strategy  in  employing  fast 
carrier  task  forces  requires  that  they  steam 
quickly  from  one  place  to  another.  Returning  to 
forward  bases  to  replenish  takes  valuable  time. 


Therefore,  the  service  forces— oilers,  ammunition 
and  supply  ships,  and  their  escorts— supply  the 
needs  of  the  task  forces.  Service  forces  are 
considered  as  task  groups,  and  while  not  actually 
a  part  of  the  combatant  forces,  they  are  under 
the  operational  control  of  task  force 
commanders.  Plodding  between  the  carrier  force 
and  various  bases,  these  ships  bring  to 
rendezvous  points  needed  supplies  of  fuel  and 
diesel  oil,  gasoline,  aircraft  fuel,  dry  provisions, 
ammunition,  many  miscellaneous  items,  and 


134.98 


Figure  19-1.— One  mission  of  the  carrier  task  force  is  to  make  pre-invasion  strikes  against  enemy  airfields. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


mail.    These  service  forces  enable  the  Navy's 
ships  to  replenish  most  of  its  needs  at  sea. 

Fueling  at  sea  was  a  familiar  procedure  long 
before  World  War  II;  the  processes  of 
provisioning  ships  at  sea  and  of  transferring 
ammunition  and  missiles  has  since  then 
improved  steadily.  Present-day  at-sea  logistical 
support  has  reached  the  point  where  a  force  can 
remain  at  sea  almost  continuously. 

AMPHIBIOUS  SUPPORT 

The  carrier  task  force  plays  an  important 
role  in  the  support  of '  amphibious  operations 
(see  chapter  23). 

Before  an  amphibious  landing  on  a  hostile 
beach,  perhaps  a  week  or  two  in  advance, 


carriers  send  aircraft  to  strike  enemy  airfields 
and  other  designated  targets  (figure  19-1)  that 
are  within  effective  radius  of  the  amphibious 
objective  area.  They  sometimes  are  directed  to 
strike  at  enemy  shipping  in  harbors  for  about 
500  miles  around  the  objectives  designated  for 
assault. 

The  carriers  also  serve  as  a  screen  for  ships  of 
the  amphibious  forces.  En  route  they  provide  air 
and  surface  protection  for  amphibious  shipping. 

PRESENT-DAY  STRIKING 
FORCES 

As  developed  in  World  War  II,  the  carrier 
task  force  is  tasked  to  perform  several 


Figure  19-2.— Task  force  steaming  formation  with  two  carriers,  a  cruiser,  and  circular  destroyer  screen. 


110.114 


422 


Chapter   iy-Sl  HIKING  FORCES 


well-defined  missions.  One  obvious  mission  is  to 
seek  out  and  destroy  the  enemy's  air  power. 
Another  is  to  make  pre-invasion  strikes  against 
enemy  airborne  aircraft  and  enemy  airfields  to 
neutralize  enemy  air  power  in  the  amphibious 
objective  area.  A  third  mission  is  to  provide 
close  air  support  during  an  amphibious  landing; 
and  a  fourth,  to  make  diversionary  strikes 
against  remote  enemy  positions,  feinting  to  draw 
enemy  strength  away  from  the  true  objective  of 
our  operations.  Still  another  mission,  primarily 
involving  the  gun-firing  ships,  is  to  provide 
general  cover  for  the  amphibious  force  against 
enemy  surface  units. 

In  a  broader  sense,  the  mission  of  a  carrier 
task  force  is  much  like  that  of  any  major  fleet  in 
naval  history:  to  establish  and  maintain 
command  of  the  seas.  Although  it  employs 
aircraft  as  its  primary  offensive  weapon,  the 
carrier  task  force  is  a  balanced  naval  force 
(figure  19-2),  equipped  to  assert  command  of 
the  seas.  Its  extensive  and  successful  use  in  the 


prosecution  of  specific  offensive  thrusts  with 
amphibious  forces  should  never  obscure  its 
broader  function— to  ensure  command  of  sea 
communications. 

Striking  forces  are  task  forces  formed 
primarily  to  conduct  strikes,  sweeps,  or  raids.  A 
strike  is  any  naval  operation  which  is  planned  to 
produce  devastating  damage  to  an  objective.  A 
series  of  strikes  in  combination  against  several 
enemy  targets  in  a  certain  area  is  termed  a 
sweep.  A  raid  is  a  sudden  attack,  usually  by  a 
small  force  having  no  intention  of  holding  the 
territory  invaded. 

The  basic  tactical  component  of  a  carrier 
task  force  is  the  task  group,  composed  usually  of 
one  carrier  along  with  necessary  supporting 
ships,  as  in  figure  19-3.  The  commander  of  a 
task  force  includes  in  his  operation  orders 
breakdowns  of  the  groups  into  units  and  further 
into  elements,  each  with  a  particular  mission  or 
type  of  mission.  Hence,  a  particular  ship  might 
be  included  in  two  or  more  of  the  groups,  units, 


134.99 

Figure  19-3.— The  basic  tactical  component  of  a  carrier  task  force  is  the  task  group,  composed  usually  of  one  carrier 

along  with  necessary  supporting  ships. 


423 


or  elements.  The  commander  thus  attempts  to 
provide  for  all  probable  tactical  situations. 

A  World  War  II  task  group,  depending  on  the 
situation,  usually  was  formed  into  a  more  or  less 
compact  formation  with  several  carriers  at  the 
heart.  Screening  battleships,  cruisers,  and 
destroyers  were  arranged  around  the  carriers  in 
that  order,  i.e.,  in  a  descending  order  of 
firepower.  This  provided  the  carriers  with 
maximum  protection  against  aircraft, 
submarines,  and  gunfire. 

Compositions  as  well  as  formations  of  task 
forces  and  groups  have  changed.  The  battleship 
has  disappeared  from  the  scene.  Guided-missile 
ships,  radar  picket  ships  and  submarines,  and 
airborne  early  warning  (AEW)  aircraft  have  been 
added.  Nothing  remains  of  the  precise  circular 
formations  of  World  War  II.  Instead,  ships  are 
now  positioned  in  spread  formation  over  vast 
expanses.  This  tactic  makes  it  more  difficult  for 
an  enemy  observing  on  a  radarscope  the 
arrangement  of  a  formation  to  determine  which 
ship  is  the  carrier.  Heavy  ships  of  the  screen 
sometimes  remain  relatively  close  to  the  carrier, 
but  relative  distances  of  destroyers  may  be  much 
greater.  Formerly  a  destroyer's  primary  job  was 
screening  against  submarines;  to  this  has  been 
added  the  equally  important  task  of  acting  as 
picket  ship.  Picket  ships,  picket  submarines,  and 
AEW  aircraft  are  deployed  in  the  direction  from 
which  an  enemy  might  be  expected  to  launch  an 
attack.  Such  disposition  increases  the  chances  of 
spotting  enemy  activity,  warning  of  which  can 
be  radioed  to  the  task  force,  thus  enabling  it  to 
make  last-minute  preparations  for  defense  and 
counterattack. 

AIR  STRIKES 

An  air  strike  is  an  attempt  by  a  group  of 
planes  to  inflict  damage  on  an  enemy  target. 

Before  an  air  strike  is  made  against  targets 
ashore,  a  plan  of  attack  must  be  considered. 
Pilots  participating  in  the  strike  are  thoroughly 
briefed  on  the  plan.  Included  in  the  briefing 
(figure  19-4)  is  all  known  information  that 
might  contribute  to  the  success  of  the  strike; 


e.g.,  enemy  strength,  location  or  probable 
location  of  the  enemy,  recovery  areas,  weather 
conditions,  location  of  friendly  forces,  and  if 
feasible,  target  priorities.  Methods  of  delivering 
the  attacks  and  the  weapons  selected  depend, 
among  many  other  things,  on  whether  it  is  to  be 
a  day  or  night  attack  and  on  the  weather 
conditions  at  the  target(s). 

For  protection  against  air  attack,  at  least 
some  fighter  cover  (counter-air  strike  force)  is 
kept  in  readiness  at  all  times  to  defend  the 
carrier  task  force.  Depending  on  the  tactical 
situation,  this  combat  air  patrol  (CAP)  is  either 
airborne  on  station  or  on  the  catapults  in 
readiness  for  takeoff.  Size  of  the  CAP  is 
prescribed  by  the  officer  in  tactical  command  in 
his  operation  order,  although  the  number  of 
aircraft  assigned  may  be  modified  by  him  as  the 
situation  changes.  (More  on  defense  against  air 
attack  in  the  chapter  on  antiair  warfare.) 

SURFACE  STRIKING  FORCES 

Each  task  force  or  group  commander 
includes  in  his  operation  orders  provision  for 
surface  striking  forces  which  can  be  detached  to 
perform  certain  missions.  He  prepares  a  battle 
plan  for  these  forces  on  the  supposition  that 
surface  action  will  materialize.  However,  such  a 
force  generally  is  used  only  when  the  enemy 
surface  threat  is  a  primary  one  or  when  other 
means  cannot  accomplish  effectively  the  desired 
result,  such  as  when  adverse  weather  conditions 
make  air  operations  uncertain.  And,  there  may 
arise  special  situations  when  a  surface  striking 
force  will  be  detached,  for  example,  to  destroy 
isolated  or  crippled  enemy  surface  units, 
conduct  shore  bombardment,  or  for  surface 
scouting  missions.  Normally,  though,  aircraft  are 
the  principal  agents  for  tactical  scouting,  and  air 
action  usually  precedes  a  surface  engagement  or 
occurs  during  the  engagement.  An  air  strike 
before  a  surface  engagement  may  surprise  the 
enemy  and  damage  his  forces  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  surface  action  becomes  a  pursuit  of  the 
disorganized  enemy  forces,  or  it  may  slow  his 
forces  so  that  they  can  be  engaged  with  surface 
fire  or  missiles.  Aircraft  also  can  be  used  for 
spotting  gunfire  and  ship-launched  missiles. 


424 


Chapter  19-STRIKING  FORCES 


134.164 


Figure  19-4.— Air  intelligence  officer  briefing  pilots  prior  to  an  air  strike. 


SURFACE  ACTION 

Tactically,  a  surface  engagement  is  often  a 
series  of  rapid  and  overlapping  transitional 
phases.  Normally,  a  surface  striking  force  or 
group,  initially  in  a  cruising  disposition,  first 
forms  into  an  approach  disposition,  then 
deploys  for  battle,  and  after  the  engagement 
re-forms  for  pursuit  or  mopping-up  operations. 
The  maneuver  of  changing  from  an  approach  or 
cruising  disposition  to  a  battle  disposition  is 
called  deployment.  The  basis  for  deployment 
and  subsequent  action  is  the  battle  plan. 

When  the  battle  plan  is  to  be  executed,  the 
officer  in  tactical  command  (OTC)  signals  his 
battle  order  placing  the  plan  into  effect.  Once 
the  battle  is  joined,  the  OTC  does  not  control 
the  maneuvers  of  the  striking  groups  except  by 


general  plan.  A  battle  formation  is  not  a  precise 
formation;  individual  units,  however,  do  attempt 
to  maintain  approximate  station. 

FIRE  SUPPORT 

Although  often  considered  a  phase  of 
amphibious  operations,  surface  forces  may  be 
called  upon  to  render  gunfire  or  rocket  support 
for  troops  ashore.  During  World  War  II,  this  was 
accomplished  primarily  by  a  force  of  battleships, 
cruisers,  and  destroyers  that  would  lay  down 
several  hours  or  even  days  (near  the  end  of  the 
war)  of  bombardment  in  an  attempt  to  destroy 
as  many  gun  emplacements  or  other 
fortifications  as  possible  before  troops  hit  the 
beaches.  After  the  landings,  ships  remained  to 
provide  assistance  as  tactical  circumstances 


425 


NAVAL  OR1EJN1A11UJN 


134.166 

Figure  19-5.-lmproved  guided  missiles  have  greatly  increased  the  distance  from  which  naval  offensive  power  can 

be  exerted. 


dictated.  In  Korea  and  Vietnam,  fire  support 
missions  generally  followed  the  latter  pattern 
because  landings  were  not  so  heavily  opposed  as 
in  World  War  II. 

CURRENT  CAPABILITIES 

Weapons  and  weapons  systems  developed 
since  World  War  II  have  expanded  the  power  and 
extended  the  range  of  the  striking  force.  In 
addition  to  a  striking  force  built  around  the 


attack  aircraft  carrier,  for  example,  new 
weapons  systems  have  made  possible  the 
creation  of  striking  forces  built  around  other 
types  of  ships  such  as  the  guided-missile  ship, 
submarine  and  proposed  strike  cruiser. 

Improved  guided  missiles  of  increased  range, 
accuracy,  and  destructive  power  (figure  19-5) 
greatly  increase  the  distance  from  which  naval 
offensive  power  may  be  exerted  by 
guided-missile  ships  and  submarines  against 
targets  whose  locations  are  accurately  known  or 
determinable. 


426 


CHAPTER  20 


ANTIAIR  WARFARE 


With  the  introduction  of  the  aircraft  carrier 
into  the  leading  navies  of  the  world  during  the 
1920s  and  early  1930s,  and  the  advancements  in 
military  aviation  during  that  period,  antiair 
warfare  became  an  increasingly  important 
matter  in  the  United  States  Navy.  As  a 
consequence,  antiaircraft  armament  was  greatly 
increased  on  new  construction  combatant-type 
ships.  The  antiaircraft  weapons  of  the  Pensacola 
(CA  24),  commissioned  in  1930,  included  four 
5"/25-caliber  high-altitude  guns  and  eight 
50-caliber  machineguns,  as  opposed  to  the  four 
3-inch  guns  that  comprised  the  AA  battery  of 
the  Maryland  (BB  46),  commissioned  9  years 
earlier.  Dual-purpose  5-inch  guns  were 
introduced  with  the  Farragut  (DD  348)  class 
destroyers  in  1932.  The  St.  Louis  (CL  49)  of 
1939  had  dual-purpose  secondary  batteries  in 
lieu  of  the  low-elevation  mounts  formerly 
carried  on  cruisers  and  battleships.  The  Atlanta 
(CLAA  51)  class  light  cruisers,  ordered  in  1938, 
were  designed  an  antiaircraft  escorts. 

Tragic  experiences  of  the  British  Navy  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  in  northern  waters,  and  the 
sinking  of  the  German  light  cruiser  Konigsberg 
off  Norway  in  1940,  led  to  further  significant 
increases  in  both  heavy  and  light  antiaircraft 
guns  of  the  major  naval  powers.  In  the  United 
States,  where  50-caliber  machineguns  had  been 
the  primary  short-range  aircraft  defense, 
quadruple  1.1 -inch  mounts  were  rushed  into 
production;  by  late  1941,  two  or  three  of  these 
mounts  could  be  found  on  most  of  our  large 
combatants.  Still,  as  the  sands  of  peace  ran  out 
for  the  United  States,  the  Navy  was  found 
lacking  in  its  defenses  against  the  capabilities  of 
airpower. 

During  the  attack  on  Pearl  Harbor,  Japan 
lost  27  of  353  aircraft,  nearly  all  to  fire  from 


ships  in  the  harbor.  Unimpressive  by  itself,  the 
figure  becomes  glaringly  significant  when  the 
concentration  of  American  ships  is  considered 
along  with  the  fact  that  the  attack  was  spread 
out  over  a  period  of  1-1/2  hours.  There  were 
simply  too  few  guns  and  too  little  coordination 
to  provide  an  effective  air  defense,  although, 
admittedly,  much  of  the  fire  control  equipment 
was  under  repair  or  had  been  damaged  early  in 
the  attack.  Three  days  later  the  story  was 
repeated  as  Britain's  Prince  of  Wales— only  6 
months  in  commission— and  Repulse  were  sunk 
at  sea  by  Japanese  aircraft. 

Experience  quickly  showed  the  50-caliber  to 
be  too  light  and  the  1.1 -inch  too  finely 
precisioned  for  use  against  aircraft.  As  a  result, 
single  2Omm  and  quadruple  40-mm  guns  were 
placed  on  a  mass-production  basis.  They  soon 
appeared  on  all  newly  constructed  and 
modernized  ships. 

Radar  had  first  gone  to  sea  in  1937  and,  on 
7  December  1941,  four  of  the  eight  battleships 
in  Pearl  Harbor  had  radar  in  some  form  as  did 
Helena  (CL  50)  and  a  few  other  cruisers.  Within 
the  first  few  months  of  the  war,  virtually  all 
combatant  units  in  the  Pacific  had  been  fitted 
with  the  SC-type  air-search  radar.  Although 
primitive,  the  SC  did  provide  a  significant 
extension  over  visual  detection  ranges.  The  main 
problem  in  the  early  days  of  radar  was  not  so 
much  with  the  equipment,  but  in  convincing 
officers  to  trust  it  and  training  men  to  operate 
it.  Acceptance  of  radar  was  not  complete  until 
introduction  of  the  SG-type  surface-search  radar 
in  1942  which  was  equipped  with  a  plan 
position  indicator  (PPI)  scope.  The  PPI  scope 
made  it  possible  to  obtain  a  clear  tactical 
presentation  directly  from  radar  equipment. 


427 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Early  AAW  doctrine  had  called  for 
individual  guns  to  pick  out  individual  aircraft 
and  take  them  under  fire.  This  technique  was 
impossible  to  coordinate  and  often  led  to  some 
aircraft  not  being  shot  at  until  it  was  too  late. 
The  Coral  Sea  and  Midway  naval  battles  in  May 
and  June  of  1942  pointed  up  the  fact  that  a 
coordinated  air  defense  plan  was  necessary  for 
maximum  protection  of  carriers.  An  early 
example  of  a  coordinated  air  defense  plan  was 
barrage  fire,  in  which  fuzes  of  heavy  caliber  guns 
were  set  to  explode  along  a  fixed  line  so  that,  in 
effect,  the  fire  of  all  the  ships  would  be 
concentrated  in  a  "wall"  of  flak.  Any  aircraft 
that  penetrated  this  barrier  were  taken  in  hand 
by  the  20-mm  and  other  weapons  according  to 
their  proximity. 

By  late  1942,  ships  arriving  in  the  South 
Pacific  were  well-fitted  for  antiaircraft 
operations.  The  battleship  South  Dakota 
(BB  57),  mounting  sixteen  5"/3'8s,  forty-eight 
40-mm,  and  many  more  20-mm  guns, 
single-handedly  accounted  for  26  planes  in  the 
battle  of  Santa  Cruz  in  October  1942.  With 
improved  fire  control,  the  5"/38  became  the 
definitive  AA  weapon;  it  was  made  even  more 
effective  with  the  introduction  of  the  VT  fuze 
(see  below). 

The  practice  of  holding  fighters  on  hand  to 
protect  carriers  had  been  prewar  doctrine,  but  it 
was  not  until  the  PPI  scope  permitted 
coordinated  (directed)  intercepts  that  the 
combat  air  patrol  (CAP)  became  fully  effective. 
(The  CAP  consists  of  carrier-based  aircraft  that 
patrol  assigned  sectors  around  a  task  formation.) 

On  1  January  1943,  Helena  shot  down  a 
Japanese  aircraft  by  using  proximity  fuzed 
shells.  This  kill  was  a  first  for  a  weapon  that  was 
to  destroy  thousands  of  enemy  planes,  yet 
remain  one  of  World  War  IPs  closely  guarded 
secrets.  The  fuze  resulted  from  advances  in 
miniaturization  that  brought  about  a  radio 
transmitter  small  enough  to  fit  in  the  nose  of  a 
shell.  As  noted  in  chapter  18,  when  the 
projectile  passes  close  to  a  target,  reflected 
electronic  pulses  detonate  the  explosive,  making 
it  possible  to  damage  or  down  an  aircraft  even 
though  a  direct  hit  has  not  been  scored. 
Previously,  fuzes  were  preset  to  explode  at  a 


given  time  after  firing,  so  the  new  shells  were 
designated  VT,  for  variable  time,  a  name  they 
retain  today. 

By  the  end  of  1942,  electronic  devices  had 
so  increased  the  information  available  to  unit 
commanders  that  it  became  necessary  to  have  a 
centralized  shipboard  station  in  which  data 
could  be  analyzed  and  put  into  a  form  upon 
which  tactical  decisions  could  be  based.  Called 
the  combat  information  center  (CIC),  this 
station  (figure  20-1)  soon  became  the  nerve 
center  of  any  ship  that  had  it,  and  remains  so. 
Originally,  CIC  was  an  expansion  of  flag  plot  on 
large  ships,  but  it  quickly  became  apparent  that 
destroyers  also  needed  such  an  arrangement.  The 
Fletcher  (DD  445)  class,  just  entering  service, 
had  a  large  commodore's  stateroom;  and  early  in 
1943  the  stateroom  in  one  ship  of  the  class  was 
converted  to  a  (TC.  The  experiment  was  so 
successful  that  her  sister  ships  were  similarly 
fitted,  and  the  CIC  became  an  integral  part  of 
succeeding  destroyer  designs. 

By  1945,  antiair  warfare  doctrine  for  the 
carrier  task  force  was  as  follows: 

The  carriers  operated  in  a  collection  of  task 
groups,  the  combination  of  which  constituted 
the  task  force.  To  maximize  antiaircraft 
protection,  the  two  or  more  carriers  (there  could 
be  as  many  as  1(>)  assigned  to  a  group  were 
surrounded  by  a  screen  of  ships.  The  groups 
operated  in  dispersed,  but  closely  coordinated, 
formations  often  separated  by  15  miles  or  so.  In 
this  way,  each  group  was  able  to  maintain 
effective  ASW  and  AAW  defenses,  while  the 
entire  force  was  sufficiently  spread  out  so  that  it 
could  not  be  knocked  out  by  a  single  attack, 

Because  early  warning  and  supert 
coordination  were  needed  to  combat  Japanese 
suicide  pilots,  the  picket  line  tactic  was  adopted 
Outlying  destroyers  were  stationed,  sometime; 
50  miles  from  the  task  force,  to  detect  ant 
report  on  the  composition  and  disposition  ol 
enemy  aircraft.  Often  bearing  the  brunt  of  th( 
attack,  CIC-equipped  pickets  controlled  assignee 
CAPs  from  their  own  positions. 

Thus,  in  World  War  II,  antiair  warfare  grev 
from  a  haphazard  procedure  to  an  exacting  art 
Electronic  devices  had  given  rise  to  CICs  fillet 
with  glowing  screens  and  plotting  boards  fron 


498 


Chapter  20-ANTIAIR  WARFARE 


59.41 

Figure  20-1.— By  means  of  various  plots  and  status  boards,  personnel  in  CIC  maintain  an  up-to-date,  comprehensive 
picture  of  the  disposition  of  all  friendly  and  enemy  forces.  In  many  ships,  CIC  is  the  battle  station  of  the 
commanding  officer. 


which  the  defense  of  the  force  was  directed, 
generally  long  before  a  visual  contact  was  made. 
With  the  advent  of  the  nuclear  bomb,  safety 
required  dispersion  over  areas  sufficiently  large 
that  an  entire  task  group  could  not  be  crippled 
by  a  single  weapon.  The  concept  of 
concentration  of  fire  now  had  to  be  weighed 
against  protection  of  the  force  and  the  greatly 
increased  aircraft  speeds  against  which  the 
effectiveness  of  gunfire  became  questionable. 
The  logical  solution  was  the  antiaircraft 


missile— a  long-range  weapon  that  could  ensure 
aircraft  kills  with  one  or  two  shots. 

ANTIAIR  WARFARE  TODAY 

Antiair  warfare  includes  all  measures 
designed  to  nullify  or  reduce  the  effectiveness  of 
attack  by  hostile  aircraft  or  guided  missiles. 
Active  AAW  includes  the  use  of  aircraft,  AA 
guns,  missiles,  and  electronic  countermeasures. 
(Electronic  countermeasures  are  employed  to 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


jam  radars,  mask  or  monitor  electronic 
transmissions,  confuse  guidance  systems,  present 
false  targets,  and  the  like.)  Passive 
AAW-measures  other  than  active,  taken  to 
minimize  the  effects  of  hostile  air 
action-involve  elements  such  as  cover, 
concealment,  and  dispersion. 

Ships  and  aircraft  are  joined  in  a  task 
formation  to  accomplish  a  mission  that  has  been 
dictated  by  strategic  necessity.  An  AAW 
formation  is  designed  to  protect  a  carrier,  which 
is  the  offensive  striking  unit  of  a  fast  carrier  task 
force  or  group. 

When  a  strike  is  launched  against  ships  at  sea 
by  an  enemy,  defensive  AAW  operations  may  be 
divided  into  three  phases  occurring  successively 
as  attacking  aircraft  approach  the  force.  The 
first  phase  involves  searching  for,  finding, 
evaluating,  and  reporting  the  enemy  attack 
force.  This  step  is  followed  in  the  second  phase 
by  initial  active  AAW  defense  measures-taken 
while  attacking  aircraft  are  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  force— that  may  include 
electronic  deception,  aircraft  intercepts,  and 
long  range,  surface-to-air,  guided-missile  fire. 
The  third  phase,  during  which  attacking  aircraft 
have  penetrated  near  or  within  the  AA  gun  range 
of  the  main  body  of  ships  being  defended,  is 
close-range  defense  by  gunfire,  short-range 
missiles,  and  evasive  maneuvering. 

Speeds  of  modern  aircraft  and  missiles 
require  that  defensive  measures  be  taken  as  early 
as  possible  and  at  the  greatest  practicable 
distance  from  the  attacking  force.  An  AAW 
operation  therefore  utilizes  distant  early  warning 
aircraft  such  as  the  E-2,  and  surface  picket  ships, 
generally  guided-missile  destroyers.  Depending 
on  the  size  of  the  formation  and  nature  of  the 
threat,  there  may  be  several  sector  antiair 
warfare  coordinators  (SAAWCs)  who  conduct 
operations  in  designated  areas;  SSAWCs  report 
to  the  force  antiair  warfare  coordinator 
(FAAWC)  who  then  coordinates  defenses  over 
the  entire  task  force  area  of  responsibility. 

The  FAAWC  normally  designates  the  extent 
of  the  antiair  warfare  area,  which  encompasses 
the  total  region  to  be  protected  from  enemy  air 
attack.  As  can  be  seen  in  figure  20-2,  the  AAW 
area  in  essence  consists  of  concentric  circles 


drawn  around  the  main  body  of  ships  at 
distances  determined  by  the  nature  of  the 
expected  attack.  The  circles  represent  outer 
perimeters  of  areas  into  which  the  AAW  area  is 
subdivided.  The  surveillance  area,  the  outer  limit 
of  which  corresponds  to  the  perimeter  of  the 
entire  AAW  area,  is  the  region  of  search, 
detection,  and  tracking.  The  destruction  area  is 
the  sector  (within  the  surveillance  area)  in  which 
destruction  or  defeat  of  the  enemy  airborne 
threat  should  occur;  it  is  divided  into  an  air 
intercept  and  long-range  missile  zone, 
medium-range  missile  zone,  and 
gunfire/short-range  missile  zone.  The  vital  area 
contains  the  main  force  of  ships  being  defended. 
The  AAW  area  usually  is  oriented  about  an 
AAW  axis,  or  threat  axis,  which  is  true  bearing 
from  the  vital  area  to  the  most  probable 
direction  of  enemy  attack.  It  is  along  the  AAW 
axis  that  early  warning  aircraft  and  picket  ships 
normally  are  deployed.  A  number  of  factors 
affect  the  choice  of  an  AAW  disposition.  These 
include,  as  examples,  the  submarine  threat, 
available  ships  and  aircraft,  fuel,  amount  of 


A.  PERIMETER  OF  SURVEILLANCE  AREA. 

B.  PERIMETER  OF  DESTRUCTION  AREA; 
PERIMETER  OF  AIR  INTERCEPT  AND 
LONG-RANGE  MISSILE  ZONE. 

C.  PERIMETER  OF  MEDIUM-RANGE  MISSILE 
ZONE. 

D.  PERIMETER  OF  VITAL  AREA. 

E.  PERIMETER  OF  GUNFIRE  AND  SHORT- 
RANGE  MISSILE  ZONE. 


59.42 

Figure    20-2.-The    force    antiair    warfare    coordinator 
determines  the  extent  of  the  AAW  area. 


Chapter  20-ANTIAIR  WARFARE 


protection  required,  and  weather.  Whenever 
possible,  mutual  support  from  nearby  units  is 
obtained  by  designating  overlapping  AAW  areas. 

When  an  aircraft  poses  a  definite  threat,  the 
AAW  coordinator  must  decide  which  weapon  to 
use.  The  first  line  of  defense  is  the  on-station 
CAP.  If  CAP  is  in  the  target  area,  and  relative 
speeds  of  CAP  and  target  indicate  a  possible 
intercept,  the  AAW  coordinator  may  order  CAP 
to  be  vectored  to  the  target,  vectoring  being 
accomplished  by  an  air  controller  in  the  AAW 
unit  (aircraft  or  surface  ship)  that  has  been  given 
CAP  control.  On-station  CAP  aircraft  orbit  at  a 
station  between  the  inner  and  intermediate 
surface  picket  lines,  roughly  30  miles  from  their 
controlling  units. 

We  can  miss  with  CAP  for  several  reasons. 
Patrolling  aircraft  may  be  out  of  position; 
relative  speeds  may  work  against  an  intercept; 
and  conditions  of  poor  visibility  and/or  radar 
reception  may  render  CAP  useless.  When  CAP 
proves  ineffective,  the  AAW  coordinator  may 
employ  long-range  missiles  or  launch  additional 
interceptor  aircraft. 

While  CAP  intercepts  are  being  attempted, 
fire  control  radars  on  missile  ships  are  directed 
to  the  target  by  shipboard  weapons  direction 
systems.  When  a  ship  is  ready  to  engage  a 
target  with  missiles,  the  AAW  coordinator  is 
notified  and  he  may  order  missile  launch(es).  If 
more  than  one  ship  is  prepared  to  engage  by 
missiles,  the  AAW  coordinator  must  decide 
which  ship,  or  ships,  will  take  a  target  under  fire, 
considering,  among  other  things,  which  ship  is  in 
best  position  for  a  kill  and  what  type  and 
number  of  missiles  it  has  aboard. 

Missile  ships  may  be  stationed  in  the 
extended  (outer),  intermediate,  or  inner  screen 
position,  but  they  should  remain  either  far 
enough  in  or  out  to  allow  CAP  to  operate  freely. 
A  missile  ship  usually  is  free  to  fire  on  any  target 
that  enters  its  envelope,  and  a  well-defined 
crossover  point  must  be  designated.  A  crossover 
point  is  the  range  at  which  a  target  ceases  to  be 
an  air  intercept  target  and  becomes  a 
surface-to-air  missile  target.  Air  controllers  must 
be  careful  to  keep  CAP  from  crossing  this  point 
lest  they  be  destroyed  by  friendly  fire. 


In  the  event  that  an  attack  cannot  be 
stopped  by  CAP  or  long-range  missiles,  the  AAW 
coordinator  may  direct  the  carrier(s)  to  launch 
additional  interceptor  aircraft.  Interceptors 
remain  ready  for  launch  in  specified  conditions 
of  readiness  as  follows: 

•  Condition  One  CAP:  Pilots  strapped  in 
cockpits;  catapult  and  deck  crews  at  stations;  all 
leads  to  engines  plugged,  ready  for  immediate 
ignition.  Reaction  time  is  limited  only  to  the 
time  required  to  turn  the  carrier  into  the  wind. 

•  Condition  Two  CAP:  Aircraft  ready  to 
start;   pilots   and    deck/catapult    crews  nearby 
rather  than  on  station. 

•  Condition  Three  CAP:  Demands  launch 
capability  within  15  minutes.  Pilots  are  in  ready 
rooms,  crews  relaxing  near  stations. 

•  Condition  Four  CAP:  Pilots  and  crews 
on  30  minutes  notice. 

•  Condition  Five  CAP:  Pilots  and  crews 
free  until  called. 

Fighter  aircraft  are  classified  as  interceptors, 
day  fighters,  and  all-weather  fighters. 
Interceptors  usually  are  high-speed,  short-range 
aircraft  designed  mainly  to  intercept  targets. 

Day  fighters,  designed  to  engage  enemy 
aircraft  under  visual  flight  conditions,  also 
perform  interception  and  area  patrol  missions. 
All-weather  fighters— larger,  heavier,  and  with 
greater  endurance  than  other  fighters— are 
capable  of  destroying  enemy  aircraft  under  any 
conditions  of  weather  or  visibility. 

Although  conventional  gunfire  can  be 
effective  in  AAW,  high-speed  jet  aircraft  have 
made  defense  by  gunfire  a  last-ditch  effort.  At 
600  miles  per  hour,  an  attacking  aircraft  is 
within  effective  range  of  a  5-inch  gun  for  less 
than  a  minute  before  the  plane  reaches  its  drop 
point.  This  speed  allows  at  best  about  100 
rounds  of  gunfire  from  one  ship;  in  World  War  II 
we  expended  an  average  of  3000  rounds  of  all 
types  to  down  each  propeller-driven  aircraft. 

Defense  against  an  air  attack  demands  a  high 
degree  of  coordination  between  widely  dispersed 


431 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


units  in  the  formation.  The  attackers  can  climb 
to  very  high  altitudes,  or  they  can  come  in  just 
over  the  wave  tops.  No  matter  what  their 
altitude,  their  speed  in  many  cases  is  supersonic. 
This  means  that  instantaneous  reactions  and 
quickly  computed  solutions  are  absolutely 
essential  to  the  defenders.  Even  after  attaining 
maximum  proficiency,  a  ship's  individual  efforts 
would  probably  prove  futile  unless  she  were 
deployed  in  a  defense-in-depth  formation. 
Defense  in  depth  requires  intensive 
coordination.  Teamwork  is  then  the  order  of  the 
day  and  the  captain  of  the  team  is  the  AAW 
coordinator. 

The  AAW  coordinator  and  his  staff  are 
usually  embarked  in  a  missile  cruiser  where  the 
entire  AAW  picture  is  presented  on  various 
display  plots.  He  maintains  communications, 
except  during  some  conditions  of  electronic 
silence,  with  all  of  the  AAW  units.  He  receives 
all  "bogey"  (unfriendly  air  contact)  information 
from  the  detecting  ship  or  aircraft.  Speed  of 
communication  and  dissemination  of  target  data 
are  essential.  Therefore,  NTDS  (Naval  Tactical 
Data  System)  was  developed  to  fulfill  these 
requirements. 

The  Naval  Tactical  Data  System  (NTDS)  is 
designed  to  bridge  the  gap  between  the 
command  system  and  the  weapon  system,  both 
on  individual  ships  and  between  elements  of  the 
fleet.  A  salient  feature  of  the  system  is  that 
target  data,  obtained  by  any  NTDS-equipped 
unit  in  a  task  organization,  are  made  available 
almost  instantaneously  to  all  other  NTDS  units 
in  the  force.  Such  an  automatic  system  makes 
possible  optimum  utilization  of  both  offensive 
and  defensive  capabilities  of  ships  and 
operational  groups. 


ANTISHIP  MISSILE 
DEFENSE  (ASMD) 

The  ASMD  program  significantly  improves  a 
ship's  capability  in  countering  high-speed, 
low-altitude,  antiship  missile  threats.  In  attaining 
this  defense  posture,  modifications  are  made  to 
the  overall  ship  combat  system  to  enhance 
low-flyer  and  electronic  warfare  (EW)  detection 
capabilities,  to  reduce  reaction  times  by 
modifying  command  and  control  functions  for 
weapon  direction,  to  improve  gun  and  missile 
system  engagement  capabilities,  and  to  expand 
EW  system  capabilities.  In  addition  to  these 
combat  system  improvements,  on-board  training 
devices  are  installed  to  support  Combat 
Information  Center  (CIC)  team  training 
exercises.  The  ASMD  program  furthers  the 
improvements  provided  by  the  Ship  Antimissile 
Integrated  Defense  (SAMID)  immediate  program 
by  expanding  the  ship  capabilities  to  counter 
antiship  missile  threats.  The  ASMD  program 
integrates  additional  subsystems  into  the  combat 
system  and  makes  use  of  expanded  tactical  data 
processing  techniques  in  providing  a  fully 
automatic  method  of  initiating  preselected 
responses  to  particular  antiship  missile  threats. 

The  gun  weapon  system  supports  that 
element  of  the  ship's  mission  requiring  offensive 
operation  against  air,  suface,  and  shore  targets. 
It  provides  this  support  through  its  ability  to 
destroy  these  types  of  targets  at  ranges  within 
the  minimum  range  capability  of  the  Terrier, 
Tartar,  and  Talosguided-missile  systems. 

As  in  other  types  of  warfare,  successful 
AAW  operations  must  be  based  in  part  on 
lessons  learned  through  costly  experience,  and 
they  must  be  practiced  continually  in  order  to 
be  effective. 


CHAPTER  21 


UNDERSEA  WARFARE 


Undersea  warfare,  as  discussed  in  this 
chapter,  is  composed  of  two  parts:  submarine 
warfare  and  mine  warfare.  (Antisubmarine 
warfare  is  the  subject  of  the  next  chapter.) 

Historically,  the  mission  of  a  submarine  has 
been  to  seek  out  and  destroy  enemy  surface 
ships,  both  combatant  and  noncombatant.  In 
the  recent  past,  the  basic  mission  was  changed 
and  now  the  primary  mission  of  submarines  is  to 
seek  out  and  destroy  enemy  submarines.  The 
advent  of  the  nuclear-powered  ballistic  missile 
submarine  introduced  an  entirely  new 
mission— the  delivery  of  ballistic  missile  attacks 
against  assigned  shore  targets. 

The  primary  purpose  of  mine  warfare  is  to 
deny  to  the  enemy  the  use  of  certain  water  areas 
and  to  endanger  his  ships  wherever  possible. 


SUBMARINE  WARFARE 

The  first  submarine  to  enter  combat  was 
developed  in  1776  by  an  American,  David 
Bushnell.  Revolutionary  in  every  sense  of  the 
word,  Bushnell's  Turtle  made  a  submerged 
attack  on  a  British  warship  in  New  York  Harbor. 
Operated  by  a  hand-worked  propeller,  her  tanks 
flooded  by  a  valve  and  emptied  by  a  hand  pump, 
the  Turtle  encountered  overpowering  difficulties 
and  her  maiden  foray  was  ridiculed  as  a  failure. 
Not  until  after  the  war  was  it  known  that 
Bushnell's  undersea  boat  worried  the  British  into 
moving  their  blockading  warships  from  New 
York  Harbor  to  the  outer  bay. 

Robert  Fulton's  Nautilus,  operating 
successfully  in  European  waters  two  decades 
later,  shocked  the  English  with  its  destructive 
possibilities.  No  nation  at  that  time  ventured  to 


sponsor  such  a  craft.  A  diving  boat  that  could 
navigate  at  a  depth  of  25  feet  spelled  future 
trouble  for  surface  navies— trouble  that 
materialized  in  the  sinking  of  the  Federal 
warship  Housatonic  by  the  ingenious 
Confederate  Hunley.  A  hand-propelled,  iron 
boiler  that  could  travel  with  deck  awash  and 
drive  a  "spar  torpedo"  into  the  hull  of  a  ship, 
the  Hunley  was  the  first  submersible  to  sink  an 
enemy  vessel.  Even  though  the  Hunley  itself  was 
destroyed  by  the  explosion  that  sank  the 
Housatonic,  it  was  obvious  that  the  submersible 
presented  a  serious  threat  to  the  Federal 
blockade.  The  Hunley  had  its  counterpart  in  the 
Federal  Alligator,  sunk  in  a  storm  off  Hampton 
Roads  before  she  could  go  into  action.  These 
were  the  forebearers  of  the  modern  submarine. 

Three  factors  limited  the  operations  of  the 
early  undersea  boat.  Low  visibility  restricted  its 
navigation  on  the  surface,  and  the  vessel  was 
blind  when  submerged.  Underwater  weapons, 
sufficiently  destructive,  had  to  be  towed  into 
contact  with  the  target,  punched  at  the  target, 
or  attached  to  the  target;  and  such  close-range 
devices  endangered  the  submarine.  Because 
steam  power  proved  impracticable  for 
propulsion  when  submerged,  movement  was 
supplied  by  manpower,  willing  but  soon 
expended. 

The  first  problem  was  solved  by  the 
periscope  (figure  21-1),  designed  by  Marie  Davy 
in  1  854.  The  submarine  now  had  eyes. 

The  weapon  problem  extended  over  a  longer 
period.  Not  until  Robert  Whitehead's 
"automotive"  torpedo  was  constructed  in 
Fiume,  Austria,  in  1864  was  that  problem 
successfully  solved.  Whitehead's  torpedo  was 
propelled  by  a  small  reciprocating  engine. 


433 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


134.101 
Figure  21-1.— The  skipper  takes  a  look  at  the  surface. 


Several  decades  were  to  pass  before  the 
development  of  the  steam  torpedo.  Directional 
accuracy  came  in  1885  when  Lieutenant  Howell 
of  the  United  States  Navy  invented  the  vertical 
rudder  controlled  by  a  gyroscope  driven  at  high 
speed  by  compressed  air.  The  mobile  torpedo, 
however,  first  went  into  combat  as  the  weapon 
of  the  surface  torpedoboat. 

Then  came  the  internal-combustion  engine 
and,  simultaneously,  electric  motors  run  by 
storage  batteries.  Submarine  propulsion  was 
solved.  By  1890,  John  P.  Holland  and  Simon 
Lake,  American  inventors,  were  hard  at  work 
over  their  drawing  boards.  Nordenfelt  in 
Sweden,  and  Zede  and  Romazzotti  in  France 
were  building  submarines.  The  Russians  and 
Spaniards,  too,  were  pioneers  in  this  endeavor. 
In  1900  the  USS  Holland  was  launched.  Six 
more  U.S.  submarines  were  commissioned  in 
1902.  In  1905  the  Germany  Navy  obtained  its 
first  U-boat. 


SUBMARINE  WARFARE 
DURING  WORLD  WAR  I 

The  Navy  of  nearly  every  major  power  was 
experimenting  with  or  operating  submarines  in 
1914  when  World  War  I  exploded  in  Europe. 
But  only  the  Germans  had  fathomed  the 
potentialities  of  undersea  warfare  and  were 
prepared  to  exploit  fully  the  unique  capabilities 
of  the  submersible. 

The  German  U-boat  fleet,  if  small,  was 
superior  to  the  others.  Developed  in  great 
secrecy,  the  German  diesel  engine  gave  the 
U-boat  a  cruising  range  many  miles  beyond  that 
of  the  British  E-class  submarine  or  the  American 
gasoline  engine  model. 

Although  the  British  employed  the  first  class 
of  submarine  designed  specifically  for 
antisubmarine  missions,  their  ASW  efforts  in  the 
early  years  of  the  war  had  but  indifferent 
success.  With  the  entry  of  the  United  States  into 
the  war,  however,  American  planes  and 
destroyers  joined  the  British  in  the  U-boat  hunt; 
but  the  weapon  that  finally  contained  the 
U-boat  and  eventually  broke  the  morale  of 
German  submariners  was  the  mine. 

Early  in  the  war,  the  Dover  area  was  mined 
and  nets  laid,  and  mines  were  planted  in  the 
Heligoland  Bight.  Many  of  the  latter,  however, 
were  swept  by  the  Germans  as  fast  as  they  were 
laid;  and  U-boats  made  passage  to  the  Atlantic 
through  the  North  Sea.  Therefore,  a  barrage  of 
thousands  of  mines  was  planted  in  a  stretch  of 
water  between  the  Orkney  Islands  and 
Norwegian  territorial  waters. 

Later  it  was  established  that  U-boats  were 
avoiding  the  minefield  by  transiting  Norwegian 
territorial  waters.  To  preserve  the  integrity  of 
her  waters,  Norway  laid  her  own  mines  from  her 
coast  to  the  area  already  mined  by  U.S.  forces. 

When  the  Allied  and  Norwegian  plantings 
were  completed,  there  remained  open  only  a 
10-mile  strip  near  the  Orkney  Islands,  and  this 
was  well  guarded  by  the  British  fleet.  The 
"stopper  was  in,"  and  the  U-boats  were  bottled 
up  in  the  North  Sea. 

By  October  1918  some  17  U-boats  were 
sunk  or  damaged  by  the  great  mine  barrier  and 


A1A 


Chapter  21 -UNDERSEA  WARFARE 


at  least  40  were  missing,  their  fate 
undetermined.  At  Wilhelmshaven  the  German 
submariners  mutinied.  The  mutiny  spread  to  the 
High  Seas  Fleet  at  Kiel.  The  Germans  had  lost 
the  undersea  war  and  with  it  all  hopes  of 
defeating  the  Allied  coalition.  In  November  the 
German  High  Command  sued  for  an  armistice, 
and  World  War  I  was  over. 

During  the  closing  months  of  World  War  I, 
the  Allied  Submarine  Devices  Investigation 
Committee,  termed  ASDIC,  had  been  formed  to 
obtain  from  science  and  technology  more 
effective  underwater  detection  equipment. 
Before  disbanding,  the  committee  had  developed 
a  reasonably  accurate  device  for  locating  a 
submerged  submarine.  In  the  interval  between 
the  world  wars,  the  British  greatly  improved  the 
device  which  they  called  asdic. 

Subsequently,  American  scientists  developed 
sonar  (a  name  derived  from  the  term  "sound 
navigation  and  ranging").  With  asdic  or  sonar,  a 
submarine  could  now  be  detected  when 
submerged,  and  these  electronic  devices 
threatened  to  deprive  the  submersible  of  that 
concealment  which  was  its  shield  and  cloak. 

Improved  depth  charges,  1000-pound 
aircraft  bombs,  and  the  establishment  of 
antisubmarine  patrol  forces  boded  ill  for  the 
detected  submarine.  Capital  ships,  however, 
were  heavily  armored  below  the  waterline  and 
designed  with  protective  compartments  to 
confine  the  effects  of  torpedo  explosions. 

SUBMARINE  WARFARE 
DURING  WORLD  WAR  II 

At  the  time  of  the  German  surrender  in 
1918,  few  observers  suspected  that  World  War  I, 
with  its  immense  toll  of  human  life  and  colossal 
material  destruction,  was  but  a  dress  rehersal  for 
a  second  global  conflict— a  two-ocean  war  in 
which  the  submarine  would  play  an  even  greater 
part  than  in  World  War  I. 

Hitler  started  rebuilding  the  German  Navy  in 
1934,  first  in  flagrant  violation  of  the  Versailles 
Treaty,  and  then  behind  the  legalistic  front  of  a 
bilateral  agreement  with  Great  Britain.  Nazi 
intentions  were  masked  by  threatening  gestures 


in  the  direction  of  Russia  and  an  Axis  pact 
presumably  aimed  at  Communism.  In  the 
meantime  the  German  Navy  grew,  and  with  it  a 
modern  U-boat  fleet  capable  of  an  Atlantic 
offensive. 

Organized  by  Admiral  Doenitz,  the  Nazi 
U-boat  force  was  imbued  with  Prussian  tradition 
and  well  trained.  German  submarine  tactics  were 
highly  aggressive,  featuring  daytime  attacks 
made  at  periscope  depth  and  night  attacks  on 
the  surface  where  the  submarine  could  take 
advantage  of  high  surface  speeds. 

When  the  Germans  invaded  Poland,  the  Nazi 
U-boat  force  numbered  76  submarines.  On  3 
September  1939,  Great  Britain  and  France 
declared  war  on  Nazi  Germany.  Less  than  9 
hours  after  the  declaration,  the  British  liner 
Athenia  was  torpedoed  by  a  U-boat  off  the  west 
coast  of  Ireland.  The  liner  carried  1103 
passengers,  including  311  Americans.  On  17 
September  the  large  aircraft  carrier  Courageous 
was  sunk  by  a  German  submarine,  and  on  14 
October,  U-47,  under  Kapitan-Leutnant 
Gunther  Prien,  penetrated  the  harbor  defenses 
of  Scapa  Flow  and  sank  the  battleship  Royal 
Oak.  World  War  II  had  begun. 

Opening  Undersea  Phase 

Although  the  Nazis  plunged  into  World  War 
II  with  a  larger  force  of  superior  submarines 
than  were  in  the  Kaiser's  Navy,  they  were  unable 
to  equal  the  record  of  the  German  Navy  in  the 
first  months  of  World  War  I.  The  strikes  at  the 
Royal  Navy  were  spectacular  and  destructive, 
but  the  naval  tonnage  sunk  was  about  half  the 
total  downed  in  the  first  6  months  of  the 
previous  war.  The  convoy  system  and  the  new 
antisubmarine  devices  immediately  employed  by 
the  Allies  held  shipping  losses  in  this  period  to 
about  200,000  tons  monthly. 

However,  conquest  of  Norway  gave  the 
Germans  a  strong  position  on  the  northern  flank 
of  the  British  Isles.  Then  Holland,  Belgium,  and 
France  collapsed;  and  Atlantic  and  Channel 
ports  were  available  as  U-boat  bases.  The 
impoundment  of  the  French  Navy  forced  the 
British  to  take  over  the  Mediterranean  defense. 
British  submarines  maintained  Mediterranean 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


patrols  for  the  next  3  years  while  the  conflict 
raged  in  North  Africa. 

History  Repeats 

With  strategic  French,  Belgian,  and  Dutch 
ports  at  their  disposal,  the  U-boats  stepped  up 
their  Atlantic  offensive.  In  June  1940  the 
British,  Allied,  and  neutral  shipping  loss  was 
397,000  tons.  For  the  remainder  of  that  year, 
the  monthly  average  topped  350,000  tons. 
Neutral  American  shipyards  had  begun  to  work 
overtime,  and  merchantmen  flying  the 
Panamanian  flag  were  carrying  British  cargoes. 
But  losses  were  far  beyond  the  British  capacity 
to  replace. 

In  September  1 940  an  appeal  from  England 
resulted  in  sending  50  overage  American 
destroyers  to  that  embattled  isle  in  exchange  for 
long-term  leases  on  sites  for  naval  bases  in  the 
Western  Hemisphere. 

Lend-lease  went  into  effect  in  March  1941, 
and  the  United  States  became  the  "arsenal  of 
democracy."  With  the  passage  of  the  Lend-Lease 
Act,  the  status  of  the  United  States  shifted  from 
neutral  to  nonbelligerent,  and  American  naval 
patrols  were  extended  to  Greenland  and  Iceland. 

To  counter  the  air  defenses  of  the  waters 
around  the  British  Isles  and  the  Allied 
antisubmarine  measures  in  the  Atlantic,  the 
U-boat  command  devised  a  new  tactic— 
wolfpacking.  This  was  a  system  of  group 
control  which  permitted  the  submarines  wide 
dispersion  for  search  and  strong  concentration 
for  attack.  It  also  placed  the  group  under  the 
direction  of  an  ace  skipper  whose  talents  would 
otherwise  be  confined  to  the  operation  of  a 
single  submarine.  Roaming  the  open  Atlantic, 
the  scouts  of  the  pack  would  contact  a  convoy. 
The  pack  would  then  assemble  at  some  distant 
point  on  the  convoy's  track  and  lie  in  ambush. 
Night  attacks  were  favored,  and  a  mass  assault 
on  the  convoy  train  was  certain  to  scatter  the 
escorts  and  allow  some  of  the  U-boats  to 
penetrate  the  screen  and  strike  at  the  milling 
transports. 

In  April  1941  U-boats  sank  nearly  600,000 
tons  of  British-controlled  shipping.  The  sinkings 
decreased  in  May,  June,  and  July  as  the 
Anglo-American  antisubmarine  patrols  tightened 


the  defense.  But  the  defenses  were  by  no  means 
watertight.  The  Germans  were  maintaining  an 
average  of  36  submarines  at  sea  in  the  summer 
of  1941,  and  the  number  of  U-boats  in  the 
Atlantic  was  more  than  doubled  late  in  the 
autumn.  By  October,  Britain  was  once  more  in 
desperate  straits,  unable  to  cope  with  the 
submarine  blockade. 

As  in  World  War  I,  England  was  slowly 
sinking,  her  maritime  lifelines  slashed  by  a 
U-boat  offensive.  Again  the  United  States  came 
to  the  rescue.  But  the  present  is  never  an  exact 
replica  of  the  past,  and  no  two  wars  are  ever 
alike.  Open  hostilities  a  certainty,  the  Nazis 
played  for  time,  hoping  to  gain  bases  in  the 
Azores  and  on  the  West  African  coast,  and 
perhaps  to  bring  Franco  Spain  in  as  an  active 
partner  before  striking  at  America.  The  Japanese 
raid  on  Pearl  Harbor  was  untimely. 

In  the  Atlantic,  World  War  II  had  already 
developed  as  a  struggle  between  the  U-boat  and 
antisubmarine  forces,  following  the  pattern  of 
World  War  I.  In  the  Pacific,  American 
submarines  were  to  play  a  leading  role.  Their 
mission  was  an  all-out  attack  on  Japanese 
merchant  and  naval  shipping,  paralleling  that  of 
the  U-boat  in  the  Atlantic. 

Battle  of  the  Atlantic 

During  the  first  10  months  of  1942,  the 
Battle  of  the  Atlantic  was  in  the  balance.  In  this 
period  the  U-boats  dealt  their  hardest  blows,  and 
Anglo-American  losses  totaled  approximately 
800  ships-better  than  4,000,000  tons.  At  the 
same  time,  the  U-boat  force  paid  dearly  for  this 
success.  In  January  1942,  93  U-boats  were 
operating  in  the  Atlantic,  and  40  more  were 
available  for  duty  in  the  Mediterranean  and  in 
the  Barents  Sea.  This  number  was  greatly 
reduced  that  spring  and  summer-an  average  of 
43  U-boats  operating  continuously  at  sea  in 
June.  Altogether  the  Germans  lost  78 
submarines  during  this  period.  U-boat 
replacements  were  forthcoming,  but  the 
Germans  were  unable  to  replace  trained  crews, 
and  Nazi  submarines  were  going  to  sea  with  men 
who  lacked  adequate  training.  Nevertheless,  the 
situation  remained  critical  for  the  Allies  until 
well  into  1943. 


Chapter  21-UNDERSEA  WARFARE 


Operating  in  wolfpacks  in  the  North 
Atlantic,  the  U-boats  were  not  easily  downed. 
The  modern  U-boat  was  a  formidable  opponent. 
When  depth-charged,  it  did  not  break  up  as  did 
its  riveted  forerunner  in  World  War  I.  Welded 
construction  provided  the  pressure  hull  with 
elasticity,  and  a  direct  hit  or  an  explosion  close 
aboard  was  required  to  destroy  the  hull.  Capable 
of  diving  deeper  than  600  feet,  the  German 
submersible  could  usually  elude  echo-ranging 
sonar  detection.  Supply  or  "cow"  U-boats  were 
employed  to  provision  the  wolfpack 
submarine— a  maneuver  that  lengthened  their 
stay  at  sea.  The  destroyer  escort  and  the  escort 
carrier  emerged  as  the  wolfpack's  deadly  enemy. 

It  has  been  said,  with  due  respect  to  the 
active  combatants,  that  the  Battle  of  the 
Atlantic  was  fought  in  the  laboratories.  German 
scientists  who  had  been  drafted  to  shoulder 
rifles  were  recalled  from  military  service  to  help 
create  Germany's  Naval  Scientific  Directional 
Staff.  This  body  had  its  counterpart  in  the 
American  10th  Fleet  (the  coordinating  agency 
for  antisubmarine  warfare)  when  Admiral  King 
organized  a  scientific  council  composed  of 
civilian  scientists.  Like  the  Axis  scientific  staff, 
the  American  council  devoted  its  energies  to  the 
development  of  new  submarine  and 
antisubmarine  weapons  and  devices. 

The  Germans  produced  an  acoustic  torpedo 
which  "homed"  on  the  target  when  attracted  by 
ship  noises.  Another  torpedo  looped  in  wide 
curves,  thereby  increasing  the  possibility  of  a  hit 
when  fired  into  a  convoy.  The  American  answer 
to  the  acoustic  torpedo  was  a  "noisemaker" 
which  was  towed  from  the  stern  of  a  vessel  to 
divert  the  torpedo. 

To  frustrate  sonar,  the  Germans  tried 
coating  the  U-boats  with  rubber— a  resort  that 
proved  futile.  They  also  employed 
pillenwerfer— chemical  pellets  which,  strewn  in 
the  water,  served  to  reflect  the  sonar  beam  from 
false  targets. 

Meantime,  the  Allies  introduced  sonobuoys 
which  were  dropped  from  planes;  the  buoys 
contained  hydrophones  and  radio  transmitters 
for  broadcasting  a  signal  to  the  plane  when  a 
submarine  was  within  sonar  range. 

Probably  the  most  important  of  the 
innovations  was  radar,  described  by  Admiral 
Doenitz  as  "next  to  the  atomic  bomb,  the  most 


decisive  weapon  of  the  war."  Unless  submerged 
the  U-boat  was  unable  to  escape  radar's 
all-seeing  eye,  and  Doenitz  mourned  to  the  head 
of  the  Naval  Scientific  Directional  Staff  that  the 
enemy  had  "rendered  the  U-boat  war 
ineffective." 

Frantically  working  to  defeat  this  menace, 
German  scientists  came  up  with  their  most 
important  contribution  to  the  undersea  war. 
This  was  the  Dutch-invented  snorkel  extention 
stack— a  tube  which  expelled  the  diesel  exhaust 
and  sucked  in  fresh  air.  Equipped  with  snorkel, 
the  U-boat  could  operate  on  diesel  propulsion 
while  submerged  at  periscope  depth.  It  did  not 
have  to  surface  to  charge  batteries;  and  its  diesel 
engines,  able  to  run  under  the  surface,  gave  the 
submarine  a  much  higher  submerged  speed  than 
its  motor-driven  rivals.  Moreover,  the  U-boats 
literally  maintained  radio  silence,  thereby 
frustrating  detection  by  radio  direction  finders. 
The  snorkel  device  went  far  to  eliminate  surface 
operation,  and  the  U-boat  thus  regained  its 
"invisible  cloak." 

Admiral  Doenitz  complained  that  the  Battle 
of  the  Atlantic  was  lost  before  it  began.  Had 
Hitler  paid  more  attention  to  the  German  Navy, 
he  would  have  had  1 000  U-boats  instead  of  the 
76  available  at  the  beginning  of  the  war. 
Fortunately  for  the  Allies,  Hitler's  intuition  was 
focused  on  land  warfare.  The  Japanese,  too, 
overlooked  the  potentialities  in  submarine 
warfare.  Hence,  they  were  unable  to  cope  with 
the  submarine  forces  of  the  United  States  in  the 
Pacific. 

The  Pacific  War 

Because  of  the  losses  sustained  at  Pearl 
Harbor,  Admiral  Hart's  Asiatic  Fleet  was 
compelled,  almost  singlehandedly,  to  hold  the 
Philippines  against  invasion.  The  29  Asiatic  Fleet 
submarines  were  promptly  deployed  to  defend 
the  islands  as  Hart's  few  cruisers  and  destroyers 
could  not  hope  to  stop  the  Japanese  2nd  Fleet. 
An  equally  staggering  task  faced  the  Pearl 
Harbor  submarines  which  were  expected  to 
cover  the  vast  Central  Pacific  from  the  Mandate 
Islands  far  north  to  Japan.  And  a  few  hours  after 
the  Pearl  Harbor  strike,  U.S.  submarines  were 
ordered  to  attack  all  enemy  shipping,  merchant 


as  well  as  naval.  For  it  was  realized  the  Japanese 
invaders  would  move  by  ocean  transport,  and 
only  cargo  vessels  could  carry  home  the  raw 
materials  plundered  from  conquered  territories. 
In  no  sense  could  such  shipping  be  considered 
legitimate  commerce,  and  our  submarines  were 
ordered  to  sink  everything  that  floated  under 
the  Rising  Sun. 

The  Pacific  war  was  from  start  to  finish  a  sea 
war.  Seapower  set  the  pattern  and  dictated  the 
moves.  Air  and  land  forces  played  important 
roles,  but  sea  forces  played  the  lead.  Overall 
submarine  strategy  called  for  a  war  of  attrition 
against  Japanese  merchant  shipping.  As  the 
attrition  war  developed,  target  priorities  were 
altered  and  submarines  launched  an  all-out 
offensive  against  the  Imperial  Navy, 
simultaneously  conducting  a  blockade  against 
Japan.  Japanese  shipping  was  the  crux  of  the 
war  situation- transports  to  support  and 
maintain  the  offensive,  and  merchant  fleets  to 
sxploit  the  conquered  territories,  support 
Japan's  home  economy,  and  supply  the 
Tojo-Yamamoto  war  machine. 

At  the  start  of  the  war,  Japan  had  available 
approximately  6,000,000  tons  of  oceangoing 
steel  ships,  some  4,000,000  tons  being  assigned 
to  separate  army  and  navy  pools  for  transport 
and  supply  service.  The  remaining  tonnage  was 
necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  Japan's  home 
economy.  Everything  depended  on  the  Japanese 
transport  system-the  carrying  of  troops  and 
planes  to  the  front,  and  cargoes  of  oil,  coking 
:oal,  nickel,  foodstuffs,  and  other  necessary 
imports  home  to  Japan. 

The  Japanese  strategists  made  two  fatal 
nniscalculations.  First,  they  underestimated  the 
American  recoil— the  quick  recovery  of  naval 
strength  and  repair  of  the  fleet  damaged  at  Pearl 
Eiarbor.  Second,  they  underestimated  the 
powers  of  the  U.S.  submarine  force.  As  early  as 
January  1942,  Pacific  Fleet  submarines  were 
sinking  ships  off  the  coast  of  Honshu  and  the 
toe  of  Kyushu. 

Hie  Japanese 
Submarine  Effort 

Japanese  submarine  strategy  was,  in  general, 
inferior  to  the  American.  The  Imperial  Navy's 


submarines  were  frequently  employed  by  the 
army  as  transports;  1 5  were  used  to  evacuate  the 
hard-pressed  garrison  in  the  Aleutians.  Others 
were  used  to  carry  munitions  and  aircraft  to 
outlying  posts,  and  late  in  the  war,  to  haul 
aviation  gasoline  from  the  East  Indies  to  Japan. 
American  submarines  performed  such  special 
missions,  but  not  to  the  neglect  of  their  primary 
mission— the  attrition  war  on  enemy  shipping.  In 
scouting  and  reconnaissance,  Japanese 
submarines  were  competent,  but  there  was  no 
central  operational  command,  and  the 
submarine  effort  lacked  coordination.  Also,  as 
the  war  progressed,  Japanese  submarines  lagged 
"in  the  laboratory."  Japan's  scientists  were 
unable  to  match  Allied  developments  in  the 
fields  of  radar,  sonar,  and  fire  control.  This 
scientific  factor  had  its  reflection  in  the 
antisubmarine  war.  As  the  Allied  antisubmarine 
forces  became  organized,  experienced,  and  more 
effective,  Japanese  submarines  went  down  at  a 
faster  rate.  The  Japanese  antisubmarine  effort, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  indifferent  and  poorly 
organized.  In  both  aspects  of  undersea 
warfare— submarine  and  antisubmarine— the 
Japanese  proved  inept. 

The  Japanese  had  a  good  echo-ranging  device 
at  the  war's  outbreak,  and  their  destroyers  were 
fast  and  hard  hitting,  and  the  crews  well  trained. 
But  their  convoy  system  was  jerry-built  and 
remained  disorganized  until  late  in  the  war.  By 
1944  the  Japanese  were  far  behind  in  the  field 
of  electronic  detection.  A  few  radar-equipped 
search  planes  were  flying  antisubmarine  patrols 
at  the  end  of  that  year;  but  by  that  time  the 
shortage  of  planes,  trained  pilots,  and  aviation 
gasoline  was  grounding  the  Japanese  air  effort. 

One  of  the  chief  reasons  for  Japan's 
mediocre  antisubmarine  campaign  was 
overoptimism.  Submarine  killings  were  reported 
on  the  flimsiest  of  evidence.  American 
submarines  were  thankful  for  the  cocksureness 
of  their  opponent  and  did  nothing  to  dispel  his 
exaggerated  confidence.  Altogether,  the 
Japanese  reported  468  American  submarines 
destroyed  during  the  war.  Actually,  American 
submarine  losses  totaled  52.  Of  these,  48  were 
lost  in  combat  operations,  but  not  more  than  41 
were  destroyed  by  enemy  action. 

In  comparison,  the  Japanese  lost  between 
125  and  130  submarines  during  the  war.  About 


438 


Chapter  21 -UNDERSEA  WARFARE 


1 1 0  of  these  were  destroyed  by  enemy  action. 
Twenty-six  were  downed  by  American 
submarines— over  twice  the  number  destroyed 
by  aircraft— which  established  the  submarine  as  a 
deadly  hunter  of  its  own  kind.  But  American 
antisubmarine  forces  were  far  more  aggressive 
and  successful  than  the  Japanese.  Operating  in 
May  1 944,  the  destroyer  escort  USS  England,  in 
teamwork  with  the  USS  George,  USS  Raby,  and 
USS  Spangler,  put  on  a  performance  that 
threatened  to  blast  the  Japanese  submarine  force 
out  of  existence.  On  a  rampage  in  the  Solomons, 
the  England  destroyed  six  Japanese  submarines 
in  1 1  days— a  feat  that  broke  two  world  records. 
Fortunately  for  the  Americans,  the  Imperial 
Navy  had  no  such  antisubmarine  teams  in  the 
field. 

U.S.  Submarine  Offensive 

The  U.S.  submarine  offensive  began  to  hit  its 
stride  in  1943.  Southwest  Pacific  submarines 
based  in  Australia  patrolled  from  Fremantle  and 
Darwin  to  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  harried  Japanese 
shipping  in  the  Netherlands  Indies  and 
Philippines,  and  slashed  the  main  traffic  lane 
down  the  South  China  Sea  to  Singapore.  Central 
Pacific  (SUBPAC)  submarines  roamed  in  the 
Gilberts,  Marshalls,  Carolines,  and  Palaus; 
patrolled  the  Nansei  Shoto's  chain;  invaded  the 
East  China  and  Yellow  Seas;  and  blockaded  the 
home  empire.  The  night  surface  attack  was  a 
favorite,  and  the  "end  around"  tactic  was 
developed  with  notable  success— the  submarine 
contacting  a  convoy  and  then  running  up  ahead 
to  attack  it  as  it  came  down  the  track.  In  1 943  the 
Pacific  and  Southwest  Pacific  submarines  sank 
284  Japanese  ships  for  a  total  of  1,341,968  tons. 

During  1944,  pacing  the  U.S.  Navy's  drive 
through  the  Mandates  to  the  Philippines, 
American  submarines  all  but  decimated  Japanese 
merchant  shipping.  Some  494  ships  were  sent  to 
the  bottom  by  submarine  torpedoes— a 
staggering  total  of  2,387,780  tons.  By  the  end  of 
the  year  the  Japanese  home  empire  was  facing  a 
rice  famine,  Japan's  war  industries  were  scraping 
barrel-bottom  for  vital  ores  and  chemicals,  and 
the  Imperial  Navy  and  Air  Force  were  out  of  oil. 
Closing  in  on  Japan,  our  submarines  had  invaded 
the  Japan  Sea  and  were  swarming  in  Empire 
waters. 


Sinkings  in  1945,  January  to  August,  were 
superficial.  The  enemy  merchant  marine  was 
reduced  to  a  point  where  there  were  few  vessels 
at  sea  to  sink.  By  the  spring  of  1945,  Japan's 
economy  was  ruined. 

Many  daring  harbor  penetrations  and  attacks 
occurred  in  the  submarine  war  on  Japanese 
shipping.  Outstanding  were  the  raids  conducted 
by  the  Tang,  Wahoo,  Barb,  Flasher,  Seahorse, 
Tautog,  Rasher,  Silversides,  and  Trigger.  In  the 
spring  of  1945,  the  Tirante  prowled  into  a 
Japanese  harbor  to  sink  shipping  under  the  nose 
of  the  enemy's  shore  guns.  Such  forays  were 
typical  of  the  aggressive  attrition  campaign 
waged  by  American  submarines  throughout  the 
war. 

Perhaps  the  proudest  accomplishment  of  the 
U.S.  submarine  force  in  World  War  II  was  the 
devastating  blasting  dealt  the  Imperial  Navy. 
Before  the  end  of  the  war,  over  30  Japanese 
destroyers  had  fallen  victim  to  U.S.  submarines. 

The  first  major  warship  sent  to  the  bottom 
by  submarine  fire  was  the  aircraft  carrier  Soryu, 
disabled  by  dive  bombers  in  the  Battle  of 
Midway,  then  finished  off  by  the  Nautilus.  The 
heavy  cruiser  Kako>  sunk  by  S-44  off  New 
Ireland  on  10  August  1942,  was  the  next  major 
sinking.  In  December  1943,  the  Sailfish 
torpedoed  and  sank  the  escort  carrier  Chuyo  on 
the  road  between  Truk  and  Honshu.  But  1944 
saw  U.S.  submarines  wading  into  an  all-out  drive 
against  the  Imperial  Navy.  Highlighting  this 
tremendous  undersea  offensive  were  the 
following  submarine  successes: 

Aircraft  carrier  Shokaku—  sunk  on  19  June 
by  the  Cavalla  in  the  Philippine  Sea;  aircraft 
carrier  Taiho— sunk  on  the  same  day  in  the  same 
area  by  the  Albacore;  aircraft  carrier 
Shinano— sunk  on  29  November  by  the 
Archerfish  off  Honshu;  battleship  Kongo— sunk 
on  21  November  by  the  Sealion  off  Formosa; 
aircraft  carrier  Unryu— sunk  on  19  December  by 
the  Redfish  in  the  East  China  Sea.  In  August  and 
September  of  that  year,  the  Rasher  and  the  Barb 
sank  the  escort  carriers  Taivo  and  Unvo. 
Submarines  Dace  and  Darter  sank  a  pair  of 
heavy  cruisers  in  Palawan  Pass  on  23  October. 
The  Ray  sank  another  on  6  November,  and  eight 
light  cruisers  were  demolished  by  American 
submarines  during  the  same  year. 


439 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


The  final  submarine  score  tells  a  never- 
-be-forgotten  sotry.  During  World  War  II, 
merican  submarines  in  the  Pacific  sank 
[78  Japanese  merchant  vessels  and  201 
.panese  naval  vessels,  for  a  grand  total  of 
,631,117  tons.  American  submarine 
.sualties-374  officers  and  3131  men-were 
gh.  But  the  achievement  stands  as  a  monument 
•  the  greatest  submarine  force  in  history. 

ibmarine  Special  Missions 

From  the  start  of  the  Pacific  war,  U.S. 
ibmarines  proved  their  versatility  as 
ockade-runners,  transports,  scouts,  passenger 
jrriers,  and  rescue  vessels.  During  the  Solomons 
Tensive,  the  submarines  of  Task  Force  42, 
ised  at  Brisbane,  Australia,  supported  the 
Derations  of  Admiral  Halsey's  fleet  with  scores 
'  special  missions.  Secret  agents  were  landed  on 
lemy-held  islands,  refugees  were  evacuated, 
id  enemy  naval  bases  were  reconnoitered. 

Submarines  Nautilus  and  Argonaut  carried 
arisen' s  Raiders  to  Makin  Island.  A  few  months 
.ter,  the  Nautilus  and  Narwhal  were 
ansporting  troops  to  the  front  in  the  Aleutians, 
abmarines  evacuated  many  Army  and  Navy 
Ticers  and  men  from  the  Philippines,  and 
scued  several  hundred  refugees  during  the 
ipanese  occupation.  Typical  of  the  missions  in 
at  area  were  the  blockade-running  junkets  of 
ie  Nanvhal,  rushing  supplies  and  equipment  to 
le  guerrilla  forces  in  the  islands. 

After  the  Gilberts  campaign,  all  amphibious 
rikes  in  the  Marshalls,  Carolines,  Bonins,  and 
ansei  Shotos  were  preceded  by  submarine 
connaissance  missions.  Periscope  photography 
as  a  feature  of  these  exploits,  and  assigned 
.sks  included  weather  reporting  and 
cploration  of  beachheads.  Submarine 
'eguarding  was  an  enterprise  in  which  the  U.S. 
.bmarine  force  took  particular  pride.  Beginning 
ith  the  Gilbert  Islands  offensive,  submarines 
ere  stationed  off  target  objectives  to  serve  as 
ieguards  and  rescue  downed  aviators.  This 
:tivity  was  continued  with  singular  success  for 
ie  remainder  of  the  war.  During  air  strikes,  the 
ibmarine  Tigrone  rescued  31  aviators,  Tang 
;scued  22,  Gabilan  and  Guavina  each  rescued 


17.    Altogether    504    airmen    were    saved    by 
lifeguard  submarines. 

SUBMARINE  DEVELOPMENTS 
SINCE  WORLD  WAR  H 

Submariners  have  long  dreamed  of  a  true 
submarine-a  submarine  that  can  operate 
beneath  the  surface  almost  indefinitely,  thereby 
reducing  risk  of  detection  to  a  minimum.  The 
development  of  the  submersible  to  the  ultimate 
goal  of  the  true  submarine  has  been  a  problem 
of  pushing  back  certain  barriers  that  limit 
prolonged  submerged  operations.  As  one  barrier 
has  been  technologically  overcome,  others  have 
appeared;  and  those  difficulties,  in  turn,  have 
had  to  be  resolved.  Each  victory  along  the  way 
has  contributed  to  increased  submerged 
operating  time,  bringing  the  goal  a  little  bit 
closer  to  realization. 

The  first  submarine,  powered  by  hand,  was 
limited  by  the  endurance  of  the  crew  and  was 
necessarily  handicapped  by  the  small  amount  of 
air  available.  When  motors  powered  by  batteries 
made  their  appearance  in  larger  hulls  with  more 
space  per  man,  air  and  human  endurance  ceased 
to  be  the  most  pressing  problem.  Rapid 
depletion  of  power  stored  in  inefficient  batteries 
required  that  the  batteries  be  frequently 
recharged.  More  efficient  batteries  and 
propulsion  systems  increased  both  surfaced  and 
submerged  cruising  ranges,  but  the  boat  still  had 
to  surface  and  run  its  diesel  engines  to  recharge 
batteries.  During  wartime  in  enemy  waters, 
recharging  was  accomplished  at  night,  but  it  was 
always  accompanied  by  danger  of  being 
detected.  This  situation  persisted  through  World 
War  II.  With  the  advent  of  the  snorkel,  however, 
surfacing  to  recharge  was  no  longer  necessary. 

Snorkeling  presents  some  disadvantages;  for 
example,  it  is  noisy  and  interferes  with  the 
submarine's  own  sonar  operation  and,  when 
compared  with  battery  operation  chances  of 
being  detected  are  much  greater.  However,  its 
advantages  far  outweigh  its  disadvantages. 

While  use  of  the  snorkel  enables  a  submarine 
to  stay  submerged  almost  indefinitely,  the 
submarine  is  restricted  as  to  depth  by  the  length 
of  the  snorkel  mast,  and  as  to  submergence  time 


440 


Chapter  21 -UNDERSEA  WARFARE 


71.1 


Figure  21-2.— USS  Nautilus  (SSN-571),  the  world's  first  nuclear-powered  combatant  ship. 


by  diesel  engines  which  require  fuel.  Therefore, 
it  was  not  until  our  first  nuclear-powered 
submarine,  Nautilus  (figure  21-2),  was  built  that 
the  dream  of  a  true  submarine  was  nearly 
realized.  At  last  the  U.S.  had  a  submarine  that 
could  submerge  and  operate  for  weeks  without 
surfacing.  Fuel  capacity  was  no  problem; 
Nautilus  refueled  for  the  first  time  over  a  year 
after  she  commenced  operating. 

But  even  more  was  needed  than  Nautilus  had 
to  offer.  Underwater  navigation  had  always  been 
a  problem  and  increased  submerged  operating 
capabilities  made  the  problem  more  acute.  A 
method  of  navigation  was  needed  which  would 
allow  a  submarine's  commanding  officer  to  take 
her  from  one  place  to  another  and  to  position 
her  precisely  while  submerged.  The  development 
of  the  inertial  navigation  system  which 


accurately  records  a  vessel's  various  courses  and 
speeds  over  the  Earth,  while  not  completely 
solving  the  problem,  was  a  great  stride  forward. 
This  system,  which  requires  only  an  occasional 
check  and  adjustment,  enabled  Nautilus  to  make 
her  precedent-shattering  cruise  beneath  the  polar 
icecap.  It  also  enabled  Skate  to  spend  10  days 
conducting  an  extensive  exploration  for 
undersea  routes  beneath  that  same  icecap. 
Nuclear  power  and  the  inertial  navigation  system 
made  the  forbidding,  icebound  Arctic  Sea 
another  operating  area  for  U.S.  submarines. 

Submarine  research  and  development  do  not 
stop  here,  however.  Hardly  any  item  which  can 
be  improved  upon  has  been  overlooked. 
Improved  hull  designs  have  increased  speed  and 
maneuverability.  Improved  homing  torpedoes 
and  wire-guided  torpedoes  can  hunt  down  and 


441 


ill  enemy  submarines.  Ballistic  missiles  have 
dded  shore  installations  to  the  list  of  submarine 
argets. 

On  10  April  1963,  the  loss  of  Thresher 
SSN-593)  initiated  a  series  of  events  that  were  to 
>pen  a  new  era  in  submarine  development.  The 
nsuing  search  for  the  Thresher  in  8000  feet  of 
rater  glaringly  revealed  that  the  Navy  did  not 
lave  adequate  equipment  to  affect  submarine 
escues  in  even  much  shallower  waters. 
?urthermore,  the  scarcity  of  oceanographic 
inowledge  became  painfully  evident  as  the 
earch  dragged  on  for  months.  As  a  result,  a  new 
mphasis  was  placed  on  all  aspects  of 
>ceanography,  not  only  in  the  Navy  but  also  on 
national  level.  A  Deep  Submergence  Systems 
'reject  Office  was  established  to  develop  a  deep 
ubmergence  research  vehicle  (DSRV)  and  a 
mall,  deep-diving  submarine  to  remove  men 
rom  sunken  craft.  A  number  of  small  research 
nd  salvage  vehicles  were  also  procured  which 
roved  invaluable  in  1 966  during  the  search  for 
lost  H-bomb  off  Spain. 

Submarines  have  always  been  thought  of  as 
me  wolves  sent  to  patrol  a  particular  area  for 
IB  purpose  of  sinking  enemy  surface  ships, 
rimary  targets  were  the  ships  that  carried  the 
leans  for  waging  war— the  tankers,  the 
•oopships,  the  supply  ships.  Destroyers,  fast 
nd  deadly,  were  considered  hardly  worth  the 
sk  of  attack.  The  rule  of  the  day  was  to  bore 
nder  escorts  to  attack  the  convoy, 
'evertheless,  World  War  II  submarine  skippers 
rove  home  attacks  on  destroyer  after  destroyer 
id  sent  dozens  to  the  bottom,  demonstrating 
lat  destroyers  too  were  susceptible  to 
ibmarine  attack. 

With  the  marriage  of  nuclear  power  and  the 
teardrop"  shaped  Albacore  hull,  the  modern 
ibmarine  gained  a  tremendous  advantage  in 
>eed,  maneuverability,  and  endurance  over 
sarly  all  surface  craft.  These  factors,  coupled 
ith  the  fact  that  a  submarine  is  an  inherently 
3tter  sonar  platform  than  a  surface  ship,  led  to 
le  development  of  the  Thresher,  Tullibee 
5SN-597),  Sturgeon  (SSN-637),  Narwhal 
5SN-671),  and  Los  Angeles  (SSN-688)  classes 
:tack  submarines  designed  primarily  for  ASW 
ork.  With  these  craft,  the  submarine  has 
'-placed  the  destroyer  as  the  single  most 
Tective  antisubmarine  unit. 


Dependent  on  situation,  past  experience, 
and  potentialities,  concepts  of  warfare  change. 
In  this  age,  faced  by  a  possible  enemy  possessing 
a  submarine  force  estimated  at  between  450  and 
500  submarines,  antisubmarine  warfare  is  the 
primary  mission  of  our  submarine  forces. 

Other  wartime  duties  include  destroying 
enemy  shipping  and  naval  forces,  scouting, 
rescue  work,  transporting  raiders,  and  possibly 
carrying  ammunition  and  supplies  to 
beleaguered  friendly  forces.  The  fleet  ballistic 
missile  submarine's  mission  is  to  destroy  military 
targets  on  land. 


Development  of  the  Fleet 
Ballistic  Missile  Submarine 


In  1955,  the  Chief  of  Naval  Operations 
ordered  the  development  of  a  weapons  system 
capable  of  launching  a  missile  from  a  submerged 
submarine  and  able  to  hit  any  point  on  the 
Earth's  surface  with  a  nuclear  warhead-an 
engineering  feat  of  complexity  unprecedented  in 
history.  This  was  not  to  be  the  first  time  that 
bombardment  missiles  had  gone  to  sea,  of 
course.  The  Germans  had  envisioned  towing  V-2 
rockets  in  floating  cannisters  behind  U-boats, 
but  this  concept  never  became  operational.  USS 
Barb  (SS-220)  bombarded  the  Japanese  coast 
with  5-inch  rockets  in  1945.  The  Regulus 
air-breathing  missile  had  been  fitted  on  a  few 
World  War  II  submarines  (figure  21-3)  in 
postwar  conversions.  Following  the  success  of 
those  conversions,  two  attack  submarines, 
Grayback  and  Growler,  were  converted  to  carry 
Regulus  I  and  II  air-breathing  missiles.  USS 
Halibut,  the  first  nuclear  submarine  constructed 
to  carry  missiles,  carried  five  Regulus  I  or  four 
Regulus  II  missiles.  These  three  submarines,  with 
the  converted  World  War  II  boats  Barbero  and 
Tunny,  were  deployed  in  the  Pacific  on  regular 
patrols  during  the  period  1959  through  1964. 
Success  of  the  Polaris  missile  development 
resulted  in  cancellation  of  the  Regulus  II  missile 
program. 

There  were  three  basic  components  to  the 
envisioned  system-missile,  launching  platform, 
and  a  navigation  system  that  would  enable  the 
ship  to  determine  its  position  continuously 
under  all  conditions. 


442 


71.1 

Figure  21-3.— Before  the  advent  of  the  Polaris  missile,  U.S.  missile  submarines  launched  the  air-breathing  Regulus, 

shown  here  on  USS  Greyback,then  as  SSG. 


The  project  got  underway  with  a  plan  to 
adopt  the  Army's  Jupiter  intermediate  range 
ballistic  missile  (IRBM)  to  a  nuclear  submarine. 
It  soon  became  apparent  that  this  was 
impracticable  because  (1)  the  land-based  missile 
was  too  large  for  effective  shipboard  use,  and  (2) 
its  liquid  fuel  was  too  volatile  and  difficult  to 
handle  in  the  confinement  of  a  submarine  hull. 
Developments  in  the  field  of  nuclear  warheads, 
however,  indicated  that  a  thermonuclear  device 
could  be  constructed  for  a  much  smaller  missile. 
Accordingly,  the  fleet  ballistic  missile  (FBM) 
program  was  initiated  to  develop  a  solid-fueled 
missile  for  submarine  use,  the  submarine  to 
which  it  would  be  adapted,  and  the  appropriate 
navigation  system. 

To  speed  up  the  process,  work  progressed 
simultaneously  on  all  components  without 
waiting  for  each  to  be  tested  and  proven— an 
unprecedented  procedure.  The  missile  airframe 
was  assigned  to  Lockheed;  Aerojet  General  and 
Hercules  Powder  Company  developed  the 
propellant;  while  Sperry  Gyroscope  Company 
worked  on  the  ship's  inertial  navigation  system 


(SINS),  a  device  that  utilizes  a  set  of 
accelerometers  that  can  sense  changes  in  the 
direction  of  motion.  Once  "told"  where  it  is  by 
a  navigational  fix,  the  SINS  keeps  track  of  ship's 
latitude  and  longitude  by  itself.  At  the  Electric 
Boat  Division  of  General  Dynamics  Corporation 
in  New  London,  Connecticut,  a  new  Skipjack 
class  attack  submarine  (Scorpion  (SSN-589)) 
was  on  the  way.  To  expedite  construction  of  a 
launching  vehicle,  the  252-foot  missile  section 
was  inserted  amidships.  Containing  16  launching 
tubes,  this  area  was  designated  the  missile 
compartment.  The  submarine  was  renamed 
George  Washington  (figure  21-4)  and 
redesignated  as  SSBN-598,  thus  establishing  the 
nomenclature  of  famous  American  patriots  for 
FBM  submarines  and  breaking  the  convention 
that  submarines  are  named  for  fish. 

A  prototype  Polaris  missile  was  first  flown  in 
September  1958.  The  SINS  was  evaluated  by 
Nautilus  and  Skate  in  transpolar  crossings  in 
1958.  George  Washington  was  launched  on  9 
June  1959— barely  18  months  after  she  was 
ordered. 


443 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


In  July  1959  Observation  Island  (BAG-  (now 
VG-)  158),  which  served  as  a  research  and 
levelopment  vehicle  in  support  of  the  Polaris 
light  program,  became  the  first  ship  to  fire  a 
Claris  at  sea. 

It  had  originally  been  planned  that  Polaris 
vould  be  an  intermediate  range  (1500-2000 
nile)  missile.  In  the  interest  of  expediency, 
lowever,  Lockheed  indicated  that  it  could 
levelop  a  1 200-nautical-mile  missile  much 
ooner  than  a  longer-range  missile.  By 
)roceeding  on  that  basis,  it  was  possible  for  the 
^avy  to  deploy  the  weapons  system  a  full  4 
'ears  ahead  of  the  original  target  date.  Thus  was 
)orn  the  concept  of  the  A-l  (1200  nautical 
niles),  A-2  (1500  nautical  miles),  and  A-3  (2500 
lautical  miles)  Polaris,  each  of  which  became 
>perational  as  the  state  of  the  art  permitted. 

The  A-l  passed  its  most  important  test  on 
10  July  1960  when  the  George  Washington, 
ubmerged  off  Cape  Canaveral,  successfully 
aunched  two  missiles  to  their  targets.  On  15 
November  1960  George  Washington  deployed 


on  her  first  60-day  patrol,  and  the  FBM  system 
was  operational.  Patrick  Henry  (SSBN-599),  the 
second  ship  of  the  class,  had  joined  her  on 
station  by  the  end  of  1960,  followed  in  the  next 
8  months  by  three  other  A-l  ships. 

In  October  1961,  Ethan  Allen  (SSBN-608), 
first  of  the  second  generation  SSBNs,  fired  the 
first  submerged  A-2.  She  deployed  with  this 
1 500-mile  Polaris  missile  in  1 962. 

The  A-3  prototype  was  launched  in  April 
1963.  The  Daniel  Webster  (SSBN-626),  one  of 
the  third  generation  ships,  fired  the  first 
submerged  shot  in  October  of  that  year  and 
took  A-3s  with  her  on  her  first  patrol  in 
September  1964.  Three  months  later  FBM 
submarines  deployed  in  the  Pacific.  With  a 
2500-nautical-mile  range,  the  FBM  system  was 
now  a  global  deterrent,  capable  of  reaching  any 
point  on  the  Earth's  surface  from  hundreds  of 
miles  at  sea.  The  A-l  and  A-2  have  since  been 
phased  out. 

Forty-one  FBMs  were  authorized  and  the 
last,  Will  Rogers  (SSBN-659),  deployed  in  1967. 


71.1 


:igure  21-4.-USS  George  Washington  (SSBN-598),  the  first  fleet  ballistic  missile  submarine,  now  configured  to  carry 


Chapter  21 -UNDERSEA  WARFARE 


The  31 -ship  Lafayette  class  has  been  converted 
to  carry  the  Poseidon  C-3  missile  which  has 
double  the  payload  of  the  A-3  plus  increased 
accuracy  and  flexibility.  (See  figure  21-5.) 

Under  development,  and  expected  to  be 
operational  in  the  late  1 970s,  is  the  new  Trident 
undersea  nuclear  weapons  system,  with  its 
longer-range  missiles,  larger  submarines,  and 
complete  U.S.  "home  ports,"  increasing  combat 
readiness  and  cutting  operating  costs  of  the  FBM 
force. 


The  Trident  missile  (the  entire  weapons 
system,  including  submarines,  missiles,  and  base, 
is  named  "Trident")  will  be  capable  of  reaching 
enemy  targets  from  both  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  Oceans,  thus  making  expensive  overseas 
ports  unnecessary  for  Trident  submarines.  In 
addition  the  Trident  I  missile  will  be  compatible 
with  our  present  Poseidon  submarines.  This  will 
increase  their  missile  range  to  4000  nautical 
miles  as  opposed  to  the  present  2500.  Both  the 
Poseidon  and  Trident  missiles  have  a  multiple 
warhead  capability. 


3.78 

Figure  21-5.— Sizes  and  comparative  designs  of  the  three  versions  of  Polaris  plus  the  Poseidon  missile.  The  A-1  and 

A-2  are  now  obsolete. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Fleet  ballistic  missile  submarines  operate  on 
20-day  rotational  cycles.  During  their 
ubmerged  patrols  they  operate  completely 
indetected.  They  are  permitted  to  receive 
nessages,  but  not  to  respond.  They  are  manned 
>y  two  complete  crews— Blue  and  Gold— each 
-.onsisting  of  about  140  officers  and  enlisted 
>ersonnel.  In  a  typical  cycle,  a  crew  will  take  its 
hip  on  a  2-month  patrol,  return  home  for 
oughly  a  month's  leave  or  rest  and  recreation, 
jegin  a  month  of  refresher  training  ashore, 
ejoin  the  ship  for  refit,  and  begin  another 
leployment.  While  one  crew  is  ashore,  the  other 
s  on  patrol  with  the  ship.  With  such  an 
Derating  schedule,  approximately  half  of  the 
ubmarines  are  always  on  station  while  the 
emaining  half  are  undergoing  overhaul  or 
etrofit. 

To  cut  transit  time  to  station,  the 
ubmarines  deploy  from  several  advanced  bases 
iverseas:  Holy  Loch,  Scotland;  Rota,  Spain 
FBM  submarines  will  -not  deploy  from  Rota, 
Ipain  after  1979);  and  Apra,  Guam.  Charleston, 
louth  Carolina,  also  is  a  major  base.  They  are 
erved  at  each  of  these  stations  by  submarine 
enders  converted  or  specially  built  to  handle 
he  FBM  weapons. 

iUBMARINE  TRAINING 
iND  DUTY 

Because  submarines  are  considered  "good" 
uty,  there  always  is  a  long  list  of  volunteers. 
)nly  the  best  of  these  volunteers  are  selected, 
Dr  they  must  meet  rigid  physical  and  mental 
jquirements. 

Once  selected,  both  officers  and  enlisted 
ersonnel  are  sent  to  the  submarine  school  in 
few  London,  Connecticut,  where  they  receive 
sneral  indoctrination  courses  that  cover  such 
ubjects  as  submarine  history;  torpedoes; 
lethods  of  escape  from  disabled  subs;  and 
allast,  trim,  air,  hydraulic,  and  other  systems  of 

typical  submarine.  In  addition,  officers' 
ourses  include  diving  and  surfacing,  attack 
rocedures,  tactics,  shiphandling,  electronics, 
ngineering,  fire  control,  and  sonar.  While 
ndergoing  this  training,  they  are  observed  to 
nsure  that  they  are  psychologically  suited  for 
.ibmarine  duty. 


Even  after  reporting  aboard  his  first 
submarine,  an  officer  or  enlisted  person  has 
much  to  learn  before  he  can  qualify  as  a 
submariner.  Each  person  is  required  to  have  a 
superior  knowledge  of  his  own  job  and  a 
working  knowledge  of  his  shipmates'  jobs  as 
well.  As  enlisted  person  may  qualify  in  6  or  7 
months,  but  an  officer  normally  takes  a  year.  He 
qualifies  for  OOD  watches  and  learns  how  to 
dive  and  surface.  He  practices  shiphandling, 
navigation,  approaches,  attacks,  and  landings.  He 
also  learns  how  everything  on  the  submarine 
operates.  On  nuclear  submarines  he  also  qualifies 
as  engineering  officer  of  the  watch. 

At  the  end  of  the  year,  the  officer 
demonstrates  his  knowledge  of  the  submarine 
and  its  equipment  and  his  proficiency  in  all 
phases  of  submarine  handling  and  operations  to 
a  board  convened  by  his  squadron  commander. 
If  he  successfully  passes  the  examination,  he  is 
then  designated  "qualified  in  submarines."  After 
qualifying  the  newly  qualified  officer  may  wear 
the  gold  dolphins  of  the  submariner. 

Submariners  move  about  in  a  more  relaxed 
atmosphere  than  is  found  on  most  surface 
vessels.  There  is  little  ceremony  aboard  a 
submarine  and  strict  protocol  usually  is  not 
observed.  Yet  capable,  well-trained  officers  have 
the  respect  of  the  crew  and  discipline  does  not 
suffer  thereby.  This,  coupled  with  the 
confidence  the  officers  place  in  the  equally 
capable  and  well-trained  crewmembers, 
maintains  an  esprit  de  corps  which  is  possibly 
greater  than  that  enjoyed  by  any  other  branch 
of  the  Navy. 


MINE  WARFARE 

Mine  warfare  may  be  divided  into  defensive 
and  offensive  mining  and  countermeasures. 
Defensive  mines  are  planted  to  protect  a  nation's 
own  harbors  and  shorelines.  Offensively,  mines 
may  be  used  to  bottle  up  enemy  harbors,  to 
render  strategic  or  convenient  shipping  routes 
dangerous  or  even  useless,  and  to  make  the 
enemy  divert  ships,  equipment,  and  personnel  to 
minesweeping  chores.  By  spreading  the 
minefields  over  as  wide  an  area  as  possible,  and 
by  using  several  different  types  of  mines,  the 
minesweeping  problem  is  made  more 


Chapter  21 -UNDERSEA  WARFARE 


formidable,  and  safe  shipping  routes  become 
more  and  more  difficult  to  maintain.  Offensive 
minefields  also  shunt  enemy  shipping  through 
areas  where  it  may  be  more  readily  attacked  by 
friendly  forces. 

Countermeasures  comprise  all  methods  of 
countering  the  enemy's  mines,  including 
self-protection  for  ships  and  clearing  channels 
and  fields  of  the  mines  themselves. 

Although  the  mine  (originally  called  a 
torpedo)  did  not  come  into  general  use  until  the 
Civil  War  era,  efforts  to  produce  an  explosive 
charge  that  could  be  detonated  under  or  against 
the  hull  of  an  enemy  ship  were  begun  in  the 
early  days  of  gunpowder.  The  progenitor  of  the 
modern  mine  was  Bushnell's  powder  keg  set 
adrift  on  the  Delaware  in  December  1777,  its 
target  the  blockading  British  squadron 
downstream.  An  unfortunate  current  and  a 
mossbacked  officialdom  defeated  this  Yankee 
invention.  It  remains  on  record,  however,  as  the 
first  contact  mine  of  the  floating  type  to  enter 
the  American  service. 

Farragut's  penetration  of  Mobile  Bay 
remains  one  of  the  more  dramatic  episodes  in 
the  history  of  mine  warfare.  The  Confederates 
blocked  the  wide  entrance  to  Mobile  Bay  by 
piling,  which  forced  shipping  to  navigate  a 
channel  under  the  guns  of  Fort  Morgan.  This 
channel  was  planted  with  about  180  mines 
which  were  strung  out  in  lines  designed  to  leave 
a  narrow  passage  within  pointblank  range  of  the 
shore  batteries.  Left  open  for  Confederate 
vessels,  the  passage  was  considered  a  deadly  trap 
for  the  enemy  invader  whose  ships  would  be 
squeezed  between  the  "torpedo"  lines  and  the 
fort.  It  was  into  this  bottleneck  that  Farragut 
boldly  ordered  his  Federal  squadron. 

This  use  of  mines  to  force  enemy  shipping 
into  a  channel  covered  by  shore  batteries  was  an 
early  demonstration  of  a  mining  tactic  that  later 
became  standard.  Given  a  more  reliable  model 
with  a  better  explosive  device,  the  Confederates 
might  have  frustrated  Farragut's  attempt.  With 
one  death-dealing  exception,  the  Confederate 
"torpedoes"  proved  duds.  Long  immersion  in 
saltwater  had  caused  them  to  deteriorate  and 


Farragut  had  ordered  his  ships  to  stay  in 
deep  water  and  to  move  steadily  forward, 
making  no  turn  until  the  "torpedo  line"  had 
been  passed.  Equipped  with  gear  to  pick  up  the 
mines,  the  Brooklyn  led  the  parade  of  wooden 
warships.  A  column  of  monitors,  led  by  the 
Tecitmseh,  moved  on  the  flank.  Someone 
mistook  the  orders,  and  the  monitor  Tecumseh, 
veering  off  to  fire  at  a  Confederate  ironclad, 
struck  one  of  the  submerged  mines.  There  was  a 
thunderclap  explosion,  and  the  Federal  monitor 
went  down.  The  Brooklyn  tried  to  turn  away 
and  blocked  the  advance.  A  hot  fire  from  Fort 
Morgan  raked  the  disorganized  line.  Farragut 
heard  the  cry,  "Torpedoes!"  The  old  admiral 
shouted  from  his  flagship's  rigging.  "Damn  the 
torpedoes!  Full  speed  ahead!" 

As  the  Federal  warships  pushed  on,  their 
crews  heard  the  scrape  of  iron  against  keel  and 
the  snapping  of  primers  and  kicked 
trigger-mechanisms.  But  the  watchdogs  failed  to 
bite— not  another  torpedo  exploded.  Thus  was 
dramatized  the  problem  of  mine  deterioration,  a 
baffler  that  modern  science  has  not  yet  entirely 
solved. 


OPERATIONS  IN 
WORLD  WAR  I 

During  World  War  I  both  Allied  and  Central 
Powers  engaged  in  extensive  mining  operations. 
Turkish  mines  laid  in  the  Dardanelles  frustrated 
a  British-French  attempt  to  penetrate  the  Sea  of 
Marmora  in  March  1915.  By  fending  off  the 
Allied  thrust,  the  Dardanelles  minefields  enabled 
the  Turks  to  strengthen  their  fortifications,  and 
as  a  consequence  the  British  drive  on  Gallipoli 
ended  in  costly  failure. 

Throughout  the  war,  German  mines 
imperiled  British  shipping  in  the  Channel.  British 
efforts  at  offensive  mining,  notably  in 
Heligoland  Bight,  were  frustrated  by  efficient 
German  minesweepers  supported  by  the  High 
Sea  Fleet.  The  clearing  of  enemy  minefields 
became  a  major  endeavor  of  the  rival  navies. 
Standard  mine  of  the  war  was  the  spherical 
model  studded  with  warlike  "horns"— an 
anchored  contact  mine.  In  an  attempt  to 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


paravanes  and  Otter  gear,  which  utilized  a  sweep 
wire,  extending  from  the  side  of  the  sweeping 
ship,  along  which  are  spaced  wire-  or 
chain-cutting  devices.  Paravanes,  now  obsolete, 
could  be  streamed  from  the  bow  of  almost  any 
ship  for  self-protection.  Otter  gear,  specifically 
designed  to  assist  in  clearing  fields  of  moored 
mines,  is  attached  to  the  end  of  the  sweep  wire 
to  divert  the  sweep  from  the  side  of  the  sweeper 
and  to  hold  down  the  outboard  end  of  the 
sweep  wire. 

The  tremendous  North  Sea  mine  barrage 
climaxed  the  mining  operations  of  World  War  I. 
The  American  antenna  mine  implemented  this 
endeavor  which  spelled  defeat  for  the  U-boat.  No 
less  than  57,000  of  these  mines  were  planted  by 
American  minelayers,  and  some  13,000  by  the 
British.  Premature  explosions  hampered  the 
effort,  but  the  enormous  field  was  sufficiently 
lethal  to  turn  back  the  1918  U-boats. 


OPERATIONS  IN 
WORLD  WAR  II 

Mine  warfare  of  World  War  II  featured 
submarine  and  aircraft  mine  plants.  Defensive 
mining  was  carried  out  in  the  main  by  the 
conventional  types  of  surface  minelayers,  and 
mine  clearance  was  accomplished  by  surface 
craft  with  special  minesweeping  equipment 
Countermeasures  included  novel  devices  for 
protection  and  detection.  For  the  most  part  the 
Allies  were  able  to  keep  their  mine  losses  within 
acceptably  low  limits. 

In  the  opening  months  of  the  war,  Nazi 
submarines  and  aircraft  sowed  deadly  fields  off 
the  English  and  Scottish  coasts.  During 
November  and  December  1939,  a  number  of 
British  ships  were  sunk  by  this  mine  barrage 
which  was  particularly  heavy  in  the  Thames 
Estuary.  So  the  Allies  encountered  one  of 
Hitler's  secret  weapons-an  influence  mine  that 
was  exploded  by  the  action  of  a  magnetic  needle 
coupled  to  a  detonating  mechanism  and 
activated  by  the  magnetic  field  of  a  steel-hulled 
ship.  The  Nazis  employed  a  variety  of  these 
mines.  But  the  magnetic  mine  was  hardly  in 
action  before  the  British  produced  successful 
countermeasures. 


One  of  these  was  the  degaussing  belt,  a 
system  of  electrical  cables  which  were  fastened 
to  the  hull  of  a  steel  ship  and  carried  currents  of 
electricity  that  neutralized  the  ship's  magnetic 
field.  The  device  developed  as  a  major  anti-mine 
shield  for  Allied  shipping  in  the  war.  Degaussing 
and  sweeping  together  successfully  countered 
the  magnetic  mine,  and  Nazi  offensive  mining 
operations  were  a  disappointment  to  the  Axis 
leaders. 

When  the  United  States  entered  the  war,  the 
Allies,  faced  with  the  problem  of  mounting  an 
offensive,  were  confronted  by  Japanese 
minefields  in  the  Pacific,  and  enemy  fields 
guarding  the  European  Atlantic  coast  and 
Mediterranean. 

Hitler  boasted  that  his  forces  would  repel 
any  assault  on  his  Atlantic  wall  in  exactly  9 
hours.  Shoring  up  that  wall  were  complex 
minefields  which  extended  from  Norway  to 
Spain.  As  a  preliminary  to  the  Normandy 
landings  in  June  1944,  the  Allies  conducted 
intensive  minesweeping  operations.  Also  into 
action  went  the  famous  UDTs  (underwater 
demolition  teams)  which  had  their  origin  in  the 
amphibious  campaigns  of  the  Pacific.  The  task 
of  clearing  underwater  obstacles  and  mines  by 
demolition  charges  carried  in  and  planted  by 
swimmers  was  a  Homeric  endeavor  calling  for 
the  utmost  in  courage,  skill,  and  physical 
endurance.  In  their  mine-clearing  exploits,  the 
American  UDTs  performed  some  of  the  great 
feats  of  the  war. 

That  mines  remained  a  dangerous  threat  to 
the  last  is  evidenced  by  American  ship  losses  off 
Normandy  where  three  destroyers,  a  destroyer 
escort,  two  minesweepers,  two  transports,  a 
submarine  chaser,  and  a  number  of  landing  craft 
were  sunk— most  of  them  by  mines. 

In  the  Pacific,  as  in  the  Atlantic,  the 
combatants  employed  minefields  to  defend  their 
major  bases  and  harbors,  and  laid  offensive  fields 
to  destroy  or  divert  enemy  shipping. 

U.S.  submarines  laid  the  first  Allied 
offensive  minefields  in  the  Pacific  in  October 
1942.  For  our  submarines,  minelaying  was  a 
secondary,  but  successful,  enterprise.  A  total  of 
658  mines,  laid  by  34  submarine  sorties,  resulted 
in  43  reported  Japanese  ship  casualties,  of  which 


448 


Chapter  21 -UNDERSEA  WARFARE 


24  were  sunk  and  19  damaged.  Submarine 
mining  continued  until  May  1945,  by  which 
time  profitable  locations  for  such  mining  had 
almost  disappeared. 

In  the  Pacific  a  few  PT  boats  operated  as 
special  minelayers.  A  squadron  of  new  220-ton 
destroyers  being  built  were  refitted  as  fast  DMs 
(destroyer  minelayers). 

In  March  1945  the  20th  Air  Force,  using 
B-29  aircraft,  began  a  mine  campaign  designed 
to  end  shipping  in  Japanese  coastal  waters. 
Major  target  was  Shimonoseki  Straits. 
Eventually  all  important  Japanese  and  Korean 
seaports  were  mined  by  the  B-29s,  and  over 
670,000  tons  of  shipping  were  sunk  or  disabled 
by  this  tremendous  barrage.  The  Japanese  were 
unable  to  clear  the  clogged  channels.  The  mines 
dropped  (acoustic,  magnetic,  and 
pressure-magnetic)  were  not  easily  swept,  and 
the  Japanese  lacked  equipment  for  the  task. 
Japan's  war  effort  was  expiring  when  the  mining 
offensive  was  launched  against  her. 
Technologically  weak  to  begin  with,  the 
Japanese  were  unable  to  produce  first-class  mine 
countermeasures. 

The  Japanese  laid  a  vast  minefield  in  the 
East  China  Sea,  west  of  the  Nansei  Shoto;  and 
throughout  the  war  this  field  protected  their 
shipping  in  that  area.  Japanese  mines  also  were 
scattered  in  the  Yellow  Sea,  and  minefields 
effectively  guarded  the  entrances  to  the  Sea  of 
Japan  until  the  closing  months  of  the  war.  The 
loss  of  three  American  submarines  was  almost 
certainly  caused  by  mines,  and  five  others  that 
failed  to  return  from  patrol  may  have  been 
destroyed  by  mines. 

Allied  minesweepers  performed  ably  in  the 
Pacific.  Special  mine-disposal  units  joined  in  the 
clearance  tasks,  and  shallow-draft  landing  craft 
were  fitted  with  light  emergency  sweeping  gear 
to  assist  in  these  operations. 

Elaborate  systems  developed  whereby 
friendly  forces  were  informed  of  mine  locations, 
and  channels  were  provided  for  safe  passage. 
Mine  plants  were  authorized  only  when 
approved  by  area  commanders  in  accordance 
with  planned  naval  operations.  Responsibility 


mining  operations.  Many  of  the  mines  employed 
in  World  War  II  were  designed  to  aid  eventual 
clearance;  the  mines  incorporated  "sterilizers," 
which  are  devices  that  render  mines  incapable  of 
operation  after  a  preset  time.  Nevertheless, 
mines  sank  or  damaged  several  hundred  ships 
after  World  War  II  ended. 

In  summary,  mine  warfare  was  reaching  an 
offensive  peak  when  hostilities  were  ended  in 
the  Pacific.  In  a  little  less  than  a  century,  the 
mine  had  developed  as  a  potent  undersea 
weapon.  Employed  offensively  and  defensively, 
it  had  turned  the  tide  of  battles,  frustrated 
invading  forces,  and  destroyed  naval  vessels  of 
the  largest  class. 

OPERATIONS  IN 

THE  VIETNAM  CONFLICT 

On  May  1972,  nine  sorties  of  A-6  and  A-7 
aircraft  dropped  36  mines  in  the  channel  of 
Haiphong  in  one  of  the  most  strategically 
effective  operations  of  the  Vietnam  Conflict. 
None  of  the  29  trapped  major  merchant  ships 
was  sunk.  However,  those  ships  were  out  of 
action  for  the  duration  of  the  conflict.  The 
effectiveness  of  the  coastal  mine  campaign 
demonstrated  the  vulnerability  of  a  country 
which  has  little  or  no  minesweeping  capability. 
Thus  the  mining  campaign  provided  a  potent 
lever  to  U.S.  negotiations  both  before  and  after 
the  Peace  Agreement. 

From  the  beginning,  the  possibility  of  U.S. 
forces  having  to  sweep  the  mines  was  a  factor 
which  influenced  the  types  of  mines  used,  their 
settings,  and  to  a  lesser  degree  their  locations.  As 
a  result,  when  it  came  time  to  sweep,  we  knew 
everything  about  the  mines  and  had  purposely 
planted  mines  which  could  be  swept  easily  and 
effectively  by  our  mine  countermeasures  forces. 
The  vast  majority  of  the  mines  were 
programmed  to  self-destruct  and  the  remainder 
to  become  inert  after  a  given  time.  Thus,  even  as 
the  mines  were  dropped,  the  process  of  mine 
removal  had  been  started. 

OPERATIONAL  MINES 
OF  TODAY 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


operation  (controlled  or  automatic),  type  of 
detonating  mechanism  (contact  or  influence), 
and  method  of  planting  (surface  craft,  aircraft, 
or  submarine). 

Moored  mines  are  characterized  by  buoyant 
cases  maintained  at  predetermined  depths  by 
mooring  cables  attached  to  anchors.  Since 
depths  can  be  controlled  by  the  lengths  of  the 
moorings,  the  mines  can  be  planted  in  either 
shallow  water  against  small  craft,  or  in  deeper 
water  against  surface  ships  and  submarines.  (See 
figure  21-6.)  Bottom  mines  are  nonbuoyant  and 
thus  lie  on  the  sea  bottom.  When  used  against 
surface  ships,  they  must  be  laid  in  water  shallow 
enough  so  that  their  explosive  charges  will  be 
effective  against  those  vessels. 

Controlled  mines,  no  longer  used  by  the 
United  States,  could  be  fired  by  a  person  on 
shore  when  he  observed  (visually,  by  radar,  by 
detectors  in  the  mines,  or  by  other  means)  that 
an  enemy  ship  was  near  the  mine.  Some  mines 
of  this  type  were  designed  so  that  they  could  be 
set  to  fire  automatically.  An  automatic  mine 
fires  automatically  when  its  firing  mechanism 
detects  that  a  ship  is  near. 

Actual  contact  of  a  ship  with  a  mine  or  one 
of  its  component  parts  (such  as  an  antenna)  is 
required  to  detonate  a  contact  mine.  One  of  the 
most  common  contact  mines  is  equipped  with 
lead  horns  encasing  glass  tubes  containing  an 
electrolyte.  When  a  horn  is  bent,  the  glass  tube  is 
broken,  and  the  electrolyte  flows  into  a  battery 
cell,  generating  enough  current  to  fire  the  mine. 

Influence  Mines 

There  are  three  basic  types  of  influence 
mines— magnetic,  acoustic,  and  pressure— but 
firing  mechanisms  of  two  or  all  three  of  these 
may  be  combined  in  one  mine,  making  it  more 
difficult  to  sweep. 

MAGNETIC.— The  induction  type  uses  a 
search  coil  instead  of  needle.  When  a  moving 
magnetic  field  cuts  the  search  coil  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  induce  a  current  in  the  coil  of 
sufficient  strength  to  operate  a  relay,  the  firing 
circuit  is  actuated  and  the  mine  detonates. 

ACOUSTIC. -An  acoustic  mine  is  actuated 
by  sound  waves  caused  by  a  ship's  propellers, 


machinery,  or  hull  vibrations  striking  a  sensitive 
microphone  in  the  mine.  The  mechanism 
operates  in  much  the  same  way  as  an  eardrum 
when  a  sound  wave  causes  it  to  vibrate  and  send 
an  impulse  to  the  brain. 

PRESSURE. -The  pressure  mine  makes  use 
of  the  Bernoulli  principle;  i.e.,  fluid  flowing 
from  a  larger  area  through  a  smaller  area  caused 
a  reduction  in  pressure  in  the  smaller  area.  In 
practice,  the  ship  moves  instead  of  the  water, 
but  the  effect  is  the  same.  In  water  which  is  not 
too  deep,  a  fast-moving  ship  causes  a  rapid 
reduction  in  normal  underwater  pressure.  The 
reduction  in  pressure  moves  a  diaphragm  in  the 
mine  that  closes  contacts.  This  allows  a  current 
to  flow,  thus  firing  the  mine. 

COMBINATION  MINES.-There  are  many 
variations  of  the  foregoing  mines,  and  in 
addition  there  are  combination  mines  that 
require  two  or  more  types  of  influence  before 
they  will  explode.  For  example,  the  pressure 
influence  may  close  a  switch,  but  the  mine  will 
not  detonate  until  it  also  is  influenced 
magnetically. 

MINE  COUNTERMEASURES  (MCMs) 

The  two  most  important  general  types  of 
mine  countermeasures  are  sweeping  and  hunting. 
Minesweeping  is  done  by  going  over  the  mined 
area  with  mechanical  sweeps  that  physically 
remove  the  mines  (for  example,  by  cutting 
mooring  cables  of  moored  mines)  and  with 
influence  sweeps  which  provide  the  influence 
fields  necessary  to  actuate  influence  mines.  In 
addition  to  minesweeping  ships  and  craft, 
helicopters  are  used  to  sweep  mines. 
Mine-hunting  involves  going  over  an  area  with 
mine  detecting  equipment  that  will  find  the 
mines,  which  are  then  removed  by  divers  or 
destroyed  by  explosive  charges. 

With  less  emphasis  being  placed  on 
minesweeping  ships,  the  helicopter  has  been 
developed  into  an  effective  minesweeping 
vehicle  for  coastal  operations.  Inherent 
characteristics  that  make  the  helicopter 
attractive  as  an  MCM  vehicle  are  its  speed, 
safety,  maneuverability,  flexibility,  and  freedom 


450 


Chapter  21 -UNDERSEA  WARFARE 


134.205 


Figure  21-6.-Planting  a  moored  mine. 


from  sea  limitations.  The  characteristics, 
however,  that  limit  its  effectiveness  include 
payload  and  weight  restrictions,  relatively  short 
time  on  station  (fuel  capacity),  and  crew 
endurance.  With  the  development  of  specialized 


minesweeping  equipment  that  can  be  streamed 
and  recovered  from  the  air  and  with  the  advent 
of  larger,  more  sophisticated  helicopters  which 
are  capable  of  lifting  loads  of  large  volume  and 
weight  and  which  have  good  towing  capability, 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


the  airborne  MCM  has  assumed  a  major  role  in 
countering  the  sea  mine,  particularly  in  shallow 
waters. 

Sweeping  Moored  Mines 

The  U.S.  Navy  uses  several  types  of  sweep 
gear  for  sweeping  moored  mines.  In  the  most 
common  type,  a  wire  cable  (sweep  wire)  is 
towed  through  the  water  deep  enough  to  strike 
the  mine  mooring.  The  mine  mooring  then  slides 
along  the  sweep  wire  until  it  engages  one  of 
several  cutters  spaced  at  intervals  along  the 
sweep  wire.  The  cutter  severs  the  mooring,  and 
the  mine  bobs  to  the  surface  where  it  can  be 
detonated  or  sunk  by  gunfire.  The  sweep  gear 
can  be  streamed  to  both  sides  of  the  ship 
simultaneously. 

Minesweeping  cutters  are  either  mechanical 
or  explosive.  A  mechanical  cutter  has  no  moving 
parts  and  cuts  the  mine  mooring  by  means  of 
two  saw-toothed  blades  held  in  the  form  of  a  V; 
it  will  cut  wire  moorings  up  to  I/ 2-inch  in 
diameter,  but  will  not  cut  chain  moorings. 
Explosive  cutters  are  of  two  types.  One  utilizes  a 
shaped  charge  to  cut  the  mine  mooring;  with  the 
other  type  an  explosive  charge  propels  a  cutting 
chisel.  Some  explosive  cutters  are  capable  of 
severing  chain  moorings  up  to  1-1/8  inches  in 
diameter. 

Sweeping  Magnetic  Mines 

As  defense  against  magnetic  mines, 
minesweepers  are  constructed  of  wood  and 
stainless  steel,  aluminum,  and  other 
nonmagnetic  metals  which,  along  with  an 
elaborate  degaussing  system,  give  them  a  low 
magnetic  signature.  A  shallow  draft  also  greatly 
reduces  the  danger  to  the  minesweeper  of 
moored  or  pressure  mines. 

To  sweep  magnetic  mines  the  minesweeper 
streams  a  buoyant  cable  (tail),  many  yards 
astern  or  to  the  side  of  the  vessel,  through  which 
a  powerful  direct  current  is  pulsed  at  intervals. 
This  sets  up  a  large  magnetic  field  around  the 
cable  and  influences  the  mines. 

Helicopters  use  the  Mk  105  hydrofoil  sled 
when  sweeping  magnetic  mines.  The  sled,  towed 


through  the  water  by  a  cable  attached  to  the 
helicopter  (figure  21-7),  has  a  turbine  and 
generator  mounted  on  it  to  generate  power  for  a 
magnetic  tail  trailed  behind  the  sled  much  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  minesweeping  ship.  The 
major  disadvantage  in  using  the  Mk  105  sled  is 
the  requirement  for  a  support  ship  or 
shore-based  unit  to  assist  in  streaming  and 
recovery. 

Sweeping  Acoustic  Mines 

Sweeping  acoustic  mines  is  similar  to 
magnetic  minesweeping  in  that  the  effect  of  an 
approaching  ship  must  be  produced  artificially. 
This  is  done  by  towing  a  noisemaker,  of  which 
there  are  numerous  types,  astern  of  the  sweeper. 
In  one  commonly  used  type,  a  direct  current 
motor  actuates  a  striker  which  strikes  a 
diaphragm  to  produce  sound  waves.  Current  to 
the  motor  may  be  pulsed  or  modulated  to  give 
the  effect  of  an  approaching  ship.  The 
approaching  effect  is  vital  because  a  sudden 
sharp  noise,  such  as  an  explosion,  will  not  fire 
the  mines.  It  merely  actuates  a  countermine 
bypass  circuit  designed  to  prevent  a  mine  from 
being  fired  by  the  explosion  of  an  adjacent  mine 
or  depth  charge.  The  acoustic  hammer  is 
supported  by  a  large  float  and  is  towed  about 
1500  feet  astern.  This  is  also  true  of 
helicopter-towed  acoustic  gear. 

Sweeping  Combination  Mines 

When  sweeping  for  combination  mines  from 
helicopters  (acoustic  and  magnetic)  the  Mk  105 
magnetic  sled  and  Mk  104  acoustic  gear  are 
combined  to  accomplish  the  task 
simultaneously. 

Sweeping  Pressure  Mines 

Unable  to  produce  artificially  the  effect  that 
would  detonate  pressure  mines  (that  of  a  ship 
passing  over),  the  Navy  converted  a  merchant 
ship  for  that  purpose.  Operational  for  only  a 
short  time,  it  was  decommissioned  and  scrapped. 
The  search  for  a  positive  method  to  sweep 
pressure  mines  continues. 


452 


Chapter  21 -UNDERSEA  WARFARE 


Figure  21-7.-The  Mk  105  magnetic  sled  being  towed  by  a  helicopter. 


134.206 


EXPLOSIVE  ORDNANCE 
DISPOSAL  (EOD) 

A  very  important  part  in  mine 
countermeasur.es  is  played  by  members  of  EOD 
teams.  A  minefield  may  be  located  by  various 
means;  but  unless  the  type  of  mine  is  known, 
sweeping  will  be  a  hit-or-miss  affair  not  likely  to 
produce  the  desired  results.  Therefore,  EOD 
personnel  will  go  down  to  look  at  the  mines, 
and,  if  necessary,  recover  one  for  study.  From 
information  gained  in  this  manner,  proper 
sweeping  techniques  can  be  devised.  Mines  in 
shallow  water,  in  congested  harbors,  close  to 


piers,  or  which  for  some  other  reason  cannot  be 
swept  are  disposed  of  by  these  personnel. 

Each  branch  of  the  service  is  responsible  for 
handling  explosives  on  its  own  bases.  However, 
any  explosives  found  in  U.S.-controlled  waters 
are  the  responsibility  of  the  Navy,  and  Navy 
EOD  teams  will  be  called  upon  to  dispose  of 
them.  In  addition,  police  forces  frequently 
request  their  assistance  in  handling  explosives 
for  them. 

EOD  units  are  made  up  of  teams  consisting 
of  one  officer  and  two  or  more  enlisted  persons. 
All  are  volunteers,  and  all  are  graduates  of  the 
EOD  school  at  Indian  Head,  Maryland. 


CHAPTER  22 


ANTISUBMARINE  WARFARE 


Until  1917  there  was  no  adequate  means  of 
detecting  a  submerged  submarine.  The  most 
frequent  cause  of  submarine  sinkings  was 
ramming  or  gunfire.  During  World  War  I, 
however,  three  major  developments  established 
the  foundation  of  antisubmarine  warfare  (ASW). 

First  was  the  development  of  the  convoy 
system.  The  idea  of  grouping  ships  together  had 
been  used  by  the  Spaniards  three  and  a  half 
centuries  before  to  protect  their  gold  shipments 
from  Mexico,  but  not  until  Admiral  William  S. 
Sims,  USN,  applied  his  energies  to  the  subject 
was  it  adopted  as  a  defense  against  U-boats. 
Under  destroyer  escort,  more  than  2,000,000 
American  troops  were  convoyed  to  Europe 
during  World  War  I  without  a  single  loss  of  life 
due  to  submarine  action. 

Second  was  the  introduction  of  the 
directional  hydrophone.  During  the  closing 
months  of  World  War  I,  the  Allied  Submarine 
Devices  Investigation  Committee,  termed  Asdic, 
was  formed  to  obtain,  from  science  and 
technology,  more  effective  underwater  detection 
equipment.  The  committee  developed  a 
reasonably  accurate  device  for  locating  a 
submerged  submarine.  This  device,  a  trainable 
hydrophone,  was  attached  to  the  bottom  of 
ASW  ships  and  used  to  detect  screw  noises  and 
other  sounds  that  might  come  from  a  submarine. 

Finally,  the  depth  charge  gave  the  destroyer 
a  weapon  capable  of  destroying  a  submarine 
under  water,  where  it  had  previously  been 
virtually  invulnerable. 

After  a  general  postwar  lull  of  about  10 
years,  work  resumed  in  ASW.  Although  the 
Asdic  committee  disbanded  after  World  War  I, 
the  British  made  improvements  on  the  locating 


device  during  the  interval  between  then  and 
World  War  II,  and  named  it  Asdic  after  the 
committee.  American  scientists  further 
improved  on  the  device,  calling  it  sonar,  an 
acronym  for  sound  navigation  and  ranging. 
Sonar  operating  principles  are  described  later  in 
this  chapter.  By  bouncing  an  audible  signal  off 
the  hull  of  a  submarine  and  measuring  the  time 
lapse  between  signal  generation  and  return, 
sonar  equipment  measures  the  range  and 
determines  the  bearing  of  the  submarine.  There 
are  many  problems  inherent  in  the  use  of  sound 
in  the  sea.  Foremost  of  these  is  the  dependency 
of  sound  velocity  on  water  temperature,  salinity, 
and  pressure.  Each  of  these  parameters  is  so 
changeable  in  the  open  ocean  that  an  accurate 
picture  of  sonar  conditions  is  sometimes 
impossible  to  obtain.  It  is  often  possible  for 
detection  ranges  to  vary  over  several  thousand 
yards  due  to  environmental  conditions. 

Aircraft  became  an  increasingly  important 
part  of  ASW  as  land-based  patrol  squadrons 
acquired  long-range  flying  boats  in  the  1930s. 

In  1937,  the  destroyer  Leary  put  to  sea 
equipped  with  what  German  Admiral  Doenitz  in 
later  years  was  to  credit  with  winning  the  Battle 
of  the  Atlantic.  This  was  the  first  seagoing  radar, 
bulky  and  crude,  but  the  forerunner  of 
extremely  sophisticated  electronic  devices  to 
come. 

The  havoc  wrought  by  Hitler's  submarine 
fleet  in  the  first  3  years  of  World  War  II  is 
evident  from  chapter  21.  To  meet  that  threat, 
drastic  countermeasures  were  required  on  the 
part  of  the  allies.  A  primary  need  was  for  more 
escort  ships.  The  50  destroyers  that  Great 
Britain  received  from  the  United  States  in  1940 


Chapter  22-ANTISUBMARINE  WARFARE 


may  well  have  been  the  thin  margin  of  survival 
in  those  critical  months.  In  addition,  many  of 
her  own  older  destroyers  were  converted  to 
ASW  escorts.  In  order  to  combat  U-boat 
wolfpacks,  destroyers,  frigates,  and  corvettes 
were  organized  into  escort  groups.  The  United 
States  entry  into  the  war  provided  the  means  for 
a  coordinated  effort  on  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic,  but  well  into  1942  the  Germans  were 
still  sinking  ships  faster  than  they  could  be  built. 

Aircraft  soon  proved  their  worth  in  the  ASW 
effort.  Convoys  under  air  cover  were  rarely 
attacked  by  submarines.  A  part  of  the 
mid-Atlantic,  however,  was  beyond  the  range  of 
land-based  patrol  craft.  To  the  Allies  this  area 
became  known  as  the  "Black  Pit";  to  the 
Germans,  "U-boat  Paradise."  To  overcome  the 
handicap  posed  by  the  gap  in  air  cover,  the 
escort  carrier  was  added  to  the  convoy  escort 
group,  starting  withBogue  (CVE  9)  in  1943. 

Other  CVEs  were  then  deployed  with  DEs  to 
form  hunter-killer  units  that  were  stationed  near 
convoy  routes  across  the  deadly  mid- Atlantic 
gap.  Whenever  U-boats  began  converging  on  a 
convoy,  the  carrier  and  her  brood  would 
proceed  to  intercept  them,  picking  off  as  many 
single  submarines  as  they  could  along  the  way. 
What  made  this  procedure  possible  was 
tremendously  efficient  teamwork  on  both  sides 
of  the  Atlantic.  In  Washington,  the  Tenth  Fleet 
(a  shore-based  staff,  not  a  group  of  ships) 
provided  extremely  accurate  intelligence  on  the 
movement  of  the  German  craft.  Long-range 
high-frequency  direction  finder  (HF/DF) 
stations  ringed  the  Atlantic.  With  these,  it  was 
possible  to  fix  the  position  of  any  U-boat 
transmitting  lengthy  messages  which  were 
required  daily  by  the  German  High  Command  in 
Berlin.  Aircraft  from  the  carriers  would  be 
vectored  to  look  for  the  subs  and,  upon  contact, 
lead  surface  escorts  to  the  targets  for 
coordinated  attacks.  This  technique  was 
employed  in  May  1944  when  the  escort  carrier 
Guadalcanal  and  ships  of  her  screen  captured 
U-505  with  all  of  her  codes  and  ciphering. 

German  countermeasures  included  the 
snorkel,  which  came  too  late;  radar  detectors, 
which  often  gave  away  submarines'  positions  by 
their  own  electronic  emissions;  various  attempts 


to  deflect  radar  echoes,  heavy  AA  armaments, 
and  acoustical  decoys  to  fool  sonar  operators. 

The  Pacific  ASW  campaign  was  not  nearly  so 
dramatic,  primarily  because  the  Japanese  failed 
to  employ  their  submarines  effectively.  The 
most  spectacular  performance  was  that  of  the 
England  (DE  635),  which  single-handedly 
destroyed  five  submarines  of  a  Japanese  picket 
line  and  assisted  in  the  sixth  kill  within  a  span  of 
12  days. 

In  postwar  years  ASW  weaponry  improved 
with  respect  to  both  detection  range  and  killing 
power.  The  submarine's  position  was  saved  by 
the  advent  of  the  snorkel  submarine.  With  the 
launching  of  the  nuclear-powered  Nautilus  in 
1955,  the  relative  balance  that  existed  between 
the  capabilities  of  submarines  and  ASW  units 
changed  radically.  No  longer  did  the  submarine 
have  to  come  to  the  surface  or  even  near  it  to 
recharge  her  batteries  and  air  supply.  Nuclear 
power  permitted  complete  independence  from 
the  sea  surface  and  with  it  virtual  freedom  from 
detection  by  ships  or  aircraft.  With  the  marriage 
of  the  Albacore  hull  (of  teardrop  configuration 
and  with  a  minimum  of  external  appendages  and 
superstructure)  and  nuclear  power,  the 
submarine  could  outrun  and  outmaneuver 
vitrually  all  of  her  surface  opponents. 

When  one  nation  perfects  a  new  or  advanced 
weapon,  it  only  remains  a  matter  of  time  before 
other,  possibly  hostile,  nations  perfect  their  own 
version  of  that  weapon.  Therefore,  with  the 
advent  of  the  nuclear  submarine,  it  also  became 
necessary  to  devise  a  defense  against  that  type 
of  submarine  in  the  event  of  its  use  by  an  enemy 
against  the  United  States.  Weapons  systems  such 
as  LAMPS  and  ASROC  were  developed  to 
extend  the  attack  range  of  destroyer-type  ships, 
while  introduction  of  the  variable-depth  sonar 
(YDS),  which  can  be  lowered  over  the  stern  to  a 
depth  of  several  hundred  feet,  improved 
detection  capabilities  previously  limited  by  the 
fixed,  hull-mounted  sonar. 

To  combat  the  fast-running,  highly 
maneuverable  nuclear-powered  submarine,  the 
SSN  itself,  with  its  highly  improved  sensing 
devices  and  its  payload  consisting  of  torpedoes 
plus  long-range  subsurface  to  surface  and 
subsurface  to  subsurface  missiles,  and  operating 


in  its  own  element,  was  adapted  to  an  ASW  role. 
Surface  ASW  equipment  was  greatly  improved 
with  the  advent  of  more  modern  detection 
equipment  such  as  LAMPS,  helicopters,  and 
variable  depth  sonars.  ASROC  and  improved 
torpedoes  increase  kill  probability.  Newer  and 
more  capable  aircraft  have  helped  immensely. 

The  basic  mission  of  antisubmarine  warfare 
(ASW)  is  to  deny  the  enemy  the  effective  use  of 
his  submarines.  The  U.S.  Navy  has  accomplished 
this  mission  twice  within  the  last  century.  But 
we  must  go  beyond  what  we  have  learned  in  the 
past,  to  develop  new  techniques  to  match  the 
expanding  role  of  the  submarine.  It  is  no  longer 
enough  to  prevent  submarine  torpedo  attacks  on 
our  shipping  and  naval  vessels.  In  addition  to  the 
torpedo,  submarines  now  have  a  long-range 
nuclear  missile  capability;  and  this,  in  turn, 
generates  a  new  requirement-the  need  to  find 
and  keep  under  surveillance  all  enemy 
submarines  before  they  can  reach  a  point  within 
missile-launching  range  of  our  coasts. 

Antisubmarine  warfare  can  be  considered  as 
having  protective  and  offensive  phases. 
Protective  tactics  include  the  establishment  of 
operating  methods  which  ensure  safe  arrival  of 
shipping  at  destination,  and  protection  of  ships 
and  shore  activities  against  submarine  attack. 
Operations  employed  to  accomplish  the 
offensive  tasks  include  air  strike  operations 
against  submarine  bases. 


BASIC  ELEMENTS 
OF  ASW  FORCES 

Surface  units,  aircraft  and  submarines  are 
the  basic  elements  of  our  ASW  forces.  These 
forces  are  capable  of  operating  independently  or 
in  conjunction  with  each  other,  as  the  situation 
may  warrant. 

SURFACE  UNITS 

The  surface  ship  has  a  greater  variety  of  both 
detection  equipment  and  weapons  than  any 
other  ASW  unit.  A  prime  advantage  of  the 
surface  ship  is  its  ability  to  conduct  all-weather 
operations.  Impaired  visibility,  darkness,  storms, 
or  rough  seas  do  not  prevent  the  surface  unit 
from  detecting  a  submarine  or  launching  an 


134.183 

Figure    22-1.— LAMPS    helicopter    landing    aboard    the 
guided-missile  cruiser  Bel  knap. 


attack.  In  addition,  a  ship  has  the  capability  of 
remaining  on  station  for  a  comparatively  long 
time. 

Our  most  effective  ASW  surface  ships  today 
are  frigates,  destroyers,  and  cruisers  equipped 
with  manned  SH-2F  helicopters  (figure  22-1), 
designated  as  the  Light  Airborne  Multipurpose 
System  (LAMPS).  In  addition,  these  ships  are 
utilizing  new  and  improved  radar,  sonar, 
electronic  countermeasures,  and  communication 
systems  to  enhance  their  detection  capabilities. 

Aircraft  carriers,  with  ASW  aircraft 
embarked,  are  considered  as  another  major 
surface  unit.  They  allow  midocean  areas  beyond 
the  effective  range  of  land-based  patrol  aircraft 
to  be  monitored. 

ASW  AIRCRAFT 

Aircraft  have  the  ability  to  investigate 
distant  contacts  rapidly  and  are  completely 
invulnerable  to  submerged  submarines.  With  the 
advantages  of  speed,  relatively  long  range,  and 
weapons  capability,  aircraft  may  fulfill  the 
antisubmarine  mission  independently  or  in 


456 


134.95.6 

Figure  22-2.— Advanced  detection  systems,  extended  loiter  ability,  and  a  large  ordnance  capability  make  the  Orion 

a  deadly  ASW  weapon  system. 


coordination  with  other  types  of  antisubmarine 
units. 

Aircraft  resources  for  antisubmarine  warfare 
are  basically  of  three  types:  long-range  patrol 
aircraft,  medium-range  carrier-based  aircraft,  and 
helicopters. 

Patrol  Aircraft 

The  P-3  Orion  (figure  22-2)  is  the  Navy's 
principal  patrol  plane.  To  carry  out  its  primary 
mission  of  locating  and  attacking  submarines,  it 
has  a  variety  of  sensors,  including  radar, 
sonobuoys,  magnetic  anomaly  detector  (MAD), 
and  electromagnetic  intercept  (ESM)  equipment. 


Orion's  armament  includes  torpedoes,  rockets, 
depth  bombs,  air-to-surface  missiles,  and 
conventional  bombs.  It  also  can  be  used  for 
aerial  mining. 

Carrier-Based  Aircraft 


The  S-3A  Viking  (figure  22-3)  is  a 
carrier-based  jet-powered  ASW  search  and  attack 
aircraft.  Detection  equipment  includes  active 
and  passive  sonobuoys,  MAD  gear,  and  radar. 
Secondary  functions  include  all-weather  search 
and  rescue,  plane  guard  duties,  gunfire 
observation,  and  personnel  transfer.  Weapons 
include  torpedoes  and  depth  bombs. 


457 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


ASW  SUBMARINES 

The  submarine  itself  is  perhaps  the  most 
effective  antisubmarine  vehicle;  it  operates  in 
the  same  medium  and  shares  the  target's 
advantages  of  concealment  and  passive 
detection.  (Passive  sonar  depends  entirely  on  the 
target's  noise  as  the  sound  source  rather  than  the 
returned  echoes  of  a  transmitted  signal.)  The 
submarine  can  be  employed  in  protecting  the 
capital  ships  of  a  carrier  task  force,  in  detecting 
enemy  submarines  while  working  with  a 
hunter-killer  group,  and  in  supplementing  and 
protecting  radar  picket  destroyers.  Submarines 
can  precede  carrier  strike  forces  into  enemy 
waters  to  function  as  ASW  screens  and  as 
minelayers.  Immediately  before  a  strike, 
guide d-missile  submarines  could  be  utilized  to 
destroy  enemy  submarine  installations  (as  well 
as  other  strategic  targets)  before  enemy 
submarines  have  a  chance  to  put  to  sea. 

AIRBORNE  ELECTRONIC  DEVICES 

The  magnetic  anomaly  detection  (MAD) 
device  is  used  mainly  for  classification  purposes. 


When  used  against  submarines  at  shallow  depths, 
it  produces  a  conical  shaped  sweep  path  which 
can,  depending  on  height  of  the  aircraft  and 
other  variables,  detect  a  submarine  by  variations 
in  the  Earth's  magnetic  lines  of  force.  Because  of 
its  limited  range,  MAD  is  not  generally  classed  as 
a  device  for  open  area  searches,  but  it  is  suitable 
for  use  in  small  areas  geographically  or  tactically 
defined  or  restricted.  The  MAD  normally  is 
utilized  as  the  final  localization  of  a  submarine 
prior  to  attack. 

Expendable  radio  sonobuoys,  used  with 
measured  success  against  submarines  of  the  last 
war,  are  very  useful  against  snorkeling 
submarines  at  close  ranges,  in  tactical  situations 
where  high  speeds  are  required  of  a  submarine, 
or  against  submarines  rendered  noisy  by  attack 
or  operational  casualty.  The  sonobuoys  are 
buoyant  tubes,  each  containing  a  hydrophone 
and  radio  transmitter.  They  are  dropped  from  an 
aircraft  and  the  sounds  that  the  hydrophones 
pick  up  are  broadcast  to  surface  craft  or  aircraft. 
Each  sonobuoy  is  on  a  slightly  different 
frequency.  Active  buoys  that  emit  a  sound  signal 
and  listen  for  the  return  echo  also  are  used. 

Since  helicopters  are  capable  of  hovering,  as 
in  figure  22-4,  in  one  spot,  a  different  piece  of 


134.182 

Figure  22-3.-AN  S-3A  VIKING  Antisubmarine  aircraft  catches  the  wire  during  a  recovery  aboard  the  attack  aircraft 

carrier  USS  FORRESTAL,  CV/59. 


458 


Chapter  22-ANTISUBMARINE  WARFARE 


3.115 


Figure  22-4.— The  helicopter  lowers  detection  gear  into  the  water  while  hovering  over  a  suspected  contact  area. 


equipment  is  employed.  This  aircraft,  by  means 
of  a  long  cable,  lowers  a  cylindrical  transducer 
into  the  water  while  hovering  over  the  suspected 
contact  area.  With  this  gear  the  helicopter  can 
listen  or  echo-range.  If  a  dip  at  one  point 
produces  negative  results,  the  sonar  is  lifted 
clean  and  the  aircraft  moves  to  another  point. 
Other  methods  of  detection  include: 

1 .  Infrared  detection. 

2.  Heat    detection    as  applied   to   thermal 
wakes. 

3.  Pulsed     visible     light     techniques 
(high-power     sources     with    extremely    short 
duration     flashes,     aimed     at    detection     of 


submerged  submarines  at  periscope  or  snorkel 
depth). 

4.  Exhaust  trail  indicator. 

5.  Explosive  echo  ranging  using  sonobuoy 
detectors. 

In  all  types  of  airborne  electronic  ASW 
devices,  proper  training  of  both  operating  and 
maintenance  personnel  is  paramount  to 
successful  application  of  the  equipment.  Special 
techniques  may  be  involved,  in  such  matters  as 
spotting  snorkel  targets  on  radarscopes  and 
proper  and  accurate  sound  identification  as 
required  for  effective  use  of  sonobuoys  and 
proposed  sonic  devices. 


459 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


SOUND  NAVIGATION 
AND  RANGING 

The  principal  method  of  submarine 
detection  is  sonar  (Sound  Navigation  And 
Ranging).  This  is  the  name  applied  to  the 
electronic  device  that  can  either  detect  the 
sounds  originating  under  water  (passive  sonar)  or 
transmit  a  sound  wave  through  the  depths  that, 
upon  striking  an  object,  will  reflect  (active 
sonar).  Submarines  use  passive  sonar  to  enable 
them  to  detect  objects  making  noise  without 
transmitting  a  telltale  ping  themselves. 

To  understand  how  sonar  works,  you  must 
first  understand  sound.  Sound  is  the  physical 
energy  which  causes  the  sensation  of  hearing.  It 
travels  in  the  form  of  waves  away  from  the  point 
of  origin,  just  as  ripples  travel  out  in  all 
directions  when  a  pebble  is  tossed  into  a  pond. 
Echoes  are  created  when  the  sound  waves  strike 
an  object  of  varying  density  in  the  surrounding 
seawater.  The  waves  will  not  travel  through 
these  objects,  and  are  reflected  back  to  the 
source. 

The  substance  through  which  sound  travels 
is  called  a  medium.  All  types  of  matter  are 
sound  mediums  of  varying  efficiency.  The 
denser  the  medium,  the  more  rapidly  sound 
travels  through  it.  Therefore,  steel  is  a  better 
medium  than  water,  and  water  is  a  better 
medium  than  air. 

Let  us  take  a  look  at  what  happens  to  a 
sonar  impulse  after  it  leaves  the  transducer  (the 
transmitting  device  in  the  water).  The  transducer 
introduces  the  sound  wave  into  the  water  by 
converting  the  equipment's  electrical  energy  into 
sound  vibrations.  The  impulse  travels  at  a  rate  of 
between  4700  and  5300  feet  per  second, 
depending  on  the  temperature,  salinity,  and 
pressure  of  the  water.  This  is  four  or  five  times 
faster  than  the  speed  of  sound  in  air,  but  the 
hazards  of  travel  take  their  toll  on  this  speed  and 
signal  strength.  Some  of  the  .sound  is  absorbed 
by  currents,  bubbles,  or  wakes,  and  it  is  further 
weakened  by  scattering  as  it  passes  through 
water  containing  foreign  matter,  i.e.,  seaweed, 
silt,  animal  life,  or  air  bubbles. 

Also,  like  a  searchlight  beam,  the  sound 
wave  spreads  out  as  it  travels  farther  and  farther 


away  from  the   transducer  and  thus  becomes 
weaker  and  weaker. 

Once  the  wave  does  strike  an  object  such  as 
a  submarine,  that  portion  of  the  impulse  which 
is  at  a  right  angle  to  the  object  is  reflected  back 
toward  the  sonar  receiver.  Again  it  is  acted  upon 
by  absorption,  scattering  and  spreading,  but  a 
signal  will  be  received  indicating  a  possible 
target,  provided  it  is  not  drowned  out  by 
reverberations,  self-noise  and  a  high  surrounding 
noise  level.  These  are  the  multiple  reflections  or 
echoes  which  can  come  from  many  sources. 

Sound  waves  bouncing  off  small  objects 
such  as  fish  or  air  bubbles  produce  small  echoes. 
Sound  reflected  from  the  sea  surface  and 
bottom  also  echo,  and  the  sea  mass  itself  causes 
reverberations.  These  reverberations  appear  on 
video  display  and  come  in  over  the  audio 
receiver  in  the  form  of  a  roar.  Reverberations 
from  nearby  points  may  be  so  loud  that  they 
interfere  with,  or  completely  mask,  the 
returning  echo  from  the  target. 


SHIPBOARD  ASW 
ORGANIZATION 

Sonar  control  and  underwater  battery  (UB) 
plot  are  the  two  major  shipboard  ASW  stations. 
Other  stations  are  bridge,  combat  information 
center  (CIC),  and  ASW  weapons  batteries. 

Sonar  control  is  the  ASW  station  that 
maintains  a  continuous  underwater  search  for 
submarines.  Underwater  battery  plot  is  the 
station  assigned  the  task  of  solving  the  fire 
control  aspects  of  an  ASW  attack.  Sonar  control 
and  UB  plot  usually  are  housed  in  separate 
compartments,  although  this  is  not  always  the 
case. 

From  the  bridge,  the  officer  of  the  deck 
conns  the  ship,  keeping  other  control  stations 
informed  of  the  ship's  maneuvers. 

The  combat  information  center  is  the  key 
station  for  coordinating  search-attack  operations 
within  the  ship  and  between  ships.  Personnel  in 
CIC  plot,  display,  evaluate,  and  disseminate  all 
air,  surface,  and  subsurface  contacting 
information ;  and  recommend  search  plans  to  the 
commanding  officer.  In  many  ships  the 


Chapter  22-ANTISUBMARINE  WARFARE 


commanding  officer  allows  the  ASW  officer  in 
UB  plot  advisory  control  in  executing  the  final 
phase  of  an  attack  and  the  launching  of  the 
weapon(s);  and  allows  CIC  advisory  a  favorable 
position  for  reattack.  The  CIC  may  control  ASW 
aircraft  in  addition  to  searching  for  any  surfaced 
submarines. 

In   modern  ASW  ships,   the  captain  often 
directs  the  attack  from  CIC.  Should  he  choose 


to  remain  on  the  bridge,  however,  repeaters 
duplicate  and  display  information  from  UB  plot 
and  CIC,  and  phone  talkers  relay  amplifying 
information  so  the  captain  (in  conjunction  with 
his  threat  evaluator/weapons  assignment  officer 
in  CIC)  can  evaluate  critical  elements  of  the 
attack— the  target's  course,  speed,  depth,  and 
possible  evasive  maneuvers— before  authorizing 
delivery  of  the  necessary  ASW  weapons. 


CHAPTER  23 


AMPHIBIOUS  WARFARE 


Amphibious  warfare  has  special  significance 
for  every  officer  in  the  Navy,  for  it  integrates 
virtually  all  types  of  ships,  aircraft,  weapons, 
and  landing  forces  in  a  concerted  military  effort 
against  a  hostile  shore.  The  inherent  naval 
character  of  the  amphibious  attack  is  reflected 
in  the  principles  which  govern  the  organization 
of  the  forces  participating  and  the  conduct  of 
the  operation.  The  ability  to  conduct  such 
operations  effectively  is  a  measure  of  a  nation's 
competence  in  applying  the  elements  of 
seapower  and  airpower  in  a  coordinated  effort. 

The  usefulness  of  the  amphibious  operation 
stems  from  mobility  and  flexibility;  i.e.,  the 
ability  to  concentrate  balanced  forces  and  to 
strike  with  great  strength  at  selected  points  in 
the  hostile  defense  system.  An  amphibious 
operation  exploits  the  element  of  surprise  and 
capitalizes  upon  enemy  weaknesses  through 
application  of  the  required  type  and  degree  of 
force  at  the  most  advantageous  locations  at  the 
most  opportune  times.  The  mere  threat  imposed 
by  the  existence  of  powerful  amphibious  forces 
may  induce  the  enemy  to  disperse  his  forces, 
and  this,  in  turn,  may  result  in  his  making 
expensive  and  wasteful  efforts  in  attempting  to 
defend  his  coastline. 

Amphibious  assaults  must  be  conducted  in 
the  face  of  certain  additional  and  distinguishing 
difficulties.  Natural  forces-unfavorable  weather, 
seas,  surf,  and  other  features  of  the 
hydrography -represent  hazards  not  normally 
encountered  in  land  warfare.  Logistics  problems 
include  loading  thousands  of  troops  and  large 
quantities  of  material  into  ships,  moving  them  to 
the  objective  area,  and  then  landing  them  in 
exactly  the  proper  sequence  on  open  beaches  or 
landing  zones  which  may  be  under  enemy  fire. 


All     such     problems     require     extraordinary 
attention  to  detailed  planning. 

The  closest  cooperation  and  most  detailed 
coordination  among  all  participating  forces  in  an 
amphibious  operation  are  essential  to  success. 
The  forces  must  be  trained  together,  and  there 
must  be  clear  understanding  of  mutual 
obligations  and  of  the  special  capabilities  and 
problems  of  each  component. 

Amphibious  striking  forces  normally  include 
Navy-Marine  Corps  forces,  but  may  include 
personnel  from  every  service  of  the  Armed 
Forces.  These  forces  are  integrated  into  a  task 
organization  to  form  a  single  cohesive 
amphibious  striking  force  capable  of  executing 
its  mission  with  utmost  efficiency.  The  keynote 
of  successful  amphibious  operations  is  the 
complete  coordination  and  unity  of  effort 
among  all  the  participating  elements  of  land,  sea, 
and  air  forces.  Successes  achieved  in  the  conduct 
of  amphibious  operations  during  World  War  II, 
in  the  Korean  conflict,  and  in  Vietnam  are  direct 
results  of  the  close  relationships  that  developed 
among  our  Armed  Forces. 

Amphibious  operations  are  conducted  to 
establish  a  landing  force  on  a  hostile  shore  to  (1) 
prosecute  further  combat  operations,  (2)  obtain 
a  site  for  an  advanced  naval  or  air  base,  and  (3) 
deny  the  use  of  an  area  or  facilities  to  the 
enemy. 

Examples  of  operations  conducted  to 
prosecute  further  combat  operations  are  those  at 
Normandy  and  Salerno  which  paved  the  way  for 
the  employment  of  large  land  armies  on  the 
mainland  of  France  and  Italy,  respectively. 

Seizure  of  land  for  advanced-base  purposes  is 
best  illustrated  by  the  island-hopping  campaigns 


462 


in  tne  racmc  wnere,  as  me  united  Mates 
brought  the  war  closer  to  Japan's  doorstep, 
advanced  bases  were  established  on  some  of  the 
captured  islands.  Advanced  bases  are  primarily 
fleet  anchorages  from  which  task  forces  of  ships 
can  be  supported.  The  use  of  advanced  bases 
shortens  the  lines  of  supply  and  communications 
and  thereby  decreases  their  vulnerability. 

Denial  of  an  area  to  an  enemy  is  illustrated 
by  the  Aleutian  campaign  in  the  Pacific.  The 
enemy  was  driven  off  the  islands  of  Kiska  and 
Attu,  and  then  these  islands  were  occupied  by 
our  forces  to  prevent  their  use  by  the  enemy. 
For  the  remainder  of  the  war,  reconnaissance 
and  raiding  operations  were  conducted  from  the 
Aleutians  by  U.S.  ships  and  aircraft. 


HISTORICAL  BACKGROUND 

World  War  II  produced  the  greatest  series  of 
landing  operations  in  history.  Their  magnitude, 
both  in  number  and  size,  and  the  diversity  of  the 
landings  in  the  Pacific,  in  Europe,  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  in  North  Africa  tend  to 
create  the  impression  that  the  amphibious 
operation  is  a  new  type  of  military  enterprise. 
Actually,  military  history  contains  many 
instances  of  landing  operations  conducted  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  since  the  early  times  when 
man  first  crossed  the  sea  to  wage  war.  One  of 
the  first  recorded  landing  operations  dates  back 
nearly  3000  years.  This  was  the  half-legendary 
attack  of  the  Greeks  upon  the  city  of  Troy  in 
Asia  Minor  near  the  Dardanelles.  Homer's  Iliad 
relates  that  the  Greeks  crossed  the  Aegean  Sea, 
stormed  the  beaches  near  Troy,  and  after  10 
years  of  war,  destroyed  that  city. 

LANDINGS  IN 
WORLD  WAR  I 

World  War  I  gave  us  our  first  classic  example 
of  modern  large-scale  landings.  The  combined 
operation  conducted  by  the  British  during  the 
Dardanelles  campaign  in  1915  constituted  a 
major  effort.  In  the  assault  landings  on  the 
Gallipoli  Peninsula,  on  beaches  that  were 
unopposed  or  lightly  defended,  troops  landed 
with  few  or  no  losses.  Extremely  heavy  losses 
were  suffered,  however,  at  the  strongly  defended 


beaches  even  though  the  troops  were 
successfully  put  ashore.  Land  operations  for  the 
seizure  of  the  Gallipoli  Peninsula  were 
unsuccessful.  In  fact,  a  secure  beachhead  never 
was  established.  Although  cooperation  between 
troop  and  naval  components  was  excellent,  the 
logistic  buildup  on  the  beaches  never  was 
adequate,  and  communications  were  primitive. 
The  landing  forces  were  finally  evacuated  in 
January  1916  after  a  campaign  lasting  8  months, 
and  the  impracticability  of  attempting  landings 
against  opposition  apparently  was  conclusively 
demonstrated.  But  Gallipoli  was  not  conclusive. 

DEVELOPMENT  BETWEEN 
WORLD  WARS 

During  the  25  years  between  Gallipoli  and 
Guadalcanal,  the  United  States  developed  the 
doctrine,  organization,  tactics,  and  techniques 
necessary  for  success  in  amphibious  warfare.  The 
Marine  Corps  was  responsible  for  advancing  this 
type  of  warfare  during  that  period.  In  1921,  the 
Commandant  of  the  Marine  Corps,  Major 
General  John  A.  LeJeune,  USMC,  directed  the 
Marine  Corps  Schools  to  launch  a  full-scale 
attack  on  the  problems  of  amphibious  warfare. 
The  Marine  Corps  and  the  Navy,  in  addition  to 
actually  conducting  landing  operations, 
established  a  workable  doctrine  for  both  troop 
and  naval  components  of  an  amphibious  attack 
force.  Organizations,  weapons,  and  equipment 
were  tested  in  actual  use,  and  recommendations 
were  made  for  further  development.  The 
doctrine  was  also  supplemented  with  new 
techniques  evolved  in  training  and  directed 
mainly  at  improving  coordination  of 
participating  air,  ground,  and  surface  elements. 

AMPHIBIOUS  OPERATIONS 
IN  WORLD  WAR  II 

Every  major  offensive  campaign  the  United 
States  launched  during  World  War  II  was 
initiated  by  an  amphibious  assault. 

Pacific  Theater 

The  first  American  amphibious  landings  of 
World  War  II  were  made  in  the  Guadalcanal 
campaign  begun  in  August  1942.  In  these 


463 


rN.MV.ri.JU 


operations,  executed  by  the  1st  Marine  Division, 
Fleet  Marine  Force  (at  that  time,  the  only 
amphibious  troops  in  readiness  for  combat 
operations),  amphibious  techniques  and  doctrine 
which  had  been  developed  were  put  to,  and 
successfully  passed,  the  final  test-proof  under 
fire.  The  remainder  of  World  War  II  in  the 
Pacific  consisted  mainly  of  offensive  land 
campaigns  started  from  the  sea  by  amphibious 
assaults  of  increasing  magnitude.  In  1945  came 
the  amphibious  capture  of  Luzon,  Iwo  Jima,  and 
Okinawa.  Before  the  Japanese  surrender  in 
September  1945,  the  United  States  was 
preparing  for  the  final  assault- an  amphibious 
assault— on  the  Japanese  mainland.  The  pressure 
exerted  on  Japan  from  the  naval  and  air  bases 
gained  by  amphibious  assaults  was  of  primary 
significance  to  the  successful  prosecution  of  the 
war  in  the  Pacific  theater,  which  was 
predominantly  naval  in  character. 

European  Theater 

United  States  entry  into  the  conflict  in  the 
European  theater  was  initiated  by  amphibious 
landings  in  French  North  Africa  in  1942.  The 
purpose  of  this  invasion  was  to  secure  African 
bases  from  which  to  carry  the  war  to  Sicily, 
freeing  Great  Britain's  lifeline  to  the  Middle  and 
Far  East,  and  opening  the  way  for  invasion  of 
Italy  and  southern  France.  July  of  1943  found 
an  armada  of  over  3000  ships  and  craft  with 
1 60,000  men  landing  on  the  beaches  of  Sicily, 
an  operation  eventually  destined  to  force  Italy 
out  of  the  war. 

The  landings  keynoting  the  invasion  of 
Western  Europe  commenced  on  6  June  1944 
over  the  beaches  of  Normandy,  France  (figure 
23-1).  The  magnitude  of  a  major  amphibious 
operation  is  clearly  illustrated  by  the  Normandy 
landings:  in  the  first  28  days,  some  one  million 
men,  183,000  vehicles,  and  650,000  tons  of 
supplies  were  landed  across  the  beaches  and  in 
articifial  harbors  by  a  force  of  about  3000 
vessels. 

AMPHIBIOUS  WARFARE 
SHIPS 

Amphibious  ships,  by  virtue  of  their 
specialized  characteristics  such  as  heavy  lift 


booms,  ability  to  beach,  or  capacity  for  carrying 
large  and  heavy  landing  craft,  are  uniquely 
capable  of  performing  a  variety  of  tasks.  Ships 
that  constitute  the  amphibious  forces  of  today 
are  discussed  and  illustrated  in  chapter  16. 


PHASES  OF  AN 
AMPHIBIOUS  OPERATION 

The  planning  and  prosecution  of  an 
amphibious  operation  are  explained  below. 

PLANNING 

An  inexperienced  observer  of  an  amphibious 
landing  cannot  appreciate  the  extensive  planning 
that  goes  into  one  of  these  operations.  Such 
planning  reflects  the  collected  intelligence  data 
on  enemy  forces  and  territory  concerned  and  is 
designed  to  accomplish  the  following  tasks: 

1.  Embarkation     by     combat    loading 
methods. 

2.  Movement  to  the  amphibious  objective 
area,  including  defense  against  air,  submarine, 
and  surface  attack. 

3.  Pre-assault    operations    (preparation   of 
the     objective     area)     include     gaining    and 
maintaining  local  air  superiority;  destruction  of 
enemy  forces  and  installations  by  naval  aircraft, 
shipboard  guns,  and  missiles;  clearance  of  mines 
and    underwater    obstacles;   reconnaissance  of 
beaches    by    underwater    demolition    groups; 
determination  of  exits  inland;  and  isolation  of 
the  objective  area. 

4.  The  ship-to-shore  movement,  by  means 
of  which  troops  and  their  weapons,  vehicles,  and 
supplies  are  moved  ashore,  by  helicopters  and/or 
landing  craft. 

5.  Clearance     of    beach     obstacles     and 
movement  inland  with  tanks,  artillery,  and  light 
and  heavy  vehicles. 

6.  Naval     gunfire,     missile,     and     air 
bombardment  in  support  of  the  assault  and  the 
movement  inland. 

7.  Landing  of  supplies  and  logistic  support 
buildup. 

There  are  other  tasks,  but  these  will  suffice 
to  illustrate  the  many  requirements  that  need  to 
be  considered  and  resolved.  An  amphibious 


464 


Uiapter  2J- 


WARFARE 


134.167 

Figure  23-1.— In  order  to  form  a  makeshift  breakwater  for  the  Normandy  beachhead,  American  Liberty  ships  were 
deliberately  scuttled.  The  "Mulberry,"  as  it  was  called,  provided  a  sheltered  anchorage  and  greatly  speeded  up  the 
flow  of  supplies  to  the  beach. 


attack  can  succeed  only  if  it  is  carefully  planned 
and  organized.  Timing  is  extremely  important. 
Planning,  the  responsibility  of  the  commander 
and  his  staff,  demands  a  complete  knowledge  of 
the  various  combat  arms  employed  and  the 
numerous  problems  unique  to  an  amphibious 
operation. 

Collection  of  Information 

Current    and    adequate    intelligence    is    a 
prerequisite    to    sound    amphibious    planning. 


Therefore,  prompt  initiation  of  the  collection  of 
essential  information  is  necessary  for  the  valid 
and  timely  development  of  required  intelligence. 
Collection  of  the  extensive  and  detailed 
information  needed  for  planning  an  amphibious 
operation  is  complicated  by  some  or  all  of  the 
following  factors: 

1.  Distance   to   the   amphibious  objective 
area  (AOA)  is  often  great. 

2.  The   amphibious    task   force  is  not  in 
contact  with  the  enemy. 


465 


3.  Many    of    the    available    information- 
collecting     agencies     are     not     part     of    the 
amphibious  task  force. 

4.  The   necessity    for  deception  to   avoid 
revealing  the   time  and  place  of  landing  may 
require    dispersion    of    effort    by    collecting 
agencies. 

5.  A  relatively  long  period  of  time  may 
elapse  between  the  start  of  planning  and  the 
execution  of  the  landings.  During  this  time  the 
characteristics   of  the  objective  area  and  the 
enemy  situation  may  undergo  many  changes. 

Alternate  Plans 

Alternate  plans,  considering  the  possibilities 
of  loss,  delay,  or  changes  in  time  and  place  of 
landing,  are  necessary.  As  an  additional  means  of 
maintaining  flexibility,  the  decision  as  to  which 
specific  plan  will  be  employed  may  be  deferred 
until  a  short  time  before  the  selected  hour  of 
landing. 

Planning  Procedures 

The  basic  procedures  used  in  planning  an 
amphibious  operation  are  the  same  as  those 
employed  for  all  types  of  naval  operations. 
Following  receipt  from  higher  authority  of  the 
initiating  directive,  the  amphibious  task  force 
commander  issues  a  planning  directive  to  ensure 
that  interdependent  plans  will  be  coordinated, 
that  planning  will  be  completed  in  the  time 
allowed,  and  that  important  aspects  will  not  be 
overlooked.  The  planning  directive  specifies  the 
principal  plans  to  be  prepared,  and  it  sets  a 
deadline  for  the  completion  of  each  major  step 
in  the  planning  process. 

EMBARKATION 

In  a  major  amphibious  operation,  troops  are 
assembled  at  various  ports  with  their  equipment 
and  vehicles.  In  accordance  with  extremely 
detailed  loading  plans,  formulated  during  the 
planning  phase,  designated  ships  arrive  in  these 
ports  at  specified  times,  ready  to  embark  the 
landing  forces. 


Each  item  of  equipment  is  loaded  aboard  in 
reverse  order  of  the  priority  in  which  it  is 
desired  on  the  hostile  beach.  Individual  loading 
plans  for  each  ship  are  prepared  by  the  combat 
cargo  officer  of  the  ship  and  the  commander  of 
the  landing  force  unit  to  be  embarked  in  that 
ship.  The  loading  plan  is  reviewed  and  approved 
by  the  commanding  officer  of  the  ship  from  the 
viewpoint  of  his  ability  to  carry  it  out,  and  in 
terms  of  the  safety  of  his  ship. 

As  soon  as  the  ship  is  moored,  it  is  in  all 
respects  ready  for  loading-all  landing  craft  have 
been  offloaded,  appropriate  cargo  handling  gear 
is  placed  in  readiness,  and  all  cargo  booms  are 
rigged  out  as  necessary  to  handle  the  material  to 
be  stowed  in  each  hold.  The  advance  party  of 
troops  boards  the  ship  at  the  embarkation  port 
and  proceeds  immediately  with  the  details  of 
loading.  When  all  cargo  is  aboard,  the  remainder 
of  troops  embark  and  the  ship  leaves  her  berth 
and  proceeds  to  an  anchorage  to  await  the 
forming  of  the  convoy.  In  crowded  ports  with 
few  facilities,  loading  may  be  accomplished  with 
the  ship  at  anchor.  The  procedure  is  similar  to 
that  already  outlined  except  that  all  cargo  and 
equipment  must  be  moved  out  to  the  ship  by 
boats,  barges,  or  other  lighterage. 

REHEARSALS 

The  schedule  for  an  amphibious  operation 
usually  allows  for  one  or  more  rehearsals.  They 
are  carried  out  under  conditions  approximating 
those  of  the  anticipated  operation,  and  rehearsal 
participants  should  include  all  units  that  will 
take  part  in  the  actual  operation.  The  purposes 
of  rehearsals  are  to  test  the  familiarity  of  all 
echelons  with  plans,  adequacy  of  plans,  timing 
of  detailed  operations,  combat  readiness  of 
participating  forces,  and  effectiveness  of 
communications.  If  practicable,  rehearsals 
include  naval  gunfire  and  air  support  with  live 
ammunition.  Unloading  is  carried  out  as 
determined  during  planning  in  sufficient  degree 
to  test  effectively  the  tactical  and  logistic  plans, 
the  operation  of  the  ship-to-shore  movement 
control  organization,  and  functioning  of  the 
shore  party,  including  naval  components.  Each 
rehearsal  is  followed  by  critiques  at  all  levels  of 
command  in  order  to  evaluate  the  exercise,  to 


466 


emphasize    lessons    learned,    and    to    correct 
mistakes. 

MOVEMENT  TO  THE 
OBJECTIVE  AREA 

Movement  of  the  amphibious  task  force  to 
the  objective  area  includes  departure  of  ships 
from  ports  of  embarkation;  the  passage  at  sea; 
and  the  approach  to,  and  arrival  in,  assigned 
positions  in  the  objective  area.  Movement  may 
be  via  rehearsal,  staging,  and  rendezvous  areas. 
The  amphibious  task  force  is  organized  into 
movement  groups,  which  proceed  along 
prescribed  routes  in  accordance  with  the 
movement  plan.  Usually  ships  are  assigned  into 
fast  or  slow  movement  groups,  depending  on 
their  sustained  sea  speed.  En  route  to  the 
objective  area,  the  amphibious  ships  are 
protected  from  air,  surface,  and  subsurface 
attack  by  forces  which  may  not  be  a  part  of  the 
amphibious  task  force.  Carrier  striking  forces 
provide  air  cover  and  long-range  reconnaissance 
en  route  to  the  objective  area.  In  addition,  mine 
warfare  ships  and  other  ships  suitable  for 
screening  but  with  other  primary  functions  may 
be  employed  for  screening  duties  during 
movement  to  the  objective  area.  The  safety  of 
the  amphibious  ships  with  their  embarked 
troops,  equipment,  and  supplies  is  of  paramount 
importance.  Landing  forces  must  arrive  in  the 
objective  area  without  critical  reduction  in  their 
combat  potential. 

PRE-ASSAULT  OPERATIONS 

Pre-assault  operations  are  conducted  in  the 
objective  area  by  subordinate  elements  of  the 
amphibious  task  force  which  normally  are 
organized  into  an  advance  force.  The  advance 
force  is  a  temporary  organization  and  usually  is 
dissolved  when  the  main  body  of  the 
amphibious  task  force  arrives  in  the  AOA.  Some 
of  the  tasks  accomplished  by  the  advance  force 
are: 

1.  Destruction  of  defenses  ashore.  Beach 
and  landing  zone  defenses,  gun  emplacements, 
observation  posts,  and  other  installations  which 


could  be  used  to  oppose  the  landing  are 
destroyed  by  the  advance  force.  Naval  gunfire 
bombardment  and  air  strikes  are  used  for  this 
purpose. 

2.  Preparation  of  sea  areas.  Minesweeping, 
defensive   minelaying,  hydrographic   surveying, 
and  net  laying  are  accomplished  as  necessary. 

3.  Preparation    of   beaches    and    offshore 
approaches.     Underwater     demolition     teams 
prepare   the   beaches  and   approaches  for  the 
passage    of   landing    craft,    landing    ships,    or 
amphibian  vehicles  by  destroying  all  obstacles, 
natural  or  manmade,   including  mines,  in  the 
offshore  area  between  the  3-fathom  line  and  the 
high  water  mark.  Obstacles  which  cannot  be 
destroyed   or  removed  are  marked  by  buoys. 
Beach    reconnaissance    information,    including 
detailed  data  on  beach  gradients,  obstacles,  tide 
and  surf,  depths  of  water,  routes  of  exit  from 
the   beaches,    soil    traffic  ability,    defenses   and 
suitability  of  selected  beaches,  is  transmitted  by 
the  advance  force  to  the  amphibious  task  force 
and  landing  force  commanders. 

SUPPORTING  OPERATIONS 

In  addition  to  the  advance  force  operations 
normally  conducted  within  the  AOA,  other 
supporting  operations  are  carried  out  prior  to 
and  concurrent  with  the  amphibious  assault. 
Examples  of  supporting  operations  are 
diversionary  landings  for  purposes  of  deception, 
interdiction  of  enemy  force  movements  to 
isolate  the  AOA,  and  remote  air  operations 
designed  to  provide  freedom  from  enemy 
interference.  Supporting  operations  are 
conducted  by  other  fleet  and  theater  forces  but 
are  not  considered  as  part  of  the  amphibious 
operation.  However,  since  they  contribute  to 
the  preparation  for  the  amphibious  assault,  they 
must  be  responsive  to  the  requirements  of  the 
amphibious  striking  force. 

The  most  important  contribution  to  the 
success  of  an  amphibious  operation  is  the 
attainment  and  maintenance  of  local  air 
superiority  in  the  AOA.  Great  reliance  is  placed 
upon  air  support  from  the  fast  carrier  striking 
force  to  achieve  air  superiority  and  to  prevent 


467 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


the  movement  of  the  enemy  in  force  into,  and 
within,  the  objective  area.  There  is  a  continuing 
requirement  for  defense  against  enemy  air, 
surface,  and  subsurface  attack. 

THE  ASSAULT 

The  doctrine  for  a  modern  amphibious 
assault  calls  for  completely  integrated  Marine 
air-ground  landing  forces  that  are  organized, 
trained,  and  equipped  to  exploit  the  speed  and 
flexibility  of  the  helicopter.  The  helicopter  is 
designed  to  work  equally  well  under  all 
conditions  of  warfare,  large  or  small,  nuclear  or 
conventional.  With  the  development  of  the 
troop  helicopter  and  the  specialized  amphibious 
shipping  in  which  large  numbers  of  these  aircraft 
may  be  carried,  the  amphibious  landing  is  no 
longer  restricted  to  excellent  landing  beaches  as 
was  the  case  in  World  War  II  and  the  Korean 
conflict. 

By  transporting  the  assault  elements  by 
helicopter,  we  enjoy  greater  tactical  flexibility. 
Beach  defenses  and  other  strong  points  can  be 
overflown  and  bypassed.  Key  terrain  features, 
widely  dispersed,  can  be  seized  and  occupied 
rapidly.  No  longer  is  it  necessary  to  fight  over 
long  stretches  of  ground  to  reach  these 


objectives.  Also,  inland  objectives  can  be 
approached  from  any  direction.  Important 
tactical  objectives,  such  as  airfields,  may  be 
quickly  taken  by  helicopter-borne  combat 
teams. 

The  assault  phase  begins  when  the 
amphibious  striking  force  arrives  in  the  AOA. 
The  tactical  unity  of  the  assault  forces  is 
maintained  insofar  as  practicable  during  the 
ship-to-shore  movement.  The  battalion  landing 
team,  consisting  of  an  infantry  battalion  or 
similar  unit  reinforced  by  such  supporting  units 
as  may  be  attached  for  the  assault,  is  the  basic 
unit  of  the  landing  force.  Waterborne  and 
helicopter-borne  landing  teams  are  organized 
into  "waves"  containing  the  personnel  and 
equipment  to  be  landed  simultaneously  in  a 
given  area. 

Ship-to-Shore  Movement 

Shortly  before  L-hour  and/or  H-hour,  which 
is  the  start  of  the  amphibious  assault  or  the  time 
of  the  landing  of  the  first  wave  of  helicopters  or 
landing  craft,  the  signal  "Land  the  Landing 
Force"  is  executed.  Immediately,  all  amphibious 
ships  offload  their  boats,  which  then  circle  in 
prearranged  areas  (as  in  figure  23-2)  until  called 


134.168 

Figure  23-2. -Circling  near  the  parent  ship,  landing  craft  await  the  signal  to  go  alongside  and  receive  their  cargoes  prior 

to  beginning  the  assault. 


468 


3.86-5 

Figure  23-3.-USS  PRINCETON  (LPH-5),  mother  ship  to  about  40  helicopters,  here  dispatches  them  and  their  cargoes 

of  troops  to  the  objective  area. 


alongside  to  receive  their  cargoes  of  troops  and 
equipment.  (Ships  provided  with  a  well  deck 
launch  their  craft  fully  loaded.)  Heli-teams 
embark  in  assigned  helicopters.  Just  prior  to 
L-hour,  the  helicopters  are  dispatched  to  flight 
rendezvous  points  (as  in  figure  23-3)  where  they 
form  with  other  flights  into  waves  and  proceed 
to  their  assigned  objectives.  Fully  loaded  landing 
craft  are  directed  to  proceed  to  the  line  of 
departure  (LOD),  forming  into  waves  en  route. 
All  of  these  operations  by  landing  craft  and 
helicopters  are  closely  controlled  and 
synchronized.  Normally,  the  helicopter-borne 


waves  (figure  23-4)  capture  their  initial 
objectives  prior  to  the  waterborne  assault, 
thereby  diverting  some  defenders  from  the 
coastline. 

As  the  waves  form  at  designated  points  and 
commence  their  final  approach,  shore 
bombardment  measures  are  intensified.  Major 
emphasis  is  placed  on  the  destruction  and 
neutralization  of  hostile  defenses  most 
dangerous  to  the  successful  landing  of  troops  at 
the  designated  beaches  or  landing  zones.  Strike 
aircraft  intensify  attacks  against  defensive 
installations  near  the  beaches,  helicopter 


469 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


134.106 

Figure  23-4.-Marines  debark  from  their  helicopters  to  rout  out  entrenched  enemy  forces  or  to  divert  defenders  from 

the  assault  landing  area. 


Figure  23-5.-Shore  bombardment  intensifies  as  troop-laden  assault  craft  approach  the  beach. 

470 


134.107 


Chapter  23-AMPHIBIOUS  WARFARE 


approach  lanes,  and  landing  zones.  These  attacks 
are  continued  until  immediately  prior  to  the 
landing  of  the  leading  waves  (figure  23-5)  at 
which  time  the  attacks  are  shifted  away  from 
the  landing  beaches  and  landing  zones  to  other 
selected  targets  in  order  to  provide  continuing 
support  to  the  assault  elements  of  the  landing 
force.  Naval  gunfire  is  continued  on  the 
immediate  beach  and  landing  zone  defenses  until 
the  safety  of  the  leading  waves  requires  lifting  of 
fire.  Then,  close  support  fire  is  concentrated  on 
positions  farther  inland,  on  the  flanks  of  the 
landing  beaches,  or  on  perimeters  of  the  landing 
zones. 

Overall  coordination  of  air  and  naval  gunfire 
support  is  the  responsibility  of  the  amphibious 
task  force  commander  and  is  preplanned  to  the 
extent  possible.  Delivery  of  unscheduled  fire 


support  on  targets  of  opportunity  and 
unexpected  changes  in  air  operations  necessitate 
continuous  and  close  coordination  in  order  to 
provide  maximum  effectiveness  with  a  requisite 
degree  of  safety.  The  principles  and  procedures 
of  fire  support  coordination  are  not  changed  by 
the  introduction  of  nuclear  weapons.  However, 
the  importance  and  extent  of  coordination  are 
increased  because  of  the  magnitude  of  nuclear 
weapons  effects. 

Establishing  the  Beachhead 

At  H-hour  the  first  waves  touch  down,  and 
the  troops  disembark  (figure  23-6),  disperse,  and 
start  toward  their  initial  objectives.  Operations 
are  so  directed  as  to  rapidly  establish  a  secure 
beachhead  of  sufficient  extent  to  ensure  the 


134.169 


Figure  23-6.— The  first  wave  of  infantrymen  comes  ashore  and  starts  toward  its  initial  objectives. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


continuous  landing  of  troops  and  material  and 
to  provide  the  terrain  features  and  maneuvering 
space  required  for  initiating  further  planned 
objectives.  During  operations  to  capture  the 
beachhead,  intermediate  objectives  are 
designated  to  enable  troop  commanders  to 
coordinate  their  efforts.  An  early  juncture 
between  the  waterborne  forces  and  troops 
landed  by  helicopter,  parachute,  or  transport 
aircraft  is  desirable.  Reserves  of  the  assault  units 
are  landed  as  required  in  order  to  maintain  the 
momentum  of  the  attack. 

LOGISTICS  DURING 
THE  ATTACK 

During  the  assault  phase,  the  logistic  support 
system  of  the  landing  force  is  progressively 
developed,  starting  from  a  ship-based  status  and 
proceeding  through  a  period  of  decentralized 
support  conducted  through  several  beaches  and 
landing  zones  and  eventually  consolidated  into  a 
single  centrally  controlled  effort.  Since  the 
supplies  and  equipment  carried  by  individuals 
and  organizations  in  the  initial  landing  are 
limited,  a  flexible,  yet  positive,  system  is 
established  to  provide  timely  replenishment  of 
supplies  and  to  build  up  stocks  ashore  to  sustain 
the  assault  and  diminish  the  dependence  of  the 
landing  force  on  supplies  which  are  still  afloat. 
During  the  initial  stage  of  the  assault,  logistic 
support  is  provided  from  within  beach  support 
areas  and  landing  zones.  As  the  operation 
progresses,  the  functions  carried  out  from  these 
areas  are  consolidated,  and  logistic  support  areas 
are  established. 

When  logistic  support  areas  are  adequate  and 
the  assault  has  progressed  to  a  point  where  there 
is  reasonable  security  for  logistic  installations 
ashore,  the  landing  force  commander  may 
recommend  general  unloading.  After  the 
amphibious  task  force  commander  gives  the 
order  to  commence  general  unloading,  all  ships 
in  the  amphibious  task  force  discharge  their 
remaining  cargo  as  rapidly  as  beach  unloading 
conditions  permit.  The  control  organization  for 
the  ship-to-shore  movement  ceases  to  operate 
except  for  regulation  of  traffic,  but  remains 
substantially  in  a  standby  status,  ready  to 
resume  selective  unloading  if  required. 


When,  in  the  opinion  of  the  landing  force 
commander,  the  landing  force  is  firmly 
established  ashore  and  ready  to  assume  full 
responsibility  for  subsequent  operations,  and 
when  mutually  agreed  upon  with  the  amphibious 
task  force  commander,  control  of  land 
operations  is  shifted  ashore  to  the  landing  force 
commander.  The  amphibious  operation  is  then 
terminated  with  the  amphibious  task  force 
remaining  in  support  until  competent  authority 
dissolves  the  amphibious  task  force  and  directs 
its  forces  to  report  to  designated  superiors  or 
directs  reembarkation  of  the  landing  force. 


UNDERWATER  DEMOLITION  TEAMS 
AND  NAVY  SEAL  TEAMS 

Within  the  Naval  Surface  Forces  are  the 
naval  special  warfare  units:  underwater 
demolition  teams  (UDTs),  and  sea-air-land 
(SEAL)  teams. 

UDT  OPERATIONS 

During  the  invasion  of  the  Tarawa  Atoll  in 
November  1943,  waves  of  landing  craft  carrying 
Marine  troops  grounded  on  a  submerged  coral 
reef.  Hydrographic  information  was  inadequate 
as  to  tidal  depths  in  the  sea;  as  it  turned  out, 
there  was  no  water  over  the  reef  at  low  tide, 
precluding  passage  of  landing  craft.  During  the 
assault,  many  of  the  troops  were  forced  to  wade 
through  long  stretches  of  hip-deep  water  under 
heavy  fire.  Losses  were  high  even  before  the 
landing  force  made  it  ashore. 

One  of  the  bitter  lessons  learned  at  Tarawa 
was  that  correct  hydrographic  intelligence  is 
essential  for  any  amphibious  assault.  Staff 
planners  of  all  services  now  recognize  that  the 
success  of  future  amphibious  assaults  will  be 
jeopardized  if  offshore  obstacles  are  not 
discovered  and  either  taken  into  consideration 
or  removed. 

Navy  planners  had  already  developed  a 
concept  for  underwater  demolition  teams  (first 
named  combat  demolition  units)  who  first 
formed  up  in  the  summer  of  1943.  These  men, 
however,  recruited  from  the  Seabees,  were  being 


472 


Chapter  23 -AMPHIBIOUS  WARFARE 


trained  for  the  primary  purpose  of 
supplementing  Army  beach  sappers  during  the 
planned  invasion  of  Normandy,  it  being  fairly 
obvious  that  the  Germans'  initial  line  of 
resistance  would  be  mines  and  underwater 
obstacles  to  stop  invasion  craft.  Graduates  of  the 
school  set  up  at  Fort  Pierce,  Florida,  were  first 
organized  into  one-officer,  six-man  units,  some 
of  which  accompanied  the  first  wave  of  assault 
infantry  at  Normandy. 

After  Normandy,  the  UDTs  were  shipped  to 
the  Pacific  to  form  the  nucleus  of  the  combat 
swimmer  force  being  organized  there.  Basic 
tactics  developed  in  the  Pacific  during  World 
War  II  remain  the  basis  for  operational 
procedures  today.  There  were  usually  two 
incursions  of  UDT  personnel  before  an 
amphibious  assault:  a  reconnaissance  mission 
several  days  before  D-day,  followed  by  a 
demolition  mission  shortly  before  H-hour. 

Today  the  primary  mission  of  a  UDT  is  to 
gather  intelligence— it  scouts  in  advance  of  an 
amphibious  assault  to  conduct  a  nearshore 
hydrographic  survey  and  report  information  on 
the  sea  approaches  to  the  landing  area.  Team 
members  get  involved  with  demolitions  only 
when  they  clear  beaches  or  beach  approaches  of 
obstacles,  or  are  ordered  to  destroy  targets 
ashore. 

Because  the  duty  of  special  warfare 
personnel  can  be  arduous  in  the  extreme,  and 
because  each  member  of  a  UDT  must  be  capable 
of  operating  alone  as  well  as  with  the  team, 
training  for  this  type  of  duty  is  extremely 
rugged. 

To  qualify,  the  trainees,  including  officers, 
take  many  months  of  training  starting  with  a 
grueling  23-week  course  that  includes  weeks  of 
toughening  runs,  calisthenics,  swirns,  races, 
competitive  games,  and  rubber  boat  drills.  The 
sixth  week  (Hell  Week)  is  spent  on  all-night 
forced  runs  and  boat  portages  through  mud, 
swamps,  sand,  and  surf;  strenuous  competitive 
games;  obstacle  course  runs;  hours  of  physical 
conditioning  exercises;  and  a  16-hour  trek  over 
rugged  courses  surrounded  by  landmines  and 
controlled  explosives.  For  those  who  survive 
Hell  Week,  study  in  the  following  weeks  is 
devoted  in  part  to  demolitions  and 


reconnaissance  techniques,  and  small  unit  tactics 
in  land  warfare. 

Next,  the  class  learns  diving  physiology  and 
the  use  of  three  types  of  scuba 
equipment— compressed  air,  pure  oxygen,  and 
mixed  gas. 

Up  till  now,  the  student  is  still  qualifying. 
He  is  not  a  fully  qualified  special  warfare 
operator  or  officer  until  he  completes  the  entire 
course  of  instruction  and  training,  graduates, 
and  has  served  for  6  months  with  a  UDT  or 
SEAL  unit. 

There  are  three  UDTs  currently  in  existence, 
each  composed  of  about  115  men  and  officers. 
Usually  when  discussing  team  operations,  what 
is  actually  involved  is  a  platoon  of  about  twenty 
personnel.  For  our  purposes  the  difference 
involves  only  numbers  of  people,  and  we  will 
not  make  a  distinction. 

Team  members  may  be  taken,  or  go,  to  the 
AOA  in  several  ways.  Each  may  drop  over  the 
side  of  a  rubber  boat  lashed  to  a  speeding 
landing  craft,  parachute  down,  drop  at  low 
altitude  without  parachute  from  a  slow-flying 
helicopter,  or  make  the  passage  completely 
underwater  by  means  of  a  swimmer  delivery 
vehicle  (SDV)  or  midget  submarine.  Depending 
on  the  anticipated  length  of  submersion,  water 
temperature,  and  depth  of  operations,  the 
equipment  may  resemble  normal  scuba  diving 
gear— face  mask,  wetsuit,  swim  fins,  wrist 
compass,  depth  gauge,  watch— plus  such 
amenities  as  distress  flares,  knife,  lead  line,  slate 
and  pencil  for  writing  underwater,  and 
lifejacket.  Not  all  items  are  needed  for  every 
dive,  and  a  scuba  tank  may  or  may  not  be 
necessary. 

In  a  typical  team  operation,  a  landing  craft 
from  the  parent  ship  makes  a  high-speed  run 
parrallel  to  the  beach  while  swimmers  enter  the 
water  at  25-yard  intervals.  The  team  then 
commences  a  survey  from  the  drop  point  toward 
the  beach,  using  slate  and  pencil  to  record  any 
unusual  conditions  or  obstacles  noted,  and 
making  periodic  lead  line  soundings  that  will  be 
used  in  determining  the  offshore  gradient. 

Should  it  become  necessary  to  clear  away 
obstacles,  there  are  a  number  of  methods 


473 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


employed.  The  basic  implement  is  a  combat 
demoliton  pack  containing  blocks  of  high 
explosive  that  may  be  detonated  individually  or 
en  masse.  By  using  flotation  bags,  a  team 
member  can  tow  four  or  five  of  these  20-pound 
packs  at  one  time. 

Once  its  mission  is  completed,  the  team 
must  be  picked  up  and  returned  to  the  parent 
ship.  Here  again,  several  methods  are  available, 
the  one  used  most  frequently  being  the  snare.  In 
figure  23-7A,  a  swimmer  raises  his  arm  to 
indicate  he  is  awaiting  pickup,  while  the  man  on 
the  raft  alongside  the  pickup  craft  readies  a 
snare.  In  figure  23-7B,  as  the  boat  goes  by  at 
high  speed,  the  swimmer  catches  the  snare  and  is 
helped  aboard  the  raft  by  the  snare  man. 

Less  frequently  used  methods  of  recovery 
include  trailing  a  ladder  into  the  water  from  a 
helicopter  or  using'  a  "skyhook"  system.  In  the 
former,  a  frogman  simply  grabs  the  ladder  and 
hoists  himself  aboard.  In  the  "skyhook"  aerial 
recovery  method,  an  aircraft  drops  an 
inflatable  balloon,  tanks  of  helium  to  inflate  it 
with,  a  body  harness,  and  a  500-foot  pickup 
line.  The  man  on  the  ground  or  in  the  water 
dons  the  harness,  hooks  on  the  pickup  line, 
inflates  the  balloon  (on  the  other  end  of  the 
pickup  line)  which  rises  and  holds  the  line  taut, 
and  waits.  A  fixed- wing  aircraft  then  snares  the 
line  with  a  V-shaped  probe,  lifts  the  man,  and 
winches  him  aboard. 

SEAL  TEAMS 

The  second  type  of  special  warfare  unit,  also 
under  surface  force  commanders  for  training  and 
administration  but  independent  of  the  UDT 
organization,  are  SEAL  teams.  There  are  two 
such  teams,  one  team  located  at  Little  Creek, 
Va.,  and  one  at  Coronado,  Calif. 

Basic  SEAL  training  is  identical  to  that 
received  by  UDT  personnel.  In  addition, 
however,  SEAL  team  members  are  trained  to 
conduct  and  to  instruct  indigenous  forces  of 
friendly  countries  in  unconventional  or 


134.170 

Figure  23-7.- Developed  during  World  War  II,  the  snare 
method  of  recovering  a  combat  swimmer  is  still  the 
one  most  used  by  UDT  personnel. 

paramilitary  operations.  This  means  that  they 
must  be  able  to  operate  with  little  support  in 
either  restricted  waters  or  a  land  environment. 
SEAL  units  saw  significant  action  in 
Southeast  Asia. 


474 


CHAPTER  24 

LOGISTICS 


The  Department  of  Defense  Dictionary  of 
Military  and  Associated  Terms  defines  logistics 
as:  "....,  those  aspects  of  military  operations 
which  deal  with:  a.  'design  and  development, 
acquisition,  storage,  movement,  distribution, 
maintenance,  evacuation,  and  disposition  of 
material;  b.  movement,  evacuation,  and 
hospitalization  of  personnel;  c.  acquisition  or 
construction,  maintenance,  operation,  and 
disposition  of  facilities;  and  d.  acquisition  or 
furnishing  of  services. 

Because  World  War  I  and  especially  World 
War  II  approached  total  war— that  is,  war  in 
which  a  country's  entire  economy  had  to  be 
marshalled  for  victory— the  consequent  emphasis 
on  logistics  made  them  unique.  The  human  race, 
to  be  sure,  had  what  it  thought  was  considerable 
experience  with  war  during  more  than  3000 
years  of  fighting  in  some  34  centuries  and  in 
about  8000  recorded  wars.  But  the  logistical 
problems  facing  Napoleon  and  General  Pershing, 
to  take  two  examples  in  recent  history,  were  so 
different  that  modern  logistics  may  be  said  to 
have  begun  in  Pershing's  day. 

Napoleon  thought  mainly  in  terms  of  strategy 
and  tactics.  He  never  had  to  think  of  logistics  in 
terms  as  broad  as  Pershing  did.  Napoleon  could 
say,  "An  army  marches  on  its  stomach,"  a 
maxim  frequently  quoted.  He  meant  simply  that 
well-fed  soldiers  win  campaigns.  Some  writers 
have  referred  to  Napoleon's  defeat  in  his  Russian 
campaign  as  a  "logistical  defeat."  Napoleon 
failed  because  he  thought  in  terms  of  Central 
European  roads  instead  of  Russian  roads.  Bad 
weather  added  to  his  transport  problems.  A 
combination  of  circumstances  that  struck  at  the 
logistical  aspects  of  his  campaign  brought  about 
his  downfall.  Badly  designed  transport,  improper 


forage,  insufficient  supplies,  inadequate 
protection  against  the  cold— these  played  a 
major  part  in  Napoleon's  most  disastrous  failure. 

Pershing  had  to  think  as  much  in  terms  of 
logistics  as  in  terms  of  strategy  and  tactics.  His 
soldiers  needed  food,  of  course,  but  they  needed 
more  than  just  food  to  enable  them  to  defeat 
the  Central  Powers.  And  in  World  War  II  each 
soldier  overseas  required  twelve  tons  of  food  and 
equipment  at  the  start  and  another  ton  a  month 
to  keep  going. 

Let  us  try  to  define  briefly  the  words 
strategy,  tactics,  and  logistics.  Strategy  is 
concerned  with  the  general  plan  for  the 
employment  of  a  nation's  fighting  forces. 
Tactics  refers  to  specific  maneuvers  of  combat 
moves  and  special  techniques  of  fighting. 
Tactics,  a  narrower  term  than  strategy,  deals 
mainly  with  the  operational  execution  of  a 
strategic  plan.  Tactical  victories,  no  matter  how 
inexpensive  and  brilliant  they  may  be,  may 
count  for  little  unless  they  fit  into  the  pattern  of 
the  strategy  involved. 

Logistics  refers  to  the  total  process  by  which 
the  resources  of  a  nation— material  and 
human-are  mobilized  and  directed  toward  the 
accomplishment  of  military  ends.  Thus,  while 
strategy  provides  the  scheme  for  the  conduct  of 
military  operations,  logistics  provides  the 
wherewithal. 

The  emphasis  on  the  mobilization  of  all 
forces  slanted  toward  a  definite  military  goal  is 
the  new  note.  Strategists  can  no  longer  win  wars 
if  their  concern  is  only  with  the  disposition  of  a 
nation's  armed  forces;  nor  can  tacticians  win 
wars  by  means  of  brilliantly  executed  single 
battles.  Logistics,  strategy,  and  tactics  are  now 


AT: 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


interdependent.  It  is  impossible  to  think  in 
terms  of  one  without  giving  proper  weight  to  the 
other  two.  One  may  say  without  danger  of 
overemphasis  that  only  a  nation  possesssing 
abundant  material  resources  and  manpower,  and 
furnished  with  a  master  plan  logistically 
conceived,  can  win  a  war  in  the  present  era. 


LOGISTICS  THROUGH 
WORLD  WAR  I 

The  naval  revolution  (conversion  from  sail  to 
steam)  which  began  fully  to  be  resolved  in  the 
1880's,  complicated  the  logistics  problem. 

The  nature  of  this  revolution  impressed 
Mahan  and  gave  it  considerable  space  in  his 
writings.  He  thought  about  it  logistically,  as  can 
be  seen  by  his  comments.  Mahan  was  impressed 
with  the  number  of  British  bases  on  the  Atlantic 
and  in  the  Caribbean,  and  he  was  concerned 
about  our  lack  of  such  bases.  He  pointed  out 
that  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  we  had  not  "even  the 
beginning  of  a  navy  yard  which  could  serve  as 
the  base  of  our  operations."  He  took  the 
position  that  no  European  nation  should  be 
allowed  to  acquire  a  coaling  station  within  3000 
miles  of  San  Francisco.  "For  fuel  is  the  life  of 
modern  war,"  he  wrote.  "It  is  the  food  of  the 
ship;  without  it  the  modern  monsters  of  the 
deep  die  of  inanition."  He  was  also  distressed  to 
see  the  Americans  so  eager  to  acquire  fast  ships 
while  ignoring  the  means  whereby  they  should 
be  supplied  with  coal.  Because  the  United  States 
then  had  no  foreign  establishments  either 
colonial  or  military  new  American  warships 
were,  as  Mahan  picturesquely  but  truly  put  in, 
"like  land  birds,  unable  to  fly  from  their  own 
shores." 

Mahan's  important  book,  The  Influence  of 
Sea  Power  upon  History,  1 660-1 783,  published 
in  1890,  has  as  its  central  thesis  this  thought: 
The  United  States,  if  it  is  to  survive  as  a  nation, 
must  have  naval  bases  as  links  between  the  now 
dependent  warships  and  the  strategic  command 
of  the  sea.  The  curious  contradiction  which 
Mahan  pointed  out  so  ably  was  that  the 
command  of  the  sea  by  modern  warships 
demanded  external  sources  of  support  if  they 
were  to  retain  the  seakeeping  ability  which  the 
technical  revolution  was  taking  from  them. 


With  the  approach  of  the  Spanish  War,  we 
were  so  far  from  being  logistically  prepared 'that 
we  had  to  do  serious  thinking  about  the  means 
of  maintaining  our  fleet  overseas.  Paradoxically, 
though  the  Philippines  were  much  farther  away 
from  the  United  States  than  was  Cuba,  Dewey's 
logistic  problems  were  relatively  simple.  At 
Hong  Kong  he  was  able  to  fill  his  bunkers  with 
coal,  purchase  two  supply  steamers,  and  hold 
himself  in  readiness  for  any  eventuality.  It  was 
not  difficult  for  him  under  these  circumstances 
to  proceed  and  attack  the  enemy  when  orders 
came. 

Because  the  blockade  of  Cuba  required  the 
maintenance  of  a  naval  force  constantly  at  sea, 
there  resulted  a  number  of  serious  logistic 
problems.  There  was  insufficient  coal  for  the 
ships,  They  had  to  be  withdrawn  from  the 
blockade  to  return  to  port  for  refueling,  which 
weakened  the  blockade;  or  they  had  to  be 
refueled  at  sea,  which  often  resulted  in  damage 
both  to  colliers  and  to  warships.  Eventually  a 
coaling  station  was  established  at  Guantanamo, 
and  the  fuel  difficulties  were  lessened. 

Though  World  War  I  hinted  at  "total  war"  as 
it  is  understood  today,  for  the  United  States  it 
was  not  essentially  a  naval  war. 

The  Navy's  logistic  problem  was  far  easier 
than  the  Army's.  To  maintain  its  forces  overseas, 
the  Navy  established  15  naval  bases  and  27 
aviation  bases  and  operating  stations.  Port 
organizations  were  set  up  in  20  European  ports, 
Supplementing  these  facilities  ashore,  logistic 
support  was  provided  to  the  operating  forces  by 
repair  vessels  and  tenders  at  Queenstown,  Brest, 
Gilbraltar,  Corfu,  and  other  strategic  positions, 

Logistically  speaking,  American  naval 
problems  were  far  simpler  than  they  proved  to 
be  in  World  War  II,  for  American  bases  in  British 
and  French  harbors  were  readily  available, 
Though  installations  frequently  required 
alterations  and  renovation,  the  labor  and  efforts 
were  by  no  means  comparable  to  what  they 
would  have  been  if  we  had  to  build  from  the 
ground  up. 

Another  fact  indicating  the  simplicity  of  our 
naval  problems  in  World  War  I  is  that  with  few 
exceptions  only  light  naval  forces  were  involved, 
The  American  battleship  division  at  Scapa  Flow, 
which  was  the  principal  exception,  enjoyed  al! 
the  comforts  of  a  well-established  British  base, 


476 


Chapter  24-LOGISTICS 


Admiral  Sims  described  the  idea  of  moving 
the  whole  North  Atlantic  fleet  to  European 
waters  as  strategically  poor  and  logistically 
impossible.  "What  naval  experts  call  'logistics'  of 
the  situation,"  he  later  wrote,  "immediately 
ruled  this  idea  out  of  consideration.  The  one 
fact  that  made  it  impossible  to  base  the  Fleet  in 
European  waters  at  that  time  was  that  we  could 
not  have  kept  it  supplied,  particularly  with  oil." 

Even  for  the  lighter  forces,  many  heavy 
repairs  were  done  in  the  United  States.  When 
destroyer  boilers  needed  replacement  or 
retubing,  the  vessels  returned  to  the  United 
States. 

The  role  of  the  Navy  in  World  War  I,  that  of 
transporter,  was  logistically  different  from  its 
role  in  World  War  II.  In  World  War  I,  the  Navy 
was  responsible  only  for  picking  up  the  cargo  at 
one  terminal  port  and  delivering  it  at  another. 
The  true  logistic  test  of  the  Navy  came  in  World 
War  II. 


LOGISTICS  IN 
WORLD  WAR  II 

Before  World  War  II  logistical  support  was 
considered  by  a  majority  of  the  officers  of  the 
Navy  a  routine  administrative  problem.  The 
primary  problems  normally  presented  were 
those  involved  in  fleet  concentrations  and  winter 
cruises.  These  were  usually  of  such  short 
duration  that  ships  overseas  required  only  fuel, 
fresh  provisions,  and  emergency  repairs,  having 
stocked  to  capacity  in  all  other  items  before 
leaving  home  bases.  Moreover,  ships  were  usually 
in  excellent  material  condition,  having  received 
thorough  overhauls  at  scheduled  periods. 

In  the  spring  of  1940,  when  upon  the 
completion  of  spring  maneuvers  the  entire 
United  States  Fleet  was  ordered  to  Pearl  Harbor, 
the  Navy  found  itself  compelled  to  deal  with  a 
genuine  logistic  task.  As  a  result,  Pearl  Harbor 
with  all  its  failings  was  immeasurably  better 
prepared  in  1941  than  it  had  been  in  1940  to 
maintain  a  position  2000  miles  from  our  shores. 
The  United  States  had  taken  at  least  the  first  of 
many  steps  by  which  we  ultimately  projected 
across  the  enormous  areas  of  the  Pacific  a  naval 
force  capable  of  controlling  that  ocean. 


It  became  evident  early  in  World  War  II  that 
the  war  would  revolve  around  the  physical 
means  available  for  prosecuting  it;  that  logistics 
would  be  an  important  factor  in  determining  the 
strategy  to  be  followed.  This  is  evidenced  by  the 
early  decision  to  concentrate  on  the  Germans 
first,  with  the  force  we  could  make 
available-holding  the  Japanese  at  arm's  length, 
so  to  speak,  while  pressing  the  war  against  the 
Germans.  The  ships,  tanks,  and  planes  then  in 
existence  were  insufficient  to  prosecute  an 
all-out  offensive  on  both  fronts. 

In  World  War  II  the  problems  of  production 
of  munitions  in  our  factories  and  their 
transportation  and  distribution  to  the  Armed 
Forces  were  gigantic.  Logistics  planning  and  the 
implementation  of  plans  involved  not  only  the 
service  personnel  particularly  trained  in  that 
branch  of  the  military  art,  but  also  area  and 
tactical  commanders,  port  authorities,  railway, 
truckline  and  airline  executives,  warehousemen, 
longshoremen,  manufacturers,  and  on  down 
through  the  entire  working  population  of  the 
United  States. 

How  logistics  forms  the  basis  for  modern 
war,  how  logistics  determines  the  nature  of 
modem  strategy  and  tactics  may  be  seen  by  a 
glance  at  some  of  the  wartime  problems  involved 
in  the  Atlantic  operations  against  Germany  and 
in  the  Pacific  operations  against  Japan. 

Because  the  war  was  fought  in  Europe, 
Africa,  and  Asia,  men  and  equipment  had  to  be 
shipped  or  flown  over  3000  miles  across  one 
ocean  and  over  7000  miles  across  the  other. 

The  overseas  communications  of  the  United 
States  in  World  War  II  covered  the  globe  and 
extended  56,000  miles.  The  Naval  Air  Transport 
Service  flew  routes  stretching  over  80,000  miles. 
The  Navy  maintained  a  network  of  more  than 
700  depots  and  stations  in  which  were  kept 
stocks  of  over  4,000,000  kinds  of  items. 

Narrowing  the  consideration  to  bring  the 
matter  into  sharper  focus,  the  stocks  on  hand  at 
Guam  alone  would  have  filled  a  train  120  miles 
long.  In  just  one  month  more  than  25,000,000 
barrels  of  bulk  fuel  were  shipped  to  the  Pacific 
for  military  purposes.  At  Guam  1,000,000 
gallons  of  aviation  gas  were  used  daily;  in  the 
area  around  the  naval  supply  depot  on  that 


477 


island  were  93  miles  of  roads.  In  the  Okinawa 
campaigns,  50,000  tons  of  5-inch  to  16-inch 
projectiles  were  fired  by  surface  ships,  which 
meant  that  a  new  supply  had  to  be  built  up  for 
the  assault  on  Japan.  Each  month  600,000  long 
tons  of  military  equipment  had  to  be  sent  out 
into  the  Pacific  Ocean  areas.  Finally,  when  peace 
came,  600,000  tons  had  to  be  shut  off  in  the 
face  of  all  sorts  of  difficulties  connected  with 
transportation,  storage  en  route,  and  so  on. 

But  the  matter  of  logistics  is  not  simply  a 
problem  of  producing  enormous  amounts  of 
material  and  transporting  them  immense 
distances.  Also  vital  to  success  in  war  is  the 
matter  of  timing.  Convenient  though  it  would  be 
to  have  all  the  components  of  a  Navy  engaged  in 
offensive  operations  moving  at  the  same  speed,  a 
strategist  must  work  with  more  complicated 
situations.  In  the  Okinawa  campaign,  for 
example,  1 400  ships  took  part,  some  traveling  at 
8  or  9  knots,  some  at  1 1  or  12,  and  some  at  15. 
Men  had  to  be  trained  in  four  widely  separated 
areas  ranging  from  1 200  to  8000  miles  from  the 
target.  All  men  and  all  ships  had  to  have  both 
surface  cover  and  air  protection  overhead  with 
ships  coming  from  a  variety  of  ports  and  with 
planes  from  a  variety  of  airfields.  Men,  planes, 
and  ships  had  to  be  supplied  during  the  weeks  of 
training  preparation  before  the  invasion,  during 
the  invasion,  and  after  the  invasion-and  these 
supplies  came  from  all  over  the  globe.  All  the 
ships,  planes,  and  men  traveling  at  such  varied 
speeds  over  immense  distances  with  different 
winds,  tides,  currents,  channel  and  port 
conditions  had  to  arrive  at  a  definite  spot  at  a 
definite  time.  That  operation  was  only  one  of 
many  that  presented  a  vast  problem  in  logistics 
to  the  Navy  in  World  War  II. 


LOGISTICS  IN  KOREA 

While  the  war  in  Korea  introduced  no  new 
logistic  problems,  the  very  nature  of  its  opening 
seriously  hampered  operations.  Overnight  our 
"peacetime"  Armed  Forces  were  transformed 
into  wartime  forces  and  transported  to  combat 
areas  on  the  shortest  possible  notice.  The 
customary  mobilization  or  buildup  period  was 
totally  lacking.  The  national  economy  was  not 
mobilized  for  an  all-out  war  effort,  for  it  was 


expected  that  the  conflict  would  be  a  short 
one-President  Truman  had  labeled  it  as  a 
"police  action." 

American  forces  made  two  amphibious 
landings  early  in  the  war,  one  at  Inchon  on  the 
west  coast  of  Korea  and  the  other  at  Wonsan  on 
the  northeast  coast.  They,  along  with  the  Army 
of  the  Republic  of  Korea  (ROK)  and  other 
United  Nations  troops,  quickly  overran  almost 
the  whole  of  North  and  South  Korea.  However 
when  Communist  China  threw  several  divisions 
into  the  fray,  United  Nations  forces  were 
brought  up  "all  standing,"  and  we  finally 
realized  that  we  had  a  war  on  our  hands  that 
promised  to  be  anything  but  short-lived. 

At  that  time,  the  logistic  situation  was 
serious.  Almost  from  the  start,  our  troops  were 
plagued  by  lack  of  transport  in  that 
mountainous  country  of  few  railroads  and 
primitive  roads.  The  numbers  of  vehicles  for 
hauling  supplies  and  troops  were  always 
inadequate,  and  frequently,  troops  were  forced 
to  resort  to  pack  animals  and  pack  men  to  move 
their  supplies. 

In  some  cases,  troops  were  entirely 
dependent  on  air  drop  for  resupply.  For 
example,  beleaguered  Marines  fighting  their  way 
out  of  the  Chosin  Reservoir  area  were  supplied 
by  air.  In  the  12  days  required  for  the 
withdrawal  they  had  requested  119,630  "C" 
rations;  37,710  gallons  of  gasoline;  3,552,940 
rounds  of  small  arms  ammunition;  58,862 
mortar  rounds,  and  9,620  rounds  of  105mm 
ammunition.  We  pay  tribute  to  those  responsible 
for  supplying  the  Marines.  Over  70%  of  the 
material  requested  was  delivered  in  usable 
condition,  and  as  a  result,  the  valorous, 
hard-fighting  Marines  were  able  to  extricate 
themselves  from  an  extremely  precarious 
situation. 

Supplying  an  army  over  5000  miles  from 
home  is  not  an  easy  task.  It  takes  time  to  get 
industry  into  motion,  and  it  takes  time  to 
transport  the  equipment  once  it  has  been 
manufactured.  However,  there  was  a  source  of 
supply  much  nearer  the  combat  zone.  Hundreds 
of  vehicles  and  tons  of  other  material  had  been 
abandoned  in  Pacific  islands  after  World  War  II 
by  our  homeward-bound  troops. 


478 


Chapter  24-LOGISTICS 


In  an  attempt  to  partially  alleviate  the 
logistic  situation,  those  islands  were  scoured  to 
round  up  all  usable  equipment.  After  being 
renovated  as  necessary  in  Japan,  the  material 
was  rushed  to  our  forces  in  Korea.  Besides 
reducing  the  time  it  took  to  get  the  material  to 
our  troops,  this  procedure  gave  Japan  a  much 
needed  economic  boost. 

As  the  conflict  wore  on,  more  and  more 
supplies  and  men  streamed  through  the  ports  of 
Korea  to  the  fighting  front.  After  months  of 
desperate  combat  with  a  determined  enemy,  our 
forces  and  our  UN  allies  finally  hammered  their 
way  back  to  the  38th  parallel,  the  dividing  line 
between  Communist  North  Korea  and  the 
Republic  of  Korea  to  the  south.  A  truce 
negotiated  at  Panmunjom  ended  the  fighting, 
but,  unfortunately,  decided  nothing. 

An  essentially  successful  air  operation 
destroyed  much  of  the  rail  and  highway  support 
network  of  the  Communist  armies  and  might 
have  hastened  the  end,  but  the  Communists  by 
means  of  tremendous  numbers  of  pack  animals 
and  pack  men  managed  to  maintain  logistic 
support  of  their  armies  spread  across  Korea. 

Perhaps  no  new  logistic  lessons  were  learned 
in  Korea,  but  two  old  ones  must  have  been 
relearned.  One,  that  "too  little  and  too  late"  sets 
the  stage  for  defeat,  and  the  other,  that  no 
means  of  support  can  be  ignored. 


LOGISTICS  IN  VIETNAM 

The  military  buildup  in  the  Republic  of 
Vietnam  (RVN)  in  1965  presented  enormous 
logistic  problems.  The  Republic  had  vastly 
inadequate  facilities  or  commodities  needed  to 
support  the  large  number  of  friendly  military 
forces  (eventually  more  than  half  a  million  men) 
descending  on  the  small  country. 

Initial  attempts  at  logistic  support  by  rail 
and  road,  after  supplies  were  landed,  were 
unsuccessful  because  of  Communist  guerrilla 
activity.  Road  convoys  were  shot  up  and  the  one 
railroad  was  cut  up.  Then  the  Allies  tried  a  sea- 
air-power  combination.  Cargo  would  arrive  by 
ship,  be  transported  along  the  coast  by  landing 
craft,  then  be  carried  to  inland  base  camps  by 


aircraft.  This  procedure  was  satisfactory  only  as 
a  stop-gap  measure.  As  the  size  of  the  in-country 
forces  grew,  so  grew  the  need  for  more  rapid  and 
effective  logistic  support.  Complicating  the 
problem  was  inadequate  cargo  clearance 
facilities  at  most  port  wharves  and  piers.  In  some 
cases,  ships  anchored  5  miles  out  and  discharged 
into  lighters.  Thirty-day  turnaround  times  for 
cargo  ships  were  not  unusual. 

It  rapidly  became  obvious  that  facilities 
would  have  to  be  provided  by  the  Allies  to  back 
up  their  own  forces  over  a  10,000-mile  logistic 
pipeline.  Practically  from  scratch,  the  United 
States  developed  its  own  command, 
communications,  and  logistic  network.  Among 
other  things,  entirely  new  port  complexes,  such 
as  Cam  Ranh  Bay  in  the  II  Corps  area  (figure 
24-1)  and  Da  Nang  in  I  Corps,  were  constructed. 
A  complex  of  military  terminal  facilities  (named 
Newport)  was  added  to  the  wharf  area  in  Saigon, 
increasing  its  military  cargo-handling  capacity  by 
more  than  50%. 

In  1965,  there  was  a  total  of  one  deep-water 
port  in  RVN;  by  1968,  United  States  military 
forces  (notably  Navy  Seabees  and  Army 
Engineers)  and  civilian  firms  under  contract  had 
constructed  six  more,  and  ship  turnaround  time 
was  reduced  to  less  than  1  week.  In  another 
area,  the  1 5  airfields  available  in  1 965  for  use  by 
large  transports  was  increased  within  3  years  to  a 
total  of  89. 

Chapter  23  described  in  some  degree  the 
unique  nature  of  the  type  of  warfare  involved  in 
South  Vietnam,  which  required  combative 
operations  not  usually  engaged  in  by  Navy 
forces.  The  wide  divergence  in  scope  and  area  of 
operations  also  required  varying  approaches  to 
the  logistic  problems. 


NAVAL  SUPPORT  ACTIVITY, 

DA  NANG 


The  Naval  Support  Activity,  Da  Nang 
(NSAD)  was  established  in  1965  primarily  to 
support  the  Third  Marine  Amphibious  Force  in 
the  five  provinces  of  I  Corps  Tactical  Zone  in 
the  extreme  northern  part  of  the  RVN.  The  port 
of  Da  Nang  grew  from  an  anchorage  to  a 


479 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


134.175X 

Figure  24-1.— The  huge  harbor  of  Cam  Ranh  Bay  had  been  converted  from  a  vast  sandpile  into  a  major  seaport  serving 
all  of  central  South  Vietnam.  Primarily  a  logistic  base  far  removed  from  "where  the  action  was,"  Cam  Ranh  was  of 
vital  importance  because  of  its  deep,  natural  harbor,  fine  port  facilities,  and  modern  aircraft  runways. 


deep-draft  seaport  (figure  24-2)  handling  a 
million  tons  of  cargo  every  3  months,  40% 
which  had  been  reshipped  up  and  down  the 
225-mile  length  of  the  I  Corps  area.  From  an 
original  total  of  1400  officers  and  men,  NSAD 
enlarged  to  a  force  of  8000  Navy  personnel  plus 
more  than  3000  Vietnamese  civilians. 

Storage  facilities  at  Da  Nang  grew  from  six 
40-  by  100-foot  buildings  to  a  complex  of 
warehouses  totaling  almost  a  million  square  feet 
of  covered  storage  space.  Outlying  detachments 
of  NSAD,  such  as  those  at  Phu  Bai  and  Chu  Lai, 
provided  additional  storage  space  and  supply 
landing  facilities. 

The  operations  department  at  NSAD, 
charged  with  movement  of  cargo  along  the  coast 
of  I  Corps,  had  some  185  craft  assigned  to  it. 
The  repair  department  maintained  a  small-craft 
repair  facility,  including  a  floating  drydock,  to 


overhaul  and  maintain  service  craft.  An 
air-conditioned  hospital,  with  a  staff  of  500, 
provided  full  medical  and  dental  facilities.  The 
supply  department  was  responsible  for  the 
movement,  storage,  and  stock  control  of  cargo. 
Stock  control,  which  carried  more  than  83,000 
line  items,  processed  23,000  receipts  a  month, 


NAVAL  SUPPORT  ACTIVITY, 
SAIGON 

The  Naval  Support  Activity,  Saigon  (NSAS) 
came  into  being  in  May  1966,  about  6  months 
after  NSAD.  Its  job  was  to  satisfy  logistic 
requirements  for  U.S.  Navy  units  in  the  II,  III, 
and  IV  Corps  Tactical  Zones  of  the  RVN. 

Although  NSAS  personnel  were  kept  busy 
ordering,  receiving,  sorting,  loading,  and 


480 


Chapter  24-LOGISTICS 


134.176 

Figure  24-2.— Da  Nang,  at  one  time  only  an  anchorage,  now  has  deep-water  piers  allowing  oceangoing  ships  to  unload 
directly  on  to  the  shore.  Much  of  the  cargo  landed  at  Da  Nang  was  distributed  to  other  ports  and  bases  along  the 
coast  of  I  Corps  Tactical  Zone  by  small  craft. 


shipping  the  thousands  of  items  needed  to  wage 
war  against  the  Viet  Cong,  their  primary  concern 
was  not  supply,  at  least  not  to  the  extent 
required  of  NSAD. 

Two  thirds  of  NSAS  personnel  were  not 
located  in  the  Saigon  headquarters.  They  were 
stationed  at  outlying  bases  distributed 
throughout  the  three  corps  areas.  Their  main 
concern  was  logistic  support  of  forces  engaged  in 
Operations  Market  Time,  Game  Warden,  and 
Stable  Door  (the  last  being  patrol  activities  of 
the  harbor  defense  effort). 

Outlying  detachments  provided  support 
services  such  as  repair  and  maintenance  of  small 
craft,  vehicles,  and  material-handling  equipment 
They  also  provided  berthing,  messing, 
administration,  medical,  postal,  and  supply 


support  for  personnel  stationed  in  the  areas. 
Support  bases  varied  from  completely  isolated 
camps  like  Cam  Ranh  to  locations  in  the  center 
of  good-sized  Delta  towns. 

Radiomen  and  Electronics  Technicians  from 
NSAS  constantly  visited  the  various 
detachments,  coastal  surveillance  centers,  and 
harbor  entrance  control  posts  to  keep  vital 
communication  channels  open  and  operating. 
Roving  supply  personnel  would  troubleshoot 
logistic  problems.  Administration  personnel 
visited  field  activities  to  assist  and  coordinate 
personnel,  medical,  special  services,  and 
educational  services  programs  for  the  thousands 
of  people  supported  by  NSAS.  There  were  many 
others— such  as  circuit-riding  chaplains— who 
spent  half  their  tour  somewhere  outside  Saigon. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


MILITARY  SEALIFT 
COMMAND  (MSC) 

Providing  immediate  sealift  capability  in  the 
event  of  an  emergency  has  been  the  mission  of 
MSC  for  many  years.  In  Vietnam,  where  sealift 
accounted  for  more  than  97%  of  the  logistic 
support  of  the  United  States  and  its  Allies,  the 
mission  had  been  accomplished  with  a  fleet  that 
included  aircraft  ferries,  tankers,  troop  ships, 
roll-on/roll-off  vehicular  cargo  ships,  and 
refrigerated  and  dry-cargo  ships. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  United  States 
buildup  in  RVN,  MSC  controlled  75  dry-cargo 
ships  and  16  transports.  Cargo  movement  to 
Vietnam  in  1965  averaged  86,000  tons  a  month; 
transports  made  21  lifts  carrying,  by  the  end  of 
the  year,  94,000  troops  including  9,500  from 
the  Republic  of  Korea. 

Thereafter  sealift  requirements  increased 
markedly.  For  a  large  portion  of  1966,  the 
entire  fleet  of  MSC  transports  continued 
operating  in  the  Pacific  solely  in  support  of 
RVN  operations.  The  worldwide  MSC-controlled 
dry-cargo  fleet  grew  to  426  ships;  cargo 
deliveries  to  RVN  (figure  24-3)  rose  to  1  million 
tons  monthly.  From  about  1969  until  its 
conclusion  half  of  the  worldwide  MSC  fleet  was 
directly  engaged  in  logistic  support  of  the  war 
effort. 


SEVENTH  FLEET  LOGISTICS 

The  discussion  thus  far  has  centered  around 
logistics  as  it  pertained  to  in-country  forces. 
When  the  Seventh  Fleet  was  constantly  on 
station  off  the  Vietnamese  coast,  it  received  its 
logistic  support  from  an  entirely  different 
source-the  Subic  Bay  Naval  Base. 

Until  the  Tonkin  Gulf  incident  in  August 
1964,  which  brought  the  U.S.  Seventh  Fleet  into 
Vietnamese  waters,  Subic  Bay  Naval  Base  was 
called  "Sleepy  Hollow"  because  of  its  leisurely 
pace  of  operations.  Located  on  the  western 
coast  of  Luzon  only  2  days  by  sea  from 
Vietnam,  however,  Subic  immediately  became 
the  Navy's  most  strategic,  and  busiest,  base  in 
the  Western  Pacific. 


Serving  as  service  station  and  supermarket 
for  the  Seventh  Fleet,  the  base  was  the  primary 
jumping-off  point  for  naval  activities  in 
Vietnamese  waters. 

In  1964,  the  base  was  visited  by  an  average 
of  98  ships  a  month.  At  the  height  of  the 
Vietnam  war  the  figure  exceeded  2000  per  year, 
or  almost  double,  the  previously  monthly 
average. 

The  naval  base,  consisted  of  8  major 
commands,  was  manned  by  4,300  military  and 


134.177 

Figure  24-3.-Ships  under  control  of  the  Military  Sealift 
Command  are  strung  out  along  the  wharves  at  Saigon 
while  unloading  or  waiting  to  unload  their  vital 
cargoes. 


482 


Chapter  24-LOGISTICS 


civilian  personnel  plus  14,000  Filipino  nationals. 
Each  command  worked  7  days  a  week,  around 
the  clock,  to  keep  up  with  the  workload. 

At  the  ship  repair  facility,  technicians  and 
craftsmen  worked  3  shifts,  averaging  more  than 
56  hours  a  week,  to  keep  the  Fleet  on  the  line  in 
Vietnam  and  in  operation  throughout  Southeast 
Asia.  The  largest  part  of  their  workload  was 
repair  of  mechanical  and  electrical  gear  breaking 
down  under  the  strain  of  30  to  40  days  on  the 
line. 

The  naval  supply  depot  is  the  site  of  a  $3 
million  packing  plant  containing  such  features  as 
an  explosion  proof  dehumidified/temperature 
controlled  preservation  and  packaging  area;  an 
automated  materials-handling  system;  and  a 
highly  mechanized  manufacturing  line  for 
pallets.  To  meet  the  needs  of  the  Fleet  during 
the  Vietnam  operation,  the  supply  depot 
processed  about  13  million  pounds  of  food 
every  month  and  supplied  some  35  to  40  ships 
each  day.  The  NSD  fuel  pier  handled  the  largest 
volume  of  fuel  oil  of  any  naval  facility  in  the 
world. 

The  Naval  Air  Station,  Cubi  Point,  carved 
from  the  mountainous  jungle  surrounding  Subic 
Bay  in  a  famed  Seabee  task  of  the  1950s,  was 
the  primary  maintenance,  repair,  and  supply 
center  for  planes  of  the  Navy's  carrier  strike 
force.  At  least  one  of  the  carriers  deployed  to 
the  Tonkin  Gulf  usually  tied  up  at  Cubi  where, 
as  the  carrier  received  repairs  and  supplies, 
maintenance  crews  worked  on  aircraft 
squadrons. 

The  12,000-acre  naval  magazine  was  the 
main  storage  facility  for  ammunition  used  by 
Seventh  Fleet  ships  and  planes,  and  units  of  the 
Pacific  Marine  Ajnphibious  Forces  engaged  in 
the  shooting  war  in  Vietnam. 

Underway  Replenishment 

When  ships  were  on  the  line  off  Vietnam 
operating  for  stipulated  periods,  they  were 
replenished  at  sea  by  ships  of  the  Service  Force 
that  plied  between  the  Seventh  Fleet  and  Subic 
Bay.  Depending  on  the  capacity  of  the 
replenishment  ship  and  requirements  of  the 


Fleet,  a  typical  cycle  of  operation  for  a  large 
underway  replenishment  (UNREP)  vessel  might 
be  15  days  on  station  with  the  Fleet,  a 
high-speed  run  to  Subic  for  reload,  5  to  6  days 
in  port  loading  to  capacity,  then  a  rapid  return 
to  station. 

The  process  of  replenishing  a  ship  underway 
is  greatly  expedited  if  the  replenishing  vessel 
carries  several  types  of  commodities. 
Replenishing  involves  a  certain  amount  of  dead 
time  on  the  part  of  the  combat  ship  in  preparing 
to  go  alongside  the  replenishing  ship,  connecting 
lines,  replenishing  (figure  24-4),  breaking  away 
upon  completion,  and  returning  to  station.  The 
fewer  "stops"  a  ship  to  be  replenished  has  to 
make,  the  less  time  she  remains  off  station. 

With  this  in  mind,  ship  designers  some  years 
back  designed  the  fast  combat  support  ship 
(AOE)  described  in  chapter  18,  the  first  of 
which  was  commissioned  in  March  1964.  The 
AOE  (figure  24-5)  is  a  multiple-product  ship 
that  can  transfer  missiles,  conventional 
ammunition,  fuel,  and  general  and  refrigerated 
cargo  to  other  ships  at  sea.  Combining  in  one 
large  ship  the  functions  of  three  major  Service 
Force  ships— oiler,  ammunition  ship,  and  combat 
store  ship— the  deck  layout  and  cargo-handling 
equipment  allow  the  AOE  to  service  the  smallest 
patrol  craft  or  the  largest  carrier. 

Adding  a  then-new  dimension  to  the  field  of 
logistic  support,  the  AOE  is  built  with  a 
helicopter  flight  deck  capable  of  supporting 
three  Sea  Knight  helicopters.  The  use  of 
helicopters,  known  as  VERTREP  (vertical 
replenishment),  has  several  advantages.  It 
enables  the  transfer  of  provisions  (figure  24-6) 
actually  faster  than  a  receiving  ship  can  stow 
them  away;  it  enables  transfer  of  highly 
perishable  commodities,  such  as  frozen  food, 
without  the  problem  of  defrosting ;  and  it  makes 
possible  the  replenishment  of  a  ship  that  may  be 
40  or  50  miles  away. 

The  AOE,  which  is  larger  than  other  UNREP 
ships,  has  15  replenishment  stations,  each 
capable  of  transferring  a  load  of  cargo  to  a  ship 
alongside  in  90  seconds.  On  a  normal  UNREP 
operation  (carrier  to  port,  destroyer  to 
starboard),  the  deck  force  can  transfer  3  00  tons 
of  cargo  per  hour.  The  AOE  carries  over  5 


483 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


134.178 

Figure  24-4.-Replenishment  at  sea  requires  close  cooperation  between  the  replenishing  and  receiving  ships.  Here 
crewmen  hasten  to  clear  away  netloads  of  provisions  to  make  room  for  more  supplies  being  sent  over  by  the 
UNREP  vessel. 


million  gallons  of  petroleum  products,  1600 
tons  of  ammunition,  and  500  tons  of  dry  and 
refrigerated  stores,  in  addition  to  miscellaneous 
general  cargo  and  mail. 


THE  STRUCTURE 
OF  NAVAL  LOGISTICS 

The  problem  of  logistics  in  any  future  war, 
except  limited  conflicts,  would  exceed  anything 
our  nation  has  so  far  witnessed.  The  extent  of 
total  conflict  would  probably  be  such  that  all  of 
our  economic  resources  would  have  to  be 
mobilized  for  the  successful  prosecution  of  the 
fighting.  While  this  situation  is  entirely  different 
from  that  faced  by,  say,  John  Paul  Jones,  the 


basic  structure  of  logistics  today  is  the  same  as  it 
was  in  Jones'  time.  In  arming,  supplying,  and 
manning  his  ships,  Jones  went  through  the 
processes  of  determination  of  requirements, 
procurement,  and  distribution,  even  though  his 
problem  was  not  as  extensive  and  he  probably 
didn't  think  of  it  in  such  formal  terms. 

DETERMINATION 
OF  REQUIREMENTS 

The  determination  of  requirements  is  the 
first  step  in  the  formation  of  any  logistic  plan.  It 
is  a  military  responsibility  and  prerogative,  and 
it  is  inextricably  involved  with  strategy  and 
tactics.  It  encompasses  determination  of  overall 


484 


Chapter  24-LOGISTICS 


national  and  international  requirements  for  the 
conduct  of  global  war  all  the  way  down  to  the 
determination  of  requirements  for  a  small  task 
unit  engaged  in  a  minor  operation. 

Before  any  determination  of  requirements 
can  be  made,  strategy  must  be  known.  A 
strategic  plan  enables  the  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff  to 
assign  tasks  appropriate  to  the  roles  and  mission 
of  each  branch  of  the  Armed  Forces,  and 
constitutes  an  initial  foundation  for  the 
determination  of  overall  logistic  requirements, 
for  from  them  is  derived  the  size  and 
composition  of  combat  forces  to  be  supported 
in  peace  and  to  be  mobilized  in  war. 


Other  considerations  which  enter  into  the 
process  of  determination  of  requirements  are  the 
support  of  civilian  economy,  health,  and  morale. 
These  are  vital  matters,  for  we  draw  all  our 
strength  from  our  people;  if  these  factors  are  not 
adequately  considered  early  in  any  study  of 
national  requirements,  their  inevitable  intrusion 
at  a  later  date  will  seriously  upset  all 
calculations.  Then  too,  we  will  always  have  an 
overseas  logistic  support  problem  as  long  as  we 
have  overseas  allies. 

We  must  estimate  the  needs  for  the  support 
of  our  allies  and,  possibly,  of  certain  neutrals. 
Here  we  enter  a  realm  where  military,  political, 


3.275 

Figure  24-5.— The  fast  combat  support  ship  is  a  great  deal  more  than  a  "meat  and  potatoes"  supply  ship.  She  carries 
more  oil  than  most  oilers,  more  ammo  than  most  ammunition  ships,  and  as  much  food  as  a  combat  (refrigerated) 
store  ship. 


and   economic    factors   become   ver>    vonip 
Nearly  all  consumers  are  prone  to  ou'ivsti 
tlieir    retjuireinents.    In    some    cases    tins    i 
merely   reflect    poor   planning,    while   in   tit 
cases  it  may  be  a  matter  of  tr\  iny  t<»  "u^-'l  « 
the  getting  is  good." 

Neutrals    present    additional    prubK-ius. 
some     instances,     where     there     IN     pei 
benevolent    neutrality,     we    have    a    stake 
maintaining    this   status.    In    other    cases, 
economic   assistance   and    coopera!i«»n  sen'e 
purpose  in  cutting  off  from  the  enem\  sou 


in 


Kid:-,    n,v4-!   ,i;f 
u-i  ,,.iv-v.  A  L-  ;:;.«-. 


.  U  i  i  v  >,  t     i  '  >      i , . ,  'i      , 


,,u   uuU'i  sals,  and  in  still 
-.'i.-h  lu*  ensuring  our  own 


-!;if«r!    fhc   ivijiurcincnts  for 
.-y.i  m  ^  .  -jpial  Countries.  The 

!,!••!    -ajv   a  deficiency    in  OUr 

W.nM  War  II.  Since 
vnsum  t)f  national 
j»i|  i^siiire  the  study 
us  Hit  ^(HHi  to  WJJl 

jtual  I  nuts  thereof. 


l!    ,!-. 


Figure  24-6  ^  .Sea  Anight  helicoptw  from  USS  Sdcramrnto 
amult 


ammun.fum  on  Th,  fl,t|hf 


«f  ih. 
.  .n 


Chapter  24-LOGISTICS 


PROCUREMENT 

Procurement  lies  between  requirements  and 
distribution  and  includes  some  of  each  of  these 
elements.  It  is  based  upon  the  determination  of 
requirements  and  also,  in  general,  on  the 
production  sources  available  and  to  be 
developed.  In  many  respects  it  may  be  thought 
of  as  the  point  or  zone  of  contact  between  the 
Armed  Forces  and  the  civilian  economy,  and  it 
is  primarily  controlled  by  the  civilian  element  of 
the  defense  structure.  Thus,  while  elements  of 
the  Navy  Department  may  undertake  the  actual 
details  of  procurement,  they  do  so  under 
policies  prescribed  by  and  under  the  watchful 
eyes  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  and  his  civilian 
assistants. 

Procurement  of  adequate  goods  rests 
entirely  upon  a  nation's  ability  to  mobilize  its 
economy  for  the  most  effective  conduct  of  a 
war.  This  economy  mobilization  affects  the 
lives,  property,  working  conditions,  and  thinking 
of  the  entire  population.  While  it  is  civilian 
controlled,  obviously,  its  only  purpose  is  to 
provide  the  supplies,  equipment,  and  arms  for 
combat,  and  it  requires  great  understanding  and 
cooperation  between  the  Armed  Forces  and 
industry,  labor,  and  the  general  civilian 
population. 

In  an  analysis,  procurement  may  be  thought 
of  as  comprising  such  factors  as:  establishing 
specifications  for  the  goods  required; 
standardizing  goods,  insofar  as  is  practicable; 
cataloging  to  identify  items  and  to  eliminate  the 
probability  of  dozens  of  manufacturers' 
numbers  to  identify  the  same  item;  purchase; 
material  and  cost  inspection;  and  priorities  and 
allocations. 

Accumulation  at  continental  depots  is  a 
phase  of  procurement,  but  it  is  here  that 
procurement  blends  with  distribution. 

DISTRIBUTION 

Distribution,  the  last  of  the  three  basic 
elements  of  logistics,  starts  with  accumulation  at 
continental  depots  and  ends  with  delivery  to  the 
ultimate  consumer.  It  derives  from  procurement, 
is  always  involved  with  strategy,  and  ends  up  as 


a  vital  element  of  tactical  combat.  A  gooc 
distribution  system  must  be  responsive,  flexible 
and  economical,  for  without  these 
interdependent  characteristics,  the  system  i: 
certain  to  break  down  under  combat  conditions 

Since  the  purpose  of  such  a  system  is  to  fil 
the  needs  of  the  combat  forces,  it  must  be 
responsive  to  the  operational  needs  of  those 
forces.  This  implies  a  very  close  coordinator 
with  the  operational  forces  and  at  times  i 
measure  of  control  by  the  operating  forces. 

The  distribution  system  must  be  flexible 
since  it  must  be  capable  of  great,  rapid,  anc 
effective  expansion  from  peace  to  war.  It  mus 
be  able  to  provide  for  the  swift  and  unexpectec 
changes  in  plans  and  operations  that  characterize 
war,  and  it  must  be  able  to  accommodate  itsel 
to  changes  brought  about  by  new  development: 
in  technical  fields.  This  means  close 
coordination  with  technical  activities  as  well  a; 
with  operating  forces. 

Finally,  the  distribution  system  mus 
provide  the  greatest  possible  economy  in  peac< 
and  in  war,  consistent  with  rendering  effective 
support  to  the  combat  forces.  This  is  essential  tc 
provide  the  greatest  possible  degree  of  nationa 
security  for  each  dollar  allocated  by  Congress 
There  is  never  enough  of  anything  to  meet  al 
the  needs  of  all  the  forces.  Lack  of  economy 
means  wasted  manpower,  wasted  material 
wasted  transportation—and  it  means  that  som 
combat  force  is  being  unnecessarily  deprived  o 
adequate  means  of  combat.  However,  econonr 
in  logistics  must  be  balanced  with  the  need  fo 
maintaining  adequate  reserves. 

The  elements  of  distribution,  blending  am 
overlapping  in  variable  degrees,  ar 
accumulation,  storage  and  issue,  transportatior 
and  control. 

Accumulation,  normally  outside  the  field  o 
the  operational  commander,  is  in  th 
"producer"  phase  of  logistics.  Yet,  officci 
should  understand  that  accumulation 
impossible  without  a  timely  statement  t 
requirements,  which  in  turn  is  an  integral  part  c 
the  "consumer"  phase  of  logistics. 

Storage  and  issue,  normally  technic; 
elements,  are  dependent  on  what,  when,  an 
where  the  distribution  system  must  deliver  t 


.NAVAL 


meet  the  needs  of  the  operating  forces.  The)  arc  KX.ISIU    I'l  \\MN(» 

also    dependent    on    what,    when,    and    where 

certain  facilities  (figure  24-7)  must  be  provided  ^^  v«*u:;!i>   '<"•  ^-n   **-">    *•••  .iM 

to  make  the  proper  deliveries.  Thus,  it  is  one  »in>  opp«'ju-:.t  K;  sp:;?  -ru:  d'-r-nn 

problem    to   determine    the   requirements  of  a  our    Kv»ur..i"«    ,»:;J     r;;.«';p*,-:    .ir, 

fleet  for  fuel  oil,  but  it  is  an  altogether  different.  limited.  l!  *e  -»?<  -'iv.ru/     ^  ISM-  :n 

though    related,    problem     to    determine    the  wa>   t»ur  tmn  !.•.•«-•,**.•.•%  ,s:,J  f!..=-,r  , 

tankers,   loading   and   unloading   facilities,   and  tnemih  PUV.I-M  u,  t-r«  ;•.,»•<•>.:-,< 
tank  farms  which  are  necessary  to  handle  and  Sbm.U    t.-i.»!    'A.I*      •.  ••?       •  :;;.- 

transport   the  quantity  of  fuel  oil  found  to  be  y,lt».»!r    :j.»ii)»v.a]    ;•...•:;  >::  •,     A  -  ,l,i    ; 

necessary.  m»,Ni.'iM  .-!!»,  ;<-r:!;-.    u-.:   -..d-.  -,-! 

Excessive     stockpiling     at     accumulation  u'f'"  "''"^f1''  x    'J'"*  '  ''  J  '/    *'  ..'"  ' 

points,    both    on    the   continent   and   oversi'as.  w,ifs^\Ui,.,       ••:   ^*    ^      -          '  •''-    - 

cripples    economy    and    must    be    kept    to    a  vi'iiu.*^^*-.      '•••»>     ^     ^       '  ""»  ' 

minimum,    Therefore,   storage   and   issue   nns\t  rf>*.v,  n^<      ,  .4..       ,  i     » 

neatly  dovetail  with  transportation.  In  the  lieUJ  ii»pinus.iti":. 

of  transportation  we  find  the  greatest  overlap  ol  Irs   tin-   ^  -';  •    v  ..r    .r..    •.«.?.- 

all,  because  transportation  is  tfievitallinkth.it  rr,pj»'/    '..-Liht.      "      "    -B    .-,-,;    ;  ;.-..  •    .^ 

connects  and  vitali/es  all  elements  of  supph  ami  gri-.il^r  sjj.ir.;     -.  •-.:-••          :    ,    !-.,r    ,*3t! 

logistics.      It      is     local,     continental,     and  W.ir  II    !hr  t 

intercontinental.    Distribution   agencies  control  thai  w.ir  ;•;!• 

transportation  by  rail,  truck,  air.  and  water  in  Jorh     fL.i! 

the  /.one  of  the  interior,  but  as  the  combat  /one  M-.  <;ji! .  i .  ., 
is     approached     and     entered,     transportation 
operation  and  control  becomes  a  most  urgent 
prerogative     and     concern     of     the     Uutkul  \-    - 

commanders.  ,  t.M    ,',_   '.,',, 

fa  all  fields  of  supi>ly,  important  savings , sic  ;•*.>'.:;.'.,•   -    : 

made    possible    by     the    application    til    gn.ul  <  *:  fM  . ,,' .;, :, 

control  measures,  (nnnl  contrt>l  results  in  ilm\  t  (  '  '"'  " '  : "••  '  '• 

reduction   in   overall  procurement,  storage.  ,uui  }'"i!'-    *'•  '  "' "  •    "^  • 

transportation     with     attendant     ihvriMvs    in  :"' "' 
operating  and  administrative  personnel.  In  mmf 

cases,   this,   in   turn   will  be  accompanied  In  ,»  \\IION\I     Ii\U 
secondary     reduction     in     j>ersonnel    who    .ir«- 
engaged      in     procuring,     training,     equipping. 

trans[)orting.    administering,    and    housing    the  '-•"    ^ •••'••     •• 

personnel    who    were    directly   concerned    with  .tnit-juir-i        ;  :•  ,;, 

logistics.  I  :•<?;. •/.:.   ".    :    ' 

Sta!'"  ,    tj.i.     .."      !; 

Control      measures     include     cataloging,  p«h.  rs   .t:,,:      • 

obtaining,      and     correlating     program     and  .uu-*..  j  •  -,     ../••;     » 

availability     information.    The    value    of    these  frIsUiiv'  :••.:'•••   .• 

things  is  so  obvious  that  little  need  be  said  about  this  oh-\  !.,       »!*      ^ 

them.     However,     we     might     add     that     thr\  v.-rtaiu    ..'•••  ,i:r  •'    -• 

expedite  processing  and  handling  and  give  us  the  I  \r,  ,tr.     I\».«-    -      -  - 

ability   to  match  procurement  and  distribution  h.jsu   !,;.?]  r-  ,-  '  ».    ,- 
with     recjuirements     and     develop     the 
responsiveness,     flexibility,     and     economy 
characteristic  of  a  good  distribution  system. 


Chapter  24-LOGISTICS 


NAVAL   SUPPLY   CENTER 


134.1 

Figure  24-7.  —  The  Naval  Supply  Depot  at  Pearl  Harbor  keeps  an  inventory  of  well  over  200,000  items  ready  to  serv 

the  needs  of  the  fleet. 


the  planning,  programming,  and  budgeting  for 
naval  activities  and  operations,  as  may  those  of 
other  Executive  Branch  departments  and 
agencies  performing  functions  relating  to 
national  security. 

DOD  LEVEL 

The  Secretary  of  Defense  advises  the 
President  concerning  the  coordination  of 
military,  industrial,  and  civilian  mobilization, 
including: 


Policies  concerning  industrial  and  civil 
mobilization  in  order  to  assure  the  in 
effective  mobilization  and  maximum  utilizati 
of  the  nation's  manpower  in  the  event  of  war; 

Programs  for  the  effective  use  in  time  of  v 
of  the  nation's  natural  and  industrial  resour 
for  military  and  civilian  needs;  for 
maintenance  and  stabilization  of  the  civil 
economy  in  time  of  war,  and  for  the  adjustm.' 
of  such  economy  to  war  needs  and  conditic 

Policies   for  unifying,  in  time  of  war, 
activities  of  Federal  agencies  and  departme 


rocuremeni,  uisiriouuon  ui  trunspui  IUUUH  ui 
lilitary  or  civilian  supplies,  materials  and 
roduets; 

The  relationship  between  potential  supplies 
f,  and  potential  requirements  for,  manpower, 
'sources,  and  productive  facilities  in  time  of 
ar; 

Policies  for  establishing  adequate  reserves  of 
rategic  and  critical  material,  and  for  the 
;)nservation  of  these  reserves; 

The  strategic  location  of  industries,  services, 
Dvernment,  and  economic  activities,  the 
mtinuous  operation  of  which  is  essential  to  the 
ition's  security. 

The  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff  prepare  strategic 
ans  and  joint  logistic  plans  necessary  to 
ipport  their  strategic  plans. 

The  Assistant  Secretary  of  Defense 
nsta llations  and  Logistics),  in  support  of 
rategic  and  logistic  plans  prepared  by  the  Joint 
.liefs  of  Staff,  is  charged  with  coordinating 
•tivities  within  the  Department  of  Defense  that 
late  to  the  military  aspects  of  industrial 
obili/.ation. 

The  Defense  Supply  Agency  (DSA),  an  agent 
the  Department  of  Defense,  provides 
ntrali/ed  management  of  most  commodities 
,d  services  lor  the  military  departments,  l-ach 
rviee  determines  the  kinds  {>f  supplies  and 
uipment  needed,  and  the  quantity  needed  pet 
>erating  unit.  Defense  supply  centers  (I)S('s). 
lich  arc  field  organi/alions  of  the  DSA.  then 
mpute  the  replenishment  requirements  on  all 
.'jstic  items  under  DSA  management.  The 
•JCs  control  the  wholesale  distribution  of  stock 
long  the  services;  they  utili/e  the  facilities, 
.T.ardless  of  military  department  ownership. 
it  are  best  suited  to  meet  the  requirements  »>f 
.*  services  and  the  areas  served. 

•PARTMLNT  OF 
Hi  NAVY   LHVIiL 

Logistics  administration  and  control  at  the 
vy  Department  level  involves  two  distinct 
ationships:  that  of  planning,  forecasting, 
ascribing  and  distributing  the  requirements  of 


and  producing  the  material  and  personnel 
required  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  operating 
forces  the  logistics  of  production. 

The  line  of  demarcation  between  consumer 
and  producer  logistics  cannot  readily  be  fixed 
and  defined;  the  two  functions  are  interrelated 
and  represent  a  continuous  "cause  and  effect" 
relationship  which  cannot  be  served.  The 
administration  of  the  two  functions,  however,  is 
divided  to  assure  the  best-qualified  supervision 
of  each  function. 

The  determination  of  the  "what,  when,  and 
where,"  that  is.  consumer  logistics,  is  a  military 
function  and  as  such  is  assigned  to  {he  duel  of 
Naval  Operations  and  his  subordinate  field 
commanders,  The  ("NO  expresses  these  material 
needs  to  the  Chid  ot  Naval  Material.  Pi  mincer 
logistics  is  a  business  tune  lion  assigned  tor 
administration  and  ruvuiu»n  Co  the  various 
systems  commands  under  the  vommami  of  the 
Chief  of  Nasal  Matenal 

MI-LI)  LI'V!  L 

Logistics  on  the  held  lewl  is  primarily 
conceined  with  determination  »»l  trquiiewents 
for  normal  manitenaiue  ot  thr  llrri  and  bases 
and  tor  special  operations,  and  \ufit  the  onjerly 
and  hineh  distribution  ol  tnatrual-.  l«>  iultiil 
these  requirements.  Jhrie  ai*'  M'^ftal  i-i  hflnns 
on  the  field  k'u-S,  bcgjumng  with  fhr  area 
Commander  and  in*,  hiding  fiaii'.pnrtafion  and 
supph'  actiMttes  tlitmu'lujuf  thr  I'nitcd  States 
and  in  the  tmwaid  aicas  hi  aiKliti'»u  to  the 
normal  logistic  adimw-iliatuiu.  ea,  h  tactical 
operation  requires  the  pr^',  IM»>U  t»s  special 
personnel  and  material  at  r\a»,  t  tunes  and  places. 
A  uajor  portion  ot  the  drtailed  planning  tor 
each  operation  is  done  on  the  held  level  as  are 
all  actual  assembly  ami  transportation  ot'  men 
and  material. 

The  area  commander  must  anaK/e  the 
strategic,  tactical,  and  logistic  plans  of  the 
Defense  Department  and  advise  his  superiors  of 
the  logistic  resources  allocated  to  him.  He  must 
match  up  what  he  is  told  to  do  with  the  tools 
that  he  is  given  to  work  with  and  organi/e  his 


490 


Chapter  24-LOGISTICS 


operations  so  that  everyone  concerned  not  only 
has  the  proper  implements  available,  but  also  is 
assured  of  replenishment  and  replacement  at  the 
proper  time  and  at  the  proper  place. 
Consideration  must  be  given  to  supply, 
transportation,  repair,  and  maintenance  of  ships 
and  equipment,  medical  attention,  and  all  of  the 


other  elements  that  are  required  to  enable  men 
to  fight.  Fuel  oil,  beans,  and  bullets  must  be 
constantly  available  to  those  who  need  them: 
mail  should  be  delivered  as  often  as  possible;  and 
provision  should  be  made  for  assisting  damaged 
ships.  All  those  and  other  logistic  matters 
comprise  the  logistic  plan. 


CHAPTER  25 


NAVAL  TELECOMMUNICATIONS 


Communications  is  the  vital  key  to 
nmaiul.  It  involves  the  transmission  and 
.•eption  of  military  instructions  and 
ormation;  it  is  at  once  the  voice  of  command 
i  the  arm  of  control.  Without  it,  coordinated 
ion  would  be  impossible.  Without  the  ability 
communicate,  there  could  be  no  purposeful, 
)perative  effort  by  our  ships  and  aircraft. 
houl  a  master  plan,  the  details  id' which  must 

sent  to  fighting  units,  modern  naval 
'rations  cannot  be  executed.  Communications 
kes  it  possible  for  the  most  experienced 
ids,  at  the  highest  echelons  of  command  and 

the  scenes  of  action,  to  evaluate  missions. 
ectives,  and  enemy  capability,  and  t«> 
ermine  appropriate  courses  of  action. 

In  the  modern  missile  aye.  it  is  a  foregone 
elusion  that  a  future  war  would  nut  allow  .t 
icni  of  grace  during  which  to  procute  vast 
mills  of  equipment  anil  to  tram  thousands  of 
/  personnel.  Naval  telecommunications,  being 
.inction  of  command,  must  always  be  m  a 
dition  of  preparedness.  In  the  even!  of 
tililies,  the  operating  forces  would  depend  on 
ununication  facilities  in  existence  at  the 

A  navy  thai  operates  on  a  worldwide  M  ale 
n'res  the  services  of  a  global  communu  ation 
vork.  A  commander  must  be  able  to  pass  the 
il  to  communicate  whenever  mvcssarv,  in 

mode,  between  and  among  ships  separated 
•arying,  distances,  and  from  ships  to  and  from 
•e  stations  and  aircraft.  The  ability  to 
municate  makes  possible  effective  command 

control,  thus  ensuring  that  every  mobile 
e  center  in  the  Heel  is  responsive  to  the 
ical  and  strategic  needs  and  services  of  every 


touch  with  its  base  of  operations  because  it  is 
supported  by  a  global  uigam/ution  of 
communication  stations  with  hundreds  ot  iadio 
and  landline  circuits.  Orders  and  information 
affecting.  the  successful  uuUojne  ol  the  force's 
mission  are  exchanged  s  \vitth  ami  accurately 
throughout  evvr>  level  ot  ,,  .  uinmaittl.  I  he  iliiect 
result  ot  reliable  commuiiKations  is  a  tightly 
directed  fighting,  unit. 

The  mission  ot  naval  teKviuiimunK  ations 
the  voice  o!  command  i-»  to  piovide  ami 
maintain  leliable.  se^inc.  and  rapid 
communications,  based  un  w  ai  requirements 
adetjuate  to  meet  the  need'.  of  nav.il  lUiunand, 
to  tacihtate  administiatton,  .j:>d  {•»  satisfy,  as 
diu'cted.  .U  "S  appro-,  ed  \»m(  lequiietnents. 
Kehabihlv  is  alwa\  s  paJ.iJUMtinl  ,  it  must  never  be 
saciilued  to  achieve  seujnt*,  «>!  .pe.-,l  \Mi-en 


aiul  speed,  h'tuev.1!  .  i«:s--  m  thr  other 
must  be  sacs  it  iced  in  th-'  hi'ht  <  »!  tiie  d-'mands  ot 
the  situ  a  tu  tit 

\'erv  little  lias  been  -..ml  al'Muf  f|j--  sol--  o! 
naval  t  eh\  •onmiuni.  atit»ns  in  lh  ••  \a\v's 
nnpiessi\e  war  ifotfil  lv.  o  j-\r.itiii.  h  »i  this 
sileiue  ueie  nuhtaiA  '•••>.-,  :n\l\  ,sud  th/  iln-.e 
inteiM'alion  ot  connnunu  .ilji  m  ,  with,  opciations. 
which  made  it  difficult  to  diveni  the  h;."a\\ 
reliance  on  cominunu  alions. 

(  "  o  m  rn  e  n  c  i  n  i*  in  1  l'  ^  l^  n  aval 
telecommunications  developed  it-,  facilities  so 
cxtcnsiveh  that  at  the  peak  ot  World  Wai  II  it 
had  established  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
efficient  communication  s>  stems  in  the  world.  It 
made  possible  joint  operations  amour  the  Army, 
Navy,  and  Air  Force;  and  it  brought  together 


Naval  telecommunications  also  performed 
collateral  duties.  In  time  of  war,  letters  from 
home  are  almost  as  important  to  military 
personnel  as  ammunition  and  food.  During 
World  War  II,  the  Naval  Communications  Service 
was  responsible  for  all  United  States  mail  for  the 
naval  service  and  established  more  than  5,000 
Navy  post  offices  ashore  and  afloat,  manned  by 
2(),600  personnel. 

Press  and  radio  facilities  provided  by  the 
Navy  and  the  other  services  gave  the  public 
grandstand  seats  for  the  best  news  coverage  of 
any  war.  Correspondents  from  news  associations 
and  broadcasting  companies,  as  well  as 
newspapermen  and  maga/ine  publishers, 
accompanied  task  forces  in  every  campaign. 
They  were  provided  with  complete  broadcasting 
opportunities  and  radioteletypewriter  service 
sufficient  to  transmit  large  volumes  of  news  to 
tin*  home! runt.  Occasionally  they  were  offered 
radiophoto  tiansmittmg  service. 

Post-World  War  II  developments  in  naval 
telecommunications  have  kept  pace  with 
increasing  demands  Inr  reliability,  speed, 
accuracy,  and  versatility  imposed  by  the  advent 
oi  nuclear  weapons,  high- performance  aircraft, 
ballistic  missiles,  and  nuclear  propulsion. 
Improvements  are  being  made  conliniiously  in 
the  field  of  mamnade  satellites  for  the  purpose 
of  communication  iclay.  One  of  the  first  big 
dividends  tmm  the  U.S.  space  effort  is  in 
satellite  <-oinmunications.  In  general,  the  Navy's 
role  in  this  progtam  has  been  as  a  participant  in 
joint  projects,  but  the  future  for  Navy  satellite 
cummunit  atmns  appears  promising. 


Hi  Ml- NTS  OF  NAVAI. 
M  I  {-COMMUNICATIONS 

The  (enn  "na\al  telecommunications"  is 
comprehensive  and  denotes  (he  whole  of  (he 
communication  effort  within  the  Department  of 
the  Navy.  Naval  telecommunications  refers  to 
the  concept  of  communicating,  rather  than  to 
any  formally  constituted  organi/ation.  The  main 
function  of  naval  telecommunications  is  to  meet 
the  communication  needs  of  the  Operating 
Forces.  The  secondary  function  is  to  facilitate 
administration  oi  the  naval  establishment.  These 


functions  include  the  related  processes  of 
encrypting,  decrypting,  routing,  reproducing, 
distributing,  and  recordkeeping.  In  addition, 
there  are  several  subordinate  functions,  such  as 
the  operation  of  the  Communications  Material 
Security  (CMS)  System  and  special 
communication  tasks  or  experimental 
assignments  as  directed. 

The  Commander,  Naval  Telecommunications 
Command,  exercises  operational  direction  of  the 
Naval  Telecommunications  System  as  a 
servicewide  system;  serves  as  the  operational  and 
maintenance  manager  of  the  Defense 
Communications  System  assigned  to  the  Navy; 
and  acts  as  central  coordinator  for  the  CNO  in 
carrying  out  Department  of  the  Navy 
responsibilities  for  telecommunications  as 
assigned. 

The  command  coordinates  activities  and 
functions  of  a  number  of  operating  elements 
that  collectively  comprise  the  Naval 
Telecommunications  System.  These  include,  but 
are  not  limited  to,  communication  stations  and 
units,  radio  stations,  and  the  communication 
organi/alions  of  naval  shore  activities  and  forces 
afloat. 

A  naval  telecommunication  station  consists 
of  communication  facilities  and  ancillary 
equipment  required  to  provide  the  essential  fleet 
support  and  fixed  communication  services  for  a 
specific  area.  A  communication  unit  is  assigned  a 
limited  or  speciali/.ed  functional  mission  and 
consequently  is  smaller  in  terms  of  personnel 
and  facilities  than  the  communication  station. 
Naval  telecommunication  stations  and  units 
normally  are  llie  points  where  message  traffic  is 
transferred  between  Navy  operational  circuits 
and  Defense  Communications  System  circuits. 

A  naval  radio  station,  generally  a  remote 
component  of  a  communication  station, 
performs  either  radio  transmitting  or  radio 
receiving  functions.  The  designation  letter  T  or 
R  is  added  in  parentheses  to  the  activity  (e.g., 
NAVRADSTA(T),  Lualualei,  Oahu)  to  indicate 
the  function  performed. 

The  organ i/.ation  of  a  shore  activity  usually 
provides  for  a  communication  department  that 
maintains  and  operates  communication  facilities 
mainly  to  afford  local  communications  as 


493 


NAVAL  ORIHNTATION 


•cessary  tor  accomplishing  the  activity's 
;signed  mission.  It  also  may  provide  general 
:)innuinications  in  furtherance  of  tlie 
or  Id  wide  functions  of  the  Naval 
ele  communications  System.  Where  radio 
ansmitting  and  receiving  facilities  are  required, 
is  the  policy  to  install  the  equipments  in 
•gularly  established  transmitter  or  receiver 
ations  and  remotely  control  these  facilities 
om  the  communication  center  of  the  activity 
mcerned. 

At  the  level  of  the  Operating  Forces. 
)mmunications  is  the  voice  of  command  in  a 
sihle  and  tangible  way.  The  communication 
-gani/ation  aboard  ship  is  under  the  direct  and 
)sitive  control  of  the  commanding  officer, 
ften,  the  communications  provided  iniluence 
rectly  and  materially  the  degree  of  success 
•hieved  by  the  combat  unit.  In  the  transmission 
id  reception  of  signals  and  messages,  the 
wununieation  organi/ation  participates  in  the 
xercise  of  command.  Although 
OMNAVTH  FCOMM  piovulcs  technical 
Miimuuicalion  guidance  and  direction  ID  the 
[Derating  Forces,  with  primary  emphasis 
reeled  toward  overall  operating  elhciencv. 
*et  commanders-in-chiel'  retain  authoritative 
rection  and  control  of  ship-shore,  ship  ship. 
[•-ground,  and  other  designated  tactical 
minuriication  functions. 


DFFFNSF  COMMUNICATIONS 
SYSII-M 

A  need  for  coordinated  and  st.mdardi/ed 
mniunicatioiis  among.  U.S.  nuhlaiv  sen  tecs 
is  clearly  apparent  dinmg  Wnr  Id  \V,tr  II. 
cause  Army  and  Navy  facilities  sometimes 
•re  duplicated  in  one  location,  differences  in 
>cedtires  made  lor  melluient  mlrrservu  c 
mmunications.  Since  1UM.  communication 
ocedures  (other  than  for  tactical 
mmunications)  have  been  standardi/ed 
•oughout  the  Department  of  Defense  by 
•ans  of  the  Defense  Communications  System 
CS). 

The  DCS,  as  part  of  the  overall  National 
mmunications  System,  comprises  the  major 
rtions  of  the  individual  Army,  Navv.  and  Air 


Force  long-haul  point-to-point-'store-and- 
forward  communication  complexes  to  provide  a 
single  system  that  is  responsive  to  the 
Department  of  Defense  worldwide 
communication  needs.  The  military  departments 
maintain  and  operate  their  assigned  portions  of 
the  IK'S,  but  are  responsive  to  the  overall 
operational  direction  and  supervision  of  the 
Defense  Communications  Agency  (DCA),  which 
is  the  management  agcttcs  lor  the  DCS.  The 
DCA  is  under  the  direction,  authority,  and 
control  of  the  Secretary  of  Defense. 

All  DCS  facilities  operated  In  the  Navv  are 
ashore.  Most  message  trail  iv.  Slowing  between 
ships  and  shore  commands  ts  touted  over  IK'S 
circuits  at  some  point  between  ong.matorCs)  and 
addressee! si.  Because  a  DCS  te!a\  station  serves 
a  geographical  area  rather  than  a  particular 
service,  each  station  is  equipped  to  relay 
messages  loi  all  mihlarv  snvtt.es  within  its  atea. 

V»  ill)  cei  l.iin  e\v  eptions.  {he  I  H  'S  jju hides  all 
Department  of  Defense  k  u<.  nifv  (eimmals. 
lontiol  labilities,  and  tnbutaiies.  reg.udless  of 
the  rinhlarv  department  t«  vUiu  h  the\  are 
assigned.  CH  partuulai  MgmJjt  aru  e  t<«  the  Navy, 
the  DCS  normalK  does  not  nulud''  land,  ship, 
and  airbtirne  »  omrnuru.  ahon  1,$,  ilities  of 
broadcast,  sjup  tu  '.fmir.  ship  to  -.lup,  ami 
ground-ail -giound  s».  st»-ins  la.  ti.  al  circuits 
vMtlun  a  tacts-,  al  «n»'ani/.»tt' u;  ai''  !-\>  hulrd  Imm 
(lie  DC  S. 

Operational  *i«ntr»t|  and  •  ;;p'."r.  r.Mu  uj  the 
DC  S  is  accomplished  l!iM:;eh  a  .  "inplfs  ot 
i »  unnninK  atmn  control  ,  enf:.-r.  I  }p.-  tuih  Uoris 
and  tasks  assov'iati-d  with  th  =  -  .'::tn>l  ^nt-.-is  are 
to  labulatf.  assemble.  \l<n<\  and  displav 
inlonnation  on  lanent  ,  "iidiliMns  nt  the 
«,  i  imponenls  t  it  the  s\  strni ,  all*  >.  .it'--  «  hannels  and 
cnemls  to  meet  requiremer.fs  »»t  aulhon/ed 
users,  and  peilorrn  tontmuon-.  system  an.dvsis 
and  such  other  task'-  as  are  ne,  essar  v.  I  he 
principal  objective  ot  the  xonlrol  ct-nter  s\  stem 
is  to  assure  the  greatest  possible  responsiveness 
ot  the  IK  'S  to  the  needs  nt  its  users. 

Communication  control  venteis  receive  and 
process  pertormaike  ilata  based  on  hourly  and 
spot  reports  made  by  the  various  IK'S  reporting 
stations  on  networks,  cirunts.  channels,  and 
facilities  of  the  DCS.  These  reports  provide  a 


Chapter   25    NAVAL  TELECOMMUNICATIONS 


knowledge  of  the*  status  of  the  IK'S  at  all  times. 
The  control  centers  know  of  traffic  backlogs,  if 
any;  conditions  of  circuits;  status  of  installed 
equipment  at  switching  centers  throughout  the 
world;  and  the  status  of  channels  allocated  to 
users.  With  this  knowledge  and  that  of  alternate 
route  capabilities  between  any  two  points,  spare 
capacity,  and  radio  propagation  conditions,  the 
control  centers  restore  elements  and  reallocate 
channels  according  to  needs  and  priorities  of 
users. 

The  heart  of  the  communication  control 
center  complex  is  the  Defense  Communications 
Agency  Operations  Center  (DC  AGO,  located  in 
the  Washington.  D.C.,  area.  Within  this  complex, 
status  information  is  maintained  on  major 
Irunkmg  and  vital  ciicuits  throughout  the  world. 
Coordination  of  resloral  actions  is  effected  by 
direct  critical  control  circuits  with  DC  A  field 
elements. 

Subordinate  to  the  DCAOCare  four  Defense 
Area  Communications  Operations  Centers 
(DACOCs)  in  Hawaii,  Germany,  Alaska,  and 
Colorado  thai  exercise  operational  direction  and 
supeiv  ision  of  DCS  components  in  their 
geographical  ,ueas  in  the  same  manner  that  the 
DCAOC  covets  the  entire  world.  Under  the 
DACO(  s  are  a  number  of  Regional 
Communications  Operations  Centers  (RCOCs) 
to  piovule  control  tacilities  that  permit  the  DCS 
in  the  legion  to  be  responsive  to  the  changing 
needs  ol  aic-a  commanders. 

DCS   AUrOVON 


I  he  !)(  S  automatic  voice  network 
(AI'IOVON)  otters  rapid,  direct 
inteiconnection  ol  Department  of  Defense  and 
cert,  i  in  other  (  lover  nment  installations. 
AUIOYON  is  intended  to  be  a  single, 
world  w  id  e.  general  -purpose,  direct-dialing 
system.  Its  goal  is  to  complete  connections 
between  two  points,  anywhere  in  the  world,  in 
about  ."  seconds,  and  to  complete  regular 
connections  with  pushbutton  speed. 

The  AUTOVON  system  is  comprised  of 
several  installations  comparable  in  function  to 
commercial  telephone  exchanges.  An  installation 
is  referred  to  as  an  AUTOVON  switch,  or  simply 
switch.  Within  individual  areas  are  local 


command,  control,  and  administrative  voice 
communication  systems.  The  systems  can  be 
connected  into  the  worldwide  AUTOVON 
through  manually  operated  telephone 
switchboards,  or  automatic  dial  exchanges,  by 
provision  of  direct  in  or  out  dialing  capabilities. 
Normal  AUTOVON  service  makes  it  possible 
for  subscribing  stations  to  call  other  stations  on 
a  worldwide  basis  for  day-to-day  nonpreemptive 
traffic.  Depending  on  the  type  of  service 
available  in  each  locality,  AUTOVON  calls  may 
be  accomplished  either  by  direct  dialing  or 
through  a  local  operator.  Where  users  require 
priority  calls  to  be  made,  they  place  the  call 
with  their  local  operator  or  the  AUTOVON  dial 
service  assistance  operator. 

DCS  AUTODIN 

The  DCS  automatic  digital  network 
(AUTODIN)  is  a  fully  automatic  digital  data 
switching  system  capable  of  handling  any  type 
of  information  in  digital  form.  The  system 
consists  of  high-speed,  electronic,  solid-state 
switching  centers,  various  types  of  data  and 
teletype  subscriber  terminals,  and 
interconnecting  transmission  media. 

AUTODIN  is  intended  to  afford 
instantaneous,  error-free,  and  secure 
communications  around  the  world  to  several 
thousand  directly  connected  subscriber 
terminals.  Daily  capacity  of  the  system  is  in  the 
neighborhood  of  5  million  average-length 
messages. 

Interconnection  of  AUTODIN  switching 
centers  is  accomplished  through  a  network  of 
high-frequency  radio  channels,  submarine  cables, 
microwave  and  tropospheric  channels,  and  a 
variety  of  wire  lines.  These  transmission  media 
are  available  from  existing  DCS  transmission 
resources,  AUTOVON,  and  from  commercial 
communication  facilities. 

Backbone  of  the  AUTODIN  system  is  tin 
automatic  switching  center  (ASC).  Bash 
functions  of  the  ASC  are  to  accept,  store,  anc 
retransmit  digital  messages  from  one  location  tc 
another,  automatically  detect  and  correct  errors 
and  accomplish  alternate  routing.  Had 
switching  center  has  a  high  degree  of  reliability 
resulting  from  duplicate  major  units  which  cai 


,.r 


be    activated    with    a    minimum    oi 
service,   '['he  current   status  ol   an  ASC  i.iri  !v 
checked  at  am  moment  by  obtaining  .t  pnnJ 
nJ'  exactly  how  many  messages,  in    preyed  cn 
(  reijuired  speed  ot  'transmission  )  and  destination.          1*.-     '•••"    -  .  A  ;,       ,:ul 

are  in  the  center.  >'••"•'•  "i!  f  '•    •'  <  '  '   '    '         '      '-.<,••.-.».,  ^.^ 

!  .-,-.•  i.  ••       A'  .-    ..  .      .     -  .....    ,,.,,,  !u 

r.acli  overseas  ASC  is  capable  o!  it\-«n.'!i;.-'  nn*          w,:>...      .-,-:   •:     •  •  >         *  .    ,|,  ,. 

and     routing    .v^OO    single    rotitint'    iinluat"^  -•      *   "5  .  -.,»] 

(gi-oujis   of   letters    that    idcntih    st,iti«t:is  122  ,i          j,    ,  ..          .  ,   .  .    i'?, 

teletvnewriter    re  lav    netwoikK    JtH)   .ol!i\liu          ...        .  ...    .  <  \i  '• 

•     «  •  „.;....•  ''  *l  •>'•',  I 

(encompassini1  more  than  one  aililiessfcf  uMilHi;'  ,    ,.     .       *  .       -      .  -    .         ... 

indicators,  and  ronling  nulic.ilors  hti  .^(HJ  *>fhrs          ...  ...» 

switching1  centers.  $.«  .  :          ,       ».4  -        ,      . 

The    whole    conce|>l    o|    AI'IOIHX    i>-    lo  '"''','''                                                *    !h' 

reduce     manual     handlin.r     ol     JUCSS.ISVN    !•  »    .1  '       ,                                                            *         J* 

minimum   by  the  use  ol  automated  f.juipjurn!  ....-,                                              ,  •     .     ,« 

{«>    reduce    messasu1    deh\ei\     tunes    .in*!    di-S.r.  A  '"     ' 
anywhere  in  the  world  t«»a  m.illet  •*!  sev^jd  -ir. 
essence,    real-tune)    lalher    than    in    nunuli".  •«! 

J1(H|JS  K.hh'tt«-Jrph»'!t-         It       f 


MM  HODS  0! 
COMMUNK  AIINC, 

I  hi'hh      cla-i-.il  H'd      m.ih'i  tai      lL.il     v    ,  ..: 
cunliniiitii1-.    pi  i  tie.  in  tn     ii\     .1    milil.it  ,     •   •  ,' 
diinii!1  Us  tiansmissittii  nunn.iH",    i^  ••:/,   ....". 
Aimeil   I -tui  ri,  f  itiiiuM  Sen  h.  ••  i  \HH  us  t    1 
!"•    .t    mini    iMiMiii/atimi    v.  ln>  h    !•    '.ii.rn     .     . 
i»prr.i(rd    In    tin-   \n\i\  .  \.i\\  .  lt:uj    \,j    |  .  ,: 
pi  '  >N  111  i'        rlassil  iril        ms"..-'fi:''/I        -  -T.  .•    ' 

aut  Imn/cd    IIM-I-,.    |h     (he    •  ,  inib;!i.sh";.   .•     •• 

I.U'lIlt  h's      (>!      a      IH'lUnjI-.       i  if       Mijjii-      f,i)  .: 

iiair.tfi     sl.ilittir,.     and     th'1     Sl.it  •     1  )-•;.,,:!:.. 
I  hph'llialir      Piilh  h     Si-IMt-,-.      Msl  (  US     '::.:l •: 
^.lll  In-  HaiiMiiiUrd   I«i  ,m',   >n;i!f!r.    ni  !i.     •,». .  : 
u  ilh      whit'h      Hie      !  'mi-, -d      Si.iJ.-'       :;Mr.:  .: 
«liph  unalic  ii'lah"  »n-. 

I  Ills    Mviitm    dls.  us-. i".    i  nnmiiiii:    '.!;::•.'     •; 
\  i.»      teli'v  i  uimnnth  ,ilit  .FI      melh'  ><j         i  «..•      ;   •  •• 
'  *  t  e  I  e  i.  ti  m  in  u  MUM  I  in  ns"       euihj.i,--.       ,,;,, 
liaiiMnissmn.    emissimi.    nj    ii\cpii-i!i    .-  ^    -.;.".. 
>i.rnals.      v.ntmi'.      imaj'cs.      .nn!       .» . -::\,\ 
nti'llii-ence    i»l     .tin     natuie    !'\     \s\;;,ji    •-!    i.;. 
lit1, ins.      ttf      l>\       \vn  e.      i  ,idt< ».     •»»      ,,j':  : 
•lei'trimiasMiehc     systems.      Jt-If,  ttinmum-.  a !!•<:•; 
ised  in  the  Ni.ivy  .ire  nl  three  t>  pes    fir,  In,  :i 
'isnal.  and  sound. 


Chapter  25    NAVAL  TELECOMMUNICATIONS 


Teletype  signals  may  be  sent  either  by 
landlme  (wire)  or  by  radio.  Teletype 
communications  is  used  both  by  the  military 
services  and  In  com  mere  ial  communication 
companies  Mich  as  Western  Union. 

Today  the  primary  shipboard  use  of 
radiotclchpe  (RATT)  is  for  receiving  fleet 
broadcast  schedules.  for  wliicli  it  is  well  suited. 
KAT'I  can  clear  traffic  on  many  channels  at  a 
late  ot  100  wpm  (words  per  minute).  Because  a 
shipboaid  operator  is  freed  from  manual 
cop\  mi-.,  and  hundreds  of  ships  may  be  receiving 
a  sinj'le  broadcast,  the  total  saving  in  trained 
manpouei  is  j'leut. 


1  acsmulc  (I  AX)  is  the  process  used  to 
liansimt  photogiaphs.  charts,  and  other  graphic 
inhumation  electronically.  The  image  to  be 
tjaiismitted  is  scanned  by  a  photoelectric  cell, 
and  elecUual  \aiiatums  in  the  cell  output, 
i  nnespeimliii}'  to  the  light  and  dark  areas  being 
vanned.  aic  transmit  led  to  the  receiver.  At  the 
inencj,  ih»'  signal  operates  a  recorder  that 
lepiodiu  »".  tlu*  picture,  The  I;AX  signals  may  be 
liaij'.mif  tt'tl  cilhci  bv  lantlline  or  by  radio. 

i  AX  tiansmisMons  stiller  distortion  from  all 
(hi-  >  oiiunou  soimc\  of  interference  e.\|K'rienced 
v.  i  !  h  tudinais  radiotelegraph  and 
i  a«i  10  {.-lets  pexuitet  (ransmissions.  However, 
(Cit.un  chatacleiistics  of  FAX  transmission 
make  M  If,',  SUM  eptihle  to  complete  loss  of 
mlellr.vn..  <•  I  m  example,  a  picture  will  be 
do'iaded  b\  an\  noise  bursts  since  FAX 
!>-.  uidm;»  P.  a  (oniinuous  recording  of  signals 
cmaiiadiu'  liom  a  leceiver.  However,  because  the 
machine  ^  air-.  material  at  the  rale  ol 
appio\miatcl\  100  lines  per  inch,  noise  burst  or 
inleileiciii  r  disiotts  a  line  only  1/1  00th  of  an 
in.  h  vu«lf  ihiMiii'h  a  character,  leaving  it  still 
re.ul.iMc.  uheteas  conventional  circuits  would 
mis1,  the  »  haiactei  entirely. 

I  AX  liansmission  is  not  intended  to  be  a 
i  cpl.n  ement  1  01  teletypewriter  and  other 
i'enei.ilh  cmplo>ed  methods  of  transmission; 
lather,  it  is  an  important  supplement  to  rapid 
communu  ation.  providing  a  means  of  handling 
certain  Upesol  graphic  and  pictorial  intelligence 
In  lapid  communication  methods. 


Fleet  Broadcasts 

There  are  three  ways  in  which  radio  traffic  is 
sent  to  the  fleet:  broadcast,  intercept,  and 
receipt.  The  first  two  are  "do  not  answer" 
methods,  while  the  third,  as  its  names  implies, 
requires  a  receipt  from  the  addressee  (addee)  for 
each  message.  Broadcast  and  intercept  methods 
allow  the  fleet  to  preserve  radio  silence,  which  is 
a  great  advantage  from  the  standpoint  of 
security.  By  the  intercept  method,  a  shore  radio 
station  transmits  messages  to  another  shore 
station  which  repeats  them  back.  Ships  intercept 
and  copy  all  traffic.  Broadcast  is  preferable  to 
intercept  chiefly  because  it  is  faster.  It  is  the 
method  by  which  nearly  all  lleet  traffic  is 
handled,  and  it  utilizes  all  three  systems  of 
radio  communication:  radiotelephone,  radio- 
teletypewriter,  and  facsimile. 

There  is  some  similarity  between  civilian  and 
naval  broadcasts.  Just  as  commercial  stations  in 
the  broadcast  band  transmit  programs  to  radio 
receivers  in  the  homes  in  their  communities, 
Navy  communication  stations  broadcast 
messages  to  fleet  units  in  their  particular 
geographic  areas.  The  term  "broadcast,"  in  fact, 
originated  in  naval  communications. 

The  resemblance  between  Navy  and 
commercial  stations  ceases  here,  however 
I  n  f  o  r  m  a  t  i  o  n  b  r  o  a  d  c  a  s  t  by  n  a  v  a 
telecommunication  stations  is  contained  ir 
chronologically  numbered  messages  addressed  t< 
the  ships.  The  messages  are  copied  by  the  flee' 
units,  which  check  the  serial  numbers  to  en  sun 
that  they  have  a  complete  file.. 

Fleet  broadcasts  follow  regular  schedules 
Messages  are  placed  on  the  schedules  in  order  o 
precedence.  If  a  message  of  higher  precedence  i 
given  to  a  transmitter  station  while  ; 
lower-precedence  message  is  being  transmitted 
the  latter  message  may  be  interrupted  t< 
transmit  the  message  of  higher  precedence. 

All  ships  copy  all  messages  appearing  on  tb 
broadcast  schedule  which  they  are  guarding. 

To  ensure  reception  of  these  very  importan 
broadcasts,  they  normally  are  transmitted  o 
several  frequencies  to  allow  a  choice  for  be:- 
reception,  considering  the  time  of  day  or  nigh 
and  the  atmospheric  conditions. 


atellite  Communications  rcluh 


Satellite    communications    are    receiving   a 

rent   deal   of  attention   in   the  national  space  A.fiu"  vJ/.!. 

Ffort.  This  particular  area  of  space  technology  dcI/.^'J     i  r  •- 

olds  much  promise  for  both  commercial  and  I»J«»J:JMII»I^    r  , 

lilitary  users.  At  least  a  do/.en  communication  s.ildhL*  2*-  >!>-K, 

iteliite     projects     are    in    various    stages    of  upf  ii-.^Ji-i    -»: 

rvelopment    at    present-  all    making    use    of  dt-nuttd  •.•«  .» ••*  * 

if  fere  nt    potential  advantages  which   this  new  smjiu'sui-    1^'  >: 

,*ld  offers.  All  three  military  departments,  the  jludiiU's  v,  ,'«r     •> 

efense  Communications  Agency,  the  National  sip  In    "*    ti.-* 

LTonautics  and  Space  Administration  (NASA),  siimjluru-.^sh 

id    private    industry    are    busily    engaged    in  n;\Lir,fj?;^ •-.•..  - 
•veloping  satellite  technology  under  a  broad  f!i       S  ;      " 

tionally  coordinated  effort.  U  I  ISM'  *»M» 

The    Naval    Electronic    Systems    Command  ,«.lr.          ,1" 

.mages  the  development  of  the  Navy's  satellite  I!  tS\I<  i  »M 

mmunication  program.  w.ii.w  i   ^M* 

Communication     satellites     are     of     two  u*j?:;s!;,iN  .»v-'.  ^ 

pes    passive  and  active.  Sui-'H;!'  c  ,,•:—   , 

A    passive    satellite    is    an    orbiting    obn\t  )j,»\r  ,s  -.••  $;,    .•,; 

•)able  of  reflecting  a  transmitted  signal  back  to  un i.  r    .  ;*     ^ 

rth.     It    contains    no    energi/ed    elevtronu  dv. *-;.'-,  r .c     " 

cuitry  of  its  own.  The  Navy  has  developed  the  v,  si- :,   ,-,:   :    ,,' 
•nmunicalions    Moon    relay    (CMR)    s> strut  1IISM<«** 

ing     the     passive     reflection     method     I«»i  i-.  .  ..-4.-:  -k«  .-    \« 

nmunications  between  Washington,  !>.('.,  ,uul  l-.\j--'rt      .;!•    •: 

II'l  Harbor.  r::.;l!;:  .'  ; 

The  totality  of  the  satellite  need  not  be  an         !,r.:..  ",,:  ,i   •'    ' 
Broken    surface;  disjH'rseii    metallic   partivles  *K        '    • 

y  be  used  as  rellectors.  If  these  particles  ,m-  ^ »-,-;  .,•:,,  ,.• 
the  proper  length,  they  become  res«»nant  t«>  A 
ticular  frequency  ami  reradiate  any  signals  on 
t  IVetjuency.  A  disadvantage  nf  the  passive 
'llite  is  that  effective  communications  usnig 
satellite  as  a  reflecting  medium  require  huge, 
histicatcd  antennas  and  fairly  high-puwnrd 
ism  it  tens. 

An  active  satellite  contains  ekxtnmu 
eivers,  power  sources,  amplifiers,  and 
ismitters  that  receive  an  incoming 
smission,  amplify  it,  and  retransmit  it  tit 
.her  ground  station.  Because  the  activr 
llite  boosts  the  energy  level  of  a  relay al 
il,  it  performs  a  function  similar  to  a  relax 
M-  on  the  ground.  I;or  this  reason,  ground 
•iinitters  need  less  power  and  smaller 
nnas  as  compared  to  the  requirements  oi  a 
ve  satellite.  This  is  an  advantage  to 
•>oard  structure.  Active  satellites  are  the  less 


Chapter  25-NAVAL  TELECOMMUNICATIONS 


fixed  and  mobile  ground  stations,  aircraft,  ships, 
and  submarines. 

VISUAL 

Visual  communications  are  generally  the 
preferred  means  for  communicating  at  short 
range,  weather  conditions  permitting.  In 
reliability  and  convenience,  visual 
communications  often  are  the  equal  of  radio  and 
under  certain  circumstances  are  more  secure 
than  radio.  For  example,  omnidirectional  radio 
transmissions  may  be  intercepted  by  many 
undesired  listeners,  whereas  unidirectional  visual 
signals  are  limited  to  observers  positioned  along 
the  line  ol  sight. 

Visual  signaling  systems  include  flaghoist, 
flashing  light,  and  semaphore. 

Haghoist 

Flaghtust  signaling  (figure  25-1)  is  the  most 
lapid  ami  accurate  visual  method  when  ships  are 
within  signaling  distance  in  daytime.  It  normally 
is  the  pfimarv  tactical  maneuvering  method  of 
tiansimssion  between  surface  units  whenever 
visibility  conditions  permit.  Signals  are  repeated 
by  tiie  addiessee,  thus  providing  a  sure  check  on 
the  acuu.icv  of  reception.  Texts  of  messages 
whifh  ma\  be  i  onveyed  directly  by  flaghoist  are 
limited  by  meanings  contained  in  the  signal 
books  employed. 

The  Navv  uses  Haghoist  signaling  mainly  to 
cnnvev  tactical  and  informational  messages  of 
least. nable  length  dining,  daylight,  between  ships 
that  aie  in  close  company.  Flaghoist  is 
considered  one  of  the  best  ways  to  ensure 
uniform  execution  of  maneuvers.  In  signaling  by 
flaghoist  the  I'.S.  Navs  and  her  allied  navies  use 
international  alphabet  flags,  numeral  pennants, 
h>ur  repeaters,  a  set  of  special  meaning  flags  and 
pennants,  and  ten  numeral  flags  that  are  not  part 
ol  the  international  system.  F.aeh  flag  and 
pennant  has  a  name,  various  flags  have  particular 
meanings,  and  almost  all  hoists  are  coded  signals. 

The  flags  of  a  hoist  are  always  read  from  the 
top  down.  When  more  than  one  hoist  is  flying, 
they  are  read  from  outboard  in,  or  from 
tor  ward  aft. 


When  a  flaghoist  is  made  and  run  all  the  way 
up  on  the  halyard  to  the  point  where  the  top  of 
the  hoist  hits  the  block  through  which  the 
halyard  runs,  the  hoist  is  said  to  be  "close-up." 
If  a  hoist  is  run  up  only  about  two-thirds  of  the 
way,  or  is  lowered  to  this  position  after  having 
been  close-up,  the  hoist  is  said  to  be  "dipped"  or 
"at  the  dip."  When  a  hoist  is  lowered  all  the 
way,  it  is  said  to  be  "hauled  down"  or 
"executed."  The  moment  of  hauling  down  is  the 
moment  of  execution  of  the  signal  unless 
otherwise  indicated  in  the  meaning  of  the  hoist. 
Flag  signals  normally  are  answered,  or  receipted 
for,  by  addressees  repeating  the  entire  hoist  at 
the  dip  when  seen.  Hoisting  a  flag  signal 
close-up,  when  understood,  constitutes  an 
acknowledgement. 

Flashing  Light 

Flashing  light  is  a  visual  telegraphic  system 
that  uses  visible  or  infrared  light  beams;  it  may 
be  directional  or  nondirectional. 

A  directional  flashing  light  is  pointed  and 
trained  so  as  to  be  visible  only  by  the  addressee 
of  the  message.  This  method  uses  an  installed 
signal  searchlight  with  a  light  shutter  which  the 
operator  opens  and  closes  to  form  dots  and 
dashes,  or  a  portable  light  which  is  switched  on 
and  off  to  form  the  Morse  code  characters. 

Nondirectional  (omnidirectional)  lights  are 
located  above  the  superstructure  on  the 
yardurm.  Because  the  light  beams  are  visible  in 
every  direction  from  the  ship,  this  method  of 
communicating  is  suitable  for  messages  destined 
for  several  addressees. 

In  time  of  war,  flashing  light 
communications  carried  on  after  dark  usually 
use  infrared  beams  that  are  not  visible  unless 
viewed  through  a  special  receiver.  As  a  general 
rule,  infrared  is  the  most  secure  means  of  visual 
communications.  Directional  infrared  uses  the 
standard  signal  searchlights  fitted  with  special 
filters.  F'or  omnidirectional  signaling,  yardarms 
are  fitted  with  infrared  blinker  lamps. 

Semaphore 

Semaphore  is  a  communication  medium  by 
which  a  man  signals  with  two  hand  flags,  moving 


4re  25.1,-Flaohoi.t  signaling  provides  a  rapid  md  iocuratt  syittm  of 

during  dtyiight. 


134  til 


500 


Chapter  25-NAVAL  TELECOMMUNICATIONS 


his  nrrns  through  various  positions  to  represent 
letters,  numerals,  and  special  signs. 

Semaphore  and  Hashing  light  can  be  used 
interchangeably  for  many  purposes,  but 
semaphore  is  more  rapid  for  short-distance 
transmission  in  clear  daylight  and  may  be  used 
to  send  messages  to  several  addressees  at  once  if 
they  are  in  suitable  positions.  Because  of  its 
speed,  semaphore  is  better  adapted  to  the 
sending  of  long  messages  than  are  other  visual 
methods.  When  radio  silence  is  imposed, 
semaphore  is  the  best  substitute  for  handling 
administrative  traffic.  It  is  more  secure  than  a 
light  or  radio  because  there  is  less  chance  for 
interception  by  unauthori/.ed  persons. 

SOUND 

Sound  communication  systems  include 
whistles,  sirens,  bells,  and  acoustics.  The  first 
three  are  used  by  ships  for  transmitting 
emergency  warning  signals  (such  as  air  raid 
alerts),  navigational  signals  prescribed  by  the 
rules  of  the  road,  and  in  wartime, 
communications  between  ships  in  convoy. 

Provision  is  made  in  many  search  sonar 
(underwater  sound)  equipments  to  permit  their 
use  lor  CW  transmission.  The  term  "acoustic 
communications,"  however,  usually  pertains  to 
an  underwater  sonar  communication  equipment 
called  Sea  I  alk.  Sea  Talk  (frequently  referred  to 
as  (Jertnule)  may  be  used  for  either 
radiotelephone  or  CW  communications.  The 
range  o!  transmission  varies  with  the  condition 
of  the  sea  am!  the  relative  noise  output  of  the 
ship,  1'iuler  the  most  favorable  conditions, 
communications  may  take  place  between  ships 
at  ranges  in  the  vicinity  of  1  2,000  yards. 

PYROIM  HNICS 

Pyrotechnics  for  signaling  are,  for  the  most 
part,  ot  the  "fireworks"  variety.  Common 
sources  are  Very  pistol  Hares,  colored  shell 
bursts  (parachute  flares),  aircraft  parachute 
flares,  Roman  candles,  and  float-type  flares.  The 
meaning  of  a  pyrotechnic  signal  depends  on  the 
color  instead  of  the  type  of  pyrotechnic 
employed.  The  authori/.ed  use  of  pyrotechnics 
for  communications  is,  in  general,  limited  to 
emergency  signals. 


SHIPBOARD  COMMUNICATION 
ORGANIZATION 

A  ship's  communication  organization  is 
responsible  for  the  operation  of  all  external 
communication  facilities.  The  operation  of  such 
facilities  must  comply  with  the  general 
communication  instructions  issued  by  CNO  and 
with  specific  instructions  issued  by  responsible 
senior  officers. 

The  shipboard  communication  organization 
also  has  cognizance  of  the  operation  of  naval 
telecommunication  systems  employed  by 
commercial  users,  such  as  press  messages  and 
private  commercial  messages  between  ships  or 
ship  and  shore,  as  authorized  by  law  where 
commercial  stations  are  not  available  to  meet 
the  normal  communication  requirements.  It 
does  not  have  cognizance  of  the  ship's  internal 
communications. 

PERSONNEL 

Most  of  the  following  officer  billets, 
although  separated  by  function,  apply  on  board 
a  small  ship  to  one  man— the  communications 
officer. 

Communications  Officer 

The  ship's  communication  officer  is 
responsible  for  the  organization,  supervision, 
and  coordination  of  the  ship's  exterior 
communications;  the  operation,  care,  and 
maintenance  of  all  communication  equipment 
not  otherwise  assigned;  and  the  procurement, 
custody,  distribution,  physical  security, 
correction,  and  reporting  of  all  classified 
registered  publications  and  devices  issued  to  the 
ship  and  of  all  other  classified  material  assigned 
to  him. 

The  communications  officer  is  responsible 
for  the  routing,  filing,  and  physical  security  of 
all  messages  handled  by  the  ship,  ensuring  that 
messages  are  delivered  promptly  to  the  proper 
persons.  He  maintains  message  files  and  records, 
disposing  of  obsolete  files  in  accordance  with 
disposal  instructions.  He  is  in  charge  of  all 
personnel  assigned  to  radio  and  visual 
communications. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


h  respect  to  duties  involving  equipment, 
nmunications  officer  is  responsible  for 
.nliness  and  preventive  maintenance  of  all 
lie,  cryptographic,  and  visual  signaling 
ent  and  for  the  compartments  and  deck 
>ccupied  by  such  equipment. 

ind 
Dfficers 


radio  and  signal  officers  are  assistant 
nications  officers  in  charge  of  radio  and 
gnals.  Each  is  charged  with  the  operation 
intenance  of  assigned  equipment.  Their 
ire  to  ensure  reliable,  secure,  and  rapid 
g  of  radio  and  visual  communications.  In 
i,  the  radio  officer  must  know  the 
/e  communication  plan,  understand 
tion  characteristics,  and  be  familiar  with 
idition,  capabilities,  and  limitations  of 
)'s  radio  equipment,  including  antennas. 

nications  Material 
'  Custodian 

Communications     Material     Security 

provides  distribution  of  and  strict 
ability  for  certain  publications  by 

register  numbers.  Special  safeguards 
loss  or  compromise  include  a  system  of 
HIS  accountability,  periodic  inventories, 
died  handling  procedures. 

CMS  custodian  is  responsible  to  the 
iding  officer  for  keeping  a  complete, 
.te,  and  correct  allowance  of  registered 
ions  issued  to  the  ship.  Under  the  direct 
ion  of  the  communications  officer,  the 

the  custodian  extend  to  the  drawing, 
,  correction,  destruction,  submission  of 
;,  and  issuance  of  all  registered 
ions. 

nications  Watch 
(CWO) 

large  ships,  junior  officers  may  be 
d  specifically  to  the  operations 
nent  (on  some  ships,  to  the 


communications  department)  for  watchstamling 
duty  or  training  in  communications.  In  smaller 
ships,  CWO  duties  are  performed  by  the 
communications  officer  and  his  assistants. 

While  on  watch,  the  CWO  is  in  active  and 
immediate  charge  of  the  ship's  communications. 
He  is  responsible  for  incoming  and  outgoing 
traffic  as  provided  for  in  the  ship's 
communication  organi/atkm.  ensuring  that 
messages  sent  and  received  are  in  correct  form 
and  are  handled  promptly  and  et'Jiciently. 
During  the  period  of  his  watch,  he  is  responsible 
for  the  proper  operation  of  the  cryptnccnter. 


Cryptoboard   Members 

Cryptographers  collectively  called  the 
cryptobourd  are  designated  by  the  «,  ommaiulmj'. 
officer  to  assist  the  CWO  in  tin*  rnmption  ami 
decryption  of  messages  when  the  tiatlu  load 
warrants.  Cryptoboard  members  m,i>  br 
commissioned  officers,  warrant  ojfuvis.  ami 
trustworthy  and  reliable  enlisted  personnel. 

I  acli  commamimp  otlKei  appoints,  an 
assistant  communicat  nnis  oiiio'i  Jnr 
cryptosecurity  who  serves  as  adusot  to  thr  (  O 
in  all  matters  relating  in  a\  ptostvtmtv  am!  the 
physical  security  n|  crsptoniatenals.  Jheofiuer 
so  appointed  is  responsible  to  the 
communications  otiurr  !«>r  the  a*  .  .  urai-.-,  •.»%  me, 
ami  e  (lie  lent  operation  oj  the  »  r.  pt«  •-.  ••  -nl.'i 

COMMUNICATION  STAC!  S 


The  euminunK  atiuti  tfiitn,  MJ  me  ssaer 
center,  o!  a  ship  is  thr  vvnlial  ,u':.':«;  \  Im  thf 
handling  of  all  rapid  v-nmmum,  ,ifi«»,<i  -..  -\.t-pt 
tactical  signals  received  and  M*nt  dn:->t  Imni 
shiplxiard  control  stations.  It  IN  U'.uaih  huatril 
adjacent  to  the  main  radio  station  (Radio  1  i  aiul 
the  cryptocenter.  Outj'oing  nirs\ai'  -s  are 
delivered  to  the  cnmmunu  ation  Miiu-'.1  where 
they  are  prepared  for  transmission.  I  he 
necessary  release  is  obtained  bv  enhsfeil  or 
officer  messengers  as  appropriate,  ami  when  the 
message  is  ready,  it  is  passed  to  Radio  1  or  the 
signal  bridge  for  transmission.  Incoming 
messages  are  delivered  immediately  to  the 


Chapter  25    NAVAL  TELECOMMUNICATIONS 


.Hnmunication  office  tor  internal  routing  and 
,-entual  tiling. 

Hie  cryptocenter  is  an  office  space  that 
sually  opens  into  the  communication  office.  It 
equipped  with  cryptoaids;  a  safe  for  stowage 
f  codes,  ciphers,  and  publications  not  actually 
i  use;  file  cabinets  for  stowage  of  Confidential 
iul  Secret  message  files;  and  desks  with 
r'pe  writers  for  use  as  required.  Access  to  the 
•yptocenter  is  permitted  only  to  assigned 
iTsonnel,  and  the  cryptocenter  is  kept  locked 
'hen  not  manned. 

Most  ships  are  fitted  with  several  radio 
>oms.  Radio  1.  or  main  radio,  is  the  primary 
Driving  station.  Most  of  the  ship's  receiving 
jiupment  is  located  there,  and  each  receiving 
osition  has  a  key  for  remote  control  of  the 
•ansmitters,  which  are  located  in  other  parts  of 
le  ship. 

On  small  ships,  Radio  2  contains  the 
uijonty  ot  the  ship's  transmitting  equipment, 
arge  ships  have  several  transmitter  spaces.  The 
•a tcli  usually  u insists  of  a  petty  officer  in 
'targe,  assisted  by  one  or  more  strikers.  The 
•alch  keeps  transmitters  tuned  to  prescribed 
•equenctes  and  connected  to  the  desired  keys  in 
adio  I  or  in  other  parts  of  the  ship, 
requeue v  measuring  equipment  is  provided  to 
ermit  act  mate  tuning. 

I-mergencv  radio  spaces,  isolated  from  other 
ulio  looms,  contain  several  transmitters  and 
velvets  tor  emergency  use,  and  are  provided 
•ith  an  independent  power  .source  lor  use  in 
isc  o!  failure  ot  notmal  ship's  power.  Usually,  a 
atch  is  maintained  in  emergency  radio  only 
uiing  geneial  quarters. 

Renintr  control  transmitting  and  receiving 
ositions  air  located  in  various  parts  of  the  ship, 
ich  as  the  bridge  or  conning  tower,  the  flag 
ridge,  and  the  combat  information  center, 
rceivers  and  transmitters  throughout  the  ship 
lay  be  connected  to  these  remote-control 
ositions  as  desired. 

The  signal  bridge,  located  in  the  vicinity  of 
le  navigation  bridge,  is  the  station  from  which 
11  visual  messages  arc  handled  by  flaghoist, 
ashing  light,  and  semaphore.  The  signal  bridge 
-  manned  continuously;  the  watch  varies  in  si/.e 
nd  composition,  depending  upon  operating 
;mditions.  Visual  messages  not  of  a  tactical 
ature  are  normally  cleared  through  the 


communication  office,  except  incoming 
messages  of  immediate  importance  which  are 
first  delivered  directly  to  the  captain  and  officer 
of  the  deck.  Similarly,  outgoing  traffic  of 
immediate  importance  may  be  sent  out  directly 
from  the  signal  bridge  as  ordered  by  the  captain 
or  officer  of  the  deck  or  by  any  other  officer 
authorized  by  the  commanding  officer  to  release 
messages. 


COMMUNICATION  PUBLICATIONS 

Allied  communication  publications  (ACPs) 
are  part  of  the  Naval  Warfare  Publications 
Library  (NWPL).  The  publications  in  the  ACP 
scries  contain  the  rules  and  regulations  governing 
the  use  of  communications  among  Allied  forces 
and  also  list  the  many  call  signs,  address  groups, 
etc.,  necessary  for  efficient  and  secure 
communications.  These  books  are  prepared  by 
the  combined  Canada  and  United  Kingdom 
Joint  Communication-Electronics  Committees 
and  the  United  States  Military 
Communications  Electronics  Board  for  use  by 
CAN-UK-US,  NATO,  SKATO,  and  individual 
Allied  nations  to  which  they  are  released. 

Publications  in  the  Communications  Material 
Security  System  are  sent  from  CMS 
headquarters  at  the  Naval  Security  Group 
Command  Headquarters,  Washington,  IXC.,  to 
the  Communications  Material  Issuing  Offices 
(CMIOs)  throughout  the  world.  From  the 
CMIOs  they  are  issued  to  the  ships  and  shore 
stations  within  the  area  served  by  each  issuing 
office. 

T  he  publications  that  govern 
communications  among  the  United  States 
services  are  the  Joint  Army-Navy-Air  Force 
publications  (JANAPs).  They  are  similar  to 
ACPs,  but  are.  used  only  among  the  United 
States  services.  In  many  cases,  publications 
originally  issued  as  JANAPs  have  been  accepted 
for  use  by  other  Allied  nations  and  reissued  as 
ACPs. 

Communication  information  that  applies 
only  to  the  U.S.  Navy  is  promulgated  by  the 
Commander  of  Naval  Telecommunications  in 
the  form  of  naval  telecommunication 
publications  (NTPs). 


CHAPTER  26 

SECURITY 


word  security,  like  many  other  words, 
eral  meanings.  As  used  in  this  chapter, 
r,  it  has  only  one  meaning:  safeguarding 
d  material.  The  term  classified  material, 

herein,  also  has  limited  and  definite 
inee.  It  means  facts  and  data  that  require 
ion  in  the  interest  of  national  defense;  it 
*  documents,  apparatus,  and  machinery, 
lave  been  instances  in  which  a  potential 
has  obtained  valuable  information  simply 

those  involved  did  not  fully  understand 
ireeiate  what  constitutes  information  of 
to  a  foreign  power. 

lern  methods  of  conducting  war  require 
of  a  tremendous  amount  of  information, 
owed  away  in  books.  It  accumulates  in 

It  is  gathered  by  intelligence  activities, 
nsferred  in  letters  ami  messages.  And  it  is 
:ul  organi/.ed  in  the  minds  of  men  who 
;ling  the  war.  Diaries  and  snapshots  kept 
•ists  as  souvenirs  of  a  carefree  trip  in 

years  can  produce  information  that  is 
ly  valuable  to  their  government's 
;ence  agencies  in  war.  Fven  tin1 
lion  available  in  a  public  library  becomes 
,ful  if  the  enemy  has  discovered  what 
lion  the  Army,  Navy,  and  Air  Force  are 
g.  An  account  of  tides  and  weather  in  a 
ocation  might  provide  a  valuable  hint  of 
ng  operations  even  though  it  had 
whatever  to  do  with  actual  combat. 

aim  of  warfare  is  to  concentrate  a 
force  at  the  right  place  and  at  the  right 
efore  this  can  be  done,  however,  the 
tion  necessary  to  organize  and  assemble 
or  force,  to  pick  the  right  place,  and  to 
ic  right  time  must  be  concentrated  in  a 
nds.  There  are  few  instances  in  the 


history  of  successful  engagements  \\herc  the 
victor  did  not  obtain  in  .uhance  the  necessary 
information  on  which  to  base  his  division. 
Conversely,  disastrous  de-teats  nth-it  can  he 
attributed  directly  to  lack  of  infonuafion  about 
the  enemy  or  the  incorrect  luU'ipicfation  ot  tin* 
information  available. 

The  element  n!  surprise  «»Sfrn  is 
advantageous  in  attaining  a  j'o.i!  m  w. si  laie  1  m 
that  reason,  information  must  tv  pt"te*  ted. 
every  hint  of  the  plans  kept  v.\rrt,  .uuS  :-a«;h 
decision  concealed  from  all  ev  <*pt  tlmv  ulm 
need  to  know, 

i'olloxyin)'  a  \v.u.  theie  r>  likrl',  to  b-.-  a 
dan.rcious  hmei ins1  of  st\  ursH  Ktith-is  I  hat  the 
Russians  and  the  \a/is  '.sell  k:i*"A  Its  '  saht'.-  i»t 
security  m  peacetime  is  demon  .trtted  In  tin- 
extreme  national  se,i»\v  t!s-.'\  .t| 
World  War  II.  knowim-  that  it  ua 
countei measure  against  mass  r-.piun, (•-•;•  H-.-ftu*- 
the  (ieinian  nn.ision.  the  Rsr^iarr.  •:..  -  ,!iilh 
prevented  the  leakaj'f  oj  .uitiiaf'  in!'  M  :natn  ni 
rer'aniinj'.  their  stivnj'th  and  pi;-pas  -iln"1,-..  As  a 
result,  their  abiht\  In  v>ithsta:ui  np.-riiui  was 
wholly  underestimated  bs  tli"  \.j/i', 

No  accuiate  nev.%  i-.-sMidine  th-1  ]!?M"J--.-.  n| 
( ierman  iraimament  was  pi-nmtt'-d  l»  l.-ak  nut 
of  that  country.  'I  he  siK-suv  imjMt./il  v,  .is  not 
limited  to  the  armed  fours,  but  v, as  -xt-nd-.-d  to 
all  lactories  uorkini'  tor  national  »!•/!  MI  ,/,  \vith 
harsh  penalties  tor  those  vJio  \iul.il-d  •-,  \-.\-\. 
In  those  countries  uhere  mvasinn  v..r,  almost 
immediately  successful,  a  part  ot  the  ui\aiiers' 
triumph  was  due  to  the  inhumation  ,i\,nl.ible  to 
them  in  advance,  as  well  as  to  tin-  f.ulure  of  the 
victims  to  take  preventive  action  ai'amst 
espionage. 


504 


Chapter   26  -SECURITY 


Developments  in  this  respect  in  World  War  II 
iioint  out  a  truth  that  must  never  he  overlooked: 
in  ensure  our  national  security,  all  who  possess 
jlassitied  inlonnatum  must  constantly  be  aware 
,>f  the  need  lor  safeguarding  that  material. 


i-.Ni-MY 


Most  nations,  even  in  peacetime,  maintain 
,'spionage  organi/ations  of  varying  si/e  and 
.cope  for  the  purpose  of  ferreting  out 
information  regarding  potential  enemies.  The 
icfivitics  o!  these  organi/ations  have  always 
:>een  among  the  greatest  ha/ards  to  security. 

J-spionage  is  no  longer  an  undertaking  by  a 
relativeh  tevv  jsolateil  spies  attempting  to  obtain 
nihtaiy  01  naval  mhtimation  from  high-ranking 
»flicers.  It  is  a  mass  ettort.  carried  out  in  all 
lields  political  and  cultural,  as  well  as 
unlit. u\  hv  thousands  oj  unimportant  people  in 
inmoi  positions.  Iln*v  depend  on  statistical 
methods  and  th«*  sh«vv  ai -cumulation  of  bits  of 
inhumation  until  the  aggiegate  tells  a  story.  A 
singl*'  hint  dmpp.'d  uncoiisv  loiisly  may  prove  to 
be  an  imp«ut.tnt  puve  in  the  jigsaw  pu//le  the 
.•nemv  is  puttni','  tnjvthej. 

I  In*  .iivnts  M|  iMu'iiiv  espinnafe  are  in  large 
past  sv  mp.it h«'ti..  vsith  rnems  aims,  even  though 
in  snme  ,  aser.  tin's  have  l>een  coerced  into 
sei\i.  c  thmugh  llneatv  Duiing  a  war,  their 
puijuisf  r,  ttt  ubt.iin  aiiil  n-pint  ,is  much  valuable 
intnim.itmn  .r.  possihli'  and  to  assist  the  eiu'iny 
In  spji'.idin;'  tal-.c  lepni  (s.  i  onimittmg  sabotage, 
JiMTtni!'  invaiiing  h»i«-es.  crippling,  key 
mdiisdh-',  and  utilihi--,.  sei/mg  communication 
Lftitcj1.,  and  i'fiifi.dh  uai'kmg  defense  and 
nmh'Hmnin;'  irmi. df.  In  say  that  they  represent, 
•.•\en  in  pr.jt  rt  mii*.  a  '.rnmis  threat  to  a  nation's 
secuntv  r.  nt»t  .in  exaggfiation. 

DATA   Df  SIRI-D 
BY    llll-    I-NI-MY 

It  ma>  be  well  t<>  set  forth  some  definite 
examples  of  the  tspe  and  kind  of  material  that  a 
potential  enemy  expects  his  agents  to  obtain. 
Obviously,  inhumation  about  convoys,  nuclear 
weapons,  and  supersonic  aircraft  should  not  be 
disclosed;  most  people  grasp  the  significance  of 


such  data  to  a  potential  enemy.  But  what  many 
do  not  reali/e  is  that  the  enemy  is  interested  in 
obtaining  data  which,  to  the  average  person, 
appears  to  be  general  and  harmless  information. 
Some  understanding  of  the  scope  of  the  enemy's 
interest  may  be  gained  from  the  following 
questions  (taken  from  official  files),  the  answers 
to  which  enemy  agents  operating  in  this  country 
during  World  War  II  were  instructed  to  obtain. 

What  is  the  situation  with  respect  to 
manufacture  of  steel  plates  covered  with  rubber 
manufactured  by  the  U.S.  Rubber  Company? 
How  many  sheets  of  steel  and  how  many  sheets 
of  rubber  do  the  plates  contain?  What  is  the 
total  thickness  of  the  plates?  Is  the  exterior 
sheet  rubber  or  is  it  steel? 

What  is  the  daily  production  of  munitions 
by  the  Bethlehem  Steel  Corporation? 

What  foodstuffs,  raw  material,  and  machines 
are  being  sent  to  I'.ngland? 

What  manufacturing  plants  are  operating 
branches  in  Canada,  Australia,  and  New 
/caland? 

How  many  American  pilots  are  being  turned 
out  monthly? 

What  products  does  the  Sperry  Rand 
Corporation  manufacture  in  its  new  plant  at  Salt 
Lake  City,  Utah? 

The  answers  to  all  of  these  questions  could 
be  easily  brought  out  in  the  course  of  a  friendly 
conversation.  The  following  incident  which 
occurred  during,  World  War  II  demonstrates  how 
easy  il  is  for  unthinking  persons  to  disseminate 
vital  information: 

A  public  utility  company  of  an  eastern  state, 
apparently  motivated  only  by  a  desire  to  gain 
public  goodwill  by  advertising  its  war  effort, 
proposed  to  release  some  advertising  in  which 
was  recorded  the  fact  that  the  company  had 
done  much  work  in  connection  with  the  plant 
expansion  of  a  certain  aircraft  factory.  More 
specifically,  it  was  pointed  out  that  a  new 
electric  substation  had  been  constructed  at  a 
certain  point,  in  order  to  give  the  company 
additional  electrical  facilities.  No  imagination  is 
required  to  appreciate  the  usefulness  of  this  bit 


NAVAL  ORIHNTATION 


•Filiation  to  an  enemy  saboteur.  In  this 
lar  instance  the  firm  deleted  the 
ition  when  its  significance  was  brought  to 
:Uion  by  the  Navy  Department. 

•e  is  another  set  of  questions  that  an 
agent  was  undertaking  to  answer  during 
War  II:  What  new  war  material  factories 
ng  constructed?  Where  are  these  plants 
?  When  will  they  begin  to  function  or 
eliveries? 

iropos  of  these  specific  inquires  is  the 
>f  a  United  Press  war  release  by  a  writer 
d  escaped  from  occupied  territory.  In  his 
the  writer  recalls  his  astonishment  at  an 
t  that  took  place  on  a  (rain  on  which  he 
assenger. 

miing  into  Detroit  from  the  West."  lie 
"a  group  of  us  who  were  chatting  were 

when  one  passenger  called  out.  M  onk! 

that  big  new  bomber  plant!'  A  stale 
y  running  near  this  gigantic  midwestem 

•  plant  had  been  blocked  ami  dclouicd. 

•  helpful  passenger  made  sure  that  all  of 
the  only  close-up    from  the  (tain,  which 
>ser  to  (he  plant  than  an\   public  toad." 

locations  of  large  amounts  ot  nulitan 
i  are  always  mailers  of  interest  (o  cncm> 
The  following  quotation,  drawn  lmm  the 
.otircc  as  tlii'  incident  related  above, 
.t  rates  how  thoughtless  convctsation 
ive  an  enemy  agent  just  the  information 
has  been  assigned  (o  gather: 
ding  from  Cincinnati  (o  Cleveland.  I  uas 

a  book  when  the  porter  said  to  me. 
it  (hose  I'latcars  loaded  with  Aimy  stutl!' 
ling,  quickly  between  the  hoxcais  on  the 
ve  were  passing,  I  could  see  a  long  rov\  <>t 
nachinery  standing  on  I'latcars  on  a  more 

sitling.  A  (ierman  saboteur  pmbabh, 
lave  missed  them  because  ot  the  box,  .us 
lift  have  a  helpful  porter." 
'iously,  the  Navy  is  a  potential  source  o| 
1  information,  and  unceasing.  s\stematie 
s  to  exploit  that  source  are  to  he 
d.  The  methods  that  may  be  used  ate 
uul  varied  planting  agents  within  the 
stablishmenl,  photographing  or  stealing 
d  documents,  tapping  telephones  and 
»h  lines,  attacking  codes  and  ciphers. 
ig  naval  radio  personnel  when  olf  dul\. 


if       if 


IS 

III 


Although  bits  of  information  obtained  through 
these  means  often  appear  innocuous,  thes  piou- 
to  be  of  real  value  when  subiectoil  to  expeit, 
purposeful  anal}  sis  and  combined  usth  othci 
Iragments  uf  information  !nun  s,ni«nr-,  souices. 
The  necessiH  for  unceasing  \igil.mcc  and 
maximum  preventive  measures  on  thep.ut  o|  all 
naval  personnel  cannot  be  too  stiongh  stressed 

Securitx  is  a  means  not  an  end  RuU 
govern  secunl\  o!  inhumation  au*  analog 
gunners  satcis  oiders.  I  lies  do  not  -.'luiaiitce 
protection,  ami  thes  do  not  attempt  to  :neet 
every  Ci>nceivjble  situation,  I  h..-  \.i\\  (»t 
diminishing  returns  iinnt>  the  iontioj  im-avaies 
that  can  be  emplmed  protital'k  . 
pt>ssible  to  obtain  .<  sati^la,  !*•?'. 
si'crev'V  with  a  minimum  ot  s.unii-.v. 

Seciutts    o!    inlonn.itjon    i-,   a.,  h 
vanets  ot'  j>ractice\.  pie*  aut;":i-,    .srui 
which      include      suitai'Ie      il-'I/';  v.  • 
against  the  loilou  me 

1  ,     (  apline    «u    sai*.  a:'.-  « •:      Li  ,•.•"  ;-  ,j    -,,  ;t:  •; 
;       {  he!  I  ,      e-jM"^-'-'-'-        '•      ">'<  '•^•••'-        -»:J'I 
plmtogiaph*.  . 

c.      I  i.iHh   .t;.,ir.   .; 

S  p  a  i  i  • '   ,   •        ::.   •       ; .'  •  ,     -i         <  *  -.  -j 

lal'.l!  h  all-  u:  ,  « >°  .  •  '-.:.:::'•  ,::i   .t!,-  -.-. 

N.      (  .n. -1  ••,.•;•••.-,    Ti.!  la-  ;'  .       '  ;      :          ',    . 

ruooi-  01- 

{  M-MY   SI  (  (  I  SS 


Mi  •  !.«UMV.I:.-.-  .1-  •: 
"!!u  i.tl  r-v  oj,!-.  ,,r  \\.,:; 
lustan-.  ".  i!  !•.  i!;,;  «  '  -!'•;• 
enein'.  .iv  -p.l!  ••!  hi  •  ;;;!•  >:  : 
dniiht  thai  :;);;•.  h  •  <!  \\  v.  .: 
«  h"  had  n«  >  i-iti-nt  i««;i  =  .•  |j 

(   a1-;'     1  .      \     Mlb!;..j!|:.  ' 
d  ui\>  >'.  -•  i  o!;(  .'lilia!-/.!  ,'••!; 
in    the    i  enter     Ihev    -!:i; 
then  «.  entia!  po~.itii  *n  ni  •  u 
atloided     nia\inii,:si     pr  >\ 
unt|uesln>nalil\    kiu-w  ih.:! 
vessels  \vere  >,  an  i  sue  >.  ,ii-,.'< 
importance 


\\ 


Chapter  26-SECURITY 


llllc,,?-  Documents  captured  on  Suipan 
disclosed  that  tin*  enemy  in  the  Pacific  had 
assembled  very  complete  and  extensive 
information  about  the  strength  and  organization 
of  both  Army  and  Navy  air  forces.  The  scope  of 
this  information  indicated  that  it  had  been 
painstakingly  assembled  from  a  variety  of 
sources. 

Case  .t.  The  captain  of  a  fast  cargo  ship  in 
the  Pact! tc  had  thought  it  sate,  though  contrary 
to  regulations,  to  cable  his  sailing  date  in  code  to 
this  country.  I  he  date  was  not  kept  secret,  for 
the  ship  was  torpedoed  and  the  captain  was  lost, 
probably  not  suspecting  that  it  was  because  of 
lus  own  carelessness. 

Tase  j4.  Several  days  before  the  forces  that 
were  to  land  at  Salerno  departed  from  Oran, 
personnel  not  closely  associated  with  the  joint 
planning  stall  betrayed  an  accurate  knowledge 
ot  the  time  ,uul  place  ol  the  landing.  liven 
heloie  the  operation  plans  were  received,  the 
executive  ottker  ol  an  1ST  noticed  that  the 
CJult  ol  Salerno  had  been  marked  with  a  heavy 
pencil  on  ,i  eh, ul  in  the  ship's  radio  room.  On 
being  ijuesttoneil.  the  Radioman  volunteered  the 
statement  that  the  information  had  been 
imparted  to  him  b\  anothei  bluejacket  attached 
to  the  Sealvcev  It  ma\  not  have  been  difficult 
I  oi  the  ciieinv  to  dediue  the  destination,  and 
these  incidents  il«>  not  pjovc  that  security  broke 
do\ui,  but  it  is  a  laet  that  the  Fifth  Army 
uillulcd  head  on  with  strong  (ierman  armored 
element-.  deplo\ed  .lion},'  the  selected  landing 
bea*  lies  Whether  the  enemy  benefited  or  not,  it 
is  obvious  that  too  many  persons  knew  too 
mm  li  I*  »o  si  ion. 

While  the  i.r.es  just  described  cover  wartime 
situations,  the  principles  apply  during  peacetime 
as  well.  Ihcie  may  be  considerable  relaxing  ol 
overall  sccurit\  lot  economic  reasons,  reduction 
in  personnel,  and  toi  general  peacetime 
convenience.  It  is  essential,  however,  that  all 
current  security  directives  be  applied  strictly  and 
conscientious!), . 

Potential  enemies  are  unceasingly  gathering 
information  through  their  organi/ed  systems  of 
espionage.  Alertness  to  this  situation  is  always 
necessary. 


SECURITY  CONTROL 
AND  RESPONSIBILITY 

The  Chief  of  Naval  Operations  (CNO)  is 
responsible  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
(SECNAV)  for  all  policies  relating  to  the 
maintenance  of  the  security  of  all  classified 
information  within  the  Department  of  the  Navy. 
The  Director  of  Naval  Intelligence  (DNI)  has 
been  designated  as  the  officer  primarily 
responsible  to  the  CNO  for  the  protection  of 
classified  information.  Commanding  officers  are 
directly  responsible  for  safeguarding  all  classified 
information  within  their  commands  and  are 
responsible  for  instructing  their  personnel  in 
security  practices  and  procedures. 

In  order  to  provide  for  the  proper 
indoctrination  of  all  personnel  charged  with 
responsibility  for  safeguarding  classified  matter, 
instructions  that  are  necessary  for  the  proper 
administration  of  the  security  system  are  issued 
by  the  Chief  of  Naval  Operations.  Current 
instructions  are  contained  in  the  Department  of 
the  Navy  Information  Security  Program 
Regulation  (OPNAVINST  5510.1  series).  In  this 
instruction,  policy  and  guidance  from  the 
Department  of  Defense  (DOD)  Information 
Security  Program  Regulation  (DO!)  5200.1 
series)  are  printed  in  boldface  type,  while  those 
of  the  Department  of  the  Navy  are  printed  in 
regular  type.  The  Navy  supplementation  (regular 
type)  of  OPNAV  5510.1  series  is  an  explanation, 
or  an  extension  in  more  detail,  of  the  basic  text 
of  the  DOD  instruction. 


CLASSIFICATION  CATEGORIES 

Official  material  that  requires  protection  in 
the  interests  of  national  defense  is  limited  to 
three  categories  of  classification  which,  in 
descending  order  of  importance,  carry  the 
designations  Top  Secret,  Secret,  or  Confidential. 
No  other  designation  is  used  to  classify  defense 
matter,  as  requiring  protection  in  the  interests 
of  national  defense,  except  as  expressly  provided 
by  statute  (e.g.,  Restricted  Data  and 
cryptographic  systems). 

The  test  for  the  classification  is  the  content 
of  the  subject  matter.  The  words,  matter, 


lection  with  classification,  are  synonymous. 
SECRET 

Jse  of  the  classification  Top  Secret  is 
ed  to  defense  information  or  material  that 
ires  the  highest  degree  of  protection.  The 
Secret  classification  is  applied  only  to  that 
•mation  or  material  the  defense  aspect  of 
h  is  paramount,  and  the  unuuthorimi 
osure  of  which  would  reasonably  he 
cted  to  cause  exceptionally  grave  damage  to 
uitionul  security,  such  as 

.  Leading  to  a  definite  break  in  diplomatic 
ions  affecting  the  defense  of  the  United 
rs,  an  armed  attack  against  the  United  States 
^  Allies;  a  war. 

!.  The  compromise  of  military  or  defense 
•;,  or  intelligence  operations,  or  scientific  or 
lolotfical  developments  vital  to  thenatiuji.il 
ise. 

RI-.T 

Material  classified  as  Secret  is  hunted  to 
use  information  or  material  the 
Jthori/ed  disclosure  of  which  wuultl 
'Uably  be  expected  to  cause  serums  d.un.it'r 
e  national  security,  such  as 


to  ndtuuul  st\iifif\  A  Ii"A 
types  ol  jMaleruI  so 
operational,  battle.  -nut  in 
devices  ii*ljtii)]K*  I"  *  Mfiinju 
inobifi/.tfion  plans.  imiiurs  t 
call  sijjn  dlltu.ilit»ns.  !«jf**jui.!! 
strength  ul  i'r«-»usul  .sir.  ,n.d 
documents  ^•'SK'.-rjn.'j^  I!.- 


slrm 


RI-STRICTfl)  DA  I  A 


Ihr 


ttj    |jlc 

iruludi* 
reports 


whkli 


!.»ij:j;»  fn  i}H. 

j  :.-!...--,   .jj^j 
K  !:••:{     a!U| 

<***,..  !,»Msrr  n| 
T;!'.      »•»      ||u. 


international    rel.ttMns  of 


effectiveness     ni 
vital     important.!' 


a 

In 


.     .Icopardi/inj' 

mited  States. 

.     I '.nda  tigering 

'am     or     policy 

nal  defense. 

.    Compromising     important     militarv     or 

ise     plans,    or    scientific    or    techrmlnjfu.il 

npments  important  to  national  defense . 

.     Revealing      important      in 

tions. 


i  OR  on  i<  iu 
rsi 


'•IDKNTIAL 


se  of 
:d  to 
•ial  the 


the  classification  Confidential  is 
national  defense  information  or 
unauthori/.ed  disclosure  of  which 


u)r;;ts5H".!     I'-*     f  .  r 
HU.  lujf        j-r:  <u  )!,:;< 
lir»r\f}|,%fls\r  yrjv  >r{\ 
ans^rrs.  and  !!;r  ;.».,- 


508 


Chapter  26-SECURITY 


DOCTRINAL  MATERIAL 

Doctrinal  material  is  classified  into  the  three 
standard  categories  (Top  Secret,  Secret,  and 
Confidential)  but  receives  somewhat  more 
careful  handling,  than  other  material  of  the  same 
classification.  This  material  can  be  divided  into 
two  primps  tactical  warfare  publications  that 
are  promulgated  by  the  CNO,  and  naval  warfare 
communication  publications  that  are  under  the 
eogm/ance  of  Commander.  Naval  Telecommuni- 
cations Command  (COMNAVTHLCOM). 

Tactical  w at  fare  publications  deal  with 
tactics,  wart  ate,  procedures,  and  terminology  of 
the  Navy,  They  incorporate  the  results  of  fleet 
expei tences  am!  include  pertinent  data  supplied 
by  the  systems  commands,  laboratories,  and 
othei  naval  orpani/.alions.  The  most  commonly 
used  ate  the  Naval  Warfare  Publications  (NWP 
series).  Naval  Wai  la  re  Information  Publications 
(NWIP  seties).  Meet  I- \ercise  Publications  (FXP 
scnes).  and  Allied  Fxereise  and  Tactical 
Publications  (AXP  and  ATP  series).  Naval 
wait, tie  communications  publications  were 
cowied  in  tiie  pieecdiiu',  chapter, 

Noimallv,  a  Naval  Warfare  Publications 
I  thraiv.  (NWPI  )  is  maintained  on  board  ship  or 
station  to  ensuie  lh.it  a  full  allowance  of  tactical 
wail. tie  publications  is  available  for  use,  that 
publications  .ue  cotjcct  and  up  to  dale,  and  that 
ssvunts  provisions  ate  observed.  The  functions 
and  lespojisihihties  nf  tiie  NWPl.  may  be  divided 
into  .1  communications  publications  library  and 
a  tactical  public, itions  library,  providing  the 
division  between  hbranes  is  specified. 


AUTHORITY   TO  CLASSIFY, 
DOWNGRADF.,   ANT)   DECLASSIFY 

I  he  authoiity  to  assign  a  classification  to 
onj'inal  intonnation  that  lequires,  in  the  interest 
ol  national  security,  a  specific  degree  of 
protection  against  disclosure  is  restricted  to 
those  officials  who  have  been  designated  the 
authority  in  writing.  Also,  each  of  these 
designated  officials  may  designate,  in  writing, 
this  authority  to  an  individual  to  act  in  their 
absence.  The  exercise  of  this  authority  is 
personal  to  these  officials  and  may  not  be 


delegated  by  them  or  used  by  anyone  acting  for 
them  or  in  their  names.  Designations  of  this 
authority  are  limited  to  the  minimum  number 
absolutely  required  for  efficient  administration, 
and  to  those  officials  whose  duties  and 
responsibilities  involve  the  origination  and 
evaluation  of  information  warranting 
classification  at  the  level  stated  in  the 
designation.  Administrative  convenience  alone  is 
not  a  valid  base  for  requesting  or  granting  this 
authority. 

Under  the  provisions  of  Executive  Order 
1  1652,  reference  (b),  only  the  Secretary  of 
Defense  and  the  Secretaries  of  the  Military 
Departments  may  designate  officials  to  exercise 
Top  Secret  original  classification  authority. 
Thus,  SECNAV  must  designate  those  officials  in 
the  Navy  who  will  exercise  Top  Secret  original 
classification  authority.  The  same  rules  apply  to 
the  original  classification  of  Secret  information 
except  that  the  Secretaries  of  the  Military 
Departments  may  designate,  in  writing,  Top 
Secret  classification  authorities  who  can 
designate  officials  to  exercise  Secret  original 
classification  authority.  SliCNAV  has  designated 
the  Director  of  Naval  Intelligence  (DNI)  this 
authority.  Since  the  authority  of  a  designated 
official  to  assign  a  particular  classification 
automatically  extends  to  the  assignment  of  any 
lower  classification,  the  Department  of  the  Navy 
does  not  designate  original  Confidential  on  the 
basis  that  Top  Secret  and  Secret  classification 
authorities  will  adequately  cover  the 
classification  needs.  A  list  of  the  Navy  officials 
who  have  the  authority  to  classify  original 
information  is  located  in  Appendix  A  of  the 
current  OPNAVINST  55 10.1. 

Requests  and  recommendations  for  original 
classification  authority  are  addressed,  through 
established  channels,  to  the  CNO  (DNI).  The 
DNI  maintains  a  current  list  of  naval  officials 
(by  title)  designated  to  exercise  original 
classification  authority.  The  DNI  also  submits 
changes  to  the  list  of  officials  designated  to 
exercise  original  classification  authority  to  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  for  his  approval.  A  second 
list  is  submitted  to  the  Deputy  Assistant 
Secretary  of  Defense  (Security  Policy)  quarterly. 

There  are  occasions  when  the  originator  of  a 
document,  message,  et  al.,  must  go  beyond  the 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


)f  his  original  classification  authority.  In 
5e,  the  normal  procedure  is  to  assign  a 
•e  classification  level  and  forward  the 
1  in  question  to  the  next  superior  having 

assignment  authority  along  with  a 
mendation  that  the  appropriate 
ation  be  assigned. 

jinal  classification  authorities  or  higher 
5  in  the  same  chain  of  command  are 
ized  to  downgrade  or  declassify 
ition  classified  by  the  original  classifier, 
igher  authority  in  the  chain  of  command 
.er  authority  having  primary  cognizance 
5  subject  matter  can  correct  an  erroneous 
ation  which  has  been  assigned  by  a 
nate. 

DNI  is  the  central  reference  point  for 
of  classified  material.  When  there  is 
is  to  the  classification  or  when  a  conflict 
i  cognizant  offices  exists,  the  DNI  will 
for  the  necessary  coordination  and  make 
>rt  to  establish  a  consensus  as  to  the 
mate  classification,  downgrading, 
fication  of  the  material.  Matters  which 
otherwise  be  resolved  by  mutual  consent 
decided  by  the  DNI. 

4TIVE  CLASSIFICATION 

important  aspect  of  classification  that  is 
rly  understood  is  the  difference  between 

and  derivative  classification.  Original 
ation  is  warranted  only  when  an  item  of 
ation  is  developed  that  requires 
ation  and  such  classification  cannot 
ibly  be  derived  from  a  previous 
ation  of  related  information.  For 
e,  information  pertaining  to  a 
)gical  breakthrough  or  a  significant 
z  advance  will  generally  require  the 
of  original  classification  authority, 
overwhelming  majority  of  all  classified 
il  is  the  product  of  derivative 
ition.  As  the  word  implies,  this  type  of 
ition  is  based  on  and  obtained  from  a 
;  classification.  If  the  information  to  be 
d  is  in  substance  the  same  or  closely 
to  other  information  for  which  a  proper 
cation  has  already  been  assigned, 
'&  classification  would  be  applied. 


Suppose  you  are  submitting  a  report  on  the 
sighting  of  a  Soviet  trawler  in  the  South  China 
Sea.  If  the  report  is  based  on  a  source  document 
which  states  that  particular  categories  ol  reports 
should  be  classified,  your  classification  is  derived 
from  that  source.  Only  when  guidance  in  any 
form  is  nonexistent  is  the  classification  an 
original  one.  While  the  guidance  given  m  this 
example  of  derivative  classification  was  minimal, 
most  of  the  information  derivatively  classified  is 
simply  extracted  or  copied  from  documents 
previously  classified.  In  this  case,  it  is  the 
responsibility  of  the  individual  who  copies  or 
extracts  the  classified  information  to  ensure  that 
the  extracted  information  bears  the  same 
classification  in  the  new  document  as  it  dul  in 
the  source  document. 

In  marking  a  denvatiu-h  classified 
document,  the  source  ot  that  cl.issit  nation  u-.g.. 
CNO  Itr.  ser  OP-DO1'  of  1  Ocl  '"')  must  he  cited 
on  the  "classified  by"  Jim-.  Hits  .u  .linn  is 
necessary  to  support  the  dernatiu-  classitici. 
Records  must  be  available  tor  the  lite  tune  nt  the 
document  to  show  the  basis  tor  v  lassitu  ,iti«»n  nr 
to  trace  the  chain  <>t  \  lassUkatsnn  authunu 

CLASSIFICATION  GITD1-S 


To  assure  accurate,  uniform,  ,uui  »  nMMstent 
classification,  all  na\al  .utiuties  .tie  imw 
required  tn  issue  ».  l.mitu  /.ilmn  guides,  in  tin* 
form  of  instructions,  that  ulejitit*,  fh**  ^nfical 
items  ot  information  requiring  *.  Tissiti-  .iti-ni  tnr 
all  projects  (program  HI  s\  stem)  under  thru 
eogni/ance.  These  guides  i-nver.  ph.iv  h-,  phase, 
the  tiansitmn  ot  ,1  pitqfvt  tliMiii'h  •!'.••,  ••!(  -pun-nt, 
tost  and  cvaluatmn,  pnu'iui-nicnl.  pi>  uiu.  imn, 
and  service  use.  The  guiili-  zmt  t»nl\  i.lcntitif.  th«' 
critical  items  ot'  mtnnsufnm  that  jctpiirr 
classification,  it  provides  giiuMmes  tnr 
downgrading  and  decla-»sii\ing  mlnri 
concerning  the  project, 


CLASSIFICATION  MARKINGS 

Classified  documents  bear  the  catrgnry  of 
classification  at  the  top  and  the  hot  torn,  on  the 
outside  of  the  front  and  back  cover,  and  on  the 
title  page.  The  lettering  is  in  red.  when 


Chapter  26-SECURITY 


practicable,  and  larger  than  the  normal  lettering. 
Fach  interior  page  of  a  document  is  marked  with 
the  highest  classification  of  information 
appearing  thereon,  including  the  designation 
"Unclassified"  when  appropriate.  When  a 
document  is  printed  on  both  sides  of  the  page, 
the  highest  classification  of  any  information  on 
either  side  will  dictate  page  marking  on  both 
sides.  However,  it  one  side  has  information  of  a 
lower  classification,  the  following  type  of 
additional  information  is  made  at  the  bottom  of 
the  page; 

rONFIDFNTlAL 
(THIS  PAta-  IS  UNCLASSIFIED) 

In  addition  to  page-by-page  marking,  each 
section,  part,  paragraph,  subparagraph, 
illustration,  table,  heading,  caption,  etc.,  in  any 
classified  document  including  correspondence 
and  eleclncally  transmitted  messages  is  marked 
tn  reflect  its  ovui  classification  or  the  fact  that  it 
is  unclassified  I  he  appropriate  marking  (the 
symbols  IS,  S,  (',  or  I"  are  acceptable)  is  placed 
in  parent hesrs  pmedmg  the  first  word  of  the 
paragraph  01 .  j!  a  paragraph  is  numbered, 
nnmedia  teh  following  the  numerical 
designation 

1  Acept  v»lule  in  the  process  of  local 
distribution  in  the  custody  of  persons 
authnn/ed  to  hamile  such  matter,  classified 
documents  must,  while  in  transit,  be  placed  in 
double  wrappings  or  envelopes.  The  inner 
wiappings  or  envelope  shall  show  the  address  of 
the  m  riving  aitivitv.  the  classification,  and 
when  appiopnate,  any  special  handling 
restiit  tinnv  I  he  outei  wrapper  or  envelope  will 
contain  the  i  umplele  adilress  and  return  address 
of  the  sender  and  will  not  he  marked  in  any  way 
which  might  mdu.itc  the  tact  that  the  contents 
are  classified. 


AUTOMATIC  DOWNGRADING 
AND   DHT.ASSIFICATION 

'I  he  national  interest  demands  that  classified 
information  he  made  available  to  the  general 
public  when  secrecy  no  longer  is  of  value.  In  line 
with  this  principle,  a  command  may  at  any  time 
downgrade  or  declassify  the  material  it  has 


On  March  8,  1972,  the  President  signed 
Executive  Order  11652.  The  intent  of  the 
executive  order  was  that  less  official  information 
would  be  classified,  more  declassified,  and  that 
which  is  classified  would  be  better  protected. 
Thus,  at  the  time  of  origination,  each  classified 
document  or  other  material  created  after  1  June 
1972  must  be  marked  with  a  downgrading  and 
declassification  date.  This  date  is  set  by  a  general 
declassification  schedule  (GDS)  shown  in  figure 
26-1  and  described  as  follows: 

1.  Top  Secret:  Information  and  material  is 
downgraded    to   Secret   2   calendar  years  after 
origination,  downgraded  to  Confidential  4  years 
after  origination,  and  declassified  10  years  after 
origination. 

2.  Secret:     Information    and    material    is 
downgraded    to   Confidential    2   calendar  years 
after  origination   and  declassified  8  years  after 
origination. 

3.  Confidential:   Information   and  material 
is  declassified  (>  calendar  years  after  origination. 

Provisions  for  the  exclusion  of  certain 
information  from  the  (JDS  have  been  made 
when  the  information  is  of  a  very  delicate 
nature.  Exemptions  are  made  when 

1.  Furnished  by  foreign  governments  or 
international  organisations  and  held  by  the 


TOP    JU  CRF.T  SF.CRFT 

_  __ 

?  YEARS  I  2  YEARS 

SECRET  CONFIDFNTIAL 


CONFIDENTIAL 


2  YEARS 

CONFIDENTIAL 


6  YEARS 


6  YEARS 


6    YEARS 


UNCLASSIFIED 
(  6  YEARS  TOTAL) 


UNCLASSIFIED 
(8  YEARS  TOTAL) 


UNCLASSIFIED 
(10  YEARS    TOTAL) 


46.69 


States  on  the  understanding  that  it  be 
i  confidence. 

Specifically  covered  by  statute  (e.g., 
:ed  data  and  formerly  restricted  data)  or 
ling  to  cryptography,  or  disclosing 
;ence  sources  or  methods. 

The  continuing  protection  of  a  system, 
nstallation,  project,  or  specific  foreign 
ns  matter  is  essential  to  the  national 

y- 

Disclosure  would  place  a  person  in 
iate  jeopardy.  In  each  case,  the  Top 

authority  shall  specify  by  number  the 
tion  category  being  claimed  (i.e.,  1,  2,  3, 
The  classification  authority  shall  specify  a 
r  event  for  the  automatic  declassification 
information  or  material  involved. 

it  becomes  necessary  to  classify  tin' 
ation  or  material  by  broad  category,  such 
;lear  propulsion  data,  the  classification 
ity  must  obtain  CMC)  approval. 


.enever    possible 
tty  will  be  shown 
den  tifica  tion 
nation   guide.    If 
who     signs    or 
ent    or    directive 
j.r. 


the   original   classifying 

including,  if  applicable, 

of     the      controlling 

this  is  not  shown,   the 

finally     approves    the 

will    be    deemed    the 


the  information  is  derivative  in  nature, 
ic  document  the  material  is  taken  from  is 
lassifying  authority."  If  a  multitude  of 
;  is  used,  the  title  and  address  of  the 
ml  preparing  the  document  is  the 
'ication  authority." 


DISCLOSURE  OF  CLASSIFIED 
MATERIAL 

is  imperative  that  classified   material  be 
arded      from      compromise.     This     is 
>lished  primarily  by- 
Thorough   indoctrination   of  personnel. 
Maintenance  of  proper  custody. 
Reducing  the  amount  and  level  of  the 
id  material  in  custody  by  downgrading, 
sification,     and     destruction     when 
riate. 


4.  Limiting  accessibility  to  those  who  have 
a  "need-to-know." 

Fach  person  to  whom  classified  matter  is 
entrusted  or  made  known  must  protect  it  against 
loss  or  compromise.  He  is  responsible  for  any  act 
or  failure  on  iiis  part  that  mav  in  anv  way 
contribute  to  its  loss,  compromise,  or 
unauthori/ed  disclosure.  This  includes 
information  that  is  transmitted  orally.  Classified 
material  must  not  be  removed  Irom  the  ship  or 
station  by  which  it  is  issued,  unless  so 
authori/ed  by  the  commanding  oftu-er. 
Classified  material  may  be  released  into  the 
personal  custody  of  Reserve  personnel  in  an 
inactive  duty  status  only  when  the  issuing 
authority  has  been  assured  that  Luihtu-%  arc 
available  to  the  personnel  concerned  siivh  as  will 
afford  physical  security  to  the  snatirr  m 
accordance  with  current  stowage  uvula!  ions 
prescribed  by  the  current  OPNAYINSI  *Mu.  1. 

RULES  FOR 
DISCLOSURE 


The  existeiu  t*.  naturr.  -.  o«if?->jt, 
whereabouts  of  dassihed  malt-M  P.  »h\ 'ilv-ti 
to  the  extent  required  bv  the  ,  n..  -iinst.r;-  <", 

In  Jetcunimni'  the  limits  ui 

due  consideration  must  be  IT. *'n  t 
classification,  the  neetl-tn-know, 
of  the  appropriate  seuinU  Jrai 
is     entitled     tu     kntnvlrth",-     ui 
classified   inattei    soli-K    b>    *.  H? 
office,      or      position        (  1.4 
information     is     divlost-ii     MM!       . 
having  a  legitimate  nitert-st  tiii-n-i!;. 

A  personnel  sivunl>  Ji-.a.i!-."  \\  AH 
administrative  deterniination  that  .trs  uu!i%  uiu.il 
is  eligible,  from  a  secunU  staiulpuujt,  lor  ,., .,  ?-ss 
to  classified  infonnation  ut  the  saiin-  of  i.iwrr 
categt>ry  as  the  clearance  grants1*!  'I  !r  vaimus 
investigations  that  must  In-  made  IMM»»IV  a 
security  clearance  is  issuetl  are  iarnr*!  .  ».;t  In  the 
Defense  Investigative  Servkf.  hut  the  final 
decision  to  grant  a  clearance  is  m.ule  b\  the 
individual's  commanding  olticer.  A  certifu-ate  of 
clearance  does  not  in  itselt  constitute  authority 
for  access  to  classified  ininrmation.  It  is  merely 


512 


Chapter  26-SKCURITY 


determination  ot  eligibility  for  access, 
'lassified  da  fa  ts  made  available  to  appropriately 
learoi!  persons  iwly  when  a  "need-to-know"  is 
stabilised  clearly. 

I- very  effort  ts  made  to  keep  responsible 
ifficials  mlotmed.  Security  carried  to  such  an 
xtreme  that  \ital  information  is  not  received  by 
•xecutmg  activities  in  sufficient  time  or  detail 
lefeats  the  purpose  for  which  the  classified 
natter  was  prepared. 

In  this  connection,  the  need  for  the 
lisseuiinatmn  nf  certain  types  of  classified 
nfonnattnn  ti»r  training  purposes  must  be 
ecogm/ed.  It  sometimes  is  necessary,  for 
nu  po\es  ot  briefing  and  training,  to  disclose 
lassihcti  information  to  specifically  designated 
»l ficers.  although  siu.h  intormation  is  not 
eqtured  on  then  piesent  duty. 

HSC  lO.Sl'R!     10  THI-. 
;!-N!RAI    POLK 

In  fhr  miriest  t>|  national  security,  classified 
nlonnatiMU  js  not  released  to  tlie  public, 
lassihed  mallet  o!  genuine  public  interest, 
iiiueu-i,  ma\  be  teleiied  to  tin*  originator  or  a 
espnnsihle  highd  aullmntv  ior  review.  If 
undent  t«»  dti  so.  such  matter  may  be 
nwngiaded  in  vJinli*  or  in  part  and  the 
leclassilied  pc  »f  turn  jn.tile  available  to  the  public. 

( 'l.iv.ihrd  m.iUri  appearing  in  encrypted 
ness.i)'*",  injuijfs  .nlditmnal  steps  prior  to 
eleasr.  lhe-,e  pfurdures  may  be  found  in  the 
'eitmeni  *  is  ptti«.t.'<  untv  publications.  The 
ele.jse  >n  pu  blir.i  t  inn  ,  authori/ed  or 
mauthni  j/cd,  »«!  spec  it  u  mtormalion  to  the 
ness,  ladi",  «)i  nthei  public  dissemination 
•etmties  dm--,  nt»l  m  itsel!  declassify  all  related 
nlonnaljun  t»n  the  same  subject.  All 
nfoiinatmn  is  vl.issilieil  according  to  content, 
'hus  operational,  technical,  ami  other  details 
vlnch  have  n«»t  been  ileclassilied  by  competent 
aithontv.  ,11  e  s,i!eguardeil  according  to  the 
.ssigned  classitu  at  ion. 

The  inclusion  ot  classified  information  in 
itiy  article,  buuk.  speech,  or  public  discussion 
>y  a  naval  member  nr  civilian  employee  of  the 
Department  nf  the  Navy  for  dissemination 
mtsule  the  Department  is  prohibited. 


Subject  to  the  above  and  certain  other 
requirements,  officers  and  others  attached  to  or 
employed  by  the  Department  of  the  Navy  are  at 
liberty  to  publish  articles  without  further 
permission  from  higher  authority.  Upon  request, 
prior  to  publication  or  delivery,  the  Chief  of 
Information  obtains  technical  review  and  advises 
authors  and  speakers  of  any  changes  considered 
necessary  from  the  standpoint  of  security.  He 
also  advises  them  with  regard  to  overall 
Government  policy.  In  all  cases,  however,  the 
final  responsibility  for  statements  rests  upon  the 
individual  writer  or  speaker. 

"Security  at  the  source"  is  a  necessity. 
Before  arrival  in  port  following  a  period  of 
operations,  personnel  should  be  cautioned 
concerning  special  or  unusual  security 
requirements  connected  therewith.  Braggadocio 
is  costly  -sometimes  in  American  lives.  What 
might  appear  to  be  harmless,  interesting 
information  may  be  just  the  type  of  data  that 
the  enemy  is  striving  to  gather. 

Immediately  upon  the  arrival  within  a 
command  of  press  correspondents  and  other 
representatives  of  public  information  activities, 
the  commanding  officer  should  advise  them 
concerning  security  limitations  as  affecting  the 
release  of  information  to  the  public.  Their 
cooperation  in  the  protection  of  classified 
information  which  they  may  inadvertently 
obtain  should  be  sought. 

DISCIPLINARY  ACTION 
FOR  SECURITY  VIOLATIONS 

,.i 

Individuals  found  responsible  for  the  loss, 
compromise,  or  unauthorized  disclosure  of 
classified  matter,  and  individuals  who  violate 
security  regulations,  are  promptly  and 
adequately  disciplined.  Disciplinary  action  may 
include,  in  the  case  of  military  personnel,  trial 
by  court-martial  or,  in  the  case  of  civilians, 
prosecution  under  Title  18,  United  States  Code, 
as  amended,  or  other  Federal  statutes  as 
appropriate. 

Violations  of  regulations  pertaining  to  the 
safeguarding  of  classified  matter,  but  not 
resulting  in  its  loss,  compromise,  or 
unauthorized  disclosure,  normally  are  acted 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


jy  the  commanding  officers  of  the  persons 

id  without  reference  to  other  authority. 

us,    an    enlisted    man    or    officer    who 

ly    or    negligently    mishandles    classified 

will  be  disciplined  by  his  commanding 

or    by    a    court-martial    depending    on 

.stances.  If  mishandling  results  in  loss  or 

omise,  disciplinary  action  is  almost  sure  to 

:re. 


SPECIFIC  PROTECTIVE 
MEASURES 

ere  are,  in  general,  four  ways  in  which 
ed  information  is  protected:  censorship, 
.il  security,  transmission  security,  and 
graphic  security. 

)NAL  CENSORSHIP 

nsorship  places  a  barrier  between 
:d  information  and  unauthori/ed  persons 
revcnting  its  disclosure  in  letters, 
nations,  and  personal  contacts.  It  means 
itting  off  of  information  at  the  source, 
in  making  official  use  of  it,  and  depends 
•ge  extent  on  the  integrity  and  discretion 
ndividual. 
're  is  no  way  of  estimating  how  many 

have  been  lost,  how  many  ships  have 
;nk,  how  many  lives  have  been  sacrificed 
•  someone  casually  or  in  a  moment  oi 
ig  unintentionally  betrayed  a  vital 
'  secret. 

iscreet  conversation  and  personal 
;>ndencc  constitute  the  greatest  menaces 
rity.  This  applies  especially  to  persons 
I  to  engage  in  discussion  of  office  affairs 
eir  families  or  friends  outside  the  office, 
.ipplies  to  careless  talk  in  the  office  in  the 
e  of  persons  not  authori/ed  to  have  the 
.tion.  Loose  talk  in  public  places  and 
the  telephone  is  also  dangerous. 
ition  imparted  to  unauthori/ed  persons 

repeated  innocently  and  in  ignorance  of 
ortance  until  it  becomes  a  matter  of 
u  knowledge.  Foreign  intelligence  agents 
ntifically  trained  to  collect  and  to  collate 
ous  bits  of  seemingly  harmless 


information  from  conversation  and  rumors 
which  circulate  in  the  vicinity  of  naval  activities. 
False  and  erroneous  information  which  has  been 
given  deliberately  may  often  provide  an  agent 
with  a  needed  fragment.  There  ton*,  automatic 
censorship  of  official  and  unofficial  conversation 
and  letters  must  be  a  fundamental  duty  of  all 
personnel.  The  habit  must  be  cultivated  until  it 
becomes  routine. 

Classified  information  must  not  be  disclosed 
over  an  unsecure  telephone.  When  unsecure 
telephones  are  used,  the  possibility  ol  insecurity 
due  to  executive  cut-in,  plutntum  voice 
interception,  and  deliberate  wire-tapping  is  a 
threat  at  all  times. 

'I  here  is  only  one  sate  ctwvrrs.ition.il  policy 
to  follow  when  not  on  dut>  s.iy  nothing  about 
the  work  to  am  one,  even  when  in  the  Company 
of  authori/ed  personnel,  I  line  are  tew  pl.mes 
where  conversation  cannot  In*  »»vei  heard. 
Remember,  it  is  human  naluie  t«»  pass  nil  a 
secret  accidentally  learned. 

Ofhcial  math'ts  that  are  v  lassiiu'd  should  nut 
be  divussed  even  with  members  u!  <»ite\  own 
family  or  close  tneiuls  in  whom  t»ne  lias  the 
greatest  conlidence.  Naval  oituersare  trained  in 
secuntv  and  aie  MMJNU  t»tnvittus  I  hey 
appreciate  security  m  small  things  aiul  \  an  see 
the  dam'ers  o!  revealing  tJasMhed  insinuation 
inadvertently.  Wives  and  friends  withmit  this 
indoctrination  are  nut  hkelv  to  be  so  «,  areiui  <>r 
secunU  conscious  Although  thev  nmOit  never 
intentionalh  leveal  ilassilied  military 
mtunnatum.  the\  might  inadvcrtentlv  ;nfrition  a 
detail  in  casual  uMiveisation.  In  keep  the 
silence,  nne  should.  In  skilltul  maneuveini),'  n| 
the  conversation  «ir  by  the  tiutrifht  jetusal  to 
talk  shop,  ilecline  tn  discuss  oHuial  matters.  In 
many  cases,  it  is  desirable  to  plead  U'lmraiu  •/ of 
the  subject  under  discussmn.  I  nthusiasm  toward 
one's  work  is  clearly  desirable,  but  not  when  it 
results  in  a  discussion  ot  classified  naval  atlaus. 

Personal  censorship  extends  also  to 
telephone  conversations.  Telephone  wires  can  be 
and  are  tapped.  Private  lines  are  less  secure  than 
party  lines  because  they  are  specifically  labeled 
and  are  therefore  easy  to  locate  at  junction 
points  in  the  cables.  Conversations  may  be  heard 
at  the  switchboard  and  various  other  points 
along  the  circuit. 


Chapter  26-SRCURITY 


PHYSICAL  Sl-CURHY 

Physical  security  is  concerned  witli 
protecting  classified  documents,  devices,  and 
material  so  that  they  never  tall  into  the  hands  of 
unauthon/ed  persons  or  come  within  either 
optical  or  camera  range  of  actual  or  possible 
enemies. 

Knowledge  of  classified  information  can  be  a 
dangerous  possession.  That  is  why  only  a  limited 
number  of  naval  personnel  are  authori/.ed  to 
handle  ami  use  classified  matter.  The  loyalty  of 
other  personnel  seldom  is  questioned;  but  if 
thev  have  no  classified  information,  the  chances 
of  such  information  tailing  into  the  hands  of 
outsiders  aie  gieatly  lessened. 

The  hist  obligation  of  officers  or  enlisted 
men  working  with  Classified  matter  is  to  protect 
t!i  at  matter  tntm  being,  seen  by  any 
unautiiori/ed  individual,  either  military  or 
civilian.  I  hen*  is  no  reason  for  persons  not 
concerned  with  i  lassificd  matter  to  have  access 
to  it  until  it  becomes  necessary  to  do  so  to 
discharge  then  duties  properly. 

C'lassilied  material  may  neither  be  removed 
trtuii  Us  designated  working  space  nor  left 
unguarded.  When  not  actually  in  use,  it  it  kept 
locked  in  the  proper  accommodation,  for  a 
single  glance  at  a  message  or  a  cryptographic  aid 
may  be  enough  to  betrav  the  system.  Another 
danger  is  that  .1  photograph  could  be  taken  in  a 
split  second  \sith  a  concealed  camera.  Classified 
materials  are  not  subiect  to  the  same  ha/ardson 
shipboard  as  on  land.  1'ven  in  the  event  of  the 
japturc  or  i  rippling  ol  a  ship,  these  materials  are 
not  likely  to  tall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy 
.•\cept  through  *.  arclcssness. 

When  a  code  or  cipher  is  captim'd,  not  only 
is  the  key  available  lor  deciphering  current  and 
past  messages,  but  the  basic  style  and  structure 
:>f  the  system  are  so  apparent  that  enemy 
;ryptanalysts  are  greatly  aided  in  breaking 
similar  systems. 

The  materials  and  methods  used  to  prepare 
:lassified  messages  or  other  matter  are 


by  chemical  treatment  and  photography.  Words 
on  stencils,  cushion  sheets,  carbon  paper,  desk 
blotters,  backing  sheets,  and  typewriter  ribbons 
are  almost  as  legible  as  the  original.  For  this 
reason,  the  same  care  should  be  given  materials 
and  supplies  used  for  classified  matter  as  is 
given  to  the  matter  itself. 

TRANSMISSION  SECURITY 

Transmission  security  is  achieved  by 
reducing  to  a  minimum  the  information  the 
enemy  can  obtain  from  the  study  of  our 
communications  through  interception  and 
traffic  analysis,  chiefly  of  our  radio  traffic,  even 
though  he  cannot  break  down  our  codes  and 
ciphers.  Visual  transmissions  are  included,  but 
the  limited  range  of  such  methods  makes  the 
security  problem  comparatively  simple. 

Whether  a  transmitted  message  goes  by 
courier,  radio,  visually,  or  by  mail,  if  it  is 
classified,  it  has  to  be  safeguarded  during 
transmission.  The  means  of  protection  may 
differ  but  the  purpose  in  each  instance  is  the 
same:  to  keep  that  message  out  of  the  hands  of 
those  not  authori/.ed  to  receive  it. 

Transmission  security  is  that  condition 
which  results  from  all  measures  designed  to 
protect  transmissions  from  interception  and 
traffic  analysis.  The  relative  security  of  one 
means  of  transmission  over  another  varies 
according  to  circumstances.  Inasmuch  as  every 
transmission  is  subject  to  interception, 
protective  measures  must  be  taken  to  reduce  to 
a  minimum  the  information  gained  by 
unau  thori/.ed  persons. 

The  means  of  transmission  in  the 
approximate  order  of  security  are  as  follows: 

1 .  Messenger. 

2.  Registered  mail    military,  United  States 
postal,  or  diplomatic  pouch. 

3.  Approved  wire  circuits. 

4.  Ordinary  mail  -military  or  United  States 
postal. 

5.  Nonapproved  wire  circuits. 


ic  only  possible  way  to  obtain  absolute 
uisskw  security  is  to  re  Train  from  all 
lunications.  This  applies  particularly  to 
and  that,  of  course,  is  sometimes 
sible.  Messages  have  to  be  sent  anil 
.unieations  established  to  prosecute  any 
>f  operation. 

>e  of  one  of  the  more  secure  transmission 
ids  mentioned  above  tends  to  reduce  the 
it  of  traffic  available  to  an  interceptor  for 
.nalytical  study. 

i    officer    messenger   is  the   most    secure 

of  delivering  a  document.  When  a 
iger  is  carrying  classified  material,  he 

it  personally  at  all  times.  He  is  armed, 
ic  safety  of  the  material  is  his  paramount 
.sibility. 

sea,  sending  messages  by  dispatch  boat  or 

means  is  preferable  to  radio.  Boat  service 

most  reliable  of  these  and  can  alien  he 

I  out  with  considerable  speed.  Heitcoptci 

is  faster  than  a  boat  but  not  always 
>le.  Visual  methods  are  more  secuie  than 
md  ease  the  load  which  is  usually  imposed 
io,  even  though  they,  too.  often  become 
ided. 

re  systems  include  telephone,  telegraph, 
•ewriler,  anil  facsimile.  They  are  grouped 
/o  categories:  approved  and  wwappmved 
v  Approved  circuits  are  designated  by 
riate  command  under  regulations  laid 
by  Joint  policy.  The  classification  ni 
es  that  may  be  transmitted  in  the  clear 
in  approved  circuit  depends  on  the 
:ation  rating  of  the  circuit.  Hectrua! 

are  not  approved  for  transmission  in  the 
unencrypted)  of  any  traffic  having  a 
•ation  higher  than  Secret.  Circuits  m»i 
,'ed  by  appropriate  command  m 
nice  with  Joint  policy,  or  those  linked  by 
re  termed  nonapproved  circuits, 
ssified  information  is  not  transmitted  in 
ir  over  nonapproved  circuits  except  when 
smission  is  too  urgent  to  wait  for 
ion,  and  when  the  speed  of  delivery  is 
important  than  the  value  of  the 
ition  to  the  enemy.  Wire  communications 
•eater  security  than  radio  and  should  be 

in      preference     to     radio     whenever 

ble. 


Radio  is  the  must  usctl,  the  most 
consistently  overloaded,  and  the  least  secure 
means  of  all.  !-;»ch  message  sent  b>  radio  is  open 

to  reception  b\  an>  Iru'nd  nt  cne-wv  uho  has 
the  necessary  equipment  and  i\  utlliin  the 
reception  range.  ()t  com  ST.  there  is  no 
alternative  when  at  se.i  unless  flu*  message  uin 
wait,  but  m  poll  or  at  sh<m-  stations, 
transmission  h\  mail  will  t!ct|iieitth  suMue, 

I  lie  use  of  radio  h.ts  advanced  to  a  point 
where  it  has  heroine  the  ptiuu*  nu-ans  ot 
electronic  u»mnunuc.atu»ns  Ihis  has  a  ju*»!«wnd 
et'tect  upon  ownmmu  atmn  SCMUIU  I  he  speed, 
range,  and  versatility  nt  i.utio  have  rsuhU'd 
conjujuiiKMtiojis  U*  keep  pavv  with  th:-'  utidMhts 
uS  mt»detn  w.ul.iii*  Hut  tin*  uv  .»!  t  ,u!i»»  Is,  IN  ,il\u 
e\pose\i  coinmuJtK.itiojv.  t»»  !h  •,•!'.  i'n",»tcst 
d.mgei  lln*  meie  Kut  th,»t  a  J.n!i»»  '.t.it^n  i\  nn 
the  an  is,iMHM\fnj  m!«'j  isi,tlj»n  t»i  !i;  -  ••neinv  . 
Intej\c]*t  st.Jtnuis  and  vtij',\ljM-i  Sin.  !•'!-.  ivi.ibK- 
the  enem\  to  liquid  .«  i.jjf-.-  i^niito:  .  .|  ih-« 
tiansimssions  u;  uuli'i  tt»  iiet-'j.:})!!!1.-  whn  •  SSu". 
are  m.uliv  I  his  gives  him  ,m  opj'.  <it  .i:\i\\  in 
fnllnsv  tr«n)p  movrnii'jils  ,$:;»!  In  I-'.uj;  Sit1*' 
identitv  ,  stiength.  pl.sii,  01  l.t,  fi-  .il  »!  r,;"  *  .a?i«';s  ««! 
vi  nilllt.lP,  lni<>.>  \  -,!:tfjr  ••};•,  tt:  ,:1  ?::;;•;.,;••'  v.Hi 
Hhik  .lit'  the  eXl-li'ZK  :'  t  '!  ,{  u:;if 

A    p.tltUill.jJ    ,i!ul   './p,;!-:!  •  -•:.;;•!..:••.-«,  ;;r,   f   hr 

pl.lv  I'll      «II1      tilf      pl'i|..'j       !;    .  •      M?      :.„'-.!  ,J    -j.    |-!j.»Jl;- 

U\i-Fusf  aud  •>  .ii'.-h-ss:;;".',  ,i:-  f  v,  ,  <!.{-.,;{•.  th.if  tij,r. 
.It  t  oinp.UJV    '*  us.  -,-  ti.UiM:;  '.",'.  i«  •;» 

1  he      mist.iki-n      ulr.i      fh.jf      ;•••:          M»!IM 


ti.msmjssinns    is    MI;:-    -.,}    th 
1  llu  sinjr.       in       I'nr       lit, 


lret|iiencv  .in-,  m  n\mr,  .  it-s,  -,-v-;i..-  ?:;,»:;  i--,  .-ii 
tiaiiMniss|.»ns  ttji  th;.'  -..iUa'  !f  •'{-..  :;.  '.  !•:'..  .j.;  ./ 
anytinc  lamili.u  vmth  tir.-  !.i:;-.-  .,!••  •  .  .is; 
iimleist  and  th'.-m  u  ith.Kii  j.:,.  ^v.  :::/  ti^- 
telegiaphu'  *.  ode. 

CRYPTOGRAPHIC  SK'CRIIY 

Cryptographic  secuntv  is  prt»v  ul;'»l  In  vmlt-s 
and  cipers  uvd  in  cuininunu  ,»ti«uis  am!  is 
concerned  with  their  proper  construction  arul 
correct  use  so  that  the  coded  messagi's  c.umot  be 
broken  bv  the  enemv. 


51ft 


Chapter  26-SECURITY 


For  almost  as  long  as  man  has  possessed  the 
ability  to  write,  lie  has  also  been  able  to  disguise 
his  writing  so  that  only  those  knowing  his 
system  can  understand  it.  Today,  one  of  the 
most  important  phases  of  communications  is 
cloaking  what  is  said  under  the  wraps  of  a  code 
or  cipher.  The  standard  term  for  this  technique 
is  cryptography. 

Both  ttulo  and  cipher  are  systems  of 
cryptography.  Code  encryption  is  obtained  by 
applying  the  arbitrary  substitution  of  entire 
words,  phrases,  or  even  complete  sentences  of 
the  plain  text  Cipher  is  obtained  by  generating  a 
system  o!  alteration  of  letters  of  the  plain  text, 
and  thus  .1  set  of  substitutions  is  derived  without 
reference  to  an  arbitrarily  fixed  list  of 
substitutions. 

In  reienl  years  the  Navy  has  developed  what 
is  called  "on-line"  communications.  This  refers 
to  communu  alum  processing  systems  that 
electrons  allv  encipher  or  decipher  messages 
tr.uisimttrd  by  teletypewriter.  The  process  of 
eru  iphenng  or  dev  iphermg  manually  is  now 
relened  lu,js"uf!  luie"  Communications. 

Hie  ,ipe\  uf  \  ivptosecurity  is  when  the 
ongm.ittM  v  an  mmey  his  unohscured  thought  to 
oni\  the  piuper  addresses. 

C  i'lt.un  i»t  MUI  i  r\  ptosvstems  offer  the 
ultimate  in  militan  Mimmumcations  security 
t<ul,t\,  nthei  s\  stems  have  a  lower  degree  of 
%eiunf\  ami  an*  used  only  l<»r  designated  and 
limited  puipuM*-.,  Ail  uvptnsystems  convert 
U.isMfied  mev,.tges  tn  ,j  tnrm  intelligible  only  to 
the  per.« MI  holding  tin*  key.  I'he  safekeeping  of 
.ill  these  »  i\  pl'Miirthtids.  systems,  and  devices  is 
,r.  jie<ess,n\  m  pe.u  etmie  as  in  war. 
(  r,  pt.uuh  In  .itt.ii  Ks  spread  t»ver  several  years 
aie  mutr  hkeh  (M  MI  need  than  attacks  limited 
tit  ,i  tew  month.  All  per  suns  handling  classified 
messages  uj  translations  u|  encrypted  messages 
are  reijuued  tn  In-  actively  aware  of  the  potential 
danger  <»!  div  Insmg  «.  lassihed  information. 


1)1  STRUCTION 

When  classified  materials  are  no  longer 
useful,  they  are  destroyed  under  supervision, 
never  discarded  in  wastebaskets  for  ordinary 
disposal.  It  immediate  destruction  is  not 


feasible,  they  are  torn  and  stored  in  a  safe  or  a 
secure  "burn  bag"  until  they  can  be  destroyed. 

Classified  documents  are  destroyed  by 
burning,  pulping,  pulverizing,  or  shredding. 
Shredding  is  the  method  employed  most 
commonly  in  the  Fleet.  When  destruction  is 
accomplished  by  means  other  than  shredding, 
the  residue  must  be  inspected  to  ensure 
complete  mutilation. 

When  classified  papers  are  burned,  the 
destruction  should  be  witnessed  by  two 
commissioned  officers.  If  sufficient  officers  are 
unavailable,  warrant  officers,  enlisted  personnel, 
or  civilians  may  witness  the  burning,  provided 
they  are  cleared  at  least  for  the  highest  category 
of  material  being  destroyed.  Witnesses  must 
watch  the  burning  until  destruction  is  complete, 
after  which  the  residue  is  obliterated  completely 
by  scattering  or  reduction  to  sludge.  When 
appropriate,  a  certificate  of  destruction  is 
prepared  and  signed. 

The  commanding  officer  or  a  designated 
representative  provides  a  detailed  emergency 
destruction  bill  for  the  destruction  of  all 
classified  matter  in  the  event  the  ship  is  captured 
or  sunk.  This  bill  shows  the  responsibility  of 
personnel  by  duty  rather  than  by  name  and 
states  the  priority  in  which  publications  and 
apparatus  are  to  be  destroyed.  Sinking  classified 
material  at  sea  in  weighted  bags  is  unsafe,  even 
in  deep  water.  In  shallow  water,  salvage  by  the 
enemy  is  possible  and  probable.  Ordinarily, 
destruction  by  fire  is  preferred. 


SECURITY  AREAS 

Spaces  that  contain  classified  matter  are 
known  as  security  (sensitive)  areas.  The  areas 
have  varying  degrees  of  security  interest, 
depending  on  their  purpose  and  the  nature  of 
the  work  and  information  or  materials 
concerned.  To  meet  different  levels  of  security 
sensitivity,  three  types  of  security  arc. 
established.  All  such  areas  are  clearly  marked  by 
signs  reading,  "Restricted  Area." 

EXCLUSION  AREA 

Spaces  requiring  the  strictest  control  of 
access  are  designated  exclusion  areas.  They 


mce  to  the  area  permits,  for  all  practical 
is,  access  to  such  matter. 

exclusion  area  is  fully  enclosed  by  a 
ter  barrier  of  solid  construction.  All 
;es  and  exits  are  guarded,  and  only  those 
;  whose  duties  require  access  and  who 
appropriate  security  clearances  are 
zed  to  enter. 

ED  AREA 

limited  area  is  one  in  which  the 
rolled  movement  of  personnel  permits 
to  classified  information.  Within  the  area, 
may  be  prevented  by  escort  and  other 
1  controls. 

;  area  is  enclosed  by  a  clearly  defined 
ter  barrier.  Entrances  and  exits  are 
j  or  controlled  by  attendants  to  check 
il  identification.  The  area  may  be 
ed  by  an  automatic  alarm  system. 

jrity  for  emergency  destruction  shall  he 
ws: 

Communication  Security  (('OMSl-X') 
.1. 

Top  Secret  Special  Access  material.  Then 
r  Top  Secret  material. 

Secret  Special  Access  material.  Then  all 
ecret  material. 

Confidential  Special  Access  material. 
1  other  Confidential  material. 

Unclassified  equipment  which  could  be 
to  the  enemy  together  with   pertinent 
cal,     descriptive,      and      operating 
:ions. 

p  Secret,  Secret,  and  Confidential 
nent  must  be  destroyed  beyond 
lition.  If  time  does  not  permit 
nication  with  the  commanding  officer, 
>erson  concerned  must  act  on  his  own 
re. 

snever  evidence  is  received  that  a  code  or 
may  have  been  broken  or  captured  by  the 


outstanding  publications  devoted  to  it  are 
destroyed.  Continued  use  ot  the  compromised 
system  may  result  in  defeat.  Therefore, 
whenever  anyone  uncovers  evidence  that 
unauthori/ed  personnel  have  had  access  to 
classified  matter  or  that  a  system  ma\  have  been 
otherwise  compromised,  he  must  report  the 
details  promptly.  In  event  of  the  loss  of  a  ship,  it 
is  essential  that  the  Nav>  Department 
immediately  be  given  full  details  ot  the  disposal 
of  classified  matter  in  general,  and  crvptogtaphiv 
systems  and  publications  in  particular  This 
report  is  prepared  by  the  senior  survivor. 

Operating  and  maintenance  personnel  who 
require  freedom  of  movement  within  a  hunted 
area  must  have  a  proper  seamtj.  vle.iranve.  I  he 
commanding  othcer  wa\  authon/e  the 
admittance  ot  persons  who  do  not  have 
clearances,  in  such  instances  escorts  or 
attendants  are  used  and  other  security 
precautions  are  taken  to  prevent  ,u.cev,  lo  the 
classified  inhumation  located  within  the  aiea. 

CONTROLLED  AR1-.A 

A  controlled  area  uvualh  does  MM[  otnfain 
classilieil  information.  It  selves  as  a  bufji-r  /one 
to  provide  neater  administrator  .untml,  safetv. 
and  protection  lor  the  hunted  »n  "\t  lu-.son 
areas.  The  areas  require  peisnnnel  ulrutilu atum 
and  control  systems  adequate  to  limit 
admittance  to  those  havim*  buna  lule  nml  Joj 
access  to  the  area. 

Passageways  01  spa^e-.  sun « n.niimi'  01 
adjacent  to  limited  01  exchr,i*tn  ai  -as  nu'.  lie 
designated  controlled  areas 


SAFhKhhPINC;  AND   STORAC,! 

Classified  information  or  m.iteiial  >  annot  be 
used,  held,  or  stored  where  there  are  no  hu  ilities 
adequate  to  prevent  unauthori/ed  persons  from 
gaining  access  to  it.  The  exact  nature  ot  secimtv 
requirements  depends  on  a  security  evaluation 
of  local  conditions  and  circumstances.  These 
requirements  must  permit  the  accomplishment 
of  essential  functions  while  afloulmg  a 


518 


easonanle  ucgiee  ot  security  with  a  minimum 
alculated  risk.  In  the  Navy,  the  commanding 
)fficcr  is  diuvlly  responsible  tor  safeguard  ing  all 
lassitied  inhumation  within  his  command  and 
'or  assuring  that  classified  material,  not  in  actual 
ise  by  appropriately  cleared  personnel  or  under 
lis  diuYt  peisttnal  observation,  is  stored  in  the 
Described  manner. 

WMI-RICAI.    I-.VAl.UATION 


A  s\stem  ot  uumencal  evaluation  has  been 
leveloped  loi  thi*  puiposc  of  providing  a 
in  i  hum  guide  loi  establishing  security 
irote<,tn»n  loi  classified  material  in  storage 
•ommensui.ite  vuth  tin-  senmtv  inteiest  in  such 
natenal  It  pinvules  not  only  a  means  of 
ietetmmmg  the  telatmnship  between  the 
(\unt\  iiuvie-.t  and  llif  level  of  protection 
lecded,  but  ah»>  --.els  foith  values  loi  various 
'lenient'.  of  a  vaunts  piogiam  whu  h  may  be 
owbtiu'd  I* i  pmdi;»  e  an  ai'»rp(ahle  level  of 
»iote>.  lion.  Mi-.-  v,  Jem  »'t  nuinencal  evaluation 
lor-,  not  euaiatitee  pt'it-.'i  turn,  noi  does  it 
ttU-mpl  t'»  r;ie.-(  <••',  ;-n  •  itfu  eivahle  situation, 
[lie  lavs  o{  duiuui'Juni'  tetutns  limits  the 
neastii''-,  Hut  ..sit  be  emplowd  piolitably. 
JovAevei,  vv:th  .1  •  r  <i!iin«  'M'.ense  implementation 
i!  the  -.'.'. I'-in  >•!  utmi'-iual  evaluation  it  is 
los'abi'1  IM  tilii.tui  ,i  '-.if j-.tav  toi v  di'giei*  ol 
,1'uuiH  \\il\i  .s  n:minii.!.'i  -..i-nhiv  in  opeiating. 
•!Iu  i.-iii  •• 

I  h-'  ''I'lu-.Til-.  • '!  fh--  nuiiii'iii  al  evaluation 
Astrisj  ,it;r.i-.f  "?  .1  t.tbl  •  "I  .»•.'. p.MU'il  tlUliin  h  al 
•  alu-- .  !MI  '.,(!»•  i:,,  p,  p.-,  u!  stoi.it'i'  an'as, 
•ojjt. n.'i-'s  i.  .c;il  •••  J,I'-!K';'.'  a.'id  alatm  sv  stems. 
\!M'  IK  i'ni .-ti  i.  ,ni  !-..d-'iatioii  j-i.iph  that 
".tablr- !«:•..,  n:  lh<-  !"t;ij  , .{  numemal  values, 
miMiniiiit)  Jr-.-'i'.  <•?  i  ••I.tfr.  ••  •.<••  uiitv  ii'tjinred  toi 
.he  pjnti-..  IP  i!i  •  •!  •  i,i  ,  atird  mats-n.d  ba-.rd  on  the 
.'Kr-'Mti- .sti'iu.  >|:i.i:.l  it1.  .  and  •«  ope  ol  the 
louiment-.  •  •!  ••••jiiipnieiit  {  he  fable  and  graph 
ire  in,  ,ii-,i  5:1  •,  h.iptei  "';  ot  the  cuneiit 
>P\AY!\Sl  -.-1M  1 

Io  ,ippl\  tin-  :iiiinen>  -d  evaluation  s\-,tem  to 
i  secuntv  pinj'rani,  vele.,  t  horn  the  table  the 
ippropn.ite  nuniencal  eijurs. dents  tor  each 
»pplu:able  element  HI  tin*  seiUitU  piogiam  and 
iolal  them.  I  ns  example,  it  the  classified 


material  is  stored  aboard  a  commissioned  naval 
ship  (25  points)  in  a  class  1,  approved  General 
Services  Administration  (GSA)  security  container 
(70  points),  the  numerical  equivalent  for  the 
total  program  would  be  95  (25  +  70)  points. 
(More  points  would  be  added  if  the  container  is 
located  in  a  controlled,  limited,  exclusion,  or 
guarded  area.)  Next  select  a  subcatcgory  from 
the  graph  which  most  accurately  describes  the 
material  in  storage.  If  the  material  in  the  prior 
example  consists  of  two  Secret  documents,  the 
graph  indicates  that  the  minimum  level  of 
security  is  50  points.  Therefore,  in  this  example, 
the  security  program  more  than  meets  the 
required  standard. 

STORAGIi 

Whenever  classified  material  is  not  under  the 
personal  control  and  observation  of  an 
authori/ed  person,  it  will  be  guarded  or  stored  in 
a  locked  security  container. 

Top  Secret  documents  should  be  stored  in  a 
sale  or  safe-type  steel  file  container  having  a 
three-position  combination  lock  as  approved  by 
the  (ISA,  or  a  class  A  vault  which  meets  the 
standards  established  by  the  Director  of  Naval 
Intelligence.  Also  an  alarmed  area  may  be  used 
Io  protect  Top  Secret  material,  providing  it  is 
adjudged  by  the  local  responsible  official  to 
afford  protection  equal  to,  or  better  than,  the 
sale,  steel  file,  or  vault.  The  alarmed  area  must 
provide  a  physical  harrier  adequate  to  prevent 
removal  of  the  material,  and  observation  when 
observation  would  result  in  the  compromise  of 
the  material. 

Secret  and  Confidential  material  may  be 
stored  in  the  manner  authori/ed  for  Top  Secret; 
or.  in  a  class  B  vault,  a  vault-type  room,  or  a 
secure  storage  room  which  has  been  approved  in 
accordance  with  the  standards  prescribed  by  the 
Director  of  Naval  Intelligence.  Also,  until  phased 
out,  Secret  and  Confidential  material  may  be 
stored  in  nonstandard  (JSA  steel  filing  cabinets 
having  a  built-in,  three-position,  dial-type 
combination  lock  or;  as  a  last  resort,  a  steel 
filing  cabinet  equipped  with  a  steel  locking  bar, 
providing  it  is  secured  by  a  (ISA  approved 
changeable  combination  padlock. 


51') 


NAVAL  OKII-MAMON 


TAINER  DESIGNATIONS  otlK-ei.  lomNiufhm-s  *  ill  N- *  h.mv'.-d  i>5|iirl  4J1> 

I  COMBINATIONS  i'J  the  lullnu:^  ^u^Iitum . 

{ach  container  used  for  storage  of  classit  led  >'     .\n,ul  j|j.% 

•rial   is   assigned   a    number  or  symbol  tor  "I     '^jUM,*  jj.,.      .^nf."^,,..,    ,,,    ,.-  .,ti 

tification  purposes.  The  identifying  numbers  ,nlJllMJun'um    j^    ^  "".t II. ^.^.j  "^   ^ 

ymbols   will   be   affixed    in   a  conspicuous  ^^  fcUJll.im,r  htl,  bl.  v:  ..^  .„.,,,,,..„,,,  UM 

:ion  on  the  outside  ol  the  container.  I  ach  j  mi"'!!"*!J  -d 

airier   will    also    be    designated    as    to   the  '      ^  "VUUM<'-U<!     i" 

*st    category    of  classified   material    to   be  ,,  <t     ^,,,'1,  ,J -.,.'..<, 

•d    therein.    However,   this  designation  will  an'j'sul^n'tht-  sV.Lnr 

)e  externally  marked  on  the  container.  !        .  ,T,\|J.    .,Mjj!*..  , 

fhe  combination  of  a  container  used  lor  the  -v,X' ,'       * 

age    of    classified    material    is    assigned    a 

rity    classification    equal     to    the    highest  VUscti   M-K,  *,K,>'    - 

i;ory  of  classified  material  authnri/ed  t»>  In*  iin  .t  •,•/..>. nf-,    ,   ••.!-.•• 

ed     in      the     container.     Records     oj  ,jx  er.*Ju:j'   ""   >!•••*  ••-. 

filiations  are  sealed  in  envelopes  (OPNAV  jn-rs.':!.^    J.iL:        .  ' 

:is     5511/2)    and     kept     by    the    vuinu  u,.::;K-:s     ,!..-.:•. 

iger,  duty  officer,  communications  otiuei.  ,*!::.!•:*;.;!!.-.    :     \   e 

ther  persons  designated  by  the  commaiulnu'  ,»•:,!?'.,'•* 


CHAPTER  27 


NAVAL  INTELLIGENCE 


Mure  than  .HKM)  \ears  apo,  a  Chinese  general 
named  Sun  I/u  is  lopnrted  tu  have  said 

"Huslilf  .iiwu's  mav  lace  each  other  lor 
w.us  %fmnu*  tut  victory  which  is 
achu-wi!  in  a  swi'lv  day.  I  his  being  so,  to 
is'inam  in  M'liniamv  <»j  (he  enemies1 
mm!!  f  IMM  ,  ,  js  the  height  of 
whuuiaiuts  .  I  tins  what  enables  the 
}•  «»  ti  d  i'  »•  n  f  i  a  !  t  o  conquer  is 


Inlrlluvn»f.  pinpnlv  pel  formed.  can  pro- 
vide iMjrkjit  »w  I-.  -ihv  both  hu  j'ouTnmenl  atul 
imhfai\  I'-ad'.T.  ft  is  an  aiti  in  reaching  sound 
drv  iMMii  ,  win.  h  .11*'  utal  («>  (hi*  sectuity  of  a 
naliMii  .r.  '.«.-•  I!  a-.  In  success  in  cojnbal.  It  can 
n'lhuv  lit-.-  pM',-,ibilit\  tit  siupnse,  evaluate  the 
rn'-iit%  'lM^jiti.il.  .iinl  pji-ilht  the  iMiein  area  oi' 


Ml  \MN(,  0!    IMI-I.LKiFNCI- 


Ill-    ::{ 

IIP.   'it  •:.'  !   I  i  Hi 

nndfjt.ikuit1 
twi  i  si  >:n*  •", 
popular  lift' 


I'linn  "I  intellij'.ence  as  a 
.»  HIM!  MHN.  and  ha/.ardous 
vv-n  tU-n\i-il  pnncipally  from 
In.iK  and  ilai'i'er"  treatment  in 
and  Ihc  natural  reluctance  of 
isiltssf  tin-  inner  workings  of 
lUJMm/atinns.  Because  the 
TiKs1  woik  IN  often  cjuite 
nile  has  been  to  surround 
this  (h-ijvji\  \vitlt  the  strictest  of  security 
reruiatnms.  Hats  a  \«>ul  is  created  in  public 
opinion  that  is  filU'd  by  tu'tional  versions  of 
intellijvike  wot  k. 

While  it  is  tfiu-  that  intelligence  work  does 
have  its  exiitinr  moments,  properly  understood 


h,r. 
It-, 


then  int'.-llu'rih  e  l 
n.ttuie  «»{  inS'/lhiT 
critical,  tin-  ir,!lr\il»l 


it  is  very  similar  to  any  other  military  staff 
function.  In  general  terms  it  may  be  considered 
as  knowledge  upon  which  a  course  of  action 
may  be  safely  based.  In  its  entirety,  it  is  a  vast 
and  complex  grouping  of  information  covering  a 
wide  range  of  subjects:  geography, 
transportation,  telecommunications,  sociological 
factors,  political  conditions,  economic 
conditions,  armed  forces,  technical 
developments,  and  biographical  data.  The 
components  are  closely  interrelated  and  a  valid 
"estimate  of  a  situation"  is  possible  only  by 
considering  each  in  its  relation  to  the  others. 

Intelligence  activities  have  three  basic 
purposes  and  are  thus  divided  into  three 
functional  segments:  strategic  intelligence, 
operational  intelligence,  and  counterintclligence. 

Strategic  intelligence  is  used  mainly  by  top 
echelons  of  command  and  top-level  leaders  in 
government  as  the  basis  for  national  planning 
and  policy;  i.e.,  in  reaching  broad  decisions 
affecting  the  security  and  welfare  of  a  nation. 

Operational  intelligence  aids  the  local 
commander  to  arrive  at  decisions  involving  the 
physical  employment  of  personnel  and  material 
against  an  adversary;  i.e.,  it  helps  him  to  resolve 
his  mission  and  supervise  planned  action  against 
the  enemy.  Some  of  the  information  used  for 
strategic  purposes  also  may  be  employed  for 
operational  purposes,  but  the  on-the-scene 
commander  executing  a  planned  mission 
requires  much  more  detail  than  the  strategic 
(long-range)  planner. 

Counterintclligence  is  designed  to  destroy 
the  effectiveness  of  the  intelligence  efforts  of 
foreign  nations.  It  is  not  enough  for  a  nation 
actively  to  collect  foreign  intelligence  about 


NAYAl.   ORI1  MAI  ION 


tual  or  potential  enemies.  There  must  also  be 
itection  for  its  own  vital  information  irom 
•»  prying  eyes  of  other  powers.  Positive  foreign 
:elligence  is  actively  at  work. 

The  term  "Naval  Intelligence,"  when 
pitali/cd,  means  the  organization  which,  under 
z  Commander,  Naval  Intelligence  Command,  is 
iponsible  for  and  carries  out  the  intelligence 
ission  of  the  Navy. 

When  used  as  an  abstract  noun  to  designate 
e  material  obtained,  processed,  and 
sscminatcd  to  appropriate  naval  authority,  the 
rm  "naval  intelligence"  is  not  capitali/ed. 

A  distinction  should  be  made  between 
formation  and  intelligence.  Information  is  the 
w  material  and  intelligence  is  the  finished 
oduet  Information  becomes  intelligence  attei 
•ing  evaluated. 


COMPONENTS  OF  THF 
INTFLUGI-NC!-   PROCKSS 

Naval  Intelligence  is  concerned  pnuunh 
ith  eolleetingmionnution  of  naval  mines!.  An\ 
tta  that  might  support  the  Na\\  m  can  sing  nut 
i  mission  or  the  missions  oj  its  component 
irts,  such  as  naval  aviation,  the  amphihiouv 
>rces,  and  the  Marine  Corps,  is  eonsidcied  in  Iv 
"  naval  interest. 

The  intelligence  process  normally  I  olio  v,-, 
ie  sequence  of  collection,  processing.  am! 
ssemination.  Information  collected  may  be 
•neral  or  specific,  detailed  or  tragmentaiv ,  true 
•  false.  Only  when  the  raw  material  is  processed 
id  finally  evaluated  does  it  become  intelligent  e 
'value  to  users. 

Collection  of  information  takes  phut- 
)ntinuously  all  over  the  world.  Although  there 
e  well-defined  components  (discussed  later) 
ithin  Naval  Intelligence  that  are  responsible  lor 
Election,  every  person  in  the  Navy  is  a 
Dtential  collector  of  valuable  intorination. 
ollected  information  Hows  to  the  Naval 
itelligence  Command  (NIC)  and  the  Delense 
itelligence  Agency  (1)1  A). 

During  the  processing  step  a  given  item  of 
iformation  undergoes  a  thorough  series  of  tests 


i   f|jt 


and    .tnahses    desigitfd    f«*    it".  -/.d    its 

Vkorth  am!  sjg.JJ3lK.JJKe.  4!h!  tL>."  !duh 
snyfvi'  Jrosil  '.Uit»,  b  it  "!J'.'i!i.il/d  I  he  1*1  \,  \\{ 
nunor  fkv!  toi:i?:!.i!Mv  ,ifu!  !J:.vt  intelligence 
centers  .if!  pio^.-ss  i.}w  !!I!MJJ:I.I!J.»!S  .tiuf  ptiuiua* 
ed  mtelhgnuc  \!u.  !i  hni\!^'d  .  ipeiafutjuil 
yfjui'  is  s1!'!,!;:!^,!  n;  !h,  nifrruteti 
oper.ition.il  mtelhgc::,  /  <'*\i.  rv-  ••::  l.ni'e  ships.  In 
,iii>  even!.  \Un-si  pi»«.  ess::.>'  i%  ,  uf.^lt'f^L  ihc 

lli'll}      bl'CnIJU's      llJtrlhg'.'tu  -•      , 


IN 


fur 


iu  r   1*5  r,i\\i\  a,!.,,  j 
ilion  M|   j«l,i!is  .»!:«! 

of  i.*jH*r,ifn*n\  I:;!*'  Ju'r: 
siu  !i  inr.iin  ,s%  "!.,»!  »«!:-! 
reports.  p^Mi-.lj'.'ii  :n*'t;« 
graphu  JfH'Ju.  I  If  ."!;!; 
tnneh  ,  ,i!id  ,";•:)',!••!•• 


?•.-•••,  iijg  the  !uijsfu 

-Al\><  *t"r,.'i  M  toi  ti 


;••    •  -t    -.!'.hn'\,  ,u«t! 

;s  **•   'A  *  -I  .1,  .  uMir, 
.i!      :-!-  l!;r'"!-,  r     i\ 


N    \M)    l)\  \l  I  OI'MI  N! 

or  \\\  \i  i\in  i  ic, i  N(  i 


It;--      N.!,-, 

»l'-v:'i-  "  ::;; 


obt.mt  te,  :.:.:.  .;!  .'..:!  :  'r 
.illi-.i.ilv  th;s  :•-->!  ..  ,—  . 
b\  l!ir  V,  !"t.ir,  .-:  !';!• 
esl.ibhsh'.-il  the  (  I'!?  ••  =  ' 
Hure.iii  »i!  \,ivii'.{?:s  •:,  " 
s>stemati/nu*  I!-'1  .*  «!1'-.  ! 
mJoimatjun  n;  !--I,if; 

resom.  es  tij  5«  ir^M.g:i  v,.r,i" 

I  rom    the    N-guiTan 
emph;iM/eil.    ^olli\tmjs   , 
orig.mal  org,»m/ation  .  al 
impltMnentevl  .it  all  ,  Min 
commaiuiors    m    v'luej 


.:,  !i.  •:?;•-,  wni* 
::i;::.itii«n.  I  he 
e^-  .njjis  to  bv 
>•]•>>  Ifm  llei't 


officers  t>l  mdmdual  ships.  hich  was  directed  to 
appoint  an  officer  from  his  staff  or  command  to 
gather  positive  intelligence  on  foreign 
developments,  particularly  in  the  areas  of  ship 
construction  and  ordnance. 

Iniliulh  three  officers  were  assigned  primary 
duty  in  the  Ot'tuv  of  Intelligence  in  Washington. 
1  hey  were  assisted  h\  another  officer  serving  as 
an  attache'  in  London,  As  the  office  had  not 
been  established  by  congressional  action,  there 
were  no  "housekeeping"  funds  appropriated  and 
the  ottice  was  run  by  borrowed  clerks  using 
hoiiowcti  equipment.  This  condition  existed 
until  alter  the  Spanish-American  War. 

Strained  relations  between  the  United  States 
and  Spam  lesulted  ttom  the  Cuban  Rebellion  of 
IK^S.  1  mm  tins  tune  until  the  war  with  Spain 
was  iKvl.neii  in  IH1W,  the  Office  of  Naval 
Intelligence  (ONli,  as  it  was  now  designated, 
prepared  sjuvial  data  on  the  strength  and 
disposition  ot  the  Spanish  Navy  and  shore 
install. ilmns.  Attei  the  outbreak  of  hostilities,  a 
numbei  ot  sesscls  were  puichased  through  ONI 
m  totcti'u  capitals  tut  the  U.S.  Meet.  Naval 
atl.h  lies,  HI  addition  to  buvmg  ships  and  war 
malfiials.  kept  ,  lose  track  o|  the  movements  of 
the  squadrons  ni  Adinuals  Ceivera  and  Camera. 
Information  was  tuinishni  by  ONI  It)  the  Naval 
War  Board,  uhuli  was  charged  with  preparing 
strategu  v»ar  plan\  and  advising the  Secretary  of 
the  \av\  ttn  til-/  %  Minim  t  nt  the  war  with  Spain. 

In  IS'J'J,  the  nituv  nl  Naval  Intelligence  was 
established  MM  .1  permanent,  appropriated  basis 
bv  (  iwr.ii'v,  It  was  chained  with  obtaining 
w.uship  loiistnutu'ii  ilata  and  with  providing 
knowledge  t»t  the  strength  and  disposition  of 
enem>  fon  e\  m  tune  nt  war.  In  spite  ol  this 
seemtm'K  important  development,  it  remained 
an  uiump»i',im'  Mjt'aiu/atioii,  the  annual  report 
ot  the  V.irUa  nt  the  Navy  lor  1 1WU  listed 
only  seven  o!h,  ejs  as  pcnuanently  assigned  to 
ONI.  it  u.r.  aft  evident  case  of  the  classic 
disregard  (hat  denioaatu  countries  have  shown 
for  their  armed  tones  m  tune  ot  peace.  This  lack 
of  interest  and  the  inevitable  lack  of  funds 
hampered  the  growth  ot  ONI  until  the  outbreak 
of  Worltl  War  I.  An  additional  problem  was  that, 
during  tins  formative  stage,  intelligence  duty  was 
not  looked  upon  tavorably  by  professional 
officers.  Consequently,  most  of  the  personnel 


assigned  were  on  their  last  tour  of  duty  and 
simply  "marking  time"  until  they  would  be 
retired.  The  few  capable  officers  that  were 
assigned  were  thwarted  in  their  efforts,  and  an 
accompanying  rapid  turnover  of  personnel 
served  to  destroy  all  semblance  of  continuity  of 
policy  or  effort. 

In  1909  the  Navy  Department  was 
reorganized  by  executive  order.  Four  aides  to 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  were  appointed,  one 
each  for  operations,  personnel,  material,  and 
inspections.  The  aide  for  operations  had 
cognisance  over  ONI.  In  March  1915  the  office 
of  Chief  of  Naval  Operations  was  created  by  law, 
and  ONI  was  assigned  to  his  office. 

NAVAL  INTELLIGENCE 
IN  WORLD  WAR  I 

At  the  outbreak  of  World  War  I,  ONI 
consisted  of  eight  officers  and  ten  civilians.  In 
1915  a  War  Information  Service  was  begun  on  a 
small  scale.  This  activity  was  expanded  the 
following  year  when  the  Naval  Appropriation 
Bill  approved  by  Congress  provided  ONI  with 
specific  funds  for  obtaining  information  at  home 
and  abroad. 

When  the  United  States  entered  the  war  in 
1()17,  Naval  Intelligence  was  prepared,  with  a 
greatly  expanded  organization,  to  carry  out  its 
dual  mission  of  safeguarding  the  naval 
establishment  at  home  and  acquiring  intelligence 
on  foreign  powers  through  naval  attache's  and 
from  other  sources. 

Aides  for  information  were  assigned  to  the 
admiral  in  command  of  each  of  the  naval 
districts.  These  aides  were  responsible  for 
investigations,  inspections,  and  censorship  in  the 
various  naval  districts.  In  carrying  out  their 
duties,  they  maintained  close  liaison  with  ONI. 

Branch  offices  of  ONI  were  established  in 
several  cities,  and  they  reported  directly  to 
Washington.  They  had  cognizance  over  work 
which  was  not  appropriate  to  the  aides  for 
information. 

Close  and  cordial  relationships  between  ONI 
and  other  Government  departments  and  agencies 
were  established  during  World  War  I,  and  liaison 
was  also  maintained  with  the  intelligence 


523 


reaus  of  the  Allied  powers.  Because  much 
telligenee  about  the  enemy  was  made  available 
•  the  Allies,  the  principal  contribution  of  Naval 
telligence  in  World  War  1  was  its  work  in 
unterintelligence  on  the  homefront.  By 
Iping  to  preserve  the  security  of  American 
ips  carrying  troops  and  supplies  across  the 
:lantic,  and  by  guarding  the  freight  terminals, 
irehouscs,  docks,  and  other  places  at  winch 
ir  material  was  concentrated,  and  the  factories 
which  it  was  produced,  Naval  Intelligence  did 
.ich  to  ensure  victory  for  the  Allied  cause. 

After  the  war  ended,  the  pendulum  swung 
ck  us  public  opinion  demanded  a  sweeping 
mobili/ation  of  the  Armed  J-orces,  and  a 
:urn  to  the  "normalcy*"  of  prewar  days,  1  he 
asi-missionary  /eal  with  which  we  had  gone  lo 
ir  "to  end  all  wars"  disappeared  and  the  Army 
d  Navy  reverted  to  the  status  of  small, 
orly-financed,  and  stagnant  garrison  forces. 

The  rather  large  intelligence  orgam/atton 
:it  had  developed  during  the  war  ye.irs 
teriorated,  Accompanying  this  intein.il 
rinking  was  a  similar  trend  in  field  .ictivitu's 
lich  saw  the  dissolution  ol  practically  .ill 
:niiting  and  training  functions.  Meanwhile.  the 
ernational  hori/on  began  to  darken  with  the 
>uds  that  were  to  herald  World  War  II. 


implemented 
development    *»v 


-,  i'-  •.*  ,  n  $ 
c\.u:i}'i 
'     t    s 


{he  tir.ifsu  «>!  wc.jj'on  u-fvas  .."unli-i  weapon 
continued  with  ever  uu  re.tssng  tempi.  mouth 
after  innilth.  w,if  ,iffcf  w.if  '..fill!  ffir 
spectacular  new  wrapon  »*f  all.  the  a 
bomb,  was  rclf,»vt%!  t»\e?  JajMJ;  Ihr  ,  H?tfr\f  JuJ 
not  end  with  the  *.evs.t!i'in  •  >!  h«*stih!irv  m.iiur 
powers  vmitinm*  Iheu  i;-\r,jr,!i  .u;»,I  *!e\r!.tj'iue(ii 


Mflil  Uaii  II,  .h.ir.v'^N  HI  !'/•>  hm«|ik»s 
and    de\eU*jMJH'«ts    I*n4    i'lu<.*    n-    the    !jeU!  ul 

inU'lligeme  ^'i  t!u'  f.iff  »t  .ill  I    S    r.  *i,rs 

l*f»»hal»h  ih.-  m>.'.t  A  ulrh  known 
intelligence  lijit.lsfM  j^'iJ.  •!  -t  •••  .\  *•••.  l\,\\  ,nu:>ir\ 
vlunng  the  »<»ursc  -1!  !?:••  v\.»!  .v.r,  !h<-  ,  M!;\s"»!rn| 
lilllllhllt-nt  "!  thr  .-  '!::•,•!••  »  -s-  !  .  «'Mt4i3KiliM 
tasks  nei«-ss.tt\  !'-  j.  «"'!-  -t'l.'Jn^Mous 


aiKaii-  I'll  '•>•!!  \!I 
the  vis-  !i-»l  itn.isj. 
pj«»ifssr,J.  4':-!  .lis 


C 


VVAL  iNTi-iLU 

WORLD  WAR 


unls    .ill      t*.  •• 

\  f!fllS'SS/r»f      '.lit' 


II 


Just,  as  the  armed  forces  of  a  nation  ietle»  t 
tional  characteristics,  u'souices.  and  the  staff 
its  technological  development,  so  its 
elligence  services  reflect  the  character  and 
edition  of  its  armed  forces.  'flunking  in 
elligence  circles  is  as  bold  and  original,  or  as 
lebound  and  conservative,  as  thinking  m 
litary  circles  generally. 

Both  the  scope  and  speed  of  warfare  were 
mendously  expanded  in  World  War  II.  Mitre 
tions  were  involved  over  a  greater  area  of  the 
'be,  and  a  greater  variety  of  weapons. 
plements,  and  types  of  equipment  was 
i  ployed  than  in  any  other  war  in  history. 
ientific  improvement  of  the  tools  of  war 
led  for  innovations  in  tactics  and  strategy; 
d  original  ideas  on  high  planning  levels  were 


Intelligent  c   (  cnlrrs 

VM»rK!     \\,!:      fl 
un}Mi.ilh'led  growth 
alhl  tlir  Ju-lii  »'}  juti' 
tle\elopment.   In  thf 
1*M2.    Afiin    an»l    \ 
tunned   into   the    I 


T.J!JO;:S, 


!   ;-.i,-  wit!,  fi 


\Mjth  \!n  .si:  Li'i.h'ig^  *»l 
,^«  i:.li'll:v-"::.  <-  ;j:;»ts  were 
mt  Int,  -!!j,v:,.  ••  (  »<lK-vtit«n 
Agency  (JIC'Ai,  wliuh  w.i-,  t"  ,1,1  :n  st»j'js»rt  tif 
the  amphibious  lamim^s  Ihr  su,  .j-ss  nt  IH  A's 
work  was  limited,  ilw  in.tinh  !•»  the 
inexperience  of  .issignrd  jvjMwm-1  in  flu.'  direct 


524 


Chapter  27    NAVAL  INTHLLIGENCE 


stippoil  ttork  fhat  was  required.  However,  JICA 
was  iwpoit.Jiil  !v»  atise  it  did  provide  experience 
ini  Inline  mint  intvlhjvna-  efforts  tliat  began  to 
pa\  diuilcmls  in  the  Sicilian  landings  and 
continued  wnh  t'reat  success  tor  the  remainder 
i>t  tin'  w,». 

(  cntcis  ttete  alsn  established  in  the  Pacific 
thcalei  i'.iih  in  llsr  war.  The  largest  and 
piobahh  tin-  mi»st  ettcctivc  was  the  Joint 
Inli'lliJ'i'ii"'  (  i'Mh'1.  Pacific  Ocean  Areas 
LUU'OAi  hnafoi  .it  IVail  Harbor.  JICPOA  was 
staffed  In  1  -V  .nul  Allied  personnel;  and  as  the 
war  pioi'tessctl  ,t»  mss  the  Pacific,  it  was 
responsible  !«'i  upc-mm/  subsidiary  centers  at 
ttu.Jin,  I'-\te.  riitlu.  ami  I  niwetok.  Additional 
iiKijt'!  -,1-sif  '•!••>  uet."  opened  to  handle  intelligence 
a*  Uuth-s  111  Hi',-  »>ffu-t  biii.iii  atras  t»i'  the  Pacific 
iheaU-i, 

1  a»  h  *••!!?•?  h,  mi  a  common  primary 
fi;n-li»»n  !li>-  i  nil.-,  turn,  pi  ncessinj',,  and 
di'.k»c!!mf,:fs»'n  "-'  nif--.'lli}vih  r  inhumation  to 
stiat'-i'i.  an-!  1,5,  fi  .  al  *  «  unmandeis.  Individually, 
htty,i'v,'t  is."-  i  l*',itt-".  n!  each  center  were 
*  han:.  ••!!•'!  f»  *'•*  Ih--  laituuiai  need-,  til'  (he  war 
H;  ;f'.  !••  .;{  I  "I  •  x.«itipl>-  .  IK'POA  and  its 

i  ••!  ;  !  •!  .-".I  '.  •  i''.  fh'.-  i  ential  Pacific 
=  >•••  'J?  -J  i;  •••.  fi.  ::  .  i.di/fd  Hitflltivnce  lor 

.:;:  I    '       '.    .••'.'.•      :'..!     "•    '     !  i  '   •'    .i!!t!    ,!!!    Mlppul  I    of 

a::;f,  :-•'  .  -•;  .    •;    '.    '  •  •'..  •    \:>.  lh-.-  v»iit!i\ve-,t  Pacilic, 

v.  h-  t  -.;,.;'•.[;•  -:f  -!  !i.  •  r.l.j.'id  >'aiupai|'Hs  was 
•:>.?  -j  ..r  •  •  !  :•.  l!.  •  'tli  I  lc.-t  intfllis'cncc 
,  -•::",  •>  .:  .:  ;  •  •.;:.;  .  •:,  i'liifil  v.itli  keeping 

\ll..'.  I:.,.!  •  .-.:.,:•:.!•!'.  Kitt'tliU'd  nil  all  naval 

;:„;!!  ,  ,  \  •/;  jt  ,  .:  :  !  •,  .  .!  la  .!/.  v.a'.  pi'llnl'llied 
,d  I''..  -  -".f  i  ;..  :  ..U'.:--'  thr  ^  nllcv'tion  of 

!  •-•  !.:..-  :'.  ::  f  I':-.1-..  .  .(ip.i'.al  intflhf'iMice, 

:::..,,..  .  "  :  .'  •'  -  .,:?!'  >::.  aM»l  sn  nil.  Maps 
.-:;;:!  !..::  f  .•'.  '  ;  /  i.  '-  d  .ihd  kept  *  UllCIlt. 

\  :»!-•'.  :..'  •  -..  .'i  •:.  ','..'.-.  ealii'M'-d  and 
.';•.  •  :  ,  ,:  ;  '  '  i'1  ••:.•!  '<!  'A  a  r  were 
::it  ::•.-.-  :f  ;  :  ,  :...;••  :  ;•!«  :!'i,ii;i  was  diiei'led 

I--  v.  .:•  :  :  -.  ;  ?  ;,:.  •.'•-•  ;  .  In  adiliti'Ui,  the 
in!.  '::...?..  ••<  -I'  !•  =:  •.',.:,  ''valMated.  a'-.seinbled, 
.!:,-!  :>!!,'..;:  i  ..t  ?  •  f  J\l  ,:!:•!  ntlh'!  acuities  in 
\\as!i!':,'!i  '.  !••  <!  '  I'.  :!•  ,').  ,  sn.il'.  --is. 


Air 


that 


\\.i:    if   «as  Mi:a!ai  In  Worlil  War  I  in 
Ki:»»!  ar^je-,  weie  l«'t  kril  in  strui'i'le  on 


the  continent  of  Huropc,  but  it  differed  in  that 
airpowcr  was  employed  to  an  extent 
inconceivable  20  or  30  years  before. 

Aviation  developments  revolutionized 
strategy,  tactics,  and  weapons  in  the  armies  and 
navies  of  all  the  belligerents  in  all  theaters  of 
war.  How  the  traditional  concept  of  seapower 
was  affected  has  been  well  stated  by  the  late 
Fleet  Admiral  Chester  W.  Nimitz: 

"Up  to  this  war,  seapower  was 
synonymous  with  surface  ships  bristling 
with  guns.  Today,  and  for  tomorrow, 
seapower  has  taken  on  new  dimensions. 
It  has  dived  below  the  surface.  It  has 
taken  wings.  Therefore,  I  prefer  to 
modernize  seapower  by  making  a  hybrid 
ot  it.  Sea-air  power  conveys  the  meaning 
more  exactly  ...  Seapower  and 
air  power,  interdependent  and 
interwoven,  provide  our  carrier-borne 
fighting  planes  with  a  range  of  15,000 
miles  with  fuel  tanks  full  and  a 
maximum  cargo  of  ammunition. 
Seaborne  airpowcr  enables  our  ships  to 
see  over  the  horizon.  Seaborne  airpower 
hit  the  Japanese  invading  i'orces  in  the 
Coral  Sea  and  at  Midway  before  the 
ships  of  the  opposing  forces  could  sight 
one  another.  Seaborne  airpower, 
vigorous  and  at  peak  efficiency, 
viclorious  in  the  last  war,  may  well 
prevent  the  next  war/' 

The  sea-air  power  of  which  Admiral  Nimit/. 
speaks  was  the  stellar  performer  in  a  great 
tri-elemental  advance,  composed  of  Army,  Navy, 
ami  Marine  forces  across  the  Pacific.  Logistic 
miracles  overcame  the  hitherto  insuperable 
handicap  of  ever-extending  lines  of 
communication  and  supply.  An  increasing  flow 
of  new  ships,  aircraft,  and  weapons  gave  our 
forces  the  power  and  mobility  which  were 
needed  to  wrest  the  initiative  from  the  Japanese. 

Power  and  mobility  are  of  no  use  unless 
efficiently  employed,  and  they  cannot  be  so 
employed  unless  adequate  intelligence  is 
available  both  to  top  strategic  planners  and  to 
commanders  in  operational  areas. 

Air  intelligence  has  been  defined  as  that 
information  pertaining  to  the  offensive  and 


•tensive    capabilities    ol    foreign    nations  ami  pio\iileo     vutfi    ,111    ,I«..,MI-    an.shsi\ 

eir  vulnerability  to  air  attack.  As  with  other  t.ip.ththties  **!   the  m-w,   tu*--,  .  <?  >-^-;M 

pes    of    intelligence,    it    has    stragetic    and  they   weic  hk-.-h  !>»  nuv!    \A  !;••:<.  ^M/^r, 

^rational  implications.  It  is  apparent  that  the  were  ^apiured.  an  tr,hn:u,d  n-f:  iinvn,  ..•  n 

terest  of  the  Navy  in  World  War  II  was  most  were  .mnwv  llu-  liist  mi  ft,-  ^ev,.- 
rectly   concerned  with  the  latter.   In  general 
rms,  naval  air  intelligence  fell  into  three  broad 

tegories:    First,    keeping    current    on    enemy  NAVU    IN  II  II  H»l  NCI     IC)U\Y 

Derations,    tactics,    and    equipment,    second. 

iefing   aviation    personnel   on   all   aspects  of  On    1     luh     }J'f. '      j?  -    M"?I.-    ,<f 

ipending    operational     flights;    and     linalh.  Intelligence  «  »M»  w.^  !--"i  vvr. -.-:/,!  .r.-,,\  in; 

briefing  them   after  a  mission  to  determine  I-nvrnmug    tin-     N.n.u     Ini  <h^  :-.^     t  .*n 

ission    effectiveness    and    to   aid    in    planning  iMf  *    Nil     H   i-.-.s,!,,.!  ?-,    !>..    f  M?!;J;.,.JS, 

turemissions.  NK  ,   MJ    I  ( >\|N\\  {\  ft  t  »\|     Ah,i   ilit.  .1 


....       KT  »     i  i-     i       •          •      •  lll.ill.lfev       .ill       .ul'.Mt}!-1.       ;•"        Nit         j,,      rinnr 

I  he  Navy  wasted  little  time  in  implementing  tuliilJi'i'-"!  ,.f  fS-    ••  M1--  -        ••  -  ••!••• 

esc  ideas.  Beginning  in  J-ebruury    1^42.  huge  s*  ,s||,J,   "',.,,,...',,...',.  '',.',  „  ,,". '.t'  '*/  " ',''?' 

unbers  of  Reserve  officers  were  trained  in  this  t^,,'.  j|!,ir,,f  *',,  t/,  .  \     . "  'ti  \      .',"      ."  S  "'    ,S 

eeialty  at  the  Air  Combat  Intelligence  School  j/j/ r".  f '}'•'•  "\i  ,*'•  V'r- .-'"•'. r     -  "*s  n'l^'vv'  '(  »V" 

Quonset  Point,  R.I. ,  and  as  ijuickly  as  possible  MJ  N'-V  jl'l'-r'ni"- •"  "    Mf'm"H  ••  ••   *!»••       V'" 

•re  rushed  to  the  fleet.  K       V  '"i  ..":'/'""        i,vt"  ',       ,  t  ,'    ,  i?  ' 


The    primary     responsibilities    o!     fhe    an 

mhal  intelligence  ol'Siceis  m  oper.itiou.d  aiea%  !MU  !!>•::•.  i-<:  f!, 

•re  to  provide  adequate  intelligence  niateii.ils,  s*4    s''^'u;!    *    '"• 

help   in    the    briefing   o{    flieis    |oi    ,i»mbal  •.••,  alual  •        r  . 

ssions,    and    to    interrogate    them    alteiv^aid.  n.l- Hu-  r          :•>:"> 

th    specially    trained    photo   intrijMeleis,   the  n.»'..i!  •••.!. i^Iv.ii'.-.i- 
lelligence    officers    poied    o\ei     j'hoiogiaph-. 

:)iight  back  from  the  engagement  01  sliike  m  NI(     f  II  I  I) 

ellort   to   learn   as   much   as   possible   abiuii  ^  IlVtlllS 
emy      antiaircraft      positit>ns     ami     oiln-i 
italhitions.    In   biieling    llieis    toi    attacks  «»ii 

.'cific  targets,  the  intelligence  oftieeis  ir,ed  n«'l  ''•  -!<:'!;!;   '•  "• 

ly     photographs    but    scaleil     taiget     moilcK  X^     v '•''•  '"•l"-::  ' 

.'lied  out  by  expert  modelmakeis  eitiiei  mi  the  V;',,i<    f-/;  •  t •..«..» 

•rier  or  at  ihe  airbase.  J'!"       •;'••'  s,   r 

l-il. •'':..:-.    •    .-    V      ,., 

Air   technical   intelligence   oi liters  vJ 

L'eived     speeiali/ed      instruction      in      ,. 

nslruction  served  on  ciash  intelligence  teams  ,   x 

combat  areas.  They  recovered  enemy  planes  Sc-ruee   (NISi 

lich    had    been   shot   down   and   spotted   nev. 

lilies,  changes  in  armament  ami  armor,  shifts  Ms  -A as  ••  L-J  !•-.'•  .;  a     • •  *    '  s      '-,  ?  .  •  :  \!f 

the  location   of  fuel  tanks,  development  ol  m      !Mf(f*,     V(ii!;      it ,     s     ^  _  ,f  ,        ,       ,j,.. 

w     instruments     for     night      flying,     and  W.jslnnginn.   I)  (  "   ai -.«    h    '.'.:' !'','j  .i  jvr-' YJU! 

provements    in    design.    They    submitted    to  lnvesti»Mti\c    S^=.-;"    «"»::*/,   '«Ms»  »  '»"  tl.  jt 'at;- 

aclquarters     detailed     reports     on     their  leginiulK   io,  .ite.j  "fj,,i  -.1  'f  N!'  ="•  •*•  s.  -  -    J'i'"  l''s. 

coveries,  and  they  shipped  parts,  engines,  and  to  Japan.  'Ilu-v  ..|tV,  ••".  .,r'  f ',jt>-"/k|;i',l't'd  iiit«» 

?n  whole  planes  back  to  rear  areas  for  testing.  \aval    inu'sfn-afiv    Sou/      K ---l  "T\e  n,  i.'s 

e   resulting  intelligence  was  disseminated  as  (NISRAsi.    »MtJ,    tlu-    NfSOs    »-  !    NISK\s  ,sic 

ickly  as  possible  to  U.S.  fliers,  who  were  thus  located  m  air.ts  uf  hi>-h  Ym  ,,m|  M.uinr  t  nrps 

526 


Chapter  21    NAVAL  INTliLLlGKNCK 


joncentiatums  such  as  Norfolk.  Pensacola,  and 
San  Diet'o.  MS  alsu  has  a  Special  Agent  Afloat 
;mtgrani  that  places  agents  at  sea  lor  extended 
lours  on  eameis  ami  cruisers. 

I  TN(  1  ION  Of  NIS.  NIS  is  the 
.•otinterinlellijvnce  aiui  imestit'.alive  arm  ol'  the 
Sa\y.  its  nmsdiction  and  responsibilities  are 
.•arctuth  defined  In  inphcr  authority.  NIS 
loesn't,  tot  ex.uupfe.  investigate  civilians  unless 
;hey  have  a  I)()I)  connection.  Neither  does  NIS 
mfiafe  criminal  tmesttjMtioMs  on  its  own; 
•ather.  NIS  responds  to  cnnunaiul  requests,  ami 
vpmts  Inu  k  in  the  command.  The  command 
,akes  ulutcvei  ,u  tiou  jt  considers  appropriate, 
used  «>n  the  lestilts  «tl  the  investigation. 


IV 
ranstc 

K-fi'iis 
ea\u$i 

mnin 
nu-st 
ind   M 


i  sound     siviuitN      investigations     were 
ni'd     lioin     flu-     thice    services    to    the 
f     InvestM'.thxe     Semce     (DIS)    in     In72, 
'     MS     tii'.-     to    i  onccntrate    solely    on 
al    anil    M',  .iints     imcstij'ations.    Matters 
MU'd  uiU',1  !«>•  due*  th  n-hited  to  the  Navy 
ann-/  <  tup1,  and   must   he  serious  enough 
h'lom     olii-jiv",    punishable    under    the 
i  <  »d.    tM    Mihtai'-,    lip.luv.    iypicalNIS 
aliiiu',   iu\  i)li.  .•    .iiMus.   .is'.ault.   homicide, 
l»la.  l.tu.ii  I  :'tiur,      '"..pH'tiai'i',      sabotage, 
mrv      "!      -  l.r.-ali-.'d     mlm  uiatmn,     and 
••»     U"l.!li"nv     \,  unities     mu-stifatioiis, 
a.  .  Mi;:tf     »,.|     ,1     l.m'r      .u  t    nj    the    NIS 


n, ».  ,r .ion. dp.  ,  .1  number  n|  rntnoi  lelaled 
ihidf;:!',  ,i!  '  im  '.".tr/a  t»-d  hei  .mse  their 
'oiiihuird  iiiip.s-  t  'Mi  moj.ili'  ]'.  serious,  for 
•x.UMpf',  a  i, i :••':•  Kiimb'i  o|  |o.  kei  tlu'lts  aboaid 
>hip  o!  ,i  ,i-f|. •.  M!  (hr-Mt'-jHUi'  frit-phone  calls  to 
hi'  v.  i!  -  M|  ,i  -..ill"?  .it  «  '.I  v.  ill  be  imestlfMti'd. 

B-Nid:',  -...I-,  ins'  .nnie-,.  NIS  also  helps 
»ie\,-nt  theiii.  I!  .id<|'M!  f'T.  lot  N  IS  rattlers  and 
m.d\  .'e -.  d.il.i  linJii  .r.'-.'it!'/  lepoils,  DIS.  police 


lii'jii     ffis',     d.ita    ..an    slu^v    potential 
spots  th.il  '.mi,  cfiird  i  ommands  ran  be 


NIS  sem-s  the  \a\v  in  other  vvass.  As  part 
t!  tin-  nj\esti>'ati\c  jnocess.  it  tunctions  as  the 
iais«»n  punit  f»etween  the  Na\\  and  all  ledcral 
,aw  enforcement  agenues.  as  well  as  state  and 


local  police  and  foreign  agencies.  NIS  agents  also 
provide  protective  services  for  high-ranking 
dignitaries,  make  presentations  to  naval 
personnel  concerning  drug  abuse,  foreign 
intelligence  activities,  and  methods  of 
safeguarding  sensitive  information. 

Other  NIC 
Support  Activities 

The  Naval  Intelligence  Support  Center 
(NISC)  and  the  Naval  Intelligence  Processing 
System  Support  Activity  (NIPSSA)  are  located 
in  the  Washington,  D.C.,  area  and  provide  NIC 
with  support  in  the  fields  of  research  and 
development;  test  and  evaluation  of  equipment, 
materials,  and  techniques,  and  automatic  data 
processing. 


THI-: 


!';  COMMUNITY 


Naval  Intelligence  is  only  one  facet  of  the 
overall  national  intelligence  organ  i/.at  ion.  The 
intelligence  community  is  a  composite  of 
agencies  ami  individuals,  each  of  whom 
contributes  unique  talents  and  energies  toward 
the  production  of  a  coordinated  end 
product  intelligence  for  both  departmental  and 
national  use. 

The  National  Security  Act  of  ll>47,  as 
amended,  authori/ed  creation  of  a  National 
Security  Council  (NSC)  and  a  Central 
Intelligence  Agency  (CIA).  The  NSC,  located 
within  the  I'xecutive  Office  of  the  President, 
advises  the  President  with  respect  to  integration 
of  domestic,  foreign,  anil  military  policies 
relatinj1  to  national  security.  Under  NSC.  the 
CIA  coordinates  intelligence  activities  of  all 
(iovernment  departments  and  agencies  in  the 
interest  of  national  defense.  The  Director  of 
Central  Intelligence  is  the  President's  principal 
intellii'.enee  adviser. 

Other  members  of  the  intelligence 
community  include  the  State  Department's 
Bureau  of  Intelligence  and  Research,  the 
National  Security  Agency/Central  Security 
Service,  the  T'edcral  Bureau  of  Investigation,  and 
of  main  concern  to  this  discussion,  the  Defense 


intelligence  Agency  anu  mieuigeuce 

of  the  Armed  Forces,  which,  in  the  Navy,  is  the 

Naval  Intelligence  Command. 

DEFENSE  INTELLIGENCE 
AGENCY 

Kach  of  the  armed  services  has  its  own 
intelligence  organization,  but  there  are  many 
areas  of  interest  where  intelligence  requirements 
of  two  or  more  military  departments  coincide 
and  where  it  is  feasible  to  have  a  coordinating 
agency  (1)  for  more  effective  management  of 
DOD  intelligence  resources,  and  (2)  to  eliminate 
duplicated  intelligence  functions  and  facilities. 

With  this  in  mind,  the  Defense  Intelligence 
Agency  (DIA)  was  established  by  DOD  directive 
in  1961  under  provisions  of  the  National 
Security  Act.  The  chain  of  command  for  DIA 
runs  from  the  Secretary  of  Defense  through  the 
Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff  to  the  Director.  In  general, 
functions  of  the  military  departments  that  were 
absorbed  by  DIA  were  basic  in  nature  and  of 
interest  to  more  than  one  service.  As  examples, 
intelligence  on  landing  facilities  is  of  interest  to 
both  the  Navy  and  the  Army  Transportation 
Corps,  and  consequently  is  now  processed  by 
DIA;  and  in  the  area  of  intelligence  training,  the 
Defense  Intelligence  School  is  jointly  stalled  by 
the  military  departments,  which  utih/e  their 
services  on  a  continuing  basis. 

Under  overall  control  of  SK'DIT,  the  DIA 
organi/.es,  directs,  ami  manages  DOD  intelligence 
resources  assigned  to  or  included  within  the 
DIA,  and  coordinates  intelligence  functions 
retained  by  or  assigned  to  the  military 
departments. 

Defense   Attach^  System 

The  mission  of  a  military  attache'  in  a  foreign 
country  is  to  overtly  (openly)  collect  and  report 
military  and  politicomilitary  intelligence 
information  and  to  represent  the  DOD  as 
required. 

Prior  to  mid-1965,  each  military  department 
maintained  its  own  attache  system,  the  service 


own  department.  In  a  uwntr\  where  more  than 
one  armed  service  had  an  attache,  there  was  an 
inherent  duplication  »>t  etloit  concerning 

intelligence  of  dual  sen ue  interest. 

To  eliminate  duplicate  in-put  ting  on  the  same 
topic  by  two  oi  limit*  attaches  assigned  to  the 
same  post  to  promote  more  efficient 
intelligence  collation  and  repotting  the 
Defense  Attache  System  tDASi  was  established 
in  July  19nN  as  ait  oi^ani/attonal  dilution  of 
DIA. 

All  finiitarv  personnel  assigned  to  attache 
posts  are  a  part  ot  the  D  \S  I  lu-  senior  Armed 
forces  attache  on  a  diplomatic  post  is  thr  Senior 
Defense  Attache".  OtJt».f  nlhu-rs  are  designated 
as  l".S  \a\al  MtaJic.  I'.S  Anu\  Attache',  ck. 
MihtaiN  personnel  MSI  thr  post,  regardless  of 
service  affiliation,  arc  subiev  I  l«»  supervision  and 
coordination  i.  octroi  o|  the  Senior  Df tense 
Attache*.  !  a  *  h  ser^i-e  atlavhr  mllects 
intelhgencv  o!  mtrrrst  !»<  IH»D  ,ii'nuir\  in 
general  and  It*  his  »n»,ii  tiuhtarv  sfrvi^r  in 
partu  ular 

Defense   Intelligertce  School 

I  he  ti'iuS;"!!. ;  !•'.%, ii.i  ::»•»!>•  i.n.'it  ftlort 
within  our  nun  Jh'pa:  t!:i'-r:t  >  u'  D'"f  ••'!?•>!•  arul  the 
nunifjini'v  di-t'.-ijs-.-  tr-ati-'-.  a::.'  .sl!;.:n.  •••'.  l^'Ahult 
we  .ire  a  signals '.  j-'rtwr1:  nu!;  .jl--  an  tudednite 
requiifiiu'nt  hu  llcviNi"  i;;t- lh/'-«i.  ;•  »!*«,  tujjc 
and  t'Xjn-nsTK  nl  nil:,  llu*:>!:  ^  ;•••:".>  -lU;"!  whttc.m 
cfti'vtiveK  si-ivr  willi  {M-fs,  «;::-'•!"!  .'flpj  vrvin's 
and  nations  In  p--a.  ••!!!:;••'  tl;i;.  .'.-•••«!  ni'jui.illv 
finds  expresMut;  in  sf.i!f  If .ur^r.'.v  ?••-,••. srch  ,nul 
tleveloprncnt,  a;id  sr-J.-Sh-,'--:;  ;•  ,t- .  h.  ;!i--:,  \.i\.il 
intelhgencf  olfi,:-rs  .«!f!!i  .i:-1  assivni-ti  duts  in 
this  broad  area  and  HI  p.nfuulas  t<«  )«ill?'ts  with 
the  Defense  Inlflhjvii-.  •..-  \r<'ii-.  *. . 

The  pnst-Wurld  \Vai  11  pr!!!'ii  has  been  a 
tune  of  marked  intefnatiMn.il  trir.i'»n,  Ntivv. 
more  than  ever,  it  is  essential  that  I'.S.  interests 
be  upheld  and  that  the  secwitv  <>t  tin-  Nation  be 
maintained  by  a  strong  imhfan  establishment, 
including  a  national  intelh^eiui  scmce  capable 
of  keeping  the  <»o\crnment  infnrrneil  of  the 
capabilities  and  intentions  i»{  all  fi»reign  powers. 


52H 


Chapter  27-NAVAL  INTELLIGENCE 


The  U.S.  Navy  is  one  important  component  advanced,    strategic,    attache,   and   nonresider 

of   the    Department   of   Defense.    Concepts   of  training  for  personnel  of  all  military  service 

naval  power  are  being  constantly  kept  abreast  of  Postgraduate  training  in  all  types  of  intelligenc 

new     weapons     and     conditions;    traditional  is   provided   for  carefully   selected  officers.   1 

concepts  of  naval  intelligence  are  being  revised  addition  to  military  personnel,  the  DIS  is  ope 

accordingly.    The    Defense   Intelligence   School  to  qualified  persons  from  other  governments  an 

(DIS)    in    Washington,    !),('.,    provides    basic,  agencies. 


CHAPTER  28 

RESEARCH  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


The  research  and  development  effort  in  the  lUVUi     :•>     t •••  >;•••'.     '         "        si  *  \  \\      |M| 

apartment  of  Defense  (I)OD)  and  its  military  m.in.nviiir?:!     ,4.%4      •  ••!••        •     \...  .     HIHiVf 

anehes  is  big  business  in  terms  of  personnel,  nut u*?v  i?u;.ar,*'  •         s         -,  ;  •      -   >'-:  •:;,   ||i,. 

oney  and  materials.  The  scientific  and  militaiy  piiiuip.u    ,uh;-^     *       M«  \  \\          !     i,.    f?(!< 

•ength  of  the  United  States  depends  heavily  on  ASNtK 

e     success     of     a     comprehensive     research  \,i\.»i 

ogram.  i)i-.^!'ij  •: 

IX )I)  manages  tlic  research  and  development          V^a«    L 
•  ogram  s      for      all      major     militar\          v..»p.ii«i. 
rd ware/ weapon    systems.    A    major    milit.ny         i-^.s*-- 
rdware/weapon     system     is    one    having    ,tn  !  1.;- 

lirnated  research,  development,  lest,  and 
;iluation  (KDT&Ir)  cost  in  excess  ol  S.;"() 
illion  or  ;ui  estimated  production  cost  in 
cess  of  $200  million.  To  a  lesser  dearer.  I>(  H) 
;o  manages  the  scientific  study  in  fields  iel,tt«'d 
long-term  national  security  needs,  l-ieldsoi 
idy  include  the  engineering,  environmental, 
ological-med  ical,  and  bclj;«vioral-v»u.d 
ences. 


NAVY   RD'I&K  PROGRAM 

All  I  he  Navy's  systems  commands  !uu- 
;earch  ami  tlevelopment  programs  and  air 
seated  RD'I'&I-;  funds  to  obligate  to  then  livid 
ivities;  oilier  government  agencies,  pm.ile 
lustry,  universities,  and  naval  laboratories. 

The  Navy's  R&I)  program  spans  virtualh  all 
.'  scientific  disciplines  and  involves  leclun>log\ 

every  field.  Development  programs  uulud-- 
t  about  every  type  of  equipment  and  weapon 
the  national  arsenal. 

'\    lJiJ* 

At      the      top      of     the     Navy     RI)T«k{-  y,h;a- 

umi/.ation,   the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  exerts  stuiov 

licy  control.  The  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  lln-f  m 

vy  for  Research  and  Development  (ASN  for  t»i  inju 


Chapter  28    RESEARCH  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


SFKW.  I'AHY 
OF  DEFENSE 
«F.CDEF 

DIRECTOR 
DEFENSE 
RESEARCH 
ENGINEERING 

M  i:m  FAHY 

III     I  HI 

NAVY 
•.',[  CNAV 


AM)  I      !i|  C. 
Ill     1HI      NAV  * 

HI  M  ANi'ii  fi 

III  VI  I  III'MI  Nl 
A'iN  (KttOI 


III)'!  i    'till    III 
Kl  M   AKI'll 

it  M    n 

I    ,'AI  IIA  I  HIM 
!<H!)  I  IV  I 


I. Mil  I     HI 

MAVAl 

lil'l  KAI  HIM' 
I.  Nil 


I II  HI  C  I  OK 
Of   NAVAl 


01  IHHY    CHII.I' 

OF    STAFF 

HI-  r.LAHCH 

l)f -VI-  I .OPMTNT 

ft    •jrillllK.'i 


ni  IMI i  i 

I    Mil   I     III 

NAVAl 

MA  I  I  HlAl 

M  VI  I  IH'MI  N  I 

III  NM   III) 

A|  Ml   I. MH 


L. 


NAVAI     '.I  A 

M",  II  Mi; 

l.tiMMAMU 

NAV',1  A 


NAVAl. 

SIII'CI  Y 
I'.Y'iK  MS 
(  IJMMANI) 


i   .  .-.!.  o   -.iruiliifn   ..Inilrly   il nlinmillng    Hie  Hill  HI    prngrum  tnororchy. 
,!    •iiim  -I.-  i.i;m    liolwufi'i   Mm    iiHIciuh   nnil    nruunlial  loin    Irivolvoil    In 


NAVAL  ORIHNTAIION 


he  Chief  of  Naval  Operations  issues  general 

specific  operational  requirements  for 
ins  and  hardware,  based  on  the  stated 
cements  of  the  Operating  Forces.  These  are 
:ed  to  the  ''warfare  desks"  under  tiie 
tor  of  Research  Test  Development  and 
ation  (DRDT&E),  which,  in  turn,  generate 
al  and  specific  operational  requirements  of 
leet  for  new  hardware  and  weapons.  The 
T&H  is  responsible  for  the  coordination 
ssuance  of  the  operational  requirements  for 
:quipments  and  weapons  which  come  from 
varfare  desks.  In  addition,  lie  coordinates 
integrates  the  overall  Department  of  the 

operational  RDT&K  program  for  ("NO  to 
e  that  the  effort  is  continuously  responsive 
long-range  objectives,  operational 
rements,  fiscal  limitations,  and  advancing 
lOlogy.  The  Director  of  Research  Test 
.opinent  and  Evaluation  (DRT&F)  also 
;s  the  ASN(R£D)  concerning  the  RDT&H 
am  of  the  Navy. 

hrough  the  medium  of  operational 
rements,  the  Director  of  Research  Test 
opment  and  Evaluation  (DRDT&F)  has 

to  ilo  with  directing  the  efforts  of  the 
ns  commands,  bureaus,  and  oft  ices,  even 
;h  there  is  no  direct  line  of  authority  Inmt 
to  the  technical  and  procurement 
lands  except  through  the  Chief  of  Naval 
•ial. 

he  agencies  which  develop  and  procure  the 
ments  and  weapons  required  by  CNOfnr 

Operating  Forces  are  the  Naval  Material 
naiul,  the  Office  of  Naval  Research,  ami 
[arine  Corps.  The  systems  commands  under 
,'hief  of  Naval  Material  perform  a  dual 
ion;  i.e.,  they  manage  and  conduct  lesearch 
development  efforts,  and  they  produce 
vare  and  weapons  required  by  the 
iting  Forces.  In  these  capacities,  they  may 
s  contracting  agents  for  the  Navy  it  the 
irch,  development,  or  production  is 
rmed  by  industry  or  private  institutions;  or 
may  act  as  management  agents  if  this  work 
rformed  at  laboratories  or  field  activities 
r  their  cogni/.ance.  Overall  Navy 
lination  and  review  of  the  RDT&H  program 
through  ASN(R&I»  and  ultimate 
nsibility  rests  with  the  Secretary  of  the 


I-ARLY  NAVY   RI  SI-  ARC  H 

About  the  middle  ot  the  ll»th  »vuiin\.  the 
Navy  established  its  first  tcstmv1  !afn»f  atones  to 
keep  pace  with  civilian  inventions  and  the 
general  progress  ot  £ivhu«»!tnn  .  Commander 
Charles  Henry  Davis.  SupfimiiMuiiNii  Alexander 
Bache  of  the  Coast  Smu-i,  ami  Di.  loseph 
Henry  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  urie 
members  of  the  "permanent  ,  MIUJMISMOU"  M.-I  ap 


by    Secretars    ot    the   N.IVN    fijj 
advise  the  department  onsuentil 
success  ot    this  commission  led  tl 
chartering  by  Conn  ess  in  1-V'*  o 

Academy  ot  Scieiki's  tu  provide  -•• 
all  departments  ot  the  t  io\onwu':j 
Anioiw   earh    stqis   tak<-!i   In 
orgam/c  suenlitu   etJojl  -A.I,  th,- 
a  device  !oi    lesltm'  hiht;-.  a';v.'  '' 
Yoik   Navy   Yard   m    Ih'«r.,  !!M-   -. 
o!    a   n.iv.d    toij« 
ticU'lop    ,i!hl 
nt,    t'\p|Msj\;-^ 


lit- 


\AelK*s   to 

lieis    I  he 

t!\    |«»  the 

National 

T.I.  es  in 


Hi"   Navv 


\A\ 


K.I.,    to 

etjiujiine 

and  the 

at    llu*   W.ishlJ 

moved   to  (  '.i 

Naval    Ship  KCVMI,  h  ,  -.::,! 

torinerh    ,  all-.-il  ihr  h  »'.  id 

now     the    \Vnjjij'',    ;;;;»-sI    i 

the  Jevelopnu'iit  o!  Mj-ti:: 


in      i  ',".:-,  1!  ,  is      >.>:\      :.  •.  .;: 
t  <Mtstr<K  lj«  1:1.  .!.•;»!  -.In;    ri  >i 
on     Mi'suliv  ant      'A-  <:  »       ;•, 
nuv  h.im,  s      v,il'<.      :  -i.it  •  ! 
maths'in.  ith  s  ,s?;i!   !!;•"         ::,;    , 
Iihiiv  ulu.tl    :,.i'.ai    ••-"';    •• 
tonn.il      ti,inu:ij.'      ;:.     •.   ;  •:. 
I'ojitnbutions   th.it    .  :  ••;    - 
solution    MI     jt.r,  al    ]<;,  .M  •;. 
Mauiv  ,  I  SN,  as  S!ij--i::,l  -:. 
Charts  and    Insttu:;.  ;,•:;?••,   i  -' 
stimulalvd     ivy,-dt-!i      :::     ,5 
mmeraloin  ,    aru!    •«,  casit  tj.'il 
John  A.  Dahlfi:'!!,  ^ll-.-i-  :•.•:. 
ot    modern  gunnm,   b;;ilt 

vuvati'il      the     dt-.ej. 

,  and  iiiM\ti-il  that 
In  the  earls    IH^IK  I  u';ir,'r; 
made     a     thurouyit    invrsti^ 


.'    MJ 


1  1 


\.!:.:; 


S    Si: 
,;.t     - 


28    RESEARCH  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


pi  act  ices.  Subsequently,  lie  was 
extraniduianh  successful  in  applying  the 
scientific  method  to  the  development  of 
^unnm  training  and  lire  control.  Lieutenant 
Bradley  A.  !  iske  introduced  the  range-finder, 
telescnpk  sii-hts,  and  director  fire  into  U.s! 
Nav\  pnufkT,  ami  advocated  the  development 
nf  the  torpedo  plane. 

HIS!  ARC  H   IN 
WORLD  WAR   I 


Altci  I  urupe  luut  gone  to  war  in  1914  but 
Mt»ir  the  Lwtcd  States  entered  the  conflict, 

tin-  Nav>  I  Vjurtmnit,  keenly  aware  of  the  rapid 
vhaniH'%  iH'jftf  made  in  naval  warfare,  took  steps 
to  put  uitn  f!h\t  a  completely  organi/ed 
pirn-jam  «»1  naval  research  and  development.  To 
this  end,  Sr<  u'latv  i»t  tin*  Navy  Josephus  Daniels 
seated  tin-  \.i\al  Consulting  Hoard,  popularly 
kitottn  as  tin-  Inventions  Board,  in  1915  as  a 
IIH-.UIS  n!  !',i»ifnlj/sii|»  tin*  Nation's  technical  skills. 
I  nd'.'f  the  -  haiimanship  o|  Ilmmas  A.  Edison,  it 
was  nude  uj>  M{  two  leaders  I  mm  each  of  eleven 

•  Hit  .t.ujdni'.'     !•*  -hui.  al     nonps    and     scientific 
M''i"lte-,  "J   Hr'     >uniti\     In  addition  to  serving 
fh--  \.i\;    ii;  thi-    ,i|'.t«.  it\  t»u  which  it  had  been 
.  !-'at!-i!,     fhr     Htsjid     t»r>'ani/etl     the    Nation's 
hida-.ti  i.ti  {';  'i\ii:  «In'"/»  t  ampairn. 

hi  !»>•••  iaa!Hi-'i  Shi*  Natmn.il  Academy  of 
S  ii-!i.  •"  -..'t  •!'  Ihi'  Naftiinal  Research  (  'ouncil  as 
,i  y,>  >:  j.iv.*  •  •!  i.'.i:jj/ati«  <n  l»v  which  the  resources 

•  tf     i!i?{'.-r-:;f     v'i"!ij".     .if     vinittsts    could    he 
!•:«:.  i'hf    f  •   f'-.it    in    the   vilnfuui   ot    the  major 
•...  j'-:;ti!i     .(?;«!  f-   h:n    si  pt.  "MtMiis  nl  (he  War  and 
N.r,  \    I  i.-j'.i!  tn/vits    In  fhis  wa\.  research  oi  the 
;•!'-.  it---.!     ;t;.|("!  f,s:;  c     v,ai,    undertaken    in    such 
';••[.:.  ,;•.  •  ;J'j;iat;:,e  i!-%ti\  titui,  i'un  ranging,  and 

tir.  .il  •  .:Mi.':;!lav- 


It-tth  (!•'•  N.j-.al  <  "UMiltnu'  Hoard  and  the 
N.!fi'«?i,il  R'-s'-af.  Is  («»iiiKi!  contrihuted  to  the 
(!••'.  ejujM!  if?ii  .<!  ,j:iftMibin.i!  me  warfare  devices, 
tli'-  MS.  .!-'.--.!  i!  »!•"»!•!«  tpment  «>t  winch  had  been 
matie  nMj".M.»tse  b>  the  prowess  of  (  Jermany's 
subjii.ume  -  ampaign  I-'mm  the  Consulting 
Bn.jj.i  vai;i'.'  the  ilesjgn  ft»r  a  nonricocheting 
shell,  ffnin  tin-  eiitsts  of  which  a  submarine 

imt    esv.tpe    even    it    partly    submerged. 

ff     device     prnduced     by     the     same 


organization  was  the  hydrophone,  by  which  the 
noise  of  a  submarine's  propellers  could  be  heard 
at  some  distance,  the  sound  waves  being 
transmitted  by  the  water.  This  equipment 
enabled  its  user  to  determine  the  direction  and 
the  distance  of  the  boat  spotted.  As  worked  out 
at  New  London,  Conn.,  the  hydrophone  played 
a  significant  part  in  winning  the  first  Battle  of 
the  Atlantic. 

In  its  race  to  defeat  the  Kaiser's  submarines, 
the  Navy  also  developed  the  "antenna  mine," 
used  so  effectively  in  the  great  North  Sea  mine 
barrage  to  restrict  U-boat  operations.  The  Navy 
took  steps  to  protect  both  merchant  ships  and 
its  own  vessels  against  submarine  attack  by  the 
development  of  "razzle-dazzle"  camouflage. 
Camouflage  supposedly  contributed  to  the 
difficulty  of  estimating  target  course  and,  hence, 
decreased  the  accuracy  of  gun  and  torpedo  fire. 

RESEARCH  BETWEEN 
WORLD  WARS 

As  has  been  seen,  research  had  been  greatly 
stimulated  during  World  War  I,  especially  in  the 
field  of  naval  weapons  and  countermcasures.  As 
a  result,  immediately  after  the  end  of  that 
conflict,  the  U.S.  Navy  undertook  an  expansion 
of  its  research  facilities.  Outstanding  in  this 
program  was  the  establishment  of  the  Naval 
Research  Laboratory  in  1923  (figure  28-2)  and 
the  conversion  of  the  Mine  Laboratory  into  the 
Naval  Ordnance  Laboratory  in  192C). 

In  1915  Thomas  A.  Edison,  as  Chairman  of 
the  Naval  Consulting  Board,  urged  the  creation 
of  a  laboratory  to  be  devoted  entirely  to  naval 
research.  Congress  voted  funds  for  this  purpose 
the  next  year,  but  it  was  not  until  1923  that 
work  was  completed  and  the  Naval  Research 
Laboratory  (NRL)  was  formally  opened  at 
Anacostia,  D.C.  Its  operations  during  the  next  2 
decades  contributed  greatly  to  preparing  the 
Navy  for  its  effective  participation  in  World 
War  II;  in  particular,  NRL  provided  an 
accumulated  body  of  knowledge  on  which  U.S. 
scientists  and  technologists  were  able  to  draw 
for  development  of  radar,  the  proximity  fuze, 
and  the  atomic  bomb. 

Commenting  only  on  the  background  work 
leading  up  to  radar,  we  find  that  scientists  at 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


134.113 

igure  28-2.— From   a   modest   beginning    in   1923,  these  are  the  offices  and  laboratories  of  the  Naval   Research 

Laboratory  as  they  appear  today. 


[RL  began  experimenting  with  radio 
irection-finding  equipment  almost  as  soon  as 
leir  laboratories  were  opened;  by  April  1937 
le  Navy  had  radar  working  over  saltwater  from 
le  old  four-stack  destroyer  Leary. 

The  Naval  Ordnance  Laboratory  (NOL) 
kewise  conducted  valuable  scientific 
ivestigations  during  the  period  between  the 
'ars.  Established  as  the  Mine  Laboratory  in 
918,  its  original  assignment  focused  principally 
n  the  development  of  an  improved  type  of 
line-firing  device.  Subsequently  renamed  Naval 
Irdnance  Laboratory,  it  now  conducts  an 
xtensive  program  covering  research  in  and  the 
evelopment  of  torpedoes,  mines,  depth  charges, 
line-launching  equipment,  fuzes,  pyrotechnics, 
>rdnance  parachutes,  demolitions,  guided 
lissiles,  plastics,  guns,  armor,  and  minesweeping 
quipment. 


With  the  advent  of  the  airplane,  a  new  field 
of  engineering  and  technology  was  opened.  The 
David  Taylor  Model  Basin  undertook  the 
construction  and  operation  of  one  of  the  first 
wind  tunnels  in  the  United  States  for  studying 
the  aerodynamics  of  flight,  but  it  soon  became 
apparent  that  additional  facilities  and 
arrangements  for  aeronautical  research  were 
badly  needed. 

The  Naval  Aircraft  Factory  provided 
aeronautical  research  during  the  war  but  actually 
did  some  of  its  most  important  work  during  the 
peace  which  followed.  It  was  first  set  up  at  the 
Philadelphia  Navy  Yard  in  1917.  In  1921  the 
Naval  Aircraft  Factory  began  work  on 
experimental  aircraft  and  made  significant 
contributions  in  the  field  of  aerodynamics.  It 
was  a  group  of  enthusiastic  American  naval 
officers  at  the  Naval  Aircraft  Factory  who 


Chapter  28-RESEARCH  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


idvocated  the  development  of  guided  bombs  or 
planes  years  before  the  Germans  were  to  make 
the  first  recorded  combat  use  of  radio-controlled 
missiles. 

When  World  War  II  began  in  September 
1939  and  the  United  States  launched  its 
program  of  national  defense,  the  Navy  had 
ilready  laid  the  foundations  of  scientific 
•esearch  for  its  growing  strength. 

RESEARCH  IN 
WORLD  WAR  II 

World  War  II  marked  the  largest 
mobilization  of  scientists  in  the  waging  of  war 
that  the  world  has  known.  It  was  the  physicist 
working  in  his  laboratory  who  developed  the 
icoustic  fundamentals  on  which  were  based  the 
antisubmarine  devices  that  helped  the  U.S.  Navy 
to  defeat  the  U-boat.  The  mathematician 
working  on  differential  equations  and 
mathematical  formulas  helped  create  the 
:omputing  devices  for  the  gun  directors  and 
iirborne  torpedo  directors  that  played  so 
important  a  part  in  the  attainment  of  final 
victory. 

Realizing  that  superiority  in  new  weapons 
depended  on  scientific  knowledge,  President 
Roosevelt  in  June  1941  established  the  Office  of 
Scientific  Research  and  Development  (OSRD)  to 
:oordinate  and,  where  necessary,  to  supplement 
scientific  research  and  development  work 
relating  to  the  war.  The  Nation  thus  set  up  the 
machinery  to  enlist  its  scientists  in  the  fight 
against  the  enemy. 

The  Navy  immediately  established  an  Office 
Df  Coordinator  of  Research  and  Development 
which  handled  the  necessary  Navy  liaison  with 
OSRD.  The  Navy  was  ready  and  eager  to  work 
with  OSRD  and  was  able  to  offer  to  this 
organization  its  facilities  and  experience  in 
research  and  development  programs. 

The  application  of  the  products  of  science  to 
warfare  is  a  slow  process.  It  takes  years  for  a 
new  weapon  to  pass  through  the  successive 
stages  from  the  first  idea  to  research, 
development,  testing,  quantity  production,  and 
finally  actual  use.  The  groundwork  already  laid 
by  naval  research  workers  saved  priceless  time. 


Examples  of  the  Navy's  preparedness  for  war 
through  science  are  given  by  Dr.  Jarnes  P.  Baxter 
in  Scientists  Against  Time,  his  Pulitzer 
prize-winning  account  of  the  OSRD's  activities 
during  the  war.  A  few  quotations  are  presented 
here. 

•  Fire  Control.  The  Navy  "had  gone  a  long 
way  in  developing  fire  control  .  .  .  Our  Navy's 
systems  of  fire  control   were  the  best  in  the 
world." 

•  Proximity    Fuze.    In  discussion   of  the 
development    of    the    proximity    fuze,    which 
Dr.  Baxter  ranks  "among  the  most  extraordinary 
scientific  achievements  of  the  war,"  he  states, 
"When  the  OSRD  was  established,  the  problem 
of   proximity    fuzes   had    already    been  under 
consideration  for  some  time  in  the  United  States 
Navy." 

•  Undersea  Warfare.   "The  United   States 
Navy    started    the    war    with    well-developed 
echo-ranging  gear  .  .  .  Between  the  two  wars  the 
Naval  Research  Laboratory  had  made  notable 
contributions  to  its  development." 

•  Radar  Countermeasures.  "At  the  Naval 
Research    Laboratory,   where    radar   had  been 
under  development  for  years,  the  possibilities  of 
countermeasures  had  also  been  explored.  Prior 
to  our  entry  into  the  war  NRL  had  developed  a 
wide-band  crystal   receiver  to  pick  up  enemy 
transmissions   and    determine   their   frequency, 
and  had  under  development  a  receiving  set  to 
cover  the  range  from  50  to  700  megacycles." 

•  Atomic   Bomb.   As  early   as   1939,  the 
Chief   of   the   Bureau   of  Engineering   allotted 
$1500  to  the  Naval  Research  Laboratory  for 
experiments     on     pilot     plants     for     the 
concentration    of   uranium-235.    This   was   the 
first  and,   at  the   time,   the  only  Government 
work  on  the  project  which  grew  into  the  atomic 
bomb  development.  Later,  when  the  Manhattan 
Project  coordinated  all  work  on  the  bomb,  a 
thermal  diffusion  plant  that  was  needed  for  the 
partial  separation  of  U-235  was  built  along  lines 
which  Baxter  reveals  "had  been  worked  out  by 
R.  Gunn  and  P.H.  Abelson  at  the  Naval  Research 


Laboratory  and  tested  in  pilot  plants  buiJt  by 
the  Navy  at  Anacostia  and  Philadelphia." 

Years  of  systematic  research  paid  dividends 
when  in  1940  Congress  voted  a  70%  increase  in 
naval  construction  (the  Two-Ocean  Navy  Bill). 
The  power  of  this  fleet  lay  in  the  new 
capabilities  and  equipment  with  which  previous 
research  had  endowed  it.  The  new  fleet  was  fast. 
For  instance,  in  battleship  construction,  by 
adopting  a  relatively  narrow  beam  and  light 
armor,  more  powerful  engines  were  capable  of 
driving  the  vessel  at  speeds  up  to  33  knots.  The 
new  fleet  was  superbly  equipped.  It  could 
maintain  itself  longer  at  sea  and  cope  with 
land-based  airpower  and  submarines  while 
thousands  of  miles  from  home  and  close  to 
enemy  bases.  With  radar,  the  new  fleet  could 
scan  the  ocean  for  ships  and  the  skies  for  aircraft 
at  all  times  of  day  or  night  regardless  of  weather. 
The  new  fleet  was  well  protected.  Destroyers 
and  destroyer  escorts,  with  their  sonar  gear  and 
their  greatly  improved  antisubmarine  ordnance, 
protected  the  fleet  against  enemy  submarines; 
and  planes  of  the  antisubmarine  patrol, 
equipped  with  radar,  rockets,  and  better  depth 
charges,  increased  protection  manyfold. 

At  Quonset  Point  (R.I.)  Naval  Air  Station 
during  the  war,  scientists  were  working  on  the 
magnetic  anomally  detector,  an  important  aid 
for  underwater  detection;  building  hundreds  of 
pre-production  types  of  equipment;  installing 
them  in  planes  and  blimps;  and  making 
observational  flights. 

At  the  Naval  Ordnance  Test  Station,  hidden 
in  the  wastes  of  the  Mojave  Desert  in  California, 
the  Navy's  high-velocity  aircraft  rockets,  "Tiny 
Tim"  (11.75  inches)  and  "Holy  Moses"  (15 
inches),  were  being  tested  under  extremely 
hazardous  conditions.  Armitage  Field  at  this 
station  is  a  memorial  to  Navy  Lieutenant 
Armitage,  one  of  the  men  who  lost  his  life  trying 
out  new  equipment  before  it  was  deemed  safe 
for  the  fleet. 

At  New  London,  Conn.,  and  San  Diego, 
Calif.,  scientists  were  studying  underwater 
acoustics,  to  develop  more  effective  aircraft, 
submarine,  and  surface  craft  listening  equipment 
and  other  devices. 


At  the  Naval  Air  Station,  Floyd  Bennett 
Field,  N.Y.,  flight  tests  were  conducted  with  the 
"Bat,"  the  first  completely  automatic  airborne 
target-seeking  missile  to  be  used  in  warfare. 

At  Alamogordo,  nuclear  physicists  were 
helping  Rear  Admiral  Parsons  ready  the  atomic 
bomb  for  its  debut  at  Hiroshima. 

The  naval  scientists'  laboratories  were 
located  in  many  comers  of  the  United  States 
and  their  products  reached  points  thousands  of 
miles  away.  Their  close  watch  on  the  fleet  was 
continued  throughout  the  war. 

Even  the  enemy  was  forced  to  pay  tribute  to 
the  American  scientist.  On  14  December  1943 
Germany's  Admiral  Doenitz  wrote— 

"For  some  months  past  the  enemy  has 
rendered  the  U-boat  war  ineffective.  He 
has  achieved  this  objective,  not  through 
superior  tactics  or  strategy,  but  through 
his  superiority  in  the  field  of  science." 


POST-WORLD  WAR  II 
RESEARCH 

At  the  close  of  World  War  II,  the  Navy  faced 
the  perplexing  problem  of  realigning  its  massive 
research  and  development  complex  to  a 
peacetime  economy.  With  the  lessons  learned  in 
the  war  clearly  in  mind  and  realizing  the  Navy's 
technological  future  might  depend  on  the 
continued  existence  of  these  facilities,  naval 
leaders  set  about  creating  within  the  Navy  itself 
the  capacity  for  continuing  scientific 
innovations,  material,  development,  and 
technological  progress. 

Laboratories  which  had  been  devoting  their 
wartime  efforts  to  naval  problems  and  which, 
heretofore,  had  been  under  the  National  Defense 
Research  Committee  were  welcomed  into  the 
family  of  naval  shore  activities.  The  Naval 
Electronics  Laboratory,  the  Underwater  Sound 
Laboratory,  and  the  Radiological  Defense 
Laboratory  are  a  few  added  to  the  group  of 
research  and  development  facilities  which  finally 
totaled  over  40. 


536 


Chapter  28-RESEARCH  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


To  meet  the  needs  of  their  parent  bureaus 
and  offices,  these  laboratories  embarked  on 
programs  running  the  gamut  of  scientific  and 
engineering  interests.  With  the  production 
programs  of  the  Navy  at  a  virtual  standstill, 
research  was  undertaken  to  extend  the 
knowledge  required  for  specific  technological 
purposes,  and  efforts  were  made  to  apply  such 
knowledge  to  broader  development  needs.  This 
applied  research,  stressing  development  of  new 
weapons  and  equipment,  formed  the  bulk  of  the 
peacetime  naval  laboratory  programs. 

From  1942  onward,  the  Naval  Medical 
Research  Institute  at  Bethesda,  Md.,  led  the  way 
in  a  comprehensive  medical  research  program. 
Several  other  research  units  were  established 
ashore  and  abroad  to  study  exotic  diseases,  test 
new  supplies  and  equipment,  and  investigate 
medical  problems  confronting  submariners  and 
aviators.  Their  findings  contributed  increasingly 
to  the  effective  medical  support  of  combat 
operations.  Questions  relative  to  defense  against 
nuclear,  biological,  and  chemical  warfare  were 
studied,  as  well  as  the  psychological  adjustment 
of  servicemen  to  military  life.  The  postwar  bone 
and  tissue  bank  at  Bethesda  pioneered  in  the 
preservation  of  bones  and  various  tissues 
valuable  in  surgery  to  save  and  lengthen  life.  By 
1960,  ways  of  preserving  whole  blood  for  later 
clinical  use  had  been  discovered  and  successfully 
tested.  Also,  the  medical  problems  of  flight  in 
spaceships  were  under  investigation. 

Although  research  and  development  at 
industrial  concerns  was  greatly  reduced  at  the 
close  of  World  War  II,  the  bureaus  continued  to 
augment  the  efforts  of  their  laboratories  as 
appropriate  through  contacts  with  industrial 
laboratories.  These  two  programs  have  assured 
the  Navy  of  a  constant  flow  of  the  latest 
engineering  developments. 

Naval  leaders  realized,  however,  that  these 
resources,  alone,  were  not  enough  to  assure  the 
long-range  technical  progress  necessary  for  new 
weapons,  equipments,  and  materials.  They 
cautioned  that  the  Navy  must  never  again  leave 
to  chance  the  discovery  of  fundamental 
scientific  knowledge.  Consequently,  the  Navy 
embarked  on  a  program  in  the  basic  sciences 
which  was  to  become  the  technical  foundation 


for     the     Navy's     postwar     research     and 
development  effort. 

OFFICE  OF 
NAVAL  RESEARCH 

In  May  1945,  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
Forrestal  established  the  Office  of  Research  and 
Inventions  to  assure  the  Navy  a  well-coordinated 
research  effort  in  every  field  of  basic  science. 
Renamed  and  given  statutory  permanence  by 
Congress  in  August  1946,  the  Office  of  Naval 
Research  was  charged  with  planning  and 
conducting  research  in  conjunction  with  and 
support  of  the  extensive  applied  research  and 
engineering  development  programs  of  the  Navy. 
Its  establishment  was  described  by  Secretary 
Forrestal  as- 

...  "a  Navy  Department  insurance 
investment  in  permanent  research  .  .  . 
expected  to  provide  a  revolving  fund  for 
progress  in  research,  such  as  that  which 
has  made  possible  such  spectacular 
developments  as  the  atom  bomb,  radar, 
rockets,  jet  aircraft,  and  penicillin." 

Since  the  principal  source  of  fundamental 
scientific  knowledge  had  been,  traditionally,  the 
university  research  laboratory,  and  the 
experience  and  lessons  of  World  War  II  showed  a 
need  for  a  mechanism  whereby  university 
scientists  could  continue  their  participation  in 
the  solution  of  the  Navy's  most  difficult 
problems,  ONR  instituted  what  was  for  a  time 
the  largest  peacetime  research  program  ever 
supported  by  a  Federal  agency  at  educational 
and  nonprofit  institutions.  Through  this 
program  the  Office  of  Naval  Research  set  an 
outstanding  example  of  effective  and  highly 
beneficial  Government-sponsored  research. 

In  the  years  immediately  following  its 
establishment,  the  contract  research  program  of 
ONR  advanced  the  search  for  new  knowledge  in 
those  fields  of  science  and  engineering  vital  to 
naval  needs  and  national  security.  Nuclear 
physics,  chemistry,  electronics,  hydrodynamics, 
aerodynamics,  oceanography,  mathematics  and 
computing,  propulsion,  physiology, 


IN  AVAL 


licrobiology,  psychophysiology,  and  the 
lehavioral  sciences  were  but  a  few  of  the  fields 
i  which  the  Nation's  renowned  scientists  were 
onducting  research  for  the  Navy  at  virtually 
very  well-known  scientific  laboratory  in  the 
ountry. 


NAVY'S  ONGOING 
RESEARCH  PROGRAMS 

The  Navy  long-range  research  programs  that 
ire  of  current  and  continuing  interest  include 
)ceanography,  space,  nuclear  energy,  solar 
inergy,  laser  energy,  weather,  communications, 
hip  and  aircraft  design,  and  weapon  design.  The 
ist  goes  on  and  on.  Since  this  chapter  cannot 
:over  all  aspects  of  these  efforts,  the  main 
imphasis  is  placed  on  the  programs  under  the 
)ffice  of  Naval  Research  (ONR)  and  the  Office 
)f  the  Oceanographer  of  the  Navy. 

Today,  a  fairly  large  portion  of  ONR's  funds 
'or  research  are  allotted  to  university 
aboratories.  Research  performed  by  these 
aboratories  is  mostly  basic,  or  pure,  research, 
/lany  other  contracts  go  to  industrial 
aboratories,  usually  for  applied  research  on 
pecific  projects.  Any  scientist  or  laboratory 
nay  receive  a  contract  if  the  contemplated 
esearch  shows  promise  and  fits  into  the  mosaic 
)f  the  Navy's  interest. 

In  addition  to  providing  the  knowledge  to 
nake  fresh  approaches  to  naval  problems,  the 
Dffice  of  Naval  Research  makes  other 
contributions  to  the  Nation's  scientific  stature, 
rhrough  its  research  programs,  thousands  of 
;raduate  students  obtain  advanced  degrees  by 
>articipating  in  important  research  projects. 
Nuclear  accelerators,  special  facilities  for 
ow-temperature  physics,  newly  developed 
dectronic  computers,  small  supersonic  wind 
unnels,  and  a  host  of  less  glamorous  but  equally 
mportant  scientific  instruments  have  been 
idded  to  the  Nation's  technical  arsenal. 

MAVAL  RESEARCH 
.ABORATORY  (NRL) 

A  discussion  of  the  Navywide  character  of 
DNR's  research  program  would  not  be  complete 


without  mentioning  the  work  conducted  in  its 
own  laboratories.  Under  ONR,  the  Naval 
Research  Laboratory  at  Washington,  D.C.,  the 
Naval  Biomedical  Research  Laboratory  at 
Oakland,  Calif.,  and  the  Naval  Arctic  Research 
Laboratory  at  Barrow,  Alaska,  contribute 
numerous  advances  in  the  physical  sciences  and 
in  engineering  development.  Of  these 
laboratories,  NRL  is  considered  the  Navy's 
corporate  laboratory.  Much  of  NRL's  program  is 
conducted  at  the  specific  request  and  with  the 
direct  support  of  the  Navy's  systems  commands. 
For  example,  in  fiscal  year  1975,  approximately 
1  9.9%  of  NRL's  funding  for  research  came  from 
ONR,  while  approximately  39.4%  came  from 
NAVELEX  (Naval  Electronic  Systems 
Command). 

NRL's  Research  Program 

A  good  indication  of  the  breadth  of  work 
conducted  at  NRL  is  found  by  examining  the 
four  broad  functional  areas  of  its  research 
department. 

ELECTRONICS.-The  electronics  area  has 
five  divisions:  electronics  technology,  radar, 
communication  sciences,  optical  sciences,  and 
tactical  electronic  warfare.  These  divisions  work 
to  extend  the  knowledge  and  technical 
applications  of  the  electromagnetic  spectrum. 
The  effort  includes  research  and  development  in 
the  areas  of  solid-state  devices,  surface  physics, 
and  microwave  techniques;  radar  and  radar 
target  characteristics;  communication  systems, 
including  instrumentation,  signal  exploration, 
and  information  processing;  optical  sciences, 
with  studies  in  the  areas  of  quantam  optics,  laser 
physics,  laser-matter  interaction,  atmospheric 
propagation,  holography,  optical  warfare, 
optical  radar,  and  optical  systems;  and  tactical 
electronic  warfare  techniques  and  systems, 
including  counter  measures  and 
counter-countermeasures.  In  the  area  of 
electronic  warfare,  NRL  serves  as  the  Navy's 
lead  laboratory. 

MATERIALS  AND  GENERAL 
SCIENCES. -This  area  is  divided  into  two 
laboratories:  structure  of  matter  and  chemical 
physics.  It  has  four  divisions:  chemistry, 


538 


Chapter  28-RESEARCH  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


engineering  materials,  material  sciences,  and 
radiation  technology.  The  chemist,  the 
metallurgists,  and  the  solid-state,  optical,  and 
nuclear  scientists  in  this  area  perform  basic  and 
applied  research  on  the  mechanical,  electrical, 
thermal,  magnetic,  optical,  and  nuclear 
properties  of  matter.  They  also  develop 
components,  devices,  and  systems  based  on  the 
phenomena  and  principles  of  the  areas  of 
research  involved. 

In  support  of  a  broad  program  in  nuclear 
and  atomic  sciences,  the  radiation  technology 
division  at  NRL  operates  a  7-McV  sector 
focusing  cyclotron,  a  60-McV  electron  linear 
accelerator,  a  5-McV  Van  de  Graaff  generator, 
and  several  smaller  accelerators  and  radiation 
sources.  Examples  of  projects  made  possible 
through  the  use  of  this  equipment  include 
radiation  damage  studies,  use  of  neutron  beams 
for  cancer  therapy,  radioisotope  production,  and 
ion  implantation  to  modify  devices  and 
materials.  NRL's  cyclotron  building  and  control 
room  are  shown  in  figures  28-3  and  28-4.  Note 
that  all  equipment  is  monitored  and  controlled 
from  the  control  room. 

SPACE   SCIENCE  AND  TECHNOLOGY.- 
This  research  area  of  NRL  includes  a  cosmic-ray 


physics    laboratory,    a    spacecraft    technology 
center,  a  solar  radiation  (SOLRAD)  project,  and 
three  divisions:  space  science,  plasma  physics, 
and    space    systems.    Scientists    in    this    area 
conduct  basic  and  applied  research  in  upper-air 
physics,  astronomy,  and  astrophysics  to  improve 
naval  communications,  navigation,  detection  and 
surveillance.  As  a  result  of  its  research  in  this 
area,  NRL  has  been  recognized  as  the  Navy's 
leading   laboratory    in  space  technology.   This 
portion  of  NRL  is  also  involved  in  both  the 
theoretical  and  experimental  research  of  plasma 
physics,  including  investigating  the  physics  of 
fusion    to    develop    controlled    thermonuclear 
power    sources.    The    SOLRAD    project    was 
established  to  support  the  NAVAIR  exploratory 
development  task  in  solar  X-ray  monitoring  and 
specifically  to  design,  construct,  test,  evaluate, 
and     provide    launch     support     of    SOLRAD 
satellites;    to    track,    command,    and    acquire 
satellite  telemetry;  and  to  analyze  solar  emission 
data  for  scientific  and  application  purposes. 

OCEANOLOGY.-The  oceanology  area  has 
four  divisions:  acoustics,  underwater  sound 
reference,  ocean  sciences,  and  ocean  technology. 
These  divisions  conduct  research  at  sea  and  in 
the  laboratory  in  the  fields  of  underwater 


134.208 


Figure  28-3.-The  NRL  cyclotron  building. 


Figure  28-4.— Control  room  for  NRL's  cyclotron. 


134.209 


acoustics,  oceanography  marine  geophysics, 
atmospheric  physics,  and  ocean  engineering  and 
technology.  Subjects  of  investigation  include 
antisubmarine  warfare,  acoustic  propagation  and 
scattering,  ambient  noise  in  the  ocean,  signal 
processing,  marine  and  atmospheric  pollution, 
instrumentation  systems  for  deep  ocean  search 
ind  inspection,  and  methods  of  design  and 
.nstallation  of  ocean  structures  and  apparatus. 
SJRL,  with  its  underwater  sound  reference 
iivision  located  in  Orlando,  Fla.,  serves  as  a 
'ocal  point  in  the  Navy  for  standardization  of 
inderwater  sound  measurements  and  assumes  a 
najor  responsibility  for  research  and 
ievelopment  in  undersea  acoustic  surveillance. 
In  support  of  NRL's  oceanographic  program, 
several  research  vessels  are  available.  One,  the 
TJSNS  HAYES  (T-AGOR-1 6)  is  the  Navy's  most 
idvanced  and  first  departure  from  conventional 
lull  design  in  its  oceanographic  ship  program. 
Fhe  Hayes  (figure  28-5)  is  a  246-foot-long 


catamaran  commissioned  in  1971.  It  is  under  the 
technical  direction  and  funding  control  of  NRL, 
and  under  the  operational  control  of  the 
Military  Sealift  Command  (MSC). 

The  most  distinctive  features  of  the  Hayes 
are  the  parallel  hulls,  a  centralized  ship  control 
system,  and  large  laboratory  spaces.  Her 
dual-hull  design  provides  a  stable  platform  for 
ocean  research,  a  large  amount  of  open  deck 
area  for  scientific  equipment,  and  a  space 
between  the  hulls  for  lowering  and  raising 
research  instruments.  The  deck  areas  and 
interior  spaces  are  designed  to  accommodate 
facilities  for  biological  and  chemical  analyses, 
mechanical  and  electrical  repairs,  data 
processing,  communications,  support  machinery, 
and  storage.  In  addition,  the  decks  are  outfitted 
with  tiedowns  and  power  receptacles  for 
installation  of  portable  equipment  vans. 

Although  the  Hayes  operates  primarily  as  a 
surface  platform  for  experiments  in  underwater 


540 


Chapter  28-RESEARCH  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


acoustics,  her  facilities  make  her  an  ideal 
seaborne  base  for  conducting  an  even  wider 
range  of  marine  research  spanning  the  physical, 
geological,  chemical,  biological,  and 
meteorological  aspects  of  oceanology. 

Another  ocean ographic  research  vessel  that 
supports  NRL  projects,  the  USNS  Mizar 
(T-AGOR-1 1),  is  of  more  conventional  design.  It 
was  the  Mizar,  with  its  specially  designed  towed 
television  and  camera  apparatus  that  discovered 
and  helped  photograph  the  wreckage  of  the 
Navy  submarines  Thresher  and  Scorpion. 

OCEANOGRAPHY 

Oceanographic  research  has  been  going  on 
within  ONR  since  about  1 946.  Over  the  years,  as 


the  importance  of  this  new  field  of  endeavor 
became  known,  numerous  segments  of  the 
Government  and  the  scientific  community 
became  directly  involved.  Today,  the  Nation's 
oceanographic  program  is  being  carried  out  by 
many  Federal  agencies,  each  in  need  of  different 
types  of  information  to  accomplish  its  basic 
mission.  There  is  as  yet  no  unified  Federal 
structure  in  the  field  of  oceanography  such  as 
we  have  in  the  National  Aeronautics  and  Space 
Administration  (NASA). 

The  Navy  received  almost  one-fourth  of  the 
national  oceanographic  funds  for  fiscal  year 
1 976.  Most  of  these  funds  support  research  by 
oceanographic  institutions,  universities,  and  the 
Naval  Oceanographic  Office. 


134.210 


Figure  28-5.-The  USNS  Hayes  (T-AGOR-1 6). 


Naval  Oceanographic  Program 

The  Oceanographer  of  the  Navy  is  the  Naval 
Oceanographic  Program  director  for  the  Chief  of 
Naval  Operations,  under  the  policy  direction  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  with  policy  direction 
for  research  through  the  Assistant  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  (Research  and  Development).  All 
national  facilities,  centers,  and  missions  of  the 
National  Oceanographic  Program  assigned  to  the 
Navy  are  managed  and  administered  by  the 
Oceanographer  of  the  Navy. 

The  Navy  Oceanographic  Program  includes 
the  science,  technology,  and  engineering 
operations,  and  those  personnel  and  facilities 
associated  with  each.  Additional  support  is 
provided,  where  possible,  to  all  related  national 
objectives.  The  Naval  Oceanographic  Program 
can  be  subdivided  into  the  following  four  major 
areas: 

Ocean  science:  to  advance  the  knowledge  of 
the  physical,  chemical,  biological,  and  geological 
nature  of  the  world's  oceans. 

Ocean  engineering  and  development:  to 
provide  support  to  naval  operating  forces  whose 
purpose  is  to  maximize  the  use  of  the  oceans. 

Oceanographic  operations:  to  provide 
Oceanographic  data,  service,  and  operational 
support  for  military  uses,  and  support  for 
operations  involving  underwater  search  and 
rescue,  recovery,  salvage,  emplacement, 
facilities,  and  polar  research. 

Environmental  prediction:  to  provide  fore- 
casting of  certain  oceanographic-environmental 
conditions  at  the  air-sea  interface  and  in  the 
water  column. 

The  primary  (military)  objective  of  the 
Navy's  Oceanographic  Program  is  to  advance  and 
best  adapt  the  Navy's  knowledge  of  ocean, 
coastal,  and  seabed  areas  for  the  purpose  of 
increasing  the  effectiveness  of  naval  and  other 
service  offensive  and  defensive  operations  and 
weapon  systems.  This  objective  also  includes 
supporting,  directly,  development  of  military 
systems  and  design  of  ships,  vehicles,  and  other 
equipment  by  the  solution  of  specific, 
immediate,  and  long-range  Oceanographic 
problems. 


A  secondary  (nonmilitary)  objective  is  to 
advance  knowledge  of  all  aspects  of  the  ocean, 
coastal,  and  seabed  areas  to  permit  and 
encourage  successful  exploration  of  these  areas 
for  economic,  scientific,  social,  political,  and 
prestige  gains.  This  objective  also  includes 
cooperation  in  the  preparation  of  plans  for 
extending  or  developing  international  law 
concerning  the  ocean,  coastal,  and  seabed  areas. 

National  defense  takes  priority  over  other 
goals,  and  Oceanographic  efforts  must  be 
primarily,  fully,  and  immediately  responsive  to 
military  requirements.  However,  the  Navy  is  the 
foremost  sea-oriented  activity  with  the  most 
expertise  in  oceanography.  In  this  position  of 
leadership,  it  is  obligated  to  support  the 
nonmilitary  objectives  of  the  national 
Oceanographic  program.  To  meet  both  military 
and  nonmilitary  requirements,  the  Navy 
maintains  an  independent,  comprehensive,  and 
responsive  program  in  Oceanographic  surveys, 
research,  applications,  and  developments,  with 
adequate  supporting  ships,  instrumentation,  and 
facilities  to  carry  out  this  program. 

The  largest  portion  of  knowledge  gained 
from  Oceanographic  activities  of  the  Navy  is  not 
classified  and  is  made  available  to  national, 
international,  and  private  organizations. 
Consistent  with  its  own  established 
Oceanographic  effort,  the  Navy  cooperates  with 
any  national  organization  devoted  to  the  study 
of  the  total  environment,  and/or  with  any 
organization  which  attempts  to  provide  a 
national  focus  on  the  environmental 
phenomena. 

Platforms  and  Deep 
Submergence  Vehicles 

Oceanographic  research  requirements  have 
resulted  in  a  number  of  odd-looking  craft.  The 
FLIP  (floating  instrument  platform  shown  in 
figure  28-6)  was  constructed  for  the  Scripps 
Institute  of  Oceanography.  It  and  the  Navy 
SPAR  (seagoing  platform  for  acoustics  research) 
are  similar  in  appearance,  size,  and  operation. 
Each  is  approximately  355  feet  long  and  15  to 
16  feet  in  diameter.  Designed  to  be  stable 
floating  research  platforms,  they  are  towed  to 


542 


134.115 

Figure  28-6.— Instrument  platforms  designed  for  maxi- 
mum stability  are  ballasted  to  a  vertical  position 
while  on  station. 


their  ocean  stations  horizontally,  then  ballasted 
to  a  vertical  position.  The  draft  of  each,  when 
vertical,  is  about  300  feet. 

The  crew's  quarters,  electronic  workshops, 
and  other  equipment  are  located  in  the  55-foot 
prow,  raised  above  the  water.  Measuring 
instruments  may  be  mounted  anywhere  along 
the  submerged  hull.  Because  FLIP  must  function 
in  both  horizontal  and  vertical  attitudes,  the 
operating  machinery  and  essential  living 
equipment  are  swing-mounted  or  "gimbaled"  so 
that  thev  stav  hori/ontal  when  the  nlatform  is  in 


FLIP  to  shift  from  the  horizontal  to  the  vertical 
position. 

The  motions  of  these  platforms  under  the 
influence  of  ocean  waves  approximate  those  of  a 
simple  pendulum.  By  altering  the  ballast 
condition,  the  effective  pendulum  length  may  be 
controlled  such  that  a  natural  period  of  motion 
may  be  chosen  to  cancel  or  minimize 
wave-induced  motions.  This  method  of  "tuning" 
platform  response  permits  ultrastabilization  with 
maximum  motion  limited  to  a  few  centimeters 
under  average  sea  conditions. 

Unlike  the  FLIP,  which  is  manned  by 
scientists,  SPAR  is  unmanned;  it  is  controlled 
externally,  receiving  its  power  by  cable  from  a 
nearby  ship.  Instruments  are  installed  to  record 
data  regarding  underwater  sound  quality,  water 
temperature,  and  surface  waves.  The 
information  gathered  by  the  equipment  is 
transmitted  to  the  SPAR's  tending  ship  where  it 
is  entered  into  a  high-capacity  data  logging 
system. 

In  late  1974,  FLIP  and  an  unmanned  alpha 
buoy  were  used  by  military  and  civilian 
scientists  in  a  research  project  north  of  Hawaii 
to  acquire  data  on  the  air-sea  transfer  of  heat, 
motion,  and  water  vapor.  This  experiment  was 
used  as  a  basis  for  more  intensive  studies  of  how 
ocean  temperatures  cause  climatic  changes  and 
how  to  improve  weather  forecasting.  The  FLIP 
and  her  crew  measured  the  ocean's  heat  flow, 
profiled  currents,  and  transfer  of  heat  from  the 
surface  to  various  ocean  depths. 

The  alpha  buoy  used  in  the  north  Pacific 
research  project  provided  a  stable  platform  for 
instruments  recording  routine  surface 
meteorological  measurements.  It  was  also  used 
in  coordination  with  FLIP  for  physical 
oceanographic  measurements.  With  the  purchase 
of  the  bathyscaphe  Trieste  in  1958  from  the 
Swiss  inventor  and  physicist,  Auguste  Piccard, 
the  Navy  began  to  explore  the  depths  of  the 
ocean  using  deep  submersible  vehicles.  The 
Trieste  was  moved  to  San  Diego,  Calif.,  where  a 
program  of  training  and  research  was  started.  In 
1960,  the  Trieste,  with  Navy  Lieutenant  Don 
Walsh  and  Jacques  Piccard  (son  of  Auguste 
Piccard">  aboard,  descended  35.800  feet  tn  the 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


called  the  Marianas  Trench),  the  deepest  known 
part  of  the  ocean. 

In  1 963  when  the  Navy  submarine  Thresher 
was  lost  off  the  coast  of  Maine,  Trieste  I  and  the 
ocean  research  ship  USNS  Mizar  conducted  an 
intensified  search  and  located  the  Thresher. 
During  this  search,  Trieste  /recovered  a  piece  of 
piping  which  was  later  identified  as  coming  from 
the  Thresher.  An  improved  version  of  the 
bathyscaphe,  known  as  Trieste  II,  was 
commissioned  in  January  1964  and  figured 
prominently  in  the  1964  investigation  of  the 
submarine  Tliresher's  wreckage.  Trieste's  lights 
enabled  her  operator  to  take  photographs  of 


what  was  observed.  Later,  in  1968,  the  Trieste 
was  employed  in  investigating  the  wreckage  of 
the  Navy  submarine  Scorpion. 

After  the  Navy's  success  with  its  early 
research  projects  using  the  Trieste,  it  began  a 
deep  submergence  vehicle  (DSV)  development 
program.  The  prototype  of  Navy  deep 
submergence  vehicles,  Alvin,  was  funded  by 
ONR  and  constructed  for  use  by  the  Woods 
Hole  Oceanographic  Institution  (WHOI)  in  Maine 
to  carry  out  a  broad  program  of  oceanographic 
research.  The  then  Bureau  of  Ships  assisted  in 
preparing  performance  specifications  for  her 
design  and  construction.  The  two-man  vehicle 


Figure  28-7.-The  deep  submergence  vehicle  (DSV)  Alvin. 


134.211 


Chapter  28-RESEARCH  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


(figure  28-7)  was  designed  to  operate  to  a  depth 
of  6500  feet  and  cruise  at  slow  speeds  for  8  to 
10  hours. 

Alvin  gained  fame  early  in  1966  when, 
during  one  of  the  largest  underway  search  and 
recovery  operations  in  history,  it  located  a 
missing  nuclear  bomb  in  Spanish  coastal  waters. 
On  one  occasion,  Alvin  retrieved  its  own 
mechanical  arm  from  a  depth  of  4400  feet.  In 
October  1968,  Alvin  sank  in  5000  feet  of  water 
south  of  Cape  Cod  when  cables  snapped  during 
launch  operations  from  its  catamaran  mother 
ship.  Ten  months  later,  in  August  1969,  Alvin 
was  recovered  by  the  USNS  Mizar  (T-AGOR-11) 
and  the  civilian  DSV  Aluminaut.  In  1973, 
Alvin' s  steel  pressure  sphere  was  replaced  with  a 


sphere   made  of  titanium,   doubling   its  depth 
capacity. 

The  latest  additions  to  the  Alvin-typQ  deep 
submergence  vehicle  are  the  Turtle  (DSV-3)  and 
the  Sea  Cliff  (DSV-4)  (figure  28-8).  Each  is 
equipped  with  two  bow-mounted,  remotely 
controlled  mechanical  arms  (Alvin  only  has 
one).  Also,  the  Turtle  and  Sea  Cliff  carry  a 
three-member  crew,  while  Alvin  carries  a 
two-member  crew.  Both  of  these  DSVs,  as  well 
as  Trieste  II  (DSV-1)  are  presently  attached  to 
the  Submarine  Development  Group  One 
operating  out  of  San  Diego,  Calif.,  in  support  of 
the 'Naval  Underseas  Center  (NUC).  They  also 
conduct  research  and  other  operations  for  a 
variety  of  Navy  activities,  and  other  Federal 


•-:  ______  oo  o        r»o\/»  "5 


134.116X 


A  (Turtlei  anrl  Spa  f!liffV 


activities    and    educational    institutions   which 
conduct  oceanographic  research. 

In  1975,  the  Turtle  (DSV-3)  completed  a 
4-month  expedition  off  the  coast  of  Costa  Rica 
and  Colombia.  This  expedition  was  undertaken 
to  prove  the  theory  that  sections  of  the  Earth's 
crust,  or  plates,  are  constantly  moving  and  cause 
such  activity  as  earthquakes,  volcanos,  and  tidal 
waves.  Scientists  on  the  Turtle  were  able  to 
watch  the  Cocos  plate  move  underneath  the 
Central  American  crust,  and  to  take  movies  as 
well  as  approximately  15,000  still  photos  of  the 
geographic  phenomenon. 

Man-In-The-Sea  Program 

During  the  1960s,  the  Navy  pioneered  living 
and  working  in  the  sea  with  saturation  diving 
experiments  designated  as  Sealab  I  and  //.  In 
both  these  projects,  Navymen  and  civilians 
descended  to  an  underwater  habitat  in  which 
they  lived  and  from  which  they  emerged  to 
perform  useful  tasks  in  the  sea  before  returning 
to  their  underwater  home. 

In  the  second  Sealab  experiment,  the 
number  of  participants,  the  time  spent 
underwater,  and  the  depth  at  which  the  habitat 
was  placed  were  all  greater  than  Sealab  I. 

The  primary  purposes  of  the  Navy's 
underwater  living  experiments  were  to  develop 
and  test  new  diving  tools  and  techniques,  and 
Dther  underwater  equipment  designed  to 
increase  a  diver's  mobility  and  effectiveness. 

In  Sealab  //,  conducted  off  San  Diego,  each 
3f  the  three  10-man  teams  remained  at  a  depth 
Df  205  feet  for  1 5  days  in  cold  water,  while  one 
•emained  there  for  30  days.  In  addition  to  living 
anderwater  and  conducting  a  multitude  of 
Dhysiological  experiments,  underwater  tasks  in 
simulated  salvage,  oceanography,  and 
instruction  were  performed.  The  three  teams 
spent  300  man-hours  working  outside  the 
labitat. 

As  mentioned,  the  technique  used  in  Sealab 
s  known  as  saturation  diving.  During  both 
experiments,  the  divers  within  the  Sealab  habitat 
ived  under  the  same  pressure  which  the  sea 
exerted  outside  the  habitat.  Inasmuch  as  they 


lived  constantly  under  this  pressure,  it  was  only 
necessary  for  them  to  go  through  the  lengthy 
periods  of  compression  and  decompression  once. 

The  undersea  home  occupied  by  the  Sealab 
aquanauts  has  since  been  modified  to  include 
the  same  long-term  benefits  without  the 
technicalities  of  maintaining  an  underwater 
habitat.  Divers  working  in  high  pressures  can 
now  enter  a  habitat  in  the  ship  which  remains 
over  their  working  site.  When  the  desired 
pressure  has  been  achieved  in  the  habitat  (now 
called  a  deck  decompression  chamber  (DDC)), 
the  divers  descend  to  their  working  .site  in 
elevator-like  conveyances  called  personnel 
transfer  capsules  (PTCs),  which  are  also 
pressurized.  The  DDC  is  maintained  on  the  deck 
of  the  support  ship.  They  return  to  their 
pressurized  DDC  in  the  same  way  and  continue 
in  this  manner  until  their  task  beneath  the 
ocean's  surface  is  completed.  At  that  point,  the 
pressure  within  the  DDC  is  slowly  decreased 
until  it  coincides  with  normal  air  pressure  and 
the  divers  are  able  to  return  to  the  outside  world 
once  more.  Returning  to  atmospheric  pressure 
requires  about  one  day  of  decompression  for 
each  100  feet  of  saturation  depth.  The 
equipment  (PDC,  DDCs,  support  craft,  handling 
system,  and  mooring  and  winching  system)  are 
identified  as  a  deep  diving  system  (DDS)  and 
assigned  mark  and  modification  numbers.  For 
example,  the  Mk  1  DDS  is  presently  assigned  to 
the  Harbor  Clearance  Unit  2  in  Little  Creek,  Va., 
and  the  Mk  2  Mod  0  DDS  is  presently  assigned 
to  Submarine  Development  Group  One 
operating  out  of  San  Diego,  Calif. 

It  was  the  Mk  1  DDS  that  was  used  by  the 
team  of  U.S.  Navy  and  Royal  Navy  divers  when 
they  set  the  World's  open  sea  diving  record  of 
1148  feet  in  June  1975.  This  record-setting 
saturation  diving  series  was  conducted  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  off  Panama  City,  Fla.,  and  was 
supported  by  the  Navy  Experimental  Diving 
Unit  and  the  Naval  Coastal  Systems  Laboratory 
located  at  Panama  City. 

Much  of  the  Navy's  training  and  research  in 
saturation  diving  (man-in-the-sea  program)  is 
presently  being  conducted  by  the  Navy 
Experimental  Diving  Unit  in  the  Ocean 
Simulation  Facility  located  at  the  Naval  Coastal 
Systems  Laboratory,  Panama  City,  Fla.  This 


546 


Chapter  28-RESEARCH  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


134.212 
Figure  28-9.— Artist's  rendering  of  man  and  machine  being  tested  in  hyperbaric  chambers  of  the  Ocean  Simulation  Facility. 


facility  (see  figure  28-9)  enables  the  Navy  to 
develop,  test,  and  evaluate  underwater 
man-in-the-sea  systems  to  depths  of  over  2000 
feet,  with  particular  emphasis  on  the 
man/equipment  interface. 

Search,   Rescue, 
and  Salvage 

For  years,  the  development  of  a  deep-sea 
search,  rescue,  and  salvage  program  has  occupied 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  Navy's  underseas 
research  effort.  Because  of  the  Thresher  disaster, 
highest  priority  was  given  to  a  system  for 
rescuing  crewmen  from  distressed  submarines. 
The  research  efforts  led  to  the  development  of  a 
deep  submergence  rescue  vehicle  (DSRV).  Two 
of  these  vehicles,  DSRV-1  and  DSRV-2,  have 
been  developed  for  search  and  rescue  missions. 


The  DSRV  is  a  small  submersible  which  has 
a  streamlined  outer  hull  made  of 
fiberglass-reinforced  plastic.  There  is  a 
three-sphere  inner  hull  containing  the  vehicle's 
sensor  control  and  life  support  systems. 

The  inner  hull  protects  the  vehicle's  three 
operators,  the  submarine  survivors,  and  its 
pressure  sensitive  equipment  from  the  intense 
pressure  and  low  temperatures  found  at  the 
5000-foot  depths  to  which  the  vehicle  can 
descend. 

The  forward  sphere  of  the  inner  hull  houses 
two  operators  and  an  elaborate  integrated 
control  and  display  (ICAD)  system.  ICAD  ties 
together  data  from  sonars,  closed-circuit 
television,  and  various  controls  to  permit  the 
operators  to  guide  the  DSRV  rapidly  and 
effectively  in  all  its  complex  maneuvers.  The 
two  other  spheres  can  hold  up  to  a  total  of  24 
survivors  and  additional  operators. 


When  the  DSRV  is  at  work,  it  settles  down 
over  the  hatch  of  a  disabled  submarine  and 
water  is  pumped  from  a  domelike  apparatus 
which  fits  over  the  disabled  submarine's  hatch. 
Survivors  can  then  pass  through  the  hatch  into 
the  DSRV  without  being  exposed  to  the  open 
sea,  as  shown  in  figure  28-10. 

At  least  one  of  the  two  DSRVs  is  intended 
to  be  maintained  in  an  alert  status  and  can  be 
moved  on  a  large  flatbed  trailer  immediately  to  a 
nearby  airfield.  When  the  occasion  demands, 
both  the  DSRV  and  its  support  equipment  are 
loaded  into  three  or  four  jet  transports  and 
flown  to  a  port  near  the  disabled  submarine. 
Simultaneously,  a  nuclear-powered  submarine 
that  has  been  modified  to  carry  the  DSRV  or 
one  of  the  two  specially  built  catamaran-hulled 


submarine  rescue  ships  is  directed  to  the  same 
port.  At  the  port,  the  DSRV  and  certain  support 
equipment  are  loaded  on  the  "mother 
submarine"  or  the  ASR.  Figure  28-11  shows  a 
DSRV-2  being  lifted  by  a  suspended  cradle  to 
the  deck  of  its  support  ship  (USS  Pigeon 
ASR-21). 

At  present,  there  are  two  DSRV  support 
ships:  USS  Pigeon  (ASR-21),  homeported  in  San 
Diego,  Calif.,  and  USS  Ortolan  (ASR-22), 
homeported  in  Norfolk,  Va.  These  twin-hulled 
(catamaran)  ships  were  specifically  designed  to 
support  the  DSRV.  With  their  sophisticated, 
computerized  sonar  tracking  system,  the  ASRs 
can  track  the  submerged  DSRV  and,  with  the 
cradle  shown  in  figure  28-11,  can  launch  or 
recover  the  40-ton  DSRV  in  minutes.  The 


1 34  1 79 

Figure  28-10.-Artiif  i  concept  of  the  DSRV  mated  with  the  escape  hatch  of  a  distressed  submarine  and  personnel 

transferring  to  the  rescue  vehicle. 


548 


Chapter  28-RESEARCH  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


134.213 


Figure  28-11.-DSRV-2  ready  to  be  lifted  aboard  the  Pigeon  (ASR-21). 


inique  hull  design  of  ASR-21  is  depicted  in 
igure  2  8- 1  2. 

The  term  "salvage"  covers  everything  from 
he  recovery  of  lost  and  unexploded  ordnance 
terns  to  refloating  stranded  or  sunken  ships. 
Examples  of  naval  salvage  operations  include 
ecovery  of  the  ships  sunk  on  7  December  1 941 
t  Pearl  Harbor  and,  more  recently,  the  clearing 
)f  the  Suez  Canal  in  1974. 

Much  of  the  research  in  Navy  salvage 
upport  for  inshore,  or  coastal,  areas  is 
onducted  by  the  Naval  Coastal  Systems 
Moratory  (NCSL)  at  Panama  City,  Fla.  Their 
fforts  include  research  in  large  object  salvage 
ystems  (LOSSs),  self-propelled  swimmer 
lelivery  vehicles  (SDVs),  diver  life  support 
ystems,  and  hand-held  sonar  devices. 

NAVSEA  has  pioneered  the  development  of 
ieep  ocean  unmanned  search  and  recovery 


systems  for  the  Navy.  The  cable-controlled 
unmanned  research  vehicle  (CURV)  supports 
NAVSEA's  underwater  weapon  development 
and  testing  program  by  recovering  expended  or 
lost  items  of  underwater  ordnance.  CURV-II  is  a 
2,500-foot  system  of  which  there  are  two;  one  is 
used  by  the  Naval  Torpedo  Station  at  Keyport, 
Wash.  CURV-III  is  a  7,000-foot  system,  with  an 
extension  capability  to  10,000  feet.  This  system 
is  assigned  to  the  Naval  Undersea  Center  (NUC) 
at  San  Diego,  Calif.  In  September  1973, 
CURV-III  played  a  major  role  in  the  recovery  of 
PISCES  ///,  a  small  manned  submersible,  off  the 
coast  of  Ireland,  saving  the  lives  of  the  two 
occupants. 

The  Navy's  newest  unmanned  research  and 
recovery  system  is  referred  to  as  the  remote 
unmanned  work  system  (RUWS).  RUWS  (figure 
28-13)  is  a  cable-tethered  system,  designed  for  a 


Figure  28-12.-The  USS  Pigeon  (ASR-21). 


134.200 


variety  of  undersea  search,  recovery,  and  general 
work  operations  at  ocean  depths  to  20,000  feet. 
It  is  air-transportable  for  rapid  installation 
aboard  selected  naval  ships  such  as  the  ASR, 
ATS,  and  catamaran-ASR  class  ships. 

Underwater  Acoustics 

The  importance  of  underwater  acoustic 
(sound)  technology  becomes  evident  when 
considering  that  the  naval  operating  area  covers 
approximately  three-fourths  of  the  Earth's 
surface.  This  area  of  research  provides  the 
expertise  and  equipment  necessary  for  the 
detection,  identification,  and  tracking  of 
underwater  objects;  and  the  control  and 


guidance  of  underwater  weapons,  underwater 
communications,  and  a  myriad  of  other  complex 
technologies. 

Basic  and  applied  research  in  the  area  of 
underwater  acoustics  covers  a  broad  spectrum 
that  includes  acoustic  radiation  and 
transconduction,  propagation  and  scattering, 
and  signal  processing.  As  described  in  the  first 
part  of  this  chapter,  the  Naval  Research 
Laboratory  (NRL)  in  Washington,  D.C.,  serves 
as  a  focal  point  for  standardization  of 
underwater  sound  measurements  and  assumes  a 
major  responsibility  for  research  and 
development  in  undersea  acoustic  surveillance. 
However,  other  naval  research  activities,  such  as 
the  Naval  Underwater  Systems  Center  (NUSC) 
at  Newport,  R.I.,  the  Naval  Undersea  Center 


550 


Chapter  28-RESEARCH  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


SMFACE  SWMIT 


NINAIT  CAIU  - 


134.214 


Figure  28-1 3.-RUWS. 


(NUC)  at  San  Diego,  Calif.,  and  the  Naval 
Coastal  Systems  Laboratory  (NCSL)  at  Panama 
City,  Fla.,  contribute  research  effort  in  this  area. 
For  example,  NCSL  is  tasked  with  acoustic 
countermeasure  research. 

Resources 

As  human  technological  capabilities  increase, 
attention  shifts  to  methods  of  exploiting  the 
sea's  wealth.  Geologists  estimate  that  40%  of  the 
free  world's  natural  resources  lie  beneath  the 
continental  shelves.  Other  experts  have 
estimated  that  the  world's  oceans  contain  about 
1 5  billion  tons  each  of  copper  and  manganese,  7 
trillion  tons  of  boron,  20  billion  tons  of 


uranium,    500    million    tons  of  silver   and    10 
million  tons  of  gold. 

To  use  a  graphic  illustration— if  all  the 
minerals  of  the  sea  were  precipitated,  the 
amount  obtained  would  produce  a  volume  equal 
to  20%  of  the  Earth's  rock  volume  above  sea 
level. 

Discounting  offshore  oil  drilling,  which  has 
been  in  progress  for  many  years,  comparatively 
little  has  been  done  to  exploit  mineral  wealth 
which  is  more  or  less  readily  available.  For 
example,  manganese  nodules  weighing  up  to 
1 700  pounds  are  known  to  exist  on  the  ocean 
floor  in  concentrations  of  up  to  10  pounds  per 
square  foot.  Less  available  are  silica,  aluminum, 
manganese,  nickel,  cobalt,  copper,  and  vanadium 


which  lie  in  the  red  clay  of  the  abyssal  plains 
which  are  under  very  deep  water.  Minerals, 
however,  are  not  the  only  wealth  of  the  sea.  It  is 
also  a  source  of  food. 

As  the  world's  population  increases,  man 
will  increasingly  be  forced  to  use  the  sea's  edible 
bounty.  And  why  not?  A  tremendous  amount  of 
food  can  become  available.  With  sufficient 
nutrients  and  sunlight  the  sea  can  provide  about 
4000  tons  of  vegetable  matter  per  year,  per 
square  mile.  One  square  mile  of  good  midwest 
wheatland,  on  the  other  hand,  usually  yields 
from  600  to  700  tons  of  wheat  during  the  same 
period. 

The  sea  now  provides  about  30  million  tons 
of  food  each  year.  By  far,  most  of  this  food  is 
taken  either  in  nets,  traps,  or  by  lines. 
Comparatively  little  is  deliberately  cultivated. 

Mankind  is  also  looking  toward  the  sea  for 
sources  of  power  and  even  freshwater.  As  a 
power  source,  the  motion  of  the  oceans'  waves 
could  possibly  be  harnessed  to  provide  a 
never-ending  source  of  energy.  This  would  lessen 
dependence  on  coal,  oil,  and  nuclear  fission. 

As  for  using  the  oceans  as  a  source  of 
freshwater,  methods  of  desalinizing  ocean  water 
have  already  been  used  in  various  parts  of  the 
world.  The  Navy,  for  example,  has  plants  which 
supply  freshwater  to  its  installations  at 
Guantanamo  Bay,  Cuba,  and  McMurdo  Sound  in 
the  Antarctic. 

Today's  technology  has  already  done  much 
to  extend  man's  capability  for  working  in  the 
sea  and  using  its  resources.  Tomorrow 
undoubtedly  will  see  refinements  of  today's 
methods,  bringing  the  conquest  of  man's  last 
earthly  frontier  one  step  closer.  It  is  a  safe  bet 
that  the  Navy  will  continue  in  the  forefront  of 
this  effort. 

OTHER  AREAS  OF 
NAVAL  RESEARCH 

The  remainder  of  this  chapter  briefly 
describes  some  of  the  research  areas  and 
activities  responsible  for  research  and 
development  for  the  Navy. 


Shipbuilding 

The  research,  development,  test,  and 
evaluation  of  naval  ship  architecture,  marine 
engineering,  ship  concepts,  and  related  fields  of 
science  and  engineering  are  tasked  to  the  David 
W.  Taylor  Naval  Ship  Research  and 
Development  Center  (DWT  NSRDC).  This 
center  was  established  in  1967  with  the  merger 
of  the  former  David  Taylor  Model  Basin  at 
Carderock,  Md.,  and  the  former  U.S.  Navy 
Marine  Engineering  Laboratory  at  Annapolis, 
Md.  Reorganization  occurred  in  1971  with  two 
departments  in  Annapolis  and  six  departments 
in  Carderock.  Headquarters  is  at  Carderock. 

As  the  principal  research  and  development, 
test  and  evaluation  center  for  naval  vehicles, 
functions  at  DWT  NSRDC  include  new  vehicle 
concepts,  towing  systems,  ocean  platforms,  air 
cushion  vehicles,  ship-aircraft  compatibility,  and 
ship  trials;  surface  and  subsurface  vehicle 
technology;  hydrodynamics  and  vehicle 
aerodynamics;  computer-aided  ship  design  and 
construction;  computer  software  technology; 
acoustic  performance  and  predictions;  ship 
submarine  and  craft  noise  measurement  and 
silencing;  ship  control,  propulsion,  habitability; 
oceanography;  marine  corrosion;  alloys; 
silencing  techniques;  marine  piping;  and 
shipboard  pollution  abatement. 

Recent  developments  include  a  ship 
encapsulation  method  allowing  a  ship  to  be 
preserved  without  moving  topside  equipment; 
superconducting  electrical  machinery,  much 
smaller  and  lighter  than  conventional  electrical 
machinery  of  the  same  power;  fuel  cells  for 
power  systems  for  deep-diving  submersibles  and 
pressure  balanced  operations  at  deep  depths;  and 
nonpolluting  polymers  to  retard  corrosion  and 
keep  barnacles  and  slime  from  collecting  on  a 
ship's  hull.  The  laboratory  is  responsible  for 
finding  ways  to  control  all  pollution  generated 
by  ships,  whether  oil,  sewage,  trash,  garbage,  or 
industrial  wastes.  An  oil-water  separator  system 
has  been  developed;  several  sewage  systems  are 
under  study. 

The  world's  largest  deep  ocean  environment 
simulation  facility  is  located  at  Annapolis.  This 
complex  of  five  tanks  allows  engineers  to  study, 


552 


Chapter  28-RESEARCH  AND  DEVELOPMENT 


in  a  controlled  environment,  the  effects  of  deep 
ocean  pressures  on  small  submersibles,  and 
submersible  machinery  and  equipment. 
Closed-circuit  television  is  used  for  monitoring. 
The  David  Taylor  Model  Basin  at  Carderock, 
Md.,  was  named  for  the  late  Rear  Admiral  David 
Watson  Taylor,  Constructor  of  the  Navy. 
Admiral  Taylor  was  the  driving  force  behind  the 
establishment  in  1898  of  the  Experimental 
Model  Basin  at  the  Washington  Navy  Yard. 
There,  Navy  ship  models  first  were  tested  in 
tanks  and  airplane  models  in  wind  tunnels.  By 
1936,  the  Navy  Yard  facilities  had  been 
outgrown.  To  replace  them,  Congress 
authorized  the  purchase  of  186  acres  in 
Carderock.  The  land  provided  solid  bedrock  on 
which  to  build  the  towing  tanks  and  other 
projected  research  facilities.  In  1939,  the  David 
Taylor  Model  Basin  began  operations;  the  wind 
tunnel  operation  followed  5  years  later. 

Surface  Weapons 
and  Weapon  Systems 

The  focal  point  for  development  of  naval 
surface  warfare  weapon  systems,  research  in 
ordnance  technology,  and  support  of  naval 
strategic  systems  is  the  Naval  Surface  Weapons 
Center  (NSWC).  This  center  was  established  in 
1974  by  combining  the  management,  technical 
programs,  and  resources  of  the  Naval  Ordnance 
Laboratory,  White  Oak,  Md.,  and  the  Naval 
Weapons  Laboratory,  Dahlgren,  Va. 

Some  of  the  Center's  current  programs  are  in 
the  areas  of  surface-  and  air-launched  missiles, 
fuzing,  nuclear  weapon  effects,  high-energy  laser 
engineering,  antiship  missile  defense, 
aerodynamic  and  hydrodynamic  research, 
geoballistics,  astronautics,  geodesy,  and  the 
gunnery  improvement  program.  Other 
capabilities  include  development  of  gun  systems 
and  projectiles  (such  as  the  8-inch  semiactive 
laser-guided  projectile),  torpedoes,  mines,  and 
advanced  strategic  weapon  concepts. 

Examples  of  research  and  development 
activities  in  the  weapon  explosive  area  include 
the  Naval  Explosives  Development  Engineering 
Department  (NEDED)  at  the  Naval  Weapons 
Station,  Yorktown,  Va.,  and  the  Naval  Ordnance 
Station  at  Indian  Head,  Md. 


Underwater  Weapons  and 
Underwater  Weapon  Systems 

The  Navy's  main  research,  development, 
test,  and  evaluation  activity  for  underwater 
combat  systems  is  the  Naval  Underwater 
Systems  Center  (NUSC)  at  Newport,  R.I.  NUSC 
is  committed  to  a  diversity  of  complex 
technological  research  programs  concerning 
command  and  control  systems,  underwater 
weapons  and  targets,  weapon  launchers  and 
tubes,  underwater  tracking  ranges,  sonar, 
surveillance,  ocean  engineering,  and  fleet 
readiness.  In  addition  to  its  Newport  facilities, 
NUSC  has  a  major  research  and  development 
laboratory  complex  at  New  London,  Conn. 

Although  NUSC  is  tasked  to  perform 
research  and  development  of  torpedo-type 
weapons,  some  research  and  development,  and 
considerable  testing  and  evaluation  of  torpedoes 
is  also  conducted  at  the  Naval  Torpedo  Station 
(NTS)  at  Keyport,  Wash.  In  addition,  NTS, 
Keyport,  serves  as  the  sole  proofing  activity  for 
production  torpedoes.  Proofing  includes  a  series 
of  tests  that  a  sample  of  production  torpedoes 
must  pass  before  the  torpedo  is  accepted  and 
delivered  to  the  fleet. 

Naval  Aircraft  Systems 

The  principal  field  activity  for  the  design 
and  cradle-to-grave  management  of  the  aircraft 
system  is  the  Naval  Air  Development  Center 
(NADC)  at  Warminister,  Pa.  The  Center 
conducts  research,  development,  tests,  and 
evaluation  of,  and  life  cycle  support  for,  major 
naval  aircraft  systems.  NADC  was  established  in 
1944.  Its  capabilities  were  expanded 
substantially  in  1973  when  the  Naval  Navigation 
Laboratory  (NNL),  formerly  the  Naval  Strategic 
Systems  Navigation  Facility,  was  incorporated 
under  NADC.  Approximately  60%  of  the 
research  and  development  at  NNL  deals  with 
navigation  for  surface  ships  and  submarines.  The 
other  40%  is  concentrated  on  airborne 
navigational  systems.  Some  of  the  current  and 
ongoing  research  and  development  projects 
presently  being  conducted  by  NNL  include  ring 
laser  gyro  technology,  the  global  positioning 
system,  and  the  joint  tactical  information 
distribution  system. 


APPENDIX 


PERSONNEL  RECORDS 


An  officer's  record  maintained  in  the  Bureau 
of  Naval  Personnel  is  intended  to  reflect  the 
official  history  of  the  officer's  career  in  the 
Navy.  It  is  the  property  of  the  Government  and 
not  of  the  officer  concerned.  This  official  record 
maintained  for  Regular  Navy  and  Naval  Reserve 
officers  may  contain  any  document  which  bears 
or  reflects  on  the  character,  performance, 
professional  qualifications  and  fitness  of  the 
officer.  This  record  shall  not  be  used  as  a 
depository  for  documents  of  a  personal  nature 
that  have  no  bearing  on  personnel  functions. 
The  record  is  reviewed  when  any  change  in 
status  is  contemplated,  such  as,  assignment  to 
duty,  special  details,  examination  for 
promotion,  trial  by  general  court-martial,  or 
disciplinary  action  by  the  Chief  of  Naval 
Personnel.  The  record  is  of  particular 
importance  in  selection  for  promotion. 

All  officer  personnel  records  held  in 
BUPERS  have  been  converted  from  a  flat  paper 
to  a  microfiche  format.  The  officer  record  now 
consists  of  up  to  six  categories  of  microfiche 
which  contain  types  of  documents  as  indicated 
in  figures  Al-1  and  A 1-2  and  listed  below: 

a.  Fiche  No.  1 -Fitness  and  Awards 

(1)  Assignment  Officer  Code. 

(2)  Latest  Photograph. 

(3)  Fitness  Reports  and  Attachments. 

(4)  Medals/Awards/Citations;    Commenda- 
tory Data  (received  prior  to  30  Sep  73). 

b.  Fiche  No.  2-Professional  History 

(1)  Educational  Data. 

(2)  Qualifications/Classifications/Designa- 
tion  Data. 

(3)  Appointments/Promotions/Commis- 
sions. 

(4)  Reserve  Status. 


(5)  Service     Determinations/Separation/ 
Retirement. 

(6)  Miscellaneous  Professional  History. 

c.  Fiche  No.  3— Personal  Data 

(1)  Security     Investigations,     Clearances, 
Personal  History  Statement. 

(2)  Record  of  Emergency  Data. 

(3)  Record  Changes. 

(4)  Personal  Background  Data  (Citizenship/ 
Casualty/Dea  th/Biography). 

(5)  Reports  of  Physical  Examination. 

(6)  Miscellaneous  Personal  Data. 

d.  Fiche  No.  4-Orders 

e.  Fiche  No.  5 -Privileged  Information 

(1)  Adverse  Information.  (Pursuant  to  Navy 
Regulations,  adverse  matter  shall  not  be  placed 
in  an  officer's  record  without  the  knowledge  of 
the  officer.  In  all  cases,  it  shall  be  referred  to  the 
officer  reported  on  for  such  official  statement  as 
may    be    desired.    If    the    officer    reported  on 
chooses  to  make  no  statement,  that  intention 
shall  be  so  indicated   in  writing.  The  Chief  of 
Naval    Personnel    interprets    what    constitutes 
adverse  matter.) 

(2)  Statements   of  the   officer   in  reply  to 
adverse  matter. 

(3)  Extracts     from      the     findings    and 
recommendations     of     courts     and     boards 
concerning  the  officer.  These  include  statements 
of  disciplinary  action  and  court-martial  orders  or 
promulgating   letters   of  general   courts-martial 
where  there  has  been  a  finding  of  guilty.  When 
trial  results  in  an  acquittal  of  all  charges  and 
specifications,   or  in   cases   in   which  the  final 
review    of    a    conviction     results    in    action 
tantamount  to  an  acquittal  of  all  charges  and 
specifications,     court-martial     orders     or    the 
promulgating  letters  of  courts-martial  shall  not 
be  included  in  the  officer's  official  record.  No 


554 


Appendix  I-PERSONNEL  RECORDS 


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134.217 


Figure  A1-1. -Officer  Fiche  Formats. 


entry  whatsoever  regarding  the  acquittal  shall 
appear  in  the  officer's  official  record,  neither  the 
fact  of  having  been  tried  nor  any  mention  of  the 
offense.  Complete  records  of  proceedings  of 
courts- martial  inquiries,  investigations,  etc.,  are 
filed  in  the  Office  of  the  Judge  Advocate 
General. 

(4)  Other  information  of  a  highly  personal 
nature  (e.g.  psychiatric  examination). 

(5)  This  microfiche  is  prepared  on  individual 
officers  only  if  there  is  correspondence  which  is 
derogatory     in     nature,     or     correspondence 
reflecting    various    Board    decisions,    including 
Medical   Boards,   which  becomes  a  matter  of 
official  record. 


f.     Fiche  No.  6— Enlisted  Record 

(1)  Prepared  only  for  officers  who  have 
served  as  enlisted  members  for  two  or  more 
years  and  whose  officer  microform  record  was 
established  during  the  initial  conversion  process 
from  flat  paper  to  microfiche  format.  Enlisted 
documents  for  officers  who  completed  less  than 
two  years  of  enlisted  service  are  distributed  in 
the  appropriate  subject  matter  field  on  Fiche  1 
through  5. 

The  official  officer  record  which  is  presented 
to  Selection  Boards  is  comprised  of  Fiche 
Numbers  1,  2  and,  if  it  exists,  5  for  Active  Duty 
officers  and  Fiche  Numbers  1,  2,  4'  and,  if  it 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


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134.218 


Figure  A1-2.— Officer  Fiche  Formats. 


exists,  5  for  USNR  (inactive)  and  TAR  officers. 
Fiche  Numbers  3  and  6  are  normally  maintained 
for  administrative  purposes  only ;  however,  Fiche 
Number  3  may  be  provided  to  Boards,  upon 
their  request,  for  determination  of  medical 
status. 

Commendatory  correspondence  may  no 
longer  be  filed  in  the  officer  official  record.  Any 
commendatory  correspondence  or  recognition 
for  performance  which  is  beyond  that  normally 
expected  should  be  considered  by  the  reporting 
senior  when  overall  performance  is  evaluated  in 
the  preparation  of  the  officer's  fitness  report.  If 
considered  appropriate,  an  entry  should  be  made 
in  the  remarks  section  of  the  fitness  report 


reflecting  the  commendatory  material  received 
and  any  other  pertinent  related  facts. 

Access  to  the  record  of  an  officer  is 
normally  limited  to  the  officer  concerned,  an 
agent  or  representative  of  the  officer  specifically 
authorized  in  writing,  the  Chief  of  Naval 
Personnel  and  authorized  assistants  in  the 
conduct  of  their  official  duties,  duly  convened 
Boards  of  the  Department  of  the  Navy, 
courts-martial,  and  to  the  clerk  of  a  court  of 
competent  jurisdiction  in  response  to  a  valid 
order  from  that  court. 

Any  matter  that  is  rightfully  placed  in  the 
official  record  of  an  officer  may  not  be  removed 
except  by  special  authorization  of  the  Secretary 


Appendix  I-PERSONNEL  RECORDS 


3f  the  Navy.  The  record  is  permanent.  Once 
submitted  to  the  Chief  of  Naval  Personnel,  a 
:itness  report  becomes  the  property  of  the  Navy 
Department  and  is  not  subject  to  change.  A 
-eport  may  be  amended  or  supplemented  by 
Correspondence  forwarded  via  official  channels. 
[n  such  cases,  the  forwarding  correspondence 
ivill  be  microfilmed  and  made  a  part  of  the 
itness  report  being  amended  or  supplemented. 
Anonymous  communications  are  not  made  a 
3art  of  an  officer's  official  record. 


OFFICER  SERVICE  RECORD 

An  Officer  Service  Record  (figure  A 1-3)  is 
maintained  for  every  officer  in  addition  to  the 
officer's  record  in  BUPERS.  This  is  a  brown 
manila  file  folder  similar  in  general  format  to  the 
enlisted  service  record. 

For  the  active  duty  officer,  the  service 
record  is  maintained  by  the  activity  to  which  he 
is  attached. 


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557 


For  officers  not  on  active  duty  and  retired 
officers,  the  responsibility  for  maintenance  of 
service  records  depends  on  whether  the  officers 
are  participating  in  inactive  duty  training.  For 
those  not  participating  (i.e.,  not  having  orders 
for  any  type  of  inactive  duty  training),  the 
records  are  maintained  by  the  Commanding 
Officer,  Naval  Reserve  Personnel  Center,  New 
Orleans,  La. 

The  Officer  Service  Record  is  designed  to 
provide  a  ready  file  of  documents  which  may  be 
used  for  billet  assignment  and  other 
administrative  purposes  and  to  establish  facts, 
when  necessary,  regarding  his  naval  service. 


The  right  side  of  the  record  is  reserved  for 
documents  affecting  utilization  and  assignment 
of  the  officer  concerned.  The  left  side  is  used  for 
information  primarily  related  to  the  officer's 
present  tour  of  active  duty.  Accordingly,  some 
items  filed  on  the  left  side  are  removed  from  the 
folder  when  the  officer  is  transferred  and  given 
to  him  to  retain  in  his  own  possession  or  to 
destroy  as  he  sees  fit.  Miscellaneous  documents 
not  coming  in  either  of  the  above  categories,  but 
establishing  significant  facts  relating  to  the 
officer's  service,  are  also  filed  on  the  left  side. 

A  list  of  the  rather  large  number  of 
documents  filed  on  each  side  and  the  order  of 
filing  is  given  in  SUPERS  Manual. 


558 


APPENDIX  II 


OFFICER  FITNESS  REPORTS 


Fitness  reports  form  one  of  the  most 
mportant  documents  of  an  officer's  record. 
Fhey  provide  a  record  of  the  duty  performed 
nd  the  manner  of  its  performance,  the 
jrofessional  qualifications  of  the  officer,  matter 
;ommendatory  or  censorious  received  by  him, 
.ny  disciplinary  action,  the  general  state  of  his 
icalth  and  endurance  as  it  affects  his  value  to 
he  naval  service,  any  special  qualifications 
assessed  by  the  officer,  and  his  personal 
iharacteristics. 

Fitness  reports  are  the  primary  instrument 
)y  which  the  best  qualified  officers  are 
jromoted  and  by  which  those  with  the 
)articular  qualifications  required  are  chosen  to 
ill  responsible  positions  in  the  military 
'.stablishment.  In  addition,  they  are  used  as 
svidence  before  courts-martial  and  in  connection 
vith  disciplinary  action  of  a  lesser  degree, 
lach  report  should  be  a  frank,  accurate,  and 
;omprehensive  portrayal  of  the  characteristics 
md  manner  of  performance  of  duty  of  the 
jfficer  reported  on. 

Because  of  the  importance  of  these  reports, 
.11  officers  should  familiarize  themselves  with 
)0th  the  form  and  the  instructions  concerning 
ts  use.  NAVPERS  1611/1  (figures  A2-1  and 
U-2)  is  the  optical  character  recognition  (OCR) 
brm  on  which  fitness  reports  are  submitted, 
jpecific  instructions  for  completing  the  form  are 
)romulgated  by  BUPERINST  161 1.12  series. 

It  was  mentioned  in  appendix  I  that  access 
o  an  officer's  record  (where  fitness  reports  are 
etained)  in  the  Bureau  of  Naval  Personnel  may 
)e  granted  to  the  officer  concerned  or  to  his 
lesignated  representative.  Every  officer,  when  in 
he  Washington,  D.C.  area,  should  take 
.dvantage  of  the  opportunity  to  visit  the 


Records  Review  Room  in  BUPERS  and  review 
his  past  fitness  reports.  The  visit  will  serve  at 
least  two  purposes:  (1)  the  officer  can  assure 
himself  that  there  are  no  missing  reports,  or 
should  there  be,  he  can  take  remedial  action 
(request  their  submission  from  the  appropriate 
reporting  seniors)  in  advance  of  the  date  the 
next  selection  board  in  his  case  meets;  and  (2) 
by  comparing  reports,  he  can  determine 
whether,  in  the  opinion  of  his  successive 
reporting  seniors,  he  is  declining  in  some  aspects 
of  his  professional  ability  or  qualifications. 
Again,  he  may  have  the  opportunity  to  take 
remedial  action  (improve  himself). 

It  is  the  responsibility  of  each  superior 
exercising  command  functions  to  complete 
fitness  reports  on  all  officers  who  have  reported 
to  him  for  duty  in  accordance  with  orders  issued 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  the  Chief  of  Naval 
Personnel,  or  others  authorized  by  them  to  issue 
such  orders. 

Reports  of  fitness  on  Regular  officers  and 
Reserve  officers  on  active  duty  are  submitted  at 
least  annually  on  a  schedule  published  by  the 
Chief  of  Naval  Personnel.  Reserve  officers, 
training  and  administering  reserves  (TARs)  on 
extended  duty,  who  compete  among  themselves 
for  promotion,  have  a  different  submission 
schedule. 

Reports  of  fitness  on  Reserve  officers  who 
perform  active  duty  for  training  are  submitted 
on  NAVPERS  1611/1  by  the  commanding 
officer  of  the  ship  or  station  where  the  active 
duty  was  performed,  and  are  forwarded  direct  to 
the  Chief  of  Naval  Personnel.  The  occasion  for 
such  reports  is  "Detachment  of  Officer." 

Most  scheduled  submission  dates  are 
approximately  3  months  before  the  usual 


559 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION^ 




SUPERS  USE  ONLY  I 


I    I  8UPERS  USE  ONLY  I    I 


D 


ICASION  FOR  REE 
| 1  9.  PER- 
IODIC 


REPORT  ON  THE  FITNESS  OF  OFFICERS 

jji^fflriffi; 

IT  SHIP/STATION 


ff^— |  ,0  DETACHMENT  OF  [7]  FT '    OP^cIT 

\ I        REPORTING  SENIOR       |    |    |  LJ__ ...Jl£f!!f!!L 


rPERiOrj  OF  REPORT 
l2FRO 


-r.TT.-ssN 

•'-•-'•-i      rf  OATE~FIEPOHTE"D  "" 


" 


iTiMPLOYMENT  OF  COMMAND   (CONTINUED  ON  REVERSE  SIDE  OF 

TTtTair 


23~flEPORTING  SENIOR  (LAST  NAME.  Fl.  Ml) 


zTGRAo¥ "  "TTT":  D6S1G 


'         TsTSSN 


-D5TTis'i5iiOMEO(CONTiNUio^frRkVERSE  SIDE  OF  RECORD  COPYI 


"WARFARE  SPECIALTLSKIL~LS  IFHOM  OCRVVORK  SHEETI 

-38  SEA-       rriM  *'R-      \T\'°  WATCH 

^ANSHiP  I    |MANSHIP  |   |   |  STANDING^ 

-3rsUBS?ECiArrYCODE "  REQUIRED  BXJ?'LU 


E&JDn^LlJ 


"ttr>  r-i— i  r-i~|  "in,-,    ...IIIAII 

,9    ANALYTIC  rT]70    PERSONAL  I       71    FORCE  7J    MILI1AR 

ABILITY _J_ll ?!^!IO_R_       _  U.J         N«S._  JJ       _BEARIN( 

"    'Til; 


62  SIGNATURE  OF  OFFICER  EVALUATED    HAW  SUPERS  INST    inn-i?  SERIESI 

KNOWLEDGE    THAT    I    HAVE    SEEN    THIS    REPORT    AND  HAVt   BEEN    APPHISFD    OH    MY    PER 
FORUANC6 


85  SIGNATURE  OF  REPORTING  SEMlOR 


87    SIGNATURE  OF  REGULAR  REPORTING  SENIOR  ON  CONCURRENT  AND  CONCURRENT/ SPECIAL  REPORT 


NAVF-EBS  1611/1  (BEV.  9-72)  S/N  0106-I.F-078  3113 


WORKSHEET 


DETACH  WORK  SHEET  BEFORE  COMPLETING  FORM 


Comments  are  required   Enter  comments  in  Section  88  on  RECORD  and  OFFICER  copies. 
DO  NOT  ATTACH  CONTINUATION  PAGES  TO  OCR  COPY 


Figure  A2-1.-Report  on  the  Fitness  of  Officers  (NAVPERS  1611/1),  (front). 


134.219 


560 


Appendix  II-OFFICER  FITNESS  REPORTS 


21.  EMPLOYMENT  Of  COMMAND  (Continued) 


88.  COMMENTS.  Particularly  comment  upon  the  olllcec 
lerBk  (•)  Indicates  adversity  and  supporting  comments 


'  Tn',",'i  '••<ltIth'B  MMl'  CBrsorial  >">">  n°<  «»'«  »»  «ie  re.e»e  side,  snd  estimated  or  actual  pertorma, 
""'  ""  lmpc"lnl  '°  """"  d«v«'°P™»nl  and  lulure  assignment.  A  mark  in  boxes  will)  i 


134.220 


Figure  A2-2.-Report  on  the  Fitness  of  Officers  (NAVPERS  1611/1),  (back). 


mvening  dates  of  applicable  selection  boards, 
hich  gives  each  board  the  benefit  of  the  latest 
;rformance  evaluation.  The  more  frequent 
bmission  of  reports  for  junior  officers  is 
scessary  to  accelerate  the  development  of 
;cord  information,  to  facilitate  closer 
pervision  of  those  officers,  and  to  provide  a 
isis  for  consideration  for  postgraduate 
hooling  and  other  training. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  regular 
jtachment  reports  are  submitted  for  all  officers 
)on  the  permanent  detachment  of  themselves 

•  their  regular  reporting  seniors. 

To  avoid  unnecessary  submission  of  fitness 
ports  for  brief  periods  of  time  and  otherwise 

•  facilitate  the  administration  of  fitness  reports, 
.e    prescribed     reporting     periods    may    be 
odified  as  indicated  below.  The  intent  is  for 
tness  reports  to  cover  all  time  in  a  duty  status. 

A  reporting  senior  may  extend  a  periodic 
port  for  a  maximum  of  60  days  on  either  end 
'  the  period  involved  when  either  the  officer 
ported  on  or  the  reporting  senior  reports  for 
ity  before  or  is  detached  after  the  period  to  be 
itended.  For  example,  a  commander  who 
ports  for  duty  on  12  May  1977  and  whose 
gular  reporting  senior  is  detached  on  21  June 
?78  could  properly  receive  but  one  report  of 
tness  for  the  entire  period  commencing  12  May 

77.  A  reporting  senior  who  is  being  detached, 


however,  must  submit  a  fitness  report  on  every 
officer  who  is  aboard  as  of  the  day  of  his 
detachment,  regardless  of  how  brief  a  period 
may  be  involved. 

When  an  officer  reports  on  board  for 
temporary  duty  for  purposes  of  briefings, 
training,  indoctrination,  or  awaiting  further 
transportation  for  a  period  not  to  exceed  30 
days,  the  period  involved  and  nature  of  assigned 
duties  often  preclude  a  meaningful  evaluation. 
In  such  instances,  the  temporary  duty  reporting 
senior  need  not  submit  a  fitness  report. 
However,  the  temporary  duty  reporting  senior 
must  ensure  that  both  the  officer  concerned  and 
the  ultimate  command  are  advised  that  no 
report  has  or  will  be  submitted  for  such  period. 
Additionally,  the  ultimate  command  must  be 
provided  all  training  information  to  record  in 
the  next  regular  report.  The  ultimate  command 
must  cover  the  temporary  duty,  as  well  as  other 
transient  time,  in  the  next  regular  report. 


PREPARATION  OF 
FITNESS  REPORTS 

The  importance  of  keeping  the  records  of 
officers  continuously  complete  in  all  respects 
requires  prompt  submission  of  the  report.  The 
responsibility  is  twofold-that  of  the  officer 
reported  on  to  submit  his  report  at  the  proper 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


time  to  his  reporting  senior,  and  that  of  the 
reporting  senior  to  complete  this  report  and 
forward  it  to  the  Bureau  of  Naval  Personnel  as 
expeditiously  as  practicable. 

Each  officer's  fitness  report  file  should 
contain  a  complete  and  continuous  record  of  all 
time  in  active  duty  status.  To  this  end,  the 
period  of  the  report  should  commence  with  the 
day  after  the  terminal  date  of  the  last  report  or 
the  date  the  officer  was  detached  from  his  last 
duty  station.  Time  between  stations  spent  in 
transit,  on  leave,  in  the  hospital,  or  on  inactive 
duty  should  be  indicated  in  the  report.  The 
reporting  senior's  marks  and  remarks  are  limited 
to  the  period  during  which  the  officer  was  under 
his  command. 

Commanding  officers  frequently  require 
their  executive  officers  and  department  heads  to 
report  to  them  on  the  performance  of  officers 
serving  under  their  supervision.  These  reports  are 
for  the  use  of  the  commanding  officer  in  making 
his  reports  on  the  fitness  of  officers  under  his 
command  and  are  not  forwarded  to  the  Chief  of 
Naval  Personnel. 

After  a  naval  action  or  campaign,  and  after 
service  on  shore  with  an  expeditionary  force  or 
force  of  occupation,  an  entry  is  made  on  each 
officer's  next  report  of  fitness  of  his 
participation  therein,  stating  the  kinds  of 
services  performed  and  giving  the  date  and 
names  of  any  engagements  in  which  he  took 
part. 

Officers  in  the  grades  of  warrant  officer 
(W-l),  chief  warrant  officer  (CWO-2),  and 
ensign  through  lieutenant  must,  except  in 
unusual  circumstances,  sign  the  record  copy 
regardless  of  the  report  content.  The  report 
must  be  signed  in  ink  by  both  the  officer  being 
evaluated  and  the  reporting  senior. 

Officers  in  the  grades  of  lieutenant 
commander  through  captain  may  be  given 
counseling  upon  request  although  reports  shall 
not  as  a  matter  of  routine  be  shown  to  them. 
When  the  report  has  been  discussed  but  not 
shown  to  the  officer,  the  words  "REPORT 
DISCUSSED"  are  typed  in  section  82  of  both 
the  OCR  form  and  record  copies  of  the  report, 
so  that  discussion  information  will  be  available 
to  appropriate  officer  record  users. 


Reporting  seniors  will  show  fitness  reports 
to  officers  in  the  grades  of  warrant  officer  (W-l), 
chief  warrant  officer  (CWO-2),  and  ensign 
through  lieutenant.  This  action  will  be 
accompanied  by  personal  counseling,  and  to  this 
end  a  frank  and  meaningful  discussion  and 
explanation  of  the  report  must  be  conducted  so 
that  the  officer  may  fully  understand  his 
performance. 

SPECIAL  FITNESS  REPORTS 

Special  reports  of  fitness  on  an  officer,  on 
the  prescribed  form,  are  made  whenever  the 
officer  reported  on— 

1 .  Distinguishes  himself  in  battle. 

2.  Performs  an  outstanding  act  of  valor  or 
devotion  to  duty. 

3.  Displays  extraordinary  courage,  ability, 
or     resource     in     time     of     peril     or     great 
responsibility. 

4.  Is    guilty    of    serious    misconduct    or 
marked  inefficiency. 


ADVERSE  REPORTS 

Adverse  matter  is  not  placed  in  an  officer's 
record  without  his  knowledge.  A  fitness  report 
containing  adverse  matter  is  referred  officially  in 
writing  to  the  officer  reported  on  for  such 
official  statement  as  he  may  choose  to  make  in 
reply.  If  that  officer  desires  to  make  no 
statement,  he  must  so  state  officially  in  writing. 
The  statement  (or  nonstatement)  is  endorsed  by 
the  reporting  senior  and  forwarded  to  the  Chief 
of  Naval  Personnel  together  with  the  fitness 
report. 

When  a  report  referred  to  an  officer  for 
statement  is  not  returned  to  the  reporting  senior 
within  a  reasonable  time,  the  reporting  senior 
forwards  a  signed  duplicate  report  to  the  Chief 
of  Naval  Personnel  with  an  explanation  of  the 
circumstances.  The  officer  reported  on  is 
informed  when  this  is  done. 


562 


Appendix  II-OFFICER  FITNESS  REPORTS 


SUBMISSION  OF  REPORTS 

When  it  is  completed,  the  regular  reporting 
lenior  forwards  the  'report  of  fitness  directly  to 
:he  Chief  of  Naval  Personnel. 

Any  reports  concerning  the  actions  or 
)erformance  of  the  officer  reported  on  during  a 
ransit  period  between  stations  are  addressed  to 
he  superior  to  whom  the  officer  is  reporting  for 
luty,  and  normally  are  attached  by  him  to  the 
iext  regular  report  of  fitness.  When  the  nature 
if  such  a  report  is  such  that  early  action  by  the 
:hief  of  Naval  Personnel  is  indicated,  the  report 
5  forwarded  to  him  immediately. 

The  reports  of  fitness  of  officers  are 
onsidered  and  treated  as  private  official.  The 


reports  are  forwarded  in  double  envelopes.  If  it 
is  necessary  to  make  reference  to  classified 
information  in  a  fitness  report,  the  instructions 
promulgated  in  Department  of  the  Navy 
Information  Security  Program  Regulation  apply. 
The  outer  envelope  is  addressed  to  the  Bureau  of 
Naval  Personnel  (Fitness  Report  Branch);  the 
inner  envelope  is  marked  "Report  of  Fitness, 
For  Official  Use  Only." 

Any  officer  may,  upon  request,  obtain  a 
copy  of  the  five  most  recent  reports  in  his 
record.  A  written  request  accompanied  by  a 
personal  check  or  money  order  for  $2.00, 
payable  to  BUPERS,  may  be  submitted  directly 
to  BUPERS. 


563 


APPENDIX  III 
CLASSIFICATION  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  OFFICERS 


The  Navy,  to  carry  out  its  assigned  missions, 
needs  personnel  with  a  variety  of  training,  skills, 
and  experience.  To  help  ensure  efficient  use  of 
its  personnel,  the  Navy  employs  classification 
systems  compatible  with  electronic  data 
processing.  These  systems  and  their  supporting 
code  structures  provide  means  for  stating  the 
Navy's  requirements  for  specific  billets,  and  for 
rapidly  identifying  needed  skills,  training,  and 
occupational  experience.  Code  identification  of 
significant  factors  facilitates  personnel  planning, 
development  of  training  requirements,  skills 
utilization,  and  distribution  of  officer  personnel. 
Code  identification  also  is  of  paramount 
importance  in  the  evaluation  of  mobilization 
readiness,  and  in  the  orderly  call  of  inactive 
officers  to  active  duty  in  times  of  national 
emergency. 

Except  under  unusual  circumstances, 
detailing  of  active  naval  officers  is  a  result  of 
individual  study  of  service  records  and  exhibited 
potential  as  they  are  related  to  service  needs. 
The  Chief  of  Naval  Personnel  does  not  detail 
officers  "by  machine." 


CLASSIFICATION 

The  Navy's  officer  classification  system 
provides  a  method  of  recording,  on  a  continuing 
basis,  each  officer's  professional  and  personal 
qualifications,  any  combination  of  which  may 
be  required  to  perform  the  duties  of  a  particular 
billet.  The  professional  qualifications  (such  as 
aptitude,  educational  achievement,  occupational 
experience,  and  physical  condition)  and  the 
personal  qualifications  (such  as  language 
proficiency,  geographic  familiarity,  and  licenses) 


are  collected,  evaluated,  and  coded  to  reflect  the 
Navy's  manpower  resources. 

The  Navy  officer  billet  classification  (NOBC) 
system  provides  for  collecting  and  evaluating 
data  related  to  peacetime  and  wartime  officer 
manpower  requirements  and  for  identifying  and 
classifying  officer  billets  at  ships  and  on  stations. 

Qualifications  information  for  officers  on 
active  duty  is  recorded  on  magnetic  disk  packs, 
using  the  code  structure  outlined  and  defined  in 
the  Manual  of  Navy  Officer  Billet  Classifications, 
NAVPERS  15839  series.  These  data  identify, 
among  other  things,  manpower  requirements  in 
terms  of  specific  billets  and  officers'  skills;  i.e., 
occupational  experience  in  these  billets,  as  well 
as  any  special  qualifications,  such  as  required 
education.  The  annually  submitted  (by 
individual  officers)  Officer  Preference  and 
Personal  Information  Card  provides  distribution 
officers  in  BUPERS  with  additional  information 
to  be  considered  when  making  decisions, 
including  specific  duty  and  geographic  area 
preferences. 

Generally,  occupational  qualifications  codes 
represent  experience  rather  than  capability. 
They  do  not  describe  quality  of  performance, 
nor  do  they  indicate  future  assignments. 
Occupational  codes  are  valuable  tools  for 
providing  a  quick  index  of  officers'  skills  for 
planning,  mobilizing,  and  detailing. 

The  Officer  Data  Card  (ODC),  NAVPERS 
1301/6,  is  a  representative  sample  of  data 
elements  from  an  officer's  electronic  record.  The 
ODC  is  forwarded  to  each  officer  4  to  6  months 
after  his  arrival  at  a  new  duty  station,  thus 
periodically  providing  him  with  the  opportunity 
to  validate  his  record  or  update  it  as  needed. 


564 


Appendix  HI-CLASSIFICATION  AND  DTSTRTmmnM  OF  OFFICERS 


The  use  of  magnetic  disk  packs  as  the 
recording  medium  permits  the  inclusion  (for 
officers  on  active  duty)  of  seven  naval  and 
civilian  occupational  codes,  information 
pertaining  to  formal  education  in  two  schools, 
ability  in  two  languages,  and  completion  of  five 
Navy-sponsored  schools  and  courses.  The 
amount  of  recordable  information  for  officers 
not  on  active  duty  is  somewhat  less  due  to  the 
limited  space  available  on  the  annually 
submitted  qualification  questionnaires. 


DISTRIBUTION 

The  Chief  of  Naval  Personnel  has  the 
responsibility  for  detailing  officers.  Within  the 
Bureau  and  under  the  cognizance  of  the 
Assistant  Chief  for  Officer  Development  and 
Distribution,  officer  allowances,  or 
complements,  of  each  ship  and  station  and  the 
personnel  available  are  considered 
simultaneously  in  making  assignment  decisions. 


(In  the  case  of  Staff  Corps  officers,  assignment 
recommendations  are  made  by  their  sponsoring 
systems  commands.)  The  assignment  of  each 
officer  is  the  result  of  individual  study  of  the 
best  information  available  concerning  the 
requirements  (allowance/complements)  and  the 
officer  (his  entire  service  record).  Classification 
information  is  often  initially  used  in  those  cases 
where  an  officer  with  a  specific  background  is 
needed.  In  this  respect,  classification  helps  to 
narrow  the  field  of  search. 

In  peacetime,  the  most  frequent  course 
followed  in  detailing  officers  is  to  review  career 
needs  of  the  individual  officer  as  he  is  made 
available  for  rotation  upon  completion  of 
normal  tours  of  duty,  and  to  assign  the  officer 
to  a  billet  commensurate  with  his  acquired  skills, 
training,  and  so  on,  that  will  utilize  his 
capabilities  and  simultaneously  enhance  his 
command  qualifications.  It  is  under  the  duress 
of  emergency  and  mobilization  that 
qualification  records  become  essential  as  a 
shortcut  to  detailing  large  numbers  of  officers. 


565 


APPENDIX  IV 


MORSE  CODE,  SEMAPHORE,  AND  ALPHABET  FLAGS 


Letter 

Phonetic 
Alphabet 

Pronunciation 
Guide 

International 
Morse  Code 

A. 

ALFA 

AL  FA  



B 

BRAVO. 

BRAH  VOH  

c 

CHARLI 
DELTA. 

E      ... 

CHAR   LEE  

D 

DELL  TAH  

E 

ECHO 

ECK  OH  

F 

FOXTROT  
GOLF 

FOKS  TROT  

G 

GOLF     .     ..   .   .. 

H 

HOTEL 

HOH  TELL 

I 

INDIA 

IN  DEE  AH  

J___  

JULIET! 
KILO 

-i 

JEW  LEE  ETT... 

K 

KEY   LOH 

L    

LIMA... 

LEE  MAH  

M 

MIKE 

MIKE 

N 

NOVEMBER.... 
OSCAR  

NO   VEM  BER.... 
OSS  CAH 

0 

P    ..  

PAPA.  .. 

PAH   PAH 

Q  

QUEBEC 
ROMEO. 
SIERRA 

KAY   BECK 

R 



ROW   ME  OH    .  .. 
SEE  AIR  RAH 

S      .. 

T 

TANGO 

TANG  GO  
YOU  NEE  FORM. 
VIK  TAH 

— 

U  

UNIFOR 
VICTOR 
WHISKE 
XRAY... 

M  

V  .... 

w 

Y  

WFSS  KEY  
ECKS  RAY 

—  •  •  — 

X  

Y  

YANKEt 
ZULU 

YANG   KEY 

z  

ZOO  LOO     . 

Number 

Pronunciation                International 
Guide                        Morse  Code 

1  

WUN 



2  .    . 

TOO 

3  

4  
5  

6  

THUI 
FO-VV 
FI-YI 
SIX.. 
SEVK 
ATE 

I-RKE  
ER  
V  

7  

8 

N  

9  

NINI- 
ZERO 

BW™^^^B8 

R 

0  

MMMRMMMMmMMMMM^M^Mn^^^^n 

^*™m**'ulIHINIIIIIIIIIIIHHii^^^i^M 

R9M£BRHRRRHMMHMMMMnRSMnnmB^^^n^MnMMHHM^aMMMi^M»Mi 

*fc"l"*'l^"l^*gfc'™*"lll"^HIBIIIlilBUI|IHI|HMBB||tJB| 

Figure  A4-1. -Phonetic  alphabet  and  Morse  code. 

566 


17.20 


Appendix  IV-MORSE  CODE.  SEMAPHORE  AND  ALPHABET  FLAGS 


<X 


LlJ  C 


B^H 


AND 

ANSWERING 
SIGN 


a         a 


KUJ 


o 


HID 


ERROR 


FRONT  NUMERALS  ATTENTION 


17.18 


Figure  A4-2.-Semaphore  alphabet. 


FLAG 

and 

NAME 

S 


a 


Spoken 


ALFA 


BRAVO 


CHARLIE 


DELTA 


ECHO 


FOXTROT 


GOLF 


HOTEL 


INDIA 


JULIETT 


KILO 


LIMA 


Written 


FLAG 

and 

NAME 


X 


Spoken 


MIKE 


NOVEMBER 


OSCAR 


PAPA 


QUEBEC 


ROMEO 


SIERRA 


TANGO 


UNIFORM 


VICTOR 


WHISKEY 


XRAY 


Written 


FLAG 

and 

NAME 


Spoken 


YANKEE 


Written 


ZULU 


ONE 


0 


Figure  A4-3.-Alphabet  and  numeral  flags. 

568 


TWO 


THREE 


FOUR 


FIVE 


SIX 


SEVEN 


EIGHT 


NINE 


ZERO 


Appendix  IV-MORSE  CODE,  SEMAPHORE  AND  ALPHABET  FLAGS 


PENNANT 

and 

NAME 


c* 


TACK 
LIKE 


Spoken 


PENNANT 
ONE 


PENNANT 
TWO 


PENNANT 
THREE 


PENNANT 
FOUR 


PENNANT 
FIVE 


PENNANT 
SIX 


PENNANT 
SEVEN 


PENNANT 
EIGHT 


PENNANT 
NINE 


PENNANT 
ZERO 


TACK 


Written 


Pi 


P2 


P3 


P4 


P5 


P6 


P7 


p9 


PENNANT 

or 

FLAG 


CODE 
or  ANSWER 


SCREEN 


CORPEN 


NATION 


DIVISION 


EMERGENCY 


FLOTILLA 


FORMATION 


ROGATIV 


Spoken 


CODE  or 
ANSWER 


SCREEN 


CORPEN 


DESIG 


DIV 


EMERGENCY 


FLOT 


FORMATION 


INTER- 
ROGATIVE 


Written 


ODE  or 
ANS 


SCREEN 


CORPEN 


DESIG 


DIV 


EMERG 


FLOT 


FORM 


INT 


PENNANT 

or 

FLAG 


NEGATIVE 


REPARATIVE 


PORT 


SPEED 


SQUADRON 


STARBOARD 


STATION 


SUBDIVISION 


TURN 


Spoken 


NEGAT 


PREP 


PORT 


SPEED 


SQUAD 


STARBOARD 


STATION 


SUBDIV 


TURN 


Written 


NEGAT 


PREP 


PORT 


SPEED 


SQUAD 


STBD 


STATION 


SUBDIV 


TURN 


SUBSTITUTES 


1st.. 
SUBSTITUTE 


FIRST 
SUB 


1st. 


SUBSTITUTE 


THIRD 
SUB 


3rd. 


Figure  A4-4.-Numeral  pennants,  special  flags  and  pennants,  and  substitutes. 


C17.68 


APPENDIX  V 


HONORS  AND  CEREMONIES 


This  appendix  contains  excerpts  from 
chapter  10,  United  States  Navy  Regulations. 

1 00 1 .  Authority  for  Dispensing  With  Honors. 

The  honors  and  ceremonies  prescribed  in 
these  regulations  may  be  dispensed  with  when 
directed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  or  when 
requested  by  an  individual  to  whom  such  honors 
and  ceremonies  are  due. 

1002.  Honors  Restricted  to  Recognized  Govern- 
ments. 

No  salute  shall  be  fired  in  honor  of  any 
nation  or  of  any  official  of  any  nation  not 
formally  recognized  by  the  Government  of  the 
United  States;  and,  except  as  authorized  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  no  other  honors  or 
ceremonies  prescribed  in  these  regulations  shall 
be  rendered  or  exchanged  with  such  nations  or 
officials. 

1003.  International  Honors  Modified  by  Agree- 
ment. 

Should  the  required  number  of  frequency  of 
international  salutes,  official  visits,  or  other 
honors  and  ceremonies  be  deemed  excessive,  the 
senior  officer  present  in  the  United  States  naval 
service  may  make,  subject  to  the  requirements 
of  international  courtesy,  such  modification  as 
circumstances  warrant  and  as  may  be  agreed 
upon  with  the  responsible  officials  or  the  senior 
officer  present  of  the  nation  involved. 

HONORS  TO  NATIONAL  ANTHEMS 

AND  NATIONAL  ENSIGNS 

1 004.  Manner  of  Playing  National  Anthems. 

1.  The  National  Anthem  of  the  United 
States,  "The  Star  Spangled  Banner,"  when 


played  by  a  naval  band  shall  be  played  in  its 
entirety  as  written  and  as  prescribed  in  the 
official  U.S.  Navy  Band  arrangement  which  is 
designated  as  the  official  Department  of  Defense 
arrangement. 

2.  The  playing  of  the  National  Anthem  of 
the  United  States,  or  of  any  other  country,  as  a 
part  of  a  medley  is  prohibited. 

3.  When    a    foreign    national    anthem   is 
prescribed  in  connection  with  honors,  and  it  is 
considered  appropriate  to  perform  the  National 
Anthem   of  the  United   States  therewith,  the 
National  Anthem  of  the  United  States  will  be 
performed  last. 

4.  On    other    occasions    when    a    foreign 
national  anthem  (or  anthems)  is  performed,  the 
National  Anthem  of  the  United  States  will  be 
performed    last,    except    when    performed   in 
conjunction  with  Morning  Colors. 

1005.  Procedure    During    Playing   of   National 
Anthems. 

1.  Whenever  the  National  Anthem  is 
played,  all  naval  service  personnel  not  in 
formation  shall  stand  at  attention  and  face  the 
national  ensign;  but  in  the  event  that  the 
national  ensign  is  not  being  displayed,  they  shall 
face  the  source  of  the  music.  When  covered  they 
shall  come  to  the  salute  at  the  first  note  of  the 
anthem,  and  shall  remain  at  the  salute  until  the 
last  note  of  the  anthem.  Persons  in  formation 
are  brought  to  order  arms  or  called  to  attention 
as  appropriate.  The  formation  commander  shall 
face  in  the  direction  of  the  music  or  ensign  and 
shall  render  the  salute  for  his  unit.  Persons  in 
formation  participating  in  a  ceremony  shall,  on 
command,  follow  the  procedure  prescribed  for 
the  ceremony.  Persons  in  vehicles  or  in  boats 
shall  follow  the  procedure  prescribed  for  such 


Appendix  V-HONQRS  AND  CEREMONIES 


persons  during  colors;  persons  in  civilian  clothes 
shall  comply  with  the  rules  and  customs 
established  for  civilians. 

2.  The  same  marks  of  respect  prescribed 
during  the  playing  of  the  National  Anthem  of 
the  United  States  shall  be  shown  during  the 
playing  of  a  foreign  national  anthem. 

1006.  Morning  and  Evening  Colors 

1.  The  ceremonial  hoisting  and  lowering  of 
the  national  ensign  at  0800  and  sunset  at  a  naval 
command  ashore  or  aboard  a  ship  of  the  Navy 
not  underway  shall  be  known  as  Morning  Colors 
and  Evening  Colors,  respectively,  and  shall  be 
carried  out.  as  prescribed  in  this  article. 

2.  The  guard  of  the  day  and  the  band  shall 
be  paraded  in  the  vicinity  of  the  point  of  hoist 
of  the  ensign. 

3.  "Attention"  shall  be  sounded,  followed 
by  the  playing   the  National  Anthem  by  the 
band. 

4.  At  Morning  Colors,  the  ensign  shall  be 
started  up  at  the  beginning  of  the  music  and 
hoisted  smartly  to  the  peak  or  truck.  At  Evening 
Colors,  the  ensign  shall  be  started  from  the  peak 
or  truck  at  the  beginning  of  the  music  and  the 
lowering  so  regulated  as  to  be  completed  at  the 
last  note. 

5.  At  the  completion  of  the  music,  "Carry 
On"  shall  be  sounded. 

6.  In    the    absence    of   a   band,   "To    the 
Colors"  shall  be  played  by  the  bugle  at  Morning 
Colors,  and  "Retreat"  at  Evening  Colors,  and 
the  salute  shall  be  rendered  as  prescribed  for  the 
National  Anthem. 

7.  In   the   absence   of  music,  "Attention" 
and  "Carry  On"  shall  be  the  signals  for  rendering 
and  terminating  the  salute.  "Carry  On"  shall  be 
sounded   as  soon   as   the  ensign  is  completely 
lowered. 

8.  During  colors,  a  boat  underway  within 
sight  or  hearing  of  the  ceremony  shall  lie  to,  or 
shall  proceed  at  the  slowest  safe  speed.  The  boat 
officer,  or  in  his  absence  the  coxswain,  shall 
stand  and  salute  except  when  dangerous  to  do 
so.  Other  persons  in  the  boat  shall  remain  seated 
or  standing  and  shall  not  salute. 


9.  During  colors,  vehicles  within  sight  or 
hearing  of  the  ceremony  shall  be  stopped. 
Persons  riding  in  such  vehicles  shall  remain 
seated  at  attention. 

10.  After  Morning  Colors,  if  foreign  warships 
are  present,  the  national  anthem  of  each  nation 
so  represented  shall  be  played  in  the  order  in 
which  a  gun  salute  would  be  fired  to,  or 
exchanged  with,  the  senior  official  or  officer 
present  of  each  such  nation;  provided  that,  when 
in  a  foreign  port,  the  national  anthem  of  the 
port  shall  be  played  immediately  after  Morning 
Colors,  followed  by  the  national  anthems  of 
other  foreign  nations  represented. 

1007.  Salutes  to  the  National  Ensign. 

1.  Each  person  in  the  naval  service,  upon 
coming  on  board  a  ship  of  the  Navy,  shall  salute 
the  national  ensign  if  it  is  flying.  He  shall  stop 
on    reaching     the    upper    platform    of    the 
accommodation  ladder,  or  the  shipboard  end  of 
the  brow,  face  the  national  ensign,  and  render 
the  salute,  after  which  he  shall  salute  the  officer 
of  the  deck.  On  leaving  the  ship,  he  shall  render 
the  salutes  in  inverse  order.  The  officer  of  the 
deck  shall  return  both  salutes  in  each  case. 

2.  When  passed  by  or  passing  the  national 
ensign   being   carried,   uncased,    in   a   military 
formation,  all  persons  in  the  naval  service  shall 
salute.  Persons  in  vehicles  or  boats  shall  follow 
the  procedure  prescribed  for  such  persons  during 
colors. 

3.  The  salutes  prescribed  in  this  article  shall 
also  be  rendered  to  foreign  national  ensigns  and 
aboard  foreign  men-of-war. 

1008.  "Hail  to  the  Chief." 

1.  The 'traditional  musical  selection  "Hail 
to  the  Chief"  is  designated  as  a  muscial  tribute 
to  the  President  of  the  United  States,  and  as 
such  will  not  be  performed  by  naval  bands  as  a 
tribute  to  other  dignitaries.  The  same  honor  as 
accorded    during   renditions    of    the   National 
Anthem  or  "To  the  Colors"  will  be  given  to 
"Hail  to  the  Chief  by  naval  personnel. 

2.  When    performed     by     naval     bands, 
renditions  of  "Hail  to  the  Chief  shall  be  as 


prescribed  in  the  official  U.S.  Marine  Corps 
Band  arrangement  which  is  designated  as  the 
official  Department  of  Defense  arrangement. 


HAND  SALUTES  AND  OTHER 
MARKS  OF  RESPECT 

1009.  Exchange  of  Hand  Salutes. 

1.  The  hand  salute  is  the  long-established 
form    of  greeting    and    recognition  exchanged 
between   persons   in   the    armed    services.    All 
persons  in  the  naval  service  shall  be  alert  to 
render  or  return  the  salute  as  prescribed  in  these 
regulations. 

2.  The  salute  by  persons  in  the  naval  service 
shall  be  rendered  and  returned  with  the  right 
hand,  when  practicable;  except  that,  with  arms 
in  hand,  the  salute  appropriate  thereto  shall  be 
rendered  or  returned. 

3.  Juniors    shall    salute    first.    All   salutes 
received  when  in  uniform  and  covered  shall  be 
returned;  at  other  times  salutes  received  shall  be 
appropriately  acknowledged.  Persons  uncovered 
shall  not  salute,  except  when  failure  to  do  so 
would  cause  embarassment  or  misunderstanding. 

4.  Civilians  may  be  saluted  by  persons  in 
uniform  when  appropriate,  but  the  uniform  hat 
or  cap  shall  not  be  raised  as  a  form  of  salutation. 

5.  A  person   in  the   naval   service   not  in 
uniform  shall,  in  rendering  salutes  or  exchanging 
greetings,  comply  with  the  rules  and  customs 
established   for   a    civilian;   except   that  when 
saluting  another  person  in  the  armed  services, 
the  hand  salute  shall  be  used. 

1010.  Occasions  for   Rendering  Hand  Salutes. 

1.  Salutes  shall  be  rendered  by  persons  in 
the  naval  service  to  officers  of  the  armed  forces 
of  the  United  States,  the  National  Oceanic  and 
Atmospheric  Administration,  the  Public  Health 
Service  and  foreign  armed  services. 

2.  All  persons  in  the  naval  service  shall 
salute  all  officers  senior  to  themselves  on  each 
occasion   of  meeting  or  passing  near  or  when 
addressing  or  being  addressed  by  such  officers; 
except  that : 

a.    On    board    ship    salutes    shall    be 
dispensed  with  after  the  first  daily  meeting, 


except  for  those  rendered  to  the 
commanding  officer  and  officers  senior  to 
him,  to  visiting  officers,  to  officers  making 
inspections,  and  to  officers  when  addressing 
or  being  addressed  by  them. 

b.  When     such    procedure    does    not 
conflict  with  the  spirit  of  these  regulations, 
at  crowded  gatherings  or  in  congested  areas, 
salutes     shall     be     rendered     only     when 
addressing  or  being  addressed  by  an  officer 
who  is  senior  to  them. 

c.  Persons  at  work  or  engaged  in  games 
shall    salute    only    when    addressed    by  an 
officer   senior    to  them   and   then  only  if 
circumstances  warrant. 

d.  Persons    in    formation    shall   salute 
only  on  command. 

e.  When    boats   pass  each   other  with 
embarked  officers  or  officials  in  view,  hand 
salutes    shall    be    rendered    by    the    senior 
officer  and  coxswain  in  each  boat.  Officers 
seated  in  boats  shall  not  rise  when  saluting; 
coxswains    shall    rise    unless   dangerous  or 
impracticable  to  do  so. 

f.  Persons    operating     moving    motor 
vehicles  should  not  render  or  return  salutes. 
Passengers  will  render  and  return  salutes. 

g.  Persons  guarding  prisoners  will  not 
salute. 

1011.  Other  Marks  of  Respect. 

1.  Juniors  shall  show  deference  to  seniors 
at  all  times  by  recognizing  their  presence  and  by 
employing  a  courteous  and  respectful  bearing 
and  mode  of  speech  toward  them. 

2.  Juniors  shall  stand  at  attention,  unless 
seated   at  mess,  or  unless  circumstances  make 
such  action  impracticable  or  inappropriate: 

a.  When  addressed  by  an  officer  senior 
to  them. 

b.  When  an  officer  of  flag  or  general 
rank,  the  commanding  officer,  or  an  officer 
senior  to  him  in  the  chain  of  command,  or 
an    officer    making    an    official    inspection 
enters    the   room,    compartment,    or   deck 
space  where  they  may  be. 

3.  Juniors  shall  walk  or  ride  on  the  left  of 
seniors  whom  they  are  accompanying. 

4.  Officers     shall     enter     boats     and 
automobiles  in  inverse  order  of  rank  and  shall 


572 


Appendix  V-HONORS  AND  CEREMONIES 


leave  them  in  order  of  rank,  unless  there  is 
special  reason  to  the  contrary.  The  seniors  shall 
be  accorded  the  more  desirable  seats. 

5.  Subject  to  the  requirements  of  the  rules 
for  preventing  collisions,  junior  boats  shall  avoid 
crowding  or  embarrassing  senior  boats. 

GUN  SALUTES 

1012.  Saluting  Ships  and  Stations. 

Saluting  ships  and  stations  of  the  naval 
service  are  those  designated  as  such  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  or  his  duly  authorized 
representative.  The  gun  salutes  prescribed  in 
these  regulations  shall  be  fired  by  such  ships  and 
stations.  Other  ships  and  stations  shall  not  fire 
gun  salutes,  unless  directed  to  do  so  by  the 
senior  officer  present  on  exceptional  occasions 
when  courtesy  requires. 

1013.  Gun  Salutes  to  the  Flag  of  the  President 
or  the  Secretary  of  State. 

1.  A  21 -gun  salute  shall  be  fired  to  the  flag 
of  the  President. 

a.  By   each  ship  falling  in  with  a  ship 
displaying  such  flag,  arriving  at  a  place  where 
such    flag    is   displayed   ashore,  or  present 
when  such  flag  is  broken. 

b.  By    a    naval    station    when   a    ship 
displaying    such    Hag    arrives    at   the  naval 
station,  or  when  such  flag  is  broken  by  a 
ship  present. 

c.  By  a  flag  or  general  officer  assuming 
command  or,  while  in  command,  breaking 
the    flag    of    an    increased    grade,    in    the 
presence  of  a  ship  or  naval  station  displaying 
the  flag  of  the  President. 

2.  Under  the  circumstances  prescribed  by 
this  article,  a  19-gun  salute  shall  be  fired  to  the 
flag  of  the  Secretary  of  State  when  he  is  acting 
as  special  foreign  representative  of  the  President. 

1014.  Gun  Salutes  to  the  Flag  of  the  Secretary 
of  Defense,  Deputy  Secretary  of  Defense, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Director  of 
Defense  Research  and  Engineering,  an 


Assistant  Secretary  of  Defense,  the 
General  Counsel,  Under  Secretary  or  an 
Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy.  (Figure 
A5-1  shows  gun  salutes  rendered  to  civil 
officials  of  the  United  States.) 

1.  A  19-gun  salute  shall  be  fired  to  the  flag 
of  the  Secretary  of  Defense,  Deputy  Secretary 
of  Defense,  Director  of  Defense  Research  and 
Engineering,  or  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  a 
17-gun  salute  shall  be  fired  to  the  flag  of  an 
Assistant  Secretary  of  Defense;  the  General 
Counsel,  the  Under  Secretary  of  the  Navy  or  an 
Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy : 

a.  By    a   ship    falling   in   with  a   ship 
displaying  such  flag,  arriving  at  a  place  where 
such   flag   is  displayed   ashore,  or  present 
when  such  flag  is  broken.  In  case  of  two  or 
more  ships  in  company,  only  the  senior  shall 
salute. 

b.  By    a    naval    station   when   a   ship 
displaying   such   flag   arrives   at   the  naval 
station,  or  when  such  flag  is  broken  by  a 
ship  present. 

c.  By  a  flag  or  general  officer  assuming 
command,    or    breaking    the    flag    of   an 
increased  grade  in  the  presence  of  a  ship  or 
naval   station   displaying  the  flag  of  such 
official;  provided  that  such   officer  is  the 
senior  officer  present  or  the  senior  officer 
present  on  shore. 

2.  When  the  flags  of  two  or  more  such 
officials  are  displayed  under  the  circumstances 
prescribed  in  this  article,  only  the  flag  of  the 
senior  shall  be  saluted. 

1015.  Gun  Salute  to  a  Foreign  Nation. 

1.  When  a  ship  enters  a  port  of  a  foreign 
nation,  the  government  of  which  is  formally 
recognized  by  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  she  shall  fire  a  salute  of  2 1  guns  to  that 
nation  unless: 

a.  There  is  present  no  saluting  battery 
or    warships    of   that    nation    capable    of 
returning  the  salute. 

b.  The     ship     is     returning     from     a 
temporary   absence   from   port,    when,  by 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Official 


President 

Ex- President  or 
President-elect 

Secretary  of  State  when 
acting  as  special  foreign 
representative  of  the 
President  

Vice  President   

Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Representatives 

Governor  of  a  state  of  the 
United  States 

Chief  Justice  of  the  United 
States 

Ambassador,  High 
Commissioner,  or  special 
diplomatic  representative 
whose  credentials  give 
him  authority  equal  to  or 
greater  than  that  of  an 
Ambassador 

Associate  Justices  of 
Supreme  Court    ....... 

US  representative  to  the 
UN 

Secretary  of  Defense.  .  .  . 

Deputy  Secretary  of 
Defense 

Cabinet  officer  other  than 
Secretary  of  Defense.  .  . 

Secretaries  of  the  Army, 
Navy,  and  Air  Force .  .  . 

Director  of  Defense 
Research  and 
Engineering 

President  pro  temper e  of 
the  Senate 

Assistant  Secretaries  of 
Defense 

General  Counsel  of  the 
DOD 

Under  Secretaries  of  the 
Army,  Navy,  and 
Air  Force 

Assistant  Secretaries  of  the 
Army,  Navy,  and 
Air  Force 


Gun  Salute 


r rival  Departure 


19 


19 


19 


17 


17 


19 
19 
17 
17 

17 
17 


Official 


Governor  General  or 
Governor  of  a  common- 
wealth or  possession  of 
the  United  States  or  area 
under  United  States 
administration 


Other  Under  Secretaries 
of  Cabinet,  the  Solicitor 
General,  the  Deputy 
Attorney  General,  and  the 
Deputy  Postmaster 
General  


Gun  Salute 


Arrival 


Departure 


17 


Members  of  Congress  .  .  . 

Envoy  Extraordinary 
and  Minister 
Plenipotentiary 

Minister  Resident 

Charge  d 'Affaires 

Career  Minister,  or 
Counselor  of  Embassy 
or  Legation 

Consul  General;  or  Consul 
or  Vice  Consul  when  in 
charge  of  a  Consulate 
General  


17 
17 


15 
13 
11 


First  Secretary  of  Embassy 
or  Legation 

Consul;  or  Vice  Consul 
when  in  charge  of  a 
Consulate. 

Mayor  of  an  incorporated 
city 


Second  or  Third  Secretary 
of  Embassy  or 
Legation 


Vice  Consul  when  only 
representative  of  United 
States,  and  not  in  charge 
of  a  Consulate  General 
or  Consulate 


11 


Consular  Agent  when  only 
representative  of  the 
United  States 


Appendix  V-HQNORS  AND  CEREMONIES 


agreement  with  local  authorities,  the  salute 
may  be  dispensed  with. 

2.  When    a    ship    is    passing    through    the 
territorial  waters  of  a  foreign  nation  with  no 
intention  of  anchoring  therein,  the  salute  to  the 
nation    need     not     be    fired    unless    unusual 
circumstances  make  it  desirable  to  do  so. 

3.  In  case  of  two  or  more  ships  arriving  in 
port  or  passing  through  territorial  waters  of  a 
foreign  nation  in  company,  only  the  senior  shall 
fire  the  salute  prescribed  in  this  article. 

4.  The  salute  to  the  nation,  if  fired,  shall 
precede  any  salutes  fired  in  honor  of  individuals. 

1016.  Returning  Salute  to  the  Nation  Fired  by 
Foreign  Warship. 

A  salute  to  the  nation  fired  by  a  foreign 
warship  entering  a  port  of  the  United  States 
shall  be  returned  by  the  senior  ship  present, 
provided  no  saluting  battery  of  an  armed  service 
of  the  United  States,  designated  to  return  such 
salutes,  is  present  in  the  area. 

1017.  Gun   Salutes   to   the   Flag  of  a  Foreign 
President,    Sovereign,    or    Member  of  a 
Reigning  Royal  Family. 

1.  A  21 -gun  salute  shall  be  fired  by  a  ship 
or   station    to    the    flag    or    standard    of   the 
president,  sovereign,  or  member  of  a  reigning 
royal  family  under  the  circumstances  prescribed 
in  these  regulations  for  firing  a  salute  to  the  flag 
of  the  President  of  the  United  States. 

2.  In    some     foreign    countries    it    is    the 
national  custom  to  fire  special  21 -gun  salutes  on 
certain    occasions    in    honor   of  the  president, 
sovereign,   or  a  member  of  the  reigning  royal 
family.  In  such  cases,  ships  shall  conform  to  the 
national  custom  when  requested  by  the  proper 
local  authorities. 

1018.  Gun  Salutes  When  Several  Heads  of  State 
are  Present. 

1.  Each  ship  upon  entering  a  port  where 
the  personal  Hags  or  standards  of  several 
presidents,  sovereigns,  or  members  of  reigning 
royal  families  are  displayed,  shall  fire  a  21 -gun 


salute  to  each  of  the  several  flags  or  standards 
displayed,  in  the  following  order: 

a.  The  president,  sovereign,  or  member 
of  the  reigning  royal  family  of  the  nation  to 
which  the  port  belongs. 

b.  The  President  of  the  United  States. 

c.  The  presidents  or  sovereigns  of  other 
nations,  in  alphabetical  order  of  the  names 
of  the  nations  in  the  English  language. 

d.  Members  of  reigning  royal  families  of 
other    nations,    in    the    same    order   as   in 
subparagraph  c,  above. 

2.  In  the  circumstances  set  forth  in  this 
article,  only  the  flag  or  standard  of  the  senior 
dignitary  of  each  nation  shall  be  saluted. 

1019.  Authority  to  Fire  Gun  Salutes  to  Officers 
in  the  United  States  Naval  Service. 

Gun  salutes  prescribed  in  these  regulations 
(see  figure  A5-2)  for  officers  and  officials 
entitled  to  17  or  more  guns  shall  be  fired  on  the 
occasion  of  each  official  visit  of  the  individual 
concerned.  Gun  salutes  prescribed  in  these 
regulations  for  officers  and  officials  entitled  to 
15  guns  or  less  shall  not  be  fired  unless  so 
ordered  by  the  senior  officer  present  or  higher 
authority. 

1020.  Gun    Salutes    to    the     Senior    Officer 
Present. 

1.  A  flag  officer  who  is  the  senior  officer 
present  shall  be  saluted  by  the  senior  of  one  or 
more  ships  arriving  in  port. 

2.  When  a  flag  officer  embarked  in  a  ship  of 
his  command  arrives  in  port  and  is  the  senior 
officer  present,  or  when  a  flag  officer  assumes 
command    and    becomes    the    senior    officer 
present,  he  shall  be  saluted  by  the  former  senior 
officer  present. 

3.  A  gun  salute  shall  be  fired  by  his  flagship 
when  a  flag  officer  who  is  the  senior  officer 
present  assumes  or  is  relieved  of  command,  or  is 
advanced  in  grade. 

4.  When  a  flag  officer  who  is  not  the  senior 
officer  present  assumes  command,  he  shall  fire  a 
salute  to  the  senior  officer  present. 


5.  The  provisions  of  this  article  shall  be 
subject  to  the  provisions  of  article  1026.4  and 
shall  apply,  where  appropriate,  to  officers  of  the 
naval  service  in  command  ashore. 

1 021.  Gun  Salutes  to  Foreign  Flag  Officers. 

1 .  When  a  ship  enters  a  port  where  there  is 
present  no  officer  of  the  naval  service  senior  to 
the  senior  arriving  officer,  and  finds  displayed 
there,  afloat  or  ashore,  the  flags  of  foreign  flag 
officers  of  one  or  more  nations,  salutes  shall  be 
exchanged  with  the  senior  flag  officer  present  of 
each  nation. 

2.  The  senior  officer  present  of  the  United 
States  Navy  in  a  port  shall  exchange  gun  salutes 


Gun  £ 

Salute 

Officer 

Arrival 

Departure 

Chairman,  Joint  Chiefs  of 
Staff  

19 

19 

Chief  of  Staff,  U.S.  Army 
Chief  of  Naval  Operations 
Chief  of  Staff,  U.S.  Air 
Force  

19 
19 

19 

19 
19 

19 

Commandant  of  the 
Marine  Corps  

19 

19 

General  of  the  Army  .  .  . 
Fleet  Admiral  

19 
19 

19 
19 

General  of  the  Air  Force 
Generals  .  „ 

19 
17 

19 
17 

Admirals  „ 

17 

17 

Naval  or  other  military 
Governor,  commissioned 
as  such  by  the  President, 
within  the  area  of  his 
jurisdiction  • 

17 

Vice  Admiral  or 
Lieutenant  General  .  .  . 

15 

Rear  Admiral  or  Major 
General  «... 

13 

Commodore  or 
Bridgadier  General.  .  . 
Other  commissioned 

.... 

11 

Figure  A5-2.-Gun  salutes  rendered  to  commissioned 
military  officers  of  the  United  States  on  the 
occasions  of  their  official  visits. 


with  the  senior  foreign  flag  officer  displaying  his 
flag  in  an  arriving  warship,  provided  such  flag 
officer  is  the  senior  officer  present  of  his  nation. 

3.  Upon  departure  from  port  of  the  senior 
officer  present  of  the  United  States  Navy,  his 
successor  shall  exchange  gun  salutes  with  the 
senior  flag  officer  present  of  each  foreign  nation. 

4.  The  senior  officer  present  of  the  United 
States  Navy  shall  exchange  gun  salutes  with  the 
senior  officer  present  of  a  foreign  nation  when 
either  hoists  the  flag  of  an  increased  grade. 

5.  In  firing  the  salutes  prescribed  by  this 
article,  the  following  rules  shall  govern: 

a.  An  officer  of  a  junior  grade  shall  fire 
the  first  salute. 

b.  When  officers  are  of  the  same  grade, 
the  arriving  officer  shall  fire  the  first  salute. 

c.  Seniors  shall  be  saluted  in  order  of 
rank  except  that  when  firing  salutes  to  two 
or  more  foreign  officers  of  the  same  grade, 
the  first  salute   fired  to  an   officer  in  that 
grade  shall  be  to   the   flag   officer  of  the 
nationality  of  the  port. 

6.  When  a  ship  of  the  Navy  falls  in  at  sea 
with  a  foreign  warship  displaying  the  flag  of  a 
flag  officer,  an  exchange  of  salutes  shall  be  fired; 
the  junior  saluting  first.   Such   salutes  shall  be 
exchanged    only    between    the    senior    United 
States  ship  and  the  senior  foreign  ship.  Should 
flag   officers  be   of  the   same  grade  and  their 
relative   rank  be   unknown   or   in  doubt,  they 
should  mutually  salute  without  delay. 

7.  The   provisions  of  this  article  shall  be 
subject  to  the  provisions  of  article  1026.4. 

1022.  Notification  of  Gun  Salute. 

Whenever  practicable,  an  official  or  officer 
to  be  saluted  shall  be  notified  of  the  salute  and 
the  time  that  it  is  to  be  fired. 

1023.  Procedure  During  a  Gun  Salute. 

1.  The    interval    between    guns    in   salutes 
normally  shall  be  5  seconds. 

2.  During  the  gun  salute,  persons  on  the 
quarterdeck,    or   in    the    ceremonial    party,  if 
ashore,  shall  render  the  hand  salute;  observers  on 
deck,  or  in  the  vicinity  of  the  ceremonial  party 


576 


Appendix  V-HONORS  AND  CEREMONIES 


if  ashore,  shall  stand  at  attention  facing  the 
personage,  or  if  he  is  not  in  view,  toward  the 
ceremonial  party,  and  if  in  uniform,  shall  salute. 

3.  Officers   being  saluted  shall  render  the 
hand  salute  during  the  firing  of  the  gun  salute. 

4.  The  boat  or  vehicle  in  which  a  person 
being  saluted  is  embarked  shall  be  stopped,  if 
practicable  to  do  so,  during  the  firing  of  the  gun 
salute. 

1024.  Inability    to   Render  or  Return  a  Gun 
Salute. 

1.  A  gun  salute  shall  not  be  fired  when  a 
return  salute  is  required  and  cannot  be  fired,  but 
shall  be  considered  as  having  been  rendered  and 
returned. 

2.  In  cases  where,  from  any  special  cause,  a 
ship,  from  which  a  salute  in  compliment  to  a 
foreign   power   or  official   may  reasonably  be 
expected,  is  unable  to  salute,  the  circumstances 
are    to     be     explained     immediately     to    the 
representative  of  such  foreign  power. 

3.  In     cases     where,     from     any    special 
circumstances,  the  failure  to  salute  cannot  be 
explained   without  giving  offense  to  a  foreign 
power  or  official,  salutes  shall  be  fired  by  any 
ship  which  can  do  so  with  safety. 

1025.  Returning  Gun  Salutes. 

1.    The  following  rules  shall  be  observed  by 
United  States  ships  and  stations: 

a.  A  salute   fired    to  the  nation  by  a 
foreign  ship  arriving  in  port  shall  be  returned 
gun  for  gun. 

b.  A  salute   fired   to  a  flag  or  general 
officer  by  a  foreign  ship  or  station  shall  be 
returned  gun  for  gun. 

c.  A    salute    fired    in    honor    of   the 
President   of  the  United  States,  or  of  the 
Secretary   of   State   when  acting  as  special 
representative  of  the  President,  shall  not  be 
returned. 

d.  A    salute    fired    in    honor    of   any 
official   or   officer   on   the  occasion  of  an 
official    visit    or    inspection    shall    not  be 
returned. 

e.  A   salute    fired    by   his  flagship  or 
headquarters  in  honor  of  a  flag  or  general 
officer  shall  not  be  returned. 


f.  A    salute    fired    in    honor    of    an 
anniversary,  celebration,  or  solemnity  shall 
not  be  returned. 

g.  Subject   to    the    provisions    of   this 
article,  a  salute  fired  in  honor  of  a  United 
States  officer  or  official  shall  be  returned 
with  the  number  of  guns  specified  for  the 
grade  of  the  flag  or  general  officer  rendering 
the  salute,  or,  if  not  a  flag  or  general  officer, 
with  seven  guns. 

2.  No  return  salute  may  be  expected  in  the 
case  of  a  salute  fired  by  a  United  States  ship  or 
station  in  honor  of  a  foreign  sovereign,  head  of 
state,  member  of  a  reigning  royal  family,  or 
special  representative  of  a  head  of  state,  or  on 
the  occasion  of  a  foreign  anniversary, 
celebration,  or  solemnity,  or  on  the  occasion  of 
an  official  visit;  otherwise  a  salute  fired  in  honor 
of  a  foreign  nation,  or  of  a  foreign  official  or 
officer,  may  be  expected  to  be  returned  gun  for 
gun. 

1 026.  Restrictions  on  Gun  Salutes. 

1.  In  the  presence  of  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  or  the  president,  sovereign,  or  a 
member  of  the  reigning  royal  family  of  a  foreign 
nation,  no  gun  salute  which  may  be  prescribed 
elsewhere  in  these  regulations  shall  be  fired  to 
any  other  official  of  lesser  rank  of  that  nation. 

2.  When  two  or  more  officials  or  officers, 
each  entitled  to  a  gun  salute,  make  an  official 
visit  in  company  to  a  ship  or  station,  only  the 
senior  shall  be  saluted.  If  they  arrive  or  depart  at 
different  times,  each  shall  be  rendered  the  gun 
salute  to  which  he  is  entitled. 

3.  Salutes  shall  not  be  fired  in  ports  or 
locations   where  they  are  forbidden  by  local 
regulations. 

4.  No  official  or  officer,  United  States  or 
foreign,  except  those  entitled  to   17  or  more 
guns,  shall  be  saluted  by  the  same  ship  or  station 
more  than  once  in  12  months  unless,  and  subject 
to  the  other  provisions  of  these  regulations,  such 
official  or  officer  has  been  advanced  in  grade, 
makes  an  official  visit  or  inspection,  or  is  on 
special  duty  in  which  international  courtesy  is 
involved  or  exceptional  circumstances  exist;  in 
which  latter  case  the  commanding  officer,  in  the 
absence    of    instructions,    shall    exercise    his 
discretion. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Official 

Uniform 

Ruffles 
and 
flourishes 

Music 

Guard 

Remarks 

As  prescribed  by 
senior     officer 
present. 

4 
4 

National  Anthem 

r-  .  .  1  1     .„  .  

Man     rail,     unless 
otherwise  directed 
by    senior    officer 
present. 
Crew  at  quarters. 

Do. 
Do. 

Do. 

Pull 
do  — 

President   - 

Secretary  of  State  when 
s  pecial     foreign 
representative   of  the 
President. 
V'^fl  President 

do 
Of  the  day  

Hail  Columbia 
National  Anthem 

do 

Secretary    of    Defense, 
Deputy   Secretary   of 
Defense,  or  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  Director 
of   Defense    Research 
and  Engineering. 
An  Assistant  Secretary 
of     Defense,     Under 
Secretary     or     an 
Assistant  Secretary  of 
the  Navy. 

•    du 

Clu 

du 

du 

Figure  A5-3.— Passing  honors  between  ships  and,  when  practicable,  between  ships  and  naval  stations. 


5.  No   officer,    except    a    flag    or  general 
officer,  shall   be   saluted   with  guns  except  in 
return  for  a  gun  salute  rendered  by  him. 

6.  No  officer  of  the  armed  services,  while  in 
civilian  clothes,  shall  be  be  saluted  with  guns, 
unless  such  officer  is  at  the  time  acting  in  an 
official  civil  capacity. 

7.  No  salute  shall  be  fired  between  sunset 
and  sunrise,  before  0800,  or  on  Sunday  except 
when  international  courtesy  so  dictates,  or  when 
related    to   death    ceremonies.   Subject  to   the 
provisions  of  this  paragraph,   a  gun  salute  in 
honor  of  an  official  or  officer  who  arrives  before 
0800  shall  be  fired  at  0800;  provided,  that  if  the 
day   is   Sunday    the    salute    shall  be  fired  on 
Monday;  and  further  provided,  that  the  salute 
shall  not  be  fired  if  the  official  or  officer  has 
departed  meanwhile.  In  case  of  a  gun  salute  at 
0800,  the  first  gun  of  the  salute  shall  be  fired 
immediately  upon  the  completion  of  Morning 
Colors   or  the  last  note  of  the  last  national 
anthem. 


1027.  "Passing   Honors"   and    "Close  Aboard" 
Defined. 

"Passing  honors"  are  those  honors,  other 
than  gun  salutes,  rendered  on  occasions  when 
ships  or  embarked  officials  or  officers  pass,  or 
are  passed,  close  aboard.  "Close  aboard"  shall 
mean  passing  within  600  yards  for  ships  and  400 
yards  for  boats.  These  rules  shall  be  interpreted 
liberally,  to  ensure  that  appropriate  honors  are 
rendered. 

1028.  Passing  Honors  Between  Ships. 

1.  Passing   honors,   consisting  of  sounding 
"Attention"  and  rendering  the  hand  salute  by  all 
persons  in  view  on  deck  and  not  in  ranks,  shall 
be  exchanged  between  ships  of  the  Navy  and 
between  ships  of  the  Navy  and  the  Coast  Guard, 
passing  close  aboard. 

2.  In  addition,  the  honors  prescribed  in  the 
following  table  (figure  A5-3)  shall  be  rendered 
by  a  ship  of  the  Navy  passing  close  aboard  a  ship 


578 


Appendix  V-HQNQRS  AND  CEREMONIES 


Official 

Ruffles 
and 
flourishes 

—  _ 
Music 

—                     _ 
Guard 

Remarks 

4 

National  Anthem- 

Full  

"Attention"     sounded,    and 

President  • 

salute  by  all  persons  in  view 

on  deck.  If  directed  by  the 

senior  officer  present,  man 

rail. 

Secretary     of     State     when 

4 

do  

do  

"Attention"     sounded,     and 

special      foreign 
representative  of  President. 

A 

salute  by  all  persons  in  view 
on  deck. 

VlCC  rrciiuciii. 

Secretary  of  Defense,  Deputy 

*T 

4 

Hail  Columbia  
Admiral's  March— 

do  

Do. 
Do. 

Secretary     of      Defense, 

Secretary     of     the     Navy, 

Director     of      Defense 

Research   and    Engineering, 

and  Assistant  Secretary  of 

Defense,    Under    Secretary 

or  an  Assistant  Secretary  of 

the  Navy. 

Other  Civil  official  entitled  to 

Do. 

honors  on  official  visit. 

Do. 

UTTICCi   OT  an  dililctJ  bclvlUc 

Figure  A5-4.— Passing  honors  to  officials  and  military  officers  embarked  in  boats. 


or  naval  station  displaying  the  flag  of  the 
officials  indicated  therein; and  by  naval  stations, 
insofar  as  practicable,  when  a  ship  displaying 
such  flag  passes  close  aboard.  These  honors  shall 
be  acknowledged  by  rendering  the  same  honors 
in  return. 

1029.  Passing  Honors  to  Officials  and  Officers 
Embarked  in  Boats. 

1.  The    honors    prescribed    in    this    table 
(figure  A 5-4)  shall  be  rendered  by  a  ship  of  the 
Navy    being    passed    close    aboard   by   a   boat 
displaying    the    flag    or    pennant    of   the   ... 
(indicated)  officials  and  officers. 

2.  Persons  on  the  quarterdeck  shall  salute 
when  a  boat  passes  close  aboard  in  which  a  flag 
officer,   a  unit   commander  or  a  commanding 
officer     is     embarked     under    the    following 
circumstances: 

a.  When  the  officer  in  the  boat  is  in 
uniform  as  indicated  by  the  display  of  the 
national  ensign  in  United  States  ports;  or 


b.  When  a  miniature  of  a  flag  or 
pennant  is  displayed  in  addition  to  the 
national  ensign  in  foreign  ports. 

1030.  Passing  Honors  to  Foreign  Dignitaries  and 
Warships. 

1.  The  honors  prescribed  for  the  President 
of  the  United  States  shall  be  rendered  by  a  ship 
of  the  Navy  being  passed  close  aboard  by  a  ship 
or  boat  displayng  the  flag  or  standard   of  a 
foreign  president,  sovereign,  or  member  of  a 
reigning  royal  family,  except  that  the  foreign 
national  anthem  shall  be  played  in  lieu  of  the 
National  Anthem  of  the  United  States. 

2.  Passing  honors  shall  be  exchanged  with 
foreign  warships  passed  close  aboard  and  shall 
consist    of   parading    the   guard    of  the   day, 
sounding  "Attention,"  rendering  the  salute  by 
all  persons  in  view  on  deck,  and  playing  the 
foreign  national  anthem. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


1031.  Sequence  in  Rendering  Passing  Honors. 

1.  "Attention"    shall  be  sounded  by   the 
junior  when  the  bow  of  one  ship  passes  the  bow 
or  stern  of  the  other,  or,  if  a  senior  be  embarked 
in  a  boat,  before  the  boat  is  abreast,  or  nearest 
to  abreast,  the  quarterdeck. 

2.  The    guard,    if   required,    shall   present 
arms,  and  all   persons  in  view  on  deck  shall 
salute. 

3.  The  music,  if  required,  shall  sound  off. 

4.  "Carry  on"  shall  be  sounded  when  the 
prescribed    honors    have    been    rendered    and 
acknowledged. 

1032.  Dispensing  With  Passing  Honors. 

1.  Passing   honors   shall    not  be  rendered 
after    sunset    or    before    0800    except    when 
international  courtesy  requires. 

2.  Passing  honors  shall  not  be  exchanged 
between  ships  of  the  Navy  engaged  in  tactical 
evolutions  outside  port. 

3.  The  senior  officer  present  may  direct 
that  passing  honors  be  dispensed  with  in  whole 
or  in  part. 

4.  Passing  honors  shall  not  be  rendered  by 
nor  be  required  of  ships  with  small  bridge  areas, 
such    as    submarines,     particularly     when    in 
restricted  waters. 

1033.  Crew  at  Quarters  on  Entering  or  Leaving 
Port. 

The  crew  shall  be  paraded  at  quarters  during 
daylight  on  entering  or  leaving  port  on  occasions 
of  ceremony  except  when  weather  or  other 
circumstances  make  it  impracticable  or 
undesirable  to  do  so.  Ordinarily,  occasions  of 
ceremony  shall  be  construed  as  visits  that  are 
not  operational;  at  homeport  when  departing  for 
or  returning  from  a  lengthy  deployment;  and 
visits  to  foreign  ports  not  visited  recently;  and 
other  special  occasions  so  determined  by  a 
superior.  In  lieu  of  parading  the  entire  crew  at 
quarters,  an  honor  guard  may  be  paraded  in  a 
conspicuous  place  on  weather  decks. 


1058.  Authorized   Display   of  Flags  and  Pen- 
nants. 

1.  When  the  national  ensign  is  displayed  on 
occasions  other  than  those  prescribed  in  these 
regulations,    the    manner    of   display    shall  be 
prescribed  in  Navy  Department  publications. 

2.  No    flags   or   pennants,    other    than  as 
prescribed  by  these  regulations  or  as  may  be 
directed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  shall  be 
displayed  from  a  ship  or  craft  of  the  Navy,  or 
from  a  naval  station,  as  an  honor  to  a  nation  or 
an  individual  or  to  indicate  the  presence  of  any 
individual. 

3.  All    flags    and    pennants    displayed    in 
accordance  with  these  regulations  shall  conform 
to  the  pattern  prescribed  in  Navy  Department 
publications. 

4.  Flags  or  pennants  of  officers  not  eligible 
for  command  at  sea  shall  not  be  displayed  from 
ships  of  the  United  States  Navy. 

1059.  Display  of  National  Ensign,  Union  Jack 
and    Distinctive  Mark   From   Ships  and 
Craft. 

1.  The  national  ensign,  union  jack,  personal 
flag  or  pennant,  or  commission  pennant  shall  be 
displayed  from  ships  and  craft  of  the  Navy  as 
specified  in  ...  (figure  A5-5). 

2.  The  distinctive  mark  of  a  ship  or  craft  of 
the  Navy  in  commission  shall  be  a  personal  flag 
or  command  pennant  of  an  officer  of  the  Navy, 
or  a  commission  pennant.  The  distinctive  mark 
of  a  hospital  ship  of  the  Navy,  in  commission, 
shall  be  the  Red  Cross  flag. 

a.  Not  more  than  one  distinctive  mark 
shall  be  displayed  by  a  ship  dr  craft  at  one 
time,  nor  shall  the  commission  pennant  and 
the    personal    flag    of    a    civil    official   be 
displayed  at  one  time. 

b.  Except     as     prescribed     in     these 
regulations     for     certain     occasions    of 
ceremony     and     when    civil    officials    are 
embarked,    the    distinctive    mark   shall   be 
displayed    day    and    night    at    the    after 
masthead  or,  in  a  mastless  ship,  from  the 
loftiest  and  most  conspicuous  hoist. 


580 


PERSONAL 

FLAG, 

NATIONAL 

UNION 

COMMAND 

SHIPS  OR  CRAFT 

ENSIGN 

JACK 

PENNANT,  OR 

DISPLAYED 

DISPLAYED 

COMMISSION 

PENNANT 

DISPLAYED 

ACTIVE: 

In  commission 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

In  service 

Yes 

Yes 

No2 

INACTIVE: 

In  commission,  in  reserve 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

In  service,  in  reserve 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Out  of  commission,  in 

reserve 

No1 

No 

No 

Out  of  service,  in  reserve 

No1 

No 

No 

SPECIAL  STATUS: 

In  commission,  special 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

In  service,  special 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Out  of  commission, 

special 

No] 

No 

No 

Out  of  service,  special 

No1 

No 

No 

National  ensign  shall  be  displayed  if  necessary  to 
indicate  the  national  character  of  the  ship  or  craft. 
2 

Applies  to  display  of  commission  pennant  only. 
A  flag  officer  or  unit  commander  embarked  may  display 
a  personal  flag  or  command  pennant. 


Figure  A5-5.— Display  of  ensign,  union  jack,  and  distinc- 
tive mark  from  ships  and  craft. 


3.  When  not  underway  the  national  ensign 
and  the  union  jack  shall  be  displayed  from  0800 
until  sunset  from  the  flagstaff  and  the  jackstaff 
respectively.  A  ship  which  enters  port  at  night 
shall,   when   appropriate,   display  the  national 
ensign   from   the  gaff  at  daylight  for  a  time 
sufficient    to    establish    her   nationality;   it   is 
customary  for  other  ships  of  war  to  display  their 
national  ensigns  in  return. 

4.  The   national  ensign  shall  be  displayed 
during  daylight  from  the  gaff  (or  from  the  triatic 
stay     in     the     case     of     those     ships     with 
mast-mounted   booms  and  stays  which  would 
interfere  with  the  hoisting,  lowering  or  flying  of 
the    ensign)    of   a    ship    underway   under   the 


following  circumstances,  unless  or  as  otherwise 
directed  by  the  senior  officer  present. 

a.  Getting   underway    and    coming    to 
anchor. 

b.  Falling  in  with  other  ships. 

c.  Cruising  near  land. 

d.  During  battle. 

5.  The    union   jack    displayed    from    the 
jackstaff  shall  be  the  size  of  the  union  of  the 
national  ensign  diaplayed  from  the  flagstaff. 

6.  The  union  jack  shall  be  displayed  at  a 
yardarm  to  denote  that  a  general  court-martial 
or  court  of  inquiry  is  in  session. 

1060.  National  Ensign  at  Commands  Ashore. 

The  national  ensign  shall  be  displayed  from 
0800  to  sunset  near  the  headquarters  of  every 
command  ashore,  or  at  the  headquarters  of  the 
senior  when  the  proximity  of  headquarters  of 
two  or  more  commands  makes  the  display  of 
separate  ensigns  inappropriate.  When  an  outlying 
activity  of  the  command  is  so  located  that  its 
governmental  character  is  not  clearly  indicated 
by  the  display  of  the  national  ensign  as 
prescribed  above,  the  national  ensign  shall  also 
be  displayed  at  that  activity. 

1061.  Display  of  National  Ensign  During  Gun 
Salute. 

1.  A  ship  of  the  Navy  shall  display  the 
national  ensign  at  a  masthead  while  firing  a 
salute  in  honor  of  a  United  States  national 
anniversary  or  officials,  as  follows: 

a.  At    the   main   during    the   national 
salute  prescribed  for  the  third  Monday  in 
February  and  the  4th  of  July. 

b.  At  the  main  during  a  21 -gun  salute 
to  a  United  States  civil  official,  except  by  a 
ship    displaying   the   personal   flag    of   the 
official  being  saluted. 

c.  At  the  fore  during  a  salute  to  any 
other  United  States  civil  official,  except  by  a 
ship  which  is  displaying  the  personal  flag  of 
the  official  being  saluted. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


2.  During  a  gun  salute,  the  national  ensign 
shall  remain  displayed  from  the  gaff  or  the 
flagstaff,  in  addition  to  the  display  of  the 
national  ensign  prescribed  in  this  article. 

1 062.  Display  of  National  Ensign  in  Boats. 

The  national  ensign  shall  be  displayed  from 
waterborne  boats  of  the  naval  service : 

a.  When  underway  during  daylight  in  a 
foreign  port. 

b.  When    ships    are    required    to    be 
dressed  or  full-dressed. 

c.  When    going    alongside    a    foreign 
vessel. 

d.  When     an     officer     or    official     is 
embarked  on  an  official  occasion. 

e.  When  a  flag  or  general  officer,  a  unit 
commander,    a   commanding    officer,   or  a 
chief  of  staff,  in  uniform,  is  embarked  in  a 
boat  of  his  command  or  in  one  assigned  to 
his  personal  use. 

f.  At    such    other    times    as   may    be 
prescribed  by  the  senior  officer  present. 

1 063.  Dipping  the  National  Ensign. 

1.  When  any  vessel,  under  the  United  States 
registry  or  the  registry   of  a  nation  formally 
recognized  by  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  salutes  a  ship  of  the  Navy  by  dipping  her 
ensign,  it  shall  be  answered  dip  for  dip.  If  not 
already  being  displayed,  the  national  ensign  shall 
be  hoisted  for  the  purpose  of  answering  the  dip. 
An  ensign  being  displayed  at  half-mast  shall  be 
hoisted   to  the  truck  or  peak  before  a  dip  is 
answered. 

2.  No    ship    of    the   Navy    shall   dip    the 
national    ensign    unless    in    return    for    such 
compliment. 

3.  Of  the  colors  carried  by  a  naval  force  on 
shore,  only  the  battalion  or  regimental  colors 
shall  be  dipped  in  rendering  or  acknowledging  a 
salute. 

4.  Submarines,  or  such  other  ships  of  the 
line  in  which  it  would  be  considered  hazardous 


for  personnel  to  do  so,  shall  not  be  required  to 
dip  the  ensign. 

1064.  Half-Masting    the   National   Ensign   and 
Union  Jack. 

1.  In    half-masting   the   national  ensign  it 
shall,  if  not  previously  hoisted,  first  be  hoisted 
to    the   truck    or   peak    and   then  lowered  to 
half-mast.  Before  lowering  from  half-mast,  the 
ensign  shall  be  hoisted  to  the  truck  or  peak  and 
then  lowered. 

2.  When  the  national  ensign  is  half-masted, 
the  union  jack,  if  displayed  from  the  jackstaff, 
shall  likewise  be  half-masted. 

3.  Personal  flags,  command  pennants,  and 
commission  pennants  shall  not  be  displayed  at 
half-mast     except     as     prescribed     in     these 
regulations  for  a  deceased  official  or  officer. 

4.  When    directed    by    the    President  the 
national  ensign  shall  be  flown  at  half-staff  at 
military  facilities  and  naval  vessels  and  stations 
abroad  whether  or  not  the  national  ensign  of 
another  nation  is  flown  full-staff  alongside  that 
of  the  United  States. 

1065.  Following    Motions    of    Senior    Officer 
Present    in    Hoisting   and    Lowering  the 
National  Ensign. 

1.  On  board  ship  or  at  a  command  ashore, 
upon    all    occasions    of   hoisting,    lowering,  or 
half-masting  the  national  ensign,  the  motions  of 
the    senior   officer   present   shall    be   followed, 
except  as  prescribed  for  answering  a  dip  or  firing 
a  gun  salute. 

2.  A     ship    displaying     the     flag    of    the 
President,     Secretary     of     Defense,     Deputy 
Secretary   of  Defense,  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
Director  of  Defense  Research  and  Engineering, 
an     Assistant     Secretary     of    Defense,    Under 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  or  an  Assistant  Secretary 
of  the  Navy  shall  be  regarded  as  the  ship  of  the 
senior  officer  within  the  meaning  of  the  article. 

1 066.  Personal  Flags  and  Pennants  Afloat. 

1.    Except  as  otherwise  prescribed  in  these 
regulations,  a  flag  officer  or  a  unit  commander 


582 


Appendix  V-HONORS  AND  CEREMONIES 


afloat  shall  display  his  personal  flag  or  command 
pennant  from  his  flagship.  At  no  time  shall  he 
display  it  from  more  than  one  ship. 

2.  When  a  flag  officer  eligible  for  command 
at  sea  is  embarked  for  passage  in  a  ship  of  the 
Navy,  his  personal  flag  shall  be  displayed  from 
such  ship,  unless'  there  is  already  displayed  from 
such  ship  the  flag  of  an  officer  his  senior. 

3.  When  a  civil  official,  in  whose  honor  the 
display  of  a  personal  flag  is  prescribed  during  an 
official  visit,  is  embarked  for  passage  in  a  ship  of 
the  Navy,  his  personal  flag  shall  be  displayed 
from  such  ship. 

4.  A  personal  flag   or  command  pennant 
may  be  hauled  down  during  battle  or  at  any 
time  when  the  officer  concerned,  or  the  senior 
officer  present,  considers  that  it  is  desirable  thus 
to  render  a  flagship  less  distinguishable.  When 
hauled    down    it    shall    be    replaced    with    a 
commission  pennant. 

5.  An  officer  of  the  Navy  commanding  a 
ship  engaged  otherwise  than  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States  shall  not  display  a  personal  flag, 
command  pennant,  or  commission  pennant  from 
such  ship,  or  in  the  bow  of  a  boat. 

6.  A    ship    underway   shall   not  display  a 
personal  flag  or  command  pennant  unless  a  flag 
officer  or  unit  commander  is  aboard.  Should  a 
flagship  get  underway  during  the  absence  of  the 
flag  officer  or  unit  commander,  the  personal  flag 
or  command  pennant  shall  be  hauled  down  and 
replaced  with  a  commission  pennant. 

1067.  Broad  or  Burgee  Command  Pennant. 

1.  The  broad  or  burgee  command  pennant 
shall  be  the  personal  command  pennant  of  an 
officer    of    the     Navy,    not    a    flag    officer, 
commanding  a  unit  of  ships  or  aircraft. 

2.  The     broad     command    pennant    shall 
indicate  command  of: 

a.  A    division    of  battleships,   aircraft 
carriers,  or  cruisers. 

b.  A  force,  flotilla,  or  squadron  of  ships 
or  craft  of  any  type. 

c.  An  aircraft  wing,  carrier  air  wing,  or 
carrier  air  group. 


3.    The    burgee    command    pennant    shall 
indicate  command  of: 

a.  A  division  of  ships  or  craft  other 
than  battleships,  aircraft  carriers,  or  cruisers. 

b.  A  major  subdivision  of  an  aircraft 
wing  or  group. 

1068.  Display  of  More  Than  One  Personal  Flag 
or  Pennant  Aboard  Ship. 

1 .  When  the  personal  flag  of  a  civil  official 
is   displayed   aboard   a   ship    of  the   Navy,   a 
personal  flag  or  command  pennant  of  an  officer 
of  the  Navy  shall  be  displayed,  if  required,  as 
follows: 

a.  Aboard  a  single-masted  ship,  at  the 
starboard  yard  arm. 

b.  Aboard  a  two-masted  ship,   at  the 
fore  truck. 

c.  Aboard  a  ship  with  more  than  two 
masts,  at  the  after  truck. 

2.  When,     in     accordance     with     these 
regulations,  the  personal  flag  of  a  civil  official 
and  the  personal  flag  or  command  pennant  of  an 
officer    of    the    Navy    are    displayed    at    the 
starboard  yardarm,  the  personal  flag  of  the  civil 
official  shall  be  displayed  outboard. 

3.  When  two  or  more  civil   officials,  for 
each  of  whom  the  Display  of  a  personal  flag  is 
prescribed,  are  embarked  in  the  same  ship  of  the 
Navy,   the   flag   of  the   senior   only    shall   be 
displayed. 

1069.  Display  of  a  Personal  Flag  or  Command 
Pennant  When  a  National  Ensign  is  at 
Masthead. 

1.  The  President's  flag,  if  displayed  at  a 
masthead  where  a  national  ensign  is  required  to 
be  displayed  during  an  official  visit  or  during 
periods  of  dressing  or  full-dressing  ship,  shall 
remain  at  that  masthead  to  port  of  the  United 
States  national  ensign  and  to  starboard  of  a 
foreign  national  ensign. 

2.  Except  as  provided  above,  a  personal  flag 
or  command  pennant  shall  not  be  displayed  at 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


the  same  masthead  with  a  national  ensign,  but 
shall: 

a.  During  a  gun  salute,  be  lowered  clear 
of  the  ensign. 

b.  During  an  official  visit,  be  shifted  to 
the    starboard  yardarm   in  a  single-masted 
ship  and  to  the  fore  truck  in  a  two-masted 
ship. 

c.  During   periods   of  dressing  or  full- 
dressing  ship : 

(1 )  If  displayed  from  the  fore  truck 
or  from  the  masthead  of  a  single-masted 
ship,     be     shifted     to     the    starboard 
yardarm. 

(2)  If  displayed  from  the  main  truck, 
be  shifted  to  the  fore  truck  in  lieu  of  the 
national  ensign  at  that  mast. 

(3)  If  displayed  from  the  after  truck 
of  a  ship  with  more  than  two  masts, 
remain  at  the  after  truck  in  lieu  of  the 
national  ensign  at  that  mast. 

1070.  Personal  Flags  and  Pennants  Ashore. 

1.  A  flag  or  general  officer  in  command 
ashore  shall  display  his  personal  flag  day  and 
night  at  a  suitable  and  conspicuous  place  within 
his   command.    When    such    officer   makes   an 
official  inspection  at  an  outlying  activity  of  his 
command,    his    flag    shall,    if   practicable   and 
appropriate,  be  shifted  to  such  outlying  activity. 

2.  A    flag    or    general     officer    or    unit 
commander    of    the    operating    forces    whose 
headquarters  are  ashore  shall  display  his  personal 
flag  or  pennant  day  and  night  at  a  suitable  and 
conspicuous  place  at  his  headquarters,  unless  it 
is  displayed  from  a  ship  of  his  command. 

3.  When  the  points  for  display  of  two  or 
more  personal   flags  ashore   are  in  such  close 
proximity   as   to   make   their  separate  display 
inappropriate,  that  of  the  senior  officer  present 
only  shall  be  displayed. 

4.  When  a  personal  flag  or  a  foreign  ensign 
is  required  to  be  displayed  ashore  during  the 
official  visit  of,  or  a  gun  salute  to,  a  civil  official 
or  foreign  officer,  it  shall  be  displayed  from  the 
normal  point  of  display  of  a  personal  flag  or 


pennant  of  the  officer  in  command,  and  the 
latter's  flag  or  pennant  shall  be  displayed  at 
some  other  point  within  the  command. 

5.  During  the  official  inspection  by  a  flag 
or  general  officer  of  a  unit  of  his  command 
ashore,  his  personal  flag  shall  displace  a  personal 
flag  or  pennant  of  the  officer  in  command. 

6.  If  two  or  more  civil  officials,  for  each  of 
whom    the    display     of    a    personal    flag    is 
prescribed,  are  present  officially  at  a  command 
ashore  at  the  same  time,  the  flag  of  the  senior 
only  shall  be  displayed. 

1071.  Personal    Flag    or    Command    Pennant, 
When  Officer  Temporarily  Succeeded  in 
Command. 

1.  When  a  flag  or  general  officer  or  a  unit 
commander  has  been  succeeded  temporarily  in 
command,  as  prescribed  in  these  regulations,  his 
personal    flag    or   command    pennant   shall  be 
hauled   down.  The  officer  who  has  succeeded 
temporarily  to  the  command  shall  display  the 
personal  flag  or  command  pennant  to  which  he 
is  entitled  by  these  regulations. 

2.  In  a  foreign  port  upon  the  occasion  of 
the  absence  of  a  flag  officer  from  his  command 
for  a  period  exceeding  72  hours,  the  command 
subject  to  any  directions  from  the  flag  officer, 
shall  devolve  upon  the  senior  officer  present  of 
the    unit    who   is  eligible    for   the   exercise  of 
command  at  sea,  but  as  standard  procedure  the 
flag  officer's  flag  shall  continue  to  be  flown  in 
his  regular  flagship  until  that  ship  is  underway, 
at  which  time  the  personal  flag  shall  be  hauled 
down  and  not  again  hoisted  until  the  flag  officer 
returns  to  his  flagship.  Commanders  in  chief  and 
fleet  commanders  have  authority  to  modify  this 
procedure  with  respect  to  their  personal  flags  as 
the  exigencies  of  the  service  require. 

1072.  Absence  Indicators. 

In  ships,  the  absence  of  an  official  or  officer 
whose  personal  flag  or  pennant  is  displayed,  a 
chief  of  staff,  or  a  commanding  officer  shall  be 
indicated  from  sunrise  to  sunset  by  the  display 
of  an  absence  indicator  as  prescribed  in  current 
instructions. 


Appendix  V-HONORS  AND  CEREMONIES 


1073.  Personal  Flags  and  Pennants  of  Officers 
in  Boats  and  Automobiles  and  Aircraft. 

1.  An  officer  in  command,  or  a  chief  of 
staff  when  acting  for  him,  when  embarked  in  a 
boat  of  the  naval  service  on  official  occasions, 
shall  display  from  the  bow  his  personal  flag  or 
command  pennant  or,  if  not  entitled  to  either,  a 
commission  pennant. 

2.  An  officer  entitled  to  the  display  of  a 
personal  flag  or  command  pennant  may  display 
a  miniature    of  such   flag  or   pennant  in  the 
vicinity     of     the     coxswain's     station    when 
embarked  on  other  than  official  occasions  in  a 
boat  of  the  naval  service. 

3.  An  officer  entitled  to  the  display  of  a 
personal  flag  or  command  pennant  may,  when 
riding  in  an  automobile  on  an  official  occasion, 
display  such  flag  or  pennant  forward  on  such 
vehicle. 

4.  An  officer  entitled  to  the  display  of  a 
personal  flag  or  command  pennant  may,  when 
embarked  in  an  aircraft  on  an  official  occasion, 
display  such  flag  or  pennant  on  both  sides  just 
forward  and  below  the  cockpit  of  such  aircraft 
at  rest. 

1074.  Flags    of   Civil    Officials   in    Boats  and 
Automobiles  and  Aircraft. 

A  flag  shall  be  displayed  in  the  bow  of  a 
boat  in  the  naval  service  whenever  a  United 
States  civil  official  is  embarked  on  an  official 
occasion,  as  follows: 

a.  A  union  jack  for: 

(1)  A  diplomatic  representative  of  or 
above    the    rank    of   charge"  d'affaires, 
within    the    waters    of  the  country  to 
which  he  is  accredited. 

(2)  A  governor  general  or  governor 
commissioned  as  such  by  the  President, 
within  the  area  under  his  jurisdiction. 

b.  The    consular    flag    for    a   consular 
representative. 

c.  The    prescribed    personal    flag    for 
other  civil  officials  when  such  officials  are 
entitled  to  the  display  of  a  personal  flag 
during  an  official  visit. 


d.  A  civil  official  entitled  to  the  display 
of  a  personal  flag  may,  when  riding  in  an 
automobile  on  an  official  occasion,  display 
such  flag  forward  on  such  vehicle. 

e.  A  civil  official  entitled  to  the  display 
of  a  personal  flag  may,  when  embarked  in  an 
aircraft,  display  a  miniature  of  such  flag  on 
both    sides   just    forward    and   below    the 
cockpit  of  such  aircraft  at  rest. 

1075.  Bow  Insignia  and  Flagstaff  Insignia  for 
Boats. 

1.  A  boat  regularly  assigned  to  an  officer 
for  his  personal  use  shall  carry  insignia  on  each 
bow  as  follows: 

a.  For  a  flag  or  general  officer,  the  stars 
as  arranged  in  his  flag. 

b.  For  a  unit  commander  not  a  flag 
officer,  a  replica  of  his  command  pennant. 

c.  For  a  commanding  officer,  or  a  chief 
of  staff  not  a  flag  officer,  an  arrow. 

2.  Staffs    for    the    ensign,    and    for    the 
personal  flag  or  pennant  in  a  boat  assigned  to 
the  personal  use  of  a  flag  or  general  officer,  unit 
commander,    chief   of   staff,    or    commanding 
officer,  or  in  which  a  civil  official  is  embarked, 
shall   be   fitted   at   the   peak  with  devices  as 
follows: 

a.  A  spread  eagle:  For  an  official  or 
officer  whose  official  salute  is  19  or  more 
guns. 

b.  A  halberd 

(1)  For    a    flag    or  general    officer 
whose  official  salute  is  less  than  19  guns. 

(2)  For  a  civil  official  whose  official 
salute  is  1 1  or  more  guns  but  less  than 
19  guns. 

c.  A  ball: 

(1)  For  an  officer  of  the  grade,  or 
relative  grade,  of  captain  in  the  Navy. 

(2)  For  a  career  minister,  a  counselor 
or  first  secretary  of  embassy  or  legation, 
or  a  consul. 

d.  A  star:  For  an  officer  of  the  grade, 
or  relative  grade,  of  commander  in  the  Navy. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


e.    A  flat  truck: 

(1 )  For  an  officer  below  the  grade, 
or  relative  grade,  of  commander  in  the 
Navy. 

(2)  For    a   civil   official    not   listed 
above,     and    for    whom    honors    are 
prescribed  for  an  official  visit. 

1076.  Display     of    Foreign    National    Ensign 
During  Gun  Salutes. 

1.  While  firing  a  salute  to  the  nation  upon 
entering   a  foreign  port,  returning  such  salute 
fired  by  a  foreign  warship,  or  firing  a  salute  on 
the  occasion  of  a  foreign  national  anniversary, 
celebration,  or  solemnity,  a  ship  shall  display 
the   ensign  of  the  foreign  nation  at  the  main 
truck. 

2.  While     firing    a    salute    to     a    foreign 
dignitary  or  official  entitled  to  21  guns,  a  ship 
shall     display    the    national    ensign    of    such 
dignitary  or  official  at  the  main  truck.  While 
firing  a  salute  to  the  foreign  official  entitled  to 
less  than  21  guns,  or  to  a  foreign  officer,  or  when 
returning  a  salute  fired  by  a  foreign  officer,  the 
national  ensign  of  the  foreign  official  or  officer 
shall  be  displayed  at  the  fore  truck. 

3.  At     a     naval     station,     under     the 
circumstances     set     forth     in     the     preceding 
paragraphs    of    this    article,    the    appropriate 
foreign    ensign    shall    be    displayed    from    the 
normal  point  of  display  of  the  personal  flag  or 
pennant   of  the  officer  in  command,  and  the 
latter's  flag  or  pennant  shall  be  displayed  at 
some  other  point  within  the  command. 

1077.  Display  of  National  Ensigns  of  Two  or 
More  Nations. 

1.  When  the  national  ensigns  of  two  or 
more  nations  are  required  to  be  displayed  from 
the  same  masthead,  the  United  States  national 
ensign,  if  required,  shall  be  displayed  to 
starboard  of  all  others.  The  national  ensigns  of 
other  nations  shall  be  displayed,  starboard  to 
port,  in  the  alphabetical  order  of  the  names  of 
the  nations  in  the  English  language;  except  that 
the  ensign  of  a  foreign  nation  within  whose 


waters  the  ship  is  located,  if  displayed,  shall  be 
to  starboard  of  other  foreign  ensigns. 

2.  While  a  salute  is  being  fired  under  the 
foregoing  conditions,  the  ensign  of  the  nation 
being   honored,    or   whose    dignitary    is   being 
honored,  shall  be  displayed  alone. 

3.  In  rendering  honors,  the  national  ensign 
of  one  nation  shall  not  be  displayed  above  that 
of  another  nation  at  the  same  masthead. 

1078.  Choice   of   Foreign    Flag    or   Ensign  in 
Rendering  Honors. 

In  rendering  honors  requiring  the  display  of 
a  foreign  flag  or  ensign: 

a.  In  the  case  of  a  government  having 
both  a  national  flag  and  a  national  ensign 
(man-of-war  flag),  the  national  ensign  shall 
be  displayed  except  under  the  conditions  set 
forth  in  this  article. 

b.  In    the    case    of   a    commonwealth, 
dominion,  or  similar  government  recognized 
as  independent  by  the  Government  of  the 
United  States,  which  has  a  national  flag  of 
its  own  but  which  also  employs  the  national 
ensign  (man-of-war  flag)  of  the  empire  or 
federation  to  which  it  belongs,  the  national 
flag  of  the  commonwealth  or  dominion  shall 
be  displayed  except  when  rendering  honors 
to  naval  officers;  in  which   latter  case  the 
national   ensign   (man-of-war   flag)  shall  be 
displayed. 

c.  In    the    case   of   a   government  not 
recognized      as     independent     by     the 
Government  of  the  United  States,  such  as  a 
protectorate    or    colony,    the    flag    of   the 
government  exercising  protective  or  colonial 
power    shall    be    displayed    except    when 
otherwise  directed  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy. 

d.  In  the  case  of  a  government  carried 
on  by  a  joint  mandate  or  trusteeship  and 
having  no  distinct  national  flag  of  its  own, 
the  flags  of  the  several  countries  comprising 
the    mandate     shall    be     displayed    when 
rendering  honors. 


Appendix  V-HONORS  AND  CEREMONIES 


1079.  Dressing  and  Full-Dressing  Ship. 

1 .  On  occasions  of  dressing  ship  the  largest 
national  ensign  with  which  the  ship  is  furnished 
shall  be  displayed  from  the  flagstaff,  and  except 
as  prescribed  for  a  ship  displaying  a  personal  flag 
or  command  pennant,  a  national  ensign  shall  be 
displayed    from    each   masthead.   The  national 
ensigns  displayed  at  the  masthead  shall  be  of 
uniform  size,  except  when,  due  to  a  substantial 
difference  in  heights  of  masthead,  a  difference  in 
the  size  of  national  ensigns  is  appropriate. 

2.  On    occasions    of  full-dressing  ship,  in 
addition   to   the   dressing  of  the  mastheads,  a 
rainbow  of  signal  flags,  arranged  in  the  order 
prescribed    in    Navy    Department  publications, 
shall  be  displayed,  reaching  from  the  foot  of  the 
jackstaff  to  the  mastheads  and  thence  to  the 
foot    of    the    flagstaff.    Peculiarly    masted   or 
mastless   ships    shall    make  a  display  as  little 
modified      from     the     rainbow    effect     as    is 
practicable. 

3.  When   dressing  or   full-dressing  ship  in 
honor  of  a  foreign  nation,  the  national  ensign  of 
that    nation    shall    replace    the   United    States 
national  ensign  at  the  main,  or  at  the  masthead 
in  the  case  of  a  single-masted  ship;  provided  that 
when  a  ship  is  full-dressed  or  dressed  in  honor  of 
more  than  one  nation,  the  ensign  of  each  nation 
shall    be    displayed    at    the    main,    or   at   the 
masthead  in  a  single-masted  ship. 

4.  Should     half-masting    of    the    national 
ensign   be  required  on  occasions  of  dressing  or 
full-dressing  ship,  only  the  national  ensign  at  the 
flagstaff  shall  be  half-masted. 

5.  When     full -dressing    is    prescribed,    the 
senior  officer  present  may  direct  that  dressing  be 
substituted   if,   in  his  opinion,  the  state  of  the 
weather  makes  such  action  advisable.  He  may 
also,  under  such  circumstances,  direct  that  the 
ensigns   be    hauled   clown   from   the  mastheads 
after  being  hoisted. 

6.  Ships  not  underway  shall  be  dressed  or 
full-dressed     from    0800    until    sunset.    Ships 
underway  shall  not  be  dressed  or  full-dressed. 

1080.  Senior  Officer  Present  Afloat  Pennant. 

If  two  or  more  ships  of  the  Navy  are 
together  in  port,  the  senior  officer  present  afloat 
pennant  shall  be  displayed  from  the  ship  in 


which  the  senior  officer  present  afloat  is 
embarked,  except  when  the  personal  flag  of  the 
senior  officer  present  afloat  clearly  indicates  his 
seniority.  It  shall  be  displayed  from  the  inboard 
halyard  of  the  starboard  main  yardarm. 


SPECIAL  CEREMONIES, 
ANNIVERSARIES,  AND  SOLEMNITIES 

1081.  Ships  Passing  Washington's  Tomb . 

When  a  ship  of  the  Navy  is  passing 
Washington's  tomb,  Mount  Vernon,  Virginia, 
between  sunrise  and  sunset,  the  following 
ceremonies  shall  be  observed  insofar  as  may  be 
practicable:  The  full  guard  and  band  shall  be 
paraded,  the  bell  tolled,  and  the  national  ensign 
half-masted  at  the  beginning  of  the  tolling  of  the 
bell.  When  opposite  Washington's  tomb,  the 
guard  shall  present  arms,  persons  on  deck  shall 
salute,  facing  in  the  direction  of  the  tomb,  and 
"Taps"  shall  be  sounded.  The  national  ensign 
shall  be  hoisted  to  the  truck  or  peak  and  the 
tolling  shall  cease  at  the  last  note  of  "Taps", 
after  which  the  National  Anthem  shall  be  played. 
Upon  completion  of  the  National  Anthem, 
"Carry  On"  shall  be  sounded. 

1082.  National  Holidays. 

1.  The    following    shall    be    observed    as 
holidays  on  board  ships  of  the  Navy  and  at  naval 
stations  and  activities:  New  Year's  Day,  the  1st 
of  January;  Washington's  Birthday,  the   third 
Monday  in  February;  Memorial  Day,  the  last 
Monday  in  May;  Independence  Day,  the  4th  of 
July ;  Labor  Day,  the  first  Monday  in  September; 
Columbus  Day,  the  second  Monday  in  October; 
Veterans  Day,  the  fourth  Monday  in  October; 
Thanksgiving    Day,    the    fourth    Thursday    in 
November;   and    Christmas   Day,  the   25th   of 
December,   and    such    other   days   as  may   be 
designated  by  the  President. 

2.  Whenever  any  of  the  above-designated 
dates  falls  on  Saturday,  the  preceding  day  shall 
be  observed  as  a  holiday,  and  whenever  such 
date  falls  on  Sunday,  the  following  day  shall  be 
observed. 


NAVAL 


1083.  Ceremonies  for  National  Holidays. 

1.  On    Washington's    Birthday,    the   third 
Monday  in  February,  and  on  Independence  Day, 
the   4th  of  July,   every   ship  of  the  Navy  in 
commission,  not  underway,  shall  full-dress  ship. 
At   noon   each  saluting  ship,  and  each  naval 
station  equipped  with  a  saluting  battery,  shall 
fire  a  national  salute  of  21  guns. 

2.  On  Memorial  Day,  the  last  Monday  in 
May,  each  saluting  ship,  and  each  naval  station 
having  a  saluting  battery,  shall  fire  at  noon  a 
salute  of  21   minute-guns.  All  ships  and  naval 
stations   shall   display    the   national   ensign  at 
half-mast  from  0800  until  the  completion  of  the 
salute  or  until  1 220  if  no  salute  is  fired  or  to  be 
fired. 

3.  When  the  4th  of  July  occurs  on  Sunday, 
all  special  ceremonies  shall  be  postponed  until 
the  following  day. 

1084.  Foreign    Participation   in   United  States 
National  Anniversaries  or  Solemnities. 

1.  Prior    to    celebrating    a    United    States 
national   anniversary,    or  observing  a   national 
solemnity,  in  a  foreign  place  or  in  the  presence 
of  foreign  warships,  the  senior  officer  present  of 
the  United  States  naval  service  shall  give  due 
notice  to  the  foreign  port  authorities,  and  to  the 
senior  officer  of  each  nationality  present,  of  the 
time  and  manner  of  conducting  the  celebration 
of  solemnity,  and  shall,  as  appropriate,  invite 
their  participation  therein.  An  officer  shall  be 
sent  to  thank  the  foreign  authorities  or  ships 
which     participate     in     such     celebration     or 
solemnity. 

2.  When     foreign     troops    participate     in 
parades  within  the  territorial  jurisdiction  of  the 
United  States,  they  shall  be  assigned  a  position 
of  honor  ahead  of  United  States  troops,  except 
that  a  small  detachment  of  United  States  troops 
will  immediately  precede  the  foreign  troops  as  a 
guard  of  honor. 

3.  On  occasions   when  troops  of  two  or 
more  foreign  nations  participate,  the  troops  of 
the  nation  in  whose  honor  the  parade  is  held  will 
be   assigned   a   position    ahead    of   all    others, 


otherwise  the  order  of  precedence  among 
foreign  troops  will  be  determined,  as 
appropriate,  by: 

a.  The     relative     ranks     of     the 
commanders  of  the  forces  from  which  the 
parade  detachments  are  drawn;  or 

b.  The      relative     ranks     of     the 
commanders  of  the  parade  detachments;  or 

c.  The  alphabetical  order  in  the  English 
language    of    the    names    of    the    nations 
concerned. 

1085.  Observance  of  Foreign  Anniversaries  and 
Solemnities. 

1 .  In  a  foreign  place,  or  when  in  company 
with    a    foreign    warship,    when    a    national 
anniversary  or  solemnity  is  being  observed  by 
foreign  port  authorities  or  a  foreign  warship,  a 
ship  of  the  Navy  shall,  upon  official  invitation, 
follow  the  example  of  the  foreign  authority  or 
warship  in  full-dressing  or  dressing  ship,  firing 
salutes,  and  half-masting  ensigns.  Salutes  shall 
not  exceed   21    guns  unless  the  senior  officer 
present  deems  it  proper  to  fire  a  larger  number 
in  order  to  participate  properly  in  the  ceremony, 
or    to    avoid    giving    offense.    Upon    all    such 
occasions  efforts  shall  be  made  to  accord,  so  far 
as  practicable,  with  the  foreign  authorities  in  the 
time  and  manner  of  conducting  the  ceremonies. 

2.  Uniform    accoutrements    of   mourning, 
including  mourning   badges  or  bands,  may  be 
worn  on  the  uniform  when  appropriate,  or  when 
directed  by  competent  authority,  by  persons  in 
the  naval  service  who  are  stationed  in,  or  who 
are  officially  visiting,  a  foreign  nation  during  the 
period  that  the  foreign  government  ordains  as 
the  period  of  national  mourning. 

1086.  Ships  Passing  USS  ARIZONA  Memorial. 

When  a  ship  of  the  Navy  is  passing  the  USS 
ARIZONA  Memorial,  Pearl  Harbor,  Hawaii, 
between  sunrise  and  sunset,  passing  honors 
consisting  of  sounding  "Attention"  and 
rendering  the  hand  salute  by  all  persons  in  view 
on  deck  and  not  in  ranks  shall  be  executed  by 
that  ship. 


588 


Appendix  V-HONORS  AND  CEREMONIES 


DEATHS  AND  FUNERALS 

1087.  Death  of  United  States  Civil  Official. 

1.  Upon  the  death  of  a  United  States  Civil 
Official  listed  below  (see  figure  A5-6),  the  ... 
(indicated)  ceremonies  shall  be  observed. 

1088.  Death    of    a    Person    in    the    Military 
Services. 

1.  Upon    the   death   of   a   person   in  the 
military   services,    the    .  .  .    ceremonies   (figure 
A5-7)  shall  be  observed. 

2.  At  joint  installations  or  commands  the 
procedures     prescribed     by     the     responsible 
military  commanders  or  the  executive  agent  will 
be  executed  uniformly  by  all  the  United  States 
military  units  present. 

3.  The  national  ensign  shall  be  half-masted 
upon  receipt  of  notification  of  death  of  one  of 
the  designated  officials  from  any  reliable  source, 
including  news  media. 

4.  If  he  deems  it  appropriate,  the  senior 
officer  present  may  direct  that  the  ceremonies 
prescribed  in  this  article  be  observed  during  the 
transfer  of  the  body  of  the  deceased  from  the 
ship  or  naval   station,   rather  than  during  the 
funeral. 

5.  In  the  event  of  a  military  funeral  of  a 
person  in  the  naval  service  on  the  retired  list, 
ceremonies  as  prescribed  in  this  article  shall  be 
rendered  insofar  as  may  be  practicable. 

6.  On    the    occasion    of    conducting    the 
funeral   of  a  person  in  the  naval  service  near 
posts,  stations,  or  ships  of  other  armed  services 
of  the  United  States,  or  the  Coast  Guard,  the 
commanding    officers    thereof   shall    be    duly 
notified   of   the    time    and  the  honors  to  be 
rendered   by   ships  of   the  Navy   or  by  naval 
stations. 

7.  During  the  funeral  of  a  flag  officer  of  the 
Coast  Guard,  or  a  general  officer  of  the  armed 
services  of  the  United  States,  other  than  naval, 
and  other  than  those  listed  in  paragraph  1  of  this 
article,  at  a  place  where  there  is  a  naval  station, 
or  where  one  or  more  ships  of  the  Navy  are 
present,  the  ensigns  of  such  stations  and  ships 
shall  be  half-masted  during  the  funeral  service 


and  for  1  hour  thereafter;  and  minute-guns,  of 
the  number  prescribed  for  the  funeral  of  the 
deceased  by  the  regulations  of  the  service  to 
which  he  belonged,  shall  be  fired  by  the  naval 
station,  if  practicable,  and  by  the  senior  saluting 
ship  present. 

1 089.  General  Provisions  Pertaining  to  Funerals. 

1.  If  there   is  no  chaplain  or  clergyman 
available,    the    commanding     officer,    or    his 
representative,  shall  conduct  the  funeral  service. 

2.  There  shall  be  six  pallbearers  and  six 
body     bearers.     The     pallbearers     shall,     if 
practicable,  be  of  the  same  grade  or  rating  as  the 
deceased.   If  a   sufficient   number   of   foreign 
officers  of  appropriate  grade  attend  the  funeral, 
they   may   be   invited    to    serve    as  additional 
pallbearers. 

3.  The  wearing  of  the  mourning  badge  is 
discretionary  for  those  in  attendance  at  a  funeral 
and  shall  be  worn  by  the  escort  for  a  military 
funeral  as  prescribed  in  the  respective  Uniform 
Regulations. 

4.  Boats  taking  part  in  a  funeral  procession 
shall  display  the  national  ensign  at  half-mast.  If 
the  deceased  was  a  flag  or  general  officer,  or  at 
the  time  of  his  death  a  unit  commander,  or  a 
commanding    officer    of    a    ship,   his    flag    or 
command  pennant,  or  a  commission  pennant, 
shall  be  draped  in  mourning  and  displayed  at 
half-mast  from  a  staff  in  the  bow  of  the  boat 
carrying  the  body.  A  funeral  procession  of  boats 
shall,    in    general,    be    formed    in    the    order 
prescribed  in  the  Landing  Party  Manual,   U.S. 
Navy,  for  a  funeral  procession  on  shore. 

5.  The  casket  shall  be  covered   with  the 
national  ensign,  so  placed  that  the  union  is  at 
the   head   and  over  the  left  shoulder  of  the 
deceased.  The  ensign  shall  be  removed  from  the 
casket  before  it  is  lowered  into  the  grave  or 
committed  to  the  deep. 

6.  Persons  in  the  naval  service  shall  salute 
when  the  body  is  carried  past  them,  while  the 
body    is    being    lowered    into    the    grave    or 
committed  to  the  deep,  and  during  the  firing  of 
volleys  and  the  sounding  of  "Taps." 

7.  Three  rifle  volleys  shall  be  fired  after  the 
body    has   been    lowered    into    the    grave    or 
committed  to  the  deep,  following  which  "Taps" 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Official 

National  ensign  half-masted 

Gun  salute 

By- 

Period  of  Display 

Fired  by 

How  and  when  fired 

President,     former 
President,     or     a 
President-elect. 

All  ships  and  stations  of 
the    Department    of 
the  Navy. 

For  30  days  from  the 
day  of  death. 

(a)    All  saluting  ships, 
not  underway,  in  ports 
under     United     States 
jurisdiction,    and    each 

1  gun  every  half  hour 
from  0800  till  sunset 
on  day  after  receipt 
of  notice  of  death. 

naval  station  having  a 

saluting  battery. 

(b)    Senior     saluting 

21  minute-guns  fired  at 

ship    present    in    each 

noon     on    day    of 

port     under     United 

funeral. 

States  jurisdiction,  and 

each     naval     station 

/) 

having     a     saluting 

•' 

battery. 

Vice    President,    Chief 

,  DO   .,., 

For  10  days  from  the 

(a)    All  saluting  ships, 

Minute-guns    equal    in 

Justice    or     retired 

day  of  death. 

not  underway,  in  ports 

number     to     offical 

Chief  Justice  %f  the 

under     United     States 

salute    of    deceased, 

United  States,  or  the 

jurisdiction,    and    each 

fired  at  noon  on  day 

Speaker  of  the  House 

naval  station  having   a 

after  receipt  of  notice 

of  Representatives. 

saluting  battery. 

of  death. 

(b)    Senior     saluting 

Minute-guns    equal    in 

ship  present,  and  naval 

number     to     official 

station  having   saluting 

salute     of    deceased, 

battery,  in  port  where 

fired  at  noon  on  day 

funeral  occurs. 

of  funeral. 

An  Associate  Justice  of 

TV- 

From  the  day  of  death 

n- 

Do. 

the  Supreme  Court,  a 

until  interment. 

member     of    the 

Cabinet,    a    former 

Vice    President,    the 

President     pro 

tempore    of    the 

Senate,  the  Majority 

Leader  of  the  Senate, 

the   Minority  Leader 

of    the    senate,    the 

Majority    Leader    of 

the     House     of 

Representatives,     the 

Minority    Leader    of 

the     House     of 

Representatives,    the 

Secretary     of    the 

Army,  the  Secretary 

of  the  Navy,  or  the 

Secretary  of  the  Air 

Force. 

Governor    of   a    state, 

All  ships  and  stations  in 

T"\rt 

Ship    and     station    as 

Do. 

territory,    common- 

such state,  territory, 

designated  by   senior 

wealth  or  possession. 

commonwealth    or 

officer  present  in  port 

possession. 

where  funeral  honors 

are    directed    to    be 

rendered. 

United  States  Senator, 

All  ships  and  stations  in 

Otl      tflP     flflv     nf    rii»at1i 

T1_ 

T\n 

Representative, 

the  metropolitan  area 

\-fii       11  Aw      \*(Lj       \Ji      UvuLIl 

and     the    following 

DO. 

Territorial    Delegate, 

of    the    District    of 

day. 

or     the     Resident 

Columbia,  and 

Commissioner    from 

All  ships  and  stations  in 

From  the  dav  nf  Hpafh 

•    „     ,        Hn 

T\n 

the    Commonwealth 

the  applicable   state, 

*  i*-nii    bjiv   uaj    v/i   uvci  ui 

until  interment. 

L)Q                          - 

DO. 

of  Puerto  Rico. 

congressional  district, 

territory  or  common- 

wealth. 

Figure  A5-6.~Ceremonies  observed  upon  the  death  of  a  United  States  civil  official. 

590 


Appendix  V-HQNORS  AND  CEREMONIES 


Official 

National  ensign  half-masted                                                     Gun  ^^^ 

By- 

Period  of  Display 

Fired  by 

How  and  when  fired 

Civil  official  not  listed 

Ships    and   stations  in 

From  0800  till  sunset 

Ship    and    station    as 

Do. 

above,  but  entitled  to 
gun  salute  on  official 
visit. 

the     vicinity    when 
directed     by     senior 
officer     present    or 

on  day  of  funeral. 

designated  by  senior 
officer  present  in  port 
where  funeral  honors 

other     competent 

are    directed    to    be 

authority   to  join  in 

rendered. 

funeral  honors. 

Vice    President,    Chief 

do 

When  displayed  :For  10 

(a)    All  saluting  ships, 

vlinute-guns    equal    in 

Justice     or     retired 

days  from  the  day  of 

not  underway,  in  ports 

number     to     official 

Chief  Justice  of  the 

death. 

under     United    States 

salute    of    deceased, 

United  States,  or  the 

jurisdiction,   and    each 

fired  at  noon  on  day 

Speaker  of  the  House 

naval  station  having  a 

after     receipt     of 

of  Representatives. 

saluting  battery. 

official    notice     of 

death. 

(b)    Senior     saluting 

Minute-guns'   equal    in 

ship  present,  and  naval 

number    to     official 

station  having  saluting 

salute    of    deceased, 

battery,  in  port  where 

fired  at  noon  on  day 

,             -,        ,.              (* 

funeral  occurs. 

of  funeral. 

An  Associate  Justice  or 

uu 

From  the  day  of  death 

do 

Do. 

the  Supreme  Court,  a 

until  interment. 

member     of     the 

Cabinet,     a    former 

Vice    President,    the 

Secretary     of     the 

Army,   the  Secretary 

of  the  Navy,  or  the 

Secretary  of  the  Air 

Force. 

J 

. 

r*n 

Governor    of    a    state, 

All  ships  and  stations  in 

tlu 

Ship    and    station    as 

uu« 

territory,     common- 

such state,  territory, 

designated  by  senior 

wealth  or  possession. 

commonwealth     or 

officer  present  in  port 

possession. 

where  funeral  honors 

are    directed    to    be 

rendered. 

United  States  Senator, 

All  ships  and  stations  in 

On  the  day  of  death 

j 

Do. 

du 

Representative, 

the  metropolitan  area 

and     the    following 

Territorial     Delegate, 

of     the     District    of 

day. 

or     the     Resident 

Columbia,  and 

Commissioner     from 

All  ships  and  stations  in 

From  the  day  of  death 

do  — 

Do. 

the    Commonwealth 

the    applicable    state, 

until  interment. 

of  Puerto  Rico. 

congressional  district, 

territory  or  common- 

wealth. 

Civil  official  not  listed 
above,  but  entitled  to 
gun  salute  on  official 
visit. 

Ships    and    stations   in 
the     vicinity     when 
directed     by     senior 
officer     present     or 

When  displayed:  From 
0800    till  sunset  on 
day  of  funeral. 

Ship    and    station    as 
designated  by  senior 
officer  present  in  port 
where  funeral  honors 

Do. 

other     competent 

are    directed    to    be 

authority    to  join  in 

rendered. 

funeral  honors. 

Figure  A5-6.-Ceremonies  observed  upon  the  death  of  a  United  States  civil  official-continued. 


shall  be  sounded  by  the  bugle;  except  that  in  a 
foreign  port,  when  permission  has  not  been 
obtained  to  land  an  armed  escort,  the  volleys 
shall  be  fired  over  the  body  after  it  has  been 
lowered  into  the  boat  alongside. 


8.  During  burial  at  sea,  the  ship  shall  be 
stopped,  if  practicable,  and  the  ensign  shall  be 
displayed  at  half-mast  from  the  beginning  of  the 
funeral  service  until  the  body  has  been 
committed  to  the  deep.  Further  display  of  the 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Deceased 

National  ensign  half-masted 

Personal     flag     or 
command  pennant 
of     d  eceased, 
commission 
pennant    of    ship 
commanded 

Gun  Salute 

By- 

Period  of  Display 

Fired  by- 

How  and 
when  fired 

Chairman  or  foimei 
Chairman    of  the 
Joint     Chiefs     of 
Staff,     United 
States     military 
officer    of    5-star 

All     ships     and 
stations    of    the 
Department  of  the 
Navy. 

From   the    time   of 
death  until  sunset 
of  the  day  of  the 
funeral. 

Half-masted    from 
time     of     death 
until  sunset  of  day 
of     funeral,     or 
removal     of     the 
body,    and    then 

Flagship   or  station 
commanded;  or  as 
designated     by 
senior     officer 
present. 

M  i  n  u  te-guns 
equal     in 
number     to 
official    salute 
of     deceased, 
fired     during 

rank,     Chief     or 

hauled  down. 

funeral. 

former    Chief    of 

Naval  Operations, 

Commandant     or 

former    Comman- 

dant of  the  Marine 

Corps. 

AC, 

rin 

T)n 

Flag     or     general 

All    ships    present, 

From  time  of  death 

uo. 

officer  (Marine)  in 

not     underway, 

until  sunset  of  day 

command. 

and     by     naval 

of     funeral;    or 

stations      in 

removal     of    the 

vicinity. 

body. 

c  v»  *  y\       f\v       ^titit^n 

fin 

Flag     or     general 
o  f  f  icer     (Marine) 

do  

From     the     begin- 
ning of  the  funeral 

O  111  JJ            wl            olUliWll 

designated     by 

UO. 

not  in  command. 

until     sunset     of 

senior     officer 

that  day. 

present. 

Unit     commander 

do  

do  

Half-masted     from 

Flagship,     or     ship 

7     m  inute-guns, 

not  a  flag  officer; 

time     of     death 

or    station     com- 

fired    during 

commanding 

until  sunset  of  day 

manded;     or     as 

funeral. 

officer. 

of     funeral,     or 

designated     by 

removal     of     the 

senior     officer 

body,    and    then 

present. 

hauled     down; 

except     commis- 

sion    pennant 

A~ 

rounded  up. 

All  other  persons  in 
the  naval  service. 

During  funeral  and 
for      1      hour 

thereafter. 

Figure  A5-7.— Ceremonies  observed  upon  the  death  of  a  person  in  the  military  service. 


ensign  at  half-mast  may  be  prescribed  according 
to  circumstances  by  the  senior  officer  present. 

9.  Funeral  honors  shall  not  be  rendered 
between  sunset  and  sunrise.  When  it  is  necessary 
to  bury  the  dead  at  night,  such  funeral  services 
as  are  practicable  shall  take  place. 

1090.  Funeral  Escorts. 

1.  An  escort  under  arms  shall,  when 
practicable,  accompany  the  funeral  cortege  to 
the  place  of  interment. 


2.  The  funeral  escort  for  a  President,  Vice 
President,  Secretary  of  Defense,  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  Under  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Fleet  Admiral,  Chief  of 
Naval  Operations,  or  Commandant  of  the  Marine 
Corps  shall  be  prescribed  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy. 

3.  Unless    otherwise     prescribed    by    the 
senior  officer  present,   the   funeral  escort  for 
other  persons  in  the  Navy  or  the  Marine  Corps 
shall    comprise    commands    equivalent   to   the 
following  infantry  units,  insofar  as  is  practicable 
with  the  Navy  or  Marine  Corps  forces  available. 


592 


Appendix  V-HONQRS  AND  CEREMONIES 


Admiral,     Navy     and 

General,  Marine  Corps  1  Battalion 

Other  Flag  Officers,  Navy 
and  General  Officers, 
Marine  Corps  1  Company 

Captain,     Navy     and 

Colonel,  Marine  Corps  1  Company 

Other  Commissioned 
Officers,  Warrant  Officers 
and  Midshipmen  of  the 
Navy  and  Marine  Corps  1  Platoon 

Chief  Petty  Officer,  Navy 
and  Gunnery  Sergeant 
and  above,  Marine  Corps  2  Squads 

Other    enlisted    persons, 

Navy   and   Marine  Corps  1  Squad 

4.  The  grade  or  rating  of  the  escort 
commander  normally  shall  be  the  same  as,  or 
higher  than,  that  of  the  deceased. 

1091.  Display  of  Personal  Flag,  Command 
Pennant,  Or  Commission  Pennant  in 
Funerals  on  Shore. 

If  the  deceased  was  a  flag  or  general  officer, 
or  at  the  time  of  his  death,  a  unit  commander  or 
commanding  officer  of  a  ship,  his  personal  flag 
or  command  pennant,  or  commission  pennant, 
shall  be  draped  in  mourning  and  carried 
immediately  in  advance  of  the  body  in  the 
funeral  procession  to  the  grave. 


1 092.  Burial  in  a  Foreign  Place. 

Before  a  person  in  the  naval  service  is  buried 
in  a  foreign  place,  the  senior  officer  present  shall 
arrange  with  the  local  authorities  for  the 
interment  of  the  body  and  shall  also  request 
permission  to  parade  an  escort  under  arms.  He 
shall  inform  the  senior  foreign  officers  present 
and  the  appropriate  local  officials  of  the  time 
and  place  of  the  funeral,  and  of  the  funeral 
honors  to  be  rendered  by  United  States  forces 
present. 

1093.  Death     of    Diplomatic,     Consular,     or 
Foreign  Official. 

1.  On  the  death  in  a  foreign  place  of  a 
diplomatic   or   consular   representative   of  the 
United  States,  the  senior  officer  present  shall,  as 
circumstances  permit,  arrange  for  appropriate 
participation    in    the    funeral    ceremonies    by 
persons  in  the  naval  service. 

2.  When  the  senior  officer  present  receives 
official   notice  of  the  death  or  funeral   of  a 
foreign  official,  or  member  of  a  foreign  armed 
service,  he  shall,  as  circumstances  warrant  and  as 
international  courtesy  demands,  direct  visits  of 
condolence    to    be    made,    and    arrange    for 
participation  by  persons  in  the  naval  service  in 
the  funeral  ceremonies. 

1094.  Transporting  Body  of  Deceased  Official. 

When  a  ship  of  the  Navy  is  transporting  the 
body  of  a  deceased  official,  the  honors  and 
ceremonies  prescribed  for  an  official  visit  shall, 
if  directed  by  the  senior  officer  present  or  higher 
authority,  be  rendered  when  the  body  is 
received  aboard  or  leaves  the  ship. 


APPENDIX  VI 

AWARDS 


Fundamentally,  military  decorations  and 
awards  are  for  the  purpose  of  publicly 
recognizing  and  rewarding  extraordinary 
performance  of  duty,  exceptionally  meritorious 
service,  conspicuously  outstanding  acts  of 
heroism,  and  other  acts  or  services  which  are 
above  and  beyond  that  normally  expected  and 
which  distinguish  the  individual  or  unit  among 
those  performing  similar  acts  or  services. 


grade  or  rate.  It  consists  of  a  medallion  hung 
from  a  bar  or  from  bars. 

Ribbon  or  ribbon  bar:  Consists  of  a  portion 
of  the  suspension  ribbon  of  a  medal  and  is  worn 
in  lieu  of  the  medal.  The  dimensions  of  all 
ribbons  are  1-3/8  inches  by  3/8  inch. 

Attachment:  Any  appurtenance  such  as  a 
star,  clasp,  or  device  worn  on  the  suspension 
ribbon  of  a  medal  or  on  the  ribbon  (ribbon  bar). 


DEFINITIONS 

Award:  An  all-inclusive  term  covering  any 
decoration,  medal,  badge,  ribbon  or  an 
attachment  thereof  bestowed  on  an  individual. 

Unit  award:  An  award  made  to  an  operating 
unit  and  worn  only  by  members  of  that  unit 
who  participated  in  the  cited  action. 

Service  award:  An  award  made  to  those 
who  have  participated  in  designated  wars, 
campaigns,  expeditions,  etc.,  or  who  have 
fulfilled  in  a  creditable  manner  specified  service 
requirements. 

Decoration:  An  award  bestowed  upon  an 
individual  for  a  specific  act  of  gallantry  or 
meritorious  service. 

Medal:  An  award  presented  to  an  individual 
for  performance  of  certain  duties,  acts,  or 
services.  It  consists  of  a  suspension  ribbon  made 
in  distinctive  colors  and  from  which  hangs  a 
medallion. 

Miniature  medal:  A  replica  of  a  large  medal, 
made  to  a  scale  one-half  that  of  the  original. 
(The  Medal  of  Honor  is  not  made  in  miniature.) 

Badge:  An  award  to  an  individual  for  some 
special  proficiency  apart  from  the  duties  of  his 


ORDER  OF  PRECEDENCE 

Awards  issued  for  wear  by  naval  personnel 
are  worn  in  a  set  precedence  according  to  the 
following  categories: 


1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 


6. 

7. 


Military  decorations. 

Unit  awards. 

Nonmilitary  decorations. 

Campaign  and  service  awards. 

Foreign    decorations,    non-U.S.   awards, 

foreign  unit  awards,  and  foreign  service 

awards. 

Marksmanship  awards. 

Awards  of  military  societies  and  other 

organizations. 


Figure  A6-1  indicates  the  order  of 
precedence  for  individual  military  decorations 
and  unit  awards. 

Nonmilitary  decorations  are  worn  in  the 
order  earned.  These  include,  but  are  not  limited 
to,  the- 

Gold     Life     Saving    Medal     (awarded    by 

Secretary  of  Transportation) 
Silver    Life     Saving    Medal    (awarded    by 

Secretary  of  Transportation) 


Appendix  VI-AWARDS 


Decoration 


Awarded  to 


Awarded  for 


Time  limits 


Medal  of  Honor 


Navy  Cross 


Defense 
Distinguished 
Service  Medal 


Distinguished 
Service  Medal 


A  member  of  the  naval  service  who 
distinguishes  himself  conspicuously 
by  gallantry  and  intrepidity  at  the 
risk  of  his  life  above  and  beyond  the 
call  of  duty  (1)  while  engaged  in  an 
action  against  an  enemy  of  the 
United  States;  (2)  while  engaged  in 
military  operations  involving  conflict 
with  an  opposing  foreign  force;  or 
(3)  while  serving  with  friendly 
foreign  forces  engaged  in  an  armed 
conflict  against  an  opposing  armed 
force  in  which  the  United  States  is 
not  a  belligerent  party. 

A  person  serving  in  any  capacity  with 
the  Navy  or  Marine  Corps  who 
distinguishes  himself  by 
extraordinary  heroism  not  justifying 
the  award  of  a  Medal  of  Honor, 
while  engaged  in  one  of  the  types  of 
operations  required  for  award  of  the 
Medal  of  Honor. 

Any  military  officer  of  the  United 
States  who  is  assigned  to  joint  staffs 
or  other  joint  activities  of  the 
Department  of  Defense  and  who 
distinguishes  himself  by 
exceptionally  meritorious  service  in 
a  position  of  unique  and  great 
responsibility.  It  shall  not  be 
awarded  to  any  individual  for  a 
period  of  service  for  which  a  Service 
Distinguished  Service  Medal  or 
similar  decoration  has  been  awarded. 

A  person  serving  in  any  capacity  with 
the  Navy  or  Marine  Corps  who 
distinguishes  himself  by 
exceptionally  meritorious  service  to 
the  United  States  in  a  duty  of  great 
responsibility. 


Combat. 


Must  be  recommended 
within  3  years  from  date 
of  act  and  awarded 
within  5  years  of  act. 


Combat. 


Do. 


Com  bat  or 
noncombat. 


Do. 


Combat  or 
noncombat. 


Do. 


Figure  A6-1.-Order  of  precedence  for  individual  military  decorations  and  unit  awards. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Decoration 

Silver  Star 
Medal 


Defense  Superior 
Service  Medal 


Legion  of 
Merit 


Distinguished 
Flying  Cross 


Navy  and  Marine 
Corps  Medal 


Bronze  Star 
Medal 


Combat  or 
noncombat. 


Do. 


Combat  or 
noncombat. 


Do. 


Awarded  to 


A  person  serving  in  any  capacity  with 
the  Navy  or  Marine  Corps  who  is 
cited  for  gallantry  in  action  that 
does  not  warrant  a  Medal  of  Honor 
or  Navy  Cross,  while  engaged  in  one 
of  the  types  of  operations  required 
for  award  of  the  Medal  of  Honor. 

Any  member  of  the  Armed  Forces  of 
the  United  States  who  has  rendered 
superior  meritorious  service  in  a 
position  of  significant  responsibility 
with  the  Officer  of  the  Secretary  of 
Defense,  the  Organization  of  the 
Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff,  a  specified  or 
unified  command,  a  Defense  agency, 
or  such  other  joint  activity  as  may 
be  designated  by  the  Secretary  of 
Defense. 

A  member  of  the  armed  forces  of  the 
United  States  or  of  a  friendly  foreign 
nation  who  distinguishes  himself  by 
exceptionally  meritorious  conduct  in 
performing  outstanding  services. 

A  person  serving  in  any  capacity  with 
the  Navy  or  Marine  Corps  who 
distinguishes  himself  by  heroism  or 
extraordinary  achievement  while 
participating  in  aerial  flight 

A  person  serving  in  any  capacity  with 
the  Navy  or  Marine  Corps  who 
distinguishes  himself  by  heroism  not 
involving  actual  conflict  with  the 
enemy. 

A  person  serving  in  any  capacity  with 
the  Armed  Forces  of  the  United 
States  who  distinguishes  himself  by 
heroic  or  meritorious  achievement  or 
service  not  involving  participation  in 
aerial  flight,  while  engaged  in  one  of 
the  types  of  operations  required  for 
award  of  the  Medal  of  Honor. 


Figure  A6-1.— Order  of  precedence  for  individual  military  decorations  and  unit  awards— Continued. 


Awarded  for 
Combat. 


Combat  or 
noncombat. 


Noncombat. 


Combat  or  military 
operations  against 
the  enemy  or  an 
opposing  armed 
force. 


Time  limits 


Do. 


Must  be  recommended 
within  2  years  from  date 
of  act  and  awarded 
within  3  years  of  act. 


Must  be  recommended 
within  3  years  from  date 
of  act  and  awarded 
within  5  years  of  act. 


Do. 


596 


Appendix  VI-A WARDS 


Decoration 


Awarded  to 


Awarded  for 


Time  limits 


Meritorious 
Service  Medal 


Air  Medal 


Joint  Service 
Commendation 
Medal 


Navy 
Commendation 

Medal 


Navy 

Achievement 
Medal 


Purple  Heart 


Any  member  of  the  Armed  Forces  of 
the  United  States  who  has 
distinguished  himself  by  outstanding 
noncombat  meritorious  achievement 
or  service  to  the  United  States.  The 
acts  or  services  rendered  by  an 
individual  must  have  been 
comparable  to  that  required  for  the 
Legion  of  Merit  but  in  a  duty  of 
lesser  responsibility. 

A  person  serving  in  any  capacity  with 
the  Armed  Forces  of  the  United 
States  who  distinguishes  himself  by 
heroic/meritorious  achievement  in 
aerial  flight. 

A  member  of  the  Armed  Forces 
who  distinguishes  himself  after  1 
January  1963  by  meritorious 
achievement  or  service  while 
assigned  to  joint  activities  as 
specified  by  the  Secretary  of 
Defense. 

A  person  serving  in  any  capacity  with 
the  Navy  or  Marine  Corps  (including 
foreign  military  personnel)  who 
distinguishes  himself  by  heroic  or 
meritorious  service  or  achievement. 

A  lieutenant  commander/major  or 
below  serving  in  any  capacity  with 
the  Navy  or  Marine  Corps  who 
distinguishes  himself  by  outstanding 
professional  achievement  and/or 
leadership. 

A  person  serving  in  any  capacity  with 
the  Armed  Forces  of  the  United 
States  who  is  killed  or  wounded  (1) 
in  action  against  an  enemy  of  the 
United  States;  (2)  in  action  with  an 
opposing  armed  force  of  a  foreign 
country  in  which  Armed  Forces  of 
the  United  States  are  engaged;  (3) 
while  serving  with  friendly  foreign 
forces  engaged  in  an  armed  conflict 
against  an  opposing  armed  force  in 


Noncombat. 


Do. 


Com  bat  or 
noncombat. 


Combat  or 
noncombat. 


Do. 


No  time  limit. 


Combat  or 
noncombat. 


Noncombat. 


Must  be  recommended 
within  3  years  from  date 
of  act  and  awarded 
within  5  years  of  act. 

Do. 


Combat. 


No  time  limit. 


Figure  AM.-Order  of  precedence  for  individual  military  decorations  and  uni,  awards-Continued. 


597 


Decoration 


Awarded  to 


Awarded  for 


Time  limits 


Purple  Heart 
(Continued) 


Combat  Action 
Ribbon 


Unit  awards: 

Presidential 
Unit  Citation 


Navy  Unit 
Commendation 


Meritorious 
Unit 
Commendation 


which  the  United  States  is  not  a 
belligerent  party;  (4)  as  a  result  of  an 
act  of  any  such  enemy  or  opposing 
armed  force;  (5)  as  a  result  of  an  act 
of  any  hostile  foreign  force;  (6)  as  an 
indirect  result  of  enemy  action;  or 
(7)  as  a  result  of  maltreatment 
inflicted  by  captors  while  a  prisoner 
of  war. 

A  captain/colonel  or  below  of  the 
Navy,  Marine  Corps,  or  Coast  Guard 
when  the  Coast  Guard  or  units 
thereof  operate  under  control  of  the 
Navy,  who  has  actively  participated 
in  ground  or  surface  combat.  The 
individual  must  have  participated  in 
a  bona  fide  ground  or  surface 
combat  firefight  or  action  during 
which  he  was  under  enemy  fire  and 
his  performance  while  under  fire 
must  have  been  satisfactory.  (Not 
awarded  for  aerial  combat) 


Units  of  the  Armed  Forces  of  the 
United  States  and  units  of  armed 
forces  of  friendly  foreign  nations 
serving  with  the  Armed  Forces  of 
the  United  States  for  outstanding 
performance  in  action. 

Units  of  the  Armed  Forces  of  the 
United  States  for  outstanding 
heroism  in  action  against  the  enemy 
or  by  extremely  meritorious  service 
not  involving  combat  but  in  support 
of  military  operations. 

Units  of  the  Armed  Forces  and  units 
of  friendly  foreign  nations  serving 
with  the  Armed  Forces  of  the 
United  States  for  valorous  or 
meritorious  achievement. 


Combat. 


No  time  limit. 


Combat. 


No  time  limit 


Combat. 


Combat  and  in 
support  of  military 
operations. 


Must  be  recommended 
within  3  years  from  date 
of  act  or  service  and 
awarded  within  5  years 
from  date  of  act  or 
service. 

Do. 


lombat  or 
noncombat 


Do. 


Figure  A6-1  .-Order  of  precedence  for  individual  military  decorations  a 

598 


nd  unit  awards— Continued. 


Appendix  VI-AWARDS 


NASA  Distinguished  Service  Medal 
National   Security  Medal  (awarded  by  the 

President) 
Presidential  Medal  of  Freedom  (awarded  by 

the  President) 

Listed  below  in  the  order  of  their 
precedence  are  the  service  and  campaign  awards 
authorized  for  wear  on  the  naval  uniform  after 
nonmilitary  decorations. 

Good  Conduct  Medals  (Navy  and  Marine 

Corps) 

Naval  Reserve  Meritorious  Service  Medal 
Organized  Marine  Corps  Reserve  Medal 
Expeditionary    Medals    (Navy   and   Marine 

Corps) 

China  Service  Medal 
American  Defense  Service  Medal 
American  Campaign  Medal 
European-African-Middle  Eastern  Campaign 

Medal 

Asiatic  Pacific  Campaign  Medal 
World  War  II  Victory  Medal 
Navy  Occupation  Service  Medal 
Medal  for  Humane  Action 
National  Defense  Service  Medal 
Korean  Service  Medal 
Antarctica  Service  Medal 
Armed  Forces  Expeditionary  Medal 
Vietnam  Service  Medal 
Armed  Forces  Reserve  Medal 
Naval  Reserve  Medal 
Marine  Corps  Reserve  Ribbon 

Personnel  who  have  been  specifically 
authorized  by  law  to  accept  decorations  from 
foreign  governments  may  wear  them  in  the  order 
of  their  receipt  after  all  U.S.  service  awards. 

The  following  non-U.S.  service  and  foreign 
units  awards,  listed  in  order  of  precedence,  do 
not  require  individual  legislative  authorization 
and  may  be  worn  immediately  after  foreign 
decorations. 

Non-U.S.  service  awards: 

Philippine     Defense     Ribbon     (no    medal 

authorized) 
Philippine    Liberation    Ribbon    (no    medal 

authorized) 


Philippine  Independence  Ribbon  (no  medal 

authorized) 

United  Nations  Service  Medal 
United  Nations  Medal 

Foreign  service  awards: 

Republic  of  Vietnam  Campaign  Medal 

Foreign  unit  awards  (no  medals  authorized): 

Philippine  Presidential  Unit  Citation 
Korean  Presidential  Unit  Citation 
Vietnam  Presidential  Unit  Citation 
Republic    of    Vietnam    Meritorious    Unit 

Citation  Gallantry  Cross  Color 
Republic    of    Vietnam    Meritorious    Unit 

Citation  Civil  Actions  Color 

As  a  general  policy,  the  Department  of  the 
Navy  does  not  permit  naval  personnel  to  accept 
service  medals  from  foreign  governments.  The 
only  such  award  authorized  for  wear  is  the 
Republic  of  Vietnam  Campaign  Medal. 

The  following  marksmanship  awards,  in 
order  of  precedence,  are  authorized  for  wear  on 
the  uniform  : 

U.S.    Distinguished    International    Shooter 

Badge 

Distinguished  Marksman  Badge 
Distinguished  Pistol  Shot  Badge 
National  Trophy  Match  Rifleman  Badge 

(Gold) 
National  Trophy  Match  Pistol  Shot  Badge 

(Gold) 

Navy  Rifleman  Badge  (Gold) 
Navy  Pistol  Shot  Badge  (Gold) 
Fleet  Rifleman  Badge  (Gold) 
Fleet  Pistol  Shot  Badge  (Gold) 
National,  Navy,  and  fleet  badges  continue  in 

the    order    above    with    silver    taking 

precedence  over  bronze 
Expert  Rifleman  Medal 
Expert  Pistol  Shot  Medal 
Navy  Pistol  Marksmanship  Award 
President's  Hundred  Award  (enlisted  only) 

Listed  below  are  military  societies  and  other 
organizations  that  issue  awards  authorized  for 
wear  on  the  naval  uniform.  Medals  and  ribbons 


NAVAL  OKlJiJNlAuuiN 


are  worn  in  the  order  earned  after  all  service 
awards.  Badges  are  worn  after  marksmanship 
badges. 

Regular  Army  and  Navy  Union 

Army  and  Navy  Union  of  the  United  States 

American  Legion,  Veterans  of  Foreign  Wars, 

or  other  officially  recognized  veterans 

organizations 
Corps  and  Division  of  the  Civil  and  Spanish 

American  Wars 
Medical  scientific  societies 


MANNER  OF 
WEARING  AWARDS 

Medals,  ribbons,  and  attachments  must  be 
worn  on  appropriate  uniforms  and  in  the 
manner  explained  below. 

LARGE  MEDALS 


FULL    DRESS    BLUE 

MALE  OFFICER 
OR    ENLISTED   MALE 


FULL   DRESS  WHITE 
MALE   OFFICER 


FULL   DRESS   WHITE 

WOMAN    OFFICER 
OR    ENLISTED   WOMAN 


134.117 
Figure  A6-2.— Proper  display  of  large  medals. 


Full-size  medals  are  worn  on  full  dress 
uniforms.  The  holding  bar  of  the  lowest  row  of 
medals  is  located  approximately  1/4  inch  above 
the  left  breast  pocket  and  clear  of  the  lapel.  The 
medal  bottoms  dress  in  a  horizontal  line,  as  in 
figure  A6-2.  When  more  than  one  row  is  worn, 
no  row  shall  contain  a  lesser  number  than 'the 
row  above.  As  far  as  possible,  except  for  the  top 
row,  all  rows  contain  the  same  number  of 
medals  (as  in  figure  A6-3),  three  medals  side  by 
side  or  up  to  five  medals  overlapping. 
Overlapping  is  equal  and  the  right,  or  inboard, 
medal  shows  in  full.  Upper  rows  of  medals  are 
mounted  so  as  to  cover  the  suspension  ribbons 
of  the  medals  below.  The  arrangement  of  awards 
is  by  seniority  from  top  down  and  from  inboard 
to  outboard.  All  medals  may  be  worn,  but  a 
minimum  of  five  must  be  worn  by  those 
possessing  five  or  more.  The  Medal  of  Honor, 
worn  when  either  large  or  miniature  medals  are 
prescribed,  is  worn  from  a  suspension  ribbon 
placed  around  the  neck. 

MINIATURE  MEDALS 

Miniature  medals  are  worn  with  evening 
dress  and  dinner  dress  uniforms.  On  male  tail 


coats  and  mess  jackets,  the  holding  bar  of  the 
lowest  row  of  medals  is  positioned  on  the  left 
lapel  3  inches  below  the  notch  (figure  A6-4)  and 
centered  on  the  lapel.  If  the  bar  exceeds  a  length 
of  2-3/4  inches,  the  bar  extends  over  the 
outboard  edge  of  the  lapel.  When  worn  on  a 
male  officer's  blue  or  white  service  coat,  the 
lowest  bar  is  centered  immediately  above  the 
left  breast  pocket.  On  a  woman  officer's 
uniform,  the  lowest  bar  is  centered  on  the  left 
pocket  flap  of  the  blue  and  white  service  coat. 
On  other  uniforms,  it  is  attached  in  the  same 
relative  position. 

The  number  of  miniatures  worn  on  one 
holding  bar  may  not  exceed  1 1 .  When  more  than 
1 1  are  worn,  they  are  arranged  in  2  rows;  if 
more  than  22,  in  3  rows  and  in  the  same 
symmetrical  manner  as  for  large  medals.  The 
miniatures  may  be  equally  overlapped  up  to 
50%,  the  right  (inboard)  medal  showing  in  full. 

SERVICE  RIBBONS 

Service  ribbons  are  worn  in  the  order  of 
their  precedence  (from  top  down  and  from 
inboard  outboard).  The  ribbons  are  worn  with 


600 


Appendix  VI-AWARDS 


Number  of  Medals 
to  be  Worn 

Prescribed  Number 
of  Rows 

Number  of  Medals  Per  Row 

Top 
Row 

2d 

Row 

3d 
Row 

4th 
Row 

1-5 

1  row  only 

1-5 

6 

2 

3 

3 

7 

2 

3 

4 

8 

2 

4 

4 

9 

2 

4 

5 

10 

2 

5 

5 

11 

3 

3 

4 

4 

12 

3 

4 

4 

4 

13 

3 

4 

4 

5 

14 

3 

4 

5 

5 

15 

3 

5 

5 

5 

16 
and  so  on 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

Figure  A6-3.— Manner  of  wearing  large  medals. 


134.121 


EVENING  DRESS  BLUE 
MALE  OFFICER 

434.118 
Figure  A6-4.-Proper  display  of  miniature  medals. 


all  service  dress  uniforms  and  on  the  dinner  dress 
uniform  of  enlisted  women.  There  are  no 
intervals  between  ribbons  or  rows  of  ribbons. 
They  may  be  sewed  to  the  uniform  or  arranged 
on  holding  bars  to  be  pinned  to  the  uniform. 
They  may  not  be  impregnated  with  preservatives 
that  change  their  appearance  or  be  worn  with 
transparent  covers. 

On  male  uniforms,  the  lower  edge  of  the 
bottom  row  of  ribbons  is  centered 
approximately  1/4  inch  above  the  left  breast 
pocket.  On  women's  blue  and  white  uniforms, 
one  or  two  rows  are  centered  on  the  left  pocket 
flap;  additional  rows  are  worn  immediately 
above  the  flap.  On  women's  light-blue  jackets, 
ribbons  appear  in  the  same  relative  position  as 
on  their  blue  and  white  coats. 

Three  ribbons  or  less  are  worn  in  a  single 
horizontal  row.  When  more  than  three  are 
authorized,  they  are  worn  in  rows  of  three  each. 
If  not  in  multiples  of  three,  the  uppermost  row 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


contains  the  lesser  number,  the  center  of  the 
row  to  be  over  the  center  of  the  row  beneath.  A 
minimum  of  six  ribbons  must  be  worn  by  those 
possessing  six  or  more;  all  may  be  worn  if 
desired. 

ATTACHMENTS 

A  variety  of  stars,  devices,  and  clasps  are 
authorized  for  wear  on  medal  suspension 
ribbons  and  corresponding  service  ribbons. 
Figure  A6-5  shows  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
displayed. 

Stars 

Stars  are  of  three  types:  gold,  bronze,  and 
silver. 

A  gold  star  is  worn  in  lieu  of  a  second  or 
subsequent  award  of  a  military  decoration. 

Bronze  stars  indicate  (1)  service  in  a  cited 
unit  at  the  time  of  an  action  for  which  the  unit 
was  awarded  a  unit  citation,  (2)  second  and 
subsequent  awards  of  a  campaign  or  service 
medal,  (3)  the  number  of  battle  engagements 
during  a  given  campaign  for  which  a  medal  is 
authorized,  and  (4)  first  individual  award  of  the 
Air  Medal. 

A  silver  star  is  authorized  for  wear  in  lieu  of 
five  gold  or  bronze  stars. 

A  single  star  is  centered  on  the  ribbon.  If 
more  than  one  star  is  worn,  they  are  placed  in  a 
horizontal  line  close  to  and  symmetrically  about 
the  center  of  the  ribbon.  The  silver  star  is 
located  as  near  the  center  of  the  ribbon  as 
symmetry  permits.  A  star  worn  in  addition  to  a 
silver  star  or  letter  device  is  worn  on  the  wearer's 
right,  a  second  star  is  worn  to  his  left,  and  so  on. 
When  medals  overlap,  all  stars  may  be  worn  to 
the  wearer's  left.  Stars  are  placed  on  the  ribbon 
with  two  rays  pointing  down. 

Letter  Devices 

Metal  letter  devices,  when  authorized,  are 
worn  centered  on  the  appropriate  ribbon. 

The  bronze  letter  A  on  the  American 
Defense  Service  Medal  indicates  service  on  ships 
in  actual  or  potential  belligerent  contact  with 


Axis  forces  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  between 
22  June  and  7  December  1941.  No  star  is  worn 
on  a  ribbon  displaying  the  A. 

Personnel  entitled  to  the  Presidential  Unit 
Citation  awarded  the  USS  NAUTILUS  (SSN 
571)  for  having  participated  in  the  cruise  of  that 
vessel  under  the  Arctic  icecap,  from  22  July  to 
5  August  1958,  are  authorized  to  wear  a  gold 
letter  N  centered  on  the  citation  ribbon. 

Individuals  awarded  the  Legion  of  Merit, 
Bronze  Star  Medal,  Joint  Service  Commendation 
Medal,  Navy  Achievement  Medal,  or  the 
Commendation  Medal  for  acts  or  services 
involving  direct  participation  in  combat 
operations  may  be  authorized  to  wear  a  bronze 
letter  V. 

A  silver  W  indicates  service  in  the  defense  of 
Wake  Island,  7  to  22  December  1941. 

Clasps 

Clasps,  when  authorized,  are  worn  only  on 
suspension  ribbons  of  large  medals  although 
stars  or  other  devices  worn  in  lieu  of  clasps  may 
be  displayed  on  the  suspension  ribbons  of 
miniature  medals  and  on  ribbon  bars. 

Currently,  authorized  clasps  (of  which  two 
are  shown  in  figure  A6-5),  include— 

1.  "Asia"   and   "Europe"  clasps,  denoting 
service  in  those  areas,  to  be  worn  with  the  Navy 
Occupation  Service  Medal. 

2.  "Fleet"  and  "Base"  clasps,  to  indicate 
service  in  the  fleet  or  at  overseas  bases,  to  be 
worn  with  the  American  Defense  Service  Medal. 

3.  "Wake  Island"  clasp,  authorized  for  wear 
with     the     Navy     Expeditionary     Medal     by 
personnel  who   participated   in  the  defense  of 
Wake  Island  during  December  1941. 

4.  One  service  clasp,  with  appropriate  duty 
inscribed  thereon,  to  be  worn  with  the  World 
War  I  Victory  Medal. 

5.  "Wintered  Over"  clasp,  worn  with  the 
Antarctica  Service  Medal  by  personnel  who  have 
remained  on  the  Antarctic  Continent  during  the 
winter  months. 

6.  "Korea"   clasp,   worn   with  the  United 
Nations  Service  Medal  to  denote  service  in  the 
Korean  area  in  support  of  U.N.  action  (27  June 
1950  to  27  July  1954). 


602 


Appendix  VI-AWARDS 


pT 


3F-1 


•***- 


* 

*** 


134.119 


Figure  A6-5.— Manner 


of  displaying  attachments  on  medal  suspension  ribbons  and  ribbon  bars. 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Miscellaneous  Devices 


Airlift  Device:  Navy  personnel  who  served 
at  least  90  consecutive  days  with  units  in  direct 
support  of  the  Berlin  Airlift  (26  June  1948  to 
30  September  1949)  may  wear  a  gold  colored 
miniature  of  a  C-54  type  aircraft  with  the  Navy 
Occupation  Service  Medal. 

Bronze  Maltese  Cross:  Navy  Medical  Corps 
personnel  attached  to  the  American 
Expeditionary  Forces  in  France  between  April 
1917  and  November  1918  may  wear  this  device 
with  the  World  War  I  Victory  Medal. 

Fleet  Marine  Force  Combat  Operations 
Insignia:  Beginning  with  World  War  II,  Navy 
personnel  who  have  been  attached  to  FMF  units 
in  active  combat  with  an  armed  enemy  are 
authorized  to  wear  a  bronze  miniature  Marine 
Corps  emblem  with  the  appropriate  World  War 
II  area  campaign  medal,  Korean  Service  Ribbon, 
Armed  Forces  Expeditionary  Medal,  and 
Vietnam  Service  Medal. 


Hour  Glass:  Naval  Reserve  personnel  may 
wear  the  Hour  Glass  device  in  lieu  of  a  second  or 
subsequent  Armed  Forces  Reserve  Medal  for 
each  succeeding  10  years  of  service.  (The  device 
is  a  representation  of  an  hour  glass  superimposed 
with  the  Roman  numeral  X.) 

Gold  Globe:  Personnel  entitled  to  the 
Presidential  Unit  Citation  awarded  USS  Triton 
(then  SSRN  586)  for  circumnavigating  the  world 
underwater  in  1960  may  wear  a  gold  globe 
centered  on  the  PUC  ribbon  bar. 

Antarctica  Wintered  Over  Disk:  This  device, 
a  bronze  disk  inscribed  with  an  outline  of  the 
Antarctic  Continent,  may  be  worn  on  the 
suspension  ribbon  of  the  miniature  Antarctica 
Service  Medal  and  on  the  corresponding  ribbon 
bar  (a  "Wintered  Over"  clasp  is  worn  with  the 
large  medal). 

Strike/Flight  Numerals:  Personnel  receiving 
Strike/Flight  awards  of  the  Air  Medal  wear  a 
bronze  numeral  on  the  medal  indicating  the 
total  number  of  awards  of  this  type  received 
after  9  April  1962. 


APPENDIX  VII 


HISTORY  OF  THE  U.S.  NAVAL  ACADEMY 


During  the  first  50  years  of  the  United 
States  Navy's  existence,  there  was  no  organized, 
efficient  Navy  wide  system  for  training  its 
prospective  officers.  Most  of  a  midshipman's 
training  was  conducted  aboard  ship  under  the 
ship's  chaplain.  Some  training,  however,  was 
provided  from  time  to  time  at  various  schools 
ashore;  these  included  a  short-lived  school  at  the 
Washington  Navy  Yard  established  in  1 803  and  a 
naval  school  established  in  Philadelphia  in  1839 
to  provide  an  8-month  preparatory  course  for 
midshipmen's  promotion  examinations. 

Despite  growing  evidence  for  its  need, 
efforts  to  establish  a  naval  academy  were 
rebuffed  until  the  Honorable  George  Bancroft, 
distinguished  historian  and  educator,  became 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  President  Folk's  cabinet 
in  1845.  With  the  establishment  of  a  naval 
academy  in  mind,  Secretary  Bancroft  made 
several  adroit  moves,  including  obtaining  Fort 
Severn,  which  occupied  10  acres  on  a  neck  of 
land  called  Windmill  Point  at  Annapolis,  from 
the  War  Department.  There  in  late  1 845  he  set 
up  a  naval  school  for  midshipmen  which  was 
officially  designated  as  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  some  5  years  later. 

Under  Commander  Franklin  Buchanan,  its 
first  superintendent,  the  new  school  got 
underway  on  10  October  1845.  Three  of  its 
7-member  faculty  of  4  officers  and  3  civilians 
had  been  outstanding  instructors  at  the  Naval 
School  at  Philadelphia.  These  were  Lieutenant 
James  Ward  and  Professors  William  Chauvenent 
and  Henry  H.  Lock  wood. 

The  school  opened  with  a  student  body  of 
60,  whose  members  were  divided  into  a  junior 
and  senior  class.  They  were  housed  in  several 
small  buildings  popularly  named  "Apollo  Row," 


"Rowdy  Row,"  the  "Gas  House,"  "Brandywine 
Cottage,"  and  the  "Abbey"  to  reflect  the 
principal  characteristics  of  their  residents  or,  in 
the  case  of  Brandywine  Cottage,  the  ship  from 
which  they  came.  The  subjects  they  studied 
included  gunnery,  naval  tactics,  engineering, 
chemistry,  mathematics,  astronomy,  French, 
and  English. 

Some  of  the  students  had  come  to  the  new 
school  without  any  previous  sea  duty  and  were 
designated  "acting  midshipmen."  Most  students, 
however,  had  appointments  as  midshipmen  and 
several  years  of  sea  duty  as  such.  (The  acting 
midshipmen  were  more  comparable  to  today's 
midshipmen  than  the  latter.) 

During  the  first  few  years,  many  of  the 
midshipmen-probably  because  of  their  previous 
sea  duty,  their  ages  (ranging  up  to  27  years),  and 
their  being  used  to  unrestricted  liberty  when 
ashore-found  it  difficult  to  take  their  studies  or 
the  school  discipline  seriously.  This  is  reflected 
by  the  following  reportedly  true  stories. 

One  incident  concerned  the  midshipmen 
living  at  the  Abbey,  who  supposedly  led 
exemplary  lives.  One  night,  however,  the  officer 
of  the  day  found  the  Abbey  deserted  and  upon 
investigation  discovered  a  tunnel  that  went 
under  the  Yard  wall  (which  was  immediately 
adjacent)  and  toward  Annapolis.  The  next  day 
the  Abbey's  use  as  a  midshipmen's  residence  was 
ended. 

On  another  occasion,  the  midshipmen  were 
reported  to  have  hung  Professor  Lockwood  in 
effigy  from  the  Academy  flagstaff  one  St. 
Patrick's  Day.  For  this,  the  ringleaders  were 
ordered  to  court-martial  for  insulting  a  superior 
officer.  They  claimed  in  defense  that  professors 


605 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


were  not  superior  to  students  since  they  were 
not  oi'ficers  at  all.  (Congress  eventually  remedied 
this  situation  by  raising  instructors  to  the  ranks 
of  officers.) 

Another  story  concerning  this  period  deals 
with  the  linguistic  prowess  demonstrated  by  one 
Midshipman  Nelson  during  the  annual 
examinations.  Professor  Arsene  Girault, 
instructor  in  French,  had  patiently  prepared 
Nelson  so  that  he  could  speak  something 
resembling  that  language.  Nelson,  knowing  he 
could  do  nothing  of  the  kind,  memorized  a 
series  of  phrases  out  of  the  book.  During  the 
examination,  with  half  a  dozen  commodores 
present,  the  Professor  speaking  in  French  asked, 
"Mr.  Nelson,  what  is  your  native  state?" 

Nelson,  not  understanding  a  word  of  the 
question,  replied  with  one  of  his  memorized 
phrases,  "Thank  you,  I  am  very  well." 

The  startled  Professor  glared  at  him  and 
continued,  "What  course  have  you  just 
finished?" 

"I  am  twenty-four  years  of  age,"  replied 
Nelson. 

Just  as  the  situation  reached  an  impasse, 
Commodore  Mathew  C.  Perry,  who  did  not 
understand  a  word  of  French,  arose  and 
congratulated  Girault  on  his  success  in  teaching 
the  midshipman  to  speak  French  with  such 
fluency  and  accuracy. 

Initially  the  course  at  the  Academy  took  5 
years.  Of  these,  only  the  first  and  last  were  spent 
at  Annapolis,  the  intervening  3  years  being  spent 
at  sea.  In  1850-51  the  school  was  reorganized  as 
the  U.S.  Naval  Academy  and  the  course  of  study 
became  4  consecutive  years.  Summer  practice 
cruises  replaced  the  omitted  sea  service.  Thus, 
today's  basic  4-year  curriculum  first  appeared  at 
the  Naval  Academy  over  100  years  ago,  long 
before  it  became  general  practice  in  American 
undergraduate  education. 

With  the  reorganization  which  made  the 
Naval  School  become  the  Naval  Academy,  the 
school's  executive  officer  became  the 
commandant  of  midshipmen,  a  naval  uniform 
for  acting  midshipmen  was  adopted  and  the 
marking  scale  of  4.0  was  inaugurated. 

The  act  in  1851  which  approved  the 
reorganization  of  the  Academy  also  provided 
that,  after  4  years,  the  holder  of  a  certificate 
of  graduation  was  entitled  to  a  midshipmen's 


warrant,  and  that  after  2  years  of  sea  duty  he 
could  return  for  an  examination  for  lieutenant. 
Only  Naval  Academy  graduates  were  to  receive 
the  warrants- the  first  step  toward  regulating  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  officers  in  the  Fleet. 

The  Board  of  Visitors  was  created  in  1850, 
and  in  1851  the  method  of  appointing 
midshipmen  in  proportion  to  the  members  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  was  established.  In 
1852,  the  proviso  was  added  that  an  Academy 
aspirant  be  required  to  receive  the 
recommendation  of  his  Congressman. 

In  1855,  the  original  "fourth  class"  entered 
the  Academy.  Almost  simultaneously  the  "my 
plebe"  tradition  developed,  in  which  the  new 
third  classmen  selected  particular  members  of 
the  incoming  class  over  whom  they  kept  a 
watchful  eye.  This  eventually  became  a  first 
classman  privilege  and,  until  the  advent  of  the 
squad  system  in  1965,  the  closest  relationship  at 
the  Naval  Academy  was  between  the  first 
classmen  and  the  plebes. 

Attrition  during  the  early  years  was  heavy. 
Only  269  midshipmen  of  the  first  1209 
admitted  completed  the  course.  George  Dewey 
entered  with  a  class  of  75;  after  their  annual 
examination  in  June  1855  only  38  were 
retained.  Of  these,  the  future  hero  of  Manila  Bay 
ranked  thrity-fifth!  At  graduation,  however,  he 
ranked  fifth  in  his  class  of  15. 

The  1850's  also  saw  two  other  firsts  at  the 
Academy.  Franklin  Pierce  became  the  first 
President  of  the  United  States  to  visit  the 
Academy  when  he  attended  a  naval  ball  there  in 
1856.  Two  years  later,  the  first  literary  society 
at  the  school  was  formed.  It  honored  James 
Lawrence,  whose  words  "Don't  give  up  the 
ship!"  adorn  Memorial  Hall. 


THE  MEXICAN 
AND  CIVIL  WARS 

Within  20  years  after  its  founding,  the  Naval 
Academy  went  through  two  wars. 

Only  a  few  months  after  the  Academy's  first 
convocation,  war  was  declared  on  Mexico. 
Fifty-six  midshipmen  who  requested  active  duty 
were  sent  off  to  war  at  the  end  of  the  first  term, 
and  Commander  Buchanan  left  in  March  1847 
to  command  the  frigate  Germantown. 


Appendix  V1I-HISTORY  OF  THE  U.S.  NAVAL  ACADEMY 


During  the  Mexican  War,  there  were 
noteworthy  deeds  by  some  of  the  midshipmen. 
After  other  methods  failed,  Foxhall  Parker 
landed  a  32-pound  gun  from  the  Potomac  by 
running  a  small  boat  ashore,  cutting  out  the 
bottom,  and  leaving  the  gun  there.  Midshipman 
Young,  serving  as  a  mounted  messenger  between 
the  Army  and  the  Navy,  inadvertently  led  a 
charge  when  his  cavalry  horse  answered  a  bugle 
call.  The  first  monument  to  be  erected  in  the 
Yard  honors  four  midshipmen  who  were  killed 
in  the  Mexican  War:  Henry  A.  Clemson,  John  R. 
Hynson,  J.  V.  Pillsbury,  and  T.  B.  Shubrick. 
Called  the  Mexican  Monument,  it  was  put  up  in 
1848  by  the  midshipmen  at  the  Academy. 

On  the  eve  of  the  Civil  War  two  more 
important  monuments  were  erected  at  the 
Academy,  which,  like  the  Mexican  Monument, 
still  stand.  These  were  the  Tripoli  Monument 
and  the  Herndon  Monument. 

The  Tripoli  Monument  commemorates  the 
intrepidity  of  six  young  officers  of  the  infant 
U.S.  Navy  who  were  killed  in  the  war  with  the 
Barbary  pirates:  James  Decatur  (brother  of 
Stephen  Decatur),  James  Calclwell,  John  Dorsey, 
Richard  Somers,  Joseph  Israel,  and  Henry 
Wadsworth.  The  Tripoli  Monument  is  actually 
the  oldest  one  in  the  Yard.  It  was  made  in  Italy 
in  1806  and  located  first  at  the  Washington 
Navy  Yard  and  then  on  the  Capitol  grounds 
before  it  was  brought  to  Annapolis  in  1860  and 
set  up  at  its  present  site. 

The  Herndon  Monument,  also  erected  in 
1860,  commemorates  the  captain  of  a  ship 
which  foundered  off  Cape  Hatteras  in  1857, 
Commander  William  L.  Herndon.  When  he  had 
done  all  he  could  to  save  his  men  and  his  ship, 
Commander  Herndon  donned  his  full  dress 
uniform,  mounted  the  bridge,  and  stood  at 
attention  with  his  hat.  raised  as  the  ship  went 
down.  Lieutenant  (later  Commander)  Mathew 
Fontaine  Maury  said  of  him  at  the  time 
"Forgetful  of  self,  mindful  of  others  ...  he 
added  new  glory  to  the  annals  of  the  sea." 

The  coming  of  the  Civil  War  brought  the 
young  school  trying  years  in  1860  and  1861.  As 
states  seceded  from  the  Union,  the  tension 
mounted.  Finally,  one  day  in  April  1861  all 
hands  were  ordered  to  muster  aboard  the 


Constitution,  the  school  ship.  Lieutenant 
Christopher  R.  P.  Rogers,  commandant  of 
midshipmen,  addressed  the  group  and  ordered 
all  those  who  desired  to  resign  to  fall  out  of 
ranks.  Many  did,  and  amid  sad  farewells  went 
off  to  the  Confederacy. 

Officers  at  the  Academy  also  went  their 
respective  ways,  including  the  brothers  William 
and  Foxhall  Parker.  William  had  argued  they 
should  remain  with  the  Union  because  of 
education  and  Navy  ties;  Parker  argued  for  the 
Confederacy  because  of  family  and  state 
connections.  They  separated  after  their 
discussion,  but  each  had  been  so  persuasive  that, 
unknown  to  each  other,  William  resigned  and 
Parker  remained  with  the  Union. 

Because  of  the  urgent  need  for  junior 
officers  in  the  rapidly  expanding  Union  Navy, 
the  first,  second,  and  third  class  midshipmen 
who  remained  were  sent  off  to  war.  The  fourth 
class,  aboard  the  Consitiition,  shortly  sailed  for 
Newport,  R.I.,  which  became  the  home  of  the 
Academy  for  the  duration  of  the  War. 

Many  Academy  men  performed  noteworthy 
deeds  during  the  War.  One  was  Lieutenant 
Gushing,  who  placed  a  torpedo  directly  under 
the  side  of  the  Confederate  ram  Albemarle  and 
pulled  the  firing  lanyard  himself,  escaping  by 
diving  into  the  water  and  swimming  to  safety. 
He,  along  with  Midshipman  Benjamin  Porter,  led 
the  naval  battalion  into  action  at  Fort  Fisher.  In 
the  same  engagement,  Robley  "Fighting  Bob" 
Evans,  wounded  several  times,  was  the  only 
officer  who  reached  the  parapet  of  the  fort. 


POST-CIVIL  WAR  PERIOD 

The  Naval  Academy  faced  several  serious 
problems  during  the  first  20  years  after  the  Civil 
War.  Fortunately,  because  of  some  outstanding 
superintendents,  it  was  able  to  overcome  them. 

When  the  Academy  returned  to  Annapolis  in 
1  865,  the  grounds  were  in  poor  condition,  there 
were  academic  disputes  as  to  what  should  be 
included  in  the  training  and  the  difficulty  of  the 
courses,  and  the  internal  organization  was  in 
makeshift  condition.  Under  Admiral  David 
Porter,  who  became  superintendent  in  1865, 
these  and  other  problems  were  solved. 


NAVAL 


Porter  made  Lieutenant  Commander 
Stephen  Luce,  commandant  of  midshipmen,  and 
introduced  a  new  executive  organization.  In  it, 
the  battalion  comprised  four  divisions,  each 
containing  six  20-man  guncrews.  The  ranking 
cadet  midshipman  was  the  cadet  lieutenant 
commander,  followed  in  order  by  cadet 
lieutenant,  ensign,  and  first  and  second  gun 
captains.  Midshipman  Nicholson  S.  Kane, 
number  one  man  in  his  class,  became  the  first 
cadet  lieutenant  commander  in  1866.  Porter 
inspired  in  the  midshipmen  pride  in  themselves 
and  in  their  school.  He  placed  them  solely  on 
their  honor-one  of  the  fundamental  principles 
of  the  Academy  today-and  trusted  them 
implicitly,  with  excellent  results. 

Probably  the  greatest  problem  facing  the 
Academy  during  this  period  was  the  effect  of 
naval  stagnation  that  set  in  following  the  war. 
The  backlog  of  junior  officers  in  the  U.S.  Fleet 
became  so  great  that  in  1873  the  Academy 
course  was  lengthened  to  6  years,  the  last  2  at 
sea;  and  no  appointment  was  to  be  granted 
unless  a  man  graduated  from  the  Academy. 
Under  a  law  passed  in  1882,  no  commissions 
were  to  be  given  in  the  lower  grades  until 
vacancies  existed,  students  at  the  Academy 
being  designated  as  naval  cadets  rather  than 
midshipmen.  Consequently,  midshipmen  saw  no 
future  in  the  Navy  because  a  period  of  5  to  8 
years  as  "passed"  midshipmen  awaited  them 
upon  graduation. 

Hazing  was  another  prominent  problem  of 
the  period.  Parents,  friends,  and  Congressmen 
complained  of  the  rough  handling  of  some  of 
the  members  of  the  incoming  class  of  1871. 
When  the  victimized  plebes  became  third 
classmen  the  next  year,  however,  they  treated 
the  incoming  class  even  more  roughly.  Once, 
while  a  father's  charges  concerning  the 
treatment  his  son  had  received  from  "young 
brutes  in  government  uniform"  were  under 
lengthy  investigation,  complaints  arose  against 
his  son  because,  in  the  words  of  the  father,  he 
was  "having  a  little  harmless  fun  with  the 
newcomers." 

Eventually  hazing  became  less  of  a  problem 
but  not  before  Congress  passed  (and  10  years 
later  repealed)  the  Hazing  Law  of  1871,  which 
prescribed  a  court-martial  for  every  hazing 
offense. 


There  were  achievements  as  well  as  setbacks 
and  problems  during  the  post-Civil  War  period. 
In  1873,  when  Commodore  Worden  was 
superintendent,  the  Academy's  battalion  made 
its  first  public  appearance  when  it  inarched  at 
President  Grant's  second  inauguration  in 
Washington.  It  was  Commodore  Worden  who 
started  the  practice  of  "star"  men  (3.4  or  above) 
taking  their  places  in  front  of  the  battalion 
at  graduation.  In  the  later  1 870's,  Albert 
Michelson,  a  graduate  of  the  class  of  1873, 
performed  his  world-famous  experimental 
measurement  of  the  velocity  of  light  while 
serving  as  an  instructor  in  the  Department  of 
Physics  and  Chemistry  at  the  Academy. 
(Michelson  continued  his  brilliant  scientific 
work  after  leaving  the  Navy,  and  in  1907  he 
became  the  first  American  scientist  to  receive  a 
Nobel  Prize.)  In  1879  the  Paris  Exposition 
recognized  the  excellence  of  the  technical 
education  provided  at  the  Academy  by  awarding 
it  a  certificate  for  "The  Best  System  of 
Education  in  the  United  States." 

The  situation  for  the  students  began  to 
improve  in  1 884  when  a  new  law  restored  them 
to  officer  status;  and  further,  the  first  class 
members  were  commissioned  full  ensigns 
immediately  upon  graduation. 

The  class  ring-one  of  an  Academy 
graduate's  most  pri/cd  possessions-made  its 
appearance  during  this  period,  with  the  class  of 
1869  being  the  first  to  wear  it.  (The  class  ring 
shows  the  Naval  Academy  seal  on  one  side  and 
the  class  seal  on  the  other,  with  the  design  of  the 
rings  differing  in  detail  between  each  class.) 

Organized  athletics  were  introduced  to  the 
Academy  during  the  post-Civil  War  period.  Class 
baseball  teams  were  formed  in  1867,  and  that 
year  the  first  of  a  series  of  annual  Thanksgiving 
athletic  carnivals  was  held  at  the  Academy.  The 
program  included  track  and  field  competition, 
baseball,  rowing,  and  gymnastics.  In  1870,  the 
Academy  began  competing  against  outside  crews 
in  rowing.  Football  was  being  played  at  the 
Academy  by  1880;  and  in  1882  the  school's 
football  team  played  its  first  outside  game, 
defeating  the  Clifton  Football  Club  of 
Baltimore  8-0.  Eight  years  later  came  the  first 
football  game  between  Annapolis  and  West 
Point,  with  the  Navy  winning  24-0. 


608 


Appendix  VII-HISTORY  OF  THE  U.S.  NAVAL  ACADEMY 


The  Naval  Academy  Athletic  Association 
was  founded  in  1892,  and  in  1894  Walter  B. 
Izard  of  the  Academy  set  a  new  world  record  for 
the  50-yard  swim. 

Although  the  war  with  Spain  in  1 898  lasted 
but  a  few  months,  it  brought  a  sudden  change  to 
the  lives  of  those  attending  the  Academy.  The 
first  classmen  were  graduated  2  months  ahead  of 
schedule  and  ordered  to  the  Fleet  on  2  April.  By 
the  end  of  July,  practically  the  entire  battalion 
was  in  the  war.  Meanwhile,  after  their  defeat  at 
Santiago  on  3  July,  Admiral  Cervera  and  other 
Spanish  naval  officers  were  quartered  at  the 
Academy,  where  they  were  treated  more  like 
guests  than  prisoners  of  war. 


FROM   1898  TO 
WORLD  WAR  I 

An  extensive  building  program,  under  which 
nearly  all  the  existing  buildings  at  the  Academy 
were  eventually  replaced  with  the  French 
Renaissance  style  buildings  which  stand  today, 
was  initiated  following  the  war  with  Spain.  The 
first  steps  toward  this  program  had  begun  in 
1895  when  the  Board  of  Visitors  condemned  the 
Academy's  buildings  as  a  menace  to  health  and 
safety.  Following  this,  Colonel  Robert  Means 
Thompson,  class  of  1H68  and  a  member  of  the 
Board,  engaged  Frnest  Flagg,  a  noted  architect, 
to  draw  a  plan  not  only  for  new  buildings  but 
also  for  a  completely  new  arrangement  of  the 
Yard.  Congress  approved  and  in  1899 
implementation  of  the  architect's  plan  started. 

By  this  time,  the  Yard  had  been  expanded 
greatly,  from  its  original  10  acres,  through 
various  acquisitions.  These  included  the 
purchase  of  the  mansion  and  gardens  of  the 
Governor  of  Maryland  in  1  866,  of  10  acres  from 
St.  John's  College  a  year  later,  and  in  1868  of  65 
acres  which  are  now  occupied  by  the  Naval 
Academy  cemetery  and  the  naval  hospital.  More 
land  was  needed,  however,  and  most  of  this  was 
provided  by  dredging  mud  out  of  Chesapeake 
Bay. 

During  the  early  1900's,  a  number  of 
buildings  were  completed  under  the  new  plan: 
Dahlgren  Hall  and  Macdonough  Hall  in  1903; 
Isherwood  Hall  and  the  Officer's  Club  in  1905; 


Bancroft  Hall  in  1906;  and  the  Administration 
Building,  Mahan  Hall,  Sampson  Hall,  and  Maury 
Hall  in  1907. 

Bancroft  Hall  was  built  as  the  dormitory  for 
all  midshipmen  and  is  the  main  building  at  the 
Academy.  Six  wings  have  been  added  to  the 
building  since  1906  to  keep  pace  with  brigade 
expansion.  Within  Bancroft  Hall  is  Memorial 
Hall  which  pays  tribute  to  American  naval 
heroes.  Its  most  stirring  exhibit  is  the  faded  blue 
flag  on  which  is  sewn  in  uneven  white  letters  the 
undying  words  of  Captain  James 
Lawrence-"Don't  give  up  the  ship."  The  battle 
flag  which  Oliver  Hazard  Perry  flew  in  his 
victory  at  the  Battle  of  Lake  Erie,  its  words 
confront  the  midshipman  when  he  first  takes  his 
oath  of  office  as  a  midshipman  and  finally  when 
he  is  commissioned  an  ensign. 

The  Naval  Academy  Chapel,  with  its  great 
dome  that  dominates  the  Yard,  was  completed 
in  1908.  One  of  its  most  striking  features  is  its 
stained-glass  windows.  Of  these,  the  three  main 
windows  are  memorials  to  Admirals  Porter  and 
Farragut,  and  Rear  Admiral  Sampson.  The  two 
flanking  windows  portray  the  mission  of  the 
chapel.  One  shows  Sir  Galahad  with  his  sheathed 
sword  before  him;  the  other  portrays  a  newly 
commissioned  ensign  being  shown  by  Christ  the 
beacon  he  must  follow  as  an  officer.  The  bronze 
doors  of  the  chapel,  another  of  its  noteworthy 
features,  were  the  gifts  of  Colonel  Robert  Mean 
Thompson. 

As  originally  constructed,  the  chapel  was 
laid  out  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  but  in 
1939  an  extension  was  added  to  increase  its 
capacity  which  changed  the  plan  to  that  of  a 
Christian  cross.  Another  notable  feature  of  the 
chapel,  the  Votive  Ship  which  hangs  from  a 
chain  in  the  arch  of  the  nave,  was  presented  in 
1941  by  alumni  who  had  served  in  the 
Construction  Corps,  which  no  longer  exists  as  a 
separate  corps.  (The  idea  of  exhibiting  a  ship 
model  in  a  church  goes  back  to  ancient  days  and 
symbolizes  the  dedication  of  seafaring  men  to 
their  God.) 

Beneath  the  chapel  is  the  crypt  containing 
the  sarcophagus  of  John  Paul  Jones.  Completed 
in  1913,  the  sarcophagus  is  surrounded  by  eight 
columns  of  Pyrenean  marble;  inlaid  in  a  circle 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


in  the  marble  floor  around  it  are  the  names  of 
the  seven  ships  which  Jones  commanded  or 
captured  during  the  Revolutionary  War:  Serapis, 
Alliance,  Providence,  Bonhomme  Richard, 
Alfred,  Ariel,  and  Ranger. 

Until  brought  to  Annapolis  in  1905,  Jones' 
remains  had  been  in  France  since  his  death  over 
a  century  before.  The  reinterment  in  1906  was 
one  of  the  most  impressive  ceremonies  in  the 
Academy's  history.  For  the  occasion,  a  large 
crowd  filled  Dahlgren  Hall  to  honor  the  memory 
of  the  "Father  of  the  American  Navy"  and  to 
hear  President  Theodore  Roosevelt,  who  closed 
the  day  with  these  ringing  words-"The  man 
who  never  surrenders  never  has  to  make 
excuses!" 

Among  the  midshipmen  attending  the 
Academy  during  this  period  of  building  and 
expanding  its  facilities  were  several  who  would 
later  lead  the  Navy  during  World  War  II  and  its 
period  of  greatest  expansion:  Ernest  F.  King, 
William  F.  Halsey,  Chester  Nimitz,  Raymond 
Spruance,  Harold  R.  Stark,  Richmond  K.  Turner, 
and  Marc  A.  Mitscher,  to  name  a  few. 

An  important  change  at  the  Academy  at  this 
time  concerned  the  summer  practice  cruises. 
Ever  since  1 85 1  these  cruises  had  normally  been 
in  practice  ships  assigned  to  the  Academy.  These 
included  such  famous  sailing  ships  as  the 
Constitution  and  the  Constellation,  and  the  last 
square  rigger  built  (1900)  for  the  U.S.  Navy,  the 
Chesapeake.  In  1904,  however,  part  of  the 
midshipmen  embarked  in  the  coast  squ'adron  of 
the  North  Atlantic  Fleet.  This  procedure  was 
repeated  yearly  until  1912  when  the  present 
system  of  summer  practice  cruises  being  only  in 
ships  of  the  Fleet  was  begun. 

The  length  of  the  curriculum  was  also 
changed  in  1912.  Since  1873  it  had  been  6  years 
in  length,  with  the  last  2  years  being  spent  at 
sea.  The  requirement  for  the  last  2  years  at  sea 
was  dropped  in  1912  and  the  curriculum 
reverted  to  4  years. 

The  designation  of  those  attending  the 
Academy  as  midshipmen,  the  writing  of  the 
Navy's  battle  song,  and  the  adoption  of  the 
Academy's  coat  of  arms  also  occurred  around 
the  turn  of  the  century. 


An  act  of  Congress  in  1902  restored  to  the 
Academy's  students  the  nautical  title 
"midshipmen"  by  which  they  had  been 
designated  from  1862  to  1870,  and  by  which 
they  are  designated  today.  (From  1845  to  1862 
they  had  been  designated  "acting  midshipmen 
on  probation,"  from  1870  to  1882,  "cadet 
midshipmen,"  and  from  1882  to  1902,  "naval 
cadets.") 

The  coat  of  arms  of  the  Naval  Academy, 
designed  by  Park  Benjamin,  class  of  1868,  was 
officially  adopted  in  1899.  The  trident  is  the 
ancient  symbol  of  seapower,  the  motto  "Ex 
Scientitia  Tridens"  represents  the  purpose  of  the 
Academy,  the  book  depicts  scholastic  ideas,  and 
the  shield  exhibits  a  Roman  galley  coming  bows 
on  into  action.  "Anchors  Aweigh,"  the  Navy 
battle  song,  was  composed  in  1907  at  the 
Academy.  It  was  the  result  of  a  joint  effort  by 
Lieutenant  Charles  A.  Zimmerman,  the 
Academy  Bandmaster,  and  Midshipman  Alfred 
H.  Miles,  a  member  of  the  first  class  choir  that 
year.  The  midshipmen  first  sang  it  at  the 
Army-Navy  football  game  in  1907  as  the  Navy 
won  its  second  successive  victory  over  West 
Point. 

An  example  of  the  close  attention  the 
Academy  gave  during  this  period  to  the  task  of 
developing  midshipmen  into  gentlemen  with  the 
strictest  sense  of  dignity  and  honor  may  be  seen 
in  the  dancing  regulations  formulated  by  the 
Department  of  Discipline  (forerunner  of  today's 
Executive  Department)  in  1913: 

1.  None    of    the    modern    dances   will  be 
performed  under  any  circumstances. 

2.  Midshipmen   must    keep   their   left  arm 
straight  during  all  dances. 

3.  A    space    of    3    inches    must    be   kept 
between  the  dancing  couple. 

4.  Midshipmen     must     not     take     their 
partner's  arm  under  any  circumstances. 

5.  Midshipmen  will  not  leave  the  ballroom 
floor  until  the  dance  has  been  completed  and  all 
officers  and  their  guests  have  left. 

The  Department  of  Discipline  also  strictly 
regulated  smoking.  For  many  years,  midshipmen 
were  not  permitted  to  smoke  in  their  rooms. 
Later,  first  classmen  were  given  the  privilege  of 


keeping  their  smoking  articles  in  Recreation 
Hall;  there  they  could  gather  after  dinner  to 
smoke  and  talk.  This  custom  gave  Recreation 
Hall  its  more  popular  name  "Smoke  Hall." 


WORLD  WARS  I  AND  II 

When  the  United  States  entered  World  War  I 
in  April  1917,  the  Navy  accelerated  the  course 
of  study  at  the  Academy.  The  class  of  1917 
graduated  3  months  early  and  the  class  of  1918 
graduated  1  year  early.  The  3-year  course 
remained  in  effect  until  the  end  of  the  War, 
when  the  4-year  plan  was  resumed. 

As  the  expanding  wartime  Navy  required 
more  officers  than  the  Academy  could  provide, 
a  3-month  course  to  train  specialized  Reserve 
ensigns  was  established.  The  program,  which 
was  supervised  by  Rear  Admiral  Eberle,  then 
superintendent  of  the  Academy,  graduated  four 
classes  of  Reserve  officers. 

Following  World  War  I  there  was  some 
liberalizing  of  the  "rates"  and  privileges  of  the 
midshipmen,  resulting  from  the  efforts  of  Rear 
Admiral  Henry  B.  Wilson,  superintendent  from 
1921-1925.  Midshipmen  were  granted  the 
privilege  of  smoking  in  their  rooms  in  Bancroft 
Hall  and  were  given  the  first  Christmas  leave  in 
the  history  of  the  Academy.  Rear  Admiral 
Wilson  was  also  noted  for  his  fair  and  speedy 
justice. 

One  of  the  most  significant  and  colorful 
events  in  the  life  of  a  midshipman-the  Ring 
Dance-had  its  origins  in  the  1920's.  For  some 
time  it  had  been  the  custom  of  first  classmen 
to  throw  second  classmen  into  Dewey  Basin  as 
soon  as  the  latter  had  become  eligible  to  wear 
their  class  rings,  that  is,  had  passed  their  final 
exams  for  the  year.  In  1 924  this  custom  resulted 
in  the  tragic  drowning  of  a  second  classman,  and 
so  it  was  replaced  by  the  Ring  Dance. 

The  Ring  Dance  is  distinguished  by  several 
special  features.  One  of  these  is  the  Ring  Dance 
Dinner,  the  only  occasion  when  midshipmen 
may  entertain  their  ladies  at  dinner  in  the 
messhall.  The  most  important  feature,  however, 
is  the  presentation  of  the  rings.  At  the  scene  of 
the  dance  there  is  a  huge  golden  ring  modeled 


after  the  class  ring.  The  ring,  which  stands  on  a 
carpeted  dais,  is  surmounted  by  a  glowing  globe 
that  simulates  the  jewel  of  the  ring.  As  each 
couple  approaches  the  replica  of  the  ring,  the 
lady  dips  the  midshipman's  ring,  suspended  from 
a  ribbon,  into  a  compass  binnacle  filled  with 
water  from  the  Severn  River  and  the  seven  seas, 
symbolic  of  his  present  and  future  home.  The 
couple  then  pass  through  the  replica  where  she 
places  the  ring  on  his  finger.  It  is  a  moment 
charged  with  romance,  especially  if  he  presents 
her  with  a  miniature  class  ring,  regarded  as 
equivalent  to  an  engagement  ring.  They  kiss  and 
seal  the  ceremony. 

The  stirring  song  "Navy  Blue  and  Gold"  was 
officially  adopted  as  the  Naval  Academy's  song 
in  1927.  Composed  by  the  former  Academy 
Chapel  organist  and  choir  master,  Joseph  W. 
Crosley,  it  had  been  first  sung  at  the  spring 
concert  of  the  Glee  Club  in  1926. 

In  1926  there  also  occurred  one  of  the  most 
exciting  Army-Navy  football  games  in  all  this 
long  and  hard-fought  series.  At  Soldier's  Field, 
Chicago,  110,000  persons- the  largest  crowd 
ever  to  watch  a  football  game— saw  Navy  come 
from  behind  to  tie  Army  21-21.  Midshipman 
Tom  Hamilton  (now  Rear  Admiral  Thomas  J. 
Hamilton,  Ret.)  was  the  Navy's  hero  as  he 
kicked  the  tying  point  that  gave  Navy  an 
undefeated  season  and  a  claim  to  the  national 
title. 

It  was  during  the  1920's  that  the  type  of 
uniform  midshipmen  now  wear  was  adopted. 
The  uniform  previously  worn  resembled  that  of 
the  West  Point  cadet. 

Throughout  the  1920's  and  1930's  the 
Academy's  academic  standards  were  continually 
being  raised  and  new  courses  added.  For 
example,  the  Department  of  Foreign  Languages 
by  the  time  of  World  War  II  offered  the 
midshipman  his  choice  of  any  one  of  the 
following  seven  languages:  French,  Spanish, 
German,  Italian,  Russian,  Portuguese,  or 
Japanese.  Today,  all  of  these  except  Japanese 
are  still  available. 

In  1930,  six  midshipmen  were  awarded 
Rhodes  Scholarship s-a  record  number.  And  in 
that  year,  the  Association  of  American 
Universities  accredited  the  Academy  as  a 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


member.  Following  this,  Congress  passed  a  law 
in  1933  authorizing  the  Academy  to  confer 
Bachelor  of  Science  Degrees  on  all  graduates, 
beginning  with  the  class  of  1931.  Subsequently, 
in  1939  Congress  authorized  the  award  of  the 
B.S.  degree  to  all  living  graduates. 

Another  development  in  the  1930's  was  the 
formation  of  the  Academy  Yacht  Squadron. 
This  had  its  beginning  in  1936  when  Mr.  S.  V. 
Makaroff  presented  the  Academy  with  the 
mahogany-hulled  staysail  ketch  Vamarie.  Built 
in  Germany,  the  Vamarie  had  in  4  years  of 
ocean  racing  won  cup  after  cup  under  Mr. 
Makaroff.  In  1938,  a  crew  of  midshipmen  under 
the  command  of  Captain  John  F.  Shafroth 
manned  her  in  a  race  to  Bermuda,  the  first  open 
seaway  race  participated  in  by  midshipmen 
representing  the  Academy.  Shortly  thereafter 
the  Highland  Light-a.  boat  that  had  been  rated 
in  the  highest  racing  classification  for  wooden 
ships  by  Lloyds  of  London— and  the  powerful 
schooner  Freedom  were  acquired.  The  latter  was 
a  gift  of  Mr.  Sterling  Morton. 

The  Seamanship  Department  (now  Naval 
Science  Department)  quickly  realized  the  value 
of  this  extracurricular  activity  from  a 
professional  training  standpoint.  The  first  3  of 
12  yawls— the  Alert,  Intrepid,  and 
Resolute— were  added  to  the  new  squadron  in 
1939.  Three  more- the  Restless,  Active,  and 
Frolic— were  added  in  1942;  and  the  remaining  6 
were  acquired  in  1943.  The  Yacht  Squadron 
participates  in  nearly  all  races  held  in  the 
Chesapeake  Bay  area  and  has  earned  a  fine 
reputation. 

After  the  entry  of  the  United  States  into 
World  War  II,  the  course  of  study  at  the 
Academy  was  accelerated  in  a  manner  similar  to 
that  in  World  War  I.  The  class  of  1942  was 
graduated  6  months  early  in  December  1941, 
and  the  class  of  1 943  joined  them  in  the  Fleet 
the  following  June.  Throughout  the  war,  the 
three  classes  (plebes,  youngsters,  and  finishers) 
pursued  a  program  which  placed  greater 
emphasis  on  professional  and  technological 
courses. 

The  brilliant  role  played  by  Academy 
graduates  in  all  theaters  in  World  War  II  forms 
an  indelible  page  in  the  Nation's  and  Navy's 
history. 


The  ending  of  World  War  II  did  cause  a 
minor  mishap  to  one  noted  landmark  in  the 
Academy  Yard -the  Japanese  Bell.  In  1845 
Commodore  Matthew  C.  Perry  had  been  given 
this  bell  by  the  Regent  of  Napha,  Ryukyu 
Islands,  while  on  his  expedition  to  Japan.  After 
his  death,  his  widow  had  presented  it  to  the 
Naval  Academy  in  1859  according  to  his  wish. 
Traditionally,  the  bell  is  rung  only  after  a 
victory  over  Army  in  football.  An  exception  to 
this  was  made  on  VJ-Day  in  1945,  and  the  bell 
was  struck  with  such  enthusiasm  that  it  cracked. 

Today  these  traditions  and  many  others 
remain  at  the  Naval  Academy.  New  plebes  still 
come  through  the  Academy  gates  in  July  and  do 
not  leave  the  Yard  again  until  the  end  of  August. 
White-capped  midshipmen  in  dress  blue  and 
brass  buttons  still  pass  in  review  on  Worden 
Field,  and  drum  rolls  still  thunder  in  Bancroft 
Hall  courtyard  during  meal  formations. 

Academy  graduates  continue  to  distinguish 
themselves  in  military  roles  as  well  as  in  public 
life.  President  Jimmy  Carter  (class  of  1947)  was 
a  successful  businessman  and  a  state  governor, 
and  now  is  the  first  Academy  graduate  to  hold 
the  highest  office  in  the  land. 

Along  with  the  continuing  traditions  at  the 
Naval  Academy,  exciting  changes,  academically 
and  physically,  reflect  the  trends  and  needs  of 
the  times.  Midshipmen  no  longer  march  to 
classes,  just  as  they  no  longer  are  locked  into  the 
same  inflexible  academic  pattern.  New  emphasis 
on  broadening  their  academic  opportunity  has 
expanded  the  old  basic  core  curriculum  into 
majors  ranging  from  aerospace  engineering,  to 
literature,  to  oceanography.  Whereas  little  more 
than  a  decade  ago,  all  midshipmen  took  the 
same  40  courses,  today's  midshipmen  have  the 
opportunity  to  select  from  more  than  500 
courses,  including  political  science,  languages, 
and  computer  science. 

The  professional  changes  at  Annapolis  are 
also  important.  Along  with  the  emphasis  on 
broadening  the  academic  curriculum,  more 
intense  officer  training  is  provided  at  the 
Academy.  Upperclassmen  have  more  of  the 
responsibility  for  plebe  training  and  leadership 
of  the  entire  4300-man  Brigade  of  Midshipmen. 

New  buildings-modern,  yet  in  harmony 
with  the  classic  structures  from  the  past-now 


line  the  Severn  River.  The  twin  towers  of  the 
science  and  mathematics  buildings,  Michelson 
and  Chauvenet  Halls,  have  been  in  use  for  more 
than  8  years.  The  750,000-volume  Nimitz 
Library  was  dedicated  in  the  fall  of  1973,  and 
contains  complete  audio-visual  and  closed-circuit 
television  facilities  as  well.  Rickover  Hall,  the 
Academy's  newly  completed  engineering  studies 
complex,  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  laboratory 
facilities  in  the  Nation. 

On  the  waterfront  rises  the  Robert  Crown 
Sailing  Center,  dedicated  in  April  1974.  Built 
from  privately  donated  funds,  the  Center  houses 
the  Intercollegiate  Sailing  Hall  of  Fame  and 
provides  facilities  for  the  Academy's  program  of 
varsity  and  intramural  sailing  training.  Venerable 
Dahlgren  Hall,  for  years  an  armory  and  drill  hall, 
has  been  converted  with  private  donations  into 
the  Midshipman  Activity  Center  with  a 
hockey-size  skating  rink,  snack  bar,  and  other 
recreational  facilities. 

The  improved  facilities,  the  increased 
versatility  of  the  academic  program  and 


extracurricular  activities,  along  with  a  more 
sophisticated  professional  training  program  to 
meet  the  more  complex  needs  of  today's  nuclear 
Navy,  provide  midshipmen  with  one  of  the  most 
balanced  educations  available. 

Beginning  with  the  class  of  1980,  this 
education  is  offered  to  women  as  well  as  men  at 
Annapolis.  Women  midshipmen,  under  a  new 
law  passed  by  Congress,  were  admitted  to  the 
Naval  Academy  for  the  first  time  with  the  plebe 
class  reporting  in  July  1976. 

Instead  of  the  seven  founding  professors,  the 
Academy  faculty  now  numbers  more  than  550. 
Half  of  the  faculty  are  naval  officers  who  serve 
on  a  rotating  basis,  bringing  fresh  thinking  from 
the  fleet;  and  half  are  civilians,  ensuring 
continuity  and  input  from  the  academic 
community. 

Where  some  50  young  men  had  crowded 
into  the  old  barracks  of  10-acre  Fort  Severn  in 
1845  to  open  the  new  national  Naval  School, 
more  than  4300  midshipmen  now  walk  the  300 
acres  that  are  the  Naval  Academy  today. 


INDEX 


Administration  of  naval  aviation,  391 
Administrative  organization,  283-300 
Adverse  reports,  562 

Aerospace  medicine  and  space  research, 
392-395 

crew  .systems  department,  394 
naval  aerospace  medical  research 
laboratory,  395 

Aiguillettes  and  mourning  badges,  103 

Airborne  weapons,  408-418 

Airborne  weapons,  development  of,  400 

Aircraft  bombs,  415-418 

Aircraft  mines,  418 

Aircraft  model  designations,  386-392 

Aircraft  nomenclature  and  model  designations, 

385 

Aircraft  rockets,  412-414 
Air  Forces  program,  281 
Air-launched  torpedoes,  418 
Air  strikes,  424 

Air-to-air  Missiles  (AIMs),  408-41 1 
Air-to-Ground  Missiles  (AGMs),  41 1 
Alphabet  and  numeral  flags,  568 
Ammunition  ships,  369-374 
Amphibious  support,  422 

Amphibious  warfare,  462-474 

historical  background,  463 

amphibious  operations  in  World 

War  II,  463 

development  between  world  wars,  463 
landings  in  World  War  I,  463 

phases  of  an  amphibious  operation, 
464-472 
assault,  468 
logistics  during  the  attack,  472 


Amphibious  warfare— Continued 

phases  of  an  amphibious  operation- 
Continued 

movement  to  the  objective  area,  467 
planning,  464-466 
pre-assault  operations,  467 
rehearsals,  466 
supporting  operations,  467 
ships,  464 

underwater  demolition  teams  and  Navy 
SEAL  teams,  472-474 
SEAL  teams,  474 
UDT  operations,  472-474 

Amphibious  warfare  ships,  357-365 
Antennas,  336-338 

Antiair  warfare,  427-432 

Antiship  Missile  Defense  (ASMD),  432 
today,  429-432 

Antiair  Warfare  (AAW)  missiles,  402-405 
Antiship  Warfare  Missiles  (cruise),  406-408 

Antisubmarine  warfare,  454-461 

basic  elements  of  ASW  forces,  456-459 
airborne  electronic  devices,  458-459 
ASW  aircraft,  456-457 
ASW  submarines,  458 
surface  units,  456 

shipboard  ASW  organization,  460-461 
sound  navigation  and  ranging,  460 

AOC  Program,  54 

ASROC,  405 

Assistance  programs,  officers,  75 

Augmentation  Program,  51 

Ausburne,  Charles  L.,  39 

Authority  to  classify,  downgrade,  and 

declassify,  509-510 
Auxiliary  ships,  369-379 


614 


INDEX 


Aviation,  naval,  380-395 
Awards,  594-604 
definitions,  594 

manner  of  wearing  awards,  600-604 
attachments,  602-604 
large  medals,  600 
miniature  medals,  600 
service  ribbons,  600-602 
order  of  precedence,  594-600 


B 


Boat  etiquette,  130 

Boats  and  survival  equipment,  339-341 
Bridge  assembly,  332-336 
Bulkheads,  310 


Capodanno,  Vincent  R.,  45 
Career  Reservist,  273 
Carrier  striking  forces,  419-422 
Cassin  incident,  39 
Censorship,  personal,  514 
Ceremonies  and  honors,  570-593 
Civil  War,  28 

Classification  categories,  507-509 
Confidential,  508 
doctrinal  material,  509 
For  Official  Use  Only,  508 
Restricted  Data,  508 
Secret,  508 
Top  Secret,  508 
Classification  guides,  510 
Classification  markings,  510-511 
Coast  Guard  uniforms,  103 
Combatant  craft,  366-369 
Combatant  ships,  342-366 
Commerce  and  oceanography,  15-17 
Commissioning,  323 
Communicating,  methods  of,  496-501 
electrical,  496-499 
pyrotechnics,  501 
sound, 501 
visual,  499 

Communication  publications,  503 
Communication  spaces,  502 
Compartmentation,  312 


Components  and  supporting  elements  of  the 
Navy,  2 17-247 

Chaplain  Corps,  229-230 
Civil  Engineer  Corps,  217-223 

seabees,  218-223 
Judge  Advocate  General's  Corps, 
230-233 

formation  of  the  Judge  Advocate 

General's  Corps,  231-233 
formation  of  the  Office  of  the 

Judge  Advocate  General,  230 
functions  of  the  JAG  Corps,  233 
Navy  Medical  Department,  225-229 
Medical  Department  today,  228 
organization  of  the  Medical 

Department,  225-228 
Supply  Corps,  224 
United  States  Coast  Guard,  235-244 
aids  to  navigation,  239 
functions  of,  236-240 
history  and  accomplishments  of, 

240-244 

icebreaking  and  ice  patrol,  237 
law  enforcement,  23  6 
marine  environmental  protection,  240 
merchant  marine  training,  238 
ocean  stations,  238 
organization  and  adminstration  of, 

240 

port  security,  237 
search  and  rescue,  237 
United  States  Merchant  Marine,  245-247 
peacetime  organization,  247 
training,  246 

women  in  the  Navy,  233-235 
enlisted,  235 
officers,  234 

Correspondence  courses,  officers,  68 
Courts-martial,  146-154 
effect  of  censure,  153 
general  court  martial,  1 50 
naval  personnel  and  civil  court  actions, 

152 

reviews  of  courts-martial,  151 
special  court  martial,  148-150 
summary  court  martial,  147 
vacation  of  suspension,  152 
Cryptographic  security,  5 1 6 
Cuban  quarantine,  8 
Current  Navy  aircraft,  387 
Customs  and  naval  terms,  82-96 


615 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


D 


Dahlgren,  John  A.,  32 

Data  desired  by  the  enemy,  505 

Decatur,  Stephen,  24-26 

Decks,  311 

Defense  Activity  for  Nontraditional  Education 

'    Support  (DANTES),  71 

Defense  communications  system,  494 

autodin,  495 

autovon,  495 
Defense  Intelligence  Agency,  528-529 

Department  of  the  Navy,  203-21 6 

composition  of,  207-216 

executive  administration,  207-212 
operating  forces  of  the  Navy  ,212-213 
shore  activities,  213-216 

naval  bases,  216 

naval  districts,  216 

organization  of  the  Department  of  Defense, 
203-207 

defense  agencies,  206 
Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff,  205 
military  departments,  206 
Secretary  of  Defense,  205 
unified  and  specified  commands,  206 

Deployment,  13-15 

Development  between  world  wars,  463 

Development,  research  and,  530-553 

Devices,  line  and  corps,  98-103 

Dewey,  George,  35 

Dickey,  Douglas  E.,  45 

Disciplinary  action  for  security  violations,  513 

Discipline  and  the  Uniform  Code  of  Military 
Justice,  133-193 

dealing  with  breaches  of,  141-1 55 

apprehension,  arrest,  restriction,  and 

confinement,  141 
courts-martial,  146-154 
disciplinary  separations  from  the 

service,  154 

initiating  and  preferring  charges,  142 
nonjudicial  punishment,  143-146 
fact-finding  bodies,  155 

effect  of  proceedings,  156 
securing  and  maintaining,  135-141 
continuity  of  discipline,  1 37 
importance  of  petty  officers,  139-140 
know  your  men,  138 
praise  and  blame,  136 


Discipline  and  the  Uniform  Code  of  Military 
Justice-Continued 

securing  and  maintaining-Continued 

precept  and  example,  138 

principles  of  effective  discipline,  140 

role  of  the  Uniform  Code  of  Military 

Justice,  141 

Uniform  Code  of  Military  Justice, 
156-193 

article  2,  157 

articles,  158 

article  7,  159 

articles,  159 

article  9,  159 

article  10,  160 

article  11,160 

article  12,  161 

article  13,  161 

article  14,  161 

article  15,  161-164 

article  25,  165 

article  27,  165 

article  31,  166 

article  37,  167 

article  3 8,  168 

article  55,  169 

article  77,  169 

article  78,  169 

article  79,  1  69 

article  80,  170 

article  81,  170 

article  82,  171 

article  83,  171 

article  84,  171 

article  85,  172 

article  86,  173 

article  87,  173 

article  88,  173 

article  89,  174 

article  90,  174 

article  91,  174 

article  92,  175 

article  93,  175 

article  94,  175 

article  95,  176 

article  96,  177 

article  97,  177 

article  98,  177 

article  99,  177 

article  100,  178 

article  101,  178 


INDEX 


Discipline  and  the  Uniform  Code  of  Military 
Justice— Continued 

Uniform  Code  of  Military  Justice- 
Continued 

article  102,  178 

article  103,  179 

article  104,  179 

article  105,  180 

article  106,  180 

article  107,  181 

article  108,  181 

article  109,  181 

article  110,  182 

article  111,  182 

article  112,  182 

article  113,  183 

article  114,  183 

article  115,  183 

article  116,  184 

article  117,  184 

article  118,  184 

article  119,  185 

article  120,  186 

article  121,  186 

article  122,  187 

article  123,  187 

article  123a,  188 

article  124,  188 

article  125,  189 

article  126,  189 

article  127,  189 

article  128,  190 

article  129,  190 

article  130,  191 

article  131,  191 

article  132,  191 

article  133,  192 

article  134,  192 

article  137,  157 

article  138,  193 

article  139,  193 
value  of,  133-135 

Disclosure  of  classified  material,  512-514 
Division  officers,  297-300 
Downgrading  and  declassification,  automatic, 
511-512 


E 


Enemy  espionage,  505-507 
Enemy  success,  proof  of,  506 


Enlisted  uniforms  and  insignia,  107-114 
Erecting  the  ship,  317-319 
Explosive  Ordnance  Disposal  (EOD),  453 
External  Equipment  of  Ships,  325-341 
antennas,  336-338 

boats  and  survival  equipment,  339-341 
lifesaving  and  survival  equipment, 

340-341 
bridge  assembly,  332-336 

signal  bridge,  333-336 
ground  tackle,  331 
hull,  325 

after  part  of  the  hull,  326 
amidships,  326 
fore  part  of  the  hull,  3 26 
masts,  staffs,  and  stacks,  336 
ordnance  equipment,  326-331 

guided  missile  launching  systems, 

329-331 
guns,  326-329 
torpedo  tubes,  331 


Fact  finding  bodies,  155 

Farragut,  David  G.,  28 

Fast  carrier  task  force,  development  of,  420 

Fire  support,  425 

Fitness  reports,  officer,  559-563 

Fitting  out,  323 

Fixed-wing  aircraft,  nomenclature,  385 

Fleet  aviation,  391 

Force,  striking,  419-426 

Framing,  309 

Functional  organization,  300-305 


Gilmore,  Howard  W.,  42 

Ground  tackle,  331 

Guided  missile  launching  systems,  329-331 

Gun  salutes,  573-587 

Guns,  326-329,  400-402 


H 


Halsey,  William  Frederick,  Jr.,  4042 
Hand  salutes  and  other  marks  of  respect, 

572 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Heads  of  department,  288-297 
Historical  background,  463 
Honors  and  ceremonies,  570-593 
gun  salutes,  573-587 
hand  salutes  and  other  marks  of 

respect,  572 
honors  to  National  Anthems  and 

National  Ensigns,  570-572 
special  ceremonies,  anniversaries,  and 

solemnities,  587-593 
Hull,  325 
Hull,  Isaac,  25 
Humphreys,  Joshua,  21 
Hutchins,  Johnnie,  42 


Insignia  and  uniforms,  97-1 1 6 
Intelligence  community,  527-259 
Intelligence,  meaning  of,  521 
Intelligence,  naval,  521-529 
Intelligence  process,  components  of,  522 
Iwo  Jima  flag-raising,  43 


Jones,  John  Paul,  18-21 

Judge  Advocate  General's  Corps,  230-233 


K 


Keel,  308 

Korea,  logistics,  478 

Korea,  Marine  Corps,  260 

Korea  to  Vietnam,  Marine  Corps,  261-263 

Korean  campaign,  383 

Korean  War,  43 


Landing  craft,  367 
Landings  in  World  War  I,  463 
Launching,  3 1 9 


Leadership,  194-202 

leadership  and  the  Code  of  Conduct, 

200-202 
qualities  of,  195-200 

ability  to  organize  and  make 
decisions,  198 

courage,  197 

devotion  to  duty,  196 

initiative  and  ingenuity,  197 

loyalty,  195 

personal  example,  198 

professional  knowledge,  196 

self-confidence,  197 

Living  quarters  and  messes,  305 
Logistics,  475-491 

Korea,  478 

military  sealift  command,  482 

naval  support  activity,  Saigon,  480481 

planning,  488-491 

Department  of  the  Navy  level,  490 

DOD  level  ,489 

field  level,  490-491 

national  level,  488 
seventh  fleet  logistics,  482484 
structure  of  naval  logistics,  484-488 

determination  of  requirements, 
484486 

distribution,  487 

procurement,  487 
Vietnam,  479 

naval  support  activity,  Da  Nang,  479 
World  War  1,476 
World  War  11,477 

Logistics  during  the  attack,  472 

Logistic  support,  421 

Logs,  304 

Luce,  Stephen  B.,  33 


M 


Macdonough,  Thomas,  27 
Mahan,  Alfred  T.,  34 
Marine  Corps  Aviation,  391 
Marine  Corps,  United  States,  248-271 
Masts,  staffs,  and  stacks,  336 
Maury,  Matthew  Fontaine,  31 
Medals  and  other  insignia,  114-116 
Mexican  and  Civil  Wars,  606 


INDEX 


Military  courtesy,  1 17-132 
naval  etiquette,  122-131 
salutes,  117-122 

shipboard  relations  between  officers 
and  men,  131 

Military  sealift  command,  482 

Mine  countermeasures  (MCMs),  450 

Mine  warfare,  446-453 

Mine  warfare  ships  and  helicopters,  365 

Morse  code,  semaphore,  and  alphabet  flags, 

566-569 

Mourning  badges  and  aiguillettes,  103 
Movement  to  the  objective  area,  467 


N 


National  Anthems  and  National  Ensigns, 

570-572 

Naval  Academy,  47-50 
Naval  Academy  midshipmen  uniforms,  104 

Naval  aviation,  380-395 

aerospace  medicine  and  space  research, 
392-395 

crew  systems  department,  394 
naval  aerospace  medical  research 

laboratory,  395 
aircraft  model  designations,  386-392 

administration  of  Naval  aviation,  391 
current  Navy  aircraft,  387 
fleet  aviation,  391 
Marine  Corps  aviation,  391 
naval  air  training  command,  391 
aircraft  nomenclature  and  model 
designations,  385 

fixed-wing  aircraft  nomenclature,  385 
rotary-wing  aircraft  nomenclature, 

385 

Korean  campaign,  383 
Post-Korea  developments,  383-385 
World  War  II,  38 1-383 

Naval  etiquette,  122-131 
boat  etiquette,  130 
forms  of  address,  125-128 
general  relations  between  juniors  and 

seniors,  123-125 
quarterdeck  etiquette,  1 28 
social  calls,  130 
wardroom  etiquette,  128-130 


Naval  intelligence,  521-529 

components  of  the  intelligence  process, 

intelligence  community,  527-529 

Defense  Intelligence  agency,  528-529 
meaning  of  intelligence,  521 
origin  and  development,  522-526 

World  War  I,  523 

World  War  II,  524-526 
today,  526 

NIC  field  activities,  526 
Naval  officers  career,  46-81 

assignment  and  rotation  patterns,  58-64 

aviation  pattern,  61-63 

line  officer  patterns,  59-61 

staff  corps  pattern,  63 

women  officers'  pattern,  64 
benefits,  73-80 

assistance  programs,  75 

commissary  and  exchange  privileges, 
74 

dependent  schooling,  74 

medical  and  dental  care,  73 

officers'  mess,  75 

recreation  and  sports  programs,  76 

retirement,  76-79 

survivors'  benefits,  79 

distribution  and  promotion  opportunities, 
54-58 
promotion  opportunities  for  women, 

57 

education,  64-71 

correspondence  courses,  68 
formal  education,  66-68 
in-service  training,  64-66 
Navy  Campus  For  Achievement 
(NCFA),  68-71 

Navy  way  of  life,  80 
officer  procurement,  47-54 

NROTC,  50,  53 

Regular  Navy,  47-52 

Reserve,  52 
pay  and  allowances,  71-73 

allowances,  72 

basic,  special,  and  incentive  pay,  72 

Naval  Research  Laboratory,  538-541 
Naval  Research,  office  of,  537 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Naval  Reserve,  272-282 

administration,  274-277 

Assistant  Chief  of  Staff  for  Air 

Programs,  275 
Assistant  Chief  of  Staff  for  Surface 

Programs,  274 
Chief  of,  274 

Chief  of  Naval  Personnel,  275 
Chiefs  of  Naval  Education  and 

Training  (CNET),  275 
Commander  Naval  Air  Reserve  Force, 

274 

Individual  Ready  Reserve  (IRR),  276 
Naval  Reserve  Readiness  Commands, 

275 

Ready  Reserve,  275 
Reserve  Unit  Commanders  and 

Commanding  Officers,  275 
Retired  Reserve,  277 
Selective  Reserve,  276 
Standby  Reserve,  276 
career  reservist,  273 
military  obligations  for  reservists,  273 
nature  of  reserve  training,  277-278 

active  duty  for  training,  277 
programs,  278-282 

Air  Forces  program,  281 

Special  and  General  Support  Program, 

281-282 

surface  programs,  280 
unit  classifications,  279 
reserve  manpower  categories,  273 
retirement  point  credit,  278 
total  force  policy,  272 
Naval  support  activity,  Da  Nang,  479 
Naval  support  activity,  Saigon,  480-481 
Naval  telecommunications,  492-503 
communication  publications,  503 
Defense  Communications  System,  494-496 
DCS  autodin,  495 

DCS  autovon,  495 
elements  of,  493 

methods  of  communicating,  496-501 
electrical,  496 
pyrotechnics,  501 
sound,  501 
visual,  499-501 

shipboard  communication  organization 
501-503 

communication  spaces,  502 
personnel,  501 


Naval  terms  and  expressions,  84-94 
anchor  watch,  84 
avast,  84 
aye,  aye,  84 
bells,  84 
bilge,  86 
binnacle  list,  86 
bitter  end,  86 
bluejacket,  86 
boatswain,  86 
boatswain's  pipe,  86 
brig,  86 
bumboat,  86 
captain,  87 
caulk,  87 
chains,  87 
Charlie  Noble,  87 
chit,  87 

christening  a  ship,  87 
commission  pennant,  88 
conn,  88 
coxswain,  88 
crossing  the  line,  88 
cut  of  his  jib,  88 
dipping  the  ensign,  88 
dog  watch,  8 9 
eyes  of  the  ship,  89 
flag  at  half-mast,  89 
forecastle,  89 
gangway,  89 
grog,  89 
gun  salutes,  90 
hawser,  91 
head,  91 
holystone,  91 
Jacob's  ladder,  92 
keelhauling,  92 

lashing  broom  to  masthead,  92 
lucky  bag,  92 
mast,  92 
midshipmen,  92 
piping  the  side,  92 
quarterdeck,  93 
scuttlebutt,  93 
"show  a  leg,"  93 
sickbay,  93 
skylark,  93 
smoking  lamp,  93 
starboard  and  port,  94 
sundowner,  94 
tar,  94 


620 


INDEX 


Naval  terms  and  expressions-Continued 
tattoo,  94 
wardroom,  94 

"working  off  a  dead  horse,"  94 
Naval  tradition,  makers  of,  1 845 
Civil  War,  28-30 
Korean  War,  43 

Navy  enters  the  20th  century,  36 
Revolutionary  War,  18-21 
Spanish- American  War,  35 
tradition  makers  in  peacetime,  31-35 
Vietnam,  44 
War  of  1812,  25-28 
war  with  France,  21-24 
war  with  Tripoli,  24 
World  War  I,  38 
World  War  II,  39-43 
Naval  weapons  systems,  396-418 
airborne  weapons,  408-418 
development  of  airborne  weapons,  400 
development  of  shipboard  weapons, 

396-400 
weapons  of  the  fleet,  400408 

antiair  warfare  (AAW)  missiles, 

402-405 
antiship  warfare  missiles  (cruise), 

406408 

antisubmarine  warfare  weapons,  405 
ASROC(RUR),405 
guns,  400402 
SUBROC(UUM),  405406 
Navy  and  scapowcr,  1-17 

current  world  situation,  11-17 

commerce  and  oceanography,  15-17 
Navy  deployment,  1 3-1 5 
evolution  of  seapowcr,  9-1 1 
history  of  seapower,  2-5 
great  White  Fleet,  5 
national  strategy,  17 
seapower  in  modern  times,  5-9 
Cuban  quarantine,  8 
seapower  and  naval  blockade,  6-8 
Navy  Campus  For  Achievement  (NCFA),  68-71 
Navy,  components  and  supporting  elements  of, 

217-247 

Navy,  Department  of,  203-216 
Navy  Medical  Department,  225-229 
Navy  RDT&E  program,  530-532 
Navy's  ongoing  research  programs,  538-553 
NFOC  Program,  54 
Nimitz,  Chester  William,  39 


Nonjudicial  Punishment  (NJP),  143-146 
NROTC,  50,  53 

Nuclear  weapons,  41 8 
Numeral  pennants,  569 


0 


Oceanography,  541-552 

Oceanography  and  commerce,  15-17 

Officer  assignments,  58-64 

Officer  benefits,  73-80 

Officer  Candidate  School  (OCS)  Program,  53 

Officer  education,  64-71 

Officer  fitness  reports,  559-563 

adverse  reports,  562 

preparation  of,  561 

submission  of,  563 
Officer  procurement,  47-54, 266-270 

Navy,  47-54 

Marine  Corps,  266-270 
Officer  promotions,  54-58 
Officers,  classification  and  distribution  of, 

564 

Officer  service  record,  557 
Officer  training,  270 
Officer  uniforms  and  insignia,  97-107 
Operating  forces  of  the  Navy,  212-213 
Ordnance  equipment,  326-329 


Parsons,  Dr.  Usher,  27 
Patrol  craft,  366 
Pay  and  allowances,  71-73 
Peacetime  organization,  247 
Perry,  Oliver  Hazard,  26 
Personnel  records,  554-558 
Phases  of  an  amphibious  warfare,  464-472 
Phonetic  alphabet  and  Morse  code,  566 
Plating,  307 
Porter,  David  D.,  29 
Post-Civil  War  period,  607-609 
Post-Korea  developments,  383 
Pre-assault  operations,  467 
Preble,  Edward,  24 
Program  for  Afloat  College  Education 
(PACE),  70 


Security-continued 


Quarterdeck  etiquette,  128 


R 


Reasoner,  Frank  S.,  45 
Repair  ships,  374 
Replenishment  at  sea,  369 
Research  and  development,  530-553 
early  Navy  research,  532-536 
Navy  RDT&E  Program,  530-532 

between  world  wars,  533-535 

World  War  I,  533 

World  War  II,  535-536 
Navy's  ongoing  research  programs,  538-553 

Naval  Research  Laboratory,  538 

oceanography,  541-552 

other  areas  of  naval  research,  552-553 
Post-World  War  II  research,  536-538 

Office  of  Naval  Research,  537 
Reserve  Officer  Candidate  (ROC)  Program,  54 
Retirement,  officer,  76-79 
Retirement  Point  Credit,  278 
Revolutionary  War,  18-21 
Rotary-wing  aircraft  nomenclature,  385 


Salutes,  117-122 

hand  salutes  on  formal  occasions,  120-122 

proper  manner  of  saluting,  1 1 7 

when  not  to  salute,  120 

when  to  salute,  1 1 8-1 20 
Seabees,  218-223 

team,  221 
SEAL  teams,  474 
Seapower  and  the  Navy,  1-17 

current  world  situation,  11-17 

evolution  of,  9-1 1 

history  of,  2-5 

in  modern  times,  5-9 

national  strategy,  17 
Security,  504-520 

authority  to  classify,  downgrade,  and 
declassify,  509-510 

classification  guides,  510 
derivative  classification,  510 


automatic  downgrading  and 
declassification,  511-512 

classification  categories,  507-509 
Confidential,  508 
doctrinal  material,  509 
For  Official  Use  Only,  508 
Restricted  Data,  508 
Secret,  508 
Top  Secret,  508 

classification  markings,  510-511 
destruction,  517 

disclosure  of  classified  material, 
512-514 

disciplinary  action  for  security 

violations,  513 
disclosure  to  the  general  public 

513 
rules  for  disclosure,  5 1 2 

enemy  espionage,  505-507 

data  desired  by  the  enemy,  505 
proof  of  enemy  success,  506-507 

safekeeping  and  storage,  5 1 8-520 
container  designations  and 

combinations,  520 
numerical  evaluation,  519 
storage,  519 

security  areas,  5 1 7-5 1 8 
controlled  area,  518 
exclusion  area,  517 
limited  area,  5 1 8 

security  control  and  responsibility,  507 

specific  protective  measures,  514-517 
cryptographic  security,  5 1 6 
personal  censorship,  5 1 4 
physical  security,  515 
transmission  security,  515-516 

Semaphore  alphabet,  567 

Semmes,  Raphael,  30 

Service  craft,  379 

Servicemen's  Opportunity  College  (SOC),  69 

Seventh  fleet  logistics,  482 

Shields,  Marvin  G.,  44 

Shipboard  ASW  organization,  460-461 

Shipboard  communication  organization,  501 


622 


INDEX 


Shipboard  Organization,  283-305 

administrative  organization,  283-300 
commanding  officer,  283 
executive  officer,  284-288 
division  officers,  297-300 
counseling,  299-300 
training,  298-299 
functional  organization,  300-305 
battle  organization  manual,  301 
living  quarters  and  messes,  305 
logs,  304-305 
standard  organization  and  regulations 

manual,  301 

watches  and  watch  officers,  301-304 
watch,  quarter,  and  station  bill, 

304 
heads  of  department,  288-297 

aircraft  intermediate  officer,  295 
air  wing  commander,  295 
air  officer,  295 
commanding  officer  Marine 

detachment,  293 
communications  officer,  290 
dental  officer,  297 
engineer  officer,  293-295 
medical  officer,  296 
navigator,  291 
operations  officer,  288-290 
reactor  officer,  295 
repair  officer,  297 
supply  officer,  296 
Weapons  officer  (or  First  Lieutenant), 

292 
Shipboard  relations  between  officers  and  men, 

131 

Shipboard  weapons,  development  of,  396-400 
Ship  construction,  306-324 

designing  and  planning  stages,  307 
conceptual  design,  307 
contract  design,  307 
inception,  307 
working  drawings,  307 
basic  ship  structure,  307-312 
bents,  31 1 
bulkheads,  310 
decks,  311 
framing,  309 
inner  bottom  and  torpedo  protection, 

310 

keel,  308 
plating,  307 


Ship  construction-Continued 

compartmentation,  312-316 

compartment  numbering  in  ships 

constructed  before  March  1949, 

314 
compartment  numbering  in  ships 

constructed  after  March  1949, 

315 

watertight  integrity,  313 
shipbuilding  procedure,  316-324 
commissioning,  323-324 
erecting  the  ship,  317-319 
fitting  out,  323 
launching,  319-323 
subassembly  bays,  316 

Ships,  external  equipment  of,  325-341 

Shore  activities,  213 

Sims,  William  S.,  36 

Sound  navigation  and  ranging,  460 

Spanish-American  War,  35 

Staffs  and  stacks,  336 

Striking  force,  41 9-426 

carrier  striking  forces,  419-422 
amphibious  support,  422 
development  of  the  fast  carrier  task 

force,  420 

logistic  support,  421 
task  groups,  420 

present-day  striking  forces,  422-426 
air  strikes,  424 
current  capabilities,  426 
fire  support,  425 
surface  action,  425 
surface  striking  forces,  424 

Structure  of  naval  logistics,  484488 
Submarine  warfare,  433 

Submarine  warfare  during  World  War  1, 434 
developments  since  World  War  II,  440-446 
training  and  duty,  446 
warfare  during  World  War  II,  435-440 

SUBROC,  405-406 

torpedoes,  405406 
Supply  Corps,  224 
Supporting  operations,  467 
Surface  programs,  280 
Surface  striking  forces,  424 
Surface  units,  456 
Survivor  Benefits  Plan  (SBP),  79 


623 


NAVAL  ORIENTATION 


Task  groups,  420 

Telecommunications,  naval,  492-503 
elements  of,  493 

Tenders,  375 

Torpedo  tubes,  331 

Towing  salvage  and  rescue  ships,  376 

Truxton,  Thomas,  22-24 


U 


UDT  operations,  472-474 
Undersea  warfare,  433-453 
mine  warfare,  446-453 

Explosive  Ordnance  Disposal  (EOD), 

453 
Mine  Countermeasures  (MCMs), 

450-452 

operational  mines  of  today,  449 
operations  in  the  Vietnam  conflict, 

449 

operations  in  World  War  I,  447 
operations  in  World  War  II,  448 
submarine  warfare,  433 
submarine  warfare  during  World  War  I, 
434-446 

developments  since  World  War  II, 

440-446 

during  World  War  II,  435-440 
training  and  duty,  446 

Underwater  demolition  teams  and  Navy 

SEAL  teams,  472-474 
Uniform  Code  of  Military  Justice  and 

discipline,  133-193 

Uniforms  and  insignia,  97-1 16 

enlisted  personnel,  107-114 
uniforms,  108-114 

medals  and  other  insignia,  114-116 

officer  personnel,  97-107 

aiguillettes  and  mourning  badges, 

103 

Coast  Guard  uniforms,  103 
Naval  Academy  midshipmen,  104-107 
uniforms  and  corps  devices,  98-103 
women's  uniforms,  1 03 


Uniforms  and  tradition,  94-96 

enlisted  uniforms,  95 
officers'  uniforms,  95 

Unit  classifications,  279 
United  States  Coast  Guard,  235 
United  States  Marine  Corps,  248-271 

history  of,  251-263 

between  world  wars,  257 

Korea,  260 

Korea  to  Vietnam,  261-263 

World  War  I,  256 

World  War  II,  257-260 

officer  procurement,  266-270 

enlisted  commissioning  program,  268 

former  regular  officers,  268 

limited-duty  officers,  268 

Naval  Academy,  268 

NESEP,  269 

NROTC,  268 

platoon  leaders,  program,  268 

warrant  officer,  268 

officer  training,  270-271 
organization  and  equipment,  263-266 

equipment,  265 

fleet  Marine  force,  263 

reserve,  264 

women  Marines,  265 

tradition,  251 

useful  publications,  271 

United  States  Merchant  Marine,  245-246 

U.S.  Naval  Academy,  history  of,  605-613 
from  1898  to  World  War  I,  609-61 1 
Mexican  and  civil  wars,  606 
Post-Civil  War  period,  607-609 
World  Wars  I  and  II,  611-613 


V 


Vessel  types  and  characteristics,  342-379 

auxiliary  ships,  369-379 

ammunition  ships,  369-374 
repair  ships,  374 
replenishment-at-sea  ships,  369 
tenders,  375 

towing,  salvage,  and  rescue  ships, 
376-379 


INDEX 


isel  types  and  characteristics— Continued 
combatant  craft,  366-369 
landing  craft,  367 
patrol  craft,  366 
riverine  warfare  craft,  368 
combatant  ships,  342-366 
aircraft  carriers,  343-347 
amphibious  assault  ships,  361 
amphibious  cargo  ships,  359-361 
amphibious  command  ships,  365 
amphibious  transport  dock,  362-365 
amphibious  warfare  ships,  357 
battleships,  347 
cruisers,  348-350 
destroyers,  350-352 
frigates,  355-357 
mine  warfare  ships  and  helicopters, 

365 

patrol  combatants,  357 
submarines,  352-355 
tank  landing  ships,  357-359 
service  craft,  379 

;terans  Readjustment  Assistance  Act,  71 

etnam,  44 

etnam,  logistics,  479 


W 


Wardroom  etiquette,  128-130 
Warfare,  amphibious,  462474 
Warfare,  antiair,  427-432 
Warfare,  antisubmarine,  454461 
Warfare,  undersea,  433453 
War  of  1812,  25-28 
War  with  France,  21-24 
War  with  Tripoli,  24 
Watertight  integrity,  3 1 3 
Watch,  Quarter,  and  station  bill,  304 
Watches  and  watch  officer,  301-304 
Weapons  of  the  fleet,  400-408 
Weapons  systems,  Naval,  396418 
White  Fleet,  5 
Williams,  James  E.,  44 

Women  in  the  Navy,  233 

Women  Marines,  265-266 

Women's  uniforms,  103 

World  War  I,  38 

World  War  I,  Marine  Corps,  256-257 

World  War  II,  3943,  381-384 

World  War  II,  Marine  Corps,  257-260