THE-PEOPLFS <B OOKS
THE
PEOPLE'S
BOOKS
THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
THE
NAVY OF TO-DAY
BY PERCIVAL A. HISLAM
AUTHOR OP "THE ADMIRALTY OF THJC ATLANTIC," ETC.
LONDON: T. C. & E. C. JACK
67 LONG ACRE, W.C., AND EDINBURGH
NEW YORK: DODGE PUBLISHING CO.
H'H
V
CONTENTS
CHAP. PAGE
INTRODUCTORY NOTE vii
I. THE NAVY'S BEGINNINGS AND GROWTH . . 9
II. THE BRITISH BATTLE FLEET . . . .16
III. CRUISER TYPES AND AUXILIARIES . . .28
IV. TORPEDO-BOATS, DESTROYERS, AND "DESTROYER-
DESTROYERS" 35
V. SUBMARINES AND AIRCRAFT . . . .43
VI. OFFICERS AND MEN 52
VII. THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE NAVY . . .64
VIII. FLEETS AT HOME AND OVERSEA . . .71
IX. ON THE RECOGNlTlcVoF WARSH/PS .' . .77
APPENDIX . 83
BIBLIOGRAPHY .91
INDEX 93
296878
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
THE British Navy, the "first, second, and third line of
defence" of the greatest empire in history, upon which
the people of these islands have spent approximately
£1,500,000,000 in a hundred years of peace, is a large sub-
ject to treat in so small a volume. It is hoped, however, that
what has been written will be of some assistance to the
average reader in enabling him to follow more intelligently the
discussion that revolves interminably around the problem of
naval armaments, and to see perhaps more clearly than before
how our oldest national institution absorbs the weekly million
sterling that is spent upon it.
In the region of naval affairs things move very rapidly, and
it is therefore necessary to point out that the following pages
are corrected to the end of July 1914, and that the battleships
Benbow and Emperor of India, and the battle cruiser Tiger, of
the 1911 programme, are treated as completed ships.
P. A. H.
THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
I.— THE NAVY'S BEGINNINGS AND GKOWTH
ALTHOUGH it has become customary to describe Henry VII,
who reigned from 1485 to 1509, as the "founder of the Koyal
Navy," and Alfred, who preceded him by six hundred years, as
the " father of the British Navy," these titles have in fact very
little historical foundation. Both monarchs did a great deal to
advance the science of warship construction and to place the
fleet on a firmer and more settled footing. Alfred created an
organised personnel and built vessels for his navy which were
"full twice as long as the others. . . . They were both
swifter and steadier, and also higher than the others ; they
were shaped neither like the Frisian nor the Danish, but so, as
it seemed to him, that they would be most efficient." Henry
VII founded the national dockyards at Portsmouth and Wool-
wich— though yards for the construction of warships must
have existed centuries before. He also built the Henri Grace
a Dieu, which, so far as we know, was the first " two-decker "
to figure in our fleet, and which certainly caused as great a
sensation in her day as the Dreadnought did eight years ago.
But, whether we call their ships a British navy, an English
navy, or a royal navy, the people of these islands were
familiar with the sea, with naval warfare (such as it was), and
with the importance of a fleet as a guarantee against foreign
interference long before the days of Alfred. Caesar prepared
the way for the invasion of Britain by annihilating a great
fleet which was opposing his progress in the estuary of the
Loire, and included in that fleet was a British contingent
which, in different circumstances, might have proved a formid-
9
10 THE NAV1f OF TO-DAY
able obstacle in C^sai's pith when he came to cross the
Channel. At a. later date, but still 600 years before the
reign of Alfred, the independence of Britain was won by an able,
if unscrupulous buccaneer who had a fleet as his only weapon.
It is worth while to give a brief space to this event in our
history, for it is often completely ignored. In the latter half
of the third century the Roman Empire was much troubled by
the activities of Scandinavian pirates in the North Sea, and
the emperors commissioned one Carausius to exterminate them,
providing him with a fleet for that purpose, and giving him
the title of " Count of the Saxon Shore in Britain/' But
Carausius himself was a pirate by nature, and he made it a
rule never to attack the sea-rovers except at such times as he
knew them to be laden with booty ; then he would fall upon
them, appropriate their spoils, and release them. In the end
Carausius became so powerful that he set himself up as
Emperor of Britain, and after defeating the Roman fleet he
was duly acknowledged as such. For seven years he main-
tained his independence and ruled the country well ; but, not
satisfied with Britain, he tried to hold the port of Gessoriacum
(the modern Boulogne) as well, and that brought about his
downfall. He lost his fleet and was murdered by one of his
advisers, and Roman dominion was restored. Judged by
modern standards Carausius was not to be admired as a moral
character; but until we know who commanded the British
ships in the mouth of the Loire in 56 B.C. his claim to be
remembered as the " father of the British Navy " is indisput-
able.
It would be impossible within the limits of this little book
to attempt to summarise the history of the Navy ; nor is it
necessary, as our subject is "The Navy of To-day." At the
same time, it will be advisable to touch upon some of the
main features of our naval development, and particularly upon
these which affected the growth of the fleet as an organised
national force. The first record we have of a fleet organisa-
tion upon modern lines is in the reign of Edgar (958-975),
who is declared in ancient chronicles to have possessed a fleet
of 2400, 3600, and even 4800 keels. Even allowing for the
usual exaggeration met with in these documents, it is evident
THE NAVY'S BEGINNINGS AND GROWTH 11
that he must have had a very large naval force ; and he
divided it into three squadrons, one being stationed in the
North Sea, one in the Irish Channel, and one off the north
coast of Scotland. In the spring of each year Edgar inspected
these forces, cruising with each in the area it was appointed to
guard. In those days warships were of a type quite distinct
from the "round ship," or merchantman ; but later on, as the
art of sailing developed, the two became interchangeable.
The reason for this will be readily understood. The seas
everywhere, and particularly in the Mediterranean, were
infested by pirates, and a trader had little chance of complet-
ing a voyage successfully unless he had the means for defend-
ing himself from these "enemies of mankind." His ships
were therefore armed, and the crew trained in the use of guns
and hand-weapons, so that the whole formed a vast reserve to
the standing naval forces of the country. The Cinque Ports
(Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Dover, and Sandwich) were granted
certain privileges by William the Conqueror on condition that
they undertook to supply him with a certain number of war-
ships, manned and armed, whenever he should require them,
and such vessels were, of course, primarily merchantmen. In
the fleet of 197 ships which Lord Howard of Effingham led
against the Spanish Armada in 1588, only 34 were "Queen's
ships," the remainder being merchantmen specially com-
missioned for the occasion. Later on, as the art of organised
naval warfare developed, so the need for specialised warships
increased, as well as the necessity for having a sufficient force
always available for meeting a national emergency; while a
further impetus in the same direction was given during the
reign of Henry VII, against whom shipowners formed a sort
of combination with a view to secure exorbitant rates for the
hire of their ships. The old system, however, is not yet
entirely dead. All the principal naval Powers have a reserve
of merchant ships which can be called upon and armed in the
event of war, the British Admiralty having at their disposal in
this manner the whole of the ships of the Cunard Line, includ-
ing the Lusitania and Mauretania, whose armament in these
circumstances would consist of twelve 6-inch guns. On the
other hand, the United States have recently arranged for a
12 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
number of cruisers to be employed in peace time upon the
carriage of mails and freight.
The establishment of the national dockyards was an im-
portant step in the development of our naval forces. Woolwich
has been described as the " mother-dock of England," but
there seems little doubt that Portsmouth was actually the
first to be established, the date being 1495. The Thames
yard followed shortly after, Chatham in 1510, and Deptford
in 1513; and for nearly two hundred years these sufficed,
for it was not until 1691 that Devonport dockyard was
opened, followed by Sheerness in 1712 and Pembroke in
1812. For some years past Portsmouth and Devonport
have been the only national yards to undertake the con-
struction of large ships. In point of fact they cannot be
said really to " build " them, as their work consists mainly
in putting together the materials supplied by the great con-
tracting firms in the north. Chatham and Pembroke still
build small ships of the cruiser classes, and submarines are
also built at the latter place ; but Sheerness has been special-
ised as a repairing yard for torpedo-craft. So far as ship-
building is concerned, Woolwich and Deptford ceased to exist
in 1869. Some idea of the amount of work dealt with in
these establishments may be obtained from the numbers of
workmen employed in them. On July 1, 1913, the figures
were: Portsmouth, 15,877; Devonport, 14,504; Chatham,
9200; Sheerness, 2250; and Pembroke, 2120: the whole
exceeding the population of Lancaster. A great new naval
establishment is in course of construction at Rosyth, on the
Firth of Forth, and this is to be completed in 1916. As at
present intended, however, this will be used exclusively for
repairs, and not for shipbuilding.
From the time of the defeat of the Spanish Armada down
to the introduction of iron shipbuilding there were no great
or far-reaching changes in warship design. Naval architecture,
of course, improved, and ships increased considerably in size ;
but the guns which were mounted in our first ironclad, the
Warrior, fired a shot only two pounds greater in weight than
that of the heaviest guns mounted in our ships at the Armada.
The Sovereign of the Seas, launched at Woolwich in 1637,
THE NAVY'S BEGINNINGS AND GROWTH 13
was a three-decker mounting 126 guns; the Victory, Nelson's
flagship at Trafalgar nearly two hundred years later, was
a three-decker of 100 guns. The cost of such a ship as
the Victory was about £70,000. Nelson's entire fleet of 27
ships of the line cost approximately 1J millions sterling, while
no single one of the battleships now in hand for the Navy will
cost less than £2,250,000.
Steam as a motive power was first introduced into the navy
in 1822, when a wooden paddle steamer of 238 tons, the
Cornet, was built at Deptford, and by 1849 there were exactly
a hundred steam-propelled ships in the fleet, of which thirty
were screw ships. The officials of those days strenuously
opposed both the paddle and the screw — the former because
it was obviously liable to damage in action, and the latter
because they considered it would interfere with the steering
of the ship ; but their prejudices were gradually worn down,
and about 1850 several first-rate line of battle ships which
had been laid down as sailing ships were converted while on
the stocks into screw steamers. The first ship of the line
actually designed and built as a screw ship was the 80-gun
Agamemnon, launched at Woolwich in 1852.
The introduction of iron, however, did more to revolutionise
naval war and its material than did the steam-engine. Mention
has already been made of the slow progress of ordnance between
the Armada and the middle of the nineteenth century; the
reason for which is to be found in the fact that there had been
no change in the material opposed to it, so that the guns used
at the time of the Armada would have been almost as effective
as those actually in action at Trafalgar. The invention of
armour-plating, however, brought about an immediate change.
The smooth-bore muzzle-loading gun gave way first of all to
the rifled gun — the rifling imparting to the projectile a twist
which gave it greater range, accuracy, and penetration. The
Warrior, our first sea-going ironclad, was launched at Blackwall
at the end of 1860, and five years later rifled guns had been
substituted for smooth-bores throughout the fleet. So began
the battle between guns and armour which has continued ever
since, and which has produced ships protected by 12 and
14 inches of hardened steel and guns which, requiring longer
14 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
to build than the ships themselves, are capable of flinging
shells up to nearly 2000 Ib. in weight through incredible thick-
nesses of armour at ranges of seven or eight miles. The
muzzle-loading gun made a game struggle for existence, and
reached its highest development in the battleship Inflexible,
launched in 1876. This ship carried four 80-ton guns with a
calibre (that is, diameter of bore) of 16 inches, firing projectiles
of 1700 Ib. ; while the box-like citadel on which the guns
were mounted was protected by iron armour 24 inches thick.
Still larger guns — the largest, indeed, ever yet mounted on
shipboard — were made about this time by the Armstrong firm
for the Italian battleships Dandolo and Duilio, their calibre
being 17*7 inches and the weight of the projectile just over
2000 Ib. It may be noted here by way of comparison that
while the Inflexible^ 16-inch gun could penetrate 24 J inches
of wrought iron at the muzzle, the modern 15-inch gun under
the same conditions has a penetration of 57 inches, and cannot
be withstood by two feet of hardened steel at 3000 yards.
On the other hand, 7 inches of modern Krupp armour is
superior in resisting power to the 24 inches of wrought iron
with which the Inflexible was protected.
In 1881 the heavy breech-loading gun made its appearance
in the British Navy, the first ship to carry 12-inch guns of this
description being the Conqueror. The loading of guns from
the breech is usually regarded as an essentially modern device,
but some of the oldest examples of ordnance brought up from
the bottom of the sea were built upon this principle, though
naturally their construction was very primitive. Our first
12-inch breech-loaders weighed 45 tons, and fired a shell of
714 Ib., with a muzzle-energy of 18,060 foot-tons, but although
the great majority of ships in our battle fleet to-day are armed
with guns of this calibre, there has been an enormous advance
in the power of the weapon. It is advisable that attention
should be called to this point, because there is a tendency to
imagine that all guns of the same calibre — as well as all ships
of the same class, such as " battleships " or " Dreadnoughts " —
are necessarily alike. How far wrong this assumption is, will
be evident from the fact that the latest type of 12-inch gun is
THE NAVY'S BEGINNINGS AND GROWTH 15
50 feet long, weighs 66 tons, and fires a shell of 850 Ib. with
a muzzle-energy of 53,400 tons.
Between the launch of the Conqueror and the construction
of the oldest battleships now on the effective list of the Navy
there was an experimental period, during which many different
types of battleships were built. The most remarkable of these
were the Victoria, Sans Pareil, and Benbow, each of which was
armed with two guns of the largest and heaviest type ever
mounted in a British man-of-war. These guns were 16'5
inches in calibre and 110J tons in weight, the projectile of
1800 Ib. being expelled from the bore by a charge of 900 Ib.
of powder. The guns were not very successful, showing a
tendency to droop at the muzzle, which accounts for the fact
that they were mounted in only three ships. They were
followed by a period in which the 13 '5-inch gun was held
in great favour, and then, just twenty years ago, there was
a further decline to the 12-inch gun, which remained the
standard weapon in the main armament of British battleships
from 1894 until the first super-Dreadnought was launched
in 1910.
II.— THE BRITISH BATTLE FLEET
THE ships of which the British Navy is composed may
be divided into three general classes. The first consists of
battleships and battle cruisers, which are frequently classed
together as "capital ships." The second consists of cruisers
of various types, and the third of torpedo-craft, both surface-
keeping and submarine. The last two classes will be discussed
in later chapters, but the capital ships must be dealt with first,
as being at once the most costly, the most powerful, and the
most important part of naval material. These vessels are the
direct descendants of the " ships of the line " of the eighteenth
and early nineteenth centuries. Among the principal maritime
nations they are the final arbiters of sea-power, and their duty
is to find and destroy the battle fleets of the enemy. They
are intended to fight only with their equals. In case of war
they would have no occasion to fight cruisers, for it is the first
item in the cruiser's code to keep out of reach of a vessel more
powerful than itself; and although torpedo-craft are designed
primarily for the purpose of attacking capital ships (which,
left to themselves, would have little means of defence against
them), a properly constituted battle fleet is always equipped
with a force of " anti- torpedo craft," whose business it would
be to preserve the battleships intact until the moment arrived
for them to engage the battle fleet of the enemy.
At the present moment the British Navy comprises sixty-two
battleships and ten battle cruisers. The popular liking for
labels has led to the division of the battleships into three,
or even four groups. First, there are the oldest ships, char-
acterised by the mounting of three types of gun — one for
fighting other battleships at long ranges, another and smaller
type for assisting the main guns against battleships at shorter
distances, and a third destined to be used against torpedo-craft
16
THE BRITISH BATTLE FLEET 17
should the ship be attacked by them. The guns falling under
these heads are said to form the main, secondary, arid anti-
torpedo armament respectively, and the ships carrying all three
are termed " pre-Dreadnoughts." This signifies, of course,
that they were built before the Dreadnought, in which the
principal feature was the elimination of the secondary arma-
ment. Something will be said later of the reasons which led
to this step being taken ; but what we have to note here
is that the generic term " Dreadnought " is, in our own fleet,
applied to those battleships and battle cruisers which, having
no secondary armament, carry 12-inch guns (either eight or
ten) in their main batteries. When the first Dreadnought
was built, it was regarded more or less as the last word in
battleship design ; but in less than four years from the launch
of that vessel we began to send afloat ships which, while
embodying the same principles, carried 13 '5-inch guns (firing
1250-lb. shells) as against the 12-inch 850-lb. shells of their
predecessors, and to indicate this advance such vessels are
known as "super-Dreadnoughts." So far the popular desire
for a label has rested content with this ; nevertheless, yet
another increase in the size and power of the guns has been
made, and the next capital ships added to the Navy will
be armed with 15-inch guns firing shells of 1950 Ib. — more
than twice as heavy as those fired by the original Dreadnought.
For these vessels Lord Haldane has coined the cumbersome
but expressive title of " hyper-super-Dreadnoughts." After
these general explanations our battle fleet can be described
in detail, taking the ships in the order in which they were
built.
Pre-Dreadnoughts. — There are forty battleships in the
British fleet to which this term is applied, and the majority
of them are built on the same general principle. The main
armament consists of four 12-inch guns in two turrets, one
forward and one aft, while the secondary battery is made up
of twelve 6-inch guns (firing 100-lb. shells), mounted in case-
mates and arranged in equal numbers on either broadside.
These are the main and secondary guns mounted in each of the
following classes, all of which were designed by the late Sir
William White :
18
THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
Class l and Number.
Date of
Launch.
Length
(feet).
Tonnage.
Speed
(knots).
Majestic (9) .
1894-96
390
14,900
17*5
Canopus (6) .
Formidable (8)
1897-99
1898-1902
390
400
12,950
15,000
18-25
18
Duncan (5) .
1901
405
14,000
19
It will be seen that there are considerable variations in the
speed of these groups, but that does not entirely account for
the differences in displacement. In the two largest classes
(Majestic and Formidable), eighteen 3-inch 12-pounder guns
are mounted in the anti-torpedo battery, while the others have
only twelve ; and the Majesties have five torpedo-tubes as
compared with four in all the others. The most important
differences, however, affect the protection. In the Majesties and
the Formidables the main armour belt is 9 inches thick, but it
is not of the same value in the two classes. The Majesties'
armour is of Harveyed steel, while the Formidables* is of
Krupp steel, and the difference between them is fifty per cent,
in favour of the later ships. Further, the Majestic class are
what is known as "soft-ended" — that is, the main armour
belt extends over 220 feet amidships and leaves the ends quite
unarmoured, while in the Formidables a 2-inch plating is
carried right up to the bows. In the Canopus class the belt
is of Harvey-nickel steel, 6 inches thick, the resisting power of
this material being between that of plain Harvey and Krupp
armour. The Duncan class have 7-inch belts of Krupp steel.
Six of this type were built, but one, the Montagu, was wrecked
on Lundy Island in 1906.
Twenty-eight of our pre-Dreadnought battleships have been
accounted for above. The next two in order of date, the
Triumph and the Swiftsure, stand in a class by themselves.
They were designed by the late Sir Edward Reed, and were
launched in 1903 for the Chilian Government; but shortly
before the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War they were
thrown on to the market, and the British Admiralty purchased
1 A full list of all ships, arranged in classes, is given in the Appendix.
THE BRITISH BATTLE FLEET 19
them in order to prevent them falling into the hands of Russia.
These ships are 436 feet long, the Swiftsure displacing 11,800
and the Triumph 11,985 tons; and they carry four 10-inch
guns (500-lb. shells) in their main battery, fourteen 7 '5-inch
(200-lb. shells) in the secondary battery, fourteen 14-pounders
for use against torpedo-craft, and two torpedo-tubes. Their
principal side armour is 7 inches thick ; but taking the ships
as a whole they are much more lightly built than is usual
with those designed for the British service.
After the Duncan class, the next battleships laid down for
the Navy were the eight of the King Edward class, which
marked the first step in the evolution of the "all-big-gun "
ship. Displacement advanced at a leap to 16,350 tons, and
while the thickness of the side armour amidships remained the
same as in the Formidables, it was continued in a thickness of
4 inches to the bow and stern. The most notable change,
however, was effected in the armament. What had for some
years previously been the standard secondary battery of twelve
6-inch was reduced to ten, while a new type of intermediate
gun was introduced in the shape of the 9 "2-inch (firing 380-lb.
shells), one being mounted at each of the four corners of the
upper works. The principal reason for this alteration was that
gunnery had so greatly improved that it had begun to be
doubtful whether the 6-inch gun would ever be able to render
effective assistance to the 12-inch in fleet actions, owing to the
range at which they would be fought and the improved resisting
powers of armour ; and it was the continuation along this line
of reasoning which gave us the next step towards the Dread-
nought, and the Dreadnought itself. Eight ships of the King
Edward class were built, their launching date being 1903-5.
They were not only heavier by 1350 tons than any battleships
we had previously built, but \vere also by a long way the most
costly, their average working out to ,£1,445,770, or £89*03 per
ton of displacement, as compared with averages of ,£1,11 8, 171
per ship and £74*54 per ton for the ships of the Formidable
class.
The King Edwards were the last battleships designed for the
Navy by Sir William White. The first designed by his suc-
cessor, Sir Philip Watts, marked another important step in
20 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
development, although they were very little heavier than the
King Edwards. The principles involved in the latter, which
have been briefly explained above, were given a more logical
application, and in the 16,500-ton battleships Lord Nelson and
Agamemnon, launched in 1906, the 6-inch gun was entirely
dispensed with, the ships being equipped with a main battery
of four 12-inch, a secondary battery of ten 9*2-inch, and an
anti-torpedo battery of twenty-four 12-pounder guns. The
main armour belt was increased to a thickness of 12 inches,
tapering to 6 forward and 4 aft, and the only falling ofif was
the slight one of half a knot in speed from the 18*5 of the
King Edwards to 18. The Lord Nekons were our first war-
ships to cost over 1£ millions, the average for the two being
£1,652,693, equal to £101 -16 per ton.
In the very month when these ships were laid down (May
1905), the Admiralty decided upon the construction of the
ship which has since become famous as the Dreadnought. We
have already explained the causes which led to the passing of the
6-inch gun from battleship armaments, and it was for exactly
the same reasons that the 9 '2-inch had to go. Gunnery had
so far advanced that the experts, having made it possible for
actimis to be carried on at extreme ranges, naturally turned
their attention next to the increase of the power available at
those ranges. The 9 '2-inch is a fair weapon in these condi-
tions. Taking all things into consideration it is roughly about
kalf as destructive as the 12-inch gun, over which it has the
advantage of a much more rapid rate of fire ; and it is quite
possible that if the process of " spotting " had not come to play
such an important part in gunnery, it would have been retained.
" Spotting " may be described as the direction of gun-fire by
noting the fall of the shot. So long as the projectiles are all
of the same calibre it is a simple matter to correct inaccuracies,
but the mixing up of 850 and 380 Ib. shells complicated
matters so that in the interests of straight shooting it became
necessary to eliminate the smaller gun. The Dreadnought, there-
fore, was armed with only a main and an anti-torpedo battery
— ten 12-inch guns in the former and twenty-four 12-pounders
in the latter. Her length is 490 feet (exactly 100 feet longer
than our oldest battleships, the Majesties), and her nominal
THE BRITISH BATTLE FLEET 21
displacement is 17,900 tons. Other features for which she was
remarkable were her high speed of 21 knots ; the fact that this
was obtained by turbine machinery, no warship larger than a
3000-ton cruiser having previously been fitted with turbines ;
her great size — an increase of 1400 tons over the Lord Nelsons ;
her unprecedented cost, namely, £1,813,100, equal to £101*29
per ton ; and the rapidity with which she was built. Laid
down at Portsmouth Dockyard on the 2nd October 1905, she
was launched by King Edward on the 10th February 1906,
and steamed out of harbour for her trials on the 1st October of
the same year.
There is no need to enter here into an account of the many
consequences, direct and indirect, which followed upon the
construction of the Dreadnought ; but it may be pointed out
that at the time when she was laid down the United States
had already decided to build a ship embodying the same prin-
ciples, and that Japan was building two ships, the Aki and
Satsuma, which both displaced well over 19,000 tons. The
Dreadnought did not, therefore, set the fashion of " monster"
battleships, while it is apparent that if we had not laid down
the first all-big-gun ship in 1 905 some other Power would have
done so very shortly after.
The Dreadnought's ten 12-inch guns are mounted in five
turrets, one forward and two aft on the centre-line, and two
abreast on the beams. She is thus able to fire eight out of the
ten guns on either broadside, and as each gun fires a shell of
850 Ib. she is said to have a broadside fire of 6800 Ib.
Following the Dreadnought we built six other ships almost
identical, three of the Bellerophon type (18,600 tons, launched
1907), and three of the St. Vincent type (19,250 tons, launched
1908—9); the main point of difference being that in these
ships 4-inch guns are mounted for defence against torpedo-
craft, instead of 3-iuch 1 2-pound ers. This increase was
rendered necessary by (1) the increase in the effective range of
the torpedo, enabling it to be fired from greater distances than
those at which the 12-pounder would be effective; and (2) the
advance in the size of torpedo-craft to such dimensions as to
make the smaller gun inadequate for attacking them.
The next important development in battleship design was
22 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
one intended to make the whole of the main armament, instead
of only a proportion of it, available for firing on either broad-
side. The American naval authorities have been very con-
sistent in this respect, all their Dreadnoughts, whether armed
with eight, ten, or twelve guns, having the turrets on the
middle line of the ship so that all the guns can be swung over
on to either beam. We have seen that the Dreadnought and
her six successors can fire only eight out of their ten 12-inch
guns on the beam ; but in our next three ships, the Neptune
(1909), Hercules and Colossus (1910), a tentative movement
was made towards the adoption of the American principle.
One turret is mounted forward on the centre-line, and two aft ;
and of the latter the one nearer the centre of the ship is
" super-posed " — that is, it is raised on a higher level so that
its guns can be fired over the aftermost turret. The two
turrets amidships, instead of being abreast, are en Echelon —
that is, on a line drawn at an angle of some 45 degrees to the
centre line of the ship. Consequently, over a limited angle, the
whole ten guns can be fired on either broadside. These three
ships were the last Dreadnoughts — the last battleships armed
with 12-inch guns — built for the Navy.
Super-Dreadnoughts. — Generally speaking, the 12-inch gun
is sufficiently powerful to penetrate, at likely battle ranges,
the thickest armour with which modern warships are pro-
tected. It will easily be seen, however, that mere penetra-
tion alone would produce little effect, and the aim of ordnance
experts is not only to get the shell through the armour, but
also to ensure that it shall do the greatest possible amount of
damage after it has got into the interior of the ship. For this
purpose the shells fired from heavy guns carry a " bursting
charge " actuated by a fuse which explodes it the instant
penetration is accomplished. Once inside the ship, the single
shell is violently broken up into a number of smaller pro-
jectiles, which are flung in all directions, carrying death and
destruction with them. The extent of this destruction will
clearly depend upon the weight of the shell and the force with
which it is exploded. Thus it arose that after the 12-inch
gun had remained the standard " big gun " in our battle fleet
from the Majestic of 1894 to the Hercules of 1910, it gave
THE BRITISH BATTLE FLEET 23
way to the 13'5-inch firing a shell of 1250 lb.-400 Ib. heavier.
The weight of bursting charges is one of the things regarded by
the Admiralty as confidential, but that there was a propor-
tionate increase in this direction is well known. It has also
been established that the 13 '5-inch gun is more accurate than
the 12-inch, especially at long ranges.
The first super-Dreadnoughts built for the Navy were the
four ships of the Orion class, launched in 1910-11. They are
545 feet long, and displace 22,500 tons, their average cost
being .£1,833,879, or £81-5 per ton. They are protected by
12-inch belts of Krupp armour, and their armament comprises
ten 13-5-inch guns in the main battery, sixteen 4-inch in. the
anti-torpedo battery, and three torpedo-tubes. Besides the
increase in the size of the gun, the Orion class marked a further
advance on previous British Dreadnoughts, inasmuch as the
five turrets, each containing two heavy guus, are all mounted
on the centre-line. There are two turrets forward and two aft,
the one nearer the middle of the ship being super-posed in
each case, while the fifth turret is amidships. The Orions
have been followed by two four-ship groups of generally similar
design — the King George V class, launched in 1911-12, and
displacing 23,000 tons, and the Iron Duke class (1912-13,
25,000 tons). The 13'5-inch guns in these ships are of a more
powerful type than those in the Orions, the projectile being
lengthened and its weight increased to about 1400 Ib., so as
to carry a still larger burster. At the same time, further
developments in the torpedo and in torpedo-craft have made
the 4-inch gun very nearly as useless for protective purposes as
the 12-pounder; consequently, the Iron Dukes are furnished
with twelve 6-inch guns as an anti-torpedo battery — the same
number and calibre as were carried by pre-Dreadnoughts in
their secondary batteries. These ships also have four torpedo-
tubes instead of three, and are equipped with two 3-inch guns
on special mountings for attacking aircraft.
Hyper-super Dreadnoughts. — We have now completed our
survey of our completed, ready-for-sea battle fleet; but there
are thirteen ships in various stages of construction which must
be briefly dealt with. Five of these, the Queen Elizabeth
class, are approaching completion. A great deal has been
24 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
heard about these ships because they are to depend entirely
upon oil fuel for raising steam in their boilers. The advantages
of oil fuel as compared with coal will be dealt with elsewhere ;
but it may be mentioned here that one of its principal results
is enormously to increase the radius of action of the ship
burning it, besides taking up much less space than an equi-
valent quantity of coal. The Queen Elizabeths are to have
the very high speed of 25 knots, and as this was the designed
speed of our first four battle cruisers it is sometimes urged
that the new ships should be regarded as such, and not as
battleships. However, the Admiralty class them as battle-
ships, so that we have authority on our side in following the
same line. Apart from the fact that they are oil-burners, these
new vessels are remarkable in registering a further develop-
ment of naval ordnance. They will carry only eight big guns
on a displacement of 27,500 tons, but the weapons will be of
15-inch calibre, firing a shell of 1950 Ib. — the heaviest ever
fired by a British warship. The muzzle-energy of this gun,
which is 56 feet 3 inches long and weighs 96 tons, is 84,510
foot-tons, and it can be fired at the rate of six times every five
minutes. Sixteen 6-inch weapons will form the anti-torpedo
battery of these ships, and they will, it is believed, be pro-
tected by 13 1 inches of armour. The eight remaining ships
now in hand, the Royal Sovereign class, will be similar to the
Queen Elizabeths, but they will depend mainly upon coal and
will have a speed of only 2 1 knots.
Before turning to battle cruisers, the other class of capital
ships, it will be interesting to summarise in tabular form the
advance of the battleship in the twenty years covered by our
present existing fleet. (See Table on opposite page.)
Where our Ships are Built. — The following are the prin-
cipal private firms by which British warships are built :
Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., Newcastle; *Palnier's
Shipbuilding and Iron Co., Jarrow-on-Tyne ; *Messrs. Cammell,
Laird & Co., Birkenhead; *Messrs. Vickers, Barrow-in-Furness;
*Messrs. Wm. Beardmore & Co., Dalmuir ; *Messrs. John
Brown & Co., Clydebank ; the *Fairfield Shipbuilding and
Engineering Co., Govan ; *Messrs. Scott's Shipbuilding and
Engineering Co., Greenock. All the foregoing have built
THE BRITISH BATTLE FLEET
Dreadnoughts, and they also
build cruisers and other small
craft. Firms which specialise to
a greater or less extent in the
construction of torpedo-boat de-
stroyers are Messrs. Yarrow and
Co., Scotstoun; Messrs. Thor-
nycroft & Co., Woolston ;
Messrs. J. S. White & Co., East
Cowes; Messrs. Denny and
Brothers, Dumbarton; "^Messrs.
Hawthorn, Leslie & Co., New-
castle; and Messrs. Swan, Hunter
and Co., "VVallsend. Machinery
for big ships is manufactured
by those firms marked with an
asterisk, and also by Messrs.
Harland & Wolff, Belfast; the
Wallsend Slipway and Engineer-
ing Co. ; and the Parsons Marine
Steam Turbine Co.
The principal firms engaged in
the supply of armour and ord-
nance for His Majesty's ships
are Messrs. Vickers, Armstrong,
Whitworth & Co., Beardmore,
and John Brown in the above
list, and also Hadfield's Steel
Foundry Co., the Coventry Ord-
nance Works, and Messrs. J. and
P. Hill (Sheffield). Torpedoes
are made by the Admiralty at
the Greenock Torpedo Factory,
and by Messrs. Whitehead at
Wey mouth, and Messrs. Green-
wood & Batley at Leeds.
Battle Cruisers. — The battle
cruiser may be regarded as a de-
velopment of the armoured cruiser
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26 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
of the pre-Dreadnought era, and it is briefly described as a
battleship in which guns and armour are sacrificed in order to
obtain a very high speed. All of our battle cruisers were built
when we were arming our battleships with ten heavy guns and
giving them 11 -inch or 12-inch belts of armour; but the battle
cruisers all carry only eight guns and have armour belts either
7 or 9 inches in thickness. The Invincible class of three ships,
launched in 1907, were contemporary with the Dreadnought.
They are 530 feet long and displace 17,250 tons, and while
their turbines of 41,000 horse-power were designed for a speed
of 25 knots, they have all in fact done over 27. Their eight
12-inch guns are mounted in four turrets, two on the centre-
line forward and aft, and two en Echelon amidships. Very
similar to these, but 1500 tons larger, are the Indefatigable
(1909), Australia and New Zealand (1911), the last two built
at the cost of the Dominions after which they are named. In
their case the length was increased to 555 feet in order that
the turrets amidships might be placed farther apart, so per-
mitting a larger angle to be covered on either broadside by the
whole of the big guns. These six ships have been followed by
four of the super-Dreadnought era, with all their turrets on the
centre-line. The first two, the Lion and Princess Royal, were
contemporary with the battleships of the Orion class, and a
comparison between the two types brings out in a striking
manner the enormous price that has to be paid for high
spe^d :
Orion. Lion.
Speed ... 21 knots 28 knots
Horse-power . . 27,000 70,000
Length . . . 545ft. 660ft.
Tonnage . . . 22,500 26,350
Cost .... £1,849,710 £2,057,708
(1013-5-in. 813'5-in.
Armament . . < 16 4-in. 16 4 in.
(3 torpedo-tubes 2 torpedo-tubes
Main armour . . 12 inches 9 inches
Officers and men . 800 980
The Lion is therefore 115 feet longer and 3850 tons
heavier than the Orion ; and yet, because she is 7 knots
faster, she cost £200,000 more to build, needs 180 more
officers and men to man her, and is outdone in offensive power
THE BRITISH BATTLE FLEET 27
by 25 per cent, and in defensive power (armour) by 33 per
cent. This ship and her sister, the Princess Royal, carry the
gun which fires a 1250-lb. shell, but the Queen Mary and
Tiger, launched in 1913-14, have the improved gun, while the
Tiger carries twelve 6-inch in place of 4-inch guns in her anti-
torpedo battery. These are the last battle cruisers laid down
for the Navy, although note has already been made of the
fact that the Queen Elizabeth class have the same speed as
the Invincibles, while they further resemble the typical battle
cruiser in having only eight guns in their main armament.
The only nations which have followed our example in building
battle cruisers are Germany, Russia, and Japan,
III.— CRUISER TYPES AND AUXILIARIES
THE part which cruisers would play in a war involving Great
15 ri tain is a matter which does not appear to have been
decided with any confidence. In the days of Nelson vessels of
this class, then known as frigates, were employed principally
upon the work of securing information as to the position,
movements, and strength of the main forces of the enemy ; to
attack the enemy's cruisers or such other vessels as could be
encountered with a reasonable chance of success ; and to prey
upon the enemy's commerce, at the same time protecting our
own. Cruisers of to-day are intended for much the same
duties, but there would probably be no unanimous agreement
on the point. Many people argue that there will be no need
to send out cruisers specially for the protection of our com-
merce in war because no Power likely to be at war with us has
either sufficient cruisers to attack our merchantmen or any
ports of call bordering the high seas to which such cruisers
could repair for fuel and stores. Others urge that there would
be no need for us to make special dispositions of our ships for
the attack of the enemy's commerce, because in the ordinary
course of events our main squadrons would occupy such posi-
tions as to make it impossible for ships to enter or leave the
enemy's harbours. With regard to scouting and the collection
of information, there is no doubt that aircraft, in the future,
will be extensively used for these purposes, but they cannot
very well displace the cruiser altogether, as the latter alone
is able (as yet) to keep the sea for days at a time, and in all
weathers.
That the naval authorities themselves are by no means
certain or agreed as to the role of the cruiser in modern war is
evident from the policy that has been pursued regarding these
vessels in recent years. A short time ago the official system of
28
CRUISER TYPES AND AUXILIARIES 29
classification was altered, all cruisers other than battle cruisers
being classed as either "cruisers" or "light cruisers"; but the
following shows the designations under which our various types
of cruisers were built, and the date of their launch :
1. Armoured Cruisers (34), launched 1899-1907.
2. Protected Cruisers, 1st Class (10), launched 1890-98.
3. Protected Cruisers, 2nd Class (38), launched 1891-1913.
4. Protected Cruisers, 3rd Class (11), launched 1890-1904.
5. Unarmoured Cruisers (7), launched 1908-12.
6. Scouts (8), launched 1904-5.
7. Light Armoured Cruisers (20 built and building), the first launched
in 1913.
Under the official regrouping the first and second classes
above are now rated as "cruisers" and the remainder as
"light cruisers."
Our first armoured cruisers were built in 1899-1901 in
consequence of the adoption of the type in Russia. Apart
from the usual characteristics of a cruiser, which are high
speed, light armament, and a wide radius of action, these ships
are distinguished by a belt of side armour, having a thickness
of 4 inches in the Monmouth class and 6 inches in all the
others. There seems to have been an idea that these ships
would have been able to assist the battleships in a general
engagement, and it might easily be demonstrated that some of
our armoured cruisers are greatly superior as all-round fighting
ships to some of the older battleships in foreign fleets. As a
general proposition, however, the armoured cruiser of the pre-
Dreadnought era was never a ship of the line, as its guns
would have been comparatively ineffective at battle ranges,
while its armour would not have protected it against the more
powerful weapons mounted in battleships proper. The con-
struction of armoured cruisers nominally ceased with the three
ships of the Minotaur class provided for in the Navy Estimates
of 1904-5 — the year before the appearance of the battle
cruiser ; but there is now a distinct tendency to return to the
type. Some of our newest ships classed as second-class pro-
tected cruisers actually have a belt of armour along the water-
line, while the vessels now being built to replace destroyers are
officially termed " light armoured cruisers " from the fact of
their having belts two or three inches in thickness.
so
THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
The successive classes of armoured cruisers built for the
Navy were as follows :
Class and
Number.
o-c
11
5
I
Tons.
•2 a
8,8
Armament.
&3
a
•/.•_£
Cressy (6) .
1899-1901
440ft.
12,000
21
2 9'2-iii.. 12 6-in., 12
12 - pr. , 2 torpedo-
tubes.
Drake (4) .
1901
500ft.
14,100
23
2 9'2-in., 16 6-in., 12
12 -pr., 2 torpedo-
tubes.
Monmouth (9) .
1901-1903
4 10 ft
0,800
23
14 6-in., 8 12-pr., 2 tor-
pedo tubes.
Devonshire (6) .
1903-1904
450ft.
10,850
22*
4 7'5-in., 6 6-in., 2
torpedo-tubes.
Duke of Edin-
1904
480ft.
13,650
22-3
6 9'2-in., 10 6-in., 3
burgh (2) .
torpedo-tubes.
Warrior (4) .
1906
480ft.
13,550
22-3
6 9-2-in., 4 7'5-in., 3
torpedo-tubes.
Minotaur (3) .
1906-1907
490ft.
14,600
23
4 9'2-in., 10 7'5-in.,
5 torpedo-tubes.
These ships are still capable of very useful service, particu-
larly in distant seas, but they would be of little value in a
pitched battle between modern fleets.
Protected cruisers are distinguished by having for their
protection only a curved armour deck, which rises from just
below the water-line, the object of which is to prevent shells
from bursting in the engine and boiler spaces. Larger ships
also have these decks, which are generally from 1J to 3 inches
in thickness. Our first-class vessels of this type are practically
obsolete, and so need not detain us ; and the same is true of
a large number of the second and third class vessels. Between
1909 and 1913, however, four groups of second class cruisers,
fifteen in all, were launched, and these are now the only really
modern protected cruisers in the fleet. The first were the five
of the Bristol class, launched in 1909-10, and carrying two
6-inch and ten 4-inch guns and two torpedo-tubes on a dis-
placement of 4800 tons. They were followed in 1910-11
by the 5250-ton Dartmouth class, four in number, which have
eight 6-inch for their gun armament; and in 1911-12 by
the three Chathams, sister ships to the Dartmouths, but
CRUISER TYPES AND AUXILIARIES 31
displacing 5400 tons. The last group consists of the three
ships of the Birmingham class, which carry an additional
6-inch gun and displace 5440 tons. The speed of all these
cruisers, which are turbine-driven, is either 25 or 25 £ knots,
and the two last classes have a thin belt of vertical armour
along the water-line amidships. Of our ten third-class protected
cruisers only four are now serviceable. These are the vessels of
the Topaze class, launched in 1903-4, and displacing 3000 tons,
their armament comprising twelve 4-inch guns and two torpedo-
tubes, and the speed being 23 knots. The Amethyst, of this
class, was the first warship in the world larger than a de-
stroyer to be fitted with turbines. A few words concerning
the eight vessels of the Sentinel class will complete this brief
survey of our protected cruiser forces. These ships, which dis-
place just under 3000 tons, were at first termed " scouts," and
their armament originally consisted of ten 12-pounders; but
in 1912-13 these weapons were replaced by nine 4-inch, and
since then they have been officially classed as light cruisers.
They were launched in 1904-5, and their speed is 25 knots.
Only one other cruiser group remains to be dealt with in this
chapter. This consists of seven unarmoured or unprotected
vessels of the Boadicea class, launched in 1908-12. Displacing
from 3300 to 3440 tons, they have neither side armour nor a
protective deck, wlience arises their designation. They all
carry ten 4-inch guns except the first two (Boadicea and
Bellona), which have only six. They have never been regarded
as very successful, and it is unlikely that any more will be
built.
It will be noticed that we are not dealing here with the
seventh and latest type of cruisers — those described as " light
armoured." The reason is that these vessels are not intended
for ordinary cruiser duties, but for the destruction of hostile
destroyers. It will therefore be more fitting to deal with them
in the following chapter. There is, however, another class of
ship, of comparatively recent introduction, whose duties are to
some extent similar to those of cruisers and which may there-
fore be disposed of at the same time. In the event of war a
certain number of cruisers would be told oft' to wait upon the
battle fleets — to assist in the search for the enemy and to " run
32 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
errands " for the commander-in-chief ; and there would also be
a number of ships not designed to fight, but to increase the
efficiency of the whole in various directions. These vessels are
called "fleet auxiliaries."
First in importance among these are the fuel ships — some
designed to carry coal, some liquid fuel for the warships requir-
ing it, and some petrol for the submarines. The only collier is
the Mercedes, of 9930 tons ; and the reason why there is only
one of these vessels is that it is exceedingly difficult to transfer
coal from one ship to another at sea. On the other hand, the
facility with which this operation can be carried out with oil
is one of the many advantages possessed by liquid fuel as a
combustible. A coal-burning ship can only remain at sea for a
given time, after which she must return to harbour — which may
be hundreds of miles distant from the place where the ship is
most needed — to replenish her bunkers. The mere operation of
coaling, too, is a most fatiguing one for all concerned. For a
ship with stowage for 2000 tons it means practically twelve
hours' hard, continuous work for all on board, and naturally the
crew cannot be fit for much for a lengthy interval after the work
is completed. With oil, things are quite different. If a ship
returns to port to fill her tanks she is simply moored alongside
a quay, connection is made with pipes running down from the
storage tanks ashore, and the whole operation is finished with-
out a single person having unduly to exert himself. A far
greater advantage even than this is that the ship need not
return to port at all. A tank ship can be sent to the very
spot where fuel is required, and in any ordinary weather a pipe
connection can be made with the warship needing the fuel,
which is then pumped through. A brief consideration will
show what an enormous advantage this confers on the stronger
or attacking power. Suppose a British fleet to be keeping
watch over a foreign force in a harbour 500 miles distant from the
nearest home depot. If, say, twenty ships are necessary for the
purpose and only coal-burners were available, the commander
would need at least 30 ships to keep 20 constantly off the port
to be watched, because at frequent intervals each vessel would
have to return home to fill its bunkers, the entire operation —
allowing for the voyage home and out — requiring at least three
CRUISER TYPES AND AUXILIARIES 33
days. If, on the other hand, the ships were oil-burners, a bare
twenty ships would suffice, for the fuel could be sent out from
England and transferred to the warships on their war stations.
In order to derive the fullest value from this advantage the
Admiralty have built or ordered a number of " oilers " — the
abbreviated name by which these oil-carrying ships are officially
known. One or two of the largest of them are being built so
that the Admiralty may bring home its own oil from its own
Persian oil-fields in its own ships, but the greater number are
for attendance on the fleet at sea. The names of the vessels so far
built or ordered are : Attendant, Burma, Carol, Ferol, Kharki,
Olympia, Petroleum, Servitor, Trefoil, and Turmoil. Only one
ship has so far been built for carrying petrol to the submarine
flotillas at sea, this being the 980-ton Isla. In order that the
" oilers " (or the warships themselves, should it be desirable
for them to return to port) may have a depot as near as possible,
enormous storage tanks for oil have been erected at various
points round the coast. In these depots can be stored from
100,000 to 250,000 tons of oil, and the principal of them—
naturally on the south and east coasts — are at Devon port,
Portsmouth, Sheerness, the Humber, Rosyth, andlnvergordon.
The Navy also possesses two large " repair ships," the
Cyclops and Assistance, which are fitted with all sorts of
machinery for dealing with minor repairs that may be necessary
in the squadron to which they are attached. All large warships,
of course, have their own workshops, and a large proportion
of the crew consists of skilled mechanics — artificers, fitters,
carpenters, smiths, plumbers, &c. ; but the repair ships have
much more elaborate means for dealing with work of this
description, and are a sort of half-way house between the sea-
keeping fleet and the dockyards. A third repair ship, the
Reliance, is being fitted out. We also have repair ships for
officers and men, as well as for ships. The hospital ship Maine,
presented to thg nation by American women during the South
African War, was unfortunately wrecked in June 1914, but
another vessel, which is of 8785 tons and will bear the same
name, is being fitted out. When completed this vessel will be
always in attendance on the fleet to deal with cases which for
any reason cannot be treated on board the ship to which the
c
34 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
patient belongs ; for all large vessels are, of course, furnished
with a " sick bay," and carry a qualified staff for the treatment
of the less important cases of illness and injury which arise in
peace, and for dealing with the casualities of war.
Besides these, we have a large number of "depot ships"
attached to the various flotillas of destroyers and submarines.
The majority of them are old cruisers put to this use instead
of being sold for a few thousand pounds as scrap-iron, but a
few were specially designed and built for the purpose. These
depot ships, which do not form part of the fighting organisa-
tion of the flotillas to which they are attached, discharge the
combined functions of office and store-house. Thus, the sub-
marine depot ship Maidstone, of 3380 tons, launched in 1912,
makes a floating office for the commanding officer of the Eighth
Submarine Flotilla, and also provides accommodation for double
crews for the submarines. She is fitted with workshops, and
carries all that the submarines would be likely to require in
the way of reserve torpedoes and stores, besides a large quantity
of petrol for their use. There are in all ten sea-going depots
for destroyers (Aquarius, Blake, Blenheim, Dido, Diligence,
Hecla, Leander, St. George, Tyne, and Woolwich), and twelve
for submarines (Adamant, Alecto, Arrogant, Bonaventure,
Forth, Hazard, Hebe, Maidstone, Pactolus, Rosario, Thames,
and Vulcan). They vary considerably in size.
The science of aerial navigation has produced a new type of
fleet auxiliary. For some months during 1913 the cruiser
Hermes was in commission as an experimental ship for gaining
information in the carrying of aea-planes, and as a result of the
experience then gained the Admiralty have purchased a steam-
ship which is to be converted into a vessel specially fitted for
this purpose. Nothing has been allowed to become known
concerning this vessel, but she is intended to accompany the
fleet to sea with a number of aircraft on board, and will be
fitted with special arrangements for launching, recovering and
housing and repairing them.
IV.— TORPEDO-BOATS, DESTROYERS, AND
" DESTROYER-DESTROYERS "
TORPEDO-CRAFT form by far the most numerous section of the
British Navy. Not reckoning 70 torpedo-boats of little or no
actual value, we have 248 destroyers built and building, 36
modern torpedo-boats, and 96 submarines — a total of no fewer
than 380 vessels whose principal weapon is the torpedo. In
addition, we have twenty vessels built and building which are
specially designed for overhauling and destroying hostile torpedo-
boat destroyers, and although the torpedo is not their main
weapon, it is that which brought them into existence.
Even in these days, when so much is written about the
Navy, there is a good deal of misconception as to what a
torpedo is, and sometimes in respectable prints one finds a
vessel referred to as "H.M. Torpedo ' So-and-So.' " The
torpedo is, of course, not a boat of any sort. It is a projectile
just as much as the shell that leaves the muzzle of a gun ; but
it differs in the following respects : the shell from a gun derives
its velocity from the explosion of a charge of powder or other
substance behind it, while the torpedo, although it may be
expelled from its " tube " (the equivalent of the gun) by com-
pressed air or a very small charge of powder, is thenceforward
propelled by machinery in its own interior, actuated by com-
pressed air. Then, again, the heavy shell from a gun travels
through the air in a curve which, if the range be a long one,
may reach a height of 20,000 feet or more before it begins to
fall towards the object at which it is aimed ; and, having
struck its target, it is intended to penetrate whatever armour
it may impinge upon and burst just beyond, inside the ship.
The torpedo is very different. It may be fired either from a
submerged or an above-water tube — the latter being the more
favoured method, because the submerged tube cannot be trained
35
36 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
independently of the ship in which it is mounted. If the tube
is above water, the torpedo, on being ejected, drops beneath
the surface, its engines come into action immediately, and after
a very short time it settles down at a high rate of speed, and
at a depth which can be regulated beforehand, towards the
object at which it is aimed. The fore part of the torpedo
consists of a " war-head " containing a large quantity (it may
be as much as 300 Ib.) of damp guncotton ; and on striking its
objective, this enormous charge is fired by a detonator, with
the result, at any rate in theory, that a huge rent is torn in
the under- water skin of the ship attacked, which, if not suffi-
cieat to sink it, may at any rate upset its equilibrium and its
internal arrangements to such an extent as to put it out of
action not only during one engagement, but for many months.
The torpedo has been tried several times in modern wars —
notably in that between Russia and Japan — and one must say
that it has failed to justify the high opinions held of its de-
structive powers ; but improvements in its construction are
constantly being made with a view to overcoming its acknow-
ledged defects, and the extent of the confidence that is still
placed in it will be evident from the figures quoted at the
beginning of this chapter. These defects are, principally, the
delicacy of the apparatus by "which the torpedo is kept at a
uniform depth, any mishap in this department sending the
projectile either to the surface or to the bottom ; and its com-
parative slowness. As regards the latter, great progress has
been made. In 1903 the best torpedo in the British service
had a range of 4000 yards, which distance could be covered at
a speed of 18 knots. The latest projectiles made by Messrs.
Whitehead, however, can cover 7000 yards at 45 knots and
11,000 yards at 30 knots. A torpedo would take nearly five
minutes to cover the lesser distance, and in that time a battle-
ship at full speed would change its position by about two miles
— a fact which illustrates one of the difficulties in the way of
the effective use of the torpedo. At the same time, it must be
borne in mind that torpedo-boats and destroyers are expected
to do most of their work at night, when they might be able to
approach their intended victims much more closely, and perhaps
find them at anchor. Another important point is that each
TORPEDO-BOATS AND DESTROYERS 37
British destroyer flotilla consists of twenty boats, each able to
fire two or four torpedoes on the broadside without reloading.
If such a flotilla were able to discharge all its tubes in the
direction of a hostile battle squadron steaming in line ahead it
might easily do enormous damage.
The locomotive torpedo was invented in 1866 by an Austrian,
Captain Luppis, but Mr. Robert Whitehead, who took up the
invention, introduced so many improvements that it is now
more generally associated with his name than with any other.
As soon as it reached the practical stage the Powers set to
work to create hordes of vessels of a type specially designed
to carry it — small, fast vessels which would be able to approach
a big ship by stealth in the darkness, launch torpedoes into
her, and, if possible, make good their escape. These vessels
were called torpedo-boats, and the first was launched on the
Thames for the Norwegian Government in 1873. Four years
later, the first British torpedo-boat, the Lightning, went afloat,
and from that date onwards the cult of the special torpedo-
vessel has never slackened. During the eighties especially vast
numbers were built, and many people arose to declare not only
that the torpedo-boat had made the existence of the battleship
impossible, but also that it bade fair to deprive us of the
command of the sea. That the menace of the torpedo-boat
was serious is true enough, and in 1892 the Admiralty held
a special series of manoeuvres in order to test its capabilities
and to devise the best method of countering it. The result
was seen in the introduction of the " torpedo-boat destroyer "
— usually abbreviated now to " destroyer " simply. These
vessels, while still carrying torpedo-tubes, were also fitted with
an armament of one 12-pounder and five 6-pounder guns ; they
were much larger than the torpedo-boats, and so were better
able to keep the sea; and this, combined with their greater
nominal speed, enabled them easily to overhaul any torpedo-
boat, which they could destroy with their guns.
Our first destroyer, the Havock, long since removed from
the effective list, was launched on the Thames in 1893 ; and
in a very short space of time the construction of torpedo-boats
began to fall off as the superior qualities of the new type
asserted themselves. To-day it has practically ceased alto-
38 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
gether, although Germany adheres to the old name and calls
her vessels " large torpedo-boats." With the passing of the
torpedo-boat the meaning of the term " torpedo-boat destroyer "
is, of course, lost ; but the term is retained, and it is certainly
expressive in its shortened form.
The destroyers which we possess to-day fall naturally into
three main classes. First of all we have 75 vessels more
or less similar in design to the first that was built. A dozen
of the very oldest, launched in 1894-5, have a designed speed
of 27 knots; and they are armed with the guns mentioned
above, and two (in three cases only one) torpedo-tubes. The
remaining 63 boats of the earliest destroyer era were de-
signed for 30 knots. They were launched between 1895
and 1902, and displace from 340 to 420 tons, the armament
consisting, as before, of one 12-pounder and five 6-pounder
guns and two torpedo-tubes. There are three exceptions to
this general rule. The Albacore and Bonetta, launched in
1906-7, were purchased to replace two vessels which were
lost, and these displace 440 tons, have a designed speed of
26 1 knots, and carry three 12-pounder guns. The third
exception is the Orwell, which has an armament of six
3-pounder guns.
It has always been the tendency of warship types to
increase in size, and to this rule the destroyer has been no
exception. Thus we find that in 1903 the displacement of
our destroyers took a sudden jump to over 500 tons. The
reasons for this were, firstly, that foreign destroyers had
increased in size and power ; secondly, that experience had
proved the old type of destroyer — flush-decked save for a raised
"turtle-back" forward — to be unsuitable for sea-going work;
and thirdly, that it was deemed necessary to give the boats
a larger fuel supply, enabling them to keep at sea for longer
periods, and at the same time to make them more habitable
for officers and men. The result of these considerations was
the " Kiver " class of destroyers, so called because all of them
are named after rivers of the United Kingdom. Not all ships
so named, however, belong to this class; for instance, the
Avon, Leven, and Orwell belong to the earlier class of
destroyers, while the Shannon is a large armoured cruiser,
TORPEDO-BOATS AND DESTROYERS 39
and the Thames, Tyne, and Forth are depot ships. The
River class destroyers, 34 in number, were all launched between
1903 and 1905; their displacements vary from 540 to 590
tons ; and their designed speed is 25 J knots. They originally
carried the same armament as the earlier destroyers, but a few
years ago this was altered to four 12-pounder guns, each boat
having two torpedo-tubes. In these vessels, as in all later
destroyers built for the Navy, the forecastle is raised high
above the level of the after-deck, a feature which increases
their seaworthiness very considerably. They carry 125 tons
of coal in their bunkers — an advance of about 40 tons over the
previous average. It may be pointed out here that only seven
of the River class destroyers are still kept in full commission ;
and excepting these we maintain in a constant state of readiness
for war only one destroyer that was launched before 1909.
After the last of the River boats was launched the Admiralty
made three important changes in their destroyer policy. The
first, which was permanent (or has been so far) was the
adoption of turbines in place of reciprocating machinery;
the second, which has also been permanent except in the
case of one year's programme, was the adoption of oil fuel
in place of coal ; and the third, which extended over only three
years, was the construction of two types of destroyers, one for
ocean-going work, and one for coastal service. Dealing with
these in inverse order, the policy which gave us what were
at first called "coastal destroyers" was pursued only in 1905,
1906, and 1907, twelve vessels being laid down in each year.
Properly speaking they were superior to our first destroyers,
but this type had advanced so much in size and power that
when the "coastal destroyers" were built they were only
about one-third of the size of contemporary destroyers, besides
being very inferior in speed and armament. After a good deal
of adverse criticism the Admiralty altered their designation
from " coastal destroyers " to " torpedo-boats, new type," and
gave them numbers instead of names ; and these boats, num-
bered from 1 to 36, are now the only efficient torpedo-boats
left in the Navy. They displace from 244 to 308 tons, and
carry two 12-pounder guns and three torpedo-tubes, their
designed speed being 26 knots.
40 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
While these boats were in hand the Admiralty laid down
the first vessels of the third of the three classes into which our
destroyers are divided — that is, the ocean-going class. These
vessels marked as great an advance on the " River " class as
the latter did over their predecessors. The first dozen boats,
known as the " Tribe " class, from the names they bear (such
as Ghurka, Tartar, Maori, &c.), were all designed for a speed of
33 knots — an increase of 7| knots over the "River" class —
obtained by means of turbines and oil fuel. The first five
(Ghurka, Tartar, Mohawk, Cossack, and Afridi) were originally
armed with three 12-pounders and two torpedo-tubes, but two
12-pounders were subsequently added; while the later boats
(Amazon, Saracen, Maori, Nubian, Crusader, Viking, and Zulu)
carry two 4-inch guns instead of the 12-pounders, being our
first destroyers to carry the heavier weapon. These — that is,
the whole twelve — were also our first real destroyers to burn
oil fuel, and (as a class) to be driven by turbines ; but regard-
ing the latter it should be mentioned that a few individual
destroyers had previously been equipped in this manner. The
first of all was the Viper, which, launched in 1899, had a very
short Jife, becoming a total wreck in August 1901, through
running ashore in the Channel Islands during a fog. The
second, the Cobra, had an even briefer existence, for while she
was being navigated to Portsmouth on delivery from the
builders, she broke her back in the North Sea and went to
the bottom with a loss of sixty-seven lives. Two other turbine
destroyers built before the " Tribe" class are, however, still in
existence, these being the Velox (420 tons, launched 1902),
and the Eden, one of the River class, launched in 1 903.
For reasons, into which it is not necessary to enter, the
Admiralty reverted to coal in the destroyers of the Beagle
class, which immediately followed the " Tribes," but all later
vessels burn oil only. The following table summarises the
principal characteristics of the Beagle class and their suc-
cessors :
TORPEDO-BOATS AND DESTROYERS 41
Class and
Number.
Year
Provided.
Tons.
Designed
Speed
(Knots).
Armament.
Beagle (16) .
1908-9
897-976
27
1 4-in., |3 12-pounder,
2 torpedo tubes.
Acorn (20)
1909-10
720-780
27
2 4-in., 2 12-pounder,
2 torpedo tubes.
Acheron (23) .
1510-11
745-810
28-32
2 4-in., 2 12-pounder,
2 torpedo tubes.
Acasta (20) .
1911-12
928-964
29-31
3 4-in., 1 machine gun,
2 torpedo tubes.
Laertes (20) .
1912-13
965
29
3 4-in., 1 machine gun,
2 double torpedo
tubes.
Mastiff (13) .
1913-14
«N»(i2) ;
1914-15
Of the above, all are now complete, except the last two classes;
while in addition to them account must be taken of five vessels
classed as "flotilla leaders" — destroyers of superior size and
power designed to accommodate the officer in command of the
flotlla and his staff. Only one of these has as yet been com-
pleted, this being the Swift, launched in 1907, which displaces
2170 tons, has a designed speed of 36 knots, and carries an
armament of four 4-inch guns and two torpedo-tubes. The
other four, at present under construction, are named Lightfoot,
Marksman, Kempenfelt, and Nimrod, but beyond that nothing
is known of them.
It will be seen from the above table that the rate of destroyer
construction has fallen off considerably in the last five years,
and while the question of comparative strength does not enter
into the subject of this little book, it may be mentioned that
our own programme for 1914-15 is exactly equal to the German.
The reasons for the reduction, however, have been given fairly
fully by the First Lord of the Admiralty, who has told us that
the functions of the destroyer are being encroached upon by
other types. The destroyer, as already explained, is designed,
on the one hand, to act as a torpedo-boat against hostile
battleships, and, on the other, to act as a destroying agent
against the torpedo-craft of the enemy. The submarine, how-
ever, has so far advanced in size, speed, and seaworthiness
as to be a powerful rival to the destroyer so far as discharging
42 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
the functions of a torpedo-boat is concerned ; while, on the
other hand, the First Lord has said that, as a destroyer of the
enemy's surface-keeping torpedo craft, the so-called destroyer is
being superseded by the cruiser. There is, however, such a
great difference between the old (and present) "destroyer,"
which was supposed to exist for the destruction of hostile
torpedo- craft, and the cruisers which are said to be superseding
them, that one cannot help wondering whether the "destroyer"
would in fact be capable of carrying out the work for which it
was originally designed.
The cruisers threatening the existence of the destroyer are
those which have been referred to in the previous chapter as
"light armoured cruisers." Twenty of these vessels have so
far been provided for, and they have been referred to by the
First Lord of the Admiralty as " destroyer destroyers," and as
" the smallest, cheapest, and fastest vessels, protected by vertical
armour, ever projected for the British Navy. They will be
strong enough and fast enough to overhaul and cut down any
torpedo-boat destroyer afloat.0 These vessels will be of be-
tween 3500 and 4000 tons in displacement, and will carry an
armament of two 6-inch and eight 4-inch guns. Their designed
speed is 30 knots, and they will burn oil fuel only, while the
cost of the first and smallest batch averages about £310,000,
or three times as much as the cost of a destroyer.
The names of the "destroyer destroyers" actually under
construction are as follows :
Provided for in 1912-13 : Arethusa, Aurora, Galatea,
Inconstant, Royalist, Undaunted, Penelope, and Phaeton.
Provided for in 1913-14 : Calliope, Caroline, Carysfort,
Champion, Cleopatra, Comus, Conquest, and Cordelia.
Provided for in 1914-15 : Four vessels as yet unnamed.
V.— SUBMARINES AND AIRCRAFT
IN the last decade of the nineteenth century the submarine
boat began to assume practical shape, and in both France and
the United States a great deal of real progress was made with
it in the nineties. The British Admiralty at this time were
strongly criticised for the apparent indifference with which they
regarded the development of this form of warfare, and in 1900
Lord Goschen, the then First Lord of the Admiralty, endeavoured
to defend that position by declaring that " the submarine boat,
even if the practical difficulties attending its use can be over-
come, would seem, so far as the immediate future is concerned,
to be eventually a weapon for maritime Powers on the defensive."
Those " practical difficulties " have not even yet been fully over-
come, but happily the Admiralty did not long persist in the attitude
indicated by Lord Goschen's remarks. In the Navy Estimates
for 1901-2 provision was made for building five submarines of
the Holland type — so called from the name of their inventor, an
American ; and the first of them was launched at Messrs.
Vickers' works at Barrow on November 2, 1901. Since that
date the Admiralty have never looked back. Year by year the
amount taken for the construction of submarines has increased,
flotillas have been formed and multiplied, and the vessels them-
selves have advanced rapidly in size and speed. Whether the
submarine will ever become such a formidable craft as to drive
the big, surface-keeping ship out of existence remains to be seen,
but it has at any rate established itself in the economy of navies,
and, being no longer small, unreliable, and infinitely slow, is
capable of useful service in the hands of a strong naval Power
acting on the offensive.
Our first submarines, which were designated only by the
numbers 1 to 5, were 63 feet 4 in. in length, 11 feet 9 in.
in beam, and displaced 104 tons when steaming (or, rather,
43
44 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
motoring) ou the surface in the condition known as " awash,"
and 120 tons when fully submerged. In the former condition
they were propelled by four-cylinder gasolene engines of 160
horse-power with a corresponding speed of 8 J knots ; while when
submerged they were driven at 6 to 7 knots by electric motors
of 70 electrical horse-power worked from a storage battery.
They carried a single toqiedo-tube in the bows, and, like all later
vessels, were submerged by the admission of water into ballast
tanks, from which it was expelled by pumps for bringing the
vessel to the surface. Following the experience gained with these
vessels, the British Admiralty and Messrs. Vickers in combina-
tion designed the next batch, thirteen in number and designated
Al to A13. These boats showed a considerable advance on the
Hollands, being 100 feet long and having a submerged displace-
ment of 204 tons, while the speed was increased to 11 or 11 J
knots on the surface and 7 beneath. Al had only one torpedo-
tube, but in each of the others two were mounted. All the
Holland boats, as well as the first four of the A class, have been
removed from the effective list, so that the oldest submarine now
in the Navy is A5, which was launched in 1904. A7, of this
class, went to the bottom off Plymouth early in 1914, and has
not been recovered.
Next came the B class, marking a further great advance in size.
They are 135 feet long and 13J feet in beam, with a submerged
displacement of 316 tons and machinery of 600 horse-power for
13 knots on the surface and of 189 horse-power for 8 knots
when under water. Eleven of this class were launched (Bl to
Bll) between 1904 and 1906, but B2 was run down and sunk
by the Atlantic liner Auierika off Dover in October 1912. The
numerous C class (38 vessels) followed the B's, being launched
in 1906-1910. They are practically identical with the B class
(although C19-C38 displace 321 tons when submerged), the main
point of difference being that they have motors of 300 horse-
power for under-water work, giving them a speed in that con-
dition of 9 knots. Oil was lost in the North Sea in 1909
through a collision with the steamer Eddystone.
With regard to vessels subsequent to the C class, very few
reliable details are available, and the following, except where
they are stated to be official, must therefore be accepted with
SUBMARINES AND AIRCRAFT 45
reserve. Eight boats of the D class (Dl to D8) were launched
between 1908 and 1912, and the Admiralty give the displace-
ment (submerged) of Dl as 595 tons, of D2 as 600, and of
the remainder as 620 ; while each boat carries three torpedo-
tubes, and has machinery of 1200 horse-power for surface, and
550 for submerged work. These are the only official details
available for the whole of our submarines subsequent to the
C class ; but both the D's and the E's (of which there are
eighteen built and building), are driven by twin screws, and
have speeds of 16 and 10 knots when respectively awash and
submerged. Further, D4 carries a gun on a disappearing
mounting, so that it can be stowed away below when the
vessel is about to descend, while in the E class two 12-pounder
guns are mounted, in addition to three torpedo-tubes. The
E class, or at least the earlier vessels belonging to it, are
176 feet long and 22^ feet in beam, and displace 800 tons
when submerged. A vessel building at Chatham, known as
Fl, is said to have a displacement of 1500 tons, speeds of
20 and 12 knots, and an armament of four 12-pounder guns
and six torpedo tubes; and the fact that names have been
given to two of the boats now under way seems to indicate
that these will be a very considerable advance on all previous
types, just as the named destroyer was upon the numbered
torpedo-boat. In any case, however, the sea-keeping capacities
of the submarine have already been conclusively proved. In
ordinary British naval manoeuvres submarines have cruised off
the coasts of Norway; and in 1913 two Australian vessels
of the E class accomplished the 13,000-mile voyage from
Barrow to Sydney entirely under their own power and without
convoy.
Mention has been made of the fact that our first submarines
were built by Messrs. Vickers. In point of fact, this firm
built all our under- water craft down to and including C16;
but in 1906-7 the Admiralty began the practice of keeping
two or three boats always in hand at Chatham Dockyard.
The submarines that have actually been built and completed
there are C17 to C20, C33, C34, D7, D8, El, E2, E7, and
E8. Otherwise, Vickers have been responsible for the whole
of our completed submarine flotilla ; but the area of construe-
46 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
tion has been still further increased recently, as will be seen
from the following summary of the vessels now in hand :
By Whom, and Where.
Messrs. Vickers, Ltd. , Barrow-
in-Furness.
Messrs. Scott's Shipbuilding and
Engineering Co. , Ltd., Greenock.
Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth.&
Co., Ltd., Newcastle-on-Tyne.
H.M. Dockyard, Chatham.
Boats Building.
E class boats numbered 10,
11, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18.
VI, V2, V3, and V4.
Nautilus.
SI, S2, and S3.
Swordfish.
Wl, W2, W3, and W4.
E12, E13, and Fl.
i
The rate at which our flotillas have expanded will be seen
from the following statement of the number of ships launched
in each year from the introduction cf the type :
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1 (all scrapped)
5 (all scrapped)
3 (all scrapped)
13 (2 lost)
10
8 (1 lost)
1908
1908
1910
1911
1912
1913
9
12
6
4
7
4
It will be noticed that there was a falling off in the last few
years, but this must not be interpreted as indicating the
decline of the submarine. On the contrary, it points rather
in the opposite direction, as the Admiralty are now working
strenuously to develop the submarine into a real, ocean-going
warship, with the result that the cost of individual vessels is
rapidly increasing. In 1910, when the apparent "decline"
began, we spent only £516,477 on the construction of sub-
marines, and the vote has increased steadily until, in 1914-15,
it stands at XI, 104, 769. In the previous chapter mention
was made of the fact that the submarine may in time displace
the destroyer as a torpedo-boat. This is emphasized by the
decline in our expenditure on destroyers accompanying the
increase of that on submarines. While the latter more
than doubled between 1910 and 1914, the former fell from
£2,442,327 to £1,494,092.
The great defect of the submarine is its inability to see
when totally submerged. All vessels are fitted with one or,
in later vessels, two periscopes — long tubes which, when
SUBMARINES AND AIRCRAFT 47
projected above the surface of the water, throw an image of
the surrounding area, by an arrangement of mirrors, on to a
chart or screen below. But the periscope is, of course,
distinctly visible at a fair distance, and in rough weather it
is of very little use at all, as it becomes obscured by spray,
and may have its area of vision entirely obliterated by the
height of the waves. Another drawback to the efficiency of
the submarine is the fact that its torpedo-tubes are of the
fixed type, so that the aiming of the tube depends upon the
steering of the ship.
On the other hand, the submarine has at least two great
advantages over the battleship, for it can approach unseen,
provided the battleship is stationary (if it is moving, the sub-
marine must rise to take observations at intervals), while, if
the presence of the submarine should be detected, the big ship
has no dependable means of attacking it.
There is no doubt that the advent of the successful seaplane
will affect the future of the submarine very considerably.
Admiral Sir Percy Scott is of the opinion that aircraft will
render such assistance to the submarine that the two in
combination will make the existence of the battleship im-
possible ; but there are other experienced officers who incline
to the belief that aircraft will ultimately provide an efficient
antidote to under-water vessels. It has been proved that
under good weather conditions, and when the sea is smooth,
an observer in an aeroplane can see a fair distance beneath the
surface and detect submerged objects with comparative ease.
Of course, one cannot depend upon the next war being carried
out in fine weather or on smooth seas ; but, on the other hand,
the seaplane is as yet a very undeveloped machine, and we
may be sure that no trouble or expense will be spared in the
effort to make it an efficient " anti-submarine " weapon. A
great deal of attention is being given in the Navy to the
development of aerial navigation in all its phases, with a view
to its adaptation to the requirements of naval war. Practical
interest in the subject may be said to have begun in 1909,
when an order for a dirigible airship of the Zeppelin type,
512 feet in length and having a gas capacity of 700,000 cubic
feet, was placed with Messrs. Vickers. Unfortunately the
48 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
vessel never flew, although much useful information was
acquired from her behaviour in high winds when moored to
a post. As she was being brought out of her shed for the
second time, on September 24, 1911, she was caught by a gust
of wind which completely wrecked her. In March of that
year the first four naval officers were appointed to undergo a
course of instruction in flying with heavier-than-air machines
(aeroplanes), those selected being Lieutenants C. R. Samson,
R. Gregory, and A. M. Longmore, and Captain E. L. Gerrard
of the Royal Marines. In the spring of 1914 the Navy
possessed about 150 qualified pilots, 62 seaplanes, and 41
aeroplanes not specially fitted with floats and the other
necessary gear for sea work. Speaking in the House of
Commons on the 17th March 1914, Mr. Churchill gave some
interesting general details of the capabilities of the Navy's
aerial branch. He said : " We rely for the security of our
east coast from raids very largely upon the Patrol Flotillas
(of destroyers and submarines) which are grouped together at
strategic points, and which can be summoned and directed to
any point where an attempted landing is being made. No
assistance can be more valuable than the assistance rendered
by aeroplanes and seaplanes in bringing this information, in
regard to which time is vital, to the bases where our Patrol
Flotillas are held in readiness. Of course, the heavy seaplanes
which we are developing now will carry formidable explosives,
which could be dropped on to transports, and disturb the
landing even before the Patrol Flotillas could arrive. The
seaplanes fly by night as well as by day in ordinary weather.
They carry wireless telegraphy, which enables them to signal
120 miles effectually, and they have quite recently even been
able to receive a message while in the air." The places round
the coast at which naval air stations have so far been estab-
lished are the Isle of Grain (at the mouth of the Thames),
Calshot (near Southampton), Felixstowe, Great Yarmouth,
the Cromarty Firth, and Dundee. Fifteen dirigible airships
are either built or under construction, and a large shed,
at which a war airship station will be established, has
been erected at Kiugsuorth, not far from the Isle of Grain
seaplane station. The Admiralty intend as far as possible to
SUBMARINES AND AIRCRAFT 49
officers and men on from the aeroplane to the airship
section as they complete their period of usefulness in the
former, where the work is naturally of a much more nerve-
wrecking character. In this way the airship section will
receive as its recruits men who are already thoroughly
accustomed to aerial navigation.
The general direction of the Navy's aerial matters is in the
hands of an Air Department at the Admiralty, presided over
by a captain. The Central Air Office, headquarters of the
Inspecting Captain of Aircraft, is at Sheerness, and there are
two Flying Schools — the " Central " at Farn borough, which
is used also by the Army, and the " Naval " at Eastchurch,
near Sheerness, where a great deal of experimental work is also
carried out. In July 1914. the Naval Wing of the Royal Flying
Corps was formed into the Royal Naval Air Service, with an
organisation quite distinct from that of the Navy itself.
Before leaving the subject of naval material, a few words
remain to be said on the subject of submarine mines. These
are in reality torpedoes without the power of locomotion, and
they consist of large cases of metal filled with gun-cotton. They
are of two main classes, called respectively " observation " and
"contact" mines. The first are usually employed for the de-
fence of harbours and approaches to harbours, and an observer
ashore is able to trace the progress and position of any ship
entering, and to explode any mine as the ship passes over
it. Of similar character to these are " electro-contact " mines,
in which, however, observation is not necessary, as the mine
automatically explodes on being touched by a passing ship,
which causes the completion of an electric circuit running
through a cable from the shore. Such a mine makes no dis-
crimination between friend and foe. The system of placing
mine-fields for the defence of harbours was abandoned by this
country in 1905, on the ground that such defence could be
more efficiently discharged by submarines.
A third type, the "offensive contact" mine, has increased
greatly in general favour since the Russo-Japanese war, when a
large number of ships on both sides were either destroyed or put
out of action by their agency. Among the ships sent to the bottom
by this weapon were the Japanese battleships Hatsuse and
D
50 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
Yashima, and the Russian battleship Petropavlovsk and the
cruiser Boyarin. The mines used for this purpose are of such
a nature that they explode immediately on contact. They are
either anchored to the bottom by means of weights, to which
they are attached by cables which allow them to float a few
feet from the surface, or else they are simply thrown into the
sea and left to the mercy of wind and tide. In the latter case
they become a danger not only to those whom they are intended
to destroy, but also to those who set them afloat and to neut-
rals. Several mishaps of this nature occurred during the war
in the Far East. Therefore, so long as fleets retain some trace
of morale and organisation the last desperate resource of scatter-
ing mines to drift on the high seas is not likely to be adopted.
On the other hand, all the world's navies are giving more and
more attention to the means for laying fields of anchored
mines, either at the entrance to the military harbours of an
enemy, or in other places over which his fleets are likely to
pass. The side which has laid the mines then knows where
they are, and can avoid them accordingly, while they can
be removed when it becomes clear that they no longer serve
any useful purpose.
It has previously been mentioned that, in favourable circum-
stances, a mine-field can be seen from an aeroplane. This
circumstance is likely in the future to assist fleets in avoiding
these areas of destruction, since (at any rate during the day-
time) it will be possible for a number of aircraft to be sent on
in advance of the fleet to warn it of the existence of the fields.
When a field is discovered it can be destroyed by counter-
mining— by the explosion of other mines in its midst — or
the mines composing it can be " trawled '' up. The submarine
mine has therefore given rise to the introduction of two new
types of auxiliaries — the mine-layer and the mine-sweeper.
In the British Navy seven old second-class cruisers have been
converted into mine-layers. They carry a large number of
these weapons, which can be formed into a field by running
them down rails and over the stern. These ships are the Apollo,
Andromache, Latona, Naiad, and Thetis, of 3400 tons, and
the Intrepid and Iphigenia of 3600. Each of them carries
four 4 "7-inch guns. The operation of mine-sweeping is carried
SUBMARINES AND AIRCRAFT 51
out by two vessels, each having on board the end of a long
wire rope, weighted at the middle to keep it well to the
bottom. The boats then place themselves one on either side
of the field and proceed to " sweep," the mines being either
brought to the surface or exploded by contact with each other.
It is a hazardous undertaking, but war may make it a necessary
one. Eight vessels of the obsolete torpedo-gunboat type have
been fitted out for this work — the Circe, Jason, Speedy, and Leda,
of 810 tons, and the Gossamer, Seagull, Speedwell, and Skip-
jack, of 735 tons. Besides these, the Admiralty have purchased
a number of ordinary fishing steam trawlers and fitted them
out for mine-sweeping, and have made arrangements by which
a large additional number would be placed at their disposal
in the event of war. Further, a section of the Royal Naval
Reserve, known as the "Trawler Section," was brought into
existence in 1911, and consists of 142 "skippers" and 1136
men recruited from the fishing fleets.
VI— OFFICERS AND MEN
THE total number of officers and men authorised for the active
list of the Navy in 1914-15 is 151,000, in which figures are
included the Coast Guard and the Royal Marines. The number
is higher than it has ever been before in our naval history. In
the year of Trafalgar (1805) the number voted was 120,000,
and the highest totals were reached during the later period
of the war with France. In 1810-11-12, 145,000 officers
and men were voted, and in 1813, 140,000; but the latter
year saw the highest average of men actually borne in the
whole of our history, namely, 147,047. The figure quoted
for the present year represents a maximum to be reached at its
close, the estimated average day by day being 148,500, or
about 1500 more than the previous highest average. After
the close of the wars with France and the United States in
1815 our naval forces were at once considerably reduced, and
the following table of the voted strength of the personnel at
intervals of ten years through the nineteenth century and down
to the present time will convey an idea of the manner in which
the fleet fluctuated :
Officers and Men
Voted in Voted in
1824 . . 29,000 1884 . . 56,950
1834 . . 27,500 1894 . . 83,400
1844 . . 36,000 1899 . . 110,640
1854 (a) . . 63,500 1904 . . 131,100
1864 . . 71,000 1909 . . 128,000
1874 . . 60,000 1914 . . 151,000(6)
(a) Crimean War. (b) This is the maximum to be reached ;
other figures are the average, as voted, for the year.
The great increase that has been brought about in recent
years is attributable mainly to the expansion in the fully-
commissioned fleet. Individual ships have not varied a great
52
OFFICERS AND MEN 53
deal in their manning requirements. The most important ship
in the British fleet which defeated the Spanish Armada, the
Triumph, had a complement of 780. The finest sailing ships
of the line, built for the Navy in the 'forties of last century,
required 880 officers and men to man them ; while a battle-
ship of to-day needs about 900 if she is a "super-Dreadnought,"
and from 750 to 850 if she belongs to an earlier period. Some
of the battle cruisers — the Queen Mary, for example — have a
crew of 1000, owing to the army of men required in the stoke-
holds to feed the furnaces creating the steam for the 75,000
horse-power turbines. With ships burning oil fuel the engine-
room complement is greatly reduced, because, instead of men
having to shovel coal into the furnaces, oil is burned at the
end of pipes, through which it is pumped from the tanks.
The personnel of the Navy is divided into five branches —
executive, engineer, marine, medical, and accountant. Under
a scheme which was introduced in 1903, and which is still
known as the " new scheme/' officers of the first three branches
are entered and, up to a certain point, trained together, sub-
sequently " specialising " in one or other of the branches, or
else remaining " non-specialists." Youngsters who are destined
to become officers of the Royal Navy are entered between the
ages of 13 years and 4 months and 13 years and 8 months.
A few months ago the Admiralty issued a booklet dealing with
the entry and training of cadets, from which we take the follow-
ing description of the type of boy that is required : " There is
scope and need in the Navy for many types of men and varieties
of talent, for the cultivated faculty of scientific thought and for
the personal force that assures leadership. But whatever the
variety of talent, the naval officer is a man of action. Accord-
ingly that boy has the best chance who is resourceful, resolute,
quick to decide, and ready to act on his decision. He must
be no slacker, but keen in work and play. He should be
sound alike in wind and limb, and in the big and little prin-
ciples of conduct. His life afloat with his brother officers and
with the men will require him to be cheerful, unselfish, and
considerate if he is to win repute as a good shipmate, and these
qualities are essential to a leader. He should give promise of
being responsive and observant, closely in touch with his sur-
54 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
ronndings, but master of himself. The boy of sensitive, poetic
spirit, the ruminating young philosopher, the scholar whose
heart is in his books, are types that have a real use in the
world, but their proper place is not the Navy."
Having passed the necessary entrance examinations the naval
cadet proceeds to the college at Osborne. In normal circum-
stances he remains there for two years and then passes on to
Dartmouth, where a similar period is spent in more advanced
instruction. This is followed by a six months' cruise in a
"cadets' training cruiser" (either the Cornwall or the Cumber-
land), after which he is sent into a regularly commissioned
warship as a midshipman, by which time he is about eighteen
years of age. He spends two years and four months in this
rank, and then, on satisfying the authorities of his knowledge
in seamanship and navigation he becomes an Acting Sub-
Lieutenant. On passing further examinations at a later date
in gunnery, torpedo, and engineering, he becomes a full Sub-
Lieutenant, and on the manner in which he acquits himself
in these tests depends to a great extent the rapidity with
which he is made a Lieutenant. " After serving at sea for a
period of from one to three years as Sub- Lieutenant and
Lieutenant, officers may volunteer for selection as specialists
in the branches of navigation, gunnery, torpedo, or engineering.
Those who are selected take, first, a course of study at the
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, which revises and extends
their knowledge of the scientific matters that are directly
relevant to the specialty in which they are to qualify. When
this preliminary scientific course is over they go on to a
qualifying technical course in the Navigation, Gunnery, or
Torpedo School at Portsmouth, or the Engineering School at
Devonport. On passing the qualifying course they are distin-
guished as Lieutenants (N), (G), (T), or (E)." Officers who
qualify in a further advanced course of gunnery or engineering
are distinguished as Lieutenants (Gf) or (Ef).
In addition to this, which is the usual method by which the
Navy obtains and trains its officers, there are three others.
The first, known as the "special entry" system, was intro-
duced in 1913. Cadets are entered from the Public Schools
between the ages of 17 J and 18J, and, after a modified course
OFFICERS AND MEN 55
of training, become Lieutenants when they are about a year
older than those entered in the ordinary way. Medical and
accountant officers do not come under the "common entry"
system, but enter straight into the branches for which they are
qualified. This is therefore known as the " direct entry "
system, and it is being applied in an increasing degree to the
Royal Marines, whose officers were originally intended to pass
through Osborne and Dartmouth in the manner already de-
scribed. Finally, the Navy obtains a proportion of its officers
by promoting men from the " lower deck " ; but as yet this
applies only to the executive and engineering branches. The
system of common entry and training for executive and engineer
officers has been strongly criticised, particularly in its applica-
tion to the latter branch, the principal ground of complaint
being that an officer who, during the most receptive period
of his life, has been trained both for deck (or executive) and
engine-room duties cannot possibly make such an efficient
engineer as those under the old scheme, who began and ended
their naval careers in that department.
The following is a brief summary of the pay, service, &c.,
of the successive ranks through which a naval officer passes :
1. Lieutenant. — Rank is reached by examination, and its
holders are eligible for service as specialists or watch-keepers
(non-specialists) in big ships, and for the command of small
craft, such as submarines, torpedo-boats, destroyers, and gun-
boats. Two J-inch bands of gold lace are worn round the
cuff, the upper one surmounted by a " curl " distinctive of the
executive branch. Pay is 105. a day on promotion, increasing
Is. a day every two years ; while lieutenants (E) receive is.
and lieutenants (Ef) 5s. a day additional. Retirement is
compulsory at the age of 45, but lieutenants promoted from
commissioned warrant rank may serve until 55. Number
allowed on the active list, including Lieutenant- Commanders,
2000.
2. Lieutenant-Commander. — Lieutenants are automatically
promoted to this rank on completing eight years in the lower
grade. Employment and retirement as for lieutenants ; but
pay begins at 13s. a day, and a stripe of j-inch lace is worn
between the two wider bands.
56 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
3. Commander. — Officers are promoted to this rank by
selection, and are employed as " executive officers " in big ships,
in which they are responsible to the captain for the general
efficiency of the vessel, and in the command of destroyers,
small cruisers, &c. Three |-inch rings of gold lace are worn,
and pay is 22s. a day, with an additional 5s. for the (E)
qualification, and Is. for (Ej"). Retirement is compulsory at
50. Number allowed, 373.
4. Captain. — Promotion to this grade is by selection, and,
generally speaking, all our important warships are commanded
by officers of this rank. Pay is 33s. a day for the first 80,
27s. 6dL for the next 80, and 22s. 6d. for the remainder,
the (Ef) qualification carrying an additional 7s. Retirement
is compulsory at 55, or on completing two years7 unemploy-
ment. Number allowed, 253.
5. Rear-Admiral. — Captains are promoted to this rank by
seniority, any vacancy being filled automatically by the captain
at the head of that rank. A band of If -inch gold lace, sur-
mounted by one of £-inch, is worn round the cuif, and pay is
«£3 a day, when employed and 25s. when on "half-pay."
Rear-admirals are employed in command of cruiser squadrons
and as second-in-command of battle fleets, flying the flag of
St. George with two red balls. Retirement is compulsory at
60, or after two and a half years* unemployment. Number
allowed, 55.
6. Vice-Admiral. — This rank is reached by seniority,
officers promoted to it wearing one wide and two narrow gold
bands, and, when afloat, flying a St. George's Cross with one
red ball. Full pay is ,£4 a day, and half-pay 32s. 6d.,
enforced retirement coming at the age of 65, or after being
unemployed for three years. The higher commands afloat, as
well as important administrative positions, are usually entrusted
to officers of this rank, of whom 22 are allowed on the active
list.
7. Admiral. — Here again promotion is by seniority, full
and half-pay being £5 and £2, 2s. a day respectively. As a
rule only two Admirals are employed afloat, one in command
of the Home and the other of the Mediterranean Fleet. The
Commander-in-chief at each of the three home ports (Ports-
OFFICERS AND MEN 57
mouth, Devonport, and the Nore) is, however, almost in-
variably an Admiral. One wide and three narrow bands of
gold are worn on the cuff, and the flag is a plain St. George's
Cross. Compulsory retirement is enforced at 65, or after
three continuous years of unemployment. Number allowed, 12.
8. Admiral of the Fleet. — Officers are selected for this rank
by the Sovereign, the choice falling as a rule upon the senior
admiral. It is not usual for officers holding it to be employed,
either afloat or ashore ; but their full pay is £6, and half-pay
<£3, 7s. a day. The rank is the highest it is possible to reach,
and the retiring age is 70. Number allowed, 3.
Engineer officers (old scheme) enjoy the same ranks as the
executive branch, from Lieutenant to Bear- Admiral, with the
word " engineer " prefixed in each case. Their gold lace does
not carry the executive "curl," and there is a narrow strip of
purple velvet between the stripes. Medical officers bear the
following titles, according to their seniority : Surgeon, Staff
Surgeon, Fleet Surgeon, Deputy Surgeon-General, and Surgeon-
General, and they have a scarlet stripe of velvet between their
rings of gold lace. Accountant officers enter as Assistant
Clerks, and rise through the ranks of Clerk, Assistant Pay-
master, Paymaster, Staff Paymaster, Fleet Paymaster, and
Paymaster-in-Chief. In their case the velvet stripe is white.
The men who form the rank and file of the Navy are
usually referred to as the "lower deck." The bulk of them
are either seamen (a term which includes all gunnery, torpedo,
and signal ratings), or stokers ; but there are very many other
classes which go to make up the crew of a modern first-class
warship. What is known as the artisan branch includes
carpenters, shipwrights, joiners, blacksmiths, coopers, plumbers,
painters, armourers, and electrical artificers, There are writers,
ship's stewards, . and cooks, who come under the accountant
branch ; sick berth attendants, ship's corporals and masters-
at-arms (who are the ship's police), schoolmasters, officers*
stewards and cooks, tailors, sailmakers, and shoemakers. In
the seaman branch the majority are entered as boys, and
receive their first training either at Devonport (H.M.S. Im-
pregnable and H.M.S. Powerful) or at Shotley (H.M.S. Ganges).
At the age of 18, or earlier, if they are particularly smart,
58 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
they are rated ordinary seamen, and may subsequently advance
to able seamen, leading seamen, petty officer, and chief petty
officer. Under a scheme introduced in 1912 a petty officer
who is in every way fitted for advancement, may be selected
for a special course, by means of which, after passing the ranks
of warrant officer and Mate, he may become a Lieutenant at a
comparatively early age, with the chance of rising much higher
in the Service. The others who are not so smart or so for-
tunate may become warrant officers, commissioned warrant
officers, and subsequently Lieutenants, but those who pass
through these stages rarely reach the rank of commissioned
officer at a sufficiently early age to enable them to make any
further progress. The Mate system has been extended to the
engineer branch, so that a man who is, say, a fitter, may join
the Navy as an engine-room artificer and become first a Mate
(E) and then an Engineer Lieutenant. The usual method of
progression in this department, however, is to chief engine-
room artificer, artificer engineer (warrant officer), and chief
artificer engineer (commissioned warrant officer). As in the
executive branch, a few who work up by these stages may be
advanced to commissioned rank (Engineer Lieutenant).
In recent years the Admiralty have added considerably
to the opportunities open to the stoker branch. Men in this
department may not only reach the rating of chief petty
officer, but, if selected for the rating of mechanician, may
become warrant officers (warrant mechanicians), and com-
missioned mechanicians.
With so many different branches and ratings it is mani-
festly impossible to deal with them all in this little book,
of which about four pages would be required even to give
the various rates of pay. We will therefore confine ourselves,
so far as pay is concerned, to the imaginary case of a boy who
enters at sixteen years of age and, taking the longer route,
leaves at fifty-five with the rank of Lieutenant. It will be
found that "progressive pay" occurs in many ratings, a
man receiving an increase after being so many years in the
rating. The full details of these are given, but it should
be pointed out that a man who served in each rating long
enough to earn the maximum rate would have no chance of
OFFICERS AND MEN 59
reaching even warrant rank. With this reservation, then, the
financial career of our imaginary friend would be as follows :
Rating, &c. Pay per Day.
s. d.
Boy, 2nd class 06
Boy, 1st class 07
Ordinary Seaman 13
Able Seaman _ 18
Dp. after 6 years from being made " ordinary " 1 11
Leading Seamen 22
After 3 years, if passed for Petty Officer . . 24
Petty Officer 30
After 3 years 32
After 6 years 34
Chief Petty Officer 38
After 3 years 40
After G years 44
Gunner1 (Warrant Officer) . . . . . 60
After 5 years 70
After 10 years 80
After 15 years 90
Chief Gunner (Commissioned Warrant Officer) . 10 0
After 2 years 10 6
After 4 years 11 0
After 6 years 11 6
After 8 years 12 0
Lieutenant (Commissioned Officer) . . . 13 0
After 2 years 13 6
After 4 years 14 0
After 6 years 14 6
After 8 years 15 0
The ordinary term of service for a man or boy entering the
Navy is twelve years, and if he is under eighteen on entry
he undertakes to serve for twelve years from reaching that
age. On completing this period of service he may either leave
the Navy or re-engage for a further term of ten years, on
completing which (at the age of forty) he leaves with a pension
according to his rating and length of service. With very few
exceptions this applies to all ratings below the rank of warrant
officers, who serve until they are fifty-five.
How the Navy is fed is a problem which often puzzles
the landsman. There is in the first place a " daily standard
ration" supplied by the Admiralty, and which in normal
1 If the Chief Petty Officer has not specialised in gunnery he will
become a Boatswain on being promoted to -warrant rank.
60 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
circumstances consists of the following : 1 Ib. bread (or £ Ib.
bread and J Ib. flour) ; J Ib. fresh meat ; 1 Ib. fresh vegetables ;
J pint of spirit ; 4 oz. sugar ; £ oz. tea (or 1 oz. coffee for
every J oz. tea) ; J oz. chocolate (or 1 oz. coffee) ; J oz.
condensed milk; 1 oz. jam, marmalade, or pickles; 4 oz.
preserved meat on one day of the week in harbour, or on
two days at sea; mustard, pepper, vinegar, and salt as
required. If soft bread is not available, £ Ib. biscuit or
1 Ib. flour is issued instead ; while if fresh meat and vegetables
cannot be obtained, salt pork and preserved meat are issued
on alternate days, together with split peas, celery seed, and
potatoes on " salt pork day," and flour, suet, raisins (or jam),
and potatoes on " preserved meat day." Rice may be sub-
stituted for the pudding materials, and haricot beans or
marrowfat peas are issued when potatoes cannot be obtained.
In addition to the above, all those in ships, depots, and shore
establishments receive a messing allowance of 4d. a day. The
spirit ration is not issued to commissioned officers, and men
who do not wish to take it up are credited with a monetary
allowance in lieu, amounting to 17$. a year. Officers are
allowed 9Jd. a day towards the cost of their food, and receive
\d. in lieu of the rum ration.
All the articles so far mentioned are included in the Pay-
master's stores, and are served out by him and his staff" of
ship's stewards. In addition to these, however, every large
ship carries a canteen, from which the men may purchase
whatever else they may require in the way of foodstuffs, &c.
The canteens are tenanted by large catering firms, who under-
take to supply articles of good quality at prices approved by
the Admiralty. No one, of course, is allowed to sell beer,
wines, or spirits on board, but otherwise the canteen stocks
a wide range of articles. The system is not altogether
popular with the men, but that is a matter which can hardly
be discussed here. The tenants pay a rental of 6d. per man
per month for all men victualled, and this goes into what
is called the Ship's Fund, which is used for various purposes
in the men's interest — for sports, amusements, benevolent
purposes, and so on. There is a third system by which
goods may be obtained by the men, known as "issue on
OFFICERS AND MEN 6i
repayment." The only articles obtainable are those which are
issued in the ordinary way by the victualling officer (spirit
being excepted), and the value of the goods issued in this way
is recovered at the end of each month from the messing allow-
ance of 4d a day.
Uniform is another subject on which there is a good deal of
misconception, which may, however, be dispelled in a few words.
All lower-deck ratings on entering the Navy are supplied with
a free outfit, but thenceforward for the whole of their service
they have to maintain it and provide new articles whenever
they are necessary.1 The Navy is the only uniformed force
in the employ of the State which has to buy the clothes it is
forced to wear. Gratuities are, however, given to men in
certain cases of promotion involving change of uniform. The
traditional bluejacket's dress is, with some exceptions, worn by
all ratings of and below the grade of petty officer, while chief
petty officers wear a reefer coat. These uniforms are known
in the Navy under the respective titles of " free and flowing,"
and " fore and aft."
Before leaving the subject of personnel a brief account may
be given of the reserve forces at the disposal of the Navy.
In point of fact, the old laws authorising the "press-gang" —
the forcible impressment of seamen — have never been repealed,
though they are not likely again to be put into force. The
actual reserve forces behind the Navy comprise the follow-
ing:
1. The Royal Naval Reserve.
2. The Royal Fleet Reserve.
3. The Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve.
The Royal Naval Reserve is drawn from the merchant
service, and numbers 1790 officers and 17,160 men, who are
required to undergo periodical training with the Fleet. The
Trawler Section, to which reference is made in Chapter V, is
not included in the above figures. The Royal Fleet Reserve
consists of petty officers and men who have served in and left
the Navy, and is divided into three sections. Class A, 8327
strong, comprises pensioners (i.e. men who have left after twenty-
1 The Royal Marines are provided with a "free maintained kit."
62 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
two years' service); Classes B and C, 18,740 strong, consist
of men who left before completing their time for pension,
and who receive a retainer. The third class is of recent
institution, and is known as the Immediate Reserve, compris-
ing men who undertake to respond to the call of the Admiralty
at very short notice, and without the issue of a Royal Procla-
mation, which is necessary before the other reserves can be
called upon. The Volunteer Reserve is, as its name indicates,
the naval equivalent of the Territorial Force ashore. It con-
sists of 4700 officers and men, with divisional headquarters
in London, Glasgow, Bristol, Liverpool, Hove, and Newcastle.
Finally, and not included under any of the above headings,
there is the Auxiliary Royal Naval Sick Berth Reserve, con-
sisting of about 1500 men qualified in first-aid work, who
have volunteered to hire their services to the Navy in the
event of war.
As is well known, the men of the Royal Navy are frequently
landed, either alone or in company with military forces, to
take part in operations ashore ; but there is one section of the
personnel embarked specially for this purpose — the Royal
Marines, whose motto is " Per mare, per terrain." At almost
every period of history it has been customary for soldiers to be
carried in warships — it was so in the days of Rome and of Eliza-
beth ; but the corps of Royal Marines was actually founded by
Charles II in 1664. It is divided into two sections, the Ar-
tillery and the Light Infantry, the total number provided for in
1914 being 18,445, of whom, in normal circumstances, about two-
thirds are distributed among the squadrons afloat, the remainder
being in barracks or naval establishments ashore. The or-
ganisation, uniform, and titles of the corps are all military, but
it plays an important part in the maintenance of fleet efficiency,
and the names of many men of both branches will always be found
among the best big-gun shots in the Navy. Royal Marines have
recently been selected for the important duty of manning the
defences of Cromarty, this being the first time that the Navy
has had to furnish a regular garrison for coast fortifications.
The Coastguard, a force descended from the Preventive
Service maintained round the coast when smuggling was a
flourishing trade, is composed of about 3000 seamen and stokers
OFFICERS AND MEN 63
transferred from the Royal Navy, and distributed among
" stations " round the coast. Their duties are almost innumer-
able, for in addition to co-operating with the Navy generally,
they have, among other things, to patrol the coast in protection
of the revenue, enforce quarantine laws, assist vessels in distress,
recruit for the Navy, man the shore wireless telegraph stations,
stop illicit distillation in Ireland, protect the shore ends of
submarine cables, and give assistance in the training of Boy
Scouts. The general business of the Coastguard is supervised
by an Admiral Commanding Coastguard and Reserves, while
the coast is divided into six "Districts," each in charge of
a Captain, the Districts being subdivided into Divisions, and
the Divisions into Stations.
VII.— THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE NAVY
EXCEPT for a break of sixteen months in 1827-28, when
His Royal Highness the Duke of Clarence (later William IV)
filled the office of Lord High Admiral, the affairs of the British
Navy have since 1709 been administered by a Board of " Com-
missioners for Executing the Office of Lord High Admiral of
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland," &c.
These Commissioners form the Board of Admiralty, having
at its head a " First Lord," supported by others, who may
be either professional seamen or civilians, and who occasionally
vary in number. Since the system of an Admiralty Board
became the settled basis of our naval administration, the office
of First Lord has changed hands on sixty-eight occasions, and
only eighteen of its occupants have been naval officers, the last
being Rear- Admiral the Duke of Northumberland, who was
First Lord from March 1852 to January 1853.
The Board of Admiralty consists now of nine members,
whose titles and general business are as follows: —
First Lord
First Sea Lord .
Second Sea Lord
Third Sea Lord .
Fourth Sea Lor 1
Civil Lord
Additional Civil Lord
Parliamentary Secretary
Permanent Secretary
General direction of all business.
Organisation for war and distribution of
the Fleet.
Personnel.
Material.
Stores and transport.
Works, buildings, and Greenwich Hos-
pital.
Contracts and Dockyard business.
Finance.
Admiralty business.
Under the political system favoured in this country — and,
indeed, in many others also — the principal member of the
Board is a politician who, in the majority of cases, has no
knowledge of naval affairs when he is appointed to the office.
64
THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE NAVY 65
However, his business is mainly a political one, for he acts as
a buffer between his professional advisers on the one hand, and
the Cabinet and the House of Commons on the other. It is
to him that the country looks for information concerning our
naval position, to explain why certain ships are necessary and
a certain expenditure inevitable, and to ensure that the de-
mands of the Board as a whole are not unduly cut down to
meet the possible exigencies of party politics. On the other
hand, it is also his duty to exercise a restraining influence
on those demands, which, as may easily be seen, might tend
to become unreasonably extravagant if a board of professional
men were allowed a perfectly free hand. A First Lord who
is a politician fills another useful function in doing all the
public talking that may be necessary.
In an official memorandum of September 1912, the duties of
the various members of the Board were set out in some detail.
In addition to the general supervision and direction of all
business relating to the Navy, the First Lord is charged with
the duty of supervising promotions in and removals from the
Navy, the distribution of honours and rewards, and the appoint-
ments of senior officers. The First Sea Lord is charged with
" preparation for war " — a term which involves the mainten-
ance of efficiency and thorough " up-to-dateness " in a force of
about 600 ships and 151,000 men, and the proper expenditure
of a million sterling a week. The phrase is amplified by the
following : " Fighting and sea-going efficiency of the Fleet, its
organisation and mobilisation, including complements of ships
as affecting total numbers ; system of gunnery and torpedo
exercises of the Fleet, and tactical employment of air-craft, and
all military questions connected with the foregoing ; distribu-
tion and movements of all ships in Commission and in Reserve."
The Second Sea Lord deals with the manning (recruiting)
and training of the Fleet, the Royal Marines, coastguard, and
reserves, hospitals, signals, discipline, and the appointments of
all officers except those reserved to the First Lord. The Third
Sea Lord's province includes the design of material for the
Fleet, "including ships and their machinery, armour, naval
ordnance, and gun-mountings, aeroplanes and airships, and
docking facilities, also alterations and additions to ships which
E
66 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
affect design or fighting efficiency ; preparation of estimates of
cost of all new construction foiling due in any year under
current and prospective programmes ; superintendence of the
Departments of the Director of Naval Construction, Eugineer-
in-Chief, Director of Naval Ordnance, Director of Naval
Equipment, Director of Air Department, and Superintendent
of Compasses." The Fourth Sea Lord deals with all questions
concerning pay, coaling, victualling, and stores of all descrip-
tions, as well as questions affecting uniform, medals, detention
barracks, deserters, collisions, and salvage. These four "Sea
Lords " are the only naval officers on the Board of Admiralty.
The Civil Lord deals with " works and buildings, including
purchases of land; coastguard buildings, sites, and leases,"
Marine and dockyard schools, Greenwich Hospital business,
&c. ; while the Additional Civil Lord (a post created only two
years ago) occupies the position of general business manager to
the Board, superintending " contracts for material for the Fleet
(including ships and their machinery, armour, naval ordnance,
and gun-mountings, aeroplanes and airships), works, dockyard
machinery, and stores of all descriptions; contract arrange-
ments in connection with the disposal, salvage, or loan of
vessels or stores; superintendence of the Contract and Pur-
chase department." His duty also includes the "general
organisation of Dockyards, including provision of labour and
plant, and all business questions in connection with the build-
ing and repair of ships and their machinery, whether in the
Dockyards or in private yards." The Parliamentary and
Financial Secretary's principal duty is with " finance, estimates,
and expenditure generally, and all proposals for new and
unusual expenditure " ; while the Permanent Secretary super-
vises the general office organisation of the Admiralty.
The Board of Admiralty is, of course, primarily responsible
for the efficiency of the fleet and its readiness for war ; but it
is assisted in its colossal task by several subsidiary depart-
ments, of which by far the most important is the Admiralty
War Staff, which was formed out of the older Intelligence
Department in January 1912. The Chief of the War Staff is
an Admiral, and each of the three sections into which the Staff
is divided is presided over by a Rear-Admiral. The business
THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE NAVY 67
of the Intelligence Division is to acquire the information on
which action may be taken — information, that is, concerning
the progress of the art of naval warfare in general and of
foreign fleets in particular. The Operations Division deliber-
ates upon the facts thus obtained in relation to the policy of
the State, and reports thereupon to the Board of Admiralty ;
while the third, the Mobilisation Division, takes the necessary
steps to put into effect the decisions taken by superior authority
(the Admiralty) upon the reports submitted by the Operations
Division. The War Staff possesses no executive authority and
discharges no administrative duties. Its responsibility ends
with the tendering of advice and with the accuracy of the facts
on which that advice is based. The decision as to accepting
or rejecting the advice of the Staff rests with the First Sea
Lord.
Training for War Staff duties begins at a comparatively early
stage in an officer's career, the following arrangements having
been made by the Admiralty : Candidates for the Staff will
be selected from among Lieutenants of suitable seniority as
well as officers of other branches throughout the Service, and
those who pass the necessary examinations, after undergoing a
special War Staff Course at the Royal Naval War College at
Portsmouth (whence it will shortly be moved to Greenwich)
will be eligible to receive appointments either at the Admiralty
or on the staff of Flag officers afloat. In all cases, however,
regular periods of sea-going executive duty will alternate with
the other duties of staff officers of all ranks, in order that they
may be kept up to the necessary standard as practical sea
officers. All appointments on sea-going staffs will in the
course of time be filled by these officers, and form the proper
avenue to eventual employment in the highest staff positions
at the Admiralty.
The actual work of designing our ships of war is carried out
in the Department of the Director of Naval Construction,
whose duty it is to embody in its designs the speed, armament,
protection, radius of action, and so on, required by the Admir-
alty Board. Down to 1839 the design of ships was carried
out by the Surveyor of the Navy, an office somewhat similar
to that of the Third Sea Lord to-day ; but the appointment of
68 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
naval officers to be Surveyors led in the year mentioned to the
creation of the office of " Chief Assistant and Draughtsman "
to the Surveyors, which, in turn, was superseded in 1848 by
the appointment of a " Chief Constructor." This was the
title in use until 1875, when "Director of Naval Construc-
tion " replaced it. It is a noteworthy fact that, almost from
the introduction of steam into the British Navy, there have
been only six Chief Constructors, or Directors of Naval Con-
struction, at the Admiralty. Their names, and the years
during which they held office, are as follows : Sir Isaac Watts
(1848-1863); Sir Edward Reed (1863-1870); Sir Nathaniel
Barnaby (1872-1885); Sir William White (1885-1902); Sir
Philip Watts (1902-1912); and Mr. K Tennyson d'Eyncourt,
the present Director. Sir Edward Reed resigned the appoint-
ment owing to a difference of opinion with the Board of
Admiralty, and the post was left vacant for two years, when
his brother-in-law was appointed to fill it.
All matters concerning the weapons supplied for the arma-
ment of our ships are supervised by a department presided over
by the Director of Naval Ordnance and Torpedoes, while there
is a Department of the Director of Naval Equipment, to deal
with professional naval questions relating to the equipment
and fittings of ships. Other departments which contribute
towards the administration and maintenance of the Navy are
the following :
Hydrographic Department.
Navigation Department.
Department of the Engineer-in-Chief.
Department of the Director of Dockyards.
Dockyard Expense Accounts Department.
Naval Store Department.
Compass Branch.
Air Department.
Department of the Accountant-General of the Navy.
Victualling Department.
Transport Department.
Department of the Medical Director-General of the Navy.
Director of Works Department.
Contract and Purchase Department.
Greenwich Hospital Department.
Director of Naval Education.
The list is a formidable one, and it is not surprising that the
THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE NAVY 69
annual cost of the Admiralty Office is only a trifle under half
a million sterling.
The domestic arrangements of the fleet are governed by
various Naval Discipline Acts, and by the "King's Regulations
and Admiralty Instructions for the Government of His Majesty's
Naval Service." The first code of domestic naval laws of which
we have any detailed record was that issued by Richard I at
the time of the first Crusade. They were not remarkable for
their finesse, and were mainly penal. A man who killed
another was to be tied to the dead body and thrown into the
sea ; or, if the crime were committed ashore, he was to be
buried alive with the corpse of his victim. Opprobrious or
contumelious words dinected at another were to be expiated
by an ounce of silver ; while anyone convicted of theft " should
have his head shaved and boiling pitch poured upon it, and
feathers or down should then be strewn upon it for the
distinguishing of the offender ; and upon the first occasion
(opportunity) he should be put on shore." The " King's
Regulations" of to-day are more in the nature of a house-
keeping guide, but the code of punishments is, of course,
included. These vary from stoppage of grog and of leave for
minor offences, to death for such a serious crime as mutiny.
Summary punishments, which can be awarded by commanding
officers for all sorts of things which, on shore, would not count
as offences, are steadily declining in the Navy. In 1898,
when the number of petty officers and men was 82,261, the
number of summary punishments was 102,526 • but in 1912
(the last year for which the figures are available) the punish-
ments were 117,283 for a strength of 119,903, which means
that the petty offences committed averaged less than one per
man throughout the year. In most big ships a staff of Ship's
Police is carried, but the need for them has fallen off consider-
ably in recent years. In one or two ships the experiment
has been tried of doing without them and placing the men on
their honour, and it has worked so well that the abolition of
the police system may be regarded as being within sight.
In the case of serious offences against discipline a court-
martial is assembled to investigate the matter, and, if neces-
sary, to award punishment, and as these are generally more
70
THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
severe than those which can be inflicted summarily, the con-
firmation of the Admiralty is necessary before they can be
carried into effect. The following comparison between 1902
and 1912 as regards the number of offences punished by court-
martial will give further evidence of the all-round improvement
of the Navy in respect of discipline — a result which is due as
much to the more liberal outlook of the officers as to the
improved morale of the men :
Punishment.
Inflicted for :
Mutiny
Striking, or attempting to strike
Threatening language
Disobedience
Beharing with contempt
Drunkenneae
Desertion .
Numbers borne
1902.
1912.
104,724 119,903
VIII.— FLEETS AT HOME AND OVERSEA
THE organisation of the fleet itself is necessarily undergoing
constant change. Its distribution must be altered from time
to time in accordance with the international political outlook,
while the number of ships maintained in a continuous state
of readiness for war must perforce be increased proportionately
with such increases as may be made in the commissioned fleets
of possible enemies. Twelve years ago we could be content
with six battleships in full commission in home waters, while
we had thirteen in the Mediterranean and five in the Far
East. But the rise of the German Navy has affected these
dispositions profoundly, as also has the alliance with Japan.
We no longer have a single battleship in full commission in
the Far East, and, partly because of the entente with France,
our strength in the Mediterranean has been greatly reduced ;
but these reductions have been accompanied by an enormous
increase of our strength in home waters, where, indeed, it can
safely be said that eighty per cent, of the entire Navy is
concentrated.
Another factor leading to change in fleet organisation is the
delivery of new ships, which, unless an increase in the numeri-
cal strength of the fleet is desired, displace older vessels (which
pass into the reserve) when they are commissioned for fleet
service. For this reason it would be a waste of time to give
in detail the composition of our various naval forces, but it is
nevertheless possible to give a broad outline of the general, as
apart from the particular organisation of the fleet.
In home waters all ships capable of useful service in war,
from the newest to the oldest, are attached to one or other of
the Home Fleets. These fleets are under the command of a
single flag-officer holding the acting or actual rank of Admiral,
whose official title is " Commander-in-Chief, Home Fleets."
71
72 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
The Fleets themselves are three in number. The First Fleet
consists of those ships which are kept in a condition of instant
and constant readiness for war, though every ship has to pass
periodically into dockyard hands for overhaul and refit. They
have full crews constantly on board, and are officially termed
" in full commission." The Second and Third Fleets are not
iu full commission, and, together, are under the immediate
orders of a " Vice- Admiral Commanding Second and Third
Fleets," but this officer is subordinate to the Cornmander-in-
Chief. The Second Fleet includes the best of the ships which
it is not necessary to keep in full commission. In normal
conditions — that is, in time of peace — they have on board
about one-half of their full nominal crews, but the proportion
of expert gunnery, torpedo, and engine-room ratings is higher
than this. These nucleus crews, as they are called, are suffi-
cient to take the ship to sea and to carry out the ordinary
routine of fleet work for a short period ; but the distinguishing
point about them — apart from the fact that they are not in
full commission — is that their crews can be completed to full
numbers without calling up any of the reserves. There is
always a large number of men in the Naval Depots at Ports-
mouth, Devonport, and Chatham, and in the various training
establishments, gunnery and torpedo schools, &c., and the
necessary arrangements are always in working order whereby
these men could at very short notice join the ships of the
Second Fleet and so place them in full commission. The
normal state of the Second Fleet is called " active commission."
The Third Fleet comprises those vessels which are nearing the
end of their days on the effective list, and which would not be
used save in the gravest emergency. They have only a small
proportion — not more than one-fifth — of their full crews nor-
mally on board, and to complete their complements it would
be necessary to issue a Royal Proclamation calling out the re-
serves. This, however, does not apply to one of the two battle
squadrons which are included in this fleet, which could be sent
to sea by the aid of the Immediate Reserve alone (see p. 62).
The Third Fleet is said to be in " Reserve Commission."
The main fighting line of the First Fleet is made up of four
groups of battleships, known as the First, Second, Third, and
FLEETS AT HOME AND OVERSEA 73
Fourth Battle Squadrons. Each of these consists nominally of
eight battleships, but for the time being the Fourth Squadron,
which is based upon Gibraltar, consists only of four. Each of
these squadrons consists as far as possible of ships of the same
general type, but the principle of homogeneity, although its
advantages are recognised, is difficult to adhere to when the
science of naval war and architecture advances so rapidly, and
when only four or five ships are laid down each year. Each
squadron is commanded by a Vice-Admiral, with a Rear-
Admiral as second-in-command; but the Fourth Squadron,
having as yet only four ships, has no Rear-Admiral. The
flagship of the Commander-in- Chief is not attached to any
squadron, being what is called " outside the line."
Five squadrons of cruisers are attached to the First Fleet.
These are called respectively the First Battle Cruiser Squadron,
the Second, Third, and Fourth Cruiser Squadrons, and the
First Light Cruiser Squadron. Each consists of four ships,
which, in the order in which the squadrons are named, are
battle cruisers (of the super-Dreadnought type), armoured
cruisers (pre-Dreadnoughts) in the next three, and protected
cruisers in the last. The First Light Cruiser Squadron is
commanded by a Commodore, but the others are under the
orders of Rear-Admirals. The ships of the Fourth Cruiser
Squadron, whose cruising ground is the West Indies, are used
largely for putting the finishing touches to the training of boys
and youths before they are drafted in the ships in home waters.
Apart from a flotilla of four mine-sweeping gunboats, the
composition of the First Fleet is completed by the First,
Second, Third, and Fourth Destroyer Flotillas. Each of these
consists of twenty boats built under the same year's programme,
the First Flotilla being composed of those of the 1910-11
programme, the Second of the 1909-10 programme, the Third
of the 1912-13 programme, and the Fourth of the 1911-12
programme. All these boats are driven by turbines, and burn
oil fuel exclusively. Each 20-boat flotilla is attended by a
depot ship and a flotilla cruiser, and the whole of them are
under the command of a commodore, who is officially described
as " Commodore (T) in Command of Destroyer Flotillas of First
Fleet."
74. THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
The Second Fleet comprises, in the first place, the Fifth and
the Sixth Battle Squadrons, each of eight ships, the Vice-Admiral
commanding, whose headquarters are at Sheerness, having a
Rear-Admiral associated with him in the command of the Sixth
Squadron, while an officer of the same rank commands the
Fifth. The attached cruisers are divided into the Fifth and
Sixth Cruiser Squadrons, the former being commanded by a
Rear- Admiral ; but both the strength and the composition
of these forces are constantly changing. The battleships and
cruisers of this fleet are not ordinarily grouped together in
squadrons, but are split up indiscriminately between the Nore,
Portsmouth, and Devonport
Torpedo-craft form an important part of the Second Fleet,
which includes two flotillas composed entirely of destroyers,
two of destroyers and modern torpedo-boats together, and
seven of submarines. The whole of these form what are
known as the Patrol Flotillas, and they are under the immedi-
ate direction of a Rear- Admiral at the Admiralty, who is called
the " Admiral of Patrols." Under his orders a Commodore
supervises the submarine flotillas, which, unlike the destroyers
and torpedo- boats, are provided with full and relief crews.
The normal composition and distribution of the Patrol Flotillas
is as follows :
Destroyer Flotillas —
Sixth (Portsmouth) . . 24 destroyers and 3 flotilla cruisers.
Seventh (Devonport) . 22 destroyers, 12 torpedo-boats, 1 depot
ship, and 1 flotilla cruiser.
Eighth (The Nore) . 12 destroyers, 12 torpedo-boats, 2 depot
ships, and 1 flotilla cruiser.
Ninth (The Nore) . 24 destroyers, 1 depot ship, and 3 flotilla
cruisers.
Submarine Flotillas —
Third (Devonport) . 6 submarines and 1 depot ship.
Fourth (Portsmouth) . 7 submarines and 2 depot ships.
Fifth (Harwich) . . 6 submarines and 1 depot ship.
Sixth ( Harwich)! . . 6 submarines and 2 depot ships.
Seventh (Dundee) . 12 submarines and 2 depot ships.
Eighth (Portsmouth) . 17 submarines and 2 depot ships.
Ninth (Lamlash) . . 3 submarines and 1 depot ship.
It is upon these flotillas that we depend very largely for our
security against raid and invasion, for any fleet convoying trans-
ports would be seriously embarrassed, to say the least of it, if
FLEETS AT HOME AND OVERSEA
75
its operations were disturbed by the appearance of fifty or sixty
destroyers, or by the unseen but no less effective attack of sub-
marines. As three of the four destroyer flotillas of the First
Fleet are based upon East Coast ports — Harwich, Rosyth, and
Invergordon — the forces of "mosquito craft" immediately
available for repelling an invading fleet in the North Sea are
really enormous, although their ultimate efficiency must depend
upon the nature and strength of the forces opposed to them and
the celerity with which the invading operations were carried out.
The Third Fleet comprises the oldest battleships and cruisers
on the effective list, the battleships of the Majestic and Canopus
classes being divided into the Seventh and Eighth Battle
Squadrons, while various cruisers form the Seventh, Ninth,
Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth Cruiser Squadrons.
Our strength on foreign stations is always changing. In the
Mediterranean at present we have 3 battle cruisers, 4 armoured
cruisers, 4 light cruisers, and 16 destroyers, but in 1915 a
squadron of eight battleships is to be stationed there in con-
sequence of the increase of the Italian and Austrian Fleets, and
this will probably lead to changes among the less important ships.
In the Pacific the Navy is represented by three squadrons, one
in the East Indies, one in the Far East, and one in New Zealand ;
and the present composition of these and other oversea forces,
and the rank of the officer in command, are given below :
4
ID w
f-i to
o
2
Station and Rank of Officer
1
11
OJ fc*
11
*
t^>
in Command.
53
O .%
£ g
rt ._
|
1
1
-
Q
China (Vice- Admiral)
East Indies (Rear- Admiral
11
1
2
2
3
6
4
8
New Zealand (Captain)
Cape of Good Hope (Rear-
3
Admiral) ....
3
West Coast of Africa (Com-
mander) .....
1
South-East Coast of America
(Captain) ....
1
West Coast of America
(Captain) ....
2
1 Not in full commission.
76 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
The Navy of the Australian Commonwealth has already
reached respectable proportions. It is at present commanded
by a Rear- Admiral of the Royal Navy, who has as his flagship
the battle cruiser Australia, the rest of the sea-going part of
the fleet comprising the light cruisers Encounter, Melbourne,
and Sydney, the destroyers Parramatta, Warrego, and Yairn,
and the submarines AE1 and AE2. When, in 1911, Admiral
Sir Reginald Henderson was commissioned to inquire into the
naval needs and policy of the Commonwealth, he reported in
favour of the creation, by 1933, of a fleet of 8 battle cruisers,
10 protected cruisers, 18 destroyers, 12 submarines, 3 depot
ships and a repair ship, the whole to cost about £23,000,000
and to require a personnel of 15,000 officers and men. So
far, however, no decision upon this wider policy has been
taken.
IX.— ON THE RECOGNITION OF WARSHIPS.
THEKE are few spectacles that delight the average landsman
more than an assembly of warships. Whether they be in motion
or at rest they convey an irresistible impression of the power to
destroy — an impression that loses nothing from the fact that in
all probability the nature of the embodiment of that power is a
profound mystery to the spectator. In those ships — never " on "
them — as many as a thousand officers and men may live ; a
single battle squadron of the Home Fleet absorbs as many men
as ten cavalry regiments, whose horses would nominally provide
about one-fifth of the power required for driving a single ship
at full speed.
One of the minor troubles besetting the lay spectator of a
naval gathering is the difficulty of distinguishing one class of
ship from another. In the case of individual ships of the same
class such distinction is almost impossible without assistance,
and this assistance is given by a system of "funnel bands."
For instance, the King Edward class consists of eight battle-
ships which, for all practical purposes, are identical in appear-
ance ; but in order that individuals may be recognised at a
distance the following markings on the funnels are used. The
Africa's two funnels are plain ; the Britannia has one white
band on the after funnel ; the Commonwealth, one on the fore
funnel; the Dominion, one on each funnel; the Hibernia, two
on the after funnel ; the Hindustan, two on the fore funnel ;
the King Edward VII, two on each funnel ; and the Zealandia,
one red band on each funnel. This system is in use right
through the Navy, down to and including destroyers in full
commission, which in some cases have been built in batches of
twenty.
Funnel markings, however, help only in the recognition of
individual ships, and give no clue to the type or class to which
77
78
THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
they belong. It would, too, be impossible to put down in black
and white (having due regard to considerations of space) any
sure guide to the recognition of types ; but the following notes
and illustrations may be of some use in this direction. The
ON THE RECOGNITION OF WARSHIPS 79
illustrations are reproduced by permission from Fighting Ships>
an annual publication edited by Mr. Fred T. Jane.
In the first place, all British battleships, of whatever era or
class, have two straight funnels, and the majority have also
two straight masts. The accompanying silhouette of the King
George V, however,, shows only one mast, and this feature is
more or less characteristic of super-Dreadnoughts— that is,
battleships of the Dreadnought era armed with the 13 '5-inch
gun. In a few of the earlier super-Dreadnoughts (those of the
Orion class) the single mast is placed between the funnels. In
all Dreadnought battleships the masts are of the tripod type.
There is a strong family likeness between all battleships of
the pre-Dreadnought era, with the exception of the Lord Nelson
80 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
and Agamemnon, of whose two masts the main, or after one, is
of the tripod type. Dreadnoughts are much heavier-looking
TYPES OF BRITISH SMALL CRAFT
H.M.S. CHATHAM, a Light (Protected) Cruiser.
(Much less formidable in appearance than any armoured ship. No
solid look about them. Gun casemates fore and aft very smalL)
Destroyer of the Acorn or Acasta class.
(Two masts, three funnels ; foremost funnel high and thin. Many
modern destroyers have only two funnels, of equal height. )
Destroyer of the River class.
(One mast only ; high forecastle ; may have only two funnels.)
Destroyer of earlier class.
(Note low forecastle. Some have only three funnels.)
and much longer than their predecessors, which also differ in
apparent (as in actual) bulk among themselves. The illustration
ON THE RECOGNITION OF WARSHIPS 81
given herewith is a silhouette of a ship of the Formidable class,
which is typical of our pre-Dreadnought battleships. When
seen in profile, the ships of the Majestic class would appear to
have only one funnel, as their two are placed abreast.
Battle cruisers can easily be distinguished by their enormous
length. All of them have three funnels, and in those that
carry 12-inch guns the foremost funnel is several feet higher
than the others. As the funnels in all cases are unequally
spaced and vary in thickness, there is no difficulty in picking
out these ships.
Nearly all of our modern cruisers of smaller types —
armoured, protected, and unannoured — have four funnels and
two masts. In distinguishing these three groups one from
another the main thing to bear in mind is that armoured
cruisers are on an average more than twice as heavy as pro-
tected cruisers, while the latter are some 50 per cent, heavier
than unarmoured ships. These differences are naturally re-
flected in the general appearance of the various types. In
armoured cruisers, too, the funnels and masts are perpen-
dicular, or very nearly so, while in the smaller classes they
have a considerable " rake." Among modern groups of
cruisers there are two exceptions to the four-funnel rule, the
Monmouths (armoured) having three which are quite perpen-
dicular, and the Topaze class (protected) three which slope
fairly sharply.
Destroyers are too numerous, and differ so greatly in
appearance among themselves, to permit of a detailed account
of the various classes. They can be recognised as a type, not
only by lying very low in the water, but also by their colour,
for while all other classes in home waters are painted dark
grey, destroyers and torpedo-boats are a uniform black. The
most modern destroyers are to be recognised by having two
masts, and in some of those which have three funnels the
foremost one is longer (and considerably thinner) than the
others. The fact that a destroyer belongs either to the River
or a later class will be apparent if the deck forward of the
funnels is raised well above the after part. The River class
have only one mast, and can therefore be distinguished by this
means from the ocean-going boats, all of which have a second
F
82 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
mast, light and short, aft, to carry one end of the wireless
receiving gear. Submarines, of course, are easily recognisable.
The later ones, when cruising on the surface, have a flush deck
about five feet above the level of the water, with a large
conning-tower, surmounted by a navigating bridge, amidships.
The accompanying silhouettes are all drawn to scale.
APPENDIX
THE BRITISH NAVY
NOTE. — The following abbreviations are used: — " pr." = pounder ;
" T.T." = torpedo-tubes.
"Where " Engines, T." occurs, the machinery is of the turbine
type ; in all other cases it is reciprocating.
Unless " Oil Fuel " is stated, coal is the principal fuel, though
oil may be used as an auxiliary.
Cruisers are classed according to the designation under which
they were built (see page 29).
Names printed in heavy type provide the class-name of the
group.
DREADNOUGHT BATTLESHIPS
Royal Sovereign, Royal Oak, Revenge, Resolution, Ramillies, Renown,
Repulse, Resistance. First five provided for in 1913-14, others
in 1914-15. Displacement, 25,500 tons ; speed, 21 knots; arma-
ment, 8 12-inch and 16 6-inch guns. Engines, T. (Under con-
struction.)
Queen Elizabeth, Warspite, Valiant, Barham, and Malaya, launched
1913-14. Displacement, 27,500 tons ; speed (oil fuel only), 25
knots ; armament, 8 12-inch and 16 6-inch guns. Engines, T.
(Under construction.)
Iron Duke, Marlborough, Emperor of India, and Benbow, launched
1912-13. Displacement, 25,000 tons ; speed, 21 knots ; armament,
10 13 '5-inch, 12 6-inch, and 2 anti-aircraft 3-inch guns; 4 T.T.
Engines, T.
King George V, Centurion, Ajax, and Audacious, launched 1911-12.
Displacement, 23,000 tons; speed, 21 knots; armament, 10 13'5-
inch and 16 4-inch guns, and 3 T.T. Engines, T.
Orion, Thunderer, Conqueror, and Monarch, launched 1910-11. Dis-
placement, 22,500 tons ; speed, 21 knots ; armament, 10 13 -5-
mch and 16 4-inch guns, and 3 T.T. Engines, T.
Colossus and Hercules, launched 1910. Displacement, 20,000 tons;
speed, 21 knots ; armament, 10 12-inch and 16 4-inch guns, and
3 T.T. Engines, T.
83
84 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
Neptune, launched 1909. Displacement, 19,900 tons; other details
as for Colossus class. Engines, T.
St. Vincent, Collingwood, and Vanguard, launched 1908-9. Dis-
placement, 19,250 tons ; other details as for Colossus class.
Engines, T.
Bellerophon, Teraeraire, and Superb, launched 1907. Displacement,
18,600 tone ; other details as for Colossus class. Engines, T.
Dreadnought, launched 1906. Displacement, 17,900 tons; speed, 21
knots; armament, 10 12-inch and 24 12-pr. guns, and 5 T.T.
Engines, T.
BATTLE CRUISE us
Tiger, launched 1913. Displacement, 27,500 tons; speed, 28 knots;
armament, 8 13'5-inch and 12 6-inch guns, and 2 T.T. En-
gines, T.
Queen Mary, launched 1912. Displacement, 27,000 tons; sjrced,
28 knots ; armament, 8 13'5-inch and 16 4-inch guns, and 2 T.T.
Engines, T.
Lion and Princess Royal, launched 1910-11. Displacement, 26,350
tons; speed, 28 knots; armament, 8 13'5-inch and 16 4-inch
guns, and 2 T.T. Engines, T.
Indefatigable and New Zealand, launched 1909 and 1911. Displace-
ment, 18,750 and 18,800 tons respectively; speed, 25 knots;
armament, 8 12-inch and 16 4-inch guns, and 2 T.T. Engines, T.
Invincible, Inflexible, and Indomitable, launched 1907. Displace-
ment, 17,250 tons; speed, 25 knots; armament, 8 12-inch and
16 4-inch guns, and 5 T.T. Engines, T.
FEE-DREADNOUGHT BATTLESHIPS
(Engines R. in all.)
Lord Nelson and Agamemnon, launched 1906. Displacement, 16,500
tons ; speed, 18 knots ; armament, 4 12-inch, 10 9'2-inch, and
24 12-pr. guns, and 5 T.T.
King Edward VII., Africa, Britannia, Commonwealth, Dominion,
Hibernia, Hindustan, and Zealandia, launched 1903-5. Dis-
placement, 16,350 tons; speed, 18*5 knots; armament, 4 12-inch,
4 9'2-inch, 10 6-inch, and 12 12-pr. guns, and 4 T.T.
Swiftsure and Triumph, launched 1903. Displacement, 11,800 and
11,985 tons respectively ; speed, 19 knots ; armament, 4 10-inch,
14 7'5-inch, and 14 14-pr. and 2 12-pr. guns, and 2 T.T.
Duncan, Cornwallis, Exmouth, Russell, and Albemarle, launched
1901. Displacement, 14,000 tons ; speed, 19 knots; armament,
4 12-inch, 12 6-inch, and 12 12-pr. guns, and 4 T.T.
Formidable, Implacable, Irresistible, Venerable, Bulwark, London,
Queen, and Prince of Wales, launched 1898-1902. Displacement,
15,000 tons ; speed, 18 knots ; armament, 4 12-inch, 12 6-inch,
and 18 12-pr. guns, and 4 T.T.
APPENDIX 85
Canopus, Albion, Glory, Goliath, Ocean, and Vengeance, launched
1897-9. Displacement, 12,950 tons ; speed, 18J knots ; arma-
ment as for Duncan class.
Majestic, Magnificent, Cresar, Hannibal, Illustrious, Jupiter, Prince
George, Mars, and Victorious, launched 1894-6. Displacement,
14,900 tons; speed, 17 '5 knots; armament, 4 12-inch, 12 6-inch,
and 18 12-pr. guns, and 5 T.T.
ARMOURED CRUISERS
Minotaur, Shannon, and Defence, launched 1906-7. Displacement,
14,600 tons; speed, 23 knots; armament, 4 9'2-inch, 10 7*5-
inch, and 16 12-pr. guns, and 5 T.T.
Warrior, Cochrane, Achilles, and Natal, launched 1905. Displace-
ment, 13,550 tons; speed, 22*33 knots; armament, 6 9'2-inch
and 4 7*5-inch guns, and 3 T.T.
Duke of Edinburgh and Black Prince, launched 1904. Displacement,
13,550 tons; speed, 22 '33 knots; armament, 6 9'2-inch and 10
6-inch guns, and 3 T.T.
Devonshire, Antrim, Argyll, Carnarvon, Hampshire, and Roxburgh,
launched 1903-4. Displacement, 10,850 tons; speed, 22'25
knots; armament, 4 7 "5-inch and 6 6-inch guns, and 2 T.T.
Monmouth, Berwick, Cornwall, Cumberland! Donegal, Essex, Lan-
caster, Kent, and Suffolk, launched 1901-3. Displacement, 9,800
tons ; speed, 23 knots ; armament, 14 6-inch and 8 12-pr. guns,
and 2 T.T.
Drake, King Alfred, Leviathan, and Good Hope, launched 1901.
Displacement, 14,100 tons; speed, 23 knots; armament, 2 9'2-
inch, 16 6-inch, and 12 12-pr. guns, and 2 T.T.
Cressy, Aboukir, Bacchante, Hogue, Euryalus, and Sutlej, launched
1899-1901. Displacement, 12,000 tons ; speed, 21 knots ; arma-
ment, 2 9-2-inch, 12 6-inch, and 12 12-pr. guns, and 2 T.T.
PROTECTED CRUISERS, IST CLASS
Europa, Amphitrite, Argonaut, and Niobe (last named lent to Canada),
launched 1897-8. Displacement, 11,000 tons ; speed, 20*5 knots ;
armament, 16 6-inch and 12 12-pr. guns, and 2 T.T.
Edgar, Grafton, Hawke, Endymion, Gibraltar, and Theseus, launched
1890-92. Displacement, 7,350 tons (except Gibraltar, 7,700) ;
speed, 19 knots ; armament, 2 9'2-inch, 10 6-inch, 1 12-pr. guns,
and 2 T.T.
Crescent and Royal Arthur, launched 1891-2. Displacement, 7,700
tons ; speed, 187 knots ; armament, 1 9'2-inch, 12 6-inch, and
1 12-pr. guns, and 2 T.T.
86 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
PROTECTED CRUISERS, 2ND CLASS
Birmingham, Nottingham, and Lowestoft, launched 1913. Displace-
ment, 5,440 tons ; speed, 25'5 knots ; armament, 9 6-inch guns
and 2 T.T. Engines, T.
Chatham, Dublin, and Southampton, launched 1911-12. Displace-
ment, 5,400 tons ; speed, 25*5 knots; armament, 8 6-inch guns
and 2 T.T. Engines, T.
Weymouth, Dartmouth, Falmouth, and Yarmouth, launched 1910-
11. Displacement, 5,250 tons; speed, 2475 knots; armament
as for Chatham class. Engines, T.
Bristol, Glasgow, Gloucester, Liveri>ool, and Newcastle, launched
1909-10. Displacement, 4,800 tons; speed, 25 knots; arma-
ment, 2 6-irich and 10 4 -inch guns, and 2 T.T. Engines, T.
Challenger, launched 1902. Displacement, 5,880 tons ; speed, 21
knots; armament, 11 6-inch and 9 12-pr. guns, and 2 T.T.
Highflyer, Hyacinth, and Hermes, launched 1898. Displacement,
5,600 tons ; speed, 20 knots ; armament as for Challenger.
Talbot, Diana, Doris, Isis, Juno, Venus, and Minerva, launched
1895-6. Displacement, 5,600 tons; armament, 11 6-inch and
9 12-pr. guns, and 3 T.T.
Eclipse, launched 1894. Displacement, 5,600 tons; speed, 19-5
knots ; armament, 5 6-inch, 6 47-inch, and 9 12-pr. guns, and 3
T.T. Engines, R.
Vindictive, launched 1897. Displacement, 5,750 tons ; speed, 19
knots ; armament, 10 6-inch and 9 12-pr. guns, and 2 T.T.
Astrsea, Fox, Charybdis, and Hermione, launched 1893. Displace-
ment, 4,360 tons; speed, 19'5 knots ; armament, 2 6-inch, 8 47-
inch, and 1 12-pr. guns, and 3 T.T.
Sappho, launched 1891. Displacement, 3,400 tons ; speed, 20 knots;
armament, 2 6-inch and 6 47-inch guns.
PROTECTED CRUISERS, SRP CLASS
Topaze, Amethyst, Diamond, and Sapphire, launched 1903-4. Dis-
placement, 3,000 tons ; speed, 22 knots ; armament, 12 4-inch
guns and 2 T.T. Engines, T. in Amethyst only.
Pelorus, Proserpine, Pegasus, Pyramus. Psyche, launched 1896-1898.
Displacement, 2,135 tons ; speed, 20 knots ; armament, 8 4-inch
guns and 2 T.T.
Philomel, launched 1890. Displacement, 2,575 tons ; speed, 16'5
knots ; armament, 8 47-inch guns and 3 T.T.
APPENDIX 87
UNARMOURED CRUISERS
Boadicea, Belloiia, Blanche, Blonde, Active, Amphion, and Fearless,
launched 1908-12. Displacement, 3,300 to 3,440 tons; speed, 25
knots; armament, 10 4-inch guns and 2 T.T., but only 6 4-inch
in first two. Engines, T.
SCOUTS
Sentinel, Skirmisher, Attentive, Adventure, Forward, Foresight,
Pathfinder, and Patrol, launched 1904-5. Displacement, 2,670
to 2,940 tons ; speed, 25 knots ; armament, 9 4-inch guns and
2T.T.
LIGHT ARMOURED CRUISERS
Arethusa, Aurora, Galatea, Inconstant, Eoyalist, Undaunted, Pene-
lope, and Phaeton, provided for in 1912-13. Displacement, 3,500
tons ; speed, 30 knots (oil fuel only) ; armament, 2 6-inch and
8 4-inch guns. Engines, T. (Under construction.)
Calliope, Conquest, Cordelia, Carysfort, Cleopatra, Comus, Caroline,
and Champion, provided for in 1913-14. Details as for Arethusa
class but slightly larger. Four additional vessels provided for in
1914-15. (Under construction.)
FLOTILLA LEADERS
Swift, launched 1907. Displacement, 2,170 tons; speed, 36 knots;
armament, 4 4-inch guns and 2 T.T. Oil fuel only ; engines, T.
Lightfoot, Marksman, Kempenfelt, and Nimrod, building. Details
not known.
DESTROYERS
"M" class (1913-14 programme). Milne, Moorsom, Morris, Match-
less, Murray, Myngs, Miranda, Minos, Manly, Mentor, Mansfield,
Meteor, and Mastiff. Details not known.
"•L" class (1912-13 programme). Laertes, Lark, Linnet, Lysander,
Laforey, Lawford, Louis, Lydiard, Loyal, Legion, Leonidas,
Lucifer, Lance, Lookout, Laurel, Liberty, Laverock, Landrail,
Llewellyn, and Lennox. Displacement, 965 tons ; speed, 29
knots ; armament, 3 4 -inch and one machine gun, and 2 double
T.T. Oil fuel ; engines, T.
"K" class (1911-12 programme). Acasta, Achates, Ambuscade,
Ardent, Fortune, Garland, Christopher, Cockatrice, Contest,
Shark, Sparrowhawk, Spitfire, Paragon, Hardy, Lynx, Midge,
Owl, Porpoise, Unity, and Victor. Displacement, 908 to 964
tons; speed, 29 to 32 knots; armament, 3 4-inch and 1
88 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
machine gun, and 2 T.T. Oil fuel ; engines, T. Hardy has one
Diesel engine for cruising speeds.
"I" class (1910-11 programme). Ariel, Acheron, Archer, Attack,
Badger, Beaver, Defender, Druid, Ferret, Forester, Goshawk,
Hind, Hornet, Hydra, Jackal, Lapwing, Lizard, Phoenix, Sandfly,
Tigress, Firedrake, Lurcher, and Oak. Displacement, 745 to 810
tons ; speed, 27 to 30 knots, but 32 in last three ; armament,
2 4-inch and 2 12-pr. guns, and 2 T.T. Oil fuel ; engines, T.
"H" class (1909-10 programme). Acorn, Alarm, Brisk, Cameleon,
Comet, Goldfinch, Fury, Hope, Larne, Lyra, Martin, Minstrel,
Nemesis, Nereide, Nymphe, Redpole, Ruby, Rifleman, Shel-
drake, and Staunch. Displacement, 720 to 780 tons; speed,
27 knots ; armament, 2 4-inch and 2 12-pr. guns, and 2 T.T.
Oil fuel ; engines, T.
"G" class (1908-9 programme). Beagle, Basilisk, Bulldog, Fox-
hound, Grampus, Grasshopper, Harpy, Mosquito, Racoon,
Rattlesnake, Renard, Pincher, Savage, Scourge, Scorpion, and
Wolverine. Displacement, 897 to 976 tons ; speed, 27 knots ;
armament, 1 4 -inch and 3 12-pr. guns, and 2 T.T. Coal fuel ;
engines, T.
"F" class (1906-7 and 1907-8 programme). Amazon, Crusader,
Nubian, Maori, Saracen, Viking, and Zulu. Displacement, 970
to 1090 tons; speed, 33 knots; armament, 2 4-inch guns and
2 T.T. Oil fuel ; engines, T.
" F " class (continued) (1905-6 programme). Afridi. Cossack, Ghurka,
Mohawk, and Tartar. Displacement, 865 to 885 tons ; speed,
33 knots; armament, 5 12-pr. guns and 2 T.T. Oil fuel;
engines, T.
*« E " class (1901-2, 1902-3, and 1903-4 programmes). Arun, Boyne,
Chelmer, Cherwell, Colne, Dee, Derwent, Doon, Eden, Erne,
Ettrick, Exe, Foyle, Garry, Itchen, Jed, Kale, Kennet, Liffey,
Moy, Ness, Nith, Ouse, Ribble, Rother, Stour, Swale, Test,
Teviot, Ure, Usk, Waveney, Wear, and Welland. Displacement,
540 to 590 tons ; speed, 25'5 knots ; armament, 4 12-pr. guns
and 2 T.T. Eden has turbines, others reciprocating machinery.
All are coal burners.
"D" class (launched 1896-9). Angler, Coquette, Cynget, Cynthia,
Desperate, Fame, Mallard, and Stag. Displacement, 335 to 355
tons ; speed, 30 knots ; armament, 1 12-pr. and 5 6-pr. guns,
and 2 T.T.
"C" class (launched 1896-1902). Albatross, Avon, Bat, Bittern,
Brazen, Bullfinch, Cheerful, Crane, Dove, Electra, Fairy, Falcon,
Fawn, Flirt, Flying Fish, Gipsy, Greyhound, Kestrel, Leopard,
Leven, Mermaia, Osprey, Ostrich, Racehorse, Recruit, Roebuck,
Star, Sylvia, Thorn, Velox, Vigilant, Violet, Vixen, and Vulture.
Displacement, 350 to 400 tons, except Velox (420) and Albatross
(430); speed, 30 knots; armament, 1 12-pr. and 5 6-pr. guns,
and 2 T.T. Velox has turbines, others reciprocating machinery,
and all burn coal.
APPENDIX 89
"B" class (launched 1906-7). Albacore and Bonetta. Displacement,
440 tons ; speed, 26 knots ; armament, 3 12-pr. guns and 2 T.T.
"B" class (continued) (launched 1895-1901). Arab, Earnest, Express,
Griffon, Kangaroo, Lively, Locust, Myrmidon, Orwell, Panther,
Peterel, Quail, Seal, Spiteful, Sprightly, Success, Syren, Thrasher,
and Wolf. Displacement, 355 to 400 tons, except Arab (470)
and Express (499) ; speed, 30 knots ; armament, 1 12-pr. and
5 6-pr. guns, and 2 T.T., except Orwell, 6 3-pr. guns and 2 T.T.
"A" class (launched 1894-5). Conflict, Fervent, Lightning, Opossum,
Porcupine, Sunfish, Surly, and Zephyr. Displacement, 310 to
350 tons ; speed, 27 knots ; armament, 1 12-pr. and 5 6-pr. guns,
and 2 T.T., but Sunfish and Opossum have only 1 T.T.
TORPEDO-BOATS
Nos. 1 to 36 (launched 1906-9). Displacement, 244 to 308 tons ;
speed, 26 knots ; armament, 2 12-pr. guns and 3 T.T. Oil fuel ;
engines, T.
Seventy older vessels (launched 1885-1901) of little fighting value.
SUBMARINES
(For submarines building ', seepage 46.)
"E" class. El to E9 (9 boats). Launched 1912-13. Displacement,
800 tons; speed, 16/10 knots; armament, 2 12-pr. guns and
4 T.T.
"D" class. Dl to D8 (8 boats). Launched 1908-1911. Displace-
ment, 595-620 tons ; speed, 15/9 knots ; armament, 3 T.T., but
D4 and later have 1 12-pr. gun also.
"C" class. 01 to CIO; C12 to 018 (17 boats). Launched 1906-
1909. Displacement, 316 tons ; speed, 13/8 knots ; armament,
2 T.T.
C19 to C38 (20 boats). Launched 1909-10. Displacement, 321
tons, otherwise as for other C class.
" B " class. Bl, and B3 to Bll (10 boats). Launched 1904-6. Dis-
placement, 316 tons; speed, 13/8 knots; armament, 2 T.T.
"A" class. A5, A6, and A8 to A13 (8 boats). Launched 1904-5.
Displacement, 204 tons; speed, 11/7 knots; armament, 2 T.T.
SHIPS OF THE ROYAL AUSTRALIAN NAVY.
Battle Cruisers. — Australia (launched 1911). Displacement, 19,200
tons ; speed, 25 knots ; armament, 8 12-in. and 16 4-in. guns,
and 2 T.T. Engines, T.
Protected Cruisers. — Sydney, Melbourne, and' Brisbane (launched
1912, except Brisbane, which is under construction). Displace-
90 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
ment, 5,400 tons ; speed, 25 '5 knots ; armament, 8 6-in. guns and
2 T.T. Engines, T.
Encounter (launched 1902). Displacement, 5,880 tons ; speed,
21 knots ; armament, 11 6-in. and 9 12-pr. guns, and 2 T.T.
Pioneer (launched 1899). Displacement, 2,200 tons; speed,
20 knots ; armament, 8 4-in. guns, and 2 T.T.
Destroyers. — Parramatta, Yarra, and Warrego (launched 1910-11).
Displacement, 700 tons ; speed, 27 knots ; armament, 1 4-in. and
3 12-pr. guns, and 3 T.T. Swan, Dei-went, and Torrens under
construction.
Submarines. — AE1 and AE2 (launched 1913). Similar to British E
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BRITISH NAVAL HISTORY. — The works dealing with one
phase or another of our naval history are almost innumerable.
The most complete is The Royal Navy : A History (seven
volumes), edited by the late Sir W. Laird Clowes, which deals
not only with the military side of the Navy, but also with its
civil, social, and administrative aspects, and with the progress
of maritime exploration and the art of shipbuilding. The
British Battle Fleet, by Fred T. Jane, is a more compact work
(one volume) on the same general lines. The history of the
Navy as an international force (i.e. as a political and fighting
machine) is best told in the following series of works by Mr.
Julian S. Corbett : Drake and the Tudor Navy ; The Suc-
cessors of Drake ; England in the Mediterranean ; England
in the Seven Years1 War ; and The Campaign of Trafalgar.
Among the best biographies are Mahan's Life of Nelson ;
Captain Anson's Life of John Jervis ; Laughton's From
Howard to Nelson ; and Campbell's Lives of the Admirals.
The social side of naval progress is well treated by Com-
mander C. N. Robinson in The British Fleet and The British
Tar in Fact and Fiction, the latter being unique for its
literary and artistic explorations. Sea Life in Nelson1 s Time
(John Masefield), and The Inner Life of the Navy (Lionel
Yexley), deal with specific periods, the latter covering the
later part of the nineteenth century.
The development of shipbuilding from ancient times to the
end of the sailing era is excellently told and illustrated in
E. K. Chatterton's Sailing Ships and their Story, while
Warships and their Story (R. A. Fletcher) covers the whole
ground down to the super-Dreadnought era. Warships, by
Mr. E. L. Attwood, is a technical account of warship coustruc-
91
92 THE NAVY OF TO-DAY
tion ten years ago, but the value of later works of a similar
character is modified by the secrecy enjoined upon those
engaged in the design and construction of modem ships.
Submarine Boats, Mines, and Torpedoes, by Captain M. F.
Sueter, R.N., gives the best description extant of the progress
of these aids to naval warfare, but there is no modern work on
guns and gunnery, the most recent (Naval Gunnery, by
Captain H. Garbett, R.N.) having been published in 1897.
Naval warfare in comparatively recent times is the subject
of Ironclads in Action (H. W. Wilson), Four Modern Naval
Campaigns (Laird Clowes), and several books by Russian
officers giving their experiences during the war with Japan.
The best of these are The "Novik" (Lieut. E. P. Steer),
From Libau to Tsushima (Engineer-Lieut. Politovsky), and
Rasplata (The Reckoning), by Commander Semenoff.
WORKS OF REFERENCE. — The Naval Annual and TJie
Navy League Annual give lists of British and foreign war-
ships, with articles on various phases of naval progress, tech-
nical and political. The Naval Pocket Book gives only a list
(with some plans) of the world's warships and docks, though
the details are fuller than in the two first mentioned. Fight-
ing Ships (Fred T. Jane), issued annually, gives photographs
and descriptive plans of almost every class of warship in the
world, besides a series of silhouettes enabling them to be
recognised at a distance. The Navy List, published monthly
by the Admiralty, gives the name, class, displacement, horse-
power, armament (guns only), and station of every ship in the
British Navy, as well as a full list of the commissioned and
warrant officers, and of the personnel of the administrative
departments at the Admiralty.
INDEX
ACCOUNTANT branch, 53, 57
Active commission, 72
Admiral, 56
Admiral of Patrols, 74
Admiral of the Fleet, 57
Admiralty, Board of, 64
Admiralty departments, 68
Aerial depot ship, 34
Aircraft, 48 ; in naval war, 28, 47
Air stations, naval, 48
Alfred and the Navy, 9
Armada, British ships at, 11, 53
Armament of warships, 15-19
Armour, introduction of, 13; manu-
facturers of, 25
Armoured cruisers, 29; illustration of,
79 ; progress of, 30
Artisans, 57
Australian Navy, 76, 89
Auxiliaries, 31
BARNABY, Sir Nathaniel, 66
Battle cruisers, 25; progress of, 26;
illustration of, 78
Battleships, 16 ; progress of, 25
Battle squadrons, 72, 74
Breechloading guns, 14
Broadside fire, 22
Builders of warships, 25
CANTEENS, 60
Capital ships, 16
Captain, 56
Carausius, 10
Chatham, H.M.S. (illust.), 80
Chatham Dockyard, 12
Chief Constructor, 68
Cinque Ports, 11
Civil Lord, 66 ; additional, 66
Coastal destroyers, 39
Coastguard, 62
Colleges, naval, 54, 67
Colliers, 31
Commander, 56
Cost of ships, 13, 19, 20, 23, 25
Court-martial, 69
Courts-martial, 1902-1912, 70
Crews, 53
Cruisers, 28 ; types of, 29 ; recognition
of, 81
Cruiser squadrons, 73, 74
DEPOT ships, 34
Deptford Dockyard, 12
Design of ships, 67
Destroyer flotillas, 73, 74
Destroyers, 35; classes of, 38, 87;
illustrations of, 80 ; introduction of,
37 ; latest types of, 41 ; recognition
of, 81
Destroyer-destroyers, 42
Devonport Dockyard, 12
93
D'Eynccv.rt, Afr. E.'T.,G8
Bireift Jjsitfy ^fccijieer-s; 05
HirsctGT of ;NaVal Construction, 07
Dirigibles, 47, 48
Discipline, 69, 70
Dockyards, establishment of, 12
Dreadnought, the first, 20 ; character-
istics of, 17, 20
EDGAR, the Navy of, 10
Engineers, naval, 53, 55, 57
Engines, builders of, 25
Equipment, Naval, Director of, 68
" FATHER of the British Navy," 9, 10
First Fleet, 72
First Lord of the Admiralty, 64
First Sea Lord, 65
Fleet Reserve, Royal, 61
Fleets, organisation of, 71
Foreign stations, 75
Formidable, H.M.S. (illust.), 79
Fourth Sea Lord, 66
Fuel ships, 32
Funnel markings, 77
GUNS, 13 ; arrangement of, 22 ; manu-
facturers of, 25 ; progress of, 14, 22,
24
Gunnery and ship design, 20
HENRY VII and the Navy, 9
Home fleets, 71
Hospital ship, 33
Hyper-super- Dreadnoughts, 17, 23
INTELLIGENCE Division, 67
Invasion, defence against, 75
Iron shipbuilding, 13
KING GEORGE V, H.M.S., 78
King's Regulations and Admiralty
Instructions, 69
LIEUTENANT, 55
Lieutenant-Commander, 55
Light armoured cruisers, 29, 31
Light cruisers, 29 ; illustration of, 80
Lion, H.M.S. (illust.), 78
Lord High Admiral, 64
Lower deck, 57 ; pay of, 59 ; promo-
tion from, 65, 58
MANNING arrangements, 72
Marines, Royal, 61, 62
Mate, 58
Medical officers, 57
Mediterranean Fleet, 71
Merchant ships and war, 11
Mines, submarine, 49
Mine-laying, 50
Mine-sweeping, 51
Mobilisation Division, 67
NAVAL admlnictrntior , 01 ; cost of, 00 ;
Air S ititfal Reserve, 61
N;wy, toiuiuauon of, i> ; ships ;md
classes of, 83
" New Scheme," 63
Nucleus crews, 72
OPFICKRS and men. 62
Officers, characteristics of, 53 ; train-
ing of, 53; promotion of, 54
"oilers," 33
Oil fuel, advantages of, I'l,
depots for, 33
Operations Division, 67
Ordnance (nee Guns)
Ordnance, Naval, Director of, 08
Organisation, early naval, 10
PATROL flotillas, 74
Pay in the Navy: officers, 65, 57;
men, 59
Pembroke Dockyard, 12
Periscopes, 47
Personnel, increase of, 52
Police, ship's, CO
Portsmouth Dockyard, 12
Pre-Dreaduoughts, 17 ; illustration of.
79
Protected cruisers, 30
Punishments, summary, 09
RANKS, naval, 55
Ratings, lower deck, 57
Rations, 50
Reed, Sir E. JM 18, 68
Recognition of warships, 77
Repair ships, 83
Keserve Commission, 72
Reserves of personnel, 01
Rosyth Dockyard, 12
Rum, 59
SEA Lords, 66
Seamen, entry and training of, 57;
pay of, 58 ; promotion of, 55, 57, 58
Seaplanes in naval war, 28
Second Fleet, 72, 74
Second Sea Lord, 65
Service in the Navy, 59
Sheerness Dockyard, 12
Shipbuilding progress, 12, 15
Special entry of officers, 54
Speed, cost of, 26
Steam, introduction of, 13
Stokers, pay and promotion, 58 ; and
oil fuel, 53
Submarines, advance of, 41 ; builders
j of, 45, 40 ; influence of, 47 ; intro-
duction of, 43; latest tyi»<
1 rate of construction, 40
Submarine flotillas, 74
Super- Dreadnoughts, 22; illustration
of, 78
Surveyor of the Navy, 67
THIRD Fleet,
Third Si-:i Lord, 65, 67
Torpedo, invention of, 37
Torpedo craft, expenditure on, 40 ;
numbers of, 35 ; guns for use
against, 21.
Torpedoes, 35 ; in war, 36
Trawlers, 50
Trawler Keserve, 51, 61
Turbines, 31 ; in torpedo cralt, 40
UNARMOURED cruisera, 31
Uniform, 61
VICTUALLING, 59
Volunteers, naval, 61
WARRIOR, H.M.S. (illust.), 79
Warship classes described : Arethusa,
87; Astnea, 86; Bellerophon, 84;
Birmingham, 86; Boadicea, 87;
Bristol, 86 ; Calliope, 87 ; Canopus,
85 ; Challenger, 86 ; Chatham, 86 ;
Colossus, 83 ; Crescent, 85 ; Creasy,
85 ; Destroyers, 87 ; Devonshire, 85 ;
Drake. 85 ; Dreadnought, 84 ; Duke
of Edinburgh, 85 ; Duncan, 84 ;
Eclipse, 86 ; Edgar, 85 ; Europa, 85 ;
Formidable, 84 ; Highflyer, 86 ; In-
defatigable, 84 ; Invincible, 84 ; Iron
Duke, 83 ; King Edward VII, 84 ;
King George V, 83 ; Lightfoot, 87 ;
Lion, 84 ; Lord Nelson, 84 ; Majestic,
85 ; Minotaur, 85 ; Monmouth, 85 ;
Neptune, 84 ; Orion, 83; Pelorus, 86;
Philomel, 86 ; Queen Elizabeth, 83 ;
Queen Mary, 84 ; Royal Sovereign,
83 ; St. Vincent, 84 ; Sappho, 86 ;
Sentinel, 87 ; Submarines, 89 ; Swift,
87 ; Swiftsure, 84 ; Talbot, 86 ; Tiger,
84 ; Topaze, 86 ; Torpedo-boats, 89 ;
Vindictive, 86 ; Warrior, 85 ; Wey-
mouth, 86
Warship types, 77
War staff, C6 ; training for, 67
Watts, Sir Isaac, 68 ; Sir Philip, 19, 68
White, Sir Wm., 17, 19, 68
Woolwich Dockyard, 12
Workers in dockyards, 12
9/14
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THE PEOPLE'S BOOKS
General Editor— H. C. O'NEILL
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NOW READY (October 1914)
THE FIRST 108 VOLUMES
1. The Foundations of Science . . By W.C.D. Whetham,M.A.,F.R.S.
2. Embryology — The Beginnings of Life By Prof. Gerald Leighton, M.D.
3. Biology By Prof. W. D. Henderson, M.A.
4. Zoology: The Study of Animal Life {By PFr°£s?' W' MacBride. M.A.,
5. Botany; The Modern Study of Plants { Bv J^C Slopes, D.Sc., Ph.D.,
6. Bacteriology By W. E. Carnegie Dickson, M.D
7. The Structure of the Earth . . By Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S.
8. Evolution By E. S. Goodrich, M.A., F.R.S.
10. Heredity By J. A. S. Watson, B.Sc.
11. Inorganic Chemistry .... By Prof. E. C. C. Baly, F.R.S.
12. Organic Chemistry .... By Prof. J. B. Cohen, B.Sc., F.R.S.
13. The Principles of Electricity . . By Norman R. Campbell, M.A.
14. Radiation By P. Phillips, D.Sc.
15. The Science of the Stars . . . By E. W. Maunder, F.R.A.S.
16. The Science of Light .... By P. Phillips, D.Sc.
17. Weather Science By R. G. K. Lempfert, M.A.
18. Hypnotism and Self-Education . . By A. M. Hutchison, M.D.
19. The Baby: A Mother's Book . . By a University Woman.
20. Youth and Sex— Dangers and Safe- \ By Mary Scharlieb,M.D., M.S., and
guards for Boys and Girls . . / F. Arthur Sibly, M.A., LL.D.
21. Marriage and Motherhood . . .{By F^.cl E Davidson' M<B''
22. Lord Kelvin ByA.Russell,M.A.,D.Sc.,M.LE.E.
23. Huxley By Professor G. Leighton, M.D.
24. Sir William Huggins and Spectro- \ByE.W. Maunder, F.R.A.S. , of the
scopic Astronomy . . . . / Royal Observatory, Greenwich.
26. Henri Bergson By H. Wildon Carr, Litt.D.
27. Psychology By H. J. Watt, M. A., Ph.D., D.Phil.
28. Ethics By Canon Rashdall, D.Litt.,F.B.A.
29. Kant's Philosophy . . . . { ** ^LfaAgM^, of Balliol
32. Roman Catholicism ( Bv % & Coxon. Preface, Mgr. R.
' I H. Benson.
33. The Oxford Movement ... By Wilfrid Ward.
34- The Bible and Criticism . . . { By w- «- Bennett, D.D., Litt.D.,
I and W. F. Adeney. D.D.
36. The Growth of Freedom . . . By H. W. Nevinson.
37. Bismarck and the Origin of the~| „ , ~ ,, ,„,
German Empire . } Professor F. M. Powicke.
38. Oliver Cromwell By Hilda Johnstone, M.A.
39. Mary Queen of Scots . . . . By E. O'Neill, M.A.
40. Cecil John Rhodes, 1853-1902 . . By Ian D. Colvin.
41. Julius Caesar By Hilary Hardinge.
42. England in the Making . . . { Bv P{£'£' J> C Hearnshaw, M. A.,
43. England in the Middle Ages . . By E. O'Neill, M A.
44. The Monarchy and the People . . By W. T. Waugh, M.A.
45. The Industrial Revolution ... By Arthur Jones, M.A.
46. Empire and Democracy . . . By G. S. Veitch, M.A., Litt.D.
47. Women s Suffrage By M. G. Fawcett, LL.D.
S1- Shakespeare By Prof. C. H. Herford, Litt.D.
52. Wordsworth . . By Rosaline Masson.
53. Pure Gold— A Choice of Lyrics and | R „ r n>xr •„
Sonnets . . . * . j By H. C. O Neill.
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54. Francis Bacon ..... By Prof. A. R. Skemp, M.A.
55. The Brontes ...... By Flora Masson.
56. Carlyle ....... By L. MacLean Watt.
57. Dante ....... By A. G. Ferrers Howell.
60. A Dictionary of Synonyms . . .By Austin K. Gray, B.A.
, rjnma o,,itt / By L. G. Redmond Howard. Pre
61. Home Rule ...... { face by Robert Harcourt, M.P
62. Practical Astronomy .... By H. Macpherson, Jr., F.R.A.S.
63. Aviation ....... P,y Sydney F. Walker, R.N.
64. Navigation ...... By William Hall, R.N. , B.A.
65. Pond Life ...... By E. C. Ash, M.R.A.C.
66. Dietetics ....... By Alex. Bryce, M.D., D.P. H.
67. Aristotle ....... By Prof. A. E. Taylor, M. A., F. B.A
68. Friedrich Nietzsche . . . . By M. A. Mitgge.
69. Eucken: A Philosophy of Life . . By A. J. Jones, M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D
7°' TheB?auPtyrimental. Psych°logy. °f } By C. W. Valentine, B.A., D.Phil.
71. The Problem of Truth .' .* '. '. By H. Wildon Carr, Litt.D.
72. The Church of England . . By Rev. Canon Master-man.
73. Anglo-Catholicism ..... By A. E. Manning Foster.
74. The Free Churches .... By Rev. Edward Shillito, M.A.
75. Judaism . ..... By Ephraim Levine, M.A.
76. Theosophy ...... By Annie Besant.
78. Wellington and Waterloo ... By Major G. W. Redway.
0. Mediaeval Socialism .... By Bede Jarrett, O.P., M.A.
Syndicalism ...... By J. H. Harley, M.A.
70.
80.
82. Co-operation ...... By Joseph Clayton.
83. Insurance as a Means of Investment By W. A. Robertson, F. F. A.
85. A History of English Literature . By A. Compton-Rickett, LL.D.
87. Charles Lamb ...... By Flora Masson.
88. Goethe ....... By Prof. C. H. Herford, Litt.D.
92. The Training of the Child . . . By G. Spiller.
93. Tennyson ....... By Aaron Watson.
94. The Nature of Mathematics . . By P. E. B. Jourdain, M.A.
95. Applications of Electricity . . . By Alex. Ogilvie, B.Sc.
96. Gardening ...... By A. Cecil Bartlett.
98. Atlas of the World . . . . ByJ. Bartholomew, F.R.G.S.
01. Luther and the Reformation . . By Leonard D. Agate, M.A.
03. Turkey and the Eastern Question . By John Macdonald, M.A.
04. Architecture ...... By Mrs. Arthur Bell.
05. Trade Unions ...... By Joseph Clayton.
06. Everyday Law ..... By J. J. Adams.
07. R. L. Stevenson ..... By Rosaline Masson.
08. Shelley ...... By Sydney Waterlow, M.A.
10. British Birds . . . . . . By F. B. Kirkman, B.A.'
ix. Spiritualism ...... By J. Arthur Hill.
12. Kindergarten Teaching at Home . { ByFr^* °f *" Nati°n
13. Schopenhauer.
14. The Stock Exchange
15. Coleridge .
16. The Crusades .
17. Wild Flowers .
Principles of Logic
By Margrieta Beer, M.A.
By I. F. Wheeler.
By S. L. Bensusan.
By M. M. C. Calthrop.
By Macgregor Skene, B.Sc.
__. „ _ t . . By Stanley Williams, B.A.
19. The Foundations of Religion . . By Stanley A. Cook, M.A.
20. History of Rome By A. F. Giles, M.A.
21. Land, Industry, and Taxation . . By Frederick Verinder.
22. Canada By Ford Fairford.
23. Tolstoy By L. Winstanley, M.A.
24. Greek Literature By H. J. W. Tillvard, M.A.
25. The Navy of To-Day .... By Percival A. Hislam.
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